Creation of the Sacred: Tracks of Biology in Early Religions 0674175700, 9780674175709

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CREATI ON OF T H E

SACRED e®

Tracks o f Biology in Early Religions

Walter Burkert

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England

Acknowledgments

T h is b o o k g r e w o u t o f t h e G i f f o r d L e c tu r e s g iv e n a t th e U n iv e r ­ s ity o f S t. A n d r e w s i n F e b r u a r y a n d M a r c h 1 9 8 9 . M y t h a n k s , f ir s t o f a l l, t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S t. A n d r e w s a n d th e G if f o r d C o m ­ m it t e e f o r t h e i r k i n d i n v i t a t i o n ; t o t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C la s s ic s f o r its h o s p i t a l i t y a n d a s s i s t a n c e in t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f w i n t r y S t. A n d r e w s ; a n d m o s t s p e c ia lly t o I e n K id d f o r h is u n f a ili n g f r i e n d ­ s h ip . T h e l e c t u r e s h a v e b e e n r e v is e d ; t h e i r s e q u e n c e h a s b e e n c h a n g e d a n d a d d i t i o n a l e v id e n c e a n d a r g u m e n t s h a v e b e e n i n ­ t r o d u c e d , b u t t h e m a i n c o n t e n t s a n d t h e lin e o f a p p r o a c h r e m a in a s b e f o r e . I a m g r a t e f u l t o m y c o l l a b o r a t o r s a t Z ü r i c h U n iv e rs ity , T h o m a s K a p p e l e r , E v e lin e K r u m m e n , a n d C h r i s t i a n O e s t e r h e ld , f o r t h e i r h e l p in t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e t e x t a n d n o te s .

Contents

Preface C u ltu re in a L andscape: Situating R eligion Beyond Culture Sociobiology? A Common World: Reduction and Validation Escape an d O fferings Finger Sacrifice Biology, Fantasy, and Ritual Castration and Circumcision Scapegoats Life for Life T he C ore o f a Tale “Caught up in Tales” The Propp Sequence: The Quest From Biological Programs to Semantic Chains The Shaman's Tale The Initiation Tale: The Maiden’s Tragedy Hierarchy The Awareness o f Rank Rituals o f Submission The Strategy o f Praise Two-Tiered Power The Language o f Power: The Envoy

ix 1 1

8 23 34 34 40 47 51

53 56 56 58 63 67 69 80 80 85 90 93 98

5

Guilt and Causality Religious Therapy and the Search for Guilt Present Sufferings The Foundation of Cults The Mediators: Risks and Opportunities Explanatory Models: Fetters, Wrath, Pollution

6

7

T h e R e c ip r o c i ty o f G iv in g

Î02 l()2 log 1 13 Π6 if g

129

Le don in Perspective Giving in Religion Genealogy of Morality? Failing Reciprocity: Religious Criticism Failing Reciprocity: The Facts of Ritual Gift and Sacrifice Aversion and Offerings: From Panic to Stability

129 134 138 141 145 149 152

T h e V a li d a ti o n o f S ig n s: A C o s m o s o f S e n s e

156

Accepting Signs: Divination Decision through Signs: The Ordeal Creating Signs: Territory and Body Language Validated: The Oath

156 163 165 169

C o n c lu s io n

1 77

A b b r e v ia t io n s

j §3

N o te s

is 7

B ib lio g r a p h y

237

In d ex

24 9

Preface

“ N a t u r a l T h e o lo g y , in th e w id e s t s e n s e ” w a s p r o p o s e d f o r in v e s ­ tig a tio n b y th e w ill o f L o r d G if fo r d in 1 8 8 6 .1 M o r e t h a n a h u n ­ d r e d y e a rs l a te r n o o n e w ill c la im t h a t w e h a v e c o m e t o a n y firm c o n c lu s io n s in th is ta s k . I n s te a d , w e fin d o u rs e lv e s e n ta n g le d in w id e n in g p r o b le m s . D o e s re lig io n c o m e n a t u r a lly to h u m a n b e ­ in g s? In w h a t se n se c a n re lig io n , le t a lo n e th e o lo g y , b e se e n as “ n a t u r a l ? ” W h a t is th e m e a n in g o f n a t u r e in g e n e ra l, a n d in th is c o n te x t? T h e c o n c e p t o f n a t u r e h a s lo n g b e e n th e d o m a in o f th e n a t u r a l sc ie n c e s, w h ic h h a v e m a d e g ig a n tic p ro g re s s sin c e th e tim e o f L o rd G if f o r d . Y et n a t u r e its e lf is d is in te g r a tin g in th e p ro c e s s . A s sc ie n c e is re v e a lin g th e d e ta ils o f m o le c u la r b io lo g y a n d u n r a v ­ elin g th e g e n e tic c o d e , th e p ro c e s s e s g o in g o n in liv in g o rg a n is m s b e c o m e a c c e s s ib le t o k n o w le d g e a n d m a n ip u la tio n f a r b e y o n d t h a t d e lic a te h a r m o n y e s ta b lis h e d in th e e v o lu tio n o f life w h ic h h a d b e e n c a lle d N a t u r e b y a d m ir in g p h ilo s o p h e r s a n d p o e ts . A t p r e s e n t, n o N a t u r e r e m a in s t o h o ld h o p e s f o r p r o v id in g th e f r a m e w o r k f o r s ta b ility , o rd e r, a n d m o r a lity ; it h a s b e e n d is p e lle d as a c o n c e p t a n d is p h y s ic a lly v a n is h in g fro m o u r s ig h t u n d e r th e h e a p o f m a n - m a d e c o n s tr u c tio n a n d re fu se . R e lig io n , t h o u g h , fa ils t o d is a p p e a r. W h ile a ll a r o u n d u s g e n ­ e r a tio n s a r e g r o w in g u p f a c tu a lly w i t h o u t re lig io n , th e re lig io u s

fo rc e s r e m a in u n e x p e c te d ly te n a c i o u s a n d i m p e t u o u s , n a y d a n ­ g e ro u s a n d s o m e tim e s d is a s tr o u s . W e a r e p u z z le d b y th e d r a w in g p o w e r o f n e w c u lts a n d s e c ts , w e a r e h o r r if ie d b y th e p a s s io n s o f re lig io u s s trife in m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n f lic ts , w e a r e a p p r e ­ h e n s iv e o f th e g r o w in g tid e o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s m in d if f e r e n t e n ­ c a m p m e n ts . M o r e t h a n s e v e n ty y e a r s o f w e ll - o r g a n iz e d a th e is tic e d u c a tio n a n d p r o p a g a n d a d id n o t s u c c e e d in a b o l is h in g re lig io n in th e S o v ie t e m p ire , a n d its r e - e m e r g e n c e is r e s u s c ita tin g ageo ld b a ttle s . It is n o less a g o n iz in g t o o b s e r v e t h e f a ilu r e o f re lig io n to d e a l w ith s u c h u r g e n t p r o b le m s o f th e d a y a s e n v ir o n m e n t p r o te c tio n a n d p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l . R e lig io n s till e n jo y s h ig h m o r a l c r e d it a n d y e t a p p e a r s t h o r o u g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c , a c h a lle n g e to r e a s o n in its th e o r y a n d p r a c tic e a s it h a s a lw a y s b e e n — all th e m o r e r e a s o n , th e n , f o r a n t h r o p o l o g y t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f th is p h e n o m e n o n . W e m u s t a t le a s t tr y t o m a k e s e n s e o f th e ir r a tio n a l in th e h o p e o f g a in in g s o m e ill u m in a tio n , s o m e i n s i g h t f r o m th e frin g e s o f e x p e rie n c e , w h e th e r s u p e r h u m a n o r s u b h u m a n . I t is th e p ro c e s s o f m o d e r n iz a ti o n a n d th e g r o w i n g a c h ie v e ­ m e n ts o f sc ien c e t h a t m a k e u s r e a liz e m o r e t h a n b e f o r e h o w m u c h w e a re o u rs e lv e s p a r t o f n a t u r e . E v e n if n a t u r e h a s c e a se d t o e x is t a s a n im m u ta b le e s se n c e o r m a t r i x a n d r a t h e r a p p e a r s as a n irre v e rs ib le p ro c e s s o f s e lf - o r g a n iz a tio n in t r a n s i e n t p a t ­ te rn s e m e rg in g f r o m c h a o s , w e c a n n o t e s c a p e f r o m b e in g in ­ v o lv e d in th is , f o rm e d as w e a r e b y th e a g e - o ld e v o l u tio n o f life. In th is se n se , b io lo g ic a l “ n a t u r e ” is w o r k i n g in e a c h o f o u r a c ts a n d th o u g h ts , ju s t a s th e c h a n g e s o f n a t u r e a n d th e th r e a t s to n a tu r e a re a ffe c tin g o u r o w n e x is te n c e . T h e s tu d y o f n a t u r e a n d h u m a n s e lf-k n o w le d g e s h o u ld n o lo n g e r b e s e p a r a te d , e v e n if S o c ra te s lo n g a g o in s is te d it w a s r ig h t to d o so . A n d if re lig io n c o n s titu te s a n in te g ra l p a r t o f th e h u m a n w o r l d e m b e d d e d in n a tu r e , u n d e r s ta n d in g re lig io n s h o u ld b e p a r t o f th e s a m e th e o ­ re tic a l e ffo rt, in a f r a m e w o r k o f n a t u r a l (b io lo g ic a l) a n t h r o ­ p o lo g y . T h e in q u iry c o n c e rn in g “ n a t u r a l th e o lo g y in th e w id e s t s e n s e ,” in c lu d in g its h is to ric a l d im e n s io n , th u s tu r n s in to th is q u e s tio n : w h a t h a s b e e n th e

Preface

raison d'être f o r

re lig io n in t h e e v o lu tio n o f

h u m a n life a n d c u ltu re h ith e rto ? Is th e re a n a tu ra l fo u n d a tio n o f relig io n , b a s e d o n th e g r e a t a n d g e n e ra l p ro c e ss o f life w h ich has b r o u g h t fo rth h u m a n ity a n d still h o ld s sw ay o v e r it, b ey o n d c h a n c e a n d m a n ip u la tio n , p e rs o n a l id io sy n c ra sie s a n d social c o n d itio n in g ? As b o th n a tu r e a n d th e o lo g y a re a s su m in g a n o sta lg ic rin g , th e re is a n e w in c e n tiv e to lo o k fa r th e r b ac k in h isto ry , to c o n d u c t an in v e s tig a tio n s ta r tin g w ith th e e a rlie st fo rm s o f religion a t ­ te s te d .2 T h e m o s t a n c ie n t d o c u m e n ts b e a rin g on o u r tra d itio n co m e fro m N e a r E a s te rn a n d M e d ite rra n e a n civ iliz atio n s: M e s ­ o p o ta m ia , E g y p t, A sia M in o r, Isra e l, a n d G reece. T h e a p p ro a c h b ase d o n th e e a rlie s t w ritte n ev id en ce h a s th e a d v a n ta g e o f a d ista n c e d view , la rg e ly e x e m p t fro m th e te n sio n s a n d a n x ie tie s en c irc lin g liv in g re lig io n s. T h e a n c ie n t g o d s — w ith th e single e x ­ c e p tio n o f J a h w e h — a re n o lo n g e r p o w e rfu l n o r re p re se n te d in living belief; th e y d o n o t d e m a n d c u lt a n d n o lo n g e r sp re a d aw e. W h a t is m o re , p re -B u d d h istic , p re -C h ris tia n , p re -Isla m ic relig ­ ions la c k c e rta in fo rm s o f sy ste m a tic reflec tio n , o rg a n iz a tio n , a n d d efen se m e c h a n ism s w h ic h h av e c o n trib u te d to th e o v e rw h e lm ­ ing success o f th e so -c a lle d w o rld relig io n s. T h e o ld e r m o d e ls, b ein g m o re v a rie g a te d , e x p e rim e n ta l, a n d c h a n g e a b le , m a y still give clues to th e o rig in a l g ro w th o r c o n s tru c tio n o f relig io n th ro u g h th e ir a p p a r e n t “p rim itiv ity . ”3 C o n te m p o ra ry relig io n s h av e g ro w n o u t o f th e se , in an e v o lu tio n a ry a n d so m e tim es re v ­ o lu tio n a ry p ro c e s s; id e n tic a l elem e n ts still a b o u n d . In w h a t sense th is c a n be c a lle d n a tu r a l re m a in s to be seen.

Θ& An a tte m p t to tie h is to ric a l a n d p h ilo lo g ica l rese arch to b io lo g ­ ical a n th ro p o lo g y re q u ire s th a t o n e e x p lo re fields se t fa r a p a rt, each c ro w d e d w ith in n u m e ra b le p u b lic a tio n s, a m id st m o re a n d m o re refin ed a n d sp e cia lize d if o fte n co n flictin g m e th o d s, resu lts, an d c o n tro v e rsie s. It is fa r b ey o n d a n in d iv id u a ls abilities to m a s­ te r all th e re le v a n t d isc u ssio n s. Y et precisely b ecau se h isto ria n s h av e b ec o m e a w a re o f h o w m u c h o f th e ir w o rk , b ey o n d th e m ere re triev a l a n d a c c u m u la tio n o f data, is b o u n d by th e special p a t-

Preface

te r n s , p r in c ip le s , a n d f a s h io n s o f th e i r o w n c iv iliz a tio n , th e y m u s t lo o k b e y o n d th e n a r r o w h is t o r ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e s o f th e p a s t a n d ta k e in to r e g a r d th e w id e n in g s c ie n tific h o r iz o n s o f o u r o w n w o r ld . G e n e ra l a n t h r o p o l o g y w ill in th e e n d h a v e t o m e rg e w ith b io lo g y . H is to r ic a l s tu d ie s p r e s u p p o s e s o m e o p tim is m a s t o th e e x is­ te n c e o f fa c ts a n d th e p o s s ib ility o f c o r r e c t a c c o u n ts . T h is m a y s o u n d n a iv e v is-à -v is m o d e r n o r p o s t - m o d e r n te n d e n c ie s to d is­ so lv e e v e ry o b je c t o f s tu d y in to i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , to b e a n a ly z e d in t u r n to d e te c t th e ir t a c it p r e c o n c e p ti o n s a n d te n d e n tio u s d is­ t o r t i o n s .4 T h o s e w h o c lin g t o a h a r d c o r e o f r e a lity m a y still claim c o m p a n y w ith s c ie n c e , w h ic h in its m o s t a b s t r a c t c o n s tr u c ts r e ­ m a in s tie d t o e m p iric a l d a t a . B io lo g y is e x p lo r in g th e “ r e a lity ” o f liv in g o r g a n is m s w ith g r o w in g su c c e s s , f r o m s e lf-re p lic a tin g m o le c u le s t o h u m a n c o n s c io u s n e s s . E v e n in th e h u m a n itie s , in ­ te r p r e ta tio n s a re n o t ju s t c o n s tr u c ts b u t h y p o th e s e s a b o u t re a lity w h ic h d o e s n o t c e a se t o m a k e its e lf fe lt. If, f o r e x a m p le , th e la n ­ g u a g e a n d s y m b o lis m o f sa c rific e in a sp e c ific c u ltu r a l c o n te x t p r o m p t a v a r ie ty o f in te r p r e t a ti o n s , r e a l b o n e s r e m a in a t th e site to p r o v e t h a t re a l k illin g t o o k p la c e th e r e . R e lig io n is life -a n d d e a th r e a lis tic — w h ic h k e e p s it c lo s e t o n a t u r e .

Creation o f the Sacred

1

Culture in a Landscape S I T U A T I N G

R E L I G I O N

Beyond Culture “ N e it h e r h i s t o r y n o r a n t h r o p o l o g y k n o w s o f s o c ie tie s f r o m w h ic h r e lig i o n h a s b e e n t o t a l l y a b s e n t . ” 1 T h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t p r a c tic a lly a ll t r i b e s , s t a t e s , a n d c itie s h a v e s o m e f o r m o f r e lig io n h a s b e e n m a d e r e p e a te d l y , e v e r s in c e H e r o d o t u s . A n c ie n t p h i l o s ­ o p h e r s m a d e t h is “ c o n s e n s u s o f n a t i o n s ” p r o o f f o r th e e x is te n c e o f th e g o d s .2 T h e q u e s t i o n is n o t w h e t h e r e t h n o g r a p h e r s m a y s till fin d a f e w e x c e p t i o n s t o t h a t c o n s e n s u s ; it is t h e u n iv e r s a lity o f th e c o n s e n s u s t h a t h a s t o b e e x p l a in e d . T o b e s u r e , d iffe re n c e s in b e lie f a n d p r a c t i c e a r e d r a m a t i c ; in d e e d , r e lig io n c a n b e a m o s t s e rio u s o b s ta c le f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e tw e e n d if f e r e n t g r o u p s , p r o d u c in g “ p s e u d o - s p e c i e s ” w h ic h e x c lu d e a n d m a y t r y t o e x ­ te r m in a te e a c h o t h e r ; b u t e v e n th is d iv is iv e te n d e n c y is a c o m m o n fe a tu re . T h e u b i q u i t y o f r e lig i o n is m a t c h e d b y its p e r s is te n c e t h r o u g h th e m ille n n ia . I t e v id e n tly h a s s u r v iv e d m o s t d r a s ti c s o c ia l a n d e c o n o m ic c h a n g e s : t h e n e o l ith ic r e v o l u t i o n , t h e u r b a n r e v o lu ti o n , a n d e v e n th e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n . I f r e lig io n e v e r w a s in v e n te d , it h a s m a n a g e d t o i n f i l t r a t e p r a c t ic a lly a ll v a r ie tie s o f h u m a n c u l­ tu re s ; in th e c o u r s e o f h is to r y , h o w e v e r, r e lig io n h a s n e v e r b e e n d e m o n s tr a b ly r e i n v e n t e d b u t h a s a lw a y s b e e n th e r e , c a r r ie d o n f ro m g e n e r a tio n t o g e n e r a t i o n s in c e tim e im m e m o r ia l. A s f o r th e f o u n d e r s o f n e w r e lig i o n s , s u c h a s Z a r a t h u s t r a , J e s u s , o r M o -

h a m m e d , th e i r c r e a tiv e a c h i e v e m e n t c o n s i s t e d in t r a n s f o r m i n g , r e v e r s in g , o r r e a r r a n g i n g e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s a n d e l e m e n t s ,

which

c o n tin u e t o c a r r y a n u n d e n i a b l e f a m il y r e s e m b l a n c e t o o ld e r f o rm s . T h e c iv iliz a tio n s t h a t w ill c o m e i n t o c l o s e r v ie w in

this book,

m a in ly th e M e s o p o t a m i a n , J e w i s h , G r e e k , a n d R o m a n , a r e c o n ­ tig u o u s a n d w e r e in c o n t a c t f o r a l o n g ti m e .

While they

d e v e l­

o p e d u n d e r c o m p a r a b l e c l i m a t i c , e c o n o m i c , a n d s o c ia l c o n d i ­ tio n s , th e y a ls o p r e s e n t g l a r i n g c o n t r a s t s

and

re v o lu tio n a ry

ch an g es, fro m m o n a rc h y to d e m o c ra c y , fro m

temple

e c o n o m y to

m o n e ta r y s y s te m s , f r o m ill ite r a c y t o w r i t i n g . Y e t t h e r e a r e im ­ p re s s iv e s im ila r itie s in t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d p r a c t i c e o f r e li­ g io n , th e i r m y th s a n d t h e i r r i t u a l s , t e m p l e s a n d o f f e r in g s . D iv e rs e c u ltu r e s h a v e p r o v e d h o s p i t a b l e t o m a n y o f t h e s a m e e le m e n ts o f r e lig io n . C u l tu r e h a s b e e n d e f in e d a s a “ r e a l i z e d s ig n i f y in g s y s t e m ,” a s o c ia l s y s te m c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s t a n d a r d f o r m s o f c o m m u n i c a ­ t i o n .3 A n th r o p o l o g i s t s se e n o t j u s t o n e s y s t e m o f t h i s k i n d b u t a n a p p a r e n t l y b o u n d le s s v a r ie ty o f t h e m , a l t h o u g h

t h i s v a r ie ty

se e m s t o m e rg e in t o a y e t u n d e f in e d c o n g l o m e r a t e to d a y . H e n c e th e p r in c ip le h e ld b y t h e le a d in g s c h o o ls o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c ia l sc ie n c e s: e a c h c u l tu r e m u s t b e s t u d i e d in its d i v e r s i ty a n d re la tiv e a u to n o m y . In c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e v e r y c o n c e p t o f h u m a n n a t u r e h a s c o m e u n d e r a t t a c k . I n w h a t h a s b e e n t e r m e d “ n e w d u a l i s m ,” n a t u r e is e x c lu d e d f r o m c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s .4 H u m a n s a r e d e fin e d b y c u ltu r e f a r b e y o n d t h e i r n a t u r a l m a k e u p : “ t h e r e is n o h u m a n n a t u r e a p a r t f r o m c u l t u r e .” L ik e w is e , “ h u m a n i t y is a s v a r io u s in its e s se n c e a s i t is in its e x p r e s s i o n . ” 5 T h is e x c lu s iv e ly c u l t u r a l a p p r o a c h w o u l d m a k e a n y in v e s ti­ g a tio n i n t o th e n a t u r a l e le m e n ts o r f o u n d a t i o n s o f a p h e n o m e n o n s u c h a s r e lig io n w o r s e t h a n h e r e s y f r o m t h e s t a r t . I t is n o w c o m ­ m o n t o in te g r a te r e lig io n i n t o c u l t u r e , t o v ie w i t in r e l a t i o n to sp e c ific g r o u p s a n d e p o c h s . R e lig io n is t h u s p o s e d in c o n t r a s t to n a t u r e a n d c a n n o t b e t r e a t e d a s a g e n e r a l p h e n o m e n o n d e riv in g fro m h u m a n n a tu re . S o m e o f th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d in f lu e n t ia l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

Creation of the Sacred

s tu d ie s o f c iv iliz a tio n s a n d r e lig io n s in o u r c e n t u r y e x e m p lif y th is view , e x p l o r in g th e N u e r o r th e A z a n d e , th e A n d a m a n is la n d e r s o r th e A r g o n a u ts o f th e W e s te r n P a c ific .6 “ R e lig io n a s a C u l t u r a l S y ste m ” is th e title o f a f a m o u s p a p e r b y C lif f o r d G e e r tz .7 In th e w a k e o f É m ile D u r k h e i m r e lig io n h a s b e e n s e e n , firs t o f a ll, a s a so c ia l p h e n o m e n o n ; D u r k h e i m r e p la c e d th e c o n c e p t o f r e lig io u s id e as by t h a t o f “ c o lle c tiv e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . ”8 M o r e r e c e n t d e ­ c a d e s h a v e b r o u g h t i n t o e v e r s h a r p e r f o c u s th e f o r m s a n d f u n c ­ tio n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n s o c ia l g r o u p s .9 T h is lin e h a s b e e n fo llo w e d in th e s u c c e s s fu l d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e m io lo g y , s t r u c t u r ­ a lism , a n d p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s m . I m p o r t a n t s tu d ie s a l o n g th e s e lin e s h a v e b e e n c a r r ie d o u t in th e field o f G re e k r e lig io n , e s p e c ia lly b y th e P a r is s c h o o l o f J e a n P ie rre V e r n a n t . 10 In th e s e w o r k s , G re e k re lig io n e m e rg e s in th e c o n te x t o f th e G r e e k c ity s ta te , t h e

polis a s

it h a s e v o lv e d b e g in ­

n in g in th e 8 t h c e n tu r y b . c . T h e d e ta ils o f m y th a n d r i t u a l , a n d esp e c ia lly o f s a c rific e , a r e se e n a s o b je c tiv e a g e n ts in t h e i r r e ­ sp e ctiv e c o n t e x ts m a r k i n g d is tin c tio n s a n d c o r r e la tio n s , n o r m a l ­ ity a n d d e v ia tio n , w i t h i n th e s t r u c t u r e o f a p a r t i c u l a r a n c ie n t society. T h e im p u ls e p r o v id e d b y th is a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n e ffe c tiv e fa r b e y o n d th e s p e c ia liz e d c irc le s o f c la s s ic a l p h ilo lo g y . Y et if c u ltu r e s r e m a in e n c lo s e d e a c h in its o w n s ig n ify in g sy s­ te m , w h a t a b o u t th e in te r a c ti o n s o f c u ltu r e s , in flu e n c e s , a n d tr a d itio n s t h a t lin k th e p r e s e n t t o th e p a s t? W h a t a b o u t o u r o w n c h a n c e s o f t r a n s c u l t u r a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f o th e r c iv iliz a tio n s w h e th e r p a s t o r p r e s e n t? A n d d o w e a c c o u n t f o r th e u b iq u it y a n d p e rs is te n c e o f a p h e n o m e n o n s u c h a s re lig io n ? A n a lte r n a tiv e th e s is m a y p r o v id e a b a s is fo r d e a lin g w ith s u c h q u e s tio n s . I t p r o p o s e s t h a t th e r e a r e p h e n o m e n a c o m m o n to all h u m a n c iv iliz a tio n s ,

universalia

o f a n t h r o p o lo g y ; th e y m a y b e

b u t n e e d n o t b e c a lle d c h a r a c te r is tic s o f h u m a n n a t u r e . R e lig io n b elo n g s w ith th e m . C u l tu r e s in te r a c t; th e r e a r e e x c h a n g e s a n d co n flicts, b r e a k s b u t a ls o c o n tin u itie s e v e n w ith in h is to ric a l c h a n g e. A b o v e a ll th e r e a r e b a s ic s im ila ritie s in a ll fo rm s o f h u ­ m a n c u ltu r e , in a s m u c h a s e v e ry w h e re p e o p le e a t, d r in k , a n d d e f­ ecate, w o r k a n d s le e p , e n jo y s e x a n d p r o c r e a te , g e t s ic k a n d d ie .

Culture in a Landscape

T h e r e is n o d e n y i n g e i t h e r t h e g e n e r a l o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e s e p r o c e s s e s . C u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w i l l c l a i m th e y a re tr i v i a l ; it is o n ly t h e c u l t u r a l e l a b o r a t i o n s a n d d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t m a k e th e s e p h e n o m e n a a t a ll i n t e r e s t i n g . B u t t h e y a r e t h e r e . W h a t is s t a r t l i n g is t h e u b i q u i t y o f c e r t a i n le s s t r i v i a l p h e n o m ­ e n a , w h ic h a re c u ltu r a lly d e te r m in e d in e v e ry c a s e a n d y e t n o t g e n e r a t e d n o r e x p l i c a b l e i n i s o l a t i o n . T h e y a l w a y s a p p e a r in t e ­ g r a t e d i n t o s p e c ific c u l t u r e s a n d t a k e v a r i o u s s h a p e s a c c o r d in g ly , b u t th e ir u n m is ta k a b le s im ila rity m a k e s th e m

a g e n e r a l c la ss

t r a n s c e n d i n g s in g le c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s . T h e y m u s t b e p r e s u m e d to fu lfill b a s ic f u n c t i o n s f o r h u m a n s o c i a l lif e i n a l l i t s f o r m s , e v e n if it is e a s y t o im a g i n e a l t e r n a t i v e s . T h e s e u n i v e r s a l s i n c l u d e s u c h d i s p a r a t e p h e n o m e n a a s t h e n u c l e a r f a m i l y w i t h a m a r k e d r o le o f t h e f a t h e r a n d t h e s p e c ia l f a t h e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p ; t h e u s e o f t e c h n o lo g y , e s p e c i a lly o f fire ; i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t i n c l u d e e c o n o m ic e x c h a n g e b u t a l s o w a r f a r e ; a n d a b o v e a ll l a n g u a g e , a r t , a n d r e ­ l i g i o n . 11 T h e l a s t t w o m e n t i o n e d m a y c o m e a s a s u r p r i s e : w h a t a r e in f a c t t h e f u n c t i o n s o f a r t a n d r e l i g i o n ? T h e y s e e m t o be m u c h le s s n e c e s s a r y f o r h u m a n life t h a n t h e o t h e r i t e m s m e n ­ t i o n e d , y e t th e y h a v e b e e n w i t h u s f o r a ll t h e t i m e

sapiens h a s

homo sapiens

b e e n in e x i s te n c e .

T h e w o r l d w i d e s i m i l a r i t y o f r e l i g i o u s p h e n o m e n a is e a s y t o p o i n t o u t : t h e y in c lu d e f o r m a l i z e d r i t u a l b e h a v i o r a p p r o p r i a t e f o r v e n ­ e r a t i o n ; t h e p r a c t i c e o f o f f e r in g s , s a c r if ic e s , v o w s a n d p r a y e r s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o s u p e r i o r b e in g s ; a n d s o n g s , t a l e s , t e a c h i n g s , a n d e x p l a n a t i o n s a b o u t th e s e b e in g s a n d t h e w o r s h i p t h e y d e m a n d . N o r m a lly , r e lig i o n is e m p h a t i c a l l y a c c e p t e d . I f v o ic e s o f s k e p t i ­ c is m a r is e , i t is d e e m e d w is e t o s ile n c e t h e m . “ T h e f o o l s a y s in h is h e a r t : t h e r e is n o g o d ” 12— b u t m o s t a r e n o t s o f o o l i s h a s t o s p e a k o u t . E v e n r h e t o r i c i a n s k n o w t h a t “ o n e h a s t o w o r s h i p th e d iv in e : n o b o d y o p p o s e s t h i s e x h o r t a t i o n u n le s s h e h a s g o n e m a d . ” 13 N e v e r th e le s s i t is n o t o r i o u s l y d if f ic u lt t o d e f in e r e lig i o n in a g e n e r a l, t r a n s c u l t u r a l w a y . M o s t a t t e m p t s w o r k a t t h e le v e l o f

Creation of thé Sacred

id e a s o r s y m b o l s . J a n v a n B a a l, f o r e x a m p l e , d e f in e s r e l i g i o n a s “ all e x p l ic i t a n d i m p l i c i t n o t i o n s a n d i d e a s , a c c e p t e d a s t r u e , w h ic h r e la te t o a r e a l i t y w h i c h c a n n o t b e v e r if ie d e m p i r i c a l l y . ” 14 T h is c o m e s c lo s e t o t h e o l d e r c o n c e p t o f r e l i g i o n a s b e l ie f in t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , w h i l e d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e p r a c t i c e o f r e l i g i o n w h i c h is n o t n e c e s s a r ily b a s e d o n s o - c a l l e d t r u e b e lie f . M o r e c i r c u m s p e c t is th e d e f i n i t i o n o f r e l i g i o n b y C l i f f o r d G e e r t z : “ (1 ) a s y s t e m o f s y m b o ls w h i c h a c t t o

(2 ) e s t a b l i s h p o w e r f u l , p e r s u a s i v e , a n d

l o n g - la s tin g m o o d s a n d m o t i v a t i o n s in m e n b y (3 ) f o r m u l a t i n g c o n c e p t i o n s o f a g e n e r a l o r d e r o f e x i s t e n c e a n d (4 ) c l o t h i n g t h e s e c o n c e p t i o n s w i t h s u c h a n a u r a o f f a c t u a l i t y t h a t (5 ) t h e m o o d s a n d m o t i v a t i o n s s e e m u n i q u e l y r e a l i s t i c . ” 15 ( N o t e t h e c h a r a c t e r ­ istic p a r a d o x t h a t t h e s y m b o l i c s h o u l d s e e m “ u n i q u e l y r e a l i s t i c . ” ) T h e r e a l i s t i c , t h a t is , p r a c t i c a l , a s p e c t s o f r e l i g i o n m a y s t i l l b e u n d e r e s t i m a t e d in G e e r t z ’s f o r m u l a : i t is n o t t h e s y m b o l s a l o n e t h a t c r e a t e t h i s s e e m i n g r e a l i t y ; i t is t h e o n g o i n g a c t i v i t y o f l i v i n g p e o p le i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r t h r o u g h s y m b o l s , e x c h a n g i n g s ig n s a n d r e a c t i n g t o t h e m w h i l e w o r k i n g o n t h e i r o w n “ r e a l i t y , ” w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e s r e l i g i o n . N u m e r o u s o th e r p r o p o s e d d e fin itio n s a n d p e r tin e n t m e th o d ­ o lo g ic a l r e f l e c t i o n s h a v e b e e n o f f e r e d o n t h e s u b j e c t o f r e l i g i o n . 16 H e r e , a s B e n s o n S a l e r h a s r e c o m m e n d e d , i t w i l l s u f f ic e t o a s s e m ­ b le s o m e e l e m e n t s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e r e l i g i o n i n a l m o s t e v e r y i n ­ s t a n c e . 17 T h i s a t t e m p t t o g r a s p t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f r e l i g i o n r e m a i n s a t t h e le v e l o f o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r ; t h e c l a i m s o f f a c t u a l tr u th o r r e a l e x is te n c e o f th e g o d s a r e n o t o f p r im a r y c o n c e r n in th e s t u d y o f p a s t r e l i g i o n s . T h e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f r e l i g i o n is n e g a t i v e : t h a t is , r e lig i o n d e a l s w i t h t h e n o n o b v i o u s , t h e u n s e e n , t h a t “ w h i c h c a n ­ n o t b e v e rifie d e m p ir ic a lly .” P r o ta g o r a s th e s o p h is t s p o k e o f th e

adelôtes,

t h e “ u n c l e a r n e s s ” o r “ n o n e v i d e n c e ” o f t h e g o d s . 18 R e ­

lig io n is m a n i f e s t i n a c t i o n s a n d a t t i t u d e s t h a t d o n o t f u l f i l l i m ­ m e d i a t e p r a c t i c a l f u n c t i o n s . W h a t is i n t e n d e d a n d d e a l t w i t h c a n ­ n o t b e s e e n , o r t o u c h e d , o r w o r k e d u p o n in th e u s u a l f a s h io n o f e v e r y d a y lif e . T h i s i s w h y s t r a n g e r s a r e u s u a l l y p u z z l e d b y r e l i ­ g io u s p r a c tic e . C o n v e r s e ly , w e a r e t e m p t e d t o s u p p o s e t h a t a n y -

Culture in a Landscape

t h in g p u z z lin g a n d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t m a y b e re lig io u s — a p r o b l e m o f te n m e t in p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o l o g y ; d r a s t i c m is u n ­

derstandings m a y o f c o u r s e o c c u r . I t is d i f f i c u l t t o “ g e t ” w h a t is meant in religious behavior, b u t s o m e c o m m o n b a s is f o r e m p a ­ thy, interpretation, a n d translation evidently does exist. T h e c r i­ terion of adelôtes is in s u f f ic ie n t, y e t i t remains b a s ic . I t is tr u e t h a t th is u n c l e a r n e s s is o f t e n e m p h a t i c a l l y d e n ie d by th e in s id e r s . “ T h e k n o w a b i l i t y o f g o d is c l e a r a m o n g m e n ,” St. P a u l w r o t e in R o m a n s , “ f o r g o d h a s m a d e i t c l e a r f o r th e m . F o r th e in v is ib le ( c h a r a c te r is t ic s ) o f h i m a r e s e e n b y t h e m i n d in h is w o r k s , f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d . . . . ” I n b o t h th e s e a r g u ­ m e n ts , f r o m t h e m i n d a n d f r o m t h e w o r l d

(kosmos),

P au l w as

f o llo w in g G r e e k p o p u l a r p h i l o s o p h y . 19 T h e v e r y e m p h a s is , c ir­ c u m s t a n t i a l a r g u m e n t , a n d s p e c ia l p l e a d i n g o f h is c la im s a c ­ k n o w le d g e t h e d if f ic u ltie s o f a c c e s s . E v e n S t. P a u l ’s m o s t o p ti­ m is tic f o r m u l a t i o n r e t a i n s t h e “ i n v is ib le .”

Adelôtes

c a n n e ith e r

b e a b o l i s h e d n o r d e n i e d ; i t c a n b e g iv e n a p o s it iv e t w i s t , h o w e v e r, b y p r o c l a i m i n g it a s e c r e t. T o g e t b e y o n d t h e b a r r i e r o f u n c l e a r n e s s , s p e c ia l f o r m s o f e x ­ p e r ie n c e — m e d i t a t i o n , v is io n , a n d e c s ta s y — a r e c o m m o n ly in ­ v o k e d ; t h u s t h e p a r a n o r m a l r a n g e o f f e e lin g s is c a lle d u p o n to e s ta b lis h d ir e c t e n c o u n t e r w i t h th e s u p e r n a t u r a l . Y e t t h e r e m a r k ­ a b le f a c t is n o t t h e e x is te n c e o f e c s ta s y a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f a lte re d c o n s c io u s n e s s ; i t is t h e i r a c c e p ta n c e a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b y th e m a j o r i t y o f n o r m a l p e o p le . T h e e c s ta tic p h e n o m e n a a r e in te ­ g r a t e d i n t o r e lig io n a n d c o n f ir m e x i s tin g b e lie f, a n d th e s e m a n ­ if e s ta tio n s a r e th e m s e lv e s s h a p e d b y c u l t u r a l t r a i n i n g a n d p r a c ­ tic e i n s o f a r a s th e y b e c o m e c o m m u n i c a b l e a n d a c c e s s ib le to o th e r s . In f a c t, th e y a r e ju d g e d a n d s e le c te d b y a n e x is tin g re li­ g io n ’s o w n c a te g o r ie s : “ te s t t h e s p i r i t s . ” 20 T h e s e c o n d p r in c ip a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f r e lig io n s ta n d s in a n ­ tith e s is t o th e in e ff a b le : r e lig io n m a n if e s ts its e lf t h r o u g h in te r ­ a c tio n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I t is t h u s a r e le v a n t f a c t o r in th e s y s te m s o f c iv iliz a tio n . E v e n th e lo n e ly a s c e tic c o m m u n ic a te s , a s h e b e c o m e s t h e o b je c t o f a d m i r a t i o n , p r o p a g a n d a , a n d p ilg rim ­ a g e . I n f a c t, r e lig io u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n a lw a y s fo c u s e s in t w o d i-

Oreation of the Sacred

rections, to w ard t h e unseen and t o w a r d t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c ia l situation. T h r o u g h a t t i t u d e s , a c t s , a n d l a n g u a g e c e r t a i n n o n obvious entities or partners w i t h special characteristics a n d i n ­ terests a re introduced, r e c o g n i z e d , a n d t e n d e d .21 D i s t i n c t f r o m humans and still analogous in m a n y r e s p e c ts , they are d e e m e d superior specifically b e c a u s e o f t h e i r in v is ib ility , th e s u p e r n a t u r a l as such. People give th e m various names, class th e m a s s p ir its , demons, g o d s , o r e q u a t e th e m w ith lo n g - d e a d a n c e s t o r s .22 R e li­ g io n thus becomes a “culturally patterned i n t e r a c t i o n w ith c u l ­ tu ra lly p o s t u l a t e d s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g s . " M C o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h

these entities in te r f e r e s with normal relations w ith in s o c ie ty a n d thus o f te n turns o u t t o be a special form of indirect c o m m u n i ­ c a tio n , using th e s u p e r n a t u r a l t o s t r e n g t h e n th e e f f e c t o f in t e n d e d conventional c o m m u n i c a t i o n . In this sense* o n e m ig h t e v e n s a y the divine is a social to o l t o m a n i p u l a t e com m unication.24 A t a n y ra te , it is th e p r a c t ic e of i n t e r a c t i o n , t o g e t h e r with its c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s. t h a t m a k e s r e lig io n “ u n iq u e ly r e a lis tic ." Im p lic it in th e first t w o is th e t h i r d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f r e lig io n :

its claim f o r priority and s e r io u s n e s s , for which Paul 1 1 1lie h u s e d the term “ultimate concern." R e lig io n is thus set apart f r o m o t h e r forms of symbolic c o m m u n i c a t i o n , from play and from a r t . Ab th o u g h in play a s in ritual there is a n d e m e n t t h a t t r a n s c e n d s reality , a n " a s if " s t r u c t u r e w h ic h creates unseen p a r t n e r s w ith w h o m to i n t e r a c t , th e s e p la y m a t e s c a n b e d is m is s e d at w ill. In relig io n th e r e is a p o s t u l a t e o f p r i o r i t y a n d n e c e s s ity , o f c e r t a i n t y th a t g iv e n t h o u g h t s a n d a c t i o n s arc e s s e n tia l a n d u n a v o i d a b l e . All o th e r p la n s , p r o je c ts , p r e d ile c ti o n s , o r d e s ir e s a r e d o w n ­

graded, f o r e g o n e , o r a t fe a s t p o s t p o n e d . S p a r ta n s s t o p p e d w a r ­ fare to c e le b r a te t h e i r f e s tiv a ls e v e n a t c r u c ia l m o m e n ts ; J e w s d ecid ed to die rather t h a n defend themselves o n th e S a b b a t h .25 Even th e R o m a n senate, r e le n tle s s ly r e p r e s s in g th e in f a m o u s Bac­

chanalia

in Ita ly , r e s p e c te d t h e “ n e c e s s ity ” s o m e p e o p le f e lt to

cam* o n th e ir r i t u a l a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n .26 R e lig io n is s e r io u s ; hence it is v u ln e r a b le t o l a u g h t e r a n d d e r i s i o n .27 B u t t h e u n s e e n , in th e f o rm o f p e r s o n a l p a r t n e r s , c a lls f o r s u b m is s io n a n d v e n ­ e r a tio n , a n d t h e e g o h a s t o t a k e s e c o n d r a n k . A s s u p e r n a t u r a l

:Qtd$me m a landscape

p o w e r s p re a d s to o b je c ts , th e s e a c q u ir e lim its o f a c c e s s o r use, w h e th e r as ta b o o o r ju s t s a c r e d n e s s . R e lig io n c a n b e d e a d ly se­ rio u s in th e m o st d ire c t w a y , s a n c tio n i n g v io le n c e in a te rrify in g s p e c tru m , ra n g in g fro m h u m a n s a c rific e to in te r n e c in e w a rs, fro m w itc h -b u r n in g to a n A y a to lla h ’s

fatwa— a n d

n o less s h o c k ­

in g a c ts o f se lf-sa c rific e , d o w n to m a s s s u ic id e .28 T h is a b s o lu te se rio u s n e ss, d e riv e d fro m d e a lin g w ith u n s e e n s u p e r io r s , is the p r e ro g a tiv e o f th e s a c re d t h a t c h a r a c te r iz e s r e lig io n . R e lig io n s, b o th p a s t a n d p r e s e n t, a p p e a r in s p e c ia l c u ltu ra l, so c ia l, a n d h is to ric a l s e ttin g s ; th e y c a n b e e l a b o r a t e d a s sy m b o lic sy stem s a n d in te r p r e te d in f a s c in a tin g w a y s . Y et th is u n iv e rsa l a n d p r e h is to ric p h e n o m e n o n c a n n o t b e e x p la in e d b y o r d e riv e d fro m a n y sin g le c u ltu r a l s y s te m . T h e s e a r c h f o r th e s o u rc e o f re lig io n c a lls f o r a m o r e g e n e ra l p e r s p e c tiv e , b e y o n d in d iv id u a l c iv iliz a tio n s , w h ic h m u s t ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e v a s t p r o c e s s o f h u ­ m a n e v o lu tio n w ith in th e m o r e g e n e ra l e v o l u tio n a r y p ro c e s s o f life. T h is p ro c e s s w a s o n c e h y p o s ta s iz e d a s N a t u r e ; w e m a y still u se it a s a m e ta p h o r. In th is se n se th e h is t o r y o f r e lig io n s im p lies th e p r o b le m o f “ n a t u r a l ” re lig io n . C u l tu r a l s tu d ie s m u s t m e rg e w ith g e n e ra l a n th ro p o lo g y , w h ic h is u ltim a te ly in te g r a te d in to b io lo g y .

Sociobiology? T o in tr o d u c e b io lo g y in to c u ltu r a l s tu d ie s is t o e n t e r a b a ttle fie ld . F o r a lo n g tim e m a n y p h ilo s o p h e r s , h is t o r ia n s , a n d s o c io lo g is ts , c o n f r o n te d w ith th e su c cess o f n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s , h a v e b e e n b u ild ­ in g u p d e fe n se s a g a in s t b io lo g is m , o r b io lo g is tic re d u c tio n is m , as it is c a lle d .29 T h e o th e r sid e h a s b e e n m a k in g u s e o f th e tr e ­ m e n d o u s p ro g re s s in m o le c u la r b io lo g y a n d g e n e tic s . E th o lo g y , th e s tu d y o f a n im a l b e h a v io r, w a s b r illia n tly d e v e lo p e d in m id ­ c e n tu ry by K o n ra d L o re n z a n d h a s b e e n p o p u la r iz e d e v e n in its a p p lic a tio n to h u m a n s . A t th e s a m e tim e th e s tu d y o f p rim a te s , e sp ecially c h im p a n z e e s , h a s e x p a n d e d g r e a tly a n d e s ta b lis h e d b e­ y o n d e x p e c ta tio n h o w c lo se th e y a r e t o h u m a n s . W ith th e re­ fin e m e n t o f e v o lu tio n th e o ry , s o c io b io lo g y w a s p r o c la im e d as

Creation o f the

Sacred

“the new synthesis” by E. O. Wilson. This has not silenced crit­ icism at all; controversies are bound to continue. Darwin’s theory of evolution made a lasting impression on theories of culture in the nineteenth century. Social Darwinism applied the Darwinian principle of survival of the fittest to group selection. Certain social groups would prove to be more suc­ cessful than others and oust their rivals in the end; morality and religion could be made factors in the process, strengthening or weakening the group’s fitness. These theories conceived interac­ tion as a struggle or battle, neglecting the role of cooperation. This school of thought appears unattractive and naive in retro­ spect. A new and more specific approach was inaugurated by Konrad Lorenz’s book On Aggression, first published with the less ag­ gressive title Das sogenannte Böse in 1963, a work distinguished by the author’s special skill in understanding animals.30 In estab­ lishing homologies in behavior of different species and decipher­ ing the function of their signals, Lorenz insisted on the positive role of so-called evil behavior, or intraspecific aggression, for the preservation of the balance of life. He showed similarities, anal­ ogies, and even continuities between animals and humans in the field of anger, fighting, and war, but in particular he described the establishment of bonds of friendship and solidarity through common aggression, symbolized in aggressive display. By ex­ trapolation it would seem possible to explain the success of re­ ligious solidarity on the basis of the aggressive acts of hunt and sacrifice.31 Lorenz’s claim that zoology could throw light on the condition humaine immediately provoked critical reactions from sociolo­ gists and social anthropologists; the thesis of aggression was met by counteraggression.32 Critics judged it was dangerous to derive human values from animal nature, to see biological inheritance as determining human practice, and, in particular, to make ag­ gression an inherited and hence immutable trait of the human race. Humanization and the very progress of civilization seemed to be at stake.

