Creating Caring and Nurturing Educational Environments for African American Children [illustrated] 0897896890, 9780897896894

Table of contents :
The Role of ..............13
It All Began with Miss Doss ..............35
The Heart of the Matter ..............45
A Center ..............63
Learning Nurturing ..............91

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Greatin. Carin8 and Nurturin. Educational Environments for African American Children

Trenholm High School

Educational Environments for Afvican American Children VIVIAN GUNNMORRIS CURTIS L. MORRIS

BERGIN AND GARVEY Westport, Connecticut London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Morns, Vivian Gunn, 1941Creating caring and nurturing educational environments for African American children / Vivian Gunn Morris, Curtis L. Morns. cm. p. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-89789-689-0 (alk. paper) 1. Afro-Americanchildren-Education-Alabama. 2. Afro-AmericansEducation(Elementary)-Alabama. I. Morris,Curtis L., 1940- . 11.Title. LC2802.A2M67 2000 372.182996'073'7614~21 99-29574 is available. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Copyright 0 2000 by Vivian Gunn Morris and Curtis L. Morris

AU rights reserved.No portion ofthis book may be

reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent ofthe publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-29574 ISBN: 0-89789-689-0 First published in 2000

Bergin & Garvey, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. www.greenwood.com

Printed inthe United States of America

@ The paper used inthis book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (239.48-1984). 1098765432 Copyright Acknowledgments

The author and the publisher gratefully acknowledge permission useofthefor folllowing material: Frontispiece courtesy of Wiley Mullins. Used by permission. Excerpts from interviews conducted by Curtis L. Morris and Vivian Gunn Morns with Birdie H. Bailey, Jean L. Graves, James H. Floyd, LouisianaS. Floyd, Alberta L. Doss Gore (daughterof Julia G. Doss), Earnest Gunn, MarjorieB. Gunn, WendellGum, Ne11 Page Hogan, Earline C. Horton, Dallas W. Hoskins, Fred Johnson, Mansell Long, Gloria G. Mahorney, Grace A. Matthews, William Morris, Mattie Morns, Tereasa Washington, Johnand W. Winston Sr. Used by permission. Excerpts from Reginald Leon Green, Thirteen Characteristics of Nurturing Schools. Memphis, TN: Education ServicePlus,1996. Used by permission of Reginald Leon Green.

To our children, Chiquita and Curtis, and in memory of our daughter, Monica, and our parents, Marshall and Mattie Gunn, and Henry and Sarah Morris, and our other good teachers

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Contents ix

Preface

1

Chapter 1

Introduction: The Way It Was

Chapter 2

George Washington Trenholm:The Role of the Principal in the African American Community

13

Chapter 3

It All Began with Miss Doss

35

Chapter 4

Remembering the Teachers: The Heartof the Matter

45

Chapter 5

The Segregated African American School: A Center for Culture, Recreation, Leadership, and Education

63

Chapter 6

The Village as Educator: Learning, Nurturing, and Supporting African American Children Beyond the School Building

91

Chapter 7

Alabama Politics and School Desegregation:The Punting Syndrome

119

Chapter 8

From Segregation Foreverto Black Is Beautiful: Access to Higher Education in Alabama Next Door

133

Chapter 9

The Destruction of a School Community: Can It Be Rebuilt?

147

Chapter 10 Where Do We Go from Here?

173

...

Contents

VZZZ

Appendix A Significant Dates and Events Related to African American Education in Tuscumbia, Alabama

201

A p p e n d i x B Methodology

211

Index

213 Photo e s s a y f o l l o w s p a g e90

Preface Like other African American children growing up in the small northwest Alabama town ofTuscumbia in the segregated South, TrenholmHigh School was the center of our lives for 1 2 years of schooling. For many of us, formal schooling began with the CommunityKindergarten that was on the same campus as the high school for many years, and continuedthrough graduation from high school. The high school building housed grades 1-12. One of the mostmemorable rooms in thatbuilding was the small auditorium in which major school events took place. It was here that we had our graduation exercises, weekly assemblies, class plays, Tom Thumb weddings, banquets, choral and band recitals, proms, talent shows, oratorical contests, basketball games, and dances around the maypole on May Day. The auditorium was alsothe major gathering place for the African American community. It was here thatwe had movies for the community andsat on the main floor instead of inthe balcony as we were required to do in thetheater downtown. Thevoices of college choirs filled the room and famous African Americans like Dr. Mary McCloud Bethune spoke to inspire and uplift the race. Our parents andteachers held PTA meetings here as well aspolitical rallies for determining the best candidates to serve the needs of our community. It was also here that pictures of accomplished African Americans likeGeorge Washington Carver, Paul Lawrence Dunbar, and Paul Robeson adorned the walls. It was a place wethought would always be there when we walked across the stage in 1959 to receive our high school diplomas, a place that we could show our children and reminisce about ourgrowing and learning and maturing. But in10 short years, wewere shocked and disappointed to learn that the

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school building was closedand later demolished. The new standard-size gymnasium that had been proudly dedicated on May 1,1960, was torn downalong with the other buildings that had been constructed decadesearlier. The last graduation exercise for Trenholm High School students was held in that gymnasium on June 4, 1968. This institution, which had served as the unifying force for the African Americancommunity for more than90 years, was gone. We developed a great interest in telling this story in the 1970s during regular visitsto our hometownas we listened to ouryounger cousins, nephews, and niecesdiscussmany of their experiences at the newly desegregated high school, the formerall-white school across town. As we talked with retired and practicing teachers and administrators, students, and communityactivists to develop a framework for our story, we learned that not only had the physical structure beendestroyed, but most ofthe memorabilia documenting thehistory of the school had been vandalized, destroyed, or given away. Wethought about all the athletic and bandtrophies that had been proudlydisplayed in the halls near themain entrance, the photographs of graduating classes, the official records that documented our longhistory, and the memorialin front of the building that held the names ofAfrican American men in ourcommunity who were soldiers during World War 11. In that space was a much needed lowincome housing complex, with no visual evidencethat theschool hadever existed. It became our charge to reconstruct as accurately as possible the hstory of African Americanpublic education in our town for ourselves, our community, and for those yet unborn. As we proceeded to complete theresearch to write this story, wefound stories that otherAfrican American scholars had reconstructedthat had manyexperiences common to our school community. In the process, we discovered that therewas a wider community that needed to read this story. We know now that thevoices ofAfrican American students, parents, teachers, administrators, and community leaders must be heard and understood as policymakers work together with communities to plan effective schools for all children in this country. An understanding both ofthefactors that African Americans believed contributed to malung segregatedschools good educational environments for their children as well as the impact of school desegregation in their communities will alsohelp us to understand whatwe need in allcommunities fromour schools. This case study of TrenholmHigh School contributes to that understanding. This book is designed to be used by graduate and undergraduate students enrolled in early childhood, elementary, and secondaryteacher education programs as well as students of educational administration. This bookwill also be of value in courses focusing on urban studies, urban education, and African and African Americanstudies programs that address African Americaneducation in the UnitedStates. Both scholars and practitioners in education, as well as parents, community leaders, and other laypeople will find h s book a useful

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volume in planning and supportingquality education for African American as well as all children. Our thanks are extended to the Trenholm High School community who have so willingly shared a portion of their history with us and allowed this story to emerge. They gave of their time by completing questionnaires and interviews, searching through family records for photographs, schoolrecords, and other memorabilia that provided data for this story. Special appreciation is also extended to several individualswho read the manuscript throughout its development toassess the accuracy of its content andconclusions as wellas its usefulness and appeal for a wideaudience. This group included alumni and former teachers at Trenholm HighSchool and DeshlerHigh School, teacher educators, parents, and other colleagues who had no ties to the school community that is the focus of this book. These readers included: Lucindia Chance, Earnest Gunn, Linda Gunn, Marjorie Gunn, Wendell Gunn, Fred Johnson, John Taylor, Satomi Taylor, and John Winston. We are indebted to Addie J. Butler, a colleague at the Community College of Philadelphia, who gave generously of her time to analyze the questionnaire data and to Ne11 P. Hogan, who searched out Trenholm High School and Deshler High School official records to compile the list of graduates from 1900 to 1980. Thanks are also extended to Lori Waggoner, a graduateassistant, whodid literature searches, and to Kathleen Mogge and ShannonVanderford whotranscribed interview tapes. A faculty research grant, an AlumniAssociation grant, and sabbatical a from Montclair State University, Upper Montclair, NJ, provided the initial resources to locate information and the time for the initial writing. Technical support was supplied by the Center for Research in Educational Policy, College of Education, the University of Memphis, TN. A faculty development leave from the University of Memphis provided the time needed to complete the research and the final manuscript.

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CHAPTER 1

Intyoduction: The Way It Was The citizens...work[ ed] hard and bought land and deeded this to the land city so that this school mightbe realized.We feel that this school is a part ofus and we are a part of the school. As citizens, as taxpayers, as property owners, as voters and as parents, we feel that the school’s businessis our business. Report of the Citizens Committeeof Tuscumbia, 1955 WHY THIS STORY? Historians and researchers agree that, for the most part, segregated schools for AfricanAmericanshavebeenviewed as densofeducationalpathology (Ladson-Billings, 1994; Rodgers, 1975; Sowell, 1976; Walker, 1996). And until the last two decades, little had been writtenabout theinternal fimctioning ofthese schools or thepositive impact of their efforts from the perspective of the individuals they served or theteachers and administrators who had the primary responsibility for operating the schools (Ceceleslu, 1994;Dempsey & Noblit, 1996;Edwards, 1996;Ladson-Billings, 1994; Rodgers, 1975; Sowell, 1976; Walker, 1996). Many of these school communities hadsimilar experiences as Trenholm HighSchool, the focus of this book. With schooldesegregation, the doors of their school buildings were closed and thebuildings often demolished; most ofthe memorabilia documenting theaccomplishments and history ofthe school were vandalized, destroyed, or given away(Dempsey & Noblit, 1996; Edwards, 1996; Morris, 1993; Morris & Morris, 1981, 1993, 1995,1996; Walker, 1996).As desegregation ofschoolsbegan in many southern communities,the voices of many African Americancommunities were es-

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sentially no longer heard by educational policymakers-theirvoiceswere silenced. And as Edwards (1996) and Dempsey and Noblit (1996) emphasized in their studies, the voices of African Americans must be heard-the voices ofstudents, parents,teachers, administrators, and communityleaders. It is well documented that many southern African American schools were intentionally neglected by white school boards. Andbecause of this neglect through meager financial support, many African American schools had inferior buildings and equipment, along with inadequate instructional resources. However, the initiative and ingenuity of principals, teachers, parents, and community residents enabled the schools to succeed in providng good programs for chddren in their communities. In his study of patterns of excellence in eight African American schools, Sowell (1974,1976) revealed that the most important element needed to ensure academic excellence was “a sense of purpose, a faith in what can be achieved, and anappreciation of the hard work required to achieve it” (1974, p. 21). He also reported that order and respect, parental involvement, ability grouping, the character and ability of the principal, and the social setting of the school were key variablesin creating academic excellence in schools. Lightfoot (1983) noted the importance collaborating of withfamilies and the community in order to be successful in teaching African American children. In the recounting of the story Caswell of County Training School ruin ral North Carolina, Walker (1996)also emphasized the important relationship that exists between the school and thecommunity. She reported on how this school, like manyothers, succeeded in providing a nurturing educational environment forAfrican Americanchildren despitethe injustices imposed by segregation. Ceceleski (1994) tells howone AfricanAmerican community refused to allow its school to be closed, based on proposed desegregation plans, and the desperate struggle that took place to succeed in that mission. Foster’s (1990) research documented the accounts ofexperienced, exemplary African American teachers-voices that must be heard as an important source ofunderstanding how to improve the education of poor African American chddren. In her research on successful teachers of African Americanchildren, Ladson-Billings (1994) reinforces the importance of enhancing the educational achievement of African American students in this country. She states: No challenge has been more daunting than thatof improving the academic achievement ofAfrican American students. Burdened awith history that includes the denial of education, separate and unequal education, and relegation to unsafe, substandard inner-city schools, the quest for quality education remains an elusive fordream the Af‘rican community. However,it does remain a dream-perhaps the most powerful for the people of African American descent inthis nation. (p. ix)

Franklin (1990) communicated the need for African American educators to assume leadership roles in revitalizing their communitiesas they haddone his-

Intyoduction

3

torically. Rodgers (1975) and Irvine and Irvine (1983) reported onsome of the detrimental effects of school desegregation on the culture of African American communities. This literature review summarizes some of the recent stories that have been told about the education of African Americans and their communities. Our case study of Trenholm High School continues the conversation in aneffort to recapture the voices that have been silenced, the voices that are so critical to understanding how to create caring and nurturing educational environments for African Americanchildren. Seventy-one percent of the students enrolled in our 75 largest urban school districts are children of color, with the majority being African American. Students in these schools, on average, perform poorly when compared with their nonurban counterparts on every measure of academic performance (Quality Counts, 1998).It is expected that people ofcolor will bethe majority population in this country by the last quarter of the twenty-first century. It is in schools that theeconomic future of the United States will be determined because of the schools' role in providing a skilled workforce. And it is in schools that children learn the fundamentals of what it means to be a responsible citizen in a democratic society. Thus, itis imperative that educationworks well for children of color in our country andfor all children (Education that Works, 1990).

TRENHOLM HIGH SCHOOL COMMUNITY This bookfocuses on Trenholm High School, a segregated African American schoolthat served children in the town of Tuscumbia, Alabama, for more than 90 years before being closed by a court orderin 1969. Trenholm was established as the second high school for African Americans inthe state of Alabama; Parker High School in 'Birmingham was the first. The high school department was initiated in 1896 with thefinancial support ofAfrican American citizens and grew to have its first four-year graduating class in 1922. The curriculum incorporatedboth thephilosophies of W.E.B. Du Bois with classical studies and Booker T. Washington with vocational training. For many years, African American students from other towns in North Alabama and Mississippi boarded with Tuscumbiafamilies to pursue a high school diploma at Trenholm. By the time the school building was closedin 1969, thephysical plant consisted of a brick veneer building, the main unit built in 1939, with 12 classrooms, a library, science laboratory, separate lunchroom, band room, homeeconomicsand auto mechanicshop facilities, and a long awaited standard-size gymnasium that was completed in 1960. For too many years, classroomswere overcrowded,the buildings were too hot ortoo cold, with toolittle equipment andsupplies in the science lab and regular classrooms, and too few books in the library. We played baseball, basketball, football, ring games, practiced for field and trackactivities, and

4

Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments

jumped ropeon erodmg redclay playgrounds withnot enough equipment to accommodate the student enrollment. The building was notorious for the poorly functioning toilets in the boys’ and girls’ restrooms that were shared with their teachers. Yet despite the lack of financial resources to adequately maintain the physical plant and purchase books, supplies, and equipment needed for the academic program, many students eagerly looked forward to attending their classes each day for 12 years. Students, parents, and community residents attribute this attitude to the caring and nurturing educational environment created by dedicatedandcommitted teachers and principals. One graduate communicated this sentiment very wellwhen she stated: “WhenI was too sick to go to school, I was doubly sick, becauseI was sick again becauseI couldn’t go.” Trenholm High School was located southeast of the Tuscumbia downtown area in the heart of the African Americancommunity. It was on a two-acre plot ofland donatedby Afiricanherican citizens and housedgrades 1-12 for most of its years of existence. At its height in the mid-l950s, the school hadan estimated enrollment of500 students. Themajority of the teachers lived within a four- or five- blockradius of the school building as did more than70 percent of the students. Tuscumbia bears the name of the Chickasaw chef who lived in the area when whitesettlers arrived in 18 15. Chief Tuscumbiais reported to have sold the land to Michael Dixon in 18 15 for five dollars and two pole axes. The town was chartered in 1817 and incorporatedas the first cityin northwestAlabama in 1820, just one year after Alabama became a state. Nestled in the extreme northwestern section of thestate next to Tennessee and Mississippi, Tuscumbia is located 145 miles east o f Memphis, 115 miles southwest of Nashville, and 100 miles northwest of Birmingham. Tuscumbia is the countyseat ofColbert Countywith a current population of8,400 and itis part of a quad-cities area often referred to as the Muscle Shoals area. It is also considered part of the Florence Metropolitanarea, with Florence being the largest of thefour cities with a population of 36,400 and a total population of136,900 in the metropolitan area. The Muscle Shoals area is rich in natural resources, the Tennessee River runs through it,and several local industries have contributed over the years to the area’s economic development, including the Tennessee Valley Authority, Reynolds MetalsAluminum Company, Ford Motor Company, Union Carbide, andthe Colbert SteamPlant. The University of North Alabama (formerly Florence State College) and Shoals Northwest Community College offer postsecondary educational opportunities for area residents (Desegregation Plan, 1970; LeEtwich, 1935; Report, 1955;Shoals Life, 1998). Tuscumbia is probably best known as the birthplace of Helen Keller, a deaf-blind woman, who graduated from college and became a writer, an international lecturer, and champion of those with disabilities. The annual Helen Keller festivalis celebrated each yearwith a play, The Miracle Workeq staged on

Introduction

5

the grounds of her home, Ivy Green, along withother activities honoring her achievements. A local hospital bears her name along with the first public library established in Alabama, located in her hometown. For many decades, Tuscumbia was the center of economic and industrial growth in northwest Alabama and served as a political base for many state and local democrats (Leftwich, 1935; Report, 1955;Shoals Life, 1998). Former President Jimmy Carter chosethis small town as the site to launch his unsuccessful 1980 presidential campaign. The townof Tuscumbiahas generallymaintained a fairly consistent population of 75 percent white and 25 percent African American. Having closed Trenholm High School in 1969, Tuscumbia City Schools currently operates a unitary school system with 1,490 studentsin four schools: (1)Deshler High School, grades 9-12; (2) Northside Middle,grades 6-8; (3) R. E. Thompson, grades 3-5; and (4)Southside Elementary,grades K-2. The district also operates an early childhood center at a former elementary schoolbuilding. In an extensive history of African Americaneducation in Alabama, Horace Mann Bond reportedthat, with the exception of the education of Creoles of Mobile andBaldwin County, there is no record of a school for African Americans in the state ofAlabama prior to 1860. Not onlywas educationnot encouraged, but like many other southern states during the nineteenth century, Alabama enacted laws prohibiting the education of African Americans. In 1832, just 1 3 years after Alabama became a state, a statutepassed malung it a crime to instruct any AfricanAmerican, free or slave, in the arts of reading and writing. A fine of $250 to $500 was imposed on persons found guilty of this offense (Bond, 1969). The state legislature enacted another statutein 1856 entitled “To Prohibit the Teaching ofSlaves to Read and Write”that was more severe than the one passed in 1832. This law remained in force until the end of the Civil Warand stated that: If any person or persons shall teach or be engaged in teaching in this state, any slave or

slaves to read or write, he, she, or they shall be fined not less than one hundreddollars and to be imprisoned in the county jail not less than three months, one or both, the at discretion of the jury trying the case. (Bond, 1969, pp. 15-16)

So, at the end of theCivil War, after having been denied thelegal right to learn to read and write for several decades, the newly freed slaves in Alabama and throughout the South were eagerto be educated as a meansto a better life. Several schools were established by the Freedman’s Bureau and various aidand missionary societies during Reconstruction; one of those schools was in Tuscumbia (Fleming, 1905). The first known recorded account oflegal education for African Americansin Tuscumbia was in 1870when the Freedman school was taught by Judge (or Dr.)Wingo and his daughter “at the churchat the foot of the Hill” and he reportedly gave a “general satisfaction to all interested,” and faithfully discharged his duties (Alabamian,1870).Dr. Wingo was

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recommended for reemployment in the fall of that year, but it is not known how long the school operated. In 1867, 29years before the 1896 Plessy v. Feguson decision establishing “separate but equal” facilities for African Americansand whitesin the country, the Alabama state legislature passed a bill to establish a common separate school system. This bill provided that: The board of directors ofeach township in the State shouldestablish separate schools for the education of negro and mulatto children, and persons of African descent between the ages of six and twenty-oneyears, whenever as many as thirty pupils in sufficient proximity for school purposes claim the privilege of public instruction, and the fund forthat purpose is sufficient to supporta school for four months in the year. (U.S. Office of Education, 1969, 323-324)

However, it does not appear that the Tuscumbia City Council formally allocated moneyfor public schools until 20 years later in 1887 (Weekly Dispatch, 1887). In 1881, a Tuscumbia newspaper reported that there were some “colored schools” in the town. Thearticle does not make it clear how much support the colored schools received, if any, from the available funds noted. We have a small Free school fund which is distributed among theschools that are not denominational. By the proper effort, Tuscumbia could have a good system of Free Schools, and we think the time not far distant when an effort will be made in thatdirection. With whatPublic funds we now get, and theaid of the Peabody Fund, and a small tax, we can secure a free School system that will greatly benefit our town. The Free School system ofAlabama needs some improvement. We need more money to run itfor a longer time thanit nowruns. The State has not been able to appropriate a sufficient amount ofmoneyto make it successful. Our Free Schools run only about three months in the year. (Democrat, 1881)

Family and community involvement was a hallmark at Trenholm High School from its inception in the 1870s until it closed in 1969. The July 13, 1877, issue of the North Alabamian reported the establishment of the “Osborne Colored Academy,” named in honor of Sandy Osborne, an African American. Mr. Osborne, a barber at the Franklin House, was considered an “upright and honorable” citizen in the community ( A n Honor, 1877; Osborne Academy, 1887). Thearticles noted that: “The Boardis composed of representative colored men of the community who will doubtless discharge their duties faithfully.” The Board of Trustees included Wilson Northcross, Sandy Osborne, J. P.Barton, Pat Brown, Scott Bean, Willis Waddel, Louis Slaughter, John Tompkins, Charles Abernathy, Thomas Morton, and Pascal Hobbs. Although not mentionedas trustees, Abram Goodloe andPleas Barton were authorizedto solicit contributions for the academy. Several men associated with the Osborne Colored Academy were connected to other events and circumstances that are better laown among African American citizens in Tuscumbia. Pleas Barton of BartonStation was listed as

Introduction

7

the first principalof the Tuscumbia Public School that was established in 1887 (Colored Public Exercises, 1888).It is very likely that Mr. Bartonwas the principal of the Osborne Academy and remained principal when the school was made a public school in 1887. Wilson Northcross, president of the Osborne Academy, was one of the early pastors of a church in nearby Leighton, Alabama. He went to Tuscumbia about 1866, organized the Colored Baptist Church (now First Baptist Church), and served as its pastor until 1907 (Leftwich, 1935). From 1905to 1969, Trenholm HighSchool was located across the street from the First Baptist Church. Pat Brown, another Osborne Academy trustee, was probably Patrick Brown, the father of Ellen Brownwho was listed as one ofthe students in the 1888school closing exercisesat the Tuscumbia Colored Public School. She later became a teacher at the school and married George Washington Trenholm, the third principal, in 1899 (Brown, 1981; Colored Exercises, 1888; Memorial Tribute, 1950). A n 1878 newspaper article indicated that this town of 2,000 inhabitants had “seven churches, five white and two colored, two white female and one white male school and one colored’’ (Tuscumbia, 1878). Thecolored school mentioned was most likely the OsborneAcademy, whichprobably became the Tuscumbia Colored Public School in 1887 and Trenholm High School in 1921. A number of otherevents and reports lend support to the probability that the Osborne Academy later became the Tuscumbia Colored Public School and, because of the location noted, it is very likely that it was formerly the Freedman schoollocated “at the churchat the footofthe Hill” in 1870. Colbert County deed records show that the trustees of the Osborne Academy purchased land south of the Tuscumbia Grammar School [area known as the Deloney Hill] from Edmund and Mary Winston for the cost of $230 (Colbert County, 1881). Several sources report thatin 1905 a one-story schoolbuilding of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School was moved from Deloney Hill to the corner of Eleventh and High Streets, the location of Trenholm High School whenit was closed. African Americanscitizens were responsible for the acquisition of the property and the costs of removalto the new site (Colored City, 1905; L e h c h , 1935; Tuscumbia Dispatch, 1905). A Report of the Citizens Committee of Tuscumbiain 1955 summarizes very wellthe commitment that African American families and communityresidents madeto the education ofAfrican American chddren beginningas earlyas the 1870s.When African American citizens were denied the rightto meet in the Trenholm HighSchool building to discuss incidents involved in the dismissal of a teacher by the principal, they sent this report to the school board (Board Minutes, 1955): Mr. W. M. Long [William Manse1Long, Sr., an alumnus, parent, and community activist] contactedthe Superintendent and was informed by him that the only way he would this meeting was that we would write down agree to ourusing the school building for on paper whatthe committee, as well as the people, were going to say, and bringit to his

Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments

8

office that he might censor the contents. We felt that this was an infringementon the rights of free speechof the citizens.We further felt that it was an insultto the dignityof the citizens who work and bought land and deeded this land to the city so that this school mightbe realized. We feel that this school is a part of us and we are a part of the school. As citizens, as taxpayers, as property owners,as voters and as parents, we feel that the school’s business is our business. . . . 1. In order to offset a similar situation in the futureand to discuss other matters pertaining to the

school which will affect the community at large: Be it resolved that a committee ofpatrons be appointed to serve as advisor to the Principal and to lend whatever assistance they can in solving school problems directly affecting the community.

2. Because of the position that our school occupies in the community: Be it resolved that use of the school building be granted to the citizens when such usepertains to the promotion of harmonious welfare of the school and community as long as such use does not interfere with the normal operation of said school program. 3 . Whereas, for the successful operation of the school, the Principal should have, in addition to scholastic qualifications, the respect, the confidence, and the cooperation ofthe majority ofthe citizens in the community. As a result of the Principal’s tasteless handling of this recent situation, as well as his attitude in other matters pertaining to the school, he no longer commands the respect, the confidence, nor the good will ofthe parents and citizens. This recent incident has lowered the morale ofthe teachers, students, and citizens at large, and caused the high ideals which we have sought to accomplish to be cast beneath all human dignity.

This report clearly communicates that theAfrican Americancitizens of Tuscumbia expected to be more than fundraisers and rubber stampers for the school. Theyknew what theneeds of their childrenand thecommunity were and theyexpected to have a continuingvoice in making decisions about those needs. School-based decisionmaking was present in this school community and otherschools like it longbefore it became popular in educational literature in the mid-to late-twentieth century. This report also reinforced the special position that the African American high school held in the community as a unifying force and a center for culture,leadership, recreation, and education for children andfamilies. This institution of learningwas clearly the pride of the African American community.

UNFOLDING THE STORY This historical account of Trenholm High School unfolds in 10 chapters. Chapter 1,t h s introductory chapter,describes briefly the geographical, political, and social context of h s case study of a segregated African American school community in the South from 1870 to 1969. It presents historical focal points inthe early history of education this in community and the relationships that existed between school,families, and thecommunity. Chapter 2 examines the uniquerole of theprincipal of the African Americanschool in the community with afocus on George Washington Trenholm, the thirdprincipal of the

Introduction

9

school andfor whom theschool was named. H e served as principal from 1896 to 1916, longer than any principal before or since. Chapter 3 describes the history and activities of the Community Kindergarten, a private kindergarten for African Americansthat has operated in the community for more than50 years, decades before kindergartens became a part of the public school system. Attendance at this kindergarten marked the beginning of formal education for thousands of African American children in this community, many ofwhom were scarcely out ofdiapers and still on the bottle. For many years, the kindergartenwas on thesame campusas the elementary and high school. With the leadership of principals and the support of parents and community, classroom teachers were the major force for creating caring and nurturing environments in this school setting. Chapter4 presents students’ descriptions of favorite teachers, their characteristics,teaching styles, and the influence they had on students’ desires and opportunities to acheve as well as the impact these teachers have had on their personal and professional lives. Many of the teachers spent their entire professional careers in this school community, while others were in and out for relatively short periods. Chapter 5 chronicles Trenholm High School as the central unifying force in the African American community. For most of the years that theschool was in existence, the Southwas a segregated society. In addition to providing education for the young, the school was the center for culture,leadership, and recreation for the African American community because they were denied access to other communityresources. Three major sections are included inthis chapter. The first section describes the academic program and the second depicts athletic programs at the high school as a rallying point for the school and community that met many of thesocial, recreational, and leadershp needs of both children and adults. For many years the high schoolteams were a powerhouse in both regional and stateathletic associationsin football, basketball, and track and field events-even with secondhand equipment that had been used by athletes at the “other school” across town. The third section describes the role of music as an important medium of expression and entertainment at major events of the h g h school and in thecommunity. This section also details the importance ofvarious school organizations and events that provided many opportunities for developing leadershp skills among the students enrolled at the school. Chapter 6 describes a variety of social and civic clubs, and otherinformal activities in the community that provided learning opportunities, nurturing, and support for African American schoolchildren. These formal and informal organizations often offered opportunities to take care of unfilled needs of schoolchildren because of the school’s meager resources and lack of access to public resources that were available to white citizens in the community. Chapter 7 presents a historical view of public school desegregation in the local community within the framework of major events that tookplace in the

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state and the nation from1954 to 1969. This chronicle includes descriptions ofsome oftheactivitiesofmajor players-Governor George C. Wallace, Judge Frank Johnson, and Attorney Fred Gray-in the highly publicized school desegregation efforts in Alabama. For decades, graduates of Trenholm High School had to travel many milesfrom home andincur unnecessary expensesto pursue college degrees (at segregated colleges), while Florence State College was literally next door,only six miles away. Chapter 8describes the events that took place when Wendell Wilhe Gunn,a native of Tuscumbia who attended Trenholm HighSchool, enrolledas the first African Americanat thestate college next door. Included in this chronicle will also bea description of some of the antics of Governor George C. Wallace in thehigh-profile case ofthe desegregation of the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, three months earlier in 1963. After serving the African American community for more than 90 years, Trenholm High Schoolwas closed by court order in 1969, the building was later demolished, andAfrican Americanchildren began attending the desegregated high school across town. Chapter 9 examines the perceptions of students, teachers, alumni, administrators, parents, and community members regarding the impact of these events on the African American community from 1969 to 1980. They comparetheir experiences at Trenholm High School to experiences at Deshler High School, the former all-white school. The final chapter focuses on some of the significant events that have occurred in the African Americanschool communitysince the original data collection period. An attempt is alsomade to make meaning ofthe major themes addressed in the study that may influence policy issues in educationas we plan for effective, quality schooling for all children in this country. What can we learn from this case study that will inform practice regarding major school reform efforts now and in the twenty-first century? Whatare some important skills that school administrators, classroom teachers, and schoolsupport staff must have? How can colleges of education collaborate with schooldistricts to provide the training needed by prospective teachers as well asthe continuing professional development needs of inservice teachers, school administrators, and otherschool staff? In what ways can schools reach out to successfully involve familiesand communities in the life of theschool? Theseare some ofthe issues we will address in Chapter 10.

REFERENCES Alabamian and Times. (1870, May 5 ) . A n honor worthily bestowed.(1877, July 13). North Alabamian. Board minutes. Tuscumbia city board of education. (1955, January 31). Bond, H. M. (1969). Negro education in Alabama: A study in cotton and steel.New York: Octagon Books. Brown, E. (1981, July 31). Interview with Ellen C. Brown (niece ofMrs.G. W. Trenholm) of Montgomery, Alabama.

Introduction

11

Ceceleski, D. (1994).Along freedom road:Hyde County, North Carolina, and the fate of black schoolsin the south. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Colbert county deed record F. (1981, February 5), 553. Colored city high school. (1905, December 12). The American Star. Colored public exercises. (1888, June 19). The WeeklyDispatch. The Democrat. (1881, June 11). Dempsey, V., & Noblit, G. (1996). Cultural ignorance and school desegregation: A community narrative. In M. J.Shujaa (Ed.), Beyond desegregation: Thepolitics of quality in African American schooling (pp. 115-137). Thousand Oaks, CA. Convin Press. Desegregation Plan for Tuscumbia City Schools. (1970, January 13). Submitted by Jack H. Vardaman, Superintendent, in a letter to The HonorableFrank M. Johnson, Jr., U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court, Montgomery, A L . Education that works: An action plan forthe education of minorities.(1990). Cambridge, M A : Quality Education for Minorities Project. Edwards, P. A. (1996). Before and after school desegregation: African American parents' involvement in schools. In M. J. Shujaa (Ed.), Beyond desegregation: The politics of quality in African American schooling (pp. 138-161). Thousand Oaks, CA: Convin Press. Fleming, W. L. (1905). Civil War and Reconstruction inAlabama. New York: Columbia University Press. Foster, M. (1990). Thepolitics of race: Through theeyes of African-American teachers. Journal of Education, 172 (3),123-141. Franklin, V. P.(1990). They rose and fell together: African American educators and community leaders, 1795-1954. Journal of Education, 172 (3),39-63. Imine, R.W., & Imine, J. J. (1983). Theimpact of the desegregation process on the education of black students: Key variables. Journal of Negro Education, 23, 364-371. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers ofAfrican American children. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Lefnvich, N. (1935). Two hundred years at Muscle Shoals. Birmingham, AL: Multigraphic Advertising, Co. schools. New Lightfoot, S. L. (1983). Worlds apart: Relationships between families and York: Basic Books. Memorial tribute to its fourth president: GeorgeWashington Trenholm.(1950, August 3). TheAlabama State College for Negroes, Montgomery, AL. Morris, C. L., & Morris, V. G. (1996, August). Trenholm high school: A center for culture, leadership, recreation, and educationfor the African American community. Trenholm H&%School Reunion Souvenir Booklet, Tuscumbia, AL. Morris, V. G. (1993, Jul~7).The closing of Trenholm high school: Was the baby thrown out with the bath water?Presentation made at the Second Annual Reunion of Trenholm HighSchool, Tuscumbia,A L . Morris, V. G. Morris, C . L. (1981).The beginning of black public education in Tusciybia. Journal of Muscle Shoals Histoyy, 9, 66-73. Morris, V. G. &' orris, C. L.(1993, July). Osborne colored academy: The forerunner of renholm high school? Reflections of Trenholm h&h school reunion 1993, Tuscumbia, AL.

.f"

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Morris, V. G., & Morris, C. L. (1995). Early schooling for blacks in Tuscumbia, 1877-1896: Before the arrival of George Washington Trenholm.Journal of Muscle Shoals History, 14, 82-90. Osborne Colored Academy. (1877, July 13). North Alabamian. Quality counts ‘998: The urban challenge, public education in the fifty states. (1998, January 8). Education Week, XVII (17). Report of visiting committee on evaluative criteria of Trenholm high school. (1955). Tuscumbia, A L : Author. Rodgers, F. A. (1975). The black hi& school and its community. Lexington, M A : Lexington Books, D. C. Heath. Shoals life: Tuscumbia. (1998). Times Daily Website: http:www.timesdaily.com/tuscumb.html. Shujaa, M. J. (Ed.) (1996). Beyond desegregation: The politics of quality in African American schooling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Sowell, T. (1974).Black excellence: The case of Dunbar high school. Public Interest, 35,l-21. Sowell, T. (1976).Patterns of black excellence. Public Interest, 43, 26-58. Tuscumbia, Alabama. (1878, May 3). North Alabamian. The Tuscumbia Dispatch. (1905, December 23). U S . O 6 c e of Education. (1969). History of schools for the colored population. New York: Arno Press. Walker, V. S. (1996). Their highest potential: African American school community in the segregated south. Chapel Hill: The University ofNorth Carolina Press. The WeeklyDispatch. (1887, October 24).

CHAPTER 2

Geowe WasbinJton Trenholm:The Role of the Principal in the African American Community Every observant student ofmanwell knows that ignorance is a curse, be it voluntary or involuntary. Its record through all the ages is sufficient evidence. Truly it has been said: “Ignorance, addedto thehandicap ofcolor, to burden a child.” In the long run, educais too fearful a load with which less than tion is much cheaper than ignorance. School houses cost much jails. Teachersand educators are cheaper than judges andother courtofficials. George Washington Trenholm,April 4, 1912

GEORGE WASHINGTON TRENHOLM AND THE TIMES George Washington Trenholm was elected the third principal of the TuscumHigh School in 1921) on bia Colored Public School (named Trenholm August 14,1896,just three months after Supreme the Court issued itsPlessy v. Ferpson decisionon May 18, 1896, malung “separate but equal” t h e law of the land. Cash (1996) writes that: Until itwas overturned by Brown v. Board ofEducationof Topeka Kansasin 1954, the Plessy case made it lawful for nearlysixty more years to deny African-Americans equal protection under the law forcing by them to accept the notion of “separate-butequal” accommodationsin public and semipublic facilities, parks, waiting rooms, bus and railroad services, and the schooling of their children. Today, nearly 100 years of later, the separate and unequal conditions of schooling for hundreds of thousands African-American children may more nearly approximate the post-Reconstruction era of Plessy than the court-ordered desegregationera following Brown. (p. 359)

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Creating Caring and Nurturing Envivonnzents

In 1896,Booker Taliaferro Washington, President ofTuskegee Institutein southeast Alabama, was the dominant influence in African American education in Alabama and the nation. And it appears that because ofhis influence, industrial education was considered the appropriate form of education for “uplifting” African Americanpeople. Many white southerners, who favored a classical education for themselves, believedthat industrial education was only for African Americans (Franklin & Anderson, 1978). When 24-year-old George Washington Trenholm accepted the position as principal of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School, after graduating as valedictorian of his class at Alabama A & M Institute (nowAlabama A & M University), he had some very different ideas. With the cooperation of the African American citizens, he established the second high school for African Americans in the state of Alabama that included a program of studies in English, mathematics, Latin, German, pedagogy and psychology, physics, biology,and history. A 1910 reportreveals that sewing wasthe onlyindustrial subject in the school (Jones, 1969). Trenholm was born into a large family of 11 children in Pineville, Shelby County, Alabama, to the parents of ex-slaves, Dan Trenholm and Mariah Doakes Walker. He married Ellen Brownin 1899, agraduate ofthe Tuscumbia Colored Public School anda teacher at the school whenarrived he in Tuscumbia. Their only child, Harper Council1 Trenholm, was born in Tuscumbia in 1900. G. W. Trenholm’s early education took place in rural Shelby County schools. He spent two years at Marion Institute and in 1894 was awarded aclploma from the Normal Course of the American Correspondence Normal of Dansville, New York. After graduating from Alabama A & M Institute in 1896, he continuedhis education while principalin Tuscumbia. In 1899, the Fenton (Michigan) Normal and Commercial College conferredon him the degree of Ph.B. (Bachelor of Philosophy). Beginning in 1906, he spent six summers ofregular study at the University of Chicago,was awarded anhonoraryM.S. from AlabamaA& M in 1900, and two honorarydegrees fromSelma University, an A.M. (MastersofArts) in 1915 and LL.D. (Doctorof Laws) in 1923 (MemorialTribute, 1950; MemorialTribute, 1957; Sheeler, 1945; Thompson, 1925). G. W. Trenholm was principal of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School for 19 1/2years, from September1896 toJanuary 1,1916, longer thanany other principal before or since. Records also revealthat his tenure at Tuscumbia was the longest period that he spentin any of the professional positions (19 1/2 years of his 32-year career) he heldbefore his death on August 3,1925. Before earning his diploma fromAlabama A & M, he beganhis teaching career in the rural schools ofShelby Countyin 1892. He 1eftTuscumbiain January1916 to accept the full-time position of State Conductor orSupervisor ofTeachers’Institutes. While principal, he was Conductor of Summer Institutesfor Negro Teachers from 1911to 1915, ona part-time basis. In 1918, he was promoted to State Supervisor ofTeacher Training for Negroes. In this role, he supervised

holm

George Washington

15

all of the summer schools and agencies for the training of Negro teachers in the state. In 1920,he became the fourthpresident of theState Normal Schoolfor Negroes in Montgomery (now Alabama State University) and remained in that position until his death in 1925 (Memorial Tribute,1950,1957; Sheeler, 1945; Thompson, 1925). ROLES OF AFRICAN AMERICAN PRINCIPALS In a study of the African American school and its community, Rodgers (1975) described the unique roles that African American principals played during legalized segregation in the South.G. W. Trenholm, as well as principals before and after hs tenure, assumed many of these roles. He stated that African American principals played the roles of superintendent,school administrator, supervisor, family counselor, financial advisor,community leader, employer, and politician. Rodgers noted: “Whlle one would be hard pressed to find a single individual black principalwho played each of the roles to the extent described, our data suggest that the aggregate of black principals in the state [North Carolina] did in fact perform these roles” (p. 59).White principals in the same school system would nothave been expectedto play some of the roles described by Rodgers (1975) because these functions were performed by other public officials or citizens in the community. Trenholm took on role the of black principalas superintendent when he initiated the establishment of a high school departmentdespite the lack of initial support of the Tuscumbia City Board of Education. With the aid of African American citizens, who had proventheir willingness to support education for their children with theestablishment of the Osborne Academy in 1877, Trenholm and the auxiliary board raised money through “fifth Sunday rallies.” This “black” board, as it was often called, funded the high school program for many years until the city took on the responsibility (Report, 1955). Trenholm (undated) communicated how this process worked in a speech delivered at the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schoolsentitled “Concentration on Public High Schools in the SouthRather Than Multiplying Private Secondary Schools.” In every town or city where there is a good elementary school, we should co-operate with the school officials and establish a high school department rather thancreate a private secondary school. Let the money that we spend to support theprivate school go to maintain the high school department. This can easily bedone. It is being done successfully in Tuscumbia, Alabama. ...There we havea splendid auxiliary school board offifteen public spirited men and an active educational association. Hearty co-operation with the public school officials has greatly strengthened our elementary school work and has given us a highschool department. Theauxiliary board pays the salary of one of the two instructors in thehigh school division and supports themusic teacher. The auxiliary board is composed ofsubstantial citizens who give a reasonable amount of their time, money, and influence to the school. The people have been taught, by the beauti-

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ful example ofthese men, to stand by the work ofthe institution; for in each ofthe three principal churches ofthe city a nice public collection is taken for, and given to, theauxiliary board every fifthSunday, and this is not “anafter collection.” The auxiliary school board raises and expends from seven hundred dollars ($700) to eight hundred dollars ($800)annually. When this board began operation several yearsago the colored people had a small three-room building and three poorly paid teachers. They nowhave a spacious and beautiful, well equipped, two story, seven-room building and six teachers. A full and thorough seven year-elementary course is given and a good three year-high school curriculum is maintained. Teachers’ salaries, though yet poor, have been increased from time to time, and the entire city seems well pleased with the scheme of co-operation andthe splendid work done in the school. What has been accomplished in educational circles in the little city of Tuscumbia can be done with signal success in the great majority of our Southerntowns and cities. (pp. 7-8)

An article entitled “ColoredCity School,” which appeared in a local newspaper in December 1909, provided additional details about theprogram, faculty, and auxiliary board. The school has a strong andfull faculty of graduatesfrom some ofthe best schools and colleges. A thorough course is given in the grammar department, and an excellent three-year course in the high school division. A splendid music department is maintained in which thorough instruction is offered in both vocal and piano music. Every teacher is an earnest Christian and engages in thereligious life of the students, so that moral and religious tone oftheschool is very high. Small tuition. Good board in private families at reasonable rates.We solicit earnest students from afar for the higher Grammar Grades and for the HighSchool department. Said students must bring recommendation. (Colored City, 1909, p. 1)

The list of officers for the Tuscumbia Colored Auxiliary School Board included: A. E. Eggleston, president; W. P. Brown, vice president; Mingo White, treasurer; Flem Fort, secretary; and G. W. Trenholm, ex-officio. Additional board membersnoted were Thomas Waddle,William L. Gray, Henry Griffin, Sr., Judge Johnson,Dr. A. W. Davis, Horace Morse, andCharles W. Carns, Sr. Other members ofthe board who served later and are wellknown to many current residents of theAfrican Americancommunity in Tuscumbia include Frank Graves, E. 0. Winston, George V. Peters, Walter Johnson, John T. Steele, Waddle Steele, Walter Barner, L. C. Johnson,W. W. Long, Joe Crawford, William ManselLong, Earl Drumgood, Percy Ricks,and B. F.Alexander (Peters, 1981). Mr. Trenholm received high marks in his role as school administrator and was highly praisedin the local pressfor his accomplishmentsat the Tuscumbia Colored Public School. In 1898, two years after being appointed principal, one such article appeared in the Weekly Dispatch. The commencement exercises ofthe school last week were of a very high order of excellence and interest, proving indisputable the capability and fitness of the principal, Prof. G. W. Trenholm, andhis corps ofable and faithful assistants. No mistake was made

George Wasbington Trenbolm

17

when Prof. Trenholm was put at the head ofthe colored public school of this city, and our acquaintance with him and observation of his daily work has impressed us very forcibly as to his peculiar qualifications for the discharge of the duties incumbent upon the principal of alarge school. Since his election, two years ago therehas been a marked improvement in theschool in every line, noticeably in attendance and discipline. The pupils have great respect for him,the patrons confidence in him as a manand a teacher, and theresult is a continuousand constant growth of the school. ...We are willing to give credit to whom credit is due, and inthis instance we feel that Prof. Trenholm richly and worthily deserves all that we can say ofhim. He is an honor to his race, and the impressions and lessons he is engrafting into theminds of thecolored youth ofthis city we hope will be lasting and far-reaching and be “bread cast upon the waters.”

When Mr. Trenholm was reelected as principal for the 1907school year, the local newspaper noted that:“Prof. Trenholm andhis teachers have done a good work andwe believe that Prof. Trenholm has no superior among the colored teachers of this state” (Tuscumbia Dispatch, 1907). G. W. Trenholm was a leader in the professional education community at the local, state, and national levels. In 1904, atNashville, Tennessee, hewas one of the organizers of the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools (NATCS). Initially calledthe National Association of Teachers of Negro Youth (NATNY), theorganization adopted the name of NATCS when it merged in 1907 with the NationalAssociation of Land-GrantPresidents. The name was changed again to the American Teachers Association (ATA) in 1937 and merged with the National Education Association (NEA) in 1966 (Fultz, 1996). Its purpose was stated in the constitution of the first organization: “The object of this Association shall be to harmonize and unite the agencies now at work for the elevation of the Negropeople; to arouse a deeper educational interest among them; to encourage good citizenship; and to ascertain and publish statistics showing educational status” (Fultz, 1996, p. 318). W. G. Trenholm madeseveral presentations at national meetings of theassociation held at St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Chattanooga (Thompson, 1925). One of the prominent young leaders of theNATCS in the mid- 1920s was H.Council1 Trenholm, president ofAlabama State Teachers College andthe son of George Washington Trenholm-following in his father’s footsteps (Fultz, 1996). G. W. Trenholm was secretary of the Alabama State Teachers Association from 1900 to 1906, and president from 1910 to 1912. He served in these roles while principalof the Tuscumbia Colored Public School. In the 1912annual meeting of theassociation, President Trenholm madea presentation on how to change thestatus of Negro educationin Alabama. He stated that education could be improved by: 0

improving our methods.

0

urging legislation for the improvement of schools.

0

publicizing the contributions of Negroes to education.

0

building more and better school houses.

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supplementingmore substantially the public school h n d and lengthening the school term. cooperating with local school boards. 0

improving our private and denominational schools. establishmg high school departments in many of our well organized grammar schools in the larger towns and cities. urging a considerable number of our brightest high school graduates to enter college. placing more stress on real college work. enriching our courses of study. encouraging teachers to remain in the community long enough to do some real good work. (Trenholm, 1912, pp.8-10)

Trenholm had set the example for these recommendations with his work as principal of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School. Booker T. Washington sent a letterto Mr. Trenholm following the 1912 meeting commendmg his good work with theassociation. He stated: I have heard from a good many sources about the very great success of the Alabama State Teachers Association at Selma. I congratulate you and all connected withthe organization upon bringing about such a good meeting. I hope youwill keep up the good work, and thatevery year the Association will grow in strength andusefulness. (Washington, 1912)

When the Alabama State Teachers Association was held in Birmingham from April 20-22, 1901, several well-known speakers were included on the program: Mrs. BookerT. Washington of Tuskegee,Prof. W. H. Councill, president of Alabama A & M Institute, and Prof. George Washington Carver of Tuskegee Institute (Program ofAlabama, 1901).addition In to his leadership role with the state association, G. W. Trenholm was a popular commencement speaker at other African American schools throughout the state. As a communityleader, he was activein religious and political activitiesand served as editor-in-chief of a local newspaper,the American Staq for 15 years, from 1901 to 1916. While a memberofthe First Baptist Church in Tuscumbia (across the street from the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School ),Mr. Trenholm was Sunday school superintendent and president of theBYPU (Baptist Young People’s Union). Hewas secretary of theMuscle Shoals Sunday SchoolConvention andbecame the first president of the New Era Sunday School Convention in 1899,a statewide organization (Memorial Tribute, 1950;1957; Sheeler, 1945; Thompson, 1925). was He a frequent speaker at local and state religious meetings. At the Muscle ShoalsSuperintendent andTeachers’ Institute held in February 1901, he delivered a presentation entitled “System at Home for Christians” (Program ofMuscleShoals, 1901). He was alsoa mem-

George Washington Trenholrn

19

ber of the board of trustees of Selma University and North Alabama Baptist Academy, later named Courtland High School(Sheeler, 1945). As editor-in-chief of the American Star,Mr. Trenholm called on African American citizens to be active participants in the political process in Tuscumbia. For example, he urgedcitizens to reelect city council members in 1901. He stated: The city election will be concluded on thefirst Monday in April. The present council should be re-elected. Theyhave done much forTuscumbia during thepast two years. The city school tuition has been reduced from$2.25 to $1.00 per year, which means a great deal to ourpeople. The school building has been beautifidly painted and a new coal house and outhouseshave been erected. The city to some extenthas been lighted, the streets have been improved, the big spring has been cleansed, walled and protected, and infact the condition of the city hasbeen improved seventy-fiveper cent. Colored voters, let us re-elect these men who have done so much for the improvement of our city. (City Paragraphs, 1901a)

Two weeks earlier,he chided the African Americancommunity about what appeared to be a political rally that w a s not well attended. He stated: “The mass meeting was poorly attended last Thursday. The colored people of this city need to wake up and beginto dunk for themselves” (City Paragraphs, 1901 b). Before leavingfor Montgomery in January 1916, Professor Trenholm was honored for his contributions to the community at a special program heldat the First Baptist Church (American Star, 1916). Another local newspaper noted his resignation in December 1915: We will all regret to lose Prof. George W. Trenholm, as he has been teaching continuously during thepast twenty years in this city. He also published a splendid newspaper “The American Star.” Prof. Trenholm is perhaps the most popular colored man in Tuscumbia. He has accepted a position forthe state, in school instruction workfor his race, and his many white friends will wishfor himthe greatest success in his new field. (Prof. Trenholm, 1915)

It is not clear who served in the role of principal for the remainderof the school year; however,at the August 11,1916, school board meeting,E. Z. Matthews was elected principal of theTuscumbiaColored Public School for the 1916-1917 school year (Board Minutes, 1916). Mrs. G. W. Trenholm and son Harper Council1 joined Professor Trenholm in Montgomery in the summer of 1916. Theschool was named TrenholmHigh School in 1921, thefirst year it had a four-year high school program.

