Corn among the Indians of the upper Missouri 9780803298262

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (page 15)
INTRODUCTION (page 19)
I -- THE UPPER MISSOURI INDIANS (page 34)
II -- PLANTING AND CULTIVATION (page 77)
III -- HARVEST (page 110)
IV -- CORN AS FOOD (page 144)
V -- CORN AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE (page 171)
VI -- THE SACRED CHARACTER OF CORN (page 198)
VII -- CORN CEREMONIES (page 237)
VIII -- VARIETIES (page 284)
Index (page 319)

Citation preview

CORN AMONG THE INDIANS OF THE UPPER MISSOURI

is8 aoo _. poss . a oe ie = | Le.ce_. 8 | _| _.oeoe oe Seer! ae ee ae es Be aeee oo f oo _aos oe ee ceaeeeee ieee PeRS _ ee oe ti grad .ae oe ESS ee . _ ener wl aie FF oe es Bane TES eee aee me SEES ee ...ee | *Bee i: . ee aeeee ee oe ISS oe eget ee | oe -eee oo eeee eds ctr SHES eS DEES Sle Leet os ease8Eeoe eesne SSee oe HS BeesLs eh ae ee . See ae 2 Lo _ ee SSS oe aeoeBee oo ne eS a ees Egeogge LSoe ceSES 8 eesie nee oeBE a |8.oo _ ee ites: ies fee Be ee aeBS ESoe HeeS a Ssoe= eaeoe : : _. oe Beefoe a SNES

EESND EE . ae aS. ES SHEE Ee a EEE SIRE Benes ee SEHES ne iy ae re ISS ee 2 pnee rat SESE

aa ae SEES ee erate pears SOS EES oe eG ou a oe ee Oe) Ee Sie oe . ae wnt oePeBs ee aecee : 8 : .ee es ao ce aeBe a aeoo oe Oe SS BE oe ae ee eeG oe A)ae__ :Le Ane eeaens?

et a = a8 o ee — oO / .. a ae oe Be ae oes

oe fe ae eee A SESE ee ret aoe en oe pee meeEASES GES pas eee ae 3FEES dees a cee - aa 8LO peeA Bees FSco Hens Seas mootaa peaeee ise ane Miata WEEE s oe anh Bates easfeES Hae |. ES . EE aeaaOES ee oS aeswenn? pele

a my os ke ome Ee E BE 3 ae 3 ae ES Bs _ _ oo . eee Bie ek eae eas mike SREY ote Ben a aera :eer oy

oe - ees aeeey)taeBee _Loae i seoS Se es PRESS ee eeCPUfs eotieeoo ” - .aees eae .oeoe oe, foe —SESS aeESE ee SE es SSaoe eee a oesSOMES care Senaea faaaes fiaeaoeeee Th ne lyarea Bis SN aRe oeaeeES2eres ae _HESes Eee ee SE feria

.ae fe isBuSs Bene mS PREPS wets 2 oe oef: ee. ee Ae 4 ae -_oe_2oa ee BEES enue eeSs ee TAS caer ee oe seee SEELee Bees SES eee one os _ooaBS oe : . oe SS ae onewepone Spt as ee HESS ae ae SSE ee ee ee ae _ es2 ce ee ee sree aS oe.7 . EES . ae oo oe ne oe ee as Ue oe : oo ee ae ae es es eecane pepe Brean pes ES SEES ee cee cone EE eee Is aaa cos ae oe 2s rai ee fae oo eee are ae Hs BEE Be AY - oe Be ee ere ae ee see Be pies SESS pee SS aes noes iis eats HES aS Seer sath pores oP fae ' eee SEE, SNEES eee EE! - Sie. a Std ee

BES SS acai EE pean ae ey . oe SEES Beas Ee ee ' a. eee es oe ege eee Ae Bond De Ce Ae ee eae pase ae fae es peas Bas pean peatnas wee coe TEMES erates Seen ees ThE SESS bee EES oh ro Es ate SE 3 | oe ae pent BeOS of aa . EES sie Be SESeae Sane oe oo she ee BES ee ne teesaeBE ae ne BES Sheareeaaa TES SESSES Scneeee ae PAIN Meee :ee HEP WEEE Ee ESS oe ae ES Ae eeeas a ._EEfeoeHEPES ee & Wal a oo eeeeLes a ce oo. oeesHoe SeRoar Ee ete ne?SEeePoE SeeTeeee anaes eat paar aed oESET

ee — | _ a ee oes oe oe a oo ee oe ae a6 _ . oe ee Ee ee ee = es F as eeeas SELT

| a ae a |.oe cee . Le. Les ee oe es ae oSaeoeee 2 oe oe aaeeeeeSe 8 __ Et ooaea ce ee oe He. _eeeeeeae BSeeeeaeee. ee Bea os A _ | oo SOHNE ae . NES ae te EES Hee es ee pened pis Se eS BEEN os aaa BAERS ee eee ee Be SEES SEES peas oe WE: eet feet oe ae

S Hee 8 . ee 8 | _ a ee a . oe oo LEE ee aoe

ce Oe oe oe oo . oe ee ee . eke ae Bs ae es oe . ce 8 Bee oe ae PES A SS ES EES ene iSoe DAES ee oe ee |ve a. ee ee BOEe On [. 87ae oo Bes 2 eees" oe ee . AES Sa eee a os ETE BeeS oe oe ateeae ee ee a 8) SSeeoS pe SEa oo a oe a oe a a Se Lesaeee eSaeBOE 7 s a_BS _ ee eae oe coaeES Bn: oe 2cea |ee ee oe cee=_ _. _| |es seea ae 2 a oo. oo oe ES : 7oo 7 oe ee SoSoe eeae EEE? eeoh ee es pee ee i _oS8oo ae oeoooeoe 8AeQ eecaaES eyoo. As EES ee se ee : | Bes es ee Se | : ee oo ee ee nee a AS se ae ae o ee ee . : ne oat ee ae EES es = es Be af ss aSee eee oe eS eo oySees iGa __ee Se ee Le Be oes oe Pe oe aeeoo . i Eas es aeBEE ee ESS eee ae pont ets = HES . eee esBes oo aae EEE ee osEES weed a aeae aoeSAEED -7 a— ce ee ae oo 8SSareas i eea2SEES oo ee ee aS He eee meee ore ARE anesre eeeas eee. _|. | nioe ee seb Bates ee | _ Bee ee_ Dieee HEEee nee eats Bee _eae |. oes eeee OSSSaban is aia eae SSEEES. ete Bees PEARS BeSe aan | — ie peraens soe eee sae ee) | OES es ae aie ee oS oe ‘ee SSS eee EES eee EERE? OTS ee Bed peer tee EE SEES oes RES SERRE ere Hye reas ara Leise vir een

| - es eee SO oo | _ . oe S este ee “ pe

ee coe Ee _ ceaBae ee oe ee : G8ee oe one eS ce ee ee: : aceye ee a oe oe aenae 4 | . De oe ae Boe ee eSSeeee fee aeeae = oe See oe ee pres a eS ooBEES [| . Be | 7. esaaoe oeeeee oes Soe a

a ee es ee ee ie a. ae ee _. oe oe SS & SS ee as oe ce ee a 8 fe 24 _ - es ee a a ae Ss es ae oe ce ae =

[| - BES |. oo) BEE | |. . oe bee rae 2B oe:

.oe oo@ oe oe8 ££ ao |.a ee EE. ee_.ae ces LES TES eeeee Siete fee oe . _. PEE aeeeeee . oe Bees a.oe ee eat es neeys ESeeoSees oe Bees pe_: _ne _ Eo ee SeBES oe ee eo ee 8ones aee _: ee ose oeores ees ee eas ao paren SREY es 2 Bae cies a SALE : ones oe ae i ae = EES SEUSS CEES et ee or Sea : aeaes SESS Be eee iris ane ae SEES, ea UES SEES: ae a eeeae ie nhs ee Sees ee 2 SEES neh .

ee ae 3 oe aeeee BESe US ae een. ‘ eeos : aie oeSee oe Lee a aoe Geeee noeoH AS oe : aoa we we CEE: eS oe SEN ES os EERE ne pee ae . SES oeoePEa _. &oe eeEe : a.oooeoes ee_es . peeeaeoei Ee SS: es EEE ae ee EES 3 _SeRae : 2 iS . pees seaside SASS oe Hee ee eee

oe _ |ftLeceore _ ae ee ES aaeee oe BS ees ee Bias na4 PES ee oe oe tfaES cee eeaoe Rate RE ee 2Se oo aee oe | | ee ee= oSae |Paeain ee _. —— BES eeae oe BES ee eee ee Aes ee8_soe_.os. Soe Lees SLES oe2 .8 .1ES se Se ea See, eee cepees es ee eee ee re 3 8 ed _ ee a cet | aes SEE PES oie 2 BES: _ oe ee HE ces Pe pe es Le ea ae aa Ey me SEE wee vets ee a th Bees ae at

SS ee _ ft chi an ete ee ||See ia_. . Ls 8. aces esearn Paoae Se no SSELEESE eae oe | ae oo- oD ‘i ae Be oe aeewor a.ees oeees SSeS wee oeES 2oF peas SSeS eet pe ee ES oeooia.oeee _oo-oooe Se esae oes wee oe ee eee oe oo aS Bee oe '_- Bae a = a a oe Ce He ee ice eS ee eee HOES oe ae

. _Bee 8 |Ss/-aea bee . _ Le BISEE ie oS fe eee Reeceeeae eee ef a i _ : aBES 8 _ | .=. .=. FF eeeve eee:SEES oe oe cere ae Bee _Ff | cesrr" ee | : Pate me... 7 apee ESS aaa eee teeone eoeeette bseeet: aes ceefh EEE: BEN pee rans Seno oS peak Bay SA Hee SSERISS eee BESEES zoe Ba | . a iH a ees . eee BEN. Sue ae aaa Bo VEAL BG SHS Pa wie me ae 2 are ve ohret

aEe ee _Lees Be : 4SES, ee TSS CISD aeae oeEUs EES eSue OS on Leaae7 C_. ee BEES Aeare poetaaoe pees CSREES: eae Beets BEES oenee Co CS|.| «|.i._ egee a:aan ited TsES SHES aes oeeeSous ee Ea Es, . a4SES _77Ce ee oe :ee [f_Bee atee ee, Be SEES HESS oes FSESe

ee & ele _ete oee shoeeee BESae — ..=| _. :eee _oe Sune ae ee neeEESES BEUE TES POTEE: oe =& eee eS oo9:' ‘seat, Bu5 Bae veces ree ae __ ee _eae — .oePees areee ea ren eae : ae IEEE Q . 7rete a Ce ee oe cd , Le = ee on ; oo : _ BES oe eee eerte ee oe SEVEuIS noe ee CORED _ eee | = ae SESE: ieee i 7 pees ee eet SHS oeee: a| se oef |ee Boe . atCe eeaaog = |EiseseeeBEES SS Pei i f pane ee Tay oe cs ae aeis.eeae oehn:DxEpeat ce aoe esBue ——— - LLky .alee bes oesEe AY ree EEE on Roe BEES a oC OPER. EES a. SEES R oeSEY oeaFEE oy . Ba | Hite a pees aes nee se ihe coher ee DUPE EES Bea BOE eee SEEPS wes OES Ba, Ne: ehegh oe SEED Ss MUSeee nt=a oe Se oo aie Weeve SoeCerne SEES SST ee Pacey oe an ares onsie nel

ce | oe eS oe _ AES _ |. sere | fe Sere ee mee :_. _ es Ae fo ates eS &

BS as a. Baneae ES _ | pete a _ ao ES BE SEs | — oe O oo. PRES BALL ate fee u SEES a very SS: sets TEES oe oF we eS ees » eee : | £ SES BS 8 eee per JuMEY ee — a ot De EES piers tly Bae, EES eee are

ate ee ee Se _ a. ee CAE Be . ae BS . Wee core ae SESE ues HRS a ‘ | eine Bate SEPT en ES, Ee

_ oo. .aa| eS | cee aoeee 7 are . || aeee piety oo eeune ee _as) eats one=:oe : _re| eee ae DAES

Lo oD)

SEES Bees | aa Ps AEE aOES Pees Secs Lee fos arora OPE IES 2i a. SEES Sa peeae a SEIS ed eres ES con oa += ae ee ooeee og _ oeeeaenee Se _ae ae esSEES ans i wes teweeeee ee oo| .|in eefe. reee aE aee aane .eeame _eeee|Eee a 5_PLES i pees |. ae BEES oes Se: _| nae | ueEE SISOS: ares oS eee sear ae oe — ee as per _eeieee ane | oe Bens eee >» ee ere ne EEE i: ay:eae 7_ Braye Soy a. Coy aes J ae fe NG Hee reSEeae Pa EESBS en SESFoe_3=oe ae Sauk ares ae on oS Ne) ocae AN ees Le oe Tie: wie REED eaebat eetHes :ee at . ae etprea oeaon ree

io pee 2 ms eas _ | Fo ee oe Lue: ee eo ae eee _ | ae nous aed cues ae oe oe HE ree

7 BES Bee oe _ ae ee ip _ 2 Pee _ | ee ore yes fer Oo ae ae _ oe eee HES ae eee a —_ BEE Dae ee coe | | Pee FEU es _ fen Eis i _ 7 ae ie eee Poy Eve a ee -_ es 2S ae EES a paren me ae eee ee |_| ee ae : ae rane _ 7 pavers enh oss oe peer Sens See _ ee one ae ae ee hae wage wee bend

Ess D | : ee i hae pie | Bama -— BESS o JAE, aa ey earns _ ee oe SNeES

38 oe oe LES Bee fu eee oe _ | pee ra oe = vO oon oes _ oe ea ESiE es wie oe ae ESS . Bo BEE oe fel es aS fe ate ares : HS oeSoi He ee ee ae eee eeon2aes aVES aoe ts BESSY :eer een af ee aEpes BORED eeePa eee SUE petite sres a wee oe eee eeao Beer dt a 7 eis ere 7 aPs G oe oeas ard a F ee _eswhet witSE a ce Roos Ba Senet sens eo wee re stOne caeeeeae aea an aa aaah oeSSF Mes ene a!Ve DS yet 7SALE ._ | 2s asaes is oe_ reoo Coe : ne! oe well

SS peers pan

EE aeae Bee EE ees: reaeoo oo .: mot ereae eerere ae ae ane ane fe ane eee ao ceraeeae iene ae i:a Y~ Ses ate _ |eae BsSEES SUFSE | ee phe cate : me a. oeob i asoo a ae pats eesoe eens oe MPa TESS ee eeeee eeeeoe a _ oe .ae _ |7Le oeoles a ee ff Ss me ye eee aeve we EEpets cae oo Ds:eee ; eee ae om eaeae ee Be on ba SUS ls ieee oy AOEEE z oe oe Ee, Pare a AE is aoe 7. aa we fete rol le ae ad io ee pe fgele ate ae Be oe

Be Paes ot nae e a i_eSBES f oe a EE oe i: a. cas 4 Me et IK wae _ene | a oe:: eee oe os ee Tiel s oe Sie oS a 2 ry . re : wey oe eas 2 Be fisae 2 oe aeaeen eeanpee|eeCe oeeile SESE oeneeae Bees oes ee ee _coe ge: aie IEE _ |_LATS woe roeoo _ ae aes srt paee fh erwo fee na ones . cee ee ooaarae 7 ESD ee He gs tS SES eanTes Se enES ry Ms aN ssBg ae cee ee EoSE! ans _eat ee eee : eee ee _7ane weseae Lyeoe - eee Tits areS iP ry Dene ace - Les _@ Wena afn|SoS? ieered os feeeee:we a lets als .aa We fefie: oes irene bd ae ne eae oo — BAS “ | " oe ao _e nei ne a 7 ae oars oe ae wet “8 eos oe = me oe 5 _ Be : oe ee weir any aoe wens vis “ in Py wae ves aa we eet an | eras _ | ees ee ewes a. wie: aoe ve ee ot ples 2 fie : ren coer nee eae ae an oe

noe fen,oe fyiaemeh fete:eeoowT ee ae oe |_want | piesee a a. Le wewe ra vet ee o:Se NEE freee areeet : an pe we Mo ae a oe .aro ee wt ae oo _ er“ee SetOo- at . faBESS: : a a eS wey S ne aofer a Hogs 7 foe : nee es oe oars ae Be . ae ae ae “ oe le Gi es a aoe : fee Foe _. oe eo we Qs a oe os - we S. BL : oe a i a. J Pe fe : ae 2 : ee oy Y os Raat os

is os nos De TEI Re =i EE: .. eeeea fe con | eo can fee ee Seeee eins! vied neo « a .foe a>oeee rates One + cree poo CEES ovens all Bee eeoe, 3 8|One ves Sse ehvise 208 iS me 7Be— a. renee iHE eefies foe Sees eed ee ee uePees a8Fos os rere ooare ne Ras ots ee EE. ee | 2prea Seek ate oe es|eae aead oe ee Q — ise ce ee Senne 2 coe | rake 3 ae ae ee EEE or ise ae ot BEES: ee aS coh oo peo BOSE ae nee | 2 SS EES ne AEs » pheswienit o Sere an PHP a e 3 oe ee eres ee Sete a : i. Snes 2 . 2 Beare oe IE HAUTE me CET ESPoe neBares fis aPere ae reles pees ee SUE: ae aafoeDoE EES pee oeSEE ee mee tn fess fetes vileSan eae eens MESS :oe foes) Sus faete oe SES pf . pare See! piety ne eeecn raeoofet2oe ues teeoehyeePed Raat rg ornate | EES Onsoe a oe os: 2asosPunt : 7.eeo aaa ms aPaeae es fate “ a “a SHES a : Sre: wey _ te PRES eS arsEoo . ae us Be2 vet H one : eeewey a EE : o “pen,

oe ae op wg ee Oaks fi oye an y me Ms neoon ret ofee eeeeee ee [ 2eee ue ; ce se wet oeseaeoeceeoeae 2S ee anes ue ee lee) me wee wen a a Sains ee 2 ioe Ree ne eer ae

CORN AMONG THE

INDIANS OF THE UPPER MISSOURI GEORGE F. WILL

GEORGE E. HYDE

Manufattured in the United States of America

First Nebraska paperback printing: 1964 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Will, George F. (George Francis), 1884—1955.

