Crime and Local Television News 9781410606587, 1410606589, 0805836209, 0805836217

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Crime and Local Television News ,

,

DRAMATIC BREAKING AND LIVE FROM THE SCENE

JER EM Y H. LIPSCHULTZ • MICHAEL L. H1L'

Crime and Local Television News Dramatic, Breaking, and Live From the Scene

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Crime and Local Television News Dramatic, Breaking, and Live From the Scene

Jeremy H. Lipschultz Michael L. Hilt University of Nebraska at Omaha

I J Routledge § %

Taylor & Francis Group

NEW YORK AND LONDON

F ir s t P u b lish e d b y Law rence Erlbaum A ssociates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue M ahwah, N J 07 4 3 0 T r a n sfe r re d to D ig ita l P rin tin g 2 0 0 9 b y R o u tle d g e 2 7 0 M a d iso n A v e , N e w Y o rk N Y 1 0 0 1 6 2 P ark S q u a r e , M ilto n P ark , A b in g d o n , O x o n , O X 1 4 4 R N C opyright © 2002 by Law rence Erlbaum A ssociates, Inc. A ll rights reserved. N o part o f this book m ay be reproduced in any form , by photostat, m icroform , retrieval sy stem , or any other m eans, w ithout prior written perm ission o f the publisher. C over d esign by Kathryn H oughtaling Lacey L ib r a r y o f C o n g re ss C atalo g in g-in -P u b licatio n D ata Lipschultz, Jerem y H arris, 1 958C rim e and local television news : dram atic, breaking, and live from the sc e n e /Je r e m y H. Lipschultz, M ichael L. Hilt. p. cm .— (L E A ’s com m unication series) Includes bibliographical references and indexes. IS B N 0-8058-3620-9 (cloth : alk. paper) IS B N 0-8058-3621-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. C rim e and the p ress— United States. 2. Television broadcasting o f news— United States. I. Hilt, M ichael L ., 1959— II. Title III. Series. P N 4888.C 8 L 5 7 2 002 0 7 0 .4 ’49364— d c 2 1

2001057761 C IP

Publisher’s Note T h e p u b lis h e r h a s g o n e to g r e a t le n g th s to e n su r e th e q u a lity o f th is rep rin t b u t p o in ts o u t th at s o m e im p e r fe c tio n s in th e o r ig in a l m a y b e a p p a re n t.

Contents

A b o u t th e A u th o r s

ix

C o n tr ib u to r s

ix

F o re w o rd by Deborah Potter

xi

P r e fa c e

1

In tro d u c tio n to L o c a l T e le v isio n N e w s The Nature o f Local T V News

2

xv

1 3

The Appeal o f Crime News

10

The Sociology o f Crime and Local T V News

12

Rise in Local T V News Popularity and Significance

13

Chapter Summary

14

Discussion Questions

14

T h e o r y a n d R e s e a r c h o n C r im e N e w s

15

Crime News in the Age o f Television

15

Social Construction o f Reality

16

Psychological and Social Impact o f Crime and Violence

17

Cultural Studies and Meaning Making

21

vi

CONTENTS

3

4

5

Chapter Summary

30

Discussion Questions

31

C r im e N e w s a s R a tin g s B u ild e r s The Business of Local T V News

32

A Week in the Life of Television News

47

Implications of Local T V News Content

59

Chapter Summary

60

Discussion Questions

60

L e g a l A s p e c t s o f C r im e N e w s C o v e r a g e

61

The First Amendment and Free Expression

62

Chapter Summary

69

Discussion Questions

69

E th ic s

70 70

Ethics in Local T V News Today

71

Chapter Summary

87

Discussion Questions

88

C o v e r a g e o f th e C o u r ts , P r iso n s, a n d C a p ita l P u n is h m e n t O ut of Sight, O ut of Mind

89 90

Prison and M edia Access

93

Prison Riots Make News

94

Mass Media and the Death Penalty

96

Chapter Summary Discussion Questions

7

61

Criminal Law and Civil Law

A Brief History o f Crime News

6

32

Case Study: Three Nebraska Executions Otey: The First Nebraska Execution in 35 Years

99 100

101 102

Joubert: Child Killer Put to Death

107

Williams: N ebraska Leam s its Lesson

109

Implications

111

Chapter Summary

114

Discussion Questions

114

CONTENTS

8

9

10

M in o ritie s a n d C r im e N e w s

vii

116

T h e Portrayal o f African Am ericans

117

Race and Local T V News

121

Victims o f Crime

124

Chapter Sum m ary

125

Discussion Q uestions

125

C r im e N e w s a n d th e E ld e r ly

127

Gerontology and an Aging Population

127

T h e Viewing H abits o f O lder Am ericans

128

Television Portrayal o f O lder Am ericans

131

The A ttitudes o f Broadcasters

133

Television News and Elderly People

134

T h e Fear o f Crime

137

O lder Crim inals

137

Chapter Sum mary

137

Discussion Q uestions

137

T e le v isio n a n d th e F u t u r e o f L o c a l C r im e N e w s

139

Local T V News and the Future o f Crime C overage

139

Changing Reality Through Difficult C hoices

147

The Internet and Digital A ccess to Crim e News

149

Local T V New s

149

C hapter Sum m ary

151

Discussion Q uestions

151

R e fe r e n c e s

153

A u th o r In d e x

165

S u b je c t In d e x

171

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About The Authors

M ichael L. H ilt (PhD, University of Nebraska, 1994) and Jerem y H . Lipschultz (PhD, Southern Illinois University, 1990) are Professors o f Communication at the University of Nebraska at Omaha. Hilt is Graduate Chair and the author o f Television News and the Elderly: Broadcast Managers’ Attitudes Toward Older Adults (New York: Garland, 1997). Lipschultz is the author o f Broadcast Indecency: F .C .C . Regulation and the First Amendment (Boston: Focal Press, 1997), and Free Expression in the Age of the Internet: Social and Legal Boundaries (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000). The authors have written numerous scholarly articles in refereed publica­ tions such as Journalism Quarterly, Journalism and Mass Communication Educa­ tor, Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, Education Gerontology, Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, Journal of Radio Studies, and Communications and the Law. Before coming to Om aha in 1988, both Hilt and Lipschultz worked in broad­ casting. Hilt worked in both radio and television news, including as a television news producer at K C TV in Kansas City, MO. Lipschultz worked in radio news, including as news director o f W G BF-A M /W H K C -FM in Evansville, IN.

CONTRIBUTORS C h ris W. A llen (PhD, University o f Missouri, 1996) is A ssistan t Professor o f C om m unication at the University o f N ebraska at O m aha. F orrest C a rr was N ew s D irector at K G U N - T Y Tucson, AZ, before moving to W FLA , Tam pa, FL.

X

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Lee H o o d (PhD at the University o f Colorado, 2001) is a former television news producer who now teaches broadcast news. H er research is on news au ­ diences. M ike M cK n ig h t is the Investigative Reporter at W O W T -T V , O m aha, N E. C h ristin e M ix an was a G raduate Teaching A ssistan t in C om m unication at the University o f N ebraska at O m aha. Jim O gle is Vice President for News, W K Y T -T V , Lexington, KY. A n ge la P ow ers (PhD, M ichigan S tate University, 1990) is Professor o f C om m unication at N orthern Illinois University. L a u ra Sh e lto n is a Reporter and Producer at K M T V -T V , O m aha, N E.

Foreword

Voyeuristic. Se n satio n al. Pandering. For years, critics h ave used th at kind o f loaded lan gu age to d escribe the way television news co vers crim e. T h e criti­ cism is driven in part by the d istu rbing im ages th at often accom pan y crim e sto ­ ries on T V : body b ags, blood -stain ed pavem en t, w eeping relatives. B u t it’s also based on the sh eer qu an tity o f the co verage, w hich ten ds to distort the fre­ quency an d sign ifican ce o f crim e in local co m m u n ities. T h e re is no q u estion th at crim e stories d om in ate local television new scasts. Stud ies show th at crim e is the m ost frequently covered topic on local television and the m ost likely to be the lead story. T h a t held true th rough out the 1990s, despite the fact th at the n ation al rate o f violen t crim e was declining. D uring that d ecad e, for the first tim e, netw ork n ew scasts reflected the sam e trend. T h e C en ter for M ed ia and Public A ffairs in W ash ington found th at from 1990 to 1995, the num ber o f crim e stories on the three netw ork evening news program s tripled— even w ithout counting stories related to the O .J. Sim pso n case. Television news also tends to connect crime and race in a way that does not re­ flect reality. Stud ies docum en t that Blacks and other people o f color are over rep­ resented as crim inals on television and under represented as victims. Stories about crim es involving a Black perpetrator and a W hite victim get disproportion­ ate coverage on television, com pared to the actual occurrence o f su ch crimes. So cial scien tists say repeated exposu re to this kind o f coverage can leave viewers feeling num b or unreasonably paranoid ab o u t their ch an ces o f b ecom ­ ing a victim o f crim e, especially given the dow nw ard trend in crim e sta tis­ tics.“ People should feel safer," R obert Lifton, professor o f psychology at Jo h n Jay xi

x ii

FOREWORD

C ollege in N ew York, told the Los A n geles T im es in 1999.“ B u t you really w ould­ n’t know it from the new s.” H ow did television news get so o u t o f step with reality and w hat can be done about it? In Crime and Local Television N ew s, Jerem y Lipschultz and M ich ael H ilt exam in e those q u estio n s and offer som e proposals for reform . T h e ir book distills d ec ad e s o f research about television news, and add s intriguing new findings based o n surveys and co n ten t analysis, am on g them the im portance o f d ram atic pictures o f local origin in determ ining w hat gets on the air. T e lev isio n h as alw ays b e en d riv en by the n eed for p ictu res, an d b e c a u se crim e sto rie s are fairly v isu al sto rie s, they are am o n g the e a sie st for telev isio n jo u rn a lists to p ro d u c e. N e v e r m ind th at the v id eo is o fte n p re d ictab le : fla sh ­ ing ligh ts, yellow p o lice tap e , b y stan d ers at th e crim e sc e n e . A t le a st th ere are p ictu res to be h ad . C rim e sto rie s also are prim e c a n d id a te s for live r e p o rt­ ing, e sp ecia lly o n th e late e v e n in g n ew scasts w hen a crim e sto ry o ften is the c lo se st th in g to b re a k in g new s, so m e th in g m any sta tio n s now rou tin ely prom ise th eir view ers. T h e auth ors review o th er factors that im pel local television to co ver m ore crim e th an oth er types o f stories. Local new sroom s tend to be staffed largely by young, highly m obile reporters and producers w ho lack the expertise required to co ver im portant but co m plicated issues in a com m unity they have lived in for only a year or two. C rim e, alternatively, is a story even a new arrival can handle w ithout m uch backgrou n d know ledge, and on e th at can easily be told in the sh ort am ou n t o f tim e usually allotted to any story in a television new scast. So m e critics link the em ph asis on crim e co verage to an alm ost desperate scram ble for ratings by local statio n s beset by in creased co m petition from cable ch an n els. In the late 1980s, W S V N -T V in M iam i becam e the poster child for building ratings su ccess through tabloid news co verage. Lurid m urders, sh o o t­ ings, stabbin gs and rapes often filled tw o-thirds o f the news hole each night in a n ew scast Newsweek dubbed “C rim e T im e L iv e .” A s the violen ce qu otien t in­ creased , the statio n ’s ratings did too. B u t by the m id-1990s, the form ula had w orn thin. R atin gs dropped, and the statio n ’s em ph asis shifted. A recen t study found th at W S V N -T V aired the least crim e at 6 p.m . o f any M iam i station . R esearch by N ew sL ab and oth ers su ggests th at news m anagers are m isguided if they believe they are respondin g to view ers’ interests when they d evote so m uch tim e to coverin g crim e. In a nation al survey o f self-described light televi­ sio n w atchers co n d u cted in 2000, alm ost a third said a m ajor reason they did not w atch m ore local T V news is th at it covers too m uch crim e— the biggest single reason given aside from issues o f tim e an d scheduling. A lm ost 60% said they w ould w atch even less often if th eir local statio n s covered m ore crim e. So m e station s have tried to reform their crim e co verage, m ost notably K V U E -T V in A u stin , T X , w hich in 1996, establish ed a series o f criteria th at a crim e story w ould h ave to m eet before it could go on the air. Is the situ ation an im m ediate th reat to public safety? Is it a th reat to children? D o view ers need to take action? D oes the crim e have a sign ifican t im pact o n the com m unity? A n d

FOREWORD

xiii

d o e s th e story su g g e st a crim e p re v e n tio n effort? T h is se n sib le sc re e n in g p ro c e ss h a s yet to be w idely a d o p te d by o th e r sta tio n s. In a m ore r e c e n t refo rm effort, S te p h e n Brill, p u b lish e r o f th e n o w -d e fu n c t m ed ia m ag azin e Drill’s C onten t p ro ­ p o se d a c o d e o f c o n d u c t for r e p o rte rs in te rv iew in g v ic tim s o f crim e. T h e r e w as n o rush to sign on. S o m e jo u rn a lists c o m p la in th a t e ffo rts like th e se are ta n ta m o u n t to c e n so r ­ sh ip. B u t a d v o c a te s say th ey h a v e n o t g o n e so ft o n c rim e .“ W e’re n o t tryin g to d e n y th e u glin ess in th e w orld ; th a t’s n o t w h at this is a b o u t ,” K a th y M c F e a te r s, th e n e x e cu tiv e p ro d u c e r a t K V U E , told C o lu m b ia Jo u r n a lism R e v iew in 1 9 9 6 .“ H ow ever, we h a v e a resp o n sib ility n o t to give th a t u g lin e ss m ore play th a n it d e se rv e s.” E v en th e m o st v o c a l c ritic s w ou ld n o t u rge te lev isio n n ew s to sto p c o v e rin g crim e. A fte r all, crim e m ay b e u n p le a s a n t b u t it is new s. T h e real issu e is how it’s c o v e re d . A s th e au th o rs o f th is v o lu m e m ak e clear, te le v isio n n e e d s to d o a b e tte r jo b p ro v id in g view ers w ith c o n te x t in sto rie s a b o u t in d iv id u a l crim e s, n o tin g th e rate o f p a r tic u la r c rim in al a c ts an d th e risk fa c to r s a sso c ia te d w ith th ese crim es. R e p o rte rs sh o u ld e x p lo re th e c a u se s an d c o n se q u e n c e s o f crim e as v ig o ro u sly as th ey d o th e a c tu a l c o m m issio n o f crim es. T h e ir sto rie s sh o u ld in ­ clu d e in fo rm a tio n a b o u t p r e v e n tio n effo rts, as w ell. B e y o n d th a t, n ew sro o m s sh o u ld co n sid e r w h at sto rie s th ey are m issin g — sto rie s o f g re a te r im p o rta n c e to th e co m m u n itie s th ey se rv e — w h en th ey c o n c e n tra te so h eav ily o n co v e rin g v i­ o le n t crim e. In d eed , it is lo n g p a st tim e for te le v isio n new s to re e x a m in e its c o v e ra g e o f crim e. F or years, te le v isio n jo u r n a lists h av e p riv ately b e m o a n e d th eir n ew s­ ro o m s’ e m p h a sis o n se n sa tio n a l crim e sto ries, b u t a c te d as if th eir h a n d s w ere tied by in ex o ra b le m ark et fo rc es. T oday, th e tide m ay b e tu rn in g . N e w sc a sts h a v e a c tu a lly b e e n losin g view ers an d are stic k in g to an o u td a te d “ if it b le e d s, it le a d s” ph ilosoph y. A n d so m e sta tio n s like K G U N - T V in T u c so n , A Z , th a t h av e c h a n g e d th eir a p p ro a c h an d d e -e m p h a siz e d crim e h a v e se e n ratin g s g ain s. T e lev isio n n ew s is a n o to rio u sly risk -av erse b u sin e ss, o n e th a t fav o rs im ita ­ tion o v er in n o v a tio n . C h a n g e c o m e s slow ly w h en it c o m e s a t all. By e x a m in in g th e r e a so n s b e h in d c r im e -in te n siv e c o v e ra g e o n th e lo c al n ew s, by a sse ssin g its e ffe cts an d co n sid e rin g a lte rn a tiv e s, th is b o o k g iv es n ew s m a n a g e r s a stro n g in ­ ce n tiv e to c h o o se a d iffe re n t p ath .

— D eborah Potter N e w sL a b

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Preface

T h e ch allenge o f this book was to bring togeth er the theory and practice o f lo ­ cal television news. T h e industry experien ced d yn am ic ch an ge since the 1970s, and m ass co m m u n icatio n theory is a useful fram ew ork for u n derstan din g the evolution. A s you read this book, several m ajor them es are em phasized. Beyond the co n ceptualizatio n o f crim e, the book considers local television new s from a vari­ ety o f perspectives. Initially, the literature and our an ec d o tal observation o f lo­ cal television new s led us to focus on Jo h n M c M a n u s’s idea o f m arket-driven journalism . A lth o u g h m arketing rem ains im portant in the u nderstanding o f lo­ cal television new s today, we found other factors th at were equally significant. T h e need to be d ram atic and visual, the em ph asis on breakin g news co ver­ age, and the desire to be live from the scene m ay n ot be com pletely understood through the lens o f m arketing. O u r survey d ata an d the system atic exam in ation o f local new scasts from across the country su ggested th at local news, and specif­ ically crim e new s, is also driven by news valu es an d organ ization structure. N ew s people ap pear to select stories they truly believe will be interesting to a u ­ dience m em bers, an d they d o this w ithin a new sroom stru ctu re o f d ecision m ak­ ers. New s c o n su ltan ts m ay help set a tone for that process, but it d o es not appear that they d ictate an overall em phasis on crim e. Perhaps m ore telling is the day-to-day lack o f in terest in n ation al news and public affairs co verage. It appears that except for u n u su al even ts— su ch as the Septem ber 2001 terrorism attack o f the World T rade C e n te r and the P enta­ gon— n ation al and in tern ation al news ten ds to be avoid ed. T h e need to be local xv

PREFACE

xvi

an d tim ely influences the d ecision to em phasize crim e news. T h is is especially true in the late evening news b road cast w hen story ch oices are lim ited an d g o v ­ ernm ent stories are hours old. T h e introductory ch ap ter explains the n ature o f local television news and the appeal o f crim e stories. In it, we highlight the m ajors th em es o f the book. N e x t, ch apter 2 focuses on m ass co m m u n ication theory an d its application to crim e co verage. C h ap ter 3 looks a t how local television station s often use crim e new s as a ratings builder. T h e stru ctu re o f television news organizations is also co nsidered. T h is ch apter features original survey research d ata and co n ten t analyses o f local television news broadcasts. C h ap ter 4 exam in es legal issues in local television news. C rim e coverage raises co n cern s abo u t the First A m en d m en t, access to crim e scen es, and c o v er­ age o f the courts. E th ical issues are d iscu ssed in ch ap ter 5. Legal and eth ical problem s are ad d ressed in the sixth chapter, w hich focuses on prisons an d cap i­ tal punish m en t. C h ap ter 7 is a case study o f how on e state d ealt with three in­ tensely co vered execu tion s during the 1990s. C rim e reporting and its relation with m inorities and the elderly are high­ lighted in ch ap ters 8 and 9. T h e se are em erging issues in the research on local television news. A s the average age o f A m erican s goes up, local television news m ay be increasingly im portant in elevating fear o f crim e in society. T h e book co n clu d es w ith a chapter looking ah ead. T h e future o f local televi­ sion new s is clo ud ed by social and tech n ological ch an ge. C h ap ter 10 offers som e proposals for reform ing local television new s and its co verage o f crim e. T h e interdisciplinary study o f local television news draw s the reader to su ch ar­ eas as crim inal justice, gerontology, and sociology. M uch work needs to be done in the field o f m ass com m unication to fully integrate these concerns. M ass co m m u ­ nication research in the future m ust be studied from a wide range o f theoretical perspectives. A t the sam e tim e, other fields have m uch to learn. In som e cases, other disciplines h ave been m ore receptive to the integration o f ideas. T h e authors believe this book is useful to stu d en ts studying to be broadcast journalists. If the industry is to change, its future em ployees will need to better un­ derstand social issues. Likewise, students o f m ass com m unication, m edia and so ­ ciety, public opinion, com m unication theory and research, and public relations and m edia m anagem ent, would gain a better understanding o f local television new s by reading this book. O u tsid e the field o f journalism and m ass com m u nica­ tion, th ose interested in crim e, race, aging, technology, law, and ethics also would find the case o f local television news to be an instructive application.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS T h e a u th ors wish to th an k C o m m u n icatio n s Editor L inda B ath g ate o f Law ­ rence Erlbaum A sso c ia te s for her carefu l review o f the project. R eview er D eb orah Potter offered co n stru ctive co m m en ts on how to bring o u t the m ajor

PREFACE

xvii

them es o f the work. T h e folks at Law rence Erlbaum A sso ciate s h ave been e x ­ trem ely helpful and professional in guiding us through the project. In p articu ­ lar, N ad in e Sim m s h as done a w onderful jo b o f guiding the m an u script to publication. A t the U niversity o f N ebrask a at O m ah a, our research on local television news was partially funded by the U n iversity C om m ittee on R esearch , the D e ­ partm ent o f C om m u n ication , and the C ollege o f A rts and Scien ces. T h e a u ­ thors each benefitted from a generou s professional leave from their teach in g responsibilities at key points in the research process. Form er D e an Jo h n F locken and the C ollege o f A rts and Scien ces, C o m m u n ication D epartm en t C hair D eborah Sm ith-H ow ell, and the U niversity o f N ebrask a B oard o f R egents, are thanked for their patien ce. O u r co lleagues in the D epartm en t o f C o m m u n ic a­ tion have been very su pportive o f this research agenda. Se v era l teach ers and sch olars h ave directly in fluen ced our th inkin g ab o u t local telev ision new s: Bill Miller, p rofessor em eritu s at the U n iversity o f Illi­ nois—Springfie Id, Ja m es C on yers an d Jim T h o rso n at the U n iversity o f N e ­ braska at O m a h a , V ernon S to n e , p rofessor em eritu s at the U n iversity o f M issouri, Ja m e s F letch er at th e U n iversity o f G eo rg ia, R ob M cK en zie at E ast S tro u d sb u rg U niversity, an d Frank C h o rb a at W ashburn U niversity. G raduate studen t C hristine M ixan assisted in the gathering o f survey d ata and analysis o f local television news content. T h e following people taped new scasts from around the country during the fall o f 1999: Joel A n derson, Pam ela B ennett, Larry Burkum , Paul Driscoll, A lan E isen stein .Joel Fowler, Ed Freedm an, D ouglas H indm an, Lori Spiczka H olm , Lee H ood, Suzanne H uffm an, Frank Imhoff, M ike Lipschultz, Paul O ehlke, Jim O gle, Laura Sh elton, and D eborah Sm ith-H ow ell. T h e au th ors would like to th ank their spou ses and children. Jerem y ’s wife San dy and children Je ff and Elizabeth were helpful with ideas about the im por­ tance o f television in our society. S an d y ’s m om Faye and her en th usiasm for lo­ cal television news offered a beneficial co n text. M ik e’s wife D ebbie assisted in the proofreading. D ebbie and the children, A d am and Eric, provided patien ce during th e project. We love you all!

— Jerem y H. Lipschultz — M ichael L. Hilt Omaha, N ebraska Decem ber 2001

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1

Introduction to Local Television News

"What do they get, the viewers who watch at II p.m.? They get local (news) ‘with ex­ treme prejudice,’ to quote the old CIA term for authority to wipe out enemies. They get what Max Frankel of The New York Times calls ‘body bags at 11 o’clock, normally 30 minutes of hell and blather, ads and promos, local television’s most profitable and most disheartening use of the air.”’ — Robert MacNeil, former PBS news anchor (1996, p. 7) "Every day the particulars of television news— the news stories— are different, but the tone and feel of the newscast remains the same. ’’ — Matthew R. Kerbel, former producer and professor (2000, p. 130) Viewers o f local television n ew scasts across the country are regularly exposed to crim e news stories. In this b o o k , crim e co verage is stu d ied with an interest in how live reporting ap peals to the desire to be dram atic and timely. For abo u t 3 d ecad es, crim e stories w ithin local T V n ew scasts have been nearly as co m m on as w eather an d sports. A lth o u g h m arketing is a factor in the form at o f local T V news, it is also clear th at new s v alu es and organ izational stru ctu re drive a news culture th at favors an em ph asis on crim e coverage. Television in general, an d local T V news in particular, are a part o f everyday life. A ccord in g to a recent R op er survey, 56% o f A m erican s co n sid er television to be their prim ary sou rce for new s (R oper C enter, 1999b). R espon den ts who said they got m ost o f their new s abo u t nation al and in tern ation al issues from television identified three d om in an t sources: cab le, local, an d netw ork T V news. Surprisingly, 39% said they turned to local T V news for nation al and in­ 1

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tern ation al stories, secon d only to cable news (R oper C enter, 1999a). However, only 16% say local T V new s is doing the best job o f coverin g the news, behind cab le and netw ork T V (R oper C enter, 1999c). T h e criticism o f local T V news has not turned view ers aw ay from it. Local T V news is, o f course, a local prod uction th at em phasizes w hat new sroom s p er­ ceiv e as interesting for th em selves and their view ers. S o -c alled “ hard new s” em ­ phasizes “on goin g" ev en ts during the past day, and crim e stories fit this m odel (Jam ieson & C am p b ell, 2001, pp. 4 0 - 4 1 ). V iolent crim es su ch as m urders, rob­ beries, and rapes • • • • •

A re definable even ts betw een individuals. A re d ram atic, conflict-filled, and intense. D isrupt order and th reaten the com m unity. A re short, sim ple, and verifiable stories. A re visu al and m ay be easily vid eotap ed (p. 41).

Ja m ieso n an d C am p b ell (2001) reduce the crim e story to five ch aracteristics: (a) personalized th rough p erpetrators and victim s; (b) d ram atic, conflict-filled, co n troversial, and violen t; (c) actu al and co n crete; (d) novel or d ev ian t; and (e) linked to issues o f on goin g co n cern to m edia (p. 41). T h e em p h asis on b reak in g news, live sh ots, and se n sa tio n a l vid eo ten ds to place a prem ium o n crim e reportin g (W estin, 2 0 0 0 ). For ex am p le, o n e 199.3 to 9 4 stu d y ex am in ed how K A B C -T V , Los A n geles, co v ered crim e and found th at the statio n h ad an av erag e o f three crim e sto ries per day (G illiam , Jr., Iyengar, S im o n , & W right, 1996): The high level o f violence was as expected: The overwhelming majority of news reports were episodic in nature and featured acts of violent crim e.... Violent crime made up 30 percent o f all crimes in Los Angeles County but was the focus of 78 percent o f the news reports aired by KABC. (pp. 9-10) Public opinion polls co n sisten tly find th at a m ajority o f A m e rican s worry that crim e is gettin g w orse (G allu p Poll, 200 0 ). N etw ork television n ew scasts’ c o v ­ erage o f m urders in creased by abo u t 600% , alth ou gh the n ation al m urder rate dropped by 20% betw een 1990 and 1998 (W estfeldt & W icker, 1998), and the violen t crim e rate d ro pped by a record 10.4% in 1999 (A sso ciate d Press, 2 0 0 0 ). N o d a ta exist for co m p arin g local television news co verag e o f crim e and local crim e rates. T h is book is abo u t how and why local television news covers crim e. C rim e is considered “ the m o st co m m on and least studied stap le o f new s” (D en n is & LaM ay, 1992, p. x i). For m ore th an 40 years, the G allu p Poll has found that A m erican s identify crim e as either the first or secon d problem facing their local com m unity. In the 2 0 0 0 poll, 27% m entioned crim e (including drugs, gun s, and gangs) as “ the w orst problem ” (G allu p Poll, 2000). If you turn on the local tele­

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3

vision new scast tonight, it is very likely that there will be at least one crim e story. In fact, one study o f the three d om in an t netw ork affiliated statio n s in C h icago found th at as m uch as 9 o f the 14 m inutes d evoted to news “ concerned the th reat o f v iolen ce to h u m an s” (E ntm an, 1994b, p. 3 1 ). T h e coverage o f crim e is an everyday occu rrence in local television new sroom s. C rim es such as murder, although not the m ost frequent form o f crim e, get the m ost atten tion becau se o f their seriousness. E n tm an (1994b) offered the exam p le o f the m urder o f a child, allegedly by her m other, and a statio n ’s placin g o f the story in a “drug infested neigh borh ood” (p. .34). Local television news is seen as en cod ed to portray crim e within a racial and econ om ic co n text. By em phasizing crim e in econom ically depressed neigh borh oods, local new sroom s m ay reinforce stereotypes about m inorities (H eider, 2000). A lth ough all o f us h ave personal experiences as view ers, m ost o f us do not pause to critically exam in e w hat we w atch. T h is chapter provides an overview o f local television news and the key co n cepts required for u n d erstan d in g it. We begin with the long-know n view that Each of us lives and works on a small part of the earth’s surface, moves in a small cir­ cle ... our opinions cover a bigger space__They have, therefore, to be pieced to­ gether out of what others have reported and what we can imagine (Lippmann, 1922,1965, p. 53).

THE NATURE OF LOCAL TV NEWS Local television new s is based on d ecisions m ade in new sroom s abo u t w hat is newsworthy. “A lth o u g h long oversh adow ed by the n atio n al m edia, local news h as always played an im portan t role in the way a city and region u n d erstan d s its problem s, its op portu n ities, and its sense o f local id en tity ” (K an iss, 1991, p. 2). N ew s h as typically been defined by criteria su ch as proxim ity, prom inence, tim eliness, im pact, m agn itu de, co nflict, and oddity (Ryan & T ankard, 1977, pp. 1 0 5 -1 0 9 ). N o t everyone agrees abo u t the list. M c M an u s (1994) included the follow ing: tim elin ess, proximity, co n seq u en ce, h u m an interest, prom i­ nence, u n u su aln ess, con flict, visu al quality, am u sem en t, and topicality (pp. 1 1 9 -1 2 0 ). O ften , new s is dom in ated by “ know n” as opposed to “ unknow n” people (G an s, 1979, p. 9 ). W h en officials an d politician s are not the principal sou rces o f sto ries, the unknow n sou rces often are victim s: U n know ns are victim s o f n atu ral or social disorders, m ost often o f crim e, and on television, o f torn ad oes, floods, fires, plane accid en ts, and other n atu ral or tech n ological di­ sa sters” (G an s, p. 14). N ew s selection involves “ fram es” for sto ries and use o f a few new sw orthy item s from m any ch oices (T uchm an, 1978). T h e m etaph or o f a “ news net” being ca st by editors offers one ex p lan atio n : But a net has holes. Its haul is dependent upon the amount invested in intersecting fiber and the tensile strength of that fiber. The narrower the intersections between

T h e 2000 R T N D A convention in M inneapolis, M N, was the site for a blistering attack on television news. T h e m eeting o f news directors featured a keynote speech by C able News N etw ork correspondent Christiane Am anpour. ... A ll o f us in this room share in this m ost ludicrous state o f affairs. S o much so that 1 recently carefully clipped a New York Times cutting and just about slept with it under my pillow .... W B B M -T V in C hicago is going back to basic journalism ! A rare exam ple o f dog bites m an actually being new s!!!! A n d I have read o f news di­ rectors in Florida and elsewhere around this country trying the sam e thing. I don’t dare ask how this radical experim ent is doing in the ratings ... all my fin­ gers and toes are tightly crossed. A t the end of the 20th century and the beginning o f the 21st century, national television is the critical force. W hat we do and say and show really matters. It has an effect on our local communities, our states, our country, and on the state o f the world. You get the p o in t... the powers that be ... the money men, have decided over the last several years to eviscerate us. It actually costs a bit o f money to produce good journalism ... to travel, to investigate ... to put on compelling viewing, to give people a reason to watch us. But G od forbid they should spend money on q u ality ... no, let’s ju st cheapskate our way into the m ost demeaning, irrelevant, super-hyped, sensationalism we can find. A n d then we wonder why people are tuning out in droves ... it’s not ju st the new com petition, it’s the drivel we spew into their living room s....

Network correspondent Christiane Amanpour speaking in 2000 to RTNDA.

IN T R O D U C T IO N T O LO CA L T EL E V ISIO N N E W S

5

... A n d there is so m uch good stu ff being produced here in the U n ited S ta te s ... but think how m uch m ore o f a contribution we could m ake to this great society if we w eren’t so d epen d en t on w hat those hocu s-p ocu s groups tell us people are not inter­ ested in: • • • •

Oh, Oh, Oh, Oh,

A m e rican s A m e rican s A m e rican s A m e ric a n s

d o n ’t care d o n ’t care d o n ’t care d o n ’t care

ab o u t seriou s news. ab o u t this presid en tial election . ab o u t foreign news. ab o u t an y th in g b u t co n te m p latin g th eir

ow n n avels. H. L. M en k en on ce said th at no o n e w ould ev er go broke u n d erestim atin g the A m e rica n peop le, but th at’s ju st flat o u t n ot true ... w hat A m e rican s d o n ’t care m u ch ab o u t is the piffle we p u t on T V th ese days, w hat they d o n ’t care ab o u t is boring, irrelevant, badly told stories, an d w hat they really h ate is the presu m ption th at they are to o stu pid to know the differen ce. T h a t’s why they are votin g with th eir o ff sw itch, w hich m ean s th at p an d erin g to w h at we th ink people w ant is sim ­ ply bad b u sin ess. A n d we alien ate o u r core constituen cy. For ex am p le, why are we terrorizing the country a t large lead in g w ith m urder an d m ayhem w hen crim e is actually on the declin e? Source: Radio-Television News Directors Association, News Release, http://www. rtnda.org/news/2000/asera.shtml BOX 1.1. CNN Correspondent Tells Local TV News Directors to Place News Quality above Profit Margins. (Photo courtesy Radio-Television News Directors Association, 2000)

the m esh— the m ore blanket-like the net— the m ore can be ca p tu re d .... T o day ’s new s n et is intended for big fish. (p. 21)

C r i m e n e w s , p a r tic u la r ly v io le n t c r im e , is a s t a p le fo r lo c a l t e le v is io n n e w s. S i n c e th e 1 9 7 0 s , l o c a l t e le v is io n s t a t i o n s h a v e in v e s t e d in la r g e n e w s r o o m s a s “ p r o fit c e n t e r s . ” U s i n g “ e y e w itn e s s ” a n d “ a c t io n n e w s ” f o r m a ts , th e n e w s b e ­ c a m e a p r im e s o u r c e o f i d e n t it y fo r lo c a l s t a t io n s . T h e s e f o r m a t s b e c a m e s u c ­ c e s s f u l in th e t e l e v is io n r a t in g s b y e m p h a s iz in g c r im e n e w s . T h e la b e ls h a v e b e e n d r o p p e d , b u t th e to n e r e m a in s c e n t r a l to h o w lo c a l t e le v is io n s t a t i o n s c o v e r th e n e w s to d a y . T h e r e lia n c e o n c r im e a s “ b r e a k in g n e w s ,” “ li v e ,” a n d “ to p s t o r i e s ” c o n t in u e s . In th is b o o k w e d e f in e c r im e b r o a d ly a s b e h a v io r s t h a t v io la te p u b lic la w s d e ­ s ig n e d to p r o t e c t p e r s o n s a n d p r o p e r ty . T w o c 'o m p e tin g m o d e ls in c r im in a l j u s ­ tic e , d u e p r o c e s s a n d c r im e c o n t r o l, e m p h a s iz e th e in n o c e n c e o r g u ilt o f th e a c c u s e d a n d th e p r o c e s s in g o f d e f e n d a n t s ( S u r e t t e , 1 9 9 8 , p p . 1 5 ,1 7 ) . L o c a l m e ­ d ia c o v e r a g e o f c r im e a n d c r im in a l ju s t i c e a r e i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e th e s e i m a g e s

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h elp lea d to a so c ia l c o n str u c tio n o f reality : “ P eop le u se k n o w le d g e g a in e d from th e m e d ia to c o n str u c t a n im ag e o f th e w orld a n d b e h a v e b ase d o n th e p erce iv ed reality o f th a t im a g e ” (S u re tte , 1 9 9 8 , p. x iii). T h e u se o f p o lic e so u r c e s by lo c al m e d ia to rep o rt crim e sto rie s m ay e v e n lead to th e so c ia l c o n str u c tio n o f a “ crim e w a v e ” in a city, as F ish m a n (1 9 8 0 ) o b se rv e d in N e w York: O ut o f news work arose a phenomenon transcending the individual happenings which were its constituent parts. A crime wave is a “ thing” in public conscious­ ness which organizes people’s perception o f an aspect o f their comm unity.... The crime wave was also real in another sense. News organizes our perception o f a world outside our firsthand experience. But in doing so, the m edia are not simply putting certain images in people’s h e ad s.... Even though one cannot be mugged by a crime wave, one can be frightened, (pp. 10-11) C rim e c o v e ra g e , th e n , follow s th e str u c tu r e an d o rg a n iz a tio n o f p o lic e w ork th a t b e g in s at th e s c e n e o f a ju st-c o m m itte d crim e: Virtually all crime stories are about the commission o f a crime (police report) and when a person is arrested (arrest report), charged with the crime (arraignment), brought to trial, convicted or acquitted, and, if convicted, sentenced. In other words, news is organized in exactly the same way as the criminal justice system "organizes” crime. A n d because it is organized that way and follows the same rou­ tines, the coverage tends to assum e or take for granted the official organizational ideology. (Grossberg, W artella, & Whitney, 1998, p. 331) L o c a l T V n ew s e m p h a siz e s th e e a r lie st s ta g e o f c rim e s b e c a u se “ b r e a k in g n e w s" fro m th e sc e n e o f a crim e is fresh , d r a m a tic , a n d v isu a l. A c o n te n t an a ly sis o f lo ­ c a l T V new s, th a t w ill b e re p o rte d in c h a p te r 3 , d e m o n s tr a te s h ow la n g u a g e s u c h a s “ to n ig h t’s b ig sto ry ,” “ th is ju s t in ,” an d “ b r e a k in g n e w s” fu n c tio n s to h e ig h te n d ra m a . K X A S , D a lla s - F t . W orth , th e N B C a ffiliate in T e x a s, for e x ­ a m p le , u sed n a r ra tiv e in th is re p o r tin g fro m th e sc e n e : Sixteen houses make up this neighborhood. A close comm unity where next weekend neighbors will gather for the annual fall festival. This evening, they gath­ ered in concern, as word quickly spread that a teenager had been shot inside this home. Police carried out bags full o f evidence. Neighbors were full o f questions. T h e M onday afternoon quiet was pierced with screams. Apparently, one teen shot another teen with a 9-miIIimeter autom atic pistol. Three hours after the scream s and the gunshot rang out, police took away the crime scene tape, but not the questions. (O ctober 11, 1999) L iv e sh o ts a n d o n -se t d eb riefin g s m ay stray from sc rip te d copy, a n d this o p e n s the d o o r for rep o rter a n d an c h o r o p in io n s. In M iam i, F L , for ex am p le, a p o lic e d ru g stin g led to a “g u n fig h t” th a t resu lted in tw o d e ath s. F o x affiliate W S V N q u e s­ tio n e d w hy p o lic e co n fisc a te d a v id e o ta p e o f th e e v e n t by a cab le T V ch a n n e l:

INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL TELEVISION NEWS

7

Male anchor: I want to know about the idea o f police officers going to a private citi­ zen and confiscating his equipment without a warrant because that’s what it sounds like the man is saying. Reporter: The cameraman wasn't too happy about it. It doesn't happen very often. We're still trying to find out if this man will indeed get his tape back. Certainly he's captured some very interesting video. Anchor: I imagine police aren’t admitting to what this man describes, are they? Reporter: Police haven’t said anything to us regarding the tap e .... Anc/ior: H m m m m .... Reporter: ... but I did hear the cam eraman talking to one of the police representa­ tives on the scene ... so we’ll see what happens with that tape ... but that cam era­ man did say he caught some very interesting things on it.... (October 12,1999) V ideo is a prim ary e le m e n t in lo c al T V new s an d su p p le m e n ts the u se o f ch arg ed lan g u age. In 1999, the follow ing p h rases were u sed : a d an g e ro u s ch ase ; d ra m a tic c a r crash , v io len t tak e o v e r robbery, terrifying o rd eal, h eartb reak in g call, n igh tm are, traged y; b r u t a l t e r r o r d e s p e r a t e . . . , terrorized . . . , and d istu rb in g .... In K a n sa s City, K S , A B C affiliate K M B C u sed a c o m b in atio n o f live sh o ts, v id e o p a ck ag e s, an d in terview s in team c o v e ra g e o f th e ab d u c tio n o f a 10-year-old girl an d th e p o lice “ m an h u n t” for the girl an d a su sp e c t. T h e s to ­ ries in clu d ed sh ow in g p o lice se arc h in g a v a c a n t h o u se “ w ith g u n s d raw n ” an d a so u n d bite from the tearfu l m o th er o f the victim p lead in g for retu rn o f her d augh ter. T h e n e x t e v e n in g , th e sta tio n ag ain led w ith live te am c o v e rag e from th ree rep o rters o n th e a rrest o f th e su sp e ct. T h e sta tio n sh ow ed v id e o o f th e a r­ rest sc en e: In the heavy brush alongside the Kaw River lies the m etro’s most wanted man. He was spotted on the river bank just after noon by this woman ... her husband and others went after h im .... A two-day search finally reaches an end. (October 14, 1999) T h e sta tio n b r o a d c a s t in te rv iew s o f ey ew itn e sses w h o saw th e arre st. A t the sc e n e , th ey h ad v id e o o f a h o sp ita l h e lic o p te r arriv in g to tra n sp o r t th e in ju red su sp e c t. T h e d ecisio n to co v er a crim e story is b ased o n a se t o f o rgan iz atio n al v alu es. We sp e a k o f new s v alu es as b ein g im p o rtan t in the c o n stru c tio n o f new s: “ R e ­ porters u se v alu es to h elp th em d ec id e w hat in form ation av ailab le for in d ividu al new s sto ries sh ou ld be u sed in the lead an d w hat sh ou ld be left o u t alto g e th e r” (R yan & T an kard , 1 977, p. 1 05). H erb ert G a n s (1 9 7 9 ) form alized th e id ea o f new s v alu es by gro u p in g th em in to clu sters:

T h e local television new sroom has been called a “ news factory” because that m etaphor describes m ixed assembly-line work flowing through five steps: “story ideation, task assignm ent, gathering and structuring m aterials, assem bling m ate­ rials, and presenting the n ew scast” (Bantz, M cC orkle, &. B aad e, 1980, p. 52). T h e routine nature o f news production may lead to four negative aspects o f orga­ nizational life: 1. 2. 3. 4.

T h e news factory lacks flexibility. T h ere is a lack o f personal investm ent in the news product. N ew s work becom es evalu ated in productivity term s. G o a l incongruence em erges betw een news w orkers’ jo b ex p ectatio n s and jo b reality, (p. 59)

A lth o u g h n ew sroom s m ay n ot be trad itio n al assem bly lines, they are su b ­ je c t to p ressu res to p ro d u ce uniform ity: " T h e tren ds in telev isio n new s— the tu rn o ver o f new s w orkers, th e in flu en ce o f co n su lta n ts, the p ro d u c er su p erv i­ sio n , the in creased tech n ical so p h isticatio n , in creasin g o rg an iz atio n al size, an d the em erg en ce o f the new s as a profit c e n te r— h ave c o n trib u te d to local telev isio n n ew s’ d ev e lo p m en t o f a highly co n stra in e d , routin ized a p p ro ach to n ew s” (B an tz e t al., pp. 6 4 - 6 5 ) . A research team o f three people spen t 14 weeks studying a local television sta ­ tion in the western U n ited S tates. T h e story idea step involves assessing the raw inform ation th at com es into a newsroom , including the following: • • • • • • •

Press releases. M ail. O th er m edia reports. R eporter enterprise ideas. Law enforcem ent and em ergency radio traffic. N ew s services. T eleph one calls.

T h e assignm en t editor in a newsroom is the key person decidin g w hat inform a­ tion should be presented at the news story m eetings each m orning. A t the daily m eetings, the assignm ent person, oth er news m anagers, and news staff m eet to talk about story selection , coverage, and placem ent. A t the second step in the process, tasks are assigned to news staffers. Station s file story ideas as they arrive in the mail, over the telephone, by fax and via e-m ail. For exam p le, an organization may sch edule a news conferen ce days in advan ce and m ail an ann o un cem en t to the news d epartm ent. Usually, one o f the last d u ­ ties o f an assignm ent editor each day is to ch eck the “ future file” for leads on the n ext d ay ’s news. Early in the morning, potential stories are listed, discussed, and assigned to reporters and photographers. T h e third step involves gathering and structuring news content. T h is involves reporters, ph otographers, producers, and editors. T h ere are five tasks: (a) ob tain ­ ing assignm en t desk inform ation, (b) com m u nicating with news sources, (c) g o ­ 8

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ing somewhere to gather background m aterial, (d) shooting videotape, and (e) writing news copy. T h e fourth step is assembling the raw material gathered into individual news stories. Raw video collected in the field must be edited to fit a news script written by a reporter. Reporters review the raw footage, if there is time, to determine what pictures fit the story and to select the sound bites from news makers. O nce the script is finished, news m anagers may review it. Producers organize the stories from reporters and writers into a newscast. Stories may be edited further, ordered to create a flow, and fit to a particular format. T h e last step is presenting the newscast. A production staff handles technical coordination o f the elements. A lthough the news factory model generally is as valid now as it was a quarter-century ago, newsrooms today are more flexible in dealing with breaking news because o f advances in live technology. Source: Bantz, C. R., McCorklc, S., and Baade, R. C. (1980). The news factory. Communication Research, 7, 45-68. BO X 1.2

1.

2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Th e News Factory.

Ethnocentrism . L ik e th e n ew s o f o th e r c o u n t r ie s , A m e r ic a n n ew s v a lu e s its ow n n a tio n a b o v e all, e v e n th o u g h it s o m e tim e s d isp a r a g e s b la ta n t p a tr io tism . A ltruistic dem ocracy. T h e new s im plies th at p o litic s sh o u ld follow a c o u rse b a se d o n th e p u b lic in te re st a n d p u blic se rv ic e . Responsible capitalism . T h is is a n o p tim istic fa ith th a t in th e g o o d society, b u sin e ss m e n a n d w o m en will c o m p e te w ith e a c h o th e r in o rd e r to c r e a te in c re a se d p ro sp erity for all, b u t th a t th ey w ill re frain from u n re a so n a b le p ro fits a n d g ro ss e x p lo ita tio n o f w orkers o r cu sto m e rs. Sm all-tow n p astoralism . T h e new s fav o rs sm a ll to w n s o v e r o th e r ty pes o f se ttle m e n ts, refle c tin g h isto ric a l ru ral A m e r ic a n v a lu e s. Individualism . T h e p r e se rv a tio n o f th e fre e d o m o f in d iv id u a ls sh o u ld be g u a r d e d a g a in st th e e n c ro a c h m e n ts o f n a tio n a n d society. M oderatism . T h is v a lu e d isc o u r a g e s e x c e ss o r e x tre m ism in fa v o r o f the m id d le g ro u n d . So cial order. T h e d esirab ility o f a c e rta in ty pe o f so c ia l o rd e r is fav o re d by th e new s. N a tio n a l leadership. T h e n e e d to m a in ta in s o c ia l o rd e r is ro o te d in th e r e ­ sp o n sib ility o f o u r n a tio n a l le ad e rs, (pp. 4 2 - 5 2 )

T h e id e a o f so c ia l o rd e r o v e r d iso rd e r is im p o r ta n t in u n d e r sta n d in g w hy crim e is a fa v o re d to p ic in lo c a l te le v isio n n ew sro o m s: Social disorder news deals with activities which disturb the public peace and may involve violence or the threat o f violence against life or physical property; it also

10

CHAPTER 1 includes the deterioration of valued institutions, such as the nuclear two-parent family. (Gans, 1979, p. 53)

Local violence, as portrayed on television through the news, suggests to the viewer that he or she m ay not be safe o n the streets: “C rim e news follows a sim ilar cycle. A n unusual crim e story is particularly fresh, so m uch so that reporters are encouraged to find further exam ples, establishing a journalistic crim e wave that may bear little relationship to the actu al on e” (G ans, 1979, p. 170). Today, crim e coverage by local television newsroom s may be a function o f m arket forces, rapid grow th o f com petition from other stations, and the desire to produce content that draw s viewers (M bM anus, 1994). C rim e stories are easy to tell because they usu­ ally feature good and bad; innocent victim s subjected to lawless behavior by crim ­ inals. Society, in a sense, is victimized by the inability o f governm ent to protect us from crime.

THE APPEAL OF CRIME NEWS R esearch on the sociology o f news work, as it relates to local television, has identified two key generalizations: (a) local news ten ds to rely on “ rou tin e” so u rces, in clud in g govern m en t officials an d law en forcem en t personn el (R eese & Buckalew , 1 9 9 5 ); and (b) co m p etitive an d co rp o rate interests ap p ear to “ help homogenize the news rather than diversify it” (Ehrlich, 1995, p. 205). In the c a se o f local T V news co verage o f crim e, it is predicted that selection o f the sam e sou rces will lead to co n so n an ce in co verage. G iv en the d ram atic n ature o f crim e new s, producers will tend to believe th at these sto ries are good for statio n ratings b e cau se a large num ber o f view ers sh ou ld be interested. C rim e news, by one estim ate, accou n ts for about 14% o f local new s co verage, and the lion’s sh are o f th at coverage focu ses on sen sation al even ts (Graber, 1993). G rab er (19 9 3 ) argued that the public, despite public com plain ts, h as a h unger for exciting crim e new s: “T h e local television news, with its heavy crim e co m po n en t, h as eclipsed n ation al news, w hich carries m ore serious political s to ­ ries and less crim e, in the battle for high au d ien ce ratin gs” (p. 33 2 ). D uring the d ecad e o f the 1990s, crim e stories ap peared to take on in creased im portance for n ation al view ers. A study o f the top 10 news topics betw een 1990 an d 1996 found th at the netw orks (A B C , C B S , and N B C ) covered crim e m ore often (9 ,3 9 1 ) th an any other story, even ah ead o f the econom y (6 ,6 7 3 ), and h ealth (6,047) issues (H iebert & .G ib bon s, 2000, p. 2 4 8 ). In 1999, the sh ootin gs at C o l­ um bine H igh Sc h o o l in Littleton , C O , w ere follow ed “ very closely ” by 68% o f A m erican s (Pew R esearch C enter, 1999). T h e incident w as the third m ost closely w atched story o f the d ecade, follow ing co verage o f the R odney K in g ver­ dict and riots in Los A n geles and the crash o f T W A Flight 8 0 0 o ff the E ast C o ast. In 1998, the top three closely w atched stories were all crim e stories: two sch o o l sh ootin gs, in A rk an sas and O regon , and a sh ootin g at the U .S. C apitol.

IN T R O D U C T IO N TO LO C A L T ELEV ISIO N N E W S G r a b e r ( 1 9 9 7 ) w r o te t h a t o r g a n iz a t io n a l fa c t o r s a r e im p o r ta n t in d e t e r m i n ­ in g n e w s m a k in g a n d r e p o r tin g r o u t in e s : C o lleagu es and settings strongly influence news people. Every news organization h as its ow n internal power structure that d evelops from the interaction o f ow ners, jo u rnalists, news sources, au dien ces, advertisers, and govern m en t authorities. In m ost news organizations today, the internal power structure is slightly left o f m iddle A m erica, yet predom inantly su pportive o f the basic ten ets o f the current political and social system , (p. 96)

K e r b e l ( 2 0 0 0 ) m a in t a in e d t h a t n e w s c a s t c o n s is t e n c y is r e q u ir e d in th e lo c a l t e l e v is io n n e w s m o d e l: “ I f y o u k n o w w h a t to e x p e c t fr o m a n e w s c a s t , y o u ’ll b e ­ c o m e c o m f o r t a b le w ith it. P r o d u c e r s h o p e y o u ’ll e v e n b e c o m e a b it d e p e n d e n t o n it” (p . 1 3 0 ) . B y d e liv e r in g s im ila r n e w s s t o r ie s , K e r b e l s u g g e s t e d t h a t n e w s ­ c a s t f o r m a t s h e lp e x p la in w h a t w e s e e in th e n e w s.

Top Five Local News Topics P tK ejitag« o f stofse-i by broad to p k category MM - N a tio n a l m&

-

U>ral

Siory T-opte FIG. 1.1 Crime considered most important news topic in Project for Excellence in Journalism study. Source: The Project for Excellence in Journalism, 1999, used with permission.