Culture in a Landscape

T h e c o n flic t w a s r e s t a r t e d in a new k e y th ro u g h E . O . Wilson’s

concept o f s o c io b io lo g y p r o p o s e d in 1 9 7 5 . 33 I ts o p p o n e n t s pro­ tested again th at any th e s is a b o u t g e n e tic d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f cul­ tural behavior, norm s, or values w ould d e s t r o y t h e h o p e fo r p r o ­ g re s s in h u m anization.34 S elf-determ ination, f re e w ill, fre e choice a m o n g v a r io u s p o s s ib ilitie s — these seem ed t h e m ark s o f c u ltu re . T h e a d v o c a te o f w h a t l o o k e d lik e b i o lo g i c a l a u t o m a t i s m w as m a r k e d a s r e a c tio n a r y . C u l t u r a l a u t o n o m y w a s t h e b a n n e r raised

against b io lo g is m .

basic hypothesis o f sociobiology is t h e “ c o e v o lu tio n o f genes a n d culture,” w ith constant f e e d b a c k b e t w e e n th e tw o . From its Darwinian inheritance s o c io b io lo g y t a k e s th e c o n c e p t o f s u rv iv a l fitness, r e la te d to th e c h a n c e s o f procreation, a n d tries The

to c o r r e la te c e r ta in i n s t i t u t i o n s o r id e a s w i t h s u c h fitn e s s . “ C u l­ tu r a l su c c e s s c o n s is ts in a c c o m p l is h in g t h o s e t h i n g s w h ic h m a k e b io lo g ic a l s u c c e s s ( t h a t is, a h ig h in c lu s iv e fitn e s s ) p r o b a b l e . ”35 M is fits w ill d im in is h in n u m b e r a n d g r a d u a l l y d is a p p e a r . C u l­ tu r a l p r o g re s s a n d m o d if ic a tio n o f g e n e s g o to g e th e r .

be c a lle d th e c o m p u t e r i z e d v e r s io n o f s o ­ cial Darwinism. Whereas Lorenz h a d still la rg e ly r e lie d o n o b ­ servation a n d e m p a th y , e v o lu tio n th e o r y now m o v e s a lo n g th e lin e s o f g a m e theory, models o f w h ic h c a n b e te s te d b y c o m p u te r S o c io b io lo g y c o u ld

p r o g r a m s . In th is c o n t e x t o n e b a s ic id e a o f s o c ia l D a r w in is m , th e p r in c ip le o f g r o u p s e le c tio n , w a s e x p l o d e d im m e d ia te ly , b y d is­ p r o v in g th e c la im t h a t g r o u p s o lid a r ity w o u l d n a t u r a l l y w in in th e s tru g g le f o r s u rv iv a l. I t is th e g e n e s , n o t th e in d iv id u a ls , th a t g e t p a s s e d o n ; h e n c e it is th e c h e a te r w i t h i n a g r o u p w h o en jo y s th e g r e a te s t a d v a n ta g e a n d b y th is v e ry fitn e s s w ill m u ltip ly his g e n e s. “T h e selfish g e n e ” h a s b e c o m e a c a t c h w o r d o f th e n e w a p p r o a c h .36 It r e m a in s tr u e , h o w e v e r, t h a t c e r t a in s tr a te g ie s o f b e h a v io r w ith in a g r o u p w ill p r o v e t o b e m o r e s u c c e s s fu l th a n o th e r s a n d th u s m a k e a d iffe re n c e e v e n in g e n e s e le c tio n . T h e te c h n ic a l p r o b le m s o f e v o lu tio n t h e o r y a n d s o c io b io lo g y c a n n o t b e d is c u s s e d h e r e in a n y d e p t h . T h e y in c lu d e th e v ery f o r m u la tio n o f th e d e f in itio n o f “ f itn e s s ” in a w a y t h a t is n o t c irc u la r ;37 a n d th e a lte r n a tiv e o f c o n t in u o u s e v o l u tio n a m e n a b le

Cmadm of tb* S&cr$d

to statistics versus sudden and unforeseeable catastrophes or “fulgurations.”™ The most complicated issue is still how to verify the connec­ tion between cultural phenomena and biological preconditions. Even primitive functions of life and simple processes of growth depend upon the interaction o f many genes and numerous in­ termediate stages and agents that make up the phenotype. Be­ havior is hopelessly com plex already at the level o f primates. In response to ever changing situations, behavior will always pre­ sent a mixture of innate responses and learned programs.39 Even in the realm of animals it is very difficult to isolate one from the other by experiments; at the human level experimentation is not possible. In addition, in human social life quite different levels and criteria of success come to the fore; these cannot be represented by a single set of numbers in computer games. There is always variety, and seldom extinction. N o doubt dominant members of a society have more chances to raise their children success­ fully; but it appears that again and again special elites rose to power who produced fewer children but, through an elaborate culture, kept control over their inferiors who produced more children. Should this be called a lack of fitness of the ruling class? Sociobiology has had some success in interpreting rules of marriage and sexual taboos in relation to the probabilities of genetic relationship and hence to the spread of selfish genes. Such studies focus on cultural institutions or patterns directly linked to physical procreation. An alarming study shows that male ag­ gressiveness is deliberately cultivated in a primitive tribal society, so that killers have more chances to beget children than their more peaceful kinsmen.40 However, it is not possible to run ex­ periments that use neutral test groups to test the validity of these conclusions. And how can we know whether some rule or insti­ tution has been in effect long enough, through a sufficient se­ quence of generations, to produce a marked change in the fre-

Cuiture in a Landscape

quency

needed

of to

respective genes? How make a sizable difference?41 th e

m a n y g e n e r a tio n s are

“Religion constitutes th e g r e a t e s t c h a lle n g e t o h u m a n s o c io b io l­ ogy,” E. O. W ils o n w r o t e .42 N o d o u b t r e lig io n h a s a p p e a r e d as a new p h e n o m e n o n in th e c o u r s e o f e v o l u tio n . C h im p a n z e e s , for all th e ir g e n e tic c lo s e n e s s t o m a n , h a v e n e i t h e r a r t n o r re lig io n .43 A ll th e s a m e , th e p r a c tic e o f re lig io n m u s t b e e x tr e m e ly o ld . It is c e rta in t h a t th e b a s ic re lig io u s s tr u c t u r e s h a d e v o lv e d b e fo re h u ­ m a n s re a c h e d A m e ric a , f o r d e s p ite t h o u s a n d s o f y e a rs o f iso la ­ tio n , th e re lig io n s o f A m e r ic a n a b o r ig in e s r e m a in e d c o m p a ra b le a n d s im ila r to th e ir O ld W o r ld c o u n t e r p a r t s in m a n y re s p e c ts . In fa c t, th e re a re c le a r tr a c e s o f re lig io u s p r a c tic e s in c e th e U p p e r P a le o lith ic t h a t c a n b e b r o u g h t in to lin e w ith a t te s t e d relig io u s p h e n o m e n a .44 S till e a rlie r, N e a n d e r th a ls p r a c t ic e d c e re m o n ia l b u ria l o f th e d e a d ; m a n y th in k t h a t re lig io u s id e a s m u s t h av e a c c o m p a n ie d s u c h a c tiv itie s a b o u t 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 y e a rs a g o . In a n a iv e w a y , a n e x p la n a tio n o f re lig io n a s e x p r e s s io n of c u ltu ra l fitn e ss h a d a lre a d y b e e n a d v a n c e d , o n t h e b a s is o f so cial D a rw in is m . O t t o G r u p p e w r o t e in 1 9 2 1 : “ I n d iv id u a ls w h o m a k e th e m se lv e s a p p e a r t o p o s s e s s s u p e r n a tu r a l p o w e r s g e t a g re a t a d v a n ta g e o u t o f th is , w h ic h is e a sily se e n b e c a u s e th e y ex e rc ise so m e p o w e r o n th e s o c ie ty in w h ic h th e y liv e; b u t th e y a ls o give so m e a d v a n ta g e , less e a sily re c o g n iz a b le b u t n e v e rth e le s s q u ite re a l, to th e ir o w n g r o u p in th e s tru g g le f o r e x is te n c e , th ro u g h th e ir p u r p o r te d p o w e rs a n d b y fa c ilita tin g th e g r o w t h o f a c o m ­ m o n so c ie ta l w ill . ”45 C a n th is b e r e p h r a s e d t o m e a n t h a t re lig io n , o n c e e n tre n c h e d as a c u ltu r a l p h e n o m e n o n , b r o u g h t d e fin ite a d ­ v a n ta g e to c e rta in in d iv id u a ls a n d th u s w a s lik e ly t o m u ltip ly th e ir a n d th e ir a d h e r e n ts ’ c h a n c e s o f o f fs p r in g a n d h e n c e th e ir g en es, to th e d e trim e n t o f th e n o n re lig io u s ? T h e fitn ess o f re lig io n in th e se n se o f p r o c r e a t io n a n d su rv iv a l v a lu e is n o t a t a ll a g re e d u p o n . M a n y re lig io n s c a ll f o r r e n u n c i­ a tio n o f w o rld ly g o o d s a n d r e tr e a t fro m c o m p e titiv e s tru g g le , as B u d d h ism a n d C h ris tia n ity n o ta b ly d o . C h r is tia n ity h a s e x to lle d

Creation of the Sacred

m a rty rs a n d a ltr u is tic se lf-sa c rific e . D ra s tic e x a m p le s o f selfd estro y in g re lig io u s b e h a v io r in c lu d e s a in ts s ta rv in g them selves to d e a th a n d s e c ta r ia n g r o u p s c o m m ittin g co llectiv e suicide. Still— th e v ery p r o p a g a n d a e ffe c t o f m a rty r d o m p ro v e s th a t, on b alan ce, ev en th e s e m a y b e s tra te g ie s o f success. T h e loss is m a tch e d b y a n in c re a s e in a c c e p ta n c e . P ro p a g a n d a , by its very nam e, is a fo rm o f p r o c r e a tio n . “ T h e b lo o d o f th e m a rty rs is th e seed o f th e c h u r c h ”46— a s tr ik in g m e ta p h o r o f b io lo g ica l g ro w th . Self-denial is to r e s u lt in m u ltip lic a tio n ; th e g ra in o f w h e a t dies to b rin g fo rth a ric h h a r v e s t .47 C a se s o f self-sacrifice o c c u r even low er o n th e e v o lu tio n a r y scale: so m e m a le sp id e rs lose th e ir life a t c o p u la tio n , b ees w o r k t o e x h a u s tio n to feed th e q u e e n ’s o ff­ spring. In fa c t, th e in d iv id u a l’s sacrifice fo r th e benefit o f his o r her g en e tic re la tiv e s c a n b e seen as a stra te g y to m u ltip ly th e genes s h a re d b y th e fam ily . T h is is “in clu siv e fitn e ss,” a c o n c e p t d ev elo p ed b y W illia m H a m i lto n .48 In a n a n a lo g o u s w ay, even religions t h a t p r o c la im self-sacrifice m a y be b asically a d a p tiv e .49 B ecause o n th e w h o le th e h is to ry o f re lig io n s h a s b een a sto ry o f success, a g o o d s tr a te g y fo r su rv iv a l in th e lo n g ru n m u s t h av e been a t w o rk . In o th e r w o rd s , a c e rta in su rv iv a l fitness o f relig io n has to be g r a n te d . In c o n tra s t to th e fo re g o in g , a n o th e r sc h o o l o f th o u g h t im p u te s to relig io n th e v e ry o p p o s ite o f su rv iv a l fitness; w e m a y call it th e o p iu m th e s is .50 R e lig io u s id e as a n d p ra c tic e s are accu sed o f fulfilling h u m a n w ish e s in a fa n ta s tic , u n re a listic , a n d p o ssib ly d e trim e n ta l w a y , ju s t as d ru g s d o w h e n th e y p ro v id e th e illusion o f h a p p in e ss w h ile m is u s in g a n d o v e rrid in g th e n o rm a l ce re b ra l fu n c tio n s .51 N o t t h a t th is w o u ld m a k e re lig io n e x e m p t fro m b i­ ology: even th e s p r e a d o f m a lfu n c tio n s is a b io lo g ical fact. B ut is illu sio n d y s fu n c tio n a l? T h e d isc o v ery o f e n d o rp h in s, n a tu ra l p ain relie v ers in th e b r a in , r a th e r p o in ts to th e p o sitiv e bio lo g ical fu n ctio n o f illu siv e h a p p in e s s to o v e rc o m e d ra m a tic crises o f stress a n d p a in . A c a se c o u ld be m a d e even fo r th e so cio b io lo g ical a d v a n ta g e o f re lig io u s illu sio n s. A n cie n t re lig io n s n o rm a lly g ra v ita te to th e d o m in a tin g classes a n d th e re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f p o w e r. A fte r th e triu m p h o f C h ristia n -

Gulture in a Landscape

ity, fo r m a n y c e n tu r ie s o f E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y t h a t h a s a ls o been th e s itu a tio n o f th e C h r is t ia n c h u r c h e s . I s la m e x p r e s s ly c la im s to d ire c t la w , so c ia l o r d e r , a n d p o litic a l a u t h o r i t y . S u c c e s s fu l relig ­ io n s te n d to u se p o w e r a n d e v e n v io le n c e t o s u p p r e s s d iss id e n t g r o u p s o r riv a l r e lig io n s , b o t h w it h i n a n d b e y o n d th e i r te rrito ry . C h r is tia n ity as w e ll a s Is la m h a v e b e c o m e w o r l d re lig io n s by o u s tin g th e m o r e a n c ie n t f o r m s o f r e lig io u s p o ly th e is m , a n d th ey re m a in a d a m a n t in fig h tin g a t h e is m . T h e s a m e m ilita n c y o c c u rs o n th e in d iv id u a l lev el: w i t h i n s tr ic tly r e lig io u s s o c ie tie s a n o n ­ re lig io u s c h ild , r e b e llio u s in fe e lin g a n d b e h a v io r , w ill h a rd ly h a v e a c h a n c e o f s u r v iv a l .52 Y et if th e d o m i n a n t m a jo r itie s are s ta b iliz e d b y r e lig io n , th e r e a r e a ls o m i n o r i t i e s t h a t p e rsis t th r o u g h th e ir r e lig io n , s o m e o f t h e m r e t a i n i n g s p e c ia l in flu en c e ju s t b y r e m a in in g a r e lig io u s m in o r ity . S o m e d i s a d v a n ta g e d m i­ n o r itie s su rv iv e in a k in d o f n ic h e e x is te n c e f o r m ille n n ia , h eld to g e th e r b y th e ir re lig io n . T h e d o m i n a n t r e lig io n s o f c o u r s e p r e ­ s e n t a d v a n ta g e s to th e ir a d h e r e n ts a n d d is a d v a n ta g e s t o th e ir o p p o n e n ts , so th e y a r e b o u n d t o h a v e m o m e n t o u s e ffe c ts o n se­ le c tio n . N o n e th e le s s , m in o r ity g r o u p s s till s u r v iv e d c e n tu r ie s o f C h r is tia n a n d Is la m ic ru le . I t is n o ta b le t h a t m a n y re lig io n s u r g e n tly a d v o c a t e p r o c r e a tio n w ith in th e g r o u p . I s o la tio n a n d p r o c r e a t i o n b e c a m e th e Je w ish s tra te g ie s f o r s u rv iv in g th e h is t o r ic a l c a t a s t r o p h e o f t h e B a b y lo ­ n ia n e x ile ; in r e in f o r c e m e n t, M o s a ic la w f o r b a d e t h e u s e o f es­ ta b lis h e d fo rm s o f b ir th c o n t r o l s u c h a s h o m o s e x u a li ty , p r o s ti­ tu ti o n , a b o r t i o n , a n d e x p o s u r e o f c h ild r e n . I n e ffe c t, a Je w ish p o p u la tio n e x p lo s io n o c c u r r e d in H e lle n is tic tim e s . A s im ila r s e x u a l m o r a lity c a u s e d C h r is t ia n g r o u p s t o g r o w b e y o n d p r o ­ p o r tio n w ith in th e R o m a n e m p ire . U n til t h e p r e s e n t d a y C a ­ th o lic is m a n d Is la m b o t h p a s s io n a te ly o p p o s e b i r t h c o n t r o l. Is it a b io lo g ic a l in s tin c t, th e t h r u s t o f se lfish g e n e s , t h a t w o r k s b e h in d th e la w s o f M o s e s o r A lla h ? I t is tr u e t h a t d if fe re n t a t titu d e s o f c o m p e ti n g r e lig io n s to w a r d b ir th c o n tr o l c a n d r a m a tic a lly c h a n g e m a j o r i ty - m in o r ity re la ­ tio n s — w itn e s s th e c a se o f L e b a n o n , w h e r e M o s le m s c a m e t o o u t­ n u m b e r C h r is tia n s ; b u t e v e n th e c a t a s t r o p h e o f L e b a n o n d id n o t

Creation of the Sacred

lead to annihilation.53 And even if the premise ot social Darwin ism should materialize in extreme eases, and some religions groups do get exterminated, historical catastrophes, short lived and exceptional as they are, will not have much cl feet on the genetic pool within a heterogeneous world society. Another hypothesis traces religion's success to ecology. One example is Roy Rappaport’s study of pig festivals in New Guinea, in which he explained the festal cycle in such terms. The pig population is left to multiply and would grow out of hand, but they are sacrificed and consumed when they are about to become too numerous. Thus the ritual slaughter functions as a homoeostat to prevent overexploitation of the environment.5'1 In this way the stability of the social system within the environ­ mental balance is maintained through regulation motivated by religious restraint. Should we assume that, in the long run, only the religious individuals, sensitive to the control imposed by oth­ erworldly regulatory systems, managed to survive in stable hu­ man societies? Alas, ecological caution is anything but universal in religions. In the island of Malta, the proliferation of gigantic temples admired by modern tourists seems to have gone together with an ecological collapse and the final decay of the Early Bronze Age civilization.55 It is tempting to assume that the very advantage secured by religion is stability and thus continuity of culture. As the “soft­ ware” of civilization became too precious and too complicated to leave its preservation to individual choice or chance, new in­ stitutions had to arise to guarantee social cohesion across long spans of time. Incipient forms of culture observed in other pri­ mates, such as washing grain in water or transporting stones to crush nuts, can be lost again without endangering the species. For homo sapiens, the technique to preserve fire did need con­ tinuous care. But this may be just an instance of the necessity of culture: it cannot be lost without catastrophe; it cannot be put at stake by experiments. The permanent authority of ancestors or immortal gods provides the needed stability. Yet as provider of continuity, religion remains paradoxical

Culture in a Landscape

from t h e s o a o b i o l o g i c . i l run, m e a n s a d a p t a b i l i t y

the long t o c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s ; in t h e cultural s y s t e m s t h e k e y t o s u c c e s s is t h e a b i l i t y t o l e a r n f a s t and to keep l e a r n i n g in a c h a n g i n g w o r l d . R e l i g i o n , h o w e v e r , strives to teach t h e u n c h a n g i n g “ e t e r n a l t r u t h s , ” a n d t o make sure t h a t beliefs a n d a t t i t u d e s r e m a i n u n c h a n g e d . What k i n d o f fitness is it that r e n d e r s p e o p l e u n f i t f o r c h a n g e , a n d h o w can we say that it has p e r s p e c t i v e . S u r v i v a l f i t n e s s , in

been successful?

A final surm ise is th a t th e success o f relig io n m a y be attrib u ted to its p ro v id in g a h e ig h te n e d e n d u ra n c e in th e face o f c a ta s tro ­ phe, en c o u ra g in g p ro c re a tio n even in d e s p e ra te circum stances. T his com es close to th e “e n d o r p h in ” h y p o th e sis. W e h u m a n s are cap ab le o f e x p e rien cin g sta te s d e sc rib e d as “ lo ss o f rea lity ”— ch im p an zees are a p p a re n tly im m u n e to th is — in su c h diverse m a n ife sta tio n s as ex tre m e p a trio tis m , th e fa s c in a tio n o f gam es a n d sp o rts, th e sc ie n tist’s o r a r tis t’s p ro v e rb ia l d is tra c tio n or ra th e r c o n c e n tra tio n , a n d , n o t le a st, th e fe rv o r o f relig io u s be­ havior. In such cases th e m e n ta l system o v e rrid e s reality , a n d the invisible gets th e b e tte r o f th e o b v io u s. A lth o u g h relig io u s o b ­ session co u ld be called a fo rm o f p a ra n o ia , it d o e s o ffe r a chance o f survival in ex tre m e a n d h o p eless s itu a tio n s , w h e n o th e rs , pos­ sibly th e n o n relig io u s in d iv id u a ls, w o u ld b re a k d o w n a n d give up. M a n k in d , in its lo n g p a s t, w ill h a v e g o n e th r o u g h m a n y a d esp erate situ a tio n , w ith a n e n su in g b re a k th ro u g h o f

homines

religiosi. T hese p o sitiv e o r self-stab ilizin g fu n c tio n s o f re lig io n seem m o re o r less p la u sib le a n d a re n o t m u tu a lly ex clu siv e; it is difficult, how ever, to find c o n c re te evidence fo r th e m , e sp ecially since the u b iq u ity o f religion m e an s th a t n e u tra l te s t g ro u p s a re n o t avail­ able. B ut even if ac ce p ted , th ese fu n c tio n s d o n o t in fa c t prove an y c o rre la tio n b etw een relig io n a n d gene se lec tio n . R eligions are estab lish ed by le arn in g , th ey are p ro p a g a te d b o th th ro u g h im ita tio n a n d th ro u g h ex p licit v erb al te a c h in g . T ra d itio n s devel­ op ed in th is w ay can evidence a k in d o f c u ltu ra l fitness fo r su r­ vival w ith o u t an y genetic basis. T h e R o m a n C a th o lic C h u rc h has been w o rk in g successfully fo r a b o u t six ty g e n e ra tio n s, led by an

Creation o f the Sacred

elite that explicitly renounces physical procreation. Jews have been living in relative isolation with special marital rules for about 100 generations, yet there are no Jewish genes. The success of particular forms of religion appears to he due to organization, propaganda, power, or fashion, with many different motives de­ termining individual choices or attitudes, rather than to physical procreation. One religious institution does focus on sexuality; it is circum­ cision. While this ritual has been strictly practiced for thousands of years, it has no more bearing on procreation than eating or not eating pigs; neither practice will provide a genetic basis for the eventual success of either Judaism, Christianity, or Islam.56 Circumcision functions as character indelebilis of a certain community57 and possibly as a traumatic, unforgettable individ­ ual experience;58 that is to say, it functions at the social and psy­ chological, not the genetic level. In contrast to the practice of circumcision, human sexuality as such has a clear biological function and pedigree. During ado­ lescence humans everywhere and at all times will spontaneously discover sexuality along with new feelings and behavior, while cultural and educational efforts to repress them normally fail. Postmoderns have pointed out that sexuality too takes different forms in different civilizations and hence should be considered a cultural construct or even an “invention.”59 But such variations and déviances are slight in the face of overwhelming uniformity. The biological program develops on its own according to pre­ determined patterns, which reach back far beyond the emergence of humans and have long been inscribed in the genetic code. It has never been shown that religiosity rises spontaneously in such a way; religion depends on the formative impact of cultural learning. The prospect for discovering religious genes is dim. Θ& What remains is an intercultural family resemblance of religious phenomena throughout the world and over the ages. Likewise, the emotional aura encircling religion cannot be easily dismissed.

Culture in a Landscape

B iologists h o ld th a t e a c h o f o u r s p o n t a n e o u s fe e lin g s c a n he q u a l­ ified as th e reflec tio n o f so m e b io lo g ic a l f u n c t i o n / ’0 “ M em o irs m o st easily re c a lle d , e m o tio n s th e y a r e m o s t lik e ly to e v o k e ” are in v o k ed by L u m sd e n a n d W ils o n t o te s tif y f o r b io lo g ic a l fo u n ­ d a tio n s / ’1 K o n ra d L o re n z h a s d r a w n a t t e n t i o n t o th e sh u d d e rs o f a n x ie ty o r even o f e la tio n t h a t w e still e x p e r ie n c e , sh iv e rs ru n ­ n in g d o w n o u r b a c k s a n d a r m s in a p p r o p r i a t e s itu a tio n s , w hich are n e rv o u s re a c tio n s in te n d e d to r a is e th e m a n e a t th e b a c k and h e a d , as th e y still d o a m o n g g o r illa s a n d c h im p a n z e e s . F o r us, “ h a ir-ra is in g ” su rv i ves m a in ly a s a m e ta p h o r , b u t o n c e it w a s p art o f th e ag g ressiv e b e h a v io ra l p r o g r a m .62 T o d a y , w h e n w e speak o f th e sa c re d sh iv e rs o f a w e t h a t c h a r a c te r i z e r e lig io n in p a rtic ­ ular, w e m a y be f o rg e ttin g t h a t o r i g i n .63 Y et a n x ie ty lin k e d to ag g re ssio n th ro u g h b io lo g ic a l in h e r ita n c e m a n if e s ts its e lf in o u r e m o tio n s , in c lu d in g p a tr io tic a n d re lig io u s e n th u s ia s m . In th is c o n te x t, it m a y h e lp to ta k e in to c o n s id e r a ti o n m ore clo sely th e m o s t im p o r ta n t u n iv e rs a l o f h u m a n s : la n g u a g e . L a n ­ g u a g e is le a rn e d in c h ild h o o d in e v e ry so c ie ty , to g e th e r w ith the v a rio u s special p h o n o lo g ie s a n d s e m a n tic s t h a t m a k e cro sscu ltu ra l u n d e r s ta n d in g so d iffic u lt. L a n g u a g e is lin k e d t o a n u n in ­ te rr u p te d c h a in o f h is to ric a l t r a d i t i o n ;64 it h a s n e v e r — in te n s of th o u s a n d s o f y e a rs — b e e n r e in v e n te d .65 L a n g u a g e is exclusiv ely h u m a n , ev en if c h im p a n z e e s c a n b e t a u g h t its r u d im e n ts to a s u rp ris in g d e g re e .66 B u t it is n o less tr u e t h a t la n g u a g e h a s a b i­ o lo g ical f o u n d a tio n , m o s t e v id e n t in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a vocal a p p a r a tu s w h ic h is m is sin g in c h im p a n z e e s a n d w h o s e p resen ce in N e a n d e r th a l m a n is d o u b tf u l. A g e n e tic a l t e r a t i o n w a s critical to its d e v e lo p m e n t. L a n g u a g e a ls o h a s a c le a r s o c io bio lo g ical fu n c tio n . In fa c t it h a s b e c o m e o n e o f th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n ­ d itio n s fo r su rv iv a l in o u r s o c ia l sy ste m s: a n in d iv id u a l in c a p a b le o f sp eech u s u a lly d ro p s o u t. T h u s g e n e s e le c tio n h a s b e e n asso ­ c ia te d w ith so c ia l f u n c tio n s w ith in th e e v o lu tio n o f c u ltu re . If la n g u a g e is a p h e n o m e n o n o f c u ltu r e , c u ltu r e h a s d e te r m in e d an d c o n tin u e s to c o n tro l th e g en e s in th is c a s e , w h ile la n g u a g e still re m a in s to be ta u g h t a fre s h to e v e ry g e n e r a tio n . H u m a n la n ­ g u a g e th u s m a y b e c a lle d a h y b r id o f c u ltu r e a n d b io lo g y .

Creation of the Sacred

"* "* Er*' fOîTTLj Qf a.:»: représenta:: «csa. zz.aksmz, The revo>-ri« : οι an amm:: : rorui; oî marjcng a rd m aie-* Art ia u n k o w n O-ijcr rnm atts; n es rom u :n a : d form a o o o g :nc •nams or N ear dermal m ar. An rtdO S ~:o x a k t sp e c ia l" cen a:* : o e je c ts fo p e rc e p tio n , p ro d u e rc g

â cr,a: 2rit

tension o-etv/een :r,e ta:r.:,:ar ar,d the admirable arc thus creating ne» aspects or a potentially common world."®* Toe ytririr.a ran :s tnat witnin a rew miilenma or the creation of art. N e s n a tr tr.a . man b e c a n œ e x tin c t. O ik may p re su m e that rhe- nap per. ed or a c c o u n t or so m e lack of c u ltu ra l fitness. Yet :he*t vas r o g tr.e tïc a iiy new type o r man to in a u g u ra te the n ew itaae; jt r o w a t p ears that N e a n d e rth a l man c o e x iste d w ith mod­ em mar. for ah r o t

SOJXPJ y ears.'·' T h u s

rap “ b io lo g y c a n n o t e x ­

pia τ the : j ité ra i revolution c h a t th e n e n s u e d . B u r p erh ap s

see ohïoîoçy can. it is tempting to assume that the cultural pro­ gress of tire rivaling species brought the disadvantaged to ex­ tinct, oti. Did human language take form just then? Was Nean­ derthal man unable to speak in ar. articulate way?-1 At any rate, the $irvivor was hom o sapiens sapiens» who has been homo loquens and hom o artifex ever since, but also hom o religiosus. Parallel to language, religion too, as an effective m ean s o f m o st serious c o m m u n ic a tio n , can be h y p o th e siz e d to hare arisen at a certain stage in p re h is to ry as· a competitive act, a way of gaining an ad v a n ta g e over those w ho did n o t take part in it. R eligion mar well be:· o ld e r th a n th e kind of la n g a g e w e know, insofar as it is b o u n d t o ritual, which entails fixed behavioral patterns marked, by e x a g g e ra tio n and r e p e titio n and often characterized by obsessive 'seriousness— patterns which a re prominent even in most m o d e m varieties o f religious c o m m u n ic a tio n .72 In principle, ritual reflects a preverbal sate of c o m m u n ic a tio n , to be learned by imitario n a n d t o b e understood .by its fu n c tio n . It seems to be more primitive a n d m ay b e m o r e a n c ie n t th a n speech; it clearly has analogies in the .behavior of animals. Although rituals do not

(aAmre m a Landscape

n e c e s s a rily le a v e a r c h a e o lo g i c a l t r a c e s , y e t f u n e r a l p r a c tic e is well a tte s te d f o r N e a n d e r t h a l m a n , w h ile h is a b i l i t y t o s p e a k is in d o u b t .7·5 W e a r e fre e t o im a g in e t h a t a r i c h e r p a l e t t e o f ritu a ls e x is te d a m o n g h o m in i d s a t a n e a r ly s ta g e , s u c h a s d a n c e s in the c o n t e x t o f h u n tin g , w a r f a r e , o r m a t i n g d is p la y , b u t a ls o v e n e ra ­ tio n , e v e n w o r s h ip , o f th e u n s e e n .74 T h i s c o u l d b e c a lle d a c o m ­ p le x o f p r e r e lig io n , p e r p e t u a t e d t o a la r g e e x t e n t in t h e r itu a ls of re lig io n s w e k n o w . B u t i t m u s t r e m a i n a g u e s s . T h e p o s s ib ility o f a s o c io b io lo g i c a l d e r i v a t i o n o f re lig io n th u s r e m a in s s h r o u d e d in p r e h is t o r y . T h e id e a is a t t r a c t i v e . T h e r e is a v a s t e x p a n s e o f tim e a v a ila b le f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s , w ith te n s o f t h o u s a n d s , o r e v e n h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f g e n e ra tio n s t o fill th e h i a t u s b e tw e e n c h i m p a n z e e a n d

homo sapiens, w h e re a s

in o th e r c a s e s s tu d i e d b y s o c io b io lo g y t h e p r o b l e m o f th e tim e s p a n in v o lv e d s e e m e d in s u r m o u n t a b l e . R e lig io n , s te m m in g fro m tim e im m e m o r ia l a n d o f te n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p r in c ip l e o f u n ­ c h a n g e a b le c o n tin u ity , m ig h t w e ll p r o v id e a m o d e l c a s e f o r th e “ c o e v o lu tio n o f g e n e s a n d c u l t u r e .” Y et t h e r e is n o w a y o f te stin g th is h y p o th e s is , b e it t h r o u g h 3 0 ,0 0 0 o r 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 o r 3 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 y e a rs , t h r o u g h 1 , 0 0 0 , 1 0 , 0 0 0 , 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 g e n e r a t i o n s ; b y scien tific s ta n d a r d s , th e h y p o th e s is lo s e s its p o i n t . W e c a n o n ly v ag u e ly r e c o n s tr u c t th e d e c is iv e c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s . W h ile u n c e rta in tie s m u ltip ly w i t h tim e , th e e v id e n c e e v a p o r a te s . S o c io b io lo g y , in ­ s is tin g as it d o e s o n p re c is e p a r a m e t e r s in m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e ls , c a n n o t fin d a p p r o p r i a t e a p p l ic a tio n s in th e s e r e a lm s . P ro b a b ili­ tie s , se le c tiv e o b s e r v a tio n s , a n d h u n c h e s w ill h a v e t o ta k e its p la c e . W e m a y s till v ie w r e lig io n , p a r a l le l t o la n g u a g e a n d t o a r t a n d m o s tly in c lo s e s y m b io s is w ith th e t w o , a s a lo n g - liv e d h y b rid b e tw e e n th e c u l tu r a l a n d th e b io lo g ic a l t r a d i t i o n s . A n o th e r h y ­ b r id a m o n g a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

universalia m ig h t ill u s tr a te

th e c o m ­

p le x ity o f th e issu e : th e c a s e o f th e in c e s t t a b o o , a s o c ia l r u le th a t im m e d ia te ly c o n c e r n s p r o c r e a t i o n a n d o f t e n a s s u m e s re lig io u s d im e n s io n s . T h a t th e in c e s t t a b o o is p r a c t ic a lly u n iv e r s a l a m o n g h u m a n s o c ie tie s h a s lo n g b e e n r e c o g n iz e d , n o t w i t h o u t a m a z e ­ m e n t. I t h a s b e e n t a k e n t o b e t h e v e ry m a r k o f c u l t u r e .75 I t w a s

Creation of the Sacred

another surprise when proofs accumulated that forms of incest avoidance are not confined to the human species but are common among most higher animals.“'’ The biological advantage is clear in this case, since inbreeding has specific risks and dangers. But how did the biological recommendation enter human conscious­ ness, to be transformed into spontaneous feelings as well as ex­ plicit verbalized rules of cultural institutions? This puzzling ques­ tion has not been solved. Is it that random rules, adopted by chance, took root through their genetic success? But the effect only manifests itself through a long sequence of generations; it is hardly perceptible in individual experience. Norbert Bischof has devoted a painstaking study to this problem.77 He ends up with a metaphor: social rules, if general and persistent, must somehow “fit the landscape.” It is the landscape, formed by age-old geological events, that makes water concentrate into rivers and flow in a preestablished course and sets limits even to the chaotic turbulences of weath­ er.”3 H ow the architect perceives the landscape, or the landscape influences the architect, is still a mystery. Natural religion, that is, basic and common forms of addressing the supernatural, did not develop in a void but through adaptation to a specific “land­ scape,” conditioned by the age-old evolution of human life. If there are certain predilections and attractions as well as fear and revulsion, feelings of needs shaped by biology, this complex may account for the stability of belief and concomitant behavior. To use another metaphor: verbalized culture, transmitted by teaching and learning, may be called the “software” of humanity, easy to copy and to pass on regardless of its complexity. Still, the question is whether this software can be chosen and modified arbitrarily, or whether it remains bound to certain preconditions of the original programming, to patterns and effects left by the “hardware” that generated it. The biological organization of the brain and other cybernetic systems o f living beings existed long before verbalized culture; that it continues to influence our behavior and communication cannot be denied. Aboriginal programs of action, sequences, sen-

Culture in a Landscape

tim e n ts, e x p e c ta tio n s , n o tio n s ,

and values

inherited from the o b v io u s are th e search for o f c o u r s e s e x . E v en mean­ a re

most distant past. S o m e o f th e m o s t food, fear, flight and a g g re s s io n , a n d ings have their prehistory. It is n o to r io u s ly d iffic u lt to c o n stru e semantics from pure logic, but q u ite e a s y t o re c o g n iz e certain re a c tio n s that have adaptive or communicative functions: a leo p ­ a rd , a s n a k e , “fight or flight”— th e s e are meanings w h ic h a n te ­ d a te la n g u a g e by far. T h e c h ic k e n k n o w s th e fly in g h a w k before it h as a n y e x p e rie n c e o f it; th e c o c k k n o w s th e w e a s e l ;79 c e rta in m o n k e y s h a v e d is tin c t sig n s f o r le o p a r d , e a g le , a n d s n a k e .80 T h e p ro c e ss o f

semeiosis,

th e u se o f sig n s a n d s y m b o ls , o p e ra te s

w ith in th e w h o le s p h e re o f liv in g o r g a n is m s a n d w a s ev id en tly in v e n te d lo n g b e fo re th e a d v e n t o f m a n .81 T h is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t g e n e s p r e s c r ib e c u l tu r e — cle a rly , they d o n o t. B u t it c o u ld b e s a id t h a t th e y g iv e r e c o m m e n d a tio n s th a t b e c o m e m a n ife s t in th e r e p e titio n o f lik e p a t t e r n s , “ th e k in d s o f m e m o rie s m o s t e a sily re c a lle d , th e e m o tio n s th e y a r e m o s t likely to e v o k e .” T h e b io lo g ic a l m a k e u p f o rm s p r e c o n d i tio n s o r “ a t­ tr a c to r s ” to p r o d u c e p h e n o m e n a in a c o n s is te n t f a s h io n , ev en if th e se p a tte r n s a re c r e a te d a n d r e c r e a te d a f r e s h in e a c h c a se . Sci­ en tific p r o o f o f s u c h c o n n e c tio n s b y m e a n s o f s ta tis tic s o r e x p e r­ im e n t w ill r e m a in im p o s s ib le ; w h a t c a n b e s h o w n is th e n e a ru n iv e rs a lity a n d p e rs is te n c e o f p a t te r n s t h r o u g h p la c e a n d tim e , a n d th e e x iste n c e o f c e rta in a n a lo g ie s o r e v e n h o m o lo g ie s in s tru c tu re a n d f u n c tio n in a n im a l b e h a v io r .82 T h is s u g g e s ts th a t d e ta ils a n d se q u e n c e s in r itu a ls , ta le s , w o r k s o f a r t , a n d fa n ta sie s h a r k b a c k t o m o re o r ig in a l p ro c e s s e s in th e e v o l u tio n o f life; th e y b e c o m e u n d e r s ta n d a b le n o t in is o la tio n n o r w ith in th e ir d iffe re n t c u ltu ra l c o n te x ts , b u t in r e la tio n t o th is b a c k g r o u n d . T h e s o c io b io lo g ic a l q u e s tio n o f th e s u r v iv a l v a lu e o r m u ltip li­ c a tio n v a lu e o f la n g u a g e , a r t , a n d re lig io n r e m a in s o p e n . I t is p r o b a b ly im p o r ta n t t o re a liz e t h a t w e a r e n o t d e a lin g w ith a o n ed im e n s io n a l p ro c e s s , s o t h a t th e a n s w e r c a n n o t b e ju s t o n e fo r­ m u la . T h e r e is p r o b a b ly a c lu s te r o f f a c to r s in e v o lu tio n a n d a c lu s te r o f fu n c tio n s s e rv e d b y n e w a v e n u e s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n ; fu n c tio n s m a y a ls o b e lo s t o r a lte r e d . N o n e th e le s s c e r ta in p e r-

Creation of the Sacred

siste n t a n d p e r m a n e n t p a t t e r n s e m e rg e a n d even seem to c o n tro l in te ra c tio n s , sin c e all th e s e e v e n ts o c c u r w ith in a u n iq u e la n d ­ scap e to w h ic h th e y a r e a d a p te d . W h a t w e d isc e rn a re th e tra c k s o f b io lo g y f o llo w e d by c u l tu r a l c h o ic e .

To su m u p : th e th e s is o f s o c io b io lo g y in th e s tr o n g sense o f “c o ­ e v o lu tio n o f g e n e s a n d c u l tu r e ” c a n n o t b e verified in th e case o f re lig io n , a s s u c h e v o lu tio n a n te d a te s o b s e rv a b le p e rio d s a n d re ­ m a in s to o c o m p le x t o e s ta b lis h u n e q u iv o c a l re la tio n s b etw e en th e tw o . T h e a b s e n c e o f e v id e n c e is still n o t a license to s e p a ra te c u ltu re fro m

b io lo g y o r re lig io n fro m s u b s tru c tu re s fo rm e d

w ith in th e e v o lu tio n o f life. R e lig io n ’s h y b rid c h a r a c te r — b e­ tw e e n b io lo g y a n d c u l t u r e — c a lls fo r a n in te rd isc ip lin a ry m e e t­ ing o f m e th o d s : d e r iv a tio n s h o u ld g o to g e th e r w ith in te rp r e ta ­ tio n . In th is se n se , a n a n a ly s is o f re lig io u s w o rld s in v iew o f th e u n d e rly in g la n d s c a p e m a y be a tte m p te d .

A Common World: Reduction and Validation In h u m a n h is to ry la n g u a g e h a s b ee n th e decisive p h e n o m e n o n , a n a lo g o u s t o re lig io n a n d re la te d to it. E ver since th e G re ek s, la n g u a g e ,

logos,

h a s b e e n ju d g e d th e c ru c ia l d ifferen ce b e tw e e n

us a n d o th e r sp ecies: m a n is th e “a n im a l e n d o w e d w ith la n ­ g u a g e ,”

zoon logikon.83 T h e

c o u rse o f e v o lu tio n h a s b een o n e o f

g ro w in g su c cess in o b ta in in g a n d p ro c e s sin g in fo rm a tio n , in c o n ­ tin u o u s fe e d b a c k b e tw e e n th e e n v iro n m e n t a n d living o rg a n ­ ism s .84 T h e n e rv o u s sy ste m g av e rise to th e p o ssib ilities o f le a rn ­ ing, th a t is, o f s to r in g in f o rm a tio n a n d m o d ify in g p ro g ra m s in th e c o u rse o f th e in d iv id u a l’s life. “ S o ftw a re ” o f th is k in d , h o w ­ ever, re m a in s in s e p a ra b le fro m th e “h a r d w a r e ” a n d is d estro y e d w ith it. T h e effects o f le a rn in g c a n n o t p e rsist; on ly th e genes p reserv e in f o rm a tio n . T h e cycle o f b irth a n d d e a th c a n be b re a c h e d to so m e e x te n t th r o u g h sh a rin g a n d p assin g o n in fo r­ m a tio n . In c ip ie n t c u ltu ra l tr a d itio n o f th is k in d re m a in e d r u d i­ m en tary , e v e n if th e d is ta n c e fro m a m o e b a to a p e w as im m ense,

Culture in a Landscape

u n til the m o m e n t o u s advent o f language. T h ro u g h ., language in­

stored in­ processed and

f o r m a tio n can n o t only b e acquired, p r o c e s s e d , a n d d iv id u a lly , b u t fu lly t r a n s f e r r e d t o o t h e r s , t o b e r e c a lle d in p a r a lle l e f f o r ts . C o r r e s p o n d i n g

to th e neural functions

of sensation and o f m otion are t w o m ain form s o f verbal in ter­ a c tio n : to state the facts and to co m m an d a c t i o n , which m ean s s h a r in g t h e s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d p a r ta k ­ in g in th e r e s u lts o f i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g o n t h e o th e r . T h ro u g h c o p y in g a n d exchange, program s a n d inform ation, have become

largely

in d e p e n d e n t

from

t h e h a r d w a r e a n d f r o m t h e a c c id e n ts

o f in d iv id u a l d e a t h . Inform ation s u r v iv a l asserts, its e lf s id e b y side w i t h a n d e v e n in s t e a d o f g e n e tic s u r v iv a l. L a n g u a g e d e v e lo p m e n t m e a n s n o t h i n g le ss t h a n t h e a d v e n t o f a c o m m o n m e n ta l w o r l d , a l lo w in g n o t o n ly f o r c o m m o n a c tio n s a n d c o m m o n fe e lin g s b u t for c o m m o n t h o u g h t s a n d plans, c o n ­ c e p ts a n d v a lu e s .

All

h u m a n s h e n c e fo rth , a r e l in k e d t o a n u n in ­

t e r r u p t e d c h a in o f t r a d i t i o n , t a k i n g o v e r t h e m ental worlds o f th e ir e ld e rs , w o r k i n g o n th e m a n d p a s s in g th e m o n . R e lig io n , d e fin e d a t t h e le v e l o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b e lo n g s t o th is m e n ta l w o r l d , a n d b y v ir t u e o f its s e r io u s n e s s i t c la im s p re e m i­ n e n c e . T h e p r o b l e m o f r e lig io n , in c o n s e q u e n c e , m a y b e re s ta te d in th e f o r m o f a q u e s tio n . H o w a n d w h y , w i t h i n t h i s c o m m o n m e n ta l w o r l d s h a p e d b y la n g u a g e t r a d i t i o n , h a v e c e r t a in re a lm s b e e n e s ta b lis h e d f o r w h ic h n o e v id e n c e e x is ts , a n d f o r w h ic h w e c la im d o m in i o n o v e r c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d a c t i o n b y v ir tu e o f se­ r io u s n e s s ? Is th is a b y - p r o d u c t, a d e g e n e r a ti o n , a n “ o p iu m ef­ f e c t,” o r o n th e c o n t r a r y s o m e k i n d o f a

priori c o n d i tio n

fo r a

Durkheimiae c o n c e p t of “«il­ m ig h t ask, w h y d o people a c c e p t

c o m m o n w o r ld ? I f w e a d o p t th e le c ti v e r e p r e s e n ta ti o n s ,” w e

th e m , a n d w h y c e r t a in o n e s a m o n g th e m ?

been v o ic e d r e p e a te d ly t h a t religion is m a in ly tr ic k e r y a n d make-believe p r o d u c e d b y th o s e w h o p ro fit f r o m it. F o rm s o f d e c e it a b o u n d already a t prehuman s ta g e s .*5 A ll th e g r e a te r is th e p o s s ib ility o f verbal deception. In fo r m a tio n c a n b e w ith h e ld o r distorted. T h e u n s e e n in particular can b e th e o b je c t o f m a n ip u la tio n . Among s e v e ra l s p e c ie s of monkeys, for T h e s u s p ic io n h a s

Creation of the Sacred

e x a m p le , a n i n d i v i d u a l d i s t u r b e d b y a n in tr u d e r m a y a v o id c o n ­ f r o n ta tio n b y s t a r i n g i n t o a c o r n e r a n d v o ic in g s o u n d s o f a la r m , as if r e p o r t i n g “ th e r e is a m o n s t e r in th e c o r n e r . ” 86 B u t th is w o u ld be a g r o s s ly in s u f f ic ie n t f o u n d a t i o n f o r th e o rig in o f re lig io n . E v en a m o n g m o n k e y s t h e t r i c k c a n n o t b e r e p e a te d v e ry o fte n w ith o u t b e in g r e c o g n iz e d a n d lo s in g a ll o f its fo rc e . T h e p o i n t is t h a t th e c o m m o n w o r l d o f la n g u a g e c h a r a c te r is ­ tic a lly p r o d u c e s c o n t e n t s b e y o n d a n y im m e d ia te e v id e n c e . C o m ­ m u n ic a tio n w o r k s v ia s ig n s , a n d w h a t th e y re fe r to m u s t b e g u e s s w o rk a t firs t, t o b e c o n f ir m e d b y r e p e titio n , b y c o n te x t, p r e v io u s k n o w le d g e , o r a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a ti o n a n d e x p e rie n c e . S o m e s ig n s w ill r e m a in o p a q u e a n d y e t a r e s to r e d in e x p e c ta tio n o f la te r c la r if ic a tio n . A s le a r n in g ta k e s p re c e d e n c e o v e r e x p e ri­ en c e , a p e r s o n a l e n c o u n t e r w i t h w h a t h a s b e e n le a rn e d a n d k n o w n in a d v a n c e m a y o r m a y n o t fo llo w in th e s p a n o f a life ­ tim e . L a n g u a g e r e fe rs t o o b je c ts f a r a w a y as w e ll as to th e p a s t a n d to th e f u tu r e , s e g m e n ts o f r e a lity in a c c e ssib le to v e rific a ­ t i o n .87 F ic tio n , d r e a m in g , a n d th e w o rk in g s o f im a g in a tio n ev i­ d e n tly h a v e s o m e f u n c tio n fo r th e in d iv id u a l, p r e p a r in g o r r e ­ h e a rs in g h u m a n a c tiv itie s o r h e lp in g w ith so lv in g p ro b le m s w h ile a v o id in g d ir e c t c o n f r o n ta ti o n s . T h o u g h ts o r p la n s c a n b e e x ­ p re sse d o r m a n i p u l a t e d c o lle c tiv e ly th r o u g h sp e e c h . W o rld s b e ­ y o n d e x p e rie n c e , o r a t le a s t s o m e m is ty p ro v in c e s o r b lin d s p o ts , th u s g r o w o u t o f th e p ro c e s s o f lin g u is tic c o m m u n ic a tio n . T h e y m a y b e r e s h a p e d b y m is u n d e r s ta n d in g . T h is e v e n h a p p e n s w ith in re lig io u s t r a d i t i o n , p r o d u c in g s tr a n g e a n d fa s c in a tin g ite m s. E ly ­ siu m , a n a m e f o r a b lis s fu l s p o t in th e b e y o n d , seem s to h a v e e m e rg e d in s u c h a w a y .88 A n a c c u m u la tio n o f p re fo rm e d , v e r­ b a liz e d tr a d it io n s w ill a lw a y s tr a n s c e n d in d iv id u a l e x p e rie n c e . N o b o d y h a s se e n th e p h o e n ix , b u t all k n o w a b o u t h im .89 S u ch a p ro c e s s o f a c c u m u la te d v e rb a l tr a d itio n c a n be a n tic i­ p a te d by r itu a l, w h ic h re fe rs th r o u g h fo rm u la ic a c ts to n o n p r e s ­ e n t p a r tn e r s ,90 a n d is s tro n g ly re in fo rc e d b y a r t. E v er sin ce th e U p p e r P a le o lith ic p e o p le h a v e d r a w n p ic tu re s o f w e ll-k n o w n o b ­ jects, b is o n s , h o rs e s , o r m a m m o th s , as w ell as o f b afflin g , e n ig ­ m a tic ic o n s t h a t d e m a n d sp e c ia l in te r p r e ta tio n . W e a re a t a loss

Culture in a Landscape

iihoiii h o w io u n d e r s ta n d

th e

p a i n t i n g c a lle d " th e so rc e re r* of

th e Trois I τ ο i t s c a v e , o r th o s e c o r p u le n t f e m a le id o ls w h ich

have

been c a lle d V en u s s ta tu e t te s ,'" D o th e y r e p r o d u c e re a lity , o r do they refer to th e s u p e r n a t u r a l , to s o m e ( . r e a t G o d d e s s ? '”· M ost p e o p le to d a y h a v e se e n p ic tu r e s o f a n g e ls , d r a g o n s , o r th e p ho e­

n i x ; it is by w a y o f ill u s tr a ti o n s t h a t w e fo rm o u r id e a s ab o u t d iese c r e a tu r e s , II a h o tly o f s u p e r n a t u r a l e n titie s , c o m m u n ic a b le th r o u g h la n ­ g u a g e a n d p ic tu re s , c o n ie s t o o c c u p y a c e r t a in s p a c e in o u r co m ­ m o n m e n ta l w o r ld , it is s u b je c t t o th e c o n t r o l l i n g fu n c tio n s of re d u c tio n a n d s im p lif ic a tio n . In th e fa c e o f th e c o n s ta n tly g ro w ­ in g a c c u m u la tio n o f d a t a in f iltr a tin g p e r s o n a l e x p e rie n c e , the c o m m o n w o rld m u s t h e s im p lifie d . S h e e r a d d i t i o n o f in d iv id u al k n o w le d g e w o u ld s o o n s u r p a s s th e c a p a c ity o f a n y a v a ila b le sys­ tem fo r r e c o r d in g it, ev en w ith in a s m a ll g r o u p a n d w ith in a few g e n e ra tio n s . T ra d itio n c o n s is ts o f c o n d e n s e d , s y s te m a tiz e d in fo r­ m a tio n . L a n g u a g e c o n tin u a lly o p e r a t e s in th is w a y th r o u g h tw o o f its m a in f u n c tio n s , g e n e r a liz a tio n a n d m e ta p h o r ; th e se are s tra te g ie s to k e e p th e sig n s y s te m fin ite . L o g ic a l f u n c tio n s to o w o rk to t h a t e n d , th r o u g h n e g a tio n , c la s s - in c lu s io n , th e c o n s ti­ tu ti o n o f p a t te r n s a n d a n a lo g ie s . In

The Function of Religion N ik la s

L u h m a n n s ta te d t h a t th e

m a in p ro c e s s o f c r e a tin g se n se in th e in te r a c ti o n s o f a system w ith its e n v ir o n m e n t w a s “ r e d u c t io n o f c o m p le x ity ,” a n d he ta k e s th is to be th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f re lig io n in p a r tic u la r .93 By a p ro c e s s o f r e d u c tio n , re lig io n p r o v id e s o r i e n t a t i o n w ith in a m e a n in g fu l c o s m o s fo r th o s e w h o feel h e lp le s s v is-à -v is infinite c o m p le x ity . C e rta in re lig io u s sy s te m s g o f u r t h e r t h a n o th e rs in th is fu n c tio n . O n e w a y t o e ffe c t a r a d ic a l r e d u c t io n o f c o m p le x ity is to d e v ise a d u a lis tic s y s te m , p o s itin g t w o c o n t a in e r s in w h ich to p la c e a n y n e w p h e n o m e n o n o r e x p e rie n c e . H ie r a r c h ie s a n d lin k s o f c a u s a lity a ls o e ffe c tiv e ly re d u c e c o m p le x ity . A n d th e re is an a v o w e d te n d e n c y in s p e c u la tiv e re lig io n t o r e d u c e re a lity to th e m o s t sim p le a n d g e n e ra l c o n c e p ts : th e O n e C a u s e , th e Sole B ein g , th e O n e .94 It is ea sy t o m a k e f u r th e r s u g g e s tio n s a b o u t w h a t m a k e s reli-

Creation of the Sacred

gion “good to t h i n k ” in a m e n ta l w o r l d .95 L a n g u a g e itself, as a

signifying s y s te m , se e m s t o be in n e e d o f a n “ u ltim a te signifier,” the a b s o lu te , g o d .96 T h is m a y a ls o serv e th e fu n c tio n o f th e a l­ geb raic X to s o lv e th e c o n flic tin g e q u a tio n s o f life. O p p re ssiv e d o m in a tio n , fo r e x a m p le , is e a s ie r to b e a r if th e o p p re s s o r is d o m in a te d in tu r n b y a g o d .97 L ik e w is e , a n in se c u re a n d u n ju s t d is trib u tio n o f g o o d s is b r o u g h t in to b a la n c e b y a tra n s c e n d e n t gift sy s te m .98 A fflic tio n is m a d e b e a ra b le by a n u ltim a te if n o n em p irical a n s w e r t o th e g rie v in g o n e ’s q u e s tio n , “w h y .” T o in tr o ­ duce th e u n s e e n is t o in t e r r u p t th e c lo se d fu n c tio n a l c h a in o f events— w h ic h a ls o m e a n s t h a t re lig io n is n e v e r fu lly in te g ra te d in to an y sy s te m o f s o c ie ty b u t r e ta in s so m e c h a ra c te r o f “ o th e r ­ ness.” Basic c a te g o rie s o f b e in g , o f c a u sa lity , a n d o f g o o d n e s s are reflected in th e tr a d i t i o n a l p re d ic a te s o f g o d s o r g o d as im m o rta l o r tim ele ss, c r e a to r o f th e w o r ld , a n d th e u ltim a te e n d o f h u m a n d e s tin a tio n . E v e n th e s e

a priori c a te g o rie s

h a v e b een lin k e d to

b io lo g ical e v o lu tio n b y th e e v o lu tio n a ry th e o ry o f k n o w le d g e . T hey h av e b e e n d e v e lo p e d in th e m e a su re th a t th e y p ro v e d success­ ful in m a n a g in g a n in c re a s in g ly c o m p re h e n siv e o b je ctiv e w o r l d ." In realm s b e y o n d e x p e rie n c e , th e se c a te g o rie s d ev e lo p w ith u n ­ c o m m o n e a se , a s s is te d b y th e m e n ta l dev ice o f self-referen ce to create a n in fin ite se rie s. T h e u n a tta in a b le e x tre m e , p e rfe c tio n , is fo u n d in th e s u p e r n a tu r a l. In la n g u a g e , th is w ill be e x p re s se d by th e s u p e rla tiv e : g o d is th e first, th e h ig h e st, th e s tro n g e s t, th e ab so lu te.