Corn among the Indians of the Upper Missouri / by George F. Will and George E. Hyde.

p. cm. Originally published: Saint Louis, Mo.: W. H. Miner Co., 1917. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8032-9826-9 (pbk.: alk. paper) 1. Indians of North America—Agriculture—Missouri River

Valley. 2.Corn. I. Hyde, George E., 1882-1968. II. Title. E98.A3.W6 2002 630’.89'975—dc21 2002028521

DEDICATION

With the permission of Mr. Hyde I dedicate ths volume to my father, Oscar H. Will, who mm 1881 first perceived

the value of the native varieties of corn

from the Upper Missouri Valley, and who began at that tume the work of selecting and breeding from them, to the

lasting benefit of the farmers of the

Northwest. Grorce EF. WiLu

OONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . , 15

INTRODUCTION. . . , . . . 19

I— THE Upper Missouri INDIANS . . . 34 1. Migrations and early history . . 34

2. The earth-lodge village . , . a0

8. Agriculture. . , ; , 59 I] — PLANTING AND CULTIVATION . . , 17 1. Spring work: clearing and planting

the ground . . , . . TT

2. Hoewng and weeding... , . 91

3. The patches, acreage, and yields. 97

III — Harvest. . . . . , . 110

1. The return from the summer hunt . 110

2. The green-corn harvest . , . 115

3. The ripe-corn harvest . . . 124

4. Storing the crop. , , . 133 5. Yrelds_. . . . . . 141 IV — Corn as Foop . , to, , , 144

1. Methods of preparing corn . . 147

2. Utensils . . . . . . 164

V—Corn AS AN ARTICLE OF TRADE . , , 171

1. Early intertribal trade . , . 171 2. Trade with the whites. , , 191

VI — THE SACRED CHARACTER OF CORN . . 198

1. The corn and the buffalo . . 205

2. Corn origin myths . . . . 210

10 CONTENTS VII— Corn CEREMONIES . , , . , 237 1. Ceremonial organzation . . 238

2. Sacred corn. . . . . 248 3, Spring, summer, and fall ceremonies 257 4. Various ceremonies, belsefs, and

practices. . , . . 216 VIII— VarizErTIEs . . . . . . 284 Artkaras , , , , to. 301 Hidatsas . , , . , , 303 Mandans .. ,, .. .,. ,, 305 303 Iowas . , Omahas . , , , , , , 305 Otoes . . , , , , . 307

Pawnees , , , , . . 308 Ponkas . , , , . , 310

Sioux. , . , , , 311 Chippewas. . ; . . , 314

Wwunnebagoes . , , . . , 316

Iroquos . . . . . , 316 Varieties from the Southwest , , 317 Additional varveties , . , 318 Index . . . . . , , 319

ILLUSTRATIONS SET OF HIDATSA AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Frontispiece

DAKOTA WHITE FLINT — GEHU YELLOW FLINT . 25 Rep LAKE CHIPPEWA FLINT — MANDAN WHITE FLINT — LA PoINnTtE CHIPPEWA FLINT — For?

ToTTEN SIOUX . . . , , . . 37

Ears oF Fort PECK CorRN . . . . . 42

MANDAN SQUASH . , , , , , , 67 RAWHIDE BOWL AND STONE MORTAR... , . 85

BONE HOE . . . . . . . . 85 PAWNEE CORN. . . . . . . 96 PONKA CORN . , . . . , . 96

MANDAN SOFT RED CORN . . . . . 111

CORN . . . . . . . . 121

MODERN WHITE DENT AND MANDAN WHITE FLOUR

PONKA RED FLOUR, GRAY FLOUR, RED SPECKLED

FLOUR, AND SWEET CORN. . . . . (112i BASKETS OF THE MANDANS, HmpATSAS, AND ARI-

KARAS . . . . . . , . 125 ARIKARA WOMAN THRESHING CORN , , , 131 SCATTERED CORN AND FAMILY . , , . 131

MANDAN CORN... . . . . . . 139 MANDAN SQUASH . . . . . . . 150 PAWNEE CORN . . . . . . . 155 PLANTS OF FOUR VARIETIES OF SIOUX CORN . . 167 MANDAN BLUE AND WHITE SPOTTED CORN. . 177

MANDAN SOFT WHITE CORN , . . . 201

12 ILLUSTRATIONS OMAHA, Iowa, AND OTO CorN , , . 213

MANDAN BLACK CORN . . , , . . 231

PAWNEE BLUE SPECKLED CORN. , , . 245

SCATTERED CORN . , , , , . , 245

MANDAN SOFT YELLOW CORN . , . . 255

MANDAN BLUE CORN . . . , . . 265 WINNEBAGO MIXED FLINT — MIXED FLINT, LOWER

BRULE . . . . . . . . 287

CORN AMONG THE INDIANS

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In preparing this study of the agriculture, and more particularly the corn culture, of the Indian tribes of the Upper Missouri region we have of course drawn items from very many sources, and we are indebted to many persons for assistance of one sort or another. In working over the material we have conducted rather extensive experiments in raising corn from the different tribes in order to gain more complete information on the varieties.

For a deep and encouraging interest in the

work and much material aid in the matter of furnishing seed of a great many kinds of corn we are especially indebted to Mr. M. L. Wilson of the Montana Agricultural College, State Leader of County Agents, who has also furnished some interesting data, from which we have drawn, in the Montana Experiment Station Bulletin No. 107. For seed and information supplied we are also greatly indebted to Dr. Melvin R. Gilmore, Mr. H. C. Fish, of the Minot, N. D., Normal School, to Mr. Thomas Cory, of the Moose Mountain Reserve, Carlysle, Sask., to Mr. James McDonald, of the Pipestone Reserve, Griswold, Manitoba, Mr.

16 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS R. P. Stanion, Superintendent, Otoe Agency, Otoe, Okla., Mr. J. H. Johnson, Superintendent, Sac and

Fox Indian School, Stroud, Okla., and to George

Bent of the Cheyennes, Joseph Springer of the Iowas, and James Murie of the Pawnees. Mr. Will’s special acknowledgements are due to Dr. Gilbert L. Wilson of Minneapolis, who has spent much time and enthusiasm in collecting data on Hidatsa agriculture, for kindness in permitting

a reading of his notes and for opportunities for profitable comparison of material on the Hidatsas;

to Seattered Corn, daughter of the last Mandan corn priest, and to her son, James Holding Eagle, for a great deal of assistance in everything concerning Mandan agriculture and for a deep interest in having the subject properly understood and presented; to Dr. Melvin R. Gilmore of the North Dakota Historical Society, formerly of the Nebraska Historical Society, for seed of many varieties of corn and for much profitable interchange of thought and knowledge on the subject of Indian agriculture; to various members of the staff of the American Museum of Natural History of New York, for specimens of corn and for lending encouragement to the study; to Professor R.

B. Dixon of Harvard University for much encouraging interest and for opportune and kindly advice; and to Dr. C. L. Hall, the veteran missionary of the Fort Berthold Reservation, and to his

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 17 family, for many favors accorded during every visit to the reservation, for data on the corn of the three Berthold tribes, and especially for informa-

tion on basket-making and the acquisition of a number of baskets. Mr. Hyde’s acknowledgements are also due to Dr. Gilmore, for seed and information supplied on many occasions; and to Mr. Dunean C. Scott, of the Canadian Indian Office, for assistance in obtaining information on Canadian Indian corn; to Mr. Thomas Cory of the Moose Mountain Reserve, for information on Assiniboin agriculture and for seed furnished; to Mr. James McDonald of the Griswold Agency, for similar information

on the Refugee-Sioux and for seed from that tribe; to Mr. George Bird Grinnell of New York City, for much assistance and advice and for some very interesting notes on Cheyenne agriculture; to Mr. G. N. Collins of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., for information and for assistance rendered on several occasions; and to George Bent of the Cheyennes, for information and for some ears of Wichita corn. No list of the printed authorities consulted has been compiled, but the sources from which material of this class has been drawn are always indicated in the text or in the footnotes. The Coues’ edition of Lewis and Clark was used except in a

18 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS few instances in which the Thwaites’ edition of the original journals was consulted. The quotations from Long, Maximilian, Brackenridge, and Bradbury are all taken from the Thwaites, Karly Western Travels.

INTRODUCTION

Corn, as every one knows but most of us often

forget, is a gift to us from the Indian race. In the early period of colonization, our ancestors along the Atlantic coast were glad and even thankful to take the Indian’s corn and to learn from him

the methods of growing and handling the crop. With the first knowledge of corn and its culture received from the tribes near the coast from New England to Virginia and Carolina, however, the

American farmer has felt, generally, that there was nothing further to be learned from the Indians about corn. The pioneer too often failed to realize that each new region settled presented new conditions of soil and climate and that the best way to learn how to meet and overcome these conditions was to study the methods of the local

tribes, who often had been growing corn in that particular region for two or three hundred years,

and who during this long period of time had learned from hard experience the varieties of corn and the cultural methods best suited to the local | conditions.

The first white settlers in the Upper Missouri

country failed to understand these facts. Fora

20 INTRODUCTION long time the only whites in all this region were the fur traders and their followers, the free trappers, and the United States Indian agents. None of these men were engaged in agriculture. The traders for the most part thought of corn only as something to be bought from the Indians, while their followers, who often married into the tribes, were usually content to let their wives raise what corn was needed without themselves giving much attention to the matter. We find some of the Indian agents experimenting with corn at a rather early date; but for the

most part the corn they tried out was from the east; the native varieties were discarded, usually without investigation as to their usefulness, and we often find the Indian corn, even as far up as Fort Berthold in North Dakota, mentioned dis-

paragingly in the agents’ reports. In the more northern and arid sections however the fact soon

became evident that eastern varieties of corn could not be depended upon to make a crop, and thereafter some of the agents became really interested in the hardier types of native corn. The agent for the Red Cloud Sioux in his report for 1873 referred to the Ree corn as a hardy acclimated variety and asked to be supplied with seed

of this sort. Soon after that date we find the

Indian Office sending out Ree seed to be tested at several of the northern agencies. Some Ree

INTRODUCTION 21 corn was sent to the Fort Peck Agency, Montana, in 1878 (apparently also to the Crow Agency in Montana) and proved very satisfactory.

As to whether the corn of the trmbes of the

lower Missouri Valley was extensively grown by the pioneer white settlers, the records are silent; but it seems probable that these native varieties were used, to some extent, during the first period

of settlement. Sturtevant in his list of varieties grown by the whites (1884) mentions both an Omaha blue corn and a Mandan ‘‘squaw corn,’’ the former variety being grown as far east as [Ilinois; while an old settler in Kansas speaks of a very early variety, called yellow maiden corn, seemingly a native corn, which he implies was popular among the pioneer settlers in the lower valley of Kansas River. We hear occasionally of blue corn, white flour corn, and mixed corn of numerous types, all usually lumped together as

‘‘squaw corn,’’ and always as pioneer varieties. It has been the history of western settlement, however, that as soon as the pioneer conditions were overcome in a new region and it was demon-

strated to the settlers’ satisfaction that the new country was not so very different from the old home back east, at once the desire arose to culti-

vate the same crops and the same varieties of corn that they had formerly raised in the east, in order

to form a comparison of conditions in their new

22 INTRODUCTION home with those in the old. Such attempts to ac-

climatize corn from the east or south in newly settled regions often proved successful and usually led to the immediate abandonment of the native corns which the first settlers in the new country

had of necessity made use of. But in the north and in the arid west these attempts often failed. In New England, although experiments with dent corn have been made from time to time, the flint

corns obtained by the first settlers from the Indians are still the main dependence. The well known and widely diffused King Philip corn is one of the surviving varieties of the pioneer New England flints. This permanency of the original Indian varieties is true also to a considerable ex-

tent in New York. Farther south the dent corns were received from the Indians and, being prolific in the south and in all of the milder regions, these

varieties soon came to be the staple type in the southern and central or Corn Belt states. As the frontier moved westward and northward from the milder central states, and as the settlers became established and corn selection and

breeding began to claim attention, the desire to emulate the achievements of ‘‘back home’’ in corn

raising made it almost inevitable that the dent corn should be chosen for cultivation by the bulk

of the people. The more the dent corn area enlarged its bounds the more readily did its acquired

INTRODUCTION 23 momentum push it farther and farther, frequently so that no other types of corn were ever tried in many of the newly settled localities. In this way Iowa, Nebraska, all the states lower down the river, and even southeastern South Dakota very rapidly passed through whatever pioneer period there was of growing ‘‘squaw corn,’’ and became part of the dent corn area. Southern Minnesota did not abandon the hardy Indian flints as early—perhaps because of the Scandinavian

population who had never raised corn ‘‘back home’’ and who also were naturally conservative. Robinson says (Early Economic Conditions and the Development of Agriculture wm Minnesota, 1915, p. 176) that up to 1899 corn was only raised

in the southern tier of counties and was mostly flint and squaw corn.

It is obvious from the above that the native

corns of the Indians along the lower course of the Missouri, however valuable they may have proven had the attention of breeders been turned to them, were neglected, and allowed in many eases to degenerate and often to disappear, without arousing

the slightest interest or consideration from the agricultural investigators of the region. It seems very possible that qualities of value may have been thus lost.