CHAPTER 1

12

THE SOCIOLOGY OF CRIME AND LOCAL TV NEWS By d ic tio n a ry d e fin itio n , so c ie ty d e fin e s crim e a s th o se se rio u s b e h a v io rs th at v io la te p u b lic law s. In th e U n ite d S t a t e s , crim e is m e a su r e d by th e F e d e r a l B u ­ rea u o f In v e stig a tio n (F B I) U n ifo r m C rim e R e p o rts ( U C R ) . T h e g o v e r n m e n t d e fin e s v io le n t crim e a s m u rd er or m an sla u g h te r, rap e, robbery, a ssa u lt, b u r ­ glary, large th eft, a n d , in so m e c a s e s, a r so n (B ro w n ste in , 2 0 0 0 ). T h e c o n c e p t o f v io le n t crim e is fuzzy b e c a u se , like crim e itself, v io le n c e c a n b e re co g n iz e d w ith ­ o u t a n e x p lic it d e fin itio n : “ T h is is tru e in p a rt b e c a u se v io le n c e is n o t ju st o n e th in g b u t r a th e r m a n y th in g s, m a k in g it e a sie r to g iv e e x a m p le s o f v io le n c e th a n to sa y e x a c tly w h a t it is” (B ro w n ste in , 2 0 0 0 , p. 6 ). T h e e x a m p le s o f crim e a n d v io le n c e p o rtray ed by lo c al T V n e w sc a sts p lay a role in d e fin in g th e n a tu r e o f c rim in al ac tiv ity in society. T h e d ra m a tic n a tu r e o f crim e c o v e ra g e is th e so u r c e o f m u c h criticism : Crim e, violence, and tragedy have becom e staples o f local newscasts, leading to the catchphrase, “ If it bleeds, it leads”.... During the newscast, the anchors d e ­ liver the horrifying details, look solem n for a mom ent, and then swing into “happy talk” with one another. They address the cam era earnestly in an attem pt to estab­ lish contact with the home viewer. It is a curious mix o f cam araderie and concern, all delivered som ewhat breathlessly and with alm ost no context provided for the viewer. (Hiebert & Gibbons, 2000, p. 247) T h e m a ss m ed ia se e m to b e a m ajo r so u rce o f in fo rm atio n p eo p le u se to d e ­ v e lo p view s a b o u t so c ial issu es su c h a s crim e. “ In this way, th e m e d ia h av e played a n in d irect b u t sig n ific an t lon g-term role in sh ap in g p e o p le ’s th o u g h ts an d a c ­ tio n s” (D e F le u r & D e n n is, 1996, p. 5 9 5 ). W h e re m ed ia m essag e s are c o n so n a n t, it is p o ssib le th a t th e c o n te n t w ill h a v e th e effe ct o f in flu e n cin g p eo p le (N o e lle -N e u m a n n , 1995). It h a s b e e n a rg u e d th a t th e m a ss m e d ia a re w illin g p a r tic ip a n ts in c r e a tin g s o c ia l m y th s: T h e social construction o f myths o f crime and crim inal justice seem s to follow a series o f recurrent patterns. These patterns allow for an unprecedented am ount o f social attention to be focused upon a few isolated criminal events or issues. This attention is prom oted by intense, but often brief, m ass media coverage o f a select problem (Kappeler, Blumberg, & Potter, 1993, pp. 4 -5 ). T h is id e a is re la te d to th e view th a t m a ss m e d ia p o rtray als c o n str u c t so c ia l reality for in d iv id u a ls a n d g ro u p s. S u r e tte (1 9 9 2 ) a rg u e d th a t ou r co lle c tiv e view o f p riso n s a n d p riso n e rs is sh a p e d by e n te r ta in m e n t p o rtray als, a n d new s c o v e ra g e a p p e a ls to “ v o y e u ristic in stin c ts” (pp. 4 1 , 7 4 ). U ltim ately , su c h a p o r ­ tra it su p p o rts la w -a n d -o rd e r p o lic ie s an d b e c o m e s “ th e a c c e p te d v e rsio n o f s o ­ c ia l reality ” (p. 7 6 ).

INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL TELEVISION NEWS

13

It was not always the case that local television news crim e co verage overw helm ed reporting o f issues. A com b in ation o f business practices, technological ch an ges, an d news form attin g open ed the door to w hat we see on local televi­ sion news today.

RISE IN LOCAL TV NEWS POPULARITY AND SIGNIFICANCE D uring the 1950s and 1960s, few local television news op eratio n s were profit­ able. T h e n , in 1970, the A B C netw ork affiliate in S io u x City, IA , show ed that by investing in the local new sroom , view er loyalty co uld in crease ratings and profits (W estin, 2 0 0 0 ). D uring the 1970s, the “ Eyew itness N ew s” form at em ­ phasized reporting from the scen e o f even ts and use o f film and vid eo (Fang, 1985, p. 3 1 7 ). T h e form at w as d eveloped by A1 Prim o at W A B C -T V , N ew York, as a way to bo ost ratings by m ore th an 10% . T h e su ccess in N ew York led to doz­ ens o f co pies aroun d the country (D om in ick, W urtzel, & Lom etti, 1975). T h e form at highlighted reporters coverin g even ts and then doin g live reports fea­ turing in teraction with an ch ors. A t tim es, this led to em ph asis on crim e c o v er­ age, accordin g to one study o f three netw ork flagship statio n s in N ew York in 1973: “ ... the Eyew itness s ta ff w ent o u t o f its way to find and report v iolen t sto ­ ries that the o th er two statio n s ch ose not to report” (D om in ick, W urtzel, & Lom etti, 1975, p. 2 1 6 ). T h e research ers found th at the A B C statio n w as m uch m ore likely than the C B S or N B C statio n s to em phasize crim e, and this was criticized: “ E m phasizing violen t, hum an interest and co m ic m aterial, in an a p ­ p aren t effort to g ain larger ratin gs m ay n ot be in th e pu blic in te re st” (D om inick, W urtzel, & Lom etti, 1975, p. 21 8 ). T h e su cc ess o f E yew itness N ew s spaw ned o th er sim ilar v ariatio n s on the p ack agin g o f local T V n ew scasts. T h e “A c tio n N e w s” form at o f sh orter and tigh ter sto ries took a d v an tag e o f the “ E lectron ic N ew s G a th e rin g ” (E N G ) live tech nology an d v id eo tap e (H ead , Sterlin g, Sc h o field , S p a n n , & M cG regor, 1998, p. 2 6 3 ). L ocal television n ew sroom s b egan to p u rch ase live tru cks and even h elicopters for co verin g b reak in g spot new s from the sc en e. D u rin g the 1980s and 1990s, a “ tec h n o lo g ical w ave" co n tin u ed — sm aller an d lighter cam eras, com pu terized n ew sroom s, d igital ed itin g and effe cts, p ortable m icro­ w ave live links, an d stylized g rap h ics (E astm an & F ergu son , 1997, p. 20 6 ). A t the sam e tim e, co m p e titiv e pressu res an d new s co n su ltin g en c o u rag ed c o v er­ age o f breakin g crim e new s as p art o f a trend b egu n in the early 1970s (B arrett, 19 7 5 ). T h e m odel tu rn ed netw ork affiliated local statio n s in to “ cash ca lv e s" bo ugh t an d sold for m ore th an $ 5 0 0 m illion (D om in ick , S h e rm an , & M essere, 200 0, p. 100). In a p rofit-d riven en v iron m en t, the im p o rtan ce o f new s co n su l­ tan ts is th at they m ay en c o u rag e the use o f m ore local sto ries, live rem otes, an d d isaster c o v erag e; how ever, this m ay n ot always lead to m ore crim e c o v e r­ age (H arm on , 1999).

14

CHAPTER 1

T h e se ch an ges su ggest the need for a fresh study o f local television news that is inform ed by both industry practices and acad em ic investigation. T h is book, m akes the case for the im portance o f crim e co verage in u n derstan din g the n a­ ture o f local television news. So cial scien ce and critical and cu ltu ral m edia th e­ ories help explain why local television news finds crim e stories so com pelling and irresistible.

CHAPTER SUMMARY C rim e new s is an im p o rtan t co m p o n en t o f local telev isio n n ew scasts. T h e o r­ g an iz atio n al n eed to be d ram atic h elps ex p lain why crim e is frequ en tly fea­ tu red. A t the sam e tim e, the pu blic co n siste n tly ex p re sse s co n cern abo u t crim e w hile co n tin u in g to use local T V new s as a key so u rce for in form ation . G iv en the im p o rtan ce o f new s v alu es an d o rgan iz atio n al stru ctu re , it is likely th at the m od el o f local telev isio n new s forged d u rin g the 1970s will c o n tin u e. Live tech n o lo g y allow s sta tio n s to efficiently report from th e scen e o f b reak ­ ing local new s ev e n ts.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 45.

H ow w ould you define local television news? W hy is it im portant? H ow has local television news evolved to em phasize crim e news? W hy is crim e news an im portant staple in lead stories on local television news? W hy are crim e and violen ce difficult to define? In your o p in io n , w h at role sh o u ld crim e new s play w ith in the daily d e c isio n -m a k in g p ro cess in a lo c al telev isio n n ew sroom ?

2 Theory and Research on Crime News

“The media and crime and justice must all be approached as parts of larger phenomena that have numerous interconnections and paths of influence among them." — Ray Surcttc, media scholar (1998, p. 2). T o u n d e rsta n d th e im p o rtan ce o f crim e to lo cal te le v isio n new s, it is e sse n tial to h av e a fram ew ork. In c h a p te r 1, we in tro d u ced th e n atu re o f local television new s an d its rise in p opu larity an d sig n ific an ce d u rin g the p ast 3 0 years. A s lo ­ ca l sta tio n s p la c e d g re ate r em p h asis o n new s g ath erin g, th e b ro a d c a sts ev o lv ed from b a sic h e a d lin e su m m arie s to highly p ro d u c e d sh ow s. T h e indu stry c a m e to rely o n c o n su lta n t re search to h elp m old an d sh a p e lo cal n ew scasts. A t the sam e tim e, u n iversity research e rs b e g an to stu d y th e new s p ro cess. T h is c h a p ­ ter fo cu se s o n m ass m ed ia research as it relates to crim e new s o n local telev i­ sion. T h e o rie s an d c o n c e p ts ab o u t new s will h elp e x p la in why crim e sto ries play su ch a p ro m in en t role in lo cal n ew scasts. T h r o u g h o u t this b o o k , the th eories d iscu ssed h ere will b e refe ren ced as a way to b e tte r u n d erstan d local T V new s co v e rag e o f crim e from a so c ial perspective.

CRIME NEWS IN THE AGE OF TELEVISION T h e po rtray al o f crim e new s o n lo cal telev isio n is a “ p art o f th e sp e c ta c le o f e v ­ eryday life" (K id d -H ew itt, 1995, p. 1). It is b e liev ed th at th e am o u n t o f crim e new s o n lo c a l telev isio n e x c e e d s the a m o u n t fo u n d in n ew sp ap ers an d o n n a ­ tion al telev isio n n ew scasts (S u re tte , 1998). G ra b e r (1 9 8 0 ) estim ated th at crim e new s a c c o u n te d for nearly 2 0 % o f th e to tal new s c o v e ra g e a t tw o C h i­ ca g o telev isio n sta tio n s (th e C B S - an d N B C -o w n e d sta tio n s) in 1976. T h e re h as b e e n n o sy ste m a tic a tte m p t to m easu re tren d s d u rin g th e p ast 2 d e c a d e s, or to c o lle c t gen eraliz ab le d a ta for lo cal telev isio n new s m ark ets. S till, G r a b e r ’s re15

16

CHAPTER 2

se a rc h is u seful in id en tifyin g to p ics o f crim e new s co v e ra g e — police an d se c u ­ rity, ju d iciary , c o rru p tio n an d terro rism , an d in d iv id u a l crim e; an d th e rep o rtin g o f v ario u s types o f crim e— stre e t crim es, terrorism , co rru p tio n , d ru g o ffen ses, an d b u sin ess crim es (G raber, 1980, pp. 24, 3 6 ): Crime news receives ample coverage and display compared to other types o f news. By certain social significance criteria, it is excessive. However, if current notions about audience preferences are accurate— and readership and viewer data seem to support them— then ample coverage o f crime news can be justified as satisfying a strong consumer demand, (pp. 40, 42) In g en era l, it ca n be said thaV crim e is ce n tra l to lo cal telev isio n new s g ath erin g, an d th e resu lt is th at a u d ie n ce m em b ers se e a lot o f crim e new s co v erag e (C h e rm a k , 1 9 9 4 ). W h a t v iew ers see in the n ew scasts m a y b e p erce iv ed as real. T h e literatu re refers to this as so c ia l c o n stru c tio n o f reality.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY S o c ia l c o n stru c tio n o f reality m ain tain s the p h ilo so p h ical view th at “ all sy m ­ b o lic u n iv erses an d all leg itim atio n s are h u m an p ro d u c ts; th eir ex iste n c e h as its b a se in the lives o f co n c re te in d iv id u als, an d h as n o e m p irical s ta tu s ap art from th ese liv es” (B erger & L u ck m an n , 1966, p. 128). T h e theory, in m ore rece n t tim es, h as b e e n linked to research o n telev isio n . A t on e level, lo cal telev isio n new s p ro d u c ers c o n stru c t a reality th ro u gh the d ec isio n s m ad e ab o u t the c o v ­ erag e o f e v e n ts a n d th eir p lac e m e n t w ith in a n ew scast. A t a n o th e r level, v iew ­ ers c o n stru c t th eir ow n realities by in te rp retin g new s th rou gh a se t o f p erso n al ex p erie n ce s. L a n g a n d L an g (1 9 8 4 , p. 26) gen eralized the follow ing: 1. 2. 3. 4.

T elevision em ph asizes clo se-u p view s c re atin g a se n se o f fam iliarity with d ista n t p eo p le an d places. L ive e v e n t co v erag e gives view ers a se n se o f p articip atio n in pu blic affairs. T elevision p ictu res se e m au th e n tic to view ers. T elev isio n c o v e rag e m ay provid e a m ore co m p le te p ictu re o f the e v e n t th a n any o th er m edia.

In g e n e ra l, “ th e a c t o f m ak in g n ew s is th e a c t o f c o n str u c tin g reality itse lf ra th e r th a n a p ic tu re o f re ality " (T u c h m a n , 1978, p. 12). T h e c o n str u c tio n o f reality in lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s b e g in s w ith th e n ew sro o m d e c isio n to c o v e r a story. It c o n tin u e s w h en th e re p o rter a n d p h o to g r a p h e r arriv e a t th e sc e n e o f a sto ry , an d th ey g a th e r raw m a te ria l. S o c ia l c o n str u c tio n o f n ew s a lso in ­ v o lv e s e d itin g a n d p ro d u c in g a sto ry for b r o a d c a s t. T h e so c ia l c o n str u c tio n o f crim e new s is sy m b o lic, an d it is a form o f n ew s g a th e rin g u sefu l in th e p r o d u c ­ tio n o f so c ia l reality :

THEORY AND RESEARCH O N CRIM E N EW S

17

M edia images or characterizations o f crime and crime control in the United States are constituted within the core o f the social, political, and psychological makeup of Am erican society- Mass news representations in the “ information age” have be­ come the most significant comm unication by which the average person com es to know the world outside his or her immediate experience. (Barak, 1994, p. 3) C rim e sto rie s, a s re p re se n te d in lo c a l te le v isio n n e w sc a sts, are u sefu l in th e c u l­ tu re as a w ay to d e fin e s o c ie ta l n o rm s o f b e h a v io r: .. a s a resu lt it is o fte n d iffi­ c u lt, if n o t im p o ssib le , to se p a r a te th e p e r c e p tio n o f crim e an d th e r e a c tio n to c r im e ” (B a r a k , 1 9 9 4 , p. 3 2 ). L o c a l te le v isio n n ew s c o n str u c tio n s e sse n tia lly d istr ib u te k n o w le d g e to a lo c al c o m m u n ity in w ays th a t in flu e n c e d e c isio n m a k in g , c r e a te a “d o m in a n t" so c ia l p r o d u c t, a n d le a d to a so c ia l c o n str u c tio n o f rea lity th a t “ ste e r s p u b lic p o lic y ” (S u r e tte , 1 9 9 8 , p. 11 ). S o c ia l c o n str u c tio n o f re a lity is o n e th e o r e tic a l p e r sp e c tiv e a m o n g m an y th a t are u sefu l in h e lp in g us u n d e r sta n d th e n a tu re o f lo c a l te le v isio n new s.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT OF CRIME AND VIOLENCE R e se a r c h in th e field s o f psy ch ology , so cio lo g y , an d c o m m u n ic a tio n is p a r tic u ­ larly h e lp fu l in m a k in g g e n e r a liz a tio n s a b o u t h ow lo c al te le v isio n n ew s view ers m ig h t u se m e d ia c o n te n t, a n d w h at b e n e fits th ey m igh t r e c e iv e : T h e psychologists asked how com m unication affected individuals or small groups. The sociologists asked how com m unication affected organizations and societies. T h e result was that com m unication became ... referred to as a “variable field,” one in which the level of analysis varies. (Lang, 1994, p. vii) A s a p p lie d to lo c a l te lev isio n n ew s, th is m e a n s th a t we n e e d to d raw fro m a va riety o f field s to u n d e r sta n d th e sig n ific a n t ro le lo c al n e w sc a sts p lay in d e fin ­ ing so c ia l reality in c o m m u n itie s. F o r e x a m p le , p sy ch o lo g ists stu d y in d iv id u a l d iffe re n c e s in th e w ays th a t view ers lo o k a t th e te le v isio n sc re e n , a n d th is m ay h e lp e x p la in w hy view ers re ta in d iffe re n t in fo rm atio n (A n d e rso n & B u rn s, 1 9 9 1 ). It is n e c e ssa ry to e x a m in e th e im p o r ta n c e o f a c tiv e a u d ie n c e m e m b e rs in d e fin in g th e rea lities th ey tak e fro m w a tc h in g th e lo c al n ew scast.

U s e s an d G ratification s D u r in g th e p a st 3 0 y ears, o n e o f th e c e n tr a l issu es o f m e d ia stu d ie s h a s b e e n w h a t p e o p le d o w ith n ew s c o n te n t. A s su c h , so - c a lle d u ses an d g ra tific a tio n s r e se a r c h w ork s from b a sic a ssu m p tio n s: 1. 2.

T e le v isio n new s view ers h a v e p sy c h o lo g ic a l a n d so c ia l n ee d s. T e le v isio n n ew s v iew ers e x p e c t to h a v e c e rta in e x p e rie n c e s w h en th ey view th e lo c a l n ew scasts.

Kyle Bell w as con victed in the sum m er o f 1999 o f m olesting and killing an 11 'year-old Fargo, N D , girl in 1993. H er body was never found, but Bell told p o ­ lice he dum ped her body in a river. Bell was sen ten ced to life in prison. W hile b e­ ing transferred to an O regon prison, he escaped on O cto b er 13, 1999, in N ew M exico. T h u s began the transform ation o f an isolated local crim e story to a re­ gional and then n ation al event. K X JB -T V , the C B S affiliate in Fargo, led its late evening new scast with the Bell escape. H e escaped at a truck sto p while being m oved by a private com pany th at “ ships prisoners across the country.” T h e station took a live feed from the C B S affiliate, K R Q E , in A lb u qu erq ue, N M . T h a t sam e night, K O A T -T V , in S a n ta Fe, N M , led with the “ m an h u n t” for Bell. T h e escapee, d escribed as a “dangerous m urderer,” w as being transported from N orth D ak ota w hen he used a key to get loose in S a n ta R osa, N M . T h e station show ed C h ristm as Eve hom e video o f the victim from before her death . T h e Fox Television N etw ork program A m ericas Most Wanted featured the Bell escape in a Jan u ary 8, 2000, segm en t. Bell escaped through a ven tilation hatch while guards were takin g an ex ten d ed break, the program reported. H e had reportedly last been seen 2 days after the escape in a W isconsin bar. A fter A m ericas Most Wanted aired the story and Kyle B ell’s photo, a husband and wife in a D allas, T X , apartm en t com plex called the hotline after recognizing their neighbor. FBI agen ts arrested Bell early the next day. H e had been living in the apartm ent for 2 m onths with a w om an and her five children. A lth ough Bell had sh aved his h ead and m u stache, he had four identifying tattoos— the Grim Reaper, a Panther, a H eart, and a W inged H orse. Bell w as the 59 6th person captured after being featured on A m ericas Most Wanted. T h e reality program often uses local crim e stories in w hich su spects or convicts are on the loose. T h e se are social co nstru ctions o f reality th at rarely are reported in traditional netw ork news. Sources: America’s Most Wanted, http://www.amw.com (January 8, 2000); KOAT-TV, Santa Fe, NM (October 13,1999); KXJB-TV, Fargo, N D (October 13,1999); Chris Graves, “Escaped Killer Bell Arrested," Minneapolis Star Tribune (January 10, 2000), p. 1A.

Convicted killer Kyle Bell. BOX 2.1 Local TV News Crime Coverage Goes National. (Photo of Kyle Bel! courtesy of North Dakota law enforcement officers.) 18

THEORY AND RESEARCH ON CRIME NEWS 3. 4-

19

Television news view ers m ake decisions abo u t view ing based on their e x ­ pectations. Television new s view ers m ake future view ing d ecision s b ased on how well their needs were gratified, and this m ay lead to “ u n in te n d ed ” co n se ­ qu en ces (Palm green, W enner, & R osengren, 1985, p. 14).

T h e uses and gratification s m odel proposes that au d ien ce m em bers are a c ­ tive in m aking decision s ab o u t w hat to w atch, and how to w atch it. M cQ u ail (19 8 5 ) con ten d ed th at uses and gratification s research m eets the needs o f m e­ dia sch olars, p ractition ers, and au d ien ce m em bers w ishing to u n d erstan d the lure o f m ass m edia: Viewed this way, the business of trying to find out what people are getting from their media experience and what their motives are seems a straightforward matter, re­ quiring no more theoretical justification, attack, or defense than does the counting of audience members and the description of audience composition, (p. 150) However, there h as been a lot o f deb ate about the natu re o f this sort o f re­ search. A lth ou g h the id ea that au d ien ce m em bers play an active role in the lo­ cal television new s view ing ex perien ce seem s obvious, uses and gratification s research is a d escriptive m odel th at falls sh ort o f helping us to u n derstan d the varied m otivation s o f view ers. A lth ou g h au d ien ce m em bers m ay actively m ake ch oices about w hich ch an n el, if any, they w atch for local new s, on ce there they m ust rely on the ch oices o f new s producers about w hat is im portant.

Agenda Setting A g en d a setting, the idea th at m ass m edia tell people w hat to think ab o u t rather th an w hat to think, is a research tradition d evelop ed by M axw ell M cC om b s and D on ald Sh aw in 1972. In th at study, “ law and o rd er” was the se co n d m ost im portant issue beh ind “ foreign policy” (Severin &. T an kard , 2001, p. 236). Sin ce then, h u nd red s o f published articles h ave attem p ted to m easu re m edia and public issue a g en d as, an d the relation betw een the tw o (G h an em , 1997). T h e fram ing o f ag en d as by local television may lead statio n s to avoid political stories as boring, an d se arch in g for crim e news stories th at are usually ac c o m p a ­ nied by d ram atic video. T h e play o f exciting vid eo m ay feed in to view ers’ in ter­ pretation s, or w hat the research calls cognitive sch em a: “ T h e y ex tract only th ose lim ited a m o u n ts o f in form ation from new s stories th at they co n sider im ­ portan t for in corp oration in to their sc h em ata" (G h an em , 1997, p. 8 ). T h e sch em a, in oth er w ords, is a long-term way o f thinkin g ab o u t the w orld. A g en d a setting, then, is related to the d ecision s that news people m ake w ithin their o r­ gan ization s (Gandy, 1982). In a broad sen se, m ed ia p ortrayals cu ltiv ate “ the ad o p tion o f a particu lar poin t o f view th at is m ore in line w ith m edia p resen ta­ tion th an with reality” (G h an em , 1997, p. 9). For ex am p le, portrayal o f A frican

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A m e r ic a n crim e su sp e c ts m ay p rim e v iew ers by re in fo rc in g ra c ia l ste re o ty p e s. In th is w ay v iew ers m a y o v e r e s tim a te th e sh a re o f v io le n t crim e c o m m itte d by n o n -W h ite s. A g e n d a se ttin g is lim ited as a p e rsp e c tiv e b e c a u se it fails to a c c o u n t for p o ­ ten tially stro n g in flu e n c e s o n a u d ie n c e m em b ers. In lo c al te le v isio n n ew s, th e a g e n d a is likely to b e a ffe c te d by a co m p le x in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n e v e n ts, n ew s ju d g m e n ts, an d a v a ila b le tim e a n d reso u rc e s. It is k n o w n th a t b re a k in g crim e n ew s sto rie s h a v e th e p ossib ility o f b e c o m in g lead sto ry m a te r ia l, b u t th a t d o e s n o t e x p la in th e p h e n o m e n o n . L ik ew ise, co g n itiv e in fo rm a tio n p ro c e ssin g th e o ­ ries su c h as a g e n d a se ttin g ten d to e m p h a siz e th e lim ited a m o u n t o f in fo rm atio n re ta in e d by view ers. In th is way, a g e n d a se ttin g m ay o v ersim p lify an d d ow n p lay th e v iew ers’ in v o lv e m e n t. In th e lo n g term , view ers m ay n o t recall sp e c ific s t o ­ ries, b u t th ey m ay b e “ le a rn in g ” so m e th in g a b o u t th eir co m m u n itie s th ro u gh w a tc h in g lo c a l n e w sc a sts. F or ex a m p le , reg u lar view in g o f crim e sto rie s m ay c u l­ tiv a te fear o r an xiety.

C ultivation R esearch T h e w ork o f G e o r g e G e r b n e r an d his a ss o c ia te s tr e a ts m a ss m e d ia c o n te n t as h a v in g a d ire c t im p a c t o n view ers: In its simplest form, cultivation analysis tries to ascertain if those who spend more time watching television are more likely to perceive the real world in ways that re­ flect the m ost comm on and repetitive messages and lessons of the television world, compared with people who watch less television but are otherwise comparable in important demographic characteristics. (Morgan & Signorielli, 1990, p. 16) T h at m eans that television’s independent contribution to such patterns is most likely to be in the direction of homogeneity within otherwise different and diverse social groups, eroding traditional social and other distin ction s.... It m eans that large and otherwise com parable groups o f regular television viewers from differ­ ent walks of life share a stable commonality o f m eanings compared to the lighter viewers in the sam e groups, and the comm onality reflects their exposure to the television m ainstream , eroding other traditional group differences. (Gerbner, 1990, pp. 26 0 -2 6 1 ) In c u ltiv a tio n research , we are in te rested in how th e a m o u n t o f television view in g im p acts a p erso n ’s “ c o n c e p tio n ” o f so c ia l reality: “ T h e b a sic h y p oth esis is th a t h eavy view ers will be m ore likely to p erce iv e th e real w orld in w ays th at re­ flect th e m o st sta b le an d recu rren t p atte rn s o f p ortray als in th e telev isio n w orld” (M o rg an & S ig n orielli, 1990, pp. 9 - 1 0 ) . “ H e a v y ” view ers o f d ram atic television c o n te n t are h yp oth esized in c u ltiv atio n re search to be linked w ith th eir ex a g g e r­ a te d e stim a te s o f v ictim izatio n (O gle s & S p a rk s, 1 9 8 9 ). In th e c a se o f lo cal telev i­ sio n new s view ing, cu ltiv a tio n theory w ou ld su g ge st th at “ h e a v y ” view ers o f local new s w ou ld draw c o n c lu sio n s a b o u t life in their co m m u n itie s b ase d o n w h at they

THEORY AND RESEARCH ON CRIME NEWS

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see in the new scast. For exam ple, if crim e is a dom inant feature o f the new scast, then “ heavy” viewers ought to perceive their towns or cities as violent, dangerous, or even “scary” places to live. “C rim e on television is the work o f strangers and m adm en who, at any m om ent, select one o f us at random to be their victim ” (Howitt, 1998, p. 45 ). If the cultivation hypothesis is correct, then these viewers should use the con ten t they see as a gauge o f how safe they feel in and out o f their hom es. Ultimately, su ch views should influence viewer behavior. If viewers are afraid because o f w hat they see on local television news, then they should be m ore likely to lock their doors, invest in security system s, and light their property at night. A t the sam e time, they should be less likely to take a neighborhood walk, open their doors to strangers, and leave their hom es for extended periods o f time. However, local television news viewing is one source am ong m any factors that m ight influence these behaviors. A ctu al neighborhood crim e, including personal experience as a victim o f crime, should also be influential.

CULTURAL STUDIES AND MEANING MAKING From a broader perspective, there are two co m m u n icatio n m odels: tran sm is­ sion and cu ltu ral. T h e transm ission m odel is the trad ition al linear view o f c o m ­ m un ication th at focu ses on how m ed ia m essages are sen t to the au d ien ce. In co n trast, the cu ltu ral m odel em phasizes shared m ean in gs and sp aces: “ W ith ­ out this co m m on reality, co m m u n ication w ould be im possible, and in fact, the v ast m ajority o f our co m m u n ication m erely serves to ritualistically reproduce th at system o f sh ared m eanin gs w ithin w hich we live” (G rossberg, W artella, & W hitney, 1998, p. 20). In this view, we take for gran ted the role th at culture plays in helping us m ake sense o f w hat we see in m ass m edia. In the case o f local television new s, a com m u nity m ust be able to sh are the m eanin gs o f the stories th at new scasters tell. W h en they report crim e stories, view ers may be able to infer subtle m ean in gs th at place even ts w ithin the co n te x t o f their lives. R ace, incom e, ed u ca tio n , an d geograph ic d ifferences will m ake a difference in the ways th at crim e stories are interpreted. So m e w h at related is the im portance th at “sc a n d a l” h as in television new s: “ W ithin the co m plexities, u n certain ties and th reats o f postm odernity, the scan d al fun ction s sim u ltan eously as a m oral anch or in a se a o f co nventionality, and as a vigorou s ch allen ge to m ain stream social v alu es co n d itio n ed by the su b stan tial forces o f id eological and cu ltu ral h egem ony” (Lull &. H in erm an , 1997, p. 2). C rim e new s focuses on the risky, d an gerous n atu re o f the world, w hereas sc an d al m ay refocus our atten tio n away from our ow n fears and tow ard the dangers faced by public people. T h e re are tim es w hen crim e and scan d al in tersect. For ex am p le, Los A n geles televi­ sion new sroom s d ealt with su ch a story during co v erag e o f the O . J. Sim pso n case. W h en a w ell-know n public figure becom es em broiled in a m urder case, the even ts ca n be ca ta p u lted on to the n ation al m ed ia stage. For m ore th an a century, news coverage in A m e rica has been evolving from a public affairs orien tatio n to a m ore popularized, even t-d riven m odel: “T h e c o n ­

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ten t becam e less focused on politics and m ore on crim e, hum an interest, and sen satio n al c o n te n t” (G rossberg et al., 1998, p. 3 2 4 ). In the c ase o f local television news, tim eliness h as becom e a preem inent news value: In part, the technologies help account for why news becomes event-centered rather than discursive: A reporter on the scene of an event “covers” that event and transmits a report to a newsroom, rather than digesting it and other events for later writing. And media compete with each other to bring the latest news to audi­ ences first. (Grossberg e^t al., p. 32.5) R ecall in ch apter 1 that we listed the factors that determ ine the new sw orthi­ ness o f a poten tial story. H ere it is im portant to apply these criteria to the se le c ­ tion o f crim e new s in a local television new scast. C rim e news can be seen as a form o f co nflict; two or m ore people are en gaged in an action in w hich at least one party suffers. V iolent crim e is highlighted in the news b ecau se harm has been done n ot only to individuals but also to society. T h e afterm ath o f a crim e produces a scen e particularly suited for television news— bright lights, em o ­ tionally-charged sou nd-bites from eyew itnesses or police, a mystery o f w hat h ap pen ed , a lot o f activity by d etectives, and o th er out-of-the ordinary events cap tu red on vid eotap e. “U n e x p e cte d ” sp ot new s stories often have a sh ort life span (M cQ u ail, 2000, p. 282, citin g Tuchm an , 1978), and “dram a an d actio n ” are im portant in determ ining news valu es and the “ fram ing” o f new s (M cQ u ail, 200 0 , p. 3 4 2 ). C rim e new s is a q u estio n o f ju d gm en t by a writer or p roducer o f a local televi­ sion n ew scast. T h e assessm en t o f the im pact o f a potential story is in part a ju d g ­ m en t on how m any people are affected, as well as the types o f people involved. W ell-know n individuals serve as a m agn et for all types o f news co verage. T h e prom inence o f people in the new s— politicians, entertainers, ath letes, co m m u ­ nity lead ers— beco m es relevant b ecau se they are easily-identifiable to view ers as the people at the top o f the social structure. C rim e new s is often an u n ex ­ pected ev en t th at is seen by news producers as stran ge or unusual. It is im por­ tan t to distinguish an isolated , bizarre in ciden t that cap tu res m om entary atte n tio n from larger crim e th em es su ch as a series o f ban k robberies, arson fires, child abd u ction s, and sch ool shootin gs. In these exam ples, m edia track w hat appear to the casu al observer to be a trend in society, w hether or n ot in fact it turns o u t to be the case. In som e cases, local television n ew scasts use “ W e” as a way o f co n stru ctin g their authority to tell m oralizing sto ries” (Baym , 2000, p. 9 2 ). A n ch o rs serve as b oth au th oritative professionals and as the voice o f the local com m unity: “ By speaking with the voices o f bo th in stitution al authority and co m m u n al believability, jou rn alists co n stru ct their right to m ediate; affirm ­ ing their position as agen ts o f the people, m oral w atchdogs en tru sted with the pow er to police the borders o f proper b e h av io r” (Baym , 2000, p. 109). Two oth er factors th at are often linked w hen j udging the n ew sw orthiness o f a po ten tial story are the tim eliness o f the story, and its proxim ity to the local view ­

THEORY AND RESEARCH ON CRIME NEW S

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ing au d ien ce . “ B reak in g n ew s” is v alu ed by new s prod u cers b e cau se it is a form o f crim e new s th at 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

A llow s the view er to be taken to the scen e o f an even t as it is h appening. E xcites so m e view ers w ith an tic ip a tio n ab o u t the u n ex p ecte d . P rovid es fresh c o n te n t from prev io u s n ew scasts particu larly su ited for new s p rom otion lead in g in to the n ew scast. U ses v id eo th a t is a d ep artu re from rou tin e sh o t se lectio n an d ed itin g b e ­ ca u se it m u st be d o n e quickly. C re a te s “ liv e -fro m -th e -sc e n e ” rep o rts— a “ re al” se ttin g as a b ac k d ro p for the new s, d ifferen t from the sta tio n ’s new s set.

By d efin ition , local television new s ten d s to draw from the im m ed iate view ­ ing a re a for its c o n te n t. L o c al c o n te n t is assu m ed in terestin g to view ers, an d it is also acc essib le to new sroom s u n d er d ead lin e pressu re. S ta tio n r eso u rces su c h as availab ility o f live tru cks, v id eo g rap h e rs, reporters, an d en g in e ers affec t th e d e ­ cisio n to co v e r a b reak in g ev e n t. G a n s’s (1979) national news values are broader th an new sw orthiness criteria: “ e th n o c e n trism , a ltru istic d em o c rac y , re sp o n sib le c a p ita lism , sm all-to w n pastoralism , individualism, m oderatism , social order, and national leadership” (p. 42). E th n ocen trism relates to valu es th at em phasize A m e rican cu ltu re; altruistic dem ocracy em ph asizes public in terest an d service; responsible capitalism trusts the b u sin ess co m m u n ity; sm all-tow n p astoralism yearns for the sim plicity o f rural life; the preservatio n o f in dividu alism h elps prom ote freedom ; m oderatism d is­ co u rages extrem ism ; so cial order is displayed through routine co v erag e o f day-to-day politics, as well as the th reats to social order; an d the need for n ation al leadersh ip is portrayed as a m ean s to m ain tain social order. C rim e new s c a n be se en as th reats to the so c ial order an d ex am p les o f so c ial disorder. “ S o c ia l d isord er new s d eals w ith activ ities w hich d istu rb the pu blic p ea c e an d m ay in volve vio len ce or th e th reat o f v io len ce a g ain st life o r ph ysical property ” (G a n s, 1979, p. 5 3 ). For e x am p le , lo cal new s c o v e rag e o f the rise in stre e t g a n g activ ities su ch a s driv e-by sh o o tin g s c a n be se e n as th reats to the e x ­ istin g so c ia l order in a com m unity. A t the sam e tim e, long-term co v erag e m ay link p articu lar or ev e n iso lated e v e n ts to trend th em es th at offer view ers a so c ial baro m eter o f c o n d itio n s in their co m m u n ity : Social disorder is generally defined as disorder in the public areas o f the society. A protest march in which three people die would be headline national news, whereas a family murder that claimed three victims would be a local story. Disor­ ders in affluent areas or elite institutions'are more likely to be reported then their occurrence elsewhere. (Gans, 1979, p. 58) For lo cal telev isio n new s, a m u rd er o f a w ealthy su b u rb a n fam ily is n ew sw or­ thy an d w ould raise larger co m m u n ity issu es ab o u t safety. A s this h y p o th etical story u n fo ld s, co m p e tin g sta tio n s rush crew s to the sc e n e to estab lish live v id eo

Local Television Reporter Reflects on Crime Coverage, by Laura Shelton It doesn’t take long in the news business before your sense o f hearing changes. You begin to listen to m ore and more things at once. Som ehow you grow accustom ed to following al! three o f your com petitors’ 6 o ’clock lead stories. You’re able to hear the distinctive tones o f disaster no m atter how far you are from the scanner. In a heart­ beat you’re scribbling an address, grabbing a photographer, and running out the door. You’re dashing headlong toward the lead story, racing the clock and the co m ­ petition to bring your coverage to the audience. It’s an adrenaline pum ping frenzy. It’s why many o f us are in this business. A n d it’s what can get you into trouble. Reporters aren’t too popular with the public. Faith in the new s industry is on the decline. You get a lot o f it when you’re covering crim e stories— the hostile stares, som etim es the obscen e sh ou ts for you to leave them the **" alone. H ow did our eager rush out o f the new sroom translate into our vicious “ vu ltu re” statu s on the street? It didn’t com e from the stories we did about the sum m er cam p for kids with can cer or the blind m an who sells handm ade broom s for a living. T h e y ’re not m ad abo ut our co verage o f the latest road co n stru ction that could slow them dow n on their m orning com m ute. It all com es from the crim e coverage. To those in the news business, coverin g crim e seem s vital. M any o f us equ ate crim e with news. But we rarely stop to ask ourselves if this is really som eth ing peo­ ple w ant to know about. Will hearing about the latest bank holdup really hold the au d ien ce’s attention, and will it m atter to them ? It has the visual elem ents to m ake news with the line o f police tape and the fuzzy picture from surveillance video, but does it m atter to the audience? R ecen t viewer surveys have shown th at people don’t like hearing about ran ­ dom acts o f violence. T h e m ore they see them , the more violent they assum e the world is, and the less they feel they can d o about it. W hat we in the news business may see as solid journalism , the public m ight ju st see as more eviden ce that they are truly living in a violent society and are helpless to chan ge it. N o m atter w hat story I’m covering, I try to retain my integrity and let the sto ­ ries retain theirs as well. In order to do that, there are som e specific things I keep in m ind while d ash in g out the door o f the newsroom: First, and m ost im portant, is to stop, take a breath, and rem em ber the story. It seem s pretty basic but unless you keep yourself focused, you can get cau gh t up in the m ad dash and lose sight o f e v ­ erything else. W alking on to the scen e o f a sh ootin g you can ’t ju st look for facts. Em otions are involved and you have to carefully balance those em otion s to pro­ d u ce a good story. T h e second point to keep in m ind is the im pact o f the story. You have to be able to tell a story th at you co uld be com fortable with if you were sitting there w atching it with those involved. D on ’t let others dictate your story, but m ake sure the fin­ ished product is som eth ing you stan d behind and som ething worthy o f defending. T h ese aren’t things I get rem inded about very often. N ew s directors simply don’t have m uch tim e to play co ach . Instead, these are things you m ay have learned in sch ool, in an eth ics seminar, or from people with m ore experience in the business. Th ey will help you be better at your jo b whether you're covering crim e or fluff. T h e only one in charge o f playing w atchdog is you. T h e public m ight take over occasionally, and when they do, if you’re covering your stories with a con-

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science, rem em bering who they im pact and keeping them balan ced , you’ll have an easier jo b defending your own work. Viewers rely upon the im ages o f crim e news coverage as reality, but news p e o ­ ple have lim ited access to a crim e scene. “Television’s reputation as a visual m e­ dium for news is based disproportionately on som e extraordinary pictures ..., on routine d isaster coverage, on ‘shooting bloody’ in war; but in the bulk o f the sto ­ ries, m ost actual pictures are decorative and illustrative . . . ” (G itlin, 1980, p. 265). In our hypothetical crim e scene, local television news crews will be placed at a d is­ tance from where the crim e was com m itted, and separated from victim s and po­ lice by yellow crim e scene tape. T h e pictures will be lim ited to any available m ovem ent. Television news pictures are fram ed by the limits o f the cam era and existing technology, as well as by the num bers o f and position o f photographers at the scene. In recent years, the lim its o f technology have expanded. So m e local television statio n s have attach ed a cam era to the top o f live trucks for an above-th e-scen e shot. O th er station s use cam eras m ounted on T V towers or tall buildings. V ideo can also be gath ered through the use o f h idden cam eras, as well as sh ots from airplanes and h elicopters. T h e im ages viewers see eventually are e d ­ ited into a form ula for storytelling— wide shot to show the relationship o f the story subject to its surroundings, the m edium shot to take a closer look, and the close-up sh ots to depict em otion in a way th at creates an illusion o f intimacy. T h ere is a moral com ponent to local television news. O n the one hand, there are stories about institutional scan d als or celebrities. O n the oth er hand, coverage o f scand als that involve “ m oral violations by ‘ordinary peop le’” m ay be seen as ste ­ reotypical “ psychodram a": T h ese scandals are not about celebrities, but the stories they entail frequently make stars out o f ordinary people. W hile the star scandal m akes the indiscretions o f well-known persons public, the psychodram a scandal turns ordinary persons who do extraordinary things into public figures. Two ingredients are crucial. First, the psychodram a scandal story must be com pelling in a particular way, and, second, the characters (“stars”) should reflect stereotypes fitting to the story. (Lull & H inerm an, 1997, p. 22) BOX 2.2 Local Television Reporter Reflects on Crime Coverage, by Laura Shelton, reporter and producer, KPTM-TV, Omaha, NE (1999), and KMTV-TV, Omaha, NE (2000-2001).

lin k s w ith th e ir n e w sro o m s. It w o u ld b e n e c e ssa ry to o b ta in a n d a ir v id e o fro m th e sc e n e . In te le v isio n , p r e v io u s r e s e a r c h o n c o v e r a g e o f s o c ia l d iso r d e r h a s sh o w n th a t, “A u d ie n c e s w ith le ss d ir e c t e x p e r ie n c e o f th e s itu a tio n s a t issu e w ere m o re v u ln e r a b le to th e fra m in g s o f th e m a ss m e d ia ” ( G itlin , 1 9 8 0 , p. 2 4 5 ). L o c a l te le v isio n n ew s to d a y is im p a c te d by e c o n o m ic fa c to r s o f th e m a r k e t­ p la c e , a s w ell a s by jo u r n a lis tic n o r m s. M c M a n u s ( 1 9 9 4 ) c o n t e n d e d th a t th e re a r c tw o m o d e ls fo r e x p la in in g n e w s p r o d u c tio n d e c is io n m a k in g : 1.

T h e m a rk e t a p p r o a c h re q u ires b ias in sto ries affectin g th e in te rests o f th e m e ­ d ia firm s’ a d v ertisers, p a r e n t co rp o ra tio n , an d in v e sto rs. In c o n tra st, jo u r n a l­ ism requ ires th e n ew s b e to ld w ith as little b ia s a s h u m a n s c a n m an ag e.

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2. T h e journalistic theory contains no elem ent o f cost or paym ent, while the econom ic theory has the word “co st" or “ pay” ... and cost is im plied in the word “ harm ” .... T h e journalistic m odel is u ncon cerned about w hat it costs to discover w hat’s happen in g in a com m unity (p. 86). M cM an u s (19 9 4 ) theorized that news produ ction may be un d erstood by m erging m arket theory and jou rnalistic theory. W h en this is done, we can p re­ dict the probability th at an event or issue will becom e news. M cM an u s pre­ dicted th at if an ev en t or issue would have an adverse effect on advertisers, investors, or the co rpo ration itself, then it should be less likely to be co vered as news. Likew ise, the higher the co st o f coverin g and reporting an ev en t or issue, the less likely prod ucers should be to co n sider it newsworthy. P roduction d eci­ sions are based, in part, on assem bly co sts (Lacy & B ernstein, 1992). However, the higher the a p p eal o f the story to the au d ien ce, the m ore likely it is to be a t­ tractive to ad vertisers, and thus considered newsworthy. M cM an u s suggested that, “ ... the m oney sp en t in vestigating a sex sc an d al involvin g an im portant public official m ight justify its co st by attractin g au d ien ce aw ay from co m p e ti­ tors” (p. 8 7 ). M c M a n u s’s “ m arket-driven jou rn alism ” m odel helps explain why local television new s is increasingly attracted to scan d al, sen sation alism , and society at its w orst. A lth o u g h M cM an u s d oes n ot directly address crim e as a co n cep t, his ex p lan atio n o f new s production is a useful m odel for predictin g an em ph asis o f crim e co verage o n local television news. C h erm ak (1 9 9 4 ) looked extensively at crim e new s co verage by new spapers. T h e daily reporting o f crim e news h elps to raise public co n cern about crim e in a com m unity. C rim e h as been found to be on e o f the m ost frequent types o f news stories, alon g with sports, general interest, and bu sin ess reporting. C h erm ak (1994, pp. 1 0 4 -1 0 9 ) listed five ex plan ation s for the “ p rev alen ce” o f crim e news: 1. 2. 3. 45.

It “ provid es the public with protection and know ledge.” It serves as a “d ete rren t,” based on the assu m ption th at “ poten tial crim i­ nals pay a tte n tio n to the new s.” It serves as en tertain m en t, capitalizin g “ on the pu blic’s fascin atio n with gore and p a th o s.” It reflects the natu re o f crim inal ju stic e in th at television w ould h ave a “ steady supply o f newsworthy crim e sto ries.” It fills a relatively large new s hole by utilizing availab le public sou rces.

For local new s organ izations, there are three stag es in the crim inal ju stice process th at ap pear to m ake up nearly h alf o f all crim e new s stories: the d isco v­ ery o f the crim e, the arrest o f su spects, an d the ch argin g o f the su spects. O ver h a lf o f the so u rces for crim e new s, accordin g to C h e rm ak (1 9 9 4 ), are police and co urt officials (pp. 108, 111). T h e result o f the em ph asis on crim e new s is th at the public now relies on m ass m edia for inform ation abo u t local con d ition s. R esu lts from one panel indi-

Com petition in Local TV News, by Angela Powers, Northern Illinois University Television news is the num ber one source o f news for A m erican s, yet its popularity has com e under question as ratings decline. Stem pel, H argrove, and B ernt (2000) report th at nationw ide viewing o f local T V news declined from 71% in 1995 to 59% in 1999 (p. 7 3). So m e fear th at viewing habits are ch an ging and m ore people are sw itching to entertain m en t program m ing rather than w atching news. O thers believe th at the proliferation o f choices in the past d ecade h as m ade all network television program s vulnerable to decreasing advertising revenues and increasing com petition. W h at m ost scholars agree on is that the m arket structure o f local television news is undergoing rapid ch an ge, resulting in a lack o f equilibrium . A television m arket includes a group o f buyers (con sum ers and advertisers) and sellers (local television stations) engaged in term s o f setting prices on adver­ tising time and producing a news product. V ariables th at determ ine whether a monopoly, oligopoly, or com petitive m onopoly exist in a television m arket include num ber o f com petitors, as well as the stability o f m arket shares and the level o f product differentiation (C aves, 1987). L ocal television news m arkets h ave trad itionally been defin ed in term s o f o li­ gopoly theory w here there are few sellers th at co o p erate in m u tu al in terd ep en ­ d en ce an d prod u ce g o o d s th at are sim ilar in m any resp ects but have product d ifferen tiation (Litm an , 1980). W hen a few h an d s co n tro lled the local televi­ sion industry, the statio n s were m ore d ep en d en t on ea c h o th er and found it re la­ tively easy to reach and m ain tain an agreem en t am o n g them . For exam p le, all statio n s in m any m arkets aired new s in sim ilar d ay-parts, cre ate d sim ilar ad v er­ tising price stru ctu res, and covered sim ilar news. H ow ever, this is no longer true in m ost m arkets, in d icatin g a shift from oligopoly to co m petitive m onopoly, where there are m any sellers, an d there is product d ifferen tiation . W ith ad d ition al cable news networks, and different sources o f distribution such as satellite system s an d the teleph one com pan ies, the num ber o f news o p ­ tions has increased. Bae (1999) analyzed com petition am on g 24-hr cable news netw orks and found that new en tran ts to the m arket included Satellite N ews C h an n el (S N C ), M icrosoft and N B C (M S N B C ), and Fox N ew s C han n el (F N C ), am on g oth ers. T h e se cable netw orks com pete with every oth er netw ork for the view ing public, and they also com pete with other closely substitutable news pro­ gram s. In addition to cable, C ollette and Litm an (1997) exam in ed the em ergence o f two new broad cast networks, U n ited P aram ount and W arner Brothers, which both produce new s in local m arkets. T h e se new netw orks survived form idable co st barriers becau se they aligned them selves with ind epend ent station s across the nation . In this way, they were able to co m pete with A B C -, C B S -, and N B C -a f­ filiated station s. Baldw in, Barrett, and B ates (1992) stu d ied both broadcast view ­ ers and cable subscribers and com pared co n su m ption pattern s o f news. T h ey found th at if viewers were lim ited to one ch an nel, 40% responded they would ch oose C able N ew s N etw ork (C N N ) for n ation al and international news. H ow ­ ever, C N N was not the news source o f choice, as m uch as the broad cast news n e t­ works in any day-part. A lth ough cable news services have grown, broadcast news was still found to be the dom inant source o f news.

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Despite the strength o f local network affiliates, a recent study o f ratings in large, medium, and small markets found an increase in com petition and a decrease in ratings since 1987. O verall, the number o f broadcast television news com petitors has increased by a range o f one to four in most markets, excluding cable new scasts. In addition, m arket shares have decreased from 20 to 16. To co m ­ bat this ratings decline, local broadcasters are creating a presence throughout the day by producing morning and afternoon feature news programs with news per­ sonalities similar to radio morning and afternoon talk shows. Adding news throughout the day is seen as the most viable way to improve overall ratings. In sm aller markets, the stations that were rated number 1 at 10 p.m. offered the most news throughout the day. In large markets, the stations ranked third in the market offered the most news. A lthough market leaders and trailers were more likely to program the m ost news, all stations have increased their news visibility over the past decade in an effort to com pete. A s such, local broadcast news can be increas­ ingly described as departing from its oligopolistic past where market shares were high and com petition was limited to three stations (Powers, 2001). T h is product differentiation behavior o f adding news has benefitted viewers because news is now available throughout the day. T h is also appeals to younger viewers who are less likely to be available at traditional newscast times. But adding more news com es at a cost. M ore reporters are required to create quality news throughout the day. However, the burden o f more news is often heaped onto the shoulders o f already-harried news reporters. Furthermore, the additional new s­ casts are often a rehash o f earlier newscasts. A lthough the goal is to attract view­ ers, it is most often tempered by the goal to keep costs down. M edia analysts have stated that in a m ature economy with a business that is equally mature, news orga­ nizations will find it more difficult to remain profitable (M cClellan, 1998). BOX 2.3

c a t e d th a t, “ N in ety -fiv e p e r c e n t o f the an sw e rs ra te d th e m a ss m e d ia a s th e p ri­ m ary s o u r c e ” (G raber, 1 9 8 0 , p. 4 9 ). G r a b e r (1 9 8 0 ) saw n ew s as a m a tte r o f in fo rm a tio n p ro c e ss in w hich th e o rie s su c h as a g e n d a se ttin g h a v e on ly lim ited v a lu e . G r a b e r (1 9 8 0 ) su g g e ste d th a t crim e n ew s fits m ore c lo se ly in to a “ m o d u ­ la to r ” m o d e l o f a u d ie n c e e ffe cts: Proponents o f the m odulator model argue that effects o f the media on the audi­ ence are m odulated by the sensitivity o f the audience to a particular issue and by the background and dem ographic characteristics and experiences o f individual audience members. M odulation enhances or decreases media im pact, depending on the salience o f a specific issue to an individual. (Graber, 1980, p. 121) A lth e id e (1 9 8 5 ) c o n te n d e d th a t m o st p e o p le are n o t in te re ste d in issu e s b u t are c o n c e r n e d w ith p e rso n a l p ro b le m s. H e a sse rte d th a t a re p o rt a b o u t c o n flic t a t a d ista n c e w ill c o n c e r n th e a u d ie n c e on ly to th e e x te n t th a t it a ffe c ts th e m person ally. “ By th e sa m e to k e n , ‘crim e in th e s tr e e ts’ is sa lie n t to th o se p e rso n s w h o eith e r k n ow little a b o u t th e a c t u a l in c id e n c e a n d n a tu r e o f crim in a l b e h a v ­

THEORY AND RESEARCH ON CRIME NEWS

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ior and/or have been previously victim ized” (pp. 1 7 1 -1 7 2 ). For local television news crim e co verage to be appealin g to th ose with no personal experien ce or interest, there m ust be a d ram atic and em otion al portrayal: “ T h e need for effec­ tive vid eo and sound bites— as well as the need to appeal to a m ass au d ien ce— also lead local television news to search for news stories and approach es to the news th at stress em otion and d ram a” (K aniss, 1991, p. 109). K an iss (1991) fo u n d th at c o v e ra g e o f “ o c c u r r e n c e s”— iso late d crim es, a c c id e n ts and fires— acco u n ted for nearly on e third o f local television new s-tim e. T h is was abo u t the sam e am o u n t o f tim e afford ed govern m en t sto ries (p. 114). “ G o v ­ ernm ent stories were also con sisten tly lower in the story order and reduced in tim e betw een 6 an d 11 o ’clo ck, su pplan ted by news o f crim es, fires, an d a c c i­ d en ts” (pp. 1 1 8 -1 1 9 ). K och (1990) theorized th at the process o f gatekeepin g and news m aking, seen through a social co n text, m ean s th at new s is socially-con stru cted myth based on news values rather th an o b jectiv e truth. “T h is inherent v alu e sys­ tem — the m ythic lan gu age— describ es a reportorial perspective in w hich events co nsistently are m ediated through a single com plex o f cu ltu ral v alu es” (p. 28 ). K och (p. 50) identified four rules th at help explain why an even t m ay be w orthy o f news coverage: 1. 2. 3. 4.