Θ& In all su c h re fle c tio n s a b o u t th e c o n d itio n s a n d fu n c tio n s o f re ­ ligious c o n c e p ts w ith in a m e n ta l w o rld , v a lid a tio n re m a in s th e crucial p ro b le m . A s R ic h a r d G o r d o n p u t it, h o w is it p o ssib le “to v a lid a te th e e x is te n c e o f a p u re ly im a g in a ry w o r ld ?” 100 T h e m o n k ey tr ic k o f th e m o n s te r in th e c o rn e r c a n n o t be re p e a te d . T h ere is d isb e lie f as w e ll as b elief, d is tru s t as w ell as tru s t, th e re is fo rg e tfu ln e ss to m a tc h th e a c q u is itio n o f n e w in fo rm a tio n ; th ere is m a n ip u la tio n a n d c o u n te r m a n ip u la tio n , c o n c e a lm e n t

Culture in a Landscape

a n d deceit. E ach p e rso n w ill e n d u p w ith a v e ry p e rs o n a l selection th a t fo rm s her o r his m e n ta l w o rld . Is it p o s s ib le to iso late the c o m m o n a n d a u th o rita tiv e e le m e n ts? O r a re th e p o ssib ilities of fan tasy infinite? Yet g o d s a re n o t ju s t a n o t h e r c h im a e r a . 101 H ow to s u b s ta n tia te th e cla im s, p o s tu la te s , a n d th r e a ts o f religion? T h re e m a in a p p ro a c h e s a re u se d to a c c o u n t fo r th e uniquely realistic a p p e a ra n c e o f re lig io u s w o rld s . T h e r e a s o n s fo r accep­ ta n c e , p ersisten c e, a n d p re p o n d e r a n c e o f re lig io n m a y be found eith e r w ith in th e m essag e tr a n s m itte d , o r in th e c irc u m sta n c e s of tra n sm issio n , o r in th e sp e cia l o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e re c ip ie n t. All these p o ssib ilities h a v e b een e x p lo re d a n d d isc u sse d ; th e y m ay w ell be c o m b in e d . T h e m o d e rn a n d s o p h is tic a te d a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n to lo o k for re a so n s o f sta b ility w ith in th e m e ssag e ; th is is th e stru c tu ra list m o d e l .102 It p o s tu la te s t h a t c e rta in c o rre s p o n d e n c e s , e q u a tio n s, a n d re c ip ro c itie s sta b ilize th e m se lv e s in v a rio u s a n d rep eated fo rm s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d th u s give a p o w e rfu l m e a n in g to tra d itio n s w h ic h o p e ra te w ith in a re lig io u s g ro u p . O n e m ight m e ta p h o ric a lly sp e a k o f “re s o n a n c e s ” a c c o m p a n y in g th e m es­ sage— th e w ay a ra d io o r a s im ila r e le c tro n ic d ev ice som etim es creates its o w n p ie rc in g so u n d s. R e in fo rc e m e n t th r o u g h reso­ n an c e w o u ld especially a p p ly to r itu a l, th e c o n c o m ita n t m eans o f religious c o m m u n ic a tio n . S h o u ld w e lo o k a t re lig io n as a form o f reso n a n c e , o f m e n ta l se lf-re p lic a tio n s w ith in a c u ltu ra l sys­ tem — re p lic a tio n s w h ic h , fu n c tio n a l o r d y s fu n c tio n a l, arise and preserv e them selves th ro u g h th e ir o w n s tr u c tu re to fo rm p a r t of c u ltu re ?103 T h is w o u ld m e a n a b a n d o n in g a tte m p ts a t m ak in g sense. W ith in th e p ro cess o f re lig io u s tra n s m is s io n , a stric tly biolog­ ical h y p o th e sis w o u ld assu m e t h a t so m e fo rm o f “im p rin tin g ” h ap p e n s. B iological im p rin tin g is re s tric te d to c e rta in c o n d itio n s, to special fu n c tio n s, tim es, a n d s itu a tio n s ; in o th e r w o rd s , it is to ta lly d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e “ la n d s c a p e ” o f a w e ll-p ro g ra m m e d species; it h as u n c h a n g e a b le c o n se q u e n c e s. A n e w b o rn d u ck lin g , a fte r leaving its egg, ta k e s fo r its p a r e n t w h a te v e r c re a tu re m akes th e first c o n ta c t; la te r e x p e rie n c e c a n n o t c h a n g e th is.

Creation of the Sacred

In humans to o th e b ra in is quite pliable iri the earlier phases, and c e rta m p h e n o m e n a c o m e a t least close to imprinting. C h ild ­ hood experiences play a decisive role for the development o f the p erso n ality , in c lu d in g se x u a l m a tu rity , political a ttitu d e s ,r,< and religious propensities. Strong formative forces radiate from the m o th e r a n d th e fa th e r a lik e; “ p h e n o ty p ic a l c lo n in g ” is a catch­ w o rd th a t h a s b een c o in e d in this context. No dependable au­ tomatism h as been detected, however, comparable to that of the d u ck lin g . O n th e c o n tra ry , strik in g a n d d ra stic failures o f peda­ gogic a tte m p ts to fix re lig io u s attitudes in children abound. Finally, in e x a m in in g rece p tiv ity to relig io u s m essages, it w o u ld be easy, p r o b a b ly to o easy, to p o s tu la te th a t a rc h e ty p a l im ages of re lig io u s e n titie s, o f g o d o r g o d s, are p re se n t in the h u m a n m a k e u p a n d can be a c tiv a te d by a p p ro p ria te stim u li w ith indelible resu lts. T h is w o u ld be eq u iv a le n t to “in n a te release m e ch a n ism s” as d isc u sse d in biology , 105 a n o th e r fo rm o f p re d e ­ te rm in ed p ro g ra m m in g , like th a t o f im p rin tin g . It m ean s th a t fixed a c tio n p a tte rn s are a c tiv a te d th ro u g h specific c o m b in a tio n s o f stim u li, w ith o u t re g a rd fo r in d iv id u a l accid en ts. T his to o re­ sists v erifica tio n . T h e o b se rv a b le fo rm s o f relig io u s tra n sm issio n are le arn in g processes effected th ro u g h ritu a l a n d language. T h e m o st salien t features in th is p ro c e ss are re p e titio n plus m o re o r less h arsh form s o f in tim id a tio n . R e p e titio n is a m a jo r fa c to r in le arn in g , an d it is critic a l in ritu a l. T h e re is n o tran sm issio n o f religion w ith o u t ritu a l. A p rim a ry fu n c tio n of ritu a l is to in itiate th e young in to th e c u sto m s o f th e ir elders— th e very ep ito m e o f c u l­ tural le arn in g , w h ic h relies u p o n m em o ry . 106 In th e sam e sp irit, it is for th e sak e o f th e w h o le c o m m u n ity th a t “collective re p re ­ se n ta tio n s” are in c u lca ted by cerem onies rep eated at reg u lar in ­ terv als . 107 C e le b ra tio n s o f festivals have becom e cen tral m an ifes­ tatio n s o f relig io n . P eople p erfo rm prescribed acts, learning th a t these have alw ay s been d o n e in th a t w ay; in this c o n te x t, they are also to ld th e ir collective lore, th e ir m y th s . 108 T w o sign sys­ tem s, ritu al a n d la n g u ag e, com e to g e th e r to reinforce each other, to fo rm th e m e n tal stru c tu re s th a t d eterm in e th e categories an d

Culture in a Landscape

rhe ru le s of life. The m ost effective d e m e n t s are dance a n d song, in which repetitive rhythm s and sounds com bine to c r e a te the great collective experience. A m ajor force in this process is p a t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y . A ll hig h er

animals are program m ed t o le a r n f r o m t h e i r e ld e r s . In h u m a n society th e role of th e f a t h e r h a s b e e n e s p e c ia lly m a g n ifie d . An intense father-son r e l a t i o n s h i p is t h e v e h ic le o f m a n y c u ltu ra l traditions. R e lig io n s u s e d t o s tr e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p a re n ts while p r e s e n tin g g o d o r g o d s a s s u p e r f a t h e r o r m o th e r , a n d p a r ­ e n ts d id n o t fa il t o u s e t h a t o p p o r t u n i t y t o e n h a n c e th e i r o w n p r e s tig e . 109 W h e n c h i ld r e n s a w h o w t h e i r p a r e n t s d e a l w ith go d s “ in s u p r e m e s e rio u s n e s s o n b e h a l f o f th e m s e lv e s a n d th e ir o ff­ s p r in g ,” w r o t e P la to , h o w c o u l d th e y v e n t u r e t o d e s p is e re li­ g i o n ?110 In s u c h a tw o - w a y

p ro cess, a u th o rity

is sta b iliz e d

t h r o u g h r e lig io n a n d r e lig io n t h r o u g h a u t h o r i t y . S o m e s p e c ia l f o r m s o f le a r n in g a r e m a d e in d e lib le “ a t a s t r o k e ,” w i t h o u t r e p e t i t i o n , u s u a lly in s i t u a t i o n s o f u tm o s t e x ­ c ite m e n t. E v e ry in d iv id u a l w ill h a v e u n f o r g e t t a b l e m e m o rie s o f th is k in d , e s p e c ia lly o f a p a in f u l o r h u m i l i a t i n g c h a r a c te r . F o rm s o f “ a n x ie ty le a r n in g ” h a v e b e e n s tu d i e d in a n i m a l s . O b s e rv e rs f o u n d s p e c ia l n e u r o n a l p r o c e s s in g a n d m e m o r y f o r a n x ie ty a r o u s in g e v e n ts ;111 th e r e s u ltin g b e h a v io r s e e m s c lo s e t o s u p e r­ s ti tio n . 112 T e a c h in g b y t h r e a t a n d m a l t r e a t m e n t is c u s to m a r y in m a n y c iv iliz a tio n s w i t h o u t q u a lm s . E x o tic i n i t i a t i o n c e re m o n ie s c o m e to m i n d ;113 s o m e E u r o p e a n c o m m u n iti e s u s e d t o te a c h y o u n g s te rs th e p la c e o f b o u n d a r y s to n e s b y b o x in g a n d flo g g in g th e m a t th e s p o t . 114 O n e d r a s ti c w a y t o c r e a te a n u n f o r g e tta b le a n d u n b r e a k a b le b o n d is t o c o m m it a c o m m o n c r im e , u s in g a g ­ g re s s io n t o o v e r c o m e a n x ie ty . 115 A s p e c ia l t h i n g t o d o in m a n ip ­ u la tin g a n x ie ty is t o h a n d le b l o o d , w h ic h is r e q u ir e d in m a n y f o rm s o f sa c rific e a n d p u r if ic a tio n . T e r r o r d o e s n o t d e v e lo p r a ­ tio n a l a b ilitie s , b u t it le a v e s its m a r k s . T h u s w e a p p r o a c h th e “ s e rio u s n e s s ” o f re lig io n f r o m th e e x p e r ie n c e o f fear. T h e r e is n o d e n y in g t h a t a n x i e ty is o f te n e v o k e d t o v a lid a te re lig io u s m e s s a g e s , a n d t h a t it h a s its r e p e r c u s s io n s u p o n th e s u b s ta n c e o f re lig io n . T o t r a n s m i t r e lig io n is t o t r a n s m i t fear.

Creation of the Sacred

“Fear, first o f a ll, p r o d u c e d g o d s in th e w o r l d ,”

deos fecit timor,

primus in orbe

S ta tiu s w r o t e . W h ile th is is a c ritic is m fro m his

s ta n d p o in t, w h ic h is t h a t o f a n c ie n t p h ilo s o p h ic a l e n lig h te n ­ m en t, Ufi it s h a re s th e s e lf - in te r p r e ta tio n o f m a n y re lig io n s. T h e m ain w o r d to c h a r a c te r iz e g o d s a n d re lig io n in A k k a d ia n is

luhtu, fear.

pu-

A n A s s y r ia n k in g , in a ll h is a r r o g a n c e , w ill p ro c la im

h im self th e o n e “ w h o s tr o n g ly k n o w s th e fe a r o f th e g o d s a n d g o d d esses o f h e a v e n a n d e a r t h . ” 117 F o r “ th e fe a r o f g o d s c re a te s k in d n e ss , ” 118 o r, a s S o lo m o n p u t it in o n e o f h is m o s t q u o te d sayings, u s in g th e H e b r e w v a r ia n t o f th e sa m e S em itic w o rd : “T h e fe a r o f g o d is th e b e g in n in g o f w is d o m . ” 119 T h e e q u iv a le n t G reek e x p r e s s io n ,

theoudes,

g o d -fe a rin g , o c c u rs as a m a rk o f

m o ral d is tin c tio n in H o m e r . “T h e d iv in e is fe a r fo r p r u d e n t m o r ­ ta ls .” 120 A n o th e r G re e k w o r d c o m m o n ly a s s o c ia te d w ith re li­ gious rite s is

phrike,

h a ir - r a is in g sh u d d e r. M o d e rn s c a m e b a c k

to th e s u g g e s tio n t h a t a w e w a s th e b a sic re lig io u s feelin g ;121 R u ­ d o lf O tto s u b s titu te d a n e o - L a tin te rm ,

mysterium tremendum,

sh iv ering m y s te ry . 122 S h u d d e rs o f a w e a re c e n tra l fo r th e e x p e ­ rience o f th e s a c re d . T h e v e ry m e a n s o f in d e lib le tra n s m is s io n , th re a t a n d te rr o r, a r e c o r r e la te d w ith th e c o n te n ts o f th e relig io u s p a rt o f th e m e n ta l w o r ld : th e p re ro g a tiv e o f th e sa c re d re q u ire s th e fe a r o f g o d . Yet a n x ie ty , fear, a n d t e r r o r a r e n o t ju s t fre e -flo a tin g e m o tio n s b ro u g h t o n b y p s y c h o lo g ic a l fa n ta sy . T h e y h a v e c le a r b io lo g ical fu n ctio n s in p r o te c tin g life. S e rio u sn e ss m e a n s g iv in g p rio rity to certain v ita lly i m p o r t a n t p r o g r a m s .123 T h e u tm o s t se rio u sn e ss o f religion is lin k e d to th e g r e a t o v e rrid in g fe a r o f d e a th . T h e v alu e of relig io n , m a n ife s t in th e fo rm s o f re lig io n ’s c u ltu ra l tra n s m is ­ sion a n d in th e in s id e r s ’ c o n fe s s io n s , is t h a t it d ea ls w ith th e “u ltim a te c o n c e r n ” a n d th u s fits th e b io lo g ic a l la n d sc a p e . T h e d ram a o f re lig io n ’s in te r a c tio n w ith th e u n se en by m a n ip u la tin g an d d isp la c in g a n x ie ty ta k e s p la c e w ith d e a th as th e b a c k d ro p . M a n k n o w s a b o u t d e a th , a n d t h a t d e a th c a n n o t be a b o lish e d , b u t th is k n o w le d g e d e v e lo p s in a p e c u lia r w ay. P e rso n a l d e a th is a reality b e y o n d im a g in a tio n , a n x , a n u n k n o w n , inaccessible to ex p erience; th e e x p e rie n c e o f o th e r p e o p le ’s d e a th s , how ever,

Culture in a Landscape

prom pts im a g in a tiv e dealings w i t h the u n k n o w n w i t h i n t h e c o m ­ m o n m ental w orld, w i t h displacem ent, d is c la i m e r s , s h if tin g su b ­ s ti tu te s . and c o n t i n u i n g in d e lib le shock, assuaged o r re k in d le d in turn. Anxiety w a s b o u n d t o m u l t i p l y a t t h e h u m a n level, th e l e i d o f a c o n s c io u s representation of the world b o th near and fag erf past and future. We may wonder h o w herds of African zebras and gnus are able to graze in the presence o f lions. The Eons w ill attack a t some point, b u t only a t t h e m o m en t of im m ediate dan­ ger d o e s an anim al take flig h t; the o th ers save th eir e n e rg y and go on., grazing, and before long s o will the anim al th a t escaped the p re d ato r th is tim e— w h a t else can they do? But h u m a n s , as they consciously seek to control their environm ent, s to r in g rec­ ollections and anticipating the future, cannot forget t h e presence o f lingering lions. They can try to attack and to k i l l the p r e d a to r s in tu rn : they m ay succeed in creating a p e a c e a b le environment: t h i s is one r e a s o n w h y m a n y prim itive c u l t u r e s e n j o y th e sy m ­ bols o f killing.524 Y e t m a n w ill fa il in h is a t t e m p t s t o r e m o v e all anxiety-arousing d a n g e r s f r o m t h e w o r l d , e s p e c ia lly a s h is v io ­ le n c e m e e ts

with

th e

violence

o f o t h e r m e n . 125 D e a t h re m a in s -th e

constant. To shield m e n t a l life f r o m d e s p a i r and d e p r e s s io n , which a re factually lethal, t h e r e m u s t be c o u n t e r f o r c e s , o p t i m i s m , faith, o r “opium .” This may be t h e final n e c e s s ity f o r s h a r i n g fictitious worlds w h ic h employ s e r io u s n e s s , n a y t e r r o r , to c o u n t e r w o rld ly fears b y f e a r in a h i e r a r c h y t h a t r e a c h e s tow ard t h e absolute. “ T h e highest f e a r is t h e f e a r of g o d ,” Aeschylus s t a t e d , 126 a n d he w a s n o t alone in offering t h is m e s s a g e . “The f e a r o f g o d drives o u t th e f e a r o f m e n . ” 127 A s r e lig io u s r e a l i t y c la im s p re c e d e n c e o v e r m u n d a n e r e a lity , f r ig h t f u l d e a lin g s w i t h d e a t h a n d

killing

g a i n o v e r w h e lm in g i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e f o r m o f f u n e r a r y a n d sa c­ rific ia l r i t u a l s . 12* T h is a p p a r e n t l y n e g a tiv e p r e o c c u p a t i o n o f r e lig i o n is ju s t a

foil

f o r w h a t is r e a lly a t

stake.

A r e s o u n d i n g v o ic e in t h e self-

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m o s t r e lig i o n s , d iv e r s e a s th e y m a y b e in o th e r r e s p e c ts , is t h e

longing

Creation o f the Sacred

f o r lif e . 129 “ G iv e u s life , life , life ” is th e

refrain of an Atm an liar vest r i t u a l , Ahum, kev word of the Zorousfnan religion, means lord of life. Egyptian grids c irrv the sign ot i V t k h , life, in their hands, Greeks were keen to find the meaning of life, :cfh in the name of their ruling god Zeus, The 1 IVmg 1 »od is a basic concept in the Old and even more in the New Testament.1” “1 am alive, and you will live," is Jesus’ final message to his apostles."'’ (»ods graut lite, gods protect life, gist as their wrath can destroy life. The impetus of biological survival appears internalized in the codes of religion. Following this im­ petus, there is the postulate of immortality or eternal life, the most powerful idea of many religions.1n Even self-sacrifice is for the sake of eternal life. The negation of death presupposes the fact ot death. The idea of the supernatural emerges within the landscape of nature. Religion’s seriousness, so manifest in our feelings, reflects the hard rocks of the biological landscape, the dangers, limits, and the drive for the preservation of life. Religion keeps to the tracks of biology. Some extremists may happen to get off the tracks, but they will disappear unless the)· somehow make their way back. Life's achievement is self-replication, self-regulation, and ho­ meostasis. Hence the gods are the most persistent guarantors of order, the forceful regulators. Life needs seclusion for its own protection, building up cells to separate what is inside from the outside; the religious worldview usually adopts some privileged center to keep in touch with the divine despite chaotic or dia­ bolical surroundings. If reality appears dangerous or downright hostile to life, religion calls for something beyond experience to restore the balance. Catastrophes do happen; but in the wide­ spread myths of the flood the endings always tel! of the survivors preparing to offer sacrifice." 4 Religion ts basically optimistic.

Oêltun in a landscape

2 Θ&

Escape and Offerings

Finger Sacrifice A fe w y e a rs a g o a c o lle a g u e o f m in e w a s t r a v e l i n g in A fric a by b o a t a n d r a n in to a s to r m t h a t s e e m e d t o g r o w d a n g e r o u s . S ud­ d e n ly a fe llo w p a s s e n g e r, a p o lit ic i a n o f s o m e r a n k in t h a t c o u n ­ try , b e g a n t h r o w in g d o lla r b ills i n t o t h e r a g i n g w a t e r s . 1 W h ile w e m a y s h a re m y c o lle a g u e ’s a s t o n i s h m e n t , t h e v e r y m e ta p h o r o f “ ra g in g w a t e r s ” s h o w s h o w e a s ily w e le t o u r s e lv e s slip in to p e rs o n if y in g th e n a t u r a l fo rc e s . S im ila r a s to n is h m e n t, a n d p la in r id ic u le o f s u c h b e h a v io r can b e f o u n d in s o m e a n c ie n t s o u r c e s , a t le a s t a m o n g th e p h ilo s o ­ p h e rs . S e n e c a , in h is

Naturales Quaestiones, w r ite s :

I d o n o t h o ld m y se lf b a c k f ro m re v e a lin g a ll th e a b s u rd itie s o f o u r p e o p le . T h e y sa y c e rta in p e rs o n s a re e x p e rie n c e d in o b ­ serv in g c lo u d s a n d c a p a b le o f fo re te llin g w h e n th e re w ill be h ail. . . . I t’s re a lly im p o s sib le . A t K le o n a i th e r e w e re official “h a il-w a tc h e rs ”

(chalazopbylakes), w a tc h in g

f o r h a il to com e.

If th e y sa id t h a t h a il w a s c o m in g , w h a t d o y o u t h in k th e p eo p le did? E ac h p e rs o n w o u ld sa crifice in d iv id u a lly : o n e a la m b , th e o th e r a c h ic k e n ; a t o n c e th o s e c lo u d s m o v e d a w a y to so m e o th e r p la c e , w h e n th e y h a d s a v o re d so m e b lo o d . Y o u laugh? L iste n to w h a t w ill m a k e y o u la u g h e v e n m o re . If a m a n h a d n e ith e r la m b n o r c h ic k e n , h e sa c rific e d w h a t h e c o u ld affo rd : h e la id h a n d s o n h im se lf— b u t d o n ’t th in k c lo u d s a r e g lu tto n o u s

or cruel. He punched his finger with a very sharply pointed pen, and with this blood he performed his auspicious sacrifice; and the had turned nwav from his piece of land as well as from places where they had been implored with greater sacrifices..·'

Seneca a d d s t h a t th e h a i l - g u a r d i a n s w e r e s u e d a n d p u n i s h e d if they faile d to a v e r t d is a s te r f r o m v in e y a r d s a n d c o r n f ie ld s .

The rationalist laughs a t this r e s p o n s e to p a n ic because it shows no o b v io u s link between m e a n s and ends, especially in th e face o f natural forces. The reaction o f panic is to give up v a lu ­ ables, to k ill o n e ’s o w n a n i m a l s , t o in flic t wounds o n o n e s e lf. Seneca d o e s n o t h e s ita t e t o s p e a k o f s a c r e d a c t i o n s , s a c rific e

crificareh At

(sa­

K le o n a i th is w a s a w e ll- e s ta b lis h e d , i n s t i t u t i o n a l ­

ized religious ritual. S o m e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n t e x t a n d background may lie present even in th e A fric a n e x a m p le . T o w a rd th e m id d le o f t h e s e c o n d c e n tu r y a . d . , a t th e d e lig h tf u l site o f th e A s c le p iu s s a n c tu a ry ' a t P e r g a m o n , a r ic h h y p o c h o n ­ d ria c s p e n t m o re t h a n te n y e a rs o f h is life. H is n a m e w a s A e liu s

Aristeides.3 H e h a d b e e n t r a i n e d in o r a t o r y a n d b e c a m e a very successful orator in h is la te r life; h is w o r k s h a v e s u r v iv e d . Aelius A risteides a p p a r e n tly h a d s u f fe re d s o m e s o r t of psychosom atic b re a k d o w n w h e n h e w a s a b o u t t o s t a r t h is c a re e r. H e le ft h is w ork a n d re tire d t o P e r g a m o n t o ta k e e n d le s s c u r e s w ith A sc le -

pius, th e g o d o f h e a lin g . H e firm ly b e lie v e d t h a t the g o d himself would tell him, in dreams, how to p r o c e e d in order t o save h is life a n d to regain h is h e a lth . Anxiously w atching f o r r e v e la tio n s , he k e p t a d ia ry a b o u t h is e x p e rie n c e s , w a v e r in g between petty in d ig e stio n s, d e e p d e p r e s s io n , a n d m e g a lo m a n ia — “ y o u a r e th e best p ro fe s s o r in th e w o r l d ,” h is d r e a m o n c e to ld h im . W h e n h e

felt better, he elaborated speeches in honor of A s c le p iu s ; these speeches a re preserved. O n e in c id e n t h e re c a lls is o f s p e c ia l in te re s t. T h e g o d visited h im in a d r e a m a n d in f o rm e d h im h e w a s t o d ie w ith in th r e e day*. T h ii w a s d e te r m in e d , th e g o d s a id , a n d sig n s a n d e v e n ts o f

following day indicated that the god did not speak in v a in . Yet A sc le p ie s was b e n ig n , t o he showed A ris te id e s how it w a s

th e

Usmpe m d 1Offerings

possible to av oid necessity through rim ai — a sacrificial r itu a l in w hich religion is seen to function as a defense against lif e - th r e a t­ ening ca ta stro p h e. T h is w as the ritual prescribed: A risreide* w ould have to cross the river an d to otter sacrifice on the other si.de in pits ihothroi to unnam ed gods: coming back, while cross-'

ing that river, he would have to throw small coins all a r o a n d , not caring where they fell or w ho picked them up: finally, back in the sanctuary, he had to perform a full sacrifice at the Asclepius temple, which means slaughtering a sheep and inviting priests and friends for the feast; but in addition, he w ould have “to cut a piece of his b o d y for the sake o f saving the w hole.” A painful choice, no doubt. Upon second thought, however, the god p ro v e d to b e even more benign. This procedure w as too “laborious,” he said, and he allowed Aristeides to dedicate the finger ring he was wearing instead. The sick m an then presented his ring to T e k s phoros, venerated at this sanctuary of Asklepios, in the guise o f a child in a hood .4 A r i s t e i d e s ’ a c c o u n t , preserved a s a r h e t o r i c a l text from the h ig h point o f Graeco-Roman culture, is at the sam e time a private a n d q u i t e a primitive document o f religious practice. It shows in a n e x e m p l a r y w a y h o w t h e performance o f ritual grows out of a n x i e t y a n d is d e s ig n e d t o c o n t r o l i t . We m a y a s s u m e that the p e r s o n n e l o f t h e A s c le p iu s s a n c t u a r y , p r i e s t s a n d seers, were help­ f u l in i n t e r p r e t i n g A r i s te i d e s ’ d r e a m s a n d e n s u r i n g t h a t th e sac­ rific e s k e p t t o t h e t r a c k o f p r o p e r r i t u a l ; p r i v a t e id e a s a r e im­ m e d ia t e ly e n g u lf e d b y t h e s t r e a m s o f t r a d i t i o n . T h e s e q u e n c e o f s u c h r i t u a l s is e a s y t o f o llo w . F ir s t, t h e

ticipant d e a ls

par­

w i t h t h e p o w e r s o f d e a t h a n d t h e n e t h e r w o r l d ; th e n

h e c r o s s e s th e b o u n d a r y w h ile t h r o w i n g a w a y m o n e y — re m e m ­ b e r t h e A f r ic a n e x a m p l e — a n d fin a lly , h e a c h ie v e s in te g r a tio n w ith a g r o u p o f c e l e b r a n t s a t t h e g o d ’s s a n c t u a r y . T h e d e d ic a tio n o f a v a l u a b l e o b j e c t , a p r a c t i c e c o m m o n in a ll t h e s a n c tu a r ie s in t h e a n c i e n t a s w e ll a s in t h e m o d e r n w o r l d , c a n b e in te r p r e t e d a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r o n e ’s o w n s e lf,

pars pro toto.

S o m e p a r t w o u ld

h a v e t o b e s a c r ific e d t o s a v e t h e w h o le . W e p r o b a b l y s h o u ld n o t g e n e r a liz e a n d a s s u m e t h a t t h e s a m e i d e a w a s b e h i n d e v e ry fin g e r

Creation o f the Sacred

rin g a n d v o tiv e o b je c t c o m m o n ly f o u n d in s a n c tu a r ie s , but we m u s t b e s e n s itiv e t o th e s u p p o s itio n t h a t s o m e s to r y o f anxiety a n d h o p e is e x p r e s s e d b y e a c h o f th e s e o b je c ts d e d ic a te d to a g o d .5 A ris te id e s e x p r e s s ly m a k e s h is d e d ic a tio n a s u b s titu te , a k in d o f r a n s o m f r o m th e t h r e a t o f d e a th . T h e c o in s strewn a r o u n d a t th e r iv e r e v id e n tly s e rv e a s im ila r f u n c tio n : a r a n s o m in c a s h , a m a n a g e a b le lo s s in o r d e r t o g a in s a lv a tio n . T h e p a r t o f th e b o d y f o r w h ic h th e g o d a c c e p te d th e rin g as s u b s titu te c le a rly w o u ld h a v e b e e n th e fin g e r itself. T h is p u ts A riste id e s’ p r iv a te d r e a m a n d p io u s a c tio n in to a v a s t c o n te x t o f m y th a n d r itu a l. D r e a m s t o o a re c u ltu r a lly c o n d itio n e d — th o u g h A sc le p iu s’ p r ie s ts m a y a c tu a lly h a v e m a d e d ir e c t s u g g e s tio n s . F in g e r sa c rific e is r e c o r d e d n o t o n ly a t K le o n a i; it is a k n o w n p ra c tic e in m a n y p a r ts o f th e w o rld . N e a r M e g a lo p o lis in A rc a d ia , P a u s a n ia s re c o rd s , th e re w a s a s a n c tu a ry o f th e F u rie s ,

Maniai,

w ith a sm a ll m o u n d n e a rb y

ca lle d th e F in g e r M e m o r ia l (D a k ty lo u M n e m a ) e x h ib itin g a fin ­ ger m a d e o f s to n e ; a p la c e c a lle d IT ealings (A ke) w a s n e a rb y . T h e sto ry g o es t h a t O re s te s , h a v in g k ille d his m o th e r, w a s d riv e n m a d by th e F u rie s ju s t th e r e , u n til h e b it o ff o n e o f h is fin g ers. W h e n he h a d d o n e th is , th e b la c k F u rie s tu r n e d w h ite , O re s te s re g a in e d his sen ses, a n d h e p e r f o r m e d tw o ty p e s o f sacrifice a t th e s p o t to b o th th e b la c k F u rie s a n d th e w h ite o n e s. T h is r itu a l w a s p r o b ­ ab ly still p e r f o rm e d a t th e s a n c tu a ry d u rin g P a u s a n ia s ’ life tim e .6 P u rsu in g d e m o n s a re p a c ifie d b y th e a c t o f se v e rin g a fin g e r fro m th e b o d y ; th e p a r tia l lo ss is to sav e th e w h o le m a n . T h is w a s th e a e tio lo g y o f a c u lt o f

Maniai in

A rc a d ia o f w h ic h f u rth e r d e ta ils

are n o t k n o w n ; p o s s ib ly it w a s a h e a lin g c u lt, as th e p la c e n a m e A ke in d ic a te s . T h e fu ry t h a t b efell O re s te s c a n be seen as a k in d o f illn ess, c u re d b y th is s p e c ia l fo rm o f sacrifice. T h is b rin g s O re s ­ tes even c lo s e r to A riste id e s. F in g er sa crifice is a ls o a c o m m o n m o tif in fo lk ta le a n d fa iry ­ ta le , w ith v a r ia tio n s in c lu d in g th e fa n ta s tic , th e g ro te s q u e , a n d th e h u m o ro u s . T a k e f o r e x a m p le so m e m e d ie v a l v e rsio n s o f th e C y clo p s sto ry , th e ta le a b o u t th e o n e -e y e d o g re b lin d e d by th e c u n n in g h e ro . T h e o ld e s t t e x t is a c o lle c tio n o f ta le s e n title d

Do-

Escape and Offerings

lapathus,

by I o h a n n e s d e A lb a S ilv a , w r i t t e n a b o u t 1 2 0 0 a . d .7

T h e fin a l a n d m o s t th r ill in g e p is o d e o f th e s to r y is th e escape fro m th e b lin d e d m o n s te r . In th e

Odyssey

P o ly p h e m u s m a k es a

w e a k a t te m p t to lu re O d y s s e u s b y o f f e r in g g ifts . In th e m edieval v e rs io n s th e o g re a c tu a lly t h r o w s a fin g e r r in g , a g o ld e n rin g in o u r te x t, w h ic h th e h e r o e a g e r ly g r a s p s ; b u t a s s o o n a s he has p u t th e r in g o n h is fin g e r h e is f o r c e d t o s c r e a m — in o th e r versions it is th e r in g its e lf t h a t s c r e a m s — “ h e r e I a m , h e r e I a m ,”

ego! ecce ego! A n d

ecce

i t p r o v e s im p o s s ib le t o s t r i p t h e r in g o ff the

fin g e r a g a in . T h e h e r o th u s h a s t o m a k e h is fin a l h e r o ic decision: h e b ite s o f f h is o w n fin g e r a n d t h r o w s it t o w a r d t h e g ia n t. Some v e rs io n s a llo w h im a k n if e ; a t a n y r a t e h e e s c a p e s , b le e d in g b u t v ic to rio u s . S a lv a tio n h a s t o b e b o u g h t b y m e a n s o f a sm a ll yet s e rio u s a n d ir r e p la c e a b le lo s s , u n f lin c h in g s e p a r a t i o n fro m w h a t is t r e a c h e r o u s a n d d a n g e r o u s . “ B y th e lo s s o f a m e m b e r I saved th e w h o le b o d y f r o m im m in e n t d e a t h , ” j u s t a s A ris te id e s h a d b e e n t o l d “ t o c u t a p ie c e o f h is b o d y f o r t h e s a k e o f sa v in g th e w h o l e .” A s e n s ib le c h o ic e in d e e d . W h a t m a k e s th e m o t i f o f fin g e r s a c rific e m o r e s e rio u s is th a t it is a c tu a lly p r a c tic e d . A s J a m e s G e o r g e F r a z e r o b s e r v e d :8 “In T o n g a o n th e F r ie n d ly I s la n d s it w a s c o m m o n p r a c t ic e t o c u t off a fin g e r o r p o r t i o n o f o n e a s a s a c rific e t o t h e g o d s f o r th e re ­ c o v e ry o f a s u p e r io r r e la tiv e w h o w a s s ic k ” ; e a rlie r. C a p ta in C o o k r e p o r t e d th e s a m e th in g : “ T h e y s u p p o s e t h a t th e D ev il w ill a c c e p t th e little fin g e r a s a s o r t o f s a c rific e e ffic a c io u s e n o u g h to p r o c u r e th e re c o v e ry o f th e i r h e a l t h .” L ik e w is e , “ H o tte n to t w o m e n a n d B u s h w o m e n c u t o f f a j o i n t o f a c h i l d ’s finger, espe­ c ia lly if a p r e v io u s c h ild h a s d ie d . T h e s a c rific e o f th e fin g e r jo in t is s u p p o s e d t o sa v e th e s e c o n d c h i ld ’s life . . . . S o m e S o u th A fri­ c a n tr ib e s b e lie v e t h a t t o c u t o f f t h e j o i n t o f a s ic k m a n ’s finger is a c u r e .” “ A m o n g th e B la c k fe e t, in tim e s o f g r e a t p u b lic o r p r iv a te n e c e ss ity , a w a r r i o r c u ts o f f a fin g e r o f h is le ft h a n d a n d o ffe rs it t o th e M o r n i n g S ta r a t its r is in g .” I n I n d i a a w o m a n w h o “ h a s b o r n e s o m e c h ild r e n , te r r if ie d le s t t h a t t h e a n g r y d eity s h o u ld d e p r iv e h e r o f h e r i n f a n t s , . . . g o e s t o t h e te m p le , a n d as a n o ffe rin g t o a p p e a s e h is w r a t h , c u ts o f f o n e o r t w o fin g e rs o f

Creation of the Sacred

th e r ig h t h a n d .” S o m e w o u ld d o so re p e a te d ly , b e c o m in g m o re a n d m o re se rio u s ly h a n d ic a p p e d ; in d e e d , th e c o lo n ia l g o v e rn ­ m e n t o f In d ia trie d to f o rb id th e c u s to m a t th e b e g in n in g o f th is ce n tu ry . A n in te re s tin g v a r ia n t is r e p o r te d fro m th e Fiji isla n d s: “ a fin g er w a s s o m e tim e s c u t o ff a n d p re s e n te d to an o ffe n d e d s u p e rio r to a p p e a s e h is w r a t h . ” 9 W o rld w id e , it se e m s, in s itu a tio n s o f d istre ss a n d illness o r even in a n tic ip a tio n o f d isa ste r, p e o p le w o u ld c u t o ff a finger o r p a r t o f a finger. T h e e x a m p le s c o m e fro m q u ite d iffe re n t c iv iliz a tio n s, fro m A m e ric a , A fric a , In d ia , O c e a n ia ; a n d a n c ie n t G re e k tr a d i­ tio n ties in as w e ll. E m p h a s e s a n d e la b o ra tio n s v a ry a c c o rd in g to th e re sp e c tiv e c u ltu r a l c o n d itio n s . N a tiv e A m e ric a n s h av e th e M o r n in g S tar, w h ile in In d ia th e re is th e in te rm e d ia ry te m p le a n d its p rie s ts , o f c o u rs e , to give g u id a n c e a n d in te rp re ta tio n . In all cases, th o u g h , th e a c tio n is n o t d o n e s p o n ta n e o u s ly b u t a c c o rd ­ in g to so m e a lre a d y e s ta b lis h e d tra d itio n . Yet th e p ra c tic e is s u r ­ p risin g ly u n if o rm , w ith o u t d ire c t c u ltu ra l c o n ta c ts: A risteid es w o u ld n o t h a v e k n o w n a b o u t O re ste s in A rc a d ia . T h e p ra c tic e is sim p ly fe lt to m a k e sense. S a lv a tio n ach iev ed in th is w a y is ju d g e d to b e w o r th th e p a rtia l m u tila tio n . W h a t sta rtle s m o d e rn o b se rv e rs as s u p e rs titio n a n d n o n se n se is a n ex p e rie n c e o f crisis su ccessfully o v e rc o m e fo r th o s e p ra c tic in g su ch fo rm s o f sacrifice o r d e d ic a tio n . In all p r o b a b ility w e a re d e a lin g w ith a c u s to m th a t is as w id e ­ sp re a d as it is a n c ie n t. In so m e o f th e fa m o u s P a le o lith ic caves th e re are h a n d p r in ts o f p e o p le a p p a re n tly try in g to co m e in c o n ­ ta c t w ith th e sa c re d o r to leave th e m a rk o f th e ir presen ce. In o n e cave so m e o f th e se h a n d s clearly a re m u tila te d , a n d it h a s been assu m e d th a t so m e fo rm o f finger o ffe rin g o c c u rre d even a t th is e p o c h . In o th e r w o rd s , fin g er sacrifice is a P ale o lith ic ritu a l th a t h as su rv iv ed in to th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry , o v er m o re th a n 2 0 , 0 0 0 y ears. A n o th e r fin d in g is fro m a la te N e o lith ic site, A rp a c h iy a in Ira q , w h e re “ five s to n e fingers a n d o n e h u m a n finger b o n e ” have been fo u n d in a s a n c tu a ry . 10 T h is seem s to a tte s t th e c u sto m of se lf-m u tila tio n in th e f o u rth m ille n n iu m B.C., while th e clay o b ­ jects sh o w t h a t g o d s w e re k in d e n o u g h to a c c e p t su b stitu te s even

Escape and Offerings

th e n , as A s c le p iu s d id w i t h A r is te id e s . In I n d ia , a f te r th e prohi­ b itio n of th e rite b y th e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t , p e o p le w o u ld cere­ m o n ia lly c u t o f f fin g e r jo in t s m a d e o f d o u g h a t th e ap p ro p riate s itu a tio n s , 11 c a r r y in g o n t h e r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n b y w a y o f sym bol­

ism.