PRINCIPALS BEFORE AND AFTER G. W. TRENHOLM There is probably more documentationabout thelife and workof George Washington Trenholm than any other principal of the African Americanschool in Tuscumbia because ofhs leadership in African Americaneducation in state

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Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments

and national circles. Therefore, this section will provide only briefsketches of some principals and more extendeddescriptions of others where documentation was available. Newspaper accountsreveal that Pleas Barton of Barton Station was the first principal of the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School and he served in that capacity from 1887to 1889. Pleas Barton was one oftwo men asked to solicit contributions to support the OsborneColored Academy in 1877. It is very likely that the Tuscumbia Colored Public School was formerly the Osborne Colored Academy and Pleas Barton theprincipal. An article describing the progress of the school in 1888 addresses the role of Mr. Barton as school administrator: A number of gentlemenincluding members of the Public School Board visited, last Fri-

day Night, theclosing exercises ofour colored public school, ofwhich Prof. Pleas Barton is Principal and Misses Frazerand Edwards, his assistantteachers. The entertainment consisted ofsinging, recitations, dialogues, etc., the selection and rendition of which did credit both to teachers and pupils. Special mention deserves to be made of Carry Ross, Ellen Brown, Essy Guy, Mary and Betty Walker, and Bettie Waddle, whose solos, duetts, quartettes, etc., were as well rendered as we have heard them at older established schools. Miss Frazer was the accompanist and must be congratulated for her good success in the musical department. In conclusion we must express our satisfaction for the genuine good progress the pupils have made for the first term of our public school. (Weekly Dispatch, 1888)

Following theclosing exercises noted above in1888, the editors (J. W. Williams and C. B. Handy) of the Watchev;an African American newspaperin the neighboring town of Florence, noted the presence of public schools for colored citizens in Tuscumbia and theadjacent town ofSheffield and urged the city fathers to establish a schoolin their city. Why can’t Florence have a city school for herchildren of color?We are a large tax paying

element here, and might have a more liberal provision made for ourchildren of color within the educational age. Sheffield and Tuscumbia, our “sister cities” are ahead of us in liberal provisions made by their city fathers. (The Watcher, 1888)

W. T. Breeding, a graduate of Alabama A & M Institute, was appointed principal of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School in 1889 and remaineduntil June 1896. Newspaper accounts primarily address Mr.Breeding’s role as school administrator. In 1890, the school closing activities were held at the A.M.E. Church on Fourth Street with an annual exhibition and address by Professor W. H . Councill, president of Alabama A & M Institute. Ten cents was charged for admission to the program (Closing, 1890). In 1892, the school closing included concerts that were held atLloyd’s Opera House and an address was delivered by W. E. Steers, M.D., of Decatur Alabama. Admission for attendance was 15 and 25 cents for the concerts (Public School,

lm

George Washington

21

1892). Professor Breeding was praised for his work as an administrator at the opening of schoolfor the 1892-1893 school year. The colored schoolunder Prof. W. T. Breeding also opened with bright prospectsand bids fairto enjoy amost successful year.In this school thereis also a competent corpsof teachers, and the coloredpeople shouldcongratulate themselves upon the educational opportunities offered them in the city. Prof. Breedinghas given entire satisfaction during the time hehas hadcharge ofthe school, and the first complaint has yet to be heard. (Public Schools, 1892)

W. T. Breeding continuedto receive high marks as a schooladministrator in the local press.Newspaper articles published from1892 to 1895 reportsteady progress of the school and increased attendance underProf. Breeding’s management. Schoolclosing exercises wereheld at places outside the schoolbuilding because it was not large enough to accommodate the audiences. For example, in 1893, the closing exercises were held at the courthouse. The school’s enrollment grew and there was evidence of improvementin the academic program.An 1894 report noted that the closing ceremony was one of the most satisfying of the school’s existence. Prof. Breeding reported an unusually good opening at the beginning of the 1895year. school He was consideredthe“right man intheright place and enjoys the respect of all people-white andcolored”(OurColored Schools, 1893;The Public Schools, 1894; North Alabamian, 1895a; North Alabamian, 1895b). In May 1896, Prof. BreeQng was assaulted by Bill Townes, a well-known Negro in the city, during services at the colored Methodist Church. Mr. Townes allegedthat Prof. Breeding had been intimate with his daughter (Bloodin Church, 1896). In June of that year, he resigned as principal and tooka position as principal in Blossburg, Alabama. Mr.Breeding reportedthat his resignation was in the best interest ofthe school for two reasons: (1)he had become unpopularamongthecolored residents because he forced them to pay monthly tuitionfor their children and (2) his politicalopinions had made enemies among his race (Prof. Breeding, 1896). These comments reveal that in addition to playing the role of schooladministrator, he also appeared to function in the role of black principalas politician. In October 1896,Prof. Breeding reportedin a letter to the editor ofthe North Alabamian that 308children were enrolled in his new school at Blossburg and expressed gratitude to his white friends who throughtheir recommendations had helpedhim to secure the position (Gets School, 1896). The following year he accepted position a as principal in Montgomery where he remained until retirement (Breeding, 1951-1952). Prof. G. W. Trenholm was appointed principal of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School for the 1896-1897 school year. H e was hailed asa teacher ofexperience and ability (North Alabamian, 1896). Heremained as principal for almost twenty years and left in January 1916 to accept the position of State Conductor of Teachers’ Institutes in Montgomery.

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Environments

E. Z. Matthews, a graduate in the class of 1910 atAlabamaA & M Institute, was principalof the Tuscumbia Colored Public School from1916 to 1920. In the role of black principal as superintendent, thelast annex was added to the two-story framebuilding that had been moved fromthe Deloney hill to the Eleventh and High Streetlocation in 1905 under theTrenholm administration (Report, 1955).As a school administrator, he invited Prof. G. W. Trenholm to deliver the annual address of the graduates’ or alumni association during school closingexercises in 1918 (Program, 1918). Newspaperaccounts also reveal that Mr. Matthews functioned in the roles described by Rodgers (1975) of black principal as a community leader and politician. Prof. E. Z. Matthews served as War Fund Chairman among the colored people in the Tuscumbia zone. Dr. A. W. Davis gave able assistance in counsel and otherwise. Prof. Matthews reported $60.00 for the drive and some $30 for membership recently. This was good work. Letall ofour colored people share in work ofthis kind. (Closing, 1918)

During this same year, Professor Matthews was responsible for assisting African Americanmen drafted for service in World WarI to learn to read andwrite. A local newspaperreported thata meeting was held in the countyon behalf of 180 white draftees who couldnot read and the summer would be used to teach them to read andwrite. The articles alsonoted that: “There is several hundred (300) colored registrants who cannot read and write and we understand that Prof. E. Z Matthews ofthis city will takethe lead in their behalf” (AlabamianDispatch, 1918a, 1918b). George DennisBrantley, a graduate ofTalladega College, was principal of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School from1920 to 1925. Theschool opened in September with an enrollment300. of Dr. A. W. Davis, an African American physician and communityleader, was master of ceremoniesat the opening of the term. The newspaper article stated that “This is the most progressive school in the county. ...This term promises to surpass allothers in the history of the school attendance” (Colored School, 1920). It was during his second year of service as school administrator that the school became a full-fledged high school with afour-year course ofwork. Students graduated in May 1922, with a high school diploma (Report, 1955). Alocal newspaper article reported on the closing exercisesof the school andhis workas an administrator during Mr. Brantley’s first year as principal. After a very successful yearunder the direction of Prof. G. D. Brantley, Principal, the Colored City High School closed Tuesday night, with anaddress in the school auditorium by Rev.John Aston Hill of Nashville, Tenn. Asplendid program ofmusic and recitations was carried out, and diplomas and certificates presented those who were promoted andgraduated. The colored people are well pleased with the work of Prof. Brantley who is a man of unusual ability. (Tuscumbia Colored, 1921)

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By fall 1922, theschool had outgrownits quarters and alarger building was needed. In September, the school hadan enrollment of 165 high schoolstudents and99 elementary studentsfor a total of 264. The Tuscumbia Colored Public School had grown fromfaculty a of threein 1887, a principal and two assistants, to ten in September 1922 (ColoredSchool, 1922). Robert A. Carter, a graduate of Trenholm and Talladega College, served as principal of Trenholm High School from 1925 to 1927. Theschool was organized on the 6-3-3 plan (6 elementary grades, 3 junior, and 3 high school grades) under his administration (Report, 1955). He left Tuscumbia in 1927 to accept a position at Alabama A & M Institute, where he remained until hs death. Mr. Carter was dean of the college at Alabama A & M for many years. Comer E. Leslie, a graduate ofTalladega College and Worlda WarI veteran, served as principal ofTrenholm HighSchool from1927 to 1939. As noted in a newspaper article in the fall of 1922, while E. D. Brantley was principal, the school enrollment had outgrownits quarters (Colored School, 1922). However, it was not until 1939, thelast yearofthe administration ofMr. Leslie, that the new structure was started. Prof. Leslie died on July 1, 1939, before the new building was completed. The brick veneer building consisting of 12 classrooms andan auditorium was constructed in 1939. It was still the main building for Trenholm High School some30 years later when the school was closed in 1969 (Report, 1955).It appeared that in the roles of black principalas superintendent and school administrator, Mr. Leslie was persistent in attempting to obtain an adequate physical plant and otherresources needed by the school. The 1955 accreditation report notes: A progressive and efficient man, it was under his leadership and persistent efforts that

the city of Tuscumbia realized the great need for a safe and comfortable building for Negroes. ...Professor Leslie wasnever able to enjoy the fruits ofhis labor-being able to teach in the modern steam heated building that stands as a monument to his memory. (Report, 1955, p. 7)

There were a number of board of education actions reported in the official minutes that took place during C. E. Leslie’s administration. In 1928, the “Board adopted motion approving action of coloredcitizens ofTuscumbia for raising $900 to be used for improving colored schoolbuilding” (Board Minutes, 1928).This is very likelythe moneyraised through theefforts of theauxiliary board duringfifth Sunday rallies held atlocal churches that was used to construct the schoollibrary, the last major renovation madeto the two-story frame structure built in 1905 while G.W. Trenholm was principal. In 1937, board action included: “Adoption passed favoring the erection at the earliest date possible a building for our colored school” (Board Minutes, 1937).And in 1938, theboard: “Authorized application to be made to a federal Lending Agency for loan and grant of $75,000for building annex to Deshler [white school building] and erection of a new building for our colored school” (Board Minutes,1938). Ajanitor was hired at the Negro school for a salary of

24

Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments

$40 per month in 1930 (BoardMinutes, 1930) and three janitors were approved for hiring in 1939, namely, Judge Johnson, Minnie Johnson, and Mingo Whlte (Board Minutes,1939). It is very likely that janitorial services were performedby classroom teachers and principals prior to the boardaction in 1930. A recent report indicated that Mrs. Pearl Steward, ateacher at the school from 1916 to 1945, was named acting principal ofTrenholm HighSchool following Prof. Leslie’s death, until Mr. Luther Isonarrived to take on theposition for the 1939-1940 schoolyear. Little is known about Professor Ison and his administration from 1939 to 1942. Mrs. Stewardalso served as acting principal after Mr. Isonleft, until the arrival of J. H . Gilchrist in September 1942 (Freeman, 1996). Joseph Homer Gilchrist was principal of Trenholm High School for five years, from 1942 to 1947. Hereceived his bachelor’sdegree fromClark College inAtlanta, a master’s from Northwesternin Chcago, and pursuedspecial studies at Yale and Fisk University. Beforearriving in Tuscumbia, he heldseveral positions at Alabama State College under the leadership of G. W. Trenholmand his son, H . Council1Trenholm-junior highmathematics instructor, junior high principal, and registrar. A 1955 accreditation report noted some of hs accomplishments in his role as school administrator: Under his administration, indoor basketball was introduced intothe athletic program. With thehelp of his wife, Mrs. Mattie Gilchrist, the band activity program begin. The first band instruments were purchased with donations from both white and colored friends. It was under the administration of Professor J. H. Gilchrist that Trenholm High School was first accepted by the SouthernAssociation of Secondary Schools and Colleges for accreditation with a class “B” rating [a special rating set aside for Negro schools]. (Report, 1955)

He is also credited with instituting library time and science laboratory as a regular part of the curriculum and helping to establish the annualspring music festival as well as the athletic association for area African American schools. School board minutes indicate that, in 1944, Mr. Gilchrist requested additional teachers for the school, addtional equipment for improving general schoolwork, and an increase in all teachers’ salariesto a minimumof $100 per month (Board Minutes, 1944). There were 12 faculty members at the school when he arrived in 1942 and14 when he left in 1947. In 1947, Mr. Gilchrist returned to Alabama State as a college mathematics instructor and remained there until hs retirement. Patrick Henry Wesley served as the tenth principal of Trenholm High School from1947 to 1957. It was during his tenure that thePlessy v. Feyerguson Supreme Court decision was overturned by Brown v. Bowd o f Education of Topeka ICunsus in 1954, declaring that “separate but equal” was “inherently unequal.” However, during thls period there does not appear to have been any movement toward desegregating schools in Tuscumbia either by the school

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board or African Americancitizens. Mr. Wesley earned his bachelor’sand master’s degrees from Alabama State College and pursued additional study at Iowa State University and Xavier University (Report, 1955; Wesley, 1982). Before accepting the position as principal in1947, he had been a teacher-coach at TrenholmHigh School under theleadership of Professor Luther Ison during the 1940-1941 schoolyear. Also, prior to his principalship at Trenholm, he heldpositions of principal-teacher at Hillside Junior High School in TalledegaCounty, teacher-assistant principal in Talladega, and teacher-coachassistant principal at Morgan County Training Schoolin Hartselle, Alabama (Wesley, 1982). As a school administrator, Mr. Wesley gave a great deal of attentionto the improvement of thephysical plant, curriculum, and equipment and other instructional resources. Many of his requests were noted in board minuteswhile he was principal. In 1948 “Mr. Ware [a board member] reported that the Building Committeewas trying to arrange to build the cafeteria and use the materials from the Courtland Au- Base buildings, and thus effect quite a savings” (Board Minutes,1948). In 1949, the superintendent recommended the installation of new window shades atCave Street [white elementary school] and Trenholm.A note was signed to borrow $15,000 to complete therepairs (Board Minutes, 1949a; Board Minutes 1949b). Between March and December 1950, six board meetingslisted discussions concerning the needs/requests to expand the physical plant at Trenholm High School (Board Minutes, 1950a; BoardMinutes, 1950b; BoardMinutes, 1950c; BoardMinutes, 1950d; Board Minutes, 1950e; Board Minutes, 19509. The principal met with the school board along with the auxiliary board memberson various occasions. The board requestedconsultation with State Board of Education representatives Drs. Blair and Hatch, whoapproved thepresent site for expansion of the physical plant. Theboard also agreed that “the4 acre tract of landnorth of the cemetery [four blocks eastof the school building] would be retained for recreational and educational purposes for Negroes” (Board Minutes,1950d). In 1951,board minutesnoted that $100,000was forthcoming from federal a application to expand classroom space at Trenholm (Board Minutes, 1951a) and work was authorized to repair the roof (Board Minutes, 195 lb). The board agreedto add two rooms to the Trenholmbuilding and recondition the small brick building, for a total of $27,000, thatwould be used for the home economics programas well as a science laboratory and classroom (Board Minutes, 1952a). The construction of thesmall brickbuilding was financed earlier by the auxiliary board. One classroom in this building was used to house the Community Kindergarten program (Peters, 1981). On October 1, 1952, the board approved the construction of anallpurpose gymnasium-audltoriumat Trenholm HighSchool and the division of the present assembly room with a partition to convert it into a library and home economics department (Board Minutes, 1952b). The gymnatorium was constructed and dedicated eight years later on May 1,1960, just nine years

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Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments

before the school building was closed. In 1955, Trenholm received a favorable report on the evaluation completed by the SouthernAssociation of Colleges and Secondary Schools, thereby securing its name on the list of accredited schools (Board Minutes, 1955a). Two new vocational units were added in 1955,Vocational Home Economics and AutoMechanics Shop. The salariesof the teachers for these two new programs were paid from state revenues, while the equipment was purchased with local money (Board Minutes, 1955b). In a progress report to the board, P.H. Wesley provided the information that follows on the growth of the curriculum and improvements needed in the physical plant and equipment (Board Minutes,1956): 1. Fourteen different clubs are found at Trenholm. 2 . A l l pupils have an opportunity to appear on programs in assembly. 3. Music,band,piano,choral,automechanics,home economics, typing, French, physics, chemistry, geometry are given in addition to the regular coursesgiven in a school o f this kind.

The needs of the school are briefly outlined as follows: 1. Bandroom should be built. 2 . Three classrooms are needed. 3. A new gym is needed. 4. The grounds should be improved and additional land acquired for future growth and expansion. 5. Recreational facilities for the entire community should be locatednear enough to the school to be used in the school program. 6 . Walks and parking areas should be provided. 7 . Home Arts building should be constructed.

Equipment needed: 1. A program clock to regulate both elementary and high school 2. Outside drinking fountains 3. Intercommunication system 4. A drinking fountain in the lunchroom

5. Additional audio-visual aids

Mr. Wesley requested atleast one additional teacher for the 1956-1957 school year. Becauseof the growing enrollment, the school was expected to have 5 50 students by 1965. From 1947 to 1955, Mr. Wesley experienced a spirit of cooperation from the African American community regardingthe programs and building plans for which he advocated before the Tuscumbia City Board of Education. However, that spirit of cooperation and support began to erode amongsome mem-

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bers of the community when they disagreed on the manner in which he dismissed one of the teachers. This was communicated in a reportto the board of education when African Americancitizens were denied permission to meet at the schoolbuilding to discuss this issue. The response of the board reflects the role of the black principal as superintendent, when the superintendent chose to rubber stamp the principal’s decisions. Superintendent stated that he would accept the principal’s actions on all matters pertaining to Trenholm High School. Only way building couldbe used was the committee [AfricanAmerican auxiliary board], as well as the people, would have to write down on paper and bring to him for censorship. (Board Minutes, 1955b)

Mr. Wesley noted that among the most important accomplishments during his administration were: more studentswere attending college from the high school, academic scholarships had increased, and the standard of excellence had improvedin both theacademic and athletic programs. H e felt that the major strengths of the program at Trenholm were the dedicated teachers, parents’cooperationandinterest,and pupils’ interest,cooperation,and participation (Wesley, 1982). Otherimprovements made duringhis tenure as principal include: faculty increasedfrom 15 to 17,a full-time secretary was employed, an automatic heatingsystem was installed, two new elementaryclassrooms with indoor restrooms were added, showersinstalled to accommodate the physical education program and special sports activities, the size of the band was doubled and new uniforms purchased, teacher salaries were raised, and every teacher had a B .S. degree andwas teaching in his or her major or minor field (Report, 1955). P.H . Wesley’s relationships with his classroomteachers revealed evidenceof his role asfamily counselor. For example, FredJohnson, a mathematics teacher, guidance counselor, and principal at Trenholm, commentedon his relationship with Mr. Wesley: I started out atTrenholm as a new teacher and Mr. Wesley wasprincipal. And one thing I liked about him, what hedid when we started as new teachers. I think ofMr. Wesley as kind of like a father. I spent a lot of time with him after school and onweekends. He would tell me and some of the others ...what was expected of young menin the community. ...I took a liking to him for thingslike that because I left home, my daddy always tells me things. When I got up here, he [Mr: Wesley] was telling me the same things. ...I try to tell my son thesame thing, now. (Johnson, 1998)

Mr. Wesley resigned at the end of the school 1957 year and accepted position a as principal of Lott HighSchool in Citronelle, Alabama, where he remained for 20 years until his retirement in 1977 (Wesley, 1982). George S. Bell was appointed principal of Trenholm High School on July 16,1957, and remainedin the position through June 1967. He earned both his bachelor’sand master’s degrees from Alabama State College and had many

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Creating Caring and Nurturing Environments

years ofadministrative experience before arriving in Tuscurnbia. Mr. Bell held the position of principal at Ashford High School, Calhoun County Training School, Bibb County TrainingSchool, and Conecuh CountySchool. As during prior administrations at Trenholm,repairs, purchases, and expansion were the issues discussedat board meetings. In summer 1957, theboard authorized alterations and new equipmentfor the home economics department, termite control, repair of roof, walls, gutters, and purchase ofa deep freezer for the lunchroom (Board Minutes, 1957a). The board minutes noted again that badly crowded conditions were getting out ofhand (Board Minutes, 1957b). In early 1958, urgentneeds werenoted as: adequate library facilities, spacefor audiovisual equipment, studentsactivities, expanded office facilities, storage, two or more additional classrooms, enlarged laboratoryspace, and a combination auditorium-gymnasium (Board Minutes, 1958a). In 1958,four years afterthe Brown decision declaring “separate facilities as inherently unequal,” the Tuscumbia City Board of Education continued to make plans to maintain a segregated schoolsystem. Board minutesreveal the following: Adopted resolution to acquire additional land. Board petitioned City Commissionto acquire additional land for Trenholm to provide facilities for a permanent 12 grade tenter to serve all of the Negro children at the present locationof the Trenholm School. (Board Minutes, 1958b)

Meanwhile, the gymnatorium was constructed and dedicated on May 1, 1960. In 1964, African Americancitizens requested a new elementary school building separate from the high school andspecifically noted that the board not consider the use of the present Cave Street School [whte elementary school building] as an elementary school for the Negro community (Board Minutes, 1964). In 1966,eleven yearsafter the Brown decision and two years following the Civil Rights Act of 1964, new elementary school buildings were opened in Tuscumbia’s Southside in the African Americancommunity and Northsidein the white community (Board Minutes, 1966a). In the role of black principalas supervisor, Mr. Bell continued to serve as the unitadministrator ofthe elementary department, even though it was in a separate school building. On April 2 3 , 1965, the Tuscumbia City Board of Education adopted a freedom of choice desegregation plan, 11 days after the passage of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (Board Minutes, 1965a; Glazer, 1973; Mabry, 1996). Thisact made millions of dollars availableto local school districts that would be deniedto districts that practiced segregation, a provision of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Glazer, 1973). A few African American students chose to attend previously all-white schools that first year. Other needed improvementsto the physical plant took place under the administration of G.S. Bell. The grading plan for the Trenholm athletic field was authorized (Board Minutes, 1965b), along with repair of school toilets, and

George

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the installation ofvinyl flooring in the main building (Board Minutes,1 9 6 5 ~ ) . However, board of education minutes reveal that Principal Bell began to lose the favor and support of SuperintendentVardaman in fall 1966. This lack of support appeared to be related to three majorissues: maintenance ofthe physical plant, choice ofvendors for specific school services, and statements Mr. Bell allegedly made regarding placement of teachers (Board Minutes, 1966b; Board Minutes, 1967a). OnApril 17, 1967, G. S. Bell resigned as principal (Board Minutes, 1967b) and accepteda position as Assistant Professor in the Department of History and Political Science at Alabama A & M College, where he remained untilhis retirement in 1976 (Bell, 1982). Mr. Bellnoted thatsome of the most important accomplishments at Trenholm while he was principal were: improvement of the academic program, improvement ofthe physical plant, and improvedinstructional staff. He felt that the educational program was limited because of enrollment and the small staff (Bell, 1982).When Mr. Bell arrivedat Trenholmin 1957, hehad a staffof18 faculty with grades 1-12. By 1967, a separate elementary school for African American children had been built three blocks away and the staff for grades 7-12 was a total of 10, including Mr. Bellas a teaching principal. In addition, more AfricanAmerican students were choosing to attendDeshler High School, the formerlyall-white school across town. A few days after Mr. Bell’sresignation, the Trenholmfaculty met with the board and were assured that a Negro would be appointed as the new principal (Board Minutes, 1 9 6 7 ~ )Fred . Johnson, who began his teaching career at Trenholm in 1950 as a mathematics teacher and became the guidance counselor in 1963, was named the twelfth and last principal of Trenholm High School. He served from 1967 until the building was closed in 1969. Fred Johnsonwas principal at Trenholm High School at the time when the school district was responding to desegregation court orders and plans were under way to phase out theschool. Mr. Johnson completed his bachelor’sdegree at Alabama State College and his master’s at Alabama A & M. He had taught at Trenholm High School for 17 years before serving as principal from 1967 to 1969. In fall 1968, tenth, eleventh and twelfth graders from Trenholm began attending Deshler High School as part of the phaseout plan authorized by the school board (Board Minutes, 1968). Seventh, eighth, and ninth graders attended Trenholm during the 1968-1969 school year and the building was closed at the end of that term. During this two-year period, Mr. Johnson noted that one of the most important accomplishments was the desegregation of the faculty (two white teachers had been added). Hefelt that the major strengths of the program were the curriculuma strong and faculty. As school administrator, he experienceddifficulty in initiating the school policies recommended by the accrediting agency becauseof limited h n d s for purchasing adequate resources-a part of thehistory of the school from its very beginning.

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Nurturing Creating and Caring

Environments

In fall 1969, Fred Johnson went to Deshler High School as the assistant principal and held that position until 1973, when he was appointed principal. H e retired as principal of Deshler High School in1979. The story of his work in the Tuscumbia City Schools continues in Chapter 4 as teacher and in the remaining chapters as principal and community leader.

THE PRINCIPAL AS NURTURER

As the third principal of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School/Trenholm High School, G. W. Trenholm set the standardfor the administrator of theAfrican American school in Tuscumbia. He, like many of theprincipals that followed him and likely those before him, played a variety of roles as black principal as described by Rodgers (1975), including: superintendent, school administrator, supervisor, family counselor, financial advisor, community leader, employer, and politician. Most ofthese roles were well documented for M r . Trenholm but less so for other principals. As school administrator and instructionalleader, the principal was responsible for setting the tonefor the climate of theschool. It appears from the available documents thatall principals were classroom teachers as well, so they were actively involvedin creating thecaring and nurturingclassroom environments that are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. The influence of G. W. Trenholm appeared to be evident at TrenholmHigh School from the time he became principal in 1896 until the doorsofthe building were closed in May 1969. In some ways, this influence was direct while others were more indirect. Someexamples follow: Other higher education administrators who worked with himwere responsible for training teachers in thestate. Prof. William Hooper Councill, president at Alabama A & M, was Mr. Trenholm’s mentor. H e spoke in Tuscumbia on many occasions prior to G. W. Trenholm’s becoming principal as well as during his tenure. Trenholm served on thesummer faculty at Alabama A & M while Councill was president. Another president at AlabamaA & M , J. F. Drake, was director ofthe Junior High at Alabama State during the administration of G. W. Trenholm (Sheeler, 1945). Prior to becoming principal at Trenholm High School, J. H. Gilchrist was a faculty member at Alabama State while G. W. Trenholm was president. Mr. Gilchrist returned to the faculty at Alabama State following his principalship at Trenholm High School. While serving as principal at Trenholm High School, E. Z. Matthews served on G. W. Trenholm’s summer faculty at Alabama State College. Several of the men whoserved as principals at Trenholm High school earned degrees from Alabama State College while either G. W. Trenholm or his son, Harper Councill Trenholm was president. The list includes P.H. Wesley, G. S. Bell, and Fred Johnson, the last three principals at theschool. These principals in turnhired teachers who had attended Alabama State College. For example, the 1948 school yearbook shows that theprincipal and 60 percent of the faculty attended Alabama State College.

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As conductor of teacher training institutes while principal in Tuscumbia and later when hired by the State Department of Education on afull-time basis,G. W. Tren-

holm had many opportunities to influence the educational philosophies of both principals and teachers throughoutthe state, includingthose employed in Tuscumbia.

As a leader in the state and national teachers’ associations African for American principals and teachers, Mr. Trenholm had many opportunities to communicate what

was needed to improve the quality of education for African American students.

For most ofthe principals at Trenholm, schooling this in community was a family affair. At least 7 of the12 principals had wives who were members ofthe faculty and several had children who were enrolled atthe school as well. Some of theprincipals lived within walking distance of thebuilding, were present at every event heldat theschool, and were responsible for maintaining and securing thephysical plant. Manyprincipals and teachers also taught the same children atchurch on Sunday as they &d Monday through Friday at theschool. They were neighbors andfriends ofthe schoolchildren and theirfamilies. They shopped at the same grocery stores, attended the same social events, and talked over the fence as they tendedflower and vegetable gardens or hung out the family wash to dry. The principals were not strangers who went into the community to work each day onlyto disappear when the bell rang. This was their communityas well. This proximity appeared to stimulate the supportive relationship that existed between the school principal, faculty, students, and parents for more than 90 years in theAfrican Americancommunity in Tuscumbia. As teacher-leaders, principals were at the center of creating acaring and nurturing educational environment forAfrican American children.

REFERENCES Alabamian-Dispatch. (1918a, July 25). Alabamian-Dispatch.(1918b, August 1). The American Star. ( 1 9 1 6 , January 20). p. 1.

Bell, G. S. (1982). Principal questionnaire: Black education in a small southern town Tuscumbia, A L : Curtis and Vivian Morris. Blood in a church. ( 1 8 9 6 , May 22). North Alabamian. Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. ( 1 9 1 6 , August 11). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. ( 1 9 2 8 , May 24). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. ( 1 9 3 0 , August 30). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. ( 1 9 3 7 , May 20). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. ( 1 9 3 8 , June 13). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. ( 1 9 3 9 , July 11). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1944, October 14). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. ( 1 9 4 8 , May 31). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1949a, June 30). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1949b, September 12). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1950a, March 27).

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Environments

Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1950b, April 17). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1950c, May 31). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1950d, June 26). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1950e, June30). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1950f, December5). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1951a, June 29). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1951b, August 20). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1952a, October 10). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1952b, October 1). Board minutes: Tuscurnbiacity board of education. (1955a, November). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1955b, January 31). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1956, February 21). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1957a, June21). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1957b,December 16). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1958a, January 20). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1958b,September 8). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1964,May 11). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1965a,April 23). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1965b, April 6). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1965c, June10). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1966a, January 17). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1966b, October 18). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1967a, February 23). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1967b,April 17). W. T. Breeding dies in Montgomery. (1951-1952). The normal index.Normal: Alabama A & M College. Cash, K. (1996). Plessy v. Ferguson. In F. C. Jones-Wilson, C. A.Asbury, M. Okazawa-Rey, D. K. Anderson, S. M. Jacobs, & M. Fultz (Eds.), Encyclopedia of African-American education (pp. 357-358). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. City paragraphs. (1901a, March 20). The American Star, p. 1. City paragraphs. (1901b, March 6). The American Star,p. 1. Closing ofthe Colored School. (1890, June20). North Alabamian. ClosingtheTuscumbiared crosswar fund drive. (1918, June 13). Alabamian-

Dispatch.

Colored city high school. (1909, December 3). Alabamian-Dispatch,p. 1. Colored school. (1922, September 22). Alabamian-Dispatch. Colored school opens. (1920, September, 17). Alabamian-Dispatch. Franklin, V. P,, & Anderson, J. D. (1978). New perspectives on black educational hzstory. Boston: G. K. Hall and Company. Freeman, J. B. (1996). Alpha and omega: Reflections of our past. Trenholm high school reunion, 1996, p. 45. Fultz, M. (1996).National association of teachersin colored schools.In F. C.JonesWilson, C. A. Asbury, M. Okazawa-Rey, D. K. Anderson, S. M. Jacobs, & M.Fultz(Eds.), Encyclopedia of African-American education (pp. 317-319). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Gets a large school. (1896, October 16).North Alabamian.

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Glazer, N. (1973). Is busing necessary? In N. Mills (Ed.), Thegreat busing controversy, (pp. 190-217). New York: Teachers College Press. Johnson, F. (1998, April 30). Interview by phone. Jones, T. J. (1969). Negro education: A study ofthe private and higherschools for colored people in the United States. New York: Arno Press and the New York Times. Mabry, C. R. (1996). Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. In F. C . Jones-Wilson, C. A. Asbury, M. Okazawa-Rey, D. K. Anderson, S. M. Ja(pp. cobs, 8.c M. Fultz (Eds.),Encyclopedia of African-American education 156-157). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Memorialtribute to its fourthpresident:GeorgeWashingtonTrenholm. (1950, AL. August 3). The Alabama StateCollegeforNegroes,Montgomery, Washington, DC: Howard University, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. Memorial tribute to the fourth of the five presidents of Alabama State College: George Washington Trenholm. (1957, December 13). Alabama State College, Montgomery, AL. Washington, DC: Howard University, MoorlandSpingarn Research Center. North Alabamian. (1895a, May 24). North Alabamian. (1895b, September 13). North Alabamian. (1896, August 14). Our colored schools. (1893). North Alabamian. Peters, G. V. (1981, May). Correspondence to Curtis & Vivian Morris from George V. Peters. Prof. Breeding resigns. (1896, June 12).North Alabamian. Prof. Trenholm resigns. (1915, december 30). The Alabamain-Dispatch. Program of Alabama State Teachers’ Association.(1901, March 20). The American Star, p. 1. Program of Muscle Shoals institute. (1901,February 20). The American Star,p. 1. Program of the commencement exercises of the Tuscumbia city school. (1918, May 9 ) . Alabamian-Dispatch. Public school concert. (1892, May 16). North Alabamian. The public schools. (1892, September 16). North Alabamian. The public schools. (1894 ,May 25). North Alabamian. Report of visiting committee on evaluative criteria of Trenholm high school. (1955). Tuscumbia, AL: Author. Rodgers, F. A. (1975). The black high school and its community. Lexington, M A : Lexington Books, D. C. Heath. Sheeler, J. R. (1945). George Washington Trenholm.The Negro History Bulletin, pp. 17-20. Thompson, T. T. (1925,October 17). Letter written by T. T. Thompson, Principal of Colored School, Demopolis Public Schools, Demopolis, AL, to Dr. J.W. Abercrombie,StateSuperintendentofEducation,Montgomery,AL. Washington,DC:HowardUniversity,Moorland-SpingarnResearch Center. Trenholm, G. W. (Undated).Concentration on public hi& schools in thesouth rather than multiplyingprivate secondary schools. Presentation made atthe National

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Association of Teachers in Colored Schools. Washington, DC: Howard University, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. Trenholm, G. W. (1912, April 4). Status of Negro education in Alabama.Annual address of G.W. Trenholm, President of the Alabama State Teachers’ Association, delivered at Selma, AL. Washington,DC:Howard University, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. Tuscumbia colored school closes. (1921, May 27). Alabamian-Dispatch. The Tuscumbia Dispatch. (1901, May 25). Washington, B. T. (1912, April). Letter addressed to G. W. Trenholm, Principal of Tuscumbia Colored Pubic School, from Booker T. Washington, President of Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee Institute, AL. Washington, DC: Howard University, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. The Watcher. (1888, August 24). The weekly dispatch. (1888, June 19). Wesley, P.H. (1982). Principal questionnaire: Black education in a small southern town. Tuscumbia, AL: Curtis and Vivian Morris.

CHAPTER 3

It All Beg-an with Miss Doss People wanted the kids to start early learning how to do things, so they were willing to pay whatever she [Miss Doss] charged to get the kids to learn and kids were sent at age 2. Even while they were still on bottles, they went to kindergarten. And they learned the ABCs of how to get along with each other. It was part of the whole school system, although it was private. 1945 graduate of the Community Kindergarten and 1958 graduate of Trenholm High School

As the preschoolers practiced for the spring play, they listened very closely so

that they would rememberthe whistle codes correctly. One “tweet” (or whistle blow) was the signal to turn right, two tweets turn left, three tweets meant it was time to turn all the way around, and more than three meant stop right now! Miss Doss used the whistle for specific exercisesinstead of hervoice and all the children wanted to be in step.The children sometimes wondered how Miss Doss could blow that whistle so loudly. But, thatwas MissDoss! Forty to 50 years later, at family gatherings and school and class reunions, graduatesof the Community Kindergarten are heard laughing and chanting in unison the letters ofthe alphabet, accordingto Miss Doss. A is for Apple so rosy and red.

B is for Bunny and also Bed. C is for Cat andalso Cow.

D is for Doggie that says, “Bow, wow, wow.” E is for Elephant, we see at the zoo.

F is for flowers pink, white, and blue.

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G is for Goose with feathers of Gray.

Q is for Quilt, the dollie’son the bed.

H is for Horse that gallopsaway.

R is for Robin with breast of dull Red.

I is for Ice cream so cold and sweet.

S is for Strings that are supposed to be tied.

J is for Jelly and Jam that we eat.

Tis for Train, “May we please take a ride?”

K is for Kite that sails in the sky.

U is for Umbrella, “Oh dear, mine’storn.”

L is for Lamb that kicks his heels high.

V is for Vegetable, “Myfavorite is corn.”

M is for mittens, you wear in the storm.W is for Wagon so sturdy and strong.

N is for Nitie, so cuddly and warm.

X is for Xylophone, “Letus play a song.”

0 is for Orangeso round and bright.

Y is for Yellow the color ofmy boat.

P is for Piggy that curls his tail tight.

Z is for Zipper to fasten my coat.

And ofcourse parents and grandparents,as well as younger children at home, learned to recite the letters of the alphabet along with the preschoolers. Graduates also recall many of thesongs they sang, the Tom Thumb weddings, the dance around theMaypole, and how nervous they were when itwas time to speak during the spring plays and schoolclosing exercises held every year. It seems that the entire African Americancommunity was there. Ifyouwere late, you had to stand. One graduate stated that “at graduation time you havecould probably dropped a bomband killed allthe black people in Tuscumbia because they were all at school.” For hundredsof African American children in Tuscumbia, Miss Doss was their first “real” teacher, even though their first teachers wereactually their parentsand probably their secondteachers were found at Sunday school in one of the local churches. Miss Doss is reallyMrs. Julia G. Doss, who came to Tuscumbia in 1937 with her husband,Pastor J. A. Doss, and their three children, Alberta, George, and Clifford. Three additional children were born after their arrival in Tuscumbia-Rubye, Charles, and Alyce. The family moved to Tuscumbia from Birmingham when Mr. Doss was appointed minister at Lesley Temple C.M.E. (Colored Metholst Episcopal) Church at the corner of Tenth and High Streets, justone block north of Trenholm HighSchool. Miss Doss was educated at Tuskegee Institute, whereshe majored in education and music. Before and after starting the kindergarten, she taught piano lessons in her home (Gore, 1998). Miss Doss was urged by several African American citizens to establish a preschool program in Tuscumbia following the outstanding presentation of a Tom Thumb weddmg at church. her Mr. and Mrs.W. W. Bradley,Mrs. Steppie Qualls, and Mr. Prince Eggleston were among those community members who encouraged her in this new adventure. A neighbor, Mrs. Nora Waddle Corliss, had also communicated to Miss Doss that African Americanfirst graders were having a difficult time because many of them wentto first grade without knowing their ABCs, colors, and basic number concepts. It appears that

It All Began with Miss Doss

37

Mrs. Corliss’s encouragement was a majorfactor in helping Miss Doss to make the decision to established the kindergarten program (Gore, 1998). In 1940,Miss Doss started the kindergarten program in her homeon High Street (in the church parsonage) with 60 students and continued in her home on SouthWashington Streetbefore moving into abuilding on the campus of TrenholmHighSchool.TheCommunityKindergartenprogram was established for African American chddren in Tuscumbia and in the Muscle Shoals area decades before Head Start, nurseryschools, day carecenters, and public school kindergartens were instituted. It appears that there may have been a kindergarten for African American children in Tuscumbia some time before 1940. According to Alberta Doss Gore, Miss Doss’s oldest daughter, Mrs. Cherry P.Carnes operated a kindergarten next to her home prior to 1940. Mr. and Mrs.Doss purchased theCarnes’s home on SouthWashington Street in the early 1940s and subsequently tore down adilapidated buildmg adjacent to the house in which the kindergarten program was held. This appears to be the identical location of the present Community Kindergarten (Gore, 1998).School boardrecords show that Mrs. Carnes’s name appeared on the list of faculty members at TrenholmHigh School for the first time in 1907 and for the last time in 1930 (Faculty Lists, 1981). Like many early childhood educators before her and since, Miss Doss believed that thepreschool years were critical and the experiences provided during these yearslay thefoundation for later learning. She believed that education was the key that opened doorsto success (The Community, 1981). The history of early childhood educationin this country has its origins in Germany and Great Britain and includes three terms thatare sometimes usedinterchangeably: preschool, nursery school, and kindergarten. Morrison (1998) defines preschools as programs for children from two to five years of age, before kindergarten, and nurseryschools as programs for three- to four-year-old children. The children enrolled in Miss Doss’s kindergarten during the early decades actually included the age span from two years through their fifth year, just before first grade. Many younger children attended the lundergarten with their older brothers and sisters. So, some children may have attended Miss Doss’s lundergarten as many as three to four years before enrolling in first grade. A brief review of the historical roots of early childhood education in the United States reveals that Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel, born in Germany (1782-1852), is called the “father ofthe kindergarten” because he devotedhis life to developing both a program for the young anda system of training for kindergarten teachers. He established the first lundergarten in Blankenburgh, Germany, in 1837 (Morrison, 1998).After studying Frobelian principles in Germany, MargaretSchurz established the first lundergarten(Germanspeaking) in the United States in 1855 in Watertown, Wisconsin. Elizabeth Peabody openeda lundergarten in Boston in 1860,and the first public lundergarten was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1873 by Susan Blow. In 1914,

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Margaret andRachel McMillanstarted anopen-air nursery schoolthat led to the passage of theFisher Actin 1918, which provided national support for the establishment ofthe first public nursery schools in Great Britain. In the United States, Patty Smith Hill started a laboratory school at Columbia Teachers College in New York, in 1921. In 1922, Abigail Eliot started the Ruggles Street Nursery School in Boston and the Merrill-Palmer Institute Nursery was opened in Detroit with Edna Whiteserving as the director (Morrison, 1998). These werethe historical foundations on which Miss Doss couldbuild a kindergarten programfor African Americanpreschoolers in Tuscumbia in 1940. Historical documents also reveal the operation of two well-knownkindergarten programs in Tuscumbia and nearby towns prior to 1940. Eleanor Holder writes that “Miss Anna Pybas operated a day and boarding schoolfor girls at her homeon East Sixth Street in the periodjust before and following the War Between the States” (Holder, 1981,p. 3). Holder noted that in 1882, Miss Pybas’skindergarten programwas based on concepts developedby Friedrich W. Froebel, father of thekindergarten: “Miss Pybas’ Kindergarten class will be taught accordingto Froebel’s system by Miss Davis, a graduate of one of our NormalSchools. Children fromfive to eight years of age receivedin the Kindergarten” (Holder, 1981, p. 9).Miss Maud Lindsay was another wellknown kindergarten teacher in the Muscle Shoals area who started her first kindergarten programin her homein Tuscumbia. Shealso operated a kindergarten in the nearby townof Sheffield and beganteaching in 1898 at the first free kindergarten in Alabama located in East Florence, where she taught for 42 years. Miss Lindsay was also a writer, poet, storyteller, and playmate of Helen Keller (Winn, 1995). Thereappears to be no evidence that African American children were enrolled at either Miss Pybas’skmdergarten or at the kindergartens operated by Miss Lindsay. Miss Doss was an active member of Lesley Temple C.M.E. Churchwhere she used her musical talents to play the piano for the gospel choir and the young adult choir. Her strongreligious background was evident in the daily program and yearly school closing activities that she planned for the young children enrolled in the kindergarten. In addition to the patriotic songs and nursery rhymes that thechildren learned, they also learned many Negro spirituals, gospel songs, and hymns. A typical dayat the Community Kindergarten began at 8:00A.M., ended at 1:15P.M. and went somethinglike this: 8:OO-9:OO

Greetings-“Goodmorning, boys and girls.” “Good morning, Miss DOSS.” Pledge ofAllegiance-“Let us stand, place our hands over our hearts, and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.” Sing apatriotic song Recite Bible verse and pray Review alphabet chart orally Write letters of the alphabet

It ALL Began with Miss Doss

9:OO

9:15 9:25 11:30 12:oo

1:15

39

Sing songs while playing instruments Recess play) (outside Rest (with heads ondesks or tables) Arithmetic Story time Lunch Review colors and shapes Review/learn nursery rhymes Use Dick and Jane readers Dismissal

The day wascomplete wheneach desk was cleared, sweaters or coats put on, lunch buckets in-hand, and all chairs pushed under the desk or tables. When the children were ready, MissDoss stood at the door to say, “Good-bye, boys and girls.” Often, she served in the dual role of teacher and traffic mom as she escorted 35 children safely across Highway 20 five days a week to get them started on their walk home. At that time in Tuscumbia, it was safe for preschoolers to walk a few blocksfrom kindergartento their homes without being accompanied by an adult. A local businessman who noticed her escortingthe children across the busy highway, for safety reasons, was so impressed that he contributed $250 to the kmdergarten program (The Community, 1981). One 1944 graduate recalls the walk from his home, about 10 blocks away, with a classmatewho lived nearby,across the busy “Y” (twointersecting highways with a grocery store the in middle ofthe Y or triangle formed by the highways). H e also remembered the potbellied stove in theclassroom that students filled with coal from thecoal house on their arrival and at the end ofdaythe before dismissal. Two othersignificant memories of this student were: going to the outhouse (outdoor toilet)two-by-two, and Miss Doss’s bad rooster that was known to spur people.He said that therooster spurredMiss Doss one day and shegave that rooster a whack. H e appeared to feel sorry for the rooster because, he said, if Miss Doss gave something or someone a whack, it was remembered. Some of the goals and objectives of the Community Kindergarten program were revealed in theschedule of a typical day noted earlier. Miss Doss said: “I do not insist on kindergarten children learning the three R’s.I simply makeit available to them if they are ready to learn” (The Community, 1981, p. 4). Language development was clearly an important part of the curriculum and was experienced through singing, speaking activities, listening, following directions, storytelling, reading readiness activities,and writing. A 1975 graduation program showed that in addition to the class speaking asa group, each of the 2 1 children had an opportunityto speak before the audience, with ad&tional speeches by the children named as class salutatorian and valedictorian. The school closing exercises were usuallyquite extensive. For example, in the

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Creating. Caring and Environments Nurturing.

1975 program,following the graduationportion of the program (Part I), the children presented a song festival (Part 11) that included thesinging of Negro spirituals, gospel songs, and hymns.Songs included in the 1975program were (Community Kindergarten, 1975): Leaning on the Everlasting Arms Troubled about My Soul How Great Thou Art Somebody’s Knocking at Your Door He’s Got theWhole World in His Hands Over My Head Walk with Me Lord Walk in Jerusalem Just Like John Rest Period

Hide Me in Thy Bosom Heabin, Heabin I Claim Jesus Christ First I Am so Glad Jesus Lifted Me Angels Watching over Me Certn’ly Lord Oh Lord Let Me Ride Elijah Rock Climbing High Mountains Steal away to Jesus

In 1960, the announcement of thekindergarten graduation exercises appeared in the local newspaper.This was the first time that theschool closing exercises were presented in the new TrenholmHigh School gymnatorium. The CommunityKindergarten Class of Tuscumbia will present its graduation exercises and school play, Wednesday night, May 18,in theTrenholm High School auditorium. Rev. L. L. Reddick, Presiding Elder of the Tuscumbia District, will deliverthe address. They will also present a play entitled, “The Return of the Children,” illustrating that “The Old Woman Who Lived In A Shoe” lost all her children andfound them-they were going toschool to MotherGoose to prove what they had learned. The children present a program. You willenjoy this program. Be sure to see the 27 graduates march. (Lee, 1960, p. 6)

Miss Doss was using the “hands-on approach” to teaching mathematics concepts to her youngcharges long before this phrase becamepopular in professional and lay literature on educating youngchildren. For example, in helping children to understand howto match numerals and words with the correct quantity, her lundergartners used special sticks to manipulate while repeating the following nursery rhyme: One, two, Buckle my shoe; Three, four, Knock at the door; Five, six, Pick up sticks; Seven, eight, Lay them straight;

It All Began with Miss Doss

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Nine, ten,

A good, fat hen.

As the wordrepresenting a numeral was sounded out,each student matched the number of sticks with the correctquantity, so that, by the end of the nursery rhyme, 10 sticks had been placed on the table by each student. Learning common courtesies or developing social skillswere important in the lundergarten program. Children had many opportunities to learn the slulls of sharing, taking turns, respecting others and their property, and practicing the useof appropriate language in group settings such as, “Thank you,” “You’re welcome,” and “Excuse me, please.” Miss Doss was a firm no-nonsense dsciplinarian who was known and expectedto spank her charges as she deemed necessary. With awhistle around her neck, a 12-inch ruler in her hand, and love in her heart, she maintained order in the classroom, during recess, and on field trips. Each day, children were engagedin a number of activities both inside and outside that were designedto enhance their physical development. In-class activities of writing, coloring, and painting helped to develop their fine motor skills,while outside at “recess” children played on the merry-go-round, swings, slides,and otheravailable equipment. Theyalso enjoyed awide range of ring games such as, “I Lost My Handkerchief,” “Little Sallie Walker,” “Here We Go Around the MulberryBush,” and “Ring Around the Roses.” There was lots of running and wallung, starting and stopping, and bending and squatting. Miss Doss always seemed to be knowledgeable about events or happenings in the community to enrich the lives of the children. A parent recalls that, in 1974, Miss Doss arranged for her class to experience a ride on a restored Southern Railroad passenger train from Tuscumbia to Courtland, several miles away.Parents rode parallel to the train on thehighway to pick up thechildren when they left the train in Courtland. What a wonderful experience to include in a unit on modes of transportation! The periodic Tom Thumb weddings that were presentedby the kindergarten were always a very specialhighlight of spring activities for the community. In theearly days,school closing picnics were held on thelawn of Mr. Joe Johnson’s Barbecue and store,an African American businessone block east of the kindergarten and Trenholm High School building. Later, when Spring Park was desegregated and opento African Americancitizens, the year-endpicnics were held at that site. One otherspecial activityof the Community Kindergarten was a 30-minute televised program that appearedon oneof thelocal stations during the 1974-1975 school year. The show gave the entire Muscle Shoals community a glimpse ofwhat African Americanchildren and their parents had experienced for more than 30 years. The community loved it. The television show, narrated by Marjorie B. Gunn, a parent who graduated 30 years earlier,was a special project of the PTO.