C ultural rules help define even ts as newsworthy. Social rules assign a w eight to specific stories. Geographic rules set boun daries w hich limit the d istan ce a news organ iza­ tion m ight travel. Temporal rules govern the tim e fram e w ithin w hich an ev en t occu rs.

In the case o f local television new s co verage o f crim e, cu ltu ral rules w ould guide an assignm en t ed ito r’s decisions abo u t coverin g an even t. S o c ial rules would guide a producer in the p lacem en t o f the story w ithin a new scast. G e o ­ graph ic rules guide various new sroom em ployees to m ake decisions ab o u t the allocation o f scarce resou rces— nam ely, tim e and money. Tem poral rules deal with n ew scast d ead lines and the ability to produce a live sh ot, sound bite, or pack age in tim e for a particular new scast. It is fair to say th at these four rules in­ teract in co m p lex ways to produce w hat is seen on the b road cast. For exam p le, if police respond to a report th at there is a d istu rban ce at a local high sch ool an hour before a station ’s m idday new scast, it is possible th at cultural rules will d ic­ tate co v erage o f the event. If it turns ou t th at there h as been a sh ootin g and there are know n victim s, then social rules will su ggest this is a lead story. A t this point, geography interacts with tim e co n sid eration s. It will take a certain am ou n t o f time to get a live truck an d crew to the scene, an d this d epen d s on how far the statio n is located from the sch ool. If possible, the new sroom g oal will be to h ave vid eo, live co verage, and interview s by air tim e. W h atev er the s ta ­ tion m an ages to get o n the air during the b road cast, accordin g to K och (19 9 0 ), will tend to be treated by the au d ien ce as an ob jective "tru th ” abo u t w hat is h ap ­

CHAPTER 2

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pen in g. In th is way, th e lo c a l sta tio n p a r tic ip a te s in p la c in g fa c ts o f th e ev e n t w ith in a p a r tic u la r c o n te x t for v iew ers: Local news, like other forms o f news, is driven by the need for large audiences. Is­ sues that arc attention-getting that generate compelling visual images, and that fit the fast-paced nature o f broadcast news are especially likely to attract cover­ age. Crim e is just such an issue ... local news coverage o f crime ... is framed in ways that have far-reaching consequences for the ways in which people think about the issue o f crime. (Iyengar, 1997, p. 215) O n c e th e b a sic fa c ts o f an y b re a k in g new s sto ry are d e te rm in e d by lo c a l te le ­ v isio n n ew s sta tio n s, th e fo c u s sh ifts to a n a tte m p t to e x p la in why th e e v e n t to o k p la c e . S u r e tte ( 1 9 9 8 ) su g g e ste d th a t m e d ia im ag e s lo c a te th e c a u se s o f c rim e in in d iv id u a ls a n d su p p o rt so c ie ty ’s a p p r o a c h to d e a lin g w ith crim in als: “ T h e s e m e ssa g e s tra n sla te in to su p p o rt for law -an d -o rd er p o lic ie s a n d e x istin g c rim in a l ju stic e a g e n c ie s” (p. 8 2 ). P olice d e p a r tm e n t sp o k e sp e r so n s, p u b lic in ­ fo rm a tio n officers, a n d o th e r au th o ritie s b e c o m e th e e x p e rts in se ttin g th e lim its o f w h ich facts are v iew ed a s im p o rta n t. S o , a lth o u g h early in a b re a k in g new s sto ry ey ew itn e ss a c c o u n ts are im p o rta n t, n o rm s o f a c c u ra c y a n d th e n e e d to e x ­ p lain le a d s to a la te r e m p h a sis o n o fficial so u rc e s. T h o s e so u r c e s m ay h a v e a c a lm in g effe ct o n th e p u b lic as th e e v e n t e v o lv e s from m o m e n ts o f c h a o s tow ard a retu rn to no rm alcy. E a c h e v e n t, h ow ever, h a s its ow n tim e fram e. In th is se n se , lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s m u st yield to th e c o n d itio n s a t th e sa m e tim e a s it h e lp s to fram e th e m e a n in g o f n ew sw o rth y e v e n ts.

CHAPTER SUMMARY T h is c h a p te r fo c u se d o n m a ss m e d ia re se a r c h as it re la te s to crim e n ew s o n lo c al te le v isio n . T h e o r ie s a n d c o n c e p t s a b o u t n ew s w ere u tilized to h elp e x p la in w hy c rim e sto rie s play su c h a p ro m in e n t role in lo c a l n e w sc a sts. It c a n b e sa id th a t c r im e s a re c e n tr a l to lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s g a th e rin g , a n d th e re su lt is th a t a u d i­ e n c e m e m b e rs se e a lo t o f crim e n ew s c o v e ra g e . T h e d o m in a n t th e o rie s in re se a r c h a b o u t crim e n ew s c o v e r a g e are so c ia l c o n str u c tio n o f reality, c u ltiv a tio n , a n d c u ltu r a l m e a n in g m ak in g . S o c ia l c o n ­ str u c tio n o f reality in lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s e m p h asiz e s c lo se -u p view s th a t c r e ­ a te a se n se o f fam iliarity w ith d ista n t p e o p le a n d p la c e s, live e v e n t c o v e ra g e th at g iv e view ers a se n se o f p a r tic ip a tio n , p ic tu re s th a t se e m a u th e n tic to view ers, a n d c o v e ra g e th a t m ay p ro v id e a m o re c o m p le te p ic tu re o f th e e v e n t th a n a v a il­ a b le from o th e r m e d ia . T h e c u ltiv a tio n h y p o th esis is th a t “ h e a v y ” view ers will b e m o re likely to p e rc e iv e th e re al w orld in w ays th a t re fle ct th e m o st sta b le an d r e c u rre n t p a tte rn s o f p o rtray als in th e te le v isio n w orld. F ro m a c u ltu r a l m e a n in g m a k in g p e r sp e c tiv e , th ere are tw o c o m m u n ic a tio n m o d e ls: tra n sm issio n an d cu ltu r a l. T h e tr a n sm issio n m o d e l is th e tr a d itio n a l lin ear view o f c o m m u n ic a ­ tio n th a t fo c u se s o n h ow m e d ia m e ssa g e s are se n t to th e a u d ie n c e . In c o n tr a st,

THEORY AND RESEARCH ON CRIME NEWS

31

the cu ltu ral m od el em p h asizes sh ared m ean in gs an d sp ac e s. T h e p ro cess o f g atek e ep in g an d new s m akin g, se e n th rou gh a so cial co n te x t, m ean s th at new s is so cially -co n stru cted an d b ased o n new s v alu es. In the n e x t ch apter, the b u si­ ness o f local television new s an d its use o f crim e w ithin n ew scasts will be e x a m ­ ined. C rim e new s will be view ed as a ratings bu ilder for local telev isio n statio n s. T h e use o f g a tek e ep in g ritu als by local new s p rod u cers th at em ph asize b reak in g new s an d live co v era g e will be ex p lored .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. 2.

.3. 4.

5.

D o you b elieve th at local telev isio n statio n s in your city provid e an o b je c ­ tive portrayal o f crim e or a su b jectiv e co n stru ctio n o f ev e n ts? W h y d o you th in k th at so m e p eop le are loyal view ers o f o n e c h a n n e l’s lo­ c a l n ew scast, w hile o th ers ch an n el surf? W h a t type o f view er are you? W hy? If you w ere a local telev isio n new s director, w h at lim its w ould you se t on the a m o u n t an d type o f g rap h ic v id eo your n ew scast w ould air? W hy? D o you agree or d isag re e th at local television n ew scasts p ro v id e au d ien ce m em b ers w ith in te rp retatio n s o f ev e n ts in the co m m u n ity ? W h a t role d o es local television new s p lay in how p eop le m ake se n se ab o u t th e natu re o f crim e in their co m m u n ity ? In your o p in ion , d o local television new s p rod u cers m ak e d ec isio n s to c o v er crim e b a sed o n b u sin ess or ratings pressu res? W h a t o th er factors m igh t play a role in their d ec isio n -m ak in g pro cesses?

3 Crime News as Ratings Builders

"The local television news, with its heavy crime component, has eclipsed national news, which carries more serious political stories and less crime, in the battle for high audience ratings. ” — Doris Graber, political scientist (1993, p. 332). C rim e n ew s, by o n e e s tim a te , a c c o u n ts for a b o u t 14% o f lo c a l new s co v e ra g e , a n d th e lio n ’s sh a r e o f th a t c o v e ra g e fo c u se s o n se n sa tio n a l e v e n ts (G raber, 1 9 9 3 ). G r a b e r (1 9 9 3 ) a rg u e d th a t th e p u b lic , d e sp ite p u b lic c o m p la in ts, h as a h u n g e r for e x c itin g crim e new s. T h is c h a p te r b u ild s o n th e p rev io u s c h a p te r an d e x p la in s w hy T V new s u ti­ lizes crim e c o v e ra g e in th e p u rsu it o f view ers by d raw in g from su rv ey re search a n d c o n te n t a n a ly sis. In 1 9 9 9 , new s d ire c to rs a n d a ssig n m e n t e d ito rs from lo c al te le v isio n sta tio n s a ro u n d th e n a tio n w ere su rv e y e d . T h e n a tio n a l ran d o m sa m ­ ple ask e d th eir o p in io n s re g a rd in g th eir sta t io n ’s crim e n ew s c o v e ra g e an d o th er issu es. T h is fo llo w ed a 19 9 7 su rv ey o f lo c al te le v isio n new s p ro d u c e rs. D u rin g th e fall o f 1 9 9 9 , a 1 -w eek sa m p le o f se le c te d la te e v e n in g n e w sc a sts from aro u n d th e co u n try w ere r e c o rd e d a n d e x a m in e d for e v id e n c e o f crim e co v e ra g e . T h e o v e ra ll p u rp o se o f th e a n aly sis w as to u p d a te G r a b e r ’s (1 9 8 0 ) an aly sis, fo cu s o n lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s, a n d a tte m p t to p la c e crim e c o v e ra g e w ith in the larger c o n te x t o f new s d e c isio n m a k in g an d th e te le v isio n b u sin e ss.

THE BU SINESS OF LOCAL TV NEWS M a ss m e d ia o r g a n iz a tio n s are like an y o th e r b u sin e ss: th ey e x ist to m ak e m oney. A s su c h , th e p e o p le a t th e to p o f th e se o r g a n iz a tio n s are in v o lv e d in th e m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e ss. “ [ M a n a g e m e n t c o n sists o f (1) th e ab ility to su p e rv ise 32

C RIM E N EW S AS RATINGS BUILDERS

33

a n d m o tiv a te e m p lo y e e s a n d (2 ) th e ab ility to o p e r a te f a c ilitie s a n d r e so u r c e s in a c o s t- e f fe c tiv e (p r o fita b le ) m a n n e r ” ( S h e r m a n , 1 9 9 5 , p . 2 2 ). T o d o th is is o fte n d iffic u lt: Sev eral d em an d s— tor inform ation and entertainm ent by the audience, for prof­ its by stockh old ers and owners, and for access for advertisers— place m anagers o f electronic m edia facilities in a challenging position as they try to serve the needs o f the m arket along with the needs o f the m arketplace. (A lbarran, 1997, p. 4) A n y stu d y o f lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s to d a y c o m e s w ith in a n e m e r g in g c o n te x t o f c o m m e r c ia lis m a n d m a rk e tin g . T h e lin e b e tw e e n a d v e r tisin g a n d n ew s h a s b lu rre d in r e c e n t y ears. T h e h isto ric a l h e a r t a n d so u l o f th e e le c tr o n ic c o m m u n ic a tio n field is lo c a l an d n a tio n a l b ro a d c a stin g . B r o a d c a s t m a n a g e rs, a s you m igh t e x p e c t, are th e b o sse s w ield in g th e m o st p o w er a t a sta tio n . S t u d ie s o f m e d ia m a n a g e m e n t (A lb a rr a n , 1 9 9 7 ; G o e d k o o p , 1 9 8 8 ; Ja c o b s , 1 9 90; S h e r m a n , 1 9 9 5 ) re v e a l th a t th e re a re s e v ­ era l key p e o p le w ith in an y lo c al b r o a d c a s t s ta tio n su c h a s th e g e n e r a l m an ag er,

N ation al Public R ad io’s Brooke G lad ston e has reported on the relation betw een advertising and news at W B A L -T V , C h an n el 11, in Baltim ore. T h e M ercy M ed i­ cal C en ter had an ongoing relation with the television station to report on w om en’s h ealth issues, such as breast and ovarian can cer: “T h eir experts are ap ­ pearing on the news not necessarily because they know the m ost about the su b ­ ject, but because they bought the time for their ex perts to be on the news, and th at’s not told to the viewer in any way,” said Paul Rayburn o f BusinessWeek m aga­ zine. W B A C s P resident and G en eral M anager Bill Fein rejected the conclusion that the m edical ce n ter’s advertising budget influences news decision m aking: “M ercy’s d octors, in co n su ltation with our news, were used with total editorial control belonging to W B A L -T V to provide inform ation to ou r view ers.” Som e m edical experts estim ate that deals betw een local television stations and outside organizations range from $20 ,0 0 0 to $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 in revenues. T h is m oney can buy access to assignm ent editors and influence selection o f story ideas and sources. S a id S tev e Bryant o f the A ssociatio n o f A m erican M edical C olleges, “ You ex p ect news ju d gm ent to prevail and 1 think people would be surprised to know th at som etim es there is a sort o f nodding and w inking relationship betw een a spon sor o f one o f these ed u cation initiatives and appearan ce within the new scast.” However, Fein challenged the notion th at spon sors buy access: “Th ey buy advertising tim e. Separately from that, they help us provide inform ation to our view ers.” Source: Brook Gladstone, “Hospitals That Pay Local Television Stations To Feature Their Doctors In News Reports And Whether It’s G ckxI For Patients O rThe Public’s Trust In Television/’ Morning Edition, National Public Radio, March 28, 2000.

B O X 3.1

T h e Selling o f Local Television News.

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CHAPTER 3

the program director, the sales m anager, and the news director. T h e general m an ­ ager is im portant because that person has overall responsibility for the station ’s profitability and com m unity relations. In m ost cases, the general m anager o f a television station is not at the top o f the organizational ch art— the m anager u su ­ ally reports to an owner or corporate office. T h ere are other internal forces within any m edia organization affecting m anagem ent. For exam ple, a broadcast m an­ ager m ust live within a budget usually planned on a yearly basis. It is fair to say there are different m anagem ent styles. Som e m anagers • • • • •

A re better co nfm unicators th an oth ers b ecau se they have strong interperson al skills. O ffer their dep artm en t h ead s m ore freedom to m ake decisions. H ave m ore o f a head for bu dgeting th an others. A re better salesp eople th an oth ers, and are better at represen ting their sta tio n in the community. R ealize the significance o f local news.

Beyond those internal factors which a m anager may face daily, there are pres­ sures outside the broad cast organization. Som e o f these are station ratings, m ar­ ket com petition, governm ent regulation, financial constraints, program m ing trends in the industry, and new technologies. B roadcasting is considered a profes­ sion in which individuals first aspire to enter the field, and then usually seek train­ ing. O ften this training begins in the classroom . Beyond college course work, m ost broadcasters obtain experience in the industry— w hether it is in news, program ­ ming, production, or sales departm ents— before being prom oted into m an age­ m ent. T h ere has been a trend am ong general m anagers to view news directors as future general m anagers (Ston e, 1986). Q u ard erer and Ston e (1989a, 1989b) found that news directors and general m anagers share sim ilar beliefs about news and bottom -line profitability. In a n ation al survey o f news directors, 4 9.5% o f m en and 22.2% o f w om en set a long-term goal o f being prom oted in m anagem ent (Burks &. Ston e, 1993). T h e broad er sociology o f work (Blum , R om an , & Tootle, 1988), an d its p ro ­ fession al or o ccu p atio n al attitu d es (Super, 1980), h as n ot found its way into re­ search on b ro ad cast m anagers. O n e su ch m odel, for exam p le, sees m atu ration as a series o f stages: prework socialization, entry into the labor force, socializa­ tion in the job, and job chan ge. T h e focus on o ccu p atio n — rather th an the usual o rga n iz a tio n a l em p h asis (G itlin , 1 9 8 0 )— m ean s th at th e research focu s ch an ges from an ex am in ation o f the dyn am ics o f w hat goes o n inside statio n s to an analysis o f b road cast m anagers across station s. U sin g this m odel, new s m a n ­ agers m ay be co m pared to their gen eral m an agers. “N ew s directors, while n ot as pro-bu siness as general m anagers, show som e su pport for busin ess freedom s" (Lipschultz «St H ilt, 1993, p. 524). In the past 25 years, b road cast station s h ave experienced a dram atic shift in term s o f gender. Large num bers o f w om en h ave been hired and prom oted at Io-

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35

c a l b r o a d c a s t sta tio n s. F o r e x a m p le , a m ajo rity o f th e te le v isio n new s m a n a g e rs (p ro d u c e rs, a ssig n m e n t e d ito rs, a n d new s d ire c to rs) in O m a h a , N E (7 5 th large st m a r k e t), are now w o m en , an d o n e o f th e sta tio n s hired th e m a r k e t’s first fe ­ m a le g e n e ra l m an ager. In th e p a st d e c a d e , in c re a sin g n u m b e rs o f w o m en h a v e b e e n p ro m o te d in to m a n a g e m e n t p o sitio n s. T h e c h a n g e s h a v e a lso g iv e n rise to n ew issu es, su c h as th e c o n c e r n o v e r se x u a l h a r a ssm e n t in th e w o rk p lace . S im i­ larly, a g e d isc rim in a tio n c o m p la in ts by so m e b r o a d c a s t e m p lo y e e s h a v e su r ­ fa ced . A g in g h a s a lso b e c o m e im p o r ta n t a s th e a v e r a g e ag e o f th e b r o a d c a s t a u d ie n c e in c re a se s.

G eneral M an ag ers an d N ew s D irecto rs H isto rically , it h a s b e e n a ssu m e d th a t th e role o f a b r o a d c a s t g e n e ra l m a n a g e r v a rie s g re a tly fro m th a t o f a n ew s d ire cto r. A lth o u g h th e b u sin e ss-o rie n te d g e n ­ e ra l m a n a g e r is re sp o n sib le for sta t io n a d h e r e n c e to F C C r e g u la tio n s, th e n ew s d ire c to r is se e n as o v e r se e in g sp e c ific p r o g ra m m in g (S h e r m a n , 1 9 9 5 ). O n e m ig h t a ssu m e th a t if a g e n e ra l m a n a g e r c o m e s from a sa le s, p ro m o tio n , o r p ro g ra m m in g b a c k g ro u n d , an d a n ew s d ire c to r fro m a jo u r n a lism b a c k ­ g ro u n d , th ere m igh t be te n sio n b e tw e e n fin a n c ia l an d jo u r n a listic issu es. H o w ­ ever, L ip sc h u ltz a n d H ilt (1 9 9 3 ) fo u n d th a t g e n e ra l m a n a g e rs su p p o r te d a

Modern News Management. Jim Ogle, Vice President for News, WKYT-TV, Lexington, Kentucky Th e m odem news manager must understand that good journalism is good business. “T h at’s not as trite as it sounds. I believe that ‘good journalism’ is reporting that doesn’t just point fingers, but looks for alternatives. It doesn’t just expose problems, but looks for solutions. It helps people connect and cope. It is a good citizen o f its community," Ogle said. “ It cares. It must understand that a community has values and mores and reflects those back to the general public.” T h e typical m anager experiences many comm unities while employed by m edia groups or corporations. For exam ple, Jim O gle began his professional life while a student at the University o f M issouri in the early 1980s. A fter graduation, he m oved to Asheville, N C , to work as an executive producer at W L O S-T V . From there he becam e a news director at K T V N -T V , Reno, NV, and then on to W G H P-T V , High Point, N C . By the late 1980s, O gle served as m anaging editor at W T V J-T V , N B C ’s ow ned-and-operated station in Miami, FL. He m oved to his current Lexington, KY, job in 1994. U nder O gle’s tenure, 2 7 NewsFirsl expanded its news product by adding an afternoon inform ation magazine, a 5 p.m. newscast, a 10 p.m. newscast on the local Fox affiliate (W D K Y -T V ), and an expanded sports program. W K Y T-T V , in the 71st largest market, has dom inated ratings in-the Lexington television market for more than 25 years. Its average new scast has more viewers than its two com petitors combined. BOX 3.2

36

CHAPTER 3

stro n g new s d ep a rtm en t w h en it w as se e n as g o o d for b u sin ess, an d new s d ire c­ tors sh ow ed so m e su p p o rt for probu sin ess attitu d es.

Late Evening News Producers A lth o u g h g en eral m a n ag e rs se t o v erall sta tio n policy, an d new s d ire cto rs se t n ew sroom policy, p ro d u c ers are resp o n sib le for th e fin al c o n te n t o f television n ew scasts: “ O n c e a d e c isio n h as b e en m ad e o n w hich n e w scast a sto ry will be p la c ed , the rep orter will d o m ost o f his or her co m m u n ic atin g w ith the prod u cer o n q u e stio n s o f sto ry fo cu s, len gth , e tc ." (G o ed k o o p , 1988, p. 7 2 ). A s m u ch as h a lf o f the o v erall new s c o n te n t is w ritten n ot by rep orters b u t by p rod u cers. P ro d u ce rs m u st w ork in an in creasin gly c o m p e titiv e e n v iro n m e n t in w hich m ark et sh a res for la te e v e n in g n ew scasts h av e d ec lin ed d ram atically sin c e the 1 9 8 0 s (Jaco b s, 19 9 0 ).

A ssignm ent Editors “T h e a ssig n m en t e d ito r ’s jo b is to c o v e r every th in g th at h ap p en s, a resp o n sib il­ ity so m e b ro a d ca ste rs co n sid e r to be the to u g h est jo b in th e new s d e p a rtm e n t” (S h o o k , 1996, p. 2 4 7 ): Th e assignment editor assigns crews, answers the phone, follows breaking news, checks the wire machines, monitors police-fire-sheriff’s radios, sorts and reads the mail, studies local newspapers, monitors broadcast news competitors, reads scripts o f previous newscasts, keeps a news file, develops story ideas and som e­ times helps write the stories, follows developing stories, makes and adj usts sched­ ules, helps organize the newsroom, and negotiates conflicts between staff members, (p. 248) T h e a ssig n m en t ed ito r typically arrives early in the m orn in g to plan the d a y ’s co v era g e. H e or sh e m ay be in volved in se v eral assig n m en t m eetin gs w ith re­ porters, pro d u cers, a n c h o rs, an d o th ers th rou gh ou t the day. A n assig n m en t e d i­ tor fa ces a long d ay a t w ork. “T h e n , in th e late aftern o o n , he or sh e b egin s to p lan the co v erag e an d prob ab le sto ries for the n e x t day w hile still look in g over his o r her sh o u ld er to se e if th ere are any im m ed iate problem s th at m igh t need a tte n tio n ” (G o ed k o o p , 1988, p. 3 0 ). T h e assig n m en t ed itor m ay be o n th e jo b in to the early even in g. “ T h e assig n m en t ed ito r’s p o sitio n requ ires p recise a tte n ­ tion to d etail, as w ell as the ability to plan an d to be flexib le” (G o ed k e ep , 1988, pp. 3 0 - 3 1 ) .

O rgan ization s, P rofession al R oles, and Job S atisfactio n L ocal television news w orkers are driven by at least two sets o f values, those o f the broad cast news profession, an d those o f their organization. Pollard (1995) sug-

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A former local television news assignm ent editor explains the assignm ent process. After the assignm ent editor checks the news file, reads the mail, exam ines com ­ peting media, makes telephone calls, and scans the news wires, decisions need to be m ade. News m anagers judge which stories need to be covered. O nce a news story is selected, the attention turns to how to cover it: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Voice overs— usually only send photographer. Voice over sound on tape— som etim es send reporter, Packages— m ost im portant or interesting stories. Se t picces— very im portant or hard to visualize stories. Live— late breaking or ongoing stories. Live satellite— for far away stories.

Given the breadth of work required o f assignm ent editors, one might reason­ ably ask the following: “ W hy would anybody want to do this job ?” Debra Westhues, Assignm ent Editor at K C T V in Kansas City, M O, offered the following opinions: •

• •

A ssignm ent Editors experience the excitem ent o f working in the news business without a lot o f the physical unpleasantness: unbearable heat or cold, driving rain and floods, and daily dose o f dead bodies. Assignm ent Editors are able to deal with all o f the elem ents involved with the business instead of only one. A ssignm ent Editors find better job availability.

Source: D ebra W esthues, A ssignm ent Editor, KCTV, K ansas City, K S , 1988.

BO X 3.3

A n Assignm ent Editor Describes Local T V Story Decisions.

gested th at the o rgan ization al desire to be profitable p ro d u c es “ ten sio n an d p o te n ­ tial co n flict” w ith th e profession al desire for ex celle n ce (p. 6 8 2 ). L o c al T V new s h as historically b e e n m o tiv ate d by a desire to serve co m m u n ity n ee d s (Slattery, H a k an e n , & D o rem u s, 1996). S c h o la rs h av e co n clu d ed th at profession al “ id eol­ ogy . . . is the u n co n scio u s o u tco m e o fb u sin e ss stru ctu re, b u re au cratic routine, and organ ization al p ra ctic e ” (W u, W eaver, & Jo h n so n , 1996, p. 5 3 5 ). P ro fe ssio n a lism in b r o a d c a s tin g is re late d to th e c o n c e p t o f jo b sa tisfa c tio n b e c a u se th e “d u a l c o n tro l c e n te r s ” o f th e p ro fe ssio n a n d th e o rg a n iz a tio n lead to a tte m p ts to red u c e te n sio n . “ T o th w art c o n flic t, o rg a n iz a tio n s m ay a tte m p t to a b so rb p ra c titio n e r s by o ffe rin g so c io e c o n o m ic rew ard s s u c h a s jo b title s, o r pay in c re a se s to th o se w h o w ill p la c e o rg a n iz a tio n a l in te re sts, s u c h a s c o m p e titiv e ­ n ess or p rofitability, a h e a d o f p ro fe ssio n a l c o n c e r n s, s u c h a s full u se o f p ro fe s­ sio n a l k n o w le d ge a n d sk ills o r co lle g ia lity ” (P ollard & Jo h a n s e n , 1 9 9 8 , p. 3 5 7 ).

Siggest Obstacles to Q uality Local News

Pcrco.-jtage of (Sews Directors Citing Top Two Obstacles to Quality FIG. 3.1 Project for excellence in journalism responses by news directors to quality concerns. Source: Project for Excellence in Journalism, 1999, used with permission.

T O P F8VE L O C A L N E W S T O P IC S IN 2 0 0 0 Percentage o f stories b y broad to p ic category

-------------------------

P

FIG. 3.2

38

L ocal

N a tio n a l

TABLE 3.1 A greem en t W ith L ate E vening N ew sc ast D e cisio n Statem en ts "D o You Agree or Disagree With the Following Statements About Your Late Evening Newscast?” (N = 71) Percentage Agree or Strongly Agree

Percentage Neutral

Percentage Disagree or Strongly Disagree

Agree W e often lead with local news (4.75).

9 5 .8

4.2

0.0

I know what the news director wants in the new scast (4-17).

8 8 .4

8.7

2.8

W e lead with the m ost im portant news story, wherever it occurs (4 04).

7 3 .3

19.7

7.0

I tell reporters what I want (4.00).

8 2 .9

12.9

4.3

1 look for dram atic video in deciding which stories to air (3.62).

6 2 .0

28.2

9.9

T h e executive producer regularly decides what leads (3.23).

5 0 .7

20.3

28.9

W e often lead with crime news (3.17).

42.3

22.5

35.2

O u r audience research guides what we broadcast (3.07).

45.7

27.1

27.1

W e consider our primetime lead-in show in deciding what to air (2.92).

32.4

32.4

35.2

Mixed

(continued on next page) 39

40

CHAPTER 3 TA BLE 3.1 (continued) Agreement With Late Evening Newscast Decision Statements "D o You Agree or Disagree With the Following Statements About Your Late Evening N ew scast?” (N = 71) Percentage Agree or Strongly Agree

Percentage Neutral

Percentage Disagree or Strongly Disagree

Disagree T h e assign m en t editor regularly decides w hat leads (2.41).

13.0

27.5

5 9 .4

O u r new s co n su ltan t gu id es w hat we broadcast (2 .3 7 ).

21.5

24.3

5 4 .3

W e o ften lead with n ation al new s (2.24).

10.0

25.7

6 4 .3

Note. The 5-point Likert-rypc scale items were coded for the averages in parentheses as the following: I = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. The percentages in the table were collapsed to reflect disagreement and agreement. Bold indicates numbers over 50%.

T h is m ay result in the organization adoptin g form alized stan d ard s for work and centralized “ hierarchical au th ority” (Pollard &. Jo h an sen , 1998, p. 35 8 ). In the case o f local television news, job satisfactio n h as been related to news d ep artm en t goals and relatio n sh ip -o rien tatio n o f news directors (Powers &. Lacy, 1992). T h e m ore a news director is able to use com m u n ication skills to lead new sroom em ployees tow ard a co m m on set o f goals, the m ore likely it is for em ployees to have jo b satisfaction . Jo b satisfactio n h as also been related to the im pact o f new sroom policy ch an ges. In general, if em ployees see quality im prov­ ing, their job satisfaction levels are likely to be higher (Stam m &. U n derw ood, 19 9 3 ). O th er factors w hich could raise em ployee job satisfaction levels are a d ­ van cem en t, recognition, and feed back from coworkers and su pervisors (Fox, 1997). A t the sam e tim e, low pay and lack o f job security may be “d issatisfiers” (p. 3 0 ). W ithin local television statio n s, there is an organ izational co n text to job satisfaction . Factors su ch as m an agem en t co nflicts, w orkloads and d ead lin es, job security, and cow orker relation s h ave been linked to stress m an agem en t (V am pola H ilt, 1996). A local television news organization m ay be able to improve job satisfaction by allow ing for “m eaningful em ployee participation in decisions, and lim ited reli­ ance on hierarchical authority and rule enforcem ent” (Pollard, 1995, p. 68 3 ).

TABLE 3.2 L o c al N ew s Statem en ts “Do You Agree or Disagree With the Following Statements Concerning Your Station’s Coverage of Local Crime N ew s'” (N — 71) Percentage Agree or Strongly Agree

Percentage Neutral

Percentage Disagree or Strongly Disagree

Agree Sp ot news from the scene o f natural disasters, including severe weather, deserves live coverage (4.47).

95.8

1.9

1.4

Sp ot news from the scene o f fatal shootings, police chases, standoffs, and so forth, deserves live coverage (3.61).

58.6

27.1

14.3

D ram atic video is a factor in determ ining whether a story should be broadcast (3.59).

68.6

15.7

15.7

Loss o f life a factor in determ ining w hether a story should be broadcast (3.49).

62.9

14.3

22.9

44.3

38.6

17.2

8.5

26.8

64.7

Mixed Sp ot news from the scene o f fatal accidents and fires deserves live coverage (3.39). Disagree G raphic video, such as body bags and blood on the pavem ent, should be shown in spot news stories (2.03).

Note. Th e 5-point Likert-type scale items were coded for the averages in parentheses as the following: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. Th e percentages in the table were collapsed to reflect disagreement and agreement. Bold indicates numbers larger than 50%.

41

T A BLE 3.3 Comparison of Average Agreement W ith Late Evening ____________ Newscast Decision Statements____________ “D o You Agree or Disagree With the Following Statements About Your Late Evening N ew scast?” News Directors (N = 35)

Assignment Editors (N = 36)

News Producers (N = 35)

Agree W e often lead with local new s (4 .7 4 ).

4.74

4.75

4.71

W e lead with the m ost im portan t news story, wherever it occu rs (4.10).

4.00

4.08

4.21

I know w hat the news director w ants in the new scast (4.09).

4.33

4.03

3.91

I tell reporters w hat 1 w ant (4 0 3 ).

3.91

4.08

4.09

I look for d ram atic video in decid in g which sto ries to air (3 .7 2 ).

3 .3 1

3.92

3.94

W e often lead with crim e new s (3.22).

3.06

3.28

3.32

T h e execu tive producer regularly d ecid es what leads (3 .1 3 ).

2.94

3 .5 0

2.91

O u r au d ien ce research guides w hat we broadcast (3 .0 9 ).

2 .6 3

3 .5 1

3.11

W e consider our prim etim e lead-in show in deciding w hat to air (2 .8 2 ).

2.51

3 .3 1

2.62

O u r new s co n su ltan t guides what we broad cast (2 .3 8 ).

1.91

2 .8 3

2.41

W e often lead with nation al new s (2.29).

2.26

2.22

2.39

T h e assignm en t editor regularly decid es w hat leads (2 .2 7 ).

2.32

2.49

2.00

Mixed

Disagree

Note. The 5-point Likert-type scale items were coded for the averages in parentheses as the following: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree. The percentages in the table were collapsed to reflect disagreement and agreement. Bolded means are statistically significant subgroups based on a post hoc Schcffe test. Producer data arc from a separate 1997 survey in which 35 respondents were randomly selected from 87 respondents in that study.

42

CRIME NEWS AS RATINGS BUILDERS

43

H ow ever, financial decision m akin g usually involves an n u al bu dget m eetings that are lim ited to d ep artm en t h ead s, su ch as the news director. A lth o u g h a general m an ag er’s bu d get atte m p ts to forecast fin ancial su ccess o f the station , there also m ust be “ budgetary flexibility” (A lb arran , 1997, p. 54 ). B u dgetin g and b o t­ tom -line issues m ay be th ou gh t o f as m an ag em en t “ task s” th at affect how su bo rdi­ nates view their m an ag ers’ lead ersh ip skills (Powers & Lacy, 1992, p. 8). A n atio n al stu d y o f lo cal television new s d irecto rs listed th e five biggest o b ­ sta c le s to p resen tin g a qu ality n ew scast. Four o f the five co n c e rn s raised by the new s d irectors relate directly to the b o tto m line. T h e resp o n ses su g g e st th at th e new s m an ag ers d efin e qu ality in term s o f the n u m ber o f sto ries in a n ew scast rath er th an the c o n te n t o f th o se sto ries. T h e co v erag e o f sp o t n ew s crim e sto ries is ec o n o m ically co n v e n ie n t w h en co m p ared w ith issu e-o rien ted in -d ep th co v e rag e . It is possible to d o a live sh o t o n a b re ak ­ ing crim e story w ith tw o or th ree field em ploy ees, w ith ou t m u ch p lan n in g tim e, an d for not m u ch a d d ed ex p en se . R ep o rters, p h o to g rap h ers an d new sroom staffers are alread y train ed to h an d le b reak in g sp o t new s, an d they h ave little difficulty fitting it in to ex istin g new s holes.

Views of News M an agers Concerning Crime Coverage T h e results from a n atio n al su rvey o f new s directors an d assig n m en t editors su g ­ gest th at local new s is m ost im p ortan t in decision m ak in g ab o u t late even in g new s b ro ad casts. A lth o u g h the late even in g news h ap p en s hours after the nightly netw ork new s b ro ad cast, n ation al new s takes a b ac k se a t to local stories. T h e ex cep tio n is w hen a n atio n al news story is d eem ed by new s m an ag em en t as m ost im portan t w ithin the c o n te x t o f everything h ap p en in g th at evening. It a p ­ pears th at the presen ce o f d ram atic v id eo in a story is a d ecidin g factor in d ete r­ m ining w h eth er a local or n atio n al news story rises to the top o f im portan ce. D ram a, im portan t in en tertain m en t program m ing (R eith , 199 9 ), m ay also be cen tral to local new s program m ing as a way to a ttra c t view ers. N ew s d irectors an d assign m en t ed itors w ere less certain abo ut the role crim e new s plays in the decision process a b o u t lead sto ries. A lth o u g h 4 2 .3 % said they often lead with crim e new s, 2 2 .5 % w ere n eu tral, an d 3 5 .2 % d isagreed. T h e re ap p eared to be a su bgrou p o fsta tio n s m ore in terested in crim e new s an d au d ien ce research . A m a­ jority o f all resp on d en ts disagreed th at new s co n su ltan ts influence the p rocess, or th at nation al new s sto ries are a frequ en t lead. A 1 999 n atio n al su rvey o f lo cal television new s d ire cto rs an d a ssig n m en t e d i­ tors foun d stro n g a g re em en t th a t local co v erag e w as m ost im p o rtan t in decid in g late ev e n in g new s leads. T h e new s m an ag ers w ere split o n the im p ortan ce o f crim e new s, b u t 4 2 .3 % ag re ed th at they often lead w ith crim e sto ries. T h e new s d ire cto rs an d assig n m en t ed itors ag reed th at sp o t new s an d d ra ­ m atic v id eo w ere th e key co m p o n e n ts in crim e co v e ra g e , b u t they d isagreed th at g raph ic v id eo sh o u ld be sh ow n. T h e 1999 d a ta from new s d irecto rs an d a ssig n m en t editors w ere co m p ared to 1997 su rvey d a ta from local telev isio n late e v e n in g new s prod u cers. A m o n g

44

CHAPTER 3

a g re e m e n t sta te m e n ts, th e on ly sta tistic a lly sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e b e tw een g ro u p s w as th a t n ew s d ire c to r s w ere less likely to ag re e th a t d ra m a tic v id e o sh o u ld be c o n sid e r e d w h en d e c id in g o n the airin g o f a story. A s sig n m e n t e d ito r s w ere in sig n ific an tly h ig h e r a g re e m e n t th a n new s d ir e c ­ tors th a t a u d ie n c e re se a rc h an d p rim etim e p ro g ra m m in g lead -in s to th e late e v e n in g n e w sc a st w ere c o n sid e r a tio n s in d e c id in g w h ich sto rie s to air. B e y o n d th is, new s d ire c to r s w ere th e on ly g ro u p in stro n g d isa g re e m e n t th a t c o n su lta n ts g u id e w h at is b r o a d c a st. T h e r e w ere d e m o g ra p h ic d ifferen c es b e tw e e n th e th ree o c c u p a tio n s. T h e ty p ical n ew s d ire c to r in th e stu d y w as a 3 9 -y e ar-o ld W h ite (94-3% ) m an (6 5 .7 % ), w h o h ad a co lle g e d e g re e (41-4 % ), h ad w ork ed in th e n ew s b u sin e ss for 17 y ears, a n d e a r n e d in e x c e ss o f $ 3 5 ,0 0 0 (7 0 .6 % ). T h e ty p ica l a ssig n m e n t e d ito r w as a 3 9 -y e ar-o ld W h ite (9 7 .2 % ) m an (7 2 .2 % ), w h o h a d a co lle g e d eg re e (8 0 .6 % ), h a d w ork ed in the new s b u sin e ss for 11 y ears, a n d e a r n e d $ 3 5 ,0 0 0 o r less (6 2 .9 % ). T h e ty p ica l late e v e n in g new s p ro d u c e r w as a 3 4 -y e ar-o ld W h ite (94-3% ) w o m a n (5 7 .1 % ), w h o h a d a co lleg e d eg re e ( 8 8 .6 % ), h ad w orked in th e new s b u sin e ss for 7 y ears, a n d e a rn e d $ 3 5 ,0 0 0 o r less (6 9 .7 % ). T h e fo llo w in g stu d y e x a m in e d h ow n ew sro o m d e c is io n s tra n sla te in to crim e n ew s co v e ra g e .

The Content of Local Television News, by Christine R. Mixan Local television news coverage of crime was studied. A “purposive” sample (Babbie, 1998, p. 195) o f small, medium, and large television markets from around the coun­ try were selected for content analysis. Television professionals, academics, and oth ­ ers in key markets were contacted by e-mail and telephone to participate in taping late evening newscasts during the week o f O ctober 11 to 15,1999. A network-affili­ ated station (A B C , C B S, FO X, and N B C ) was randomly assigned to each person who agreed to tape. The goal was to obtain a wide range o f markets and affiliates across the United States. In the end, 17 respondents sent usable tapes for analysis. T h e tapes contained five newscasts from each night o f the week (Monday-Friday) sampled, for a total o f 82 newscasts (one tape did not contain all five broadcasts). T h e m arket list reflects the availability of people willing to tape. Unfortunately, there are no stations from the Northeast or Northwest, only three stations are N B C affiliates whereas six are FO X stations, and 11 o f 17 stations are from the top half of the Nielsen media research markets (Broadcasting & Cable Yearbook, 1999). In this study, crime was defined as the following: a known or alleged violation or serious offense o f the public law. T h e types o f crim es were coded in the follow­ ing categories: murder, assault, rape, drugs, theft, fraud, child abuse, sexual h a­ rassm ent, white collar, arson, threats, kidnapping, and other (Klite & Bardwell, 1997). A post hoc check using H olsti’s (1969) formula revealed intercoder reli­ ability o f .857. A total o f 138 crime stories aired in the first segm ent o f the newscasts, and 31.0% were presented as either packages or a com bination o f a live or package re-

port (1 4 .4 % p ack age ; 16.6% live or p ack ag e ). T h e p erce n tag e o f crim e sto ries as v o ice-o v ers w as the g re atest (3 7.6% ), follow ed by v o ic e-o v er an d so u n d -o n -tap e (2 2 .4 % ), read ers (5 .0 % ), and live reports (4 .0 % ). T h e analysis w as lim ited to the first segm en t o f eac h b ro ad cast. Tw enty-seven o u t o f the 82 lead stories (32.9% ) were crim e-related. T h is per­ cen tage w as higher than for any oth er type o f story: 17.1% co n cern ed the co urts; 9.8% were govern m en t or public affairs stories; 9.8% were w eather or natural d isas­ ters; 8 .5 % were h u m an interest stories; 7.3% were accid en ts; 6.1% were ed u catio n issues; 2.4% were environm ental issues; 1.2% were political co verage; 1.2% were h ealth issues, and there were no lead stories ab o u t public m oral problem s or bu si­ ness and the econom y. A n additional 3.7% o f “o th e r” sto ries fit non e o f the estab ­ lished categories. A m o n g lead crim e stories, assau lts an d a jail escape (other category) received the m ost coverage. O nly tw o types o f crim es were recorded in the “ o th e r ” se ctio n : two sto ries ab o u t crim in als v iolatin g co u rt orders, an d six sto ries ab o u t a crim inal w ho e s­ c a p e d while he w as being tran sported from on e jail to another. C resw ell’s (1 9 9 4 ) qu alitativ e research tech n iq u es were used to study co m m on im ages and lan g u age foun d in the crim e stories. T h e im ages th at ap p eared m ost in cluded “scen e o f the crim e” footage, sh ots o f crow ds an d m edia g ath ered at the crim e scen e, co u rtro o m footage, police search in g for su sp e cts an d investigatin g the crim e sc en e. O th e r im ages not show n as frequently, b u t still regularly ap p e ar­ ing in the n ew scasts, w ere the follow ing: hom e v id eo s o f th e v ictim , still p h o to s o f the m urdered victim , still p h o to s o f the crim inal, p o lice sk e tch es o f the crim inal, d am aged p olice cars, d am age d crim in als’ cars, an d p aram ed ics tran sportin g in­ ju red peop le. There was only one story that aired video o f the crime while it was actually being committed. This involved a man who claimed he had explosives strapped to his body. The camera showed us the man as he positioned himself against a downtown monument yelling to the gathered crowd and the police that he had explosives. The camera stayed on the man until he threw his hands up and surrendered. T h e re w as a lso only one story th at aired vid eo o f police actually arrestin g a crim inal. T h e ca m e ra stayed on the crim inal as he stru ggled w ith police on the w ay to the police cruiser. P h o tograp h ers u sed several in terestin g tech n iq u es w hile v id eotap in g the fo o t­ age for th eir stories. A s on e m ight ex p ect, clo se-u p s w ere o ften u sed w hen sh ow ­ ing a p erso n ’s face, especially the victim o f a crim e or th e friends an d fam ily o f the victim . In ad d ition , zoom ing the cam e ra qu ickly ou tw ard or inw ard on an ob ject seem ed to co n vey a d ram atic effect in the story. A lso , v id eo tap in g an ob ject o u t-of-focu s an d then turning the lens to bring it in to focu s seem ed to co n vey a sim ilar d ram atic effect. Finally, if a statio n w anted to reen ac t a dram atic even t, the p h o to g rap h er w ould retrace the ste p s o f the v ictim or crim in al, w alking while v id ­ e o ta p in g th e su p p o se d p ath th e crim inal o r victim took . For ex am p le, one reporter told a story a b o u t a w om an w ho h ad been ab d u cted , raped , an d then h ad to run up the hill to a nearby h ou se in the m iddle o f a field to get help. T o co n vey this d ra ­ m atic e v e n t to the view ers at hom e, the p h otograp h er recreate d the scen e as if sh e w ere run n in g up the hill an d through the field to get to th e h ouse.

45

Several com m on language devices emerged. First, many adjectives and descrip­ tive terms were used such as the following: “a dangerous chase,” “dram atic car crash," “ violent takeover robbery," “terrifying ordeal,” and “ heartbreaking call.” O ther adjec­ tives and words commonly used were “nightm are,” “ tragedy,” “ brutal,” “terror,” “des­ perate,” “ terrorized,” and “disturbing.” Additionally, when a m ore colorful term or word could be substituted for an objective term , it w as. For exam ple, one station did a string o f stories throughout the week on the search for con victed killer Kyle Bell. H e escaped while being transported from one prison to another. Instead o f saying, “S ta te police are searchin g for Kyle Bell,” the anchor read, “S ta te police are on a m anhu nt to ­ n igh t.” Furtherm ore, m any reporters used a narrative open with words or ph rases that co ntrasted with each other. For exam ple, on telling her audience that police cau gh t a kidnapper, on e reporter stated, “ In the heavy brush alongside the calm river lies the m etro’s m ost w anted m an .” A n oth er reporter w ent to great lengths to set the scen e o f a terrible incident happen in g in a peaceful neighborhood. O n e can see th at the following narrative again accen tuates the con trastin g device m entioned earlier: Sixteen houses make up this neighborhood; a close community where next weekend neighbors will gather for the annual fall festival. This evening, they gathered in concern, as word quickly spread that a teenager had been shot in­ side this home. Police carried out bags full o f evidence. Neighbors were full o f questions. The Monday afternoon quiet was pierced with screams. Apparently, one teen shot another teen with a 9-millimeter automatic pistol. Three hours after the screams and the gunshot rang out, police took away the crime scene tape, but not the questions. R e p o rters and an ch o rs used activ e ten se in th eir w riting. T h is cam e in the form o f ph rases su ch as the follow ing: “ th is ju st in ,” “ we h ave b reak in g n ew s,” and “ p o lice tell u s.” S e v e ra l sta tio n s used c o n su lta n t p h rases su ch as “ to ­ n ig h t’s big story,” “ this ju st in ,” and “ break in g n ew s” to co n vey a se n se o f u r­ gen cy or im p o rtan ce. T h is w as o ften follow ed by grap h ic d e tails o f the crim e: “ ... her clo th es w ere ripped off, she w as rep eated ly raped, w ith bo th her h an d s and feet b o u n d, and th en left h e re __ ” T h e reporter m ad e a gestu re o f her h an d s bein g bo un d as sh e gav e her stan d -u p . A final characteristic em erging from the language in local lead T V crim e stories cam e from the selection o f sound bites. M any o f the sources m ade claim s about som e elem ent o f the story being covered, but gave no basis or evidence for those claim s. For exam ple, one police officer was speaking about a crim inal who escaped from prison when he said, “ It’s just a m atter o f time before he hurts som eone else.” Daly and C hasteen (1996) found that in 90% o f the crime stories they studied, sources offered no evidence to support their claim s. In fairness to these sources, however, perhaps the evidence they gave was edited out o f the story.

B O X 3.4

46

47

C R IM E N E W S AS RATIN G S B U IL D E R S T A B L E 3 .4 L o cal T e lev isio n N e w sc asts Stu d ied in 1 999 Station

City, State

Network Affiliation

Market Size

K T T V -1 1

Los Angeles, C A

FO X

2

W L S -7

C hicago, IL

ABC

3

K X A S -5

D allas-Fort W orth, T X

NBC

7

K S T P -5

M inneapolis, M N

ABC

15

W SV N -7

M iami, FL

FO X

16

K C N C -4

D enver, C O

CBS

18

K M B C -9

K an sas City, M O

ABC

33

W B N S -1 0

C olum bus, O H

CBS

34*

K O A T -T V 7

A lbuquerque, N M

ABC

49

W K Y T -2 7

Lexington, KY

CBS

67

K P T M -4 2

O m aha, N E

FO X

73

K A M E -2

Reno, N V

FO X

108

W P D E -15

Florence-M yrtle Beach, SC

ABC

112

K X JB -4

Fargo, N D

CBS

115

K1V I-6

B oise-N am pa, ID

ABC

125

K D L H -3

Duluth, M N

CBS

135

W T O K -1 1

M eridian, M S

ABC

183

'W C M H -4, the N B C affiliate, was also viewed in this market.

A WEEK IN THE LIFE OF TELEVISION NEWS T h e w e e k o f O c t o b e r 11 to 1 5 , 1 9 9 9 , o ffe r e d a n i n t e r e s t in g c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n th e d e c is i o n s m a d e b y n e t w o r k n e w s p r o d u c e r s a n d t h o s e o f th e lo c a l s t a t i o n s u n d e r stu d y . A d a y - b y - d a y r e v ie w o f t r a n s c r ip t s a n d t a p e s w ill b e t r e a t e d a s a

48

C H A PTER 3 T A B L E 3.5 Type o f L ead C rim e S to ries in L o cal T V N ew s

Crime type

N

Percentage

A ssault

7

21.2

T h eft

4

12.1

Kidnapping

3

9.1

Murder

2

6.1

Rape

2

6.1

Th reats

2

6.1

A rson

2

6.1

Drugs

1

3.0

Fraud

1

3.0

C hild abuse

1

3.0

W hite collar

0

0.0

O ther

8

24.2

(jail escape, court order violation) 33 *

100.0

Note. "Within crime-related stories, there were six stories where more than one rype o f crime was mentioned. For example, one o f the stories reported on both murder and rape. So, although there were 27 crime-related stories, there were 33 crimes mentioned in those stories.

s n a p s h o t o f t e le v is io n c r im e c o v e r a g e in th e U n it e d S t a t e s . O n ly b y c o m p a r in g s t a t i o n c o v e r a g e a c r o s s th e n a t i o n o n th e s a m e d a y c a n o n e s e e th e s im ila r itie s a n d d iff e r e n c e s in n e w s s e le c t i o n , e m p h a s is , a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n . L o c a l T V n e w s b r o a d c a s t s o f t e n d iffe r s h a r p ly f r o m n a t i o n a l n e t w o r k n e w s in th e ir ju d g m e n t s a b o u t w h a t is m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o v ie w e r s. T h e lo c a l s t a t i o n s a p p e a r to b e lie v e t h a t v ie w e r s a r e a n x io u s to h e a r a n d s e e a b o u t s e n s a t i o n a l a n d d r a m a t ic e v e n t s . O f t e n , th e s e s t o r i e s s e e m t o c r o w d o u t c o v e r a g e o f s ig n ific a n t n a t io n a l a n d in t e r n a t i o n a l p u b lic a ffa ir s n e w s . C r im e is o n e o f th e ty p e s o f s t o r ie s . O t h e r ty p e s in c lu d e s e v e r e w e a th e r , u n e x p e c t e d n e w s a b o u t w e ll- k n o w n p e o p le , a n d n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s . A t th e s a m e tim e , u n iq u e lo c a l e v e n t s o f t e n le a d a s t a t i o n to m a k e d iffe r e n t d e c is i o n s t h a n th e ir p e e r s in o th e r m a r k e t s . T h e d e s ir e to b e lo-

CRIME NEWS AS RATINGS BUILDERS

49

KTTV, Fox 11. Los Angeles: Mar Vista rape story, reporter live from the scene.

cal and regional above all other considerations m eans that there is no national standard on any given evening.