As the frontier moved up the Missouri valley into South Dakota, however, the triumphal pro-

24 INTRODUCTION gress of the dent corns began to slacken. As the latitude and altitude both increased and the rainfall became less, it grew to be a much longer and more difficult task to acclimate dent varieties of corn. In this region also the flint and flour corns of the Rees and Mandans had acquired some repu-

tation all up and down the river and even in the writings of the time, for their extreme hardiness. Ree corn, talked of by all the tribes, had been officially distributed on many of the reservations. Even in fur trading times corn from the Mandans

was taken to the Red River posts. In fact it is probable that the corn of the northern Minnesota Chippewas was derived from this source, so like is it in general character and appearance. The early traders, the wood hawks, and such of the nomadic frontiersmen as married Indian women and settled down, all raised the corn of the Indians; and when the first real settlement of the region began in the seventies, bringing with it a real farming population, many of these oldtimers took up pieces of land along with the newcomers. Very soon there arose a demand for corn among these pioneer farmers from the east and for a time the mixed Indian corn was adopted by all of them. Some few of the new settlers saw the real value and probable importance of the hardy native corn and started the work of improving it; and all of

the better farmers soon established improved

hea7ee—_— . Ae Ee ES | | ee Sa Sones

=. os a. a.z-~-_ oe see ageennss Fs eeoo eeee . ESS OEE Siena ee ee Seye Csene oo SS eS oe es aise Es pone Ee es Es oe -C CSREES Bees ee es oe es cg on We oo oe ee ee ee oe Se es ee Ee a : eS es oe eS Ds saga cuaatte Es ee ee ee coe a ee ae ae a oe ee coe ES Eee oe oo Se es ee ES eeeees Pees cgongegant HES eeee oeees eece a eee ee We cia gee oeRSS es oe UES ees ee aoe.Se oe eeeesaeee ee oe oy a1ee ee ee ee ee eee es Ses ee es ee FF es ee ee ee oo a .ee ARAN |oo NN —See: ere eeents eeHe PeoSe epee ._ce eeoo es eae asvneentiy. Boa eee ERE ge ss ssEe sae £5 . SGN TO Aaoo aeries oei. ee Serene SEE eee!ee oe eeeee eeoe Bee .ee ees ee ee SHESbea am — oe fe ee 7esea aeapeea. os ee ee oo .ee ce -.| Se ee ee ee ee te iCo aio ae ee eeae Ce ee eeee ee .Solera ee S 2 eae oo. @ LESS: _ sellers SeSSS: SHEA: poereress PEE SUSE HRSaaees ae Te OMoeosSSS BOS PSSREESE pee eee:PEE coeSee Ee SE SEES annghantes, Sree 1 SAAR

oes ee ee pes ee aces SN Ran Cia i Seca SRE SEES: SS earner Senin eens REE cence eae orca TEES Stan cians,

HERE See spe eee eae BESS os i einai a ORG ae a past BELG SEES Sa EEE ee aes SOMERS SES SRE, eee ee — ES Eoin Ee eee eats ee MOISES SEES Aosta eae Fae aa tert Sets

oeaeeeaeeee es es a) oe vsa—.. a EE Co Ose Ss ee oo Se esee oea ue eeeeay a oo ee oeSoa a 2Se pe . Se aee Oa ae _ es Fea .--aoo .oe ee Be ee 2eS oe Ss ea yeas ee Beeanian eeee aees ee LSaoe ee es es oo eeeeSEES &asee og Coy a ea aSiabes iea 8cn“6 ee Ss ee ee ae aeES a |aeESS pes — ee eeee pee Oe Oe ee -.Hee gs Ege. ee 8 es Be ae ... ~~ apee |ee : SEE CEES ESS Si, Hen UvaaTa Cs peer eee SEES Ee ES: 2 ET oe POSES tis lhpoeatey Bo ee saree EERIE: eS on ee ee peeeeee ES BG Ee Pea es aun TON aeaan ree oe HesESS EE:esEES Es | Be eSceesTOM es OM Ee Siren Ae earns ESeeeaan oe ee Je ODS cae EOSy AN oe sani Bano aes. oo as eee cre Sete SERIE ee ae ee Sean Seo Co es Ce Speers poe es ee Seas SORES Bera

S 8D ee ES oe oy) ie he Ve oe ann ae La eee ee OES ee . se a a oo ih ne ee ee. ee eee oe sree oe. ee ia) oooo De es es .ee i Co i.a Bee es ee osee ee ” gf oo oe oe aeeDS oe SS. a Booty ES eeESeeieee Es eeee oo [oe _oe ae a ul ae Eeee Bes_ ae.oe|ae.iRee a ee ieS a. ee oe So EE oo7.ee) as ee ee ee eeoss a.oe ae Oe) i.aue Fsae Ee GF BNEES: cae HES ultAe i |8B Ua Re ane aE: Ee rues:ee SH: eeeeERE aeaNeeSees ..40a2Das Le ae.yaoeeeDD ve »aeeaeeie_2oeeeeeaite .GAGS fereeee oe

a 2 . .. a oe . oo oe _ . oe Se ee ee es oo o.. . a eee oe ee ee, ee . oe a. ee ae LL . oe Ses Eee EU eee Beanies Bees SS Sg es SEE esas See WES ally Feely Vipera SESE IRS URES Eee pene SOE: Renee a peace sities ESO PRS acorns eae SERIE Enceercaet Seon BER EASS EEE :

TEES SEE See eee reaper tas ee OMG see lt oe Ca ai Kg Pies oe EELS eons ES Sens eee EERE: ee eeeay ES BEG Ve Sins BREN) Arenas We ye fae CLs spa SERS eer eae Senceeat

ene ee aan Os eas is ve ani Misis of Aaa ee SON ee Saas es ee eee ete oe eee Eeaeets Bes a8 as 3) ao ae eee SS BESS eee ES een

SES oe es po ee OM oo oe a Wc Ss Ge es ese es ae oe oo ey a ae Bae ee oe

Lh EES? PeasgsUES: a SEN caeoe oe mi oo eaoeeee eee ee oe ee .. Bags vales Raaes oe Sh SESS # ee EE ee - | ue Hs an TOS: UES pee See SR ee OER SL ee Saleeie8 ore oy ee oapore oe ae oe poneae ee seeseoESS

oe Ce .ee.Ay OO cas a|. NG aOiaee.a ee .oF-.... a .ee:LEEDS: foee ge ee SEES ao Sions Bea ee ee _ee ;oe oeUs es aera ee |,aete ee.. 8ee Hes eeom” esee aee oe oe es Seernona SS aeeSee oe.ee i ie . a.oo aoo Bee ee ..ee;ee . aes vaEee ane ue Os es Bier oreeee ees es aa Granth eeeae oe) ee a Zain i SE an | eeceeee ee ee Os ee ee aeNON . ooaR) oo) a MU oo He Be oe es Es eee ee : eae ee Bek pane oo pee Se eaoeme elHan fee be ears peeBES es ESE eee ak a Rein Sea AUR a. ee a eelfees aa Hataea eee BEES aoe ee eae Paneer LnneSoo oo seen onl eyaeae ES Mt EE es anesSeas sienate SWRI EMRE

Se eee Eaa CANS aAes OeBie oeoe tie oo Ess EE :HA 7 ..oo eseee eyBonen co SEES ee ee eo. we ge ee -ee ee .— aoeoseNG ee oe eeena Es oe en eesees ee.a ae oS ee ei asNe ee enn ee2 oe Hitt ee_hi te ee een eae De Bee ek i... »pert i ESS ee ee ee eeals en _Sern HS eeee ee OSitee Lo oa aySe a Mi i RES oo oe ee es aes— eeaa.Cee ee. BS eeePESEES. oe .

y | 2 | am, ™ a . . iF 8 . ou _ a ee ee Oe

ES SeRees ye oN Oe Me ——— _INee aioAG iVs aeLei ene eseneSe . ee es teas oR oe GAHeae Se) PUES — eeih iit .fee SERRE ARISES Petree: eeAEs esiSSR UR ih ee Coee ee a: [— ee mime 2 isSAN ev ae eaeke ee Se eS EES 7. ce oe -elSees a eeseSoi . Cesetae oo. 7Te ee ee ESS eeerare aeCoe Soe Geinfeoneaeeaer ps oooe aa NTS Aas ROE Gaeta BSG MWe Le pe Sa BeHS SUR! ee: oo iasccicren ee iiPERE ~~ OU eS Cee es ee SS EES) . BO GES i a as ue eee Oy SEE aati Sere BEATE ae es uyee ooNe PESOS YOON isceeesee ooouoeees 8aESE Ber eee EEeee aenen he Es 5 _. Se eh eaeSO tinee —EELS eeperc Rees |# | Cae oa a. _ Ee Gi, van Ras SEE Sais oo ree i.tieTica | nk —ee| i_.*« Ae oFce -eeoo .eSeee oo ES i .We Be en Ee oD ee . owwae oo eee ae CS oe)< ees eePeEEE: oeue io esee eeee aeBS oe PEE ee ee BARS fo eee ee ates i ay os a >... Hin ee pases SEs pra eae as TEESE: oe oe ieee PS ay Ua ea ul hah HANS taut iy ee HN 25 CHES Hae aera peeeeter 23 SEEPS HERS eee SEES SESE

REESE pie rets 2 Se ap HERR) SON oo Bae i SHUI Aa Pe (ih eee ceneeeee SESE Bae es Seares ESS rae papa Saat ASS aaa MINE SN SUSU ee SS sence ee Soe

Rae Bees REESE oeee) ee ee SERAPH oO esLee Na EH eos SaeeOR Sea ee erase ah SUES Snes Es_ oy .oCoe a i eioe We yet SEES oo. aeCREE sees Cn OO eeee| porn eset SatiSEES CoSeesoo BEES HsSEESesSitios pee aees eeceber peneys ace

IESEES pment eee -.... He ee ee ee pe |. _ ii aye. Pag eee ee oe Seeeee eS Lees Bee us es ee a..Nt i aaeeee oeSo aVMs aHN eeOe oe ee es a aao a.3eS ..a“4 oeCo aepope _.. Ee ee ee oeROS . .Do Oo aa ion) osaAe ce es Se oe eeReece S fs oo ae ae ae oe He fee oo EES ee ae aesco me ton eee ee SS Ce eM oo aoF BEE, Seineess SSIES

ce ee 8 eaSOs x 7.oe aeioo oaeeON aane ee —. a. iaAs ee es SES oe a. : ae=. _oo.oo.— ae ee EES pee oeee a o. CD oo. ee i,a a. | _. i . aaa-— eeumes Alet Seeepaces «@ csoeaCn eee rrLOO DD ge iN ee tiieeea|EVES. _eeee ee ne . eeeeee aeoeae ea ie .. oe es oe Eeeesee ceae eeoo a on oo ee SS ees ee oe a.ee7 —— — coeoe oeee Es BS on fae *a' ae ss ee ee ee Son Ce ae Co an ———— : Ee ‘ oe oo 7 a Se ee es ee ey Oe a ee es Se eee = ee . ee ee a. eo a ull |. Yoho io = TES ey 2 ee oo a os ) oo la is — — oo . e See . 0 a ee a _Eee ee a ee ine . ee ei . Te is tS Co i. wee SEee eeee—(a .. as|. aoo Re 7eeaeeoo peor ee 7 a ee ee es ese ~— ee oe a a ae A a oees ee ns ee es oe JE ee eeeae EEN ae ee a Wah As Es ee SEES Mises OE pa ee 25 OEEr SS ERS aS See EHS seen As esa HANS SUN ees HNN aia ny La ee eer te SEES DES eyot SHAM HOES potenti ss Ss: aM Seanot aisle: eeeBEd ESeros eee SEES ce EsSSS eta Ss ae Biss -ee eseasieay ie et a US SS Ess ue Gas eseeSear oe Ses caeeee ee ones Se eeBeene anal ees, Be ea li LGNG Hey 5 LC ee ees Ss Boh

Sracecnaes LESS, Sere ON AN aHal eS | nei soatite Men esPERG Ls ers oma Doerr sesBea Hipeeiciee eee ee Bee iiling a ia ne alaie SOU Ny a aitil as Sees : ee Serer estaarnneaa Reet COS EE see ee ee Se ee ees — Cae, stoeRN ee peer | aN eseG: SO areaets Ws a ee eeBoras eee eis eeeSEES ees ee eae eoPee on ANB an Gas oan eG NG) eepace Ee) ee ee EES pane Tne Sih He aas oe SBLREE ESSE ON pees ee oe ae ahoes: EON a Sain Pe es Cees eee Ena: ee eee oe ie Seene RU inee US ceeal ue TRS ae Reoreeat PERSIE ee SESS EEE eee ee BS itFeoo i a eeBs seen esON inhi ES TESee SOE pat ie ees eee Ieee eeerae os ie it SONG oo BelANN ol aay Reet Soremans enteroaESSE ERED,

THES ee SS ee BUEEES: Bie ey tet eo a RN eeNN ees! ae eoSaas on es eee eeees Sena Be pone ees Re ceESS iio oe VOSS aneoe SIN LE. cannon PEE teas HE eae ee eee: ases Bn Doe Pe ee EASE eeSu oe eeeeccns es eere SEES: HERES DAES PSPS ee SEA oT aeneeiA eresBees: eeeran ieEo eeEI eaeosee seat SEES ae Pies eeeSenna ee BEE oe Le eeEs ee eoSO a eiareSa) oo assch LL ee ee oF aa iaeaaasiioeA aan! ee ooeeGeese Ss

preireca. Ess ig ok aCs Deg) care pane eeooaSein seaoo ne 2 i: Saas Baas feSEES SEs 4 Seae ee| ee S aea fei:ereaDet) aLE ie,eevies a eens Bee Rae ESSE Ss SESS ao eee Ss PGS ee iLes ae Ne ara ensee ET Ee BEEAES EE aesSG Sears ana aha ee PI i TNE ANC Bist HN on AN es aerateas pare: eee paeeereraee SURE es ee HS ie ge os NS CAN oe a a) oo ey . pecs ee oe i al i oo ne ee eee oS es ee a ee ee ee ee ee vo ae oe ce a Se ee oe ee oe 2 Dee S ae i bis 7. ee : iy a Rees CEs ee oe ERIS: Sees SPS? ea raerse ae Ce SIU RIES Cea Nill Bea bail PN Rees SUEY pian Pepa npir as OSES ee a BSE Soret % a Sapa etal isc neers eS Se i eas Neal bg ES aera paar DEESS CESSES . eee o eS_... 7Rages oeRSTuas | en ee ee ee _eeatone |2 paneer |PESaeeeCoeaPoets ee EO SUES EEN CESSES Cnhere ispes SOS yoeeee Bea a. LOS oo ailiaany es Ee aa Te el Bi Recent cai ier REESE ora eeea ED BREN ee, ae> vas ee CC A WES Ong BsSeSee TEES eee oFei Ke aT eel ei ASD aSe Ue area ERs STIS PPERE aeSAT my MU aResCe oe Sani Naat, oe ey Ronnies ATES eee EEE eee ear COBARE u BV eri LON Es ESSco Seema ee ee as se SN aNIEE pees PESn ae eeeion SeeSaat EEG ereerets HERE oe |. See Bay a Ne Sey Es es ee naeeieee EE Ssss Aa Heat afo SAN eeaN peers EE ge SEE, EES ease panes Sears etek: ESny Reeene ane Sea Sas Poe ANE i Se NHI eee oeES Eea He2. eames SYapROnan ERE SEES EEee EERE aseeete EES See oe Tienes oyane oo REP SEER Siesnies ena EES: pier sere Besta Bae ee TS a i Ly i) ee oe es ee ae es ee Sli i ae ae eee = es ee eeeee oo ESS ee ees: ee S 3 one ae HENS ee ee a Hoe es Se Do SG ‘Scie eee i a ESS ees ae ee eee FF.eeane oT p) ne osoo a.siesoee Lo See oe .eeBas a... Si Reece peers oeasane aeog eece Pee Se:Chie eeeoo NG ee eees pees esOS: peeee EGE ree oeoe ee aoe (aisle oe Reoo oeee ee areon Ee ee Ve 2... ue . a as ae oy i i ee aeee Ue gs Seen ae OOS oo. ee oe SREY eeeeeEER: ee See Seas ..,. a ese oe See ESE eeWe .aeUe eeseON aaNWe osoeON Res ee Bere: are peoaaes ee~~ aly ii Se ieil oo07EE BU oeeeBee ee oie Pus poe ee A:CT BG an een preaon goats ee URES crmOs SS ed oe Rees SEES eT eae Re ocnes Eeseeee ee se aKino We eai ee eeee Beene eect _Ey ve ee eeSens SESS Peer oe sa

CC — lreeoo — eee eaeey ee pitOy a y ee aon es Eeea Ie ee ee SEs eee ae ee ne Le SS) ae aa ae He ee ee ee Pee Senet OEE ates Es ene ee eee (Sees al eee Ps Sey ES Beet EERE eos SHEE aoe a Pevuehen a ey SN na" poser teciath i SESE HEE a Ss Bee. oe, NE Gin Was ee US Wises 8 — EO ge erin svbtenutia Bor Pu oe os eT ees Wt Meanie Bees SEE ae ces aoe

oy ee yo oe .oo .ee A ee es Ee ee ee ee ae USS a im aeoeCe Bee Se ee... es oe Ke Ne Le oo es a Hg Aen eeaooeoe .~~7Seeeee as eees aeee ©a ee— Sees ont Eee Ss Be a icane : “ .Bes — aan . oe eeDe esereee oe ON . . ..©_ ge aeSEES oes eeBes : # Co eees _eea es Fee 6.ee Beoo oo Pee: a Ce. es oe 2. es oS _ ee SEG a ee : a |... aEss Eee _ : os ~ = . . ee oe oe ee SS ae io eee ae fo 2a. ee aN . Ws Sy BN eee oe Lt ee eee ee eee ee Oe Ls Oe oe Se es Hs Sg Ug eee an _ a a ce ae EES Ess os eee . Ee a... oe ee ee ee oFCee as GESES |. Mine ee oy ee Se.Soret SE oe SEES | eee a es 2 illee ee ies eeeaoePi Hs iWee ae EEE oS Ra eg ee oeae aoe ee ne Dee eeEee EAU eine |-2 Sees ee ee :Bree oo ee . oa a. i. oe oe oo. e i ee .Se |. ee oe 5 oi . | a oe Be Fe a FT Se Bas es a ae me ae any ay cout en ee AEDES ee seo Se eae ne eee . a ‘i a oe a a. Ue oe ESS 3 ee : | ek | ee a La a. — ee . Sei oe as ;| as EE: |. a~~. ee 7REE . aa.SEES . eeCone ee eeal lnee oe oo |~~. oe Se. Be ee So A) Daeoe Eeece WANING ee See eeeeeeoeao esEOS , Ce oF .cg— — Ee Bee | i SRS _ aeBe?eeEERE ee Baers SEESHORS fe ENG SNe Fie a Cc ae TN: SON UN ssh BREESE BERS. teeEEN peeres eeie Bees Us pageant SHARES es SONI NRiscaeee ae Dulles BEG OSBunte SESEhours SES perks re agenase Been Eg Oe OaaCuan Het Nee ek Reeth UEserine Eee ESTOS pate eee ESS RES Benraanas eenWe Beoa reaena BSshUN i ee ee Sans pene Beenie Esa foe Bees oeeeNe Oe Lae a ca i :a, Mae ESS pees ESE Teen rthesrps ee ee Waa Pe Ui eeEES Reece ee sees pees