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Miss Doss believed that parent involvement was an important part of the kindergarten program. Parents assisted in the classroom, went on field trips with the children, and helped with otherspecial activities like graduation exercises, plays,and picnics. A strong PTO supported the program and assisted in reachmg the financial goals of theschool. Miss Doss served as a modelfor parent involvement as president of the PTO atTrenholm High School (grades 1-12) for several years while her chddren and grandchildren were enrolled (Grand Marshall, 1996). In 1981, when asked how the increasing proliferation of integrated preschool programs in the area had affected enrollment at the CommunityKindergarten, Miss Doss communicated her love and commitment for working with young children: I have held my own, I don’t have 60 students now, but thenI am also 41 years older. My enrollment is much smaller, but thenI am appreciative to those parents who realize that I have a sincere interest in their children, especially black children in the community and money is not my goal. I will never be materially rich but I am richly rewarded when I see young menand women whom I have taught reaching high stationsin life. Perhaps I helped lay the foundation on which they build. ...I enjoy teaching and itseems to be a never-ending circle. I am now teaching grandchildren of my first students. I hope that when I retire that there will be someone to continue the Community Kindergarten. (Community Kindergarten, 1981, p. 5)

I t was clear from thefees charged for attendance at the Community Kindergarten thatmoney was not Miss Doss’s goal. When she started the kindergarten in 1940 thefee was $1per month per child and had increased to $45 by 198 1. The fees charged per month were more comparable to fees charged per week in many preschool programs. The kindergarten programhas operated in several locations since it began in her homeon High Street in 1940. Thereis no agreement on theexact yearthat thekmdergarten was first located in the small brick building on the Trenholm High School campus, whether it was during theadministration of Principal Luther L. Ison (1939-1942) or Principal Joseph H . Gilchrist (1942-1947). However, it is more likely that thelatter is correct since 1944 graduates of the CommunityKindergarten recall attending classes at Miss Doss’s home on South Washington Street and1945 graduates attended classes held on the high school campus. When the space was needed by the highschool for vocational home economics and science classes, the programwas relocated to a variety of places within the community (e.g.,a house across from the Trenholm High School campus that was later needed by a first grade class because of crowded conditions, the old playground building set aside for African American citizens across from SpringPark, and abuilding on Eighth Streetnear South Washington Street). In the early 1970s, a building was constructed adjacent to Miss Doss’s home on South Washington Street that presently houses the kindergarten program (Gore, 1998).

It All Began with Miss Doss

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Today, the basic kindergarten curriculum remains much the same as it was in the early daysof the program. However, children the have an extended day from 7 A.M. to 3:OO P.M. to accommodate the needs of working parents. Children take naps in the afternoons, and a hot lunch is prepared on site by the staff. A modestfee of $150 per month is charged, along with application an fee of $50. Theenrollment of15 to 25 children is usuallymaintained in the program (Gore, 1998). Miss Doss never really retired. At this writing, at age 95, she is no longer able to work with the children whom she so dearly loves because of failing health. However, as she wished, the Community Kindergartenis continuing to serve children in Tuscumbia, to lay the foundation for learning. Trained teachers operate the lundergarten program in the building adjacent to the Doss’s home, and Alberta Doss Gore, one of Miss Doss’s daughters, is one of those teachers (Gore, 1998). In 1979, Miss Doss was honored for her many decades ofwork with youngchildren when shereceived the Outstanding Educator of the Year Award from the Tri-County Branch of the NAACP (The Community, 1981). In the early decades of the Community Kindergarten, the program was perceived as an integral part of Trenholm High School, especially sinceit was located in a building on the high school campus and the activities of the kindergarten program were integrated withthose at the highschool. For example, as the kindergarten teacher, Miss Doss was listed as a member of the high schoolfaculty inthe 1948yearbook. In thatsame volume, representatives from the lundergarten were included as attendants to the high schoolhomecoming queen, along with elementary and high school representatives. The Dick and June readers in the lundergarten program were the readiness or beginning materials that were part of the reading series used throughout the elementary grades at the high school. The pattern of having assembly programs in which all students had opportunities to speak before audiences, as noted in a reportby Principal P. H . Wesley in 1956 (BoardMinutes, 1956a), was one thatwas established in the kindergarten program. The morningdevotionals that includedsinging spiritual songs, reciting Bible verses,and praying began in the kindergarten program and continuedthroughout grades 1-12. So, for both children and parents, the kindergarten program was the beginning of the caring and nurturing educational environment that was continued at Trenholm High School. A 1943 graduate of the Community Kindergarten program and Trenholm High School (1955), who became a public school teacher, school counselor, and legislative director for an influential senator, communicated this concept of “itall began with Miss Doss.” In kindergarten, I was known to say, “Hurry up and getme dressed because if I get there late, I’ll miss the singing.” I loved that, the singing. And devotion became a part ofmy activities in school. As a teacher, I had devotion formy children, including aBible verse, a prayer and the Pledge ofAllegiance. At ...Junior High School, Iwas what they called the auditorium teacher and chaplain. I was responsible for all the activities in the

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auditorium, plays, oratorical contests, graduationexercises, everything you do in auditoriums. We started everythmg with a devotional activity. My foundation sprangfrom Miss Doss in kindergarten. Andeven though theSupreme Court prohibited prayer in schools, during the 1960’s we were still able to have an inspirational reading. ...But that all sprang, my interest in being the chaplain and theauditorium teacher, from my activities with Miss Doss in 1943.

NOTES In addition to the references that follow, contributions were made to this chapter by Earnest L. Gunn, Marjorie Barner Gunn, and Teresa Horton Washington.

REFERENCES

Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1956, February 21). Community kindergarten. (1975). Community kindergarten presents the 1975 kindergarten graduation. Tuscumbia, AL. Marjorie B. Gunn, 1945 graduate and parent of a 1975 graduate of Community Kindergarten. The community kindergarten.(1981,February 11).The ShoalsNews-Leader, pp. 4-5. Faculty lists: Trenholm high school, 1907-1968. (1981). Dr.Robert Clemmons, Superintendent, Tuscumbia City Schools, Tuscumbia, AL. Gore, A. D. (1998).Telephone interview with Alberta Doss Gore, daughter of Miss Doss and a teacher at the CommunityKindergarten. Grand marshall: Mrs. Julia G. Doss. (1996).Trenholm hi& school reunion 1996, Tuscumbia, AL. Holder, E. F. (1981). Miss Anna Pybas and her school. The Journal of Muscle Shoals History, Vol. IX,pp. 3-14. Lee, M. T. (1960, May 12). News about Negroes: Kindergarten graduation. The Florence Times, p. 6, section 3. Morrison, G. S. (1998). Early childhood education today,7 ed. Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Company. Winn, J. N., Jr. (1995). Life and works of Miss Maud Lindsay. Essays on history of the shoals, from pioneer days to World War 1 1 .The Journal of Muscle Shoals History, Vol. XIV, pp. 123-134.

CHAPTER 4

Rememberiua the Teachers: The H e a r t o f the Matter I think we had teachers there [Trenholm High School] who had our interest at heart. They wanted us not only to do well but to move hrther along than they did themselves. And always encouragedLIS to do the very best that we could. Therewas loyalty to us from them andfrom us to them. So they were disappointed if we didn’t do well. 1957 graduate of Trenholm

WHAT WAS GOOD? Graduates of Trenholm High School, parents,and othercommunity residents believe that themajor factor that contributedto the excellence of their school was the quality and dedication ofthe teachers. The range of school programs and activitieswere rated as the second factor and parental and community support and involvement were chosen as number three. The factor mentioned most oftenby the school communitywas the impact ofcaring, supportive, and motivating teachers on both their personal and professional lives. With the leadership of 12 principals from 1877 to 1969 and the support ofparents and community, classroom teachers appeared to be the major force for creating caring and nurturingeducational environments in this school setting. Despite being underfunded, understaffed, andissued secondhand books and equipment, as were manyother segregated African Americanschools (Bond, 1969; Dempsey & Noblit, 1993;Franklin, 1978;Walker, 1996),teachers were able to create effective schooling for children attending Trenholm High School (Report, 1955; Trenholm, 1912).

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Among thefactors that are used to measure the quality ofschools are appropriate physical plants, adequate equipment and supplies to support a good curriculum, and good salaries to attract high-quality teachers. From 1896 to 1954, when “separate but equal” was the law of theland, “separate and unequal” was the general practice when it came to the adequate funding of separate schools for African American children. And two of the most obvious differences between schools for African Americansand whites were in physical facilities and equipment andteacher salaries. Severalstudies were conducted during thefirst halfof the twentieth century that documented these inequities. In a comparative study of teacher salaries in Alabama from 1910 to 1930, Bond (1969) noted that “Salaries of Negro teachers have enjoyed a gradual advance although they are far from approaching either relative or absolute similar advancesmade in the payment ofwhite teachers” (p. 261).Studies conducted by Atlanta University in 1901 and 1911and lawyers of theNAACP in the 1930sand 1940s are consistent with Bond’s findings as related to inequities in both salaries and physical facilities between schools for African Americans and whites (Franklin, 1978). In a speech delivered at the 1912Alabama State Teachers Association, G. W. Trenholm, principal at theTuscumbia ColoredPublic School (later named Trenholm High), noted the inequity of salaries paid to African American teachers in Tuscumbia andother school dstricts throughoutAlabama: The average salary during thepast year (1911-12) for whiteteachers was $413 for the males and $350for the females, while that for the Negroteachers was only $169 and $150 for the women. The Negroteachers receive really less than is paid to inferior men and womenofthat race who are employed as teamsters, washer women and cooks. Negroes thus employed usually get their board in addition to a larger annual cash income than is paid to the Negromen and women whoboard themselves while teaching the Negro youth. (Trenholm, 1912, p.4)

School board minutes of the Tuscumbia Public Schools confirm the inequities in salaries ofAfrican American teachers. For example,in 1907, theprincipal at theTuscumbia ColoredPublic School earned$65 per month, while the principal/superintendent at the white school earned $120. It appeared that the whiteprincipal also served in the role of superintendentof schools for the district. Two African American teachers earned $25, oneearned $22.50,while one white teacher earned $75 ($10 more than the African Americanprincipal), and five white teachers earned $50, twice the salaries of African American teachers (Board Minutes,1907). This same pattern ofinequity in pay continued for many years. It was not until 1940 that the principal at Trenholm earned $120 per month, the salary earned by the white principal in 1907. In 1944, Principal Gilchrist appealed to the school boardto raise all teacher salaries at Trenholm High School to a minimum of $100 per month (Board Minutes, 1944). By 1950, the principal at Trenholm earned $3,300 per year (Board Minutes,1950), much less than African Americanmen in the commu-

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nity who workedas laborers at local industrial plants. Consequently, many African Americanmen in Tuscumbia andin the Muscle Shoals areawith college degrees, who could have been teachers or taught for a shortwhile, chose to work as laborers, side-by-side with their fathers, cousins, and neighbors who may have finishedelementary or high school, because they could earn substantially larger salaries to supporttheir families. The choices for college-educated African Americanwomen wereeven more limited. They could enterthe professions of teachingor nursing to earn fairly reasonable salaries. African American women whodidnotattend college or trade schooltook on very low-paying jobs such as nurse’s aides in local hospitals, cooks in local restaurants, maids or janitors in hotels, or diddomestic work and/or cared for children for as little as $.50 per hour in the homes of white citizens. There were almost no otheralternatives in a segregatedsociety. Chapter 2 documented the continuing efforts ofprincipals and community residents in Tuscumbia to secure a safe, quality physical plant for the school and acquire much needed equipment and supplies to support quality a education for their children. Principal Trenholm also commented on the poor conditions of African American school buildings in Alabama during his 1912 speech: The great majority of our schools are taught in churches and society halls. Worsethan poor are the most of our rural school houses. In many of ourtowns and cities the same wretched conditions obtain. Dr. Dillard, ofthe Jeanes Fund, after making extensive visits inparts of the South, including our own State, writes: “With rare exception I found wretched conditions in the way of school house and school equipments. In most of our cities the Negro school houses are badly overcrowded.” (Trenholm, 1 9 1 2 , p. 7 )

But despite the low salariesand poor physical plants and equipment, the faculty at Trenholm High School created and maintained good a school for AfricanAmerican students.The1955 Visiting Committee for Accreditation commended the competence and accomplishments of the Trenholm High School faculty despite limitations over which they hadlittle or no control: The holding power ofthe school; the stability ofthe school population; the exceptional progress and prosperity of the graduates is indicative of the high type character of the faculty and the school in general. It is the concerted beliefof the committee that the faculty has tended to underestimate its efforts to meet the educational needs of its youth. Such inability to meet and completely satisfy theseeducational needs is due in the main to lack of space, a lack of personnel and equipment, rather than a destitution ofwillingness and effort. (Report, 1955,p. 32)

The 1955Visiting Committee for Accreditation further notedseveral commendations in its report thatreflected the caring and nurturingenvironment that existed at the school:

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The Committee feels that each member of the faculty is conscientiously striving, not only to meet these broad area themes [Educational Needs ofStudents] butis going furinto ther throughprecept andexample to inculcate the virtuous principles of character the lives and minds of those he touches. Certain limitations in physical facilities are handicapping, but evidences in pupil-teacher relationships, pupil pride, pupil respect and attitude reflect a very wholesome atmosphere. (Report, 1955, p. 36)

Throughout the committee’s report, the faculty was commended on t h e positive school climate and the competence of teachers based on education and training. For example, the committee commendedthe “staff and student body on the fine school spirit, attitude, and rapport between pupil-pupil, 1955, p. 39). In adpupil-teacher, and pupil-teacher-administrator” (Report, dition, “The committee commends the teaching staff and administration for having high school teacherswith college degrees and having made teaching to your majorand minor fields ofprofeschoices, and assignments in relations 1955, p. 40). This was especially sional training with few exceptions” (Report, remarkable since, att h s time in o u r history, many teachers were employed in school districtswithout degrees and permanent teaching certificates. The persistence and competenceof the faculty reflected in the Visiting Committee’s the questionnaire and interviews report was reinforced by the responses from completed by graduates, parents, and community leaders.

CARING AND NURTURING EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS How do caring and nurturing educational environments look and feel? What are teachers like and what kmds ofskills do they teach their students? Green ( 1 9 9 6 ) believes that mutual trust exists between students and teachers And Erickson (1963) defines trustas “an i n a nurturing school environment. essential trustfulness of others as well as a fundamental sense of one’s own trustworthiness” (p. 96). Morris, Taylor, and Wilson (in press) describe rethe lationship between trust and caringin the classroom: To build such basic trust with children, teachers need to exhibit an attribute called “caring.” Caringcan be definedas feeling and exhibiting concern and empathy for others. This definition also encompasses giving close attention to, and having watchful overTo be an effective teacher of children, teachers must sight and compassion for others. possess this critical attribute of “caring.” Teachers must be more “tellers” than or disskills; they musthave compassion fortheir students and must pensers ofknowledge and be able to exhibit this concern inorder for studentsto learn to trust them,to develop a rapport with them, and eventually to believe that what educators wantto teach is important. (Morris, Taylor &Wilson, in press, p. 9 ) Green (1996) lists thirteen characteristics of nurturing schools:

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Theme A-Studentfleacher Relationship

1. There is mutual trust and positive interaction between teachers and students. 2. Teachers have an in-depth knowledge of students’ in-school and out-of-school lives.

3. Teachers model caring attitudes for students.

Theme B-Professionalism among Administration, Faculty, and Staff

4. There is a sense of caring among individuals and a collective sense for student success. 5. The need for self-actualization is respected and encouraged. 6 . Teachers demonstrate a love for their subject matter and continuously search for competence.

Theme C-Environment o f the School and Classroom 7. Asense of community and sense a of family existsin the school, and there is collabo-

ration among professionals. 8. Everyone values individual differences and the self one brings into theenvironment is respected and nurtured. 9. There is a recognition ofa wide range of talentand theneed for the empowerment of all individuals. 10. The schools draws in thevalues of the community and involves the community in the education of children.

Theme D-Students’ Feelings about Themselves

11. Students feel a sense of self-worth and and acceptance. 12. Students feel safe and involved in their education. 13. Students value themselves and others.

Dempsey andNoblit (1993)noted that,in the context ofAfricanAmerican education, “Caring about a child meant that teachers taught valued information andnurturedand sustainedthe child” (p. 48). They defined the essentials of caring as continuities of purpose, place, people, and curriculum. In their Noblit asserted that caring study of the Rougemontcommunity, Dempsey and seemed to work on three levels: First and foremost, caring seems to nurture and sustain students. The RougemontS ~ L dents interpretedthemselves as being developedvia the school and the classrooms. Second, caring builds the interconnective tissue of communityby promoting andvaluing relationships. The citizens of Rougemont had both identities and social networking that were developed via the school. Third, caring gave each person more thanan identity and a set of relationships. I t also gavea sense of continuity. Identity was more than just asense of oneself; it defined one as a part of alarger cultural and historical movement. (p. 60)

Irvine and Irvine (1983)commented on thecaring and nurturingrole that African Americanschools played duringthe segregation era.They stated that:

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They were not only educational institutions in the narrow of that senseterm, but they addressed the deeper psychological and sociological needs of their clients.. ..These schools represented and took on uniquely stylized characteristics reflective of their members-patterns of communication, cultural preferences, and normatively difhsed modes of behavior.(p. 416) They hrther noted howblack educators extended their workthat was focused in the school into the community:

Black schools served as instrument the through which black professional educators discharged their responsibilityto their community. Black educators laboredto help students realize their achievement goals. In this role both principals and teachers were mere but profound extensions of the black community. Their professional and pe identities were organically tied to sources in the community network system, not to outside structures and agencies.(p. 417) \

Other writers have suggested the kinds of skills and strategies that are evident in caring and nurturing educational environments (Center,1992; FryMiller, Myers-Walls, & Domer-Shank, 1989; Haberman, 1995; Johnson & Johnson, 1995; Judson, 1977; Levin, 1994; Schmidt & Friedman, 1991; Smith, 1993; Wichert, 1989). Haberman (1995) lists several teacher behaviors that exhibit the “caring” attribute: (1) putting students aheadof subject matter, (2)never using shame or humiliation, (3) modeling cooperationwith other adults, (4)listening to and respecting students’ ideas, (5) creating an extended family in theclassroom, (6)being a source of constant encouragement by finding good parts of all student’s work, and (7) demonstrating respect for parents in the presence of their children. Levin (1994) noted that caring teachers create classroom environments that: (1) feel safe,(2)teach positive ways to be separate and powerful, (3) teach how to respect and rely on others, and(4) promote theactive transformation of experience into personally meaningful ideas and slulls. Smith (1993) believes that caring and nurturing teachers offer children opportunities to develop the skills of friendship, compassion, cooperation, and kindness-the skills that the caring teacher models.

SELECTED FAVORITE TEACHERS Several themes emerged from the interview data that reflected the Trenholm High School community’s definition of quality and dedicated teachers who created caring and nurturing educational environments for students. Graduates indicated that their favorite teachers: ( l )maintained orderly classrooms, (2) cared about thestudents, (3) were fair,(4)were competent in their subject areas, (5) made practical applications of subject matter, (6) had h g h expectations of students, and(7) made learning fun. The descriptions of indi-

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vidual “favorite” teachers that follow reflect one ofmore of the six themes or characteristics identified by former students. The majority of the teachers lived within a four- or five-block radius of the school building as d d more than 70 percent of the students. Teachers and their studentswere thus neighbors.They went to the same churches, shopped at the same grocery stores, and attendedmany of the same social and recreational events in the community. Therefore, teachers and students had many opportunities to interact beyond the classroom. For example, one student recalled the proximity of teachers’ homes to students in thecommunity: My third grade teacher lived next door,the physical education teacher/coach lived two doors away, and the principal and his wife, our sixth grade teacher, lived next to the coach. The high school science teacher lived acrossthe street, the fourthgrade teacher lived one block away, and the social studies teacher/band director lived four blocks away. We could visit in their homeswithout making calls or appointments to talk with the teachers or play with theirchildren. They were not only our teachers at school, but sometimes our Sunday school teachers and ourneighbors and friends. As a result, students saw teachers as part of the community who wanted to see

them achieve and succeed in life. One former student communicatedthis sentiment: I think we had teachers there who had our interest at heart. They wanted us not only to do well but to move further alongthan they didthemselves. And always encouraged us to do thevery best that we could. There was loyalty to us from them and from us to them. So they wouldbe disappointed ifwe didn’t do well. ...I feel the whole community really was behind each of us. I can remember going off to college and coming home. Theywere proud to see us. They wantedto hear all the things we had learned in school and where we had been. So the sense of connectivity was very strong. And it goes back to the school and the community that made all this possible.

These teacher descriptions are merely examplesof several favorite teachers selected to demonstrate characteristics of quality teachers identified by former students. Pearl Steward was a teacher at the the Tuscumbia Colored Public School/Trenholm High School from 1916 to 1945. One report indicated that she was named acting principal of TrenholmHigh School following Prof. Leslie’s death, until Luther Ison arrived to take on the position for the 1939-1940 school year. Mrs. Steward also served as acting principal after Mr. Ison left, until the arrival of J. H. Gilchrist in September, 1942 (Freeman, 1996). A Trenholm graduate who has been a high school teacher, guidance counselor, and college administrator selected Mrs. Steward as her favorite teacher. She viewed Mrs. Steward as “the most highly respected one.” She stated thatMrs. Steward was her favorite teacher “because she was firm, older, quite reserved, kind of a no-nonsensetype. Bottom line is, you lund of stand up straight to that. And I think that is a great influence when I look back on it. ...Kind of quiet and to the point.” A second student who selected Mrs.

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Steward as his favorite teacher indicated that she was a “spiritual woman and a caring person and her temperament was such that youcouldn’t help but like her.” Rubie Leslie Buclungham was a faculty member at TrenholmHigh School from 1927 to 1966, at which time she went to Southside Elementary School that was originally built for students enrolled in grades 1-6 in the African American community. Later, she taught at Northside Middle School and retired from Tuscumbia Public Schools in 1971.She graduated from Trenholm High School as valedictorian of theclass of 1925. She was married to Comer E. Leslie, principal of Trenholm High school from 1927 to 1939. During her tenure at Trenholm, Mrs. Buckingham taught primarily grades 1-3. A university professor of nursing selected Mrs. Buckingham as one of her favorite teachers. She stated: “Mrs. Buckingham was very strict, put a sense of fear in a person, but very good. And I felt I needed structure. ...Mrs. Buckingham gave me my first whipping. But of course, I would say it’s not fair. But that’s what mostchildren would say.” A second student communicated herreasons for selecting Mrs. Buckingham as her favorite teacher: “Because she had alot of patience with me, and whatnot. And I was just fond of her...all through the years I was. . ..She guided me through first grade.” A third student remarked that Mrs. Buclungham was one of her favorite teachers because “I knew I was her favorite. She took a special interest in me ...she thought I had something special.” Mattie Long Gilchrist became a sixth grade teacher at Trenholm in 1942 when her husband Joseph H . Gilchrist was appointed principal. She was also band director before the couple left for Montgomery in 1947. One alumni, a retired elementary teacher, selected Mrs. Gilchrist as her favorite teacher because she believed that Mrs. Gilchrist knew her subject matter well, cared about her students, and treated themfairly. She recounts that: She taught me in sixth grade and she was a banddirector, too. She was so thorough in what she taught and she was so fair. You know how some teachers, according to the families you came from, they were partial. But notwith Mrs. Gilchrist. It was you as a student, how you performed. Shewas a real lovable person. What she did, she did it with love. And the way that she did it, she was fair.

Adlena Malone Thomas, anative of Tuscumbia, joined the faculty in 1943 as a first grade teacher and remained through the1964-1965 school year. She was alsoa 1930 graduate ofTrenholm High School. Although she taught several elementary grades, Mrs. Thomas was a fifth grade teacher for most of her tenure as a faculty member at Trenholm. She also served as band director, played the piano for the choir, and taughtpiano lessons. One former student who is an attorney and a top administrator at a U.S.government agency selected M r s . Thomas as her favorite teacher. She talked about Mrs. Thomasas her fourth grade teacher:

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My favorite teacher was Mrs. Thomas. . . .She took a special interest in me, but she thought I was something special. So, she encouraged me to do a lot of other things. You know, read things that weren’t just regular reading. ...And you know, to do things like the spelling bee. ...That was Mrs. Thomaspushing me to do that. ...She worked very hard withme on just whatever. But mostly it was encouraging me to do things. And she would talk to you. ...She wouldtalk to me after class. ...M e r school I would go do her board [clean the chalk board] . ..and she would talk to me about doing things, about what to do when I grew up, which was an interesting thing. ...But I can remember even back in fourthgrade talking about doingthings like understanding what certain kinds of professions were, including lawyers. Understanding that some of these things might not have been things that particularly a black girl could aspire to. She never said that. She just talked to me about different things that people could be when they grewup. Itwas the first time I heard anybody talk about being an architect. And she would start tosay a word and thenwould say, go andlook it up, andso I would do that. So, she really was the teacher who inspired me most.

Another former student stated: Mrs. Thomaswas one ofmyvery favorites. And I think one of the things about her, she always made me feel welcome in her home. Even when school was not in session, I could always go to Mrs. Thomas’s house andfeel likeI was in a special place. She always had some kind of craft or something going on.And she had children, too, that I enjoyed being around.

A third studentstated that “Mrs. Thomaswas very kind. She was very organized. Shewas very interesting. She kept your attention withoutlota of strictness. She used fun kinds of things to keep children interested in learning.” Garlor Alexander Hyler was a native of Tuscumbia who joined faculty the in 1946 as a sixth grade teacher and remained through the 1955-1956 school year. Mrs. Hyler graduated from Trenholm High School in 1939 as class valedictorian. Most students remember her as the seventh grade English teacher. One of her formerstudents, who later became a high school English teacher, stated that Mrs. Hyler was one of her favorite teachers because she was “tough.” She was a good no-nonsense teacher who maintained an orderly classroom and expected all of her studentsto stay on task. “Mrs. Hyler w a s good. Now the correct grammar I know now, how to write and how to speak. ...Since then no other English teacher taught me anything basically that she hadn’t already taught me.” This former student spoke of her admiration for Mrs. Hyler along with Mrs. Rose Pyles who was a science teacher during the 1953-1954 school year: They both had your interest at heart. They had the materials and when you’d go in there, theyexpected you to learn. Theywanted to teach you. ...A l l ofthe teachers were very, very good, these two just stood out. They had hearts of gold. But, they put the fear of the Lord inyou.

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A second alumni,who is now an administrator in alarge urban schooldistrict, also indicated that Mrs. Hylerwas one ofhis favorite teachers. H e noted that “I know that she had a great command ofthe subject and she could go beyond the textbooks and I could relate to that very well. And I think that I learned alotfrom her. When I got to college, that was the only subject inwhich I could remembermaking an ‘A’.’’H e recounts being excited about talung an unusual semester exam in college English during his freshman year. “We had to go to the recital and the nextday we had to write about it. And I was very excited about that andfelt very good about thatbecause of the skills I believe I had acquired fromthe class [Mrs. Hyler’s seventh grade English class].” A third alumni, an accomplished business executive and former college teacher, also selected Mrs. Hyleras one ofhis favorite teachers. H e was a particularly active, inquisitive, and talkative youngster as reflected in his statements about Mrs. Hyler. Mrs. Hyler was alsoparticularly tough onme. ...But, I never felt like it was negative. I felt like that was her way ofcaring aboutus. ...You know I guess things were also a little physical in those days. Whenever I’d misbehave, she’d walkup behind me and hit me on the head. You know, not hard, but enough to get my attention. ...I always remember when it happened, I chuckled, didn’t laugh out loud.But it always made me smile because I knew I was being dealt with. And I learned from her. Whenever I think about her, I just smile because I just like her.

Lillian MarieLong joined the faculty as a teacher of English and commercial subjects (business and typing) in 1947 and remained on the faculty for 18 years. Students often associate their favorite teacher with their best liked or their strongest subject. However, one former student, a retired aluminum worker, expressed his admiration for Miss Long despite the fact that English was his least favorite subject. H e stated that “I loved her as a person. She wanted you to learn, she did all she could to see that you would know. She was the type of person who knew whether you could do it or not.” Another graduate, aprofessor at alarge urban university, remembered Miss Long as a competent, quiet, andcalming teacher of twelveth grade English and literature.She stated: I really enjoyed her teaching of Shakespeare. The style of language in which the plays were written made them difficult to understand. But, whenshe explained the passages, the stories really came alive and I learned to interpret, as well. Because of the way she taught us in t h a t class, my college English and literaturecourses were very easy. I also recall that as a senior in high school, I was planning to take the ACT in an attempt to qualify for aNational Merit Scholarship to support my attendance at college. When I finished my regular class work, Miss Long gave me copies ofissues ofReader’s Dhestto study the vocabulary words in preparation for the exam. I think that was long before books were published to study specifically for thosetests. She was a great encourager, she wanted you to succeed.

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A third student spoke of Miss Long as one of his favorite teachers. H e said: “Marie Long was one ofmy favorites because she made us learn literature. ...I liked the literature part. She spoke Shakespeare. Shakespeare became one of my favorites.” A fourth student who spent most of her career in secretarial work also selected Miss Long as her favorite teacher. She said: My typing teacher who was Miss Lillian M. Long was one of the best. And she made sure that I had all the exposure. We did not even have a shorthand class. But she would take me after school hours and teach me the elementary or beginning parts of Gregg shorthand. And I remember that to this day. And that’s what I ended updoing. It was the beginning of along career for meas a secretary. ...As far backas I can remember, I have alwaysenvisioned myself as someone’s secretary. And I always had this picture in mind wearing a whiteblouse and black skirt and goingto work with my little gloves and purse and sitting at somebody’s desk as their secretary.

A fourth studentcommunicated that Miss Long encouraged andchallenged her to do more reading beyond what was required in the classroom. She stated that she also talked about what life was likebeyond school and why. She appreciated, you know, if you read things fromthe outside and broughtthose thingsto bear on whatever it was that you were discussing. She was interested in that and how you assimilated things and analyzed it and thencame up with your own ideas about things.

Willie Mae Thompson was the homeeconomics teacher at Trenholm High School from 1949 to 1962. Onegraduate, a university professor of education, communicated why Mrs. Thompson was her favorite teacher: Mrs. Thompson made me believe that improving the quality of family life was the most important career goal one could pursue. And I, like her, became a home economist and continue to devote my professional and personal life to improving the quality of life for young children and their families. It was obvious that she cared about you doing well academically as well as cared about you as a person. I could talk with herabout personal things as you would your mother. She gave good advice and kept your conversation confidential. You could trust her. I went to college at heralma mater and I’m certain that she was influential in my securing an academic scholarship, student loans to support my college education, and being selected to accept the torch oflearning as a college freshman from asenior class member during freshman orientation. Sheknew lots of influential administrators at the college I attended, but she never really saidthat she did anythmg special on my behalf, but I know that she did. That’s the way she was.

Fred Johnsonjoined the faculty in 1950 as a mathematics teacher. H e later became guidance counselor and was principal at Trenholm High School when it was closed in 1969. He became assistant principal at Deshler, the newly desegregated high school, and retired as principal in 1979. One former student,a county executive and retired air force officer, recounts why Mr. Johnson was his favorite teacher:

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I took algebra and geometry from him and hewas a good man. But morethan that,he was about life. He told us about life. The stories that he often toldus, even today they would probably have greater value than math that was taught in the class. H e was a vetbill. He eran, he had goneto the navy out of highschool and thento college on the GI represented somethingdifferent. He came back after the GIbill, he justhad a greatinfluence on me.The trumpet thatI used in high school,my parents bought itfrom him for 24 dollars. He also helped coach the football team. Whenever we traveled, Mr. Johnson was score keeper. ...He had the greatest influence on my life. ...Fred was both a teacher and a friend.

Deloris McCree taught high school science courses at Trenholm from 1954-1959. She left in 1959 to pursue a master’s degree at Tuskegee Institute. Many ofus remember her as o u r biology, chemistry, and physics teacher. Students believed that she knew hersubject matter well, enjoyed teaching, and made learning fun. Onealumni noted thathe liked her class becauseit was a lab course that was challenging. Another alumni and former chemiststated: As I remember, she was pretty smart,she knew the science pretty well. But moreimportantly, she seemed to like it. You know whatI mean? Sheliked it, she seemed animated when she talked about it, she seemed patient when youdidn’t understand it toexplain something to you. I mean every time I think about being in her class, I think about having h n . That’s what I remember.

Willie LeeGreen, a promising young teacher who grewup in our community, was a science and mathematics teacher at Trenholm High for one year (1953-1954) before being drafted for the Korean War. He graduated from Trenholm High School as valedictorian of the class of 1947. Mr. Green had great plans to return to his almamater to teach and continuea legacy of community involvement that had been demonstrated by many teachers and administrators at Trenholmbefore him. He was lulledin the war and was unable to fulfill that dream. However, he made such an inimpact our community that when the new community center was built on “our side oftown,” it was named in his honor. Onegraduate, a formerteacher, guidance counselor, and legislative &rector for a U.S. senator tells why Mr. Green was one of his favorite teachers: I was influenced by his knowledge, greatly by his knowledge of chemistry and howhe could produce rightangles on theboard. ...He used practical examples by drawing little figures and taking boxes and inserting one triangle into another anddefining it geometrically. So, even though I was very, very slow in math, geometry became a good subject because of Willie Lee Green.

This same student also spoke ofthe positive manner in which Mr.Green dealt with students that encouraged them to want to achieve:

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Willie Lee Green was my favorite teacher because he never spoke from the negative point ofview. He always said, oh, that’s pretty good butI think youcan do better. ...I think he felt like the success or non-success of a student was a reflection on him as a teacher. And with him being a teacher, he was striving to make his students work to their capacity.

One graduate appearedto summarize thebeliefs of themajority of students as to what constitutedthe caring and nurturing educational environment created by teachers at Trenholm HighSchool and howthese attributes were extended into the community. She remarked: I think teachers generally at Trenholm seemed to take an interest in you when they thought you had something special and they probably did thatfor everybody, or almost everybody. And I think the magic in that is that ifyou feel likeit, it’s for you.It’s just as good as ifit were justfor you. ...I think we got a sense of self.A sense ofwho we are. We were allowed to grow and develop without the self-consciousness of being different, any more than we are all different. There was nothing inherently wrong with your differences. ...It was security. And it was the ability to be safe. You felt like you were among family and friends. You could raise your hand andbe wrong. And you didnot feel like it was something that would be held against everybody that looked like you. And it was mostly that. That’s really the right word, a feeling of being safe and secure and just to BE. ...At Trenholm, I think therewas a sense of that somehow everybody was a part of afamily, everybody knew everybody else, and you know, cared about what happened to people. The studentscared about each other, felt like you belonged.The teachers cared about you. ...Trenholm was a family. You knew it when youwere there. And it was not just during the school day, but all the time. You felt like people cared about you. You know like, things that were extensions of school, like the dances in the gym, where everybody was there. ...You had plays and everybody came to see them. We’d go trick or treating and there were kids from small children to those in senior high school. Everybody just looked out for each other all the time.

SUMMARY

This chapter has presented students’ descriptions of favorite teachers, their characteristics, teaching styles, and the influence they hadon the students’ desires and opportunitiesto achieve as well asthe impact these teachers havehad on their personal and professional lives. Many of the teachers spent their entire professional careers in this school community,while others werein and out for relatively short periods. The favorite teachers selected by graduates of Trenholm High School includedthose who wereteachers as early as1916 and others who were teachers at the school whenit closed in 1969. Thepersistence and competence ofthe faculty reflected in the 1955Visiting Committee Accreditation report are reinforced by the responses from the questionnaire and interviews. The major reason given by respondents for the “golden years” at Trenholm was the quality and dedication of teachers. Several themes emerged from the interview data that reflected respondents’ definitions of quality and dedcated teachers that are consistent with findings

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from other studiesrelated to characteristics of effective teachers and schools. Trenholm High School graduates indicated that their favorite teachers: (1) maintained orderly classrooms (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996; Edmonds, 1982; Henderson, Greenberg, Schneider, Uribe, & Verdugo, 1996; Sowell, 1976; Walker, 1996), (2) cared about the students (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996; Ladson-Billings, 1994;Walker, 1996),(3) were fair(Henderson etal., 1996), (4) were competent in their subject areas (Foster, 1990; Henderson et al., 1996;Sowell, 1976;Walker, 1996),(5)made practical applications of subject matter (Dempsey& Noblit; Hauser&Thompson, 1996),(6) had highexpectations of students (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996; Hauser & Thompson, 1996; Henderson et al., 1996;Walker, 1996),and (7)made learningfun. Therewere many other teachers at the school who reflected these same characteristics. The descriptions provided in this chapterwere just a few examples that demonstrated graduates’ definitions of quality and dedicated teachers. These favorite teachers possessed one or more ofthe characteristics of effective teachers that Griffin (1988) calls “teacher artists.” She believes that outstanding teachers are dedicated, original, compassionate, loving, persistent, enthusiastic, selfless, fair,and unforgettable. Andmany of the teachers chosen by Trenholm graduates as favorite teachers are “unforgettable” after more than 40 or 50 years and perhaps for a lifetime. These findmgs point to the profound effect of teachers’ actions in thelives of those theyteach-far beyond the years of schooling and very likely that impact is feltfor the rest of their lives. Griffin further states that effective teachers:

1. Send out clear signals of love for their disciplines. They are masters of their subjec

matter. 2. Enjoy the process of teaching, thegive and take,the listeningas well as the talking. Their teaching isa natural extension of themselves. Like good conversation, it is enlivened by skills, originality, and, now andthen, a bit of theatrical flair. 3. Care about the student and look upon student resistance as a challenge, so they work-to experience the delight of triumph when they make something happen within thestudent. Challenges can come from other sources as well-an insufficient budget, or inadequate facilities. The classroom artist does not give up. 4. Persevere and move forward, creating and using new approaches. Good teachers ar careful to relate subject matterto ideas familiarto the learner. 5. Like good parents, classroom artists striveto have their pupils surpass them. Their great, often secret, pleasureto is read or hear students of who have gone on to mastery and achievement. 6. View justice and fairness as essential elements inthe evaluation process.In theclassroom of a teacher-artist, studentsknow their grades are an unbiased assessment of their accomplishments, untaintedby personal feelings or personality conflicts. 7. Are concerned for who students are, why theythere, are and where they are going. (pp. 32-35)

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These favorite teachers were the critical factor for creating and maintaining the characteristics inherent in a nurturing school environment as communicated by Green (1996).For example, graduates ofTrenholm HighSchool said that: (1)they trusted andrespected their teachers, (2) teachers knew them well both as they participated in activities during school hours and outside the school, and (3) teachers demonstrated in a variety of ways that they cared about students. It seemed clear that students viewed the Trenholm school community as a family where everybody cared about each other and looked out for each other. Studentsalso felt that teachers were their friends. Graduates noted thatteachers helped students to develop a strongsense of self and provided activities for students in and outside ofthe classroom to help develop talents of individual students. Teachers valued the active involvement of parents and other community residents in thelife of theschool, so there was a continuity of shared values. Students believed that teachers enjoyed their work with the students andwere competent in their subject matter areas. Like the caring teachers described by Dempsey and Noblit (1993), teachers at Trenholm High School taught valued information and nurtured and sustained the students. Many of these favorite teachers also met the criteria of teachers called “warm demanders.’’ In their description of a “warm demander,” Irvine and Fraser (1998) wrote that the warm demander teaches her African-Americanstudents with a sense of passion and mission based in the African-American cultural traditions and history she shares with her students. James Vasquez calls these African-American and otherteachers of color “warm demanders” who provide a tough-minded, no-nonsense, structured, anddisciplined classroom environment for kids whom society psychologically and physically abandoned. Strongly identifylng with their students and determined to give them a future,these teachers believe that culturally diverse children not only can learn but must learn. (p.56)

The findings from this study appear to demonstrate that one of the major factors that contributed to Trenholm High School being a good school was the quality and dedication of theteachers. The teachers helped to create a caring and nurturing educational environment that promoted and encouraged the academic achievement of students,despite the lack of many important resources. During theinterviews several students indicated that all the teachers at Trenholm High were good, but theones noted were their favorites. However, teachers were not perfect and this was not a perfect school. Former students also discussed their least favorite teachers as well as other issues they were concerned about. For example, one studentdescribed what appeared to be the practice of some teachers involving fairness in student-teacher relationships and howskin complexion may have played a role, a familiar issuein many Afirican American communities:

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And even if there were times when youfelt like, relative to you or somebody else, that you thought itmight not be fair or come to theconclusion quickly that itwas intended to be not fair. ...I guess the differences were ...the teachers do have their preferences. You know they are human and they may like one student better than another one. It may be that they are friends with their parentsor they go to church together orwhatever. ...There tendedto be a preference to lighter skinned kids. And the girls particularly. Lighter skin with long hair gave you anadvantage with the teachers. Or it certainly was perceived that way. ...It was little things ...the things that showed whatever particular teachers had studentsto do that showed this is the person upon whomthey are bestowing their favor at any given time. ...You get to do the erasers [clean chalk board erasers], or you get to call everybody to order, you getto maybe call roll. ...You don’t know whatreally happened relative to grades, to tell the truth....And teachers would call on that one call on them....If two kids had their hands up, they [teachers] would [the lighter skinned student]. ...I felt like it was certainly nor fair and it made you feel like you had to work a little harder because otherwise youwere, there was some inferiority there because you were not as light skinned. ...And yougot advantages for that too [being considered smart]. You were given the benefit of the doubt. Because you were known as smart, sometimes you couldbe not quite so smart andwas kind of presumed that you were. But dark skinned kids, little girls with dark skin and shorthair, had really a tougher time. And that was pretty obvious to me.

However, our focus in this study was to discover or uncover the goodin this segregated school for African American students as perceived by the African American community it served, to record the victories, yet not ignore the negatives. For too many decades, publications have focused exclusively on the negatives of segregated African American schools. Chapters 5 and 6 will explore how otheractivities ofthe school and communityorganizations contributed to and extended this positive educational environment for Trenholm High School students. Can we do this again in schools today that are serving large populations ofAfrican American chddren in our inner cities, smalltowns, and rural communities?We must! But where do we begin? This is one of the major questions that will be addressed in Chapter 10,Where Do we Go from Here?

REFERENCES Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1907, May 17). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board o f education. (1944, October 19). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education.(1950, August 28). Bond, H. M.(1969). Negro education in Alabama: A study in cotton and steel. New York: Octagon Books. Center to Prevent Handgun Violence (1992). Straight talk aboutrisks: Aprek-12 curriculum forpreventznggun violence. Washington, DC: Author. Dempsey, V.,& Noblit, G. (1993). The demise of caring in an African American community: One consequence of school desegregation. The Urban Review, 25 (l), 47-61. Dempsey, V., & Noblit, G. (1996). Cultural ignorance and school desegregation: A community narrative. In M. J.Shujaa (Ed.), Beyond desepegation: Thepoli-

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tics of quality in African American schooling (pp. 115-137). Thousand

Oaks, C A Convin Press.

Edmonds, R. (1982). Programs of school improvement: An overview. Educational Leadership, 40 (3),4-1 1. Erickson, E. (1963). Childhood and society.New York: Norton. Foster, M. (1990). The politics of race: Through theeyes ofAfrican-American teachers. Journal of Education, 172 (3),123-141. Franklin, V. P.(1978). American values, social goals, and thedesegregated school: A historical perspective. In V. P. Franklin & J. A. Anderson (Eds.), New perspectives o n black educational history (pp. 193-207). Boston: G. K. Hall & Company. Freeman, J. B. (1996). Alpha and omega: Reflections o f our past. Trenholm hi& school reunion, 1996, p. 45. Fry-Miller, K., Myers-Walls, J., & Domer-Shank, J.(1989). Youngpeacemakersproject book 11.Elgin, IL: Brethren Press. Green, R. L. (1996) Thirteen characteristics of nurturing schools. Memphis, TN: Education Services Plus. Griffin, M.D. (1988). Theteacher-artist. Boston College Magazine,pp. 32-35. Haberman, M. (1995).Star teachers of children in poverty. West Lafayette, IN: Kappa Delta Pi. Hauser, M., & Thompson, C. (1996).Creating a classroom culture of promise: Lessons from a first grade. In B. B. Swadener & S. Lubeck (Eds.), Children and families “atpromise”: Deconstructing the discourse ofrisk (pp. 210-223). Albany State University of New York Press. R., Henderson, R., Greenberg, N. M., Schneider, J. M,, Uribe, O., & Verdugo, R. (1996). High-quality schooling for African American students. In M. J. AmeriShujaa (Ed.), Beyond desegregation: The politics of quality in African can schooling (pp. 162-184). Thousand Oaks, CA: Convin Press. Irvine, J. J., Fraser, J.W. (1998, May 13). Warm demanders. Education Week, (17), 35, pp. 42, 56. Imine, R. W., & Imine, J. J. (1983). Theimpact of the desegregation process on the education of black students: Key variables. Journal ofNegro Education, 23, 364-371. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R.T. (1995). Reducing school violence through conflict resolution. Alexandria, V A Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Philadelphia, PA: New SoJudson, S. (1977). A manual on nonviolence and children. ciety Publishers. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Succes$ul teachers ofAfiican American children. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-BassPublishers. Levin, D.(1994). Teachingyoung children in violent times. Cambridge, M A : New Society Publishers. Morris, V. G., Taylor, S. I., &Wilson,J. T.(in press). Using children’s stories to promote peace and caring in theclassroom. Early Childhood Education Journal. Report of visiting committeeon evaluative criteria ofTrenholm High School. (1955). Tuscumbia, AL: Author. Schmidt, F., & Friedman, A. (1991). Creative conflict solving forkids. Miami, FL: Grace Contrino Abrams Peace Education Foundation. Inc.

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Smith, C. A. (1993). The peaceful classroom. Mt. Rainier, MD: Gryphon House. Sowell, T. (1976).Patterns of black excellence. Public Interest, 43, 26-58. Trenholm, G. W. (1912, April 4). Status of Negro education in Alabama. Annualaddress of G. W. Trenholm, President of the Alabama State Teachers’ Association, delivered at Selma, AL. Washington,DC:Howard University, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. Walker, V. S . (1996). Their highest potential: African American school community in the segregated south.Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Wichert, S. (1989). Keeping the peace. Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers.

CHAPTER 5

The SeBreJatedAfrican American School: A Center for Culture, Recreation, Leadership, and Education The most profound event in thewhole Trenholm High School was when I was doing an oratorical contest in 1954 and I remember Buzz Beasley and Fred Johnson and some other people standingin the back of the auditorium and they said, “Speak loudly and clearly because someday you might want somebody to hear.” When I got up there [as part of an American delegation in Hong Kong], I don’t know how muchI spoke of substance, but I spoke loudly and clearly. And everybody stopped whatthey were doing and listened. .. .But all I did was what the teachers told me to do. 1955 graduate of Trenholm

MORE THAN ACADEMICS

“It takes a whole village to raise a child” is a statement of philosophy repeated by many educators, communityresidents, and policymakers around the nation as they attempt to discover ways to provide quality schooling for all children in a democracy. The notion communicatedby this philosophy is nothing new to the African American community in Tuscumbia, Alabama, which for nearly 100years livedthis philosophy. Tuscumbia Colored Public School/Trenholm High School, with grades 1-12, served as the central unifying force in theAfrican American community from 1877 until 1969 when the segregated school building was closed by court orderand later demolished. For mostof the period that the school existed, the South was a segregated society and many of the communityresources that were available to white citizens were denied to African Americans. The activities held at the school building thus served the

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social, recreational, leadershp, and educational needs of both children enrolled in the school and theadults in the African American community. The period following the Civil War into the 1960swas a time whenmany segregated African American communities like the one in Tuscumbia, Alabama, exercised community control ofschools for their children. McCready (1996) indicated that: In terms of community control,the Plessy decision may haveunintentionally served to keep intact African-Americans’“control” of theireducational institutions. ...Effective community schools that existed before the 1960’s have largelybeen ignored by educators andhistorians interested in this period ofAfrican American education. Thesesegregated schools, though lacking financial resources and adequate facilities, often became models of community-controlled institutions,as white school boards showed little or no interest in theeducation ofAfrican-American children. ...As a result, there was a greatdeal of interactionbetween parents and community authorityfigures such as teachers and administrators, enabling them to speak a “common tongue.” Under these circumstances, the school was a naturalreflection of the African American community’s aspirations and ideals. (p. 110)

Graduates of Trenholm High School communicated that the range of school programs and activities were the number two factor that contributedto their school being agood school. The quality and dedication of the teachers were their number one choice. Former students indicated that they had opportunities to participate in a wide range ofprograms and activities. Activities and experiences provided opportunities for the development of leadership and team-buildingslulls through serving as officers in clubs, participating in plays, pageants, oratorical contests, athletic events, band, and chorus. Other experiences included lectures by nationally known speakers, collegeband and choral concerts, fashion shows, banquets, movies, and a variety of moneyraising events. Activities likethese helped to develop self-confidence and nurtured a positive self-concept among students at Trenholm High School long before these concepts became popular in the professional and lay literature. These activities, in addition to the academic program, contributedto the caring and nurturing educational environment that existed at Tuscumbia Colored Public School/Trenholm High School for nearly 100 years. Sources used to document the academic program and extra curricular activities were incomplete because many of the primary documents were no longer available. When Trenholm High School was closed in 1969, school records including official registers dating from 1896, group pictures of graduating classes, and other records were carefully organized and storedat Deshler High School andwere stillthere whenMr. Fred Johnson (the last principal at Trenholm) retired as principal at Deshler. However, when we attempted to have the records retrieved in the 1980s, most of the documents had disappeared from the school’s storage area. No official at the school couldlocate these documents. The information reported here was retrieved from school

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board minutes, accreditation reports, the 1948 school yearbook, Trenholm High School Student Handbook (1961), old newspapers, questionnaires completed by graduates and principals, interviews with graduates, principals, and teachers, copies of school programs and photographs shared by community residents, and old documents includedin the three school reunionpublications. Many details about the activities of the school andthe African American community appearedin the American Star from 1901 to 1916, apaper published by G. W. Trenholm, the third principal at the Tuscumbia Colored Public Schoolflrenholm HighSchool. A second source that provided specific details was a column that appeared for the first time in the 1950s in the FlorenceTimes-Tri-Cities Daily,a local newspaper.The column, entitled “News About Negroes,” was written by Mable Thomas Lee and later by Ad Lena Thomas (beginning in 1960), a fifth grade teacher at Trenholm High School. Therefore, the reporting of programs and activities is uneven, with information missing for some years and the description of some activities more complete than others. It appeared to be a combination ofcourse work andextracurricular activities that graduates perceived as an important factor in malung their school a good school. One student stated: “School was the most positive element in our community. Therewas no doubt,a positive force to me. Therewere more things that connect me to the schoolin the community thanany other entity.” Another studentsaid: “Oh, I have the warmestfeelings in the worldabout my school experiences. I never wanted to miss school. Because it was alwaysfun. I enjoying learning. I liked the people.” A third student remarked that school was: “One of the greatest experience of my life.From my firstperception ofschool, as far back asI remember, I always enjoyed it. I can’t remember a time when I did not enjoy going to school.” A fourth student communicated her excitement about attending school each day:“I have a very positiveattitude about school and always have. I was the one who would run out the doorto get to school every morning, whether I was dressed or not,hair combed or not,I was ready to go.And no one had to ever get meto go to school.” This same student talked about her favorite school experiences: I enjoyed the activities I was involved in such as band, the 4-H, the choir, the parent involvement in activities, such as fund raising activities ...standing on thecorner downtown in thewinter drinkinghot chocolate and asking for donations,car washes,things of that nature where there was a lot of community involvement and parent involvement to assist in raising funds to raise the educational status of children.