Biology, Fantasy, and Ritual T h e “ p a r t f o r w h o l e ” s a c rific e c a n b e p la in ly r a tio n a l in its cal­ c u la tio n o f lo ss a n d g a in . P le n ty o f s i t u a t i o n s in h u m a n life re­ q u ire t h a t s im ila r a lte r n a tiv e s b e p o n d e r e d , a n d d e c isio n s made a c c o rd in g ly . T o le a v e o n e ’s p u r s e t o a h o o lig a n r a t h e r th a n to run th e ris k o f g e ttin g s ta b b e d o r s h o t is th e r e g u l a r a d v ic e in o u r civ­ iliz a tio n ;12 th r o w i n g p a r t o f th e c a r g o f r o m th e s h ip in a storm w a s c o m m o n p r a c t ic e . 13 N o t t o o lo n g a g o m e n w o u ld c u t off a fin g e r to a v o id g e ttin g d r a f te d in t o th e a rm y , o r tr y to g et sent a w a y f r o m th e b a ttle fie ld t h r o u g h c la n d e s tin e se lf-m u tila tio n of n o n v ita l p a r ts . B u t th e p a t t e r n a ls o e x p lo d e s b e y o n d w h a t is f u n c tio n a l a n d r a tio n a l a s it m o v e s in to s y m b o lis m : in ste a d of c a rg o , th r o w in g d o lla r b ills in to th e s e a , p r e s e n tin g gifts to the te m p e s t, or, as I h a v e b e e n to ld in o n e in s ta n c e , th r o w in g a h an d ­ b a g n o t to a ro b b e r, b u t to a b a r k in g d o g . 14 T h e p a t te r n is dis­ p la c e d as it lo se s c o n t a c t w ith r e a lity a n d tu r n s in to “r itu a l” in its e x a g g e r a te d a n d d e m o n s tr a tiv e c h a ra c te r. In th is fo rm it will fo llo w p re s c rib e d e x a m p le s o r u se e x p e r t a d v ic e ; th u s it w ill ap­ p e a r to b e c u ltu r a lly le a r n e d b e h a v io r. B u t a s it is generated a fre s h re p e a te d ly , it e v id e n tly h a s a p s y c h o lo g ic a l im p a c t, a th e r­ a p e u tic e ffe c t. R itu a l o f th is k in d m a y b e c a lle d m a g ic a l in the sen se t h a t it se e k s t o a c h ie v e a d e fin ite g o a l b y s o m e n o n o b v io u s c h a in o f c a u s a lity ; b u t th is m e re ly in tr o d u c e s a c o n v e n ie n t term in s te a d o f a n e x p la n a tio n . A t a n y r a te , t h e n o n o b v io u s connec­ tio n o f c a u s e a n d e ffe c t is w id e ly a c c e p ta b le , a n d it m a k e s sense t o th o s e w h o p r a c tic e it. P a r tia l m u tila tio n h a s its a n a lo g u e s in th e w o r ld o f anim als. S o m e s p id e rs ’ legs b r e a k o f f e a s ily a n d c o n tin u e t o m o v e fo r a w h ile ; th is is t o d is tr a c t th e a t t e n t i o n o f s im p le -m in d e d p re d a to r

Creation of the Sacred

p u r s u e rs a n d g iv e th e s p id e r a c h a n c e to re tire to safety. L iz a rd s ’ ta ils to o easily b re a k o ff a n d th u s m a y re m a in in th e g rip o f th e p u rsu e r, w h ile th e liz a rd its e lf e sc a p e s. H e re m u tila tio n is e n ­ co d e d in a sp e c ia l b io lo g ic a l p r o g r a m , g e n e tic a lly fixed a n d fo b lo w e d in th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e s k e le to n , a p ro g ra m th a t w o rk s in th is p a r tic u la r h a b i t a t w ith c le a r su rv iv a l v alu e. It c a n be re ­ p h ra s e d p re c ise ly in th e w o r d s o f A risteid es: “ to c u t a piece o f th e b o d y f o r th e s a k e o f s a v in g th e w h o le .” B irds m ay e x p e rie n c e “te r r o r m o lt ,” w h ic h m e a n s t h a t a n in d iv id u a l, a tta c k e d by a p re d a to r, s u d d e n ly s h e d s its fe a th e rs a n d th u s leaves th e a tta c k e r w ith a m o u th f u l o f p lu m a g e w h ile e s c a p in g in a “ n a k e d ” s ta te . 15 In th e c la ss o f m a m m a ls , a fo x c a u g h t w ith a p a w in a tr a p w ill b ite o ff its p a w t o e sc a p e . T h e sm a lle r loss is o u tw e ig h e d by th e very fa c t o f s u rv iv a l. T h u s a n a g e -o ld r itu a l p a tte r n , s p re a d o v e r th e w o rld a n d e x ­ p re sse d in ta le s , d re a m s , a n d relig io u s cu lts o f a n c ie n t civ iliz a ­ tio n s , h a s its a n a lo g y in a b io lo g ic a l p ro g ra m th a t is seen to w o rk a t v a rio u s s ta g e s o f e v o lu tio n a n d w ith v a rio u s a n im a l species. T h e p r o g ra m is d ire c tly fu n c tio n a l in th e a n im a l w o rld , as it e n h a n c e s th e c h a n c e fo r su rv iv a l by d is tra c tin g th e a tte n tio n o f p re d a to rs . In h u m a n c u ltu re , it is a u b iq u ito u s a n d p e rs is te n t p a tte r n b o th o f b e h a v io r a n d o f fan tasy . T h e p ro g ra m s o f b e­ h a v io r o f m a n a n d a n im a l a re so close th a t th e y c a n be d escrib ed w ith th e sa m e w o rd s , “p a rtia l sacrifice fo r th e sa k e o f survival in a s itu a tio n o f p u rs u it, o f th r e a t a n d a n x ie ty ,”— in s h o rt, th e

pars pro toto,

“p a r t fo r w h o le ” p rin c ip le . R eligion a n d zo o lo g y

are seen to jo in h a n d s . T h is is n o t to p o s tu la te a defin ite in h e rite d p ro g ra m o f b e h a v ­ ior, e n c o d e d g e n e tic a lly a n d p a sse d o n in c o n tin u o u s e v o lu tio n fro m m o re p rim itiv e to h ig h e r living beings a n d c u lm in a tin g in m an . T h e e x a m p le s fro m d iffe re n t species a re n o t co n n e c te d by a c o n tin u o u s c h a in o f e v o lu tio n ; n o th in g like it h as been re p o rte d a b o u t c h im p a n z e e b e h a v io r or, m o re generally, a b o u t m o n k ey s. W e are d e a lin g w ith a n a lo g ie s, n o t h o m o lo g ies. In fact, th e p r o ­ g ram s th a t c o m e in to p la y a re also d iffe re n t. T h e active selfm u tila tio n o f th e fo x is n o t th e sa m e as leaving a p a r t th a t b reak s

Escape and Offerings

o f f t o th e p r e d a t o r , a s w i t h s p id e r s a n d liz a r d s . A n o th e r m uch s im p le r a n d m o r e g e n e r a l b e h a v i o r o f “ a b a n d o n i n g ” is to give u p a s o u r c e o f f o o d w h e n d i s t u r b e d b y a s t r o n g e r riv a l o r a p re d ­ a to r. A n d th e r e is a f o r m i d a b l e s te p f r o m t h e b io lo g ic a l p ro g ra m to th e c o n s c io u s a n d v e r b a liz e d p r i n c i p l e , t h e e x p lic it ca lcu lu s

pars pro toto

a n d th e d e c is io n t o b e m a d e a b o u t it, e v e n if su g ­

g e s te d b y r i t u a l a n d n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n . F r o m t h e o p p o s i t e s id e o f th e a r g u m e n t , it w o u l d b e eq u a lly d iffic u lt t o h o l d t h a t th e s e h u m a n r i t u a l s a n d f a n t a s i e s o w e th e ir w h o le e x is te n c e t o s o m e f o r m o f i n t r a c u l t u r a l le a r n in g , to o b ­ s e r v a tio n o r e m p a th y , o r t o s h e e r c r e a tiv e f a n ta s y . T h e p a t t e r n ’s r e c u r r e n c e in tim e a n d s p a c e , o u r r e a d i n e s s f o r t h e r e s p o n s e , a n d c o m m o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g p o i n t t o a b io lo g ic a l “ la n d s c a p e ” u n ­ d e r ly in g e x p e r ie n c e . T h e h u m a n m a k e u p in c lu d e s b io lo g ic a l p r o ­ g r a m s d e a lin g w i t h a n x i e ty a n d flig h t t h a t a r e o ld e r t h a n th e h u m a n s p e c ie s , a n d th e s e c o m p r is e o r e n g e n d e r a t le a s t th e r u ­ d im e n ts o f t h e r i t u a l p a t t e r n , c o r r e l a t i n g t h r e a t , a l a r m , p u rs u it, flig h t, a n d th e tr ic k o f a b a n d o n i n g w h a t c a n b e s p a r e d . L u m sd e n a n d W ils o n m a d e it a c r ite r i o n f o r th e “ c o e v o l u t i o n o f g e n e s a n d c u l t u r e ” t o fin d “ m e m o ir s m o s t e a s ily r e c a lle d , e m o t i o n s th e y are m o s t lik e ly t o e v o k e ” ;16 th is s e e m s t o b e a m o d e l c a s e o f th e ir fin d in g s . I t is w e ll k n o w n a n d e a s y t o r e c a ll, a n d e v e n t o r e h e a rs e in fa n ta s y , h o w h a u n t i n g a n d d e e p ly d i s t u r b i n g t h e im a g e o f th e p u r s u i n g p r e d a t o r s till is, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g m il le n n i a o f civ ilized life. V ic tim s o f p s y c h o s is o f te n d e v e lo p th e a n x i e ty o f b e in g p u r ­ s u e d ; f o r th e h e a lth y , a m o v ie t h r i l l e r w ill n o t d o w i t h o u t scenes o f p u r s u i t a n d n a r r o w e s c a p e . D e m o n s , in m y t h a n d in a r t , u s u ­ a lly t a k e th e f o r m o f p r e d a t o r s . 17 T o d e p i c t t h e t e r r o r o f hell C h r is t ia n s p ic tu r e d it a s a h u g e d e v o u r in g a n i m a l w i t h y a w n in g ja w s , a n d

Jaws

s till p r o je c ts v ic a r io u s t e r r o r e v e n to d a y . F ew

c o n t e m p o r a r y p e o p le w ill h a v e a n y te r r if y in g e x p e rie n c e s o f th a t k in d , b u t e v e n t h e a t t a c k o f a b a r k i n g d o g w ill n o r m a ll y p ro d u c e a s u d d e n p h y s ic a l s h o c k f a r b e y o n d th e r e a l d a n g e r : w e “ k n o w ” a b o u t th e d a n g e r o f a p r e d a t o r ’s a t t a c k e v e n b e f o r e a n y a c tu a l e x p e r ie n c e , a s t h e c h ic k e n “ k n o w s ” a b o u t t h e h a w k . 18 H u m a n s

Creation of the Sacred

arc m o re a d a p ta b le a n d less fixed in th e ir re p e rto ire th a n c h ic k ­ ens, b u t p r im a te s a n d h o m in id s , to o , h a d p re d a to rs fo r d a n g e r­ ou s n e ig h b o rs , a n d th e a p p r o p r ia te re a c tio n s h av e been fixed in o u r b io lo g ic a l m a k e u p . T h e s n a k e , th e le o p a rd , th e w o lf— th e im age o f th e p u r s u in g p r e d a t o r is easily e v o k e d by a n y k in d o f th re a te n in g d a n g e r, w h e th e r re a l o r im a g in a ry . N o w o n d e r it a p ­ p ears in re lig io u s r itu a l to o . A special sig n a r o u s in g a n x ie ty is th e s ta rin g eye. T h is fearfu l re a c tio n is m o s t c le a rly b a s e d o n a very o ld a n d g en e ra l b io lo g ical p ro g ra m . A s n a tu r e in v e n te d th e eye to se a rc h fo r fo o d , p r o ­ spective “ f o o d ,” aliv e a n d selfish, le a rn e d to b e w a re o f th e eye. T h e fe a r o f th e eye is p re s e n t in m a n y a n im a ls, as a fu n c tio n a l re a c tio n to b e in g h u n te d by sh a rp -e y e d p re d a to rs . In a n o th e r v a ria tio n , c e rta in b u tte rflie s, a m o n g o th e r species, d isp la y th e sta rin g eye o n th e ir w in g s to a v e rt u n p le a s a n t p u rs u e rs , w h ile th e p ea co c k u se s th e eyes o f h is ta il ju s t to c a tc h a tte n tio n . In h u m a n civ iliz atio n s th e fe a r o f th e evil eye is w id e sp re a d ; th e c o n c e p t is d o c u m e n te d fro m th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a st th ro u g h classical a n ­ tiq u ity a n d in to c o n te m p o r a r y p ra c tic e . 19 T h e in n a te fe a r calls fo r c o u n te rsy m b o lism : th e p o w e r o f th e evil eye is b ro k e n by a n o th e r eye, by a c e rta in co lo r, o r by m ale aggressiveness, e sp e­ cially by p h a llic d isp lay , o r finally by b lin d in g . T h e P o ly p h e m u s tale in tro d u c e s th e o g re as th e a n th ro p o m o rp h o u s p re d a to r. To blin d h im is to a c h iev e th e m o s t b rillia n t success in o v e rc o m in g anxiety. T h e b io lo g ic a l re a lity o f p u rs u it by p re d a to rs is easy to in c o r­ p o ra te in to re lig io u s tr a d itio n . A g en e ra l G re ek p ra y e r is “th a t th e fo o t o f th e p u rs u e r be tu r n e d a w a y . ”20 B ra h m a n ic m y th in In d ia tells a b o u t th e o rig in o f th e n o rm a l a n d m o s t c o m m o n fo rm o f sacrifice, th e lib a tio n o f b u tte r: w h e n A gni, fire, h a d been c re ­ ated , h e tu r n e d o u t to b e a n eater, ro a m in g th ro u g h th e la n d a n d d ev o u rin g w h a te v e r h e m e t. T h e n P ra ja p a ti, th e L o rd o f F irst C re a tio n , p ro d u c e d b u tte r to feed A gni; A gni th u s w a s assu ag e d . Since th e n , p o u rin g b u tte r in to th e flam es a t th e a lta r h a s been m ad e in to a sa c re d r itu a l .21 C u lt, by th is u n d e rs ta n d in g , m e an s to a v e rt d a n g e r b y c o n s e n tin g to a to le ra b le loss, in th is w ay

Escape and Offerings

m a n ip u la tin g th e “ e a te r .” “ T o p o u r sa c rific e m a k e s life re tu rn ,” as B a b y lo n ia n w is d o m h o l d s .22 G re e k r itu a l h a d a class of sac­ rifices ca lle d rite s o f a v e rs io n ;

apotropaia. J a n e

H a r r is o n found

a p o tro p a ic ritu a l a n e s p e c ia lly o ld a n d b a s ic s tr a t u m o f Greek re lig io n .23 T h e w a y o f d o in g it is t o t h r o w o r p o u r o u t to uncanny p u rs u e rs w h a t is d u e to th e m ; o f te n a p e r s o n is c a u tio n e d n o t to lo o k b a c k w h e n le a v in g th e sc e n e o f th e s a c rific e .24 E vil dem ons are s a id to r e q u ire th e s e r itu a ls , f o r w h ic h th e co rresp o n d in g L a tin te rm is

averruncare. 25 T h e

R o m a n s r e s o r te d to h u m a n sac­

rifice alleg e d ly by o r d e r o f th e S ib y llin e o ra c le s , w h e n th e scan­ d a lo u s u n c h a s tity o f s o m e v e s ta l v irg in s o ffe n d e d th e g o d s and p re sa g e d d isa ste r. A s P lu ta r c h te lls it, th e o ra c le s o rd a in e d “to se n d fo rth

(proesthai)

to c e r ta in s tr a n g e a n d a lie n d e m o n s, in

o rd e r to a v e rt w h a t w a s a b o u t to h a p p e n , t w o G re e k s a n d tw o C e lts, w h o w e re b u rie d aliv e o n th e s p o t . ” 26 T o a v e rt evil by s e n d in g fo rth o r r a th e r th r o w in g o ff

(proesthai) or

leaving the

v ic tim s to th e se d e m o n s — it m a k e s a p a t t e r n t h a t c o u ld n o t be m o re e x p lic it. In a c o u n te r p a r t to r itu a l, th e re is a w e ll- k n o w n s to r y p attern , c o m m o n in s a g a , fo lk ta le , a n d m y th , o f m a g ic a l flig h t o r m agical e s c a p e .27 It fo rm s th e th rillin g c o n c lu s io n o f m a n y a fairytale, in c lu d in g th e C y c lo p s sto ry . T h e m a g ic a l flig h t u s u a lly ta k e s this fo rm : as th e h e ro in e o r h e ro o r b o th flee f r o m th e d o m in io n of a w itc h , a so rc e re r, a n o g re , a d r a g o n , o r o th e r u n p le a s a n t com ­ p a n y , th e p o w e rfu l a n d s w ift a d v e rs a r y re a liz e s th e y h a v e escaped a n d ta k e s u p p u r s u it. T h e re is ju s t o n e w a y t o s to p him : the fleeing p e rs o n m u s t th r o w th in g s b e h in d t h a t w ill g r o w in to b ar­ riers to h a lt th e p u rs u e r a t le a s t f o r a w h ile , u n til a decisiv e p o in t is p a sse d a n d sa fe ty is re g a in e d . T h r o w a c o m b , a n d it w ill grow in to a fo re s t o r in to a m o u n ta in ra n g e . T h is ta le p a tte r n can be fo u n d in th e In d ia n

Veda a n d

in th e F in n is h

Kalevala as

w ell as

in th e G rim m c o lle c tio n o f fa iry ta le s ; n o r is it a b s e n t fro m G reek m y th o lo g y . In th e

Kalevala, C a n to

4 3 , V ä in ä m ö in e n h a s g o t hold

o f a p re c io u s m a g ic a l o b je c t a n d is e s c a p in g in h is s h ip , p u rsu ed by th e N o r t h F o lk a n d th e ir q u e e n ; a s h e sees th e m a p p e a r a t the h o riz o n , h e th r o w s a p ie c e o f flin t o v e r h is le ft s h o u ld e r in to the

Creation of the Sacred

sea. This grows into a cliff where the pursuing ship is stranded, but the obstacle is only temporary. The pursuing queen turns into an eagle, and the fight goes on. Karl Meuli took the motif of the magical flight to be typical of shaman poetry/8 fantastic stories surrounding the ecstatic performances of the Siberian chartsmaties who penetrate into the realm of spirits, meet all kinds of helpers and dangerous adversaries, and come back again un harmed, as magic is countered by magic. But the pattern has more general foundations. The story pattern wanders off into pseudo-zoology in this yarn about catching tigers, told in antiquity. The Indians steal young tigers from the lair and rapidly retreat on horseback. But as soon as the adult tigers realize their loss, they take up the pursuit, and they are much faster than any horse. So the rider, as the tigers come near, abandons one of the stolen cubs, which the tigers carefully bring back to the den. Then they resume the pursuit, and as they reach the rider, again running with enormous speed, a second and then possibly a third cub has to be abandoned; if successful, the rider will keep one or two when he finally reaches the civilized region which tigers do not approach.29 This pictur­ esque zoological nonsense30 exactly matches the pattern of the magical flight; there too the pursuer is stopped more than once, and there is a decisive frontier where the pursuer has to give up. Instead of demons or sorcerers, the tiger story has reinstalled the classical pursuer, the most formidable carnivore. An interesting detail is the precise point where the pursuer stops. In its territorial behavior each animal feels safest at the home base, and less and less secure with increasing distance; this results in a precarious balance of anxiety and aggression in the marginal region. In the world of the tale this turns into a clearly defined point, parallel to ritual behavior which establishes marks of territory, even on a prehuman level.31 In Greek mythology, the most elaborate and gruesome version of the magical flight is the story of the Argonauts. As Jason and Medea steal away from Kolchis with the Golden Fleece, King Aietes follows with his fleet. It is not possible to ward him off

Escape and Offerings

by fo rce, b u t M e d e a k n o w s h o w t o s to p h im . S h e k ills h e r b r o th e r A p sy rto s

(aps syrton,

m e a n in g “ to be s w e p t o f f b a c k w a r d ” ),

depths o f th e sea; h e was late f o r th e

“c u ts him to p ie ces, a n d th r o w s th e s e in to th e w h ile A ietcs c o lle c te d th e lim b s o f h is s o n ,

p u rs u it; th u s he tu r n e d b a c k . ” 12 T h e s to r y s u r e ly is v e ry o ld . Such a te a rin g a p a r t o f a h u m a n b o d y

(sp a ra g m o s ) is

m o n y , n o d o u b t, a n d M e d e a is a s o r c e re s s . d o e s n o t e x p la in m u c h . R e m e m b e r in g th e

magical cere­ B u t th e te r m “magic” s p id e r a n d th e lizard, a

a lo n g w ith th e tig e r s n a tc h in g o f I n d ia , w e fin d t h a t f a n ta s y a n d ritu a l fo llo w th e o ld a n d b e a te n tr a c k s o f th e p a rs p ro

toto sac­

rifice, t h a t b io lo g ic a l tr ic k f o r s u rv iv a l t o d i s t r a c t th e a tte n tio n o f th e p u r s u e r b y a b a n d o n in g , b y t h r o w i n g . T h e “ p a r t , ” in th e A r g o n a u t m y th , is th e s m a ll, th e fe e b le , th e r e p la c e a b le m e m b e r o f th e c o m m u n ity , th e y o u n g e r b r o th e r . A n y p r e d a t o r h a s h is b est c h a n c e s w ith y o u n g a n d fe e b le q u a r r y . T h e re is a n o th e r v a r ia n t w ith a s tr o n g ly b io lo g ic a l b a c k g r o u n d w h ic h ta k e s th e s te p fro m th e s u b lim e t o th e r id ic u lo u s . O n e b io lo g ic a l reflex w h ic h m a k e s th e in d iv id u a l le a v e s o m e th in g b e­ h in d in a s itu a tio n o f a la r m is in v o lu n t a r y d e f e c a tio n . T h e a c c i­ d e n t is c o m m o n ly a llu d e d to in c o a rs e s p e e c h a s th e u ltim a te sig n o f c o w a rd ic e ; it d id n o t e s c a p e A r i s to p h a n e s .33 In n o r m a l life w e h a v e b u ilt u p e n o u g h p r e c a u tio n s to a v o id s it u a ti o n s o f e x tre m e a n d u n c o n tro lle d p a n ic — y e t it h a p p e n s w i t h c h i ld r e n , it m a y still h a p p e n in tra ffic a c c id e n ts , it h a p p e n e d in w a r ; a l r e a d y th e A s­ s y ria n a n n a ls u se th e m o tif to d efile th e b e a te n e n e m y , 34 a n d th e G re e k s w e re n o t im m u n e t o i t .35 I t is a ls o a w e ll - k n o w n c h im ­ p a n z e e b e h a v io r .36 L a n g u a g e r e ta in s th e p r im itiv e f a r b e y o n d a c ­ tu a l e x p e rie n c e , a d a p te d o f c o u r s e t o th e c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t. I t is th e c o n tr a s t to n o r m a l d e c e n c y t h a t c r e a te s th is p a r t i c u l a r o p ­ p o r tu n ity fo r v e rb a l a b u s e . P ro b a b ly less k n o w n n o w a d a y s is a c u r io u s r i t u a l f r o m th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . T h ie v e s in G e r m a n y a n d A u s tr ia , p e r h a p s g e n e ra lly in E u ro p e , b e lie v e d t h a t th e y w o u ld b e s a fe f r o m p u r ­ s u it a n d d e te c tio n if th e y le ft th e ir fece s a t th e c r im e s c e n e , a n d so th e y d id .37 T h e b io lo g ic a l r e a c tio n o f p a n ic in a te rr if y in g s it­ u a tio n w a s tu r n e d in to a p o t r o p a i c m a g ic ; w h a t m a y h a p p e n in -

Creation of the Sacred

stinetively was d o n e o n p u rp o s e . T h e practice remains notable for the in te rp la y o f a b io lo g ic a l p ro g ra m , superstitious yet con­ scious m a g ic r itu a l, a n d ra tio n a l c o n tro l. Superstition arose as the a c t w a s r e in te rp r e te d to a ssu m e m a g ica l efficacy through n o n o b v io u s c a u sa lity . In G re e k re lig io n , th e goddess Hekate, w h o m ig h t b e c a lle d th e v ery im p e rs o n a tio n of p an ic in the dark, is an “e a te r o f e x c re m e n ts ,”

borborophorba,38

Castration and Circumcision S e lf-c a stra tio n , a sp e c ia l fo rm o f se lf-m u tila tio n , is a stra n g e a n d rep u lsiv e c h a p te r o f a n c ie n t re lig io n s. T h e very te rm “c a s tr a tio n ” is c o n n e c te d in a n tiq u ity w ith a n o th e r ta le o f p seu d o -zo o lo g y . B eavers— castor in L a tin — p ro d u c e in special g la n d s a fra g ra n t se c re tio n w h ic h w a s h ig h ly v a lu e d as a m ed icin e. It w a s w ro n g ly believed t h a t th e s u b s ta n c e w a s p ro d u c e d in th e testicles o f th e m ale beaver. T h u s w h e n th e b e a v e r is h u n te d a n d finds h im self tra p p e d b e y o n d e sc a p e , “ h e b e n d s d o w n , a n d b itin g o ff his o w n testicles th r o w s th e m to h is h u n te rs .” In th is, th e a n c ie n t w rite r tellin g th e s to ry e x p la in s , h e is “ like a clever m a n w h o h a s fallen a m o n g ro b b e rs , h e p u ts d o w n w h a te v e r he c a rrie d w ith h im fo r th e sa k e o f h is o w n s a lv a tio n , giv in g th is as ra n s o m . ”39 T h e p a r ­ allel to th e h u m a n s itu a tio n a n d b e h a v io r is ex p licit; p a rtia l sa c­ rifice is a g a in se en as ra n s o m . T h e s to ry a b o u t th e b e a v e r w a s d o u b tle ss to ld in L a tin , in w h ich hence

castor is re m in is c e n t o f castus, “p u re a n d a b s tin e n t,” castrare. In te rm s o f a n im a l b e h a v io r th e sto ry m a k e s n o

sense. A s b io lo g ic a l b e in g s, in d iv id u a ls , b e in g su rv iv al m a ch in e s fo r th e ir selfish g e n e s ,40 c o u ld n o t d o w o rse th a n to sacrifice th e ir p o te n tia lly im m o rta l p ro c re a tiv e cells. In its d is to rtio n o f b io lo g ­ ical fa c t th e s to ry gives its e lf a w a y as a p ro je c tio n o f ty p ic a l h u ­ m a n p r e o c c u p a tio n s a n d a n x ie tie s. P e rh a p s because in w a rs a g ­ g ressio n is lin k e d to m a sc u lin ity , th e a se x u a l c o u ld c o u n t o n b e tte r c h a n c e s f o r su rv iv a l. M o r e im p o r ta n t, in o u r co n scio u s w o rld se lf-p re s e rv a tio n a p p e a r s to b e th e

condicio sine qua non

o f ex iste n c e a n d h e n c e th e u ltim a te g o a l t h a t c a n be envisaged

Escape and Offerings

r a t i o n a l l y ; t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m o f p r o c r e a t i o n , w h i c h m a k es th e i n d i v i d u a l r e p l a c e a b l e a n d h e n c e s u p e r f l u o u s , r e m a in s d is­ t u r b i n g in t h is r e s p e c t . T h i s m a y b e u l t i m a t e l y w h y s e x is re­ g a r d e d w i t h t h e s t r o n g e s t s u s p i c i o n in m a n y t r a d i t i o n s o f w is­ d o m , o f y o g a a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f a s c e t i c i s m . T h e illu s io n is th a t b y r e n o u n c i n g p r o c r e a t i o n m e n m a y s t a y c l e a r o f t h e m a e ls tro m o f life a n d d e a t h . A s m a l l lo s s s e e m s p o s s i b l e , e v e n a d v is a b le , to g u a r a n t e e t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o l e . T h i s is o n e of t h o s e r e v e r s a ls b y w h i c h t h e m e n t a l w o r l d t r i e s t o g e t o f f the t r a c k s o f b io lo g y , w i t h s h o r t - l i v e d r e s u l t s f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t w i t h p e r s i s t i n g a p p e a l t o t h e s p e c ie s . C o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c io u s i m a g i n a t i o n r e m a i n s f ix e d t o t h e t h e m e w i t h a ll o f its stro n g s h o c k o f a m b iv a le n c e . T h e a l l e g e d b e h a v i o r o f t h e b e a v e r r e c u r s in t a l e s a n d ritu a ls o f c a s t r a t i o n . I n s a n c t u a r i e s f r o m B a b y l o n i a t o A s ia M i n o r an d S y r ia a G r e a t G o d d e s s w a s w o r s h i p e d b y e u n u c h p r ie s ts ; th ey w e re c a lle d

galloi a t

P e s s i n u s , t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l c e n t e r o f this

c u l t . T h i s is n o t t h e p la c e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s p h e n o m e n o n in all its a s p e c t s , n o r t o d is c u s s t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s w h i c h h a v e been b r o u g h t f o r w a r d b y m o d e r n i n t e r p r e t e r s t o e x p l a i n its o r ig in .41 T h e o n e c u n e i f o r m t e x t t h a t c l e a r ly r e f e r s t o i t e x p l a i n s t h a t Ishta r , t h e G r e a t G o d d e s s , i n s t a l l e d i t “ t o s p r e a d a w e a m o n g m e n . ”42 I t is d if f ic u lt t o d e c id e w h i c h c a m e f i r s t , t h e G r e a t G o d d e s s w ith h e r e u n u c h d e v o t e e s o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e r o y a l h a r e m w ith e u n u c h g u a r d s , p u r p o r t e d l y i n v e n t e d b y Q u e e n S e m ir a m is or A t o s s a 43 a n d in e x i s t e n c e d o w n t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c e n tu ry a t I s t a n b u l a n d B e ijin g . L e t u s j u s t h a v e a g l i m p s e a t t h e relig io u s s id e , f o r w h i c h L u c i a n , in h is b o o k o n t h e S y r i a n G o d d e s s , is th e m a in so u rc e . L u c ia n te lls a f o u n d a t i o n m y t h in a n o v e l i s t i c a n d sa tiric a l f a s h i o n .44 Q u e e n S t r a t o n i k e o f S y r ia w a s t o l d i n a d r e a m t o fo u n d a n e w te m p le o f th e g o d d e s s a t B a m b y k e - H ie r a p o lis . She w ent o ff a c c o m p a n ie d b y a y o u n g a n d h a n d s o m e m a n , K o m b ab o s, w h o m t h e k i n g c h o s e a s h is d e l e g a t e . K o m b a b o s f o r e s a w th e risk o f s e r v in g a s c o m p a n i o n t o a y o u n g a n d p a s s i o n a t e q u e e n . Sus­ p i c i o n w o u l d b e u n a v o i d a b l e a n d c o u l d c o s t h i m h is life. H e

Creation of the Sacred

therefore castrated himself and left his genitals, embalmed with honey a n d u n g u e n ts , in a se a le d b o x w ith th e kin g . As he had expected, the lonely queen fell in love with him, and when he refused, the s to ry of Joseph a n d P o tip h a r's w ife w a s re -en ac ted in a n ew v a ria n t: s la n d e r th a t Kombabos had violated the queen, trial, and death sentence. In the end Kombabos asked the king to o p e n th e b o x a n d p ro v e d his in n o c e n c e by his im p o te n c e . T h e K o m b a b o s s to ry c le a rly is e tio lo g ic a l in its d e ta ils, e sp e ­ cially w ith t h a t se a le d b o x — e u n u c h s really k e p t such b o x es even in C h in a .45 T h e s to ry m a y be q u ite o ld , since th e n a m e K o m b a b o s seem s to re c a ll th e o ld n a m e o f th e G re a t G o d d ess K u b a b a K y b eb e .46 W h a t is esp e c ia lly in te re stin g is th e p sy c h o lo g ica l e x ­ p la n a tio n it o ffe rs fo r th e ritu a l o f c a s tra tio n . It is th e fe a r o f th e m o re p o te n t s e x u a l riv a l, th e k in g w ith his p o w e r to kill, th a t drives th e in fe rio r p a r tn e r to re n o u n c e his sex. In so m e m o n k e y societies th e y o u n g e r lo w -ra n k in g m ales su ffer a s o rt o f p sy c h o ­ logical c a s tr a tio n as lo n g as th e y re m a in in th e fam ily; in th e co u rse o f tim e th e y g ro w b ig g e r a n d s tro n g e r a n d finally g et th e ir c h a n c e .47 T h e ta le m a k e s K o m b a b o s a c t like th e clever beaver, giving u p w h a t is o f m o r ta l d a n g e r fo r h im in o rd e r to survive. A cc o rd in g to L u c ia n , a t B a m b y k e -H ie ra p o lis c a s tra tio n w o u ld ac tu a lly be d o n e a t th e m a jo r festiv al, a n d th e fu tu re

galloi

w o u ld “ t h r o w ” th e se v ered p a rts in to th e h o u se fro m w h ich th ey w o u ld rece iv e th e ir fem a le c lo th in g a n d a d o r n m e n t ,48 as th e b eav er th re w h is te stic le s to w a r d his h u n te rs. N o less s tra n g e is th e s to ry in a n is o la te d p assag e fro m th e H e b re w B ible w h ic h m u s t b e re g a rd e d as o n e o f th e fo u n d a tio n m y th s fo r c irc u m c is io n . T h e te x t is u su a lly a ttrib u te d to th e o ld ­ est lay er o f th e P e n ta te u c h , th e J a h w is t .49 W h e n M o se s re tu rn s fro m M id ia n to E g y p t to g e th e r w ith his w ife Z ip p o ra a n d th e ir little so n , th e y r e s t a t n ig h t in th e d e se rt. “A n d J a h w e h m et him an d w a n te d to kill h im . T h e n Z ip p o r a to o k a flint a n d c irc u m ­ cised h e r s o n , to u c h in g M o s e s ’ p riv a te p a rts w ith th e fo re sk in a n d said: A b rid e g ro o m o f b lo o d s y o u a re fo r m e. T h e n Ja h w e h let h im g o .” T h e w r ite r o f th e te x t a lre a d y w o n d e re d a t th e sto ry ; he a d d e d a n e x p la n a to ry n o te , s ta tin g th a t th is refers to circ u m -

Escape and Offerings

c is io n .50 T h e p a s s a g e h a s r e m a in e d e n i g m a t ic . H o w c a n th e Lord a p p e a r in th e g u is e o f a k illin g m o n s t e r o f t h e n o c t u r n a l desert? B u t t h a t is e x a c tly h o w it h a p p e n s . S u d d e n ly , a t n ig h t in the d e s e rt, o n e is s tr u c k b y a n ir r e s is tib le f e a r o f g o d , m o r e p o w e rfu l th a n a k in g a n d r e a d y t o k ill. F o r r a n s o m , m a n h a s t o ren o u n ce his m a s c u lin ity — in th is c a s e , th e m o t h e r s te p s in t o m a k e the d e c isio n . A t th e s a m e tim e , a d o u b l e s u b s t i t u t i o n ta k e s place, c h ild fo r m a n , a n d f o r e s k in f o r p e n is . S a n g u in a r y m u tila tio n , b o th re a l a n d s y m b o lic , is n e c e s s a r y t o w a r d o f f th e p u rs u e r. O nly a “ b r id e g r o o m o f b lo o d s ”— M o s e s in r e l a t i o n t o Z i p p o r a — will su rv iv e. T h is is d e a lin g w ith a s u p e r - f a t h e r in t h e w a y s o f K om b a b o s , m itig a te d b y r itu a l s u b s t i t u t i o n . I t is t h e m o th e r w h o w ie ld s th e flin t k n ife — a s c a s t r a t i o n in t h e c u l t o f th e M o th e r G o d d e s s w a s d o n e w ith a flin t k n if e . D o u b t s m a y r e m a in w h e th e r th is is th e p re c ise o r ig in o f c ir c u m c is io n , b u t a p p a r e n t l y it is the o ld e s t in te r p r e t a ti o n o f c irc u m c is io n w e h a v e .51 I t is te m p tin g to c o n n e c t fin g e r s a c rific e w i t h c a s tr a tio n ; the F re u d ia n a p p r o a c h h a s b e c o m e p o p u la r . E v e n b e f o r e F re u d , the fin g er m o n u m e n t o f O re s te s in A r c a d ia h a d b e e n s u s p e c te d of b e in g a c tu a lly a p h a llu s .52 A n d w h a t w ill b e c o m e , w ith a b it of F re u d ia n a n d a n a to m ic a l fa n ta s y , o f t h a t fin g e r w i t h its e lo q u e n t rin g in th e m e d ie v a l o g re s to ry ? T e le s p h o r o s , t h e c h ild in the h o o d to w h o m A ris te id e s d e d ic a te d h is fin g e r r in g , d o e s in fact tu r n in to a p h a llu s in th e h o o d in s o m e a n c ie n t s t a t u e t t e s .53 In a c u rio u s v e rs io n o f th e A ttis m y th , A ttis , d y in g f r o m c a s tra tio n , w ill n o t b e re v iv e d b u t n e ith e r w ill h e d e c a y , a n d a s h e lies d ead , h is sm a ll fin g e r k e e p s m o v in g .54 M a n y m y th s a ls o in s is t o n the fig u re o f th e th r e a te n in g fe m a le , I s h t a r o r K y b e le , Z i p p o r a o r the fu rie s a llie d t o K ly ta im e s tr a . I t m a y b e le ft t o p s y c h o lo g is ts to e s ta b lis h t o w h a t e x t e n t th e h u m a n p s y c h e is a p t t o p ro d u c e im a g e s a n d s y m b o lis m o f th is k in d . T h e p e r s p e c tiv e a d o p t e d h ere su g g e sts t h a t th e r e is a b a c k g r o u n d e v e n b e y o n d th e F re u d ia n p sy c h e , t h a t th e re a r e p r a g m a tic a n d n o t j u s t O e d ip a l an x ie tie s r o o te d in o u r b io lo g ic a l m a k e u p . T h e r e a r e r e a l p r e d a t o r s ; aw e w r o u g h t b y r itu a l , m e e tin g w i t h t h e a m b iv a le n c e o f s e x u a lity in

Creation of the Sacred

the individual’s experience, finds fertile ground to thrive in some appalling forms of religion.

Scapegoats The

pars pro toto p rin c ip le ,

acce p tin g the sm all loss in o rd e r to

save th e w h o le , is even m o re efficacious in g ro u p dynam ics. “ It is b e tte r th a t o n e m a n die th a n th a t th e w h o le people sh o u ld be d e s tro y e d ,” th e h ig h p rie st K a ip h a s declares in th e G ospel of J o h n ;55 th e e v a n g e list is a n x io u s to a d d th a t K aip h as spoke “n o t o n his o w n b u t a c te d as a p r o p h e t.” T his stran g e b alance, sal­ v a tio n o f all by th e d e a th o f o n e, b ecam e one o f th e fu n d am e n tal te n ets o f C h ris tia n th eo lo g y . Yet K a ip h a s’ p ro p h ecy w as in fact re sta tin g a m u c h o ld e r p rin c ip le , w idely u n d e rsto o d , accepted, a n d p r a c tic e d .56 It is p re su p p o se d alre ad y in th e B abylonian epic o f c re a tio n ,

Enuma elish,

w h e n sentence is p ro n o u n c e d o n a

g u ilty g o d : “H e a lo n e sh a ll p erish th a t m a n k in d shall be fa sh ­ io n e d .” 57 In so m e u n f o rtu n a te s itu a tio n s it seem s perfectly reaso n ab le th a t o n e p e rs o n o r a few in d iv id u a ls sh o u ld be given u p in o rd e r to save th e o th e rs . In w a rs g en erals m a k e decisions to sacrifice a n u m b e r o f th e ir o w n tr o o p s fo r su p e rio r strateg ic goals. A m o re p ic tu re s q u e in s ta n c e is th a t o f th e sleigh p u rsu e d by w olves. As th e h o rse s g ro w tire d , o n e p e rso n m u st be th ro w n to th e w olves clo sin g in o n th e sleig h — w e a re b ac k to th e w o rld o f carn iv o res p u rs u in g th e ir q u a rry . C o m p a ra b le situ a tio n s arise in tim es o f c a ta s tro p h e , fires, flo o d s, o r sin k in g b o a ts, w h e n helpers m ay lose th e ir lives w h ile sa v in g o th e rs. G ra tefu lly w e h o n o r th e ir m em o ry , a n d m a k e su re to re m a in a tta c h e d to th e tales recalling th o se th rillin g e v e n ts. R itu a l la n g u ag e p rev ails in this co n tex t: th e re a re v ic tim s, th e re is sacrifice. The

pars pro toto c a lc u lu s

is h ig h ly ra tio n a l a n d highly em o ­

tio n a l a t th e sa m e tim e . It re p e a ts a t th e in tellectu al level w h a t b io lo g y h a s lo n g ta u g h t b efo re. Yet it re ta in s a m y sterio u s ring a n d c a rrie s re lig io u s ra m ific a tio n s in its w ak e . T h e sacrifice o f o n e fo r th e sa k e o f all, e n d u rin g a sm all, to le ra b le loss to confirm

Escape and Offerings

all life, is a m otif dom inating both fantastic tales and strange rituals. The pattern transcends w hat seems reasonable and func­ tional and leaves a purely sym bolic message; it can be termed magical or superstitious. T h e sequence of events feels rig h t, makes sense to the participants, this trium ph of the inherited pattern proves its autonom y. T a k e th e s to r y o f J o n a h . T h e s h ip in th e s to r m is a m odel s itu a tio n o f a n x ie ty a n d d e s p a ir. A s th e s a ilo r s b e g in to lo se h ope, th e y all a g re e w ith s u d d e n u n a n i m ity t h a t o n e m a n in th e sh ip is c u lp a b le a n d h a s to b e t h r o w n in t o th e s e a . I t is o n th e w hole r a tio n a l to t h r o w p a r t o f th e c a r g o i n t o th e s e a t o s a v e th e s h ip .58 B u t it is th e p e r s o n a liz e d J o n a h v e r s io n t h a t m a d e its w a y in to th e B ible a n d r e m a in s u n f o r g e tta b l e . In a d d i t i o n , th e ta le in tr o ­ d u c e s th e h u g e s w a llo w in g m o n s te r , t h e fish t o e n g u lf J o n a h ; this w a s th e c h a r a c te r m is s in g f r o m th e n a t u r a l t e r r o r sc e n e , a n d , w ith a f a n ta s tic r e v e rs a l, it is t o b e c o m e J o n a h ’s sa v io r. F o lk lo r­ ists h a v e c o lle c te d m a n y p a r a lle ls t o th is o b s e s s iv e t a l e .59 In a s p e c ia l fo rm th e m o ti f r e c u r s in V ir g il’s

Aeneid in

w h ic h , to en ­

s u re a s m o o th v o y a g e , o n e m a n m u s t d ie in th e s e a a t n ig h t; “one h e a d w ill b e g iv e n f o r m a n y .” F a llin g a s le e p t h r o u g h d iv in e in ­ te r v e n tio n , P a lin u r u s th e s te e r s m a n is d r o w n e d .60 A m o n g th e s to rie s a b o u t th e L a c u s C u r t i u s a t th e F o ru m R o ­ m a n u m , o n e is e s p e c ia lly m e m o r a b le . A t t h i s s p o t , it w a s sa id , a y a w n in g g a p o p e n e d

(dehisse terram),

a n d th e s o o th s a y e r s a n ­

n o u n c e d t h a t “ th e g o d e x a c te d th e b r a v e s t c i tiz e n .” T h e n C u r­ tiu s , b y h is o w n d e c is io n , r o d e o n h o r s e b a c k in t o t h e a b y s s , an d th e g a p w a s c lo s e d .61 T h e y a w n in g g a p is a m e m o r a b le p ro je c tio n o f a n x ie ty , lin k e d t o th e im a g e o f d e v o u r i n g ja w s . O n e p e rso n m u s t b e s w a llo w e d t o s a v e th e r e s t. L a te r th e d e e d is re c o rd e d in r itu a l , w ith g ifts b r o u g h t t o th e s p o t o r c o in s t h r o w n in to th e s h a llo w p i t t h a t r e m a in e d — s o m e th in g lik e th o s e d o lla r bills t h r o w n in to th e w a te r in m o d e r n A fr ic a . A n x ie ty is r e m o v e d a n d n o r m a lc y s e c u re d b y w a y o f a sp e c ific p a y m e n t. O th e r r itu a ls m a tc h o t h e r ta le s . A b la c k la m b is s la u g h te re d to s to p a ty p h o o n ; s to r m s a r e h a l te d b y d r a w i n g b l o o d ;62 a t C y ­ re n e , “ if a p la g u e is c o m in g a g a in s t th e c o u n t r y o r th e city, o r

Creation of the Sacred

fam in e , o r d y in g . . . th e y sacrifice a re d h e -g o a t b efo re th e g a te s . ” 63 L e g e n d h a s it t h a t a c h ild w a s b u rie d to a v e rt a p la g u e in A u s tria in 1 7 1 5 , a n d in S w a b ia a b u ll w a s a c tu a lly b u rie d alive to s to p a p la g u e a ffe c tin g c a ttle in 1 7 9 6 .64 T o e n su re th e effec­ tiveness o f a d a m t h a t c h e c k s th e flo o d , a liv in g b ein g m u st be b u rie d o n th e s p o t .65 T h e to le ra b le lo ss m a y n e v e rth e le ss leav e th e su rv iv o rs w ith a b a d c o n sc ie n c e . T h is c a n b e c o u n te r e d by a n a lte rn a tiv e p ro je c ­ tio n : th e b e in g c h o s e n to p e r is h w a s guilty, p o llu te d , a n d d e te s t­ able; th e p o s itiv e e ffe c t is e n h a n c e d b y th e n e g a tiv e c rite ria o f selectio n . T h is is th e fa m o u s a n d m u c h d isc u sse d s c a p e g o a t p a t­ te r n .66 A lte rn a tiv e ly , th e v ic tim m a y be m a rk e d by a to u c h in g a m b iv a le n c e , d e s p is e d a n d w o rs h ip e d a t th e sam e tim e. T h is h a s been e la b o r a te d , m o s t o f a ll, in th e C h ris tia n tr a d itio n .67 T h e s c a p e g o a t c o m p le x w ill n o t b e d isc u sse d h e re a t le n g th .68 Suffice it to re c a ll th e r itu a l fo r th e D a y o f A to n e m e n t a c c o rd in g to th e B ible. A g o a t is se le c te d “ fo r A za zel,” th e sins o f th e p eo p le are p la c e d o n its h e a d , a n d it is led a w a y in to th e d e se rt. It w ill p ro b a b ly fa ll a v ic tim t o p r e d a to r s th e re . O n e la te r so u rc e says th e g o a t w a s h u r le d d o w n a c liff .69 A n iv o ry p la q u e fro m L ate B ronze A ge M e g id d o h a s o fte n b ee n a d d u c e d fo r illu s tra tio n o f this r itu a l. It s h o w s a n a g g ressiv e s p h in x , a d e m o n w ith a lio n ’s b o d y a n d a v u ltu r e ’s w in g s , g ra s p in g a g o a t: a d e m o n d e p ic te d in th e g u ise o f a c a rn iv o re o f th e d e s e rt .70

Life for Life D e v o u rin g d e m o n s w h o p u r s u e m e n a re p r o m in e n t in th e a n c ie n t o rie n ta l c o n c e p tio n s o f d ise a se , w h ic h c a n be c o u n te re d by h e a l­ ing m a g ic .71 T h e n o r m a l p ra c tic e is to o ffe r a n a n im a l, w ith w o rd s s u c h as: “ L o o k , th is g o a t is b ig a n d fa t, ta k e it a n d let th e sick p e r s o n g o .” T h e s e id e a s a n d p ra c tic e s w e re in flu en tial in th e

Fasti,72 tells o f d e m o n ic v a m p ire b ird s fly in g a r o u n d a t n ig h t, c a lle d striges (w itch es a re called by n ea rly th e s a m e n a m e , strigae). T h e striges p e n e tra te in to th e classical w o r ld to o . O v id , in

ro o m s w h e re b a b ie s a r e a s le e p a n d s u c k th e ir b lo o d , leaving th e m

Escape and Offerings

to sic k e n a n d d ie . O n e w is e , c h a r i s m a t i c w o m a n f o u n d a ritual to h e lp th e sick b a b ie s : t a k e th e i n w a r d p a r t s o f a p ig le t a n d say, “ b ird s o f n ig h t, s p a r e th e i n w a r d p a r t s o f th e c h ild . F o r th e little o n e a little sa c ri He e is ta ilin g . T a k e h e a r t f o r h e a r t , in te s tin e s for in te s tin e s ; w e g iv e th is life s o u l f o r th e s a k e o f a b e t te r life-so u l.” T h e e n tra ils , c u t to p ie c e s , a r e to h e s p r e a d u n d e r th e o p e n sky, a n d n o b o d y is a llo w e d to lo o k b a c k a s th e y leave th e scene. In th e im a g in a tiv e w o r l d e v o k e d b y m y th a n d r i t u a l , th e p u rsu in g p r e d a to r s t h a t s u c k th e b lo o d o f t h e i r v ic tim s h a v e t o b e pacified by a s u b s t itu ti o n s a c rific e , b y k illin g a n o t h e r s m a ll a n im a l. An a c tio n t h a t w o u ld h a v e a p r a g m a t i c f u n c t i o n in d e a lin g w ith real a n im a ls , to s to p p u r s u in g p r e d a t o r s b y f e e d in g th e m , b ec o m e s a p u r e ly s y m b o lic , m a g ic a l p r o c e d u r e . B u t i t a ls o e n ta ils a n o th e r tr a n s f o r m a ti o n : in s te a d o f p a s s iv e a b a n d o n m e n t o f a c h o s e n vic­ tim , th e r e is a c tiv e k illin g . T h e v ic tim - to - b e s a v e s h im s e lf by be­ c o m in g a k ille r in t u r n . In a w a y th is d o u b le s th e p r o te c tio n to b e a c h ie v e d , b o t h a s s u a g in g a n d t h r e a t e n i n g t h e p u ta tiv e ag ­ g re sso r, in a p r a c tic e t h a t is m o s t s tr o n g ly fe lt t o b e effica cio u s. O v id ’s o m in o u s w o r d s “ s o u l f o r s o u l ,”

animam pro anima,73

a r e w e ll k n o w n f r o m m o r e s e rio u s r e lig io u s c o n t e x t s , esp ecially f r o m v o tiv e in s c r ip tio n s t o S a tu r n u s f r o m N o r t h A f r ic a .74 In this c o n t e x t it is n e c e s s a ry t o re c a ll t h a t s u b s t i t u t i o n in sa crifice can b e tu r n e d a r o u n d , f r o m a n im a l f o r h u m a n b a c k t o h u m a n for a n im a l. S a tu r n u s - K r o n o s is th e g o d w i t h w h o m a n c ie n t tra d itio n c o n n e c ts th e P h o e n ic ia n a n d e s p e c ia lly C a r t h a g i n i a n sa crifices o f c h ild re n , s o m e tim e s c a lle d M o lo c h s a c rific e s a f te r L e v itic u s .75 D io d o r u s sa y s th e y h a d b e e n r e p la c e d b y a n i m a l h o lo c a u s ts o f th e m o r e n o r m a l f o r m , b u t in a s i t u a t i o n o f d is a s te r, s u c h as d u r in g th e sieg e b y A g a th o c le s , th e C a r t h a g i n i a n s r e s o r te d to h u m a n sa c rific e a g a in a s th e m o r e e ffic a c io u s m e a n s to secure s a lv a tio n .76 T h e s e w e re “ r a n s o m f o r a v e n g in g d e m o n s ,” P h ilo o f B y b lo s s a id .77 T h e I n d ia n sa c rific e o f b u t t e r 78 a n d th e P u n ic sac­ rifice o f c h ild re n a re tw o e x tre m e s o f th e

pars pro toto

p rin c ip le .

T h e c o n v ic tio n t h a t a t h r e a t to h u m a n life c a n o n ly b e a v e rte d b y o ffe rin g a n o t h e r h u m a n b e in g is a f o r m o f lo g ic t h a t c a n arise e v e ry w h e re . T h u s A d m e tu s a c c e p te d th e d e a th o f h is w ife A lces-

Creation

of the Sacred

tis in his s te a d ; A eliu s A riste id e s d re a m e d a b o u t it;7v Q ueen A m estris p e rfo rm e d su c h k illin g s; a c c o rd in g to H e ro d o tu s , so did a k in g a t U p p s a la ; a n d a s e v e n te e n th -c e n tu ry H u n g a ria n duchess trie d to p r o lo n g h e r life by s la u g h te rin g g irls .80 C a e sa r alleged th a t it w a s g e n e ra l c u s to m in G a u l to re s o rt to h u m a n sacrifice in cases o f sic k n e ss , o f b a ttle s , o f d a n g e rs in g en e ra l, “ because th e y b eliev e t h a t u n le ss fo r th e life o f a m a n th e life o f a m a n is given, th e w ill o f th e im m o rta l g o d s c a n n o t be p la c a te d . ” 81 R e­ p o rts o n c h ild sa crifice in In d ia , to a v e rt sickness o r o th e r im ­ m in e n t d a n g e r, still a p p e a r in o u r n e w sp a p e rs. In th e S um erian In a n n a m y th th e “ la w o f th e n e th e r w o r ld ” h o ld s th a t a su b stitu te m u st b e g iv e n so t h a t I n a n n a c a n rise fro m th e d ead ; hence D um u zi falls v ic tim t o th e in fe rn a l

gallê w h o

p erse cu te him . T hese

fa ta l d e m o n s “ d o n o t a c c e p t o ffe rin g s o f e a tin g a n d d rin k in g , flo u r s p rin k le d f o r sa crifice, w a te r p o u re d o u t fo r lib a tio n .” T h e re is n o o ffe rin g to tu r n th e m a w a y .82 Even in such a c o n te x t th e e d ify in g re v e rs a l in to v o lu n ta ry sacrifice is possible. Som e R o m a n s m a d e v o w s th e y w o u ld die if th e sick e m p e ro r reco v ­ ered — a n d C a lig u la re a lly e n fo rc e d th e fulfillm ent o f such v o w s .83 R u m o r h a d it t h a t A n tin o u s ’ d e a th w a s a m ag ical sacrifice to p ro lo n g H a d r i a n ’s life .84 In th e s itu a tio n o f th e h e rd vis-à-vis th e c a rn iv o re — th e zeb ras a tta c k e d by lio n s — w h e n o n e in d iv id u a l is k illed, th e o th e rs feel safe fo r a tim e . T h e in stin c tiv e p ro g ra m seem s to co m m a n d : ta k e a n o th e r o n e , n o t m e . T h is a n c ie n t p ro g ra m is still a t w o rk in h u m a n s, still fleein g fro m d e v o u rin g d an g e rs a n d still m a k in g sacrifices to a s s u a g e a n d tr iu m p h o v e r a n x ie ty .85 In th is p ersp ec­ tive sacrifice is a c o n s tr u c t o f sense th a t h as p ro v e d a lm o st u n i­ v ersally e ffectiv e t h r o u g h o u t th e h is to ry o f civilization.