EES Ns ES ce ON Pte a a ae oy) oo pers te aereneee acer Bacar Seen eres sua EES MRSS Ns Bue ae GA Se ne ee AT es ey VRE Reaeenee Heed SEGUE)

as perpen soa HESS eae ae TS AHA _ ANN earsBas oe Me SSR eWe URES DT otPe SoeoeBETTS pt SESE ones Hine: WseeeeSERS . eee SERRE: erroraeats penoneae ES Bees TES ik OSSSN DAMN. os Use Ase: RS 2Serer ESSEeES Wie oe KES STES ee fer RE anfeeEas a ‘i aSen Re| Ss HhEERO SIRESHe) seat Soa Se base i Sueee Bs) oe oeBOs ESS ee eeece eepeas TEES pee Essa eS OC i ae Re) MI ces eeaece earner SOESLINE EROS Eeee SESSA |. edcoe RRcs: Seeeee Hs aN aVee eae pernee eS Ue EEE Sees pene Rarer o ae > Se oa a Hick ee WNSeaeantoes HEEB HEE Es HoekghoanesBe a

PEERICEEEES ees ae SEES 2m SAAN nN aren SSA He NY tes HORSES See aeeee nee eee HE SES oe Be eeFs RecN Bauer eareaeninee PeeESSSES er es pees eeeeSN ASSSCrna CEREniTea A RIS Loe REE EE EeeEEE GEES EEreHE ee Learn eeere aay 2 asee a ,yan eeBee iii Fes SieVee: pees ELS Ee:Beene SESE

HE EE . a a ae oo AK on ae oo. aa Saeeree RE eae: oa PAESUSS teen anny oat pastes ares a. Bes apie oa mae a ae JERE SEES ES opera

Bernese Renee pee teen ore ie Be SN . |. ” as eee eae Reaniecates ERE oes pa HES ee eee ey of a a Seay Ge 6 PUG ee SEI :

Be EES As eeSES eS HESS YS . ne EEEDESE oe Ee SUEDE parinekiee oePeaster SESSERE ene EON Pica eae UGnl as Dates pemates EOS Bie SEE Renee pena Bee|AF AN SIARS 2 aaeons saiciad ote Sis Hint Hc NUD i ssaeee ee PELE ES peor posse ances nese aes ew)ae oe SOS NaSporate 0Reeeienrs SN aS TIEN, wea Sr OE SEES SEU ess ~~ os 8)Pa esana es See pena renenare avy EES. eae Enact areasteee ecBee aeSN eG LeeelVOSS Na SARE fees

EE

Baas ees es eee ce ine ee ee ct is ee ee Rae LE SS 7 EAN BEES Ra Se Siren ate ee Ei ail TaN RN es BUN Ss eee Eire

pam ees aaredat ante? Eas ann BN aneaeae, Sacra PEE Oe BAN Se ee at % o (ees ieeeoates SEE gears SCAURESEM aa ee) ae Ses Se SO ae ee ase aa.BES Sree saoats ieecesESL pens te SUSESE Gases 2. Es QE SANS | Si BsBe. oe cee eae OSE iaeeeneen erate SEARSaes cesBeas CASON Seah ee RE neeiseies eaSSE SHS ae EES Es Sane VERE pee 3 ERE ss Se a Ses ae _ ARN Soi Ne Bie 3 Rete eS pats Saas OSE DESL nies REE Sees UGS ROE Ks Megat: anit SO pa NR ae ci) Ue Canes SEES ees eae SRE eR VE EERE ee EEE Delta ES ASS a. it A eet ‘SalCO Bees ia Le ar esEs SEES Ee eeeaeecnes ES eee ee eealee sei Bea oFiets ena Sa eneoe a He ae anes partner EEE oe cspie USrare Ia SUNT enn nlaSNieSSI Cees pence ees ee: aes Rare pore BORG CasteLe Raeaeice ertea oe peas rare LEE

ee Es ee ee ee _8 _. ae| oe esWs _. a —eeeeHe ooeeeeHe caeoeoF. aee_ ef , oa OW oes ee Peano a>ake oe ae Ee es Bee. :ooSEES —eeSeaeoe SUES My aes Ee eeee ooSt) pe oy | ee— su enerPEERS LL” ESE Berni ..Re os .oe iiaAns eeseeSsetoe 2De arena See pone eects ci. aaa pear eae pecmepees Sey esose os oo aN seer ee Sue eaneone a. nites biye eeRE ATER ane a CSOESESE Seon PLES,

a. ES oe ee ii ‘ oo mn a oe ee eee ice ee ee Ee Fe Se . ie .. linia ae . eee es pare ee Sears Een EE 7. Y oo a Gao ee nme 3

: oeeeeoe oeEES eeOseee eeBING We oeaeWe RES HEA E eeESSE eeeeEe EE ssSEES Pee Ca ae ae a ONG i eeis ee eee2 —age USeRoe aBtos eee gS: Gira eeeSree eeBerean ee aNyoe eeoa ESSE: Esee os EES) HER GW I> Loy hie ee— eee EN GGeee eee JESSIE eees EEE WIR eee? aU— eae SRA Vn Weis Ses ESE

Useioe Se C0) a PES perssees eaeeseeeres aespanriest ESS eeeseae aneene Coeeoeea—asians AU fo eeeeeeee PEEEES ores a SIEBER eeeA Oa: ieae Ka ees es Wd es BEERS pieces Ee Boer Rees Seni as ee.PESTO ES SeaHen AES ea Wieolh iG SoM OR EGcoreees SennaSARE EES ERE Senge EES ReGea 88 ONE Co Fiscal aeseS Sed aaerate Hesse eeASEEESS Scena "EES sete Ss ae See MyRR HeaBa i . Ne yalePES a, Aes SOnualee pee eesera PetaSUE aes SERRE: CREPES Bees Be ea QIN ie MSStn 30 ans eeaeee sucess oe eta etewere BESGS

Be oe es a. Oe i) 4 a a . | ee. ee ee ee Dee ee . es . a . ee ee Se ed

eee ee ee a oaee i aoers eoaa eee ee aee Poo ee Se Cae) eea... iene EEE . \a..ieees oo. . SU eeesDE ee oa ee eo See . Re Lee ee ee oeSsee Se oeY Ioo FF coTe..Be es)ore SS Fe aooPeMy) a. ) oo esFii Wea aleaESeSaosleelisa ‘ae eeose eeEAE ee ges ee aye aaii.ee.|Ss eeSNe: Bess CEES, ace - ee .ae oo ce iACA ae ee es es es oo aisPASTURES aSsEGE oe ee ESE ee ceeeeee SORE Eeoe ee eeieLe HU EEBSE Eee ESoe ERS Seee Eee SEO aDA See ANU eee Eee Seeeerees ESS ee See ereGR. ean BSS aneCa A aas ees preeeeete Soe eee Ae oe eeSe ee CE SE ee SD se ee We Oc ee Seea

Perens teoe See Beene He evistahis Sica BOs: SEs SORES Seen eremnncre EEE SEAS eeeneeee SHE NOS ee Seeman ean Ee: eo Rees BE preety sreLo ee PERUSE Ee Li as sy oo PN, iaee SN Sy aePs DEEDS eeSaar pt ees POUR 2 eco OEE Soe eS ees aPON rae PG oe Ronaw aor ERE EE Oe =ee|SN SeOCDE Le nsey) | 8etRui UG cui Mages: CES Bree ceeoie EEE aaoe SS HENS aeaaes eae eth Sousa eg anaes PEs poate en ae Se #aeOe ose Gy RUG Us a eae ees Ese eres Soares A BE ai Re any SeOEE avA ee EEE SES SSeS SEES eee $fERR, Ce ore SOIL aanSePeg Dni Se saaSHES UI shEEE a SSMS ESE Manne: a arate eerieshone Bae ee SEES3 oe PeaChae RGR US hl Gt eeeS Benton Ee eae SEE Ee EES ESSE Bae eee SU ae Sn PON THER se Ee Ne aaa CUM sg EEE ESS einen a he Reese SESS EOS EES ane MMs HO a ss a see ES OES ua ee EES eee a pineeae SEES, SEEPS saa eae a Ws eis Es ESHA GAIN ne ee Sey DEE ae peareenen: tenet aes eae ee pease GEESE Resa ad Naa ee Cae ones ih a Hae sataCo ee ieSent SSE EEA aan ee eases HES pee Se eR ieee va ee sul Pe eee CEN ORM OS i (EDS seers onesies Seances Sears pearroric: Saas ee poe wean We os oom | SSG TG Sea raoes anette S Pe es fs eas ee pees LES eeESS A He Sees oe Es eae ea neHe NA BA YAN Cena HES See nates TERESIee HISuE onepecan pases Hee EEN ANE casa Pe ell Bee NAPs Pein aeees SoS es a \y‘iaeaSOURS Sensei BEES EEE S SASS ee7eee Seo are as Cae ee)ay REY ey, EAP Samaras HE! ira pecs cress ES uiMente: Se) remeron POP OS as Ss eo HENS u Gs Rau Se ee ie | NS Di ee an _ ee ees ee EE Oe Oe ee Le . | oo ee anaes SELES Berar ESS ee EES OsesaeMoe ee Ne esi pee Si) iN iS Hu (earsoSSearecaniat eae Hoes paver area ersASGES eres peroSsBeet WM eoedo SN ails Rais Sh hil Nees etna eeeeen Ee PSone porters CERES ees LSE: usMii 2 Bees eect CHRO ess Baer He PERS BES oun Sener eeooee a ..Hi nt Dee Hee: Oho rs tae SF oe SES ote ena EEG ee ek aca aePESOS IMines aciall Hc eeeta ee eI Es cpanel Sess anesEES cea esate aN aEE snags BoM ieae Rae a esinca seesRey ees EEEESES SESE pete eeRear SF fees ere) Cs LeRecess |gE eeeotis pores eee meen Eeeaeae een ieee LeaIaSo eae ei OF HRS eespees ena DURES: Seat oea Ss a aeePs ol MN os ses ener See ee CERES aos >Meee eases eee Hes | eeDe Ueenes ee ais Ege SEPEEIAIS

..Be |.uy ..... oS (ee eSSes aSS ee «reyte » ae.87Pee eeee ee . oe _ ... Os. a. .aieee oo patie i es ee ON eea oo. eee As EEE Ss:a . co aoo aBe aesaoeoe ce Oo esee eeoe Ee Ret oe |PEs ae — _ eae ee = lu ce SS ee ES eeoo . oe Ne —,=| ee eS eeees BSreOe Ceoe i es' .sseed ee Ee Ba ee |% .AE cooo oo.aene aeeeae osee Bee _ ae oesRES ae CL Se aa ae ee eseeeeesee ee ee —ooee.esMae ——..—r~—— a°eeCe Be aS /|Ee |e i ySRE hi 7oe _ >ee a.co BES SES ees: ee . ee es ‘ Co .|iee Oh areata ES: aCC ss ie| ae aEslaa... AG a) _aag3Sore _. -:acre aeens }. ae . —Ss ee Ee AG eaas oe aaoe | Peers iySOE | ia bBSB aee: . oe at Oe Hayes a oo CC See SE NIISS UN ier -. RS co Ne eae oe aac Be C oo ae |i Heee ..Sao a_geesNees ‘> eG = ; hai.Re Ba ee Se eee eae eer Esee Ceoo Leca” eRe ee© ees |CoBERS Ae RNee I ene AC ee a eee, Dea) ieee ease eeeae es oe eve ie EES FSI Wie oe 2a ee Ey ee FF .aePenHN .PS ee De Nese ee xo if "SES 2.Aos,.|. . 7 . oo Reaee Cae Pee aeas eae a a sv LON a ane: Es8 =. SON ease Sega i eecc a te IMSL IS TEES. ee EES Se . oea. aASnian AMOI: NG Ce HRs ees .aeSree | i__ cA .UsiENCES :aSRE ed aae | |:.ened Es Pca 7 seanae See ESoo poe Tae ae os Roce . us hee — i. | -oe 7 | -s oe A : 4 =eee « - ae ae _4, hpeR) aAlaa oo —r— ieAsCe aLINES eae 7 . EPSR os Soa oe oe |. ee EN | Pe eeaCaaNG etAunts MSneass (|» aoe pee Le NEES Ss

ae — ee eg..CEN) ee oe os-ioe ee ey|.,|.age __j,-a» aCL 7.. esCe on -. |.| ..... aTr L.7|/ Bee leee ae ee ae eeee oe, a h> Whee a ee ..)) aie 2. i aLoe Co. ..ee .oe a. aFFi— aa jek a| ie | ow oe oe Se a f . ie y ee — 7 ae a “Aa a Eos 6 ea eeail Sale aan Taran Ree | on Go |8‘,Ae & “.1. pesca ee Be Cok He mn ae vee es ooSEN .6. “"a ||G4o aee gei8. Le ae Ts ail ee Ae eae ies ee so De Oi aee ea so) a rene _osoo Pe oe ayyPS Sa _ees Nah ~~ _ ns we osaR MON a... se

ya ®, a . . 8 |. - o on oo) Se

URS i) an,a a oe ae eee Wie La oeCe 8 HM eeeae ee — ->eeie a >L La|| ee aee 8Soe eeSe ce anAg ae: Migs mG _acaey i -ve ee oe Co Te _es|ee.oo — | des ;ee - . 2ee she egret ihen La Sie He OIes ees Na SUG Bas ec.oy) i ie &ON Te.Dea ee FERS eee EASE songomt ee ee BraN.ate eee Ge OR ial WeoN 1:aati aMNES SNAH ai pees . .EROS bie WS on a>: ‘abes _ -tltSe ,Be oe os La — i | ee a es Meets Sh ae a te He aati 6 ae . coe es Pes OS iy es UA . oo . _ 4 | a ee | ‘ “. :. hr eT oe ih oe a Wi a — 9 oe _ ol aK ee CL sue! — ee oe a ns a Se Oe Mi 8 ee Os oo | | , a 4 ~ a y K .Oe -| saree eR Raa LO Me _— eeONG! ae -AEaeoe _ae io 2a. ..2 Ui_. 2 aaa aa 7#3 ee ee EEE ESR ahi ee Nes CO ee(oe OnLS . a. Oe EN A ee Seance oe Tea DS oe eeal2RON A Re AM EOS ROU Oe ee aes 8. Ce ESSE EES SS ee ee ae ee WN Kania CO oe We Cea. Wes Meon a= .. . -oo co :oe .:: .|.HESS oo yo. -SeGaon SS - _ae- SE Set 20 TEES ee ee Se ee Es BESEE DE Ee SRG Boe ELE Renee ia ee , _ :pane |3Li| ae. SSeS see ren Seoo BaPee SNene eeeRien See ESS petits es Sas SEs ON Gere oie oe Ee Recetas 7./. 7THERES LHees | aEOS ce es 2Oeee eee ceee aes.Ce oe Soporte Eee 8Be eeapie EES ae ee oe ies ieeeoe Bes ee Bes ee ene ee| as Suey ees es Hees ee.See cece ee;ages a~. E| : ES- -pea SHEE saeantiess ae ES Eee eea He BRC ee 8 aeee /See .ee1oo