A fifth student liked the social experiences best. H e stated: One of the most attractive experiences about school are the social experiences you get at school. That’s certainly a place where you meet alot of other people who are at least

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looking for the same experiences or being forced through the same experiences as you. ...For the kid that doesn’t want to go to school, the social experience makes it bearable and forthe kid that does want to goto school it makes an enhancementto the learning experience. Anyway, that’s a very important aspect ofit. Also, I kind of liked the thinking process. I liked the thinking process a lot. ...It’s a place where you learn a lot about getting along with other people. ...You’ve got to get along with a lot ofpeople in this world. And that’s where[at school]a lot of that is learned through either teaching, conflict resolution or whatever, but the social aspect of school is I think is every bit as important as the mathematics and reading. In an effortto encourage studentsto do well in school, parents and teachers often communicate that school is preparation for life. But when one former Trenholm student compared her school experiences at Trenholmto her child’s experience in a desegregated school in another community, she said for her son “there was school andthen therewas the rest oflife. And when I was in school, it WAS life.” She further noted “I tended to talk to teachers so much ...it’s hard for meto distinguish between whatlunds of things got said in class and what hnds ofthings got said outside.” The words expressed by one student summarize what many graduates felt about their involvement in programs and activities at Trenholm High School. She said: “I was involvedin everythingthat was possible to be involved in because I wanted to be.Andtherewerenohindrancestobeinginvolved. ...Trenholm helpedto round me out as far as producing a person who had a lot of confidence in whatever I decided I wanted to do.”

COURSE OF STUDY The enrollment at Trenholm HighSchool withgrades 1-12 was probably never more than 500, with graduating classes of 40 or less. So, the course of study was neverthat ofa comprehensive high school, especially as related to a variety of electives and advanced placement courses. The 1910 course of study was reported in a study by Thomas Jesse Jones (1969). H e noted that Trenholm HighSchool was the only public high school in the county andthat “the colored peopleof thecommunity raised about $1,000 annually to supplement the public appropriation to the school” (p. 40).

TUSCUMBIA COLORED HIGH SCHOOL Principal: G. W. Trenholm A public high school doing three years ofwork, including a limited amount ofindustrial

training for girls. Elementary grades aretaught in the same building. Attendance-Secondary, 32; male7 ,female 25. The elementary enrollment was 200. Teachers-Secondary 3; all colored; male1, female 2. Therewere three teachers for the elementary grades.

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Organization-Secondary:Thesecondarycourseincludes:English, 4 1/2 years; mathematics, 3; Latin, 2 1/2; German, 1; pedagogy and psychology,1/2; physics, 1; biology, 1/2; history, 1. Industrial: Sewingis the only industrial subject in the high school. The elementary pupils have sewing, shuckwork, and raffia [African palm tree leaves usedfor making mats and baskets]. Plant-Estimatedvalue, $5,000. The plantconsists of 1 1/4 acres of land, a two-story frame building, and equipment valuedat $400. (Jones, 1969,p. 40)

It appeared that, by 1910, students could complete a course of study through the elventh grade at the Tuscumbia Colored Public School. Many graduates were then eligible to teach in Alabama elementary schools. For those whowished to complete a high schoolcourse, they attended one ofthree normal schools in the state at Huntsville (now Alabama A & M University), Talladega (Talladega College), or Montgomery (now Alabama State University). Some studentsalso chose to attend the normalschool in Nashville (now Tennessee State University). The three teachers noted for the elementary school were likelythe same teachers for the high school.One of the persons interviewed who was a Trenholm graduate andalso a teacher at theschool in&cated that the teachers often taught the elementary grades from 8 A.M. to 2 P.M. and then taught one high school course beginning at 2 P.M. The teachers were paid an additional $5 per month with money that had been raised bythe colored auxiliary board at the fifth Sunday rallies. In 192 1,the name of the school was changed to Trenholm HighSchool in honor of George Washington Trenholm, the thirdprincipal of the school. The graduating class of 1922was the first classto complete 12 grades at Trenholm High School. By 1961, the school was near its height in total enrollment, number of teachers (10elementary and10 high school), and course offerings. Table 1lists the required and elective courses for grades 7-12. In response to the question “What were your favorite subjects?,” Trenholm High school graduates gave a wide range of responses. One student stated: I liked biology and allthe sciences. ...I guess because theydealtwith life. Things thatI could reachout and touch. ...You explain why things are the way they are and the relationship. You look at nature andsee the water, fish andthe sky and the rain. Plants will grow andthe chemicals. ...It puts things in perspective and it gave me a chance to un-

derstand.

A second studentremarked: “I enjoyed geometry. I don’t knowif I could do it any now, But at that time, I saw one of my report cards not too long ago in that. I think I enjoyed that more than anything. I got pretty good with figures.” A third student indicated that her favorite subject was history: History always seemed to have such hidden secrets about thecountries, the people, and it just interested me. And then I think a lot ofit had to do with my lineage becauseofbe-

Table 1 Courses Offered

Required Courses

7

Enghsh Social Studies Physical Ed. General Science Mathematics

8 English Social Studies General Science Mathematics Physical Ed.

9 English Social Studies General Science Physical Ed.

10 Enghsh Physical Ed.

11

12

Enghsh Social Studies Physical Ed.

Enghsh Social Studies Physical Ed.

Physics Typing Auto-Mech. Home Ec.

Physics Twig Auto-Mech. Home Ec.

Electives

French 1

French 1

Home Ec. Algebra 1 French 1

Biology World History Home Ec. Algebra 1

Source: Trenholm high school student handbook. (1961).Trenholm High School, Tuscumbia, Alabama, p. 25.

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ing black and I would often hear them say that most black people have relatives that were white. On my father’s side I had relatives that were white. My mother’s lineage was Negro and Indian.

A fourth student statedwhy his favorite subject was physics: Well, because I see physics as the first application ofa theoretical science to something I can use and feel. So physics to me is applied mathematics. It explained to me why kicking a football at a 45 degree angle would make the football go farther on the ground made it easier than kicking it atsome other angle. It explained to me why a long wrench to turn a screw or a valve than a short handle. ...It just explained things that I could see, so it was my favorite subject.

There were several students who indicated that they liked all their subjects. Other Trenholm High School graduates discussed their favorites subjects in Chapter 4 as they talked about their favorite teachers. A description of the respondents who completed the questionnaire and interviews for this case study providesone pictureof the significance of both the academic programs and extra-curricular activities in the lives of Trenholm High graduates. One hundred-nineteen respondents completedquesa tionnaire for this study with graduation dates spanning from1909 to 1980. Of the 119 graduates completing the questionnaire 73 percent or 87 of the respondents had completed some kind of postsecondary degree or certificate, while 87 percent had attended college. At the time the questionnaire was completed, three studentswere pursuing doctoratedegrees. Of the20 graduates interviewed, 55 percent or 20of the respondents heldmaster’s degrees and three had completed doctorates. Students who graduated from Trenholm between 1909 and 1939, and were also college graduates, were more likely to choose teaching as a profession. However, students who graduated after 1950 had begun to choose a significantly broader range ofoccupations and professions. It seemed normalthat graduates of Trenholm High might think that perhaps they hadnot received the same quality of educationthat some of their African American counterparts from larger, better equipped high schools, and certainly not upto the standards of thelocal white high school students. This was the feeling of many students, even though they believed that they had good teachers at Trenholm who didexceptionally well with the resources at hand. Prior to 1963, mostof the graduates who attended college enrolled at hstorically black institutions and later attended formerlyall-white universities to earn advanced degrees. One graduate noted her concern when she enrolled in college: I worked very hard that first yearat college because I knew that many of my classmates had attended large, well-equipped schools and thecompetition wouldbe stiff. We had visited many of the schools when we playedfootball and basketball games, and whenwe took trips with high school clubs for special training or competitions. We were abso-

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lutely amazed. Our physical facilitieswere no match for theirs. But, I found myself at the top of the class each year. I was well prepared for all subjects, chemistry, physics, mathematics, English, you name it. Therewas no doubt thatwe had received a good education at Trenholm, despite the lack of resources. And the lion’s share of the credit goes to the teachers.

A second student who completed his undergraduate degree at a predominately white university expressed his uneasiness when he first enrolled in classes. I was very nervous about what my experience would be. And I know that in some ways that they [white students] had some experiences that were different than mine and in some areas I had to do some catching up. But, I foundthat catching up was not a big deal. It was just a matter ofbeing exposed to a set of facts that I hadn’t seen before, but I did discover ...that my learning skills were not outof line. And in fact, I was surprised to not only how strong I was relative to them [whites],but how strong a lot of my peers [AfricanAmerican students] were. In other words, the first thing thatsomebody tried to say was well you are an unusual Negro. ...I knew a lot of Negroes who were smarter than me ...but whodidn’t have the same opportunities or strokes ofluck thatI did. So, a lot of those myths just started to fall away.

A third Trenholm graduate notedhis concerns about his education as he prepared for a career: I recognize that there were some inadequacies in the education [at Trenholm], because I had the occasion to go intc :he white high school in the summer. ...I saw some ofthe laboratories that they had. The biology and chemistry laboratories that they had andwe had nothing even close to the facilities they had. ...And even the classroom facilities, the library, the gym, all those things were far superior and I had a chance to observe those and I knew that there was something going on when I looked at ours. Like we used old hand me down football uniforms and hand me down books that they no longer wanted. ...I really didn’t start tocompete in a total society until I got into the air force. And here I was with kids from ...schools like Stanford and Harvard andI was a little fearful that I would not be able to compete because of goingback to high school and thethings I didn’t get. Butit wasn’t very long untilI found thatI was competing just as well as people from all those other places. And ofcourse ...the rest of my life I have seen it thatway. ...And the interest that those black teachers took in my life.And the black folks in the community. . . .I think that made the difference.

Many Trenholm High Schoolgraduates who enrolled in college programs initially feltsome unnecessaryanxiety becausethey were uncertain about their academic preparation, primarily becauseof thelack of instructional resources at their high school. However, after a very short while, they came to realize that they had received a solid academicbackground and had acquired skills in “learning how to learn.” One student communicatedthis idea when he stated: “So I had learning skills, Ijust hadn’t beenexposed to things and hadn’tlearn them. Some of those people who did, mistook my lackof exposure...to indi-

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cate a lack of skills. They werewrong.” And as Trenholm graduates pursued professional careers,they found that the myths inferiority of ofAfrican Americans that had been communicatedall their lives had no basis in facts.

SECONDHAND TOGS, BUT FIRST-CLASS CHAMPIONSHIPS The athletic programs at the highschool were a major rallying point for the school and community that metmany of the social, recreational, and leadership needs of both children and adults. For many yearsthe high school teams were powerhousesin both regional and state athletic associations in football, basketball, and track and field events-even with secondhand equipmentthat had been used by athletes at the white school across town. The firstinterscholasticsportattheTuscumbiaColoredPublic School/Trenholm High School appearedto be baseball and, second,outdoor basketball. Compared to football, for example, these two sports did not require heavy investments in equipment required to play the events safely. At the 1908 commencement exercises, the amount of $150 was presented to the baseball team by Mr. Charles J.Jackson (High SchoolCommencement, 1908). TheAmerican Star reported on a game played in 1909 against one of the local rivals.It appeared that the baseball event was combined witha debate planned for the same day. The Burrell Normal School boys of Florence came over on the 15thult. and defeated between them on our boys in a game of baseball. On said night there was a joint debate “Resolved, That Prohibition is the most effective means of abolishing the evils of intemperance.” Our boys won the debate. The entire faculty of Burrell Normal school was present. (High School Notes, 1909)

By 1912, an athletic club was organized for the boys by Mr.Morris, the local minister of the A.M.E. (African Methodist Episcopal) church. A local newspaper reported the formation of the club, but it did not report name or the sports events in which the studentsparticipated: We appreciate very much the interest taken in ourboys on the part ofthe Rev. Mr. Morris. H e has already organized an athletic club among thelarger boys, who seem to be quite enthusiastic over the idea. The girls seem quite jealous and one went so far as to intimate that she “Wished Mrs. Morris would train the girls.’’ (High School Items, 1912)

The athletic club was scheduled to perform several drills asa part of the school closing exercises in May 1912 (Commencement, 1912). Once football and basketball became interscholastic athletic events in the region,baseball took a back seat and was limited primarily as an intramural sport played by classes on the playground andin the community.

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Football

The first football team was established in fall of 1930, following the visit of some students from Trenholm High School to the old Gilbert football field to observe the Deshler High football team practice. The Trenholm studentswere approached by Lawson Wilson and Billie Castleberry, two Deshler High School students who wantedto start a football team at Trenholm.After consultation with Principal C. E. Leslie and Superintendent R. E. Thompson, a team was formed with the two Deshler students serving as coaches. Several sources were used to secure uniforms and equipment for the first football team. The coach at Deshler High gave all hs practice tops to the new Trenholm players (a practice that continued into the 1950s),which did not meet the needs of the entire team. Some ofboys thecollected their own equipment and Professor Leslie received 10 pairs of brogans and 10 sweatshirts from Mack's Busy Corner, alocal business.Shorty Shutts Shoe Shop on Main Street replaced the metal cleats on the shoes with leather ones. After three weeks of instruction andpractice, the Trenholm Wildcats football team played Sterling High School of Sheffield; Burrell-Slater of Florence; and Trinity High ofAthens, Alabama. The Wildcats defeated Sterling in theirfirst game with a score of 7-0, but lost the remaining games. This was the beginning of an important athletic program in the life of the school that would continue through the 1967-1968 school year (Johnson, 1990).N.T. Thomas was h r e d as a mathematics teacher for the 1931-1932 academic year with an assignment as junior high coach the following year. It is very likely that he assumed the job of coaching the football team and other sports following the establishment of the first football team in 1930 (TrenholmSchool, 1981). Documents retrieved from theAlabama A & M University Archives collection reveal that the Trenholm High School Wildcats had championship teams several yearsfrom 1949to 1967,the years Charles C. Mahorneywas thecoach for all interscholastic sports at theschool. The teams won 75 percent of their games over a 19-year period. What is remarkable about this record is that Trenholm was one of thesmallest high schools in the area, often with so few boys that the offensive team and the defensive team were one and the same. Many of the highschools in the same athletic association had both offensive and defensive teams. Thus, mostteam members played for the entire 60 minutes, but thespirit was alwayshigh. Lead by the cheerleaders, with the support and music of the band, other students, teachers, parents, and other community residents, the team won many championships. And, for the most part, the football players were also the basketball stars, and stars in field and track events. The practice sessions and games helped teams members to develop discipline, stamina, persistence, leadership, decisionmaking, and team-building skills. For theAfrican American community, the athletic contests engendered a sense of pride and served as a source of recreational and social activity.Money earned at concession stands during thegames and other fundraisers sponsored by the school helped provide the financial support needed to purchase uni-

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forms and equipment and pay for transporting teams to games outside the community. Participating in team sports appeared to be an importantfactor for keeping some boys in school. Opportunities to take part in athletic programs seemed to make the academic work more bearable for some. However, in the early days, the lack of academic criteria allowed boys to continue to play sports while failing in their classes, and some team members were overage for their grade levels, whilea few never graduated fromhigh school. The 1961student handbook revealed the new rules for participating in interscholastic athletics: (1) students were ineligible after their 20th birthday, (2) students must pass three-fourths oftheir required subjects each six weeks, and (3) students must pass in at least three-fourths of required subjects each year (Trenholm Handbook, 1961). Basketball, Track and Field

Few documents were available on the history of thebasketball program at Trenholm and nonewere available on track and field competition. Both girls and boys participated in these events. The 1948 yearbook, the only one published in the entirehstory of theschool, reveals that thegirls’ basketball team had won the championships in the athletic association for the 1945,1946,and 1947seasons. The boys’ basketballteams were champions for the 1945,1946, 1947, and 1948 seasons. Track meets were held once per year in the spring with Trenholm High School often hostingthe event at theDeshler High School stadium. Bothboys and girls competed in variety a oflong and shortraces, high jump,broad jump, and shot-put contests. Each spring, an athletic banquet (a suit and tie event) was held at the high school to honor the athletes. After the start of the baseball team by 1908, itis reasonable to assume that either ateacher or a volunteer from the community continuedto nurture athletic events at the school. Official board records list the following faculty members as coaches or persons responsible for the athletic program, or the physical education teacher beginning with the 1931-1932 school year: N.T. Thomas, Russell R. Lawson, Patrick H . Wesley, Alfonso Copeland, W. M. Martin, Venzelia C. Wrencher (the only woman coach for men’s and women’s basketball), John B. Hall, and Charles C. Mahorney. School records show that oneperson was hired to take responsibility for the entireathletic program. Therewere no paid assistant coaches. However, often other teachers at the school volunteered to assist with the teams and sometimes that person was the principal. Charles Mahorney, the last coach at Trenholm High School, was hired as coach and teacher ofphysical education in1949 and spent thenext 19 years as head coach for football, basketball, and track and field, all the interscholastic sports at TrenholmHigh School. During his tenure as coach, he was selected as the Coach of theYear fivetimes by the North Alabama High School Athletic

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Association. When Trenholm was closed, he went to Deshler High School where he servedas an assistant football coach and head basketball coach. He retired from the school district in 1982 (Grand Marshall, 1990; Trenholm School, 1981).

HALF-TIMEENTERTAINMENT AND MUCH MORE

This section describes the role of musicas an important medium of expression and entertainmentat major events of the h g h school andin the community. The marchmg bandwas the pride and joy of the communityas it provided half-time entertainment atfootball games andled the annual homecoming parade through downtown. But, there was much moreto the music program at Trenholm High School.

Music, Always Music Music was alwaysan important medium ofexpression and entertainment at major events of the highschool. Miss Phoebe B. Frazer, one of two assistant teachers to Principal PleasBarton, was responsible for the musical part ofthe program for the spring 1888 school closing exercises. The music included solos, duets, and quartets. “Miss Frazer was the accompanist and mustbe congratulated for her good success in the musical department” (Weekly Dispatch, 1888). In spring 1892, the school presented concerts on two consecutive nights at Lloyd’s Opera House (Public School Concert, 1892)and for three nights in spring 1893 at the court room that had installed a stage just for the event (Colored School, 1893). For several years during the first decade of the 1900s,Miss Julia F. Meredith, a native Tuscumbian, was responsible for the music program at the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School andwas one of two assistant teachers while G. W. Trenholm was principal. “She began her study ofvocal and instrumental music when quite young and continued it the in institutions just mentioned [Tuscumbia Colored Public School, Trinity Institute, Rock Island, Illinois City] (Local, 1901). Miss Meredith also taught music outside the city while employed as a teacher at the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School. For example, during the summer of 1901, she taught music in Iuka, Mississippi (Local, 1901). When Miss Meredith resigned to start a private school in her home, Miss Athelstein Sullivan was h r e d as music teacher in fall 1908. She appearedto be the first teacher hired to teach music full-time at the school. An article in the American Starannounced herarrival and qualifications for the position: “Miss Sullivan will give allof her time to the teaching of vocal and instrumental music. She is fully prepared, having completed her literary and music course in Selma University, she took a course in the Oberlin (Ohio) Conservatory of Music” (High School Notes, 1908a). During Miss Sullivan’s first year, the

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school held its formal opening of the music department anda new pianowas installed, perhaps thefirst everat the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School. The purchasing of a piano was a special project that had been taken on by the alumni association (High School Notes,1907). The school had conducted rallies in the school and local community to raise the money for the piano. By September 1908,22 students were enrolled in the music department (High School Commencement, 1908; New Piano, 1908; OurPiano, 1908). By September 1910, students were chargedfor instrumental music at theschool, presumably for piano lessons. The charge was $1 for four lessons and $2 for eight lessons. Vocal music was offered at no charge (City High, 1910). In fall 1910, Miss Mattie A. Green, a native of Florence, Alabama, and a 1910 graduate of Selma University, was named music teacher following the resignation of Miss Sullivan.She was highly recommended by her instructors at Selma University,where she had beenpianist for the university orchestra the previous year (School Opens,1910).Miss AliceK. Luffborough, a graduate of Fisk University, washired as music teacher in September 1911 (School Opening, 1911).Miss Johnette B. Clanton, of Decatur,Illinois, was named music teacher for the 1912-1913 schoolyear. She graduated fromWestern College in Montana, whereshe had taught for one year. She graduated from the school of music at Millihn University and also completed a four-year course in Domestic Science.It appears that in addition to teaching music,she also became the first teacher of Domestic Science (later called home arts and home economics) at the school (CityHigh, 1912). Of the five music teachers listed in the American Star from 1900 to 1912, only one, Julia H . Meredith, was noted as a member ofthe Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School faculty listprovided by the TuscumbiaCity Schools office. Evidently,the remainingteachers-Misses Sullivan, Green,Luffborough,and Clanton-were hired by the African American auxiliary board. From the 1912-1913 academic year through the 1930-1931 academic year, the official board records do notshow thata teacher was assigned to teach music, as it did not formany other subjects before or since. However, programs of schoolevents during that period show that music continued to be an important part of school activities. For example, a 1929 announcement of spring events at the schoolindicates that Ethel Holmeswas in charge of the musical forthat year. Her name was found on the official listof faculty for the 1929-1930 schoolyear, but assigned subjects were not listed for any teachers. Between 1931 and 1942, official records show that Janie Steele and Lottie Louise Harris were responsible for the music program in addition to teaching in their assigned subject areas. More details about the music program and teachers assigned to that area were available beginning in 1942 when Mattie Gilchrist, wife of Principal Gilchrist, took responsibility for the program (Trenholm School, 1981). Many professionaland collegiate musiciansperformed atthe school beginning in the early 1900s. These events served as entertainment for the commu-

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nity as well asencouragement for the studentmusicians receivinginstruction through theschool’s musicprogram. Forexample, in July 1901, “thefamous quartette, which was so much spoken of by the press for the excellent music rendered at the Southern Industrial Convention at Philadelphia in June last year waspresent and rendered some most excellent productions” (Weekly Dispatch, 1901). Thefamous JohnsonTrio appeared at the high schoolon April 29,192 1.Admission was 50 cents and asection was reserved for whites (Johnson Trio, 1921). In thedecades that followed, choral and band groups from other high schools as well as colleges and professional groups andindividuals were invited to participate in musical events at the school. Band. The high school band at Trenholm included the marching band, concert band, and combos thatwere organized for special social events. Instruction in playing band instruments began at grade five and students were able to join the bandas soon as the band director thought they wereready. The school budget was not adequate to buy all the band instruments neededor uniforms to outfit the bandso fundraisers were plannedby the Band Booster Club; many parents purchased instrumentsfor their children. The 1961Trenholm Hi& School Student Handbook included thecriteria for eligibility for student participation in the band: Students are eligible to participate in theband at grade five or when the director feels that the physical development reached a degree necessary for participation. To maintain membership as a performing student thechild must be regular in attendance, parents a member of the Band Booster Club, show individual pride and respect for the band, and are expected to maintain average or above average scholastic grades. These things provide for better school relationships and individual achievement that are stressed in our school curriculum. (1961, p. 30)

When Professor J. H. Gilchrist and his wifeMattie arrived in Tuscumbia in 1942, Mrs. Gilchrist begana music program that includedmusic appreciation and violin lessons for the elementary and high school students. John Mr. Duncan was paid to travel from Alabama State College, Montgomery, Alabama, on Saturdays to develop and instruct students in the use of band instruments. Mrs. Gilchrist and Mrs.Adlena Thomas workedto keep the band going with support from parents. The band continuedto receive support from succeeding principals when Principal and Mrs. Gilchrist moved to Montgomery in 1947 to teach at Alabama State College. Band teachers at Trenholm High School included MattieGilchrist, Adlena Thomas, George Washington,Rudolph Bates, Charles Beasley, and John Winston. Theband participated in a variety of events in the school, the local community, andin areas outside the community. The band played at football games, concerts, civic parades, and graduation exercises. On a regular basis, other school communities who did not have marching bands dependedon the Trenholm HighSchool band for performing at special events, such as homecoming. Those communities included Courtland, Moulton, and Carter’s Branch School in Tishomingo, Mis-

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sissippi. The Band Booster Club raised money to send the band to invited events such as the MardiGras in Mobile, Alabama, TennesseeState University homecoming in Nashville, Tennessee,Tuscaloosa BandContest, and the Band Festival at Alabama A & M University (Winston, 1990).A team ofskdled senior and junior majorettes were important members of the Trenholm High School marching band. Examples of special local area events in which the band participated included an activity sponsored by the NAACP and a LaborDay parade. When the Tri-Cities Branch ofthe NAACP presented Dr. Mary McCloud Bethune in a lecture at the Slater Grammar School in Florence, Alabama, on March 17, 1946, both theband and chorus from TrenholmHigh School performed at the program (Thanks, 1981).John W. Winston, the last band director at Trenholm, reportedon the bandparticipation in a Labor Day parade that included marching in Florence, Sheffield, and Tuscumbia.The president of alocal African American labor union, also a member of the Trenholm Band Booster Club, helped to find the money for the bus transportation needed between towns and gave a donation of $200to be used for band expenses. It was very interesting because we didn’t have a budget atthis time and we really appreciated the labor union helping us. They needed to have a band to perform the Labor Day parade and he was instrumental in gettingus some money to start in Florence, Alabama. There was no other band interested at that time of the season [before school opened]. We were ready because the school did not provide adequate timein the school schedule so, in order tocompensate, we did work during thesummer without pay to be ready for the football season. We would start parading in Florence ...down to the Coke Cola plant, pick us up, bring us across the river.We would parade through Sheffield ...down to the railroad tracks and thebus would pick us up again and come to the Deshler High School site ...then parade through town to the Spring Park.

On Labor Day each year,Spring Parkin Tuscumbia was the site of the annual political rally for the Democratic party in the state of Alabama.When Trenholm was closed in 1969, all instruments were donated to the students who were using themsince the instruments had been purchased by AfricanAmerican citizens in the community (Winston, 1990). In 1960, acombined community band of students fromthree local high school bandswas formed, includmg TrenholmHigh School. An article in the local newspaper reported: The band directors of Leighton, Sterling and Trenholm High Schools have come up with a splendid idea that is taking on interest throughout the area. They formed a Northwest Alabama Concert Band, with hopes that the interest will continue to grow to the extent that students and school officials of other nearby communities will give their participation. The main objective for organizingthis musical group is to challenge the better musicians in the local bands and at thesame time provide a better quality of music, as well as musicians for the community. (Lee, 1960a, p. 2)

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Vocal Music. Vocal music was available in some formsince the beginning of the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School/Trenholm High School. Solos, quartets, and choral singing and piano performances were a common part of graduation exercises and other special events at the school. Mattie Gilchrist was responsible for vocal instruction from 1942 to 1947 and also helped to start the first marching band at Trenholm High School. Teachers who provided or assisted with choral music at Trenholm High School after 1942 included MattieGilchrist, Adlena M. Thomas, Margaret Brooks Hill, Catherine L. Fisher, Verdell M. Hill, Barbara B. Black,and JohnW. Winston (Trenholm School, 1981; Winston, 1990). Joint band and choral recitals were major events held just before Christmas and in the spring. Choral groups and solo performances were includedas a part oftalent shows used to raise money for the school, weeldy assemblies, spring plays, banquets, and majorevents sponsored by the community, suchas lectures by well-known African Americans. Choral groups from Trenholmalso participated in local, district, and state choral programs andcompetitions. For example, in 1960 the school hosteda musical for high schools in North Alabama. TheTrenholm High School faculty and students ofTuscumbia will serve as hosts to the North Alabama Spring Choral Festival in their gymnatorium on Sunday, April 3, at 3 p.m. The Spring Choral Festival isan annual musical event sponsored by the high schools of North Alabama and features presentations from a polished choral group or an ensemble from each o f the schools. The program this year will offer varied fare including semi-classical, sacred, spiritual, and popular numbers. . . .The public is cordially invited to attend. Advance sale tickets can be obtained from any homeroom class at Trenholm High School and from any of the North Alabama participating schools. (Lee, 1960~1, p. 6)

c

Piano. Occasionally, individual piano lessons weretaught during the school day. But, for the mostpart, students took private piano instruction from music teachers at Trenholm High School who offered choral instruction during the school day or from other pianoinstructorswho livedin thecommunity-many were teachers in schools in neighboring communities. Regularpiano recitals were held duringthe school year at the high school, giving piano students opportunitiesto perform for parents, other students, and the community. Sometimes, high performing piano students were accompanists for choral groups at the highschool, and played for talent shows, weeldy assembly programs, and local churches on a regular basis.

SCHOOL CLUBS AND RELATED ACTIVITIES School clubs, other events, and social activities planned at the school allowed many opportunities for developing leadership and team-buildingskills. Among theearly club activities established at the school included the Temperance Societythat was noted in a local newspaperas early as1901 and the Liter-

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ary Society that appeared to have been organized in 1902. Althougheach of these school clubs met atvarious times throughout theschool year, specialperformances ofeach group were a part of graduationweek exercises(City Paragraphs, 1901; City School, 1902). Classroom teachers served as advisors to each ofthe school clubs with support for activities from the school administration and parents. L a France Club

The La France Club was one of the early clubs organized for students attending the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School. It was established on July 4, 1907, as an organization for young ladies as “a source of interest and pleasure to its members andfriends and at the same time do some real good for humanity.” By April 1908, therewere seventeen members who statedtheir willingness to make a difference in their community in an article that appeared in the American Star:“Our mites have been given freely and our hearts are willing and readyto domore. And how much there is to be done, how muchdarkness there is to dispel, how many poor and ignorant stretch forth their hands for assistance?” Their motto was “Lifting as we climb.” Since starting the club, members had donated a total of $18.75 to worthy causes. At the writing of the article, the club members were studying the“Life and Works of Paul Lawrence Dunbar,” the gifted African American poet. The La France Club performed special drills and plays as a regular part of commencement and other events held at the school. Advisors for the club included Mrs.A. W. Davis, wifeof the local African American doctor, Miss 0. E. Cooper, and Miss A. L. Austin, teachers at the Tuscumbia Colored Public School (AWordAbout, 1908;Scarf Drill, 1909; High School Notes, 1908a; 1908b). Homeroom Organization

Grades 7-12 were organizedinto homerooms that served as the homebase for class-size groups of students. For most of the years at Trenholm High School, there was one homeroomfor each grade level with ateacher-advisor. This is where each student began the school day, where lunch moneywas collected and attendance checked. Each homeroomelected class officers, representatives to the student council, and planned special class activities for the year. Some ofthese activities included one ormore assembly programs for the year, planning and performing spring a class play for an evening performance for the community,a year-end picnic or trip, and selecting a representative to compete for the school’s homecoming queen contest.The class then devised and carried out fundraising activities to support the homecoming queen representative. In addition to class meetings held to plan activities, homeroom time was also used for devotionals that included patriotic and spiritual songs as well as

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the Pledge of Allegiance. Whileelementary grades 1-6 did not have the same type of homeroom organizations as the high school grades, they had similar devotional exercises that were the first activitiesof each day. One studentspoke about devotional activities that tookplace during the homeroom periodeach morning along with assemblies and spring play performances. And we would sing hymns like “My Faith Looks Up to Thee” and “Holy, Holy, rows and everybody would say a Bible Holy”. ...And we would go up and down the quotation. ...We had devotional all the time. Another thing I shall never forget, the chapel programsthat we had. I t gave you experience in getting up before people. ...We had plays. And that was wonderful! Those thingsreally stuck with me.

A l l these activities were planned as one of many efforts designed to develop leadership skills and a cohesive team spirit among the students. Student Council The StudentCouncil served as the studentgoverning body for the school. The council included two representatives from each junior highschool homeroom and threerepresentatives from each senior high homeroom whowere elected by members of the homeroom. Thecouncil then elected officers for the year. “The purpose of the council was to e d s t the interest of all high school students inextra-curricular activities and to unite thevarious classes and school organizations into collective support of theschool as a whole” (Trenholm Handbook, 1961, p. 29). National Honor Society The HonorSociety was composed of students whomaintained averages of “B” or above. The purpose of theclub was to create an enthusiasm for scholarship, stimulate a desire to render service, promote worthyleadership, and encourage the development of character in pupils of Trenholm High School (Trenholm Handbook, 1961). Oneof thepopular items that appeared in the “News About Negroes” was the honor roll for Trenholm High School students (grades1-12) as well as the honor roll for other local AfricanAmerican schools (Lee, 1958). ThePTA held an annual banquet to honor students for their academic achievement and for students who hadperfect attendance for the school year. National Homemakers of America (N.H.A.) The N.H.A. chapter was an organization composed of girls who were enrolled in or had satisfactorily completed at least one year ofhome economics or homemaking education. The purposes of the chapterwere to:

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1. promote better home living. 2. promote individual growth by developing physical, social, and moral qualities. 3. provide wholesome recreational activities. 4. act as a unit for giving service to the school, community, state and nation. (Trenholm Handbook, 1961, pp. 31-32)

One of the annualactivities of the Trenholm High School N.H.A. was the Mother-Daughter Banquet atwhich home economics students had opportunities to share with their mothers in a formal setting the skills that they had learned in the area of food and nutrition. In 1960, the banquet was held in the school cafeteria with Miss Patsy Graves, a native Tuscumbian, as guest speaker for the occasion. Miss Gravesrelated the customs and economic conditions in Brazil and Inda. Approximately 75 personsattendedthebanquet (Lee, 1960e). At that time, Miss Graves wasChief Home Economist of the United States Operations in Brazil, a program designed to aid underdeveloped nations. When she went home to Tuscumbia for visits, she generously shared her experiences during assembly programs at Trenholm High School and with community groups (Lee, 1960). Another yearly activityofthe Trenholm School N.H.A. chapter was a trip to the NorthAlabama District Leadership Training meeting held at Alabama A & M College in Huntsville. At the 1960 meeting, a group of N.H.A.’ers from Trenholm presented achoral selection. Guests at the session included former students and N.H.A.’ers from Trenholm who were enrolled at Alabama A & M College. After the meeting, the Trenholm graduates took the N.H.A. chapter members on a tour of the campus and the dormitory where the Trenholm graduates lived (Lee, 1960b). One Trenholmgraduate remarkedabout theimpact ofvarious trips on the aspirations of students: In seventh grade, the Y-Teen or N. H. A. took a tripto AlabamaA & M for participation in a district meeting. I remember for the first time seeing many African Americans working in positions where they were dressed like we did when we went tochurch. I thought atfirst that the sun was shining in my eyesand I could not see clearly, maybe I was seeing spots fromthe sunglare as you do sometimes. But a second look revealed the same. The only adults who were dressed up when they went to work in my community were primarily teachers. They were clean when they went to work and they were clean when they returned home. Most of our parents and neighbors had dirty jobs. They went to work clean and came home dirty or tooka shower at work before they came home. I knew early that I wanted tobecome a teacher and I wanted to attend a place like Alabama A & M where African Americans were professionals in a lot of different jobs and they were in charge. And I did attend Alabama A & M. And I did become a teacher and later I was a faculty member at Alabama A & M, a dreamI never had as a seventh grader. Those high school trips were part of my inspiration.

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The remarks noted above were madeby one of the Trenholm graduates enrolled at Alabama A & M in 1960, who assisted in tahng the Trenholm N.H.A. chapter members on a tour of the college campus.

Boy and Girl Scout Organizations

The boy and girl scout troops were designed to help boys and girls to become better world citizens through work and activities (Trenholm Handbook, 1961). For many years,Samuel Wathns, parentand chemistat the Tennessee Valley Authority, worked ddigently with theboys inTuscumbia andnorth Alabama to reach the goals of boy scouting, probably beginningin the 1940s.H e persuaded Fred Johnson, teacher, counselor, and principal at Trenholm, to join him in the work as hs assistant for Troop 57. Many Trenholm High graduates recall with fond memories the craft, survival, and citizenship skills they learned along with the campouts on the Trenholm High School campus and othersites such as Drake Campin Rogersville.Scouts fromthe troopcompeted for badges tlirough local, district, and national competitions. At least two boys from the troop earned the rank of Eagle Scout. The scouting programwas expanded to include an Explorer Post with John W. Winston, banddirector and social studies teacher at TrenholmHigh, as the scout master. The Huntingand Fishing Club was the sponsor. Meetings were held at the club’s camping lodge at Camp Broaden. The main training aide was the Naval National Guard Unit located on the river in Sheffield. There were other supporting agencies as well. The scouting program for girls was started in 1954. In early 1955, scout leaders who worked with or planned to work with girls scouts at Trenholm completed the basic training course for leaders. T h s group included Gloria Mahorney, Rosa Wesley,Pattye Clark, Annis Salter, Otie Wilson, GarlorHyler, and Bettye Byrd.Most ofthe leaders wereteachers at Trenholm High School (Girl Scout News, 1955). A report of the girl scouts’ investiture ceremony stated that: The First Intermediate and Senior Girl Scouts Troop numbers 78 and 79 ofTuscumbia were organized by Mrs. Rosa P. Wesley and Mrs. A. W. Salter for the Intermediate Troop andMrs. Gloria Mahorneyand Mrs.Garlor Hylerfor the Senior Troop during the early fall of 1954. ...Troops 78 and 79 held their investiture Services the in TrenholmHighSchoolauditorium,Friday,February25,at9:30o’clock.(Lee,1955a,p. 5)

The first Brownie Scout Troop, No. 77, held its investiture ceremony a week earlierat the Trenholm High School auditorium 18 with girls participating in the first group. Mrs.Rosa P. Wesley and Miss Bettye Byrd were thefirst leaders for the troop (Lee, 1955a). The girl scouts participated in many of the same type of activities as the boys.

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Other Club Activities There were a number of otherclubs at theschool, some of which wereestablished after 1959 and remained operational until the school closed. Many were associated with &strict and state affiliates. So, in addition to the local activities, students had opportunities to take trips to other parts of the state where they showed their accomplishmentsby entering various typesof competitions and attendingleadership training sessions. State and district programs were often held at historically black colleges,particularly at Alabama A & M in Huntsville and Alabama State College in Montgomery. A list of someof these clubs and their purposes follow. 1. Literary and Drama Club. The purpose of this club was to stimulate interest in “good reading” andto teach appreciation of the dramatic art, to develop appreciation of dramatics as a means of self expression, and to develop and create a higher ideal of dramatic ability in the Trenholm High School from year to year. 2. 4-H Club. The purpose of 4-H Club work was to help develop boys and girls into useful and desirable citizens. It provides educational opportunities for mental, physical, socialand spiritual growth so that youthcan lead a richer, fuller and happier life. Members learn to work, to keep records ofwhat they have done, and tobe responsible for whatever they have undertaken. 3. Library Club.The purposes of the library club were to sponsor a greater interest among thestudents in the use of books and library service, stimulate reading interest, and improve the library service of the school. The T & I Club was composed of 4. T CT I Club (Trade and Industrial Education). students who were enrolled in vocational Trade and Industrial Education.The purposes of the club were to develop an appreciation for, understanding of, and good will among all trade and industrial students; develop civic and vocational intelligence and leadership; and assist in promotion of vocational education. 5 . Science Club.The purposes of the Science Club were to increase knowledge of science; perfect scientific skills; give service in community and nation; understand the importance ofsciencein daily life; and help carry out theprogram ofScience clubs in America. 6. T-Teem. The purpose of the Y-Teens wasto build a fellowship of women andgirls life those ideals ofpersonal and social devoted to the task of realizing in our common living to which we are committed by our Faith as Christians. (Trenholm High Handbook, 1961, pp. 30-33)

Other Activities

Chapel or Weekly Assemblies. Chapel (the name used most often at Trenholm) or weekly assemblies were usually held every Monday. During the school year, each homeroom class wasresponsible for planning and conducting one ormore programsso that each student had opportunities to perform before an audence. The types of programs conducted varied and included recitations, sluts, musical numbers, invited speakers, or some such combina..

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tion. Programs would focus on a particular holiday or event, such as Columbus Day, Thanksgiving, Christmas, Washington’s or Lincoln’s birthday, and Negro HistoryWeek. The one-hoursession usuallybegan with a devotional that included the singing of spirituals, patriotic songs, or “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” the Negro national anthem. The quoting of Bible verses or entire psalms was often part of the devotional. Time would also be allotted for the principal to make announcements that would be a combination of encouragement regarding achievements of students or warnings about rules that had been violated. This was alsoa time used to build school spirit via pep rallies in preparation for school athletic events. Even the seating arrangements in the assembly room had somesignificance. The elementary grades were seated on theleft side of the auditorium with the kindergarten (whenthey had a room on the highschool campus) or first grade in the front row with sixth graders on the back row (the seniors for the elementary school).Seated on the rightside ofthe auditorium were grades 7-12, with the seniors up front and the seventh graders on theback row. The movement o f students from 1-12 in the seating arrangement was viewed as a sign of achievement and honor by the children. SprinA Play Performances. Each 7-12 homeroom class and elementary grade held a spring play that was an evening performance for the parents and community. The plays were often based on play books that hadbeen ordered by the teachers. Parents made costumes and props and helped children to learn their spealung parts, dancing, andsinging numbers. A small entrance fee was often paid by students and adults. The monies raised were used to support school programs and activities. The spring plays usually began in March of each year and concluded with thesenior play held during the week of school closing exercises. Oratorical Contests, Recitations and Debates, Students had many opportunities to showcase their public speaking abilities at Trenholm High School. Recitations, debates, and oratorical contests appeared to be a regular part of graduation events (Weekly Dispatch, 1888). In 1900, “Miss AdaB. East, the valedictorian, delivered the best oration” (Colored City, 1900). Winners in the oratorical contest duringschool closing exercises in 1903 were Misses M. L. Austin, Eva C. Towns, Ora E. Cooper, andJ. F. Gilbert (City High,1903). Some of the same students were contest winners in 1904. Thewinners were Mr. James Bailey, Miss 0.E. Cooper, J. F. Gilbert, andMr. L. D. Revaul (City School Closed, 1904). In 1906, thehigh school held a debate entitled “Resolved, That the Girls Are Doing Morefor the World Than theBoys.” The American Starreported that the debate was quite lively “with Miss E. C. Towns leading in theaffirmative, and Mr. M. B. Steele in the negative. ALl who took part made good speeches. . . .The girls seemed to have won” (HighSchool, 1906). A second debate held at the high school was entitled “Resolved That the Negro Should

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Emigrate to Africa.” Following the debate, the majority voted to remain in America (City News, 1906). The 1955Accreditation Report noted some of the opportunities that students had to express themselves in both written and oral formats. Club meetings, classroom social conversation, panel discussions, and student-teacher planned assembly programs are used to develop initiative, arrive at decisions, and encourage responsible participation by individuals concerned, and by the group as a whole. The success with which our students are winning awards in such literary endeavors as local and district essay contests, competing favorably in academic meets and oratorical contests, leads us to feel that in some measure we are meeting this need. (Report, 1955, p. 28)

Organizations suchas the Elks Club and Delta Sigma Theta Sorority at Alabama A & M sponsored programs/conteststhat included oratorical competition, beautycontests, and thedisplay of other kinds of talents such as singing or playing an instrument. The competitionsusually began at the school level and proceeded with &strict and state meets. Along with the recognition of being a winner, monetary awards were made, often to support college attendance. Classroom teachers were coaches for the students and transported students to district and state meets to compete. School Closin.Exercises. Graduation week was always a peak time in the African American community. In the early years,the school building could not accommodatethe large audiences thatattendedthe different events and programs were held in local churches and occasionally at the town’s opera house and courthouse. The community went to hear the children sing, play, recite, and be honored for their accomplishments. Highlights also included speeches made by local religious leaders, educators from nearby towns (especially principals), and professors and administrators from nearby historically black colleges. Seats were reserved for whites who desired to attend and the school superintendent and school board members werein often attendance at the commencement exercises to observe and say a few words. One of the most powerful and frequent speakers at thecommencement exercises as well asother events at theschool and in the northwest region ofAlabama was Dr. William Hooper Councill, president ofAlabama A& M Institute (now Alabama A & M University). The American Star (1902) gave this account of the commencement address delivered by Dr. Councill on May 15, 1902. H e held his vastaudience spell-bound for more than an hour,and when he had finished the people said that it seems that he had just been speaking for fifteen minutes. Dr. Councill’s address was sound and practical, strong andlogical, forcible and scholarly, eloquent andfascinating. He gave the people what they needed. He pointed out their weakness and showed clearly how the race could become powerful and usehl.

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Girls’ attire at graduation exercises wasa concernnoted several timesin the

American Star. In 1907 Principal G. W. Trenholm wrote:

In orderto instill in the minds of our pupils the economical value of the simplicity of dress and to teach them as they go from us that themost essential things in life consist not in the adorningof the body, but in the cultivating of the mind, we havedecided not to allow the girls of the graduating class to appear in any of the public exercises in fine dresses, but in simple white lawn dresses, costing not more that 12 1/2 cents peryard. These dresses may be trimmed with tucks and ruffles of the same material and narrow edging of lace, but nolace yokesor elaborate trimming will be allowed. The hats must correspond with the dresses in value. Any pupil who fails to comply with this rule will not be allowed to take part in theexercise nor receive her certificate or diploma. (Important Notice, 1907) Social Activities.The 1954Self-study Report outlined the aims and objectives for the social life of studentsat Trenholm along withexamples of sponsored activities.

The general aim and objectives of thesocial program are carefully planned to meet the present andh t u r e needs ofour pupils. The program is planned to encourage participation of all pupils, young and old. Theshop [space built for auto-mechanics shop, but not equipped at that time] is available for informal, or small group social activities, whereas the school auditorium is availablefor larger activities as dances, banquets, and sport rallies. The students are instructed regarding appropriate dress and conduct at various social activities. Aid is given students by other students to teach them to dance and also by physical education instructors on rainy days when outdoor activity is not permitted. (p. 59)

Activities included a Halloween masquerade ball, informal dances after football and basketball games, barn dance,PTA fall festival,and junior andsenior proms. A number of banquets were listed among thesocial activitiesincluding the PTA banquet for honor students,Y-Teen, boyscouts, and athletic banquet for boys and girls participating in football, basketball, and track and field events (Trenholm Self-study, 1954).

SUMMARY Shortly after enrolling in postsecondary programs,many Trenholm High School graduates began to realize that they had indeed received a solid academic background that enabled them to be successfulin completingthe work required for college degrees, certificates, and special diplomasrequired to pursue their chosen careers. Graduates who completed a questionnaire for this study are pursuing a broad range career of opportunities including: attorneys, judges, college professors, government officials, legislativedirectors, business owners and consultants, college administrators, armed forces officers, public

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school teachers and administrators, bankers, nurses, home economists, and many others. The ethic of caring that was exhibited by their teachers in classrooms was continued as teachers served as advisors for clubs and coaches for athletic programs and also participated in otherspecial events and social activitiesplanned by the school. Because Trenholm was a relatively small school, teachers and students knew eachother and students saw themselvesas a part aofcaring family. Each student hadmany opportunities to participate in a wide range of extracurricular activities; a student may have been an officer in one club and a member in several other organizations. Theseactivities provided opportunities for students to develop discipline, stamina, persistence, leadership, decision making, and team-buildingskills. They learned how to conduct meetings, to write minutes, what the duties ofofficers in organizations were, and what majority rule meant. Students also learned whatit meant to be leaders, followers, and team players, and thediscipline required for each, whetherin athletics or preparing for an oratorical contest or a band or choral recital. They learnedthe value of hard work and goodqualitywork. Participation in extracurricular activitieswas supported and nurtured by school administrators, classroom teachers, parents, and other community residents. These experiences enabled students to develop and enhance theiracademic skills, social skills, and lifelong leisure skills. These experiences also helped build a positive sell-concept and the shlls needed to be active, contributing citizens in a democratic society. Students were verymuch aware of the support they received from the community as indicated in the remarks made by one graduate: What Iliked best, it still goes back to community again. I can recall any kind of school activity, kindergarten, first grade, junior high or high school-the entire community would showup in theauditorium to see those different plays and things that we put on. Ifyou didn’t get thereearly, you didn’t get a seat. Pay to get in, 25 cents of something like that. Thesame thing was true of football,basketball, we had very small inadequate facilities. Ifyou didn’t get there early, you didn’tget in.But you could never tell it was small and inadequate by the spirit of the people who came to cheer us on.

The ethic ofcaring that permeated school programs andactivities was extended into the community as school administrators, teachers, parents, and other community residents joined togetherto establish school-related organzations, businesses, social and civic clubs, and other informal activities that were lead by the adults. Although these organizationsprovided civic, social, recreational, and leadership activitiesfor their adult members, the needs of the children were at the heart ofwhat they I d in thecommunity. Chapter 6, “The Village as Educator,” documents some of thoseactivities.