Escape and Offerings

3 The Core of a Tale

“ C a u g h t u p in T a le s * '

In Geschichten verstrickt

( C a u g h t u p in T a le s ) is th e title o f a

slim volume b y W ilh e lm Schapp. w h ic h a p p e a r e d in 1953 and has made some impact a t le a s t tn G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h y .’ His ex­ p e rie n c e as a lawyer led Schapp t o r e a l is e that w h a t m o v e s p eo ­ ple, what they experience, recount, and r e c a ll, a r e s to r ie s . Each individual has a tale t o tell which constitutes his o r h e r p ro b le m , failure, or success. Personal knowledge about life usually t ä t e the form of a tale, and that is how it is stored and communicated. Schapp's observation is of general philosophical interest. Ever since Aristotle, it had generally been assumed that knowledge takes the logical form of statements, predication on a subject. “The world is a totality of facts,” Wittgenstein w rote.2 We know, since we have learned it, that it is the case and it is true that the whale is a mammal and not a fish, that lightning is a phenome­ non of electricity, and that St. Andrews is a city in Scotland. What we learn in tales is knowledge of a different kind: that a certain person has done this or that, and this is w hat came of it. Al­ though it is difficult to explain how such personal knowledge can be generalized, it can still be said that tales are understand­ able; they call for empathy; they often dominate communication. The tale is the form through which com plex experience becomes communicable.

The interest in tales has also animated studies of folklore, which have been flourishing at least since the beginning of the nineteenth century. They started from a revived interest in myth—in fact, from the very rediscovery of the concept of myth. ■ In the wake of the fairy tales collected by the Grimm brothers,4 national mythologies were rediscovered or reconstructed in Eu­ rope and across the world. By 1913, when a Mythology o f All Races was collected,5 it was taken for granted that the tradition of a particular civilization, especially of preliterate societies, was mainly encoded in tales. While in a way this anticipated Schapp’s findings, in contrast to his starting point, myths are not personal but generalized, the common possession of a group or tribe that helps to constitute its conscious group identity. Traditional tales are anything but homogeneous, however, and the problem of distinguishing, say, myth, saga, and fairy tale has proved to be too complex to yield to a general, transcultural solution.6 This also makes a general definition of myth proper quite difficult, if not impossible.7 Adding to the problems are the diachronical stability or changeability of tales and the interrelation of oral and written traditions. It is obvious that many tales are quite similar to each other, appearing to be variations of general underlying patterns or types. The current index of Märchentypen by Aarne-Thompson enumerates about 1000 types of fairy tales,8 but the number can be reduced by further generalization. At the same time, a tale is very easy to remember, at any rate if it is a good tale. Everyone could volunteer to tell a tale heard just once, if it has caught his imaginative attention. Contrast the effort needed to remember and to reproduce correctly just a few nonsense syllables, a 10digit-number, or some words in a language we don’t know. Yet this is what the simplest tape recorder or floppy disk will cheer­ fully do. What people do when they recount a tale evidently is quite different. It is not a sequence of sounds and words we re­ member and usually not a fixed text either—though children will sometimes exhibit exact memories. Storytellers expand, abbre­ viate, change words, and translate. A tale is not a series of words

The Core of a Tale

b u t a s e q u e n c e o f e v e n ts a n d a c t i o n s t h a t m a k e s e n s e . W h ile there a re to o ls a n d p r o p s t o h e lp r e m e m b e r a t e x t e x a c tly , as in the B ra h m a n ic t r a d i t i o n o f V e d a o r in I s la m ic Q u r a n s c h o o ls , they b rin g o u t, b y c o n t r a s t , h o w n a t u r a l it is t o re c a ll a m em o rab le ta le . It h a s a n o b s e s s iv e i m p a c t c o m b in e d w i t h f re e d o m o f ex­ p r e s s io n .

A

ta le is a s t r u c t u r e o f s e n s e .9

The Propp Sequence: The Quest M u c h w o r k h a s b e e n d o n e o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f ta le s in recent d e c a d e s . O n e o f th e m o s t s u c c e s s fu l, in f lu e n t ia l , a n d accessible s tu d ie s is s till V la d im ir P r o p p ’s

Morphology of the Folktale.™

P r o p p w r o t e a b o u t R u s s ia n f a ir y ta le s , b u t t h e im p lic a tio n s of h is w o r k g o b e y o n d h is c o r p u s . 11 A c c o rd in g t o P r o p p , a ta le is t o b e s e e n a s a se q u e n c e o f 31 f u n c tio n s (c a lle d “ m o tif e m e s ” b y A la n D u n d e s ) . In th e ab b rev i­ a te d a n d s im p lifie d v e r s io n h e r e w it h , t h e t a le s t a r t s w ith some d a m a g e , la c k , o r d e s ire ( 8 ); t h e h e r o is t o l d t o g o s o m e w h e re (9) a n d a g re e s t o d o so ( 1 0 ); h e le a v e s h o m e ( 1 1 ); h e m e e ts some b e in g t h a t p u ts h im t o a te s t ( 1 2 ); r e a c tin g t o i t (1 3 ), h e receives s o m e g ift o r m a g ic a l a id (1 4 ); h e g e ts t o t h e p la c e r e q u ir e d (15) a n d m e e ts a n a d v e r s a r y w ith w h o m h e h a s t o i n t e r a c t (16); he is h a r m e d in s o m e w a y (1 7 ) b u t is v ic to r i o u s in t h e e n d (18); thus th e in itia l d a m a g e o r la c k is p u t r i g h t (1 9 ). T h e h e r o b egins his h o m e w a r d jo u r n e y (2 0 ); h e is p u r s u e d (2 1 ) b u t s a v e d (2 2 ); he c o m e s b a c k w i t h o u t b e in g r e c o g n iz e d (2 3 ); th e r e is a w ic k e d im ­ p o s t o r (2 4 ), a te s t (2 5 ), a n d fin a l s u c c e s s (2 6 ); th e h e r o is rec­ o g n iz e d (2 7 ); th e i m p o s to r is p u n is h e d (2 8 ); t h e h e r o m a rrie s and b e c o m e s k in g (3 1 ). P r o p p ’s th e s is is t h a t th e s e f u n c tio n s o r m o tif e m e s a re th e con­ s ta n t e le m e n ts in ta le s ; th e n u m b e r o f f u n c tio n s is lim ite d , and th e ir s e q u e n c e is fix e d . T h e y n e e d n o t a ll t u r n u p in a single n a r r a tiv e — th e a b o v e s e le c tio n o m i t t e d s o m e o f th e m — b u t every ta le c o n ta in s s o m e c o m b in a t io n o f th e s e f u n c tio n s , a n d p a rts of th e s e q u e n c e m a y a ls o b e r e p e a te d . F u r t h e r fo rm a liz a tio n of P r o p p ’s a p p r o a c h , n o ta b ly b y A la n D u n d e s , 12 in tr o d u c e d higher

Creation of the Sacred

levels o f a b s t r a c t i o n , w h ic h w e a k e n th e m e m o r a b le a n d e m p i r i ­ cally a c c e s s ib le le v e l. S o m e c r itic s o f P r o p p ’s th e s is q u e s tio n h is e x c lu s iv e r e lia n c e o n h is s o u r c e , A f a n a s ’e v ’s c o lle c tio n o f R u s s ia n f a ir y ta le s , a n d A f a n a s ’e v ’s o r ig in a l r e lia n c e o n h is m a in i n f o r m a n t , a R u s s ia n p e a s a n t .13 C o n v e rs e ly , o t h e r c r itic s w o n d e r if th e a u t h o r p la c e d to o m u c h e m p h a s is o n th e c la s s ic a l E u r o p e a n t r a d i t i o n . 14 T o c o u n te r s u c h c o n c e r n s , it is r e a s s u r i n g t h a t P r o p p ’s a n a ly s is , w h a te v e r its f o u n d a t i o n s w e r e , is a p p lic a b le to a w id e r a n g e o f ta le s w h ic h n e i t h e r P r o p p n o r A f a n a s ’ev, le t a lo n e th e R u s s ia n p e a s a n t, h a d e v e r k n o w n o r t h o u g h t o f. In G re e k m y th o lo g y , w h ic h h a d n o t b e e n in c lu d e d in P r o p p ’s stu d y , th e le g e n d o f P e r s e u s h a d b e e n t r e a t e d a s a m o d e l t a l e . 15 T o g e t M e d u s a ’s h e a d (9) P e rs e u s s e ts o u t o n a jo u r n e y (1 1 ) t o th e e d g e o f th e w o r l d ; h e m e e ts th e

Graiai,

f r o m w h o m h e g e ts

a d v ic e a n d m a g ic a l a id s (1 2 , 1 4 ); th e n th e r e is th e c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith th e G o r g o n ( 1 6 ), th e k illin g (1 8 ), th e flig h t, a n d t h e p u r s u i t by th e G o r g o n ’s s is te r s (2 1 ). A n o t h e r f a m o u s s e t o f ta le s in G r e e k m y th o lo g y te lls a b o u t t h e l a b o r s o f H e r a c le s . T h e s e , lik e t h e e x ­ p lo its o f P e r s e u s , a r e t r a n s m i t t e d n o t b y a c la s s ic a l p o e t b u t m a in ly b y w a y o f je ju n e s u m m a r ie s a n d a llu s io n s . T h e s e a r e p o p ­ u la r ta le s , a t t e s t e d a ls o b y a r ic h ic o n o g r a p h ie t r a d i t i o n w h ic h c o n firm s th e p o p u l a r i t y o f th e ta le s , b e g in n in g in th e a r c h a ic e p ­ o c h o f G r e e c e .16 H e r a c l e s ’ l a b o r s c o n f o r m t o t h e p a t t e r n o f P r o p p in m u ltip le r e p e t i t i o n s . T o g e t t h e c a ttl e o f G e r y o n e u s ,17 f o r e x ­ a m p le , H e r a c le s , b y c o m m a n d o f E u r y s th e u s (9 ), s e ts o u t o n a lo n g jo u r n e y ( 1 1 ). H e m e e ts th e O l d M a n o f th e S ea w h o g iv e s h im d ir e c tio n s ( 1 2 , 1 3 ) ; h e m e e ts H e lio s t h e S u n G o d f r o m w h o m he o b ta in s t h e m a g ic a l o b je c t, t h e g o ld e n c u p t o c r o s s O k e a n o s (1 4 ); u p o n a r r i v i n g a t t h e R e d I s la n d o f E r y th e ia (1 5 ) h e h a s a fig h t w ith t h e t h r e e - b o d i e d “ r o a r i n g ” m a s te r o f a n im a ls , G e r y ­ o n e u s ( 1 8 ), a n d s e iz e s t h e h e r d o f c a t t l e (1 9 ). T h e r e is n o d ir e c t p u r s u it o n t h e r e t u r n jo u r n e y , b u t th e r e a r e r e p e a te d a d v e n tu r e s w ith i m p o s to r s ( 2 4 , 2 6 ) , a s t h e c a t t l e g e t lo s t o r s to le n o n th e lo n g w a y t h r o u g h P r o v e n c e , R o m e , a n d S icily. T h e fin a l m a r r ia g e (31) o c c u rs o n O l y m p u s a f t e r a ll t h e l a b o r s h a v e b e e n d o n e .

The Core of a Tale

A n o th e r m o d e l m y th is Hie s to r y o f th e A rg o n a u ts . Its definite lite ra ry fo rm w a s s h a p e d by th e H e lle n is tic p o e t A p o llo n io s of R h o d e s; but c e n tu rie s b e fo re , fo r th e a u d ie n c e o f th e

Odyssey,

th is w a s a so n g “ d e a r to e v e r y o n e . ” 18 K arl M c u li in te rp reted it o n th e m o d e l o f a fairy ta le , a n d it d e a r l y a g re e s w ith P ropp’s p a t t e r n .1“ P elias at lo lk o s d e s ire s th e g o ld e n fleece ( 8 ); Iason is to ld to get it (9). T h e c o lle c tio n o f v a r io u s h e lp e rs (1 2 , 14) right at th e s ta r t, th e c re w o f th e s h ip

Argo

in th is c a se , is a special

fe a tu re o f th is ta le -ty p e . F u r th e r h e lp e rs a n d a d v e rs a rie s show u p o n th e s h ip ’s r o u te u n til th e v o y a g e rs r e a c h th e ir destination (1 5 ), Aia o r K o lc h is, w h e r e M e d e a , p rin c e s s a n d w itc h , tu rn s out to be th e d ec isiv e h e lp e r w h o p r o v id e s k n o w le d g e a n d magical m e a n s a g a in s t th e a d v e rs a ry , h e r fa th e r, K in g A ietes. T h en fol­ lo w s th e c o n te s t (1 8 ), th e flig h t (2 0 ), th e p u r s u i t ( 2 1 ), and the m a g ic a l a v e rs io n (2 2 ) . 20 B u t th e p a t te r n se e m s to s n a p a t the p o in t o f r e tu r n a n d m a rr ia g e , as it c o llid e s w ith a n o th e r: Pelias’ in trig u e s a n d d e a th , M e d e a ’s c rim e s , a n d I a s o n ’s fin al fa ilu re. The g o a l o f th e e n te r p ris e , th e g o ld e n fleece, lo s e s its fu n c tio n ; the q u e s t ta le re c e d e s to b e c o m e a p re fa c e to th e tr a g e d y o f M edea. The

Odyssey is

a ty p ic a l in m a n y re s p e c ts t o o .21 B u t p a rts o f it,

sin g le e x p lo its o f O d y s s e u s s u c h as th e C irc e o r th e C yclops ep­ iso d e s, c a n still be a n a ly z e d as in s ta n c e s o f P r o p p ’s p a tte rn . T h e e a rlie s t w r itte n ta le s a re S u m e ria n , a n d h e re P ro p p ’s pat­ te rn tr iu m p h s . “ G ilg a m e s h a n d H u w a w a ” h a s lo n g b ee n know n as p a r t o f th e G ilg a m e s h e p ic , b u t th e o ld e r S u m e ria n version h a s b e e n e d ite d in its fu ll fo rm o n ly r e c e n tly .22 It s ta rts w ith the d e s ire ( 8 ) o f L o rd G ilg a m e s h to g o to th e m o u n ta in to “p u t up h is n a m e .” F o r th is jo u r n e y h e c o lle c ts h e lp e rs (1 4 ), forem ost a m o n g w h o m is h is s e rv a n t E n k id u . T h e r e is a ls o a c u rio u s group o f se v en w ith a n im a l c h a ra c te ris tic s — lio n , e a g le , se rp e n t— and s u p e rh u m a n a b ilitie s g r a n te d by th e S u n g o d ; o th e r y o u n g men f ro m h is c ity c o m e to o . T h is e a rly w r itte n te x t d isp la y s th e du ­ p lic a tio n o f m o tifs — o r ra th e r, g a th e r in g o f c o m p e tin g v a ria n ts— w h ic h u n d e rlin e s th e n e c e ss ity o f th is “ f u n c tio n .” G ilg a m esh has to c ro ss sev en m o u n ta in ra n g e s b e fo re h e re a c h e s th e c e d a r tree (15) w h ic h h e fells; th e a d v e rs a ry H u w a w a , th e g u a rd ia n o f the

Creation of the Sacred

m o u n ta in , a tta c k s (16) a n d d e fe a ts G ilg a m e sh w ith a k in d o f su p e rw e a p o n , a b e a m of a w e (1.7); b u t Gilgamesh recovers th a n k s to E n k id u . H e th e n b eg in s to tric k H u w a w a , offering him his sisters as c o n c u b in e s ; finally H u w a w a s u rre n d e rs his w o n d e r w e a p o n , he is s tru c k by fo rc e , a n d E n k id u c u ts o ff his h e a d (18). T h e h e a d is b r o u g h t to th e g o d , E n k i (2 0 ), w h o e sta b lish e s a n ew d is trib u tio n o f p o w e rs . In th is w a y th e ta le e n d s o n a re lig io u s, aetio lo g ical n o te , b u t th e n a r r a tiv e fu n c tio n s h a v e sh o w n u p in the re c o g n iz e d se q u e n c e . A n o th e r e a rly a n d im p o r ta n t S u m e ria n te x t is “ N in u r ta a n d th e A s a k k u . ”23 A k in d o f d a m a g e ( 8 ) h a s o c c u rre d b e c a u se th e d em o n A s a k k u , s o n o f H e a v e n a n d E a rth , in sta lle d h im se lf o n th e m o u n ta in , h a d se x w ith th e m o u n ta in , a n d e n g e n d e re d th e ro ck d e m o n s w h o h a v e re b e lle d a g a in s t th e g o d s. So v a lia n t N in ­ u rta goes o u t to fig h t th e m ( 9 ,1 1 ) . H is h e lp e r is S h aru r, h is c lu b , e n d o w e d w ith sp e e c h a n d in te llig e n c e ( 1 2 ,1 4 ) ; th e c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith A s a k k u (16) is d iffic u lt, b u t in th e e n d N in u r ta is v ic to rio u s (18), a n n ih ila te s th e a d v e rsa ry , a n d o rg a n iz e s th e c o u n try fo r c u ltiv a tio n . N in u r ta h a s th e ro le o f a c u ltu ra l h e ro , o v e rc o m in g th e d e m o n o f th e m o u n ta in as G ilg a m e sh v a n q u is h e d th e d e m o n o f th e w o o d s .24 T h e q u e s t ta le is a b o u t to tu r n in to sh e e r c o m b a t tale, b u t it r e ta in s its c h a ra c te r w ith th e ro a d to th e u n e x p lo re d reg io n a n d th e p r a c tic a l r e s u lt o f th e a c tio n , w h e re b y sto n e s fro m th e m o u n ta in ’s q u a r r ie s b e c o m e a v a ila b le fo r h u m a n u se a n d tim b e r fo r th e te m p le in th e city. E ven c lo se r to th e P ro p p p a tte r n is th e fa m o u s te x t o f th e “ D e ­ scent o f In a n n a t o th e N e th e r w o r ld . ”25 In th is ta le , th e first m o v e o f a q u e s t seem s to fail: I n a n n a , th e g o d d e s s o f fertility , g ets lo s t in th e L a n d o f N o R e tu r n ( 8 ). T h is w o u ld b e a c a ta s tro p h e to th e w o rld , b u t it re le a se s a n e w se q u e n c e . B ecause o f th e loss, E nki c re a te s h e ro ic s h a m a n -lik e fig u res (9) ca lle d

kalaturru.26 T h e y

kurgaru a n d

se t o u t f o r th e n e th e r w o r ld (1 1 ), u sin g m a g ic

to p ass th e d o o r u n n o tic e d like flies (1 5 ). W h e n th e y m e e t th e ad v ersary, E re s h k ig a l, q u e e n o f th e n e th e rw o rld (1 6 ), in s te a d o f re so rtin g to v io le n c e , th e y u se th e ir w its. T h e y e n d e a r th e m selv es to E re sh k ig a l a n d a s k h e r f o r a gift: th e d isfig u re d c o rp s e o f In-

The Core o f a Tale

a n n a , w h ic h th e y s p rin k le w ith th e w a t e r o f life (1 9 ). O n th e re tu rn jo u rn e y th e y a re p u r s u e d ( 2 1 ) b y a h o s t o f d e m o n s w h o e x a c t a s u b s titu tio n s a c rific e .27 H e r e m y th m e e ts w ith r itu a l in th e d e m a n d fo r o ffe rin g s , b u t th e s itu a ti o n o f p u r s u i t a n d m a g ic a l flig h t is still p a r t o f th e P r o p p s e q u e n c e . T h e c lim a x o f th e G ilg a m e s h e p ic is th e g r e a t e s t q u e s t, th e q u e s t fo r life. It is a g rie v o u s lo ss ( 8 ), th e d e a th o f E n k id u , th a t m a k e s G ilg a m e sh a b a n d o n h is h o m e (1 1 ) a n d w a n d e r th r o u g h th e ste p p e . H o w his id e a to s e a rc h f o r life c o m e s a b o u t is lo s t in a la c u n a o f th e te x t. O n h is a d v e n tu r o u s a n d f a n ta s tic w a y th e h e ro fo llo w s th e w a y o f th e s u n t h r o u g h th e tw in m o u n ta in , b e y o n d w h ic h he m e e ts h is h e lp e r (1 2 ), S id u ri th e a le w ife . She tells h im h o w to c ro s s th e w a te r o f d e a th w ith U r s h a n a b i th e fe rry m a n so as to re a c h U tn a p is h tim , th e h e r o o f th e flo o d , w h o a lo n e h a s e s c a p e d d e a th (1 5 ). U tn a p is h tim p r o v e s a frie n d ly th o u g h ta lk a tiv e h o s t, a n d a f te r so m e te s ts t h a t y ie ld u n p r o m is ­ ing re su lts, h e gives G ilg a m e s h th e c r u c ia l in f o r m a tio n a b o u t h o w to a p p r o p r ia te th e “ p la n t o f life ” (1 9 ). G ilg a m e s h se ts o u t to re tu r n h o m e , a c c o m p a n ie d by U rs h a n a b i w h o h e n c e fo rth q u its his service. B u t a t a f o u n ta in , w h e n G ilg a m e s h fa lls asleep , a sn a k e co m e s a n d sw a llo w s th e p la n t o f life (2 4 ). T h e q u e s t h as failed . T h e re a fte r, s n a k e s c a n c a s t o ff th e ir o ld a g e b y slo u g h in g , w h e re a s m a n re m a in s b o u n d to d e a th . P e ssim istic w is d o m o v e r­ co m es th e in h e re n t o p tim is m o f th e t a le .28 “T h e ta le

(mythos) is th e

so u l o f th e d r a m a ,” A ris to tle w r o te ,29

“ s o u l” b ein g a n o rg a n iz in g p rin c ip le o f n a tu r e . T h e P ro p p p a t­ te rn a c ts as a n o rg a n iz in g p rin c ip le fro m th e e a rlie s t ta le s th a t h a v e b een re c o rd e d , th r o u g h c la ssic a l m y th o lo g y a n d f a r b e y o n d . It w o u ld be e a sy in d e e d (a n d te d io u s ) to tr a c e th e P r o p p o rg a ­ n iz a tio n s th r o u g h ro m a n c e s , d r a m a , a n d m o d e r n m o v ie s, science fictio n , a n d ev en c o m p u te r g a m e s. A g e n e ra l a n d tr a n s c u ltu ra l fo rm o f o rg a n iz in g e x p e rie n c e se em s to b e a t w o r k . It fo llo w s th a t w h e n w e u n d e r s ta n d a ta le , w e c a n e a sily m e m o riz e it, re ­ p ro d u c e it, ev en r e c o n s tru c t it f ro m in c o m p le te re c o rd s . W h e th e r b y in s tin c t o r by r o u tin e , w e se em t o k n o w w h a t s h o u ld h a p p e n n e x t. W e lik e a ta le t o b e r e to ld . R e p e titiv e a n d fa s c in a tin g as it

Creation of the Sacred

is a t th e sam e tim e , it m a y be called th e a d v e n tu re

par excellence.

o r ju st th e q u e st.

F rom

Biological P r o g r a m s to S e m a n t i c Chains

O n e o b v io u s h y p o th e s is w o u ld be th a t th e tale-tellin g p ro g ra m ow es its e x iste n c e to p re v io u s le a rn in g . As people, especially chil­ d ren , a re to ld sto rie s , a lo t o f sto rie s of all sorts, they build up a sto rag e sy stem in th e fo rm o f seq u en ces and functions and thus g rad u ally b e c o m e b e tte r a n d fa ste r in th e ir understanding. This, how ever, s h o u ld le ad to th e em erg en ce o f q u ite d iffe re n t form s o f o rg a n iz in g e x p e rie n c e , a n d hence d iffe re n t p a tte rn s o f tales o u t o f d iffe re n t c iv iliz a tio n s. Yet th e sequence o f th e q u est is su rp risin g ly p e rs is te n t a n d n e a rly u b iq u ito u s th ro u g h m o re th a n fo u r m ille n n ia . Is it le g itim a te to lo o k b ey o n d civilization for its basis o r o rig in ? In 1979 I w ro te c o n fid e n tly : “If we ask where such a structure of sense, su ch a p ro g ra m o f a c tio n s, is d eriv ed from, th e answer m u st ev id en tly be: fro m th e reality o f life, nay, fro m biology. Every r a t in se a rc h o f fo o d w ill in cessan tly ru n th ro u g h all these ‘fu n c tio n s ’. ”30 S tu d ies o f r a t b e h a v io r sh o w th e co m p ellin g c o m ­ b in a tio n o f e n e rg y a n d sw ift in tellig en ce in th is m o st successful an im al species, as r a ts m a n a g e to solve th e ir everyday problem, the p ro v isio n o f fo o d . E ven fo r our n ea re st relatives, th e apes, the q u e st fo r fo o d h a s re m a in e d th e d ay 's m a in occupation; nor can h u m a n s d o w ith o u t it. It is c le a r th a t th e biological program necessary to fulfill th e sp ecial n ee d s o f a highly o rg an iz ed being will c o n ta in a se rie s o f b asic fu n c tio n s: p u rs u it o f a need (8 k leaving h o m e (1 1 ); fin d in g th e p lace re q u ire d (15); m eetin g c o m ' petitive, o fte n d a n g e ro u s a d v e rsa rie s (16); success (18), meaning realiza tio n o f d e sire (1 9 ); b u t re tu r n to th e home base (20) may be difficult in ca se o f p u r s u it ( 2 1 ); th e o u tc o m e is th e individuals salv atio n (2 2 ). A s it tu rn s o u t, p ra c tic a lly th e w h o le o f the P ro p p sequence is p re fig u re d in th is series o f bio lo g ical necessities. T h e m ain s tra n d o f P r o p p ’s se q u e n c e c a n be su m m arize d in o n e w o rd ; the q u est, w h ic h m a y e n ta il m a n y d a n g e rs, including combat.

The Core of a Tale

The biological equivalent of the quest is the search for food, which includes the struggle against others who are in quest for the same resources, and the possibility of tricks, fight, and flight. As 1 wrote in another context: Actions are represented by the verb, and the verbal root, the “zero form” of the verb, in most languages—including English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Semitic, and Turkish—is the im­ perative; and communication by imperatives is more primitive, and more basic, than communication by statements. The deep­ est deep structure of a tale would, then, be a series of impera­ tives: “get,” that is, “go out, ask, find out, fight for it, take and run.”31 S u rp risin g c o n firm a tio n o f th is p o in t h a s e m e rg e d fro m a field w h ic h m a n y w ill ju d g e in te rm e d ia te b e tw e e n b io lo g ic a l fu n ctio n s a n d h u m a n a c tio n s : c h im p a n z e e la n g u a g e . A m o n g th e a p e s th a t h a v e b een ta u g h t sig n la n g u a g e , th e m o s t s u c c e s sfu l w a s a fe­ m a le , W a sh o e . T h e e x te n t to w h ic h th is is “ r e a l ” la n g u a g e is h o tly d e b a te d , b u t th is is n o t th e d ec isiv e is s u e h e re . I t suffices th a t h u m a n s a n d c h im p a n z e e s c a n c o m m u n ic a te t h r o u g h th is m e­ d iu m , even if th e a p e s ’ in te re s t is lim ite d ; it c o n tin u e s to c o n c en ­ tr a te o n fo o d . R o g e r S. F o u ts r e c o r d s th e f o llo w in g c o n v e rs a tio n

Washoe: O ra n g e , o r­ y o u w a n t? Washoe: O r ­

w ith W a s h o e .32 “ G e o rg e : W h a t y o u w a n t?

George: N o m o re o r a n g e , w h a t an g e. George (g e ttin g a n g ry ): N o m o r e o r a n g e , Washoe: Y ou g o c a r g im m e o r a n g e . H u r r y .” an g e.

w h a t y o u w ant?

T h is is o b v io u s ly a s e q u e n c e f o r g e ttin g fo o d . T h e c h im p a n z e e is in te llig e n t e n o u g h n o t o n ly t o re a liz e a n d e x p re s s th e desire b u t to o rg a n iz e th e n e c e ss a ry s e q u e n c e o f a c tio n s . S he h a d n o t b een rid in g in a c a r re c e n tly , w e a re to ld , b u t s h e k n o w s t h a t one gets o ra n g e s by d riv in g to th e s u p e r m a r k e t. T h e P r o p p sequence is p re s e n t in a n in c ip ie n t s ta g e , a n d it m a k e s se n se . T h e re is a n e e d ( 8 ); th e h e ro is to ld to g o (9) a n d to u se th e a p p ro p ria te m a g ic a l m e a n s (1 4 ); th e n n e e d w ill be fu lfille d (1 9 ). W a sh o e has h e r g o a l a n d sh e m a k e s h e r p la n , a r tic u la tin g i t in a c h a in o f

Creation of the Sacred

comiunnds/events. Ir is safe to say that the chimpanzee is able to correlaie the series of necessary actions in her brain: she organ­ izes her thoughts by mentally preparing motion before starting real action; and having been taught sign language, she can ex­ press this program in language, in a sequence of imperatives. T h is is s trik in g ly sim ila r to p ro to la n g u a g e as observed in the case o t an a b a n d o n e d a n d h en c e re ta rd e d child. The most distinct u tte ra n c e re c o rd e d fro m th is ch ild w as “applesauce buy s to re .” H A gain, w h a t is e x p re s s e d is n o t ju st d esire, h u t knowledge about the m e a n s to fulfill it, a n d th a t ex p re ssio n is p u t in a speech seq u en ce, w ith a v e rb a t th e c e n te r to be u n d e rsto o d as impera­ tive. I d o n o t c la im t h a t W a sh o e h a s to ld a tale; b u t w e m ay be in a p o sitio n to lo c a liz e h e re , as it w e re , th e m issing link th a t m akes

the tr a n s itio n fro m b io lo g y to la n g u a g e , fro m p ro g ra m o f actio n to v e rb a liz e d a c c o u n t .34 A n im p o r ta n t p ro g ra m , such as the q u est fo r fo o d , c a n be p re fig u re d m e n ta lly as a sequence o f a c tio n s a n d is m o st ea sily v e rb a liz e d as a seq u en ce o f im p erativ es. T h e se­ qu en ce in v o lv e s a n a ly s is o f th e g e n e ra l u rg e in to goals a n d m ean s an d th e ir p r a g m a tic in te ra c tio n . T h e o rg a n iz in g p rin cip le o f a tale, th e so u l o f th e p lo t, is fo u n d to o p e ra te a t th e level o f b i­ ology. T h e ta le is c re a te d as a n ec essary seq u en ce o f “m o tife m e s,” an d it h a s th e p ra g m a tic fu n c tio n o f so lv in g a p ro b le m . In o th e r w o rd s, th e q u e s t is e s ta b lis h e d as th e m e a n s fo r p ro b lem -so lv in g , an d it is re p re s e n te d a n d c o m m u n ic a te d th ro u g h th e tale. T h is is n o t to c la im e x p la n a tio n o f th e o rig in a n d fu n ctio n of lan g u ag e as s u c h , o r e v e n e x p la n a tio n o f th e w h o le o f th e P ro p p sequence. It is n o t m y p u r p o s e to a sc rib e a n im a l biology to m an , b u t to re c o g n iz e w h a t is specific in h u m a n civ ilizatio n w h en it is view ed a g a in s t its n e a re s t b a c k g ro u n d ; to place m a n -c re ate d m o n u m e n ts w ith in th e b io lo g ic a l la n d sc a p e w h ich still prescribes th eir o rig in a l d e sig n . L o o k in g b a c k , o r r a th e r lo o k in g a h e a d to w a rd th e developed P ro p p s e q u e n c e , o n e s tra n g e but c h a ra c te ris tic d etail is th e inci­ d e n t o f m e e tin g th e g iv e r o r h e lp e r (12 to 14) w h o p ro v id es the m agical means t o m a k e th e quest a success.” T h is flight o f fan-

The Core of a Tale

tasy in fairy rales a lso a p p e a rs in myths, w ith th e G ratai on Per­

seus' w ay to Medusa, or w ith H e rm e s presenting th e p la n t moly to O d v sse u s to h elp h im overcome C irc e / ' 1 It seems to be a far cry from fa n ta sy to biology. Still, what makes th e difference be­ tw ee n failure and success in each quest is t h a t a t some decisive moment the various attempts and possibilities get o rg a n iz e d into one definite, feasible plan, to be executed without delay. W e may call this the moment of inspiration, the aha-Erlebnis. “A god put it in to his m in d ,” the H o m e ric fo rm u la w o u ld say ; it is th e m o­ m e n t when A th e n a m e ets d is o rie n te d O d y s s e u s a n d m ak es him reco g n ize I th a c a .37 W h e n c h im p a n z e e s so lv e p ro b le m s by think­ in g , th e y clearly h a v e th e ir

aha-Erlebnis to o .

T ales a re a hum an

p re ro g a tiv e , n o d o u b t, b u t th e m o m e n t o f in s p ire d decision is k e e p in g to th e tra c k s o f b io lo g ic a l re a lity , n o less th a n a hairra isin g sh u d d e r. A n o th e r s tra n g e c h a ra c te ris tic o f th e q u e s t ta le is th e asym ­ m e try o f g o in g a n d re tu rn in g . T h e w a y b a c k o fte n is different fro m th e w a y ta k e n b e fo re th e d ecisiv e e n c o u n te r. T h e norm al g e o m e try o f sp ace seem s to d is in te g ra te . In d efian ce o f geogra­ phy, th e A rg o n a u ts h av e to ta k e a to ta lly d iffe re n t ro u te to return to Io lk o s; n o r c a n O d y sse u s re tra c e h is ste p s. In fa c t th is asym ­ m e try also reflects th e e x p e rie n c e o f b io lo g ic a l reality , fo r p ro b ­ lem s a n d p e rsp e c tiv e s ra p id ly c h a n g e w ith th e m o m e n t o f suc­ cess. T h e r a t th a t g o t th e c o o k ie h a s to r u n fa s te s t to escape the o th e rs a n d to re a c h a safe p la c e . T h is is th e e n d o f a successful q u est. T h e tr a n s itio n fro m p ra g m a tic im p e ra tiv e s to n o n p rag m a tic ta les is n o t h a r d to im a g in e . It is o b v io u s t h a t w o m e n a n d men like to use la n g u a g e in w a y s t h a t a re n o t d ire c tly lin k ed to in­ fo rm a tio n . H u m a n s a re ta lk a tiv e ; w e c a n h a rd ly s ta n d to be to ­ g e th e r w ith o u t sa y in g a w o r d .38 W e c a n v isu a liz e o u r ancestors sittin g a r o u n d th e fire in th e ev e n in g , re h e a rs in g th e sequences o f im p e ra tiv e s t h a t o c c u rre d in th e im p o r ta n t activ ities o f the day. In ta lk in g a b o u t th e m th e im p e ra tiv e s c h a n g e th e ir m eaning, a n d a ta le is b o rn . It h a s th e se q u e n c e o f m o tife m e s as encoded in th e p ro g ra m . T h is is w h y it is u n d e rs to o d b y all a n d m akes

Creation of the Sacred

sense. During the evolution of mankind, for hundreds of thousands of years the most important form o f the quest has been hunting.19 The first examples of tales within the quest pattern may well have been hunting tales, with combat tales following closely. In time tales assumed their basic functions, to rehearse some important “out o f gear” moves in the mental world an d thus to uphold the common world of a cultural society. C u rio u sly e n o u g h , th e I n d o e u ro p e a n language had one special categ o ry o f v e rb in fle c tio n , a m o s t sim p le category called “in­ ju n ctiv e” t h a t w a s u se d b o th fo r th e im p e ra tiv e a n d for the tale,40 It is fully p re se rv e d in th e V edic la n g u a g e ; relics e x ist in Greek. In his b o o k e n title d

Der Injunktiv,

H e in z H o ffm a n n describes

th a t se c o n d fu n c tio n as “ b e s c h re ib e n d e E rw ä h n u n g ,” w hich m eans m e n tio n in g w h a t is b a sic a lly k n o w n , in c o n tra s t to c o n ­ veying in fo rm a tio n . O f c o u rse even In d o e u ro p e a n , sp o k e n p e r­ h ap s in th e f o u r th m ille n n iu m B .c., is a lre a d y fa r fro m th e earliest h u m a n la n g u a g e . I t n e v e rth e le ss illu stra te s th e p o ssib ilities o f tra n sitio n fro m im p e ra tiv e to ta le in th e c o n te x t o f th e quest.

T h e S h a m a n ’s Tale

guiding p rin ciple, if n o t th e o rig in , o f sto ry te llin g . T h e sh a m a n , in a state of ecstatic p e rfo rm a n c e , a c ts o u t a q u e s t o f s u p e rn a tu ra l dimen­ sions; h e c a n a s c e n d to h e a v e n o r go d o w n to th e netherworld; he m eets w ith s p irits , d e m o n s , a n d g o d s. H is purpose is to re­ trieve th e so u ls o f sick p e o p le t h a t a re h eld p riso n e r in th e b e­ O ne th e o ry m a k e s o f th e sp ecial ritu a l o f sh a m a n is m th e

yond, o r to re le a se f o r th e h u n t a n im a ls h e ld b ac k by a n o ffended m aster o r m is tre ss o f a n im a ls . T h e classic re p o rts o f sh am an ism com e fro m S ib e ria a n d fro m th e E sk im o s. By using m im icry, sym ­ bols, a n d n o r m a l sp e e c h th e s h a m a n m a k e s th e sequence o f

his

ad v e n tu res c le a r to th o s e p re s e n t a t th e séance— w h o , by th e w ay, k n o w a b o u t th e n o r m a l p r o g ra m o f th e e x p lo it anyw ay. T h e sequence c a n e a sily b e r e p r o d u c e d by te llin g o r rath e r; retelling th e story. T h u s s h a m a n p o e tr y is p re s u m e d

to p la y a role, perhaps

The Core of a Taie

even a b a sic ro le , in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f preliterate narrative, and hence in the growlh of literature.'11 Q u ite a lew in s ta n c e s o f th e quest tale seem to recall a sha­ m a n istic p a tte r n . T h e q u e s t o f th e Argonauts to g e t th e golden fleece from th e la n d of th e S u n , o r to “ b r in g b a c k th e soul of P h rix o s ,” w ith a h e r o n a m e d la s o n o r

leson, w h o s e

n a m e can be

u n d e r s to o d as “ h e a le r,” a r e all s h a m a n is tic e le m e n ts .42 In th e Su­ m e ria n s to ry , I n a n n a ’s re trie v a l fro m th e n e t h e r w o r ld is clearly a s h a m a n is tic e x p l o i t .4 5 Asinnu, th e h e r o ’s d e s ig n a tio n in th e A k­ k a d ia n v e rs io n , re fe rs to a p e c u lia r c la s s o f p e o p le in re a l life. T h e s e a re s o c ia l o u ts id e r s o f u n c e r ta in s e x u a l id e n tity w h o play sp e cia l in s tr u m e n ts a n d a re n e e d e d f o r c e r ta in r itu a ls . T h e y seem to be d e b a s e d s h a m a n s . S im ila rly , G ilg a m e s h tra v e ls th e w ay of th e su n to th e b e y o n d , as d o e s H e r a c le s o n h is w a y to G ery o n eu s; O d y s s e u s r e a c h e s C irc e , d a u g h t e r o f th e S u n G o d , a t th e dancing p la c e o f D a w n ; O d y s s e u s a ls o g o e s d o w n d ire c tly to th e n e th ­ e r w o rld . A ll th e s e a re s h a m a n is tic fe a ts , a ll th e s e h e ro e s could be d e s c rib e d as s h a m a n s . O n e c h a r a c te r is tic o f s h a m a n s ’ tales is t h a t th e y a re to ld in th e firs t p e r s o n . T h e p e r f o r m a n c e e n a c ts the im m e d ia te e x p e rie n c e o f “ I g o , I s e e ,” w h ic h is re e n a c te d in the s to ry o f “ I w e n t, a n d I s a w .” W ith O d y s s e u s , th e d ev ice h a s be­ c o m e lite ra ry a rtific e , b u t its s h a m a n is tic b a c k g r o u n d loom s la rg e . S h a m a n is m r itu a liz e s th e f a n ta s tic , g iv in g s h a p e to re a lm s of th e u n k n o w n . T h e s h a m a n c o n c e n tr a te s o n th e re a lis tic actio n p r o g r a m o f th e q u e s t, h o w to g e t w h a t is n e e d e d . T h e actio n in c lu d e s le a v in g h o m e , a s s e m b lin g h e lp e rs , a r r iv in g a t th e essen­ tia l s p o t, m a k in g d e a ls w ith a n a d v e rs a r y — u s u a lly a g o d o r m as­ te r— w h ic h m a y in v o lv e s u p p lic a tio n , la b o r io u s se rv ic e , tric k , or fo rc e . T h e n it is n e c e s s a ry to fin d th e w a y b a c k th r o u g h d a n g e r­ o u s re a lm s , a n d to e v a d e p u r s u in g d e m o n s . S h a m a n is m a n d ta le -te llin g a p p e a r t o h a v e th e s a m e in tim ate r e la tio n s h ip a s t h a t b e tw e e n ta le s a n d im p e ra tiv e s . It is n o t su r­ p ris in g t h a t a ta le is tu r n e d in to a p la y , f o llo w in g th e im p u lse o f th e p r o g r a m a n d a c tin g o u t th e e v e n ts in s e q u e n c e . In th is p e r­ sp e c tiv e th e m y th - a n d - r itu a l c o m p le x m u s t h a v e q u ite d ista n t

Creation of the Sacred

r o o ts .44 O n e fo rm o f c o n s is te n t e la b o ra tio n is the sh am an istic seance; a n o th e r, in a d iffe re n t c u ltu ra l e n v iro n m e n t, is the th e ­ a te r— w h ic h re m a in e d u n d e r th e g u id a n c e o f m yth in an cien t G reece, S h a m a n istic e x p e rie n c e su rely is specifically h u m a n , im plying, as tra n c e d o e s, th e su p re m a c y o f th e w o rld o f m ean in g as ag ain st a c tu a l p ra g m a tic in te ra c tio n . Yet th e im a g in a tio n necessarily e la b o ra te s o n n a tu r a l p ro g ra m s as th ese d eveloped in biological ev o lu tio n . In o th e r w o rd s , sh a m a n is m is a special develo p m en t o f th e g e n e ra l p ro g ra m o f th e q u e st, w ith c h a ra cte ristic refine­ m e n t o r s u rp lu s t h a t h a s its rep ercu ssio n s on p re lite ra te n a r r a ­ tive. In m a n y re sp e c ts th is is close to d re a m s, a n o th e r field parallel to n a rra tiv e fan tasy . S om e th in k e rs , n o ta b ly C arl G u stav Ju n g an d his sc h o o l, p erce iv e d re a m s a n d m y th o lo g y as being in close c o n ta c t. It s h o u ld n o t be o v e rlo o k e d , how ever, th a t d ream in g p re d a te s th e a d v e n t o f m a n . A ll h igher anim als seem to have d ream s, th o u g h o f c o u rse th e y la ck v erb aliza tio n . D ream s a p p e a r to re p ro d u c e a c tio n a n d v isu a liz atio n p a tte rn s, a n d this brings th e m close to p la y s a n d tales. D re am s m ay a d d to th e re p erto ire a n d m o o d o f h u m a n n a rra tiv e , as sh a m an ism does, w ith o u t h a v ­ ing to be th e o rig in o f m ythology.

The Initiation Tale: The Maiden's Tragedy T h e q u e s t n a rra tiv e is o u ts ta n d in g b u t n o t unique. T h ere are o th e r ty p e s o f ta le s, su c h as w a n d e rin g s, genealogies, m iracu lo u s b irth a n d d e a th , rev en g e, a n d d e c e p tio n .45 O n e favorite fairy tale, d o c u m e n te d in a b o u t 1 ,5 0 0 v a ria n ts w o rld w id e, is

Amor and

Psyche o r “th e a n im a l b rid e g ro o m . ”46 T h e te x t, as it ap p ears in th e Metamorphoses o f A p u leiu s, h a s o ften been called the one surviving fa iry ta le o f a n tiq u ity , a lth o u g h th e c h a ra cte rs involved b ring it close to allegory: S oul, Psyche, m eeting Love, A m or (cor­ re sp o n d in g to th e G re ek

psyche w e w o u ld expect eros) an d giving

b irth to P lea su re , V o lu p ta s. P syche, th e beautiful d au g h ter of a king, is e x p e lle d fro m h e r fa th e r’s house by co m m an d of a n or-

The Core of a Tale

acle a n d a b a n d o n e d o n a c liff n e a r a p re c ip ic e . W in d s carry her d o w n to a w o n d e rfu l valley w ith a m y s te rio u s h o u s e , w here she is te n d e d by in v isib le se rv a n ts ; a t n ig h t, a m a le v isito r w h o m she is fo rb id d e n to see— A m o r h im se lf— m a k e s h e r his w ife. H appy life c o n tin u e s u n til P sy ch e, u p o n th e in s tig a tio n o f h e r sisters, is o v e rc o m e by c u rio s ity to see h e r h u s b a n d ; by th e light of her la m p she b e h o ld s A m o r b u t sc a ld s h im w ith a d ro p o f oil; he d isa p p e a rs. W h ile s e a rc h in g fo r h e r lo s t h u s b a n d , Psyche is c a u g h t by V en u s, h e r m o th e r-in -la w , w h o m a ltre a ts th e younger w o m a n sev erely a n d p u ts h e r to v a rio u s te sts; finally Psyche is a c c e p te d a m o n g th e g o d s a n d o ffic ially m a rrie d to A m or, to w h o m she b e a rs V o lu p ta s. In a b r illia n t a n d p o le m ic a l s tu d y o f 1 9 7 7 , D etle v F ehling pro­ p o se d t h a t all th e k n o w n v a ria n ts o f th is s to ry a re dependent u p o n th e lite ra ry te x t o f A p u le iu s, m a k in g a n a rg u m e n t against r o m a n tic id e a s a b o u t fo lk tr a d itio n t h a t p e rsis ts th ro u g h the ages, u n tin g e d b y lite ra tu re . T h e r o m a n tic v ie w h a s com e under a tta c k fro m o th e r sc h o la rs, to o .47 I t m u s t be a c c e p te d th a t the lite ra ry tr a d itio n a n d th e fo lk tr a d itio n h a v e in te ra c te d , an d folk tr a d itio n b e c a m e c o n ta in a b le o n ly th r o u g h w ritin g . N everthe­ less, F e h lin g ’s th e sis leaves u s w ith th e p ro b le m o f w h ere Apu­ leius g o t h is ta le fro m ; t h a t h e sim p ly in v e n te d h is sto ry is hardly a n an sw e r. It is q u ite d ifficu lt to in v e n t a ta le ; ev en a n ew creation w ill in e v ita b ly m e rg e w ith th e s tre a m o f ta le s h e a rd befo re, and th u s b e c o m e a v a r ia n t o f w h a t h a s a lre a d y b ee n a ro u n d .

fairy tales, th e n re le v a n t m y th s. C lo se st to A m o r a n d P sy ch e a re some Or­ p h ic v e rsio n s o f th e m y th o f K o re -P e rse p h o n e .48 H e re is, to begin w ith , th e e n c h a n te d h o u s e to w h ic h K o re th e M a id e n has been P a ra lle ls o ld e r th a n A p u le iu s a re n o t la c k in g ; if n o t

c o n fin e d by h e r m o th e r, D em e ter, fo r p ro te c tio n . It sta n d s a t the frin g e o f th e e a rth clo se to O k e a n o s ; it h a s sp ecial serv an ts, in­ c lu d in g th e S irens to m a k e m u sic, ju s t a s P sy ch e’s h o u se is

filled

w ith m u sic. W h ile K o re is w o rk in g a t th e lo o m , Z e u s, in th e form o f a sn a k e , p e n e tra te s th e h o u se a n d im p re g n a te s h is o w n daugh­ ter. A fte r th is K o re , en tic e d by h e r sisters A th e n a , A rtem is, and A p h ro d ite ,

leaves

th e h o u se to c o lle c t flo w ers in th e m eadow ,

Creation o f the Sacred

w hence she is a b d u c te d by H a d e s to beco m e q u een o f the n e th ­ erw o rld . T h e re she gi ves b irth to c h th o n ic D io n y su s, son o f Z e u s. T he O rp h ic p o e m s su rv iv e o n ly in fra g m e n ts w h ich are difficult to d ate b u t a re m o s t likely e a rlie r th a n A p u leiu s (the e x ta n t p o etic e la b o ra tio n s by C la u d ia n a n d N o n n o s w ere d o n e much later). T h e sto rie s w ith in th is c a te g o ry e x h ib it th e sam e basic s tru c ­ tu re a n d clearly p a ra lle l m o tifs.