oe on oo iea. -— We .‘aRee iT oooe a0. ee ~~—SsSs CC _7 iy a6.|.Bee ee ee 8:le.ee7 a7| ace cine oo -as oy — ical oo. SERS ss ce, es oe ee ee oo eo 7 | ES _ pe ee os ee 8 ee . “) _ _ / . " . . e / . ee _ EG . °C ee as ORE EE on SOROS Be Ee oes ESSE Beranece eteeas 7 ee a aa ee°°... Hae LL oo s oe Soe _ oF ESS ee ee _ 7. . ee ee_.... |oo eeeeme eleen ae 7eR _oo 4Ueaee aJ Ee = oo o : ;Eee ¥y _oe 2 oooe . ._ fF VeoN es uae Ce ee _ Seema oe oe oe oe | . ee 7. a Co es ee es ee ee ee Wie a 7 ‘ ¢ ~ . | Dbl oo Bae oe eS onSn IN eee eee Sree ee ee oe a eaeRe ae, eo ere pene.eesessten EES SDE Serna ee peeaeeeet e ca oe ee ages . aHea eyaesesssoy ae cents URES CFEESpane ooODeos esCe)patina BEES o. ee ee ea

ee r. , . oe ee Pe ee ee ES EN sia ae On Ce RSE NS oe ae EN : REGIE Peace eee oe AES -:EES . iy aua 7 ’_.. ||.ape a Oia a . Pe Les ee ee Ae Sg eaeMES pera See ERAS eas ee oer CESS ._ee he ane 8.i Bae) Bel nel es2 1nee ae iZee Bae ee GS ESfs PEEPS oo2Me ake ERR Sapo ee -SS) bee TeCo LD ee ee ee Ee ES ES pene ee _ oy .oe 7BME: | - nn | SSeS _aeete |SSR :ere | RRS -euae | 27 8a : oe eeeas oe ce Lo aenaeatee Se ISS goes peeenosite L. :al: ; ‘4 . CC ee aes WN 1De eee ne 28 — AMG Ae mo es eS — eeFh Borie ssae Pte a ceee egWee aeta oarCe pees SE Es REECE -;— |pe “ue _ees _ee. . ic ee) eres ON INcNESS ENON ae eee eT eeees ESoe eS OES Sa pores eae : ‘ ~ ‘ 44 q~:+aeA_8q|~~ aes Su 2Ae Ns Rea ,eeESE BEES epee Gos Bis oe es G7 _LS s oe Ses assaseo EG OSRee ss Oe ihRue i Sea BOR INE: pees eeeeees eae ERO ae:EE eee Ee ereeos.ee__Be an: aaa Lo. LESS ee — i aia eeASS, a oo ag ppernaene aeESN Ceeee—_ _ ike _aea | 5anes . Co ee OMS th_ge oo at oeaeoe anh ieoe Aas ee ee pares .’ :BONS ..¥:‘‘:‘eea::aey oo esSy Bes Ne BE SS Sa Ceo AS Saas Seems PORES ee s| -lg _. \oo. ESS Barnes ae eae PSSee Beer peeaNy Neca pene SS aan eae i aa Be vets ORE EE gsOS ee Siete Seer one aaa eens nee ee ore é ° : : | _ ee Pea Be, ll eee eS Ba ey cee SESS: ess es SEES RSIS | eee ete: see: SEIS Ee ole eh PR in) hos aeeeSere SiePesala ees EES EASE 2 Ge es ee 7 ey _ oo 7 ri Sreeeee UyBe Cs ai Dee -—.—ClrC*S Ess eS Naas Bee issueseee ee Wis SOON Seen ee eae ee

ee ess ve ee eeoyeo a,CSae . eee . oo . em | SS! ee Lsos» Be See We eeehh... Lo Ss eesSe aneNES ieee ‘. me .) is CC oy, Wy Hs ta| bie ee Re _sY‘;oe SH ee ae Pe— Noe Wee Bye ieNe Cees eaUe — { IOS ae apse i aN ee ikes eehl eee Coe Apacer ee ee ae rs a . Gf , FF .. ae Ll 1. os eee ee oo iss o. a oe Co ~~ |. | a. : wee ae 8 mK . | : ae eo: \ | ae a . ee oe a ee ey eo . _ _ ue ba e : 4 | Le Cc(i.|. Dis 2 i awitNe4 “7 i Cans iG aeee ee Eos Oe ee Cane a |UO as oe es ge | Cae . unePica a oesull OGRE Raat Beyaa ESBSE ag |. as eS BENE: rN SS EeeeHee eaeoe : (iy wi ie pe Co , . ee a Co 2 ee eo es oa oe ies a ee oe a Wie ee OS Cl Cl Csr .

ae |. a oe _... . . : oo oo 4 7. oo. _ BO a.es ase ee oy kN i os) es se ae. . Co oe oF oe a fe : he WN i. aeoe ses ae FRR BO Ce ahoe ieoe oil Wie ey ON a8 eea, all ee a,« \,i .SG. oePen fe Ret HA as ae coy _aSn Cae es Pe esDUI: nO BR oe aEls ee Sla te SUS: eeSS | < — : : Ae Se AG se Ce a el a. Oi 2 SOON: Oe ee ee Ora Gy se ap eae a ee a 3 we! B Tr| ASEI .oe [mg _0 rtoooO7juw oo |os. SS ic ee coeea éoe oSa i...aoN hesoe co acaoe oo._iRS | i a: 7 _. . oh aan ae LD Bae 8 Vea ae ieee peter oe CSN os ee SW, rasecunte Hiya et ees Cee ae a) Pea eG UG in Wii ce 2eee ee NOOR NG MSR ONS Ree ee . (8 ee Renae FON _ le EMESIS ee Ne Asal eee bie ERO PUN seh We EeeRU aa Se See Oe oe,Be a Oy ee aeee . See — AN VOR . alligs AN i esAButRO toeee ee sn AM

Ose We Geet: Baty NEE ee Oe a. _ Coesne nn Nae oe COON Ce ae neoe Sane saAoy at Wing: oe

° ManpD

3 L: OINT C4.O F RT T

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 39 sourl from the east. There is evidence that these two Siouan peoples reached the Missouri before the year 1700, but perhaps not earlier than 1675. Their arrival was therefore later than that of the Mandans, and perhaps than that of the Hidatsas and Crows. The traditions of these tribes tell of their migration northward through the State of Iowa to the vicinity of the pipestone quarry; then west to the Big Sioux River, where they were attacked by enemies and forced to remove to the Missouri River, in South Dakota. They next moved up the Missouri, crossing to the west bank at the mouth

of White River. The soil here was poor, and after remaining for a short time the tribes meved down the Mis-

souri to a point opposite the mouth of James River.‘ They lived here for many years, then moved down to the

Niobrara, where the Omahas planted some patehes of corn, beans, and pumpkins. At this time the Ponkas did not cultivate the ground; they were a hunter tribe, procuring some corn and vegetables from the Omahas in

barter for dried meat:5 The traditions state that when they reached the Niobrara the Ponkas numbered three thousand people and encamped in three large concentric circles, the Omahas in two circles. The Ponkas remained - 4This is the Omaha tradition, as given by Henry Fontenelle in 1884, in Transactions of the Nebraska Historical Society, v. i,

p. 78. Other versions do not mention this halt opposite James River.

5 The Ponkas appear to have taken up, and then abandoned,

agriculture several times in early days. Thus Merrill was informed by some traders in 1834 that the Ponkas had formerly cultivated the soil but had given up the practice. Transactions Nebraska Historical Society, v. v, p. 170.

40 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS on the Niobrara, while the Omahas moved down to Bow

Creek, and later to Omaha Creek, near Homer, Nebraska, in which vicinity they still reside at the present day.

Two more Siouan tribes, the Otoes and Iowas, follow-

ed the Omahas and Ponkas to the Missouri in the year 1700. Crossing to the west bank of the river, the Iowas built a village on Iowa Creek, between the Niobrara and Omaha Creek.® They later moved farther south and built

a village near the present city of Omaha. The Iowas did not remain long in Nebraska, but moved eastward into the state that now bears their name, where they re-

mained for nearly one hundred years. In late years they crossed the Missouri again and were established on a reservation in northeastern Kansas. The Otoes after crossing the Missouri about the year 1700 are said to have gone down to the Platte at once, where they built a village at the mouth of the Elkhorn.’ They remained on the lower Platte, building many villages, until after 1840. In 1778 the Otoes were joined by the remnant of a kindred tribe, the Missouris, who had long dwelt on the lower Missouri, near the mouth

of Grand River. These people, although few in num6 This is the Omaha tradition, given by Henry Fontenelle, 1884, in Transactions Nebraska Historical Society, v. i, p. 78. The Iowas are said to have built two or three villages on the Missouri between the Niobrara and the Platte at this period. Bourgmont mentions them in connection with the Otoes in 1724,

but does not locate their village. (Margry, v. vi, pp. 396 and 410).

his is Henry Fontenelle’s version, given in 1884, in Transactions Nebraska Historical Society, v. i, p. 78.

DRESSES eae ae ee eee ALES usamcor F aeREN _ ee eestearate Cone

DEES Eg aaoo ioo. oo oT oeee PE ee eee ee aeee R Olle oo ee Bs soengdaeeed eePe es eee ae Bs eas oti a. Lo aoo. Ee ERR SSS ns a ae os HON teaee Gag ee ee SERS aS oe ai __.... oeSe a aoe oe a Se nsee i ee ee ogugegiietnereeeern ere Se aS: ae TSS ON Ee EeESS Se Se ee ge oo oe Oe LO asoeeT a, ae aES co oe Oe rr ne oo ee Ue ee

PATESS Fe Pe ON GSES ONNaina: ates ear ERTS seitdhnanycgid ceca IM ISESE EEASSES BA PEELE eae tre ORE Keei ecu FA ON Coeae ee ORAS ones SESE TERRES Hg acini atest ges

Perot Ha NO aa Sell a Se A Nae See 1h Ss PUSS ae SN Kauai! anna ce: ss LORIE SE EES ES eee Bas re ey a iil oy i AA CSRs SCRE a HR ES Suc iyRSH) COlsPR AMR Hee NDTaA Henna ee Oe (AORGO eemutase SORE OES SSeRSe SESS ee oeBer FI eee SBR neath Sas TSS Hea Oe aN Dienn en eee Sere aren mereBee ye CEE ASS eat LOO ame o ne NSEEEE RSFNiecy URE RSaie AAU NGSOU eS INS Neies Raga NCH,REA ee OUR A es Beye SONA Senaee BASE Sn

eo | oo ONS >...Oa oo.Co ee . es ee oe — ai i. .,.... eo Oe

PEER ee ae Ce NaS ONES Tae EO OS a A a ee ay ... |. Sa eee Es

PETES enUGS ence HE SeeSOeeoN CTSoe POSURE SDE ag. SEON EON a ieSOG on HA eS ea eeSe ERR eeeene eee HEAR ene ES Dp Soe RES ROE Deen aiUO US AG Rea Ue IOS INS ENyO MSs RNOE I BN SaHAMS TMNN SOMMER SET i a files OAM RAEN RSI: EES SHU tery AE — NERS ER. AHH NeSS MS UNG Swe esanaal Sa USA aeHALE Raa eaeSEEEEN EAS Seen ee: So ee ee nena LO Ny NORTE aS OR BERN TINS, ESOS NES IU SDR RA IN BEI LS NEN ea MUN EN A AR OCA a eS SA RARS ETS JS 4EES a cae ARR UOC SRE SOO Oe: ISIELC NSIS OG vabpe OOS FUG SO Nan ay Lyaha eee Boerne EsSEEsae ee nil a GON RRS OHNE ROIS ARS EEC BN Ce LOO OUI Lata) ING Rees COR eae ae aoe Sees ES One AROS Retc aea NORGE MG Sekee TO aanNa:MNS ke PSG SIR SS oe eee PEE SEES PAGS eae Se DECREASES feiee ESSFU NN TGS Se Uae TO Me NR anaee AN. SHR ORS DANS SIN DN NIE DONDE eB hia ESCO MERON! GN NIG FRG CCS OCU SUAS RS RRROE Rs aera i RA Santee Seen cana DRS os S err ee

Ee eS renee SeeneESSEO MINE TORN Ue TO SO OE GER IMines ea aNESPORE ec Rea a Le eee eee pea DEES See Sa DeeetsaE UN TCE TORR PIAS ESPON SIN HOMER aN OREMs SS SU BGR)OS ESS!AO BINNS Bn cay a eee ee CESSES ascot soeeencete Seem esSapera shRR Con Heel i FA a SAAR GH LORRa aUGMT eenOM OUR aan ONOG EsNsPeat) Hn garNCPOU BG Ss EERO GR

ee eg a ae a Ce oe a a Co a 8 ES ee een cee USE enue NINOS 2a es EON MR MEN UNS UASE BUEN SRNR SoD EGS MRO SHEE SCR ONGC URSA Ss ESD iG at Mee NS: ee ae Rao eraomcn arate

TEES SEES SES eeelfeases 2 oeSoe) Nea IR: Sans See EORON RUS ERM NSO Ostr SSPocioenet SSS Qe .. eee Sa eee peaoeee RON .. OE a oo OS SNM SS [RE rps Re EE nearer USS ORES Se TONER ae SU ESE SURO Tnee Ha RO AUG ie BOERS ENA OE eS CAIN aD Sa: TH NA Fae aa BEE ROIS BOS URE EOPPy ED Oe Oe Bearer ate ae ae Oy i a.BERS Uta aess LON OU oC eae EARS SEY eeERIN EN SGMESES SN CRASS) sean OS ll. EE eeEEE IS: feee eee eeSSS ESE ee eea eres ClAne INS Bae, a... POON is a MeCOO: BS ION a as enna BEEN

pea SS pene PE TS eee PE Ral ne aBoreas at TN OO One eee 1S eer eae Sea Se EE SSoe LOSER HERP NE sR Tee ga DOORN SS Lia aaa iaH ies: iesLanta) USON Se Ty Pa Aah ‘ly SAC a ee sie ee ee eee rn aEU eeolaEEaesNey Co Sa ee Aaes es nee perce epe eae PERSE ASS EU Se SECS Se PeEa DEE SES BOOS eee eeLe ee EE eee SU JSS aS OR SN RS US ONT Mies eatin eeCH DiaRE Pesos DE eepaeae peta oeEASE ene ie Ree eee SOU EEE LES Scapa aereeraiee enh Bienes Sout Ne oh .OE ey ea sa eeURN ierha cian

SE a DO OU ae ee ee ss ee ees eS a as a. ee ene S ee ee ee we7ose es ee es Oh ue Les oes3 oe as oe as . eyawi eg ae oo. i on|. al a Soce eeSE ee ee ae ee se DO 8ES EsES EES eSesES See oeCe osTN Se ee es ee a is ES ee ee Ee ee nei Ge ESS SS ee Ee pe oeeeOSes Se oe . cs BENS oe aaa Be EES ES EE eeSsoeeaaan Se es aoe escece LD eeNR eeSE aSEES ReOe a DOSS SEU ASS BSaereeenn crNoern fe Me aN Ny Ra i)BOSS Os Been weesSen Ben eeeorien ee HS ESEene RE SSR EESEN OSE co ee Perens UE EE sense Se edie OeEE NieeS ayoeAFO.) NSaS Se ee Berens SEGUE Bice ceoe rereSy ReBe eeeeee eae Seer eeEEE oa eee ie eee Ge aes BNE Br MS EASON Has SOI a eee NC OSE SON Beene Pear BSCEeSees peeetn NES ans EER EESooner saeco ere Peetore EECERES Seas ee SERGI

eee ooi Meae aeaa:aesi Ame aeESN eeeas aeOsa ees -..a Nig. eSGeBe — Ua.. reosSeeRe BRN a aie ESS HS AA Ga Tena HAA.I Oe es oeee i os NEN Peer iG) ES Ss Siete Pe ee eNOS Sn ey eee UN eee IM: OL eS esDl oeWe esse Se ee NOE ey GO esa ea OR a aN, os Bin Gee ee Geee eae eee ee aU ne Sea AC GNa Se asCOO ey CE asek ae Oa Neae eG ae eese eS = ee ee 8 ee ee CeO a cy i a — es ES es ee |. eee CT CG ve DRO, a a oe ee eee ee ee gee ee eee SSSO ee Es ee es es gs. ee Sy,esa SOeS Ves DD aon es ae EG ee ee sa See ee iecoy a eSUne: ee cee a oD a Sp Beene nena REE ee pn EE Oe GE EE nes See eer EE ess Ce Mi a as OOS GES OR: ee) en, Saints II es cere

:ee0OS~~ — ese ee ee = i) ee ee Boe ce . ee ee eee fx ee es ee ee 7 : a 2 . ee ee ee ee Boe ad ae.es eea.z a....esee eesLS) * cnges ae oe ee— Foe2.. ee = ee Se eerearrianen CDOS Gea ea EEE Repreeeroet: PEEPS © irone eeeate PUES ne setae eee ipa aesas SERS Spa ited SNES SE ES CES SSS Ween PRN OSs NRE ORs SLORY MEANS OH NASER eae BENS BSUS Se eee probe EERE peace ea EER GEES econ Sees sense Bes RECN BEE EE: BESS og eee eens EEG SEE ES ae re fe ee 2s oa ra CEOS uN Su One aaa ee ene