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REFERENCES City high school closes successfully. (1903, May 22). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . City high school notes. (1912, October). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. City high school opens Sept.13th. (1910,August). The American Star.Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . City news notes. (1906, February 1). The American Star.Alabama Department ofArchives and History, Montgomery, A L . City paragraphs. (1901, February 6). The American Star.Alabama Department ofArchives and History, Montgomery, A L . The city school closed. (1902, May 22). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The city school closed. (1904, May 21). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Colored city school. (1900, May 31). The Weekly Dispatch. Commencement announcement of cityhighschool. (1912, May). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Girl scout news: Negro basic training coursecompleted. (1955, January 26). The Florence Times, p. 1, section 2. Grand marshall: Mr. Charles Mahorney. (1990). TrenholmHigh School Reunion 1990, p.11. Tuscumbia, AL. The high school commencement. (1908, June). The American Star.Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The high school debate (1906, December 15). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . High school items. (1912, March). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . High school notes. (1907, November 2). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL High school notes. (1908a, April). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . High school notes. (1908b, May). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . High school notes. (1908c, October). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . High school notes. (1908d, September). The American Star.Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. High school notes. (1909, May). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Important notice to parents. (1907, April 1). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Johnson, P.E. (1990). Trenholm high school first football team, 1930 (p. 33). Trenholm H&h School Reunion, 1990, Tuscumbia A L . Johnsontrio appears atTuscumbiacoloredhighschool. ( 1 9 2 1 , April 2 9 ) . Alabamian-Dispatch.

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Jones, T. J. (1969). Negro education:A study of the private and higher schoolsfor colored people in the United States. New York: Arno Press and the New York Times. Lee, M. T. (1955b, February 24). Negronews: Tuscumbia brownie troop has investiture ceremony. The Florence Times, p. 2., section 7. Lee, M. T. (1955a, March 3). Negronews: Girl Scout investiture. The Florence Times, p. 5. Lee, M. T. (1958, October 30, 1958). News about Negroes. The Florence Times, p. 14, section 4. Lee, M. T. (1960a, January 29). News about Negroes: Concert band being formed for community participation. The Florence Times, p. 14,section 2. Lee, M. T. (1960b, March 3). News about Negroes: N.H.A. and N.F.A. chapters leadership training sessions. The Florence Times,p. 14, section 2. Lee, M. T. (1960e, March 24). News about Negroes: Trenholm to host musical festival. The Florence Times, p. 6. Lee, M. T. (1960d, June 2). News about Negroes: Dr. and Mrs. M. P.Coker entertain guests.The Florence Times, p. 5, section 2 . Lee, M. T. (1960e, June 4). News about Negroes. The Florence Times,p. 8, section 3. Local and personal. (1901, August 21). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery,AL. McCready, L. (1996). Community control of school, African Americans. In F. C. Jones-Wilson, C. A. Asbury, M. Okazawa-Rey, D. K. Anderson, S. M. Jacobs, & M. Fultz (Eds.), Encyclopedia OfAfrican-American Education (pp. 109-113). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. New piano installed. (1908, October). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. Our colored school. (1893, May 19). North Alabamian. Our piano rally a success. (1908, April). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. Public school concert. (1892, May 13). North Alabamian. Report of visting committee on evaluative criteria of Trenholm high school.(1955). Tuscumbia, AL: Author. A scarf drill. (1909, December). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. School opening quite large. (1911, September). The American Star. School opens September 12: Same faculty with one exception, Miss Green will teach music. (1910, August). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. State championship basketball team. (1990). Trenholm High School Reunion, 1990, Tuscumbia AL, p. 63. Thanks for the memories. (1981, May 20). The Shoals News-Leader. Trenholm high school self-study report. (1954). Social life and activities (p. 59). Trenholm HighSchool, Tuscumbia,AL. Trenholm high school student handbook.(1961).Trenholm HighSchool. Tuscumbia, AL. Trenholm school faculty list: 1907-1968. (1981). Tuscumbia City Schools, Tuscumbia, AL. The Weekly Dispatch. (1888, June 19).

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The Weekly Dispatch. (1901, July 25). Winston, J. W. (1990). History of the music department at Trenholm high school. Trenholm High School Reunion, 1990,Tuscumbia, A L , p. 26. A word about our club. (1908, April). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL.

George Washington Trenholm

Fred Johnson

Trenholm Faculty at Baccalaureate Service (mid to late 1950s). Front row, left to right: Lillian Marie Long, Magnolia Watkins, Julia DOSS, Principal Patrick Wesley, Pastor Shelby ( p e s t speaker), Elliot Mabry, Robie Leslie Buckingham, and John Winston. Back row, left to right: Sarah Cleere, Willie Mae Thompson, Garlor Hyler, Charles Mahorney, Fred Johnson, Adlena Thomas, Pattye Clark, and Rosa Weslev

The graduating class of May 1945 standing in front of the entrance to Trenholm High School

Miss Doss with Tom Thumb wedding party in 1946

Fred Johnsonwith the 1956 Junior Prom Class

Coach Charles Mahorney with the 1956 football team

Mattie Gilchrist with one of Trenholm’s first marching bands (c. 1942-1947)

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

CHAPTER 6 ~~

~~

The VillaBe as Educator: Learnin&, NurtuvinB, and Supportin8 African American Children Beyond the School Buildin8 W h att the best and wisest parent wants for his own child, thztt must the

community want for allits children. Any otherideal for our schools is natrow and unlovely; acted upon, it destroys our democracy. John Dewey, 1900, p. 19

FAMILY AND COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

Trenholm High School graduates indicated that parental and community support andinvolvement were the third factor that contributedto their school being a good school. The quality and dedication of the teachers were rated first and therange of school programs and activities wasranked second. Thischapter focuses on school-related organizations, businesses owned by African Americans, social and civic clubs, and otherinformal activities in the community that provided learning opportunities, nurturing, and supportfor African American school children. These formal and informal organizations often provided opportunities to take care of unfilled needs of schoolchildren because of the meager resources of theschool and the lack of access to public resources. Teachers and school administrators were often officers in many of the organizations discussed in this chapter. Most of the organizations and individuals who nurturedAfrican American school children in Tuscumbia had a common goal-"uplihng the race." Primary data sources for this chapter were: (1)two local newspapers, the American Star and the Florence Times/Tri-Cities Daily; (2) questionnaires completed by graduates; (3) individual interviews with

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graduates, school faculty, and communityresidents; and (4) focus group with faculty and staff. Family and communityresidents were involvedin school activities in a variety ofways including: (1)engagement in classroomand extracurricular activities; (2) support through school-related organizations such as the PTA; (3) leadership and financial support by African American business owners; (4) provision of scholarships and social activitiesby social and civic clubs; and (5) provision ofsocial, civic, recreational, and spiritual activities by individuals and informal organizations. This list is not exhaustive, yet it presents a comprehensive viewof the nature and extentteaching, of nurturing, and supporting AfricanAmericanchildrenoutsideclassroomsand the schoolbuilding in Tuscumbia.

DEVELOPING A SENSE OF COMMUNITY: THE VILLAGE It was no accident that themajority of theAfrican Americanpopulation in Tuscumbia settled in thesoutheastern part ofthe town. In 1906, less than one year after the Tuscumbia Colored Public School/Trenholm High School building was moved from Deloney Hill to the site at Eleventh and Cave Streets, a notice was listed in theAmerican Staradvertising the availability of cheap land nearthe school building: Don’t let the cheap lots near Friendship H a l lescape your notice. Cluster your homes around your church, your school, your hall of fellowship, and especially near the home ofyour devoted and earnest principal and teacher, Prof. G. W. Trenholm. M a k e it a settlement that every one in Tuscumbia will be proud of. So see F. T. Gilmore about these lots at once. They are selling. (Brief and Special Mention, 1906a)

Based on the language used in the text (the repeated use of the word “your”), F. T. Gilmore was most likely a white realtor or an owner of propertyin the town’s southeastern section. In October, Prof. H. E. Levi, associate editor of the American Star and principal of the North Alabama Baptist Academy at Courtland, echoed the sentiments ofF. T. Gilmore, urgingAfrican Americansto settle in that part of town for reasons in addtion to thecost of the land: In securing homes care must be taken: First to purchase in a negro community formutual protection and inschool and church development; second, the moral conditions should be favorable to character building. In settling too much stress cannot be put upon themoral and theeducational status ofthe locality. ...The white man has set the pace, and we must follow or be forced to perpetual poverty and dependence. ...Now is the opportune time to seek good homes in good negro settlements. (Negro’s Last, 1906)

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It appears that the community was settled as suggested by Gilmore and who lived i n t h eAfrican American community Levi. One Trenholm graduate, from the early 1940st h r o u g h the early 1960s, n o t e d the impact of the “Negro settlement.” There was a real sense of community. I mean the school being the centerpiece of the small community, thesmall blackcommunity. And there were churches, four consecutive blocks there were churches . . . so, everything kind of focused and circulated around thatlittle area where we lived.And youfelt connected to the people who were there, with the older people, younger people, generations of people that lived there. And the older peoplealways had a great affinity for thembecause of some of the stories they couldtell ...about thecommunity and how it developed andabout some old fama ily member thatwe had just heard about. And so the stories that were told there were sense ofhistory. It happened there and how the people ofthe community came there to live and to call this their home. By 1940, the majority ofAfrican American businesses in the town were located adjacentto the schoolon South Washington Street. The area was known in the community as “the block.” Most of the students passed through this day. For many decades,the businesses inarea goingto and from school each pool room, andtwo to three grocluded the neighborhood barber shop, the cery stores where students purchased snacks and school supplies. The halls used by the Masons and the Eastern Stars wereoften located there as well as various adult night spots (i.e.,the Pussy Willow, the Dew Drop Inn, a n d t h e Paradise Inn). The funeral home for the community, Thompson andSon’s, was (and still is) three blocks from the site o f the school building.Two whitethe same owned grocery stores were located for many years in blockas t h e hneral home.It appeared that each ofthe storesa large had customer base in the to purAfrican American community. Whenever there was a school hndraiser chase band uniforms, stage curtains or a tripto Washmgton for the senior class, A 1958 graduate ofTrenholmHigh these businesses were active participants. School recounts the proximity ofthe businesses to the school and how the fundraising process worked: Whenever therewas an activity at our school wherewe needed funds, there were two or three cafes across the street. There were churches and then there were cafes. ...They had a large coffeecan or a large emptypickle jarthere and everybody who went in put money in it. And when it was filled,they [the store owners] would bring to the it principal for whateverit was that we needed at the school. They helped withh n d s for curI mean theyput dollars, they weren’t tains. They helped with h n d s for band uniforms. putting dimes in there. Before they [customers] did anything else, they were told to put some moneyin there for that school. And raised they money thatway. And they’d bring it up there in a jar and give it to Mr. Gilchrist[the principal]. The Tuscumbia Colored Public School had become a central unifying force the Tuscumbia Colored Auxiliary i n the community severalyearsbefore

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School Boardwas organized in 1909 and decadesprior to the establishment of the Parent-Teacher-Associationin the late 1940s. During the late 1890s and early 1900s, Principal G. W. Trenholm had gained the sustained support of families and other community residents through their participation in a variety of activities held at the school. The entireAfrican American community appeared to have been actively engaged in providing support for the physical plant and equipment (both monetaryand physical labor) and for additional teachers. Professor Trenholm used the American Star as a tool (and designated official organ ofthe Tuscumbia ColoredHigh School) to unite the community in supporting the needs of African American schoolchildren. For example, in 1905, he reprinted an article from the Tuscumbia Dispatch in the American Star regarding the needfor expanded schoolfacilities: The Tuscumbia Dispatch says: The colored people ofour town are somewhat agitated over the cramped condition ofthe colored school building. I t is inadequate to accommodate the pupils of Prof. Trenholm. A majority of the patrons are in favor of moving the school to some other place. As it is at present it is within a stone’s throw ofthe white school, and itis remarkable how peaceful the two schools have been. So close together, to be moved; and as the building will have to be enwe agree with them that it ought larged, now is the time to do it. Our observation has been that the educated colored man is not theman that gives trouble to his white neighbor; it is the ignorant and debased that give trouble. We hope our school board may seeits way clear to trade this lot for another ata more distant location andthen tear down thepresent building and erect a new one that will meet the demand. The colored people have already subscribed nearly $500 to be applied for this purpose, and we sincerely hope their wishes may be complied with in this matter. (New Building, 1905)

The editorof the Dispatch was alsothe treasurer of the Tuscumbia Boardof Education. It was rather ironic that the Dispatch article stated that the Tuscumbia Colored Public School was “within a stone’s throw of the white school, and it is remarkable howpeaceful the two schools have been,” because while space was needed for further expansion, one former student reported that the building was also moved because the white children at the nearby grammar school constantly broke the windows at the colored building by throwing rocks (Peters, 1981). The American Staralso reprinted an article from theSheffield Reapev (a paper from a neighboring town) that commended the TuscumbiaAfrican American community for raising $500 for removal ofthe building to the newsite. As with theDispatch article previously quoted, thewriter also commented on the different “elements’’ or “classes” in the African American community along with how the white communityfelt about each. This [raising $5001 speaks well for the Tuscumbia negroes and shows a spirit of progress and self-reliancewhich cannot fail to win for them therespect and good will oftheir white neighbors.No doubt many ofthese contributions have been made at a greatsacrifice, a fact which entitles the contributors to greater credit. Whenwhite people see

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that thenegroes are showing adisposition to help themselves, they will more cheerfully extend ahelping hand.The negro whohas ambition to educate his children and is willing to spend his money for their educationand improvement is generally one who enjoys the confidence and respect of the community. He is not to be classed with the ignorant and vicious element which is a menace to peace and good order anda blot upon the race. (Good Showing, 1906)

It appeared that in order to get the support ofthe board ofeducationfor expanding the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School building, the African American community hadto first show their good faith by raisingmoney fromtheir private funds. In 1906, theAmerican Star reported: “The white people have decided to give us as much as we raise. Let us raise $250” (Brief Special Mention, 1906). The amount of “$15 1.22was raised at theApril 29 rally, people are still giving, the white people will match” (Great, 1906).Another report noted that: the “High School building fund has reached about $1,100. The colored peoplehave raised allof this except $250, which was recently given by the Board of Education. We have spent about $1,450. During the next school year we can easily finish the work and liquidate alldebts” (HighSchool, 1906). As publisher of theAmerican Sta?, G. W. Trenholm usedthe newspaper to elicit the supportof the African Americancommunity to inform them of the needs of the school, urge their ongoing involvement, and inform them every step of theway of theprogress that was being made. Forexample, contributions to the school fund of10 cents or more werelisted in the newspaper by name along with pleas for individuals to live up to the pledges they had made. We kindly ask allwho have pledged theirsupport to our HighSchool to pay what they can on their subscription. Do this at once, as we are now beginning to remove the old building and to enlarge our quarters. Your ready response in this matter will determine the character and grade of our improvement. We must be ready for school in September. Ask your friends to help. Act at once. The new school site is just two blocks south of the old. It is a beautifid location-the most beautiful school site in thecity. (City High School, 1905)

Avariety ofactivities were usedin 1905 to involve the communityin raising money to fund theremoval and expansion ofthe building. Rallies wereheld at the school building and at local community churches. One of the popular events in1905 was a school picnic and barbecue. Evidently, this was a very successhl fundraising event; it also provided a social outlet for African American families in Tuscumbia and the neighboring towns of Sheffield and Florence. The newspaper articles stated: “Don’t fail to patronize the school picnic and barbecue on Tuesday, August 22d, at the Big Spring park. Everybody is interested and it mustbe a big affair. You can’t afford to miss it. Tellyour friends in Sheffield and Florence about it” (City Locals, 1905b). “OnSeptember 23d there will be another barbecue given for the benefit of the school’’ (More School, 1905). A thirdpicnic was scheduled for October 21 (More Money, 1905).

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When school opened in September 1905, theexpanded building was not ready, so the faculty and students began meeting in Friendship Hall: “We are now using the Friendship Hall forthe school, andare grateful for it. Itsuse is donated [FriendshipSociety]” (More Money, 1905).By October, classes had moved from Friendship Hall into four rooms at the renovated building, with three rooms still to be completed (High School Building, 1905). At the Thanksgiving service, an additional $119 was raised for the school building (High School Thanksgiving, 1905).At eachschool event heldthroughout the year, citizens were urged to bring along a donation for the school building.In January 1906, theAmerican Stuar gave the following accounting of costs incurred for moving to thenew site and the amount that been had raised. The total incurred in moving the building was $1,142.53, $504.63 hadbeen raised since July 1, and the amountowed was $637.90 (Colored School, 1906). For the 1906-1907school year,free scholarships were offered to students who raised $5 for the high school buildmg (FreeScholarship, 1906).And, in April 1907, a jubilee and rally were planned to close the indebtness for the school building at the new site: “We now have the largest and best school building of its h n d in NorthAlabama for our people. It is then in orderhave to a great jubilee.” Jubilee services were held at the high school building, the C.M.E., A.M.E., and Baptist churches (Unique Jubilee, 1907).A total of$70 was raised at the Jubilee Services,yet $150 was stillneeded. Themoney-raising efforts were continued to raise the additional $80 (Jubilee Services, 1907).

SCHOOL-RELATED ORGANIZATIONS Tuscumbia Colored Auxiliary School Board By 1909, anorganized board of African Americancitizens was established to meet the needs of the education of children inthe community. Although parent involvement has often beensynonymous with “motherinvolvement,” this early organization was composed of public-spirited men in the community-many were parents and ran their own businesses. G. W. Trenholm described the Tuscumbia Colored Auxiliary School Board and its work in a meeting at the National Association of Teachersin Colored Schools:

There [in Tuscumbia]we have a splendid auxiliary school boardof fifteen public spirited men and an active educational association. Hearty co-operation with the public school officials has greatly strengthened our elementary school work and has a give high school department. The auxiliary board pays the salaryof one of the two instructors in the high schooldivision and supports themusic teacher. The auxiliary board is composed of substantial citizens who give a reasonable amountof their time, money, and influenceto the school. The people have been taught, by the beautiful exampleof these men, to stand by the work of the institution; for in each of the three principal churches ofthe city a nice public collection is taken for, and given to, the auxiliary board every fifth Sunday, and this is not “an after collection.” The auxiliary school board raises and expends from seven hundred dollars ($700) to eight hundred dollars ($800)

97 The Villade as Educator annually. When this board began operation several yearsago the colored people had a small three-room building and three poorly paid teachers. They now have a spacious and beautifid, well equipped, two story, seven-room building and six teachers. A full and thoroughseven year-elementary course is given and a good three year-high school curriculum is maintained. (Trenholm, undated)

An article in the AmericanStarannounced theorganization ofthe board: The people of Tuscumbia need to congratulate themselves upon theselection of such worthy men as an auxiliary school board. (See their names elsewhere in this issue.) The board has been fully organized, and will strengthen the high school department by the addition of a strong teacher-a college graduate, if possible. Sixty dollars has already been realized, each board member contributing$5. The people who created the board are requested to fall in line by doing like wise. The board has appointed ageneral educational rally for every fifth Sunday. An Educational Association for Tuscumbia will soon be organized. The board will be disappointed ifyou fail to join said organization. (Auxiliary Board, 1909)

The names and officers of the TuscumbiaAuxiliary School Board and its functions were listed in the June 1909 issue of the Star and in most issues thereafter. Tuscumbia ColoredAuxiliary School Board Officers A. E.Eggleston, president

W. P. Brown, vice president Mingo White, treasurer Flem Fort, secretary G. W. Trenholm, ex-officio

Members Whose Term Expiresin May, 1910 Thomas Waddle, William L. Gray, Henry Griffin, Sr.

Members Whose Term Expiresin May, 1911 Judge Johnson, Flem Fort, Dr. A. W. Davis, Horace Morse Members Whose Term Expiresin May, 1912 A. E.Eggleston, Mingo White, W. P.Brown, Charles W. Carns Also in this issue, the community was invited to participate in the work ofthe

auxiliary board and the upcoming rallies were announced: “All who are interested in more and better education for our children are cordiallyinvited to take part in these rallies on Sunday, Oct. 31; on Sunday, January 10,1910; and on Sunday, May 29, 1910” (Tuscumbia Colored, 1909). The auxiliary board was successful in hiring Miss Mazie E. Sams, A.B., as teacher for the high school departmentfor fall 1910: “Miss Sams is our new

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teacher. She is a college graduate ofAtlanta University and comes highly recommended. She is a teacher of experience and ability. ...The faculty with your cooperation will make your school the equal of any of its kind in the south” (City High School, 1910). Beginning with the June1909 issue of theStar, an advertisement appeared in each issue that described the offerings of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School. A copy of the ad follows (Colored City, 1909): COLORED CITY HIGH SCHOOL Tuscumbia, Ala. This school has a strong and full faculty o f graduates from some of the best schools and colleges. A thorough course is given in the grammar department, and an excellent three-year high school course in the high school division. A splendid music department is maintained in which thorough instruction is offered in both vocal and piano music. Every teacher is an earnest Christian and engages in the religious life of the students, so that the moral and religious tone o f the school is very high. Small tuition. Good board in private families at reasonable rates. We solicit earnest students fromafar for the higherGrammar Grades and for the High School Department. Said students must bring recommendations. G. W. Trenholm Principal

The auxiliary board members appeared to be present at every major function at the school building. At the opening of school in September 1910: “The president, Mr. A. E. Eggleston, gave a pointed talk as to the work of theBoard, saying that they woulddo just whatthey promised-stand by the school and maintain High School Course” (City High School, 1910). It was the goal of theauxiliary board to raise about $1,000per year to hire additional teachers for the high school department and support otherneeds identified by the faculty and staff. “For the scholastic year, closing May 23, 1910, the above board raised and expended for salary and general improvements the sum of $740. We hope to do better this year. Hence, we ask your support” (Tuscumbia Colored, 1910). For theSunday October 29,191 1,auxiliary board rally, each classroom was competing to raise the largest amount of money to support the work of the board, a practice for raising money that would continue until the school closed in 1969. “The rooms will viewith each other in the matter of contributions to the board’s work. Some very necessary improvements have been made on the campus since school began. Anew fence now separates the playgrounds of the boys and girls’’ (High School Items, 1911). Principal Trenholm was very proud of thework of theauxiliary board and appeared to communicate their accomplishments at every professional meeting that he attended. H e noted:

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“It was pronounced as the last State Teachers’ Associationto be the only colored high school in whch one teacher is being wholly supported by the colored citizens. Three cheers for Tuscumbia!” (High School Items, 1912). It is not clear asto when theauxiliary board was no longer a functioning organization or if the name of the board was later changed. However,by 1955, there was a Citizens Committee of Tuscumbia that carried on some of the same work that had been maintainedby the auxiliary board.

Citizens Committee of Tuscumbia On January 31,1955, theCitizens Committee of Tuscumbia met with the Tuscumbia Board of Education regarding the manner in which one of the teachers at Trenholm High School had been dismissed (Board Minutes, 1955). When the Citizens Committee met with the African Americancitizens on March 29,1955,60 days had passed without areply from the board regarding the concernsthat had beenstated earlier. The school board had promised to reply within a reasonable time. Because the board had not answered the committee’s letter, the following motions were adopted by those in attendance at the March meeting: 1. That a petitionbe presented to the Tuscumbia City commissioners urging the comBoard of Education to act or reply to missioners to use their influence in getting the the resolutions presented to the board by the Negrocitizens. 2. That Negro adult citizens would refrain from attending any school activities and would withhold all financial or other supportuntil the Board of Education acted upon therequests presented by the Citizens committee on behalf of the Negro people of Tuscumbia.

The committee felt that they had no other alternatives but to take these measures because the Board of Education hadrefused to respond to the requests made by the Citizens Committee-namely, to appoint a board advisof ers to the principal, to have use of the school building for meetings, and to investigate the dismissal of theteacher. The committee resolution was signed by W. M. Long,chairman, Alice R. Graves, B. M. Thompson, HattieL. Ricks, W. A. Minor, J.A. Johnson, Paul A. Johnson, S. L. Byrd, Judge Johnson, and LeonardCooper(CommitteeMeets, 1955). The division in the African American community regarding the dsmissal of theteacher and the response of the Board of Education came at a verycritical time in the move from segregated to desegregated schools. The first Brown decision had been issued less than one year prior to this incident. Some citizens believe that this decline in the supportof the schoolby many community residents set the stage for the school’s eventual closing. Probably for the first time in its history, the African American community was divided as to what was best for the school.

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Educational Congress

When the Tuscumbia ColoredAuxiliary Board was organized, it was proposed thatan Educational Association would also be formed andcitizens were urged to join. From 1902to 1910, theAmerican Starreported on theactivities of several groups withrelated names and functions that may havebeen one and the same: Educational Congress, Educational Conference, Parents’ Conference, and Mothers’ Conference. We will consider the activities of these groups as one entity in this discussion. Meetings of these educational groups were usually reported as one of the important events that took place during graduation week (City SchoolClosed, 1902). For example,in 1905, the Educational Conference established a Mother’s Conference: Whereas in the great marchof civilization all races are measuredby ability to organize and foster great enterprises; and, whereas, in orderto organize and foster greaterenterprises, the race must be trained; and whereas, in order to be trained and become powerful as a race the foundation must be firmly laid in the home and theschool; therefore be it Resolved, That we organize as the result of the Educational Conference ofthe Tuscumbia City High School, a mothers’conference, with headquarters at Tuscumbia for the purpose of awakening and creating an interest among themothers and young women of our district that will be for the salvation of our boys and girls. Resolved, second, That a committeeshall be appointed consisting of the pastors, presiding elders and teachers and professors of Tuscumbia, Sheffield and Florence, who shall organize and foster this mother’s conference. (Resolutions Adopted, 1905)

During commencement week in 1907, the topic for the Parents’ Conference was “How Parents May Help the Teacher’’ (Commencement Exercises, 1907). InMay 1909, the educational conference focusedon beautifying the school grounds: The educational conference on Tuesday discussed (1)Cultivating the Social Nature of children, and (2) How We May Beautify our School Building and Grounds. The conference was quite helphl in that a committee (see names elsewhere in this issue) was next fall, and todo such other elected to set out a large number of trees on the grounds things as need to be done. (High School Commencement, 1909)

By October 1910,parents had planted 35 trees and some flowers to improve the the appearance of the school grounds (American Star, 1910). At the school closing exercisesin May 1910, thetopic for the parents’ conference was “The Relation of the School to the Community.” The Star reported that: “The auxiliary school boardwas present and each member took alively interest in the discussion, commending the work of the principal” (High School Commencement, 1910). The activities ofthese groupsunderscore that parent education and the involvementfamilies of in the life of the school were valued

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and embeddedearly in the first decade of the 1900sas a critical element in this school community. Parent-Teacher-Association Available documents inlcate that the Trenholm High School ParentTeacher-Association (PTA) was probably organized about 1947 during the last yearof Principal Gilchrist’sadministration or thefirst year of P. H. Wesley’s tenure as principal. It appears that thePTA took on some of the hnctions of the auxiliary board and others that were a part of the Educational Congress activities. However, in 1955, thePTA leadership made it clear as to what itwas not. Many promising PTA hasended in shipwreck because its members and leaders mistook it for something real a parent-teacher association can never be. This is a minorhazard if the positive goals of parent-teacher work is carried out. Yet it may be helphl to post a few warnings-to indicate some ofthe things a parent-teacherassociation is not: Itis not a Mother’s Club;Not a money raising agency; Not a Board of Education; Not a grievance society; Not a Booster’s Club; Not an advertising agency; Not a partisan organization. (Lee, 1955a, p. 3)

In the same article, the PTA summarized some of the major projects undertaken that met the needsof the school andwere consistent with thegoals and objectives outlined by the National Congressof Parents and Teachers. 1. Cultural activities. The PTA has sponsored a cultured programeach year bringing to the city such artists as Rust College Choir, A. and M. College Dramatic Club, George Koen, baritone, a former student at Trenholm, and other programs. 2. Honor banquet. Each year the PTA has sponsored an Honor NightBanquet for all honor pupils for scholastic achievement or perfect attendance. Each pupil invited was presented a certificate confirming the achievement. 3. School equipment. The school is still gratehl for the well-equipped medical first aid case, which has proven to helpful. The swings that grace our school campus and enjoyed so much by the pupils was a project appreciated by all. 4. Stage curtains. One of the largest project undertaken was the buying of the stage curtains which added grace and dignity to the auditorium. 5 . Dining room curtains. In order that thestudents might have a pleasant setting for eating-the dining room was completely hrnished with curtains. 6. Band uniforms. The band uniforms purchased last year was a worthwhile project which built the band’s spirit and made them step livelier. 7. Inservicefor faculty. The PTA each year hashelped in theschool’s workshop to help plan the needs of the pupils at Trenholm. 8 . Travel for representatives. This PTA has been represented in the State and District Congress and delegates have been sent to each, every year for the past eight years. (Lee, 1955a, p. 3)

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Mrs. Jessemar Pollard was president of thePTA and Mrs.T. Horton was secretary at the time of the report. In 1960, the PTA wasconcerned aboutthe cost of books that parents were expected to purchase for each child enrolled at Trenholm, especially for children in the elementarygrades. One meeting dealt specifically with this issue: The pertinentissue of the evening was a discussion hinged around the acquisition of basic textbooks for the children of the elementary department of the school. A “Book Fund Fee” was decided on. The parents of all children have been requested to pay $2.50 for each child toward the purchasing of basic books for elementary pupils. A special committee was appointed to supplement the Book Fund fees. Mrs. J. A. Doss, president, Prof. G. S. Bell, principal. (Thomas, 1960, p. 6)

This agreement to raise monies to purchase basic books for all children provided somerelief from the highcost of such books for indwidual parents. The activities and events presented here summarize fairly succinctly the range of projects that the Trenholm High SchoolPTA planned and implemented to meet the needs of school-age children in the African American community from the late 1940s through 1969.

Alumni Association Newspaper accounts showthat the Alumni Association was active by1900 (Colored City School, 1900). Themeeting of theassociation was one of the regular events scheduled during graduation week. Their meetings included a discussion of current topics important to the graduates, singing, prayer, and devotions. Topics for their 1901 meeting were “Women as Leaders,” “Physical Education,” and “The Negro Business” (Program of Tuscumbia, 1901). In 1902, Dr. L. J. Greendelivered the alumni address “True orMental Emancipation” (City School, 1902). One of the highlights of graduation week was the reception to honor graduates sponsored by the AlumniAssociation and heldat the home of community residents. In May 1901, “the graduates’ reception was held at the beautiful and comfortable home of Mr. and Mrs.J. W. James. The alumni deserve much credt for such a high class reception” (Colored School, 1901). Mr. and Mrs. H . C. Rowan hosted thereception in 1902 (City School Closed, 1902), and Mr. and Mrs. FrankGraves were hosts in 1904 (City High School Closed, 1904). These receptions were eventsplanned by alumni andthe community to honor theachievements of the graduates, encourage themto continue their education, and provide opportunities for students to practice some of their finer social skills in public settings. Later graduates remember the receptions for graduates held at the homeof Mr. and Mrs. P. H. Wesley during the 1940s and 1950s.

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BUSINESSES OWNED BY AFRICAN AMERICANS The business owners in the African Americancommunity were active participants in the life of the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School/Trenholm High School. As noted in the following discussion, many local businessmen were also members of theauxiliary board of theschool.

G. W. Trenholm In addition to serving as principal of the Tuscumbia Colored Public School, G. W. Trenholm was also a religious leader and publisher of theAmerican Star, a newspaper published from1901 to 1916. As publisher, he was a great influence in the African Americancommunity. Thereappears to be no evidence of a newspaper published by an African American in Tuscumbia prior to or since the publication of theAmerican Star.The paper servedas the official organ of New Era Baptist State Convention, Muscle Shoals Baptist Association, the North Alabama Baptist Academyat Courtland, Alabama, and the Tuscumbia Colored Public School. Over the course of 15 years, G. W. Trenholm had vaa riety of associate editors, including his wife, Ellen Brown Trenholm. As with almost all the early businesses, Mr.Trenholm emphasized thegoalof “uplifiing the race.” Do you read the Star? Ifnot, why not? Every colored person in Tuscumbia should subscribe to pay for and read this paper, the only colored paper published in this part ofthe state. For the past three years it has been published regularly without theloss of a single issue. Ifyou owe for the Star, come up like a man and pay for it: for you well know that the paper can’t run onWIND and PROMISES. The colored man who won’t take and pay for a paper which is endeavoring to build up his race is less than a man.Of course there are some who say that there is nothing in a coloredpaper, and yet these same persons seek every opportunity to borrow their neighbor’s paper every time it is issued. The Star because it instills race pride is worth more to the black boys and girls than all the white papers published. It therefore deserves your support. Our colored merchants, Messrs J. C. Carruthers, Wm. Gist, Dunlap and Haley, deserve, too, a reasonable portion of your patronage.Will you give in like a man or will you sit around and complain like dead-beats? Letallwho read these lines endeavor to help us run a better paper for the good of our race. (Read, Think andAct, 1904)

Mr. Trenholm urged his subscribers to pay their bills promptly and used the newspaper to remind them of their indebtedness. In onearticle, he appeared to be annoyed with“so-called professionals” who refused to pay for their subscriptions on time. We earnestly hope thatallwho owe for The Star will pay up at once. The commonlaboring people take delight in paying their subscriptions but we have on ourlist some “Reverends” and “Professor” who claim to beA.B.’s. MS.’S. D.D.’s, Ph.D’s., etc,who are professional dead-beats and deserve the degree D.L. andB. (Doctors of Lying and

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Beating.) Ifyou are in this class and owe for the Star and want you to redeem yourself by paying up at once. We have not the time nor the inclination to send you a bill every month. So pay up. (Amcvican Star, 1905)

When Mr. Trenholm expected one ofhis issuesto arrive later than usual, he informed his subscribers in the prior issue. For example, in 1910 he noted that the paper would be late because of a much neededrest: “The July issueof the Star may reach you, dear reader, a little late. The editor has run down because of overwork. Therefore, he must inself-defense, go away to the coast or north and try to recuperate” (Special Brief, 1910). And in 1911, he planned to do some further study:“It will be somewhat late in July before the next issue of the Star reach its many readers. The editor is awaystudying at the University of Chicago. So rest easy until it reaches you” (Editorial, 1912).

Dr. A. W. Davis Dr. A. W. Davis, a physician, surgeon, and proprietor ofa drugstore, went

to serve in Tuscumbia and Sheffield in 1903. He was a member of the auxiliary

board, and took part in many civic and social activities in the community. There were regular advertisements of his businesses in the Star, along with other community activities in which he was engaged. In 1906, his marriage was announced in the newspaper:

Dr. A. W. Davis, our popular physician, was happily wedded to Miss Hattie Lee Jackson at 6 o’clocklast Tuesday evening, Dec. 6, at St. Paul A.M. E. Church, Nashville, Tenn. Dr. Davis hasbeen practicing medicine in this city about three years and has won quite a reputation as a physician. Miss Jackson has been a successful teacher in thePearl High School, Nashville, Tenn., for several years,which position she resigns to become Mrs. Davis. We wish the happy couple a pleasant, prosperous and longcareer through life. Our invocation for them may be found in Numbers vi, 24th, through the 26thverse. Dr. and Mrs. Davis will be home in Tuscumbia after January 1, 1906. (Two Hearts, 1906)

One of his first adsin the Star noted: “Dr.A. W. Davis, Physicianand Surgeon Office and residence in Tuscumbia. Office in Sheffield’’ (Amerzcan Star, 1906). In spring 1906, Dr. Davis and Mr. Minor, the ownerofthe local funeral home, announced the opening of a new business in Tuscumbia: Dr. A .W. Davis and Mr. G. W. Minor are installing a first-classsoda water fountain in the Tinbuilding, on Sixth street. It is a large and beautiful fount, andsupplies a long felt need in this city for our people. The Star hopes that thepeople will be liberal in their patronage, so that thebusiness mayprove a success from the beginning. Dr. Davis isalso planning to install a nice lot of drugs in the near hture. (First-class Soda, 1906)

After serving the communityfor three years, it became necessary for Dr. Davis to expand and updatehis office facility: “Dr. A. W. Davis, our popular and effi-

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cient physician, hasrecently enlarged andbeautified hs office and will soon replace the present furniture and fixtures with the latest and most improved” (Special Briefs, 1906). A 1909 ad revealed that prescription drugs and other sundries had been addedto the business: “Dr. A. W. Davis, officesat Sheffield and Tuscumbia.Proprietor Peoples Drug Store.Prescriptions accurately compounded. Nice linePerfumes, toilet Articles, Combs, Brushes and Stationery” (American Star, 1909). Dr. Davis served the communitiesof Tuscumbia and Sheffield until his death in 1940. Other Businessmen

A number of other businessmen had their ads appear in issues of theStar on a regular basis. The businesses were also mentioned in other sections of the paper including “Editorials, “Special Mention,” and “Local and Personals.” Many of the men were involved in more than onebusiness venture, often in partnership with others. A list of some of the ads and special notes regarding the businesses follow. J. C. Carruthers. Mr. Carruthers’ advertisement for his business appeared in many is-

sues of the Star. His ad stated in part:

I have travelednorth and south and seen the negro in BUSINESS and our people pushing the ENTERPRISE to the front;so more than a year ago I decided to run agrocery store here in my own city for my own people.So my people,I ask youto HELP ME BUILD UP a negro enterprise in Tuscumbia. Come and help me! Don’t walk around me!treat I’ll you right. Ifmy people in this section would spend only 5c each per week with it would me, takethe largest housein this cityto hold my goods. I could then call in your boys and to girls help me. Callon me and help me. I can help you an you can help me in building up a negro enterprise(J. C. Carruthers, 1901).

Mr. J. C. Carruthers, our popular merchant, recently purchased the Armstead farm of 165 acres, about three miles south ofhere. The farm is averyvaluable one, and has on it a large and beautihl residence (Brief Special, 1906a).

W W Handy. “Leading Colored Shoe Shop-In NorthAlabama is managed by Rev. W. W. Handy on Sixth street, Tuscumbia, Ala. He is the oldest man in the business and does the neatest and best work in North Alabama. Give him your work” (American Star, 1901). JudBe Johnson. “Mr. Judge Johnsonhas purchased, at thecost of $1,300, thestore and lot onSixth street known as “Long Building.” Mr. J. C. Carruthers is now occupying the same with staple and fancy groceries” (Local and Personal, 1902). “Judge Johnson has opened a grocery store near his home, and solicits your patronage” (Editorial Notes, 1906a). FLem Fort. “Mr. Flem Fort, whose place of business is on Railroad street, is a first-class Mail Order Merchant. His goods are excellent. Prices reasonable. Call on him” (Clothes Made, 1902). “Shop on Fifth street, just five doors below Davis’ jewelry house. Razor honing a speciality. Callto see me. Flem Fort, proprietor” (Leading Colored Barber, 1903). Dock Moon. “My place of business is on Fifth Street, Tuscumbia, Ala. I am prepared to repair Clocks, Watches, Guns and so forth. First class work guaranteed. Dock Moon”

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(Attention!, 1902). Dock Moon continued todo business in thecommunity into the 1950s. Mingo White and L. F. Minor. LLMessers. Mingo White and L. F. Minor have recently opened a coal yard in this city. See their announcementelsewhere in this issue. The Star hopes that they will have great success as coal dealers. It is our duty to support these worthy men. (Editorial Notes, 1906b).An ad noted: “White &Minor, Dealers in High Grade Coal. We solicit your patronage. Prompt service and quick delivery! Give us a trial and be convinced that our prices are reasonable and services satisfactory.” Mr. White was alsoa specialist in theice-making business. The Starreported on his trips to Houston, Mississippi, to repair and start up the ice plant in that community: “Mr. Mingo White, treasurer of auxiliary school, has been in Houston,Miss., setting upan ice plant for the past four weeks” (American Star, 1910a). “Mr. Mingo White made a trip to Houston Miss., a few weeks ago where he repaired and set in motion the ice factory. H e is a specialist in the ice-making business” (American Star, 1912). Buyess and Toney. “MesserS. Burgess & Toney, of Russessville, have purchased the grocery business run by Mr. J. C. Carruthers. Mr. Carruthers will still run his store at home on Tenth street, where he hopesto serve his patrons just the same” (Editorial Notes, 1 9 0 6 ~ ) . C. C.Jackson. “Tuscumbia now has a colored meatmarket, run by Mr. C. C.Jackson and others” (Special Notes & Briefs, 1909). J. H. Dunlap and J.W Haley. “Dealers in groceries, restaurant and barber business.

We are on Sixth street, two doors east of the postoffice. Hot lunches and meals at all hours. Staple and fancy groceries at reasonable prices. Our shop is run by a first class barber. Your trade solicited. Come to see us. J. H. Dunlap and J. W. Haley” (Dunlap & Haley, 1904). “When yousee our work you’ll know why we do so much. A great repulike new. tation is a responsible charge. That’s why we return your old suit looking just J. H. Dunlap, the oldclothes doctor, who wants to clean and dye clothes for every man in the Tuscumbia territory” (J. H. Dunlap, 1904 ). William Gist. “Seller in Staple and Fancy Groceries. Call on him and give him a trial. H e will treat you right. His place of business in on Eleventh street, adjoining his residence, Tuscumbia, Ala.” (William Gist, 1905). G. W Minor. “G. W. Minor. Funeral Director and Undertaker. Fine Coffins, Caskets and Robes. Can fill your order at once. Call to see me on Sixth street, Stanley Building. Phone 189. Also fish, Oysters, Clams and Groceries” (G. W. Minor, 1906).

Of the 16 businessmen noted earlier, six were members of the auxiliary board for the schoolin 1909. It’s not clear how longthese businesses continued to operate in the Tuscumbia community. However, during the 1940s and 1950s, some additional African American businesseswere established. Many of these businesses had a short tenure,whle others operated for many years. They wereBradley and Eggleston’s Tailor and Cleaners, a barbershop run by Pastor Cartwright (First Baptist preacher) and Manse1 Long, Sr., Gunn’s Grocery, Eady’s Grocery, Joe Johnson’s Store and Barbecue, and Thompson and Son’s Funeral Home. Onegraduate noted how Mr. Johnson’s store served as the site for year-end schoolpicnics: “We couldn’t go to the public parks at that time so Mr. Joe Johnson, who had store a and a real large lot on the corner and

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did a lot of barbecuing .. .had his lot fixed up for recreation activities. So, we had our schoolpicnics at hs place.” The Colbert County Colored Fair Association

It appears that whenever therewas animportant venture for African Americans in the three-city area of Tuscumbia,Sheffield, and Florence, the men of Tuscumbia tookon active leadership roles. For example, the Colbert County Colored Fair Association wasformed in 1911. Theofficers-A. E. Eggleston, G. W. Trenholm, Horace Morse, A. W. Davis, and W. P. Brown-included three members of the Auxiliary School Board. Some ofthe leading citizens of Colbert Countyhave decided to hold a fair in Tuscumbia in the monthof October,1911. The colored peoplehave been assured that they can have the use ofthe grounds and building ownedby the Colored Fair Association. Quite an enthusiastic meeting was held on March 18 andanother on April 15. OnSaturday, May 20, a big meeting will be held here in thehigh school building. Let all who are interested in the colored fair be on hand atthis meeting. The partial list of officers already elected are as follows: Prof. W. I. Abernathy, president; Mr. A. E. Eggleston, vice president; Prof. J. H. Darthard, secretary; Prof. G.W. Minor, general manager, Tuscumbia. The board of directors are as follows: Messers. G. W. Trenholm, Dock Rutland,Dalough Mullin, Foster Nolen,J. P.Winston, J. C. Carter, Horace Morse, Cooper Ricks, Frank Meredith, A. L. Darthard, A. W. Davis, W. P. Brown, etc. At a hture meeting other officerswill be named. (Colbert County, 1911)

The fair provided another opportunityfor students at the Tuscumbia Colored Public School and otherarea schools to display their talents: Our student body showed themselves very enthusiastic over the County Fair. From both Departments we offered exhibits, which the judges thought made quite acreditable show. Kittie May Pollard of the seventh grade received first prize for her maps of the UnitedStates and Africa. Gertrude Pollard received the highest premiumfor writing. The school was also awarded the prize for the best general work. From Mrs. Trenholm’s room, Julia Lula Towns received the premium for hermap of North America. (High School Notes, 1911)

Negro Business League In 1909, local a Negro Business League was organized in Tuscumbia to encourage business development and improvement ofbusiness practices in the African Americancommunity. Prof. C. H. Moore, thenational organizer, met with local businessmen to organize theleague. Many of thelocal officersand members were businessmen who were actively involved in the affairs of the school, and several were members of the Auxiliary School Board. “The following local officerswere chosen: Dr. A. W. Davis, President; Mr. FlemFort, vice president; Prof. G. W. Minor, secretary; M.T.E. Toney, treasurer; Messers. G. W. Trenholm, H. C. Rowan and Dr. J.E. Carter, executive committee. The

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league will hold a public meeting on the second Wednesday night in each month” (Special Notes, 1909a).At their next monthly meetingfollowing the establishment of theleague, Dr. J. E. Carter reada paper on “Business Enterprises” at the high school building. The public was invited to attend all meetings held by the organization (Special Notes, 1909b). SOCIAL AND C M C CLUBS Emancipation Association/Society The Emancipation Association was organized in 1902 tocommemorate the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation andto continue pursuing ways to free African Americans from bondage and discrimination. The membership included communityresidents, faculty, and staff at the Tuscumbia ColoredPublic School. The first officerswere: G. W. Trenholm, vice president, and Mrs. G. W. Trenholm, corresponding secretary (City Items, 1902).Plans for the first Emancipation Anniversary included papers on “John Brown” and “Frederick Douglas” (Emancipation Anniversary, 1902). In 1905, the Emancipation Proclamation was read, and a paper was presented on “Our Financial Achievement.” In addition, five-minute addresses were made by several speakerson “Reminiscences of thePast” (Emancipation Celebration, 1905). The 1907 Emancipation Anniversarywas held at the First Baptist church and included “many choice sayings from negro authors, music, scriptures, featured speakers” (Emancipation Association, 1907). The Emancipation Association held programsat least twiceper year, in January andduring the week of graduation in May. People’s College One 1945graduate of TrenholmHigh School spoke of a People’s College in the Muscle Shoals area that invited well-known African Americansto speak at the local high school. Students went along with their parents to experience the event and h g h school bands and choral groups were often on the program. Since there were no hotels for African Americansin the area for many years, visiting dignitaries stayed in the homes ofAfrican American citizens. One student spoke about a visit made by Dr. George WashingtonCarver, the famous scientist from Tuskegee Institute, Dr. Carver was at the ...next door tous. I never will forget. I must have been 7 or 8 years old. ...Well, Dr. Carverwas up early one morningwalking around. And I heard about flowers and Mama out there talkingto him inthe frontyard. They were talking this and that. I never will forget it-tall, thin, with avery high pitched voice. And he plants, a yellow cosmos, a yellow flower,planted inthe later, I think, sent Mama some front yard. I never will forget that because he wassuch a famous man. And was he there as a speakerfor the People’s College.

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Married Ladies’ Club The Married Ladies’ Club held regular meetings by 1905 and appearedto focus on areas related to the family and social events. The membership comprised faculty members of the school as well as other community members: “The Married Ladies’ Club installed their new officers last Thursday. Theyare as follows: President, Mrs. M. C.Carns; vice-president, Mrs. L. IC.Thurston; secretary, Mrs. J. L. Griffin; assistant secretary,Mrs. M. East; treasurer, Mrs. P. Ford; critic, Mrs. E. T. Trenholm; assistant, Mrs. Clara Towns” (City Locals, 1905~). The Married Ladies’ Club also sponsored theJunior Married Ladies’ Club: The Junior Married Ladies’ Club held their regular meeting last Thursday afternoonat the residence ofMrs. G. W. Trenholm. By special invitation Dr. Davis waspresent and delivered an excellent address on “TheCare of the Health of an Expectant Mother.” The lecture was very much enjoyed by all present. After the address all repaired [went] to the dining room, where cream and cake were served. (City Locals, 1905a)

The JuniorMarried Ladies’ Club gave a reception in honor of thenewly wedded Dr. and Mrs.A. W. Davis, at the residence of Prof. and Mrs. G.W. Trenholm in February 1906 (Cityand Special Mention, 1906). Debonnaires The Debonnaires Civic and Social Club was organized in the mid-1950s with a membership comprised primarily ofwomen who taught in area schools. Several members were teachers at Trenholm High School, including Rubie Buckingham, Marie Long, Alvin Pillar, and Willie M. Thompson. Members who taughtin nearby communities included EddieRicks, Jessie Garret, Jean Graves, Gloria Mahorney, and Zuma Cain. The club planned events that served as a social outlet for its members and the community. These events included dances and fashion shows. The fashion showsappeared to be one of the yearly fundraising events to support special projects such as the scholarships presented to the valedictorians and salutatorians of the graduating classes at Trenholm High School. For example, the club sponsored the model, Climer Nelson Taylor, in a fashion show in 1958. Debonnaires to Present Model. The Debonnaire Civic and Social Club will present Miss Climer Nelson Taylor in “A World of Fashions,” on Saturday evening Nov. 15 at the Trenholm High School Tuscumbia at 8 o’clock. The presentation of Fashion a Revue is the Debonnaires annual club project. Advance tickets may be purchased fiom any members ofthe Debonnaire Club.Adult tickets are $1.Students, at the doorSOC.(Lee, 1958, pp. 2,14)

Evidently, the fashion show featuring Miss Taylorin 1958 was quite asuccess. She was invited again by the Debonnairesto present her “Shower ofFash-

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ion Set To Music” in 1960. In a June 1960 article, the club announcedhow the proceeds for the1960 event wereused. “To the Willie Green Community Center, a floor polisher; to the fund providing equipmentto t h e n e w T r e n holm Gymnatorium,a cash contributionof $100; a n d to Miss Jacqueline Malone, Valedictorian of the class of 1960, Trenholm High School;a scholarship award of $25” (Lee, 1960c, p. 8).

Sixteen Gentlemen The Sixteen Gentlemen were organized around the same time as t h e Debonnaires with a membership of college graduates, primarily teachers in area schools. Many of the Sixteen Gentlemen’s wives were members of t h e Debonnaires. The Sixteen Gentlemen’s Club served as a social outlet for its prior to integration: members. One former member noted that

go outand have dinner or go out for somesoThere were no places ...where you could cial activity,you didn’thave that. So what we had was the beginning of this field ...at the Willie Green Center being lighted; you had the coaches from the different school in Sheffield, Milton Franklin,Walter Mullins, also Mack Mahorney. They were insuumental in organizing and giving us the skills that we didn’t have and coaching us in playing ball because we wanted to anyway. As a result, this created a league. There were cars parked all around the place at night because people wanted somethingto do. T h e baseball league created a social and recreational outlet for its members a league so some of the community.H e n o t e d also that “The city didn’t have the Sixteen Gents also started teams for the children the requests at of the parin t h e area.” ents. The Sixteen Gents had coachesat most of the schools The Sixteen Gentlemen also gave scholarshps to area African American graduates. The big social season began with dances held just before the Thanksgiving holidays through the Christmas holiday seasons. Harold Floyd, o n e o fthe former members, remarked: At Christmas time, andthis happened with the Debonnaires too, we had dancesthat to go. These were semi-formal were sponsored. Some schools had big dances, you paid at the Michael Recreation Center [in Sheffield] and places likethat. They wouldhave these dances and you’d have live orchestras that would come from Nashville or Birmingham. Now what we did and what the Debonnaires did instead of charging, people were invited. Some ofthemweremembers of other groups.So, around Christmas time, and after Christmas you’d havefour starting alittle before Thanksgiving time andtoup or five dances given by some of theseclubs. That was a social outlet. ...People were friends in our own neighborhood.We were too small to be that cliquish youknow. That was another thing that createda social outlet because they hadthe dance where you could come together and then you had the scholarships that we gave.We gave scholarships, the Debonnaires did too.