Monday, October 1 1 ,1 9 9 9 O n Monday, the four television networks studied here (A B C , C B S , C N N , and N B C ) featured substantive nation al and international stories on their nightly news broadcasts. Two (A B C and C N N ) o f the four netw orks led with floods in M exico, a story given prom inent play by only one o f the local stations, the A B C affiliate in C h icago . C B S led with the M atthew Sh epard m urder trial in W yo­ ming. N B C led with the claim that Iraqi terrorism introduced the West N ile vi­ rus to N ew York. T h ree o f the four netw orks (A B C , C B S , and N B C ) featured the W est N ile story. A ll four networks gave prom inent play (the third story on A B C , C B S , and N B C , and the fourth on C N N ) to a story about President C linton’s letter to the U n ited States Sen ate urging postponem en t on the ratifi­ cation vote for the nuclear test ban treaty— a story given little play on the local stations under study.

50

CHAPTER 3

KM BC, A B C 9, Kansas City fatal car crash, hit by police car running without lights and siren.

W T O K - T V , M erid ian, M S . T h is sm all m arket station cam e out o f A B C ’s M onday N igh t football with the following bum p: “A dangerous chase in M eridian has left one law enforcem ent officer h urt.” T h e su spect was shown being led away in handcuffs. T h e anchor said the ch ase started as a robbery, and a reporter package followed. T h e reporter stood in front o f a shoe store where viewers were told the su s­ pect had shown a gun, taken three pairs o f shoes, and $100. Police quickly began a ch ase to a nearby Interstate highway. A highway trooper involved in the chase was interview ed. Several dam aged police cars were shown, as well as the arrest scene along the Interstate. T h e reporter said the m an was traveling at speeds o f more than 100 miles per hr. T h e station show ed the su spect restrained inside a cruiser, and the reporter noted th at the suspect had resisted arrest. K T T V - T V L os A n geles, C A . In Los Angeles, the Fox affiliate told viewers, “Two sexual assaults in just four days have left the M ar V ista neighborhood stunned and on alert tonight.” T h e station used a double box with the anchor and reporter live at the scene, and titled it “R A P IS T S E A R C H .” T h e reporter introduced a package: ... It is not the first time that this has happened in this neighborhood. It is the kind o f crime that tends to happen more often when the weather is warm and people leave their windows open at night. A little before 3 this morning, just up the stree t..., the attacker simply pulled the screen off a window to get inside his victim’s hom e....

CRIME NEWS AS RATINGS BUILDERS

51

T h e pack age began w ith a sou n d bite from a police d ete ctiv e . T h e vid eo show ed nighttim e vid eo o f police at the crim e scen e. T h e reporter said the fol­ low ing: “T h e latest victim told police th at her attack er spok e bo th English and Sp an ish and w arned th at he h ad a knife and w ould kill her if she resiste d .” T h e reporter closed with w hat w as describ ed as a vague d escription o f the su sp ect. K M B C - T V , K a n sa s City, M O . Following M onday N ight Football on this A B C affiliate, viewers saw videotape o f the afterm ath o f an early morning fatal acci­ dent involving police. A sound bite from a daughter o f one of the victims is heard: “There wasn’t a siren. I’ll take that one to court. N o apology, no nothing. I mean, you need to tell me som ething if you killed my daddy.” A n anchor read the follow­ ing: “Shock and anger for two Kansas City families tonight, and they want answers." A reporter live in the newsroom was following the investigation o f the deaths o f two people in a car hit by the police car. A witness said the police cruiser entered the in­ tersection without lights and siren, as officers rushed to help other officers on a sto ­ len car chase. K T V N —TV, Reno, NV. Following a lead story about wildfires, the Reno, N V, C B S affiliate told viewers the following: “T h e trial o f three men accused o f killing a Sparks paraplegic woman began today." T he station rolled file courtroom footage and video o f the crime scene. A s they showed a still photo o f the victim, the anchor said the victim " ... was reportedly shot with the type o f bullet designed to give a slow, painful death .” T he voice-over closed with the anchor on cam era and an over-the-shoulder graphic o f the scales o f justice. W SV N 'T V , M iam i, F L . In Miami, FL, the reputation o f sensationalized crime coverage for W SV N held for this sam ple week. T h e station opened M onday with the following: “Two girls attacked and raped at home called 91 1 .” With video of an audiocassette, the station played a police tape. T h e station continued its bump: “T o n igh t... the desperate call for help ... after being tied up and terrorized.” T h e station used the over-the-shoulder graphic o f police lights as the anchor read, “T h is was a terrifying ordeal for them .... A n attacker tying them up and raping them ... and then as he turns to leave, he encourages them to call 911.” Viewers were told that the victims were 11 and 12 years old. Later in the week, em phasis on crime was replaced by coverage o f H urricane Irene.

Tuesday, O ctober 12, 1999 O n Tuesday, three o f the four netw orks (A B C , C N N , an d N B C ) led with a m ili­ tary co up in P akistan an d the n u clear co n cern s raised. T h is story w as se co n d on C B S . T h e C B S N ew s led w ith the release o f the C olu m b in e H igh S c h o o l su r­ veillan ce v id eo tap es. A B C follow ed up with m ore on the n u clear test ban

W SV N , Fox 7, M iami, Hurricane Irene.

W SV N , Fox7, Miami, graphic o f 911 transcript.

52

CRIME NEW S AS RATINGS BUILDERS

53

treaty u n d er c o n sid e ratio n by th e S e n a te th a t w eek. O th e r sto ries receiv in g p ro m in en t n a tio n a l play on th is day in c lu d e d th e follow ing: the d e a th o f b a s­ ketball g re a t W ilt C h am b e rlain , th e U n ite d N a tio n s rep o rt th a t g lobal p o p u la ­ tion h ad rea ch ed six billio n , an d a preview o f th e e x p e c te d retu rn o f th e Jo n B e n e t R am sey G ra n d Ju ry in B oulder, C O . T h e se latte r th ree sto ries re­ ce iv ed sig n ifican t atte n tio n from se v e ral o f the lo cal sta tio n s, alth o u g h som e m ark ets led w ith u n iqu ely local crim e sto ries. K X JB - T V , Fargo, N D . O n Tuesday night, the Fargo station led with the in­ advertent release o f the C olum bine H igh video: “T h e tragedy at C olum bine H igh Sch ool in C o lo rad o is being relived through a chilling piece o f videotape.” T h e sta ­ tion first show ed a brief clip o f the cafeteria video, and then an anchor introduced the story about the surveillance cam era footage. T h e re was an over-the-shoulder graphic show ing an aerial view o f the high school and the words “ IN SID E C O L U M B IN E .” T h e C B S network report show ed what appeared to be the begin­ ning m om ents o f the school shooting 6 m onths before. K X JB showed the video o f studen ts hiding u nder tables and then dashing away after shots appeared to be fired. It was video Denver, C O , stations declined to show. K S T P —TV, M in neapolis, M N . In M inneapolis, M N , the A B C affiliate re­ ported on the charges filed against a m an who allegedly m olested two boys in a day care center. T h e station showed the outside o f the building, a mug shot, and a m ap o f the suburban M inneapolis area, as an anchor explained that the m an was charged with “ fondling” boys ages 4 and 5. A reporter was live in the studio as the station told viewers abo ut the new charges against the 35-year-old m an. Two m onths earlier, he had been charged with touching a 9-year-old family member. T h e reporter package show ed children on the playground from a distan ce, slightly o u t o f focus. A parent o f a girl who attended the center and a day care spokesperson were interviewed. K X A S - T V , D a lla s—Ft. Worth, T X . T h e N B C affiliate in D allas-F t. W orth, T X , joined statio n s in Los A n geles and C h icago in leading with the d eath o f former basketball star W ilt C ham berlain on Tuesday night o f the research period. T h e sta ­ tion led the second segm ent with a pair o f breaking news stories. T h e first, from near San A n ton io, T X , was a story about the w ounding o f at least two and as m any as five police officers during a “m anhu nt" for a prison escapee. T h e m ale anchor read the story with an over-the-shoulder “ B R E A K IN G N E W S ” graphic. T h e second story was read by the fem ale anchor, and was a b o u t" . . . a m an called D allas' worst sexual offender ever.” T h e m an’s photo and last nam e were featured in an over-the-shoulder graphic. A w arrant had been issued for his arrest after he violated parole. T h e m an had served 8 years o f a 16-year prison sen ten ce for m olesting more than 4 0 boys at a D allas Y M C A , and had been at a halfway house for about 2 weeks. T h e station noted that police had not said how the m an violated his parole.

54

CHAPTER 3

W K Y T - T Y Lexington, KY. T h e lead bump and second story in the late eve­ ning news was a voice-over. It began with the anchor reading and an over-the-shoulder graphic o f a gun barrel and two bullet holes labeled “L E X IN G T O N S H O O T IN G .” T he video showed yellow crime scene tape, police investigators, and flashing lights. Police were shown looking inside the car. T h e anchor said police were investigating a shooting o f a m an in the passenger seat o f a car on the city’s north side: “ Police say he was hit by two or three bullets, but was conscious when taken to U.K. Hospital. Police are looking for three suspects." K P T M - T Y O m a h a, N E . T h e Fox affiliate in O m aha, N E , teased their late evening new scast with the following: “ Fire investigators are seeing more arson in the m etro. W e’ll tell you how they’re trying to snuff the problem .” In the lead story, apartm ent house fire file footage was shown as an anchor read the following: “Seven fires in less than 7 d ays.... Investigators are trying to find those responsible for ar­ son .” A n anch or read an introduction to the package with an over-the shoulder graphic o f a lit m atch stick with the word “A rson .” T h e reporter interviewed a w om an and show ed her sm all child, explaining that she had been aw akened when fire broke out the previous night. A fire departm ent spokesperson said the arson fires were not known to be related. T h e station showed the city’s arson hotline tele­ phone number.

W ednesday, O ctober 13,1999 T h e N B C N ig h tly N ew s w as p re e m p te d by a b a se b a ll p la y o ff g am e. A B C an d C B S led w ith th e a d m issio n from th e P h ilip M o rris to b a c c o co m p a n y th a t sm o k in g c a u se s can ce r, a sto ry n o t c o v e re d by C N N in th at n e w scast. C N N led w ith th e c o n tin u in g crisis in P a k ista n , an d th e o th e r tw o n etw o rk s also c o v e re d th is story. C B S an d C N N m e n tio n e d im m in e n t r e le a se o f th e G r a n d Ju ry rep o rt in th e Jo n B e n e t R am sey m u rd er in v e stig a tio n , b u t A B C d id n o t. T h e lo c a l sta tio n s fo c u se d o n th e R a m se y sto ry as new in fo rm a tio n for th eir la te n e w sca st. A t th e sa m e tim e, so m e s ta tio n s h ad lo calize d crim e c o v e ra g e . K X JB - T V , Fargo, N D . T h e C B S affiliate in Fargo, N D , led with the escape o f a convicted child m olester and killer. T h e opening graphic showed the ph oto and nam e o f Kyle Bell, and the word “ E S C A P E D ” in a red box. T h e story was ch aracter­ ized as "B reaking news out o f N ew M exico ton ight.” T h e convicted m urderer was being transported from N orth D ak ota to a prison in O regon via N ew M exico. H e es­ caped at a truck stop while being m oved by a private com pany that “ships prisoners across the country.” T h e station took a live feed from the C B S affiliate K R Q E , A l­ buquerque, N M . T h e reporter said there was an active search for the m an. T h e Fargo station closed the story with local reaction from the county prosecutor who said he was frustrated by the escape.

KOAT, Santa Fe, A B C 7, action news zero tolerance on speeding.

Koat, Santa Fe, A B C 7, bingo hall brawl.

55

56

CHAPTER 3

K O A T - T V , S a n ta Fe, N M . T h e 10 o ’clock news also led with the “ m an ­ h unt” for “convicted child killer” Kyle Bell. T h e station open ed with file footage courth ouse video o f the escapee. Bell was described as a “dangerous m urderer” be­ ing transported from N orth D ak ota when he used a key to get loose in S an ta Rosa, N M . T h e station show ed C h ristm as Eve hom e video o f the victim from before her death . T h e anchor read that the m an was serving a life sentence for “ killing an 11 -year-old girl in Fargo, N orth D ak ota, and dum ping her body into a river.” D uring the week, the station also did a live sh ot on “zero tolerance” speed limits, and a breaking news story on a “ bingo hall brawl.”

K D L H - T V , D uluth , M N . T h e lead story for the C B S affiliate in D uluth, M N , was about how a 7-year-old W isconsin boy was “ reunited” with his mother. He had been taken from a babysitter’s house by his father who violated a custody order. T h e story was a voice-over using an exterior shot o f the babysitter’s house and a se ­ ries o f still photos o f the boy and the m an. T h is was the only local crim e story re­ ported in D uluth the entire week. K 1 V I-T V , Boise, ID . T h is statio n featured no local crim e sto ries on this evening. T h e statio n did provide nation al coverage o f the Jo n B e n e t Ram sey G ran d Jury in Denver, C O . For the entire research week, this was the only station in the sam ple to h ave no local crim e new s. Further study revealed that there is crim e new s reported in the m arket, but none m ade it on the air for this statio n d u r­ ing the week.

Thursday, O ctober 14, 1999 T h re e o f th e four netw orks ( A B C , C B S , an d N B C ) led w ith th e S e n a te re je c ­ tio n o f th e n u cle a r arm s co n tro l treaty. T h a t sto ry w as se c o n d o n C N N . T h e y led w ith the co n tin u in g crisis in P ak istan . A B C , C B S , an d N B C follow ed up w ith 2 n d -d ay c o v e ra g e o f th e Jo n B e n e t R am sey G ra n d Jury. A n o th e r sto ry th at rece iv ed airtim e w as th e p rogress o f H u rrican e Iren e. N o n e o f th ese sto rie s re­ c e iv e d m u ch iocai sta tio n c o v e ra g e by th e tim e o f the late e v e n in g n ew scast. K C N C - T V , Denver, C O . T h e C B S affiliate in Denver, C O , followed 3 days o f coverage o f the Jon B en et Ram sey G rand Jury and M atthew Sh epard m urder trial in neighboring Laram ie, WY, with a spot news story on T h u rsd ay night. A m an claim ing to have a bom b strapped to his body led to a police stan d -o ff and traffic snarl in dow ntow n D enver over the lunch-hour. T h e 10 p.m . n ew scast show ed a city cam iive shot o f the street “ back to norm al” and “ nothing like the nightm are” earlier in the day. A live sh ot from the scene introduced the piece. T h e dram atic video show ed the m an clinging to the Pioneer M onum ent. T h ree o f the city’s busiest

57

CRIME NEWS AS RATINGS BUILDERS

streets had been closed for 3 hours. T h e reporter claim ed “N ew s 4 has chosen not to identify” the m an; however, as those words were spoken, the video showed his leaflet with his nam e clearly visible. T h e station labeled as “creative” and “d rastic” the way police diffused the situation: law enforcem ent officers posed as a T V news crew and “ interview ed” the m an. H e then turned over his backpack and surrendered. Po­ lice later determ ined he had road flares rather than dynam ite. W L S -T V , C h icago , IL . T h e A B C owned station in C hicago appeared to m ake a conscious d ecision to dow nplay local crim e in its 10 p.m. new scast. Four out o f 5 nights, this station led with n ational news, including W ilt Cham berlain’s d eath and the Jon B en et Ram sey G rand Jury decision not to indict. O n T h u rsday evening, a night when the station led with a local story about a wheel com ing o ff a jet air­ plane, the station did a brief voice-over in the second segm ent: “A deadly police chase on the southw est sid e.” T h e 15-sec story began with a still ph oto o f the w oman who died. Sh e had been spotted by police “driving erratically” and was chased until her car slam m ed into a utility pole. T h e only m urder reported that week was on Friday night, a broadcast in which the station led with H urricane Irene. T h e m inute-long story, which ran fourth in the new scast, was about the first m urder

' X ■

K C N C, C B S 4, Denver, over-the shoulder graphic. Anchor updates child murder story.

58

CHAPTER 3

in 6 years in a N orth Sh ore suburb and focused on dom estic violence that apparently caused the crim e. T h e station showed crim e scen e video and a sound bite with a family member.

Friday, O ctober 15, 1999 A ll four m a jo r n etw ork n e w sc a sts led w ith an e c o n o m ic rep o rt c o n c e r n in g the la rg e st 1-w eek d ro p in th e D ow Jo n e s sto c k in d ex . A B C , C B S , an d N B C all h a d H u r r ic a n e Ire n e ’s arriv al in F lo rid a as th eir se c o n d story, w h ereas C N N sta y e d w ith th e P a k ista n co u p . A sm a tte rin g o f o th e r sto rie s in c lu d e d su c h to p ic s a s c a m p a ig n fin a n c e refo rm , th e aw ard o f a N o b e l P eace P rize, an d the airlift o f a n ill d o c to r from th e A n ta r c tic . T h e s e sto rie s w ere n ot lead m a ­ teria l for th e lo c a l te le v isio n sta tio n s. W P D E - T V , F lo ren ce-M y rtle B each , S C . T h e A B C affiliate led with reac­ tion to the state Suprem e C ou rt’s decision to ban video poker m achines. T h e se c­ ond story was a voice-over “U p d ate” on a volunteer firefighter freed from jail on arson charges involving two elem entary schools. T h e station showed file footage o f the fires and a m ug shot. A jury was deadlocked on the charges. A t the sam e time, forthcom ing H urricane Irene im pacted coverage. O n e anchor and the station m e­ teorologist were stationed at a coastal live shot. W K Y T -T V , Lexington, KY. T h e C B S affiliate in Lexington, KY, reported the 40-year sen ten ce o f a m an convicted o f setting his girlfriend on fire and killing her. T h e story began with the anchor reading and an over-the-shoulder graphic o f a gavel. T h e judge, the m an, and his attorney were show n in the courtroom . T h e co n ­ victed killer claim ed it was an accident and “ m ade a plea for a lesser sen ten ce.” Viewers were told th at the judge followed the jury’s recom m ended sentence, and they saw the m an’s attorney interviewed outside the courtroom saying they would appeal. T h e story closed with the anchor reading that the m an would serve 11 more years before being eligible for parole. W B N S - T V , C o lu m b u s, O H . T h e C B S affiliate led with the following: “A C olum bus w om an has a tale o f terror to tell us about ton igh t.” T h e station showed a graphic th at read the following: “C arjac k in g C ase . Picked U p Hitch-Hiker. Pulled a G un. W om an F ou nd .” A hitchhiking hand, a hand with a gun, and a school building were show n. Viewers were told that the w om an victim was found 2 days after the kidnapping “ alive b u t scared.” T h e live shot featured a reporter at the rear o f a car, show ing how the w om an escaped from a car trunk. Sh e pushed ou t the seat and struggled to the front ("even though her feet were d u ct taped ”) and honked the horn for help. A reporter honked a car horn as he told about how the wom an roiled

CRIME NEWS AS RATINGS BUILDERS

59

out into the street for help. T h e station interviewed coworkers at a B ob Evans res­ taurant. T h e story ended with a verbal description o f the suspect in the case.

IMPLICATIONS OF LOCAL TV NEWS CONTENT T h e co n ten t analysis establish ed th at crim e co v erag e co n tin u es to be a m ainstay o f local television new s b ro ad casts. N ew sc ast p rod ucers ack n ow ledge th at live reports an d d ram atic v id eo are im portan t, an d this m ay help explain why crim e is an integral part o f local television news. T h e decision s th at local p roducers m ake a p p ear to d evalu e issu e-o rien ted n atio n al an d in tern ation al stories o f the day. N a tio n a l new s stories th at d o get heavy play on the late even in g local news are easy-to-tell item s, se n satio n al ev en ts or n atu ral d isasters, dram atic crim es, c o v ­ erage o f w ell-know n people, u n u su al video, an d interestin g featu res. A late breakin g story also m ay have sp ecial valu e b e cau se o f its tim eliness. V iew ers w ho g et th eir new s only from a late ev e n in g local b ro a d c a st w ould not be likely to learn d etails ab o u t m ost n atio n al an d in te rn atio n al affairs. For ex am p le, during the w eek u n d er study, hardly a m en tio n w as m ad e o n th e local sta tio n s o f the n u cle ar test b an treaty v o te — a sto ry th at receiv ed lead co v erag e o n th e netw orks. L o c al new s p eop le m igh t say th at their first an d m ost im p or­ ta n t jo b is to co v er local new s. H ow ever, at th at h ou r o f the even in g, view ers h ave no o v er-th e-air op tio n for co v erag e o f n atio n al an d in te rn atio n al new s. A s stated earlier, 3 9 % o f th e pu blic h as said they tu rned to local T V new s for n atio n al an d in te rn atio n al sto ries, se co n d only to cab le new s (R o p e r C enter, 1 9 9 9 a), b u t only 16% say lo cal T V new s is d o in g the best jo b o f co v erin g the new s, beh ind cab le an d netw ork T V (R o p e r C en ter, 1 9 9 9 c). P erhaps there is a p ortion o f the p o p u la tio n w ho w ould prefer th at lo cal telev isio n new s p rod u cers give m ore tim e to issu e-o rien ted n atio n al and in te rn atio n al sto ries. A t th e sam e tim e, m ark et size ap p ears to in flu en ce new s ju d gm e n t. A 1994 stu d y o f late ev e n in g n ew scasts in 25 m arkets foun d th at the large m arket s t a ­ tions w ere m ore likely to sen d reporters in to the field to co v er se n sa tio n a l sto ries (crim e an d co u rts, a c c id e n ts an d d isasters, w ar an d d efen se, h u m an in terest, an d p o p u lar am u se m e n ts), w h ereas th e sm all m ark et statio n s w ere in clin ed to rely o n n etw ork feeds o f se n sa tio n a l, h u m an in terest new s from aro u n d the co u n try (C arro ll & T u ggle, 1997): ... We found that small-market stations imported greater proportions o f sensa­ tional news than those in larger markets. Moreover, the proportion of sensational news they imported was greater than the proportion they originated locally. It was as if a lack o f local sensationalistic news compelled decision makers to import enough to give their viewers a sufficient dose. (p. 129) C rim e new s, th en , m ay be co n sid ered w ithin a larger categ o ry o f m arketdriv en new s (M c M a n u s, 1 9 9 4 ). H ow ever, it c a n be argu ed th at crim e new s is m o st im p o rtan t b e cau se o f d ram atic portrayal, the n atu re o f n ew sroom d e c i­

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sions about coverage, and the poten tial influence on viewers. C rim e m ay be d e ­ picted as an everyday h appen in g close to hom e.

CHAPTER SUMMARY C rim e new s co verage co n tin u es to play an im portant role in local television new scasts. B u sin ess pressures an d the com petition for au d ien ce ratings drive the d ecision to em phasize local crim e stories. N ew s m anagers were split o n the im portance o f crim e new s, but m ore agreed th an disagreed th at they often lead with crim e stories. T h e news directors an d assign m en t editors agreed th at spot news an d dram atic vid eo were th e key co m po n en ts in crim e co verage, bu t they disagreed th at graph ic vid eo sh ou ld be show n. A 1999 co n ten t analysis o f local television n ew scasts reflected a co n tin u ed reliance on crim e news co verage and little a tten tio n to nation al and in tern ation al issues.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3.

4.

5.

Explain the roles o f assign m en t editor and producer in a local television new sroom . D o statio n s in your m arket appear to fit the nation al m odel? H ow d o your local station s co ver crim e? From your o b servation s, d o all o f the station s follow the sam e approach? W hy do you think new s m an agers agree with the use o f dram atic vid eo in crim e coverage? W hy do you think they shy away from graph ic video? H av e you seen crim e news vid eo th at you thought w ent too far? Besides graph ic video, how else do local television reporters and p ro d u c­ ers dram atize crim e coverage? W h at role d o photographers play in the process? H ow d o co m petitive pressures for au d ien ce ratings influence the thinking o f local television new sroom em ployees? H ow does their thinkin g im pact on w hat we see?

4 Legal Aspects of Crime News Coverage

There is “no constitutional right o f access to the scenes o f crim e or disaster when the gen ­ eral public is excluded.” — (B ra n z b u rg v. H a y e s, 1 9 7 2 )

T h is ch ap ter focu ses on n orm ative legal theories that apply to crim e co verage on local T V news. T h e em ph asis is on case law and its practical application . A s H erm an so n (20 0 0 ) ob served : “Jou rn alists report on legal issues as interpreted by officials in court and non -cou rt settin gs, an d they m ust be able to determ ine goals o f laws and how they sh ou ld be applied to an orderly so ciety ” (p. 1). N e v ­ ertheless, it is also true th at local television news people som etim es face o b sta ­ cles in ob tain in g inform ation abo u t crim es or access to crim e scen es.

CRIMINAL LAW AND CIVIL LAW Local television new s reporters “ analyze and w rite sto ries on arrests, co u rt d eci­ sio n s .... T h ey m ust co ver crim e; report accu rately on local, sta te and federal trials” (H erm an son , 2 0 0 0 , p. 1). T h erefore, the em ph asis o n crim e reporting in local television new s co v erag e m eans that legal issues are very im portant in new sroom s. Further, m edia “ co n stru ct acco u n ts o f trials w hich se t up e x p e c ta ­ tions in the m inds o f the p u blic” (H ow itt, 1998, p. 171). C rim in al law involves the sta te ’s prosecution o f individuals for violation s o f statu te s th at prohibit su ch acts as m urder, arm ed robbery, assau lt, rape, or arson: T h e g o al o f c rim in al law is to p ro m o te an o rd erly so c ie ty w h ere p eo p le c a n feel s e ­ cu re. T h e g o v e rn m e n t p u n ish e s v io la to rs to p ro m o te th e c o m m o n g o o d , n o t to p ro v id e retrib u tio n for v ic tim s. In crim in al c a se s, th e sta te p u n ish e s v io la ­

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CHAPTER 4 tors— usually with fines or jail sentences.... Judges have some latitude in punish­ ment, but usually the options are stated in statutes. (Hermanson, 2000, p. 11)

T h e burden in su ch cases is on a prosecutor to prove th at the defen d an t is guilty beyond a reason ab le d ou bt o f specific charges. O ften , where guilt is ob vi­ ous, prosecutors and defense attorneys n egotiate a plea bargain — an adm ission o f guilt in exch an ge for red uction o f charges and a lighter prison sentence. C rim inal law, the su bject o f m ost crim e co verage, is d istingu ished from civil law where one person su es an oth er for m onetary dam ages b ecau se o f an injury: “C ivil law usually involves a d ispu te betw een two private parties, with the go v ­ ernm ent m erely providing a neu tral forum for resolving the dispu te by b alan c­ ing righ ts” (H erm an son , 2000, p. 10). For exam p le, co n sid er the case o f an u nlicensed truck driver who, follow ing an evening at a tavern, crash es his sem i rig in to a teen ag er’s sp orts car in a h ead -on collision. U n d er crim inal law, if the truck driver survives, he will be charged with a series o f violation s— driving u n ­ der the influence, driving w ithout a proper license, veh icu lar hom icide. U n d er civil law, the teen’s fam ily m ay su e directly the driver, his employer, and even the truck m anu factu rer for m illions o f dollars in dam ages. T h e re are sta te and federal trial courts where crim inal and civil ch arges may be heard by a jury or judge. T h e se courts determ ine the facts in a p articu lar case. For exam p le, civil law suits follow ing a sch ool sh ootin g m ay determ ine if there w as negligence o n the part o f an adu lt that led to a youth ob tain in g a handgun. A ll decisions o f trial courts m ay be appealed for legal but n ot factu al reasons. T h e 50 states ea c h h ave their ow n court system s, and these run in ad d ition to our federal courts. T h e co verage o f crim e news in the U n ited S ta te s is guided by free sp eech philosophy th at en cou rages legal processes to be co n d u cted in pu b­ lic view.

THE FIRST AMENDMENT AND FREE EXPRESSION A s early as 1644, E n glish ph ilosop h er Jo h n M ilton artic u la te d w hat becam e know n later as “ th e m ark etp lac e o f id e a s” view th at tru th s an d falseh o o d s sh ou ld c o m p e te for a c c e p ta n c e . F reed om o f the press w as se en as an im por­ tan t way for th e p u b lic to learn (S u n stein , 1993) a b o u t the actio n s o f their go v ern m en t (Levy, 1 9 8 5 ). In the U n ited S ta te s, the C o n stitu tio n follow ed an early use o f prior re stra in t d o ctrin e— the g o v ern m en t h ad no right to cen sor sp e ech , bu t sp e a k ers m ay be held ac c o u n ta b le for the c o n se q u e n c e s o f th eir co m m u n ic a tio n (N e a rv . M innesota, 193 1 ). S p e e c h th at is p olitical in natu re is assu m ed to h ave th e stro n g e st p ro tectio n b e c a u se it is v ital to the fu n c tio n ­ ing o f d e m o c ra tic p a rticip atio n (Sm o lla, 199 2 ). In c o n tra st, b ro ad castin g , co v erag e o f crim e an d th e co u rts, an d p o te n tially libelou s c o m m e n ts h ave som ew h at less p ro te c tio n . In the 1970s, N e b ra sk a rep o rters a tte m p tin g to co v er arraig n m en t o f a su sp e c t in a killing spree w ere ord ered to n ot report testim on y or e v id e n c e , bu t the S u p rem e C o u rt fou n d the g ag ord er u n con sti-

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63

In October 1975 Erwin Simants raped and murdered a 10-year-old girl, and then killed five family members. At his arraignment, a county judge issued a broad gag order pro­ hibiting publication of any information from the pretrial proceedings. The order ran counter to state law that required open courtrooms. Ultimately, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the press. Chief Justice Burger wrote for a unanimous court: ... If it can be said that a threat of criminal or civil sanctions after publication “chills” speech, prior restrain “freezes” it at least for the time. The damage can be particularly great when the prior restraint falls upon the communication of news and commentary on current events. Truthful reports of public judicial proceedings have been afforded special protection against subsequent punishment.... It is not asking too much to suggest that those who exercise First Amendment rights in newspapers or broadcasting enterprises di­ rect some effort to protect the rights of an accused to a fair trial by unbiased ju­ rors.... (Nebraska Press v. Stuart, 1976, p. 559) ... We reaffirm that the guarantees o f freedom o f expression are not an abso­ lute prohibition under all circum stances, but the barriers to prior restraint remain high and the presumption against its use continues intact, (p. 570) Source: Nebraska Press A isn. v. Srium, 427 U .S. 539 (1976).

BO X 4.1

Nebraska Press Assn. v. Strnrt (1976).

tu tio n a l b e c a u s e a d e f e n d a n t’s S ix t h A m e n d m e n t rig h t to a fair trial m u st be b a la n c e d a g a in s t n ew s m e d ia F irst A m e n d m e n t r ig h ts to re p o r t n ew s (N e ­ b ra sk a Press A ssn . v. S tu a r t, 1 9 7 6 ).

Libel, Slan der, and D efam atio n O u tsid e th e c o n te x t o f a c rim in al c a s e , a s ta tio n itse lf m ay alle g e th a t a n in d i­ v id u a l h a s v io la te d th e law. T h is is so m e tim e s d o n e by lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s in ­ v e stig a tiv e “ I-T eam ” u n its an d raise s p o te n tia l le g al issu e s. T h e r e p o rtin g o f a lle g a tio n s in a d v a n c e o f fo rm al ch a r g e s by a u th o r itie s m ay p ro m p t a libel su it. A n in d iv id u a l cla im in g to be d e fa m e d by a lo c a l te le v isio n new s re p o rte r c o u ld file a civ il law su it a g a in st th e re p o rte r a n d h is o r h er em ploy er. T h e claim w ou ld b e th a t th e sto ry u n fairly p la c e s th e p e rso n in a b a d light w ith th e pu blic. L ib el law relies o n th e fa c t th a t n ew s c o v e ra g e m ay h arm s o m e o n e ’s r e p u ta tio n , an d th is m ay le a d to a loss o f in c o m e o r a jo b , lo ss o f re la tio n sh ip s w ith o th e rs, or loss o f a p o sitiv e re p u ta tio n . In co u rt, th e in d iv id u a l’s a tto rn e y w ou ld n ee d to p ro v e th a t th e d e fa m a tio n w as false in fo rm a tio n th a t id en tified th e in d iv id u al. If th e p e rso n w ere n o t a p u b lic figu re o r o fficial, th e n a sh o w in g th a t th e n ew s­

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room acted negligently w ould be sufficient. If the person were a public figure or official, the “ actu a l m alice” stan d ard is applied. It requires th at it be proven that the reporters an d editors knew the story w as false or recklessly d isregarded ev i­ d en ce (N ew York Times v. Sullivan, 1964). T h e libel law sta n d a rd s m ake it ex trem ely difficu lt for a plaintiff, p a rtic u ­ larly one w ho h as a public life, to su stain a libel su it ag ain st a local television sta tio n . In su ch a c ase, law yers for a television sta tio n m ay use tru th o f the a lle ­ g a tio n s as the u ltim ate d efen se. E ven where reportin g h arm s rep u tatio n , re­ p o rtin g th e tru th , if it c a n be p roven fa c tu a l, is p ro te c te d u n d er the C o n stitu tio n an d the First A m e n d m en t. Further, ex p ressio n s o f o pin ion s by local television new s reporters h ave also b e en foun d to be p ro tected by som e ju d ge s (K T R K v . Turner, 1998). B e c a u se th e N ew York Times v. Sullivan (1 964) case placed the b u rd en o f provin g a story to be false on a plaintiff, an d b e cau se m edia d efen d an ts h ave b e co m e ad ep t a t figh tin g law suits, law yers h ave begu n to m ove aw ay from libel su its ag a in st television statio n s an d tow ard the use o f law s d esign ed to restrict in v e stig ativ e new s gath erin g tech n iq u es, su ch as h id d en -cam era in v e stig a­ tion s (Food Lion v. A B C , 199 7 ). In m ost crim e co v erag e, the release o f public in form ation th rou gh p olice an d atto rn ey s in su late s local television n ew s­ room s from the th reat o f libel or o th er civil su its.

Invasion of Privacy Likew ise, the co n cep t o f invasion o f privacy has been the su b ject o f cases ag ain st television statio n s in recen t d ec ad e s. T h e so -c alled tort law involves le­ gal responsibilities o f individuals. In vasion o f privacy has been defined as re­ porting em b arrassin g private facts, intrusion in to o n e ’s solitu d e, trespassin g on private property, placin g som eon e in a false light, or using o n e ’s nam e or like­ ness for co m m ercial gain w ithout perm ission (Splich al, 200 0 ). In P ortland, O R , K A T U - T V was su ed by an autom obile accid en t victim af­ ter the statio n sh ot video and used it for a news prom o on another story. T h e sta te ’s Su p rem e C o u rt held that the statio n ’s new sw orthiness defense insulated it from a law suit claim ing privacy had been v iolated and the victim ’s im age had been ap prop riated for com m ercial use w ith out co n sen t. U n der O regon law, the statio n w as allow ed to lawfully gather the video, althou gh airing o f the vid eo m ight ca u se h urt feelings (Anderson v. Fisher Broadcasting, 12 M ed.L.R ptr. 1604, O re. 1986). L ocal television news reporters and p h otograph ers m ay open their statio n s to liability if they trespass on private property, or v io late oth er laws, to ob tain a story. In m ost crim e reporting, invasion o f privacy is not a t issue b ecau se there is a public crim e scen e. O n c e evid en ce h as been collected, the action m oves to the public co urts and records. Generally, local television new sroom s h ave wide a ccess to gath er video.

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65

In Seattle, W A, K IN G -T V was sued for defam ation and invasion o f privacy after it reported on a pharm acist charged with M edicaid fraud. T h e station reported the following in Decem ber 1976: “A West Seattle pharmacist has been charged with defrauding the state o f $200,000 for false drug prescription s...." A s part o f the story, the station aired video o f the pharm acist talking on the telephone in­ side the business. The photographer was standing outside the pharmacy and shot video through a glass window. T h e pharm acist claim ed that the video aired was “ an unreasonable intrusion into his seclusion and physical solitude" (Mark v. King Broadcasting, 1980, p. 518). T h e court, however, determ ined that such an inva­ sion could only be actionable if “ highly offensive and objectionable to the ordi­ nary person”: The invasion or intrusion must be of something which the general public would not be free to view. Here, it is not contended that the film recorded anything other than that which any passerby would have seen passing the building, nor was the plaintiff portrayed in an unreasonable manner. The filming was accom­ plished without ruse or subterfuge. There is no reason to believe that a person of ordinary sensibilities would be offended by the film alone. (Mark v. King Broad­ casting, 1980, p. 519) T h e court ruled in favor o f the T V station, in part, because the pharm acist was “entangled in this web o f news and public interest” (p. 52). T h e libel aspect o f the lawsuit also could not be sustained because in 1976 K IN G -T V had truthfully re­ ported the public record, and it had not in any way embellished the story. In fact, during the summer of 1977 the pharm acist was convicted on 5 counts o f forgery and grand larceny. C ourts more generally have ruled that crimes, prosecutions, and court proceedings " ... are without question events o f legitimate concern to the public and consequently fall within the responsibility o f the press to report the operations o f governm ent” (p. 516). Source: Marie v. King Broadcasting Co., W ash. A pp., 618 P2d 512 (1980)

BO X 4.2

Mark v. King Broadcasting (1980).

A cce ss a t Crim e S ce n e s T h e c o u r ts h a v e ru le d th a t lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s r e p o rte rs a n d p h o to g r a p h e rs h a v e n o sp e c ia l righ t o f a c c e s s to c rim e s c e n e s (R ran zbu rg v. H ay es, 1 9 7 2 ), b u t th is d o e s n o t p re v e n t e n te r p risin g e m p lo y e e s fro m o b ta in in g all th e in fo rm a ­ tio n a v a ila b le to an y m e m b e r o f th e g e n e r a l p u b lic . In m o st sta t e s , re p o rte rs m ay b e e x c lu d e d fro m or m o v e d b a c k aw ay fro m crim e o r d isa ste r sc e n e s , s o o f­ fic ia ls m ay d o th eir w ork. In g e n e ra l, m e d ia rig h ts to re p o rt m u st b e b a la n c e d a g a in st o th e r c o n c e r n s. T h e tr a d itio n s o f lo c a l c o m m u n itie s w ith r e sp e c t to th e

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rules governing local m ed ia seem m ost im portant in ju d gin g beh avior at the scen e o f breaking new s even ts. Local T V news reporters have a strong interest in obtaining video and sound bites from crim e scenes. Usually, such stories dem and live sh ots on the late e v e­ ning news. T h e access to crim e scenes and official spokespersons m ake the stories relatively easy to produce. Further, the First A m endm ent insulation from subse­ quent punishm ent for the broadcast o f these stories m eans that they are legally safe. N evertheless, there m ay be som e concern by new sroom em ployees about how far they can go.

A ccess to Public R ecords and Freedom of Information Federal and sta te open records laws provide local television new sroom s with a right o f a ccess to inform ation th at is part o f the public record. For exam p le, al­ th ou gh G ran d Jury pro ceed in gs investigatin g a crim e are n ot public, an official ind ictm en t o f som eon e for a crim e would becom e part o f the public record. Sim ilarly, police investigative files are n ot public, but reporters d o have access to crim e reports and arrest reports. W h en a case goes to trial, m uch inform ation th at previously was not public is en tered into the public record. Public records are a key sou rce o f inform ation for crim e reporters b ecau se acc u rate reporting o f it is p rotected u nder libel law defen ses. O ften , w hen officials d o n ot m ake th em selves availab le for co m m en t during in vestigation o f a crim e, reporters m ay rely on public records. For exam p le, if prosecutors o b tain a se arc h w arrant from a local ju d ge, the ex isten c e o f a w arrant as a public record m ay be a clue for investigative news reporters. In Illinois, m edia h ave run into trouble with a uniform m edia arrest report law. T h e rules specify w hat inform ation m ust be released. A lth ou g h reporters are su pposed to h ave access to the n am e, age, address, and ph otograph o f so m e­ one arrested, auth orities have up to 72 hr to comply. T h e Illinois Press A sso c ia ­ tion in M arch 2 0 0 0 co m p lain ed o f new s “ b lack o u ts” cau se d by county prosecuting sta te ’s attorneys refusing to release inform ation su ch as crim inal histories. T h e state S u prem e C o u rt directed the attorneys to limit their in terac­ tion with new s m edia (Illinois Press A sso ciatio n , 2000).

News Routines and the Police Beat M ost initial crim e co verage occu rs b e cau se news assign m en t ed itors m onitor police radios, teleph one tips from view ers, com peting television co verage, o th er m edia su ch as radio news, and official tips. T h e first stag e o f su ch co v er­ age involves local television new sroom s rushing personnel to the scen e to try to ob tain a ccu rate in form ation (G raber, 1997). T h o se new sroom s th at assign a police beat reporter m ay d o daily ch e ck s o f police records, d ete ctiv e s offices, an d other routine location s search in g for new stories to co v er or follow up in ­

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form ation on older new s. O v er tim e, som e news reporters estab lish relation ­ ships with police sou rces, an d these m ay lead au th orities to provide certain reporters with sp ecial acc ess to inform ation . In general, however, the public som etim es lacks su p p ort for full First A m en d m en t press freedom s (M cLeod , Sitrovic, V oakes, G u o , & H uan g, 1998).

Coverage of the Courts Local television new s co verag e o f the co urts involves statio n s d ecid in g w hich few crim e cases are im p ortan t enough to be co n sidered for co n tin u in g c o v er­ age. T h is involves new s valu es, an d it also involves relation sh ip s reporters h ave with prosecutors, d efen se attorneys, ju d ges, and o th er co u rth o u se personnel (Lipschultz, 19 9 1 ). L ocal television statio n s generally d o n ot h ave en o ugh re­ porters for beat co v erag e o f the co urts, and they tend to rely on day-to-day d e ­ cision s. S o u r c e s b e co m e im p o rtan t in m akin g d e c isio n s ab o u t w h eth er anything new sw orthy will occu r on a particu lar day o f a trial th at could take m onth s to co m plete. Television new s is a visu al m edium , and som e ju risdiction s d o n ot allow tele­ vision cam eras inside the courtroom . O th ers limit access to a single pool c a m ­ era. T h erefore, we often see news photograph ers ou tside o f co urtroom s to get usable sh ots o f the accu sed and victim s. In the era o f m odern public relations, trial lawyers som etim es hold news con feren ces to m ake their cases to the public. C o urth ou se co verage is im portan t to local television new s people becau se the trial is the place w here lurid details o f a crim inal case first becom e available. Lawyers m ay argue about, for exam ple, the adm ission into evid en ce o f som e facts ou tside the p resen ce o f the jury. A ccess to the courtroom proceedings m eans th at the public is privy to inform ation through the new s m edia th at may be interesting but n ot very relevant to the ou tco m e o f a case. T h is is becau se lawyers are lim ited by ju d icial rules abo u t w hat inform ation m ay be used in a crim inal case. Failure o f a ju d ge to rule correctly could lead to a co n viction be­ ing overturned on appeal.

C am eras and the Courthouse Before television, th ere was co n cern abo u t the use o f still ph otograph y inside the courtroom b ecau se the noisy cam eras and flashbulbs w ere disruptive (Bittner, 1994). In the 1960s, the case o f frau dulen t T exas bu sin essm an Billie S o l E stes brought to the forefront the issue o f television cam e ras in the co u rt­ room . A t first, the trial ju d ge allow ed T V co verage o f portions o f the trial. In re­ versing E ste s’s co n v iction , the U n ited S ta te s S u p rem e C o u rt identified four areas in w hich T V co u ld interfere with the d efen d an t’s right to a fair trial: (a) T V m ay im pact a jury, (b) T V m ay influence testim ony, (c) the su pervision o f T V co verag e m ay d istract the trial ju dge, and (d) T V m ay h arass the d efen d an t

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(Estes v. State o f Texas, 381 U .S. 53 2 ,1 9 6 5 ). C h an ge s in technology led to television equ ip m en t th at is quieter, sm aller, and less d isruptive. A ddition ally, m ost ju d ges lim it acc ess to a single “ p o o l” T V cam era from a location poin tin g away from the jury box. T h e vid eo feed from the cam era is m ade availab le to all news outlets. A lth ough m ost state courts allow T V cam era and m icrophone access to the courtroom , m ost federal courtroom s do not. It is still com m on to see television new sroom s use artist sketch es o f courtroom proceedings in situations where cameras are barred. O u tsid e the courtroom or courth ou se, reporters and photographers rou­ tinely gath er in hopes o f ob taining vid eo and sou n d bites from lawyers, d efen ­ dan ts, victim s an d th eir family m em bers, and even jurors. Ju dicial rules may limit what participan ts m ay say. Local T V new sroom s are often co n tacted by law en forcem en t personn el w hen a d efen dan t will be taken from the jail to the co urth ou se, so th at statio n s can get video. So m e co u rtroom s now use video feeds from the jail to avoid transporting prisoners. T h e se feeds are usually av ail­ able to local m edia.

Local Television News and the Law T h e im p ortan ce o f local new s m edia participation , as su rrogate for the public, in the search for ju stic e , h as co m e to be u n derstood in A m e rican law (Richmond New spapers v. Virginia, 1980). T h e Su prem e C o u rt h as based a right o f open p re­ trial an d trial proceed in gs on the need for d efen d an ts to be protected again st lawyers an d ju d g e s th at m ight participate in an unfair process (Press Enterprise v. Riverside County Superior C ourt, 1986). N o n e o f this prohibits a ju d ge from clo sin g p roceed in g for g ood reasons. For exam p le, ju v en ile co u rts typically are clo sed to co verag e by all local news m edia, including television statio n s. O f course, any ruling by a ju d ge is o pen to appeal by new s organ ization s or others. Local television new sroom s co n tin u e to be prohibited from bringing their cam eras, w hat the R a d io Television N ew s D irectors A sso ciatio n has term ed “ tools o f their tra d e," into m ost federal courtroom s an d som e state courts. A lso, b road castin g generally h as less protection again st broader co n trol by g overn ­ m ent regulators su ch as the Federal C om m u n ication C om m ission (Red Lion Broadcasting C o. v. F C C , 1969). N everth eless, overall local television new s­ room s have broad First A m en d m en t protection s in the U n ited S ta te s to cover th ose crim e stories th at m eet jou rnalistic news valu es. T h e First A m en d m en t prohibition ag ain st g o vern m en t restrictions on the press, as H opkin s (2000) ob­ served, “establish the essen ce o f d em ocracy ” (p. v ). In this sen se, alth ou gh we som etim es take issue w ith the decisions m ade by local television new sroom s, their right to ch allen ge the social order is crucial to a legal stru ctu re th at values freedom an d social responsibility over rigid govern m en t control. T h e re are no easy answ ers: “T h e pervasive n ature o f electron ic m edia co n tin u es to strain the boun daries betw een a d efen d an t’s right to a fair trial and the right to gather

LEGAL ASPECTS OF CRIM E N EW S COVERAGE

69

n ew s” (C re e c h , 2 0 0 0 , p. 3 0 3 ) . T h e re fo r e , e th ic a l c o n c e r n s b e c o m e o f prim ary im p o rta n c e in e v a lu a tin g th e d e c isio n s m ad e by lo c al te le v isio n n ew sro o m e m ­ ploy ees. A s o n e new s d ire c to r told the R a d io an d T e lev isio n N e w s D ire c to rs F o u n d a tio n : With crews arm ed with hand-held cam eras, able to return video from virtually anywhere, the problem o f editorial oversight becom es even more difficult to ad ­ dress. W ith im ages coming at a thinly staffed newsroom ... judgm ents that arc fair and accurate will have to be made on the spot. (1995, pp. 11-12) A lth o u g h co m m u n icatio n law in the U n ited S ta te s d o e s n ot limit local televi­ sio n new s co v erag e o f crim e stories, live T V new s technology h as d ecreased the tim e during w hich new sroom person n el m ay co n sid er the eth ics o f their decisions.

CHAPTER SUMMARY L o c a l te le v isio n n e w sro o m s c o v e r crim e in A m e r ic a u n d e r a leg al sy ste m th at p ro v id e s re p o rte rs, p h o to g r a p h e rs, p ro d u c e rs, a ssig n m e n t e d ito rs, a n d n ew s d i­ re c to rs w id e la titu d e to m e e t th e p e rc e iv e d n e e d s an d w a n ts o f a u d ie n c e m e m ­ b ers. P a rtic u la rly w h en th ey c o v e r b r e a k in g n ew s e v e n ts, o fficial p ro c e e d in g s su c h as tria ls, a n d o b ta in d o c u m e n ta ry in fo rm a tio n fro m th e p u b lic reco rd , th ey a re p r o te c te d to re p o rt tru th fu l fa c ts, so lo n g a s th ey a b id e by r e a so n a b le a c c e ss lim ita tio n s.

DISCU SSIO N QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

D o e s m o d e rn lo c al n ew s c o v e ra g e o f crim e p ro m o te an o rd erly so ciety ? W h y or w hy n o t? H o w m ig h t civ il law s a ffe c t a lo c al sta tio n ’s c rim e c o v e ra g e ? A r e th ey m o re o r less im p o rta n t th a n c rim in al law s? D o you th in k libel law s h a v e a “ ch illin g e ffe c t” o n d e c isio n s to c o v e r c e r ­ ta in crim e sto ries? I f you w ere a v id e o g ra p h e r at th e s c e n e o f a h o m icid e , w ou ld you w alk o n to th e p ro p erty to g e t a g o o d sh o t? W h y o r why n ot? D o you a g re e w ith th e re a so n in g th a t so m e te le v isio n sta tio n s sh o u ld be b a rred from b rin g in g th eir c a m e ra in sid e a c o u r tr o o m b e c a u se th ey m ay b e d isru p tiv e to th e righ ts o f a d e fe n d a n t to re ce iv e a fair trial? H o w d o su c h ru les m e a su re up to ou r u n d e r sta n d in g o f th e m e a n in g o f th e F irst A m e n d m e n t?

5 Ethics

b y C h r is W A lle n University o f N e b rask a a t O m ah a

“A jo u r n a list m u st ca re a b o u t doin g the right thing, m u st w an t to be eth ical; su ch a sin cere d esire w ill lea d the jo u rn a list to seek o u t m o ra l w isdom a s a gu id e to e th ic al d ecision m aking. ”

—John Merri!!, ethics scholar (1997, p. 28) L ocal television new s did n ot invent co verag e o f crim e. In fact, m ass m ed ia h ave been co verin g v iolen ce for som e 150 years. In this ch ap ter the focu s is on how m ed ia history h as led to an interest in the issue o f ethics.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF CRIME NEWS A t the turn o f the 20th century, two o f A m e ric a ’s m ost n otorious publishers, J o ­ seph Pulitzer a n d W illiam R an d olph H earst, were locked in a fierce circu lation battle. B o th a n n o u n ced their daily circu lation on the front page, using a c a r ­ toon ch a racter called the Yellow K id. T h e ir respective new spapers, P ulitzer’s N ew York World an d H e arst’s N ew York Journal, en gaged in the foulest se n sa ­ tionalism , w hich cam e to be know n as Yellow Jo u rn alism becau se o f the K id, in a n effort to a ttra c t the m ost readers. In 1897, as A m e rica n eared war with S p ain over C u b a , Pulitzer’s co rrespon den t Ja m e s C ree lm an , urging P resident M c K in ­ ley to take som e sort o f action ag ain st Sp ain , w rote the following: N o man’s life, no man’s property, is safe. American citizens are imprisoned or slain without cause. American property is destroyed on all sides.... Blood on the roadsides, blood in the fields, blood on the doorsteps, blood, blood, blood! (World, 1896, in Folkerts & Teeter, 1998, p. 269)

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It w as nothing new to the two papers. T h e Penny Press era introdu ced read ­ ers to scan d al, murder, m ayhem , riots, and corruption. N ew sboys w ould stan d on street corners haw king their papers by hollering ou t the lurid stories w aiting to be read. T h e re were no c o d e s o f eth ics in the 1800s. R ead ers e x p ected se n sa tio n a l­ ism , or at least ex agg eratio n , in th eir n ew spapers. Jo u rn alists had n ot yet ad o p te d a policy o f fair and b alan ced reporting, and accu racy w as on shaky ground. Today, however, we expect m ore from our m edia— or should. C od es o f ethics have been around for about 80 years. T h ey have dealt with conflicts o f interest, accuracy, fairness, influence, use o f anonym ous sources, and other problem s co m ­ m on to journalism . However, they have not dealt specifically with the question o f violence. Television h as been consistently criticized for the violen t co n ten t o f its e n ter­ tainm ent program s. So m e stu dies h ave in dicated that kids see 2 0 ,0 0 0 m urders by the tim e they reach the age o f 18. A t one tim e in the 1980s the netw orks, in an effort to hold off th reaten ed C on g ression al regulation, agreed to limit pro­ gram s that co n tain ed v iolen ce to tim e slots after the so -called “ family hour,” 8 to 9 p.m ., E astern S tan d ard T im e. For the m ost part, the four broad cast n et­ works still limit their violen t program m ing to after 9 p.m . Viewers, however, can see plenty o f violence earlier in the day. N etw ork ev e­ ning new scasts often co ntain the real violence o f crime, war, and terrorism. Local broadcasts som etim es wallow in it. A lthough rarely is the act o f killing shown, certainly the afterm ath is a staple o f nightly news program s across the United States. T h is becom es an ethical problem because o f what violence in T V new s­ casts m ay d o to the audience. Washington Post critic Tom Sh ales said violence on T V exaggerates people’s fears about the world. It gives the im pression that vio­ lence is the norm (Jacobs, 1990).