He enceenar ees ere eee aera Pee re Seen ieee EES rae ee CL re HS pores Soon ee ee ETERS seen LN Tea Te SS Resor: ce es conan

Boece es PERE: ES ee ee SS eee EU a Gs ey . ee Seer ae See Waco ee Pee UES Se ee a ESE: =

eee ee oC Beas es Bence Ata I es aN .BO ae Baten ae es . Haein OS SE 8 a eeeesCe neES ooGaeehs eee ONeoee ee SS

Pee CO : _ |. .) ne os |. a oe re ae eee ee | oS 8a oe ioeie |.7..ee « ae a*PeaBee ee Ke a. — . a. a-..aeoe & ee ee a ce a as + >_>. & See y ee _.Ca : aee. oo Pe eeayae: ieCNT OeCO 1 oF oe .eeEES ee (EREEs UEeeEE aS. SC OO eee Le|. eToo Be Se 0aeSSee —. a oeLO ee. aee ~~

SS) Eee EES: LL iele eS ee cS esay Sau el oes waneee ee SIG... RO ie aoe Sarre sear peal es a——r—=". a... oe ee oo Ee Lo aTOae! ae oo ..Py, aBaines oo aa.7I i, Poe ESS EES Es ES a . aes: i ae , te i... CC . Sa a Ue os Pa GN OR ean OR a_... se 8 =. a ey | oo oo oo ..Be .- > ae LS a oe ae 8 a | Y a |. . ee eee i ee soe OG ors Sa eee ee g Bae et CORN ee ea DN Sea UO ts, Can sae Le ee MNS Sy pe carrerere eee EBS ES 8 ee JED AS ESN ASG ee a Sars oa NG PSE TING OE it aM MCCA ONY eG: LO Tn AM eee a . SREB SCRE ES eects! SOR Es pee erne ee 2 Aes ee eon ee Cae Ye oesees CG OO Ne Boos Sal NE Pita. Sinn lin AG aes iy oe eae LOSER SEORERS SE

peer tee RENO eeBN USE SE ea ae oy SeaaRS NINES 2TTST ee Mat age NSO UNS SVN eeSAE AUeinen ayes asin ee eeEOSAL OS eeeSes ee iOe ea ON Peaee Peer HESlySaees Tecnu kesee OeoN SosaSai UDIISSAN SUIT UAOe eaeBO eeeHUN Zo eee Meeae ee ec ESS ee ee cere ae eo pete EO aioPG PSO TiO aN NG: A ttMNS Gi eae MONSTERS CHA:USER RN ROS) Ren aoe BRS RGSEES SES SOOER BEB ea

ee ee Ue | Dee ea oo ee ae ~—esese oe a ee

EESAE preamasiyy me Eee NeeaeSes Ra0Pi hesanth Hi aaa SN IeeeSS Sala I eslitae RS ANGINA PSR OG aScones WM se pee Oe a ene eseeicc? ee neasAGN aeene Be eeSalteee aseen)CaO GT Ae SMe Se UI coo ects! RS eer oeeSOs ESEee ES SO SONS: CoN ears, Ceema Mull Me AUS easay Nt) Oa NEE AO Nan Seana I ina eins OGAut HN ens ee IU eae A IA sara SEEDS LE POUT cee ere eas ee Bune eae CN ea OI a Hee Min STIS ON HMC PEGON IA Sane Nt eee ASS eH Ye eM RTE Reece | 0 ee et aa Sa Ce i. eee Pe

Benge eran Sabet sts rainis BOEee TET Dengan EERaN ae SLaEee MN! TG SB COUN RSOMRAI, SIN eases MHS OESaas SN SOIR SEBS, eee EE ee He Geesemana MTSES: ReeSORE ie ek aeSei aes NSSi NM esMCUs ENOE SNe OS Hg ae Mee RaaStANU SaMES ee Wee seina

[SOs ee eee ee EDs CU aee neeS a eeee ae ey a.eeCo Fa| |eg Le => SOEs EEE GEES es ae ae eS HESS — OG eee ee eeeSere: HS TESS Roan unease PEO EseeEERIE ae SS eee ae coesea otoe eeeeeEen ELSES peneee EEE ee SSE.oe EES Bre eae ranene oesoeEsAE i SESE a es Oe * SEE ee epee tose pairs aspees BeeneEES aE teaED See SEER nae See eee Sey ae esA SNaceSs a PyDRE VMOUoat ED)HO DMUs 2 sina CU ROU LADS COTM SPHo AO a MEME aN ee Sn MAN ae aeRSS 22 COMME ARUN NI MING Spe eee Pane Sports etn BSE Be Gan So ehRIGO HOON Guee Rea ee MN pe nae Perecee iceueSere eaieaien Ss ee ERS AGE USSUenna SM EN a noNSOU aean CEG TAS SMON MMM Ne) Ui 2 OAT Na See a ee Ninian AV casi Vleet Ossett Sepa cnn > EER SeEee EPS SAS ES See rane ge eeESSE one eee GEER tiesBEOUR EEE SeOO GsAS aaCHU ate aaePySUM ah BIN asSl Reian 0aA LSC eleven Gea aisigauas Raa HGUse MAM Hee ih geees na PADRES HSS ERE ES SEAMS Se Seeaaane: MSR RE Ea SAnereren panne se Sees a Serpe epee eras retest Lee NO oy tan ik GSN CISNWINEARN TA OHO UCN PO Ne Ray Oe na oo As Seer Heiete

SEES HABE Seracer eee ERE peoeeesereD sear eaEa Supe ERE CAEL ee ee eee are Gs pie ee REE Se Reena a OTS PUSAN PN EN CMS i Sa Fee TRS Sen aaa NR ee eee see

SEES HOSS OU USE ee Ee eee oe ee ee Ss aS ee Eee es a acai es a Ro ee ee

—. eee ... ks -. =

Le kea ok cees—S Sed Reeae eeeoo Ee |a Ce oa i...Ce 2. «7aLe ao Lo es oeoo oe oe TESS TSE Sancta Eieime neta ER ee lite RN coe eee Oe a 2 GR if Hike en ._ > ppehetan DS Bes eT LEE Be AREER ater. esicheeerrr SERN BOR ES HOS ON NOON Ero enaae RINE ES BEE Sealine Hat Hee PA IiAiaaGnR SERVOS Re TE SR Ba ARG ee ON Nase tS DAA iNet RRS SIRS ERE Sg NSE: ISIE EE

EEGs Gere eaREE OS aio RCE Oe ANN SS) aT CES Dh Cn era Ha ean gs OEE ee Be ae SEER Peeee inns i EES . NOs oh Beeeeea a) ae OTR AEG: RE SCAU NG eee SoH trCAN at FWD eo ea UG “tel: Weer ine ee nieceaSees SURE Gest BEE poeta ES ease IESE TEESE EEE eri.ee See UGS Se) Si Ser aNSePA aaie ae .) SON sealers 0deer eeI RGaaeracentic Ngeee i Ceee SON ANESee EE Uaneunnacrentan UESOEE ESSE aie Boe: EOS ee Tae Haafico FONG sie eae Huai UNG Pip AO ARH aiessi CoHe SePee aoe ilRea TAROS nines: Neeee Sa Spee nk:a Po in ereaes crate ILS EEOC RsRee oo. pec Nea seecee OE aN ll Nea Ir IONS Mie cot PNP acaa aSUTURES. aSn ia EONS ae sit RUS TMI) AA eet eeeo ES OL aBere am ee Hae SILS ee Bea anc: AN Seah ae US SIE TRE SG OT alae ECM =SEES =ye See aes Bees aPel |CNM AS SMe Ce eee i seh PEs 3stFSR EAN aySOS CN eiSSSAT ae Te aia OeeeieSUSE ER es JRA Poerarecnese NT er Le ition eee WisesI iMone Waillnpaess CUA Sek easel Hs Sere ERROR Ui Oe Be OSURaes nn LSAMC ecu aaa CANS AS aSaa Gath, nvial ee SUR MAURER Sst Sen er SESS eeeSI oeeeRSS i DU anesieee SRR aN 4aesees WSO ee UO eae GN Hos SSS eS ON Ee EEE aoe eee a oraSei. NI ee Ae Fa ane BLesaMies Ci eeeBiRNS Won DINesTN Ae SAD N ecSO aMANe SRGSEN HN eet easeeee a esGePANS SeeOsaeELLER eer renamed

EEE ll .... . ani ea ee es as CUR AY OE UT ae ae ee Rae ee as

esee EeFF a _.7f io. oe . Wee oe oo . ee a— a a2 _ |oe ee L -) . ee ae H Cl ee ee Ee ESS Sipe ee. oe Late i ae SC a a es PU ces as Sn ae ea PI eos oo — Soe EEE a ‘ ... es . oo — ee ee a a Pee ENTE eg _— Fe eS Tee) oF oe aN BESS: We eee: eeBere. on neEEoe 9a,co oe| De.ae| ren Ne ocSDce ~ Berner es, Fe ee uci GESSTUNT OU Ol Aes SABeae a eaee OEaley esaaseaeAeUe eeeHe esoLa an oak aa Tne SG Rs se) 2 a Ccpas ES Se eenscmt eeisWE PONoe a ee Sa)eauan Be aSM BeSos ee oO oaaeSG CRU aemeeeree

TER eeOL SON see PO ee oe Sa aera REARS PeSAS oases oneREUII Nnin) Na aos Feces san ee Raniah Zee pe reoaaee ee ee porte ee: ONE ES eltoe TE ae eee renee NR ES SES NO an Hea ARGS OR RU eR TMU Car HR, AO HARUN esee eeeees Gi ers) SERS OU REeee AS ee ROP Bera Aa NU G os cae Rarer te a| AU RSS Ue ESotRt His ON isaERE SOR ema SR CU Ali SANA SN 84 BAN eaON Le os EROS eee US Ne edaBSL SeERR aSRO PR SSS oo ee) ARO ee ay ee SO ee PN eooca. Pe ENG oiHM SrSRS ee eararas Hey

pees 2 oe i... a ee Ns ae De a ca oo esr Dene PEERS ees Renee ee SEITE Roe AG Gs 0 Th Sait oe UNE Sa aN ON Si Ge SO ene Ee ae BSG oa Ae ee EES

SESE es SS eS PeeeEy oassieae me aOS —. ee aN |ES my ln oon EES eesRPE Ee Beer SlSree ae iieeee iaN a,.. ean Sa SHU ea eaten se ESAsee ES ce Bees PE SESESS Pennees On Ceer aie Os See en aUE SOMES ee.ees ON Sea ic UNG ny eeee ES ns AEE coy ae ae ooOy oo. oo ol iyaaNe Co ee ee ee BS RS eeoo ee Ten eee ce ee Sea ..7One aii |... BEE

epee erent He nana te ee ee ee 2. _ ae a Os oo oe. a eS ° BocasCEN SEE USERRA EASES BEER EES Becoreenrneees esI SO SSR Sve it aOnON a ne Nea eH Sea at aa eee RRR He Fe ReeELLIS PERE [RUSE RAUAES OEE aE SAREE Bn fein ies! EERE AE TERS OES fantsSUR tes Re ee Sante san arSUIS tint a Aee NRsa MORES: Ran isnt dN WUC en SOR | Miser an

eee eee SNDE UGA ee SEES Cee ee CE Se SeeSgteeeeeeee SEE es foe ere ee |.aeooyooS oeaaeeae i=)

Tee eee LS eS iene RES pecerentre ee SENS FREE EPs Sees “EE Cipigiisen? sigue: SI SISOS oe Ue UO eS ee OS IN NS Ce. SRN eee SSS SER ES Serenata EERO a SEES Reenter Sees 1 SOEAS EES see, SEER es ieconceeas Pe caine eerrsnabaeents ETILESED THERES Ren aD eee Tresseneat at a eae DESEO) Sent RE ng TI NG EN HEN ONE SS Score SOND

J ELEEEES SETS SPEEA ELSE ye Speen EE CASTE SUSSTUNSE IS BLEU SES CESS y ERE Ie LUE EE rear ont een es eh DEES CGT MIDE ees Gao) ce a LIS eS Nees ea RESETS

ee SOSee EEEL PEsaC chee PSSUE NSE EAS, TSS MEE Oeee SEED SEMIS TT patente soo SESE pees petpnees SEE EOS SESS ONE ISeen LN ROR eeeons eed A vont ReneS et cnr i es fepete RRS Pe ive Sane eeOSs araat peeanaae Rophians oeSehe ee tneSE a pe CaTNO ea siaee Cm Oo aeESPEE SESEESE SNE Rees ame SOE EE SS Sesecre paeeercees Scrin ers Sie Te. ene SETS, -~»& FE EOEEEE SieSs nic pero onas eats EIA Ee fat 2nee eee OES See eeeEe Soeees ees ST eaRenrnn get scnecntet ala: Speers Sha See neta SAE SSE OOS Ons aay) eee PSE VE een SUIS AES SE LAMEEN lences iewurnigntity 2 EE SIE SELES SESE, SSaee ese aee ns LES i aaaogRRS ESSER movies a Rccareerea te PTR ORT SHEE EMSSESS Sears repeat EE REE BE Sceeaneeeaetes see SR ORT SISSIESarn: SEER SLA ee SER Se ee TERETEEES EEE BEES ESTE REE rs rei — Sectors ER Popeertanats eenrecirer ee eres sehen SURE ES a_—==.HOE LG ie Sekar 2 ERE fy wees EEE SEES eee EE Seenmenettans SSE PSESerena parent aire ennai ne -a aon [Lr ~=—SOsaC:szsC POG Eereeonetg pons as aes SESS aeae ts EERE AES Specie ee ERS On HEE ORS seneaerate SESURO EE Se SESS. RE Sages

— ES US Ee ee eeie a SPST eeR Neeee a— |. ENGNG NE cde due tet DOES SEI SR ENn SER RSEO ETE? Seesecece eee SOR SOS SEES PA en ai .. seoe ie ee Lesa rene ears Seas eres (ooeea COMO ee eS . c en -- 6h —Se ieee ee ee“aeeaaa A TSS

Ce us oS. SueSe on SRE piece ae eee nea SERIES eS -—....lL.ULU aPacers eeSHEETS Ma Sean ee ~~a. oe CON err EE i ere LETSeeSoe SE Es EPA SeesEEE EESSER eerSees receke aioe EES Eee See CEES Suess 58ais EEERR UI Ae ee ace ee HOSE G Se=... OUoo RIE idsnn Beeoan ateteRe ia Seana enerEOS EE Ben TEER cemeetteaee toaeee amen eR hte

Bi RUS IRey ee eae peesNNE yiostanesaagatiit 2 2eras LL pane RUS RN Siig eghac a POULSEN Sor: See SIEGE ESE EEE Ronen ce a aateees seapte tte OUNCE FARRER i otinguan ~~ |.CASS OSS=.a8SOCOM Poe eR nena te RS Oat seeaecriateheer SEES SESS ESBS Se aeveP

ass ee Oe EM NG esa —rtr—“ ESOS ashi Giei ee eee SSS SEES ane RUG ES GS BHCorn 0 EESee neeener Syani Soares ESRe AO TUR SLE NESee eeigt PEOe ESSER PSNR NEN 2c rn SURED QS ey AEE eae ee Penae .SSL aEEE oe ERIS: — Riera are 2 ere BRON LENO a eaeSe te ese xe OC Na rrrUnpiih ——= ee wet po eee SUS:OREN Ri aa ROMMR COON eR oe a, Heenan inate ——rr”——“ eetSESE oat eae Bee ORE eee ee LOO Gi ea Aa Pes HG On BS ESOS ISS BESTS “ Be cee DOOR = Pt cinder eeoe—rs—“C—s—OCORG WoeseaeT

HERE,Une BOTS Oa ee os ee. ee a —CSOrs—i‘i‘COCCsés

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 69 planting with care, and usually hoeimg all of the patches twice before the tribe set out on its summer hunt. The plants cultivated and the general cultural methods cor-

responded closely to those of the tribes farther east, a good account of which is given in Arthur C. Parker’s recent paper on Iroquois agriculture.*° The corn raised by the Indians of the Missoun Valley varies from the Pawnee corn, some six to ten feet high, to the corn obtained in late years by the Assiniboins of Montana from the Mandans and by the Assiniboins of Canada from the Sisseton Sioux, which has been acclimated by them and which seldom attains a height of over two feet. From the Pawnee corn in the south we

get a regular gradation as we ascend the river, the size of the plants and ears decreasing and the length of season required to mature the crop diminishing.