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The club operated for 10 or 12years. Membership began to decline as members took off in different directions and African Americanshad access to a wide variety of social settings with the desegregation of public facilities.

Twenty Distinguished Gentlemenof the Shoals The Twenty Distinguished Gentlemen actually took on some of the projects that were previously carried out by the Sixteen Gentlemen. They sponsored projects in three areas for outstanding African American young men (high school students) excellingacademically. The Twenty Distinguished Gentlemen (1)provided scholarships for those students who plannedto pursue a postsecondary education, (2) planned a series of meetings for the young men with instruction on proper grooming andsocial skills, and ( 3 ) sponsored a ball (dance) at which the young menwere the honoredguests. The guidance counselors at the local high schools in the Muscle Shoals area were asked to recommend young menfor participation in these activities.

Beavers The Beavers were a very visible group of Trenholm High School graduates who were present at all school athletic events. Many Beaver club members had been star athletes at Trenholm. Although the Beavers were not formally called a booster club, they served that function by maintaining spirit and support at all the games. A former faculty member noted that the Beavers wasmade up ofa group ofyoung middle and aged men. And they all had sweaters with the beaver put in the back of it. They were more or less for athletics. They pushed athletics a lot. We called it at Deshler ...an athletic booster club, but theBeavers were made up of menin Tuscumbia. They didn’t call themselves athletic boosters or nothinglike that, but they wentto thegames with their sweaters on andsat together and itwas kind of a booster.

Whether the games were at home or 200miles away, the Beavers were always there to boost the spirits of the players.

The Tuscumbia Professional Women’s Federated Civic and Social Club Several of the members noted in the minutes as members were teachers at Trenholm High School, including Dorothy Carter,Pattye Clark, and Magnolia Watluns. In 1958, the organization announced plans to raise money for a scholarship. Plans were concluded for the Scholarship Benefit Program, featuring a Baby Contest and Tots andTeens Fashion show. The contest ends on Wednesday night, Nov. 5 at 7

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o’clock a t the Trenholm HighSchool. The Fashion Show will be rehearsed on Nov. 5 also at 7:30 p.m. at Trenholm and will be presented Friday, Nov. 7 at 7:30 p.m. at the Trenholm High School. Adults 50c, Students 25c. (Lee, 1958, p.2)

Friendship Garden Club Another women’s club was the Friendship Garden Club. Mrs.Pattie Wallace sponsored a junior group of young girls from Trenholm High School. Mrs. Wallace taught thegirls socialshlls as well asarts and crafts shlls to beautify the home, sponsored sightseeing field trips to places like Nashville and Chattanooga, and provided opportunities for the girls to serve elderlyand sick members in the Tuscumbia community.One former member of the group for young girls stated: We also had the Friendship Garden Club which was another community organization of women ...and they gave a scholarship and they took girls on field trips and outof town trips and shared experiences with them that they never would have been able to look at a mountainof stuff and ...you have been exposed to. You could pay $15 and go couldn’t have possiblydone that.They hadlittle teas and taught thegirls how to sit and walk. I just think that there was so much going on in that small town.

Other Women’s Social and Civic Clubs Many other women’s groups in the community servedas social outlets for its members and participated in school and community projects. A few are noted below with alist of an eventor two that they sponsored. 1. The 13-Ettes. “The 13-Ettes held their first meeting of the year at the homeof Mrs. Ada Brownlow,Mrs. Jessemar Pollard, president. Donated $5.00 to the New March of Dimes.” (Lee, 1960a, p. 6) 2. Cordettees. “The Cordette Club of Tuscumbia is sponsoring a wrestling match at Trenholm High School’s gym. Tickets available.” (Thomas, 1960a,p. 6) 3. The Ladiettes. “The newly organized social club of Tuscumbia, “The Ladiettes,” had theirfirst meeting at the home ofMrs. Sallie M. Morris, second meeting at home of Mrs. Sophie Baker.” (Lee, 1955b, p. 5) 4. The Coterie Social and Savings Club.This clubchose as a project the sponsoring of the Intermediate Girl Scout Troop 253. Local teachers included Barbara Stewart, Dorothy Carter, Nettie White, Earline Horton, DorothyEchols, Selena Davis, Katie Watson. (Lee, 1960b, p. 5)

INFORMAL ACTIVITIESIN THECOMMUNITY Many individual adults in the Tuscumbia community openedtheir homes to school-age children to provide opportunitiesto support their growth and development toward adulthood.The fourindividuals noted in this section are only examplesof thegreat number ofadults who functionedin this role to help instill this sense of community as nurturer.

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One graduate remarked how thespirit of communitywas passed from the adults in the community and continued among the school-agechildren. He told how Mrs. Betty Thompson club had oflittle a boys in the community who met every Saturday in her home. She recited Bible scriptures to the boys, read other stories, and served somerefreshments. He noted that about 15 young boys from the community would meet at her home and they all were his good friends. These were the same group of boys who played together in the neighborhood. He stated: I had friends in the grades behind me and ahead of me so always myclose friends were probably spread over a three-year age group. And I think that is because the whole community, that’s where we developed our friends. And I guess that relationship with the little boys, I remember learning to swim. The big boys would take the little boys to the creek to teach them to swim. [There was no public swimming pool available to African American citizens.] And I always felt safe with them because we were in the same school and thesame community. We were always looking out for the little boys. And I think the older boys passedon tome a sense ofcomradeship even for the younger peers who were coming along behind me.We taught them to play football, basketball, whatever it was. That kind of thing just got handed down. Being in school, doing your work, and making sure you graduated from highschool were very important principles that were passed to me and I passed along to the kids behind me.

Another studentnoted how her neighbor,Mr. John Lewis Griffin, encouraged her in her academic pursuits. I remember as a kid there was a gentlemanwho had lost his only child and hewas a divorcek and he worked at Southern shops. That was the railroad where a lot of the men worked. But, he was very interested in theschool and kids learning to speak correctly and write correctly. ...H e subscribed to the National Geopaphic for me as a little girl and he would ask me questions about thebook. ...H e often wantedto make sure that I read it. And he would showme pictures and onepicture in particular had four cocker spaniels on it. And hecut thepicture out and said I want youto write a paper on what it. Gramyou see when you look at this picture. AndI wrote the paper and he corrected mar and whatever and I took itto school and showed it to my teacher and I had pasted the picture of the cocker spaniel on the frontof my paper like a booklet and she was thrilled with it. Shesaid it was such a good paper, she gave me an “A” on it.

Frank andAlice Graves wereparents and communityactivists as early as the first decade of the 1900s. Mr. Graves was a member of the auxiliary school board and Mrs.Graves wasa member of the TuscumbiaCitizen’s Committee that protested the dismissal ofa teacher in 1955. This is the same couple who hosted the reception for graduates at their home in 1904. Their youngest daughter, Gloria Graves Mahorney, discussed her parents’ involvement with the school and community. My mom and dad were quite involved. ...They woulddo anything to raise money,help with building...they both were community people. Daddy wouldnot hesitate to give

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his money and service to the school and the church. Mama was the same way. ...At one time I think they used to pack lunches and send sandwiches up to theschool. I don’t know whetherthat was for a sale. ...They did all kinds of things. ...They used to have dances there [in their home], parties, h n d raising things. ...Mama kept the teachers be boarding thereoff [teachers lived in their home], you know lots of time some would and on.

Mrs. Graves was an avid reader and shared her resources with children, teachers, and other adult members of the community. Her daughter further noted that Mama took every magazine that ever came out on the market, Colliers, Look, all of them. ...Some of the teachers would come to Mama to get specific periodicals that they did not even have in thelibrary. They used her resources all the time, because she always had thehouse lined with books and magazines. She was in a monthly book club when it first came into being. ...A lot of white folks used to come by the house to talk to Mama. And this was funny in the South. And they would see her downtown inTuscumbia and look the otherway. Some of them just left out of the house, sitting there talking because Mama was an intelligent woman.

Trenholm HighSchool graduates indicated that parental and community support and involvement were one of threefactors that contributedto the excellence of their school. In addtion to the traditional PTA activities, parents andcommunity residents supportedtheschoolandschool-age children through avariety of school-related organizations, businesses owned by African Americans, socialand civic clubs, and other informal activities in the community. Activitiesand events planned by groups andindividuals provided learning opportunities, nurturing, and supportfor African American schoolchildren. These formal andinformal organizations often offered opportunities to take care of unfilled needs ofschoolchildren because of themeager resources of the school and thelack of access to public resources that were available to white citizens. Teachers and school administrators were often officers and active members in many of theorganizations discussed in this chapter. Most of the organizations and individuals who nurtured African Americanschoolchildren in Tuscumbia had a common goal: “uplifting the race.” Graduates of Trenholm High School agree that community involvementin the life of the school was at its peak prior to 1964, before the desegregation ofschools in Tuscumbia. One graduate stated that “The schoolwas the center of community life. Tuscumbia wouldhave been dead withoutit.” However, as schools were desegregated and Trenholm High School was closed, the dynamics ofschooling for African Americanchildren in Tuscumbia and parental and communitysupport changed. Chapter 7, “Alabama Politics and School Desegregation,” presents a historical viewof the changes caused by

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desegregation inTuscumbia within the framework of major events that took place in the state and nation.

REFERENCES The American Star. (1906, March 1). Alabama Department ofArchives and History, Montgomery, A L . The American Star. (1909, December). Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The American Star. (1910, November). Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The American Star. (1910a, March). Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The American Star. (1912, June). Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The American Star. (1905, December 15). Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The American Star. (1901, March 20). Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Attention! Attention! (1902, April 24). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The auxiliary board. (1909, June). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1955, January 31). Brief and special mention. (1906a, March 1). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. Brief and special mention. (1906b, April 1). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . J. C. Carruthers. (1901, March 20). The American Star. Alabama Department ofArchives and History, Montgomery, A L . City and special mention. (1906, February 15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The city high school closed. (1904, May 21). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. City high school must have a better building-your help needed-will you give it-if not, why not? (1905,July 15).The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . City high school opens Sept. 13th. (1910, September). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . City high school opens. (1910, October). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . City items. (1902, December 5). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . City locals. (1905a, June 1 ) . The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . City locals. (1905b, August 15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L .

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City locals. (1905c, October 15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The city school closed. (1902, May 22). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Clothes made to order. (1902, April 24). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Colbert county colored fair association. (1911, April). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Colored city school. (1900, May 31). The Weekly Dispatch. The University of North Alabama, Florence, A L . Colored city high school. (1909, June). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Colored school. (1901, May 29). The American Star. Alabama Department of hchives and History, Montgomery, A L . The colored school. (1906, January 1). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Commencement exercises. (1907, May 15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Committee meets: Tuscumbia Negro citizens discuss teacher dismissal, school matters. (1955, March 31). The Florence Times, p. 6, section 2 . Dewey, J. (1900). The school and society.Chicago: University o f Chicago Press. J. H. Dunlap: The clothes doctor. (1904, January 22). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Editorial. (1912, June). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Editorial notes. (1906a, September 15).The AmericanStar. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Editorial notes. (1906b, November 1). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Editorial notes. (1906c, November 15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Emancipation anniversary. (1902, December 19). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The emancipation association celebrates the forty-fourth anniversary of the freedom ofthe Negro. (1907, January 15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . The emancipation celebration. (1905, January 1-15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . First-class soda water fountain for our people. (1906, May 15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Free scholarship to students who raise $5 on the high school building h n d . ( 1 9 0 6 , July 1). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . William Gist. (1905, March 1). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . A good showing. (1906, January 1). The American Star. Alabama Department ofArchives and History, Montgomery, A L .

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Great and successful educational rally. (1906, May 1).The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. High school building and moremoneyfor the same. (1905, November 1). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . High school building fund. (1906,January 1).The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. High school commencement. (1909, June). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. High school commencement. (1910, June). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. High school items. (1912, April). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. High school notes. (1911, October). The American Star. Alabama Department ofArchives and History, Montgomery, AL. High school thanksgiving service. (1905, December 15).The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. The jubilee services. (1907, May 1).The American Star. Alabama Department ofArchives and History, Montgomery, AL. The leading colored barber. (1903, October9). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Lee, M. T. (19551, February 10). Negro News: Trenholm PTA. The Florence Times, p. 3. Lee, M. T. (1955b,May 19). Negronews: Social news. The FLorence Times, p. 5. Lee, M. T.(1958). Negronews. The Florence Times, p. 14, section 4, +p. 2,section 2. Lee, M.T. (1960a, January 21). News about Negroes: Social notes. The Florence Times, p. 6. Lee, M. T.,1960b, February 25, News about Negroes: Social notes. The Florence Tames, p. 5 . Lee, M. T. (1960c, June). Negro news. The Florence Times, p. 8, section 3. Local and personal. (1902, March 13). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. G. W. Minor. (1906, May 15). The American Star. Alabama Department ofArchives and History, Montgomery,AL. More money for the school building. (1905, October 1). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. More School Money.(1905, September 1-15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery,AL. The Negro’s last good opportunity tosecure good, cheap homes; Segregation of the Negro. (1906, October 1). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. A new building for colored city high school. (1905, June 15). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. Peters, G. V. (1981, April 21). Personal interview with GeorgeV. Peters, Tuscumbia, AL. Program ofTuscumbia high school alumni association. (1901, May 1). TheAmerican Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL.

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Read, think and act. (1904, January 22). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Resolutions adopted as a result of the educational conference held at the city high school on May 18, 1905. (1905, June1). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Special brief mention.(1910,June). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Special briefs. (1906, June). n e American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Special notes and brevities. (1909a, March). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Special notes and brevities. (1909b, April). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL. Special notes and briefs. (1909, May). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, AL Thomas, A. L. (1960a, September 22). News about Negroes: Announcements. The Florence Times, p. 6 , section 3. Thomas, A. L. (1960b, September 22). News about Negroes: Trenholm PTA meet features discussion elementary books. The Florence Times, p. 6, section 3. Trenholm, G. W. (Undated). Concentration on public high schools in the south rather than multiplying private secondary schools. Presentation made at the National Association of Teachersin Colored Schools.Washington, DC: Howard University, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. Tuscumbiacolored auxiliary schoolboard. (1909, June). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Tusumbia colored auxiliary school board. (1910, August). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . Two hearts beat as one. (1906, January 1). The American Star. Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, A L . A unique jubilee and rally. (1907, March 1). The American Star. Alabama Department o f Archives and History, Montgomery, A L .

CHAPTER 7

Alabama Politics and School DeseBregation: The Puntin. Syndrome “The Alabama punting syndrome” . . . a tendency to neglect constitutional problems inthe political process until“the federal courts time after time have been required to step into the vacuum left by the state’s inaction.” Judge Frank M. Johnson, 1976, p. 32

THE PEOPLE AND THE EVENTS

School desegregation inAlabama was probably more dramatic thanin most states because of thepolitical antics of former Governor GeorgeCorky Wallace. The struggle for school desegregationAlabama in might be considered a triangle involving three major characters/personalities: (1)the “Little Judge” from Barbour County, Governor Wallace, (2) the “Big Judge,’’ Judge Frank Minis Johnson, Jr., chiefjudge ofthe UnitedStates District Court for the Middle District of Alabama, and (3) Attorney Fred D. Gray, one of two African American attorneys in Montgomery inthe early 1950s. Ironically, Governor Wallace and Judge Johnson had been law school chums atthe University of Alabama in the early 1940s (Yarbrough, 1981). Governor Wallace, with his infamous “stand inthe schoolhouse door,” the “ring ins” around public school buildings (by state troopers), and the enthusiastic haranguesagainst federal courts andfederal officials, kept the spotlight of the nation on theschool desegregationprocess in Alabama. His actions probably spurred the state public school system to become desegregatedearlier and at a muchfaster rate than any other state inthe DeepSouth. GOP Congress-

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man William Dickmson, who represented the Montgomeryarea in the U.S. House of Representatives, remarked: George [Wallace] did moreto bring about what heprofessed to oppose thanany other three people I can name. Standing in the schoolhouse door-well, that gave him nationwide attention. But it sure did integrate our schools faster than any other state in the South. And this adamant, defiant attitude on the Selma March thing-whatever point theyweretrying to make, George just made it for ‘em. (Yarbrough, 1981,p. 124)

Judge Johnson referred to the inaction of Governor Wallace and other Alabama officialsto proceed withestablishing desegregated schools as “‘the Alabama Punting Syndrome’ . . .the tendency of state officials to ‘punt’ their problems into federal courts ...the willingness of somestates to ignore their responsibilities until faced with a federal court’’ (Yarbrough, 1981, p. 207). Alabama public officials responded in &S manner over and over, whether it related to the desegregation of public parks, public libraries, buses,or treatment of inmatesin state prisons. Actually, the official fight for equity in schooling for African Americansbegan in Alabama three years before the SupremeCourt issued the Byown decisiononMay 17,1954. In 1951, a group ofparentsinMaconCounty,Alabama (the location of Tuskegee University), petitioned the local school board requesting equal educational opportunities for Afirican American children. A copy ofthe petition was included as a part of the Tuscumbia Board of Education Minutes (Board Minutes,1951) with aletter from W. J. Terry, State Superintendent of Education, and referred to as “a Negro problem in Macon County.” The petitionstated in part: The schools maintained for whitechildren are superior in plant, library, recreational facilities, laboratory facilities, lavatory facilities, courses ofinstruction, classroom equipment, cafeteria facilities and in other respects to theseparate schools maintained for the attendance and education of Negroes. You ...have pursued and are pursuing the policy, practice and usage of denying, on account ofrace, color, to infant petitioners, and otherpersons similarly situated and residing in Macon County, educational opportunities, advantages and facilities equal to those afforded to white children residing in such county, and thereby having denied and arc denying petitioners equal protection of the laws secured by the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States.

In his letter addressed to county and city superintendents in the state, Mr. Terry stated in part: This shouldgive us a pretty clear indication ofwhat we mayexpect in the immediate hture. This document [thepetition] is sent to you because we believe you should know what is in theoffing. We need not be surprised if there are a dozen ormore suits instidated [authors’ italics] this year, for youcan see clearly that this is laying the predicate for court action. I think that we should begin now to do something to meet this situa-

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tion. I believe that leadingwhite citizens all over this state should be acquainted with these facts. (Board Minutes, 1951) The 1951 petition submitted by Macon County parents was a request for separate, equal schools. But, following the Brown I1 decision on May 31, 1955, the parents’ petition requested desegregatedschools for their children. Yarbrough stated that “in Alabama, in1955, they mightas well havebeen asking for the moon”(Yarbrough, 1981, p. 90). However, prior to and after the passage of theBrown Ildecision, Alabama legislators, along withother neighboring DeepSouth states, refused to take on their constitutional responsibility to desegregate public schools. Instead, they choseto spend their time andthe taxpayers’ money inventing ways to maintain segregation, thus falling prey to “the Alabama Punting Syndrome.” One of the principal leaders in resisting school desegregation in the Alabama legislature was Senator Sam Engelhardt of Macon County, the Alabama county with the largest African Americanpopulation in the state, 84.4percent. Macon Countywas one of several counties in the middledistrict of thestate referred to as the Black Belt because of the soil texture and thesize ofthe African Americanpopulation of50 percent or more (Yarbrough,1981). Senator Engelhardt introduced bills that would “abolish the state’s school system and replace it with ‘free private’ schools financed with‘grants from the state’ ”and “Alabama school authorities would be given broad powers to decide which students should attend” [known as the pupil placement law] (Alternate Segregation, 1955,p. 1).In response to the petition for desegregated schoolin Macon County, Senator Engelhardt stated: “Wewillhave segregation in the public schools of Macon County or there will be no public schools” (Yarbrough, 1981, p. 90). The state legislature passed these bills later in the year and Alabama’s pupil placement law was upheld in federal court (New Step, 1955; Yarbrough, 1981). An administration bill was also being consideredby the legislature for a “150 million dollar bond issue for school buildings which State Supt. A. R. Meadows and otherssay will tend to relieve the demand for integrated schools by providing better facilities for Negroes” (Segregation Picture, 1955, p.6 ) . During this same year(1955), thefirst AfricanAmerican, Autherine Juanita Lucy, wasadmitted to the University of Alabama, and Rosa Parks was arrested when she refused to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery bus. Many Alabama officialsappeared to be somewhat relieved when theBrown IIdecision did not set a specific date for implementation of a schooldesegregation plan and stated that local conditions could be taken into account. When asked for hisreaction to the Brown IIdecision, Dr. Leroy Brown,superintendent of Tuscumbia CitySchools, remarked: “I think the time element in the decision was wise becausea set deadline might not be met by some communities as wellas others. Thisgives the state and the communities a chance to work out the problem locally and I think this is the way it shouldbe done” (Waiting

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To See, 1955, p. 1). However, itappears that theTuscumbia Board of Education decidedto use their time andresources in improving separate facilities at the African Americanschool building rather than in moving towarddeveloping a desegregationplan. In 1958, theTuscumbia City Board of Education adopteda resolution to acquire additional land to build a permanent 12 grade center to serve allM i can American children at the present Trenholm Schoolsite (Board Minutes, 1958).And the long-needed gymnasium for Trenholm High School was dedicated in 1960; its construction had been approved by the school board in 1952. And in 1966, separate new elementary school buildings were opened for African Americansand whites (Board Minutes,1966). In 1965, land was acquired and prepared to develop anathletic field adjacent to the school building, and other improvements were made atthe Trenholm HighSchool building (Board Minutes, 1965a, 1965b). Practices for athletic events took place on the poorly developed playground at the high school buildmg or after school at the Willie Green Recreation Center, three blocks east of the Trenholm campus. Football games andfield and track eventswere played at the DeshlerHigh School stadium. Theathletic field was never completed. All activities of the board pointed to maintaining separate school facilities for African American and white students in Tuscumbia. However, in 1963, the school desegregation picture begin to change in Alabama. On the occasion of the inauguration of Governor George Wallace on January 14,1963, theresistance to desegregation ofpublicschools in Alabama was stepped upa notch. However,later that year, African Americanstudents were admitted peacefully to the University ofAlabama atTuscaloosa, the University of Alabama at Huntsville, and FlorenceState College. Chapter 8 will present more about thedesegregation ofstate colleges and universities. By fallof 1963, thewalls of segregatedpublic schools in Alabama werebeginning to crumble. Attorney Fred D. Gray fileda suit, Lee v. Macon, on behalf of 126 students to desegregate Tuskegee, Alabama, high schools. This suit eventually led to the desegregation ofall public schools, colleges, and educational institutions in the state ofAlabama. On August 13,1963, Judge Frank Johnson ordered the desegregation of schools in Macon County, Birmingham, and Mobile. Huntsville had already adopted a voluntary school desegregation plan. And in 1964, the Alabama Supreme Court banned further financing of private segregated schools. Between 1954 and 1964, school districts throughout Alabama and the South created various policies, laws, and plans to resist desegregation. A great deal of this resistance was brought to an end with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Title IVof that act prohibited release of federal dollars to school districts that practiced segregation. So, with the passage of the Elementary and Secondary EducationAct in 1965, whchmade millions of dollars in federal funds available to schools, the club of federal withdrawal of funds became effective (Yarbrough, 1981). Twelve days after the passage of

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the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, Tuscumbia City Schools adopted a Freedom of Choice Plan that resulted in tokendesegregation in the district. By the mid-l960s, regular meetings were being held by Tuscumbia City Schools with parents and professionals of both races to prepare for the inevitable-the closing of Trenholm and desegregating the remaining schools. Several teachers from Trenholm indicated that one of the agreements that apparently came from this series of meetings was that with the closing of Trenholm, the name of Deshler would be changed. One teacher stated: “Deshler was not supposed to remain Deshler. Since we lost Trenholm, we were supposed to go with some other name, butdidn’t.” Some of the otherevents that affected desegregation of public schools in Alabama and Tuscumbia either directly or indirectly during the 1950s and 1960s include the following: 1955. African Africans successfully organized the Montgomery bus boycott. 1956. Buses were desegregated by court order in Montgomery Autherine and Lucy was expelled from the University of Alabama. 0

1961. Buses transporting freedom riders were attacked in Anniston and Birmingham, Alabama. Later that year, the ICCissued orders requiringdesegregation of interstate transportation facilities. Judge Frank Johnson ordered desegregation of Montgomery, Alabama, bus terminals, public library system, city museums, and the airport. James Meredith was the first African American admitted to the University of Mississippi. 1962. African Americans were added to the voting rolls in Macon and Montgomery counties. 1964. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 launched the war on poverty and created anumber of early childhood education programs for low-income children, including Head Start, and Harold Franklin was the first African American admitted to the graduate school at Auburn University. 1965. The Selma-to-Montgomery march ended at the steps of the Alabama State Capitol in Montgomery, anda small number ofAfrican American students chose to enroll at thepreviously all-white schools under thefreedom ofchoicedesegregation plan adopted by the Tuscumbia City Board of Education. 1967. A court orderwas issued to end segregation of all public schools in thestate of Alabama. 1968. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. All tenth, eleventh, and twelfth graders from Trenholm High School were assigned to Deshler High School (the former white high school),and Trenholm HighSchool was ordered closed by the endof the 1968-1969 school year. 1969. The Trenholm High School building was closed and all African American students enrolled in grades 7-12 were assigned to Deshler High School.

More details about these events and otherrelated events are found inAppen&x A, “Significant Events and Dates Related to African American Education in Tuscumbia, Alabama.”

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FREEDOM OF CHOICE: DESEGREGATING SCHOOLS IN TUSCUMBIA PRIOR TO THE CLOSING OF TRENHOLM HIGH SCHOOL In thefall of 1965,a small number ofAfrican Americanstudents chose to enroll at the previously all-white schools of Cave Street Elementary (grades 1-6) and Deshler High School (7-12) under the Freedomof Choice desegregation plan adopted by the Tuscumbia City Board of Education in April 1965. No white studentschose to attend Trenholm High School (1-12) located in the African American community. By January 1966, Southside Elementary School was opened withall African Americanchildren in attendance grades in 1-6. At the same time, Northside Elementary School (1-6) was opened in the white communityto replace the Cave Street Elementaryschool for white students. Cave Street was renovated to house the city school’s Head Start Program and administrative offices for the board of education. Two African American families,the Hendersons and the Garners [pseudonyms], who chose to enroll their children atthe previously all-white Deshler High School hadbeen very active in thePTA and other organizations that supported school activities at Trenholm High School. And their children were above-average students academically who participated in avariety of extracurricular activities.No one stood in schoolhouse the door inSeptember 1965 to prevent the African American students from enrolling at the previously allwhite schools or in front ofbuilding the to call them names. Nor were National Guard troops required to ensure theirsafety. However, African Americanparents andchildren who were present at Deshler High School from 1965-1969 under the Freedom Choice of desegregation plan often foundthe school environment just the opposite of the caring and nurturing educational environment that had been the hallmark of Trenholm HighSchool. When the first African Americanstudents enrolled atDeshler in 1965, there were no African American faculty nor was there a parent-teacher organization. For many years at Deshler, these African American students were the only students of their race in the classes in which they were enrolled. According to African American parents and students, race was an everpresent issue. Maria [pseudonym] enrolled atDeshler as a ninth grader. She said: Going to Deshler,all of a sudden, race was just there, like a livingbreathing thing. . ..Race just overlaid everything. .. .I think . ..my senior year . ..Trenholm closed down. Thatwas the year the rest of the kids in my grade came overto Deshler. Up until then, it was pretty muchme in allmy classes. They [whites] accepted that I was what they called smart, but viewed it as something that was a novelty. School was not . . .the fun that I associated with school. Schoolwas h n to me prior to Deshler. Maria stated how some white students showed their displeasure at African Americans attendmg “their” school. She said: “You walked in and you sat

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down and people next to you got up. Race was real significant at Deshler.” When asked if teachers said anything to students whobehaved in this manner, she communicated that some few did, but otherteachers did not. Maria recalled severalincidents that demonstrated herperceptions of hostility that existed in the educational environment at Deshler. One such incident took place in a social studies class studying Jefferson Davis and the Confederacy. She [the teacher] was sayingthat he [Jefferson Davis] ...felt in orderto bring the Confederacy back to where it neededto be and to resolve allof these problems, he wanted to put the “nigra” and she would always say that, a lot of them said “nigra,” most of them would not say Negro at the time. She said that he wantedto putthem on theboat and send themall backto Africa. ..but theslaves did notwant to go back, they liked it here. She said, “Maria, you would not want to goback to Africa, would you?”And I said, “I beg your pardon,but I have never been to Africa.” And I said, “I guess I’m not any more interested in goingback to Africa than you are to going back to England or Scotland or wherever you came from.” And I got sent to the principal’s office.

This incident clearly demonstrated thatthis teacher was not prepared to deal with suchissues in a way that took intoconsideration the experiences and history of African Americanstudents. Maria continued by describing the consequences of this incident: I think first of all, it was shocking to her. She was very upset by myhaving said that. And she said that she did not mean that tobe insulting, and I told her that I took it that way. But I will behonest. I think that was a point intime that many ofthe students had a different regard for me after that point. I mean,it was pretty obvious that I did not intend to take a lot of stuff. And I guess one thing, at age 14 to say anything like that to a teacher, you know. They were looking at me like ooooh.

She indicated that when she went to the office, the principal “understood why I would feel that way about it.He did notthink it was anappropriate thing for her to have asked me.” Thus, noaction was taken against Maria. Maria recalled another incident that took place when students were provided instruction in giving CPR in their physical education class. She remarked: We didn’t have anything to put over the dummy’s mouth, you just sort of didthat behind people, you wiped off the dummy’s mouth. And I refused to do it. And they [white students] found that surprising. I can remember one of the kids saying, “Wellit would be different if I did not want to do that behind YOU. But for younot towant to do t h a t behind me, being a nigger and all.” . . . But you know, if you are doing PE ...they make t h a t extra effort if they couldbe physical,to try to hityou on thesly, sort of block you.

Maria recounts entering one of her classrooms following the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King,Jr. Someone hadwritten on the chalk board, “The

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lung is dead, longlive the king.” In the class discussionthat followed, she indicated that her teacher was offended by the use of the word “assassinated” when referring to Dr. King. She noted that theteacher said: He did not rise to the level to be assassinated.He did not rise to the level ofimportance. And that was another point in time where we had that discussion. And she said that assassination was a word thatwas reserved for use when you are talking about heads of state. And I disagreed with her. I told herthat was not true, that itwas a word thatwas used when somebodytookit uponthemselves to kill somebody whose existence rose to the level of being a leader, whether it was an elected leader or not, but being a leader and somebody who made an impact on society, and thathe certainly did this. But she did insist that, to the extent that itwas talked about in her class, nevertheless it was her room, and the word “assassinated” would not be used. And I remember saying, ‘‘Well,you are right, you are the teacher and it is your classroom.” . . .You could not feel like you needed to feel. And I just remember just feeling stifled because there was no discussion of it, other than that oneteacher who thenwas making sure that we understood that his [Dr. King’s] place wasnot one of importance.

She indicated that she had onlya few altercations with students, (i.e., leaning onher locker or knocking books from herhand) in the first few weeksat school and remarked about the incidents: “But I think particularly after the first six weeks in class, they thought thatI was at least not what theythought that we [African Americans] were supposed to be. So, I got along fairly well. After the first year,it wasn’t that bad anymore. But you still knewthat you did not fit in, youweren’t reallyaccepted as part of anything.” These schoolexperiences were in great contrast to the ones that Marie indicated that she had while a student at Trenholm High School. At Trenholm, she said: We were allowed to grow and develop without theself-consciousness of being different, any more than we are all different. There was nothing inherently wrong with your differences. ...I t was security. And itwas the ability to be safe. You felt like you were among family and friends. You could raise your hand andbe wrong. And you did not feel like it was something that would be held against everybody that looked like you. And it was mostly that. That’s really the right word, afeeling of being safe and secure and just to BE. ...At Trenholm, I think therewas a sense of that somehow everybody a family, everybody knew everybody else, and you know, cared about what was a part of happened to people. The students cared about each other, felt like you belonged. The teachers cared about you....Trenholm was a family. You knew it whenyou were there.

Although there were many negativeexperiences, she also recalleda positive one with her science teacher: “I think before very long, he recognizedthat I was ahead of most ofhs students. And he wouldleave out and leave me in charge, which wassomething ...I mean, it was veryunusual. They [the white students] didn’t quite know how to take it. But, people seemed to be okay about it.”

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Barbara [pseudonym] completed grades 10-12 at Deshler High School, graduating in 1968, thespring before all students who hadbeen enrolled in grades 10-12 at Trenholmwere required to attend Deshler for the first time. Barbara wasvery active in avariety of clubs and organizations while a student at Trenholm. When asked about her experiences as a student at Deshler, she said:

As far as the kind of personI am, liking to dothings, activities, I had to make a concerted effort to participate in many ofthe activities. I was allowed to do pretty much what I wanted to do, but I did not choose to do as many things because it took too much effortto try to become or to do the things that Iwould normallyhave felt very comfortable doing.

She attributed this feeling to “the separation of minds relative to culture. People do thmgs differently, people see things differently, and there is a lack of experience regarding other races and therefore there is a fearrelative to participating with people of other races when you have not done it on a regular basis.” Barbara’s perceptions of participating in activities at Trenholm were quite different. She remarked: “I was involvedin everything that was possibleto be involved in because I wanted to be. And therewere no hindrances to being involved. So, I felt the cultureat Trenholm helped to roundme out as far as producing a person who had a lotconfidence of in whatever I decided I wanted to do.” Mrs. Henderson [pseudonym], an active PTA mother at Trenholm, had several children who enrolled at Deshler High School under the Freedom of Choice Plan in 1965. She recounted incidents involving four of herchildren and she felt that her chddrenfaced a lot of prejudice with both students and teachers. She stated that: When Sarah [pseudonym] walked in the classroom,one seat [was] available and ...she took itand he [a white student] got up, didn’t wantto sit beside her. Then anotherday he came in and the only one [seat] was the seat next to Sarah, and he...sat down. She got up. Theteacher just laughed.

As noted by Maria earlier, physicaleducation classes seemed to provide situations in which white students took the opportunityto communicate in subtle ways their displeasure in having AfricanAmericans attend Deshler. Mrs. Henderson recalled an encounter of her eleventh-grade son Anthony [pseudonym] with another student: He was the only black in there [PE class] ...the coachwasn’t in there, they [white smdents] would throwspit balls and hit him [Anthony]...he was scared I’d get upset[if he got intoa fight] andI told him, you have a rightto defend yourself and if somebody bothersyou, you respond. Somebody threw a spit ball and he got up and walked from one to one and asked if they didit and theyall denied it. ...He told them whathe was

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going to do.Coach came in andsaid, I don’t knowwho did it, but if I don’t find out, all ofyou are going to bend over and get apaddling. So, then they toldon theboy that did. The coach put gloves on them both and put them out there in the ring to work it out. Anthony whipped him real good in thering, with gloves. And then he [Anthony] became one of their leaders.

Her daughter Donna [pseudonym] was spanked by the teacher when a white girl reported that Donna had hurt her while they were playing a game. Mrs. Henderson stated: And I called ahead of time and told the principal that I wanted to meet with both of them, the man that held Donna while she got a spanking and thelady that did it. ...I want to see them both. Well, I went over there and theprincipal said ...neither ofthem could be there. I said then I’ll come back tomorrow, but they never would meet with me. ...I let himknow. ...I have always wanted my children disciplined wherever they are, but since you don’t seem to know how to discipline and when to discipline, I don’t want one of mine hit again over here ...at all. H e said, well we willrespect that. And that was the only real problems I think.

The last story Mrs. Henderson told was about her son Jeremy [pseudonym], a budding youngartist who stopped drawingafter an encounter with one of his teachers at Deshler. She remarked: Jeremy is very good in art. ...When Maria [his sister] was in government [class], he did all her charts ofthe Supreme Court andall the different charts that she needed and everybody raved over them. And they had an art contest with several schools and he did this picture. I don’t recall exactlywhat it was. The teacher saw it and refused to enter it because she said, she knew he didn’t do it. H e copied it from something, but that she knew he didn’t do it, that he was not interested in art. Mrs. Garner [pseudonym]was alsoan active PTA mother at Trenholm who had several children enrolled at Deshler between 1965 and 1969. When she spoke of her children’s experiences during those years, she stated:

Theirs was pretty rough. I stayed down there[Deshler]morethan I stayed at home. ...It was a hard row to hoe. ...There were things that were said and done that made you feel insecure. The children felt insecure. For instance, they [her children] did not have the privileges that the others [white students] had. And when things were done, they were looked over. They felt like they were just there . . .even some of the white teachers were very hostile. I just stood up andtold them again, they were real hostile. Black parents who were concerned about their children, they keptthem in the doorway. You were always there. But you had to go in and see what was going on because you never knew if your child was going to be expelled from school, or what was going to happen. Ifthey made friends with someofthe white children, they were pretty well locked in. They could venturejust a little bit because of theirassociation with the white children. And they [AfricanAmericans] showed them [whites] t h a t they coulddo most anything. They were good students.

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Nell Paige Hogan, a graduate of Trenholm High School and Alabama State University, washired as librarian at Deshler High School in 1966, the first African American faculty or staff member. Mrs. Hogan had worked for three years as librarian in the nearby Lauderdale County schoolsystem. She told about the unusual manner of her hiring. She applied for the vacant library position at Trenholm but was not recommended for hiring by the principal and was told to meet with the superintendent. Thisis how she explained the encounter: So, I went down to see him [superintendent] in August and he took me on a tour of

Deshler. They had a federal program. And he says, “How would you like to work at with Deshler?” And says, he “WhatDeshler?”And I said, ‘‘Well,what am I going to do ever you were going to do atTrenholm.” ...And I said, “Be a librarian,” and hesaid “we need alibrarian, we have a federal program.” ...H e had me ...sign the contract. ...But we never met Mr. Daniel who was principal of Deshler. And so on inservice day, he told me to show up, and I showed.

This was a rather unusual hiring process because, in this district, the principal usually conducted theinterview with a potentialcandidate, made the decision to hire or notto hire, and the meeting with the superintendent was merely a formality in which the superintendent rubber-stamped thedecision that had already been made by the principal. This was a common practice in many school districts. Mrs. Hogan communicated what happened when she showed up at Deshler on inservice day: So, Mr. Daniel [the principal] looked at me and said, “What am I gonna do with you?” And I said, “I don’t know, but I have a contract.” And he says, “Where are you supposed to be working?” And I said, “In the library.” And he said, “Okay.” And they [school system] had two teacher associations then. So, he [the principal] came by and ...said, “Which one do you want to join?” And I said, “The one that’s the best one.” And he said, “The onethat’s for Deshler.” And he said, “But they got one over at Trenholm.” And I said, “But I don’t work at Trenholm.” So, he said okay. And I think he thought I was being difficult.

Mrs. Hogan also spoke about herrelationship with other faculty members during that first year at Deshler as well as with the students. She stated: And I really did not have a problem.But, some ofthe faculty members, when I first got there, theydid not talk and interact as they didin later years. But, it worked out. And I really think ...that Tuscumbia’s integration went much betterthan the other school systems around. And it was not really a problem withthe students atall.

SUMMARY This chapter presented a briefhistorical view ofpublic school desegregation in theTuscumbia City Schools within the framework of selected major events that tookplace within the state and the nation from 1954-1969.The desegregation ofpublic schools in Alabama receiveda great deal of nationwide atten-

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tion, primarily becauseof thepolitical antics of Governor GeorgeC. Wallace. Alabama officialscreated laws and policies to resist school desegregationuntil forced to comply by federal court orders. Tuscumbia City Schools d d not implement a school desegregation plan until 1 9 6 5 , l l years after the Brown decision was issued by the Supreme Court in 1954. Although there were no outward signs of problemsassociated with thedesegregation of schools in Tuscumbia in September 1965, African American parents and students experienceda number of problems thatinterfered with the ability of students to focus on educational tasks. No one stood in the schoolhouse door toprevent African Americanstudents fromenrolling at the previously all-whte schools nor did anyone call them names. Nor were National Guard troops neededto ensure their safety. However, parents and students believed that racial discrimination was practiced by white students in their refusal to sit next to African American students in class, the practice of “accidental/intentional” bumping and hittingin the hallways and in physical education classes, and in the use of derogatorynames byboth teachers and students. African American parents felt that their children were punished unfairly, were discouraged from using their talents, and that parents and their children were treated with hostility. African Americanstudents felt that some teachers were insensitive in themanner in which they handledclassroom topics related to the history and experiences of African Americans. They also believed that they hadto prove their worth and their abilities whileother students did not. And when they did, they were considered “unusual” as one or, studentsaid, a “novelty” among their race. Although these students were able to survive, they never feltthat they “fit in” orfelt safeand secure as they hadat Trenholm High School. WhileallAfricanAmerican students enrolled in grades seven through twelve began attending Deshler High School in fall1969, elementary schools operating under the Freedom of Choice plan achieved had onlytoken desegregation. With an enrollment of 210, no white children had chosento enroll at the Southside Elementary School, built in theAfrican Americancommunity in 1966. Eighty-sevenofthe 542 students at Northside Elementary African were American, and threeAfrican Americanstudents wereenrolled at R. E. Thompson Elementary (DesegregationPlan, 1970). Significant changes were made in the racial composite of Southside Elementary only when the school board decided that this school would be the location for all students enrolled in grades K-3 in the city. The district’s desegregation report showed that,by fall 1980, theenrollment of Southside Elementary was 60 percent white and40 percent nonwhite, muchcloser to the racial composition ofthe city-that is, 75 percent white, 25 percent nonwhite (Desegregation, undated). William Manse1Long, Sr., a 1924 graduate of Trenholm, community activist, and chairman of the 1955 Citizen’s Committee of Tuscumbia, made a

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statement thatcharacterized the way that many African Americanparents and students felt about school desegregation inTuscumbia during this period: The Supreme Court decision o f 1954 didn’t give us school integration in Tuscumbia, it gave us school elimination. It eliminated the black schools and forced theblack children togo to the white school. ...Nobody in the school whois sympathetic to them [black students].. ..Nobody to point out tothem in school thevalue of continuing school. (Long, 1981)

REFERENCES Alternate segregation plans made. (1955, May 8). The Florence Times, pp. 1-2. Board minutes: Tuscumbia boardof education. (1951,February 28). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1955, June 1). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1958,January 20). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (196Sa,April 6). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board o f education. (196Sb, June 10). Board minutes: Tuscumbiacity board of education. (1966, January 17). Desegregation Plan for Tuscumbia City Schools (1970, January 13). Submitted by Jack H . Vardaman, Superintendent,in a letter to The HonorableFrank M. Johnson, Jr., U.S. District Judge, U.S. District Court, Montgomery, AL: Tuscumbia City Schools, Tuscumbia, AL. Desegregation of Tuscumbia City Schools. (undated). Tuscumbia City Schools, Tuscumbia, AL. Judge rebuts Wallace attack; cites bad conditions at prisons. (1976, February 1). The New Tork Times, p. 32. Long, W. M. (1981).Personal interview. Tuscumbia,AL. New step to avoid integration. (1955,July 23). The Florence Times, p.1. Segregation picture, state by state. (1955, June 12).The Florence Times, p. 6. Waiting to see: Local school officials cautious in comments.(1955, June1). The Florence Times, p. 1. Yarbrough, T. E.(1981). Jud8e Frank Johnson and human rzihts in Alabama. University: University of Alabama Press.

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CHAPTER 8

F Q OSeJQedation ~ F0QeUe.t. to Black Is Beautzfi.tl: Accessto Hig-her Education in Alabama Next DOOQ In the name ofthe greatest people that have evertrod this earth, I draw the line in the dust andtoss the gauntlet before the feet of tyranny. And I say, Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever! Governor George C. Wallace, Inaugural Address, January 14, 1963

A PIECE OF CAKE: COURT ORDERS COMPLETED For decades, Trenholm High School graduates traveled many miles from home andincurred unnecessary debts to pursue college degrees at historically black collegesand universities, whileFlorence State College (now theUniversity of North Alabama) was literally next door, only six miles away.Chapter 8 describes some of theevents that tookplace when Wendell WillueGunn, a native of Tuscumbia who attended Trenholm High School, enrolled as the first African American at Florence State College (FSC). Included in this chronicle is a description ofsome ofthe actions Governor George C. Wallace took to resist the desegregation of state colleges and universities in Alabama. Wendell Gunn completed kindergarten through grade nine at Trenholm High School and grades 10-12 at Nashville Christian Institute. Before applying to Florence State College, he completed two years plus one quarter of course work as a student atTennesseeAgricultural and IndustrialState College (Tennessee A & I) in Nashville. H e had originally pursued a major in foreign languages, but later changed to chemistry. Gunn was always active in extracurricular activities. At Trenholm, hewas a memberof themarching and concert

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band, the choir, and thejunior varsity basketballteam. At Nashville Christian Institute he was president of the studentcouncil, a member of thechorus, a varsity basketball player,and was elected to the National Dean’s List ofOutstandmg Students.While attending Tennessee A & I, Gunn was a member of the Concert Singers, Theatre Guild, AmericanChemicalSociety, French Club, Spanish Club, andAlpha Phi Alpha Fraternity. When Wendell Gunn walked into the registrar’s office at Florence State College on that hot July morning in 1963 (July ll), he was certain that he would be givenan application for admission. He would complete theapplication, return it, and would be granted admission for the fall term. After all,just three months earlier, Governor George Wallace had made his stand in the schoolhouse door at theUniversity of Alabama in Tuscaloosa. VivianMalone and James Hood, two African Americans, wereenrolled at the university and David McGlathery had begunclasses at the University of Alabama in Huntsville. So, with all the courtorders taken care of, Gunn thoughthis enrollment would be a piece of cake-routine and easy. Little did he knowthat he would be sitting in the Office o f President Ethelbert B. Norton afew minutes later. Gunn recounted this initial experience at FSC and his motivation for visiting the office o f the registrar that day: My summer job at Reynolds [Reynolds Aluminum Company] hadlasted only 44 days. (It was a common practice at Reynolds to dismiss temporary workers before 45 days passed. Otherwise, they became members of the workers union and thereafter could not be dismissed without “dueprocess”.) Anyway, that meant that itwould be finarcially more difficult for me to return to Tennessee A&I State University in the fall. I was visiting a friend, Jeanette Ingram,in Florence one day and saw on thecoffee table a yearbook from Florence State College. (Jeanette’s father was a custodian at Florence State, so he had a yearbook.) Shouldn’t the name be Florence State Teachers College? Has something changed since the last time I looked? After all, why should I have been looking? It was a college for whites only. Besides,I hadno interest in studying teacher education. Butnow, it had a h11 liberal arts curriculum, including a degree program in chemistry, my major. Hmmm! Maybe I could go there. M e r all, VivianMalone, James Hood, and David McGlathery had already gained admission, albeit under federal court order, to theUniversity ofAlabama the previous spring. Perhaps, I thought, thatissue had been settled. I left immediately to go to the campus to pick up an application for admission. (Usually, one writes for such things,but what the heck! The campus was a few blocks awayand besides, in all my nineteen years of growingup in thearea, I had never been on FSC’s campus.) I hlly expected to simply pick up an application to take home and ponder.I t was not that simple! I walked into theregistrar’s office and a woman behindthe counterasked, “May I help you?” I asked for an application and a curriculum catalog. Without responding, the woman disappeared into theback room. Aminutelater, a second woman appeared and asked the same question, “May I help you?”Again, I asked for an application, andshe disappeared. Five minutes or so later, a man appeared in frontof me with the same question, “May I help you?” (This was getting weird.) A bit nervous now, I asked again.

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The man (who I thought was the registrar) asked me to wait and hedisappeared into an office across the hall. After what seemed like an eternity, but was probably 15 or 20 minutes, he reappeared with the College Dean, Dr. Turner Allen. Dr. Allen asked me who sentme there to ask for anapplication, which surprised me. But Isimply answered, “Nobody. I’m here on my own. Is there a problem?” Without answering, he led me into a large office where the college president, Dr. E. B. Norton, was waiting, apparently having been hlly informed that I was there. After asking me several challenging questions about my motives, who sent me, and such, President Norton explained to me his inability,under Alabama lawand thecollege, to accept a Negro for admission. H e also noted thatif I was determined to gain admission his opinion, I wouldprobably anyway, I would have to file suit in federal court and, in win. But that was the only way. (I wasn’t prepared for all that. I just wanted to finish college.) I said very little, but they made up for it by also warning that such an undertaking would be riskyfor all of the obvious reasons. They suggested that before I actually file the application, I should have a good longtalk with my parents and weigh the risks. In the meantime, they suggested, it would be best for all concerned if I did not discuss my visit and ourconversation with anyone but my parents.