ETHICS IN LOCAL TV NEWS TODAY E xam ples aboun d o f eth ically q u estio n ab le uses o f violen ce in local n ew scasts, especially b ecau se T V statio n s m ake live co verag e routine. O n e o f the m ost vivid ex am p les w as the live scen e o f a blood ied C olu m b in e H igh S c h o o l stu ­ d en t escap in g from a w indow into the arm s o f heavily arm ored police. W h en Los A n geles T V statio n s covered a m an blocking traffic on a freeway, it w as a ch an ce to utilize high technology— live cam eras and h elicopters— to show people the news. T h e n the m an set fire to his truck, pulled o u t a sh otgun, an d killed himself. M ost statio n s did not react in tim e to c u t the picture, an d a l­ m ost everyone w atching the incident on T V that day saw the suicide. So m e s ta ­ tions h ad broken into ch ild ren ’s program m ing to show it (C h u a-E oan , 1998). D crw in Jo h n son , a form er T V producer an d now a professor at the C olum b ia U niversity G rad u ate Sc h o o l o f Jou rn alism , says the decision to go live w as a mis-

BREAKING NE

K U SA , Denver has coverage carried by C N N .

T h e shooting spree in April 1999 at Colum bine High School in C olorado illus­ trates the tension between ethical decision m aking and the airing o f live video in the m idst o f a crisis. W hen m asked gunm en opened fire inside the school, Denver, C O , stations found them selves drawn into the middle o f a breaking crime story. A reporter for K M G H -T V acknowledged the possibility that hostages and the gunm en inside the school building could be w atching events unfold on TV. “We are assum ing they are able to w atch all the coverage.” A t first, local stations used graphics and telephone interviews. Eventually, live trucks provided video from the scene and interviews with students who had run out o f the building. K U S A interviewed a student who told what it was like inside: “We hear som e guy go ‘holy crap, there’s a guy with a gun .’ S o everybody starts freaking o u t.... My teacher ju st doesn’t know what to do ’cause she’s so freaked.” Then, there was this exchange between anchors and a student: Student:

Is this live? Is this on?

Anchor: Yeah, are some o f them still in there? Student: Yeah, I think so. My sister was shot. Anchor: Your sister. Is she going to the hospital? Is she outside with you right now, or is she still in the school?

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Student: She went with the paramedics. Anchor: Oh, that’s good. Okay. K C N C show ed video o f injured stu d en ts being taken to an am bu lan ce, and they did dram atic telephone interview s with upset stu d en ts who had escaped . K U S A quickly brought their “Sky 9 ” h elicopter to the scen e to show wide sh ots o f the school. At one point, a student trapped in the school used a cell phone to call K U SA . He described the scene while hiding under a desk inside a classroom. T he student started to say where he was before an anchor stopped him and urged him to call 911. Th e stu­ dent found the 911 line jammed, and placed another call to the station, which con­ nected him with the emergency line. Later in the coverage, as students pleaded for help and tried to escape, live video showed an injured victim. A n anchor at K M G H -T V gasped, “Look at th at!” as a blood-streaked youth dropped from a second-story window. H er coanchor expressed disbelief “ that this could happen in our area.” At another point, K U S A urged trapped students to call the station with infor­ m ation for the police on the gunm en’s whereabouts. A nchor Kim Christiansen said, “Any students that might be hiding at the school, call the sta tio n .... We will put you in touch with the police." But minutes later, Christiansen retracted those instructions, saying, “ D o not call the station. Be quiet. Stay where you are.” Th rou gh ou t the day, televised im ages show ed a sh ocking scen e— the stricken faces o f studen ts and parents, the cluster o f param edics and SW A T team s, the chaotic afterm ath. O ne girl told how she begged for her life while the gunm en w aved a gun in her face, laughed, and asked her if she w anted to die. “ He shot everybody around m e,” she said through sobs. A teenage boy told of seeing “ a friend o f m ine’s head blown off." Playing a role that often falls to local T V when tragedy strikes, the Denver sta ­ tions served as inform ation clearinghouses. They gave parents telephone hotline numbers, and rem inded them to “stay away from Colum bine High S ch o o l.” Sources: D on Aucoin, D enver stations provide lens and voice for tragedy. Boston Globe, April 21, 1999, p. A 31; K U S A and K C N C via C N N , A pril 20, 1999.

BO X 5 .1

Local T V News Coverage o f Columbine High School Shooting.

ta k e fro m th e sta rt. H e c a lls it a “ c la s sic c a s e o f te c h n o lo g y ru n n in g th e b e a st in ­ ste a d o f a c le a r e d ito r ia l p r o c e s s” ( C h u a - E o a n ,1 9 9 8 , p. 3 0 ). V io le n t n ew s c o n te n t is n o t e x clu siv ely th e resu lt o f live c o v e ra g e . In th e 1 9 8 0 s, a T V sta tio n in A r k a n s a s rece iv ed a call a b o u t a b u s h ijack in g . T h e h i­ ja c k e r s, a m a n a n d a w o m an , w an te d to ta lk to th e reporter. T h e re p o rte r a n d a p h o to g ra p h e r w en t to ta lk to th em . T h e e v e n in g n e w sc a st aired a c o m p le te , e d ­ ited , an d sc rip te d rep o rt. A fte r ta lk in g w ith th e pair, an d sh o w in g p a rt o f th e in ­

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terview on air, the jo u rn alists retreated back behind police lines. T h e hijackers released the passengers from the bus, then, with cam era rolling, sh ot th em ­ selves. T h e report show ed the m an an d w om an kneeling on the pavem ent, p u tt­ ing the gun s to their h ead s, pulling the trigger, and crum pling to the ground. T h e jou rn alists had plenty o f tim e before the new scast to d eb ate the eth ics on several points: 1.

2.

Airing the demands made try the hijackers O ften T V b ro ad cast o u tlets re­ fuse to do th at b e cau se it may encou rage oth ers to try the sam e tactic for publicity. Showing a double suicide W h en th at tape w as show n during a session on e th ic s a t th e 2 0 0 0 R a d io -T e le v isio n N ew s D ire c to rs A s so c ia tio n (R T N D A ) co n v en tio n in M in n eapolis, M N , m ost o f the new sroom m an ­ agers in the room cringed.

E th ical lapses often occu r as local T V new sroom s struggle to m ake qu ick d e­ cisions on d eadline. H u n d red s o f local T V station s produce th ou san d s o f hours o f news a day. M ost o f the statio n s are co m petin g again st at least one oth er T V new sroom in the city or area, ju st as Pulitzer and H earst b attled each o th er 100 years ago. T h e re are pressures on a T V jou rn alist to g et the story first. N ew s di­ rectors, who always w atch the com petition, may co nfront a reporter who gets b eat on a story, and the reporter m ay h ave som e explaining to d o (Sm ith, 1999). Su ch pressure to g et the story and get it on the air first can p u sh som e reporters to m eet a d ead line rather th an take the time to think com pletely through a story. Even news directors su ccu m b. W h en one statio n b ro ad casts an incident live, oth ers feel pressured to do the sam e. T h e pressure to be first at all costs com bined with the relative inexperience o f som e reporters is a d an gerou s m ix. B rian Trauring, news director o f W A T E -T V in K n oxville, T N , and chair o f the R T N D A E thics C om m ittee (w hich recently revam ped the asso ciatio n ’s code o f eth ics), says m any rookie reporters com e in to the job with poor news ju d gm en t and few d ecision-m aking skills. H e says new sroom s have to d o a b etter job o f training the young reporters (Heyboer, 1999). H ow ever, H ow ard Rosenberg, T V colum nist at the Los Angeles Times, disagreed. Rosenberg, w ho also teach es jou rn alism ethics a t the U n iversity o f So u th ern C aliforn ia, says it is not a m atter o f training; the difference betw een right an d w rong is obvious. T h e problem , he said, is not the reporters, bu t the com petition for ratings (H eyboer, 1999). Jou rn alism stu d en ts are gettin g at least som e eth ical training in school. In 1994 about 60% o f jou rn alism sch ools had an ethics course. M ost o f the pro­ gram s th at d o not h ave a sep arate stan d in g course teach eth ics as a co m po n en t o f oth er courses. In a survey by Lam b eth , C hristian s, and C ole (1 9 9 4 ), nearly all instructors th at were qu estio n ed said fostering m oral reason in g skills was im ­ portant. N inety percent said surveying the current eth ical practice o f the pro-

PREAMBLE M em bers o f the Society o f Professional Jou rn alists believe that public enlighten­ ment is the forerunner o f justice and the foundation o f dem ocracy. T h e duty o f the journalist is to further those ends by seeking truth and providing a fair and co m ­ prehensive accou n t o f events and issues. C on scien tiou s journalists from all m edia and specialties strive to serve the public with thoroughness and honesty. Profes­ sional integrity is the cornerstone o f a jou rnalist’s credibility. M em bers o f the S o c i­ ety share a d ed ication to ethical behavior and ad opt this co de to declare the Society ’s principles and stan dards o f practice.

SEEK TRUTH AND REPORT IT Journalists should be honest, fair, and courageous in gathering, reporting, and in­ terpreting inform ation. Journalists should • •

Test the accu racy o f inform ation from all sou rces and exercise care to avoid inadverten t error. D eliberate distortion is never perm issible. D iligently seek out subjects o f news stories to give them the

•

opportunity to respond to allegations o f wrongdoing. Identify sou rces w henever feasible. T h e public is entitled to as m uch

• •

inform ation as possible on sou rces’ reliability. Always question sources’ m otives before prom ising anonymity. Clarify conditions attach ed to any promise m ade in exchange for information. Keep prom ises. M ake certain th at headlines, news teases, and prom otional m aterial,

•

photos, video, audio, graphics, sound bites, and qu otation s do not m isrepresent. T h ey should not oversimplify or highlight incidents out o f context. N ev er d istort the co n ten t o f news p h o to s or video. Im age

•

en h an cem en t for tech n ical clarity is alw ays perm issible. Label •

m o n tages an d p h o to illustrations. A void m isleading reenactm ents or staged news even ts. If reenactm ent

•

is necessary to tell a story, label it. A void u ndercover or oth er surreptitious m ethods o f gathering inform ation ex cep t when traditional open m eth ods will not yield

• • •

inform ation vital to the public. U se o f such m ethods should be explained as part o f the story. N ever plagiarize. Tell the story o f the diversity and m agnitude o f the hum an experience boldly, even when it is unpopular to d o so. Exam ine their ow n cultural values and avoid im posing those values on others. 75

•

A void stereotyping by race, gender, age, religion, ethnicity, geography,

•

sexual orientation, disability, physical appearan ce, or social status. Su ppo rt the open exch ange o f views, even views they find repugnant. G ive voice to the voiceless; official and unofficial sou rces o f inform ation can be equally valid. D istinguish betw een advocacy and news reporting. A nalysis and

•

com m entary should be labeled and not m isrepresent fact or context. D istinguish news from advertising and shun hybrids th at blur the lines

•

betw een the two. Recognize a special obligation to ensure that the public’s business is co n ­

• •

ducted in the open and that governm ent records are open to inspection.

MINIMIZE HARM E thical jou rnalists treat sources, subjects, and co lleagues as hum an beings d eserv­ ing o f respect. Jou rn alists should •

Sh ow co m p assion for those who m ay be affected adversely by news coverage. U se special sensitivity when d ealing with children and

•

inexperienced sources or subjects. Be sensitive when seeking or using interview s or photographs o f those

•

affected by tragedy or grief. Recognize that gathering and reporting inform ation may cau se harm or

•

discom fort. Pursuit o f the news is not a license for arrogance. Recognize th at private people have a greater right to control inform ation about them selves than do public officials an d others who seek power, influence, or attention. O nly an overriding public need

• • •

can justify intrusion into anyone’s privacy. Sh ow good taste. A void pandering to lurid curiosity. Be cau tiou s about identifying juvenile su spects or victim s o f sex crim es. Be ju d iciou s about nam ing crim inal su spects before the form al filing o f

•

charges. B alan ce a crim inal su spect’s fair trial rights with the public’s right to be inform ed.

ACT INDEPENDENTLY Jou rn alists should be free o f obligation to any interest other than the pu blic’s right to know. Jou rnalists should •

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A void conflicts o f interest, real or perceived.

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ETHICS • •

• • • •

Rem ain free o f associations and activities that may com prom ise integrity or dam age credibility. Refuse gifts, favors, fees, free travel, and special treatm ent, and shun secondary employment, political involvem ent, public office, and service in com m unity organizations if they com prom ise journalistic integrity. D isclose unavoidable conflicts. Be vigilant and courageous about holding those with power accountable. Deny favored treatm ent to advertisers and special interests and resist their pressure to influence news coverage. Be wary o f sou rces offering inform ation for favors or m oney; avoid bidding for news.

BE ACCOUNTABLE Jou rnalists arc accou ntable to their readers, listeners, viewers, and each other. Journalists should •

Clarify and explain news coverage and invite dialogue with the public

• • • •

over journalistic conduct. E ncourage the public to voice grievances against the news m edia. A dm it m istakes and correct them promptly. E xpose unethical practices o f jou rn alists an d the news m edia. A b id e by the sam e high stan d ard s to which they hold others.

Source: Sigm a Delta Chi's first C ode o f Ethics was borrowed from the American Society o f New s­ paper Editors in 1926. In 197.3, Sigma Delta Chi wrote its own code, which was revised in 1984 and 1987. The present version o f the Society o f Professional Journalists’ Code o f Ethics was adopted in September 1996.

BOX 5.2

Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics.

fc ssio n w as im p o r ta n t, a n d 9 2 % sa id p r e p a r in g s t u d e n t s fo r p r o fe ssio n a l w o rk w a s im p o r ta n t ( L a m b e th e t al., 1 9 9 4 ).

E th ics C o d e s C o d e s o f e th ic s a r e a v o lu n ta r y w ay to e n c o u r a g e r e sp o n s ib le jo u r n a lism . T h e S o c ie t y o f P r o fe ss io n a l Jo u r n a lis t s r e p r e s e n ts jo u r n a lis ts fro m all fie ld s, a n d h a s a c o d e o f e th ic s th a t h a s b e e n r e v ise d o v e r th e y e a rs. H o w e v e r, a lth o u g h it c a lls fo r a c c u ra c y , fa ir n e ss, a n d a v o id a n c e o f o u t s id e in flu e n c e , it d o e s n o t a d d r e s s w h a t k in d s o f sto r ie s to c o v e r o r ig n o re .

T h e R T N D A , wishing to foster the highest professional standards o f electronic journalism, promote public understanding o f and confidence in electronic journal­ ism, and strengthen principles o f journalistic freedom to gather and disseminate in­ formation, establishes this C ode o f Ethics and Professional Conduct.

PREAMBLE Professional electronic journalists should operate as trustees o f the public, seek the truth, report it fairly and with integrity and independence, and stand ac ­ countable for their actions.

PUBLIC TRUST Professional electronic journalists should recognize that their first obligation is to the public. Professional electronic journalists should • •

• •

Understand that any com m itm ent other than service to the public underm ines trust and credibility. Recognize that service in the public interest creates an obligation to reflect the diversity o f the community and guard against oversim plification o f issues or events. Provide a full range o f inform ation to enable the public to make enlightened decisions. Fight to ensure that the public’s business is conducted in public.

TRUTH Professional electronic journalists should pursue truth aggressively and present the news accurately, in context, and as completely as possible. Professional electronic journalists should • • •

Continuously seek the truth. Resist distortions that obscure the im portance o f events. Clearly disclose the origin o f information and label all material provided by outsiders.

Professional electronic journalists should not • • • •

78

Report anything known to be false. M anipulate images or sounds in any way that is misleading. Plagiarize. Present images or sounds that are reenacted without informing the public.

FAIRNESS Professional electronic jou rn alists should present the news fairly and impartially, placing primary value on significance and relevance. Professional electronic jou rn alists should • •

Treat all su bjects o f news coverage with respect and dignity, show ing particular co m passion to victim s o f crim e or tragedy. Exercise special care when children arc involved in a story and give

•

children greater privacy protection than adults. Se ek to understand the diversity o f their com m unity and inform the

• •

public w ithout bias or stereotype. Present a diversity o f expressions, opinions, and ideas in co n text. P resent an aly tical reporting based on professional perspective, not

•

personal bias. R esp ect the right to a fair trial.

INTEGRITY Professional electronic jou rn alists should present the news with integrity and d e ­ cency, avoiding real or perceived conflicts o f interest, and respect the dignity and intelligence o f the audience as well as the su bjects o f news. Professional electronic jou rn alists should •

Identify sources whenever possible. Confidential sources should be used only when it is clearly in the public interest to gather or convey important information or when a person providing information might be harmed.

• •

Journalists should keep all com m itm ents to protect a confidential source. C learly label opinion and comm entary. G uard against exten d ed coverage o f events or individuals th at fails to significantly ad van ce a story, place the event in co n text, or add to the

• • •

public know ledge. Refrain from co n tactin g participants in violent situ ation s while the situ ation is in progress. U se technological tools with skill and thoughtfulness, avoiding tech niques th at skew facts, distort reality, or sensationalize events. Use surreptitious news gathering techniques, including hidden cam eras or microphones, only if there is no other way to obtain stories o f significant

•

public importance and only if the technique is explained to the audience. D issem in ate the private transm issions o f oth ers only with perm ission. 79

Professional electronic journalists should not • • •

Pay news sources who have a vested interest in a story. A ccept gifts, favors, or com pensation from those who might seek to influence coverage. Engage in activities that may compromise their integrity or independence.

INDEPENDENCE Professional electronic journalists should defend the independence o f all jou rn al­ ists from those seeking influence or control over news content. Professional electronic journalists should •

•

• • • • •

Gather and report news without fear or favor, and vigorously resist undue influence from any outside forces, including advertisers, sources, story subjects, powerful individuals, and special interest groups. Resist those who would seek to buy or politically influence news content or who would seek to intimidate those who gather and dissem inate the news. Determ ine news content solely through editorial judgm ent and not as the result o f outside influence. Resist any self-interest or peer pressure that might erode journalistic duty and service to the public. Recognize that sponsorship o f the news will not be used in any way to determ ine, restrict, or m anipulate content. Refuse to allow the interests o f ownership or m anagem ent to influence news judgm ent and content inappropriately. Defend the rights o f the free press for all journalists, recognizing that any professional or government licensing o f journalists is a violation o f that freedom.

ACCOUNTABILITY Professional electronic journalists should recognize that they are accountable for their actions to the public, the profession, and them selves. Professional electronic journalists should • • • 80

Actively encourage adherence to these standards by all journalists and their employers. Respond to public concerns. Investigate com plaints and correct errors promptly and with as much prom inence as the original report. Explain journalistic processes to the public, especially when practices spark questions or controversy.

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•

Recognize that professional electronic journalists are duty-bound to conduct themselves ethically. • Refrain from ordering or encouraging courses o f action which would force employees to commit an unethical act. • Carefully listen to employees who raise ethical objections and create environments in which such objections and discussions are encouraged. • Seek support for and provide opportunities to train employees in ethical decision making. In meeting its responsibility to the profession of electronic journalism, RTND A has created this code to identify important issues, to serve as a guide for its mem­ bers, to facilitate self-scrutiny, and to shape future debate. Source: Adopted at the R T N D A ¿000 International Conference in Minneapolis, MN, September 14, 2000.

BOX 5.3 Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct, Radio-Television News Directors Association.

T h e R T N D A sp en t 1999 and 2000 revising its co de o f ethics. A s with the S o ­ ciety o f P rofessional Jo u rn alists’ code, and m ost co des, it d o es not address sp e ­ cific instances. In stead , it is general and open to broad interpretation. It can be adap ted to different situ ation s, including the co verage o f violen ce. In the p ressu re-co oker environm ent o f m any local television new sroom s, finishing the story on tim e is the sole goal. T h e re is little time to co n tem plate eth ical n u ances. C h ristian s, Fackler, Rotzoll, an d M cK ee (2001) proposed using the Potter B o x m odel o f m aking decisions abo u t ethics. T h e system involves a defined process to reach an eth ical decision that begins with defining the prob­ lem in specific term s, identifying the relevant v alu es to be co nsidered, appealin g to an eth ical principle, th en ch oosing where o n e ’s loyalties lie. Finally, a d eci­ sion is m ade. T h e re sh ou ld be feedback am ong all the steps. B u t again the draw ­ back is the tim e it takes to work through the box. It m ay take only 5 m inutes, but on deadline the new sroom is not a w elcom ing env iron m en t, and while prepar­ ing for a live sh ot 5 m inutes m ay be an im possible luxury. Jou rn alism ed u cato r Jo h n M errill (1997) would rath er see jou rn alists d e­ velop an internal sen se o f eth ics th at does not rely on new sroom environm ent or culture. H e also d oes n ot place m uch faith in co d es. M errill said jou rnalists should act. as individuals. Individual ethics m eans eth ics are self-determ ined and voluntary. A lth o u g h society m ust be co n sid ered in the decision, it is the in­ dividual, through self-reflection, w ho is ultim ately responsible and no one else. It is the in tersection o f individuals and co des w here M errill (1997) sees a po­ ten tial for problem s. C o d es set a stan d ard. Live up to the code, and you will be fine. T h e re is no need to g o beyond it. T h a t is why M errill warns against grouporiented eth ics, including co des, that jou rn alists tend to gravitate toward. T h e

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CHAPTER 5 TABLE 5.1 News Producers’ Attitudes Toward Ethics in the Newsroom (Percentage) * mngly Disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly Agree

It is important for a TV news­ room to have a code of discussion of ethics.

1.1

4.6

11.5

39.1

34.7

Pressure for ratings points is causing an erosion of ethical standards in TV news.

1.1

9.2

9.2

55.2

25.3

23.0

37.9

12.6

17.2

8.0

A TV newsroom should adjust its ethics according to the story.

individual eth icist, in g oin g beyond the professional or new sroom code, is seen as a p oor team player, one w ho d oes n ot fit the world o f corporate and co m p eti­ tive jou rn alism . W orking in a com petitive situ ation , the individual feels the pressure to be right, to be graphic, to g rab as m uch o f the au d ien ce as possible. N ew sroom m anagers an d statio n m anagers m ay exert pressure to ab an d o n in di­ vidual eth ics in favor o f a corporate culture. T h e re app ears to be a difference in d ecision m aking betw een young jo u rn al­ ists w ith less th an 6 years o f experience and veteran s with m ore than 6 years (H usselb ee, 1997). T h e younger jou rn alists tend to see th em selves as strictly d issem in ators o f news, and they tend to adh ere strictly to the rules o f reporting, including eth ics co des. T h o se with m ore th an 6 years o f experience have b e­ co m e co m fortable enough in the new sroom and in their own abilities to play a m ore interpretive role. T h e se people are m ore able to take on the responsibility o f m aking their ow n eth ical and m oral decisions.

Ethical Decision Making Jou rn alists m ay feel m ore con fid en t in their eth ical decision m aking as they gain ex perien ce, but they still feel pressure from “ ab o v e .” A llen , Lipschultz, and H ilt (1 9 9 8 ) asked news prod ucers their feelings abou t the e thical dynam ics w ithin the television new sroom . By far the m ajority o f prod ucers felt they w ant to be eth ical bu t find it increasingly difficult in a co rp orate clim ate based on econ om ics an d ratings. T h ey also think it is im portan t to h ave a w ritten co de in the new sroom . H ow ever, it is also cle ar th at they feel the co m petitive natu re o f the new sroom is erod in g eth ical stan d ard s. Perhaps m ost in terestin g is th at p ro ­ du cers feel eth ics sh ou ld be ad ju sted accord in g to the story. T h e y w ould fall am on g th ose w ho are n ot boun d to rules, bu t see the rules as flexible an d su b ­ jec t to in terp retatio n .

ETHICS

83

M ass m edia d ecision m aking, su ch as the d ecision to show violen ce, is not a l­ ways wrong. Pictures o f bodies in a war zone add an elem en t o f d ep th and path os needed to u nderstand the horror. H ow ever, it co m es in degrees. A m erican s seem to h ave no problem seein g the bodies o f d ead Palestin ian s in Israel, but they d o not w ant to see bodies o f tragic incidents in the U n ited S tate s. Large num bers o f bodies are m ore accep tab le than one body. A body, after the killing, is m ore accep tab le than the act o f killing itself. T h e re is no qu estio n that news station s do need to report m urders, robberies, fires, fatal crashes, and o th er s to ­ ries abo u t v iolen ce in their com m unities. T h e q u estio n is, to w hat d egree and in w hat m anner? To help m ake right decisions, m edia look for help. Som etim es it co m es from the people they cover. Portland, O R , T V and radio station s worked o u t an agreem en t w ith the city in 1998 in w hich police prom ised to provide tactical in­ form ation and pool co verage access if the statio n s agreed not to b road cast infor­ m ation abo u t police m ovem ents during hostage situ ation s while the crisis is in progress. U n d er the agreem ent, statio n s can sh oot as m uch video and record as m uch sou n d as they w ant, but m ust w ithhold it until the incident is resolved (Sh epard , 20 0 0 ). B oston b ro ad cast station s have m ade an agreem en t with law enforcem ent au th orities to not broad cast pictures or sou n d o f violen t situ ation s. In return, the police h ave pledged to give the co op eratin g statio n s a full and truthful a c ­ co u n t o f the incident. A t least one T V statio n refused to air a live picture o f the C olum b ine sh oo tin g in C o lo rad o b e cau se o f th at agreem ent, alth ou gh it took place 2 ,0 0 0 m iles from Boston. D uring a h ostage crisis in B altim ore, T V statio n s were b oth praised an d criti­ cized w hen they follow ed police recom m en d ation s in both reporting and w ith­ holding inform ation during a lengthy sta n d o ff with a m an believed to have killed four people, for fear the reports w ould agitate him (Trigoboff, 2 0 0 0 ). A l­ th ough the R T N D A C o d e o f E thics d oes not ad dress violen ce, its published guidelines for coverin g h ostage crises begins, “A lw ays assu m e th at the h ostage taker, gun m an or terrorist has access to the reporting.” H ow ever, K C N C - T V news d irector A n gie K ucharski pointed ou t th at having guidelines is not the problem , the ch allen ge is execu tin g the plan. O ften new s directors have legitim ate reasons for their decisions, or reasons th at seem logical at the tim e. T h e problem is, as M errill (1997) pointed out, “ the right” d ecision is not always obvious. T h e jo u rn alist m ay co n su lt co des, d evelop a m oral sen se, find alternative possibilities for the action s, and even after that m ay still h av e dou bts (M errill, 1997). O n e way to answer ethical criticism is to explain why a decision was m ade, the circum stan ces under which it was m ade, and the later evalu ation o f the decision. People w atch T V news every day, and yet have little idea how the news process works, except as caricatured by television and m ovie fiction. Too often in re­ sponse to criticism , broadcast journalists simply say, “ We stand by our story.” T h ey fail to explain how the decision was reached or how the story was developed.

A Murderer on the Air, by Lee Hood Sh ou ld a journalistic organization help law enforcem ent d o its job.7 Sh ou ld a jo u r­ nalist accede to the d em ands o f crim inals? In the abstract, the answ ers w ould ce r­ tainly be no. In the reality o f a given situation , the answ ers are not so easy. S u ch was the case o f a C olorad o Springs, C O , T V station ’s involvem ent in the appreh ension o f two fugitives in late Janu ary 2001. T h e two were the last o f “T h e Texas S e v e n ,” who had escaped from a T exas prison in D ecem ber and were su s­ pected o f killing a police officer near D allas. A fter that, their w hereabouts were unknow n until som eone in a sm all com m unity near C olorad o Springs recognized them from a report on “A m erica’s M ost W anted.” Four were apprehended, one co m m itted suicide, and two elu ded police for several days, until they were co r­ nered in a C o lo rad o Springs m otel room. A fter hours o f negotiations, the fugitives agreed to surrender but for one final request: a live interview on the local T V station they had been w atching in their room . T h a t station was the C B S affiliate, KK TV . N ew s director Brian R ackh am agreed to go talk to the officers involved in the negotiations. O n ce he w as “ thor­ oughly co n v in ced ” that the live interview was the only way to end the standoff, he gave the go-ah ead . T h e interviewer would be Eric Singer, K K T V ’s m ain anchor, who w as given no ground rules about w hat specific qu estion s to ask, but w as told to avoid "h o t button q u estio n s” such as those involving the fugitives’ escap e or su bsequ ent crim es. Singer interview ed the fugitives via telephone, giving each 5 m inutes o f air tim e during which they gave ram bling statem en ts about the T exas prison system and answ ered S in g er’s qu estion s about how they en ded up in his com m unity. T h e time was shortly after 3 a.m . A fter the interviews, the fugitives kept their word and surrendered peacefully. In their room afterward, police found a cach e o f loaded w eapons. Twelve hours later, a Denver, C O , T V reporter called to ask i f ! would agree to an interview about the eth ics and propriety o f what K K T V had done. T h e inter­ viewer expressed surprise at my answ ers, apparently expectin g an “ ivory tow er” response, an abstract answ er that said journalists m ust never becom e an arm o f law enforcem ent or a conduit for crim inals. Instead, I said that being a journalist d o es not preclude one from being a citizen. I felt that the potential for a greater good outw eighed the eth ical co n cern s in this case. T h e Poynter Institute, one o f the m ost respected sources on journalistic ethics, criticized the station for violating the barriers betw een journalists and law en ­ forcem ent. A D enver new spaper colum nist criticized Sin ger as a “celebrity relay” for the fugitives, saying his role underm ined his, and the m edia’s, journalistic credibility. W as the station helping law enforcem ent? M ost certainly. W as the station al­ lowing crim inals a live, unedited forum for w hatever they w anted to say? N o qu es­ tion. D id the statio n becom e part o f the new s instead o f ju st reporting it? N o dou bt, as eviden ced by the num ber o f nation al and local interviews Sin ger gave in the hours after the surrender. But did the station also serve its com m unity? For me this was the crucial q u es­ tion, and the answ er was em phatically yes. T V station s are som etim es criticized for not doing enough to serve their com m unities, for caring more about profits th an people. In this case, from my view point, the people won. From the tim e we

84

ETHICS

85

learned the fugitives were in C olorado, until the last two were captured, the entire state— and certainly the area around C olorado Springs— was on heightened alert. T h e remaining fugitives were known to be heavily armed, and their ring­ leader, by then in jail, had adm itted the group killed the officer in Texas. T h e T V station was given an opportunity to effect a peaceful surrender, relieving a nervous community and potentially saving lives, by offering unabridged air time at 3 o ’clock in the morning. For me, there was very little harm, and a great deal o fco m ­ munity benefit, in the station cooperating. O f the criticism he and the station received, news director R ackham told me, "I understand, in the world o f theory, you don't want to be doing this.” But he saw this case as a perfect exam ple o f why rules are made to be broken. A nd the co m ­ munity benefit obviously weighed into his decision. “We are citizens in this town, too,” Rackham said. Dan Dennison, news director at rival K O A A -T V was critical o f police for granting K K T V such extraordinary access behind police lines. But he was certain he would have m ade the sam e decision his counterpart, Brian R ackham , did. “O ne o f our roles is to be public servants, too,” D ennison said. “Journalists som etim es forget that we’re people first.” Dennison, like others, worries about the potential this incident has for inspiring copycats to seek out the media. T h at, indeed, is one argument for not acquiescing to criminals or anyone else seeking an open forum. But this was not a precedent-setting case. There have been such cases in the past, perhaps most famously the publi­ cation o f the Unabom ber’s m anifesto several years ago. Shortly thereafter, Ted Kaczynski’s brother recognized his writing and Kaczynski was arrested. C ases like this happen so infrequently that they become news when they do. In my own research, my interviews with dozens o f T V news viewers have made me realize many people feel a symbolic tic to local news. For me, this case was an opportunity to reflect on the different roles local news organizations fill in their comm unities, and perhaps to define them in a less restrictive way. Lee H ood is a B roadcast N ew s faculty member at the University o f Colorado. BO X 5.4

T h e n ew s p r o c e s s r e m a in s a m y stery to m o st o f th e a u d ie n c e , w h ich d raw s its ow n c o n c lu sio n s , n o t alw ay s c o m p lim e n ta ry . A fre q u e n t r e sp o n s e by jo u r ­ n a lists w h en th ey a re c r itic iz e d for p a n d e r in g to th e p u b lic w ith v io le n t c o n ­ te n t is, “ W e’re ju st g iv in g th e p e o p le w h at th ey w a n t.” H o w e v e r, e th ic s a u th o r D e n i E llio t (1 9 8 7 ) s u g g e s te d th a t m e d ia a re d u c k in g th e issu e w h e n th ey u se th a t e x c u se . Jo u r n a lis ts h a v e th e sk ill, k n o w le d g e , a n d r e sp o n sib ility to d e te r ­ m in e w h at p e o p le n e e d to know . “N e w s m e d ia are n o t r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e p e o p le ’s d e sir e s, th ey a r e p r o fe ssio n a l in te rp r e te rs o f in fo r m a tio n a l n e e d s ” (E llio t, 1 9 8 7 , p. 1 0 ). H o w ev er, th a t p o w er m u st b e u se d ju d ic io u sly . E th ic a l jo u r n a lism is th e r e su lt o f th e m e d ia realizin g th eir p o w e r a n d th e ir o b lig a tio n s (E llio t, 1 9 8 7 ). Jo u r n a lists h a v e a n a v e r sio n to an sw e rin g for th eir a c tiv itie s. R T N D A C h a ir ­ w o m an B a r b a r a C o c h r a n say s trad itio n ally , T V h as d o n e a p o o r jo b o f e x p la in ­ in g itse lf to th e p u b lic (H ey b o er, 1 9 9 9 ). E v e n w h en th e d e c is io n m a k e rs h av e

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CHAPTER 5

considered the ethical im plications o f their actions, when it turns out wrong, people see it as a m istake instead o f a decision m ade with deliberation. A nd although one person— or even a group— may make an ethical decision on a story, that decision, in the confusion o f deadlines, must be com m unicated to all. T h at obviously was not done in Denver, CO . In O ctober 1999, a D enver sta­ tion aired a story abou t a man who tied up rush hour traffic by lodging him self on a downtown statue, claiming he had dynamite strapped to his body. T h e decision was made, correctly, to withhold the person’s name, and the reporter clearly stated it in his narrative. However, the person who edited the videotape appar­ ently did not get the word. A docum ent displayed on the screen clearly showed the man’s nam e, at the very mom ent the reporter was saying that the name was being withheld. It not only shows the station as insensitive, but incompetent. M edia do not always use their freedoms well, raising the occasional call for som e sort o f m echanism to hold them accountable (Pritchard, 2000). O ne m ech­ anism that journalists them selves have used is self-criticism, and one form o f that is the journalism review (Bunton, 2000). However, in a study o f journalism re­ views, Bunton (2000) did not find much evidence o f the impact o f journalism re­ views on the profession: “ It is asserted, but rarely dem onstrated” (Bunton, 2000, p. 72). Bunton studied the content o f the St. Louis Journalism Review and found only 18 articles in 38 issues had media criticism as their primary theme, and “only 11 had reform as the dom inant them e” (Bunton, 2000, p. 81). She also found that the St. Louis Journalism Review lacked influence with St. Louis journalists, and questioned the ability o f the reviews to provide meaningful self-regulation. There are several reasons why journalists need to be concerned with ethics. O n a practical level, viewers are not usually idle and passive. They are thinking and rea­ soning human beings. They not only have opinions on whether ethically question­ able material should be shown, they have an opinion on how a questionable story might be changed to make it acceptable (Lind, 1993). They are critical viewers. Merrill (1997) gave two com m onsense reasons why journalists should be ethical: a) because people in general are concerned about journalism ethics, and b) because journalists need the self-respect and satisfaction that com es from doing w hat is right. People, according to Merrill (1997), want journalism that is “dependable, credible, truthful, balanced, unbiased, thoughtful, inter­ pretive, considerate, em pathetic, and realistic” (p. 31). Lam beth (1992) set out five principles to encourage ethical behavior: truthful­ ness, justice, freedom, hum aneness, and stewardship. H e said it is imperative that journalists develop the skills to achieve these principles. They must know how to be truthful, and how to dig for information they can present as truthful. They must know com passion and have a sense o f morals. They must have the strength to remain free o f outside influence. However, the responsibility does not lie solely with individual journalists. T h e com panies they work for must be participants. T h e stations m ust encourage an atm osphere o f truthfulness within the culture o f the newsroom. T h e station must provide opportunities for reporters to hone their skills. T h e station m ust put hum aneness over ratings so the journalist feels at lib­

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erty to leave out sensitive video or to cover a story with som e sort o f com passion both for the victim s and the audience. C o m p assion ap peared to be lacking in a D allas, T X , T V statio n ’s report o f a 1999 shooting. A 13-year-old boy was shot by a 16-year-old boy w ho lived in the sam e house. T h e family w as not nam ed, alth ough video o f the house in a neigh ­ borhood o f only 16 hom es was show n, and the family was clearly identified as having recently m oved from A lab am a. A t the end o f the live story, the reporter said th at police h ad not released the nam e o f the 16-year-old w ho was being questioned becau se o f ju venile protection laws, but neigh bors told the reporter that the su sp ect w as the brother o f the victim . A lth ou g h m edia are not proh ib­ ited from releasing su ch inform ation, from an eth ical point o f view it is insensi­ tive for the statio n to sp ecu late, although it had fairly reliable inform ation, or to identify the sh ooter w hen the police w ould not. N ew s directors sh ou ld help their staffs sh arpen their reporting and ethical skills by sending them to w orkshops, sem inars, and co n feren ces. T h e Poynter Institute, for exam p le, has grow n into one o f the m ost prestigious and prom i­ nent sch ools for w orking journalists. It offers sessions in eth ics, as well as various reporting skills. T h e R T N D A holds a 4-day an n u al co n ven tio n , at w hich re­ porters ca n a tten d session s on alm ost any asp ect o f b road cast journalism . T h e Society o f Professional Jo u rn alists’ an n u al co n ven tio n covers all aspects o f jo u r­ nalism . R egion al w orkshops by R T N D A , the Society o f P rofessional Jou rnalists, and oth er organ izations, give jou rn alists even m ore opportu nities to develop their skills. A s with m ost problem s, that o f the eth ics o f violen ce in T V news does not have just on e cau se. O th er issues include the following: • • • • • • •

T h e tech nology to g o live from virtually anyw here and get cau gh t w hen a violent situ ation erupts. A lack o f solid eth ics background. Pressures to get the story first. In cessan t d eadlines. A n em ph asis on ratings. T h e new sroom or statio n atm osphere. Poor co m m u n ic atio n dow n the line on ce a d ecision is m ade.

CHAPTER SUMMARY Ethics and m edia accou n tab ility issues are im portan t in the stu dy o f crim e co v ­ erage on local television news. T h e decisions th at new sroom s m ake about the stories co vered , lead m aterial ch osen , vid eo u sed, an d live sh ots planned, should be based on eth ic al principles and not sim ply bu sin ess co n cern s. O ften local television new sroom s face difficult decision s over the use o f d ram atic and violent video.

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

2. 3.

4.

5.

M u ch o f television reporting is done as team s o f reporters, photographers, an d som etim es producers. H ow would you assu re th at ethical decisions are m ade so th at all view points are heard? W h at should be the procedure to assure th at everyone is aw are o f the decision? U n d er w hat circu m stan ces w ould you air vid eo o f a suicide? W h at are the reasons, both practical and eth ical, for your decisions? M an y T V statio n s th at show crim e an d violen ce in their new scasts say they are ju st giving the view ers w hat they w ant. D o you agree or disagree with th at philosophy? W hy? If you were a television news director, how w ould you interpret the Society o f P rofessional jo u rn alists and R T N D A ’s C o d es o f E thics that discourage the use o f violen t im ages on new scasts? Your T V statio n has aired the story o f the 16-year-old boy sh ootin g a 13-year-old boy. Your reporter h as said that although police are w ithh old­ ing the nam e o f the 16-year-old, neighbors have said h e’s the brother o f the victim . W h en a listener calls you, the news director, to com plain , w hat will your reply be?

6 Coverage of the Courts, Prisons, and Capital Punishment

"The corporate media, by willfully ignoring the dimensions today’s prison crisis has reached, is keeping the public uninformed, and in doing so subverting the public interest. ” — D aniel B urton-R ose, freelance journalist (1998, p. 29) T h is c h a p t e r c o n s id e r s r e p o r tin g o f c o u r th o u s e n e w s, p r iso n c o v e r a g e , a n d c a p ­ ita l p u n ish m e n t. T h e c h a p t e r e x a m in e s w h y a few c a s e s o u t o f m a n y a t t r a c t a t ­ te n tio n o f lo c a l T V n e w sro o m s. D r a m a tic e v e n ts p lay a n im p o r ta n t ro le in a ttr a c t in g n ew s r e p o r ts a b o u t p r is ­ o n s a n d th e d e a th p e n a lty : W hile few com m entators m ention how the m edia cover prisons, those who do generally agree on two critical points: that the press hardly atten d s to prison life at all and that w hat coverage there is usually co n cern s outbursts such as escap es and riots. (Lotz, 1991, p. 141) In so m e c a s e s , th e re is e v id e n c e th a t n e w s p a p e r s d o a slig h tly b e tte r jo b th a n lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s o f c o v e r in g p r iso n s. A lt h o u g h lo c a l te le v isio n n e w s d e ­ p a r tm e n ts fre q u e n tly c o v e r c r im e s to r ie s , th e y o fte n ig n o re r o u tin e p riso n c o n ­ d itio n s . A p r iso n rio t, o n th e o th e r h a n d , m ig h t b e d r a m a t ic e n o u g h to w a r ra n t c o v e r a g e . L ik e w ise , th e e x e c u tio n o f a d e a t h ro w in m a te is n ew sw orth y . In so m e s t a t e s , s u c h a s F lo r id a a n d T e x a s, e x e c u tio n s h a v e b e c o m e c o m m o n o c c u r ­ r e n c e s. In o th e r s t a t e s , s u c h a s N e b r a s k a a n d M in n e s o t a , e x e c u tio n s a re ra re or a re n o t a le g a l o p tio n . T h is c h a p t e r e x a m in e s lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s c o v e r a g e o f c r im in a l p u n ish m e n t. L o c a l te le v isio n n e w s is m o st lik ely to c o v e r c r im e s as e v e n ts th a t h a v e ju s t h a p p e n e d , a n d th e y so m e tim e s c o v e r th e o u tc o m e o f a 89

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CHAPTER 6

c a se . B u t w h en it c o m e s to th e fate o f c rim in als after se n te n c in g , th ere is m in i­ m al c o v e ra g e o f in m a te s b e h in d b ars.

OUT OF SIGHT, OUT OF MIND L o c a l te le v isio n n ew s p a r tic ip a te s in th e crim in a l p r o c e s s by its d e c isio n to pay a tte n tio n to or ig n o re p a r tic u la r c a s e s. L o c a l te le v isio n n ew s is c o n sid e r e d to be a m a in so u r c e o f in fo rm a tio n , so a la c k o f c o v e ra g e w ou ld lim it w h at th e p u b lic k n o w s. In th e b r o a d e s t se n se , so c ie ty view s th e p u n ish m e n t o f c rim in a ls as fu n c tio n a l: It is a legal m echanism that allows us to take som e o f our fellow citizens and lock them in cages— or even kill them. Actually imposing such hard treatm ent on peo­ ple typically curtails their liberty, stigmatizes and hum iliates them, and makes them suffer. Merely the threat o f such treatm ent, o f course, limits the liberty o f all citizens by m aking them afraid to engage in certain conduct. (Murphy, 1995, p. 1) S o m e view h a rsh tr e a tm e n t in p riso n as v alid b e c a u se it is p a rt o f th e p u n ish ­ m e n t, a n d it se rv e s so c ie ta l n o tio n s o f ju stic e as d e fin e d by fa irn e ss: “ B e in g first v irtu e s o f h u m a n a c tiv itie s, tru th a n d ju stic e are u n c o m p r o m isin g ” (R aw ls, 1 9 9 9 , p. 4 ). It is p o ssib le , h ow ever, to view im p riso n m e n t as a n in e ffe c tiv e an d u n fair d e te rre n t: W hile the threat o f a lengthy prison sentence is undoubtedly very effective at d e ­ terring white collar crimes that tend to be comm itted by middle class individuals, they are probably far less effective in deterring the crim es com m itted by underclass individuals, who are the primary occupants o f prisons, and for whom the increm ent o f pain associated with prison time may be far less severe than it would be for those ensconced in a comfortable job. (Blumstein, ¡9 9 5 , p. 417) T h e r e is d e b a te a b o u t th e d e te r r e n t e ffe c t o f im p riso n m e n t a t a tim e w h en ta x p a y e rs fa c e e v e r-in c re a sin g c o sts o f p riso n o p e r a tio n . T oday, th e a v e r a g e a n ­ n u a l c o st p er p riso n e r is a b o u t $ 2 0 ,0 0 0 (B lu m ste in , 1 9 9 5 , p. 4 1 6 ) . D e sp ite th e d ra m a tic g ro w th in p riso n p o p u la tio n d u rin g th e la st q u a r te r cen tu ry , th e c o m ­ p le x issu e s su rro u n d in g in c a rc e ra tio n ten d to be a v o id e d by p o litic ia n s a n d th e new s m ed ia : ... prisons have m ade the news in recent years because crowding and financial pressures have pushed them into the political and econom ic arenas. It is news when society runs out o f space and starts diverting its unwanted to tin sheds, tents, barges, mess halls, and military bases. It is also news when new jails and pris­ ons are built or planned. T h e usual response to them is “ not in my backyard.” (Lotz, 1991, pp. 155-156)

FIG. 6.1

C rim e Stop pers began in A lb u qu erq ue, N M , in 1976. C itizens, m edia, and police forged a partnership in an effort to provide crim e-solving assistan ce to law e n ­ forcem ent. A cash reward w as offered to anonym ous persons who telephoned the C rim e Stopp ers h ot line with inform ation that led to arrests and indictm ents. T h e C rim e Stop pers program boasts an average con viction rate o f 95% on cases solved by C rim e Sto p p ers’ tips. T h e C rim e Stoppers program s worldwide have solved over a h alf a m illion crim es an d recovered over 3 billion dollars w orth o f stolen property and narcotics. Today, there are over 1,000 C rim e Stoppers program s in the U n ited S ta tes, C an ad a, U n ited Kingdom , A ustralia, So u th A frica, Baham as, British West Indies, M icron esia, and oth er nations. C rim e Stop pers m ethods, ob jectives, su ccesses, and phone num bers are publi­ cized on a regular basis by the m edia. A n unsolved “C rim e o f the W eek” is given special treatm en t with d etails published in new spapers, on radio, an d in certain cases a reenactm ent on television (Crim e Stoppers, 2001). In the case o f local television news, som e have criticized the involvem ent o f law enforcem ent personnel in the news decision-m aking process. By becom ing a part o f the Crim e Stoppers program , a local television station gives up som e content co n ­ trol over a segm ent o f its new scast. A second criticism o f C rim e Stoppers is the use o f re-creations within a new scast when surveillance cam era video is n ot available. A lthough having entertainm ent value, re-creations fall outside o f the norm al jou r­ nalistic process o f airing only actual footage. O ften, C rim e Stoppers segm ents use actors that fit suspect descriptions. If facts are missing, it is com m on to speculate about w hat might have happened. A third criticism is that m any crim es featured by C rim e Stoppers show minority suspects. T h e highly dram atic portrayal o f crime scene re-creations m ay function to heighten fear about crime in a community.

BOX 6.1

Local TV News and Crime Stoppers. 91

Award-Winning Local Television News Reporter Explains Prison Interview Difficulties Mike McKnight is an investigative reporter with W O W T -T V in O m aha, N E . What follows is his description o f how television reporters gain access to prisons and inmates. H e didn’t speak, but his eyes called me vulture. C ondem ned murderer H arold “W alkin’ W illie” O tey stood 10 feet away, and 1 listened as the deputy warden read his death w arrant. Forty-five minutes later, I would w atch him die in the electric chair. Probably because I was a witness to the execution, he never granted me an in­ terview. But in 23 years, I’ve had my share o f “on e-on -on es” with killers. Som e on death row, m ost doing life, and a few found not guilty by reason o f insanity. Every time it begins with a pat search followed by that walk through turnkey with the sounds o f m etal doors clanging shut. Usually an inm ate or two yells, “Hey, I'm not guilty" or “T h e adm inistration is violating my rights” or simply, “ Look at my case.” Everybody in prison is “ innocent” or “ abused by the system. ” J ust ask them. You approach a prison inm ate or jail prisoner for an interview always knowing that nothing behind bars is free. I’m not talking about m oney chan ging hands. But w hether spoken or not, the inm ate will be asking, “ W h at’s in it for m e?” T h a t’s where the reporter m ust becom e salesm an. First, start with jail or prison officials. Find out who w ould handle co n tact with an inm ate and w hat are the institution’s “ rules” for an interview. In m ost facilities, if an inm ate agrees to an interview, he has th at right. However, w ardens can re­ quire attorney approval. If a prison or jail official agrees to pass your request on to an inm ate, leave a telephone num ber and time for a call back when you will be there to answer. C h an ces are it will be a collect call. If officials will not act as a go-betw een, then try to find the attorney representing the inm ate. M ost killers have ongoing app eals. Or, as an alternative you could write the inm ate a letter, and enclose a self-addressed stam ped envelope. You know the open ing line: “ I want to tell your side o f the story.” But som e in­ m ates, especially in high-profile cases, know that you really w ant an exclusive. I always ask if there is a particu lar issue or passion they w ant oth ers to hear about. M aybe it is religion or jailh ouse lawyering or unfair shakedow n searches o f inm ate cells. Rem em ber, “ W h at’s in it for m e?” A lth ou g h m ore d ifficu lt, even p atien ts in m ental in stitu tion s can be a c c e ssi­ ble to interview s. A family m em ber is a good start there. B u t d o n ’t let it get you dow n if a d o o r slam s in your face. A psychiatrist w orking with a high-profile p a­ tient can also be a good start for an interview request. H ow ever, your reason s for the interview m ust be well th ou ght ou t. Is there a certain type o f therapy you can highlight? R em em ber, psych iatric p rofession als like their work publicized too. O r m aybe the p atien t and d o cto r w ant to prove there is no d an ger in su pervised excu rsio n s back in to society. T h a t sale s pitch w orked for me on a m other who m urdered her four kids yet, after being found not guilty by reason o f insanity, was released after therapy. C orrection al issues don’t ju st involve inm ate interviews. Prison sta ff have their own problem s, from funding to training, although it may be tougher to get them on record becau se they all fear for their jobs. U nion leaders and state senators with an interest in corrections can be good sources. 92

COVERAGE OF THE COURTS

93

Believe me, if you develop a reputation as a journalist with an objective and fair interest in corrections, word will get around. Soon, those on the inside will be calling you with stories; usually collect. Source: Mike McKnight, essay to authors, December 1999.

BO X 6.2

M ass m edia participate in prom oting a view that stresses the need to be tough on crim inals. M ed ia atten tion th at focuses on street gang crim e and prison violen ce and riots ten ds to m iss the larger c o n tex t o f the prison story (Jacobs, 1977). A s a C h ic ag o radio personality, w ho stu d ied Illinois prisons, once observed, the public seem s uninterested in know ing m ore about prisons: Out of sight, out o f mind; keep them there. T hat’s where they belong, and don’t let them out until their time is up. And, if they can readjust to society, fine. If not, throw them back in again. (Baum, in Lipschultz, 1980, p. 22) R acism , by som e acco u n ts, helps explain why the prison problem is ignored. C ivil rights leader Je sse Jac k so n believes th at racial discrim ination rem ains a part o f A m erican life: “ ... ju st as there are over one m illion blacks in college, there are m ore th an one m illion in prison” (Jack son , 2 0 00, p. 10). H e cites high profile m edia cases su ch as the O . J. Sim pson m urder trial and the sh ootin g o f A m ad ou D iallo in N ew York as incidents that su ggest that race is a “ vexing” social problem . It is fairly co m m on for state and federal p olitician s to say they are “ tough on crim e,” and for m edia, including local television news, to d o “C rim e Sto p p ers” features (L avrakas, R o sen b au m ,.& Lurigio, 1990). T h e co v erage o f crim e as a societal evil fits with new s values. T h e com plex is­ sues o f prisons an d prisoners, however, d o n ot lend them selves to brief sound bites. “ It is im portant to find ways to rem ove prison policy from a primarily polit­ ical agen d a th at reacts to the crim e o f the m om ent, an d to develop a coherent sch edule and process o f im posing pu nish m en t an d controlling offen ders” (Blum stein, 1995, p. 4 1 7 ).