Kore m e a n s

“m a id e n ”; th e p a t­

tern h as b een c a lle d th e M a id e n ’s T ra g ed y .49 It h a s been said to pro v id e a “m o d e l fo r th e su rfa c e level o f th e n a rra tiv e stru c tu re o f th e fem ale fa iry ta le . ” 50 T h e p a tte r n clearly is d iffe re n t fro m th e P ro p p ia n se q u e n c e , th e h e ro ic q u e st. It is te m p tin g to call it typically fe m in in e , in c o n tr a s t to th e m ale a d v e n tu re sequence, th o u g h th e re is n o th in g in n a tu re to fo rb id fem ale q u ests; in d eed , a q u est is in c lu d e d in th e se co n d p a r t o f P syche’s a d v e n tu res. T h e M a id e n ’s T ra g e d y c a n be a n a ly ze d by th e m e th o d o lo g y used by P ro p p , to m a k e u p a seq u en ce o f fu n c tio n s o r m otifem es. T here are a t le a st five o f th e se in im m u ta b le o rd e r: (1) A su d d e n b reak in a y o u n g g irl’s life, w h e n so m e o u tsid e fo rce m a k es h e r leave h o m e , s e p a ra tin g h e r fro m c h ild h o o d , p a re n ts, a n d fam ily life; (2 ) a p e rio d o f se c lu sio n , o fte n e la b o ra te d as a n idyllic th o u g h a b n o rm a l sta g e o f life, in a h o u se o r te m p le , o r in ste a d o f being en c lo se d in a h o u se , she m a y be ro a m in g th ro u g h th e w ilderness o u t o f re a c h o f n o rm a l h u m a n settlem en ts; (3) th e c a ta s tro p h e t h a t u p se ts th e idyll, n o rm a lly c a u se d by th e in tru ­ sion o f a m a le , in m o s t cases a special m a le, a d e m o n , h e ro , o r god w h o v io la te s th e g irl a n d leaves h e r p re g n a n t; th is resu lts (4) in a p e rio d o f trib u la tio n , suffering, a n d p u n ish m en ts, w a n d e r­ ings o r im p ris o n m e n t, u n til (5) she is rescu ed a n d th e re is a h a p p y ending a fte r all. T h e e n d in g is d irec tly o r in d irectly re la te d to th e birth o f c h ild re n , m o s t o fte n a so n ; in G re ek m y th o lo g y th e child is usu ally a n im p o r ta n t tr ib a l h e ro o r ep o n y m . In fact th e ta le often serves as a n in tro d u c tio n to th e h e ro ic q u e st o f th e son; in this sense th e p a tte r n h a s b ee n ca lle d “th e b irth o f th e h e ro . ”51 Som e e x a m p le s fro m G re e k m y th o lo g y a re D a n a e , m o th e r o f P erseus ;52 A u g e, m o th e r o f T e le p h o s ;53 Io , m o th e r o f E p a p h o s,

The Core of a Tale

71

th e f o re fa th e r o f th e D a n a o i;54 K a llis to , m o th e r o f A rk a s, the e p o n y m o f th e A rc a d ia n s ;55 M e la n ip p e , m o th e r o f B o io to s and A io lo s; A n tio p e , m o th e r o f th e B o e o tia n D io s c u re s , A m phion a n d Z e th o s .56 A ll th e s e s to rie s h a v e th e s a m e b a sic p lo t, stru ctu re , a n d h a p p e n in g s . A lth o u g h th e p a t te r n se em s t o be e s p e c ia lly p ro m in e n t in G re e k m y th o lo g y , it is n o t c o n fin e d to it. It e x is ts , fo r instance, in M a y a c iv iliz a tio n .5" T h e e a rlie s t e x a m p le is im p lic it in th e leg­ e n d o f K in g S a rg o n , th e first G re a r K in g o f M e s o p o ta m ia : “ Preg­ n a n t w ith m e b e c a m e m y m o th e r, a H ig h P rie ste ss; in secret she g av e b irth to m e. She p u t m e in a b a s k e t o f ru sh e s, . . ,”58 N o m o re a b o u t th e w o m a n , n o th in g a b o u t th e fath er. B ut th e p riest­ ess g iv in g b ir th in se c re t im p lies th e p e rio d o f se clu sio n a n d the b re a k in g o f th e ta b o o , fo llo w e d by th e a u s p ic io u s n e w beginning. T h e tra g e d y o f th e y o u n g w o m a n w h o h a s to e x p o s e h e r son w as re p e a te d o f te n .54 T h e s to rie s o f M o se s a n d o f R o m u lu s a n d Re­ m u s , b o r n t o th e V estal V irgin R h ea S ilvia, a re p a rtic u la rly close to th e S a rg o n le g e n d .“ * D id th e leg en d s p re a d fro m historical

Sargon

th r o u g h m o re th a n

2000

y e a rs to c h a ra c te riz e th e new

k in g ?

The pattern re a p p e a r s in well-known fairy tales. In “ R a p u n z e l,” fo r e x a m p le , th e girl is secluded in a tower, b u t th e prince intrudes nonetheless. Discovery o f th e secret u n io n results in se p aratio n a n d tr ib u la tio n , b u t th e re m u s t be

a. happy ending.

T h e French

a u t h o r o f th is ta le claimed sh e h a d freely in v e n te d it.61 In reality,

she

m ust have

m any

tales o f

drawn, consciously

or

subconsciously,

u p o n the

v irg in s se c lu d e d in a to w e r, a n d sim p ly re a rra n g e d

pattern is e v e n c le a re r in “ Snow collection.62T h e h e ro in e , e x p e lle d from

w e ll-k n o w n m o tife m e s . T h e

from th e G rim m h o m e o n account o f her b e a u ty a n d d e s tin e d to d ie by co m m an d o f h e r stepmother, a rriv e s a t the h o u s e o f th e d w a rfs , where she le a d s a n id y llic y e t— according to G e rm a n m o ra lity — virtuous a n d in d u s trio u s life a m o n g th e s e h a r d - w o r k in g m in e rs. The idyll e n d s w h e n s h e is m a d e t o s w a llo w a p o is o n e d a p p le , which leaves h e r in a death-like sleep, ly in g in a coffin of g la ss. Finally, of W h ite ,”

course, th e p r in c e a rriv e s t o awaken h e r w ith h is kiss, A m o re

Creation of the Sacred

realistic and ribald version is told in a popular German song, attested since the sixteenth century.63 This tells of a horseman who had an affair with a maiden and disappeared; when the girl became pregnant, her mother made her lie down on a bier as if dead; the preparations for the funeral brought the rider back to do decent mourning, but behold, the girl rose from the dead and marriage became unavoidable. It is o b v io u s t h a t th e s e q u e n c e o f th e m a id e n ta le c lo s e ly f o l­ low s th e n a t u r a l , b io lo g ic a l life c y c le o f w o m e n in tr a n s i t i o n fro m c h ild h o o d to a d u l t h o o d . By n a t u r e , th e r e a re th r e e d r a m a tic events t h a t w o r k th is c h a n g e : m e n a r c h e , in te r c o u r s e , a n d p r e g ­ nancy. T h e p a r a lle ls in th e ta le p a t t e r n a r e s e c lu s io n , s e x u a l e n ­ co u n ter, a n d c h i ld b ir th . T h is is n o c o in c id e n c e ; th e b io lo g ic a l f o u n d a tio n o f c u ltu r e , h o w e v e r m u c h it is v e rb a liz e d in th e t r a ­ d itio n o f th e ta le , c o u ld h a r d ly b e m o r e o b v io u s . T h e c o n n e c tio n is, o f c o u r s e , m o s t e v id e n t a t th e s e x u a l e n ­ c o u n te r t h a t s e p a r a te s th e tw o s ta g e s o f tr a n s itio n : th e b e d o f A m o r a n d P s y c h e , o r Z e u s a n d D a n a e , H e ra c le s a n d A u g e . G re e k m y th o lo g y is e x p lic it a s t o s e x , w h ile fa iry ta le s a s e d ite d in th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y a r e o p a q u e o n t h a t s u b je c t. “ R a p u n z e l” is c o m p a ra tiv e ly f r a n k , b u t S n o w W h i te ’s s w a llo w in g th e a p p le is m o re c ir c u m s ta n tia l. T h a t p r e g n a n c y s h o u ld a p p e a r a s a p e r io d o f tr ib u la tio n is n o t h in g b u t r e a lis tic . It is e q u a lly c le a r t h a t th e final s a lv a tio n h a s t o d o w ith th e b ir th o f a c h ild . T h e r e m a y be som e o v e r la p p in g o f tim e a t t h e level o f th e ta le : in th e T h e b a n m y th o f A n tio p e , f o r e x a m p le , th e v e x e d m o th e r is fin a lly re s c u e d by h er g r o w n - u p s o n s . I t is tr u e t h a t m e n a r c h e is n e v e r e x p lic itly m e n tio n e d in m y th o r f a ir y ta le . M e n s t r u a t i o n is u n s p e a k a b le ,

arrheton,

a n d w o m e n th e m s e lv e s a v o id m e n tio n in g it, le a v in g

m ales w ith o n ly v a g u e k n o w le d g e a b o u t it. B u t th e f a c t t h a t A u g e is w a s h in g c lo th e s w h e n sh e is a t t a c k e d b y H e r a c le s m a y b e a re le v a n t p o in te r .64 I n s te a d o f t a lk in g a b o u t p u b e s c e n c e , th e ta le s dw ell o n th e p r o v o c a tiv e b e a u ty o f th e m a id e n a s c a u s e o f h e r e x p u lsio n , w i t h o u t e x p la in in g t h e n e c e s s ity o f it. Y et th e b io lo g ­ ical re a s o n u n d e r ly in g th is m o t i f is o b v io u s . S e x u a l m a tu r i ty b re a k s u p th e fa m ily s t r u c t u r e , o r its a n a lo g u e s in h ig h e r a n im a ls .

The Core of a Tale

73

th e m o th e r-c h ild r e la tio n . T h e tie s t h a t b in d t h e in d iv id u a l to the o ld e r g e n e ra tio n m u s t b e d is s o lv e d f o r t h e s a k e o f a u to n o m y .65 T h e ta le s b rin g in m o tif s o f f e m a le je a lo u s y o r o f p a tria rc h a l a n g u is h , as th e e ld e rs tr y t o r e s is t t h e i r o w n r e p la c e m e n t, b u t the o r a c le ’s n e c e ss ity m u s t p r e v a il. T h e se fin d in g s m e re ly m a r k th e b e g i n n in g o f th e re a lly in tri­ c a te p ro b le m s . H o w a r e w e t o a c c o u n t f o r th e in te ra c tio n of n a tu r e a n d c u ltu r e in th is ty p e o f ta le ? H o w d o e s th e biological p r o g ra m o f in d iv id u a l d e v e lo p m e n t, a v e r y o ld a n d n a t u r a l p ro ­ g ra m in d e e d , p e n e tr a te la n g u a g e a n d g e t t r a n s f o r m e d in to the n a r r a tiv e c h a in o f th e s e t r a d i t i o n a l ta le s ? T h e b io lo g ic a l p ro g ra m fu n c tio n s w i t h o u t w o r d s a n d w i t h o u t m u c h c o n s c io u s reflection. It is h e re t h a t r itu a l c o m e s in . W o r ld w id e , r itu a l s a re p er­ fo rm e d to m a r k a n d t o a c t o u t t h e n a t u r a l s ta g e s o f fe m a le de­ v e lo p m e n t. A lth o u g h th e y t a k e d if f e r e n t c u l t u r a l f o r m s ,66 they g e n e ra lly b e a r c lo se r e s e m b la n c e t o th e ta le p a t t e r n w h ic h has b e e n in fo c u s h e re . F e m a le p u b e r t y i n i t i a t i o n h a s b e c o m e a m odel c a se o f th e c lo se c o n n e c tio n o f m y th a n d r i t u a l , e v e r sin ce Jan e H a r r i s o n ’s b o o k o f 1 8 9 0 ,

Athens.67T h e

Mythology and Monuments of Ancient

s to r y in A p u le iu s is, a f te r a ll, a b o u t th e m e e tin g of

s o u l a n d s e x u a l lo v e ;

kore ju s t

m e a n s “ m a i d e n .” T h e Isis m ys­

te rie s a n d th e g r e a t p a in tin g in th e V illa o f M y s te r ie s a t P om peii h a v e a ls o b e e n d r a w n in to th e c o n t e x t o f in it i a t i o n to w a r d m a r­ r ia g e .68 T h e p a t te r n o f ta le s a s w e ll a s r itu a l s c o n f o r m s to the f a m o u s s tr u c tu r e o f rite s o f p a s s a g e a s e l a b o r a t e d b y v a n Genn e p :69 s e p a r a tio n , lim in a l p e r io d o n th e p e r ip h e ry , a n d re in te g ra ­ tio n ; a t th e s a m e tim e , th e ta le p a t t e r n c lo s e ly f o llo w s n atu re . F e m a le in itia tio n r itu a ls m a y s t a r t f r o m th e firs t m e n s tr u a tio n — w h ic h o fte n m e a n s s e p a r a tio n o r s e c lu s io n — a n d g o o n to the b ir th o f th e firs t s o n , w h ic h m a r k s th e d e fin ite s ta tu s a c q u ire d .70 I n itia tio n ritu a ls f o llo w b io lo g y , a n d th e n a r r a t i v e s tru c tu re of th e fe m a le fa iry ta le k e e p s t o th e s a m e tr a c k s . Y et s o m e h ia tu s r e m a in s . I n itia tio n r itu a l s a r e a n y th in g b u t n a tu r a l. I t is a m is ta k e t o m a k e th e a s s u m p tio n t h a t n a tu r e tra n s ­ fo rm s its e lf in to r itu a l, a n d r itu a l in t u r n is f o llo w e d b y la n g u ag e. R itu a ls a re c o m p lic a te d , a m b iv a le n t, a n d n o t s e ld o m o p a q u e

Creation of the Sacred

even to th o s e w h o p r a c t i c e th e m . W e c a n n o t p r o je c t in to s o m e v ag u e p r e h is t o r ic p e r i o d t h e id e a l o f a n a t u r a l y e t w e ll- o r d e r e d life, w ith w is e Z a r a s t r o s le a d in g e v e ry T a m in o a n d P a m in a t o ­ w a rd th e d e s ire d e n d . E l a b o r a t e i n it ia t io n r itu a l s a r e n o t n a t u r a l , u b iq u ito u s , o r c o n t i n u o u s . F a r f r o m b e in g s im p le tr a n s p o s itio n s fro m n a t u r e in to c u l t u r e , th e y r a t h e r c o n t r a d i c t n a t u r e in c e r ta in ca ses . 71 I t m a k e s m o r e s e n s e t o se e th e m as c u l tu r a l a t te m p ts to m a k e th e “ f a c ts o f lif e ” m a n a g e a b le a n d p r e d ic ta b le ; to p e r f o r m a n a c t o f a r tif ic ia l s o c ia l c r e a t i o n , a s if to v eil b io lo g y . In p e r ­ fo rm in g s u c h r i t u a l s p e o p le a c t a s if th e a d o le s c e n t, m a le o r fe­ m ale, c o u ld n o t s im p ly g r o w a d u l t o n h is o r h e r o w n , b u t m u s t be m a d e a m a n o r w o m a n b y so c ie ty . R itu a l a c tiv ity f o llo w s th e clues o f n a t u r e , b u t w o r k s o n th e m w i t h th e fo rc e o f c o n s c io u s tr a d itio n e l a b o r a t e d t h r o u g h u n n a t u r a l , c u l tu r a l c h o ic e ; w ith e x ­ a g g e ra tio n , r e p e titiv e n e s s , a n d o t h e r c o m p lic a tio n s . B e c a u se th e force o f c u l tu r a l t r a d i t i o n is s o s tr o n g , th e p a t te r n h e re is less u n iv e rsa l t h a n th e u n if o r m ity t h a t h a d b e e n f o u n d r e g a r d in g th e q u est. A n c ie n t A th e n s h a d t w o m a in re lig io u s in s titu tio n s c o n n e c te d w ith g irls ’ in itia tio n s : t h e se rv ic e o f

arrbephoroi f o r

A th e n a a t

th e A k r o p o lis ,72 a n d th e c u l t o f A rte m is a t B r a u r o n b y g irls c a lle d “b e a rs ,”

arkteiaP A t firs t g la n c e

th e s e s e e m t o c o r r e s p o n d t o th e

tw o p o s s ib ilitie s o f s e c lu s io n d u r in g in itia tio n , in th e h o u s e w ith in th e s a n c tu a r y , a n d a t t h e p e r ip h e ry , a t th e s e a s h o re . In th e case o f th e

arrbephoroi, w h ile

w e d o fin d a v e ry c lo s e p a r a lle lis m

o f m y th a n d r i t u a l , t h e c o n n e c ti o n w ith in it ia t io n is q u e s tio n a b le . W ith th e

arkteia w e

c o m e a s c lo s e a s p o s s ib le t o fe m a le p u b e r ty

in itia tio n , b u t w e h a v e d if fic u ltie s f in d in g th e e x p e c te d m y th ; in ­ stead o f it w e a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h d if f e r e n t m y th ic a l p a t te r n s th a t se ek e x p l a n a t i o n in te r m s o f d iv in e w r a t h a n d e x p ia to r y sacrifice .74 E v e n th e m y th o f Ip h ig e n e ia is c o n n e c te d t o B r a u ­ r o n .75 A b o u t m y th s , it is s tr ik in g t h a t th e s a m e m y th c a n re fe r e ith e r to in itia tio n o r t o s a c rific e , t o n a t u r a l m a tu r i n g as w e ll as t o th e m o st u n n a t u r a l v io le n c e .76 I n t h e B ib le J e p h th a , th e J u d g e o f Is­ rael, is f o rc e d t o s a c rific e h is d a u g h t e r b e c a u s e o f a v o w m a d e

The Core of a Tale

75

b e fo re his v ic to ry in w a r . 77 T h e daughter willingly c o m p lie s, but a sk s as a fa v o r to be a llo w e d to wander about in the m o u n ta in s

with h e r g irlfrie n d s b e fo re her death, weeping fo r her never-tob e -lo st virginity; a n d th is , says th e B ib le, h a s b e c o m e a custo m in Isra el. E v e ry y ear, fo r fo u r d a y s , g irls g o t o th e m o u n ta in s to d a n c e a n d to sin g o f th e d a u g h t e r o f J e p h t h a , w h o n e v e r knew a m a n . T h e c u s to m c le a rly h a s i n it ia t o r y m o tifs a n d fu n ctio n s. T h e g irls le a v e th e ir fa m ilie s and s p e n d s o m e tim e

en m a r g e

in a

s tra n g e a n d p o s s ib ly id y llic e n v ir o n m e n t, p la y in g th e ta m b o u ­ rin e s, d a n c in g , a n d m o u r n in g . T h e r itu a l is re fle c te d in a tale a b o u t d e a th by sa c rific e . T h u s th e m y th ic a l h e r o in e is p re se n te d in s ta rk c o n t r a s t to w h a t n o r m a l g irls w ill e x p e rie n c e . F o r a n ­ o th e r re v e rs a l, w e m a y p o in t to th e g ir ls ’ r itu a l la m e n t a t T ro izen a s d e s c rib e d by E u rip id e s in h is

Hippolytos.

T h e y m o u r n an d

s h e a r a lo c k o f h a i r f o r E lip p o ly to s , th e b e a u tif u l y o u th w h o died b y th e w r a th o f A p h r o d ite w ith o u t e v e r k n o w in g a w o m a n .78 D e a th , s e x u a lity , a n d b ir th a re c lo se to e a c h o th e r in th e w o rld o f n a tu r e ; s a c rific ia l r itu a l a n d m y th m a k e o f d e a th a b a rrie r, as if to b lo c k t h a t tr a n s itio n . G lo o m y a s s o c ia tio n s w ith d e a th a n d sa c rific e a b o u n d in o th e r v a r ia n ts o f th e m a id e n ’s tra g e d y . W h a t h a p p e n s t o

K ore-

P e rs e p h o n e is, b y c o m m o n u n d e r s ta n d in g , d e a th . A s tra n g e yet c h a r a c te r is tic a m b iv a le n c e s u r r o u n d s th e o p tim is tic , n a tu r a l se­ q u e n c e le a d in g t o m a r r ia g e a n d b ir th , a n d a n u n n a t u r a l v a ria n t t h a t le a d s t o sa c rific e . Ip h ig e n e ia , o f “ p o w e r f u l b i r t h ” in her n a m e b u t sa c rific e d as a v irg in to th e v irg in g o d d e s s , a p p e a r s as th e e p ito m e o f th is a m b iv a le n c e . A n d th e d e a th o f th e v irg in is n o t m e re ly s y m b o lic . T h e g lo o m y g a r m e n ts o ffe re d to A rtem is a t B r a u r o n a re re lic s o f y o u n g w o m e n w h o h a d in fa c t d ie d . A t R o m e , th e v e s ta l v irg in s a r e s e le c te d b y th e

pontifex maximus to

live a s e c lu d e d life f o r t h i r t y y e a rs , te n d in g th e p e r p e tu a l fire a t th e h e a r t h o f th e V e s ta te m p le ; if th e fire g e ts e x tin g u is h e d by a c c id e n t, th e y a r e flo g g e d ; if a n y o f th e m is f o u n d to h a v e in te r­ c o u r s e w ith a m a le , s h e is b u r ie d a liv e .79 T h is is u n c a n n ily close t o th e s e q u e n c e o f s e c lu s io n , s e x u a l c ris is , a n d p u n is h m e n t. It is

Creation of the Sacred

not impossible to derive even this peculiar Roman institution from original initiation rituals.80 Keen in the less somber initiation myths we should be alert to unnatural social factors and motifs. The tribulations typically following the sexual encounter usually com e from real families, a vindictive father, a stepmother, a mother-in-law; these are ten­ sions characteristic o f the family in many civilizations. The search for the lost husband, on the other hand, in nineteenthcentury versions o f A m o r an d Psyche or the “animal bride­ groom,“ appears to be more of a bourgeois concern. T h e p r o m in e n c e o f t h e p a t t e r n in G r e e k m y th o lo g y , in ta le s m ainly r e s h a p e d a n d r e t o l d b y m e n , m a y g iv e ris e t o f u r t h e r s u s ­ picions. T h e p r o m i n e n c e o f t h e s e x u a l e n c o u n t e r m a y b e e s p e ­ cially g r a tif y in g t o m a l e s , a n d t h e v i r g i n ’s s e c lu s io n a ll th e m o r e inviting f o r t h o s e w h o d a r e t o b r e a k t h e t a b o o , w i t h Z e u s le a d in g the ra n k s . S e c lu s io n h a s c o n s i g n e d t h e v ir g in t o p a s s iv ity ; a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e s e x u a l a c t a p p r o a c h e s r a p e .81 A n o th e r , h id d e n aspect m ig h t b e t h e m a s k i n g o f a c lo s e ly p a r a l l e l h o m o s e x u a l p a tte rn f o r b o y s . W e g e t t h e a b d u c t i o n , th e h o m o s e x u a l id y ll, and th e r e t u r n t o n o r m a l m a l e s o c ie ty f o r s tr u g g le a n d c o m b a t , until th e m a r r i e d s t a t u s m a y b e a t t a i n e d b y t h e f u lly a d u l t . A fo re m o st e x a m p le is t h e s t o r y o f P e lo p s a s t o l d b y P i n d a r — P e lo p s is a b d u c te d b y P o s e i d o n a n d b r o u g h t b a c k l a t e r t o w i n th e h o r s e race fo r H i p p o d a m e i a .82 W e k n o w h o w c lo s e ly th is c o r r e s p o n d s to r itu a liz e d h o m o s e x u a l i t y in C r e t e . 83 K a in e u s , r a p e d a s a g irl by P o s e id o n a n d t h e n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n u n b e a t a b l e w a r r i o r , is an e a rlie r a t t e s t e d m y t h o n s i m i l a r lin e s .84 T h is g iv e s a s p e c ia l, cu ltu ral tin g e t o t h e m o r e b a s ic p a t t e r n . I f s to r ie s o f t h e m a id e n type w e re r e g u la r ly t o l d b y G r e e k m a le s , th e y m a y w e ll h a v e reflected th e ir o w n d e v e l o p m e n t , r e c a s t t h r o u g h p r o x i m i t y a n d distance in to t h in g s t h a t h a p p e n t o f e m a le s . A lth o u g h th e p a r a l l e l i s m o f t a l e s t r u c t u r e a n d b io lo g ic a l o n ­ togenesis is u n d e n i a b l e , a n d r i t u a l i n t e r a c t s w i t h b o t h , th e f o rm of tr a n s itio n e n v is a g e d f o r t h e q u e s t t y p e is n o t a p p l ic a b le in th is case. T h e p r o g r a m f o r “ g e t t i n g ” c o u l d b e e x p r e s s e d in i m p e r a ­ tives w h ic h e n t e r t h e le v e l o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a t a p r im it iv e s ta g e

The Core o f a Tale

77

(remember the chim panzee). T h e tale w a s seen to d evelop in p r o tolanguage from an estab lished basis. T h e en su in g pattern, apart from its sham anistic a d ap tation , w a s ap t to d ev elo p into the typ­ ical male initiation m yth w h ereb y the h ero has to perform the quest before taking up full so cia l respon sibility. T he initiatory elem ents in the stories o f Perseus, o f th e A rgon au ts, o f Heracles, and o f O dysseus need hardly be stressed. T h e Perseus myth was in fact connected w ith an A rgive in itia tio n ritu al . 85 Vladimir Propp him self at a later p oin t tried to trace back his morphology o f tales to the initiation p attern . 86 The m aiden’s tragedy seem s to be th e fem ale counterpart, but it is n ot fully equivalent: im peratives w ill n o t m ake sense in this case. The underlying b iological program is m ore prim itive, more rem ote from con sciou sness. T his m akes the distance between na­ ture and tale m uch greater than w ith the straightforw ard adven­ ture series. T he tale does n ot spring directly from such origins. The “fem ale fairy tale” is a cultural creation that purports to retrace the steps o f nature w ith the con sciou sn ess inherent in a tale. W ho is telling these tales? If w e ch o o se A puleius as a guide once m ore, w e find an old w om an retelling the story o f Amor and Psyche to a you n g girl, in a situation o f suspense, in the robbers’ house; the tale is to con sole her, and to prepare her for w hat to expect. “O ld w ives’ tales” becam e proverbial already in antiquity ; 87 they are by no m eans negligible tradition-bearers in shaping a child’s m ental w orld. W om en k n o w ab ou t the sequence of m enstruation, intercourse, and birth, they can instruct the young, both in a serious and in a playful way. This provides a verbalized sort o f script to accom pany natural change, handed d ow n in oral tradition, to facilitate the understanding o f mem­ orable developm ents w hile hiding part o f them . This produced the narrative structure o f the fem ale fairy tale. N o doubt it could be retold by m ales. T he tales could even help bridge the gap between the sexes and prom ote understanding by shared imag­ ination, as both sexes share the com m on basis o f life.

m Creation o f the Sacred

An e p ilo g u e is d u e . F o r m a n y d e c a d e s , th e m o d e r n tr e n d in lit­ e r a tu re h a s b e e n t o g e t r i d o f th e ta le , a n d th e s a m e tr e n d d o m ­ in a te s th e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d m o v ie s . C o m ic s k e e p tr a d it io n a l e le m e n ts , b u t e x p l o d e th e m in a c o n t i n u o u s f ire w o rk s o f im m e ­ d ia te e ffe c ts . O l d - f a s h i o n e d f a ir y ta le s r e c e d e , th o u g h th e y m a y still be u s e d in p s y c h i a t r i c i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r th e ir th e r a p e u tic v a lu e . T h e re is n o u s e d e p l o r i n g th is d e v e lo p m e n t in a c h a n g in g w o rld , w h ic h m a k e s u s liv e w i t h h ig h ly s o p h is tic a te d g a d g e ts in lo n e ly c o m p a r tm e n ts o f i n d i v i d u a l e x is te n c e . T h e s lo g a n “ s to p m a k in g se n se” is a f ittin g c o m p a n i o n t o t h e d e m is e o f th e ta le .

The Core of a Tak

4 θ&

Hierarchy

T he A w areness o f R a n k R e lig io n , s a id th e G e r m a n t h e o l o g i a n F r i e d r i c h S c h le ie rm a c h e r a t th e b e g in n in g

of th e

n in e te e n th c e n tu r y , is “ t h e fe e lin g o f sh eer

d e p e n d e n c e o n G o d . ” 1 O n e t e r m o f th is f a m o u s a n d in flu e n tia l d e fin itio n w a s in s p ire d b y G o e th e , w h o s e F a u s t d e c la r e d t h a t in re lig io n “ fe e lin g is e v e r y th in g .” I t is n o t t h e R o m a n t i c a s p e c t o f feelin g , h o w e v e r, t h a t w ill b e in f o c u s h e r e , b u t th e a c k n o w le d g ­ m ent à -v is

of “ s h e e r d e p e n d e n c e ,” th e a flo w o f p o w e r e m a n a t in g

a c c e p ta n c e o f in f e r i o r r a n k visf r o m th e s u p e r io r . T h is c o n tr a ­

d ic ts th e id e a l o f in d e p e n d e n c e t h a t h a s b e e n c h e r is h e d f o r an e q u a lly lo n g tim e in p h ilo s o p h ic a l, h u m a n i s t i c , o r h e r o ic m o r a l­ ity, th e c o n s tr u c t o f th e a u t o n o m o u s a n d s e lf - r e s p o n s ib le p e r s o n ­ ality. “ A u to n o m y ” h a d b e e n r e s t a t e d in K a n t i a n p h ilo s o p h y as th e p r e c o n d itio n o f m o r a l d e c is io n s ; th e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n o f

1789 put liberté a h e a d o f égalité a n d fraternité. S c h le ie rm a c h e r, addressing “ th e c u ltu r a l d e s p is e r s ” o f r e lig io n , w a s re a c tin g to this school of t h o u g h t .2 H is d e f in itio n p r o v e d t o b e w id e ly ac­ ceptable to theologians, th e p r a c tic in g c le rg y , a n d th e g e n e ra l educated public. P e o p le c o u ld s h a r e th e fe e lin g o f re lig io u s d e­ pendence and thus a llo w r e lig io n t o o c c u p y a p la c e o f h o n o r in their mental world w i t h o u t s u b s c r ib in g t o c o n f e s s io n a l d o g m a ­ tism or taking sides in th e o lo g ic a l c o n tr o v e r s ie s . Y et S c h le ie rm a c h e r’s d e f in itio n , c h a lle n g in g th e r a t i o n a l eigh-

reenth-century v iew s, itself builds on a m uch older fo u n d a tio n . Religion is generally accep ted as a system o f rank, im p lyin g de­ pendence, su b o rd in a tio n and su b m issio n to unseen superiors. The aw areness o f rank and d ep en d en ce in religion is particularly clear in all the ancient religion s. G od m eans pow er, rule, and honors due. Already in Sum erian a god m ay he in voked as “ my king.'" In A k k adian , a co m m o n w ord for “lo rd ” is b e lu ; in p a r ­ ticular this is the title o f M ard u k , the m ost im p ortan t g o d o f Babylon; its W est Sem itic eq u iv a len t is b a a l, the title o f local g o d s in Syria and P alestin e. A g o d m ay also be called Lord o f Lords and King o f K ings, just as the m on arch h im self . 3 In H eb rew , Jahweh is king, o f c o u r se ;4 his n am e, related to the ro o t o f the word “life,” w a s replaced by a d o n , translated as k y r i o s in to Greek, w h ich b ecam e d o m i n u s in L atin, Lord in E nglish, d e r H e r r in G erm an. “M y Lord and m y G o d ”: this is the p ro cla ­

mation o f T h o m a s co n v erted from d isb elief to b elief . 5 A n Indoeuropean w o rd for a p o w erfu l lord, p o tis , appears in the nam e of M ycenaean-G reek P o seid o n 6 and in the title o f M y cen a ea n and later g o d d esses, p o t n i a . 7 T h e title o f the M ycen aean k ing was iv a n a x , w h ich rem ained the ep ith et o f g o d s lo n g after M y ­ cenaean p ow er crum bled . In a d d itio n to Z eu s a n a x , so m e g o d ­ desses o f ancient p ed igree u sed th e title w a n a s s a as a proper name, for in stance, A p h ro d ite at P ap h os and A rtem is at P erge . 8 The later G reek w o rd s for lord and ruler m ade their w a y in to religious co n tex ts as w e ll— d e s p o te s and d e s p o in a , b a s ile u s , even ty ra n n o s . 9 It is p o w er th at defines the gods; th ey are the “stronger

ones,” k r e itto n e s . Z eu s is n o t o n ly father— an In doeuropean concept— but has the greatest k r a t o s , stren gth . 10 T he idea o f an almighty god , p a n k r a t e s , em erges already in A esch ylu s, th ou gh current polytheism en v isa g ed a fam ily o f g o d s rather than ab ­ solute m onarchy . 11 A rch aic so ciety is based on honor, and “g o d s too rejoice w h en th ey are h o n o red by m e n . ” 12 It is surprising th at th e ex p ressio n s o f p o w er and lordship are much less obtrusive in th e lan gu age o f R o m a n religion . D o m i n u s got its prom inence o n ly w ith C hristianity, translated from k y r io s . Was it th e ban o n th e w o rd r e x th at becam e a lingu istic barrier,

or

w a s it th e sy ste m o f c le a rly d e fin e d s e c to r s o f

potestas— prae­

tor, consul, dictator— t h a t f o r b a d e m e t a p h o r ? 13 T h e im p o rta n t g o d s are c a lle d pater. S till, lu n o regina w a s w o r s h ip e d a t the A ventine H ill, in tr o d u c e d f r o m V eii, a n d J u p i t e r imperator at P ra e n e s te , 14 w h ile M ith r a is ts w e re a llo w e d t o c a ll M ith r a s rex. 11 F ro m A c h a e m e n id P e rs ia , e v e n th e w o r d satrapes, “g u a rd ia n of th e k in g ’s p o w e r,” s p r e a d as d e s ig n a tio n o f a g o d . 16 T ra d itio n a l fo rm s o f d o m in a tio n n e v e rth e le s s a lw a y s include so m e m u tu a l o b lig a tio n . T h e L o rd , h o n o r e d b y su b m issio n , g ra n ts p r o te c tio n a n d e n s u re s s e c u rity . 17 T h is is n a tu r a lly im plied if th e g o d is in v o k e d as f a th e r . 18 It is n o less c h a ra c te ris tic o f the c o n c e p t o f Isla m , a w o r d t h a t m e a n s “ s u r r e n d e r to th e w ill of g o d .” 19 A v a r ia tio n o n th e n o tio n o f th e s u p e r io r w h o g ran ts p r o te c tio n is s h e p h e rd o r p a s to r, a m e ta p h o r w id e ly u s e d fo r b o th k in g s a n d g o d s .20 H e n c e d e p e n d e n c e c a n b e a c c e p te d w ith relief a n d g ra titu d e . D o m in a n c e a lso lim its fig h tin g a m o n g inferio rs; a c c o rd in g to G e o rg S im m el, th e “ e lim in a tio n o f a n ta g o n is m ” is o n e c h a ra c te ris tic o f re lig io n .21 D o m in a n c e m a k e s p o ssib le form s o f so lid a rity n o t easily e n c o u n te re d e ls e w h e re , a t th e c o s t o f ac­ c e p tin g d e p e n d e n c e o n w h a t is b e y o n d o u r re a c h . It is te m p tin g to a s so c ia te th e id e o lo g y o f ru le a n d d ep en d en ce in re lig io n w ith th e e v o lu tio n o f th e firs t h ig h c u ltu re s th a t in ­ stalled k in g sh ip as th e c e n tra l so c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n .22 B u t clearly it is m u c h m o re w id e s p re a d . M o d e rn s w ill be m o re p ro n e to tra n s la te d ep e n d e n c e a n d s u b m is s io n in to p s y c h o lo g ic a l term s, in th e w a k e o f S ig m u n d F re u d .23 A c c o rd in g to o n e sc h o o l, god o r g o d s re p re s e n t th e fa th e r fig u re , a s th e c h ild ’s e x p e rie n c e of h elp less d e p e n d e n c e o n th e p o w e rfu l f a th e r h a s b e e n in te rio rized in th e a c c e p ta n c e o f a n a lm ig h ty g o d ; c o n v e rse ly , fe m in ists in tro ­ d u ce o r re in tro d u c e a g re a t g o d d e s s in s te a d , re c a llin g th e ch ild ’s even m o re in tim a te d e p e n d e n c e u p o n th e m o th e r. Still, if w e ac­ c e p t a n e v o lu tio n a ry v iew o f a n th ro p o lo g y , as F re u d h im se lf did, it is n ecessary to b ro a d e n th e p e rsp e c tiv e a n d to a c c o u n t fo r the ro le o f a u th o rity in b o th so c iety a n d th e s tru c tu re o f th e psyche by g o in g b a c k to e a rlie r sta g es in th e e v o lu tio n o f life. A hig h ly d e v e lo p e d a w a re n e ss o f a u th o r ity w ith in a com plex

Creation of the Sacred

system o f r a n k is w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n a l l p r i m a t e s o c i e t i e s . 24 W h i l e the in te lle c tu a l c a p a c i t i e s o f m o n k e y s a n d

apes

have

sc o re d

higher t h a n e x p e c t e d in e x p e r i m e n t s , i t s e e m s t h a t m o s t o f t h e s e ca p a c itie s g o i n t o t h e i n c e s s a n t s o c i a l g a m e s c o n c e r n i n g i n f e r i ­ ority a n d s u p e r i o r i t y t h a t a r e p l a y e d w i t h i n t h e g r o u p . In t h e “a tte n tio n s t r u c t u r e ” w i t h i n p r i m a t e g r o u p s , “ t h e a t t e n t i o n o f s u b o r d in a te s is a l w a y s o n t h o s e a b o v e t h e m i n t h e h i e r a r c h y . ” 25 Frans d e W a a l ’s

Chimpanzee Politics,

b a s e d o n lo n g p e rio d s o f

o b s e rv a tio n in t h e z o o o f A m s t e r d a m , c o n t a i n s s t a r t l i n g r e v e l a ­ tio n s.26 T h e c h i m p s n o t o n l y k n o w e a c h o t h e r p e r s o n a l l y , n o t only re a liz e w h o is s u p e r i o r a n d w h o is i n f e r i o r , b u t t h e y u s e lo n g -te rm s t r a t e g i e s o f e x c h a n g i n g s o c i a l f a v o r s a n d f o r m i n g a l ­ liances t o g e t s o m e a d v a n t a g e o r p r o m o t i o n o f s t a t u s i n t h e e n d , or even to o v e r t u r n t h e t o p i n d i v i d u a l . N o te t h a t h i g h r a n k is i m m e d i a t e l y a n d g e n e r a l l y v i s u a l i z e d by h u m a n s in a v e r t i c a l d i m e n s i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a s a h o r i z o n t a l sequence o r s o m e c e n t r i p e t a l a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e r e is n o l o g i c t o this; w h a t d o m i n a t e s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n is t h e r e m i n i s c e n c e o f t h e p re h u m a n h a b i t a t . G e r h a r d B a u d y h a s m a d e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e trees in w h i c h m a n y p r i m a t e s liv e , t r e e s t h a t p r o v i d e b o t h f o o d and sa fe ty , e s c a p e f r o m p r e d a t o r s , a n d a l s o t h e p l a c e t o p l a y t h e gam es o f r a n k f r o m b r a n c h t o b r a n c h . 27 I t is f r o m t h e t r e e t h a t the v e rtic a l im a g e d e r i v e s . I f t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l p r i m a t e s a r e f o r the m o s t p a r t f o u n d m o v i n g b i p e d a l l y a l o n g a s p h a l t s t r e e t s t o ­ day, th is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t h u m a n s h a v e r e n o u n c e d t h o s e gam es o f l o w e r o r h i g h e r r a n k w h i l e c o n t i n u i n g t o “ e x a l t ” t h e “h ig h e r” id e a ls . I n r e l i g i o u s v e n e r a t i o n t h e i m a g e o f t h e t r e e s ti ll loom s la rg e ; it g r o w s t o c o s m i c d i m e n s i o n s i n m y t h s a b o u t t h e “w o rld t r e e .” 28 B u t i t c a n b e o u t d o n e b y t h e m o u n t a i n w h i c h n o d o u b t is m o r e e x a l t e d , 29 a n d t h e m o u n t a i n i n t u r n is s u p e r s e d e d by h e a v e n ;30 a t a l l e v e n t s , g o d s a r e h i g h , p r e f e r a b l y t h e h i g h e s t . 31 The a w a r e n e s s a n d f e e l i n g s o f i n f e r i o r i t y a n d s u p e r i o r i t y o n t h e vertical a x is a r e p a r t o f o u r b i o l o g i c a l i n h e r i t a n c e . “W h a te v e r is p o w e r f u l , is t a k e n f o r a g o d . ” 32 D o m i n a n c e a n d su b m issio n in t h e r e l i g i o u s s p h e r e r e q u i r e t h a t t h e “ a t t e n t i o n s tru c tu re ” b e r e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a n o n o b v i o u s b u t f i n a l a n d a b -

H ie ra rc h y

so lu te o r i e n t a t i o n .33 It is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a m e n ta l w o rld , en­ c o d e d in la n g u a g e , t h a t it b e c o m e s i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m tim e and p la c e . In th e c a se o f p r im a t e s t h e s o c ia l s y s te m n o r m a ll y rem ain s lin k e d to p h y s ic a l p r o x im it y a n d is v is ib le in s p a c e : th o s e w h o b e lo n g to g e th e r k e e p to g e th e r , in f a m ilie s a n d in g r o u p s . F o r h u ­ m a n s , p e r s o n a l tie s a n d r e l a t i o n s o f r a n k c a n p e r s is t w ith o u t to g e th e rn e s s f o r a lo n g tim e a n d a c r o s s r e m a r k a b l e d istan ces. O r d e r b e c o m e s s ta b iliz e d w i t h o u t c o n t i n u o u s in te r a c tio n ; n o t o n ly d o w e a c k n o w le d g e “ m i n e ” a n d “ y o u r s ,” b u t a ls o th e p r o p ­ e rty a n d in te re s ts o f a t h i r d p e r s o n n o t p r e s e n t a t th e m o m e n t. S u ch s ta b ility fin d s its u lti m a t e g u a r a n t e e in t h e u n s e e n a u th o rity o f th e h ig h e s t p o w e r. W e c a n d e s c r ib e it a s t h e e x tr e m e co n se­ q u e n c e o f in h e r ite d te n d e n c i e s .34 A l t h o u g h a p p e a ls in th e n am e o f th e h ig h e s t p o w e r m a y b e c h a lle n g e d a g a in a n d a g a in , they d o n o t fa il t o fin d th e i r r e s p o n s e ; th e y fa ll i n t o p la c e w ith in th e o ld la n d s c a p e . W h e th e r e n th u s ia s tic a lly a c c e p te d b y

homines religiosi o r c rit­

ic iz e d b y th e a d v o c a te s o f e m a n c i p a ti o n , d e p e n d e n c e is a fo rm o f “ m a k in g s e n s e .” I t is a tr u is m t h a t w e a r e u n a v o i d a b ly d e p e n ­ d e n t u p o n a v a r ie ty o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s b o t h k n o w n a n d u n k n o w n , w h e th e r p e r s o n a l, p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic , o r e n v i r o n m e n ta l . G erm s a n d r a d ia tio n a n d c a n c e r c e lls p o s s ib ly d e v e lo p in g in o u r b odies a re b u t in s ta n c e s o f th e in n u m e r a b le f a c t o r s t h a t c a u s e c o n c e rn a n d a re q u ite im p o s s ib le t o c o n t r o l. R e lig io n m a k e s a ll th is sec­ o n d a r y b y tu r n in g th e a t t e n t i o n s t r u c t u r e t o w a r d o n e b a sic a u ­ th o rity , th e r e b y a c h ie v in g a m o s t e ffe c tiv e “ r e d u c t io n o f c o m ­ p le x ity ” a n d c r e a tin g se n se o u t o f c h a o s .35 A s a n e w o rld is s tr u c tu r e d b y a u t h o r i t y w h ic h d e te r m in e s w h a t is h ig h a n d low. S ince S u m e ria n tim e s g o d s , m e n , a n im a ls , a n d p la n ts h a v e been n e a tly a r r a n g e d in s u p e r im p o s e d r e g is te r s , d e s c e n d in g f r o m to p to b o t t o m .36 A n e a rly B y z a n tin e w r i t e r p u t it th is w a y : “ In th e u n iv e rs e w e fin d b e in g s w h o r u le e x c lu s iv e ly , i.e . th e d iv in e ; o th ­ e rs w h o b o th ru le a n d a r e r u le d , i.e . th e h u m a n s , r u le d b y th e d iv in e b u t r u lin g th e a n im a ls ; a n d o t h e r s w h o a r e r u le d e x c lu ­ sively, i.e. th e a n im a ls , b e r e f t o f r e a s o n . ” 37 M a n ’s p o s it io n is de-

Creation of the Sacred

scribed a n d le g itim i/cd in th e se q u en ce o f ru lin g I i i i h l i o n s , d r fined by h ig h e r a n d lo w e r ra n k . H ie ra rc h y is a te rm in tro d u c e d by the m ost in flu en tial w o rk o f C h ristia n N e o p la to n is m , P s e u d o D io n y s iu s A re o p a g ita , in the fifth c e n tu ry a . d . T h e p h ilo s o p h e r e x a m in e s N ew le s ta m e n i tex ts th a t sp e a k o f th e sta g es o f p o w e rs su rro u n d in g , god “th ro n e s, lo rd s h ip s , le a d e rs h ip s , p o w e rs ”— a n d d ev elo p s them in to a c o n s is te n t s y s te m .’* N e o p la to n is m sees the to ta lity o f be ings d o m in a te d by a g re a t g o ld e n ch ain o f a u th o rity p ro cee d in g from a sin g le p rin c ip le , th e O n e . ’4 It has o ften been re m a rk e d th a t N e o p la to n ic -C h ris tia n

hierarchic is

rep rese n ted in a rc h ite c ­

tu re by th e b u ild in g th a t has set th e m odel for G reek O rth o d o x ch u rch b u ild in g a n d la te r even for th e M o slem m o sq u e: the cupo la o f H a g ia S o p h ia a t C o n s ta n tin o p Je -Is ta n b u l.