A memorandum addressed to Chester M. Arehart, Registrar, from President Norton revealed that, ordinarily, Gunn wouldhave seen Mr. Arehart, but he was absent from thecollege campus that day, so “he [Gunn] was properly referred to my office” [Office of the President] (Norton, 1963a). Thepresident’s letter to Mr. Arehart described hs conference with Gunn. It appears that otherAfrican Americanshad inquired aboutadmission to Florence State College, but college officialshad beensuccessful in counseling themto attend or continueto attend historically blackinstitutions, so no formal applications had been submitted. President Norton’s letter to Mr. Arehart stated in part: Mr. Gunn andI had an extended conversation during which I informed him that this institution has not yet been given the State Board of Education or the State Legislature any specific authority to enroll aNegro student.Mr. Gunn was alsoinformed that up to this date the institution hadnot been put in position of having to act upon any formal a number ofinquiries. application from aNegro studenteven though there had been Mr. Gunn expressed disappointment and said, in effect, that he had hoped that the situation mighthave been clarified by this time to such an extent that a Negro student could be accepted here without a court order. He requested the forms which are specified for the filing of formal application. H e was given a supply of said forms by me with the suggestion that if he is doing well in his present college work he shouldconsider the desirability of completing his program for graduationwithout any attempt totransfer under existing circumstances. H e was also informed that I would be availableto discuss the matter with him and his parents ifhe should desire a conference with me before making a definite decision as to whether or nothe would file a formal application for consideration. I gave him my office telephone number and my home telephone number in order thathe might arrange an appointment if he and his parents so desired. (Norton, 1963a)

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On July 16,1963, Wendell Gunn andhis mother, Mattie Gunn, hadconfera ence with President Norton at which time President Norton stated that he probably did not have authority to admit himto the college. President Norton telephoned Mr. Gunn on July 19,1963, and asked h m to come to the college to review histranscript. And on July 22,1963, Wendell Gunn had a conference with President Norton and Mr. Arehart. Mr. Gunn was told that there was nothing wrong with his transcript. At this meeting, Gunn offered to give Norton his $25, therequired deposit fee, but Norton told Gunn to send thecheck in a letter (Gunn v. Norton, 1963). So, in a letter addressed to Dr. Norton, dated July 29,1963, Wendell WilkieGunn completed theofficial application process for admission as a student at Florence State College. He stated: “Concerning our series of conferences, I and my parents have thought theexisting situation over very carefully.So in full realization of all the factors involved, I am enclosing my application fee, thus completing the official filingof my application for admission” (Gunn, 1963). In a letter fromPresident Norton, datedJuly 31, 1963,Mr. Gunn was denied admission to Florence State College. The letter stated: “I hereby inform you that neither the Legislature of Alabama nor theState Board of Education has granted to Florence State College theauthority to enroll a Negro student in this institution. I am therefore, returning, herewith, your checkfor $25.00 with the informationthat your application is not nowbeing processed for enrollment in September” (Norton, 1963b). Gunn first learned that he had been denied admission to FSC from thelocal newspaper,before he received the letter from Dr. Norton. And once the denial of admission hit the newspapers, the negative phone calls began. Gunn indicated that the calls came all day, every day, with comments such as: “White folks just ain’t got norights no more,” or “If yougo over there to that school, there’ll be a rifle pointed at your head.” When one caller said, “It’s just these outside agitators,” Gunn replied, “But, sir, I’m your neighbor.” Gunn listened patiently to the calls and responded calmly rather than hanging up. Instead, the cders would often hang up the phone on him. However, Gunn saw a glimmer of hope in some of the television interviews with students and other citizens. For example,in one interview, a student was asked, “What do you think about what’s going on [regardingVivian Malone and James Hood being on campus at the University of Alabama]?”The student replied, “So what’s the big deal, it’s just two more students.” A second example that Gunn notedwas a similar question asked of someoneassociated with FSC. And the reply was, “Well,I guess I don’t know, I guess the Negroes got a right to be educated too.” Gunn felt that too often, reporters played up the negative comments andnot thepositive ones. He remarked, “That’s a very important thing that most people thought wasit a nonevent [his enrolling at FSC]. Isn’t that wonderful? Thathas to be the reason it succeeded.Because most peopleare just plain good people whoare trying to get through the day. They aren’t trying to knock anybody.”

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Gunn’s mother called Fred Gray, a longtimefriend, to ask his advicein responding to the denial of admission to FSC. Gray’s question to Gunn was, “Are you serious?”And Gunn replied, “Yes, but I have no money to pay for filing a suit.”Gray told him not to worry about that.Wendell Gunn’s parents, Marshall and Mattie Gunn, engaged the services of Attorney Fred D. Gray, who also served as Vivian Malone’sattorney in her successful suit to gain entry to the University of Alabama three months earlier. Gunn informed Dr. Norton, President ofFSC, that he was filing a suit to gain admission to the college. O n August 29,1963, U.S. District Judge Hobart H.Grooms issued a court order directing the officials of Florence State College to consider Gunn’s application and the applications of other Negroresidents on thesame terms as white applicants. Judge Groom stated in his order that “he [Judge Grooms] had no alternative but to grant the injunctionenjoining school officials from dscrimination against any applicants.” He further noted that “his order implied no criticism of Dr. Norton. Heacted in good faith .. .under Alabama law” (Foscue, 1963, p. 1). Gunn testified in court that his parents were spending $800 per year to send him to Tennessee A & I State College in Nashville and this was a financial strain on his family. H e could live at home and attend Florence State College for much less money (Foscue,1963). Because of the violence that had characterized school desegregation efforts in many communities, this issue was raised at the court hearing. Dr. Norton responded to the violence issue by stating: We do notexpect anything except maintenance of law and order and an atmosphere conducive to study and learning....The less said, the better. ...The college will make necessary preparations to handle Gunn’s application as that of any other student. . .. We will do our best to maintain law and orderand meetthe responsibility placed on us by the court. (Foscue, 1963, p. 1)

One month after being denied admission to Florence State College, on August 31, 1963, Wendell W. Gunn received a letter from C. M. Arehart granting admission to the college as a transfer student at thebeginning of the 1963 fall term. He was instructed to report for advisement/registration on September 11,1963, exactly two months from the day he walked into theregistrar’s officeto request anapplication for admission (Arehart, 1963).Prior to Gunn’s registration at the college, local law enforcement officials issued no public statements, but it was understood that special preparations had been made to maintain law and order (Wendell Gunn’s Registration, 1963). On Wednesday, September 11,1963, at 5:45 P.M, Wendell WilkieGunn registered for classes at Florence State College in aprivate session with college officials. Gunn attendedhis first classes on Friday, September 13. Gunn enrolled as a major in industrial chemistry with a mathematics minor. His primary courses would include organic chemistry, calculus, physics, and general education subjects. Accordmg to the local newspaper,at theclose of his official enrollment in classes, Gunn said, “I’m glad to be enrolled and every-

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thing. I feel confident that everythingwill go well and I am anxiouslyloolung forward to the beginning of classes” (FSU Accepts, 1963, p. 1).Although Wendell Gunn’s registration took place quietly with no fanfare, his experience was a great contrast to the scenario that occurred at theUniversity ofAlabama with Vivian Malone andJames Hood three monthsearlier, and with Autherine Juanita Lucy in 1956.

STAND IN THE SCHOOLHOUSE DOOR Autherine J. Lucy and Polly Ann Myers Hudson charged in their 1955 suit for admission to the University ofAlabama that in 1952, they were admitted to the university by mail, but were refused enrollment when they appeared in person on campus. Dr. John M. Gallalee was president of the University of Alabama when Miss Lucy and Mrs. Hudson made their first applications for admission. Dr. Gallalee testifiedat the court hearing that clerical “a error was made in sending thetwo women a form letter telling them they had beenaccepted. ...Two formletters were used, one to prospective students who had expressed interest in enrolling at the school and anotherwhich notified students that they had been accepted. ...The first form shouldhave been mailed to the two women,” but aclerk “must have picked up the wrong form” (Negroes to Ask, 1955, p. 1). Hill Ferguson, a University of Alabama trustee, said that “he knew of no written rule which forbids admission ofNegroes to the university. He said the trustees have tried to persuade Negroesto enroll in Negro colleges” (Negroes to Ask, 1955, p. 2). So on June 29,1955, U.S. District Court Judge Hobart Grooms ruled that theUniversity ofAlabama couldnot refuse enrollment because of race. However, when AutherineLucy enrolled in classes in February 1956, thecampus and surrounding community became a scene ofprotests, riots, and demonstrations. Autherine Lucy was suspended and later expelled from the university (Blacks at Bama, 1979; Yarbrough, 1981). Dr. Frank Rose was hired as president of theUniversity ofAlabama in 1958 because of his background as a healer in racial matters. The board oftrustees felt that: Dr. Rosecould keep the University from going through another “Autherine Lucy” dispute. Since the Universitywas “SO demoralized followingthe Lucy case”and since the University’s faculty wasdrying up because of that blot, the Board appointed someone with proven ability in handling racial problems. (Dr. Rose’s Stand, 1979, p. 25)

The university also wanted to avoid the violence that took place at Ole Miss when James Meredith enrolled as the first African Americanstudent in 1962. Ole Miss “suffered a serious loss of faculty and an estimated 50 percent decline in the number oftuition paying out-of-state students”(Bauer, 1977, p. 256). Therefore, the scenario that took place when Governor Wallace made his stand in the schoolhouse door on June 11,1963, had been well planned and

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agreed to by the governor, university officials, President John F.Kennedy, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, and the two students, Vivian Malone and James Hood. The governor made his statement, stepped aside, and the two students registered for classes. As planned and agreed to, there was no violence. Since taking on thepresidency of theuniversity in 1958,Dr. Rose and his staff had workedcarefully and cautiously to prepare for admittingthe first African Americanstudents (Bauer, 1977; Dr. Rose’s Stand, 1979;Yarbrough, 1981). Theschoolhouse stand, accordingto Dr. Rose, was no show as the press triedto portray it last year(during the fifteenth anniversaryof the event). It was a real demonstration to this country o f the question of civil rights was going to be supported by the federal government and had to be supported by all the people of this country. And this is the importance of the “stand in the schoolhouse door.” (Dr. Rose’s Stand, 1979, p. 26)

The scene at the 1973 University of Alabama’s homecoming game was quite a contrast to Governor Wallace’s 1963 stand in theschoolhouse door and his declaration of “Segregation now! Segregation tomorrow! Segregation forever!” at his inauguration as governor. A reporter noted that “he[Governor George Wallace] went to the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa-scene of the 1963 doorway stand against integration-and crowned a black coed [Terry Points] queen of homecoming as 58,000 football fans cheered. He called the queen ‘beautiful’ ” (Ayers, 1973, p. 25). During the 1970s,several African Americanstudents were elected to serve in importantroles that required a voteby the majority of the student body. In 1975, Sylvester Jones waselected Vice President of the StudentGovernment Association (SGA). Andin 1976, Cleo Thomas was elected President of the SGA and Billye FayeScott was crowned homecoming queen(Blacks at Bama, 1979). In spring 1963, Dr. Martin LutherKing, Jr., led a civil rights drive in Birmingham thatwas captured by national and internationalmedia coverageprimarily because ofthe violence committed by police against African American women and children. Television and newspapers showed police clubbing marchers, attempting tocontrol themwith high-powered fire hoses, and driving police dogs to bite them. Thepurpose ofthe campaign wasthe elimination of segregatedpublic accommodations anddiscriminatory employment practices. The city made some concessions, and a settlement was announced on May 10,1963, just one month before the desegregation ofthe University of Alabama. O n the evening of June 11, 1963, after Vivian Malone and James Hood enrolled as students, President John F.Kennedy took the occasion to address the nation on national television (Bauer, 1977). Bauer asserts that these two racially motivated crises “provided Kennedy with the appropriate opportunity to entreat the Congress and the nation to institute its Second Reconstruction .. .a coherent effortby all three branches of thegovernment to secure blacks their full rights” (pp. 230,259).President Kennedy said:

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The heart ofthe question is whether all Americans are to be afforded equal rights and equal opportunities, whetherwe are going to treat our fellow Americans as wewant to be treated. If an American, because his skin is dark, cannot eat lunch in a restaurant open to the public, if he cannot sendhis children to thebest public school available, if he cannot vote forthe public officials who represent him,if, in short,he cannot enjoy the full and free life which all ofus want, then who among us would be content to have the color ofhis skin changed and stand in his place?who among us would then be content with the counsels of patience and delay? (Bauer, 1977, p. 260)

Three months following President Kennedy’s speech to the nation, Wendell Wilkie Gunn enrolled in classes at Florence State College. NOW THE REAL WORK BEGINS: LIFE AS A STUDENT AT FLORENCE STATE COLLEGE For the first days of classes, Dr. TurnerAllen, Dean of theCollege, walked with Gunn to his classesto see how things would go.There were no incidents. Dr. Allen alsosuggested to Gunn that hechoose a different route for traveling to school each day for his own safety. For several months, Mr. John Haney, an African American who owned a cab company in Florence, volunteered (at no cost to Gunn) tohave one ofhis cab drivers take Gunn to school each day for classes. Gunn drove his car to the cab stand each morning andwas taken to the campus and picked up by a cab driver. As suggested by Dr. Allen, they used a different route each day. Gunn was not theonly African American student enrolled at FSC for very long, perhaps only one semester. Because Gunn had filed a class action suit, African American graduates of TrenholmHigh School and neighboring communities could now choose to attend FSC (as whites had done for 112 years) for a fraction of the costs of attendmg hstoricallyblack colleges far from home. When asked about his experiences as a student at FSC, Gunn reflected on his past schooling in segregated environments and howthat affected his life as a student atFSC.

A l l of my young life in school through high school we went to school in segregated en-

vironments. We were told things that described the people that we weren’t going to school with but themain thing thatwe knew about the other folks [whites] was that we weren’t allowed to be with them.So, that affected me alot when I got ready to go into my third year of college, for the first time to go to school with whites. Because no matter what somebody tells you, you form your own picture of what you are likely to see. . . .For example, in my high school, I was always one of the achievers, but I still didn’t know how to compare myself to the folks across the tracks ...the white people. And it’s easy to let a picture get way out of hand and you get the feeling that even though you are good where you are, in thegreater scheme of thingsmaybe you’re not quite as good . . .maybe the folks on the otherside of the tracks are smarter than you. ...At least that’s certainly what the myths were.

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So when Gunn wentto FSC, henoted thathe was a little nervous about what

hs experience would be, if he wouldhave a lotof “catching up” to do in order

to make the grade. And what did he find out? Gunnstated, “My learning skills were not outof line. And in fact, I was surprised to find not only howstrong I was relative to them [whites], but how strong a lot of my peers [other African Americans] were.” Only too often, African Americans who are high achievers are considered unusual or anovelty among their race, as some of the first African Americans enrolled at Deshler High School found. Gunnexperienced the same myths at FSC as he excelled in classes. He remarked, “The first thing that somebody tried to say to me was well, you are an unusual Negro.” Gunn further remarked: “I knew a lot of Negroes who were smarter than me . ..but who didn’t have the same opportunities orstrokes of luck that I did.” In 1965, all students and faculty at Florence State College learned that Gunn was indeed a high achiever when hereceived an awardon “Recognition Day.” Anaccount ofthe ceremony was reported in the college’s student newspaper in 1972: In 1963when many American colleges were experiencing uneasy integration, Wendell Wilkie Gunn quietly enrolled at Florence State, entering the Junior Class. Two years later he received a standingovation from his fellow students. The occasion was “Recognition Day,” the annual spring program in the amphitheater in which FSU ceremoniously honors its outstanding students. In 1965the Award to the Outstanding Student in Physics (highest average) went to Wendell Wilkie Gunn. When this announcement was made, the audience came to its feet, gratefblly applauding the accomplishments ofa young manwho had brokenthe color barrier with grace as well as courage. (First Black, 1972)

Gunn recalled the occasion of winning thephysics award. He indicated that the first yearat FSC wasa tense one and that hereally didn’t talk with anyone. But, he went to the awards dayprogram because he was in the choir and was a soloist for a song thechoir sang that day. He talked about what for him was a very emotional experience: When the professor started to discuss the physics award and started to describe what it was for, I started to wonder who in the world could have won this? I know that I was I had won it, but I didn’t realize it until he said making A’s in physics, but ...it turns out it. So, when he said it, Istood up, Imean I must have been smiling from ear to ear. What shocked me was the student body. ..stood upand applauded. I ...completely lost it. It shocked me so bad. It shocked me so good, thatI just cried. Every time I tell it now, I get misty-eyed. ...You know you can pretty much think that they are just hating you and hating that you are there. Andthen they stood up and applauded my successat winning thatphysics award.

Gunn said that FSC students respondedto him differently after awards day. He remarked that

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People were worried about talking to me in the middle of campus, didn’t bother them ...M e r that convocation, it was just a to come sit down with mein the student union. different game, just like the whole student body said wellOK. ...It was okayfor me to be there ...for them to applaud my success, that means that theacceptance came before then. Otherwise, they would justbe jealous of my successand just give the normal applause. I guess when some people started to clap, other people who maybe wanted to, felt free to and it built.

Gunn also felt that his role in the college choir also influenced his “acceptance” the second andlast year at FSC. In addition to playing several musical instruments, he also played the piano and sangas a soloist and with large and small groups since his junior h g h days. He stated: We got a new choir director and we had some acts where people were singing folk music and stuff. ...When we were on a concert tour,I was sitting around playing some of my Ray Charles country andwestern music and [they]discovered that I could do that. ... And started to have me play at theintermission of the concerts. And then, whenever they had talent shows, I was always invited to come and close the talent show.

Mr. Gunn was inducted into Kappa Mu Epsilon, a national honorary mathematics fraternity, his last yearat FSC. Although Gunn found the second year to be a bit more friendly, hereflected on the results of thetension and pressure that hefelt while a studentat FSU: When I went to Florence State, I knew there were two groups ofpeople outthere looking atme. One groupsaid, oh he’ll do fine. And the othergroup said, he’s got nobusiness over there, he’s going to fail. But what youdon’t realize is that bothof thoseplay mental pressure on you. Because one group, you want to prove them wrong and the other groupyou don’t want to let down. And thereis no guarantee that when yougo in there, youare gonna do as well as anybody. ...When I left Florence State, I had an ulcer. ...That means I kept a lot of things inside, things that I normally would react to that I knew I couldn’t react to. ...I wasn’t relaxed. I didn’t have great social interaction at Florence State ...the first year. There were people who had promised to have rifles pointed at my head. It’s hard enough tostudy, but tostudy when you thinkyou might have to dodge a rifle bullet, that’s another matter.

Since graduating fromFSC in 1965, Gunn reportedthat Dr. E. B. Norton, who was president ofFSC while Gunn was enrolled, has written (in longhand) to him just about every five yearsto commend Gunn for some activity in which he had beeninvolved. And Gunnhas been involved in many activities that, as an alumnus, wouldbring distinction and honor to any hgher education institution in the country. When Gunn graduated from FSC, he took a job as a chemist at Tennessee Pulp and Paper Company in Counts, Tennessee. M e r searching for an institution at which he could pursue a graduate degree, he chose to work for Nalco Chemical Company in Chicago as a chemistin its water treatment division. He attended Illinois Institute of Technologyat night and then decided to attend theUniversity of Chicago School of Businessfull-

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time, where he completed theMBA degree. Gunn held positions as a credit and lendingtrainee and Vice President in credit and lending at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York, and as a professor in the Business School at Texas Southern University in Houston. He left Chase Manhattan Bank to serve as Assistant Treasurer for long-term capital management at PepsiCo in White Plains, New York. In 1982,he joined the WhiteHouse staff as a special assistantto President Ronald Reaganfor international trade policy. Since leaving the Whlte House appointment, Gunn served as VicePresident at MetropolitanLife in their strategic research group and was a pension marketingofficer. Atpresent, he headshis own firm, Gunn Solutions, which does strategic planning and consulting with companies in New York. He indicated that whenever areference was needed for school or job applications, the generous references from faculty at Florence State College always pushed his name to the top of thelist. Now and then, Gunnsees people fromhis hometown who remindh m of the importance of what he did when he walked into the registrar’s office at FSC on July 11, 1963. At a family wedding, some 35 years later, an African American graduate of DeshlerHigh School said to him: “You are my hero. If you had not opened FlorenceState College, I would never have been able to go to college. I wanted to attend Tuskegee but my mother could notafford it.” She was a ninth grader at Trenholm High School whenGunn was admitted to FSC and is now a professional social worker. With misty eyes and a wide smile on hs face, Gunn remarked,“I wasn’t trying to do anythlng great,I just wanted to go to school.” Attorney FredD. Gray, who representedWendell Gunn in court, is probably one of the unsung heroes of the civil rights movement. He was one of the first recipients of the American Bar Association (ABA) Spirit of Excellence Awards that honors the professional achievements of minoritylawyers. The ABA’s news releasenoted that “From hs advocacy forthe right ofRosa Parks to retain her seat on a bus to his leadership in the Alabama legislature, he has stood for fairness and equality and has demonstrated the finest that the legal profession has to offer” (Fred Gray, 1996, p. 1). Mr. Gray was alsoone of the first lawyersrepresenting Dr. Martin LutherKing, Jr. He brought to the courts cases to: (1)integrate the bussystem in the city of Montgomery,(2) return African Americansto the Tuskegee city limitsand open the door for redistricting and reapportionmentlegislation, (3)protect the right of the NationalAssociation for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to dobusiness in Alabama, (4)reinstate students improperlyexpelled from Alabama State College, (5) require the State of Alabama to protect marchers from Selma to Montgomery in pursuit of the right to vote, and(6)remedy exclusion of blacks from civil juriesin Alabama. Mr. Gray initiated the courtcases that resulted in desegregating institutions of higherlearning in Alabama and in 104 of the 121 elementary and secondary school districts in the state (Fred D. Gray, 1996). Attorney Gray also secured an out-of-court settlement for African American

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men inTuskegee who were victims of a federal experiment program testing the effects of syphilis on the human body (Yarbrough, 1981).

suh!uwARY Before 1963, Trenholm High School graduates traveled many miles from home and incurred unnecessary debts to pursue college degrees at historically black collegesand universities, while Florence State College was literallynext door. At his inauguration in 1963, Governor George C. Wallace proclaimed segregation forever, but stepped aside in June of that year as two African American students registered for classes at theUniversity ofAlabama. H e later crowned an African American student as homecoming queenat the University of Alabama and called her beautiful. The evening after Vivian Malone and James Hood enrolled at the University of Alabama on June 11, 1963, President JohnF. Kennedy addressed the nationto begin what Bauer (1977)called the Second Reconstruction, a coherent effortby allthree branches ofthe government to secure for African Americans their full rights as U.S.citizens. Wendell W. Gunn spent nine of hs precollegiate years at Trenholm High School. Graduates of Trenholm believe that the school created a caring and nurturing educational environment for Gunn and other studentsbecause of the quality of committed teachers, programs, and extracurricular activities, along with parental support and community involvement in the life of the school. At Trenholm,he felt safe and secure, was allowed to grow anddevelop as an individual, and felt he was a member of afamily. His early experiences at Trenholm contributedto the confidence he hadas he pursued his education at Nashville Christian Institute, Tennessee A & I, and Florence State College. When asked about his earlyschool experiences he remarked: “Well, I was born at Trenholm, youknow. The people I’ve seen there [at the school reunions], I’ve known since I didn’t knowanybody. Trenholm was important. Even with whatever flaws it had,it was where we came from. And ...even when you ... talk about its flaws, you talk about itin a loving way.” When Gunn stepped intothe registrar’s officeat Florence State College, he was seeking a good education at college a his parents could afford, despite the beliefs of college officials that “someone had sent him.” After all, as a child growing upin theTrenholm school community inTuscumbia, the focus of the African American community was to “uplift the race .”And the pursuit of postsecondary education provided opportunities for individuals to “lift aswe climb,” the motto of theLa France Club, a student club established at Trenholm High School in 1907.At nineteenyears of age, Gunn said, “All I wanted to dowas go to school.’’ H e wasn’t trying to do anything grand. But the steps he took that day opened doorsto a college education formany AfricanAmericans in his hometown and nearby areas who otherwise may have never been able to afford one.

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A s Gunn reflected on what he dldin enrolling at FlorenceState College in 1963, he remarked: “I was only nineteen whenI applied for admission, so I was very naive. But, as I thmk about it, I am shocked that my parents supported me in this, because they knew better.” Yes, they knew better. They knew that they wanted a better life for their three children. His parents had already helped to support his older brother andsister complete their college degrees at historically black colleges farfrom home. And at one time, all three children were in college. His parents also knew that they had paid taxes for years to support Florence State and other Alabama state-supported colleges, colleges their children could not attend. African Americans were present at Florence State, but they did not attend classes. They cooked andcleaned for those whodid attend classes and senttheir own children to colleges milesfrom home. Hisparents knew that itwas time for one of their children to gain the right to attend the state-supported college next door. And Wendell Gunn did, as the college newspaper noted, “with grace and courage.” Andmany of his neighbors, friends, and family members followed in his footsteps, including African American graduates of Trenholm High School and Deshler High School in Tuscumbia.

REmRENCES Arehart, C. M. (1963, August 31). Letter addressed to Wendell W. Gunn, Tuscumbia, AL. Ayers, B. D., Jr. (1973, November 19). SouthernBlack mayors give Wallacestanding ovation at a conference. The New York Times, p. 25. Bauer, C. M. (1977).John F. Kennedy and the second reconstruction. New York: Columbia University Press. Blacks at bama. (1979, Winter). TheUniversity of Alabama Alumni News, 60 (l), 6-2 3. Dr. Rose’s stand. (1979, Winter). The University of Alabama Alumni News, 60 (l), 24-27. First black graduates to a standingovation. (1972, December 3). The FloraAla, Florence State University, Florence, A L . Foscue, L. (1963, August 30). FSC told to enroll Negro, 20. Tri-CitiesDaily,p. 1. Fred D. Gray of Tuskegee is among first recipients of ABA spirit of excellence awards. (1996, January). Chicago: American Bar Association. Web Site: http://www. abanet. org/media/jan96/tuskegee.html. FSU accepts first Negro Wednesday. (1963, September 12). Tri-Cities Daily,p. 1. Gunn, W. W. (1963, July 29). Letter addressed to Dr. E. B. Norton, President, Florence State College, Florence, A L . Guan v.Norton and Arehart. (1963, August 20). Ca 6 3 4 1 8 . The U.S. District Court for the NorthernDistrict of Alabama, Birmingham, AL. Negroes to ask university admission. (1955, June 30). The Florence Times, pp. 1-2. Norton, E. B. (1963a, July 18). Memorandumaddressed to Mr. C.M. Arehart, Registrar Florence State College, Florence, AL.

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Norton, E. B. (1963b, July 31). Letter addressed to Wendell W. Gunn. Tuscumbia, AL.

Wendell Gunn’s registration time uncertain. (1963, September 10). The Florence Times, p. 1. Yarbrough, T.E. (1981).Judge Frank Johnson and human rights in Alabama. University: University of Alabama Press.

CHAPTER 9

The Destyuction o f a School Community: Can It Be Rebuilt? I saw a lot ofpeople standing on the street crying. It was just something to see that boom!-knocking the bricks down. After they tore the building down, theyleft the front part of Trenholm, steps and columns. They left that therefor a while. And it was likesomebody had died,to pass by there and see that building gone like that. Fred Johnson, 1998, Retired Principal and Teacher, TrenholmHigh and Deshler High School

CLOSING TRENHOLM On June 4, 1968, Trenholm HighSchool held its last commencement exercises. WendellWilhe Gunn, Tuscumbia a native who spentnine of his precollegiate years at Trenholm and was the first African Americanstudent admitted to Florence State College, delivered the commencement address. At the time of theaddress, Gunn was employed as a chemistat Nalco Chemical Company in Chicago. After serving the African Americancommunity for more than90 years, Trenholm High School was being phasedout of existence. At the beginning of the fall 1968 school year, all African American students in grades 10 through 12 were assigned to the previously all-white Deshler High School, and grades seven through nine remained at the Trenholm building until the close ofthe 1968-1969academic year,at which timethe last three grades were also assigned to Deshler. Grades one through six had moved fromthe Trenholm High School building in 1966 when Southside Elementary School opened its doors, three blocks south of the Trenholmbuilding.

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This chapter describes the perceptions of students, teachers, alumni, administrators, parents, and community members regarding the impact of the closing and demolition of the Trenholm High School building on the African American community from 1968 to 1980. They comparetheir experiences at Trenholm High School to those at Deshler High School, the former all-whte school. Could the Trenholmbuilding have been saved for a useful purpose for the citizens of Tuscumbia if the school board had moved with “all deliberate speed” to develop a school desegregation plan in the 1950s oreven as late as the early 1960s?Why was the building demolished so quickly after the school was closed? What would have happened if the Trenholm building had been prcbided the resources by the board of educationto maintain it adequately as the board did for the segregated w h t e school buildings? Could the building have been used as an elementary, middle, or vocational school building as other districts have done? But the board of education did not make that choice. It appears that therationale for closing the Trenholmbuillng was included in the Lee v. Macon County court orderissued on May 22,1967, by the U.S. district court panel of Judge Frank M. Johnson, Jr., Judge Hobart H. Grooms, and Judge Richard T. Rives. Tuscumbia City Schools was one of 103 Alabama school districts included inthis court order. PartTV. School Equalization, Section A. Inferior Schools of Lee v. Macon County stated that In schools heretofore maintained for Negro students, the school system will take prompt steps necessaryto provide physical facilities,equipment, courses ofinstruction, and instructional materials ofquality equalto that provided in schools previously maintained for white persons. Conditions of overcrowding, as determined by pupil-teacher ratios will, to the extent feasible, bedistributed evenly between schools formerly maintained for Negro students and those formerly maintained for white students. If for any reason it is not feasible to improve sufficiently any school formerly maintained for Negro students, where such improvement would otherwise be required by this subparagraph, such school will be closed as soon as possible, and students enrolled in the school will be reassigned on the basis of freedom of choice. (1967, p. vi)

For African American students enrolled in grades 7-12 in Tuscumbia, there was only one other school in the district, Deshler High School. So actually there was no real freedom of choice between schools. M e r George S. Bellresigned as principal in April 1967,the TrenholmHigh School faculty met with the board and were assured that an African American would be appointed principal of the school (Board Minutes, 1967b, 1 9 6 7 ~ ) . At the August board meeting,Section I.A. ofthe March 22,1967, court order (noted earlier) was discussed and the boarddecided to began the phaseout of Trenholm infall 1968. The African American community had petitionedthe board in early spring to keep the school open (Board Minutes,1967d).At the November board meeting, a gradual phaseout plan was discussed: grades 7 and 12, 1968-1969; 8 and 10, 1969-1970; grades 9 and 11, 1970-1971

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(Board Minutes,1967e).At the January1968 meeting, the board decided to phase out grades 11and 12 in fall 1968 (1968a).However, grades 10 through 12 were phasedout first, and all African American students in those grades enrolled at Deshlerin fall 1968. Many citizens in the African Americancommunity believed that grades 10 through 12were chosen as the first grades to phase out atTrenholm because the Deshler High School football team was experiencing losing seasons and theAfrican Americansenior high schoolboys were needed to strengthen theteam’s winning ability. Afterall, the TrenholmHigh School team had many winning seasons. And in Alabama, high school football was king amonginterscholastic competition. Because of this belief, some African American boysrefused to play football during their first years at Deshler. State superintendent Stone recommended the closing of Trenholm completely. However, the board directed Superintendent Vardaman to write a letter to Mr. Stone restating the board’s desire to phase out Trenholm in steps (Board Minutes, 1968b). At theMay 20,1968, board of education meeting, Superintendent Vardaman summarizeda telephone conversation with U.S.Justice Department Attorney B. Scall. Someofthe questions posed by Mr. Scall concerning Tuscumbia City Schools’ desegregation plan in compliance with the Lee v. Macon County decision in 1967 were: 1. Are we going to close Trenholm? 2. Give me abreakdown of teachers by schools, color and if the studentbody is Negro or white. 3. Are you planning to comply with court order andfurther desegregate faculties?

4. How many teachers have been replaced since the fall of 1967? 5. How many vacancies do we anticipate next year? 6. How late can we notify a teacher she will not be rehired? 7. When does a teacher have to notify the Board if not returning? 8. Do we participate in student teacher program? 9. Do we place Negro student teachers in white schools, etc.? 10. Do we use Negro substitutes in white schools and white substitutes in Negro schools? 11. Does the Board ask teachers where they would like to teach each year? 12. Onyour application do you ask if prospect would teach in either Negro or white school? If not,will you? (Board Minutes, 1968c)

On August 28,1968, Trenholm High School along with four other African American schools in the Muscle Shoals area-Burrell-Slater in Florence, West End at Oakland, Cherokee High School, and Red Rock Elementary in Barton-were ordered closed in whole or partby a federal court orderby the beginning of the 1969 school year (Kelley, 1968). Many of the teachers who taught at Trenholm were assigned to teach at Deshler High School. Some

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teachers at Trenholm were assigned to teach at elementaryschools within the district while others choseto accept positions outside the district in neighboring towns. Theseis no evidence to indicate that African Americanteachers in the school &strict lost their jobs because of desegregation. Although the school district no longer hadan African Americanprincipal, in fall 1969, Fred Johnson, principal at Trenholm High School from 1967-1969,was named assistant principal at Deshler. H e became principal in 1973 and remainedin that position until 1979 when he retired from the school district. When the communitylearned that the Trenholm School would be phased out, the African Americancommunity madeseveral requests to the boardconcering the building. For example, at the July 1968 board meeting, Mr. Sam Minor, director of thelocal OEO (Office of EqualOpportunity) program,requested the use of the building for a day care program, adult education, and senior citizen’s program. Theboard agreed that permission would be granted for one year only (Board Minutes, 1968d). May In 1969, a groupofAfrican American citizens requested use of the Trenholm gymnatorium for recreation and other civic purposes after the Trenholm School was closed inJune andthe board agreed (Board Minutes, 1969). Eventually, the building served as a recreation site for a shortwhile, with thecity responsible for utilities and maintenance. One former teacher at Trenholm described what happened: And they [he was not certain who] went in that gym and broke the windows. ...[The city parks and recreation department] replaced glass with aluminum...at the bottom. They broke the big doors up there. ...They took thesatellite things out of the gym. I don’t know who would have wanted those. ...They went in the lobby ...took something ...pushed holes ...in it [the ceiling]. Mr. Waddle [Director of the Willie Green Recreation Center] was working at Willie Green Center and downthere [Trenholm gym]. And he told me, “I am just tired of trying to patch it up as fast as they tear it down.”

The gym, with debt a remaining of$148,777, was demolished along with the rest of the Trenholm High School buildmgs. The was land deeded to the city of Tuscumbia and usedto construct a low-cost housing complex for African American residents called Trenholm Heights (Board Minutes, 1969, 1973). Other thanits name, there is no evidence that this site was once where Trenholm High School stood, thecentral unifying force of the African American community for nearly 100 years. On October 23,1969, the three-judge panel of theU.S.District Court issued a decree (applying to Tuscumbia andthirty-five other school systems in the state of Alabama) mandatingthat each school board and superintendent file a plan on or before January 15, 1970, thatdisestablished the dual school system based on race, both as to students andfaculty. As a part of the desegregation plan submitted by JackVardaman, superintendent of Tuscumbia Public Schools, in response to the October 23, 1969, court order, in fall 1970, all first, second, and third grade students whonot didlive in the R. E. Thompson

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School attendance zone were assignedto the Southside Elementary School. in t h e African American community and no white stuThis school was located dents had chosen to attend this school under the freedom of choice plan. Pubthe “Alabama lic school officials in Tuscumbia were thus guilty of practicing to “punt” Punting Syndrome,”the tendency of state and local school officials their problems into federal court when they ignored their constitutional re1981). sponsibilities until faced with a federal court order (Yarbrough,

Impact of Closing Trenholm

In b o t h the questionnaire and the interviews, respondents were asked: How did you feel when you learned Trenholm would be closed? Former stu-

dents reportedfeelings that included anger, concern, depression, disappointof ment, remorse, sadness, shock, mixed emotions, and indifference. Feelings sadness weremodified with termslike “very,” “extremely,” “pretty,” and “terribly.” One former student stated:“I felt sad because I thought they should let merge with Trenholm inhave closed someof the white schools and them On learning thatthe school would be stead of Trenholm merging with them.” closed, a second student replied: Oh, itwas devastating. It was likea piece ofme had just died. Trenholmgave to me, and I believe I gave to it.I was part of the history of Trenholm. And was itlikethat part of just kind of thinkthat your me wasnot important enoughto keep standing. And you school is going to be there. ...That youwill come back and showit toyour children.

A third former student remarked: I felt like Alicein Wonderland when they flippedtheup jacks behind her. ...Like someI mean I seriously felt like I’d lost body going behind you and taking out your roots. something. A l l these years they forcedLIS to go to school on this side of thetracks and then when they quit segregating, they forciblyshut us down. In the community, the school and the church, those were the places where things happened, not just education. ...It was through those institutions that thecommunity kept in touch with each other. One graduate’s first reactionto the closing of Trenholm was surprise that turned to anger. H e stated: “And as I thought a b o u t it the surprise turnedto anger and disgust that this thing that you tried to avoid while you were in school and in the community called racism eventually ascored victory by ending up closing down this institution, this icon.” Another graduate stated: It just shouldn’t happen.That history was a focal point ofmy growing up. From kid toa an adult,I can remember goingto school until I was an adult. That was it, therewas no single entity ...in ourcommunity that was tied to lives, allour lives, in the same kind of way as the schoolwas. ...The school was the center, was a nucleus ofmy life. And to have that ripped out is like sayingwhich one of your children are you going to give up

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this year? It’s a monument. He’s talking about the Statue of Liberty and I’m talking about Trenholm High School.

Those who hadmixed emotions commented that theywere hopeful that the change would improve the quality of education for black students and were sad that the schoolwas to close. One graduate remarked: “At the time [when Trenholmwas closed], I thought it was a good move, but conditions changed and I have second thoughts.”A second graduate stated: My feelings were divided. On one hand, I agreed because of better education for Blacks. On the otherhand, I felt sad because a lot of Black students would not finish high school because of the change. Blame being placed both on prejudice treatment and scholastic adjustment.

Another student communicatedsimilar sentiments. Sheremarked: I was in the area at thetime. And it was a very, very sad time for me.But on the other hand, I had to look at thesituation as progressive in thesense that children would be moving on tobigger and better facilities, accessibleto more learningtools. But my feeling was more sentimental than anything else.

Another former student who expressed having mixed emotions aboutthe closing ofTrenholmwas hired as an elementaryteacher in a desegregated school in a neighboring community. She stated: I felt that Trenholm hadbeen a greatpart of the black community, not only for our children but throughout....But I knew that inthose schools [segregated African American schools] our children were not going to be supplied with adequate learning materials like they wouldbe in these other schools [desegregated schools]. For instance the library. When I started teaching in thewhite schools, it was so much different in the libraries. ...They wouldget better opportunities whenmaterials were there for them to learn. ...I enjoyed the kinds of programs that ourchildren were able to participate in, plays and singing [at Trenholm]....There was alwayssome kind of communityactivity going onin our school and some ofthese things wouldbe kind of left out when they went to the new school[desegregated school].

Those whowere indifferent about theclosing were primarily 1970 to 1980 high school graduates who hadnever attended Trenholm High School. For example, one graduate replied in answer to the query: “Indifferent. But I realized that theschool was physicallybeyond repair and was never giventhe same funds as the white school.I felt that a new facilitycentrally located was in order, however this didn’t happen.’’ A second graduate stated: “I was stillin elementary school. And the at time it didn’tphase meat all. But as I look the situation over today, I would give myright footto have attended anall blackschool. The Black experience, total Black, would have been of some challenge.” A 1960 graduate of Trenholm remarked: “Honestly, I was glad. I figured as an all

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Black school, we werebeing short changed, unless you were exceptional. I was glad to see it go, I just wished I could have attended Deshler, integrated. ... Opportunity was so much greater, everything was greater.” T h s graduate, a football player at Trenholm, gave an example of what happened with the scheduling of football games at the one stadium in town, the Deshler stadium. “We had adays schedule. Our schedule said Friday night. Butif for somereason Deshler played Friday night, they would cancel ours [Trenholm]. We’d play on Saturday or Monday. We were getting short-changed. I know we were.” Costs of Destroying Trenholm Buildings

To determine howthe African Americancommunity felt about thedestruction of thebuildings, respondents were asked: What was your reaction when you learnedthat the Trenholmbuilding had been demolished? Although the school board and the community were well awareof some of the financial loss to the community (a debt of $148,777 owed on the gym), appears it that the social and psychological costs of destroyingthe Trenholmbuildings were not properly weighed by the officials who made the final decision to demolish the buildings. Feelings about the destruction of the Trenholm High School buildmgs were mixed. For many citizens of theAfrican American community,the reaction to the loss of Trenholm buildings can be described as a grief response showing most ofthe characteristics of grief and mourning for alost person, much like what happened inthe relocation ofthe West Enders in Boston because ofurban renewal (Fried, 1963).For example, one former teacher stated: “I can remember people stanlng outthere [as the building was being demolished], it was just like a funeral over there. ...And I can remember the last day when they knocked those things downs [columns and steps]. People were stanlng out there crying like a funeral was going on.” A second longtime teacher at Trenholm indicated that he could not watch the demolition ofthe builhngs. He said: “I couldn’t. Too many memories. ...The expense of a brand new building [gym built in 19601 that we hadn’t paid for, bulldozed down. It hurt. It hurt me.” Anotherteacher and alumnus ofTrenholm stated: It just kills me dead. ..and that like to kill me to find thatout. ...The people didn’t like it because they thought the building was too new andtoo good to lose allthe effort the colored folks hadput forth in building....We had these people raising money selling ice cream andhot dogs. ...So you know you’re puttingyour heart and yoursweat . . .and your blood and tears into the thing [raising moneyto build the school]. Graduates and other community residents felt that part of their black heritage, the history ofAfrican Americansin thecommunity, was wipedout when the Trenholmbuildings were destroyed. One former student indicated that it was reallyhard to explain how shefelt when she learned that thebuildings had

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been demolished. She stated: “It’s like . . . the ground had to have opened up and swallowed it. You feel that nobody could ever make a decision to knock the building down. I literally cried.” A second student remarked: “I had an empty feeling. I guess I had the same feeling that a person has when they see their house burn down. Everything that I cherished from my childhood.” A third former student said: “I had feelings that made cold chills run all over me to see a good school being torn down for nothing.” And a fourth former student remarked: “I had tears falling down in my lap when I actually went by there and saw the building being torn down.” Many respondents believed that the buildings could have been used for another purpose, especially the gymnatorium that had been completed only nine years earlier in 1960. Many ofthe respondents who felt this way considered the buildings to be in good repair or capable of being enhanced with minor repairs. Even some respondents who had mixed feelings or were indifferent about the closing of the school thought that the relatively new gym could have been put to good use in the community. The response of a former Trenholm teacher communicates the sentiments of an overwhelming majority of the respondents: I had some dreams as to how those buildings could be utilized for the service of the community, particularly . . . the gymnasium. It could have been very well used for our community activities. But right now we are getting ready to put in centers that can house a large number of people. Actually we tore down one that was already in place. The location was maybe opposed to by some people. But the facility was great . . . adequate for child care facilities, maybe keeping the kids after school for the working parent. . . .All those things could have been utilized ifavision could have been accepted.

Other respondents felt that the buildings had been allowed to deteriorate to the extent that the only rational action was to tear them down. For example, one graduate remarked: “If the Trenholm buildngs could not be replaced with a better physical plant, I did not feel bad when the school was torn down.” A second graduate said: “The building was an important part of my life for nine years so there was a great sense of loss. However, I felt it was best considering its condition.” A fourth alumnus talked about how the buildings had been vandalized: I was downright mad. While some of the buildings were old and in need of repair, I felt the entire community had been done an injustice, especially because the gym was so new. I was also very disappointed (mad really) when I walked into the gym before it was torn down and saw all of the vandalism which had occurred. I t also hurt me to see that almost every window in the school had been broken.

And because of the vandalism, one graduate indicated: “I felt okay [about the buildmgs being torn down] because the building was serving no valuable purpose and was an eyesore to the community. This was because of poor maintenance and vandalism.”

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A few respondents felt personally responsible for the destruction of the Trenholm buildings while many others felt that the city, the white citizens, or the black citizens were to blame. One graduate stated that he was “totally devastated, remorseful and ultimately responsible. We are all responsible for the destruction ofour school. Trenholm was a legend, our legend, and we allowed through neglect its ultimate destruction.” A second student remarked: “I was here to see Trenholm being torn down. After about a year, I fault myself for not doing anything to save it.” Some former students believed that the buildings were demolished so quickly after the school was closed to avoid having a desegregated student body at the Trenholm site. One graduate communicated this sentiment: “It should have been left standing [the Trenholm building]. I’m sure they [whites] never wanted to integrate it and that’s why they tore it down.” A second graduate noted that whether it’s a residence, business, or school building, whites have difficultyin moving into buildings that have been previously occupied by African Americans. He remarked: The Negroes have occupied it [Trenholm building] for years and it just is something that white people just can’t get adjusted to occupying that building or sending their children to that school because Negroes have poisoned that building and the building is just made out of brick and cement and glass. . . . Trenholm should have been made into a middle school, and all middle school children should have been required to attend.

On learning that the Trenholm building had been destroyed, another graduate said: I thought that the white man would do anything to keep from integrating with you. . . . If he’s going to integrate, he’ll let you integrate with him. I could not believe they demolished the gymnasium, as young as the gym was. We struggled all our lives to get a gymnasium because we used to play basketball in what was called the “cracker box.” The “cracker box” was an auditorium. . . . And finally we got a gym and we tore the gym down before the paint was dry.

One former teacher stated that “I think what caused the opportunity to tear down those facilities as quickly as they did goes back to the problems . . . the conflict. They caught the community divided.”

LIFE IN A NEW SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT: AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS AND FACULTY Tuscumbia City Schools implemented its Freedom of Choice desegregation plan in 1965 with a few African American children enrolling in previously all-white schools. No white students enrolled at Trenholm High School, the only African American school building in the community. Grades one through

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six of Trenholm High School moved to a new building (Southside Elementary) in January 1966, just three blocks south of the Trenholm High School building. For the spring semester, George S. Bell, principal at Trenholm, also served as principal of Southside Elementary School that was built in the African American community. A white principal was named at Southside Elementary at the beginning of the 1966-1967 academic year and Nell P. Hogan, an alumnus of Trenholm, was named librarian at Deshler High School, the first African American faculty or professional staff member at Deshler. One teacher noted what happened with faculty at the beginning ofwhat she called “partial integration,” the period from 1965 to 1969, before the Trenholm buildmg was closed. She said: They [the school board] got the teachers who had master’s degrees [from Trenholm and Southside]. That means they took the highest qualified teachers first [for the previously all-white schools]. . . . Why are you going to take the best from me? I need some ofthe best. You should just mix it up. But they didn’t do it. . . . They sent the inexperienced white teachers to Southside. Everything they sent us was right out of college, no experience. Yet they pulled the best that we had and took it over there.

The remaining sections of this chapter will focus primarily on the perceptions of African American students and faculty related to their experiences during the first 15 years of desegregated education at Deshler High School, from 1965 through 1980. Students and teachers also compare their experiences at Trenholm to those at Deshler High School. Perceptions of African American Students

Evaluation of Selected Issues a t Trenholnz and Deshler. Graduates were asked to rate the programs at Trenholm and Deshler on several items that relate to quality of schooling: overd quality, physical plant and equipment, school supplies, textbooks, counseling of students, extra tutoring for students, extracurricular activities, and parental involvement. The rating was done on a four-point scale with one (1)for excellent, two (2) for good, three ( 3 ) for fair, and four (4) for poor. The items rated highest for Trenholm were primarily those that required the efforts ofprofessional staffat the school. They were:

0

Quality of teaching staff Discipline Extracurricular activities Parental involvement

The items rated lowest at Trenholm were primarily those that required monetary support from the board of education. They were: 0

School supplies

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Textbooks

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Conversely, the items rated hghest at Deshler were primarily those that required monetary support from the board of education. They were: 0

Physical plant and equipment

0

School supplies

0

Textbooks

The program areas rated lowest at Deshler were primarily those that related to the efforts of professional faculty and staff at the school. They were: 0

Discipline

0

Parent involvement

0

Extra tutoring

0

Counseling

Mujot. ProblemsFuced by African American Students at Deshler. Graduates’ evaluations of the selected items at Deshler were reinforced when asked about their views on the major problems faced by African American students at Deshler. Each group ofstudents from 1909 through 1980 agreed that the major problem facing African American students at Deshler was prejudice/discrimination/racism. Other issues listed by the most recent graduates (1970-1980) included: 0

Underrepresentation of black students in school activities

0

Exclusion of black students from decisionmaking

0

Loss of ethnic identity

0

Little or no counseling Lack of support from white teachers Feelings of not belonging

PerceptionsAbout Deshler Fucwlty. Teachers can be critical to the success or failure of students. Many students have succeeded because of a caring and supportive teacher, and other students fail because teachers don’t seem to care. Thus, the respondents were asked the question: In your opinion, how do black students at Deshler think oftheir teachers?The respondents were asked to rate the faculty as a group as either mostly supportive, mostly nonsupportive, mostly indifferent, or don’t know. Fifty-five percent of the respondents indicated no opinion on this issue. However, it is interesting to note that most of the respondents in the 1970 to 1980 group (21 of 26 students) attended

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Deshler High School and they indicated that black students viewed the faculty as “nonsupportive” or “indifferent.” TrenholmActivities Discontinued at Deshler. Some of the activities that respondents indicated were present at Trenholm but discontinued at Deshler follow, along with relevant comments made regarding those activities: 0

Black history is not taught and celebrations of historical events in black history are not commemorated. “We didn’t even know there was a Black History Week so I felt left out of my heritage when I found out.” May Day exercises and track and field day.

0 0

0

0

Only a few blacks are on the honor roll. No blacks were valedictorian or salutatorian. Senior class educational trips to Washington, D.C., and band competition at Alabama A & M. School dances after games, and for a while the prom. “I feel that it was an attempt to discourage social interaction between blacks and whites and that hindered normal acceptance of the students of each other and the situation.” Chapel programs. “In these programs students were able to use any and all talents they had.”

Positives Aspects of ProBram at Deshler. Sixteen of the students in the 1970 to 1980 group provided comments regarding the positive aspects of the program at Deshler for African American students. Fourteen of the comments were positive. Ths group listed the following positive aspects of Deshler (in decreasing order of frequency): Co-curricular activities Sports Fair/equal opportunity to participate Curriculum 0

Teaching/learning strategies

0

Equipment/facilities

Five of the 26 respondents felt that there were no positive or good aspects of Deshler for African American students. Two of them qualified their responses: “I cannot think of any outstanding aspects of the school program at Deshler for black students” and “There is no positive or good aspects ofthe school program at Deshler for black students.” Perceptions of African American Faculty

Several African American teachers, who taught both at Trenholm High School and Deshler High School, were interviewed to gain their perceptions about some of the program quality issues at both schools. Included were ques-

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tions related to changes in roles, relationships with otherfaculty, adequacy of school supplies and equipment, adequacy physical of plant, African American students’ involvement in extracurricular activities, and parental and community involvement in the life of the school. Changes in Roles and Relationships. Fred Johnson was principal at Trenholm High School whenit closed and was named one oftwo assistant principals at Deshler, the desegregated high school, in fall 1969. He described his change in role for that first year: My role change was certainly seen because I left Trenholm as principal, and went to Deshler as assistant principal. And the Sunday before the Institute [inservice sessions for teachers at thebeginning ofthe academic year] ...the three ofus [principal and two assistant principals] had a meeting and the principal told us that I would be assistant principal in charge of 10,11, and 12th grades. And the otherassistant principal would be in charge of seven, eight, and ninthgrades. And he said, “I am going to make it clear to you, and I am going to state it in Institute.I don’t wantthe white teachers to send white studentsto the other one and sendblack students to you [Johnson].” He said, “I will make that clear.” And I told him, “Be sure you do that.”