PRISON AND MEDIA ACCESS O n e o f the difficulties th at local television new sroom s face in d ealing with prison co verage is th e lack o f access to prison facilities. T h e co urts h ave inter­ preted the First A m e n d m en t to g uaran tee a right to publish w ithout g overn ­ m ental restrain t, bu t the right to publication d o es n ot assu re acc ess to

CHAPTER 6

94

new sw orthy inform ation or places. A few local statio n s, m ost notably N orthern C aliforn ia public television statio n K Q E D , h ave tested the limits. In the late 1970s, K Q E D sou gh t acc ess to the A lam e d a C o u n ty Jail. In the end, the U n ited S ta te s Su p rem e C o u rt, in a split d ecision , foun d th at m edia enjoys no sp ecial privilege o f acc ess beyond th at w hich officials gran t to the public in g en eral" (N elson & Teeter, 1986, p. 4 6 3 ). In the early 1990s, K Q E D w anted b ro a d ca st vid eo o f an ex ecu tio n at S a n Q u en tin . A federal d istrict co urt ruled th at the prison w arden co uld restrict acc ess: “ P roh ibition o f cam eras, still or television, from the ex ecu tio n w itness area is a reason ab le and lawful reg u la­ tion” (K Q E D v. Vasquez, 1991, in Gillm or, B arron , & S im o n , 1998, p. 43 5 ). G iv en the restricted acc ess local television new sroom s face, it should not be surprising th at prison co verag e is sporad ic. In a h andful o f states, m edia access to prisoners for interview s h as been ban ned. In a num ber o f states, efforts are underw ay to m ake it m ore difficult for local news reporters to talk with prisoners. The C D C ’s [California Department o f Corrections] attempt to shut out the me­ dia from the largest prison system in the world is part o f a well-coordinated effort in several other states. California’s regulations are closely monitored by other prison administrators because the state’s prison rules are often used as a model for prison systems in the remainder of the country. (Wisely, 1998, p. 44) A s prison barriers to access are erected, the job o f a local television news re­ porter wishing to d o a story about a prisoner or prison life becom es more difficult.

PRISON RIOTS MAKE NEWS O n e ex cep tio n to the general rule th at prisons tend not to be co vered by local television new s is the prison riot. In cases w here inm ates h ave rioted, injured, or killed oth er in m ates or g uards, or disrupted routine prison operation s, jo u r­ n alists tend to see new s v alu e. For local television new s, the prison riot lends it­ se lf to live sh ots. It is a breakin g story involvin g safety in the com m unity, law en forcem en t, w eapon s, an d dram a. In som e cases, a h ostage crisis unfolds. N ew s live tru cks and h elicopters can be se n t to the scen e to provide im m ediate co verag e o f the ev en t as it happen s. D uring the 1990s, prison d istu rban ces co n tin u ed to be newsworthy. For e x ­ am ple, in O cto b er o f 1995 a riot at a federal prison in T alladega, A L , becam e a local and n ation al story. W B R C ’s A n toyn e G reen told C N N that six guards were injured in a prison with a history o f distu rban ces: Now police, as you can probably hear, helicopters arc still in the air and police arc still searching the area for possible escapees__ Now, when we first arrived here

M ore than 4 ,2 0 0 people h ave been ex ecu ted via the electric ch air in the U n ited S ta te s. T h e electric ch air originally was co n sid ered m ore h um ane than public hangings. A t issue today is w hether the electric ch air is a painful m eans o f takin g a co n d em n ed killer's life. Follow ing is a listing o f som e o f the key developm en ts in the ad option and d eclin e o f the use o f the electric chair: •

1881— T h e electric ch air is proposed by a Buffalo, NY, dentist. H e was

•

inspired by an accidental, and apparently painless, death. 1888— N ew York becam e the first state to adopt the electric ch air as

• • •

its m eans o f capital punishm ent. 1890— N ew York perform ed the first execution by electric chair. 1923— Florida’s “O ld Sparky” electric ch air was built by inm ates. 1972— T h e U .S. Suprem e C o u rt’s Furman v. Georgia decision struck

•

dow n the d eath penalty as uncon stitutional. 1976— In the Gregg v. Georgia decision, the Suprem e C o u rt ruled that rewritten state d eath penalty laws are constitution al. A t the sam e time,

• •

states begin to m ove toward lethal injection as the m eans o f execution. 1979— Electric ch air execu tions resum e for the first time since 1972. 1990— A botched electric chair execution in Florida prom pted public

•

controversy. 1999— A new electric chair in Florida failed to quell public concerns about electrocutions. T h e Suprem e C ourt agreed to consider whether

•

the electric chair should be outlaw ed as “cruel and unusual punishm ent.” 2 0 0 0 — Florida shifted to leth al in je ctio n . T h e two rem ain in g state s using the ele ctric chair, A lab am a an d N eb rask a, co n sid ered en d in g the p ractice in favor o f lethal in jection . In May, a d istrict ju d ge in N e b ra sk a ruled th at the m eth od u sed — three p au ses betw een four jo lts o f electricity — w as cru el an d u n u su al pu n ish m en t. A t the sam e tim e, N ew H am p sh ire ’s govern or p rom ised to veto a bill th at w ould repeal the d e ath p en alty — so m e th in g no state has d on e sin ce the U .S . Su p rem e C o u rt rein stated c a p ital pu n ish m en t. In Illin ois, the g overn or su sp e n d ed all ex ecu tio n s pen din g a study. T h irte e n d e ath row in m ates in th at sta te w ere released after it w as learn ed they w ere eith er wrongly or unfairly co n v icte d .

Sources: John Cook, Mother Jones, 25, p. 27; Robynn Tysver, “Execution method rejected," Ornaha World'Herald, May 8, 2000, p. 13; Leslie Reed, "Anti'exccurion push parallels Nebraska’s,'’ Omaha

BOX 6.3

A Brief History of the Electric Chair in the United States.

95

96

CHAPTER 6 about maybe three hours ago, ambulances and emergency crews were consis­ tently streaming down the road, trying to get into the prison. Otherwise, all of the roads leading up to the prison were blocked off. (Cable News Network, 1995)

In an o th e r riot, a v io len t clash o ccu rred b etw een H isp an ic A m e ric a n an d A fric a n A m e rican in m ate s at the N ew Folsom P rison in C alifo rn ia in S e p te m ­ ber 1996. O n e in m ate d ied , an d 13 oth ers w ere injured. C N N rep o rter G reg Lefevre em ph asized p rison overcrow d in g an d racial ten sion s: It happened here, the exercise yard at the new maximum-security Folsom prison— violence between black and Hispanic inm ates.... Guards used pepper spray, then batons, rubber bullets, then live, lethal ammunition. They fired at least fourteen tim es.... This fight may have been anticipated, or even planned. Guards found inmates armed with knives, fingernail clippers and sharpened toothbrushes.... Problems between Blacks and Hispanics here are made worse by overcrowding. More than 3,000 inmates live here— nearly twice as many as the 1,700 it’s supposed to hold. (Cable News Network, 1996) A s is o ften the c a se w ith su c h live an d b re ak in g new s, n etw o rk s su c h as C N N first rely on retra n sm issio n o f lo c al s ta tio n b r o a d c a s ts, so m e tim e s follow w ith lo c a l re p o rter sta n d -u p s an d p a c k a g e s, an d m ay se n d a C N N re p o rter to th e sc e n e for follow -u p an d o n g o in g co v e ra g e . C N N , in this c a se , in terview ed th en C a lifo rn ia G o v e rn o r Pete W ilson , w ho sa id th e figh t w as b e tw een two prison g a n g s, a n d th a t it w as racially o rgan ize d . B e y o n d prison riot c o v e ra g e , th ere h a s b e en so m e lo c al te le v isio n new s c o v e ra g e o f g a n g -re la te d crim e s said to b e d ire cte d by g a n g le ad e rs from b e h in d th e w alls o f priso n s. Ju s t as prison riots o r g a n g -re la te d crim e lead to lo cal new s c o v e ra g e , so to o d o e s th e p r o s­ p e c t o f a sta te - sp o n so r e d e x e c u tio n . D e a th p en alty c a s e s are se e n by n ew s­ ro o m s as d ra m a tic new s e v e n ts th a t w arran t su b sta n tia l c o v e ra g e .

MASS MEDIA AND THE DEATH PENALTY T h e d ea th pen alty in gen eral, an d ex ecu tio n by electric ch air in particular, p ro ­ d u ces a difficult set o f circu m stan ces for local television new s. O n th e on e h an d , television new s is called o n to cover, an d ev e n to treat as norm al, d e ath pen alty proced u res o f the sta te. O n the oth er h and, electric c h air ex ecu tio n s arc view ed by m any as in h u m an e an d a painful d eath (Frcedburg, 1997). In a reccn t G allu p Poll, 51 % o f A m e rican s said the d eath pen alty is applied fairly in the U n ited S ta te s, bu t 4 1 % b elieve it is applied unfairly. Two thirds o f A m e rican s, 66% , su p ­ port the d eath penalty. S u p p o rt h as declin ed in recen t years from a high o f 80 % in 1 994 (Jon es, 2 0 0 0 ). In v en te d m ore th an 100 years ag o , th e ele ctric ch air w as originally se e n “ as a qu ick an d p ain less e x e cu tio n m eth o d after w itn esses w ere sh o c k e d by han gin gs th a t w ent aw ry” (F reed bu rg, 1 997, p. A 1). H ow ever, a b o tch ed e le ctric ch air ex ­

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ecution in Florida in 1997 add ed to the deb ate over w hether the chair in states where it is m an d ated sh ould be replaced by lethal injection (Clary, 1997). T h e re is exten siv e research on the d eath penalty, but little research co n n e c t­ ing it to the m ass m edia. By the late 1960s, about 1 in 10 co n v icted m urderers was sen ten ced to d eath (Steven s, 1978). T h is w as a ch an ge from the perception o f ju stice in 1791, w hen the E ighth A m en d m en t was adopted. A t th at tim e “ a d eath sen ten ce was im posed w ithout qu estions on every person co n victed o f a capital o ffen se” (Ste v en s, 1978, p. 10). From 1930 to 1967, an average o f m ore th an 100 U .S. ex ecu tion s were carried out each year (C arelli, 1997). A brief S u ­ prem e C ourt m oratorium in the early 1970s followed. T h e rein statem en t o f the d eath penalty in 1976 led to only six execu tion s through 1982 (Boellstorff, 1996). D uring the late 1970s and 1980s the U .S. S u ­ prem e C ourt defined cap ital d efen d an ts’ rights and en cou raged “ expeditious ex ecu tio n s” (W hite, 1991, p. 5). T h e num ber o f execu tion s in the U n ited S ta te s sin ce 1982 h as risen steadily from five in 198.3 to 74 in 1997— the m ost since 1955 (Carelli, 1997). By the early 1990s, significant ch an ges in the capital pu nish m en t system led sch olars to predict th at the num ber o f execu tion s would in crease in all regions o f the country (W hite, 1991). T h e re seem s to be agreem en t am on g d eath p en ­ alty scholars th at public opinion polls reflect co n sisten t su pport for cap ital p u n ­ ishm ent. In a 1977 survey, for exam p le, 40% o f resp o n d e n ts su pported m andatory cap ital p u nish m en t in all first-degree m urder cases. A n o th er 44% said it depen d s on th e circu m stan ces. O nly 13% rejected the d eath penalty (Vidm ar & Ellsw orth, 1982, p. 8 9 ). Su p p ort for the d eath pen alty clim bed d u r­ ing the 1980s, an d is at its highest point since the beginning o f m odern polling in 1952 (C ostan zo & C ostan zo, 1994, p. 249). A lth ou g h su pport for the death penalty h as clim bed over the years, betw een 1974 and 1994 there w as a co n sis­ tent “gender gap” with m en m ore likely th an w om en to su pport execu tion s (A n d ersen , 1997, p. 28). Public attitu d es tow ard capital pu nish m en t are seen as “expressions o f intense an ger tow ard violent crim in als” (C ostan zo & C ostanzo, 1994, p. 252). G itlin (1 9 8 0 ) p o in ted o u t alm o st 2 d e c a d e s ag o th at te le v isio n is a m a g n i­ fying g la ss for A m e ric a n society . O n live telev isio n , “ v isu a l sim u ltan e ity p ro ­ v id es a d im en sio n o f e x p e rie n c e th a t is like bein g tra n sp o rte d to th e sc e n e ” (L a n g & Lan g, 198 4 , p. 2 6 ). A s we d iscu sse d earlier in th is b o o k , crim e new s— an d sp e cific a lly e x e c u tio n s— c a n be view ed from a so c ia l c o n str u c ­ tion o f reality p e rsp e c tiv e . L o c a l telev isio n new s m ay be assu m e d to b e b etter th an “ bein g th e re ” (L an g & L an g, 198 4 ). S tu d ie s o f m ed ia and crim e, ev en the m ost rece n t research , m en tion the d e a th p en alty in passin g, if at all (B ailey & H ale, 1998). R e se a rc h on the so c i­ ology o f new s w ork, as it relates to local television, has id en tified two key g e n ­ eralization s: (a) local new s ten d s to rely on “ ro u tin e” so u rce s, in clud in g g o v ern m en t officials and law en fo rcem en t personn el (R ee se &. Buckalew , 19 9 5 ); an d (b) c o m p e titiv e an d co rp o rate in terests ap p ear to “ help homogenize

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th e n ew s ra th e r th a n diversify it " (E h rlic h , 1 9 9 5 , p. 2 0 5 ) . In th e c a s e o f lo c al T V n ew s c o v e r a g e o f e x e c u tio n s , th e se le c tio n o f th e sa m e s o u r c e s w ill le a d to c o n s o n a n c e in c o v e r a g e . G iv e n th e d r a m a tic n a tu r e o f th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n p r o p o n e n ts a n d o p p o n e n ts o f c a p ita l p u n ish m e n t, lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s s t a ­ tio n s a r e fa c e d w ith a d iffic u lt c h o ic e . E ith e r th ey r e p o r t live fro m th e p riso n sh o w in g sc e n e s o f c o n flic t b e tw e e n d e m o n s tr a to r s , o r th ey c o v e r th e sto ry u s­ in g in - stu d io e x p e r ts fo r a n a ly sis a n d a v o id th e lo c a tio n w h ere th e n ew s w as ta k in g p la c e . T h e lite r a tu r e o n lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s h a s b e e n lim ite d in a d d r e ssin g how lo c a l te le v isio n c o v e r s a n e x e c u tio n . A lt h o u g h p o litic a l sc ie n tis t D o ris G r a b e r (1 9 9 7 ) d e v o t e d a c h a p te r in o n e o f h er b o o k s to n ew s c o v e r a g e o f th e ju stic e sy ste m , s h e d id n o t d isc u ss m e d ia c o v e r a g e o f e x e c u tio n s . G r a b e r w ro te th a t o r g a n iz a tio n a l f a c to r s a r e im p o r ta n t in d e te rm in in g n ew s m a k in g a n d r e p o r t­ in g r o u tin e s: C olleagues and settings strongly influence news people. Every news organization has its own internal power structure that develops from the interaction o f owners, journalists, news sources, audiences, advertisers, and governm ent authorities. In m ost news organizations today, the internal power structure is slightly left of m id­ dle A m erica, yet predom inantly supportive o f the basic tenets o f the current polit­ ical and social system. (Graber, 1997, p. 96) D e tw e ile r (1 9 8 7 ) ex p lo re d jo u r n a lists’ view s o n e x e c u tio n s. H e fo u n d stro n g a g re e m e n t a m o n g jo u r n a lists th a t “T h o s e w h o u se th e site o f a n e x e c u tio n to ra ise th e p u b lic c o n sc io u sn e ss for o r a g a in st th e issu e o f c a p ita l p u n ish m e n t are a n im p o r ta n t p a rt o f th e sto ry ” (p. 4 5 6 ) . T h e s e jo u r n a lists a lso a g re e d th a t o ffi­ c ia l sta te so u r c e s w ere on ly h a lf th e sto ry o f a n e x e c u tio n . T h e jo u rn a lists d is­ a g re e d w ith th e s ta te m e n t th a t “ R e p o rte rs sh o u ld n o t c o v e r d e m o n stra tio n s at th e site o f e x e c u tio n s w h ich are o b v io u sly sta g e d to a ttr a c t th e m e d ia ” (p. 4 5 6 ). C a p ita l p u n ish m e n t d e m o n strato rs m ay c re a te new sw orthy e v e n ts th at “ stress e m o tio n an d d ra m a ” (K an iss, 1991, p. 109). A n e x e c u tio n fits m o d els o f local new sw orth in ess by fo cu sin g o n th e ac tio n s o f g o v e rn m e n t an d th e issue o f crim e. T h e fo cu s o n tra g e d ies o f v ictim s an d p erso n alities o f th e c o n d e m n e d killers h elp lo cal T V new s brin g a h u m an an g le to th e e x e c u tio n story. T h e d e a th p en alty “ rep resen ts sto rie s th at so c iety tells a b o u t itself, sto ries th at ten d to reflect key id eo lo g ical beliefs o f so c ie ty ” (Berkow itz, 1997, p. 4 9 9 ). A t th e sa m e tim e, se n sa tio n aliz e d c o v e ra g e o f a n ex e c u tio n sc e n e fits th e m ark et-d riv en “ lo cal te le ­ v isio n new s fo rm u la ” o f th e 1990s (U n d e rw o o d , 1998, p. 171). T h e m a ss m e d ia se e m to b e a m a jo r so u r c e o f in fo rm a tio n p e o p le u se to d e ­ v e lo p v iew s a b o u t s u c h so c ia l issu e s a s th e d e a th p en alty . “ In th is way, th e m e ­ d ia h a v e p la y e d a n in d ir e c t b u t sig n ific a n t lo n g -te rm ro le in sh a p in g p e o p le ’s th o u g h ts a n d a c t io n s ” ( D e F le u r & D e n n is, 1 9 9 6 , p. 5 9 5 ) . W h e re m e d ia m e s ­ sa g e s a re c o n s o n a n t, it is p o ssib le th a t th e c o n te n t w ill h a v e th e e ffe c t o f in flu ­ e n c in g p e o p le ( N o e lle - N e u m a n n , 1 9 9 5 ).

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It h as b e e n a rg u e d th a t th e m ass m ed ia are w illin g p a r tic ip a n ts in c r e a tin g s o ­ cial m yth s: T h e social construction o f myths o f crimc and crim inal justice seem s to follow a series o f recurrent patterns. T h ese patterns allow for an unprecedented am ount o f social attention to be focused upon a few isolated crim inal events or issues. This attention is prom oted by intense, but often brief, m ass media coverage o f a select problem. (Kappeler et al., 1993, pp. 4 -5) T h is id e a is r e la te d to th e view th a t m a ss m e d ia p o rtra y a ls c o n str u c t so c ia l r e a l­ ity fo r in d iv id u a ls a n d g ro u p s. S u r e tte (1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e d th a t o u r co lle c tiv e view o f p riso n s an d p riso n e rs is sh a p e d by e n te r ta in m e n t p o rtra y a ls, a n d new s c o v e ra g e a p p e a ls to “ v o y e u ristic in stin c ts” (pp. 4 1 , 7 4 ). U ltim a te ly , s u c h a p o rtra it s u p ­ p o rts law -a n d -o rd e r p o lic ie s a n d b e c o m e s “ th e a c c e p te d v e r sio n o f so c ia l r e a l­ ity ” (p. 7 6 ). S o c ia l c o n str u c tio n o f reality b e g a n w ith th e p h ilo so p h ic a l view th a t “ all sy m b o lic u n iv e r se s a n d all le g itim a tio n s are h u m a n p r o d u c ts; th eir e x ­ iste n c e h a s its b a se in th e liv es o f c o n c r e te in d iv id u a ls, an d h a s n o e m p iric a l s t a ­ tu s a p a r t fro m th e se liv e s” (B e rg e r & L u c k m a n n , 1 9 6 6 , p. 1 2 8 ). T h e th eory, in m o re r e c e n t tim e s, h a s b e e n lin k ed to r e se a r c h o n te le v isio n . L a n g a n d L a n g (1 9 8 4 ), a s m e n tio n e d earlier, g e n e raliz e d th a t lo c a l te le v isio n n ew s e m p h a siz e s c lo se -u p v iew s, liv e e v e n t c o v e ra g e , v id e o , a n d o n g o in g rep ortin g. A s S u re tte (1 9 9 8 ) ob served, new s m ed ia largely ignore the p u n ish m en t an d co r­ rection s c o m p o n en ts o f th e crim inal ju stice system : “ In d eed , co rrectio n s is m e n ­ tioned directly so infrequently in the new s th at co n te n t analysis stu d ies discu ssing co rrectio n s are rare” (p. 7 0 ). D e a th pen alty cases an d prison riots m ake new s, but routine ev e n ts d o n ot: “ W h en a new s story d o es d eal w ith correction s, it nearly a l­ ways reports its su b ject in a n egative light or d eals n o t directly w ith correction s but w ith an ex ecu tio n o r a riot” (p. 7 0 ). E ven in ev e n ts d ram atic en o u gh to w arrant lo ­ cal television new s co verag e, im p act o n the public rem ain s u ncertain : It is well established that media coverage can affect the public’s attitudes toward policies and events. It is less clear, however, that these attitudinal shifts affect deeply felt beliefs or that they are long lasting. Public opinion can, at least som e­ times, turn a d e a f ear to the most sensational m edia events. Moreover, the link b e­ tween a news story, public opinion and policy change is difficult to establish; often it is merely assum ed. (Doppelt & M anikas, 1990, p. 129) L o c a l te le v isio n n e w sro o m s are a ttr a c te d to sto rie s th a t fe a tu re th e d ra m a o f a p riso n rio t or im p e n d in g e x e c u tio n , b u t th ey rarely e v e n c o n sid e r how c o r r e c ­ tio n s m igh t b e c o v e re d u n d e r n o rm al c ir c u m sta n c e s .

CHAPTER SUMMARY D r a m a tic e v e n ts play a n im p o r ta n t role in a ttr a c t in g n ew s r e p o rts a b o u t p ris­ o n s a n d th e d e a th pen alty. O n e o f th e d iffic u ltie s th a t lo c a l te le v isio n n e w s­

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room s fa ce in d ealin g w ith p rison co v e ra g e is th e lack o f a c c e ss to prison facilities. O n e ex ce p tio n to th e g en eral rule th at prison s ten d n o t to be co v ere d by lo c a l telev isio n new s is th e prison riot. In c a se s w here in m ate s h ave rioted, in ju red , o r killed o th er in m ate s or g u ard s, or d isru p ted ro u tin e p rison op eration s, jo u rn a lists ten d to se e n ew s v alu e. T h e d e a th p en alty in g en eral, an d e x e ­ c u tio n by e le ctric ch air in p articu lar, how ever, p ro d u c es a d ifficu lt se t o f c irc u m sta n c e s for lo cal telev isio n new s. T h e tran sitio n from ele ctric c h air to le­ th al in je ctio n as th e p referred m eth o d o f e x e c u tio n cre ate d a less d ram atic sto ry for lo cal telev isio n new s. In th e en d , new s m ed ia largely ign ore th e p u n ­ ish m en t an d c o rrectio n s c o m p o n e n ts o f the crim in al ju stic e sy stem .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

D o you believe th at a sto ry ab o u t co rrectio n s in your city m u st h ave d ra ­ m atic ev e n ts to be new sw orthy? H o w m igh t local new s reporters w ork to im prove a c c e ss to p rison facilities for rou tin e co v erag e? A re there new s v alu es in su ch efforts? In a prison riot, w h at are so m e o f th e difficu lties faced by n ew sroom p er­ so n n el in co v erin g th e story? W h a t are so m e o f the p o te n tial h e a d a c h e s asso ciate d w ith live co v erag e from the sc en e o f an ex ecu tio n ? In your opin ion sh ou ld ex ecu tion s be televised? W h at jou rn alistic issues su rface from su ch co verage?

7 Case Study: Three Nebraska Executions

“There is an out-of-town station that is parked right in front of the crowd, the pro-execu­ tion crowd, and the lights they have shining on them and the live shots they are doing are kind of inciting the crowd a little bit.” — Carol Schrader, Omaha,-NE, news anchor (1996) A n y in vestigation o f crim e and local television news co verage m ust in clud e an ex am in atio n o f the u ltim ate pu n ish m en t— the d eath penalty. T h is ch ap ter looks at the evolu tion o f local T V co v erag e o f cap ital pu nish m en t in on e state. T h e focu s is on the portrayal o f the ex ecu tio n s o f H arold O tey, Jo h n Jo u b ert, and R ob ert W illiam s, by four O m ah a, N E , television station s. L ocal television co verag e o f an ex ecu tion scen e is a social co n stru ctio n o f reality, sh ap ed by the social con flict o f sym bols, actors, an d m eanin gs, an d influenced by jo u rn alistic d ecision m aking th at ten ds to create a co n so n an t view am on g m ass m edia. T h e se three ex ecu tio n s provide a particularly clear w indow in to the n ature o f local television news. O n the nights th at O tey and Jo u b ert w ere ex ecu ted , O m a h a television statio n s portrayed the social co n flict betw een su pporters an d o p p o n en ts o f cap ital pu n ish m en t an d em ph asized the d eath pen alty as appropriate ju stice. A lth o u g h m uch is know n ab o u t the ju stice and injustice o f cap ital pu n ish ­ m ent, little h as been w ritten ab o u t the role th at local television news organ iza­ tions play in the public’s perception o f the d eath penalty. T h e case o f H arold O tey provided an opportunity to exam in e the role o f local television in a state where 35 years h ad elapsed betw een execu tion s. T h e case o f Jo h n Jo u b ert pro­ vided an opportunity to study a seco n d m odern-day execu tion. T h e case o f R ob ert W illiam s w as an opportunity to further study the co n ten t o f live televi­ sion broad casts.

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Before discussing m edia coverage o f executions during the 1990s, it is im portant to look back at a high profile case in the early days o f local television news. Shortly after midnight on June 25, 1959, C harles Starkw eather died in N ebraska’s electric chair. H e had been convicted for the murder o f a teenager, and accused o f 10 other homicides. M ost o f those hom icides cxxurred within a 72-hr period in January 1958 in and around Lincoln, N E. Starkw eather was the 20th person executed in N e ­ braska since the state took over these duties from the counties in 1901. Eight o f the 20 were hanged until the electric chair was chosen as the m ethod o f execution in 1913. Local television stations in O m ah a had covered the Starkw eather story from the beginning (Hilt, 1990). By the time Starkw eather was arrested in W yoming and brought to the state penitentiary in Lincoln, local and network television crews were w aiting for him. Intense television coverage co n tin u ed through the Starkw eather execution. “T h e public in the late 1950s w atched television news with a fascination that it does not have today, and because the m edium itself was still new, the television audience easily could be swept up in the program, whether it was entertainm ent or new s” (Hilt, 1990, p. 3). T h e highly dram atic nature o f the crime story led it to be am ong the first to receive nationwide television exposure. Journalists who covered the case said that there appeared to be n o opposition to the imposition o f the d eath penalty on Starkw eather (Hilt, 1990). T h e case study in this ch ap ter involved qualitative analysis o f the co verage o f the three execu tion s by four O m ah a television station s. B ogd an and Biklen (19 9 2 ) defined this type o f qu alitative research as describing p rocesses in the in ­ d u ctiv e se arch for m eanin g. A d dition ally, the cu ltu ral stu d ies ap p ro ach search es for “ the in tersection o f social structure and h u m an agen cy ” (p. 41). T h is ex am in ation looks at local television news co n ten t as sym bolic cultural m essages th at create “ m ean in gs” (M cQ u ail, 1994, p. 9 4 ). C o n stru cte d m ean ­ ings are powerful and su b jective social realities grou nded in the lan gu age o f h u ­ m an culture (D eF leur & B all-R okeach , 1989, pp. 2 5 0 -2 6 2 ). A s such, local television news is defined as the product o f “d ram atic acto rs,” w ith the actors being the new s m akers, the new s sources, and the news deliverers (B en n ett, 1996, pp. 5 2 -5 3 ). O ff-air recordings were m ade o f eac h o f the statio n ’s late n ew scasts and special live co verage.

OTEY: THE FIRST NEBRASKA EXECUTION IN 35 YEARS O n Friday, Sep tem b er 2, 1994, H arold Lam on t “ W alkin’ W illie” O tey died in N eb ra sk a ’s electric chair. O tey w as one o f 31 d eath row inm ates n ation w ide to be ex ecu ted in 1994. A t 12:40 a.m . the A sso ciated Press sen t this “ bulletin” to its N eb rask a b ro a d ca st affiliates: “ H arold L am on t O tey died in the electric ch air early Friday for th e rape and m urder o f a w om an 17 y ears a g o .” In the “ u r­ g e n t” th at follow ed se co n d s later, the state newswire add ed th at O tey w as the first to die in N e b rask a ’s electric ch air sin ce C h arles Stark w eath er w as e x e ­ cu ted in 1959.

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In contrast to m ass m edia coverage o f the Starkw eather crim e spree, the crime O tey was convicted o f did not attract nationw ide news coverage. O tey was senfenced to d eath in 1978 for the rape and m urder o f 26-year-old Jan e M cM anu s in 1977. A lth ough the crim e itself was an O m ah a story, O tey ’s num erous last-m in­ ute d eath penalty appeals attracted the attention o f the C B S news m agazine “ 48 H ou rs.” T h e O tey case cam e to symbolize public frustration with a justice system that took 16 years to execute a condem ned killer. T h e four O m ah a television statio n s began their late even in g new scasts on Sep tem b er 1, 1994, with the latest inform ation on the u pcom ing execu tion o f Otey. O fficial state sou rces and d eath penalty su pporters and op p on en ts d om i­ nated the live co verage o f the execu tion . O f the four O m ah a television stations, C B S affiliate K M T V was m ost dram atic in its 10 p.m . lead: “T h is is a live picture o f the N ebrask a S ta te Penitentiary. A cool, overcast night th at condem ned killer H arold O tey w ishes would never en d .” A brief sam pling o f each statio n ’s coverage show s how the even t was fram ed: •

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K P T M (9 p .m .)— T h e F O X affiliate aired two reporter packages, one from the prison and one from a gathering o f death penalty opponents. Reporter Will Jam ison interview ed d eath penalty oppon ent D eK oursey Spiker at an all-day vigil at the N ebraska G overn or’s m ansion in Lincoln. Spiker said, “ 1 feel a frenzy o f desire for an execution. A n d the pain that people who op­ pose the execution have had to go through, and the family and friends o f the person ... it has not m ade our state a better place.” K E T V (10 p .m .)— T h e A B C affiliate reported th at the crow d gathered well before th e sch ed u led ex ecu tion tim e. T h e statio n featu red an inter­ view with Jo h n Breslow, state auditor an d official observer. Breslow said, “Ju st as I h appen ed to walk in, he (O tey) w alked ou t o f the visitor’s room , and he looked at me and says ‘Breslow, w hat’s going o n ,’ or ‘w hat’s h ap ­ pen in g’ or som eth in g like that, and I said ‘N oth in g, have you heard any­ thing?’ A n d he said, ‘Yeah, 6 - 2 ’ and then put his thum b dow n and that was it. A n d th en they started doing his last will.” R eporter Jo h n C rom an was live with d em on strators outside the penitentiary. H e estim ated that there were abo u t 100 people on each side o f the issue. T h e video show ed an tid eath pen alty teen agers with signs th at read, “G iv e him life not d e a th !!! H e too has the right to live.” C ro m an follow ed with the co m ­ m ent, “ We get anything from ‘Fry W illie’ to peace signs back to u s.” W O W T (10 p.m .)— T h e N B C affiliate began with an ch or G ary Kerr live a t the prison. T h is statio n aired the sam e sound bite o f Jo h n Breslow that was aired by co m p etito r KETV. T h e statio n invited legal expert Jam es M artin D avis to their new sroom : “T h a t’s probably the lon gest clem ency appeal in a d eath row case th at I think has ever b e en perpetrated in the history o f the country.” In vestigative reporter M ike M cK n igh t was also one o f five m edia w itnesses (there were 10 in all) for the execu tion. A n ­ chor Pat Persaud reported live from the hom e o f the family o f the victim ,

T A BLE 7.1 Organizational News Gathering Routines in the Late Night Newscast Coverage of the Three Nebraska Executions, and the Late Morning Live Coverage of the Williams Execution" KPTM A n ch or (s) at prison R eporter(s) at prison with d em on strators

A, C

Live a t prison R eporter(s) with governor

A

R eporter(s) at state capitol

KETV

W OW T

KM TV

A , B, D

A , B, D

A , B, D

A , B, D

A , B, D

A , B, C

A , B, D

A , B, D

A , B, D

B, D

B

A, B

A

R eporter(s) at attorney gen eral’s office

B

R eporter(s) with victim ’s family

C

C, D

A , B, C , D

Reporter inside prison (telephone)

B, C

B, D

A , B, D

B, C

A, C

A , B ,C

Prerecorded interview with co n d em n ed m an

Interview

A, C, D

A

with state observer Interview with prison officials

A , B, C , D

B, D

A

Interview with execu tion w itnesses

A , B, C , D

A , B, D

B .C

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KPTM

KETV

WOWT

A, B

A, D

A, B

On-set interview with legal experts

B, D

A, D

B

Person on the street

B, D B, D

A, B

Interview with defense attorneys

Interview with others (ethicist, boyfriend of victim)

B

A, B, D

KMTV

Note. **A denotes Otey execution coverage; B denotes Joubert execution coverage; C denotes Williams execution coverage; D denotes live coverage of Williams execution.

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J a n e M c M a n u s. T h is rep o rt in c lu d e d a so u n d b ite from th e v ictim ’s m o th e r: “ T o h a v e J a n e ’s p ictu re o u t th ere s o th a t o th e r p e o p le in th eir m in d s, th ey c a n se e Ja n e to o , a n d k n ow th a t sh e w as a v ib ra n t y o u n g girl th a t w as sla u g h te r e d .” K M T V (1 0 p .m .)— A n c h o r s L o r e tta C a rr o ll an d Jo h n M a so n re p o rte d live fro m th e p riso n . T h is sta tio n a lso u se d th e so u n d b ite from Jo h n B reslo w a ired o n K E T V a n d W O W T . R e p o rte r M ary W illiam s w as live at th e M c M a n u s h o u se . R e p o rte r D e b o r a h W ard w as live a t the p riso n w ith o p p o n e n ts o f th e d e a th pen alty. S h e in c lu d e d a sh o u tin g m a tc h b e tw een p e o p le o n b o th sid e s o f th e d e a th p e n alty issu e: Opponent: "N on e o f you are about productivity, you’re all about killing others. You think killing is going to solve everything. You kill Otey, crime goes down. Well it doesn’t.” Proponent: “ Why don’t you sit on his lap?” Opponent: “ Why? You want me dead too. T h a t’s wonderful. This gentlem an over here wants me to die for saying something. T h a t’s absolutely wonderful. And these young men right here think this is a barbecue. T h ey ’re cannibals.”

W ard r e p o rte d th a t o n e o f th e larg e st sig n s sa id , “ W e lc o m e to th e N e b r a sk a S t a t e P en’s F irst A n n u a l B a r b e c u e .”

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CHAPTER 7

T h e o rgan izatio n al new s g ath erin g routin es o f all the statio n s were sim ilar in th at they relied on m ost o f the sam e so u rces, an d reported from m ost o f the sam e p laces. T h e anchors and reporters for all four stations engaged in interpretation o f the events going on around them . W hat follows is a sam pling o f the broadcast jo u r­ nalists’ construction o f the “ reality” outside the N ebraska S tate Penitentiary: •

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Jo h n C rom an , K E T V — “ Prison officials h ave a system here. T h e y ’re g o ­ ing to keep the a n tid eath penalty people in this pen over here, and th ey’ve go t the p rod eath pen alty people set to go here in this pen, and in the m id­ dle, right here, you have sort o f a dem ilitarized zone to try to keep the two sides apart. A n d you co uld see the need for th at sep aratio n w hen m em bers o f the Lincoln Prayer C ircle en cou n tered a large group o f Lin coln E ast H igh Sc h o o l football players" (shouting betw een the two grou ps). G ary Jo h n so n , W O W T — “ M an y feel their co n viction s so strongly that th ey’ve com e o u t here tonight to m ake a stan d . A n d while there are m any law enforcem ent p ersonn el o u t here ton ight to m ake sure everything goes right, and I h aven’t se en any violen ce, bu t already the sh ou tin g m atches have b e g u n .... Lin coln ton ight is a city o f extrem es. Earlier I drove by a residence where they were h aving a party in favor o f the d eath penalty co m p lete with ban ners for d ecoration s and a m ock electric chair. Ju st to my left w here th ose protesting the d eath penalty are, they’re lighting c a n ­ dles. Several people are already w eeping, and they’re w aving to H arold Otey, w ho’s looking ou t o f the pen itentiary at his onlookers ton igh t.” D e b o rah W ard, K M T V — “ T h e scre am in g is ex p e cte d to co n tin u e through the night, o ff an d on. R ight now it’s qu iet. A lot o f the people ou t here, however, are kids. It’s kind o f like D od ge S tre e t [a m ain O m ah a road] a t the height o f cruising. A n d bu sin esses right across the stree t from the prison are now trying to profit o ff the ex ecu tio n .”

T h r e e o f th e fo u r O m a h a te le v isio n sta t io n s aired sp e c ia l re p o rts fo llo w ­ in g 10 o ’clo ck new scasts. K E T V w ent live to the penitentiary, referring to the “ carn ival atm osp h ere” as d em on strators from both sides o f the issue sh ou ted at each oth er across a “dem ilitarized zone.” T h e statio n highlighted the interplay betw een the d em onstrators, and show ed that the two groups were sep arated by two snow fences a few feet apart. T h e y show ed this at about the tim e o f the sch ed u led ex ecu tion (12:01 a.m .), as the crow d ch an ted “Jo u b ert’s next, Jo u b ert’s n e x t.” T h e crow d also ch an ted “ Hey, hey, good by e.” W O W T show ed O tey w aving from a prison hospital window. T h e station chose to avoid show ing the crowd by n ot showing video o f the gathering. H ow ­ ever, the crowd could be heard in the background. K M T V described the scen e as having a “carnival atm osphere” and called the dem onstrators “ boisterous pro­ testers.” In-studio guest and form er O tey attorney, D ouglas C oun ty public d e­ fender Tom Riley, called the scene outside the prison “disturbing and terrible” :

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Look what’s going on out there. We’re supposed to be a civilized society. We got people standing out there with nonsensical signs, screaming back and forth at each other. This is what people want as justice? This is absurd. T h e statio n attem pted to co n n ect the O tey execu tion with the Starkw eath er ex ecu tion by interview ing form er television reporter N in ette Beaver: “ i don’t think anybody really opposed the ex ecu tion o f C harlie Starkw eather, or very few. We didn’t have 17 years o f appeals; he was execu ted w ithin 17 m o n th s.” Generally, “ television’s portrayal o f the execu tion o f H arold O tey sh ied away from the com plexities o f the d eath pen alty issue by em phasizing the m ost d ra­ m atic asp ects o f the ev en in g” (Lipschultz & H ilt, 1998, p. 29).

JOUBERT: CHILD KILLER PUT TO DEATH O n W ednesday, July 1 7 ,1 9 9 6 , the d e ath pen alty w as enforced on Jo h n Jo u b ert. A t 12:29 a.m . the A sso ciated Press sen t this to its N eb rask a b ro ad cast affiliates: “Jo h n Jou b ert w as pu t to d eath in N e b rask a’s electric chair for bu tch erin g two boys in an O m ah a suburb 13 years a g o ” (H ow ard, 1996). Jou b ert w as sen ten ced to d eath for killing 13-year-old D an n y Jo E berle and 12-year-old C h risto p h er W alden in 1983. T h is case co m b in ed elem en ts o f the Stark w eath er an d O tey crim es: a m an h u n t for the killer, h eigh ten ed public fears, and u ltim ately public fru stration with the ju stice system . It w ould be nearly 2 years before O m ah a television statio n s again co n fron ted the co verage o f an execu tion. In July o f 1996, Jo h n jo u b e rt received the d eath penalty. T h e state o f N ebrask a m ade three ob vious ad ju stm en ts in the w ake o f the O tey execu tion: (a) the gap was w idened betw een dem on strators, (b) law en forcem en t agencies increased th eir presen ce ou tside the prison, and (c) G o v ­ ernor B en N elson urged citizens to stay away. D espite these m easu res, the crowd for the jo u b e rt execu tion appeared to be as large and boisterous (particularly the prod eath penalty side) as the crow d for the O tey execu tion. Television s ta ­ tions were faced with a sim ilar crow d scen e as the backd rop for live co verag e b e­ ginning with their late new scasts. O n this particular evening, severe w eather coverage and a m ajor O m ah a red evelopm en t plan voted on by the county c o m ­ m ission co m peted for airtim e: •

K P T M (9 p.m .)— T h e statio n ch ose to lead with a tornado w arning issued for coun ties in the north ern part o f the view ing area, an d then w ent to the Jou b ert execu tion story. T h e story began w ith each an ch or reading a se n ­ ten ce: (a) Byron W ood— “A s it stan d s now, the state o f N eb rask a will carry ou t its n ext execu tion in ab o u t 3 hou rs;” (b) C o an ch o r Lisa V olenec— “C on d em n ed child killer Jo h n jo u b e rt is sch ed u led to die in N eb rask a’s electric chair ju st after m idnight for the 1983 m urders o f two Sarpy C oun ty boys.” T h e statio n then w ent to a teleph one report from re­ porter Ja c k ie M adara, who sum m arized the situ ation in Lincoln.

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CHAPTER 7 K E T V (10 p .m .)— S p o t w eath er new s led this n ew scast. T h e statio n then b e gan its co v erag e o f the Jo u b e rt ex ecu tio n with co an ch o r C arol S c h ra d er saying, “H e ’s co n fessed to killing two Sarpy C ou n ty bo ys.” T h e statio n then aired an au d io tape o fjo u b e r t: “ W h en I pulled ou t the knife he said please d o n ’t kill m e !” Sc h rad er co n tin u ed : “T onight Jo h n Jou b ert is ju st hours aw ay from his ex ecu tio n .” T h is was follow ed by reporter Ju lie C orn ell ex p lain in g the ch an ges a t the pen itentiary follow ing the O tey e x ­ ecution : “ You’ll rem em ber the G overn or and m any N eb rask an s were a p ­ palled by the b eh avior o f the folks o u t here at the O tey execu tion . Tonight, the G o v e rn o r asked folks to respect eac h other, if they com e out here and keep their c o o l.” T h e story included a sou n d bite from G overn or B en N elso n : “T h is is n either the tim e nor the place for an inappropriate atm osp h ere as we ex perien ced nearly 2 years a g o .” C o rn e ll’s story co n tin ­ ued by show ing the penitentiary, where blin ds co vered the w indows o f the infirmary. Prison officials did not w ant Jo u b ert to be seen by the d em ­ o n strators or the m edia, as h ad h appen ed w hen O tey w aved to the crow d.

T h e sta tio n d isc u sse d crow d c o n tro l at the prison . S e c u rity w as se en as tighter, an d law en fo rc e m e n t p erso n n el did n o t allow d e m o n stra to rs on the property until a fter 1 0 :3 0 p.m . T h e an c h o rs an d rep o rters c o m p are d the crow d a t th e Jo u b e rt e x e c u tio n to th at at the O tey e x e c u tio n . T h e w idened g:-p b etw een d e m o n stra to rs w as n ot large e n o u g h to p rev en t the p ro p o n en ts an d o p p o n e n ts o f th e d e a th p en alty from h earin g e a c h o th e r an d yelling re­ sp o n se s. D e a th p en alty p ro p o n e n ts d isp lay ed sig n s sim ilar to th o se at the O te y ex e c u tio n , su c h as, “ W ire the ch air to a d im m er sw itch an d roll it S L O W L Y !” an d “ T h a n k G o d for e le ctricity .” T h e crow d play ed to the te le v i­ sio n c am e ra s w hen ligh ts w ent o n , an d K E T V did n ot resist sh ow in g the in ­ ten sity o f th e m om en t. •

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W O W T (1 0 p .m .)— T h e new scast began with the Jou b ert execution story. C oan ch or D on H ud son opened the new scast by saying, “ N oth in g appears to be standing in the way for Joh n Jou b ert’s execu tion .” C oan ch or Pat Persaud added, “A n d here is the up-to-the-m inute update. A ll o f Jou b ert’s appeals have been ex h au sted .” T h e station then w ent to reporter A m y A d ­ am s, who was in the crowd: “ It is becom ing a circus atm osphere.” T h e sta ­ tion reported that events outside the penitentiary were not w orking as state officials had hoped. However, com pared with the coverage on KETV, W O W T described rather than show ed the “ raucous activity.” K M T V (1 0 p .m .)— T h is statio n also led with the Jo u b ert ex ecu tio n story. C o an ch o r M ich ael S c o tt began the new scast by saying, “ In a little m ore th an 2 hours, Jo h n Jo u b ert will pay for his crim es with his life. T h is tim e, no co u rt will ste p in an d save him .” T h e statio n then ran a story co n trast­ ing the O tey ex ecu tion . T h is statio n also used a sou n d bite from G o v e r­

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nor N elso n : “ I w ould prefer th at there be n o crow ds th ere but recognizing th at there arc likely to be crow ds, 1 hope that they w ould rcspect on e a n ­ oth er and th at d ecoru m will be the order o f the ev e n in g .” R eporter D eborah W ard w as am id the crow d ou tside the pen itentiary: “T h e buffer zone d oes ap p ear to be helping. W hile th ere is still yelling, in fact there w as a sm oke bom b throw n ju st seco n d s ago, it is som ew h at qu ieter than w hen H arold L am o n t O tey w as ex e cu te d .” M ark P ettit, form er K M T V an ch o r and au thor o f a b ook on the Jou b ert case (1 9 9 0 ), was a t the prison as the crow d becom e m ore unruly: “ It’s an argu m en t n ot to h ave, I guess, this kind o f build-up aroun d an execu tion . You w ant to m ake it as public as possible, I th ink, to m ake people un derstan d how the system works, but as you see w hat happen ed here it has built into a little bit o f a frenzy.” T h e live co verag e for K E T V , W O W T , and K M T V follow ed the late night new scasts. T h e statio n s follow ed the stru ctu re o f the O tey live co verage and the co n ten t o f the Jou b ert 10 p.m . reports.

WILLIAMS: NEBRASKA LEARNS ITS LESSON O n Tuesday, D e cem b er 2, 1997, R obert E. W illiam s died in the electric chair. Lon g before the ex ecu tion , he had con fessed to m urdering three w om en during a 3-day crim e spree in 1977. A sso ciated Press reporter R obynn Tysver w rote the follow ing: “ H is ex ecu tio n w as the first d aytim e ex ecu tio n and the first to be w itnessed by a victim ’s relative in N eb rask a sin ce the sta te resum ed carrying ou t the d eath p en alty in 1994” (Tysver, 1997, p. 13). T h e W illiam s ex ecu tion in 1997 was on e o f 74 across the country, m ore th an in any o f the past 42 years (Carelli, 19 9 7 ), and the m ost since the age o f television. T h e W illiam s case d if­ fered from the p reviou s ex ecu tio n s in th at the news m edia did not portray it as dram atically as they had the other crim es. W illiam s was a co n fessed killer who did not resist or ch allen g e the d eath pen alty sen ten ce. O n ce again, N eb rask a officials m ade d ram atic ch an ges in the execu tion pro­ cedure: (a) the ex ecu tion w as sch eduled for 10 a.m ., the first daytim e execu tion in the state; (b) the g ap betw een oppon en ts and propon en ts o f the d eath p en ­ alty w as further w idened to the point th at the two grou ps co uld not hear one a n ­ oth er; and (c) G ov ern o r B en N elso n again urged citizens to stay away from the penitentiary. T h e ch an ges w orked, becau se the crow d w as significantly sm aller and less boisterous th an before. Television co verage follow ed the lead o f the state, and played dow n the execu tion . A lth ou g h the ex ecu tio n w as still a lead story, it no longer d om in ated the broadcasts. T h e live co verage o f the W illiam s execu tion occurred betw een 10 and 11 in the m orning. T h e m ost exten siv e coverage cam e from K E T V , w hich began at 10 a.m . and lasted for m ore th an 1 hr. A n ch o r R ob M cC artn ey m entioned how the scen e ou tsid e the prison was calm er than during the previous two execu tions: “ R ight now it is very qu iet and very calm , unlike the ex ecu tion s th at have taken

CHAPTER 7 place in the last 3 years with H arold O tey an d Jo h n Jou b ert, where as we all know, the situ ation got a little ou t o f hand, a little ou t o f control. T h in g s right now at the pen itentiary are pretty calm ." W hile he was saying this, the statio n show ed a lone d eath pen alty proponen t who quietly sto od , displaying a sign that read “ U p h old the law! Fry the B A S T A R D .” L ater in the live report, after word th at the ex ecu tio n h ad been carried ou t, K E T V played a story pointin g out the differences betw een the Otey, Jou b ert, and W illiam s execu tion s by show ing footage o f the con flict during the Jou b ert execu tion . A d eath penalty oppon en t said th at the sta te was trying to “ norm alize” capital pu nishm en t by m oving the ex ecu tion to daylight hours. Reporter Pam ela Jo n es w as asked w hether sh e saw any problem s betw een op p on en ts and propon en ts w aiting ou tside the p en iten ­ tiary: “ T h e re w eren’t any problem s th at we could recognize. T h e re were only people w ho were trying to disperse som e o f the su pporters after everything was over w ith.” By co m p arison , the oth er station s had lim ited live co verage. In the case o f the F O X affiliate K P T M , there was n o live co verage. W O W T began its live co v ­ erage at 10 a.m . A n ch o r G ary Kerr was live ou tside the penitentiary, and he pointed ou t th at there were m ore news people presen t th an d em onstrators. Kerr said there was non e o f the “ hoopla” that was presen t at the earlier execu tions. T h e ir co verage focused o n live teleph one reports from inside the prison, a p ack ­ age sum m arizing W illiam s’ crim es, another pack age discu ssin g the lethal in jec­ tion v ersu s e le c tr o c u tio n issu e, an d v id e o ta p e o f th e w itn e sse s’ new s co nferen ce. W O W T interrupted program m ing to d eliver the news concerning the W illiam s execu tion , but did n ot provide co n tin u ou s co verage. T h e ir two upd ates each ran abo u t lO m in. K M T V had two b rief live reports from their a n ­ ch ors ou tsid e the penitentiary. T h e first report included a sou n d bite from a v ic­ tim ’s h usban d. T h e secon d report included a debriefing with their reporter who had been inside the penitentiary. •

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K P T M (9 p .m .)— T h e statio n em phasized how different the scen e ou tsid e the pen itentiary was com pared with the scen es during the O tey and Jo u b ert execu tion s. T h e statio n included sou n d bites with o ppon en ts and proponen ts o f the d eath penalty. T h e tone o f the com m en ts reinforced the statio n ’s assertion th at this was a “ kinder, g en tle r” group. “ I don’t b e­ lieve in the an tics o f the people in the past at night w here they were drunk and yelling ob scen ities at people again st the d eath penalty. T h a t’s not right. Everyone is entitled to their o p in ion ,” said one proponen t o f the d eath penalty. K E T V (1 0 p .m .)— N early 12 hr a fter th e e x e c u tio n , R o b ert W illiam s’ fin al sta te m e n t an d rep orter B rad S te p h e n s’ ey ew itn ess a c c o u n t w ere th e new ele m e n ts d u rin g K E T V ’s late n ew scast. A m ajo r th em e o f the c o v e ra g e w as th at W illiam s w as ready to d ie. W itn e ss Bill H o rd said , “ It w as a very p o lite atm o sp h e re , an d I ag re e th at Mr. W illiam s h elp ed to se t th at to n e , an d if he w as look in g for the g rac e to g et th ro u gh th is, I

CASE STUDY: THREE NEBRASKA EXECUTIONS

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w ould say he fou n d it.” K E T V rep o rter B rad S te p h e n s w as o n e o f 10 w itn esses to th e ex e c u tio n . H e rep o rted on W illiam s’ fin al sta te m e n t: “ I ju st a p p re c ia te livin ’ long e n o u g h to be b lesse d by so m any p eop le th a t G o d h as let in to my life an d my last s ta te m e n t w ould be th at I hope this in c id e n t will in spire o th er p eo p le to find a n o th e r w ay .... I’m o n my way h om e. T h a n k y o u ." T h e sta tio n e stim a te d th at th ere w ere ab o u t 100 d e m o n stra to rs, bu t th at the sc e n e w as m u ch c alm e r th an p reviou s e x e c u tio n s. A lth o u g h K E T V w as live from th e prison sc e n e in the m orn in g, by th e late -n ig h t n ew scast th e only live co v e ra g e w as the in -stu d io in terview w ith th eir rep o rter w ho w itn essed the ex ecu tio n . W O W T (10 p.m .)— T his station led its late-night newscast with a package concerning a drug sniffing dog dem onstration. T h e Williams story ran sec­ ond. T h e brief story, read by anchor Pat Persaud from the set, included sound bites from the condem ned killer and the husband o f one o f the victims. K M T V (10 p.m .)— T h e station led with the W illiam s execution. T h e c o v ­ erage sum m arized the event, reported W illiam s’ last words, and the reac­ tion o f the v ictim s’ family m em bers to the execution. Unlike the other stations, K M T V aired a sound bite from W illiam s’ spiritual advisor. It is o b ­ vious from the video that the other O m ah a television stations recorded the com m ents; however, K M T V was the only station that aired them at 10 p.m. A s ca n be seen from the following quote, this divergent sound bite did not support the idea that all local T V co n ten t is co n son an t: “ I ju st now wit­ nessed the birth into H eaven o f the m ost good and beautiful m an I have ever known. A n d it was at the hands o f the state, an act o f violence and just despicability o f the state o f N ebraska. I am ash am ed to be a N ebraskan .” T h e station followed this sound bite with a com parison o f the scen e outside the prison during the O tey and Jou b ert executions.