Rituals of Submission If, a c c o rd in g to S ch leierm ach cr, religion occupies th e realm of feeling, it is e v id e n t th a t p ra c tic a l religion is less in tro v e rte d th a n th a t, a n d m o re d e m o n s tra tiv e . Such feelings as ex ist are acted o u t, re in fo rc e d , a n d even g e n e ra te d an e w th ro u g h c o m m o n a c ­ tio n . In o th e r w o rd s , d e p e n d e n c e a n d su b m issio n in religion a p ­ pear, first o f all, in ritu a l. E n c o u n te rin g th e divine, “ w e sh ap e ourselves to all k in d s o f re p re s e n ta tio n o f m o d e sty . ”40 R itu a ls o f su b m issio n , strik in g ly p ro m in e n t in religious activ ities, are o r w ere c o m m o n fo rm s o f b e h a v io r in o th e r c o n te x ts a n d are n o t specifically re lig io u s in th e m se lv e s .41 H en c e th ey are w id ely u n ­ d e rsto o d . N o t c o n fin e d to o n e p a rtic u la r civ ilizatio n , th ese ritu ­ als are f o u n d a r o u n d th e g lo b e , a n d several o f th e m are d e m o n ­ strab ly p re h u m a n . A c o m p a ra tiv e survey o f ritu a l su b m issio n in p rim ates, in h u m a n s e c u la r in te ra c tio n s , a n d in relig io u s p ra c tic e reflects th e b a sic u n ity o f th e w o rld w e live in. T h e o b v io u s a im a n d fu n c tio n o f d e m o n stra tiv e su b m issio n , especially in p r e h u m a n so c ieties, is to a v o id o r to sto p ag g ressio n an d th e e n s u in g p a in , d a m a g e , o r even d e s tru c tio n . T h e sim p lest m ean s t o im p o s e o n e ’s w ill a n d t o m a k e th re a ts is m erely to be

Hierarchy

b ig — r e m e m b e r n a t u r e ’s t r i c k o f h a i r - r a i s i n g .42 I n o r d e r t o sto p

aggression, by contrast,

one has

to

b e s m a ll a n d h u m b le ,

humilis,

w h ic h o r i g i n a l l y m e a n t “ c l o s e t o t h e s o i l . ” T o c r e a t e t h i s im p re s ­

sion,

o n e h a s t o b o w , t o k n e e l d o w n , t o c o w e r t o t h e g r o u n d , to

c r a w l — in s h o r t , n o t t o p u f f o n e s e l f u p .43 H u m a n s h a v e in v e n te d h a t s a n d v a r i e t i e s o f c l o t h i n g t o e n h a n c e t h e i r c o n t o u r s ; s u b m is ­ s io n e n t a i l s t a k i n g o f f th e s e a c c e s s o r i e s . I t is o f s p e c ia l im p o r ­ t a n c e t o a v o i d s t a r i n g : t h e s t a r i n g e y e is a n e v il e y e a n d se ts o ff a n i n h e r i t e d p r o g r a m o f a l a r m .44 T h e s i g n a l s o f s m a lln e s s a p p lie d t o r e d u c e a g g r e s s i o n a r e r e i n f o r c e d b y c h i l d l i k e b e h a v io r ; a n i­ m a ls a r e n o r m a l l y p r o g r a m m e d n o t t o a t t a c k t h e i r o w n c h ild re n . H u m a n a d u l t s c o m m o n l y r e v e r t t o w e e p i n g , b u t i t is a ls o p o ssib le t o t r y s m ilin g . A n o t h e r m e a n s t o w a r d o f f a g g r e s s i o n is t o m a k e a n d k e e p p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t : t o t o u c h t h e s t r o n g e r o n e i f h e a llo w s it, t o s t r o k e h is c h i n w i t h o u t b e i n g b i t t e n , t o e x t e n d a t le a s t an o p e n h a n d , a ll o f w h i c h a r e s ig n s o f d e p e n d e n c e .45 W e c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t a n d th e s e g e s t u r e s a n d f o r m s o f b e h a v ­ io r. M o s t o f t h e m m a y b e o b s e r v e d a m o n g c h i m p a n z e e s a n d g o ­ r illa s . W h i l e th e y d o n o t w e e p , th e y e x p r e s s th e m s e l v e s in a ra n g e o f m o a n s . I n t h e m o v ie

Gorillas in the Mist,

w h i c h d e a ls w ith

t h e w o r k o f D i a n F o s s e y a m o n g g o r i l l a s in c e n t r a l A fr ic a , th e w a y t o a v o i d d a m a g e b y a c h a r g i n g s i l v e r b a c k w a s t o c o w e r to t h e g r o u n d , t o u c h i n g it w i t h o n e ’s h e a d , a n d a b o v e a ll t o a v o id s t a r i n g . A s s y r ia n r e lie fs s h o w e n v o y s t o t h e k i n g o f A s s y r ia a s­ s u m i n g a s tr ik in g l y s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n ; t h e A k k a d i a n e x p r e s s io n w a s “ t o w ip e o n e ’s n o s e ” o n t h e g r o u n d .46 I n t h e w a k e o f A ssy r­ ia n s a n d B a b y lo n ia n s t h e P e r s i a n k i n g i n s i s t e d t h a t v is ito r s p e r ­ fo rm e d

proskynesis,

t o u c h i n g t h e g r o u n d w i t h t h e i r f o r e h e a d .47

L a te r, s u l t a n s d id n o t h e s i t a t e t o f o l l o w s u i t . E u r o p e a n m o n a r c h s , s o m e w h a t m o r e c iv iliz e d , s till r e q u i r e d e v e r y o n e t o b e n d h is k n e e t o d o h o m a g e . T h e m i n i m u m a c t o f s u b m i s s i o n is t o b o w o n e ’s h e a d w h ile t a k i n g o f f o n e ’s h a t , w h i c h is s till w id e l y u s e d a n d t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d a s a g e s tu r e o f p o l i t e n e s s . M o r e d r a m a t i c a n d m o r e f o r m a l w e r e t h e r u le s o f s u r r e n d e r in w a r f a r e . T h e d e f e a t e d , o r e v e n t h e i r e n v o y s , w o u l d a p p r o a c h t h e i r v i c t o r i o u s a d v e r s a r ie s in r a g g e d c l o t h e s o r h a l f n a k e d , b e n t

Creation of the Sacred

d o w n , w ith th e i r h a i r u n d o n e ; th e y w o u l d w e e p a n d t h r o w t h e m ­ selves a t th e f e e t o f t h e v i c t o r s . A n c i e n t h i s t o r i a n s , in c lu d in g C a e ­ sar, in d u lg e in s c e n e s o f t h i s k i n d .48 H o m e r d e s c r ib e s th e s p e c ia l p ractice o f th e

hiketes,

a w a r r i o r p l e a d i n g f o r h is life e v e n o n th e

b attle fie ld . A s th e w o r d i n d i c a t e s — it m e a n s “ h e w h o r e a c h e s ”— the su c cess o f t h e p le a d e p e n d e d o n c o m in g s o c lo s e t o th e a d ­ versary t h a t h e c o u l d b e t o u c h e d . E v e n th e le a d e r s o f t h e e n e m ie s “in th e tu r m o il o f b a t t l e . . . g r a s p e d m y h a n d s , f o r t h e s a k e o f th e ir liv e s,” A s s u r b a n i p a l r e c o u n t s . O d y s s e u s , in t h e m id s t o f b attle , “ t o o k th e h e l m e t f r o m h is h e a d , t h e s h ie ld f r o m h is s h o u l ­ ders, th r e w th e s p e a r f r o m h is h a n d s , a n d . . . k is s e d th e k n e e s of th e e n e m y k i n g . ” 49 In a g r a p h i c s c e n e f r o m th e

Iliad,

young

L ycaon r u n s t o t o u c h t h e k n e e s o f A c h ille s , w h ile A c h ille s ’ s p e a r, w hich h a d a l r e a d y b e e n t h r o w n , h its th e g r o u n d b e h i n d h is b a c k . T o u ch in g th e k n e e s s e n d s a m e s s a g e t o t h e p o w e r f u l o n e t o r e la x and sit d o w n , in s t e a d o f r e m a i n i n g r e a d y t o a t t a c k .50 In a n o t h e r gesture P r ia m , p l e a d i n g f o r t h e re le a s e o f H e c t o r ’s c o r p s e , “ e x ­ ten d ed h is h a n d s t o w a r d t h e m o u t h ” o f A c h ille s in s u p p li c a t io n ; he also k is s e d A c h ille s ’ h a n d s .51 K is s in g h a n d s h a s r e m a in e d a sign o f d e f e r e n t g r e e t i n g in p a r t s o f E u r o p e , e s p e c ia lly th o s e w ith in r e a c h o f th e i m p e r i a l c o u r t o f V ie n n a , a n d a ls o w i t h i n th e C a th o lic C h u r c h ; it c o m b i n e s b e n d i n g d o w n w i t h m a k in g c o n ­ tact. M o r e m o d e r n s ty le s o f d e m o c r a t i c b e h a v io r h a v e m a d e m ost o f th e s e f o r m s d i s a p p e a r f r o m o u r e x p e r ie n c e . T h e r e m a y still be s o m e f a m ilie s le f t in w h i c h w if e a n d c h i ld r e n fa ll t o th e ir knees b e fo re a d o m i n a n t f a th e r . B u t a r c h a i c w a y s a r e p r e s e r v e d or re s u s c ita te d in e x t r e m e s i t u a t i o n s . A m o d e r n p r e s s p h o t o ­ g rap h in

Time m a g a z i n e ,

t a k e n a t th e tim e o f t h e w a r b e tw e e n

India a n d P a k i s t a n , s till s h o w s t h e g e s tu r e o f to u c h i n g th e s u ­ p erio r’s k n e e in e x a c tl y t h e w a y w e se e i t in a n c ie n t ill u s tr a ti o n s and te x ts .52 It a lm o s t g o e s w i t h o u t s a y in g t h a t a ll th e s e f o r m s o f s u b m is s iv e ritual a lso a p p e a r in r e lig i o u s c o n t e x t s . T h e m o s t g e n e r a l a c t o f v e n e ra tio n c le a r ly is t o b e n d , t o b o w . “ T o b e n d d o w n ” is th e term fo r v e n e r a tio n o f g o d s in H e b r e w a s in A k k a d i a n .53 A b r a ­ h am “th r o w s h im s e lf d o w n o n h is f a c e ” in t h e p r e s e n c e o f J a h -

Hierarchy

w e h .54 M o s le m s to u c h th e g r o u n d w ith t h e i r f o r e h e a d s w hen p ra y in g to A lla h . T h e v o c a b u la r y u s e d in G r e e k is th e sa m e in b o th re lig io u s a n d civ il u s e , “ t o g r a s p t h e k n e e s ,” “ t o p la ce a k is s ,” “ to r e a c h ”

(gounazesthai, proskynein, hiketeuein).

T h ere

h as been s o m e c o n tr o v e r s y a b o u t w h e t h e r k n e e lin g d o w n for p ra y e r w a s c o m m o n in G re e c e ; it d id o c c u r a t le a s t in c e rta in c a se s . 55 In e x tre m e a n g u is h s o m e w o r s h i p e r s w ill p r o s t r a t e th e m ­ selves a t th e im a g e o r a l ta r .56 T h e r e is n o a m b i g u i t y a b o u t L atin

supplex, supplicatio,

b e n d in g o n e ’s k n e e s ; e v e n a n A s s y r ia n king

k n e lt d o w n fo r p r a y e r .57 C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s e v e n m o r e e m p h a tic a b o u t b e n d in g o n e ’s k n e e s b e f o r e g o d — E u s e b iu s c a lls th is “o u r c o m m o n fo rm o f w o r s h ip ” — a t le a s t u n t i l P r o t e s t a n t s d e c id e d to o p p o s e C a th o lic r i t u a l . 58 T h e u n iv e r s a lit y o f b e h a v io r d o e s n o t p re c lu d e th e c u ltiv a tio n o f s p e c ia l f o r m s t o d is t in g u is h in d iv id u a l g ro u p s o r d e n o m in a t io n s .59 F u rth e r to k e n s o f h u m ilia tio n m a y a c c o m p a n y th e e n c o u n te r w ith g o d o r g o d s . In a n tiq u ity , lo o s e h a ir, o u t s t r e t c h e d h a n d s , a n d fre e -flo w in g te a r s w e re e x p e c te d o f p e o p l e t a k i n g p a r t in p ro c e s s io n s to e n t r e a t th e g o d s f o r m e rc y in m o m e n ts o f crisis. T e a rs a re a ls o c o m m o n ly m e n tio n e d in H e b r e w p s a lm s a n d la te r in C h r is tia n fo rm s o f p r a y e r a n d r e p e n t a n c e ; th e y a lr e a d y m a rk S u m e ria n a n d A k k a d ia n p r a y e r .60 T o e x t e n d t h e a r m s w ith th e p a lm s u p is th e u s u a l p o s tu r e f o r p r a y e r in o r i e n t a l a n d H e b re w as in G re e k a n d R o m a n w o r s h i p ;61 C h r i s t i a n c u s t o m , h o w ev e r, tu r n e d a g a in s t s u c h o p e n p le a d in g a n d d ir e c te d t h a t p r a y e r be p e rfo rm e d w ith f o ld e d h a n d s .62 N o t e t h a t b o w i n g o n e ’s h e a d also p re v e n ts o n e f ro m s ta rin g . In th e m o d e l s c e n e o f p r a y e r in th e N e w T e s ta m e n t, th e p u b lic a n d o e s “ n o t r a is e h is e y e s to w a r d h e a v e n ” ; h e “ b e a ts h is c h e s t” w h ile s a y in g “ h a v e m e rc y o n m e, th e sin n e r .” 63

Propitius sis mihi peccatori h a s

b e c o m e a litu rg ic a l

fo rm u la in C h r is tia n s e rv ic e , a n d it f o llo w s m u c h o ld e r ru les. W h e n I n a n n a r e tu r n s f r o m th e n e t h e r w o r l d w i t h a n in f e r n a l r e t­ in u e , all th o s e w h o t h r o w th e m s e lv e s a t th e f e e t o f th e g o d d e ss o r sit h u m b ly in th e d u s t a r e s p a r e d ; b u t D u m u z i , s till “ sittin g o n th e h ig h s e a t,” is d e s tr o y e d .64 T o b e h u m b l e b e f o r e th e g o d s is a le sso n ta u g h t lo n g b e fo re C h r is t ia n i ty .65

Creation of the Sacred

Students o f re lig io n h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o m a k e a c le a r d is t in c t io n Ihm w een v e n e r a tio n a n d s u b m i s s i o n . Y et th e y m a y b e tr y i n g to d iffe re n tia te t w o tilin g s t h a t a r e a t le a s t q u ite c lo s e to e a c h o th e r. M ost a n c ie n t r e lig io n s d id n o t h e s i t a t e t o p o s t u l a t e th e fe a r o f gods. In A k k a d ia n f e a r o r e v e n te r r o r ,

pulubtu,

is th e b a s ic c o n ­

cept a s s o c ia te d w ith g o d s ; in S o l o m o n ’s P r o v e r b s , “ th e f e a r o f god is th e b e g in n in g o f w i s d o m ” ; f o r A e s c h y lu s , th e f e a r o f Z e u s is th e “ h ig h e s t f e a r . ” 67 = Yasna 44,7: T h e o b e d ie n c e o f a s o n to w a r d s h is f a th e r r a n k s im m e d ia te ly a f te r cosm ic o rd er. See a ls o C h a p t e r 1 a t n n . 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 . 116. H eb r. 1 3 ,1 7 . 117. See C h a p te r 3 a t n . 3 1 . 118. S o m m e r 1 9 9 2 , 8 3 - 8 8 .

Notes to Pages 94-98

215

216

119. [Arist.] De mundo 39 8 a. 120. Cf. B urkert in F. Stolz, ed., Religion zu Krieg und Frieden (Zür­ ich, 1986), 67 ff. 121. For texts from the tem ple o f Ish ta r a t A rb ela, see ANET 449 f. 122. RE Suppl. Ill 1 0 1 -1 1 4 s.v . A ngelos; ThWbNT1 7 2 -8 6 ;J . Michl RAC V (1962) 5 3 -2 5 8 s.v. “E ngel.” 123. John 5,23; 6,44; 12,44; 14,24 etc. 124. Jo h n 1,33. 125. John 20,21; cf. 17,18. 126. A. Boehlig, Die Gnosis III (Z ü rich , 1980) 155 cf. 83; A. Adam, Texte zum Manichäismus (Berlin, 2 n d ed. 1969) nr.3a. 127. Quran, Sura 33,40 etc. 128. H es. Erga 2 5 3 -2 5 5 . 129. The crucial tex t is P lato, Symp. 2 0 2 d -2 0 3 a ; P la to ’s expression for com m unication betw een m en an d gods th a t occurs th ro u g h demons is “encounter and speech,” bomilia kai dialektos. 130. Aesch. Eum. 19 “L oxias is p ro p h e t o f Z eu s, th e father.” 131. Jo n ah 1,1. 132. II Sam. 12. 133. A ristoph. Pax 1070 f. 134. D iod. 36,13; Plut. Marius 1 7 ,8 -1 l ; c f . C h a p te r 5 n. 41. 135. See also C hapter 1 at n. 8 6 , on the “m o n ster in the corner.” 136. See C hapter 1 a t n. 100. 137. See C hapter 7. 138. W ords of M axim illa, E piphan. Panar. 4 8 ,1 3 ,1 ; Bishop Epiphanius criticizes this constraint; b ut St. P au l’s experience w as quite com­ parable: “Woe to me if I do n o t preach th e gospel” (I Cor. 9,16). 139. Aesch. Ag. 1562.

5 . G u ilt a n d C a u s a lity 1. II. 1 ,6 2 -6 4 : mantin, hierea, oneiropolon; see o n the proceedings Parker 1983, 2 0 7 -2 3 4 . Cf. D elbos-Jorion 1981. 2. H dt. 9,93,4: At A pollonia “they ask ed th e p ro p h e ts (of the or­ acles) about the cause o f the present evil” ; cf. 6 ,1 3 9 ,1 : Pelasgians ask Delphi for “riddance (lysis) of the present evils.” 3. Persians declare th a t w hoever gets leprosy m u st have committed some fault against the Sun; hence the cu lp rit is driven from the town, and nobody enters into contact w ith him ; th e ra tio n a l b u t brutal means to control infection is m ade acceptable by th e d ec laratio n o f nonobvious guilt, H dt. 1,138,1. 4 . 1 Sam.

Notes to Pages 98-103

Kohenim a n d qosemirn; o n th is te r m , w ith sp e c ia l re fe re n c e to a r r o w - o racles, sec HAL 1041 f; hiereis, manteis, epaoidoi in th e Sep5.

tuagint, 1 S am , 6 .2 . 6 . 0 opeL HAL 8 1 4 ; th e S e p tu a g in t h a s hedrai, “ b u tto c k s .” A v o tiv e

(glouthron) is in SEG 2 9 ( 1 9 7 9 ) nr. 1 1 7 4 , 7. T. D o th a n , The Philistines and Their Material Culture (New H aven, 1 982); J. 1. B ru g , A Literary and Archaeological Study of the Philistines ( O x f o r d , 1 9 8 5 ); L. E. S ta g e r, Ashkelon Discovered (W a sh ­

offering o f b u tto c k s

ington, 1991). 8.

ANET 3 9 4

ff; L e b r u n 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 2 - 2 3 9 , e sp . 2 0 3 - 2 1 6 , th e se c ­

ond v ersio n ; h e re 2 1 2 ,2 9 f; 3 2 '; 3 8 '. 9. L e b ru n 1 9 8 0 , 2 1 1 , 1 2 '; 2 1 3 , 8 '; 1 3 '; 1 9 '. 10.

Tages-Anzeiger, Z ü r i c h ,

Jan. 21, 1986.

1 1. A lre a d y H o m e r h a s it t h a t “ th e g o d s m a d e k n o w n ” th e d e e d s o f

O edipus,

Od.

1 1 ,2 7 4 .

1 2 . C f. B u r k e r t,

Oedipus, Oracles, and Meaning. From Sophocles

to Umberto Eco ( T o r o n to ,

1 9 9 1 ).

13. A p o llo d . 2 ,1 3 0 f. T h e q u a r r e l a b o u t th e tr ip o d is o n e o f th e earliest m y th o lo g ic a l m o tif s t o a p p e a r in G re e k a r t, see S c h e fo ld 1 9 9 3 , 47 fig. 2 0 . O re s te s t o o g e ts s ic k a f t e r k illin g h is m o th e r, a n d h e re c o v e rs with the h e lp o f A p o llo ’s o r a c le . C f. B u r k e r t 1 9 9 2 a , 5 6 f.

Georg. 3 1 7 - 5 5 8 , p o s s ib ly g o in g b a c k t o E u m e lu s, T 2 Davies; morbi causam 4 ,3 9 7 ; 5 3 2 ; cf. V a r ro r.r. 2 ,5 ,5 ; th e r itu a l o f bugonia is d e s c rib e d in Geoponica 1 5 , 2 , 2 2 - 2 9 ; cf. RE III 4 3 1 - 4 5 0 s.v. 14. V erg.

Biene. 15. See F. G ra f,

ZEE 9 2

( 1 9 9 2 ) 2 6 7 - 2 7 9 , e sp . 2 7 5 - 2 7 7 .

16. L a n te rn a ri 1 9 9 4 , 2 6 2 f. 17. Livy 8 ,1 8 . 18. C f. S u lliv a n 1 9 8 8 ;

ER s.v.

“ D is e a s e s a n d C u r e s ,” “ H e a lin g .”

19. Livy 2 ,3 6 , 3 9 0 b . c . ( c o m m e n ts b y A r n o b .7 ,3 9 - 4 3 ) : T itu s L a ti­

nius is s u m m o n e d b y J u p i t e r in h is d r e a m to a n n o u n c e t h a t th e R o m a n games (ludi Romani) h a d b e e n p o llu te d b y th e s p e c ta c u la r p u n is h m e n t of a slave ju s t b e fo re th e g a m e s in th e a r e n a a n d m u s t b e re p e a te d ; because he d o e s n o t h e e d th e d iv in e c o m m a n d , h is s o n d ies a n d h e himself falls ill. H e th e n d e liv e rs h is m e s s a g e t o th e S e n a te a n d re c o v e rs at once. Cf. a s to r y in Tages-Anzeiger, Z ü r i c h , F e b . 2 7 , 1 9 9 0 : d u r in g the b u ild in g o f a h ig h w a y in I n d o n e s ia , a w o r k e r w a s to ld in a d re a m that a b u ffa lo m u s t b e s a c rific e d t o th e s p ir its o f th e d e a d d w e llin g in that reg io n ; h e fell s e rio u s ly ill a n d re c o v e re d o n ly w h e n th e sacrifice had been m a d e — a lo n g w i t h t h e c e le b r a tio n o f a C h r is tia n M a ss. 20. A esch.

Ag.

1 8 8 - 2 1 7 . A e s c h y lu s d o e s n o t te ll w h ic h fa u lt is im ­

puted to A g a m e m n o n ; t h e p a r a lle l a c c o u n ts g iv e v a rio u s re a s o n s.

21. Od. 4, 451-586; for the obvious suspicion of “missing” sacri­ fices see also //. 5 ,1 7 7 f. 2 2 . J o n a h 1 ,7 ; e f . C h a p t e r 2 .

24. Π. W. Parke, nr.7; SliG 19,427.

The Oracles of Zeus (Cambridge, 1967)

261 f.

PGrHist 90 F 45 cf. 15, p ro b a b ly fro m X anthos. A. L ivingstone, State Archives of Assyria IV: Court Poetry (Hel­

24. N ik o lao s 25.

sinki, 1989), nr. 44,

p.

77 (I do n o t in d ic ate la cu n ae a n d restorations).

O ne m ight co m p are K ro iso s’ m e th o d o f te stin g G reek oracles, Hdt. 1,46, o r the suggestion to verify a d re a m o ra c le a t A m p h iarao s by in­ quiring a t D elphi, H ypereides 4 ,1 4 f; a G reek g en eral to o will “assem­ ble” the seers at sacrifice an d accep t th e v erd ic t o n w h ich they agree, E urip. Heracl. 340; 4 0 1 - 4 0 7 . 26. D iod. 2 0 ,1 4 (zetesis §4). O n M o lo c h sacrifices see C hapter 2 at n.76. 27. T h u c. 1 ,1 2 8 ,1 ; cf.2 ,1 7 , below , n. 4 7 . 28. H erak leid es F r.46a W ehrli = S trab. 8 p. 3 8 4 cf. D iod. 15,48; Paus. 7 ,2 4 ,5 -1 2 ; R. Baladié, Le Péloponnèse de Strabon (Paris, 1980) 1 4 5 -1 5 7 . 29. Paus. 7 ,1 7 ,1 3 f. 30. A.R. 2 ,4 6 3 -4 8 9 . 31. A pollod. Bibl. 1 0 0 -1 0 2 ; P herekydes FGrHist 3 F 33 = Schol. O d. 1 1 ,287; E ust. p. 1 6 8 5 ,3 3 ; Schol. T heokr. 3 ,4 3 cf. Od. 11,291-2 9 7 ; 1 5 ,2 3 1 -2 3 8 ; H es. Fr. 37. 32. C riticism o f F reu d ’s diagnosis by G rü n b a u m 1984. A charac­ teristic difference is th a t psychoanalysis rejects g u ilt in fav o r of traum a inflicted from outside. 33. H d t. 9 ,9 3 ,4 cf. n. 2. 34. Eur. Fr. 9 1 2 ,9 -1 3 . H d t. 6,91 has a sto ry a b o u t th e Aeginetans w h o w ere n o t able to “ex p iate by sacrifice” th e “p o llu tio n incurred” (agos), “alth o u g h they trie d to d o so .” 35. P lato Phdr. 2 4 4 de, cf. B u rk ert 1 9 8 7 b ,19. 36. In G reek, this is th e q u estio n fo r prophasis, a w o rd m uch dis­ cussed in relatio n to T h u c. 1 ,2 3 ,6 , b u t m o re clearly seen in its original function in T huc. 1,133; see H . R . R aw lin g s III, A Semantic Study of Prophasis to 400 b . c . (W iesbaden, 1 975); A. A. N ik ita s, “Z u r Bedeu­ tung von Prophasis in d er altgriechischen L ite ra tu r,” Abh. (Mainz, 1976) 4. 37. D undes 1964 has a tale p a tte rn o f in terdiction-infraction-co n ­ sequence-attem pted escape. 38. Livy 5,51,8.

iü U # * ? « ·+/■»

ifλΜ,»* mo 'i i

■>

3 9 . M eyer 1962; F. G a rc ia M a rtin e z ,

The Dead Sea Scrolls Trans­

ited (Leiden,

1994) 2 8 9 . 40. See above a t n. 2 1 . 41. See ab o v e, C h a p te r 4 a t n. 6 9 ; 1 3 4 ; in g en e ra l, Del b o s ) o rion 1 9 8 1 . A catalo g u e o f h o w a h e rd s m a n m ig h t v io la te ta b o o s is given in ()v. fast. 4J47-762: sitting u n d e r a sa c re d tre e , e n te rin g a sacred grove, etc.; da veniam culpae 7 5 5 . S y ria n s h o ld fish sa c re d , a n d if they ea t fish they im m ediately fall ill, M e n a n d e r Fr. 7 5 4 . T h e typical G reek w o rd for a religious fau lt c o m m itte d is alitem (on w h ic h see H . V os, Glotta 34 [1955] 2 8 7 -2 9 5 ; E. T ichy, Glotta 5 5 [1 9 7 7 ] 1 6 0 -1 7 2 ). Cf. also the death of the R o m a n official in 1 0 2 b .c . w h o h a d in su lted a p riest o f Magna M ater, D iod. 3 6 ,1 3 ; P lu t. Marius 1 7 ,8 - 1 1 . 42. B urkert 1 9 8 5 , 2 3 5 f; K ru m m e n 1 9 9 0 , 1 0 8 - 1 1 6 ; M . P etterso n , Cults of Apollo at Sparta (S to c k h o lm , 1 9 9 2 ) 5 7 - 7 2 . 43. B urkert 1 9 8 3 , 1 3 6 - 1 4 3 . 44. Plut. mus. 4 2 , 1 1 4 5 B C , re fe rrin g to P ra tin a s TrGE 4 F 9; cf. L. Käppel, Paian. Geschichte einer Gattung (B erlin, 1 9 9 2 ), 3 4 9 - 3 5 1 . 45. Ceres: D io n .H a l. ant. 6 ,1 7 ; 6 ,9 4 ,3 ; A p o llo : Liv. 4 ,2 5 ,3 ; 4 ,2 9 ,7 . 46. A bove, n. 14. 47. T huc. 2 ,1 7 : Fie d o e s n o t a c c e p t th a t th e b re a k in g o f a ta b o o w as the cause o f th e p estile n c e , b u t d o e s n o t q u e stio n divine w isd o m an d foreknowledge. See a lso S. B. A lesh ire, The Athenian Asklepieion (A m ­ sterdam, 1989). 48. H d t. 1 ,1 9 - 2 2 ; cf. th e e re c tio n o f a tem p le to N a m ta r, th e god of pestilence, in Atrahasis I 4 0 1 , D ailey 1 9 8 9 ,1 9 . F o r the p rin cip le “tw o for one” see T h u c . 1 ,1 3 4 ,4 ; th e in sc rip tio n o n a vase refers to vases set up in a san ctu ary : “ h a v in g b ro k e n o n e , tw o fo r A p h ro d ite .” G . A. Koshelenko et al., ed s., Anticnye gosudarstva Severnogo Pricernomorja (Moscow, 1984) 1 4 2 n r.4 . 49. Od. 1 2 ,3 4 5 - 3 4 7 . 50. Luk. Syr.D. 19, cf. C h a p te r 2 a t n. 4 4 . 51. SEG 3 3 , 7 3 6 ; IC II x x v iii 2 , H e rm e s T allaios. 52. Below, n. 85. 53. H d t. 1 ,1 6 7 . T h e R o m a n s d eriv e d caerimonia fro m C aere. 54. H d t. 1 ,1 0 5 cf. H ip p o c r. aer. 2 2 ; see D . M a rg re th , Skythische

Schamanen? Die Nachrichten über Enarees-Anarieis bei Herodot und Hippokrates (P h.D . d iss., Z ü ric h , 1 9 9 3 ). 55. L an te rn a ri 1 9 9 4 , 2 5 6 f. 56. In P lato Resp. 3 6 4 b c “ b e g g a rs a n d seers” claim th e “p o w e r” (dynamis) to “m a k e g o o d ” (dkeisthai). 57. Cf. th e H ittite h y m n to th e S u n G o d , L e b ru n 1 9 8 0 ,1 0 4 f: “q u ’il me dise m o n p é c h é .” See a lso v a n d e r T o o rn 1 9 8 5 , 9 4 - 9 7 : “in search of the secret sin .”

Notes to Pages 113-116

58. D aniel 2 , 1 2 f; 2 4 ; “ m a g ic ia n s, e x o rc ists, so rcerers, and Chal-

220

d a e a n s” 2,2. 59. See at n. 25. 60. H d t. 4 ,6 8 . 61. H d t. 6 , 6 6 ; 6 .7 5 ,3 ; 5 ,6 6 ,1 ; cf. 5 ,9 0 ,1 . 62. S oph. O T 3 8 0 - 3 8 9 .

Phrixos A, A p o llo d . Bibl. 1 ,8 0 - 8 2 , H y g . fab. 2, cf. C. Aus­ Nova Fragmenta Euripidea (B erlin, 1 9 6 8 ) p. 101 f.

63. Eur. tin,

64. Cf. B u rk e rt 1 9 7 9 , 8 8 f. 65.

Divinatio oblativa a n d impetrativa, see

C h a p te r 7 n. 7.

6 6 . P salm 1 2 4 ,7 .

67. H d t. 6 ,1 3 9 ,1 , cf. ab o v e n o te 2. 6 8 . S oph. El. 4 4 7 . 69. S oph. O T 100 f. (lyein). L a tin luere, re la te d to G reek

lyein, has

assum ed the m ean in g “to e x p ia te .” 70. K. T san tsa n o g lo u , G . M . P a ra sso g lo u , “T w o G old Lamellae fro m T hessaly,” Hellenika 38 (1 9 8 7 ) 3 - 1 6 ; SEG 3 7 ,4 9 7 ; cf. Burkert 1 9 8 7 ,1 9 ; F. G raf, “D io n y sian a n d O rp h ic E sch ato lo g y : N ew Texts and O ld Q u e stio n s,” in T. H . C a rp e n te r a n d C . A. F a ra o n e , eds., Masks of

Dionysus (Ithaca,

1993) 2 3 9 - 2 5 8 . 71. A bove, n. 35. 72. F irst “M erseb u rg er Z a u b e rs p ru c h ,” cf. M . W ehrli, Geschichte der deutschen Literaturi (S tu ttg art, 1980) 2 2 - 2 4 . 73. See esp. the series Shurpu (R einer 1 9 5 8 ) ta b le ts II-Π Ι; the term is pasaru, “to release,” AHw 8 4 2 , in c o n tra s t w ith rakasu and kamu “to b in d ,” AHw 946; 4 3 3 . 74. A k k ad ian in c a n ta tio n te x t in E beling 1931 nr. 30 A III 63, p. 132 f. 75. A. A udollent, Defixionum Tabellae (P aris, 1904); R. Wünsch, Defixionum Tabellae Atticae, IG III 3 (Berlin, 1 897); D . R. Jordan, “A Survey of G reek D efixiones N o t In clu d ed in th e Special Corpora,” GRBS26 (1985) 1 5 1 -1 9 7 ; see also C. A. F a ra o n e , “T h e Agonistic Con­ tex t of Early G reek B inding Spells,” in C .-A . F a ra o n e an d D. Obbink, eds., Magika Hiera. Ancient Greek Magic and Religion (New York, 1991) 3 -3 2 ; F. G raf, La Magie dans Vantiquité gréco-romaine (Paris, 1994) 1 3 9 -1 9 8 . 76. S ophronius, Narratio miraculorum SS Cyri et Ioannis sapien­ tium Anargyrorum, PG 87,3, 3 5 4 1 -3 5 4 8 (see A udollent, n. 75, p. cxxii). 77. Liban. Or. 1 ,2 4 3 -2 5 0 ; C. B onner, “W itch c ra ft in the Lecture R oom of L ibanius,” TAPA 63 (1932) 3 4 - 4 4 . 78. H d t. 6,12,3.

Notes to Pages 116-121

79. Sec Chapter 4. 80 . Plut. Superst. 168 cl: “ O fte n he ro lls n a k e d in the m u d as he confesses his v a rio u s fa u lts a n d e r r o r s ” ; cf. C h a p te r 4 n. 69. 81. A rnob. 7,5 (this is said to be th e h y p o th e sis o f his ad v ersaries, the pagans). T h is co m es clo se to th e p ro g ra m d escrib ed in C h a p te r 2. 82.

AHw

716.

83. Cf. th e P y th a g o re a n sa y in g in Ia m b i. V.P. 85: “th o se w h o have come (into th is life) to be p u n is h e d m u s t be p u n is h e d .” 84. ANET 3 9 5 ; L e b ru n 1 9 8 0 , 2 1 4 ,2 4 - 2 8 ; a b o v e , n. 8 . In th e C h ris­ tian trad itio n th e p a re n t-c h ild re la tio n s h ip co m es m o re to th e fore th a n the lo rd -serv an t re la tio n . 85. F. S teinleitner, Die Beicht im Zusammenhang mit der sakralen Rechtspflege in der Antike (P h .D . d iss., M u n ic h , 1913); R. P ettazzon i, La confessione dei peccati, 3 vol. (B ologna, 1 9 2 9 -1 9 3 6 ); H . H o m m el, “Antike B u ß fo rm u la re ,” in Sebasmata I (T ü b in g en , 1983) 3 5 1 - 3 7 0 ; th e growing co rp u s o f in sc rip tio n s fro m W estern A sia M in o r h as n o w been collected by Petzl 1 9 9 4 ; see also G . Petzl, “L u k ian s ‘P o d a g ra ’ u n d die B eichtinschriften K le in a sie n s,” Métis 6 (1991) 1 3 1 -1 4 5 . E xam ples from M e so p o ta m ia a re in S ch ran k 1 9 0 8 , 46 f; M . Ja stro w , Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens II, G iessen 1 9 1 2 , 71 ff; S. L an g d o n , Baby­ lonian Penitential Psalms (P aris, 1 927); SAHG 1 8 - 1 9 ; fro m E gypt, in Roeder 1 9 1 5 , 5 8 ; H . I. Bell, Cults and Creeds in Greco-Roman Egypt (Liverpool, 1 9 5 3 ), 13. 8 6 . F or ex a m p le , A. I. H a llo w e ll, Culture and Experience (N ew York, 1967), 2 6 6 - 2 7 6 (on S a u lte a u x Indians). 87. A risto p h . Peace 668 cf. Clouds 1 4 78; Wasps 1001. 8 8 . Pind. Pyth. 3 ,8 2 f. 89. See Guilt or Pollution and Rites of Purification. P roceedings o f the X lth In te rn a tio n a l C o n g ress o f th e In te rn a tio n a l A ssociation for the History of R eligions II (L eiden, 1 9 6 8 ); ER X II 9 1 - 1 0 0 s.v. purification ; a standard w o rk is M . D o u g la s, Purity and Danger (N ew Y ork, 1966). 90. P ark er 1 9 8 3 . Cf. also P fister RE S uppl.V I (1935) 1 4 6 -1 6 2 s.v. Katharsis. 91. M . L. W est in his rev iew o f P arker, CR 35 (1985) 9 2 - 9 4 . 92. E pim enides FGrHist 4 5 7 T 1 ; 4 ; B u rk e rt 1 9 9 2 a, 60; 62 f. 93. Plut. De Sera 5 6 0 ef (Italias c o rre c te d to Phigalias by M itrelh au s RE XIX 2 0 8 4 ); Fr. 126 S an d b ac h ; T h u c. 1 ,1 3 4 ,4 . T he m e n tio n o f ghosts brings to m in d th e th ird m o d el, d em o n ia c w ra th . T he m odels are also m ixed u p in th e rh e to ric a l exercise o f A n tip h o n 4 ,1 ,3 : a victim of m urd er “leaves b eh in d . . . th e h o stility o f th e avenging sp irits,” an d those w h o fail to a d m in iste r ju stice “ b rin g th is hostility o f the avenging spirits, a defilem ent (miasma) w h ich o u g h t n o t to be, in to th e ir ow n

Notes to Pages 121-124

houses.” See J. D. M ik a lso n ,

Athenian Popular Religion (Chapel Hill,

1983), 5 0 -5 2 . 94. N ad ig 1986, 2 2 3 , cf. 2 2 0 f., 2 2 5 - 2 2 9 ,3 8 1 f. 95. L atte 1920/1. 96. D odds 1951, 2 8 - 6 3 fo llo w in g R . B enedict, The Chrysanthe­ mum and the Sword. Patterns of Japanese Culture (B oston, 1946), 222 ff. N ote th a t for L atte th e idea o f im p u rity a n d th e corresponding prac­ tice of purification w as p rim itiv e a n d h en ce very o ld , w hereas Dodds associates the discovery o f g u ilt w ith th e in te re st in purification in the archaic, p o st-H o m eric age. It has alw ay s been n o tic ed th a t in the Iliad and the Odyssey th e re is very little a b o u t p u rific a tio n , a n d definitely no purification from m u rd er; th is second ca te g o ry m ak es its appearance in the Aithiopis, p. 4 7 lines 1 1 -1 3 D avies. 97. See n o w C airns 1993, 2 7 - 4 7 . 98. See C h a p ter 2; esp. G ira rd 1972 a n d 1982. 99. A ristoph. Fr. dubium 940 K assel-A ustin; M e n a n d e r Dysc. 114; T h eo k rit 5 ,1 1 9 ; H sch. s.v. katharthenai: mastigothenai. Prov. 20,30: “A good beating purifies the m in d ” (the in te rp re ta tio n an d translation, though, is controversial). 100. See P arker 1983, 378. 101. Cf. Eur. Ion 367: Ion, servant to A p o llo ’s sanctuary, says to K reusa, w h o had been violated by th e god: “H e is asham ed of the act: do n o t condem n h im .” 102. See also Kelsen 1982. 103. M . P. N ilsson, “Religion as M a n ’s P ro test ag ain st the Meaning­ lessness of Events,” Opuscula Selecta III (Lund, 1960), 3 9 1 -4 6 4 .

6 . T h e R e c ip ro c ity o f G iv in g

1. CEG 326; Jeffery 1990, 90 f; 94 n r .l; LIMC “A pollon” nr.40. 2 . Od. 1,187 f; 3 1 1 -3 1 8 ; doron 3 1 1 , 316; axion. . .amoibesS18. See Scheid-Tissinier 1994, 165 f. 3. M auss 1 9 2 3 -2 4 (Eng. tr. 1967); see also K. Planyi, Primitive, Archaic, and Modern Economy (G arden City, 1968); C heal 1988, who calls giving “a system of re d u n d an t tran sactio n s w ith in a m oral econ­ omy, w hich m akes possible th e extended re p ro d u ctio n of social rela­ tions” (19). 4. Satirically stressed by M artial 5 ,59,3: quisquis magna dedit, vol­ uit sibi magna remitti, “w hoever has presented g reat gifts w anted that great gifts be sent back to h im .” 5. G regory 1980; cf. Schieffelin 1980; G ouldner 1960; Sahlins 1970.

Notes to Pages 124-130

See Mauss 19 6 7 , 72ί. 7. Μ . Finley, The World o f Odysseus (New York, 1954; 2nd cd. 1 9 7 8 ) 61-65 (qualifications in J. T. Hooker, “Gifts in Homer,” BICS 36 [1989J 7 9 - 9 0 ) ; ] . N . Coldstream in R. Hägg, cd., The Greek Renais­ sance of the Eighth Century b . c . (Stockholm, 1983), 201 -206; ScheidTissinier 1994. See also L. Gernet, “Droit et pré-droit en Grèce an­ cienne,” in Gernet 1968, 175-260; S. Humphreys, Anthropology and the Greeks (London, 1 9 7 8 ) ; Herman 1987; Ulf 1990, 211 f. 8. See M. Weinfeld, “Initiation of Political Friendship in Libia and Its Later Developments,” in H. Hauptmann and H. Waetzoldt, eds., Wirtschaß und Gesellschaft von Ebla (Heidelberg, 1988) 345-348. 9. Horn. II. 6,230-236: epameipsomen 230; the standard of axion is violated in this case, as gold is exchanged for bronze, 235-237. A grotesque account of a gift exchange among friends, including the wife of one of them, appears in Hdt. 6,62. 10. Prov. 18,16. On bribery, dorodokia in Greek (acceptance of gifts), see at n. 88. 11. C. F. A. Schaeffer, he Palais royal d’UgaritVl (Paris, 1970) 9 11, A 12-14, RS 17.148. Cf. Liverani 1990, esp. 211-217. 12. Bourdieu 1972, 227-243: “Le Capital symbolique.” 13. Aside from giving objects, there are also other forms of inter­ action to express friendship, solidarity, and rank: play of eyes, bowing down, or caressing—common among apes too. For humans language has added further possibilities, such as “verbal stroking” (see Chapter 4 at nn. 86-91). We speak of giving and exchange even in this context and measure “units of caressing” (Streicheleinheiten). 14. On Homeric eedna see S. West, A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey I (Oxford, 1988) 110 f. 15. “Give me part of your virginity” Ps.-Plato Anth.Pal. 5,79,2. See also Μ. I. Finley, “Marriage, Sale and Gift in the Homeric World,” Re­ vue Internationale des droits de Pantiquité III 2 (1955) 167-194, repr. in M. Finley, Economy and Society in Ancient Greece (London, 1981), 232-245; J. P. Vernant, Mythe et société en Grèce ancienne (Paris, 1974; repr. 1981) 57-81. 16. The root of the word is pera-, transaction. 17. Cf. Burkert 1994. See also Seaford 1994 on two forms of reci­ procity, gift and revenge. 18. This is the “justice of Rhadamanthys” executed through trans­ migration, Arist. EN 1132b25. P. Marongiu, G. Newman, in their book Vengeance: The Fight against Injustice (Totowa, N.J., 1987), under­ stand reciprocity basically in this sense, “vengeance” taking the place of “obedience” out of an “elementary sense of injustice.” 6.

No tes to P a g e s 1 3 1 - 1 3 3

19. See e.g. Ex. 21,23-27. 20. This is the expression of the penitent culprit at the cross, NT Luc. 23,41. In Akkadian the relevant expressions are gamalu, gimillu and riabu, “to retribute,” used both in friendly interactions and in the situation of revenge, AHw 275 f; 978 f. 21. Deut. 25,2 f; Ioseph. Ant.lud. 4,8,21,238; NT II Cor. 11,24; Plat. Leg. 845a. 22. epieike’ amoiben, Od. 12,382. 23. Aristoph. Nub. 245 cf. 118. 24. See below at n. 124. 25. See de Waal 1989, 38 f; Burkert 1994, 12. 26. See S. A. J. White, “Gift Giving,” ER V 552-557; Linders and Nordquist 1987; F. T. van Straten, “Gifts for the Gods,” in Versnel 1981, 65-151.In Greek, anatithenai prevails, but didonai is not absent; for Latin, the normal votive formula is DDD, dedit donavit dedicavit. For “giving sacrifice” in Akkadian, see AHw 1525 s.v. zibu. 27. Corinth: CEG 359/60; with variation, aphorman for amoiban, “a pleasant fresh start” CEG 358; Smyrna: CEG 426. Cf. Lazzarini 1976 and 1989-90. 28. Horn. Od. 3,58 f; Horn. Hymn. Dem. 494. 29. Plato Euthyphro 14 ce. See also Leg. 716e: the god does not accept gifts from polluted givers. 30. Plato Symp. 202e. 31. Hippocr. Aer. 22, quoting Eur. Hippol. 8. 32. R. Schmitt, Dichtung und Dichtersprache in indogermanischer Zeit (Wiesbaden, 1967), 142-149. 33. MY V 659,4; A. Morpurgo, Mycenaeae Graecitatis Lexicon (Rome, 1963), 324. 34. Persepolis inscription g, Weissbach 1911, 85. 35. Democr. B 175. 36. James 1,17. Cf. also theon eis anthropous dosis Plat. PhilA6cd. 37. SVF II nr.1081: The Charités (traditionally worshiped as god­ desses) are the personification of “our first fruit offerings and returns (antapodôseis) for the gods’ good deeds.” 38. Sallustios 16,1; cf. below, n. 121. 39. Ex. 23,15; Psalm 96, 7 f; the Hebrew term for the gift accom­ panying sacrifice is mmhah. See also Akkadian kurbanu and muhhuru. 40. Stele of Fekherye, A. Abou-Assaf, P. Bodreuil, A. R. Millard, La statue de Tell Fekherye et son inscription bilingue assyro-araméenne (Paris, 1982) 17 (Assyrian version line 2 f.) cf. 24 (Aramaic version lines 2-4). 41. Plato Euthyphro, see above n. 29.

Notes to Pages 133-136

42. Horn. II. 22,169-172 f; Od. 1,66 f. 43. A t r a h a s i s II ii 14; 20, Lambert-Millard 1969, l i b a s m a i b i s , cf. palley 1989, 21. For Kroisos’ reproach to Apollo in Herodotus, see infra n. /2. 44. See G. van der Leeuw, “Die Do ut des-Formel in der Opfertheorie,” ARW 20 (1920/1) 241-253; Widengren 1969, 280-288; ER VI j97— 214; Grottanelli 1989-90; for qualification, see Festugière 1976, 418: “beaucoup plus complexe que la notion du contrat.” 45. Tittiriya-Samhita, Widengren 1969, 284; ER V 554. 46. See Chapter 1 η. 130. 47. Lambert 1960, 104; qiptu (loan, credit) 147 f. 48. Prov. 19,17: NT Math. 6,4 cf. 6. 49. Aesch. Lib. Bearers 792 f. 50. P. Thieme, “Studien zur indogermanischen Wortkunde und Re­ ligionsgeschichte,” Berichte der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissen­ schaften zu Leipzig, Phil.-Hist. Klasse 98,5 (1952) 62-76. 51. Anth.Pal. 6,152,3 f; 6,238,5 f. 52. CEG 227; 275. 53. CIL P2, 1531 = CLE 4, donu danunt. . . orant se voti crebro condemnes. 54. K. Ehlich in S. Döpp, Hg., Karnevaleske Phänomene in antiken und nachantiken Kulturen und Literaturen (Trier, 1993), 293 f. 55. Greek p l o u t o s (riches) originally meant grain, to be stored in the subterranean treasury / t h e s a u r o s ); in the myth, Plutos is the son of Demeter the grain-goddess, and the god of the underworld is called Pluton. 56. See also Widengren 1969, 288. 57. Canopos Decree of Ptolemy III, 239-38 b .c ., OGI 56, 8 f., 19 f.

58. Acts 20,35. The opposite asymmetry is stated by Thucydides 2,97,4 in reference to those Thracians who had the power “to take rather than to give.” 59. Cf. invitations without expectation of antapodosis: Luke 14,12; equal recompense for different labor: Matth. 20,1-16; the prodigal son and the dishonest stewart: Luke 15,11 ff; 16,1-9; giving away riches: Mark 10,21. “If you have money, do not lend at interest, but give [to him] from whom you will not get them [back]”—this is the version of the Gnostic Gospel of Thomas (95) which becomes “don’t turn from him who asks you to borrow” in Matthew (5,42), whereas Luke has “give to everyone who ask you, and don’t claim back from him who takes your belongings” (6,30). Didache 1,5, combining Luke 6,30 and Acts 20,36, even proclaims: “Woe to him who takes.” The fifth section of the Lord’s prayer, Mt. 6,12, usually translated as “forgive us the

Notes to Pages 136-138

w rong we have d o n e ,” has th e w o rd opheilemata w hich primarily m eans “d eb ts” an d can be u n d e rsto o d : “ as w e re n o u n c e the debts owed to us”; the tra d itio n a l in te rp re ta tio n is u p h eld by rab b in ic m aterial, see ThWbNTV 565. Jesu s’ m odel is th e b e h a v io r o f c h ild re n begging from their parents. C o m p en sa tio n (amoibe) is a lso d en ied in the ethics of M arcus A urelius: “If you have d o n e g o o d , a n d so m e b o d y has had good done to him , w h a t else d o you d esire ?” (7 ,7 3 ). 60. Quran, Sura 9,111. 61. See C h a p ter 1 at n. 36. T h e fo llo w in g discussion is largely par­ allel to the sociobiology d eb a te (see C h a p te r 1 n. 34), b u t takes success rather in the sense o f goods ac q u ire d th a n o f m u ltip lic a tio n of genes. 62. D aw kins 1976.

63. This goes back to Rapoport-Chamnah 1965; cf. R. Axelrod and W. D. Hamilton, “The Evolution of Cooperation,” Science 211/4489 (1981) 1390-1396; D. R. Hofstadter, Scientific American (May 1983) 14-20; Axelrod 1984-1988. 64. See Dawkins 1976,199 f. for the grudger’s strategy. But see the objections raised by Boyd-Lorberbaum 1987. 65. R J. Hamilton Grierson, “The Silent Trade,” in D. Dalton, ed., Research in Economic Anthropology III (Greenwich, Conn. 1980) 174; A. Price, “On Silent Trade,” ibid. 75-96; R. Hennig, “Der stumme Handel als Urform des Aussenhandels,” Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv 11 (1917) 2 6 5 -2 7 8 ; D. Veerkamp, “Stummer Handel. Seine Verbreitung, sein Wesen,” (Ph.D. diss., Göttingen, 1956); A. Giardino, “Le merci, il tempo, il silenzio. Ricerche su miti e valori sociali nel mondo greco e romano,” Studi Storici 27 (1986) 277-302; RIAss s.v. “Markt.” 66. Hdt. 4,196. 67. Pomp. Mela 3,60; Plin. n.h. 6,88; Amm. Marc. 23,6,68; most detailed Eustathius, In Dionys.Perieg. 752, who also refers to Herod­ otus. 68. On a different quality of giving, do ut abeas, see at n. 134. 69. Diagoras (5th century) in Diog. Laert. 6,59, Cic. Nat.Deor. 3,89 = Diagoras Melius, Theodorus Cyrenaeus ed. M. Winiarczyk (Leipzig, 1981), T 36/37. 70. See Lambert 1960, 75. 71. C assandra in Aesch.

Ag.

1168 f.

72. Hdt, 1,90,2 cf. 4; on the stages of the historical tradition see Burkert, “Das Ende des Kroisos. Vorstufen einer Herodoteischen Ges­ chichtserzählung,” in Catalepton, Festschr. B.Wyss (Basel, 1985),4-15. 73. For the formulation in Atrahasis, see at n. 43. 74. Lysias 30,18. 75. II. 24,425 f.

Notes to P a g e s 1 3 8 - 1 4 2

76. Epictetus 2,23,5. 77. See above at nn. 54-55. 78. See e.g. I. Paulson in I. Paulson, A. Hultzkrantz, and K. Jettmar, Die Religionen Nordeurasiens und der amerikanischen Arktis (Stutt­ gart, 1962), 67-100. 79. Lys. On 30, cf. Burkcrt 1985, 226. 80. Aristoph. Eccl. 779-783. 81. Tert. Apol. 13,6. 82. Aesch. Fr. 161 T rG F . 83. See the sarcastic argumentation in Hippocr. Aer. 22, II 80 L. It is clear that the rich should get rich recompense from the gods, because of their sacrifices; when it comes to the poor, both sides remain unsat­ isfied. 84. Hes. Erga 336 f.: kad’ dynamin, cf. Xen. Mem. 1,3,3; 4,3,16. 85. Porph. abst. 2,15 = Theophrastus Fr. 584 A, line 145-153 Fortenbaugh; 2,16 = Theopompus FGrHist 115 F 344. 86. Servius Aen. 2,116, regarding Iphigeneia’s sacrifice: et sciendum in sacris simulata pro veris accipi.—E. Lane, ed., Corpus Monumen­ torum Religonis Dei Menis I, Leiden 1971, nr. 50.—Herakles Melon: Pollux 1,30 f. For substitution sacrifice see Chapter 2. 87. Cf. Latte 1920-21,285 f. = 1968,25 f; I Sam. 15,22; Jesayah 1,11-17; cf. Prov. 21,27; 22,11. 88. Cf. W. Schuller, ed., Korruption im Altertum (Munich, 1982). 89. Hes. Fr. 361 (Quoted by Plato Resp. 390e; parody in Ovid Ars am. 3,653 f.); Plat. Resp. 364d, e. 90. II. 9,497. 91. Horn. Hymn. Dem. 367-369, cf. Richardson 1974, 270-275. 92. Esp. Plato Leg. 905d-907b. 93. Plato Tht. 176b. In later Platonism, sacrifice could be vindicated by a magical interpretation of it as a means of getting “attached to gods” (synaphthënai theois), Sallustios 16 cf. 14, 2 f. 94. Lebrun 1980, 92 ff., 121 ff; H. G. Güterbock in W. Röllig, ed., Altorientalische Literaturen (Wiesbaden, 1978) 227. Aesch. Lib. Bear­ ers 255-257; cf. Seven 174-181,301-320: “which better site than this will you get” (304 f.). 9 5 .1 owe the text to Wyatt MacGaffey, Haverford. Cf. Joel 2,14: Jahweh should leave “blessing enough for grain-offering and drinkoffering.” 96. Atrahasis III iv 35, Lambert-Millar 1969, 58 f., Dailey 1989, 33; Gilgamesh XI 156 ff., Dailey 114. 97. H. G. Güterbock, Kumarbi (Istanbul, 1946) 21. 98. Lambert 1960,148 f.