Mr. Johnson also stated that one of the white teachers told him thatshe had planned to retire that year, but “she decidedto stay one moreyear to make sure that I got off on the right track.” And she did andhe thanked her for doing that. After four years asassistant principal, Mr. Johnson was appointed to the position of principal at Deshler. He described some of thesituations he experienced in that role: “After four years I moved up and I said, ‘Well the buck stops here now.’ ” The superintendent told me that “You don’t have to tell me everything that’s going on over there.Ifit gets to a point...where youcan’t hardle it, thenyou call me.’ ...And I like that. ...I respected the teachers. A s far as teachers, it did not make anydifference to me. I did notlook at their color, I looked at theperson, students too.” Mr. Johnson described how hedealt with problemswhile he was the principal at Deshler: I had no major problems where I could not go to sleep at night, eitherat Trenholm or Deshler, my whole career. If I had a problem,I always tell people, it’s not my problem, it’s our problem, we will work on it together. Andifyou can catch it when it starts, before it grows, don’t overlookit,when you see it coming up, work on itright then. Ifyou can bring in a couple of students anda couple of teachers and talk to them one-on-one and smooth it out,I find that’s the way to do it. And you get respect.

Grace Matthews, home economics teacher at Trenholm, became one of three home economics teachers at Deshler. She indicated that herrole did not change exceptthat she also taught some other courses at Deshlerin addition to the home economics. She found her fellow home economists easy to work with and stated: “They did everything they could to help me do well in the

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situation.” Mrs. Matthewsnoted thatmost of her classes were predominately white and she experienced no problems with the students. She remarked:“I respected them and they respected me, and the white kids did what I asked them to do. They would try hard in class, and I had good students....Some of those students thatI had, I know for a fact that they wouldgive problems in other classes.” John W. Winston joined the faculty at Trenholmin 1951where hewas the band director, choir director, and teacher of social studies. When he wentto Deshler in 1969, he left the music program, atwhich he had been extremely successful at Trenholm, and went full-time with social sciences.When queried as to why he did notremain with themusic program, he remarked: I had achoice to be assistant [band director]. I had to deal with all the noise [teaching students the fundamentals of playing band instruments] and then when you get through with the noise, then you turn them[music students] over to somebody [headband director] and let themlisten to some music. I decided I did notwant to deal with all that.

He continued his comments about his change in roles and how thesocial sciences werean important source in helping to deal with cultural differences and biases within the student body: I thought my role would be more effective in thesocial sciences discipline than with the band. ...We [he andPrincipal Fred Johnson] were able to sit down and solve a lot of problems. There were some potentialdiscipline problems in that sociology class. There were potential problems withthe football team that they [students] would bring up in the course, the colorful type things. ...Quarterback did not want to throw toa black end thatwas open ...that kind of stuff. We had anopportunity topush back chairs, sit down in the middle of the floor, and discuss a lot of things,and I hope we were able to contribute quite abit to school programs. But anyway, it gave usan opportunity tolook at integration, whatit is allabout, andwhat couldbe accomplished. ...The faculty and staff and everyone was committed to why we were there and I can’t see anything that disrupted the program.

Fred Johnson commented on the good that came from theactivities in Mr. Winston’s sociology class. He said: He [Mr. Winston] would have assembly programs, black and white students, they would geton thatstage before the studentbody and talk about their culture and their way of living. The blacks had a chance to express themselves and the whites had a to show them howthey couldlive chance. And he wouldbring them together and try a whole together in society with two different cultures. ...And I still give him credit for lot of the goodbehavior at Deshler. ...Mr. Winston did moregood atDeshler ...than any one person.

Grace Matthews recalled a session in one of her home economics classes that increased students’ understanding of one another’s habits. She stated:

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They [white students] were really curious about hair, our [African Americans] ...We just hair. ...And someof them...were working with their Afros at that time. stopped whatwe were doing and had a round table discussion about thehair and the care of the hair. So these kids got around thetable and they talkedamong themselves about what they didto their haireveryday, the whites too, the boys too. They talked about howthey cared fortheir hair everyday and themany shampoos. Theyeven gave brand names of things they would use. The black girls would talk about how they would do their hair. And when theygot through each side was really fascinatedabout what they had learnedabout hair care. The whites were especially amazedto know that theblacks did not shampoo theirhair everyday. Andthe blacks could not understand howyou could wash your hair everyday. ...So it was a big laugh about the hair thing. .. .And we learned a lot. M o s t o f t h e o t h African er American facultyw h o went to Deshler tookon the same orsimilar roles that they had held at Trenholm, whether it was teach-

ing science or mathematics or English. Charles Mahorney had been head coach of all interscholastic sports at Trenholm and a teacher of health and one coach, so Mr. Mahorphysical education classes. Deshler had more than ney acceptedthe position ofhead basketball coach and assistant football coach. Mr. Johnson noted that the head football coach like was the director of athletall t h e activities. And it appears ics who h a d t h eresponsibility for coordinating that Mr. Mahorney chosenot to take on that role. Academic Pyopams. Trenholm offereda good academic background for its students. Because it h a d a small student body, the range of electives was less than that offered at larger schools. Fred Johnson noted that the program at Trenholm met the needsof students. He stated: It gave them a good background to go onto teachers’ colleges, even the engineers at that time. Because wedid offer math up through advanced algebra.We offered chemistry andphysics. One thing about Trenholm that I think was better than Deshler...evin ...10th grade, four tookalerybody took algebra. ...If there were four [students] gebra. If it was 30 in ll t h grade, 30 took geometry.

And the same pattern followed with Algebra11, chemistry, a n d physics. H e noted that, at Deshler, many of t h e African American students were taking the easy courses, not the higher level mathematics and science courses that were two African American electives at Deshler.He indicated that there were only students in higher mathematics classes the last year he was principal (1979). Deshler offereda m u c h more comprehensive list of courses in the curriculum not at but Trenthan Trenholm. Some examples of courses offered at Deshler

holm included art,driver’s education, sociology, trigonometry, special education, careereducation,electronics,drafting,cosmetology,welding,air conditioning-refrigeration, a u t o body, carpentry, child care, accounting,and shorthand. SchoolSupplies, Epipment,and Physical Plant. Oneformerteacheradministrator at both schools commented regarding the “separate but equal

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doctrine” that legally existed prior to 1954. He stated: “The separate but equal thingthat was always talked about, that’s not true. It was not true,and anybody couldtell you that was not true.That’s a false statement they put out that made us feel like we were equal when it came to equipment.” He remarked: “At Trenholm, you asked for a lot of things in those days you didn’t get. When we moved out there [to Deshler] we mostly got everything we wanted.” He also noted thatonce theAfrican Americanteachers and all high school students wereassigned to Deshler: “We found out they had morelab equipment, more booksin the library, and things like that.’’ He continued by saying that, when it came to science laboratories and equipment, there were “no comparisons when it came to facilities. M e r we built a gym [at Trenholm],we cut it in two [auditorium usedas a gym] and made a library and science lab. ...New tables and things, and thegas.Then we had astorage room for the chemicals. It met thequality standards for the state department. ...We did not get touse it very long [school building closed shortly after renovations].” Then he described the science facilitiesat Deshler High School: “But down atDeshler, we had this big science laband we had a big facility for storage. Then we had a biology lab next to it ...and physics [lab]. Thenin junior h g h they hada lab over there for junior highscience. And the lady who taught eight grade science even had a lab table in her room.” A second teacher noted thatwhile at Trenholm:“I heard a lot of the chemistry teachers and thebiological sciencesteachers complain about the fact that there were inadequate supplies. Some of the things they did have were outdated.” However, when they wentto Deshler he said: It was a whole new ball game. Didn’t have to worry aboutselling peanuts and popcorn to buy anything. You asked for it, if it was feasible, if monies were available, you got the materials. There were always new books when it was time to change out. Everybody had their own books and materials. So there was a big difference there.

The homeeconomics teacher at Trenholmbecame one of three home economics teachers when she moved to Deshler. She indicated that while at Trenholm: “Most of the time I had the booksI needed. Many times they were new books ...I just know that I didn’t always haveenough money to buy as many titles as I needed for the dfferentthings I was trying to offer inhome economics.” She surmised that she probably had more funds to operate with than some of the other subject areas becauseshe also receivedvocational funds from the state. She compared thephysical plant and equipment at the two schools. She remarked: I can say for certain concerning the physical plant itself, that I had much better facilities at Deshler than at Trenholm. It was more spacious, more up-to-date materials at Deshler. Although part of that was mine [equipment and supplies from Trenholm], some that I brought from Trenholm. Butstill it was more space, many more things to actually work with. Andit was warmer! And our things [major equipmentlike ranges

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and refrigerators] were changed year eachup until the last few years before I left [she retired]. Now the thingswe had at Trenholm, I would just have to keep them indefinitely, when I possibly should have been changing mine out at the same time they were changing themout at Deshler. But I took good careof them and they lasted well. But it was better at Deshler so far as the physical plant and the equipmentI had to work with.

As noted in Chapter 5, teachers at Trenholmrecalled the PTA efforts to relieve the costs of books for students enrolledin the elementary grades. Trenholm students in grades 1-12 purchased their books from alocal downtown store. Oneteacher stated:“We were veryfortunate inthis area. ...This section of the state was blessed with industry that provided money to do a lot of things. ...All the students who wanted, couldget them [books] down on the corner. All our studentshad them.” A second teacher noted: “The PTA and other organizations had struggled hard to buy things that we recommended at Trenholm.” Student Involvement in Extracuwicular Activities. When African American students were enrolled at Trenholm, they could join as many school clubs or sports teams for whch they hadthe time. For mostclubs, few restrictions existed except interest; certainclubs, such as the Trade and Industrial Club or the National Homemakers of America, required previous enrollment in auto mechanics shop or home economics classes. When African America students enrolled at Deshler in fall 1969, Deshler students hadalreadyjoined clubs for the 1969-1970academic yearwhen they signed up for courses in spring 1969. Oneformer Trenholm teacher noted: Ifyou wanted to be in a club, you have to fill out a form and teachers would recommend you and they. ..bypassed that the first year because we weren’t there.So ifwe hada student council member at Trenholm, they automatically put them in when we went to Deshler thatfall. Ifwe had cheerleaders, they didn’t put in them cheerleading thatyear. Then the board finallycame out and said theyelect them in the spring.So, we didn’t have any cheerleaders andwe didn’t have footballor basketball [thatfirst year].

So there were some modifications made in the guidelines for membershipin some activities the first two are three years of desegregation. At Trenholm there were no restrictions on thenumber ofoffices a student could hold invarious organizations as compared to Deshler. For example, at Trenholm one student may have heldthe offices of president of her/his class, president of the student council, and president of the Trade and Industrial Club. When queried aboutAfrican American students as officers of clubs at Deshler, one teacher said: “Not many officers. We have only one ortwo. But we’ve had some heads of clubs ...we have Blacks on most every club. They might be recordingsecretary or somethinglike that.” One teacher-administrator recalls a related incident that happened shortly after all Trenholm’s grades 7 through 12 students were assigned to Deshler. He stated:

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I can remember when I first went to Deshler. A few Blackchildren got aroused about something, I don’t recall right now. . . .They were going to call a meeting with Mr. Donley [pseudonym], the principal, and they used Flora [pseudonym] . ..as spokesperson. And he asked me to come in....And. ..when hegot through that meeting, he said, “Man, I never had achild talk to me like this.” And it just really knocked him off his feet! That girl, she sat there and I mean she hadit down pat. She said, “Mr. Donley, we’re not downhere begging. ...A l l we’re asking for is a chance. ...At Trenholm we had our ownbasketball team, we had our own cheerleaders, we had our own student council. We came to Deshler and you hadyours, your football team, your cheerleaders. Now we are not begging, all we’re asking is to give us a chance to play football, to be cheerleaders,” to be this, to be that. It was beautiful. That man [the principal] just sat there and said, “Wow! As far as I’m concerned, I’m going to give you a chance to do anything you want.” And when they left o u t . ..he sat and talked with me.I really think it changed his mind about a whole lot of things. ...H e had never had aBlack child sit down and goover these things with him.

It appears that in the first year of desegregation the board of education stopped the prom as noted earlier. Faculty and students went before the board to request that they reconsider their decision. Fred Johnson described the situation: So the board made it clear to us ...we’re going to do this on a trial basis. I guess the dancing, the black and white dancing together....So they said, if anything goes wrong, this is going to be the end ofit. ...You come before the board each year and get permission to have it, and it’s going to be based on your last year. That thing went over so good thatyear. The board membersattended it. Theycame and stayed a while, and they danced andenjoyed themselves. The next year wewent before the board, no trouble at all. And they’ve been doing itevery year to get permission to have the prom.And nothing has happened, because the teachers know that when it gets out of order,that’s going to be it.

At the first proms following desegregation, few African American couplesattended. They indicated that they did likenot the type of music being played at the prom.Mr. Johnson described how this matter was resolved: “SOthe prom committee wouldgettogether and...send offand get tapes of the bands, and they wouldget bands that couldplay rock ‘n roll or jazz. ...They’d get integrated bands and that helped. That finally broke the barrier, and now the blacks are participating inthat prom justlike it was theirs, now.” Parental and Community Involvement. As noted by both students and teachers, African American parents and other community residents were actively involved in school activities at Trenholm High School. They raised money to buy land, erect and renovate buildmgs, and purchase equipment, supplies, textbooks, band uniforms, and other needs identified by the faculty and administrators. They attended sports events, plays, band andchoral recitals, graduation exercises, and other activities in which their children were active participants. The PTA wasone of the major organizations through which

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African American parents exercised strong leadership to support school needs. However, that relationship changed when Trenholmclosed and theirchildren began attendingDeshler, High School. Fred Johnson, who served as assistant principal and principal while at Deshler, described the situation: At Trenholm, we had a PTA, at Deshler we didn’t. . . . Mr. Vinson [pseudonym] stopped that [PTA] when he was principal because of conflicts and misunderstandings. ...But he told me that as long as he was superintendent, there would never be another PTA again. WhenI left there, we didn’t have a PTA, but they hadit in elementary schools. . . . Bur Deshlerdidn’t have a PTA forthewholetime I was there [1969-19791.

At Deshler, the mostpowerful parent/community organization seemed to be the Deshler Booster Club that appeared to have changed its name to the Tuscumbia Booster Club to avoid having its monies deposited through school board accounts as other school-related clubs were required to do by the school accreditation association’s guidelines. It was reported that the Booster Club provided a salary supplement for the coaches, and it appeared that, in return, the members of the Booster Club expected to be able to influence the coaches in decisions they made about athletic events-for example, who would play. Mr. Johnson also talked about the dfferences between holding conferences with parents at Trenholm andDeshler: At Trenholm, the average person would come out there, if they wantedto come to the out andtalk to you, they’d office. ...Now at Deshler, those white people would come call and ask for a conference.Very few Blackswould volunteerto come to Deshler and talk to me or the principal unlesstheir child got into trouble. . . .We’d send a note, don’t come back until you bring your parents, somethinglike that. But white people would come down and talk to you about their child because they wantedtheir child to go to Alabama or Mississippi State or somewhere, and they wanted to keep themin line, particularly the ones who knewthe child was going to go on.

When queried as to why AfricanAmerican parents did not voluntarily schedule conferences at Deshler, Mr. Johnson stated:“I don’t know. I’vethought about that andI’ve mentioned that a lot times. of I would come home andI’d think about it sometime.’’ As noted earlier, many AfricanAmerican students were not as involved in extracurricular activities during their first few years at Deshler. And one of the primary ways that parents become involved in thelife of the schoolis by supporting and attending events in which their children participate, such as sports events, band activities, plays,and otherspecial events. Deshler had not become their school as Trenholm had been. Parents and theirchildren were in aforeign environment that presented new rules and new ways of doingdings-a new culture with which they were unfamiliar. For nearly a century, Deshler was the school for whtes, nottheir (African Americans) school, a place in their community that legally African Americanshad been forbidden to attend.

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Helps and Hindrances at Trenholrn and Deshler. Teachers were askedto respond to the following questions to ascertain their perceptions to asthe factors that contributedto whether Trenholm or Deshler awas good school and what may have helped or hindered students’ concentration on academic tasks: 1. In your opinion, what made Trenholm or Deshler a good school for children? 2. Describe events, incidents,or situations at Trenholmor Deshler that helped or enhanced students’ ability to concentrate on academic tasks. 3. Describe events, incidents,or situations at Trenholm or Deshler that hindered or kept students from concentratingon academic tasks. Teachers agreed thattwo major factors contributedto malung Trenholma

good school: caring teachers and parents who felt they were a part of the Trenholm school community.One teacher remarked:“I think caring teachers and to work andd d not m i n d w o r h n g b e well prepared teachers who were willing A second teacher said: fore and after hours[school hours], if needed.” I think it was the parents, too. Parents were concerned. You could talk to theparents. I have had themto come anc! say,“I am going to tear them up [spank or whip their child] after class.” And I have said, “Please don’t.’’ [And the parents would say] “I did not to act like this, you know.” That’s what made it a good school. Teachers send them here could talk to parents about children. Parents couldtalk to teachers about them [children]. And students knew that.

A third teacher indicated: “Most of the parents had graduated from Trenholm a n d also lived in the community. So they felt a part of Trenholm. Whereas

when their students went to Deshler, they felt that they were sending them across town, and forso many years, Blacks did not live past sixth street” [beyond Sixth Street was considered the white community]. Teachers identified several factors that enhanced students’ ability to concentrate on academic tasks at Trenholm, including guest speakers from univ sities, cultural events, field trips, and citizens from the African American community who made a varietyof contributions to the school and classrooms. One teacher summarizedthe sentiments of the group: Inviting people fromuniversities to come in and talk with students. At different times of the year wewould have various emphasis.The Alabama A & M choral groupwas always there[andsometimes RustCollege Choir].This was sponsored by the colPTA. ...We had a very intelligent community of parents who had either finished lege or had some exposure. And they wantedto help with these things.We also had people from TVA, chemists, all kinds of people who would do science classes. There and were field trips. A l l these things were networked between school and industrycolleges. And it was a good thing.

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A second teacher noted that: “And sometimesthese people were not foreign to the area. They were former students who had done well and came back.” Teachers identified one situation that hindered students’ ability to concentrate on academic tasks at Trenholm: allowing failing students to compete in interscholastic sports. This practice was later discontinued. One teacher described t h s practice: “A child could play football, then drop out,come back next fall, playfootball again, then drop out. That was a hindrance. He went to school to play football. ...And whenthat was over, he couldleave. He could play football in the 10thgrade for years.” He recalled a conversation with the superintendent of education regarding this issue: “He told me, if a child wanted to become a voter in the ninth grade, it is his business. He can stayin the ninth grade until he is 18 or 20 years old, but he canplay football.” Good administrators, teachers, and working relationships were identified by the teachers as the factors that made Deshler a good school for children. One teacher remarked: Well, first of all they [Deshler] had good administrators, and they had good teachers, to do, and they seemed to work well together. Andit seems that thethings they wanted seemed to be focused toward helping the students rather than just being something that would be fine for the teachers. They [the teachers] wanted the teachers to be all right, too. But the first thing thatwould always come into mind, will this be good for the students?. . .Teachers who wanted the best for the students.

Another teacher spoke of the outstanding leadership of thesuperintendents of schools while he was a teacher at Deshler. He stated: “I can think of somereally outstanding people. Most of them hadtheir doctorates.” He then described his favorite superintendent: “He was fair, he spread the money aroundto all the various departments. He was a person whowas concerned about inservice training for all teachers . . . [and]able to work well with the school board members.’’ African Americanteachers identified four factors that may have affected African American students’ ability to focus on academic tasks: a focus of white students on thethings they owned because of economicadvantages, perceived differences in treatment of students by race, new rules for membership in school organizations, and loss of school symbols. One teacher stated: That was a let downwhen we firstgot there [Deshler] because there was concern about the fads, going to Florida, the set of wheels, all that stuff they [African American students] had to listen to, allthe stuffthey[white students and theirfamilies] owned, they, not us. It seems that there were some privileges awarded to those people [whites] where they could get some extra advantages. Whereas if I [African American] tried some things, I got caught. There was a constant problem withthat ...[until] they were finally discussed and broughtto a head.

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When African Americanstudents andteachers went to Deshler in 1969, the guidelines used for membership in school organizations were the ones that had already been in operation at Deshler and were different from those used at Trenholm. Oneteacher indicated that At Trenholm ...if a child wanted to join it, they joined it. ...I don’t remember anyto get body beingexcluded from a club. I remember at Deshler, when students wanted into certain things, they hadto have a teacher’s signature. Andif that child was in your class and giving a problem,that teacher might not sign that paper and that meant you might not getin that particular club.

When Trenholm was closed and African American students enrolled at Deshler, they lost their school colors, their symbols, and their mascot. A l l these symbols were importantsocially and emotionallyto the students and to the African Americancommunity. It was around these symbols that theschool community rallied. There was no longer the maroon and gold andthe Trenholm Wildcats, but red and white and the DeshlerTigers. One teacher remarked: “We went from maroon and gold, and the name change. Deshler was not supposed to remain Deshler. Since we lost Trenholm, we were supposed to go with some other name, but didn’t.’’ He indicated that this issue had beendecided in the joint school and community meetings that had taken place in preparation for desegregation, but it did not happen. Another teacher remarked: “We were not completed integrated” [school desegregation efforts were one-sided, all Deshler, no Trenholm]. Again, the African Americancommunity was on the losing end.

SUMMARY Rodgers (1975) believes that there are several reasonsthat whites and some African Americans do not understand the loss of the African American high school to the African American community. First, the African Americanhigh school was often thelargest employer ofAfrican Americans in the community and in small communities like Tuscumbia, the focus of this study, the high school employedthe majority of African Americanswho were professionally trained. Other than thenursing or medical profession, teaching was often the only professional job available to African Americans in the community for most of the time that Trenholm was in operation. Thus, the African American community dependedon thehigh schoolas an important partof its economic base, which was often just the reverse in the white community. Second, Rodgers notes that “the black high schoolwas the bridge, the communication link between the black school and white communities” (p. 74). Local records reinforce that whenever whitepublic officials wanted to gain the cooperation of theAfrican American community in Tuscumbia to support a particular political candidate, a bond issue for a public building, or to raise money for the Marchof Dimes, RedCross, or the United Fund, the principal

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of thehigh school was almost always one ofthe leaders in the African American community whowas contacted. The African American principal was trusted by his facultyand the community to the extent thathe could rally their efforts and support for good causes in the community. T h r d , when the Trenholm building was closed and all African American students enrolled at Deshler, African American students hadfewer leadership roles than they had inthe segregated African American high school. With one desegregated high school in Tuscumbia, the number ofleadership positions was reduced. And with most positions determined by popular vote, African American students were very unlikely to hold many top offices in school clubs and special activitiessuch as cheerleaders or homecoming queenas they had at Trenholm. Thesegregated African American h g h school had provided many opportunities for its students to develop leadership skills. During some of the early yearsat Deshler, many African American students who would have played in sportsevents if they had remained at Trenholmchose not toparticipate in sports at thehigh school but instead played for a community league that had African American coaches. Because their children were in fewer extracurricular activities at Deshler, many African American parents did not attend and support school activities as they had done at Trenholm. In addition, the PTA at Trenholm offered opportunities for parents to exert strong leadershp in support of theneeds of their children. Deshler High School did not have a PTA; thus, both African American students andteachers rated parental involvement high at Trenholm and low at Deshler. When Trenholm was closed, African American students were forced to leave a school building where they believed that they had received a good education because of caring and dedicated teachers, a wide range of programs and extracurricular activities, and active involvement of parents and community in the life of the school. They enrolled at a desegregated school outside their community that had a superior physical plant and equipment, appropriate school supplies, and textbooks. However, many African American students felt that the environment was a hostile one for them and they were underrepresented in school activities, excluded from the decisionmaking process, experienced a loss of ethnic identity, received little or no counseling, felt a lack of support from white teachers, and experienced feelings of not belonging. For more than 90 years Trenholm High School was the central unifying force in the African American community, a center for culture, recreation, leadership, and education. Rodgers (1975) states that: “There is no longer a central meeting place for the black community, or a unifylng force that ties the community togetheras the black h g h school did” (p.49). The African American school in Tuscumbia and its community organizations had a common goal of “uplihng the race.” African American social and civic organizations often held their meetings and special community events at thehigh school building as well as raised money to support identified needs of theschool such as land, renovation of buildings, equipment, textbooks, and supplies. Several of these

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organizations also awarded scholarships to high-achieving seniors who planned to attend colleges and universities. Teachers and principals from the high school were oftenleaders in these community organizations. So when Trenholmwas closed and thebuildings were demolished, the grief and feelings of sadness werenot so much for the “bricks and mortar” butfor what they stood for, the blood,sweat, and tears of hundreds ofAfrican Americans-teachers,principals, parents, and other community residents-who worked, struggled, andsacrificed to make Trenholm a good school for their children despite the allocation of “separate and unequal’’ resources by the school board. In this country, we build monuments to commemorate the achievements andstruggles ofpeople for good, we don’t tear them down.And as one graduate so aptly stated regarding Trenholm:“It’s a monument. He’s [someone else] talking about the Statue of Liberty and I’m talking about Trenholm High School.” Citizens of the African Americancommunity in Tuscumbia attended varia ety of churches and belonged to a variety of civic and social clubs. But theyall belonged to the school communityof Trenholm High School. So when the school was destroyed, so was the community. How do we rebuild that community and recover the good that was a part of the school community? Where do we go from here? Chapter 10 presents ideas suggested by the African Americanrespondents in this study for improving the education ofchildren in Tuscumbia; in other words, ideas for rebuilding the school community. Includedalso are descriptions of events planned by the Trenholm High School Reunion Committee designed to keep the spirit of Trenholm alive in the community, promising signs at the desegregated highschool, and factors to consider as communities work together to plan for effective schooling for all children.

REFERENCES Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1967a, February 23). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1967b, April 17). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education.(1967c, May 8). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education.(1967d, August 21). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1967e, November 20). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1968a, January 15). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1968b, April 15). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1968c, May 20). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1968d, July 15). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1969, May 5). Board minutes: Tuscumbia city board of education. (1973, January 15). Fried, M. (1963).Grieving for alost home. In L. J. Duhl (Ed.),n e urban condition: People andpolicy inthe metropolis(pp. 151-171). New York: Basic Books. Johnson, F. (1998). Personal interview.

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Kelley, I). (1968, September 1).School boards confused: Over latest court order. The Florence Times, pp. 1-2. Rodgers, F. A. (1975). The black high school and its community. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, D. C. Heath. Yarbrough, T. E. (1981).JudJe Frank Johnson and human rights ha Alabama. University: University of Alabama Press.

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CHAPTER 10

Where Do We Go from Here? There is a lot more to us African-Americans than our victimization. The best African-American studies programs emphasize the positive achievements, without forgetting the negative, including stories of what black people have done to themselves. The best lessons diversity studies can offer are not only the victim stories, but also the victory stories-the stories of triumph, often achieved in alliance with other groups. Clarence Page, 1998, p. A17

RESCUE THE PERISHING Walker (1998) agrees that desegregated public schools were designed to rescue African American children from segregated schools with poor teachers and administrators, poorly operated academic programs and activities, uncaring and neglectful parents, dilapidated school buildings, and scarce instructional resources. Yet these segregated African American schools were operated under the same watchful eye ofwhite school boards who operated seemingly superior all-white schools in the same communities, via a “separate but equal” policy. Until the last two decades, little had been written about the internal functioning of these schools or the positive impact of their efforts from the perspective of the individuals they served, African American students and their families, or the teachers and administrators who had the primary responsibility for operating the schools. This book is based on the case study of a segregated public school (grades 1-12) for African American children that was operated in a small town, Tuscumbia, Alabama, in the southeastern United States from

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1877 to 1969. The purpose of the study was to determine the contributing factors that teachers, school administrators, students, and community members perceived as making their school a good school. This study further explored the perceptions of the African American community in Tuscumbia regarding the closing and demolition of their community school, Trenholm High School, and their impressions of education in the desegregated, previously all-white school, Deshler, from 1965 through 1980. One-hundrednineteen respondents, who attended public schools in Tuscunibia from 1909 to 1980, completed a 27-item questionnaire that included perceptions about the quality of education in their school(s). The last three principals at Trenholm High School also completed a principal’s questionnaire. Thirty-four interviews were conducted with selected alumni, teachers, administrators, and community leaders that dealt with the same issues found in the questionnaire. Many respondents served in several roles-former student, teacher and parent, or alumni and community leader. Several themes emerged from the interview data that reflected respondents’ definitions of quality and dedicated teachers that are consistent with finclings from other studies related to characteristics of effective teachers and schools. Trenholni High School graduates indicated that their favorite teachers: (1) maintained orderly classrooms (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996; Edmonds, 1982; Henderson, Greenberg, Schneider, Uribe, & Verdugo, 1996; Sowell, 1976; Walker, 1996), (2) cared about the students (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Walker, 1996), (3) were fair (Henderson et al., 1996); (4)were competent in their subject areas (Foster, 1990; Henderson et al., 1996; Sowell, 1976; Walker, 19961, (5) made practical applications of subject matter (Dempsey & Noblit, 1996; Hauser & Thompson, 1996), (6) had high expectations of students (Dernpsey & Noblit, 1996; Hauser & Thompson, 1996; Henderson et al., 1996; Walker, 1996), and (7) made learning fun. The attitude of students who say that teachers are dedicated, original, compassionate, loving, persistent, enthusiastic, selfless, fair, and unforgettable point to the profound effect of teachers’ actions in the lives of those they teach-far beyond the years of schooling, and very likely for the rest of their lives. Teachers at Trenholm High School were the critical factor for creating and maintaining the characteristics inherent in a nurturing school environment as communicated by Green (1996). For example, graduates of Trenholm High School said that: ( 1)they trusted and respected their teachers, (2) teachers knew their students well both as students who participated in activities during school hours and outside school, and ( 3 ) teachers demonstrated in a variety of ways that they cared about students. It seemed clear that students viewed the Trenholm school community as a family where everybody cared about each other and looked out for each other. Did Trenholm High School students suffer because of the lack of monetary resources to provide an adequate physical plant, equipment, and instructional resources? Without question, they did. When asked to rate both Trenholm

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High and Deshler High School on a number of items related to quality of schooling, African American students rated Trenholm low and Deshler high (positive) on the items that required monetary support from the board of education-the physical plant and equipment, school supplies, and textbooks. African American teachers and professional staff who worked at both Trenholm and Deshler indicated that there were no real comparisons between the physical plant, equipment, and instructional resources at the two schools. The resources provided at Deshler High School were superior in quality and quantity. Although the policy for operation of schools from 1896 to 1954 was “separate but equal” facilities and resources, the practice was clearly “separate and unequal.” When Trenholm was closed in 1969, African American students were forced to leave a school building where they believed they had received a good education because of caring and dedicated teachers, a wide range of programs and extracurricular activities, and active involvement of parents and community in the life of the school. They enrolled at a desegregated school outside their community that had a superior physical plant and equipment, appropriate school supplies, and textbooks. \

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WHAT TO DO ABOUT IT: REBUILDING THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY Improving Educational Experiences for Children A major focus of this study was to discover or uncover the good in this segregated school for African American students as perceived by the African American community it served, to record the victories, yet not ignore the negatives. African American and white children in public schools in Tuscumbia are enrolled in desegregated schools. Thus, in a democracy, all sectors of the community must work together to create a fair and equitable school environment for all children (Walker, 1998). Ideally, we should be able to do this in a desegregated school environment. However, at present we have not accomplished this in either a segregated or desegregated school environment in Tuscumbia and many other communities in this country. Because we have not reached this goal, we are losing too many of our children, especially children of color. Although the answer does not appear to be on the horizon, we must be open to explore alternative models that work for different children. And there is much that we can learn from segregated settings, like the case study in this book, that will help point to some of the factors that must be considered in developing viable educational models. Both questionnaire and interview respondents were asked to answer three questions relevant to improving education for African American children in their community. The questions were:

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1. If you could, what one thing would you do to improve the education of African American youth in Tuscumbia? 2 . What do you think that schools, teachers, and community members can do to help students have more successful experiences? 3. Is there anything else you would like to tell me that is relevant to the education of African American children in Tuscumbia?

Questionnaire respondents made many suggestions for improving the education of African American students in Tuscumbia.At least one respondent in each group of graduates, and frequently more, emphasizedthe need for parental involvement in the education process. The need for qualified and concerned African American faculty and administrators was also a frequent response. Alumni in each group, except the earliest (1909 to 1939), suggested a return to all-Afi-icanAmerican schools. The idea of a good basic education was suggested several times, especiallyby graduates in the 1940-1949 group. Alumni, teachers, and administrators who were interviewed made similar suggestions for improving the education of African American children and included several additional items. Data were also included from the last three principals at Trenholm High School who completed a principal questionnaire. The suggestion mentioned most often was the need for parental involvement in school activities. Other suggestions include more hands-on educational experiences in classes, effective discipline strategies at school, individualized attention for students, inclusion of African American history, opportunities for students to express themselves before audiences, tutoring, and effective counseling programs. Several respondents who noted the importance of parental involvement also included community involvement in their statements. For example, one graduate stated: “Education is everybody’s business. Everybody is involved and makes an investment in it and fight and preserve institutions or communities or organizations that advance education. And I think that is one of the things that was forgotten when Trenholm was destroyed.” A second graduate recommended that “churches combine with the educational facilities and people and especially black educators to bring our children together to let them know that we have come a long way, we have suffered many indignities, we have triumphed to a certain extent, but never let our triumph be the stopping point.” A third graduate remarked: “I think the most important thing they can do is to get parents involved. . . . Parents need to do more. But I think the teachers and schools are going to have to take a more proactive role in getting parents involved and taking an interest in the children at a much earlier age. . . .The community was there for the school and for the children” [when Trenholm was in existence]. Several former African American teachers at Deshler made recommendations related to parental involvement. Parents should: Be actively involved with teachers and teaching personnel before problems occur.

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Be familiar with the student’s schedule, know what they are supposed to be doing, where they are supposed to be. . . . Keep a check on the students and on what they are supposed to be doing in their classes. Go to open house. . . . That’s a thing that black parents fall short on. They do not go to open house and they do not keep up with their children’s schedule.

Graduates and retired school personnel made several suggestions related to ways teachers and other school personnel could improve the educational experiences of students in Tuscumbia. One graduate suggested: “More hands-on participation with the students. They are left too much on their own. . . . The machines have replaced everything. I like computer education . . . you got to be involved in it.” A second graduate was concerned with dxipline, providing individualized attention needed by students, and equitable treatment rather than equal treatment. She stated: And I think at this point, there has got to be more personal involvement with . . . students. And that’s hard to do. . . . Children are different. They need some level of discipline but that does not seem to be available to teachers. . . . The thing about school for me was that teachers seemed to understand that children needed different things. And that children did not need to be treated equally, they just needed to be treated equitably. That’s easier to do when you are a one-race school. In a multiculturalenvironment, it’s not as easy to do. You try to treat people equally, although equal is not what they need. And I do think there has got to be a way to better determine what the needs of the individuals are, so that schools and teachers can do the things that will stimulate their [students] interest and stimulate them to want to learn and want to grow.

Both teachers and graduates emphasized the importance of including African American history as part of the curriculum and experiences of students. One former principal wrote: “Continue to emphasize the cultural strength of the Negro heritage.” A graduate of Trenholm stated: I do have a feeling that even though the children are being taught in different environments than we were, I think that as long as we have people in this community who can still feel the impact of Trenholm, whether it be handed down from generation to generation, children will always be rich in their heritage. And as long as we have that, and after. . . my generation is gone, I think we are leaving something that will go on indefinitely. . . . I think it’s something that will be just as endearing to them as it is to us . . . the fact that we are African Americans and proud of it.

Students noted earlier that they received little or no counseling at Deshler. One former principal at Trenholm recommended improving the educational experiences of students by providing a “comprehensive guidance program with necessary supplies for testing, job analysis, and screening. Make full use of the environment.” One former student remarked about the practice of some high school counselors suggesting to African American students that they not pursue a career interest because “no African Americans are in that field.” For

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example, when in high school, if a student showed interest in a degree in law or banking, an African American might be asked, “What are you going to do with that degree? No blacks are in that field. Why don’t you enroll in a carpentry program?” There may have been no African Americans in that career in Tuscumbia, yet they certainly were employed in those areas in other cities and towns. He noted the importance of schools exposing students to a variety of experiences to stimulate career choices. He remarked: “When children are exposed to the possibility that they can achieve, it helps to motivate them to acquire the skills to achieve it . . . not telling them that their opportunities would be limited by their race. . . . So maybe just exposing, just malung sure our children are exposed to our own culture at-large can open up the horizon.” Several respondents emphasized the importance of offering tutoring programs for African American children. And one former principal noted that a free tutoring program was offered for students at the First Baptist Church, across from the old Trenholm site. African Americans who were professionals in a variety of fields served as tutors, based on needs identified by students requesting services. However, he indicated that many students who were in need of tutoring did not take advantage of the services available.

Keeping the Spirit of Trenholm Alive

Reunion Activities. Fred Johnson, the last principal at Trenholm who also served as assistant principal and principal at Deshler, worked with others in the school and community to attempt to include Trenholni High graduates as part of the homecoming events at Deshler High School, with limited success. However, when the Trenholm High School Reunion Committee was organized and began planning periodic school reunions, they had great participation from local graduates as well as graduates from all over the country who look forward to a weekend of activities designed to keep the spirit of Trenholm High School alive in the community. Included among the many activitiesare a parade through downtown Tuscumbia, banquets, receptions, class parties, picnics, sluts, displays, speeches, and the awarding of scholarships to African American high school graduates who plan to attend a college or university. School reunions were held in 1990,1993, and 1996. The fourth school reunion is scheduled to be held during the Labor Day weekend in the year 2000. In order to ascertain the impact of reunion activities, interviewees were asked: What do you think has been the impact of activitiesplanned by the Trenholm Reunion Committee on the African American community in Tuscumbia, both adults and children? Some graduates have compared the Trenholm High School reunions to the cycle of the myducal phoenix bird that is destroyed by flames with nothing left but ashes. Then the creature is reborn, like a spark from a fire, and becomes powerful, renewed. Although the Trenholni building has been destroyed, these reunion activitieshave been the spark that enables the spirit ofTrenholm

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to become powerful and burn brighter than ever, never to return to ashes as the phoenix does once every hundred years. One graduate remarked: I think it has been somewhat of a renewal and that it has essentially said to the community, you were right, Trenholm was and is important. And because it is, we have come back and risen out of the dust [like the phoenix] and we are going to memorialize it anyway, even though the building is destroyed. We are going to memorialize it by having the event every so many years and . . . do some things that emulate what Trenholm did like with scholarships and with good memories.

A second graduate said: “Pride is back. The same pride that we had when we had Trenholm. You can see when we have the parade. . . . It’s like homecoming again.” A third graduate spoke about the impact of the reunion activities: They put the school back in the middle of the community. That community had not been the same since they took the school out. But putting that reunion, putting the alumni, getting the people together put the school right back in the heart of the community. . . . And you see all the people coming in, that’s what it is, it’s the school. You may talk about other things, but the thing that permeates all that we do and all that we think about when we get together is what happened at the school.

A fourth graduate stated: “I think the impact has reawakened the fact that there is something, there was at one time, an institution that made a very strong contribution to this community even though the building is not there, the spirit still lives on.” Many graduates made remarks about the personal impact of the reunion activities as, in the following example: Those reunions have been just an extraordinarily emotional experience, just happy and sad all mixed up together. Because you are happy to see each other and sad. . . . It ain’t fair. When we disappear, Trenholm will be gone. And that’s sad, because it was a big piece of my childhood. That’s why I’m not going to miss any reunions.

One graduate felt that the reunions send an important message to the white community in Tuscumbia. He commented: I think number one, that it shows people of the majority group that we cared about things that went on back then because sometimes there’s the feeling amongst some people that we as African Americans think differently or have a different set of values or perhaps no values. . . . We are not as shallow as we might be depicted.

Other graduates believed the reunions help to close the generation gap between the young and old as well as recapture and communicate an important part of the history ofAfrican Americans in the community. One graduate said: I believe that the impetus for organizing a gathering of that nature is an attempt to hlfill a need that had been laclung because of the demolition of the school building as the center of the community. . . . I believe that it has brought people from generations years

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apart back together and has stimulated some involvement on the part of individuals to try to regain some of the loss relative to the binding that was there in the past. . . . It has . . . brought back some to find that identity again.

Another former student remarked: The reunions have been just wonderhl. I mean, it really is like getting a piece of our history back. Just to be with the people that you grew up with, or didn’t grow up with. Because those who were there before you, they helped make the school what it was. It’s like that school is the link that runs through us all. And it keeps you forever connected. You can be anywhere in the country. And ifyou run into somebody that went to Trenholm High School, I believe I have got open arms and an open door. So I think that school is sort of like blood, family.And I think the reunions are really good for us. And I think they are good for our kids. I can remember Timothy [pseudonym] going and just thinking, man, this is something. He [her son] said he was just excited. I don’t think he could ever have dreamed of anything like it. You know, people hugging and crying and introducing, this is so and so, went to Trenholm this or that year, winding up with people you didn’t know, but knew somebody connected to them.

In addition to the reunions providing a spirit of renewal for the graduates and history lessons for the young, one graduate felt that the activities might also stimulate the young to raise their career aspirations as they learn about the accomplishments of older African American graduates of Trenholm. She remarked: When you look up and see some of those faces, it’s unbelievable. The outpouring and the response was terrific. I mean, those van loads of people. . . . I think the enthusiasm about not losing Trenholm all together was just wonderful. . . . It lets the young people of today know who some of these people were [Trenholm graduates], and by example, some of the things they can aspire to. I think it’s quite revealing to them that here are some of the folks that have gone on and done some great things as a result of having been educated in that environment. And in some instances, it may give a higher level of attention to some oftheir parents and grandparents . . . contributions made, things they have experienced that were commendable. So it’s like a history lesson. It might open some minds. I think that’s one of the greatest things. Because you see, they [Trenholm graduates] get up there with skits and displays of the history in kind of an entertainment way, rather than getting up there lecturing. . . . They are showing it by activities that I think are quite appealing.

Recent Activities at DeseSreBated H b h School. Some events have happened at the desegregated high school that reveal that perhaps the situation for African American students has undergone some positive changes since 1980, the last year on which this case study was focused. African American students have been elected as student council president, and students appear to be active participants in competitive athletic events at the school. In 1997, two African American male students were named the top academic students in the graduating class at Deshler High School. David Soloman Segure was named valedicto-

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rim, and Ryan Karim Buchanan was named salutatorian. David’s mother is a graduate of Trenholm High School, and Ryan’s father is a member of the Tuscumbia city council. In 1998, the Deshler High School football team was the champion in their athletic conference. The football team members are predominately African American. The factors that have stimulated these changes should be the focus of further study. Examples of questions might be: What changes, if any, have been made in the involvement of African American families in the life of the school?What are the present perceptions ofAfrican American students regardmg their representation in school activities, participation in the decision making process, adequacy of counseling services, and support from white teachers? Do African American students now feel that Deshler High School is “our” school rather than “their” school?

PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE SCHOOLING Like African American students in other communities (Foster, 1997; Irvine & Irvine, 1983; Walker, 1998), Trenholm High School students bore the brunt of school desegregation efforts. Although they gained better physical facilities and instructional resources, they were educated in a hostile environment, and instead of taking on roles of leadership in school activities, they became followers and sometimes chose not to participate because of new rules in the desegregated setting that discouraged their participation. African American parents were no longer actively involved in the school as they had been for decades. The PTA had been an organization at Trenholm through which parents and community members exerted strong leadership to support the needs of students, When African American students went to Deshler, there was no PTA or PTO and there was no longer a high school in “their” community. What strategies and policies could have been implemented that would have made the transition from segregated to desegregated schools more positive for African American students? Members of the African American community had met jointly with white school officials, business people, and parents prior to desegregation to devise plans to do just that. However, members ofthe African American community reported that the agreed on changes did not happen. One example was the name change of the previously all-white school building. The cultural forms of schooling and the ways in which African American parents and other community members had been involved in the life of Trenholm High were no longer part and parcel of practices at the desegregated high school. Rather than being caring and nurturing as students perceived African American teachers to be at Trenholm, African American students believed that white teachers at Deshler were prejudiced, nonsupportive, or indifferent. Walker (1998) posed the question: “At what point will desegregation become a blending of both traditions?” If there had been a blending of the traditions of both schools in Tuscumbia rather than an enforcement of the

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traditions of the white school, would the efforts of school desegregation have been more positive for African American and white students early in the process?Walker (1998) states: Understanding these cultural forms of schooling [in segregated African American schools], exploring the ways in which the culture has been maintained, and thinking about how that culture can be incorporated in desegregated school environments are all critical components for successful desegregation. Desegregation plans that fail to take this history into account will always be implemented using a one-sided approach, with the result being that the culture of White schools will be maintained and African Americans, having been rescued, will be expected to assimilate. (p. 5)

What then are some of the cultural forms of schooling found in segregated African American schools that should be incorporated into desegregated settings? What are some of the other findings from educational research that policymakers, school administrators, teachers, teacher educators, and parents need to consider as they work together to create caring, nurturing, fair, and equitable school environments for African American children as well as all children in this country? The discussion on planning for effective schooling will focus on the three majors themes that emerged in this case study, the three major factors that the African American community in Tuscumbia believed made their school a good school for their children-the quality and dedication of the teachers, the range of school programs and activities, and parental and community support and involvement. For the African American community in Tuscumbia, these were the three major factors that contributed to creating a caring and nurturing educational environment at Trenholm High School.

Developing Caring Relationships in Schools Noddings (1992) defines a caring relation as “a connection or encounter between two human beings-a carer and a recipient of care, or cared-for” (p. 15). She believes that “in order for the relation to be properly called caring, both parties must contribute to it in characteristic ways” (p. 15). She further explains: A failure on the part of either carer or cared-for blocks completion of caring and, although there may still be a relation-that is, an encounter or connection in which each party feels something toward the other-it is not a cavingrelation. . . , No matter how hard teachers try to care, if the caring is not received by students, the claim “they don’t care” has some validity. It suggests strongly that something is very wrong. (p. 15)

Using this definition, a caring relationship existed between students and teachers at Trenholm High School. Graduates noted that teachers helped students to develop a strong sense of self and provided activities for students in class and outside the classroom to help develop talents of individual students.

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Teachers valued the active involvement of parents and other community residents in the life of the school, so there was a continuity of shared values. Students believed that teachers enjoyed their work with the students and were competent in their subject matter areas. Students also felt that teachers were their friends. Like the caring teachers described by Dempsey and Noblit (1993), teachers at Trenholm High School taught valued information and nurtured and sustained the students. Many African American students who attended Deshler High School from 1965 through 1980 did not share a caring relationship with their white teachers. Although some of the teachers may have cared or tried hard to care about their African American students, they did not develop a caring relationship because the caring was not received or perceived by the students. African American students believed that their white teachers created an environment that was hostile, nonsupportive, or indifferent. Irvine (1991) states that “as a group white teachers are more likely than black teachers to hold negative expectations for black children and white teachers are more likely than black teachers to be out of cultural sync with the black students they teach” (p. 61). Thus, developing caring relationships may be exhibited in different ways among racial and ethnic groups or social classes. How do teachers acquire the ability to develop caring relationships with children who may be from a racial or cultural group that is different from their own?Noddings (1992) agrees that there is no secret formula or surefire recipe for achieving this goal. She indicates that developing caring relations requires address and response; it requires different behaviors from situation to situation and person to person. It sometimes calls for toughness, sometimes tenderness. With cool, formal people, we respond caringlywith deference and respect; with warm, informal people we respond caringly with hugs and overt affection. Some situations require only a few minutes of attentive care; others require continuous effort over long periods of time. (pp. xi-xii)

So for teachers to develop caring relationships with children who may be from a racial or cultural group different from their own (or the same), they must be keen observers of their students and must get to know each as an individual in order to determine the approach or approaches that are most appropriate for each child. African American teachers in this segregated school setting, the focus of this study, were more likely to have acquired the strategies and skills for developing caring relations with African American students than their white counterparts (teachers) in the desegregated school environment for several reasons. Students and their teachers shared the same racial group. Teachers were neighbors and friends of the schoolchildren and their families. Many of the teachers taught the same children at church on Sunday as they did Monday through Friday at the school building. They shopped at the same grocery stores, attended the same social events, and talked over the fence as they tended flower

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and vegetable gardens or hung out the family wash to dry. Teachers were not strangers who went into the community to work each day only to disappear when the bell rang. This was their community as well. This proximity appeared to stimulate the supportive relationship that existed between the school principal, faculty, students, and parents. Noddings (1992) believes that “caring in education differs from brief encounters in that it requires strong relations of trust upon which to build. Such relations take time and require continuity” (p. 64). Implementing the four forms of continuity in education suggested by Noddings (1992) is a second strategy for developing caring relationships between teachers and their students. These four forms of continuity appear to have been present in the Trenholm school community-continuity of place, continuity of people, continuity of purpose, and continuity of curriculum. Noddings believes that schoolsshould be viewed as centers of care where students are cared for and are encouraged to learn to care. Although the curriculum at Trenholm was not organized around the centers of care as suggested by Noddings, the concept of caring was embedded in the relationships that existed between teachers and students and between school faculty and the community. This ethic of caring was present as teachers provided instruction in classrooms, as they served as advisors for extracurricular activities, and as they joined with parents in the community to provide leadership in social and civic organizations that supported the needs of the schools. In the Trenholm school community, the purpose or goal of “uplifting the race” was shared and supported through activities by students, teachers, principals, parents, and community residents. For most of the time that Trenholm High School was in operation, African American students attended grades 1-12 in the same building, which contributed to the students’ sense of belonging. This kind of continuity of school residence is very rare in most school districts today and perhaps only exists in some rural areas. At present in Tuscumbia, students attend schools in four buildings from I