IMPLICATIONS T h is case study supported m ost o f the previous assertions about news coverage. In the O tey and Jou b ert executions, the three station s with 10 o ’clock new scasts and special reports portrayed the intense conflict by show ing the two sides inter­ acting across a sm all separation in the penitentiary parking lot. T h e tim ing o f the W illiam s execu tio n dram atically altered co verage at 10 p.m ., becau se it took place m uch earlier in the day. T h e earlier live co verage reflected the use o f the sam e sources which turned out to be less d ram atic an d less intense. By em phasiz­ ing op p on en ts’ silent candlelight vigil, and propon en ts’ signs and “carnival-like atm osp here," the social conflict o f the O tey and Jou b ert executions was por­ trayed as less com plex, m ore intense, but perhaps n ot m ore solvable (C ohen, A d on i, & Bantz, 1990). Interestingly, when even ts were subdued, as they were in the case o f the W illiam s execution, it was m ore co m plex, less intense, and not m ore solvable. C om plexity and intensity seem to be the product o f social co n d i­ tions a t the events portrayed.

CHAPTER 7 T h e three N ebrask a execu tion s allow us to see local television news co verage o f the d eath penalty from four perspectives: (a) m edia organ ization routines, jou rn alistic beliefs, and sou rce selectio n as they affected the co n ten t; (b) ju stice as portrayed through a co n so n an t set o f social sym bols; (c) overw helm ing public support for the d eath penalty in this country has led jou rn alists to avoid tough qu estion in g o f public officials; an d, (d) the resulting co verage as a social c o n ­ stru ction o f reality th at, in turn, m ay influence future public opinion. T h e organ izational routines o f the O m ah a television station s led the O tey and Jo u b ert execu tion s to be m ajor stories th at w arranted exten d ed live c o v er­ age. By the tim e o f the W illiam s execu tion , the story h ad b ecom e less im portant to news organizations for a variety o f reasons: the daytim e execu tion , the third in 4 years, the lack o f protesters, a killer show ing rem orse, and the less dram atic portrayal o f the crim e for O m ah a viewers. N everth eless, organ izational routines led all o f the statio n s to co ver the three execu tion s in sim ilar ways. T h e em ph asis on w hat state officials and dem on strators were saying supports D etw eiler’s (1987) previous research, w hich found that jou rn alists believe they sh ould n ot ignore d eath pen alty dem on stration s, even when stag ed to attract m edia atten tion . T h a t em phasis was obvious in the m edia co verage o f the O tey an d Jo u b ert execu tions. In the W illiam s execu tion , however, the form ula led lo­ cal television statio n s to train their cam eras on a nearly em pty parking lot, search in g for d em onstrators. In fact, the statio n s avoid ed tight clo se-u p cam era sh ots in favor o f wide shots. T h is helped to exaggerate the social distan ce b e­ tw een the even t and view ers, as co m pared to previous coverage. T h ere were differences in the way stations covered the three executions. W ith the O tey execution story, the sound bites from key state officials and others close to the story were em phasized. T h e Joubert execution was covered less extensively. T h e W illiam s execution did not lead in even one new scast, and focused primarily on the two new elem ents— a daytim e execution and that the husband o f one o f the victim s w itnessed the electrocution. Beyond this, K M T V aired a sound bite from W illiam s’ spiritual advisor that was openly critical o f the state. T h e eviden ce show ed th at live co verage intensified as the event w as o c cu r­ ring at the tim e o f the late night n ew scast for the three statio n s with live cap ab il­ ity. T h e d ecision to broad cast live is an im portant on e, becau se it elevates the im portance o f the story. M ore statio n p ersonn el and resources are com m itted to the story. T h is leads to a larger news h ole for the story. W ith m ore tim e to fill, re­ porters and anch ors look to prison d em on strators, govern m en t officials, w it­ nesses, relatives o f all involved in the case, and legal experts. Se lectio n o f sou rces at the scen e is lim ited by even ts, and station s optin g for live co verage m ake sim ilar d ecisions. T h is is how the “co n so n an t” m essage o f local television new s is co n stru cted . In this case television provided co n so n an ce as E lisabeth N o elle-N eu m an n (19 8 6 ) described (C arroll et al., 1997). "T h e qu estion o f the likeness o f news program s is im portant, as co n so n an ce o f reporting tends to restrict selective perception , th us narrow ing the form ation o f public opinion on issu es” (C arroll

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et al., 1997, p. 133). In o th er w ords, O m ah a television station s provided a u n i­ form portrayal o f the even ts at the state penitentiary. For the average person in N eb rask a, the m edia co verage o f the three execu tion s was the m ain sou rce o f inform ation. T h e se execu tion s were also front-page news for the O m aha World-Herald and fodder for local talk radio. A s Su rette (1992) observed: Over time people tend to perceive things the way the media portray them. The media thus play not only a reporting role but a defining role, establishing their au­ diences’ sense of reality; prescribing society’s accepted norms, behaviors, and boundaries; and forwarding the proper means of dealing with injustice, (p. 76) Local television coverage in the executions portrayed powerful sym bols (signs, candlelight vigil, heightened security, prison as a backdrop, etc.), actors (state of­ ficials, dem onstrators, television anchors, and reporters), and m eanings (the le­ gitim ization o f ca p ita l p u n ish m en t, polarizing public d e b a te , e tc .). T h e co m m u n ic a tio n o f su c h m ean in gs is an “ e ssen tial a ttrib u te o f c u ltu r e ” (M cQ u ail, 1994, p. 9 5 ). In the case o f co verage o f the O tey an d Jo u b ert e x e cu ­ tions, the negative portrayal o f the propon en ts o f the d eath pen alty m ay have served to prom ote public cynicism an d apath y (B en n ett, 1996). Television coverage o f the three execu tion s did not attem pt to bridge the gap betw een proponen ts and oppon en ts o f the d eath penalty. E ven in -stu dio e x ­ perts focused on even ts at the prison scen e, rather than the larger social issue o f capital punishm ent. T h e co verage em phasized the sta te ’s role in carrying out the law. A s such , the execu tion s o f O tey, Jou b ert, and W illiam s “so lv e d ” the sh ort-term issue, but the long-term social conflict over cap ital pu nish m en t in N ebrask a rem ained. By shifting to a daytim e execu tion and elim inatin g the party-like atm osphere, the state effectively dim inished the power o f the chair as a sym bol for hundreds o f dem on strators rallying outside the prison gates. W h at the cam eras show ed in these three N ebraska executions is a segm en t o f the public that is sharply divided on the capital punishm ent issue. T h e supporters and oppon ents o f the d eath penalty w ho d em onstrated at the penitentiary during the O tey and Joubert executions created a highly unusual event th at forced re­ porters to evaluate their own new s values (Detweiler, 1987;T u nstall, 1971). Su ch d eath penalty rallies are viewed as newsworthy, and this allowed the o ppon ents o f the death penalty at the prison, through their singing and candlelight vigil, to su c ­ cessfully portray them selves in the m edia as m ore civil than the boisterous propo­ nents. K E T V anchor C arol Sch rader seem ed to sense this during the Jou b ert execution as their cam eras panned the large crowd: The three Omaha television stations are standing basically in the same perspec­ tive you are seeing us. You are seeing the penitentiary behind them. There is an out-of-town station that is parked right in front of the crowd, the proexecution crowd, and the lights they have shining on them and the live shots they are doing are kind of inciting the crowd a little bit. I’m not passing judgment or anything ... I’m just saying we make an obvious choice in standing where we do.

CHAPTER 7 T e lev isio n h elp s c o n str u c t a so c ia l reality ab o u t the d e a th p en alty and pu blic a ttitu d e s tow ard it, b u t th e sta te h as the pow er to m a n ip u la te ev e n ts. G iv en th e n a tu re o f so u rc e se le c tio n , an d local telev isio n new s ro u tin es, the d ra m a tic co v e ra g e o f the th ree e x e c u tio n s m ay se em u n a v o id a b le . N e ith e r the co v e ra g e from th e p riso n park in g lot, n or an aly sis by in -stu d io e x p erts, se rv ed to provid e view ers w ith m ean in gfu l in sigh t in to the c a p ita l p u n ish ­ m en t issu e. It is u nfortu nate th at cap ital punishm ent m akes new s only w hen there is a heinous crim e, during a cap ital trial, or at the tim e o f execu tion . It would be better if local television statio n s could bring them selves to analyze com plex so ­ cial issues ou tside the h eat o f an event. Beyond this, lacking a new news angle, coverage o f an execu tion becom es less im portant to local television station s. S e ­ lection o f lan gu age and graphics can help “ norm alize” a state execu tion . O tey was said to be “ keeping his appoin tm en t” on a “ cool, o v ercast night” in which everyone was “ w atchin g the c lo ck .” In the Jou b ert case, the governor was said to be askin g people to “ keep their co o l.” A n d a w itness saw “ a very polite atm o ­ sp h ere” for the W illiam s execu tion . Selectio n o f everyday, routine langu age ul­ tim ately helped d istan ce view ers from an electric ch air execu tion. W h eth er the electric chair will continu e to be used is not clear, but it is ev i­ d en t th at as long as it is in o peration, it will be a powerful sym bol m anipu lated by state officials, exploited by d em onstrators, propagated by m edia, and inter­ preted by the public. Sym bols, actors, and m eanings in local television coverage are o f the u tm ost im p ortan ce in u n derstan d in g public interest in the social co n ­ stru ction o f cap ital punish m en t. In the n ext chapter, we turn our atten tion to the issue o f the gen d er or race o f a su sp ect, co nvict, or victim in local television news coverage.

CHAPTER SUMMARY T h is ch apter focu sed on how local television new s covers ex ecu tion s. T h e d eath pen alty w as ex am in ed as a social co n stru ction o f reality. A high degree o f co n so n an ce was found betw een co m petin g sta tio n s’ co verage. L o cal television new s ten d ed to follow the lead o f official sta te sou rces. T h e future o f local tele­ vision new s co verage o f d eath pen alty cases d epen d s, in part, on how state offi­ cials ap p roach future ex ecu tio n s, w hat m eth ods o f cap ital pu n ish m en t are u sed, an d how the public reacts to m edia co verage. L ocal television new sroom s will co n tin u e to view h einous crim es as newsworthy, an d they will be faced with im portant decisio n s a b o u t how to co ver punish m en t.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

H ow did the four station s cover each event.7 To w hat ex ten t did they use routine sou rces? H ow sim ilar w as their coverage?

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2.

H o w d id e a c h o f th e s t a t i o n s p o r tr a y th e in t e n s e s o c ia l c o n flic t b e tw e e n

3.

p r o p o n e n t s a n d o p p o n e n t s o f th e d e a t h p e n a lty ? T o w h a t e x t e n t w e re c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f s o c ia l c o n flic t p o r tr a y e d a s le ss c o m ­

4.

p le x , m o r e in t e n s e , a n d m o r e s o lv a b le t h a n th e y r e a lly a r c ? If c o v e r a g e le g itim iz e s th e s t a t e a c t io n o f c a p i t a l p u n is h m e n t , h o w d o e s

5.

w ell a s th e e v o l u t i o n o f c a p i t a l p u n is h m e n t in th e c o u n t r y ? H o w d o c s th e c o n s o n a n t lo c a l te le v isio n v iew o f e x e c u t io n s fit w ith p rin t

th a t h a p p e n ? W h a t r o le w ill m e d ia c o v e r a g e p la y in fu tu r e e x e c u t i o n s a s

a n d r a d io c o v e r a g e ? H o w m ig h t th e In te r n e t a ffe c t fu tu r e c o v e r a g e ?

8 Minorities and Crime News

“Television news relies on visual imagery for storytelling, even if the images may contrib­ ute to the kinds of stereotypical beliefs that advance racism and discrimination." — Christopher R Campbell, communication professor (1995, p. 71) L o c a l T V new s c o v e ra g e o f crim e in ev itab ly raises issu es o f race. T h e p ortrayal o f A fric a n A m e ric a n an d H isp an ic su sp e c ts m ay c r e a te an im p ressio n w ith W h ite v iew ers th a t r ein force ste re o ty p e s. Likew ise, th e race o f v ictim s m ay also be im p o rtan t. L o c a l telev isio n new s p erson alizes c o v e ra g e by focu sin g o n p e o ­ ple an d th eir e m o tio n s, in clu d in g fear. C o n flic t is a d riv in g force in new s ju d g ­ m en t, an d racial c o n flic t m ay be se e n as a d ra m a tic story. T h e issu e o f m ed ia co v erag e o f race h as rece iv ed renew ed a tte n tio n in the w ake o f form er n etw ork television p ro d u cer A v W estin’s ch arg e th at “ b ia s” re­ m ain s a problem : It’s safe to say that in almost all newsrooms, blatant bigotry and intolerance do not exist. W hat does exist, however, are preconceived notions about race and ethnic­ ity that can shape story selection and content. T h e conventional wisdom among many assignment editors is that white viewers will tune out if blacks and Latinos are featured in segments. T h at view can influence the choice o f the person who will provide the “expert” sound bite. There is no question that a lack of racial sen­ sitivity affects news judgment. It is a problem that goes to the heart o f fair and bal­ anced presentation o f the news on television. (Westin, 2000, p. 21) W estin (2 0 0 0 ) p ro v id ed only a n e c d o ta l e v id e n c e from in terview s w ith n ew s­ room em p lo y ees. H e claim e d th at th e telev isio n new s b u sin ess u ses co d e w ords, su c h as “ It’s n o t g o o d te lev isio n ,” to e x c lu d e m inority e x p erts from n ew scasts. O n e em p lo y ee told W estin the follow ing: “ M y b o sses h av e essen tially m ad e it cle ar: ‘W e d o n o t fea tu re b lack p e o p le .’ Period. I m ean , it’s said . A ctu ally, they w h isper it, ‘Is sh e w h ite?’” (p. 2 1 ). N o d a ta are a v ailab le th a t w ould su g g e st how

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p erv asiv e this b ias m igh t be in lo c al telev isio n new s. W estin c o n fro n te d the q u e stio n o f racism in local telev isio n new s crim e c o v erag e: In Freedom Forum roundtables around the country, the public raised concerns that African Am ericans were more typically shown being arrested as suspects than other minorities or whites. In some newsrooms, producers have adopted proactive procedures to make as certain as possible that blacks are not autom ati­ cally seen as the villains in crime reporting, (p. 23) T h e re is no n a tio n al stu d y o f lo cal television new s th at reports o n the degree o f racism in crim e co v erag e, o r th e atte m p ts by local sta tio n s to react to the criti­ cism . C ritic al th eories ab o u t race, how ever, are im p o rtan t in u n d erstan d in g the portrayal o f m inorities. For m ore th an a d e c a d e , research ers h ave b een stu dy in g the m ed ia tre a tm e n t o f m inorities.

THE PORTRAYAL OF AFRICAN AMERICANS In A m e r ic a n m a s s m e d ia , A f r ic a n A m e r ic a n s h a v e b e e n p o r tr a y e d stereotypically. T h e M issou ri S c h o o l o f jo u r n a lis m (2 0 0 0 , p. 1.33) o u tlin e d four criticism s o f n ew s c o v e rag e o f m in orities: • •

• •

S to rie s d o n ot sh ow m in orities in c o n te x t. M o st sto ries picture m inorities as crim in als or v ictim s o r em ph asize con flict. T h e re is to o m u ch focu s o n aty p ical beh avior, both g o o d an d bad, o n cri­ sis, or, on th e oth er h an d , o f “c o lo rfu l” festivals, h olidays an d o th e r “ e x ­ o tic ” a sp e c ts o f n on m ajority life. T h e re is to o m u ch focu s o n e n tertain m en t figures an d o n m in orities w ho are “ firsts” in th eir d isciplin es. T h e re is n ot e n o u g h c o v e ra g e sh ow in g m inority p eo p le p articip atin g in th e d ay -to -d a y life o f th eir co m m u n itie s.

O n the n eg ativ e sid e, th ere is the ste re o ty p e o f A fric an A m e ric a n s as “d a n ­ g ero u s crim in a ls” (O liver, 1999, p. 4 6 ). O n th e p ositiv e sid e, th ere m ay be th e ste re o ty p e o f A fric a n A m e ric a n s as su cc e ssfu l en tertain ers a n d a th letes (C a m p ­ bell, 19 9 5 ). In o n e ex p erim e n t c o n d u c te d to te st W h ite view ers’ m em ory o f a crim in al su sp e c t in a telev isio n n ew scast, p articip an ts w ho h ad seen a W h ite su sp e ct in th e new s story w ere m ore likely to m istak en ly identify him as an A fri­ ca n A m e ric a n (O liver, 1999). “O n e im p licatio n o f the resu lts o f this stu d y is th a t view ers’ m em ories o f racial an d crim e-relate d in form ation in th e new s m ay se rv e to su sta in racial stereotypin g, ev e n u n d er co n d itio n s w here A frican A m e ric a n s an d C a u c a sia n s are p ortrayed in sim ilar w ays” (O liver, 1999, p. 5 6 ). In a c o n te n t analy sis o f Los A n g e le s an d O ra n g e C o u n ty local television new s in 1995 an d 1996, D ix o n an d Linz (2 0 0 0 ) foun d th at “ B lac k s an d L atin o s

CHAPTER 8 are sig n ific an tly m ore likely th a n W h ite s to b e p o rtray ed a s law b reak ers o n te le ­ v isio n n ew s” (p. 1 3 1 ). T h e y a lso fo u n d th e follow in g: • •

•

W h ite s w ere sig n ific an tly m o re likely to b e p o rtray ed a s law d e fe n d e rs th a n law b reak ers. T h e r e w as a n o v e r re p r e se n ta tio n in th e p o rtray al o f A fric a n A m e ric a n s a s law b rea k ers c o m p a r e d to C a lifo r n ia crim e sta tistic s , w h ereas L a tin o s an d W h ite s w ere u n d e r re p re se n te d . C o m p a r e d to c o u n ty e m p lo y m e n t re c o r d s, th ere w as a n o v e r r e p r e se n ta ­ tio n o f W h ite p o lic e o ffice rs, a n u n d e r re p r e se n ta tio n o f L a tin o p o lic e o f ­ fic e rs, a n d a n a c c u r a te r e p r e se n ta tio n o f A fr ic a n A m e r ic a n p o lic e o ffice rs p o rtra y ed in lo c a l T V new s.

T h e fin d in g s su g g e st th a t th e o v e r r e p r e se n ta tio n o f A fr ic a n A m e r ic a n s a s law ­ b r e a k e rs c o n tin u e s to be a p ro b le m : “ W e su g g e st th a t th e im m e d ia te w ork m u st b e u n d e r ta k e n w ith reg ard to h ow th e se p o rtray als m igh t e n c o u r a g e o r d is c o u r ­ ag e ste re o ty p in g a n d in c re a se fear o f A fr ic a n A m e r ic a n s ” (D ix o n &. L inz, 2 0 0 0 ,

In 1992, local and national T V news crews were faced with coverage o f riots in Los Angeles. Analyses o f news coverage have found that it focused on African A m eri­ cans as rioters and Korean business people and W hites as victims. T h e roles o f L a­ tinos were downplayed despite the fact that they m ade up more than half o f rioters arrested and one third o f store owners. Although network coverage seem ed to be issue-oriented, local T V news focused on specific incidents o f neighborhood vio­ lence and m ovem ent toward restoring “law and order.” It has been argued that such coverage reinforces racial stereotypes. “Studies o f television news portrayals o f African Am ericans indicate that tele­ vision seem s to prefer the coverage and discussion of crim e” (M artindale & Dunlap, 1997, p. 128). O ne year-long study o f large m ark etT V news found two significant distortions: • •

C rim e is violen t alth ou gh statistics show th at m uch urban crim e is nonviolent. Crim inals are Black although statistics show that W hites accou nt for over h alf o f the arrests for violent crim e.

Viewers are primed to see crime through the coverage as reinforcing their ra­ cial stereotypes. Crim e is often presented as a black-and-white issue in coverage, and stereotyping today is seen as more subtle than previously portrayed. Source: Martindale, C., &. Dunlap, L. R. (1997). The African Americans. In B. A. D. Keever, C. Marrindale, & M . A. Weston (Eds.), U.S. news coverage of racial minorities (pp. 122-130). Westport, CT:

B O X 8.1

Broadcast Coverage o f U rban Strife.

MINORITIES AND CRIME NEWS p. 151). H ow ever, an o th er stu dy in 1993 and 1994 o f one statio n in th at m arket found th at non-W hites “ w ere n ot su bstan tially over rep resen ted ” in violen t crim e news co verage (G illiam et al., 1996, p. 10). In a previous study, A frican A m e rican respondents were show n publicity photograph s o f 12 local T V new s reporters in Pittsburgh, PA— A frican A m e ri­ ca n and W h ite m en and w om en. T h e study found that an overw helm ing m ajor­ ity o f respondents view ed A frican A m e rican new scasters as m ore attractiv e and m ore believable, but less th an h alf o f the respon den ts found th ose sam e A frican A m erican new scasters as better perform ers th an W h ites (Joh n son , 1984). T h e highest rankings for A frican A m erican new scasters cam e from younger and m ore ed u cated A frican A m e rican respondents. L ocal television statio n s th at hire B lack reporters and an ch o rs may be view ed as prom oting a positiv e role m odel (E n tm an , 1994b; C am p b ell, 1995). S p o rts is a type o f reporting th at em ph asizes use o f A fric an A m e rican s in c o v ­ erage: “C learly, this a reflection o f W h ite A m e ric a ’s a c c e p ta n c e — w hich w as initially relu ctan t, a t b e st— o f B lac k ath letic su cc e ss; it also reflects the fact th at sp orts is o ne area in w hich A fric an A m e rican s have been allow ed to c o m ­ pete on an ev en field ” (C am p b ell, 1995, p. 6 3 ). A lth o u g h sports co v e rag e has p ro m o ted p o sitiv e im age s th ro u g h su p e rsta rs su c h as M ic h a e l Jo r d a n , Sh a q u ille O ’N e al, T ig er W oods, K en Griffey, Jr., an d S e re n a and V enus W il­ liam s, new s co verag e co n tin u es to be criticized for its d isp ro p o rtio n ately fram ­ ing crim e sto rie s in v o lv in g A fric a n A m e ric a n su sp e c ts. G an d y (1 9 9 4 ) w ondered alou d w h eth er the hiring o f m inority new sroom staffers w ould alter the fram ing o f sto ries by red ucin g n eg ativ e stereotypes: “ T h e best fram ing is one th at pro d u ces relativ e equ ality or b alan ce betw een types acro ss sim ilar sto rie s” (p. 4 8 ). Local news co verage, where individuals ob tain m uch o f their inform ation abo u t crim e, feed a com plex social environm ent: “ the stereotypin g o f A frican A m erican s and crim e has a long history and is a reflection o f m any v ariab les” (Oliver, 1999, p. 4 7 ). Local television news m edia m ay participate through their portrayals in w hat h as been term ed a form o f “ m odern racism ” (E n tm an , 1994b, p. 3 3 ). Beyond this: This form of racism has three basic characteristics: first, a general animosity among whites toward African Americans; second, a resistance to black political demands— for instance, affirmative action or hiring quotas; and third, a belief that racial discrimination is a thing of the past. Entman found the portrayal of crime on local television news to contribute to the first characteristic; that is, the menacing images of African American criminals contribute to a modern racist hostility toward African Americans. (Campbell, 1995, p. 89) E n tm an ’s (1 9 9 2 ) lim ited stu dy o f local television new s fou n d th at “ crim e rep ortin g m ade B la c k s look particu larly th reaten in g ” (1 9 9 2 , p. 3 4 2 ). A c o n ­ ten t analysis o f the ev en in g new s on four C h ic a g o television sta tio n s in 1989

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an d 1990 foun d e v id en ce o f in d irect racism : th at d ep ic t B lac k s, in crim e, as m ore physically th reaten in g an d, in politics, as m ore d em an d in g th an com parable W h ite a ctiv ists or lead ers” (E n tm an , 1992, p. 3 4 1 ). E n tm an c o n ­ ten d ed th at th e problem o f racism is m asked by the hiring o f b lack reporters and an ch o rs: “T h e m ix o f these two view s o f b lack s en c o u rag es m odern w hite racism — hostility, rejectio n an d d enial tow ard b lack asp ira tio n s” (p. 3 4 1 ). T h e portrayal o f A fric an A m e rican s in netw ork new s also ap p eared to be s te ­ reotypical in th at th ese im ages involved a narrow range o f roles (E n tm an , 1 9 9 4 a ). M ore generally, crim e is p erceived by the pu blic as on e o f the m ost im ­ p o rtan t p roblem s facin g the country, and new s co v e rag e th at portrays black crim in als feed s m od ern racist stereotypes: “ N o t only d o es new s co v erag e h igh ­ light violen t crim e, it also links the issues o f face an d crim e by o ver rep resen t­ ing m in orities in th e role o f v iolen t crim in als an d by a c c o rd in g them d istin ctive form s o f c o v e ra g e ” (G illiam , jr., Iyengar, S im o n , & W right, 1996, p. 7). C o v era g e o f m in orities m ay be se en as a “ p arab le o f p oor an d m inority v io ­ len t o ffen d e rs” in so ciety : “ O n a person al level, the ways we ch o o se to d istin ­ guish o u rselv es from o th ers c a n serve as a basis for fear, h atred , and even v io le n ce ” (B row n stein , 2 0 0 0 , p. 133). It is argu ed th at race an d c lass m atter in the U n ited S ta te s: They matter not only in the degree to which individuals are likely to be violent of­ fenders or are liable to be its victims, but also in terms of how we view violence and the people who behave in violent ways. In fact, race and class even matter in terms of whether we are likely to believe that a person could have been the perpe­ trator or even the victim o f violence. (Brownstein, 2000, p. 134) Brow nstein (2 0 0 0 ) reported th at in 1995 there were m ore th an 6 0 0 ,0 0 0 ar­ rests for violen t crim e, and 54% were W hite. “ Still, A m erican s have been and rem ain quick to think o f people o f color as violen t and to think o f violen t o f­ fenders as b lack ” (p. 139). In the m ost recent availab le d ata in 1997 from the U n ited S ta te s D e p artm e n t o f ju stic e , the num ber o f arrests for violent crime dropped to 5 0 0 ,6 2 1 . A t the sam e tim e, the p ercen tage o f W h ites arrested in­ creased to 5 6 .8 % (Sourcebook o f Criminal Justice Statistics, 1998, pp. 3 4 2 -3 4 4 ). It h as been argued th at althou gh A frican A m erican s m ake up abo u t 14% o f the popu lation in the U n ited S ta te s, they represen ted m ore th an 40% o f arrests for violent crim es, an d this m ay help drive the stereotype. T h e em ph asis o f violen t crim e coverage in local television news m eans that the stereotype is im printed on view ers’ m inds th rough the daily deluge o f im ­ ages. A s h as been sta ted earlier, local T V news crim e co verage typically id en ti­ fies su sp ects by race: “ T h e police sketch es, like the m ug sh ots routinely appear on local television n ew scasts’ crim e stories, carry co n n o tativ e m essages o f w rongdoing, o f danger, o f con viction -before-trial” (C am pb ell, 1995, p. 71). Likew ise, su rveillan ce cam era video (such as th at recorded in a convenien ce store arm ed robbery) typically show s race. T h e ex isten ce o f video, o f course, in­

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cr e a se s th e v a lu e o f th e sto ry to th e lo c al te le v isio n n ew sro o m . T o so m e e x te n t, new s p e o p le sh o u ld n o t b e fa u lte d for u se o f in te re stin g v id e o , g iv e n th at te le v i­ sio n is a v isu a l m ed iu m . H ow ever, “ . . . w h en p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith v isu a l e ffe cts o v e rrid e s new s ju d g m e n t, it e n c o u ra g e s e m p h a sis o n a c tio n r a th e r th a n o n sig ­ n ific a n c e a n d th e p lay in g u p o f th e triv ial o r e x citin g o c c u rr e n c e s sim p ly b e ­ c a u se th ey c a n b e c o v e re d by c a m e r a s” (M a c N e il, 1 9 6 8 , p. 3 5 , a s q u o te d in C a m p b e ll, 1 9 9 5 , p. 7 5 ).

RACE AND LOCAL TV NEWS In a y ea r-lo n g stu d y o f o n e L o s A n g e le s te le v isio n sta t io n , th e lo c al n ew s a v e r ­ a g e d th ree c rim e sto rie s p er day, an d crim e sto rie s led h a lf o f th e b r o a d c a s ts: ... although blacks com m it violent and nonviolent crime at about the sam e rate, the media coverage o f black crime is distinctly more violent than non violent.... Conversely, media coverage ofwhite crime is distinctly more nonviolent than vio­ lent ... even though whites are only slightly less likely ... to engage in violent rather than nonviolent crime. (Gilliam et al., 1996, p. 13) H e id e r ’s (2 0 0 0 ) stu d y su g g e ste d th at m in o rities in A lb u q u e rq u e , N M , an d H o n o lu lu , H I, b e lie v e d th a t they w ere c o v e re d by lo c al te le v isio n n ew sro o m s o n ly d u rin g e th n ic fe stiv a ls o r in th e c o n te x t o f crim e c o v e ra g e : W hen news makers continually choose to include images o f people o f color as per­ petrators o f crimes and om it images o f people o f color as normal citizens, they re­ inforce the idea that people o f color primarily exist outside the bounds o f legitimate social behavior.... In discerning what stories will be covered and how crime stories will be presented, news organizations send out m essages about where crime occurs, and what crime is routine and what crime is out o f the ordi­ nary. (p. 42) H e id e r c o n te n d e d th a t th e n ig h tly m e n tio n o f m u rd e rs a n d ro b b erie s in s p e ­ cific p a rts o f tow n le a d s th e a u d ie n c e to se e th o se lo c a tio n s a s u n sa fe . T h u s , th e re in fo rc e m e n t o f ste re o ty p ic a l a ssu m p tio n s a b o u t r a c e m ay be d riv e n by lo cal T V n ew s c o v e r a g e : “ . . . c rim e c o v e ra g e m ay b e re in fo rc in g h e g e m o n y by re in ­ fo rc in g in sc rib e d id e a s a b o u t w h o c o m m its crim e (p e o p le o f c o lo r ) , w h ere m o st crim es o c c u r (c o m m u n itie s o f c o lo r ), a n d w h ere c r im e s sh o u ld n o t o c c u r (W h ite , a fflu e n t n e ig h b o r h o o d s)” (p. 4 3 ). E v e n w h en n ew s c o v e r a g e fo c u se s o n a W h ite su sp e c t, W h ite view ers m ay m isid en tify th e su sp e c t m o n th s late r as a n A fric a n A m e ric a n : “ T h is fin d in g is c o n siste n t w ith th e id e a th a t ste re o ty p e s are m a in ta in e d n o t on ly by a tte n d in g to a n d re m e m b e rin g in fo rm a tio n th a t is c o n siste n t, b u t a lso by d isc o u n tin g in ­ fo rm a tio n th a t is in c o n siste n t” (O liver, 19 9 9 , p. 5 6 ). In o th e r w ord s, W h ite view ers w h o a sso c ia te crim e w ith m in o rities b e c a u se o f ra c ist b eliefs w ill m isp e rc e iv e new s to re m a in c o n siste n t. “ In its p ro cliv ity for

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c o v e ra g e o f u rb a n crim e, lo c al te le v isio n jo u r n a lism c o m p o u n d s ste re o ty p ic a l n o tio n s a b o u t A fric a n A m e r ic a n life ” (C a m p b e ll, 19 9 5 , p. 7 2 ). In A m e r ic a ’s large c itie s, w h ere crim e is a p art o f ev e ry d ay life, lo c a l te le v isio n n ew sro o m s o f­ te n are led by W h ite m an ag e rs. O fte n , A fric a n A m e r ic a n re p o rte rs an d a n c h o rs a re fo u n d in lim ited n u m b e rs. A c c o r d in g to m e d ia re se a rc h e r V ern o n S to n e , m in o ritie s m a d e u p a b o u t 18% o f th e o v e r a ll te le v isio n n ew s w o rk fo rce , an d a m o n g n ew s d ire c to r s m in o rities m a d e up a b o u t 8 % . S t o n e w rote “ T h e w hite ce ilin g r e m a in s” (S to n e , 2 0 0 1 ). T h e B o a r d o f D ir e c to rs o f th e R T N D A , in Ju n e , 2 0 0 0 , c a lle d for n ew sro o m s to be m o re “ p r o a c tiv e ” in efforts to “ hire, train an d p ro m o te p e o p le o f c o lo r in to m a n a g e m e n t r o le s.” R T N D A re se a rc h e s tim a te d th a t 2 1 % o f n ew sro o m p e r ­ so n n e l a n d 14% o f lo c al n ew s d ire c to rs are m in o ritie s. “ N e w sro o m s n e e d to re­ fle c t th e c o m m u n itie s th ey se rv e ,” sa id R T N D A C h a ir m a n R o b e r t G a r c ia . T h e re so lu tio n re a d as follow s: T h e Radio-Television News Directors A ssociation believes that diversity must be a top priority in the nation’s electronic newsrooms. Toward that goal, we urge our membership, and electronic media ownership, to make a com m itm ent to recruit, hire, develop and retain top m anagers and execu­ tives who reflect the diverse makeup o f the com m unities we serve. R T N D A is com m itted to diversity, and stands ready with resources and services to assist news organizations. (R T N D A , 15 June 2000) G a r c ia a d d e d th e follow in g: “T h is r e so lu tio n tells th e in d u stry th a t w e a r e s e r i­ o u s a b o u t o u r d iv ersity effo rts, a n d th a t we w an t m in o ritie s h ired , tra in e d an d u ltim a te ly p r o m o te d in to m a n a g e m e n t r a n k s .” < h ttp ://w w w .rtn d a.o rg /n e w s/ 2 0 0 0 /a b c fm m in m .sh tm l > T h e d o m in a tio n o f n ew sro o m d e c isio n m a k in g by W h ite m a n a g e rs m ay lead to c o n te n t th a t p ro m o te s th e ste re o ty p ic a l view th a t all m in o rities b e lo n g in a sin g le categ o ry , a n d th is d o e s n o t p ro m o te u n d e r sta n d in g b e tw e e n th e r a c e s (G a n d y &. B a r o n , 1 9 9 8 ). A s a m a tte r o f “ c o c u ltu ra l c o m m u n ic a tio n ,” m in o ri­ ties m ay b e se e n a s “ m u te d g ro u p s” b e c a u se o f th e follow in g: T h ose groups that function at the top of the social hierarchy determine to a great extent the com m unication system o f the entire society. O ver time, the structures o f this system — which reflect the world view o f the dom inant group m em ­ bers— are reinforced as the appropriate com m unicative system for both dom inant and non-dom inant group members. (O rbe, 1998, pp. 233-234) L o c a l te le v isio n new s w ou ld b e c o n sid e r e d p a rt o f th e large r co m m u n ic a tio n sy ste m th a t re fle c ts a W h ite m ajo rity view . T h e tr a d itio n a l E u ro c e n tric w orld view h a s b e e n c h a lle n g e d by th e r e se a r c h c o m m u n ity (D e lg a d o , 1 9 9 8 ). F or e x ­ a m p le , m in ority g ro u p m em b ers, like o th e r e th n ic an d ra c ia l g ro u p m em b ers, are n o t all a lik e; th ey vary d e m o g ra p h ic a lly (D e lg a d o , 19 9 8 ; O rb e , 1 9 9 5 ). M e-

M IN O RITIES AND CRIM E NEW S

123 T A B L E 8.1

O verrepresentation o f Minorities o f Victims Racial and Ethnic Groups

Population Age 12 or older

Victims of Serious Violence

Rates per 1,000

Total

100

100

20

White

77

65

17

Black

12

20

34

Other

3

4

24

Hispanic

8

12

29

Note. Blacks and to a lesser degree Hispanics were overrepresented among victims, relative to their proportions o f the general population age 12 or older. Whites, Blacks, and others exclude Hispanics. Source: Craig A. Perkins, ‘Age Patterns of Victims o f Serious Violent Crime,” United States Depart­ ment of Justice, Special Report, July 1997.

d ia are se e n as ste re o ty p in g d ise n fr a n c h ise d g ro u p s, su c h as A fric a n A m e ric a n m en (O rb e , 1 9 9 8 ). H ow ever, “A fric a n A m e ric a n s are re g ard e d a s a n e th n ic c u l­ tu re, o n e w h ich is d istin g u ish e d by a sh a re d h isto ric a l o r ie n ta tio n as w ell as a p re v a ilin g g ro u p id e n tity ” (O rb e , 1 9 9 5 , p. 6 1 ). A fric a n A m e ric a n s, as a g ro u p , h a v e b e e n sa id to id en tify w ith (a) “ s o u l” th a t “ e m p h a siz e s th e h isto ric a l A fr i­ c a n A m e r ic a n c u ltu re a n d affirm s th e im p o r ta n c e o f a c c e p ta n c e an d p e rse v e r­ a n c e ;” a n d (b) “ b la c k n a tio n a lism ” th at “ v a lu e s A fric a n A m e ric a n cu ltu re an d e m p h a siz e s r e v o lu tio n a g a in st ra c ism , c o lo n ia lism , a n d im p e ria lism ” (d el C a rm e n , 2 0 0 0 , p. 1 3 7 ). T h e c h a lle n g e for lo c al te le v isio n jo u rn a lists is to re c o g ­ nize a n d u n d e r sta n d th a t cu ltu re , a n d a lso b e o p e n to tre a tin g A fric a n A m e r i­ c a n s as u n iq u e in d iv id u als. T h e e m p h a sis o n B la c k su sp e c ts in crim e c o v e ra g e te n d s to rein fo rc e ste re o ty p e s for W h ite v iew ers: Blacks often are identified in these reports, particularly in arrest scenes on local television, as “perps” (police shorthand for “ perpetrators” ) ; but it’s not always ex ­ plained that statistics show m ost “ black crim e” to be committed not against whites but against other blacks in the black ghettoes com m on to major Am erican citie s.... It may be, therefore, that the public fears crime not so much as a personal threat but more as a destructive social force— and, worse that the heavy and un­ fair burden a get-tough imprisonment policy im poses on the black community also as seen as from a distance— as if it were happening elsewhere, o f no personal concern to unaffected whites. (Westfeldt &. Wicker, 1998, p. 51) L o c a l telev isio n new s is o ften lim ited in crim e c o v e ra g e by th e availab ility o f v i­ su a ls o th er th a n “ m u g sh o ts,” an d th ese m ay feed racial stereotyp es. S till, n ew s­

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room s m ust be careful to portray crim e in all parts o f a city on an equ al basis. B eyond this, racial stereotypes o f view ers m ight be ch allen ged by everyday co v er­ age o f A frican A m e rican m en an d w om en as routine sou rces in news stories.

VICTIMS OF CRIME V ictim s an d o th ers, su ch as w itn e sses, are u sed in the new s p ro d u c tio n p ro cess, bu t rem ain o u tsid e o f it: A crime victim who can supply good, newsworthy emotion results in a story’s be­ coming higher level and influences when victims are contacted, how they are contacted, the types o f questions that are asked, and what is presented about the victim. (Chermak, 1995, p. 85) B lac k s an d H isp an ic s, acc o rd in g to U .S . D e p artm e n t o f Ju stic e statistics, a cro ss all age grou ps, w ere m ore at risk from v iolen ce th an W h ite s— 1 in 3 0 B lac k s, 1 in 3 5 H isp a n ic s, an d 1 in 58 W h ites in the 1990s. A s h as b e en su g ge sted previously, so m e tim es sto ries in w hich B lac k su sp e cts are ch a rg e d w ith crim es a g ain st W h ite victim s are se n satio n alize d by local tele­ v isio n new s: Crime victims are influential in determining why certain crime stories are se­ lected, how stories are produced, which stories are presented, and which crimes get filtered out o f the process. W hether a crime is selected and whether it is pro­ moted to a secondary, a primary, or even a super primary level can be influenced by the status o f the victim. (Chermak, 1995, p. 62) C h e rm a k a d d e d th at crim e v ictim s provid e h u m an in te rest to a story th rou gh th eir e m o tio n a l rea ctio n s. Typically, d e a th or ex tre m e ph y sical h arm qu alifies a sto ry as new sw orthy, bu t C h e rm a k (1 9 9 5 ) su g ge sted th at the e x isten c e o f v id eo c re a te s a u n iq u e c irc u m ­ sta n c e , “ raisin g th e n ew sw orth in ess o f assau lts an d ag g rav ate d assau lts as tele­ v isio n crim e sto rie s” (p. 1 3 2 ). In su ch c a se s, racial stereoty p es m igh t be called in to q u e stio n by th e m ajority o f view ers. For ex am p le, w h en W h ite L os A n g e le s police officers w ere v id e o tap e d b e a tin g m o to rist R o d n ey K in g follow ing a traffic sto p , an d th at h om e v id eo m ad e it in to th e h an d s o f local telev isio n new s re­ ports, the a u d ien ce reacte d to the u n fairn ess portrayed o n th e tap e. T h e ev e n t raised aw aren ess an d pu blic c o n c e rn ab o u t police brutality, an d it triggered m ore in ten se m ed ia c o v e ra g e o f th e issu e (R ogers & D earin g, 1988, in G raber, 2 0 0 0 , p. 7 3 ). L o c a l T V new s c o v e ra g e o f in d ividu al ev e n ts m ay h av e a c u m u la ­ tive effect o n public p erce p tio n s a b o u t the crim e issue. E n tm an (19 9 4 b) ob served th at new sroom proced u res an d d efinitions o f new s com bine with selected asp e cts o f the real w orld to en co u rag e n eg ative s te ­ reotypes ab o u t b lack s" (p. 3 1 ). E n tm an ’s research found th at local television

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new sroom s treated B lack and W hite crim inal defendants differently. B lacks were more often shown in m ugshots w ithout being nam ed, were more likely show n in police custody, and were less likely in positive law enforcem ent roles: “T h e overall im age o f crim e and violence from local news is one in which m inorities, especially blacks, play a heavy role in causin g violence but contribute disproportionately lit­ tle toward helping society cope with it” (p. 32). It is not m uch o f a leap, then, to suggest that the day-to-day coverage o f crim e news in this way may influence public opinion on the im portance o f the crime issue and what needs to be done about it. H eider (2000) suggested two rem edies to the problem: (a) m ore report­ ers in the field covering com m unity issues, and (b) edu cation o f viewers and news people. Local T V news faces increasing com petition from new technologies, and H eider contended that to survive a station m u st" ... convince viewers that it is in touch with the local com m unity” (p. 95). C overage o f m inorities will becom e in­ creasingly im portant as the racial com position o f each local television m arket be­ com es m ore diverse. In fact, m inorities and wom en appear to be more visible on television news than ever (New kirk, 2000). N everth eless, the view o f white A m erica that equality has been achieved is tem pered by cultural concerns: “A fri­ can A m erican s and their minority counterparts are still woefully under repre­ sented in the industry and are far from integrated into the new sroom culture” (New kirk, 2000, p. 194). Th erefore, it is likely that criticism s about how local television new sroom s cover m inorities will continue.

CHAPTER SUMMARY T h is ch ap ter d iscu ssed the im portan ce o f race in local television new s crim e co verage. T h e race o f those arrested , as well as those victim ized, often is an is­ su e becau se visu al im ages are a cru cial part o f any story.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. If you were a late evening television news producer, how would you deal with a story about an arm ed robbery at a convenien ce store, if there was n o video? Would it m atter that there w as no injuries? W ould the race o f the suspect be part o f the story? W hy or why not? W ould it m ake a difference if the store were located in an inner-city neighborhood or a suburb? 2. D o you agree or disagree th at local television news co verage contribu tes to prom oting racial stereotypes? W hy or why not? W h at oth er social fac­ tors besides television new s m ay reinforce stereotypical beliefs? 3. Sh ou ld race o f a victim in a crim e story ever m ake a difference in local television new s coverage? W hy or why not? 4. H ow d oes the daily co verage o f a particu lar crim e even t su ch as a murder, a drug bust, or a sch ool sh ootin g translate in to co verage o f larger issues o f crim e in our society? 5. H ow m ight the findings in past research concerning portrayal o f m inorities in local television news have a long-term influence on public policy?

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9 Crime News and the Elderly

“I think they [news media] are denying the fact that the demographics are there and they cannot quite accept them, yet.” — Myrna Lewis, sociologist (Cable News Network, 1993) O ld er ad u lts w atch television news. P rofessional and acad em ic research re­ peatedly show th at the elderly segm en t o f our p opu lation is the one age group b road casters m ay rely on for view ing local news. T h is ch ap ter ex am in es the im ­ p act o f the elderly as view ers and participan ts in local television crim e c o v er­ age. To un d erstan d the im portan ce o f this issue, the im pact o f aging in A m erica m ust be ad d ressed .

GERONTOLOGY AND AN AGING POPULATION T h e older p opu lation in the U n ited S ta te s is in creasin g dram atically, an d it has been referred to as the “graying o f A m e rica” (Barrow, 1996, p. 6). A m erican s are living longer d ue to a healthier lifestyle that includes a better d iet an d m edi­ cal care (R ein h ard t, 2 0 0 0 ). C en su s projection s show th at by the year 2040, the n ation co uld h ave m ore people over age 65 th an u nder age 21, an d m ore than one in four A m e rican s will be 65 or older (U sdansky, 1992). In the 1990 censu s figures, ad u lts 65 and over acco u n ted for one ou t o f eight A m erican s, c o m ­ pared to 1 in 25 at the begin ning o f the 20th century. Furth erm ore, the over-85 a g e g ro u p r e p r e se n ts th e fa ste st-g r o w in g se g m e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n (D ychtw ald & Flower, 1989). S ch o larly in terest in the area o f m ass m ed ia an d old er ad u lts co n tin u es to in crease (Roy & H arw ood , 199 7 ), how ever, television new s ex ecu tiv es have been slow to co n sid er this grow ing segm en t o f the au d ien ce (H ilt, 1992). B ro ad casters, eith er th rou gh a co n scio u s d ecisio n or an in volu n tary act, fo l­ 127

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low th e d esires o f society put forth in the social geron tology d isen gag em en t theory. T h e theory is a u seful fram ew ork for th e ex am in atio n o f a ttitu d es a b o u t old er peop le. T h e d isen gagem en t theory (C u m m ing & Henry, 1961; P assuth & B engtson, 1988; Young, 1979) argues that society an d the elderly are m utually obliged to w ithdraw from eac h other. T h e au th ors o f this theory, Elaine C um m ing and W illiam Henry, m ain tain ed th at the process is functional to both society and the individual; it enables society to m ake room for m ore efficient young people while allow ing the elderly tim e to prepare for their even tu al total w ithdraw al from social life— death . C um m ing and H enry argued that the disen gagem en t theory sh ould actually be considered an interperson al com m u n ication theory b e cau se m ass com m u n ication researchers say television serves as a su bstitu te for interperson al co n tacts am ong elderly people: “ In television, especially, the im age w hich is presented m akes availab le n u an ces o f ap pearan ce and gestu re to w hich ordinary social perception is atten tive and to w hich in teraction is cu e d ” (H orto n & W ohl, 1986, p. 185). T h e theory o f d isengagem ent has generated m uch criticism. Barrow (1996) con ten d ed th at one m ight ju st as well speak o f society excluding the elderly as dis­ engaging them ; perhaps the withdrawal o f older people is a reaction to a society th at excludes them . It m ay be that older adults are being pushed o u t o f society, and television contributes to the disengagem ent by not showing or speaking about elderly people in its programs. T h o rso n (1995) wrote that the disen gage­ m ent theory, like m any studies o f the aged, tended to lump all older adults into one group and not allow for individual differences. W hitm ore (1995) concluded th at there is little know ledge about the portrayal o f older people by the news m e­ dia, and that television news tends to treat the elderly in a superficial m anner by focusing on the extrem e. Ryff, M arsh all, and C larke (1999) m ain tain ed th at the disen gagem en t th e­ ory h as stron g m icrolevel conceptualizatio n s o f social stru ctu re. S o c ial c o n ­ stru ction o f reality m ay also enter in to a process becau se the “ individual and so ciety " are en gaged in an ongoing relationsh ip (p. 18). R y ffet al. declared that reality feeds back on the individual, an d is em bodied in w ritten and o th er in sti­ tu tion al form s. O n e type o f in stitutional form is television.

THE VIEWING HABITS OF OLDER AMERICANS E lderly peop le spen d m ore tim e with television th an any other m edium (L ou is H arris, 1975; M oss & Law ton , 1982; N u ssb au m , T h o m p so n , &. R ob in son , 1989) an d w atch m ore T V th an youn ger people (Bower, 1973). O ld er ad u lts sp en d far m ore tim e w atching television th an reading new spapers, an d w atch m ore television th an any o th er age grou p (A tk in s, Jen k in s, &. Perkins, 1991; M o ss & Law ton , 1982). W hile w atchin g television, the older view er prefers new s, d ocu m en taries, and public affairs (Bower, 1973; D avis, 1971; D avis, E d ­

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w ards, Bartel, & M artin, 1976; D avis & W estbrook, 1985; G o o d m an , 1990; Korzenny & N eu en d orf, 1980; R ubin & Rubin, 1982a; R ubin & R ubin, 1982b; S c a le s, 1996; Steiner, 1963; W enner, 1976). O ld er view ers are m ajor co n su m ­ ers o f television new s, preferring television new s over o th er m edia (D oolittle, 1979) b ecau se they view it as a way to becom e aw are o f current even ts rather th an as a diversion (D avis & D avis, 1985). Frequency o f television use an d to ­ tal view ing tim e in creases with age up to ab o u t 69 years, before show ing a slight d ecline (Lou is H arris, 1975). People 55 years and over w atch an average o f 7 m ore hr o f television per w eek th an younger adu lts (N ielsen , 1975). N ielsen found elderly people w atch betw een 3 0 and 35 hr o f T V per week. B ow er’s study (1973) found that “older persons spen d m ore o f their tim e w atching the new s.” H is 55-year-and-over group h ad the high est rate o f any age group for view ing new s, inform ation and public affairs. Stein er (1963) h ad re­ ported sim ilar findings. Stein er found people 55 to 64-years-old w atched 16.4 television new s and inform ation program s per week, and those 65 years and older w atched 22.4 program s per week. T h e se were the two largest age groups for view ing television news and inform ation program m ing. D o o little (1 9 7 9 ) se p arate d an old er co h o rt in to three su bgrou ps: younger sen iors (48 to 6 6 y ears); old sen iors (67 to 74 y ears); an d old er sen iors (75 to 93 y ears). O f the th ree su b g rou p s, television new s u sage w as the h igh est for old sen io rs (67 to 74 years). O v erall, th ese resp on d en ts rated television as m o st credible. In a study co n d u cted by K en t an d R ush (1 9 7 6 ), 99% o f the elderly persons surveyed said they w atched television news. T h is heavy use o f television news rem ained 14 years later, when G o o d m an (1990) found th at older m en and w om en favored television for their n ation al news and inform ation, but p re­ ferred new spapers for local news. R esearch co n d u cted for the A B C Television N etw ork found that view ers age 5 0 and older were significantly m ore interested in news than younger g en era­ tions (W urtzel, 1992). T h a n k s to h ealth care im provem ents, people in their 60s and older are living longer, and h ave m ore d isposab le incom e th an ever before (Lieberm an & M cCray, 1994). A m erican s 5 0 years o f age and older control h alf o f this co u n try ’s discretionary incom e and 77% o f its assets (Grey A dvertising, 1988), an d the 65 to 74 coh o rt h as the high est percen tage o f discretionary in­ com e o f any 10-year coho rt (W olfe, 1987). Lieberm an and M cC ray (1994) m ain tain ed th at new s and inform ation n eed ed to be relevant to all groups, if the m edia w anted to keep its au dien ces. T h e y found that 90% o f people at retire­ m ent age or over said keeping up with the new s is extrem ely im portant. W hile all o f this is happening, news h as becom e a m ajor profit cen ter at local statio n s (W icks, 1989). H ow ever, b ro ad cast new s, en tertain m en t, and ad v ertis­ ing have been geared tow ard younger adu lts, the so-called m oney m akers who buy good s. O v er the years the television netw orks have can celled program s w hich attracted an older view ing au dien ce, su ch as Red Skelton and Lawrence Welk. Later, N B C targeted older view ers in the 1980s with series su ch as Golden

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Girls, but “ can celled th ose program s in an effort to attract a younger au d ien ce” (H ead , Sterling, & Sch ofield , 1994, p. 308). By the end o f the 1990s, A m erican broad cast television netw orks had rem ained centered on attractin g a younger au d ien ce, and the only program m ing targeting older adu lts w as relatively in ex­ pen sive news m agazines. S o m e cable netw orks su ch as M S N B C , C N B C , C N N , Fox N ew s C h an n el, C - S P A N , and H G T V had older au d ien ces during som e tim es o f day. N um erous studies show th at use o f the m edia increases during m iddle age through the retirem ent years (D im m ick, M cC ain , & Bolton, 1979). A lm ost 40 years ago G lick and Levy (1962) referred to the elderly as “em bracers” o f televi­ sion; they seem to have a “close identification with television, a rather undiscriminating and accepting attitude toward it, and usually, [m ake] great use o f the m edium " (p. 55, p. 44). Several ex p lan ation s h ave been given for age-related trends in m edia use. C om sto c k , C h affee, K atzm an , M cC om b s, and Roberts (1978) grouped the e l­ derly along with the poor and eth n ic m inorities into the category o f “d isad v an ­ ta g e d .” T h ey said this group depen ds on television m ore th an any o th er news m edium for know ledge and inform ation. T h e elderly au d ien ce’s use o f the broad cast m edium m ay be related to the ease with w hich it c a n be received. Television , beyond the co st o f the set, co sts less than new spapers and m agazines. In addition, failing eyesight can m ake reading difficult or im possible (C h affee & W ilson, 1975). A n o th er reason given for increased use o f the m edia by elderly people is that television and new spapers h ave becom e su bstitu tes for interperson al co n tacts (D avis, 1971; Graney, 1975; G raney & Graney, 1974; R ubin & R ubin, 1982b). B ecau se o f loneliness and disen gagem en t, older adults turn to m ass m edia for their inform ation abo ut the ou tside world (A tkin , 1976; H ess, 1974; Powell & W illiam son, 1985; Sch ram m , 1969). In fact, older view ers m ay participate in para-social interaction— a process in w hich a viewer co m es to see a television personality as an im portant person in their life (H orto n & W ohl, 1986). A s d iscu ssed earlier, the d isen gag em en t theory o f aging su g g e sts th at as peop le grow older they are likely to show less in terest in so c ie ty ’s problem s (C a ssa ta , 19 8 5 ). C a ssa ta foun d th at television new s allow s th em to feel c o n ­ n ected to the w orld, an d th e new s also su pplies th em w ith the in form ation re­ qu ired for “ ad ap tiv e fu n c tio n in g .” T h is finding has b een offered as e v id en ce to ch alle n g e the d isen gag em en t h yp oth esis. People d isen gag ed from society w ould n ot seem likely to be in terested in television new s, bu t elderly people show high in terest. A tk in (1 9 7 6 ) su g ge sted th at the p referen ce for news and in form ation in television view ing is a d irect atte m p t to co m p e n sate for the s ta ­ ble and un excitin g w orld o f old er ad u lts. Sc h ram m (1 9 6 9 ) in te rp rete d this as their way o f keeping u p w ith society rath er th an a m ean s o f d isen gag em en t. H e w rote th at older peop le use television to keep in tou ch , c o m b at p rogressive d isen gag em en t, an d m ain tain a se n se o f belon gin g to society. L ow en th al and B oler (1 9 6 5 ) foun d th ose aged ad u lts w ho volu ntarily d isen gag ed from their

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social activities d ec reased use o f m edia, and th ose in volu n tarily disen gaged in creased their use. Kubey (1 9 8 1 ) foun d th at television m ay h elp su b stitu te for the in terperson al in form ation netw ork th at ex isted w hen the ind ivid u al w ent ou t in to th e com m u n ity to w ork. T h e in creased leisure tim e th at a c c o m ­ pan ies retirem ent m ay a cc o u n t for som e o f the higher c o n su m p tio n rates o f television new s by elderly people. T h e su b stitu tio n theory h as b e en offered as an alte rn ativ e to the d isen gag em en t theory. T h e su b stitu tio n theory o f aging h olds th at old er p erson s will tend to su b stitu te m ass m ed ia co m m u n ic atio n for in terp erson al co m m u n ic atio n w hen the latte r is u n av ailab le, or extrem ely d if­ ficult to acco m p lish (B liese, 1986).