The varieties of corn grown by the Missouri River tribes will be deseribed at length farther on. A brief survey of the species may be given here. The dent corn to which white men have largely devoted their attention in breeding, was not raised by the Indians of the Upper Missouri1; and, with the exception of the Omahas and Pawnees, popcorn seems to have been unknown among these tribes, until introduced by the whites. They raised

only three species: the flour, the flint, and the sweet corns.

The flint corn is usually eight rowed, occasionally ten or twelve rowed; this species is high in protein and the

grain is very hard and heavy. The flour corn resem"80 Troquois uses of maize and other food plants, by Arthur C. Parker, New York State Museum, Bulletin 144, Albany, 1910.

10 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS bles the flint in the number of rows and in general appearance, but the grain is much softer and lighter in weight, being largely composed of starch and deficient in the proteins. This species was the most popular with

the Indians, as it could be easily crushed or ground and was much softer than the flmt when eaten parched. This is the speeies usually referred to by many writers who have stated that Indian corn was of little value as a

stock food. The sweet corn is high in sugar content, and the grains when ripe and dry always have a shrivelled and wrinkled appearance.

All of these three species were represented in the Upper Missouri Valley by many varieties of diverse colors and periods of maturity. Of the corn plant, as raised by the Upper Missouri tribes, we have several good descriptions by early travelers. As has been said, the size of the plants and ears varied greatly. This variation was not a matter of latitude alone, but was sometimes due to special seasonal or soil conditions. It is this adaptability to conditions of climate and soil which accounts for the extreme hardiness of the Indian varieties of corn and for the fact that a failure of the crop was rarely absolute.*! In a poor year and in poor soil the Mandan varieties will seldom rise higher than two feet, the ears being not over three or four inches long

with very few to a hill.5* In a good season, and es~~ 61 The only complete crop failures mentioned on the Upper

Missouri in early times appear to have been caused by the ‘‘ orasshoppers’’ which descended in dense clouds and in a few hours stripped the corn patches bare. 52 Catlin must have been on the Upper Missouri in a bad year, as he says that the Mandan corn produced ears no longer than a

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 71 pecially in the rich bottom soil of the river valley, the same varieties will attain a height of five or six feet and will sucker profusely, producing many ears to a hill, some of which will be seven to eleven inches in length. Another attribute of this northern Indian corn is the very heavy foliage, making a hill appear almost like a bush. This characteristic is very marked in cross breeds and distinguishes the improved crosses which contain a northern Indian strain. Bradbury, himself a botanist, said of the Hidatsa corn in 1811: ‘‘On our approach some fields of Indian corn lay betwixt us and the vil-

lages . . . the corn was now nearly a yard high . . . This is about the full height to which the maize grows in the Upper Missouri, and when this circumstance is connected with the quickness with which it grows and

matures, it is a wonderful instance of the power given

to some plants to accommodate themselves to climate. . . This plant is certainly the same species of zea, that is cultivated within the tropics, where it usually requires four months to ripen and rises to the height of twelve feet. Here ten weeks is sufficient, with a much less degree of heat. Whether or not this property is more peculiar to plants useful to men, and given for wise and benevolent purposes, I will not attempt to determine. ’’ *?

Hayden (1855) also gives a very brief account of the

northern Missouri River corn: ‘‘The corn is said to be the original kind discovered with the continent and man’s thumb. With good treatment in a favorable year this corn today produced large plump ears, seven to eleven inches long. 53 Bradbury, Thwaites edition, p. 159 (and footnote).

¢2 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS is quite different in appearance from that raised in the

states. The stalk is from three to six feet in height, seldom more than four or four and a half feet, and the ears grow in clusters near the surface of the ground. One or two ears sometimes grow higher up on the stalk, which appears too slender to support any more grain. The grain is small, hard and covered with a thicker

shell [husk] than that raised in warmer climates. It does not possess the same nutritive qualities as feed for animals as the larger kind, but is more agreeable to the taste of the Indians. It is raised with so little labor that it seems well calculated for them. An acre usually produces about twenty bushels’’ (p. 352). Boller says of the corn of the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras: ‘‘It is a species of Canada corn, very hardy and of quick growth. It is of all colors; red, black, blue, yellow, purple, white; sometimes a single ear presents a combination of all these hues’’ (p. 118). By Canada corn he probably means flint corn, as that name was usually applied to the most popular varieties of that type in the eastern states in his day. Summing up the physical characteristics of the northern Missouri River corn: It is short, rarely attaining a

height of six feet, and often below four. It is very much addicted to suckering or stooling from the root, and its foliage is heavier than the average. The ears are from three to nine or ten inches long, usually eight rowed in all three species (flour, flint, and sweet corn), and they grow very close to the ground, often emerging from the ground on a short stalk or shoot from the main

stalk. There are frequently two ears to a stalk and

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 13 three are not exceptional in a very good season. It is extremely hardy, not only adapting itself to varying amounts of moisture and producing some crop under drought conditions, but resistant also to the unseasonable frosts which are apt to occur in the home region. It will sprout in spring weather that would rot most varieties of corn, and once sprouted it grows very rapid-

ly. Its period from planting to maturity is about sixty days in a favorable year, and rarely are more than seventy days required. We may add here an extract from a recent publication of the Montana Agricultural College Experiment Station : *4

‘‘Karly Flints. These varieties originated in North Dakota and contain ‘blood’ of the old Mandan Indian

corn. The stalks grow about four feet in height and are very leafy. The ears are borne close to the ground and cannot be cut with a corn-binder. These corns will stand more hardship in the way of droughts, poor culti-

vation, frosts, ete., than any other kind. They have been the highest yielders of grain, as a group, of all of the varieties tested in Montana on dry land. They are the earliest matured, withstanding hail well, and make a crop even in a very dry year. They are recommended to be grown all over the state where the season will permit them to ripen.”’ The varieties grown by the Pawnees and other tribes in Nebraska were very much like those grown farther north. Thus we find that the Pawnees and Mandans both have the same varieties of white, yellow, and blue "54 Bulletin 107, ‘‘Corn in Montana,’’ by Alfred Atkinson and M. L. Wilson, Bozeman, Mont., October, 1915.

74 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS flour corn today, and they formerly had the same varie-

ties of black, red, and red-striped corn. These southern strains attain a larger growth and produce larger ears than do the northern ones. The Pawnee corn grows eight to ten feet high; the plants are given to suckering and the ears are borne much higher on the stalk than in

the case of the Mandan and other northern varieties. None of the early travelers on the Upper Missouri have

left descriptions of the corn of the Pawnees, Otoes, Omahas, and Ponkas, and what little we know of the corn of these tribes has been gleaned from the planting of small patches of many varieties during the past two

or three years. It may be said, however, that these southern varieties seem as hardy and well adapted to

meet the conditions in their home region as are the varieties grown higher up the Missouri.

As was usual with most of the tribes of the United States, the women of the Upper Missouri did most of the

village work; not only were they the cooks and housekeepers, but the farmers as well and, as we shall see, very good farmers. Maximilian states (Mandans): ‘‘The building of the

huts, manufacture of their arms, hunting, and wars, and part of the labors of the harvest are the occupations

of the men. The women... lay out the plantations, perform the field labor, ete.’’ (p. 271).

Catlin (Mandans): ‘‘This (the gardening) is all done by the women.’’

Bradbury (Arikaras): ‘‘The women as is the custom with the Indians do all the drudgery, and are excellent cultivators’’ (p. 175).

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI (i) Matthews (Hidatsas): ‘‘Every woman in the village capable of working had her own piece of ground’’ (p. 11).

Dunbar (Pawnees): The women ‘‘dug the ground, planted, hoed, gathered, dried, and stored the corn.’’ *? Long (1819) states that the Omaha women did all of the field work. Most of these early accounts give the impression that the women were drudges who were forced to perform most of the heavy labor, including that of the fields. To

those who are acquainted with the Indians it will be easily understood that this conception of the position of Indian women needs to be considerably modified. While there is no question that the women’s work was severe, yet there is abundant evidence that the women performed their tasks willingly and took great pride in doing their work well. To those who have seen the Indian woman patiently and solicitously working about her garden it must be evident that she loved her work there and enjoyed it. As a matter of fact in the Upper Missouri region the spring was longingly awaited as the time to commence work on the gardens which furnished much of the pleasure of the summer season; and the harvest time, though a season of rejoicing, yet was also a time of regret for the pleasant summer passed. The Indian woman was a real gardener. Her methods were not those of the bonanza farmer of the present day, but resembled more closely those of the modern market gardener or greenhouse man. She attended to every little detail, work85 Magazine of American History, v. ii, p. 264.

76 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS ing slowly and carefully and taking the utmost pains. She knew the habits of each of her plants and the habits of each separate variety of all the species cultivated, and she worked with careful regard for these differences.

II— PLANTING AND CULTIVATION 1. SPRING WORK: CLEARING AND PLANTING THE GROUND.

2. HOEING AND WEEDING. 3. THE PATCHES, ACREAGE, AND YIELDS

1. Spring work: clearing and planting the ground On the Upper Missouri the agricultural operations for the year began as soon as the ground was sufficiently thawed in the spring, or even earlier if a new plot was to be cleared for use. In the latter case all of the brush was first cut off, and of the larger trees all except one or two were girdled.t| Then the brush was piled in heaps and burned. In an old garden the work usually started

when the first geese appeared on their way north or when the Missouri River broke up, events which usually

occurred almost together. At this time the old weeds and stalks and vines which had not been disposed of in the fall were collected and burned.’

Of the Hidatsas Henry says: ‘‘In the spring they return from the winter villages to sow their fields, while the men are employed getting driftwood and drowned buffalo from the river’’ (p. 349).

Boller has considerable to say of the spring work 1 This refers to the tribes that cultivated the Missouri River bottoms, where the land was often timbered. The Pawnees and Otoes lived away from the Missouri in almost timberless country.

2Dr. Wilson states that the Hidatsas began planting when the wild gooseberries were in full leaf.

78 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS among the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras: ‘‘In the spring, aS soon as the frost is out of the ground, the women break up their patches of land, every foot must be turned up and loosened with the hoe —a slow and toilsome operation. . . While the operation of breaking the ground, planting and fencing is going on, wood

has also to be carried to the lodges, for those great round, earth covered dwellings of the Minnetarees are very chill during the early, damp spring weather; re- quiring much fuel for warming as well as cooking’’ (p. 118).

Dunbar states that the Pawnees remained on their winter hunt in the Plains until the young grass began to appear early in April, and then returned to their villages to clear and plant the patches. On another page he says that the patches were cleared out as soon as the frost was out of the ground.

Dougherty states that the Omahas also returned to their village from the winter hunt in April, to clear and plant their patches. In April, while they were clearing up the corn patches,

the women were also busily engaged in dressing the buffalo robes and peltries collected during the winter. Many of the early travelers state that at this period of the year the men did nothing, sitting around smoking and chatting while the women toiled; but upon a closer examination of the available sources it becomes evident that these statements are misleading. Thus we find that

the men of the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras engaged in hunting while the women cleared the patches, and that they were also occupied in catching driftwood

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 79 and drowned buffalo among the floating ice cakes in the Missouri. In April the men of the Omahas were busily

engaged in hunting, often making trips of seventy or eighty miles in quest of deer and elk; while at the same time they trapped all of the small creeks within many miles of the village for beaver, otter, and muskrat. After the fields were cleared, the hills were dug up with the digging-stick, the ground being pried up, loosened, and pulverized. These hills were about twelve to eighteen inches in diameter and a good long step apart.® The ground between the hills was not usually broken up, but the same ground was planted year after year, and in the older patches the position of the hills was sometimes shifted, until finally the whole area of the garden had been dug over. Sunflowers were usually planted around the edge of the garden before the clearing and digging work were completed. This crop was the first to be put in; the Mandan time for planting is given as when the river breaks up.

After the ground had been cleared and well stirred up, the planting of corn and vegetables commenced. It is Interesting to note the names of the different moons among these tribes. 8 Buffalo Bird Woman states that in the old days when clearing a new field the women dug the corn hills with digging-sticks, and after planting the corn they dug between the rows with bone hoes. In later times they performed both these operations with

iron hoes. In clearing new ground the women did all of the work, a few of the older men helping them at times. They cut the willows and brush in the fall, and in the spring spread them evenly over the ground and burned them. This was done to make the ground softer and easier to dig.

80 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS Maximilian states that the Mandans call May the moon

when maize is sown. Clark (Indian Sign Language) says the ninth moon in the old Cheyenne calendar (ev}dently May) was ealled ‘‘The corn is planted.’’ Prescott, 1850 (in Schooleraft, Indian Tribes, v. 11), gives a list of Sioux moons: May, corn is planted; June, corn is hoed; August, corn 1s gathered; September, wild rice is gathered. The Omahas called May the planting moon. The Pawnees called April the field-cleaning moon; May,

the planting moon; June, the cultivating moon; and July, ‘‘Moon-plant-search-complete, or Burning Moon.’’ 4

Hayden: ‘‘Indians plant about the middle of April or the beginning of May, according to the mildness or severity of the spring, and the ears are gathered about the beginning of August’’ (p. 352). Merrill (May 12, 1834): ‘‘It is now planting time (among the Otoes). The men lay upon their couches or sit upon the ground and smoke their pipes all day long; while the women go from half a mile to two miles

to plant their corn, often, too, carrying a babe with them. They are also required to bring their wood and water, which are half a mile distant.’’> On the following day Merrill visited the patches, which were along the margins of small creeks near the Platte. In Chief Tetan’s patch three of the chief’s wives and some other women were digging up the soil with heavy hoes. 4 Meaning the moon when the corn is found to be complete (that is, fit for use) or the (Corn) Roasting Moon? See Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee, p. 203, for a full list of Pawnee moons.

5 The Diary of Rev. Moses Merrill, in Neb. State Hist. Soc. Transactions, iv, p. 164.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 81 Of the Omahas Dougherty states: ‘‘In the month of May they attend to their horticultural interests, and plant maize, beans, pumpkins, and water-melons, besides which they cultivate no other vegetable.’’ ° In a recently published account of the Omahas, by Miss Alice Fletcher and Francis La Flesche,’? we have a

more detailed description of the planting operations of this tribe: ‘‘The bottom lands were the planting places; each family selected its plot, and as long as the land

was cultivated its occupancy was respected. Corn, beans, squash, and melons were raised 1n considerable quantities’’ (p. 95). ‘‘Garden patches were located on the borders of streams. Occupancy constituted ownership and as long as a tract was cultivated by a family no one molested the crops or intruded on the ground; but if a garden patch was abandoned for a season then the ground was considered free for anyone to utilize. Men and women worked together on the garden plots, which ranged from half an acre to two or three acres in extent. Occasionally a good worker had even a larger tract under cultivation. These gardens were mounded

in a peculiar manner: The earth was heaped into oblong mounds, their tops flat, about 18 by 24 inches, and

so arranged as to slant toward the south. The height on the north side was about 18 inches; on the south the

plot was level with the surface of the ground. These

mounds were 2 or 3 feet apart on all sides. In one ~ 6Long’s Expedition, 1819-1820, Thwaites edition, v. i, p. 289. 7‘‘The Omaha Tribe,’’ by Fletcher and La Flesche, 27th Report, Bureau of American Ethnology.

8 All of our early informants state that the Omaha men did not assist the women.

82 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS mound seven kernels of corn were scattered; in the next mound squash seeds were placed, and so on alternately. If the family had under cultivation a large garden tract the beans were put into mounds by themselves and willow poles were provided for the vines to climb upon; but if ground space was limited the beans were planted

with the corn, the stalk serving the same purpose as poles. Squash and corn were not planted together, nor were corn, beans, and squash grown together in the same

mound. After the planting the ground was kept free of weeds and when the corn was well sprouted it was hoed with an implement made from the shoulder blade of the elk. The second hoeing took place when the corn

was a foot or more high. Up to this time the mounds were carefully weeded by hand and the earth was kept free and loose. After the second hoeing the corn was left to grow and ripen without further cultivation. The mounds containing the squash and those in which the melons were planted were weeded and eared for until the second hoeing of the corn, when they, too, were

left, as about this time the tribe started out on the annual buffalo hunt’’ (p. 269). ‘‘In clearing the ground for planting, the heavy part of the work was not infrequently done by men as were the cutting and transporting of the large posts needed for building the earth lodge’’ (p. 339). The Rev. Gilbert L. Wilson gives the following account of planting among the Hidatsas:® ‘‘Corn plant~ 9Corn in Montana, Bulletin 107, Montana Agricultural College Experiment Station, Bozeman, Mont., 1915, p. 43. I have recently obtained the following additional information

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 83 ing began in the first half of May, after sunflower seed had been planted. The field was raked free of debris and the stalks of last year’s crop, and the dried piles of

debris were burned. The corn was planted in hills, three or four feet apart, seven or eight kernels in a hill. The earth was loosened with a wooden digging stick, or with a hoe. Each corn hill stood exactly where a hill had stood the year before. Beans were commonly plant-

ed between the corn hills. . . As soon as weeds appeared after planting, the field was hoed. A second hoeing, and hilling up of the plants followed soon after. ‘‘Rotation of crops and fertilization were not practiced, but when a field began to fail, it was let lie fallow for a couple of years. The value of the ashes left from burning over a newly made field was understood. ‘‘—Tndians insist that corn culture by hoe is much hard-

er now, owing to the abundance of weeds that have been from the Hidatsas: Fields were marked out by mounds of earth at the four corners. Sometimes another woman would encroach on a field and the matter would be disputed until the intruder was bought or driven out. Corn was planted six or eight kernels in a hill. Often a second planting of corn was made when the june-berries were ripe, in order to secure late roasting ears. Sweet (sugar) corn was never used for roasting ears, hard or soft yellow corn being considered best for that purpose. A sort of bread was made from pounded fresh green corn, but never from ripe corn. Hard white and hard yellow corn were never parched, and therefore were never braided. Seed ears of these varieties were selected from the completely husked out pile of ears on the drying stage. The Hidatsas did not have either watermelons or pumpkins. Sunflower heads were often eleven inches across. Each family planted only one variety of sunflower, one family planting the black, another the white, ete. George F. Will.