N o te s to Pages 1 4 2 - 1 4 4

227

228

99. C o m p le re d e s tru c tio n o f w a r b o o ty o c c u rs in H e b re w hrm, but a lso w ith th e C elts, C a e s a r b.g. 6 ,1 7 ,3 - 5 , cf. U. E. H a g b e rg in Linders a n d N o rd q u is t 1 9 8 7 , 7 7 - 8 1 . 100. H d t. 7 ,5 4 ,3 reflects u p o n th e q u e s tio n th a t cam e up w hen Xer­ xes th re w a g o ld e n b o w l in to th e H e lle s p o n t. W as th is a dedication to th e Sun G o d (w h ic h w o u ld g o th e w ro n g w a y ), o r a gift to the Sea (w hich he h a d flogged b efo re)? 101. H d t. 3,41 f. 102. See B u rk e rt in Hérodote et les peuples non grecs. E ntretiens sur l’a n tiq u ité c la ssiq u e X X X V (G e n ev a , 1 9 9 0 ) 18, c o m p a rin g H d t. 4,61,2. 103. G en. 1 5 ,1 1 . 1 0 4 . See R . K. Y erkes, Sacrifice in Greek and Roman Religions and Early Judaism (L o n d o n , 1 9 5 3 ); B u rk e rt 1 9 8 3 . 105. O n dolah in Israel, see A. H u ltg â rd in L in d ers a n d N ordquist 1 9 8 7 , 8 3 - 9 1 . O n M o lo c h sacrifice, see C h a p te r 2 a t η. 7 5 -7 7 . 106. B u rk e rt 1 9 9 2 a , 20. 1 0 7 . C f. B u rk e rt 1 9 7 9 , 4 1 - 4 3 ; fo r M e s o p o ta m ia , see RIAss VII 1 12 s.v. L ib a tio n ; C h . W a ta n a b e , “ A P ro b le m in th e L ib atio n Scene of A s h u rb a n ip a l,” in P rince T a k a h ito M ik a sa , ed ., Cult and Ritual in the Ancient Near East ( W iesb a d en , 1992) 9 1 - 1 0 4 ; U g aritic an d Hebrew nsk, HAL 664 , cf. ThWhNTVII 5 2 9-537. 108. M a rk 1 4 ,3 - 1 0 a n d p arallels. 1 0 9 . M e issn e r 1 9 2 0 /2 5 , II 8 1 - 9 0 ; O p p e n h e im 1 9 6 4 , 106 L, 191 f; R in g g re n 1 9 7 3 , 8 1 - 8 9 ; H . A ltenm üller, s.v. O pfer, O p fe ru m lau f, Lex­ ikon der Aegyptologie IV (1 9 8 2 ) 5 7 9 - 5 8 4 ; 5 9 6 f; W. H elck s.v. Tem­ p e lw irts c h a ft, ibid. VI (1 9 8 6 ) 4 1 4 - 4 2 0 . 1 1 0 . A k k a d ia n esru, AHw 257; H e b re w Qaser, e.g. a t th e sanctuary o f B ethel, Gen. 2 8 ,2 2 ; G reek dekate, especially c o n n e c te d w ith Apollo; see H . W. P a rk e , “A C o n s e c ra tio n to A p o llo ,” Hermathena 72 (1948) 8 2 -1 1 4 . 111. D eta ile d d e sc rip tio n s o f th e c u lt a t th e te m p le o f A nu a t Uruk are in T h u re a u a n d D a n g in 1 9 2 1 , 6 1 - 1 1 8 . 1 1 2 . D t. 1 4 ,2 2 f., ‘L aw o f th e tith e .’ 113. L a tte 1 9 6 0 ,2 1 5 f. 1 1 4 . ER V 5 5 4 ; cf. 5 5 5 o n C h in a. 1 1 5 . A risto p h . Plut. 5 9 4 - 5 9 7 w ith schol. 116. M t. 1 0 ,5 - 1 5 cf. M a rk 6 ,8 - 1 1 , L u k e 9 ,2 - 5 . 1 1 7 . ΙΠ E p. o f Jo h n 7. 1 1 8 . A n ex p re ssio n e q u iv a le n t to “ se ttin g u p ” is used in A kkadian, AHw 2 0 9 s.v. elu, cf. HAL 7 8 5 s.v. clh. B u t o rie n ta l tem ples needed fo o d ab o v e all to feed th e ir d ep e n d e n ts. 1 1 9 . 1 K ings 7 ,1 3 - 5 0 .

Notes to Pages 146-149

120. See η. 31. 121. S allustios 16,1 (cf. a b o v e a t n. 38) m akes sacrifice an aparcbe of life, as h a ir sacrifice is a n aparche of o n e ’s body; cf. the concept of hostia animalis, T re b a tiu s in M a c ro b . Sat. 3 ,5 ,1 -4 : in quo sola anima deo sacratur. B ut ev id en tly life c a n n o t be tran sferred , only destroyed. Israelites called b lo o d “ life” o r “ s o u l” (nepbesh). Lev. 17,11; Dt. 12,23; this can be ta k e n a n d p o u re d o u t a t th e altar. 122. H es. Theog. 5 3 5 cf. 5 5 6 f. Cf. G ladigow 1984. The element of trickery in sacrifice h a s b een stressed by M . H orkheim er and Th. W. Adorno, Dialektik der Aufklärung (F ran k fu rt, 1981) 6 7 -7 6 . Cf. above at n. 8 6 . 123. See especially M e u li 1 9 4 6 a n d B u rk ert 1983. 124. See also F o u ts a n d B udd 1 9 7 9 ,3 7 0 ; B ygott 1 9 7 9 ,4 5 4 ; De Waal 1989, 209. 125. See B audy 1 9 8 3 ; G la d ig o w 1984; cf. L anternari 1976, 196. 126. Schieffelin 1 9 8 0 . 127. See a t n. 13. 128. E th io p ian s: 206.

II.

1 ,4 2 3 f;

Od.

1 ,2 2 -2 6 ; Phaeacians:

Od.

7 ,2 0 1 -

129. T h a t th e y u su a lly “e a t” th e sm oke is said in the unorthodox version o f II. 8 ,5 5 0 - 5 5 2 , p reserv ed in Plat. Alk. II, 149de. 130. Lev. 1 7 ,2 f; cf. M e u li 1 9 7 5 , 938; B urkert 1992b, 173 f. 131. B u rk e rt 1 9 9 2 b , 174. F o r the basic concept o f anim al sacrifice presupposed h ere, a n d fo r details see M euli 1946; B urkert 1983. 132. H d t. 1 ,1 0 5 ,1 doroisi te kai litesi; in oth er w ords, do ut abeas, see n. 134. 133. See C h a p te r 2 a t n. 21. 134. H a rris o n 1 9 2 2 , 7; 1 9 2 7 ,1 3 4 - 1 3 8 . 135. N a m ta r th e P lag u e G o d is pacified th ro u g h cult in Atrahasis, Dailey 1 9 8 9 , 2 4 . Febris (fever) h as a tem ple a t Rom e, Val. M ax. 2,5,6; Cic. N.d. 3 ,6 3 ; W isso w a RE V I 2 0 9 5 f. 136. A esch. Seven 6 9 9 - 7 0 1 . 137. Ja m e so n et al. 1 9 9 3 , 4 5 , in scrip tio n B line 12 f., cf. pp. 6 3 -6 7 . 138. Cf. e.g. A esch. Pers. 2 1 9 ; 52 3 : “gifts for E arth and for the dead.” Cf. A. H en rich s, “N a m e n lo sig k e it u n d Euphem ism us: Z u r Ambivalenz der ch th o n isch en M ä c h te im attisch en D ra m a ,” in H . H ofm ann and A. H arder, eds., Fragmenta dramatica (G öttingen, 1991) 1 6 1 -2 0 1 . 139. See B. Ja n o w s k i, “E rw äg u n g en zur Vorgeschichte des israelitischen SE LAMÎM-O p fe rs ,” Ugarit-Forschungen 12 (1980) 23 1 -2 5 9 ; B urkert 1 9 8 3 , 9 ,4 1 . 140. See C h a p te r 2. 141. Petzl 1 9 9 4 , V II η. 2.

Notes to Pages 149-1 S3

1 4 2 . B 9 0 = Fr. X L K a h n . C f. S e a f o r d 1 9 9 4 , 2 2 0 - 2 3 2 . 1 4 3 . B 1, c i. K irk , R a v e n , a n d S c h o fie ld 1 9 8 3 , 1 1 7 - 1 2 2 . 1 4 4 . P la to 1 4 5 . P la to

Phd. Tim.

7 2 b e. 42e.

1 4 6 . L o re n z 1 9 7 3 ; V o llm e r 1 9 9 4 .

7.

T h e V a l i d a t i o n o f S ig n s 1 . T h is is n o t th e p la c e to ta c k le th e in tr ic a c ie s o f th e m o d e rn sci­

e n c e o f se m io lo g y . E co 1 9 7 6 , 16 d e fin e d sig n a s “ e v e ry th in g th a t, on th e g r o u n d s o f a p r e v io u s ly e s ta b lis h e d s o c ia l c o n v e n tio n , c a n be taken as s o m e th in g s ta n d in g f o r s o m e th in g e ls e ,” w h ic h w o u ld ex clu d e the b io lo g ic a l sig n s , w h ic h o b v io u s ly w o r k w i t h o u t s o c ia l c o n v e n tio n . In th e w a k e o f p o s ts tr u c tu r a li s m , th e v e ry c o n c e p t o f sig n is ta k e n to be o u td a te d , cf. E c o 1 9 8 4 . 2 . C f. S o m m e r 1 9 9 2 .

3. M a t t h . 1 6 ,3 — a p a s s a g e m is s in g in b a s ic m a n u s c rip ts , hence u s u a lly c o n s id e r e d a la te r in te r p o la tio n ; th e c a n o n ic a l g o sp e ls refer to th e fig tre e as a sig n f o r a p p r o a c h in g s u m m e r, M a r k 1 3 ,2 8 , M atth . 2 4 ,3 2 , L u k e 2 1 , 2 9 . 4. B u rk ert 1 9 8 5 , 1 1 1 -1 1 4 . 5. T h e te r m f o r sig n is b e s id e s

sema/semeion,

ittu in

th e w o r d

A k k a d ia n ,

teirea

sot in

H e b re w . G re ek had,

e s p e c ia lly f o r h e a v e n ly signs,

w h e n c e th e m y th ic a l se er g o t h is n a m e , T e ire sia s. 6 . T h e m o s t e x te n s iv e s tu d y is still A . B o u c h é -L e c le rq ,

Histoire de

la divination dans l’antiquité IT V (P a ris , 1 8 7 9 - 8 2 ) ; see a ls o W. R . Halliday, Greek Divination ( L o n d o n , 1 9 1 3 ); A . C a q u o t, M . L eibovici, La Divination (P a ris, 1 9 6 8 ); J . P. V e r n a n t, e d .. Divination et rationalité (P a ris, 1 9 7 4 ); R . B lo ch , La Divination dans l’antiquité (P aris, 1984); “A cte s d u Ile C o llo q u e in te r n a tio n a l d u C .E .R .G .A . s u r O r a c l e s et mantiq u e e n G rè c e a n c ie n n e ,’ ” Kernos 3 (1 9 9 0 ); R . B lo c h , La Divination (P a ris, 1 9 9 1 ); M . S o rd i, e d ., La profezia nel mondo antico (M ilan, 1 9 9 3 ). F o r A k k a d ia n te x ts , see B o rg e r 1 9 6 7 - 7 5 III 9 5 - 9 9 ; fo r H ittites, A. K a m m e n h u b e r, Orakelpraxis, Träume und Vorzeichenschau bei den Hethitern (H e id e lb e rg , 1 9 7 7 ); fo r E tru s c a n s , C . O . T h u lin , Die etru­ skische Disziplin (G ö te b o rg , 1 9 0 5 - 9 ) ; in g e n e ra l, U . R itz , Das Bedeut­

same in den Erscheinungen. Divinationspraktiken in traditionalen Ge­ sellschaften ( F r a n k f u rt, 1 9 8 8 ). 7. See C ic e ro , De divinatione 2 ,2 6 (genus artificiosum— naturale), cf. 1,11 f; 1 ,3 4 , w ith th e c o m m e n ta ry o f A . S. P e a se , M . Tulli Ciceronis De Divinatione Libri Duo ( 1 9 2 0 - 2 3 , rep r. D a r m s ta d t, 1 9 6 3 ). Servius

Notes to Pages 1S4-158

(

19 0 d istin g u ish e s

auguria oblativa

(sig n s t h a t p re s e n t th e m -

W |vcn) and impetrativa (sig n s p r o d u c e d o n p u r p o s e ) . ' h This e x p r e s s i o n is p e c u lia r t o th e a u th o r , see Th WbNTVII 2 4 1 -

>s7. 9 . I ldt. 8 ,1 3 7 - 1 3 9 .

|(), I felt. 9 , 9 1 . 1 1. heaves o f th e o a k o f D o d o n a ,

Od.

1 4 ,3 2 8 ; 1 9 ,2 9 7 ; w a te r o ra c le :

guts. 7,2.1,13; fo r A k k a d ia n r iv e r o m e n s see F. N ö ts c h e r in

Orientalia

51/4(1930) 1 2 1 - 1 4 6 . 12. R om ulus: E n n iu s Horn.

11.

Ann.

I 7 8 ff, cf.

RE

1,71 f; A k k a d ia n : J . H u n g e r , “ B a b y lo n is c h e T ie ro m in a n e b s t

griechisch-röm ischen P a r a lle le n ,”

Gesellschaft

Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen

1 9 0 9 ,3 ; o n e se rie s h a s b e e n e d ite d a n d tr a n s la te d by

K N ötscher in

Orientalia 5 1 /5 4

(1 9 3 0 ) 1 7 6 -1 7 9 .

13. T he s to ry o f M o s o lla m o s , P s .- H e k a ta io s losephus

I A 1 0 9 1 ; K a lc h a s:

C.Ap.

FGrHist 2 6 4

F 21 =

1 ,2 0 1 - 2 0 4 .

14. B u rk ert 1 9 9 2 a , 4 6 - 5 3 . 15. H erzfeld 1 9 8 5 , 2 4 7 - 2 5 8 . 16. See H . D ie ls,

Orients I/Π; Abh.

Beiträge zur Zuckungsliteratur des Okzidents und

(B e rlin , 1 9 0 7 - 8 , re p r. L e ip z ig , 1 9 7 0 ).

de signatura P a ra c e ls u s , Sämtliche

17. T h is w a s a f o r m u l a ti o n o f P a r a c e ls u s , w h o w r o te

rerum, see T h e o p h r a s t v o n H o h e n h e im , Werke I 2 (B erlin, 1 9 2 8 ), 3 9 7 - 4 0 0 .

gen.

18. See C h a p te r 1 a t η . 8 7 . 19. F or fam ilie s o f se e rs see B u r k e r t 1 9 9 2 a , 4 3 - 4 6 . 20. Cf. L o re n z 1 9 7 3 ; D i t f u r t h 1 9 7 6 .

Tetr. 1 ,2 . 22. G. G lo tz , U Ordalie dans la Grèce primitive (P a ris , 1 9 0 4 ); HDA HI 1 0 1 6 -1 0 2 1 ; H . N o t t a r p , Gottesurteilsstudien ( M u n ic h , 1 9 5 6 ). 23. On “ w a r a s a n o r d a lie p r o c e d u r e ” in th e a n c ie n t N e a r E a s t see 21. Ptol.

Liverani 1 9 9 0 , 1 5 0 - 1 5 9 ; in R o m a n le g e n d th e m o s t fa m o u s e x a m p le was the b a ttle o f

Horatii

and

Curiatii,

L iv y 1 ,2 4 , cf.

RE V III

2322-

2327. 24. H a m m u r a p i’s

Laws A

§25,

Laws § 2 ;

132,

ANET 1 6 6 ;

171;

Middle Assyrian

ANET 1 8 2 .

25. See A. B ü rg e , “ R e a l i t ä t u n d R a t i o n a l i t ä t d e r F e u e r p r o b e ,”

schrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte 1 0 0

Zeit­

(1 9 8 3 ) 2 5 7 —2 5 9 .

W alking o n g lo w in g c o a ls , a s r itu a lly d o n e in n o r th e r n G re e c e (W. D . Furley,

Studies in the Use of Eire in Ancient Greek Religion, N e w

Y o rk ,

1981) a n d im ita te d in m o d e r n lim its - te s tin g g r o u p s , is frig h te n in g b u t norm ally d o e s n o t c a u s e b u r n s .

Notes to Pages IS8-164

26. Y asna 4 3 ,4 ; G . W id e n g re n , Die Religionen 1 9 6 5 ), 87 f; cf. L act. Inst. 7 ,2 1 ,3 - 7 . 27. S oph. Ant. 2 6 4 f. cf. A ris to p h . Lys. 1 3 3 - 1 3 5 . 232

28. See a t n. 34. 29. Num. 5 ,1 1 ; 21 ff. cf. W. M c K a n e

Irans

(Stuttgart,

Vetus Testamentum 30

(1980)

4 7 4 - 4 9 2 ; H es. Tbeog. 7 8 2 - 8 0 6 . 30. See P. H o s k is s o n , “T h e

Nishum O a t h ’ in M a r i,” in G. D. Y oung, ed ., Mari in Retrospect (W in o n a L a k e , 1 9 9 2 ), 2 0 3 -2 1 0 , esp. 2 0 6 f, o n e a tin g ta b o o as a n o a th c e re m o n y ; J. B o tté ro ASNSPisa III 11 (1 9 8 1 ) 1 0 0 5 - 1 0 6 8 . F o r H ittite s , Is h a ra “h y d ro p s y ” is th e goddess o f o a th s. Cf. M e issn e r 1 9 2 0 /2 5 , II 2 9 0 . O n th e A v estan 5 5 , see M . Boyce in

Videvdat 4 ,5 4 -

Monumentum H.S. Nyberg I (T eheran/L iège, 1975),

6 9 -7 6 . 31. See E. P e te rso n ,

Frühkirche, Judentum und Gnosis

(Freiburg,

1 9 5 9 ), 3 3 4 f. 32. ER X V 3 0 2 ; see also G . L o re n z , in F. H a m p l a n d I. W eiler,

Kri­ tische und vergleichende Studien zur alten Geschichte und Universal­ geschichte, In n sb ru c k e r B eiträg e z u r K u ltu rw is s e n s c h a ft 18 (Innsbruck, 1 9 7 4 ), 2 3 5 . 3 3 . G o ttfrie d v o n S tra ssb u rg , Tristan, ed. K. M a ro ld , rev. W. S ch rö d er (B erlin, 1 9 7 7 ), line 1 5 5 1 8 - 1 5 7 6 4 , h e re line 15739 f, tra n si, w ith a n in tro d . by A. T. H a tte r (H a rm o n d s w o rth , 1972) 248. 34. F u lch er o f C h a rtre s, PL 1 5 5 , 8 4 3 f; R a y m o n d d ’A guilers, PL 1 5 5 , 6 4 1 - 6 4 3 ; 6 4 6 = Le de Raymond d’Aguilers, ed. J. H. a n d L. L. H ill (1 9 6 9 ) 1 2 0 - 1 2 4 ; 128 f; cf. C hr. A u ffa rth “ ‘R itte r’ und ‘A rm e ’ a u f d em E rsten K re u zz u g ,” Saeculum 4 0 (1 9 8 9 ) 3 9 - 5 5 esp. 51. 35. See C h a p te r 1 a t η. 93. 36. M . D o u g las, Natural Symbols (N e w Y o rk , 1 9 7 3 , 3 rd ed. 1978), insists th a t co sm o lo g ical sy m b o lism u su a lly reflects so c ial conditions. 37. See B u rk e rt 1 9 7 9 , 41 f. 3 8 . G en. 2 8 ,1 0 - 2 2 ; B u rk e rt 1 9 7 9 , 41 f. 3 9 . See U . Seidl, Die babylonischen Kudurru-Reliefs (Fribourg, 1989). 4 0 . Cf. P iccaluga 1 9 7 4 ; G la d ig o w 1 9 9 2 esp. 1 7 7 - 1 8 3 . 4 1 . B o eo tian h ip p a rc h s a n d th e to m b o f D irk e , P lut. Gen. Soar. 5 7 8 b , cf. B u rk ert 1 9 8 3 , 188. 4 2 . P aus. 1 ,2 8 ,2 . 4 3 . O n th e fu n c tio n o f a r t as “m a k in g sp e c ia l,” see D issanayake 1 9 8 8 , esp. 9 2 - 1 0 1 . 4 4 . See C h a p te r 1 a t n n . 9 1 , 9 2 . 4 5 . See RAC s.v. G ö tte rb ild . 4 6 . See C h a p te r 1 a t n. 67.

Notés io Pagm lé4^i&7

4 “ . Sci' C. P. Jones, “ S tig m a : T a tto o in g a n d B ra n d in g in G ra e c o Rom an

A ntiquity,"

JRS 77

(1 9 8 7 ) 1 3 9 - 1 5 5 . O n in itia tio n m a rk s fo r

nun see. fo r e x a m p le , C . C a la m e , Le Processus symbolique (C e n tro Im erna/ionale di S ein io tic a e di L in g u istic a : D o c u m e n ts d e tra v a il et pre-publications 128/9) (U rb in o , 1983) 4 f; fo r w o m e n , L in co ln 1 9 8 1 , 34-49. 48. See C h a p te r I a t n n . 1 1 1 - 1 1 4 . 49. H d t. I ,"’4 ,5 ; 3 ,8 . 50. G en. 1™,1 1 (th e o ld e r v e rsio n h a s th e "sacrifice o f h a lv e s” in ­ stead, see n. 8 g ); cf. in g e n e ra l ER III 5 1 1 - 5 1 4 ; see a lso C h a p te r 1 a t n. 1 13; 2 at n n . 5 0 ,5 I. 5 I. Erra 4 ,5 6 , D ailey 1 9 8 9 , 3 0 5 ; cf. C h a p te r 2 a t n. 4 1 - 4 4 ; B u rk e rt 19-9, 105, 120. 52. T he d o g m a o f s a c ra m e n ts as character indelebilis w as d ev e lo p ed by T h o m as A q u in a s , Summa theologiae III q u a e s t. 6 3 , fo llo w in g A u ­ gustine, cf. L. }, P o n g ra tz , Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie I (1971) 9 8 4 - 9 8 6 . 53. A C h ris tia n se ct in R u s s ia , th e skopzii, m a d e c a s tra tio n th e real “seal” of th e elect; see K. K. G ra s s , Die russischen Sekten II (L eipzig, 1914) 6 8 7 ff. 54. An o ld s ta n d a r d s tu d y is H irz e l 1 902; see a lso E. Z ie b a rth RE V 2975-2083; ThWhNTV 458-467; RIAss II 3 0 5 - 3 1 5 ; E R X V 3 0 1 305; E. B enveniste, "L ’E x p re s s io n du serment dans la G rèce a n c ie n n e ,” RHR 134 (1947-48) 81-94; J. Plescia, The Oath and Perjury in An­ cient Greece (T a lla h a sse e , 1970); Burkert 1 9 8 5 , 250-254; N . R o lla n t, “H ork os et sa fa m ille ,” LAMA 5 (1979) 214-304; F a ra o n e 1 9 9 3 . 55. The o a th is ju st "legality to be le g alized ,” ius iurandum in L atin .

56. ER XV 301. 57. See especially Sommer 1992. 58. Ib id ., 6 6 - 9 1 , e sp . 8 5 . 59. See D u n d e s 1 9 5 4 . 60. C y ru s in H d t. 1 ,1 5 3 : b u sin e ss in th e m a rk e tp la c e is “c h e a tin g by o a th s.” “ O n e m u s t c h e a t c h ild re n w ith d ic e, g ro w n u p s w ith o a th s ,” Lysander sa id a c c o rd in g t o D io d . 1 0 ,9 , o r else K ing P h ilip a c c o rd in g to Ael. Var.Hist. 7 ,1 2 .

61.

Od. 19,395 f. Quos me sentio dicere,

62. fo rm u la o f d e v o tio n in M a c ro b , Sat. 3,9,10. 63. C f. C h a p te r 1 a t n n . 8 7 - 9 3 . 64. T h is is a n o rm a l fo rm u la in E g y p t, B o n n e t 1 9 5 2 ,1 6 4 , a n d a lso in M e so p o ta m ia , see RIAss Π 3 0 7 - 3 1 5 o n “o a th o f k in g ” a n d “ o a th o f city”; M eissn er 1 9 2 0 -1 9 2 5 ,1 1 2 9 0 f.

Notes to Pages 3 6 7 - 1 7 1

233

6 5.

Od.

66.

A N E T 2 0 5 ; B u rk e rt 1 9 9 2 a , 93 f.

6 7.

II. 3 ,1 0 4 ;

1 4 ,1 5 8 f; 1 7 ,1 5 5 f; 2 0 ,2 3 0 f; cf. 1 9 ,3 0 4 . 2 7 7 - 2 7 9 , cf. B u rk e rt, “ H o m e r ’s A n th ro p o m o rp h ism :

N a rra tiv e a n d R itu a l,” in D . B u itro n -O liv e r, e d ..

Early Greek A rt

New Perspectives in

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6 8 . A p u z z lin g b u t lo g ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e is t h a t a g o d will take an

o a th sw e a rin g “by h im s e lf” ; th is is a se rio u s a c t o f p ro m ise fo r Jahw eh, D en t. 2 9 ,9 f., a jo k e fo r C a llim a c h u s , Fr. 1 1 4 ,5 . 6 9. A bove, n n . 6 7 , 65. 7 0. R . M e rk e lb a c h , ZEE 9 (1 9 7 2 ) 2 7 7 - 2 8 5 . 7 1. B o n n e t 1 9 5 2 , 1 64; S to n e o f N o fe r-A b u , R o e d e r 1915, 58, cf. C h a p te r 5 n. 85. 7 2 . A risto p h . Clouds 3 9 7 . 7 3 . AHw 6 0 0 ; RlAss II 3 1 4 ; M e is s n e r 1 9 2 0 /2 5 , II 2 9 0 f; cf. J. Ped­

Der Eid bei den Semiten (S tra ssb u rg , 7 4 . H es. Erga 8 0 3 f.

erse n ,

1 9 1 4 ).

7 5 . C f. Bell 1 9 9 2 , 98 (fo llo w in g B o u rd ie u ): “R itu a liz a tio n produces th is ritu a liz e d b o d y th ro u g h th e in te ra c tio n o f th e b o d y w ith a struc­ tu re d a n d s tru c tu rin g e n v iro n m e n t.” 76. D . W isem a n , “A b b a n a n d A la la k h ,” /G S 12 (1 9 5 8 ) 129. 77. II. 3 ,2 9 9 - 3 0 1 , see n. 6 7 . See a lso K a ra v ite s 1 9 9 2 . 78. T re aty o f A sh u rn ira ri V a n d M a ti’ilu , ANET 5 3 2 . 7 9 . N . O ettin g er, Die militärischen Eide der Hethiter (W iesbaden, 1976) 21. 80. Livy 1 ,2 4 ,8 . 81. Paroemiographi Graeci I 2 2 5 f; B u rk e rt 1 9 8 5 , 2 5 2 f. 82. T reaties fro m Sfire a n d th e fo u n d a tio n o a th o f K yrene, see Farao n e 1 9 9 3 ; F. L e tro u b lo n , “Le S erm en t fo n d a te u r,” Metis 4 (1989) 1 0 1 115; B u rk ert 1 9 9 2 a, 6 7 f. 83. S h u rp u 3 ,3 5 , p. 2 0 R einer: “o a th s w o rn b y sla u g h te rin g a sheep a n d to u c h in g its c u t-o ff flesh” ; cf. W ein feld 1 9 9 0 , 1 8 7 . H d t. 6 , 6 8 : Dem a ra to s sacrificed a n o x , gave his m o th e r “ fro m th e en trails into her h a n d ,” a n d beseeched h e r to sp e a k th e tr u th . 84. P ersians a n d G reeks in X en . Anab. 2 ,2 ,4 . 85. G erm an ic cu sto m , ER X V 3 0 4 . 8 6 . Even th e a tte m p t a t p e rju ry h as th is c o n seq u en c e, H d t. 6 , 8 6 . 87. D em . 2 3 ,6 7 f. cf. D in a rc h . 4 7 ; R . W. W allace, The Areopagos Council to 307 b .c . (B altim ore, 1985) 1 2 3 . A c o m p a ra b le practice is to “cu t in halves” a n d w a lk th ro u g h th e m to m a k e a co v e n an t, know n fro m th e O ld T estam en t, G en. 15 ,9 ; Je re m ia h 3 4 .1 8 , a n d th e H ittites, see E. B ickerm an, “ C o u p e r u n e allia n ce,” Studies in Jewish and Chris­ tian History I (Leiden, 1976) 1 - 3 2 ; B u rk e rt 1 9 8 3 , 35 a t n. 3. M ore

Notes to Pages 171-174

rational and m ore drastic is the practice to com m it a com m on crime to ensure loyalty. A thenian oligarchs, plotting their conspiracy, “killed Hyperbolos, thus giving the gu aran tee of loyalty to each other” (Thuc. 8,73,3); cf. C hapter 1 n. 115. T he C atilin ariam were accused of having had a cannibalistic feast before their attem pt to make a revolution, suppressed by Cicero. Sallust, Catilina 22; cf. C hapter 1 n. 113. 8 8 . II. 1,245. 89. Polyb. 3 ,2 5 ,7 -9 . 90. RlAss II 306 (the term is nasahu). 9 1 . H dt. 1,165,3; see also D iod. 9,10,3 (Epidamnos); Callim. Fr. 388,9. 92. jes. 5 1 ,5 9 -6 4 . 93. D.L. 8,22, cf. Iam bi. V.Pyth. 47; 144; 150; contradicted by Diod. 10,9,1. 94. M atth . 5 ,3 4 -3 7 . 95. For Tuppu mamiti an d ilu mamiti see AHw 599. 96. John Locke, Epistula de tolerantia/A Letter on Toleration, ed. J. W. Gough (O xford, 1968), 135.

Notes to Pages 174-176

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Index

Abraham, 146, 153 Achilles, 87, 174 Adrasteia, 89 Aelius Aristeides, 35f. Aeschylus, 81, 89, 101 n.139,108, 137,141 n.71, 143, 152 n.136 Africa, healing cults in, 107,115f. aggression, 9, 11, 18, 121; cause of evil, 119, 124; control of, 85, 95 Agni, 43, 152 agricultural year, 137,142 Ahuramazda, 94 Akkad: Akkadian vocabulary, 31, 81, 89,121,169, 224 n.20; rituals, 43 n. 19, 88,119, 122, 159, 173, 175; wisdom texts, 31, 137, 144; s e e a ls o A tr a h a s is , Gilgamesh, Ishtar, Sargon, Sennacherib Alalakh, 173 Alcestis, 54 Alexander the Great, 95 Ambrose, 95 Amor and Psyche, 70, 78 Amphiaraos, sanctuary of, 218 n.25 Amun, 90 a n a th e m a ta , 149 Anaximander, 155 ancestors, 15 angels, 99 Antinous, 55

Antiope, 72 anxiety: anthropological program, 18, 31f., 42, 120, 150, 153f., 162; anxi­ ety learning, 30; in founding or forming religion, 30f., 36, 89, 103 apes, s e e chimpanzees, primates Aphrodite, 81,115 Apollo, 91, 92, 100,102, 106,114, 121,127,141; s e e a ls o Delphi Apollonius Rhodius, 60, 111 apostles, 99, 148 apotropaic, 44,152 Apsyrtos, 46 Apuleius, 70, 78 Ara Maxima, 148 Arabs, ritual of alliance, 168 Areopagus, 174 Argonauts, 45,60, 6 8 , 78 Aristaeus, 106 Aristophanes, 100,117,122,134, 142, 144 Aristotle, 93 Arpachiya, 39

arrhephoroi*75 art, 4,19 Artemis, 75, 81 Asclepius, 35,114,127 Assurbanipal, 87, 95 n.106 Assyrk:· gods of, 109; treaty oath from, 173; $m also Akkad

atheism, 14, 141 Athena, 6 6 , 95, 114,124, 129, 135, 136, 137, 149; Athena Chalkioikos, 124 A tr a h a s is , 136, 141 n.73, 219 n.48 Attis, 50 Auge, 71 a u s p ic ia , 160 Autolycus, 170 awe, 31, 48, s e e a ls o anxiety Baal, 81 Babylon, 96, 110 Bacchanalia, 7 Bali, 148 Bambyke-IIicrapolis, 49 baptism, 169 beaver, 47 begging, 148 Beth-El, 165 birds, 159 Bischof, N., 21 blood, 30, 34, 168, 173; as life, 229 n.121 body, 167 boundaries, 45, 166,172; boundary stones, 30, 166 Bourdieu, R, 131 branding, 167 Brauron, 75 Buddhism, 12, 148, 189 n.22 b u g o n ia , 106 B u p h o n ia , 114 burned sacrifice, 146, 153 Caere, 115 Caligula, 55 Carthage, 110,139,147 castration, 47, 90, 111, 174 catastrophes, 15 Catholic church, 14, 16, 87 causality, 26,126, 127 c h a r a c te r in d e le b ilis , 17, 169 c h a r ts , 134,153 childlike behavior, 86 children, sacrifice of, 54, 110,146 chimpanzees, 11, 18, 83,134, 150, 170; language of, 64 Christianity, 12f., 95; Christian ritual, 8 8 , 169; s e e a ls o Jesus, New Testa­ ment

circumcision, 17, 49, 168 Coldstream, N., 131 common mental world, 24f., 32 84 151,161,171 ’ ’ ’ communication, 6 f., 23f. confession, 109, 117, 122 constellations, 156 continuity, 15 Crete, 77, 115 Croesus, 141, 218 n.25 crime, common, 30 crusade, 164 culture, 2 Cyclops, 37, 43, 44, 60 d a im o n e s , 100

Danae, 71 dance, 30 Daniel (book of), 96, 116 Darius, 94, 135 Darwin, C., 9 David (King), 96, 100 Dawkins, R., 10 n.36, 139 n.62 death, 31, 32 deceit, 24, 28, 69, 117, 138, 145,156, 170 defecation, 46 d e f i x i o , 119 Delphi, 106,114, 115, 117, 124, 141, 149; s e e a l s o Apollo Democritus, 135 demons, 42, 44, 54, 55,172 destruction of valuables, 146 Diagoras, 141 Dionysius Areopagita, 85 Dionysus, 119 disease, 108 divination, 1 0 1 , 158 d o u t d e s , 136f. Dodds, E. R., 125 Dodona, oracle, 109, 231 n . ll D o l o p a t h u s , 37f. dream, 69 dualism, 26 Dumuzi, 55, 88 Durkheim, E., 3, 24, 139 Earth goddess, 153 ecology, 15

ecsta sy , 6 , 1 6 2 E g y p tia n r e l i g i o n , 3 3 , 9 2 ,

g o ld p la te, 1 1 9

94 , 147 ,

152;

see a lso A n n i n , I sis, P t o l e m y III E le u sis, 9 0

group selection, 10 Gruppe, ()., 12 guilt, 103, 109, 113, 125, 128

E ly s iu m , 2 5

Emar. 90 n.79

Iladad, 136

e n d o r p h i n s , 13

34 hair, 7 6 , 1 3 6 , 1 6 7 , 2 2 9 n .1 2 '1 ; h a ir - r a is ­ ing s h o c k , 1 8 , 8 6 Hammurapi, 9 4 Harrison, J., 44, 74, 1 5 2 heaven, abode of gods, 83 Hebrew: vocabulary, 89, 135; se e a ls o Jahweh, Judaism Hecate, 148 hecatomb, 137 Hector, 87 Helike, 110 Helios, 133, 172 hell, as a devouring monster, 42 hepatoscopy, 160 Heracles, 59, 6 8 , 78, 90, 106, 143, 148 Heraclitus, 155 Hermes, 66 Herodotus, 112,139, 141, 152, 159, 168,228 n.100 heroes, 153 Hesiod, 100,143, 150,173 Hierapolis, 114 hierarchy, 26, 32, 80, 85 h ik e te ia , 8 6 f., 211 n.45 Hippocratic texts, 135, 227 n.83 Hippolytos, 76 Hittite texts, 93, 105, 144, 171; see a ls o Mursilis holocaust, 146 Homer, 31, 133, 135, 144, 172, 173;

E nu m a eh sh ,

ephebes,

51, 94

172

E p ic t e t u s , 1 4 2 E p im en id es, 1 2 3 E rin yes, 1 5 2 , 1 7 2 E s k im o s , 6 7 E tr u sc a n s, 115, 158 eunuch priests, 48, 89f., 169; s e e a l s o castration Euripides, 81, 112, 117 evil eye, 43, 86 evolutionary theory, of knowledge, 27, 155

face-saving, 126 father, role of, 30, 82 feast, 147, 149f., 153 feelings, 6 , 18, 80 Fehling, D., 70 fetia le s, 173 fetters, 118, 120 figurines, 166 finger sacrifice, 34, 37, 38, 40, 50 Finley, M., 131, 223 n.7, n.15 fire, 164; s e e a ls o Agni, burned sacrifice first fruit offerings, 137,140; s e e a ls o agricultural year fitness: for survival, 10, 13, 138; inclu­ sive, 13 flood, myth of the, 33, 62, 144 food-sharing, 134, 155 Freud,S., 82, 111 fulguration, 11

h a il-w a tc h e r s,

s e e a ls o Ilia d , O d y s s e y

homosexuality, 77, 90 Horace, 97 h u m a n n ature, c o n c e p t o f, 2

89E, s e e a ls o eunuch priests Geertz, C , 3, 5 Geryoneus, 59, 68 ghosts, 124, s e e a ls o demons gift-giving, 2 7 ,5 2 ,129IE, 141,143, 152; to the dead, 152 Gilgamesh, 60, 62, 6 8 , 212 n,60 gods, 6 ,26E, 31, 33,166, 172; at sacri­ fice, 151

g a lli

189 n.28, 1 9 9 n . 2 6 ; se e a ls o children, sacrifice o f , Iphigeneia, Jephtha

h u m a n s a c r if ic e , 4 4 , 5 3 , 5 4 ,

h u m ilia tio n ,

hunt,

88,122

1 4 2 , 150

hym ns,

92

lawn, 68 idols, 166

Index

102, 121, 130, 135, 142 immersion sacrifice, 145, 175 imprinting, 28 lnanna, 55, 6 1, 88 incense, 146f. incest taboo, 20 India, sacrifice in, 43, 136, 152; s e e a ls o Agni, Soma cult Indoeuropean language, 67, 129, 135, 192 n.64 initiation, 29, 30, 69, 74, 78, 167, 168 innate release mechanisms, 29 Io, 71 Iphigeneia, 76, 108 Iranian religion, 33,146 Isaac, 153 Ishtar, 48, 50, 99, 169, 204 n.25 Isis, 74,122 Islam, 14, 17, 82, 8 8 , 138, 166 Isocrates, 195 n.118 Ilia d ,

Jahweh, ordinances, 136,148; in psalms, 93, 96,119,135f.; in tales, 87f., 100,104, 122 Jephtha, 76 Jeremiah, 175 Jesus, sayings of, 33, 99,137,138, 147, 157f., 175 Job, 141 John the Baptist, 99 Jonah, 52,100,108 Judaism, 7, 14,17,113,159f.; s e e a ls o Jahweh Jupiter, 175 Kaineus, 77 Kaiphas, 51 Kalchas, 103,108,116f., 159 Kalevala, 44 Kallisto, 72 Karneia, 113 Kato Symi, 89 killing, 32, 54, 89,119,121,150 king, 81, 82, 95 Klaros, 92 kneeling for prayer, 88 Kombabos, 48 Kronos, 110 Kubaba, 49

ku du rru s,

166

Lacus Curtius, 52 language, 4, 18, 23, 25, 26, 29; se e alSo Indoeuropean language, Akkadian vocabulary, Hebrew vocabulary laughter, 7 learning, 25; in religion, 16, 29 Lebanon,14 l e x t a l i o n i s , 133 libation, 147, 165 life, 32, 62; transfer of, 151, 229 n.121 Livy, conspiracy story, 107 Locke, J., 176 Lorenz, K., 8 , 9, 18, 155 loss of reality, 16 lots, 109 Lucian, 48 Luhmann, N., 26, s e e a l s o reduction of complexity Lycaon, 87 Lydians, 109, 114 Macedonia, 159 magic, 40, 46, 52, 163, 175; and ag­ gression, 119; and flight, 44, 60; means, 65 maiden’s tragedy, 71 Malta, 15 Mani, 99 Mantiklos, 129, 136L marriage, 132 martyrs, 13 master of animals, 142; s e e a ls o Potnia Mater Magna, 89, 100 Mauss, M ., 130,139 Maya, 213 n.80 Medea, 45, 60 Melampus, 111, 123 Melanippe, 72 menstruation, 74 Mesopotamia, s e e Akkad messenger of power, 98; s e e a ls o apos­ tles metal, ordeal by, 164 m e t r a g y r t a i , 148 Meuli, K., 45, 60 Mexico, popular concept of disease in, 124

Minoan civilization: goddess in, 91; food-offering, 148 Mithras, 82 Mohammed, 100; s e e a l s o Islam moloch, 54; s e e a l s o children, sacrifice

of Molosstans, oath ritual, 173 monkeys, 49; s e e a l s o primates monster in the corner, 25, 27 Montanists, 101 Moses, 49, 72 mountains, as seat of gods, 83 Mursilis, 105, 122 Mycenaean evidence, 81, 135, 148, 199 n.26 myth, 56; and ritual, 68 Nabonid, 113 Neanderthal man, 12, 18, 19, 20 Neoplatonism, 85 netherworld, 6 8 , 71; see a l s o hell New Testament, 8 8 , 135, 147; see a ls o Jesus, Paul New Year festival, 96 Nicomachus, 142 Nilsson, Μ. P., 128 Nineveh, 100,110 Ninurta, 61 oath, 169f., 171; see a l s o Assyria, Molossians Odysseus, 38, 6 6 , 6 8 , 78, 87,114,171; see a ls o Cyclops O d y s s e y , 60, 108, 111, 129, 133, 136 Oedipus, 106, 116,117 Olympia, 111, 149 oracles, 99, 160; testing of, 218 n.25; s e e a l s o seer, Delphi, Dodona ordeals, 163,164 Orestes, 37,174 Orphic: myth of Persephone, 70f.; gold plate, 119 Otto, R., 31 Ovid, 53 91,103,114 palaeolithic ritual, 39 Palinurus, 52 Panionion, 111 Paphos, 81

p a ia n ,

parents, 30, 97; see a ls o father p a r s p r o l o t o , 36, 41,46, 51 Parthenon, 149 pastor, 82 Paul, apostle, on “ knowability of god,” 6 Pausanias of Sparta, 124 Pelops, 77 penitence, 89, 105, 122; penitential in­ scriptions, 115 Perge, 81 Persephone, 70f., 76, 144 Persepolis, reliefs, 90 Perseus, 59, 71, 78 Persians, 8 6 , 135, 209 n. 16, 216 n.3; see a ls o Darius, Persepolis Pessinus, 48 phenotypical cloning, 29 Philistines, 103 Phineus, 111 phoenix, 25 Phrixos, 117 piety, 135 pig festival, 145 Pindar, 77, 197 n.12 Pisistratus, 95 plague, 102,104,106,113 Plato, 30,112,119,135,143,155, 162,188 n.4 play, 7 Plutarch, on human sacrifice, 44 poison, used in ordeals, 164 pollution, 122,125,128 p o l o s , 91 Polybius, 93, 97 Polycrates, 146 Poseidon, 81, 110 Potnia, 81 praise, 91 prayer, 8 8 , 135; s e e a ls o kneeling predators, 42f. primates, 15, 22, 25, 83, 85; s e e a lso chimpanzees prisoner’s dilemma, 139,140 procreation, 10,11,14,16 Prometheus, 150 prophets, 100 Propp, V., 58, 65, 71, 78 p r o s k y n e s is , 86 prostitution, 133

Protagoras, 5 Proteus, 108 protolanguage, 64f. Ptolemy III, king of Egypt, 137 Ptolemy, astronomer, 162, 189 n. 18 punishment, 121, 133,173 purification, 103, 119, 123, 127, 151; purifiers, 148 Pythagoras, 175 quest, 63, 69 Quran, 99; s e e

a ls o

Islam

rank, 80, 83 Rapunzel, 72 recycling of gifts, 147f. reduction of complexity, 26,170 reductionism, 8 release, 119 religion: authority, 84; beginnings, 1, 12, 19; characteristics, 4; definition, 4, 80; “ opium,” 13, 32; power, 13; religious learning, 16 revenge, 133 Rhadamanthys, 223 n. 18 rites of passage, 1 6 7 ; s e e a ls o initiation ritual: general form and function, 19f., 22, 25, 28, 29, 41f.; gift-giving, 52, 144,149; healing and salvation, 103, 113, 119; initiation, 74f.; oaths, 173f.; paleolithic, 39; purification, 123; sacrificial, 32, 36; submission, 85; s e e a ls o gift-giving, initiation, sacrifice Roman religion, 81, 93, 114; ritual, 44, 174f.; s e e a ls o Vestal virgins Romulus, 72,159 sacrifice: critical discussions, 142f.; div­ ination, 160, foundation of, 113f.; general, 32f.; gift-giving, 134ff.; in iti­ ation, 75; oaths, 173f.; overcoming anxiety, 36, 43, 52, 54f.; placating gods, 105,121; substitute, 143; s e e a ls o burned, children, finger, first fruit, gods, immersion, India, Iphige­ nia, Jephtha, libation, self-sacrifice Sallustios, 135, 229 n.121 Samothrace, 141,195 n.115

Index

Samsuiluna, 99 Sargon of Akkad, 72 Sargon II, 93, 109 Sassanian reliefs, 95 satrapes, 82 Saturnus, 54 Saussure, F. de, 157 scapegoating, 52f., 109,125 Schleiermacher, E, 80 Scythians, 115, 116,152 Sedna, 117 seer, 100, 103, 108, 111, 116,123, 129, 148, 158 self-castigation, 121 self-sacrifice, 13, 33 self-wounding, 89 Selinus, sacred law, 152, 197 n.6 semiology, 230 n .l Seneca, 34 Sennacherib, 109, 116 seriousness, of religion, 7, 24, 30, 31, 33, 163 sexuality, 17, 47, 90, 132 shamanism, 67, 115, 117 shame culture, 125 signs, 22, 25, 118, 156 smiling, 121 snake, 62 Snow White, 73 social Darwinism, 9, 15, 138 social tools, 7, 98 sociobiology, 8 , 10, 18, 19, 20, 23,138 Solomon, 31, 89, 137 Soma cult, 191 n.51 Sophocles, 106 Sparta, 7, 110, 114,124 spitting, 89 Statius, 31 Stoics, 162 stones, 165, 168 structuralism, 28 submission, 82, 85, 89 substitutes, 54, 143,153, 201 n.71 Sumerian texts, 60, 81, 83 n.28, 88 , 90, 92, 96; s e e a ls o Inanna, Ninurta sun god, 171, 212 n.60 superstition, 30, 93, 162, 195 n .l 12 supplication, 121 Syrian goddess, 89, 114 Syrians, fish taboo of, 89

tale, 56, 6 6 ,7 8 ,1 1 2 , 126 tattooing, 167 Telem achus, 129 Telesphoros, 36, 50 temple: building, 114; of Jerusalem , 146, 149; system , 147, 151 Term inus, 166 territory, 165; see also b o u n d aries Tertuliian, 13 n .4 6 , 143 T hera, 91 Thucydides, 110, 114 tiger, 45 Tillich, R , 7 tithe, 148 trade, silent, 139 tradition, 2 3 , 25 tree, 83; of life, 2 1 0 n.28 tripod cau ld rons, 149 Tristan, 164 Typhon, 94 Ugarit, 131 universalia o f anthropology, 3, 130, 150

validation, 27 van G ennep, A., 74 Vedic. See India Venus statuettes, 26 V ernant, J.-R , 3 Vestal virgins, 44, 76 Villa of M ysteries, 74 Virgil, 52, 106 votive tablets, 135

w ater, in ordeals, 163 w ax, 174 weeping, 86, 88, 96 W ilson, E. O ., 9 ,1 0 ,1 2 , 18, 42 w orld tree, 83

Xerxes, 228 n.100

Zeus, 33, 81, 95, 1 0 0 ,1 3 6 ,1 4 2 ,1 4 9 , 172 Z oroastrian religion, 33