TELEVISION PORTRAYAL OF OLDER AMERICANS C on sid erable research has been co n d u cted in two th eoretical fields relative to the portrayal o f elderly people in the m ass m edia and specifically on television. Two prim ary h ypoth eses ab o u t m ed ia effects h ave em erged from this research. First, the cu ltivation theory holds th at people w atching television acquire a view o f the real world sh ap ed by the televised co n ten t they view. G erbn er (1969) noted th at, if elderly people are portrayed on television as incom peten t, view ers m ay begin to think th at is true. Signorielli & G e rb n e r’s (1978) prim e-tim e television analysis o f m ore th an 9 ,0 0 0 T V ch aracters found that e l­ derly people were n ot often represen ted. W hen they were, they often had prob­ lem s and were reliant on younger people for help (N 'orthcott, 1975); were m ore likely to be villains th an h eroes (A ronoff, 1974); or, sim ply were portrayed in a negative light (D av is & Kubey, 1982). M ore recent research (Bell, 1992) found that n egative stereotypes o f elderly people in prim e-tim e television h ave been replaced by m ore positive stereotypes. H owever, Bell add ed th at these portray­ als should m irror the d em ograph ics o f the country, not ju st in the num ber o f older people show n on television, but also in gender, race, class, m arital and h ealth status. G erbn er (1993) found in a study o f w om en and m inorities on tele­ vision th at old er people are greatly under represen ted, and seem to be declining instead o f increasing as in real life. C u ltivation theorists w ould say th at heavy television view ers m ay think th at few people arc elderly and th at elderly persons were o f less co n sequ en ce becau se they were rarely seen on television. A tch ley (19 9 1 ) w rote th at it is difficult to generalize abo u t the way aging is portrayed on television, b e cau se it is su ch a varied and co m plex m edium . H e found little research h ad been co n d u cted in to the portrayal o f older ad u lts in television new s. O th er research in the area o f television’s portrayal o f elderly people includes S atu rd ay m orning cartoon s (Bish op &. K rau se, 1984; Levinson, 1973; Powers, 1992), gam e show s (D anow ski, 1975), television com m ercials (Francher, 1973; H iem stra, G o o d m an , M iddlem iss, V osco, & Ziegler, 1983; S c h re ib e r &. B oyd, 1 9 80; Sw ay n e & G re c o , 1 9 8 7 ), fic tio n al telev isio n (G reenberg, Korzenny, & A tk in , 1979), prim e-tim e television (C a ssa ta &. Irwin, 1989; D ail, 1988; P etersen, 1973) and soap operas (B arton , 1977;

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C assata, A n derson, & Skill, 1980; C assata, A n derson, & Skill, 1983; Downing, 1974; Elliott, 1984; Ram sdell, 1973). A second hypothesis about m edia effects involves agenda setting, which suggests the m edia will influence the way people think by focusing viewers’ atte n ­ tion on specific issues (N ussbaum et al., 1989). T h e m edia set the agenda for the audience by em phasizing certain topics and by slighting other issues through om ission. A gen da setting could enter television news program s through event bias. Television new scasts tend to report events such as fires and accidents rather than non event issues such as the plight o f elderly people. Television may reinforce stereotyp ical attitu d es tow ard elderly people (Gerbner, G ross, Signorielli, & M organ, 1980). Lonely elderly viewers in one study showed greater interest in viewing negative rather than positive portrayals, whereas nonlonely viewers exhibited the opposite preference (M ares &. Cantor, 1992). Results o f a national survey published in Parade m agazine (Clem ents, 1993) showed that m ore than h alf o f the respondents feel the elderly are portrayed fa­ vorably in television (62% ), m ovies (59% ), and advertising (55% ). O ne respon­ dent who disagreed said that the average person who does not have close co n tact with the elderly and only sees them through the m edia would get an in­ correct perspective. “T h is may be one reason why m any people treat the elderly as children, as if som eone else would be better at deciding what’s best for them" (Clem ents, 1993, p. 5). M any A m erican s fear growing old. Friedan (1993) placed m uch o f the blame for this fear o f aging with the media. Studies o f television’s portrayal o f elderly people rarely co nclu d e that the portrayals are positive. A lso, although many older persons spend substantial time with T V and like to w atch it, such older viewers have not been a significant factor in com m ercial television program ­ ming decisions (C arm ichael, 1976; C arm ichael, Botan, & H aw k in s, 1988). Pro­ gram m ing decisions are often based on the num ber o f people w atching a particular show— the ratings. If the ratings are low, or if the advertisers do not buy com m ercial time because they do not want to m arket their product to the type o f people who watch that program , the show soon will be o ff the air. T h e A B C television netw ork, along with the other m ajor television networks (C B S, N B C , and F O X ), considers its core viewers to be adults in the 18- to 49-year-old age group, teenagers, and children ages 2 to 11 (Wurtzel, 1992). A ccording to Rubin (19 8 8 ), program m ers and advertisers typically have ignored the needs and wishes o f over 20% o f the population, those past the age o f 54- In fact, tele­ vision advertisers control w hat is seen. Elderly persons do not feel television com m ercials give an accu rate picture o f older people (Louis H arris, 1981). R e­ search has found a positive relation between television orientation and concern for one’s personal and financial well-being (Rahtz, Sirgy, & Meadow, 1989). T h is might be useful in helping advertisers select the appeal which would be m ost effective am ong elderly people. N etw ork television has all but turned its back on viewers older than 50, and the graying o f A m erica is not accurately re­ flected in prim e-tim e television (Kogan, 1992). Kogan’s article concludes by

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posing the q u estion o f w hether it is television’s jo b to serve view ers or a d v ertis­ ers. “ I d on ’t think you w ant to h ear the answ er to that q u estio n ,” one A B C e x e c ­ utive responded. Prim e-tim e entertain m en t program m ing is an im portant lead-in for local television news d ep artm en ts’ late evening new scasts. Industry research has show n th at highly rated en tertain m en t program s boost the ratings o f the local news th at follows.

THE ATTITUDES OF BROADCASTERS A consistent them e in gerontological literature is that negative attitud es toward aging influence how a person cares for or perceives the elderly (Powell, T h orson , K ara, & U h l, 1990). T h e types o f news stories or new scasts that air on a television station are influenced by the broadcast m anagers. T h erefore, those m anagers’ a t­ titudes tow ard the elderly could influence those stories or program s. T h e re have been calls for research into the needs o f m edia personnel for in­ form ation about the aged (A tkin , 1976). B arton and Sch reib er (1978) called for an ex am in ation o f the internal stru ctu res and functions o f m edia organizations as they relate to aging. S u c h research w ould reveal how aging as a co n ten t topic and as a social issue am on g sta ff m em bers is d ealt with at critical stag es o f the m ass co m m u n ication process. M ore th an 10 years ago R ubin (1982) listed six areas o f inquiry for future research in to television and aging: a) co n tin u e ex am i­ nation and d evelopm en t o f functional life-position indicators as altern ativ es to ch ron ological age, b) co n tin u e exam in ation o f the in teractive com m u n ication needs and m edia uses o f aging and aged persons an d how certain m edia beh av­ iors gratify these needs, c) research the area o f n on television m edia and aging, d) provide em pirical ev iden ce to establish the ex ten t o f television’s social influ­ ence, e) exam in e the uses which older people can m ake o f the evolving new tech nologies an d the im pact o f these technologies on television program m ing and oth er m edia co n ten t, an d 0 exam in e the policies and procedu res o f televi­ sion in m onitoring their presen tation s o f aging-related issues and portrayals. R esearch in to netw ork television news divisions found th at the organ iza­ tional stru ctu re w as the m ost im portant factor in the fram ing, selection , and prod uction o f news (E pstein, 1973). E pstein (1973) co n clu d ed that m uch o f how news w as gath ered , processed, and delivered at the netw ork level was re­ lated to organ izational needs an d con strain ts. G an s (1 979) found that jo u rn al­ ists, w hether in b road castin g or print, share m essages abo u t society with their au d ien ce. G o ed k o o p (1 988) found the sam e could be said for jou rn alists at the local television level. T h e general m anager is the person in charge o f the local television s ta ­ tion— eith er through ow nership o f the statio n or by appoin tm en t from the sta ­ tion’s board o f directors. T h e general m an ager is the person w ho w ould hire the news director. T h e news director is the key individual in any local news o p era­ tion (G oed koo p , 1988). In m ost new sroom s, the news director is responsible for

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m an agerial d uties su ch as hiring and firing, purch asing equipm en t and b u d g et­ ing, an d settin g new sroom policy. T h e news d irector is ultim ately responsible for the new s co verage (Fang, 1985). T h e re is a grow ing m anagerial role on the part o f new s d irectors that is related to the increasing role o f the news d epartm en t in the fin an ces and program m ing o f television statio n s (Q uard erer & S to n e, 1989a; Q u ard erer & S to n e, 1989b; S to n e, 1988). H owever, becau se local news ca n take several hours o f airtim e per day, m ajor d ecisions involving the new s­ casts are m ade in co n cert betw een the g en eral m an ager and news director, and possibly m anagers from other statio n d epartm en ts. T h e news director would hire the assignm en t editor— the person in ch arge o f the day-to-d ay co verage o f news. T h is person selects and assigns the stories to be covered by the new sroom em ployees on a given day. T h e se decision s are based on the ev en ts o f the day, su ch as govern m en t m eetings and crim e reports, and policies establish ed by statio n m an agem en t. T h e news d irector would also hire the n ew scast producer. P roducers d ecid e w hich stories run in a new scast, and the order o f the stories w ithin a new scast. A lth o u g h gen eral m anagers an d new s directors set the policy for news co v er­ age, assignm en t editors and producers carry ou t that policy on a day-to-day b a ­ sis. A s a group, these four players ultim ately h ave strong influence on w hat view ers see in their nightly local television new scasts (H ilt & Lipschultz, 1996; H ilt & Lipschultz, 1999). To paraph rase H erbert G an s (19 7 9 ), assignm en t e d i­ tors and producers are the g atekeepers w ho decide w hat is news.

TELEVISION NEWS AND ELDERLY PEOPLE Stu d ies and rating surveys agree th at television news has becom e the public’s m ost im portant source o f inform ation (Bower, 1985; C ou lson & M acd on ald , 1992; Iyengar & Kinder, 1987). R oper (1989) indicated 66% o f those surveyed rely on television m ore th an any o th er m edium as their primary source o f news. In addition, view ers feel the way television news is presented has im proved over the years (Bower, 1985). Local television is rapidly becom ing a prime sou rce o f news (Peale & H arm on, 1991). T h e people responsible for the news decisions th at transform everyday events into the sights and sounds o f the evening new s­ cast also are held responsible for building the public agenda o f issues and events. If new spapers reflect society’s concerns (W ass, A lm erico, C am pbell, &. T atum , 1984), th en the sam e can be said for television news. Fisher (1977) said society ’s co ncerns d o not include elderly people or the issue o f aging. In form ation about elderly people and issues o f im portance to them in televi­ sion n ew scasts h as been in ad eq u ate (H ess, 1974). H ess w rote that the m ed ia have m issed “ a truly b ig sto ry ” (19 7 4 , p. 8 4 ). T h e m edia have been ch arged with failing to cap tu re the reality o f being old in A m erica, and with creatin g an d rein ­ forcing n egative stereotypes ab o u t old people (B ram lett-Solom an & W ilson, 1989; G an tz, G artenberg, & Rainbow , 1980; M arkson, Pratt, & Taylor, 1989;

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Schram m , 1969). A lthough it is more than 30 years old, Wilbur Schram m ’s re­ search (1969) still rings true: the m edia have overlooked the very fact o f the em ergence o f elderly people as a m ajor segm ent o f the population. Television news shows a tendency to be biased toward reporting events, esp e­ cially catastrophes, rather than covering issues (Saltzm an, 1979). A tchley (1991) wrote that network news, local news, and docum entaries thrive on sen ­ sationalism . T h ere is nothing sensational about people who successfully cope with everyday life. S o , according to Atchley, those older people who are given attention in the news are those with “a problem that can be a springboard for hum an interest or com m entary” (1991, p. 289). A ging and its inherent prob­ lems occur over time and usually are not associated with the sim ple situations which are characteristic o f television news programming. T h e m edia also are a c ­ cused o f showing a bias against elderly people by failing to report inform ation about aging (Powell & W illiamson, 1985), leaving som e elderly feeling socially insignificant and powerless. In a study o f television’s effect on adults, G ans (1968) found that one third o f the respondents felt that television helped them understand their personal problems and m ake decisions, particularly when they could identify with the sit­ uation being presented. G an s’ findings suggested that exam ining television pro­ gram m ing to identify m essages about hum an life in general is appropriate, and can be applied to specific categories o f individuals, such as older adults. A number o f studies have focused on gratifications sought and obtained from television news (D avis & Edwards, 1975; Rubin & Rubin, 1981; Wenner, 1984). T h ese studies indicate that for som e the content o f newscasts provides inform a­ tion o f value in personal and social situations. For others the process o f viewing news may be an end in itself, because o f its entertainm ent values and its ability to reduce feelings o f social isolation. T he television is readily accessible, provides a link to the outside world, allows the elderly to structure time periods o f their day, and provides companionship. Five gratifications have been identified (Palmgreen, Wenner, &. Rayburn, 1980) which may provide insight into the television news viewing behaviors o f the elderly. T h e five gratifications are as follows: a) general inform ation seeking, b) decisional utility, c) entertainm ent, d) interpersonal unity, and e) para-social interaction. Local television news allows older people to seek highly useful co m ­ m unity-based inform ation. D isengaged from the m ainstream o f social life, many older people find the local news to be a source o f am usem ent, hum an co ntact, and a substitute for “ real-life” com m unication. Th ere are several reasons that local news may be the basis for social co n stru c­ tion o f reality perceptions by the elderly, beyond the fact that it is heavily w atched and a part o f regular daily activities. Local news is dram atic and often w atched for entertainm ent reasons (Bogart, 1980; Dom inick et al., 1975; R u ­ bin, Perse, & Powell, 1985), and local news is perceived as realistic by m uch o f its audience (Rubin et al., 1985). O n an average evening a half-hour local new s­ cast will have a slightly larger audience than a network new scast (Schonfeld,

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1983; Broadcasting, M arch 30, 1987, pp. 1 6 3 -1 6 4 ). In creased view ing o f local television news does not m ean an increase in the perception o f personal safety (Perse, 1990), but it may influence an older view er’s thinking tow ard an issue o f direct im portance to him or her, for exam ple, So cial Secu rity (Iyengar & Kinder, 1987). C on ten t analyses o f netw ork and local television new scasts show an absence o f stories relating to social issues which might be o f im portance to elderly people (Stem pel, 1988). A d am s (1978) conducted an analysis o f 10 Pennsylvania tele­ vision stations, and found an em phasis on local politics, not on sensational and hum an interest stories. N onpolitical com m unity and organization activity re­ ceived less than 1 Vi min o f coverage, or about 9% o f total news time. N ew s fram ­ ing represents selected reality (Tewksbury, Jon es, Peski, Raym ond, & Vig, 2 000). H arm on found in a 1989 case study o f C in cinn ati th at m ost o f the stories fell into the police, fire, executive, and courts categories. Pollack (1989) argued that the m edia have done an incom plete job o f educating them selves about so ­ cial policy questions that affect the elderly. H e said many editors see the prob­ lems o f elderly people as too boring or depressing for regular coverage. It may be that the problems facing elderly people are seen as boring or d e­ pressing because those problems are not viewed through the eyes o f older A m er­ icans. In G erbner’s (1993) analysis o f women and m inorities on television, he found minority groups other than women were featured in only 3% o f the n et­ work news stories analyzed. T h e news makers them selves were less likely to be older adults. Twelve percent o f the m ale news makers were over 60 years o f age, 6% o f the women were over 60, and 1% or less o f other m inorities were over 60. O f all the m edia, television offers the m ost frequent view o f older people (Tebbel, 1975). Consequently, television is in a better position toelim in ate mis­ understandings. T h a t has not been the case. In a C able N ew s N etw ork special focusing attention on people 50 years o f age and older (1993), gerontologist Ken Dychtw ald noted that the m edia should be leading the charge in creating a more contem porary im age o f aging: “ But the m edia, w hether it’s the m ovies or TV, are probably about 10 years behind.” Sociologist M yrna Lewis (Cable News N etw ork, 1993) said the m edia have an identity crisis: “T h ey are faced with the dem ographics o f their readership and their viewership, all o f which are m oving toward old age in enorm ous num bers. But, they can not, personally, face this is­ sue. So, I think they are denying the fact that the dem ographics are there and they can not quite accept them, yet” (Cable N ew s N etw ork, 1993). In a survey o f television general m anagers and news directors (Hilt, 1997), sev­ eral respondents focused on the content o f television newscasts, and how it re­ lates to the elderly. O n e respon d en t indicated th at news co n ten t, not technological bells and whistles, will attract and keep an audience. A nother re­ spondent, a 36-year-old male general m anager from a Top 30 m arket said, “Any complex issue is difficult to explain in a typical T V news format, not just issues facing older people” (Hilt, 1997, p. 69). A 39-year-old female news director said, “It’s often difficult to get people on-cam era to discuss issues o f concern to the el­

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derly— especially the elderly” (H ilt, 1997, p. 69). T h e H ilt (1997) study found that television general m anagers and news directors seem ed to agree that older adults were an im portant part o f the audience. However, the broadcasters have not changed their m inds concerning the role o f crime stories in their new scasts.

THE FEAR OF CRIME T h e stu dy o f old er people as crim e victim s h as m atu red into on e o f the m ajor a r ­ eas o f research in gerontology. R esearch on crim e and the elderly cen ters on the victim ization o f old er ad u lts. R osen feld (1981) found th at the elderly perceive m ore th reat from crim e an d feel m ore th reaten ed than younger peop le; ch an ge their activities in respon se to in creases in crim e m ore o ften th an younger p eo ­ ple; an d , are far less likely to be victim s o f personal an d property crim es, with the exceptio n o f larceny, th an are younger people. R e search by Levine (1986) found th at m ajor m arket local television n ew scasts in clud e very su b stan tial do ses o f h elplessness. M em bers o f the gen eral public are m ost often presen ted as helpless, an d by im plication, so are m ost view ers. H elplessn ess is on e c o m ­ m on feeling ex perien ced by victim s o f crim e (W allace, 1998).

OLDER CRIMINALS A s the old er p op u lation in creases in the U n ited S ta te s, so has the num ber o f older ad u lts com m ittin g crim es. B e cau se there are m ore elderly people, there are thus higher num bers o f older ad u lts ap preh en d ed an d p rocessed by the crim inal ju stice system (F attah & S a c c o , 1989). Elderly offen ders are being a r­ rested m ore frequently th an before as a result o f grow ing in toleran ce tow ard their crim inality. Sh ic o r an d K obrin (1978) drew a link betw een the statu s o f groups and the d egree o f crim inal responsibility attribu ted to its m em bers. S im ­ ply put, as the elderly grow in num bers an d in statu s, they m ay incur a loss o f any toleran ce they m ay h ave enjoyed in the past (F attah & S a c c o , 1989).

CHAPTER SUMMARY T h e field o f gerontology provides a useful fram ew ork for u n d erstan d in g older ad u lts use o f and in volvem en t with local television new s. T h e routine activities o f older people ten d to be ignored by local television new s, alth ou gh older view ­ ers are an increasing segm en t o f the au dien ce. C rim e co v erag e, however, is im ­ po rtan t for new sroom s and salien t for older view ers.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

W h at are the a ttitu d es o f television producers, assign m en t editors, and new s directors tow ard elderly people? W h at are their perceptions about

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2. 3. 4.

5.

CHAPTER 9 issues o f im portance to elderly people? H ow m ight this influence the crim e stories th at are televised about elderly people? H ow d o elderly p eop le’s p erceptions about crim e differ from the statistics? H ow m ight this difference be explained? H ow does the social disengagem ent theory explain local television news as im portant to older adults? W hy is local T V news relevant to the elderly? If you were a local television news director in your m arket, how would you co ver elderly issues? W h at con strain ts exist th at m ight limit atten tion paid to these concerns? W h at im pact d o you think the aging o f A m erica will h ave on local televi­ sion new s b ro ad casts in the 21st century?

10 Television and the Future of Local Crime News

“Quality is decreasing because many 'new generation television managers lack the eye for detail and the seasoning that once gave stories extra depth and sensitivity.” — Av Westin, Freedom Forum Fellow (Westin, 2000, pp. 4-5) N ew tech n ologies and new co m petition are dram atically im pactin g the local television new s en v ironm ent. M ost statio n s h ave ad o p ted the recom m en d a­ tions o f co n su ltan ts to focus on news an d in form ation th at attracts and m ain ­ tains au d ien ces. T h is often leads to an em ph asis on live, o n -scen e reporting, highly localized sp o t news, h ealth and o th er features, as well as crim e co verage. T h e problem is th at su ch co verag e ten ds to be “ e p iso d ic’ an d fails to place even ts w ithin a larger c o n tex t (G illiam et al., 1996). H ard news crim e co verage o f dram atic and visual stories abo u t violen ce in the com m unity are easy to tell w ithin the extrem e tim e co n strain ts im posed by local television new s form ats (Jam ieson & C am p b ell, 2 0 0 1 ). H owever, crim e stories often fail to exp lain the larger co n tex t o f violen t even ts. N ew s co verage o f crim e ex agg erates violen ce becau se it m akes up only one third o f all crim e: “T h e o verreliance on ‘body b ag ’ jou rnalism distorts reality. Television news c o v ­ erage o f crim e further distorts reality by exaggeratin g racial differences in the propensity to com m it different types o f crim e” (G illiam et al., 1996, p. 19). In co n trast, a few news m anagers h ave ch arted a different course. T h ey h ave offered altern ativ es by breakin g out o f rigid news form ats, leading with nation al and in tern ation al stories, providing longer an d m ore co n tex tu al co verage, and by em phasizing in teraction with viewers.

LOCAL TV NEWS AND THE FUTURE OF CRIME COVERAGE T h e P roject for E xcellen ce in Jou rn alism in 1999 foun d that news directors see a num ber o f o b stacles to im proving quality o f local television news: staffing,

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Viewers Bill of Rights, by Forrest Carr T h ese days few would deny the relationship between journalists and the public is in trouble. C ustom ers are trusting us less. T h ey ’re watching less T V news and reading fewer newspapers. W hat do you do with any relationship worth saving when it falls into disrepair? You open a dialogue. You talk it out. You may even seek counseling. In late 1998 and early 1999, K G U N 9 -T V in Tucson appointed a viewer om ­ budsman, launched a viewer feedback segm ent, and solicited public input for a statem ent o f principles. W ith these steps we opened a dialogue with viewers. W e’re talking it out. We even have a counselor in the form o f our om budsm an, Viewer Rep Heylie Eigen. In response, viewers told us they were concerned about crime in their neigh­ borhoods, but equally concerned about the relentless onslaught o f negative news stories and the nightly parade of body bags. They told us they w anted privacy rights respected. They dem anded to hear about solutions, not ju st problems. They asked us to conduct more investigations and ask tougher questions. By way o f an employee com m ittee, we weighed this input with our own notions o f our journal­ istic duty, wrote the K G U N 9 Viewers’ Bill o f Rights, and announced it on the air. O ur contacts at the Poynter Institute believe we are the only television station ever to have solicited direct public input for a statem ent o f principles, issued a docum ent reflecting comm unity values, and then provided a m echanism for pub­ lic accountability. O nce a week Viewer Rep Heylie Eigen and I collaborate on a script dealing with viewer feedback. A nchors Colleen Bagnall or Guy Atchley share in the edi­ torial process and deliver the copy on the air. O ur viewers are not shy about hold-

Former KGUN news director Forrest Carr.

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Heylie Eigen, K G U N viewer representative.

ing us to our promises. O ccasionally they catch us doing som ething we shouldn’t have. W hen this happens, we own up to it. M ost importantly, they also shower us with story suggestions. We take many o f them. But wait a m inute— this is not M cD on ald’s. W e’re not here to take your or­ der— are we? Heylie Eigen says, absolutely. “ If they watch the news and still have questions, then obviously we’re not doing our job .” T h e difference is that now we have an opportunity to follow up and answer those questions. “They love it,” says Heylie. A n d it’s affected our product. “T h ere are so many things we cover now that we never covered before.” T h is process is changing our newsroom culture. We’re approaching our re­ sponsibilities differently. H ere’s an exam ple: Recently the Tucson City Council voted to shut off h alf o f this desert com m unity’s w ater wells because o f pending EPA regulations on radon. O ur competitors covered the story in the traditional “ he says/she says” fashion, leaving viewers to sort out the conflicting statem ents and figure out the facts for themselves. But in our Viewers’ Bill o f Rights not only do we promise solution-oriented journalism , we say we’ll ask the tough questions. S o first we drew up a list o f questions we wanted city officials to answer— and went so far as to read the list to our viewers. T h en we proceeded to get those answers. A t the sam e time, our reporters started digging. They found the threat from radon was not as severe as advertised and, in fact, the EPA was not asking for any well shutdow ns. In the wake o f our series o f Nine On Your Side investigations, the city council reversed its decision. Viewers responded enthusiastically. “It’s definitely working,” says anchor C o l­ leen Bagnall. “They know we are the ones who do the investigating for them .” Colleen adds this type o f community-responsive journalism is im portant. “S o m e­ times we have this elitist attitude as journalists that we are only supposed to cover 141

K G U N news anchor Julie M yers during viewer segm ent.

traffic accidents and m urder and ‘be ob jectiv e.’ A n d while th at is a part o f our new scast, viewers w ant m ore ou t o f it.” W h en we first an n oun ced this project som e o f our colleagues asked, “H ow will you respond when your viewers ask you to do som ething uneth ical or jou rn alisti­ cally un sou n d ?” W e’ve discovered som ething interesting. We d o n ’t have to agree with our viewers. We ju st h ave to listen and, im portantly, be willing to explain ourselves. “I engage th em ," agrees C olleen . “ If you listen and give them your side, you win viewers over. I know you do. I’ve m et people who say they’ve disagreed with som ething we did, but som eone talked to them, they felt satisfied, and they continue to w atch u s.” In T V the u ltim ate q u estio n is this: W ill it work in the ratings? T h e jury is still ou t, but there are som e p ositive signs. R atin gs have been m ixed bu t have been trending upw ards. We reach ed a m ajor m ilestone in M ay 2 0 00, w hen we tied longtim e m arket d o m in ato r K V O A at 10 p.m . for the first tim e in memory. M oreover, our m arket research this sum m er revealed a tu rn arou n d in view ers’ perception o f K G U N 9 so d ram atic th at our co n su ltan ts initially th ou gh t th ey ’d m ade a m istake. C om m unity-responsive journalism is not a m agic bullet, o f course. You m ust also win the big story, win weather, and have the right team o f professionals in place to d o it all. We believe we do. H eylie Eigen, who won a Lee P acesetter award for custom er service this year, is one o f them . A n d sh e’s loving every m inute. “ I have the greatest jo b ,” she says. “ I really do. I love peop le.” A n d if th at’s n ot w hat cu stom er service is all about, w hat is? Source: Forrest Carr, Correspondence with the Authors, June 18, 2000.

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KGUN9’s Contract with Viewers.

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tim e, money, training, and the new s hole. H ow ever, the stan d ard responses given on the issue o f quality d o n ot ack now ledge attem p ts to tran sform the n a ­ ture o f local new s b road casts. W B B M , the C B S netw ork-ow ned statio n in C h icago , begin ning in February 2000, experim ented w ith an altern ativ e m odel o f local television new s. T h ey were nicknam ed by oth ers as “ P B S on C B S ” becau se the sta tio n did stories as long as 20 m inutes in length. T h e statio n ch allenged existin g new s form ats by elim inatin g teasers for u pcom ing stories, floating w eath er an d sports position with no set lengths, and return ing to a solo an ch or reporting hard news. A c ­ cording to anch or C aro l M arin We haven’t done a single story telling you who the real guy behind tonight’s movie was. We haven’t given you a disease o f the week story based on some network pro­ gramming. We haven’t overblown weather. (National Public Radio, Morning Edi­ tion, April 4, 2000) For exam ple, on O cto b er 6, 2 0 00, the statio n led with violen ce in the M iddle E ast, as well as the Y ugoslavian ele ctio n s— a story they localized with a C h ic ag o Se rb ian ch u rch service. T h e third story in the new scast briefly co vered n eigh ­ borh ood ten sions becau se o f g an g trouble. T h e y used an o ver-th e-sh ou lder

Carol Marin and WBBM, C BS 2 in failed TV news experiment.

YOU HAVE A RIGHT TO KNOW K G U N 9 will ask the tough questions, co n d u ct the investigations necessary and give the timely inform ation needed to serve the public interest and protect public safety.

YOU HAVE A RIGHT TO ETHICAL NEWS GATHERING K G U N 9 subscribes to the Society o f Professional Jou rn alists C o d e o f Ethics, which requires jou rnalists to seek the truth and report it, to minim ize harm , to act independently and to be accountable.

YOU HAVE A RIGHT TO PRIVACY O u r journalistic duty an d the public’s right to know often require us to place p eo ­ ple and organizations in the news who don’t wish to be there. We will never d o so in a cavalier or insensitive fashion and will always carefully consider privacy co n ­ cerns as we weigh the im portance o f a story. We will never stalk or hound the v ic­ tims o f crim e.

YOU HAVE A RIGHT TO POSITIVE NEWS M uch o f the news our journalistic duty requires us to cover is by nature ugly. We will not filter o u t such stories in any way. However, we will take extra steps to find and report positive or uplifting stories which reflect the true ch aracter o f life in our com m unity. We will m eet regularly with m em bers o f our com m unity in order to discover those stories in person.

YOU HAVE A RIGHT TO RELEVANT CRIME COVERAGE We recognize th at an overem ph asis on crim e coverage w ould harm our co m m u ­ nity through portraying it in a false light o f negativism . We will co ver crim e in such a way as to provide co n text, m eaning, perspective and relevance. Before air­ ing any crim e story we will weigh its new sw orthiness with the following questions: • • • • • •

Is there an im m ediate danger or threat to the public? Is im m ediate action required? Is the safety or welfare o f children involved? Is there a larger issue with public policy im plications.7 D oes the story touch, or should it touch, hearts in our com m unity? D oes the story spotligh t a new crim e trend or issue at the n eigh borh ood level o f which residents sh ou ld be aw are?

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YOU HAVE A RIGHT TO SOLUTION-ORIENTED JOURNALISM W hen appropriate we will be “O n Your Sid e” and attem pt to find or spotlight so­ lutions to individual and community problems. We will help empower our viewers to better their lives and community.

YOU HAVE A RIGHT TO HOLD US ACCOUNTABLE We will invite and respond to public input and feedback on our N E W S G A T H E R IN G decisions and philosophy. O ur K G U N 9 Viewer Representative will serve as a viewers’ cham pion within our newsroom. We will present and re­ spond to viewer feedback within our newscasts on a regular basis. We will eagerly and diligently investigate com plaints, publicly adm it any mistakes and correct them prominently. BOX 10.2

K G U N 9 Viewers’ Bill o f Rights.

g ra p h ic th a t a sk e d th e q u e stio n , “g a n g W A R ? ” C a r o l M a r in read th e follow in g: “T o n ig h t, C h ic a g o P olice are d isp u tin g rep o rts th a t tw o riv al str e e t g a n g s are in a n a ll-o u t w ar in L a w n d a le .” T h e sta tio n sh o w ed v id e o o f n u m e ro u s p o lic e c a rs in force d u rin g a g a n g le a d e r ’s fu n e ral, a m u g sh o t, a n e le m e n ta r y sc h o o l n ear w h ere his m u rd e r to o k p la c e , a n d a so u n d b ite fro m a n ew s c o n fe r e n c e w ith a d ep u ty p o lic e su p e r in te n d e n t. T h e sta tio n ’s fo u rth sto ry th a t n ig h t w as an in -d e p th in v e stig a tio n o f a c r e d it u n io n , a n d th e n th ey w e n t to a live sh o t in S e ­ a ttle , W A , o n th e e lim in a tio n o f th e C h ic a g o W h ite S o x b a se b a ll te a m from th e play offs. T h e sta t io n re siste d th e u su a l te m p ta tio n to le a d w ith g a n g v io le n c e or a lo c a l sp o r ts te a m story, a lth o u g h b o th w ere g iv e n sig n ific a n t c o v e ra g e . By fa ll 2 0 0 0 , th e e x p e r im e n t w as in tro u b le . T h e s t a t io n ’s g e n e r a l m a n a g e r a n d n ew s d ir e c to r left, as d id th e a s s is ta n t n ew s d ir e c to r w h o h e lp e d d e sig n th e p ro g ra m , a fte r M ay r a tin g s fell b e lo w tw o o th e r lo c a l n e w s c a sts a n d re ru n s o f “ F r ie n d s” a n d “ T h e S im p s o n s ” o n tw o in d e p e n d e n t sta t io n s (Jo h n so n , 2 0 0 0 ) . Jo h n C a lla w a y , a v e t e r a n T V jo u r n a lis t w h o le ft a fte r d o in g c o m m e n ­ tary for th e n e w s c a st, sa id h e th o u g h t it w as a s h a m e th a t m a n a g e m e n t d id n o t su p p o r t th e p r o g r a m o v e r se v e r a l y ears. T V c r itic T e d C o x (2 0 0 0 ) sa id th e fo l­ lo w in g : “ T h e T V n ew s is b ro k e n , a n d I a d m ire a n y o n e w h o is tryin g to fix it” (p. 1 0 ). H e s u g g e s te d th a t th e n e w sc a st n e e d e d c o s m e tic c h a n g e s to m a k e it m o re e y e - c a tc h in g . H o w ev er, o n O c to b e r 3 0 , ju s t 9 m o n th s a fte r th e e x p e r i­ m e n t b e g a n , s t a t io n e x e c u tiv e s p u lle d th e plu g. M a r in s e n t a m e m o to c o l­ le a g u e s sa y in g , “ I k n o w th a t r a tin g s are o n e m e a su r e o f s u c c e s s . F in e w ork by e x c e lle n t p r o fe ssio n a ls is a tru er m e a su r e . It’s b e e n a n h o n o r .” T h e n e x t day, th e s ta t io n re tu rn e d to a m o re c o n v e n t io n a l 10 p .m . lo c a l n ew s fo rm a t. T h e re tu rn to a tr a d itio n a l lo c a l n ew s fo rm a t, h o w ev e r, p r o d u c e d e v e n low er r a t­

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in gs. In th e F eb ru ary 2 001 sw ee p s, W B B M w as d ow n 2 2 % at 10 p.m . from the y ear b e fo re. T h e s ta tio n h ad a 5.2 ratin g an d 8 s h a re , c o m p a re d w ith a 6.7 r a t­ ing an d 11 sh a re in 2 0 0 0 . T h e h an d fu l o f new s m an ag ers ch artin g a new co u rse for local television new s sa id s u b sta n c e is m ore im p o rtan t th an style. T h e g o al ap p ears to be to e m ­ ph asize pu blic affairs o ver b reak in g new s, an d to elim in ate m an y o f the ratin g s-d riv en an d co n su ltan t-su g g e ste d featu res. A s su ch , th ese new form s o f lo cal telev isio n new s m ay m ove aw ay from a h eavy em p h asis o n crim e co v erag e. In th e m id -1 9 9 0 s, K V U E - T V in A u stin , T X , a d o p te d five g u id e lin e s ab o u t crim e c o v e ra g e in w h ich n ew s m an a g e rs ask e d five q u e stio n s a b o u t an y sto ry to d e te rm in e w h eth er it sh o u ld be aired : • • • • •

Is th ere a n im m ed iate th reat to safety? Is th ere a th reat to ch ild ren ? D o e s a ctio n n ee d to be taken ? D o e s the crim e h av e sign ifican t co m m u n ity im p act? D o e s the story lend itse lf to a crim e-p reven tion effort? (Nightline,

1996)

K V U E h as b e e n A u stin ’s to p -rated telev isio n sta tio n for m ore th an 4 years. K G U N , T ucson, A rizon a’s, C h an n el 9 N ew s D irector Forrest C arr (2000) said his view ers d o n o t like o ver aggressive “stick your cam e ra into the tear-streaked fa ce s” reporting from the sc en e o f tragedies (p. 1). T h e new an d ex p erim e n tal m od els o f lo cal telev isio n new s c o n tra st sharply w ith the indu stry sta n d a rd forged d u rin g the 1970s. E v en t-o rien ted an d tim ely new s c o v e ra g e b e ca m e the m o d el for bro a d c a st new s as the indu stry dev e lo p ed . V iew ers d id n o t ju st learn ab o u t the story, they e x p erie n ce d it: Going live is exciting and dram atic. But is it good journalism? With live cover­ age now feasible from virtually anywhere at anytime, drama and excitcmcnt may overwhelm news judgm ent. Taste and comm on sense may be pushed aside in the rush to get on the air fast. The scrupulous allegiance to accuracy that should be the cornerstone o f journalism is som etim es ignored bccausc “ there just isn’t time” to chcck facts. (Seib, 2001, pp. ix-x) M iam i, F L , in the m id -1 9 9 0 s had a rep u tatio n o f b ein g the n atio n ’s lead in g ex am p le o f crim e-o rien te d lo cal telev isio n n ew s. N B C ’s Fred Fran cis, w ho on ce w as a lo cal rep orter in M iam i, said crim e sto ries d u rin g the period crow d ed ou t sto ries ab o u t go v ern m en t: I grew up here. I learned my reporting on these streets. Crime reporting. Back then there was murder and mayhem. Lot’s o f it. But it didn’t seem to crowd out all the other news as it does today. Today there are few beat reporters covering health, education and city politics. A nd there seems to be room for that kind o f reporting because the murder rate is actually down. Way down from the city’s deadliest year back in 1981. (Francis, Dateline N B C , January 26, 1994)

TELEVISIO N AND THE FUTURE

147

Francis said that public opinion polls at the time showed that South Floridians thought the murder rate was going up. He believed that the hype from local television news coverage was driving public fear. In 1999, the Project for Excellence in Journalism studied Miami local televi­ sion news along with 18 other markets: M iam i is su p posed to be the worst T V tow n in the country. W S V N is so n o to ri­ o u s th at its tapes are used in jou rn alism sch ools as an exam p le o f the g ro tesq u e in local news. T h in g s ch an ge. M iam i’s four m ajor television statio n s h ave d e v e l­ op ed a cu ltu re o f high enterprise, good sourcing, an d a wide variety o f sto rie s__ W S V N is no longer “ all crim e all the tim e.” T h e statio n airs the least crim e at 6 p.m . Fusion now seem s the ap p roach — relen tless co v erag e o f breakin g news, in-depth reporting, and co n su m er sto ries like “ H elp me H ow ard ,” a segm en t in w hich a local lawyer gives ad vice to view ers. (Parker &. Leavitt, 1999, p. 91)

Over a 3-year period, the research group concluded that stations emphasizing “quality”— defined as less crime coverage, fewer gimmicks and more local is­ sues— build ratings (Rosenstiel, Gottlieb, & Brady, 2000): ... A new scast sh ou ld reflect its en tire com m unity, co ver a broad range o f topics, focu s on the sign ifican t asp e cts o f sto ries, be locally relevan t, b alan ce stories with m ultiple points o f view, an d use au th o ritativ e sou rces. (R osen stiel et al., 2 0 0 0 , p. 87)

By contrast, profit-oriented stations that emphasize shortcuts tend to be judged poorly in terms o f quality, and they tend to lose viewers over time. Unfortunately for local television news, a majority of stations appear to be hanging on to the tired model o f emphasizing crime news and other break­ ing stories: V irtu ally all m ark ets in the co un try p lac e a p rem iu m on im m ed iacy an d the im ­ p o rtan c e o f live rep ortin g from th e sc e n e . T h is usually m ean s reporters stan d in the d a rk , or at a crim e sc en e, h ou rs after the story h as gon e co ld. (D o lan , 2 0 0 0 , p. 9 8 )

The lack of creativity on the part of many newsrooms across the country, ironi­ cally, may be based on a false sense of security— a sense that the safest path is keeping the status quo model developed during the 1970s.

CHANGING REALITY THROUGH DIFFICULT CH O ICES The Alfred I. duPont Center and Newslab created a mock 30-min composite newscast that includes nine award-winning stories from six different local

CHAPTER IO

148 T A B L E 10.1 L o cal T V W eb S ite R atin gs W ebSite

Station, Market

Adult Share

1. W R A L -T V .co m

W R A L, Raleigh-D urham , N C

19.4%

2. Cincinow .com

W C PÒ , C incinnati, O H

15.8%

3. 9N ew s.com

K U SA , Denver, C O

12.8%

4. N ew schannel5.com

W T V F , N ashville, T N

12.8%

5. ChanneI4000.com

W C C O , M inneapolis, M N

11.5%

6. W IStv.com

W IS, C olum bia, S C

10.9%

7. 9 0 n lin e .co m

K W T V , O klahom a City, O K

10.9%

8. K T V B .com

K T V B , Boise, ID

10.7%

9. K C C I.com

K C C I, D es M oines, IA

10.5%

10. K V U E.com

K V U E, A ustin, T X

9.9%

Note. This is a list o f top local television station Web sites. In early 2001, there were 345 T V Web sites identified in a survey, and more than half had attracted less than 4% o f their markets. In Cincinnati, O H , Denver, C O , Des Moines, IA, and New Haven, CT, the top ranking T V Web site had more visitors than the local online newspaper. N o studies have been done on the content o f local television news Web sites. Source: Th e M edia Audit, http://www.lostremote.com, February 2001.

stations over a 2-year period. T he model newscast does not include any tradi­ tional crime stories. A ccording to Stuart Zanger, former news director at W CPO , Cleveland, O H , “ It takes courage to lead with a 6 or 8 minutes story. It takes courage to lead with a story on school buses when ... everybody else is seeing stories about murders and deaths and fires and cars careening down the em bankm ent” (Potter, 2000, p. 22). A m ong suggestions for local T V newsrooms are the following: • •

Break the mold— Newsroom may be rewarded for taking creative risks. Develop expertise— Beat reporting may help reporters develop stories they

•

would otherwise miss, and it also allows them to track stories over time. Encourage enterprise— Reporter-generated story ideas may produce more news on issues and trends.

TELEVISION AND THE FUTURE • • • •

149

Reward teamwork— T eam reporting may m ake time and sp ace for quality journalism . Support quality— N ew s m an ager needs to en cou rage quality jou rn alism by de-em ph asizin g bu d get issues. Take time— N ew sroom s sh ou ld take m ore time in story d evelop m en t and presentation. Understand the community— N ew sro o m em ploy ees an d m an ag ers who stay a t th eir telev isio n sta tio n s lon ger ten d to know their co m m u n ities better, an d ca n p ro v id e d ep th an d c o n tex t. (Potter, 2 0 0 0 , pp. 2 2 - 2 3 )

T h e Project for Excellence in Jou rn alism contended that “ ... a quality new scast would cover significant issues and a wide range o f topics, would d em on strate lo­ cal relevance and a high level o f enterprise, and would include m ultiple, expert sources and various points o f view ” (Potter, 2000, p. 2).

THE INTERNET AND DIGITAL ACCESS TO CRIME NEWS Local television new s faces an im portan t challenge from new m edia tec h n o l­ ogy— cable news ch an n els, In tern et Web sites, an d digital sate llite feeds av ail­ able in their m arkets. T h e d om in an ce they on ce held is slipping, as eviden ced by declining local T V new s ratings in m ost m arkets. A n d , th ere is ev id en ce that as local television statio n s ignore issues and localism , view ers will gravitate to the In ternet (R osen stiel e t al., 2 0 0 0 ). T h u s, som e local statio n s h ave create d a W eb presen ce and em ph asized the new m edium . T h e em phasis on crim e, dram atic video, and breaking news may or may not carry over to the online versions o f their product. T h e television program Cybercrim e is one exam ple o f the m ovem ent toward the use o f local television news values on web sites. Recently, their online pages show ed stories about jail cam s (http://w w w .techtv.com ). A lth ough television program s continue to show interest in crim e coverage, som e Web sites su ch as crim e.com have transferred com pletely the genre o f news to the World W ide Web. O n e o f the site’s pages fea­ tures “ am azing v id eo ,” “crim e sto ries," and “d an gerous ch a se s” (http://w w w . crim e.com ). C rim e coverage in cyberspace, however, may simply be a new way o f com m unicating prejudice (H ech t, 1999; Power, 2000).

LOCAL TV NEWS C ritics o f local television new s w ould say that the reliance on crim e an d violent vid eo is a tu rn -o ff for m any view ers, bu t local T V new s m an agers are quick to co u n ter with the c o n v en tio n al w isdom th at dram atic ev en t co v erag e in creases ratings. It is n ot clear w hether altern ativ e m edia will b ecom e a long-term c h al­ len ger to local T V new s, bu t it is true th at m ost local T V statio n s are investing

T A B L E 10.2 L o cal M ark et In terest in Stream in g M edia Rank

City

Reach

Streaming Audience

1.

M iam i, FL

43.1%

506,320

2.

C incinnati, O H

41.0%

327,399

3.

H ouston, T X

38.0%

670,745

4.

Pittsburgh, PA

37.9%

388,963

5.

H artford, C T

37.7%

369,090

6.

N ew York, NY

37.4%

2,621,050

7.

S a n Diego, C A

37.4%

460,181

8.

Los A ngeles, C A

36.9%

1,912,679

9.

C olum bus, O H

36.9%

303,645

10.

Raleigh, N C

36.8%

266,376

11.

Portland, O R

36.7%

486,482

12.

Dallas, T X

36.7%

767,020

13.

Boston, M A

36.6%

1,084,770

14.

Seattle, W A

36.6%

738,582

15.

C levelan d, O H

36.5%

521,314

16.

W ashington, D C

36.4%

897,155

17.

O rlando, FL

36.0%

441,942

18.

C hicago, IL

35.2%

1,068,256

19.

Indianapolis, IN

35.2%

349,839

20.

St. Louis, M O

34.9%

430,563

Note. Th e movement toward Internet-delivered video varies from city to city. In the next few years, local television news will be im pacted by this trend. Source: Nielsen//Netratings, M arch 2001; http://www.lostremote.com

150

TELEVISION AND THE FUTURE

151

in their ow n W eb sites. A dditionally, m any local statio n s h ave form ed cable news partnersh ips to h ave m ore ou tlets for their product. T h is allow s them to participate in the tech n ological revolution. C rim e has been a stap le in the definition o f news for m ore th an a century. It will co n tin u e to be co n sid ered newsworthy. In the foreseeable future, it is likely that crim e co v erag e will co n tin u e to be im portant for local television news. T h e presen tation o f crim e news, including the use o f dram atic an d violent video, will no doubt be an ongoing controversy.

CHAPTER SUMMARY In the fin al c h a p te r o f this book, the focu s was on how so m e in the news b u si­ ness are lo ok in g for su cc essfu l alte rn ativ es to the e x istin g m odel o f local te le ­ vision new s. Sp ecifically, efforts to offer view ers th e o p p ortu n ity to in teract w ith new sroom em p lo y ees is one way to ch an ge the sta tu s qu o. T h e co n cern over the a m o u n t an d type o f crim e co v erag e m u st be b a la n c e d ag ain st w id e­ sp read public c o n ce rn over crim e as an im p o rtan t issu e. A t the sam e tim e, the public tu rn s to local T V new s as a key so u rce for in form ation . T h e ap p eal o f crim e new s will n ot g o away. C h a n g e s in the way local T V n ew sroom s d o b u si­ ness m ust be su b sta n tiv e , an d n ot ju st m ark etin g ploys, to be m eanin gful. E v en t-o rien ted crim e co v e rag e sh ou ld be p laced w ithin a larger co n te x t o f w hat it m ight m ean to the com m unity. S p o t crim e new s co v e rag e ten d s to be d ram atic, an d it m ight h eigh ten fears. H ow ever, su c h co v e rag e d o es n oth in g to prom ote u n d e rsta n d in g ab o u t the c au se s o f crim e or th e possible solu tion s. In -d ep th co v e ra g e th at p lac es a particu lar crim e w ith in a larger com m u n ity co n te x t m igh t h elp p eop le e n g ag e in a d iscu ssio n th at lead s to policy ch an ges. In th e e n d , th e d e m o c ra tic m odel requ ires public p a rtic ip a tio n in com m u n ity life. T h e q u e stio n for th ose in te rested in local telev isio n new s is th is— C an the ch an ge in th e a p p ro ach to co v erin g crim e satisfy' b o th our so c ial co n cern s an d th e in d u stry b o tto m -lin e pressu res?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

W h at are the o b stacles to im proving local television news? W h at types o f crim e coverage guidelines have been adopted by newsrooms? D o you believe that devices such as the Viewers Bill o f Rights can have a positive im pact on coverage? W hat are the lim itations o f such approaches? W h at su ggestion s h as the Project for E xcellen ce in Jo u rn alism m ade to lo­ cal new sroom s? W h at su ggestion s w ould you m ake to im prove local television news c o v ­ erage o f ev en ts in your com m unity? C o u ld the In tern et be useful in m ak­ ing ch an ges?

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