84 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS brought in by white men. One curious custom was their carefully removing all dung of horses from the field in the spring, because ‘weeds always came up where the dung lay and we thought that white man’s cattle and horses brought the seeds.’ ’’ Buffalo Bird Woman (Hidatsa) states that the crows pulled up the corn plants when they were an inch or so high and the spotted gophers dug up the sprouted seed. At planting time young girls often watched the fields, to fnghten off the crows; scare-crows were also set up, but were of little service, and the women often had to go over the fields and replant where the crows and gophers had been at work. Dunbar states of the Pawnees: The corn patches were usually on some small stream near the village, but sometimes five or more miles away. The ground was cleared and dug as soon as the frost was out of the soil in spring; the corn was planted in early May and was hoed twice, the second time about the middle of June; and immediately after the second hoeing the tribe set out on its

summer hunt. He states that where the corn patches were not protected by the high bank of the stream or by some other natural obstacle, they were rudely fenced with bushes and tree branches woven together.?° James visited the Pawnee villages with Long’s expedition in 1820.1! ‘‘The agriculture of the Pawnees is extremely rude. They are supplied with a few hoes

by the traders, but many of their labours are accom10 Dunbar’s account of the Pawnees is printed in Magazine of American History, v. iv and v. 11 Long’s Expedition, Thwaites, Early Western Travels, v. xv.

si .i._8_ ahSS oi 8 a .cee oo _ oe —_— :3 . Oe oo . , r:" ”_. :~ i aoacS :: a, iie . ee ow i) aoo

7 a- — Bi :Bsae _|aN 7 anee“ oaoe ay wy Ei OR ia; a Nea )aly oo oy - a ie ANG 3 aN ae a i TNR aie Ba CEN .ae He —aa.. i Be NG aaaha iiS oe Ne 8 .as.7 |.KG i,ns aa _a Ny AIO aS ian | 5a . _ a A ioeae oe oie ue Vy) .neoo ™ ;oe bee Hoe |. | 2 oo - :oe Re Be oe a a a x nie a cn esle ae ‘i ee — ae oo (| Ne es Co Eve . ay CaN Gia) Si iM ile aie Lay aUR oo oe siniv. .oF ss / oo Ve ae ae ie ee . _ ae iM ;éA-|co ’ | | . % Ws wee eee |:| 7Ny .ce - .aa aee Ne CES: SN ee)A REG o. Ne a. BN oe lee Aaa Le hg: ou .aae ee Co Me os Lo oy oe . ws-7 }4aaa.oe oy ae oe u 7 ae aS A _aCoe “anon ae es ae oe : Os ae oo oe we .oo a ) Wa % | _ . i IN Ue 8 eon ee 2 hee Oy) Ne i .— oe .We La 7— ON aAoF oF 7. Foy oe Ae cue oO AD aSey _— |oy a a.l| 2_| De LSU oe \oe oO A oe aoe oo .ie _. — .aNo oy MO oe es Ue ANG We ee ek oO es oy ce SS) oe oe mat oe ee Ge By K ol ey . oe es es 7ie... ...re dns Ae es a Cs ae NOR o oe a Oe oo. pe Wes Oy) OU . Sea ey : Y ON . ae oe Lo . |. une ee Os aay a ia oe aSyaee Re| oO .G Siaaes le Va oS .oe:ne — ai . —— oeie aoe aoe On Tosoe |. ee _. ... |OM 6% ae si E ae ay oe pin ; EY. or GG a sais By vaaiaoe esAa a wince

:, © eeLm | ee; .eea camel a i oe coe ” oo aey oo : AN ——— | —_— ;™etal es : i 8 a a . ee RoR oe aiae a .x_. a. . .i)a.2 ee Se oe _Ke oe— oe Soe — -_ | :. ).Tees _aRO as ce oe BONG aN ( oo OR Oe 2’ nem | a eo _—— E | .. oo oo o TS i ; -_ oe Pee an | oo i oe ay . a Ho ae Os vce a oo ._ aSO de BN of Loe oS 7? ‘ " . oy BS) i RNa ye ie = oa Ce oo ee | ee Lo ce oo oo oe a . : . 8 3 oo . _ De lo . ge oe a 6 _.* oo Ue Be ee ee Hy Soa _ oO io _. | _.. _ . a ene 8 oa ee Ue . co en Pe _ . a oo. . BES a. a ay |18Oe . a.Bone -...: _se-Le —C8 aS7_|= ane aN A cs Ue |. _De _oe || |. ee “i ee =.|.oe ae . . oO aa Noe Nt

'|

oe ae aN xSe) eo; aOS ee aAn es ya ou. oe a|a— ee UN . oe aald >. pose Ga oo WSO ie a|. u Ae — oe aoe | ui Po oo aRe -oeNeue ‘(ane ae etPOSE aooe _--ee .2 . ae oe oo ye as a a. a i 2. aa ) _ ,:coa._. ...._ es. ee ZEN i) " Co RO oe > oe . oe . a N . | _ 7 : oo. oo oesh ies oo. op et A iS Saw ee a RK . oe _ . | a 8 i .ae ee cvecee Se. Oe NS a Os x _ a A _ ss Si a ax . ee oo a es be BOR a CON) i oo . . os oe . Pe He CEES ee ee 7 . — Sy Oo s He . A S eA — _. _| — Bog a Bs keBek i (a)BK .oo-.oe OED aoo .— Ms aa— ek Stas eS Be Oeaas oee:neee ees . aa.epee aHOES ee —~ ;.. SN RUNSS ioo ‘4 .ner RG _. ee cae - oe ueai) oo ON _— a| ee| sSe yO . ee pe — Se:oie oe.De oo 0 ‘\Sue asess oFPON : oe ‘iye oe .SEES aeoeeae aBoe —_— aeLe ioe oo .

ee ie . | ae 7. _

Bs ..ee . ES HOES Vas eesh ee a) sie)eS a CR, Nb Lo oeoo ie aires .. .| Be GN oatoh ce 2 i.-\: a_- :2| ee oe ee ae. 2Wy es aeeWON ee _ es Ware | eDei a _na | .._|.oe al[™ ot _oeoe .ie ee Sen nee |. oo abe ._oe ee Ak Oe oo aBSRS we es _. :. .7ee

:Ck : |a: eG ~ e ,.aae on . oe eepeg “a fl2 — x-“:. aaoe .as;Co Gs i Ve 6 — ee ee ‘ 4 a a ee EN a ce es ESSERE pe pee Hale sees es Be _ | ae [. ice oe ma ee aeHe fo . 2SU Ne oe 8_aa Be . oo ee |an eS -EE se ._. . .a< Ve Oe : .. |.:nn — oo a BA BEES a ee oo . oy ig eg er: ae SHEE ere ee SEY ot oo Lee oe eeNay eseeeeoe. ay useecall _anes ee eee bie ERS SE: GREE 3eeae eS,taeoe :os7a aen:SIRE a 7 Ty - —_ -ANG oo aNe siOND as neti eteaenatih Ps a SEE x Ne SW | iOK oe we oo. oyaNare CEE HESS WalesMe i Hei me Aah Ht aC anit os Wi Sat Nuit Sreeae eyoS ae etre oe es ASS eee - . aySS PS: " _ | . Sen UN Oe RAN a a AN ipa a oi ia eA au a fi val La NG ae a Honk We . PERS ee ES ee HES Se . x SR . ee 2 . ESS ee EE ee Tet ees ene aii Shere ees Se oe

_ “ co CS us Le a ee a ane) i Ls eae sai A rn sh lin — Hea ih PN ee . . — ae . eee ue ee Se ees SUSE oe oo x oe

ce . ae oe aii ° oo seo Pe 2 , ; ae oo oo ; ” i. RCN . os ae . ty a Oa oo. Rae ie oie ky L : ” 3 4 , di : i oe oe . . | i . 2 oo ay i a a a os ; i, i ca7. oo RON . Cea ne1oo — aon en FA Re aba Ral We eh . — a i, a@ Na Oy Rateo ee i nih a Co oeDou } oo. Ct_ . NE a .ue si una aee Gains aBe Seah ANS aya ie ee oo ee Hs |.a me aSeSae ae _ oo awh||7a aosf .aaaeKY Uy SU ee ees a oo a. . x . Was ea ‘ A Dy ny oS on oF — .oo oo DG & . ease LS i i | : | “a AS) . uh— _ea a> aeiS aN aa oe NGS . bee . oo Se a oo ae a BG oo a) | oo Ha |. ae a ah HN . Aae IOSaR cooiNaoe aNi a.a/ie eaoo . veoo ;coIN oo. at |. ie xee ee a ah . 7i | | :,: _ : me .-— ::.| a. Ao Hy vane ae cae es op ae ‘ oo Ne ) a oe a Ae Sa a ai at Ne Oy Ha ae ae sin oo Me a a oo meee ee ae, . . — ha - : a : | 4 ; ‘ , ent eu ue | ha Hie Rv LN oe ce Ne ES Pee - A ER i cae aaa Oe a a ae a Ny a RN rao . o He i Ht A ‘aan siete a es 2 RN NGS iN wh ie _

AO oF i ..ae . oe oo ao ..uei='__: a2 Ns ioo oeany etoae ue ooa of . oy ioF ACe ae oe..oy . Ao i aa ~~ a oo aSatay ._Hei) _ aoc a.i ee aiueve (ao 7nyve vee ae AoysaitiaNya"ua aOe a a_oo |oea_7a .ooiic rise atin) Hi a i oa aN a Bs AN Nt ae a SEAN Ae vi ies Hat SIEGES we i Pau A aH Hels MR doe Ae oo Aa an Maan iH ae a a a . / | : . o : , : < “e : be oe cMNh th al Can a ie ooNa 00) ieaeeHah aN a ie ae fe oove he aeoo a) Ha7. oe ay ooa a aah i oN ae i oe awie Ks oweaaenue a | ye 0o Ba Wie . he ae : oe) a"oy' ae... OSS an. Me .. a — . < :Led

iWEooPeres aDse ZN eeREE OenerosSs con a PRES oa Sees ee ES Wie BOS: ao)Reae = ara OeOeBete eepilla aoi ae @ i _- ae eee ae itK( Co Hi i ci a ee _ a oo oa a ve ey ey ae oy He a a a Hh . ee Hi a a We HA a ae A on ah ae us ya) a oo ae si

oe aCe oeHse oo oe His yanate He Weak oe AN eeTae a iia ieaaisHe Cees al None setSSS fa aaa Hae Wstet oe ike eatee aau nsoe aHewat) hia(oni ao aayco i Te iniic 1a on Me alk ee Maa eal vaniHn ailoF oe ih si eaaaNe Haan ia Haan aOG a aiiHigh ava rata aiiNING « See ty .Say sae Nt aNu Mi Meh oe aHE aapian aaae Vn Aaan .ca ietn ae icing ae Hi asilae aye a en is aHe ee Huh aN ee oo Mas oo aiHN ah nn aee Het oo of oni

a So Des ane ee el Nh Hi oo ali — oo ye pa iG, vee ae yh oo ea iat . oe a ‘iain

oooo a aoe i cH aNy ena ee aah aeane ae Hay aoea ee a ia) ¥ ee sini aaea. oT — antisa aa Has . Wns odoeLae llame ae aNE a ai ioe oeIEisiaa ai ee i UA ai ca inaeeaSa oe .oo ae a. ioo oess nn

iSoa ae ne i oe ee —A bese a aoF acal an ey oeaatae aoe .WW a ae a he oeae oe ae_Pa aa a)ny i ieee cy Be Me wa ha ay ieof . aa aea ay oo saiace a aa a Riga aae ae.\aRh Dasae a he yO ae aaaa oe ata eia. aa. oeuN oo oo es oo

a= : ne oeoo a a.i xaDAES _aeHee Se aeot_ase ooioe Oy oeee i a0 ys oe ae ai .ae a a oo ee oo i ae on oo . oo ‘ai “i |Co oe fee PEESe ee A tae Ta aeAN ee . .aN aae \oeaeol nes mi Cesoitoe aass fee we_ SEE — oooo|. ‘Ka nA oe aeeea aeoo i oy all HeaHi AEpe coe one inte PSs . ES oneHt oseenpean ee ae oe ae . oy eetVA a a ae Aa. a oo Leas a oy it oh ee HN Be SE . ORES . ee Pena ae ae eee oe ies oe=He aeoo se EN a a \eeohsacaa ss neAa ‘ ee ae |.‘yneHil a aoii oni

4@ . peBESS ee oe aeee ne “3 he — oo |. hye a wee PE ne Se 4 4ae a oe PERS eee a LOSES a a _. 4 a oo | a ue . . oe. a. ae aos : : SA pa | A . . . oa Ny .aa: ee ae oe Sets ne ee ee _ -_. TT 8 iae a oo a a Se er eS Ee I gs oo i ae oo _ @ oe Bou 2h ee Ee i 8oo ‘i oo Sore ESS fe om oo -_ . Me . so oe PDE SURG _ . ey ee 5 ae es. oe neBu_.Weakoae : Rk oe oo | i . . _ce .oeaki oo2 ae a cere Rivas . oo a bed SS Ses ..iis i enel ueeg 8 " _ Na _ oo —

an fh He a ae sae an ne TOES sa ES Beige Se Be mae eee oe ee oo A au Hiatal Butt oo ae ss Ae a as GE Mt oe . ay Tiel x a bse Lae a Hie ‘i SR Hay aia ra a nis

Nh apcan aacoe sesole eee URE ace:eeoe 2S ue oo Hea .SEN) a .eS amin He iaaco_hit% HEE Tees OE ‘fsee |KEES oo! oo oo ee eS . oePEE -eeGees eeEee .7. Tana yi a ..aaaisaae aoo. Se ESS eeHY ered and | Min _ aoo. Hi alee . . ‘\ ae SGN) Fs Bh oo Whe . ae cs. eemA Hn aoo et: ene wfat eee . ee eeRR oe eee BE.ONS oes ey . . a aa Hl ah a HEU hooo iSy Hae nig Hnmlee Hei) afp‘ioe iyaeeeen eS ESrtahwet ot reece Bs: Ga” ah OeWR _ |aeron coaH onOaN oo_ ae oy a oe. na Wa

ee oo ne Se es es oe oe ‘a _. o ey . : oo a oo a Oe 7 oe x 8wePe ere

—_ ae: i: . OSS oe ~ F ae a « | . nf 4 ee eefe BGS ete eegke oes peees - a_ oes oya|..>— _ cay aytae.oo _ oo. oe sa — oe oo ae Be .ae SRS ee eaeBOES ERSEoe sates oo__oF ooaoo .an _ oe oo it aCy on a ft.ith Lo a oo oeae a .Se wn aSEES paar Oe eeeee _. 7| ea ai fel ns oe a aoa meoeaDrege 0) Ha we . . teh oe fat at SESS JSS -_Doe. g ae ee a AN tl _oytyCaeeoo ueooDea aaNe | aeueaaFe indUei aaei iaae in Boos mee Bae Se | ti - . .ee_.oe sal ae ae ae oeAsa us ADay 7. eeaoheaea

.oolo & a . _ ci . — : oo a a ae Co 7 a. ESS es o . oe ay "ae Mil net . ae | a . a ae 2 — _ a a oo oe — le ee Hi a Seen BEETS Eee a. ae Oy _ a oo a oo a oe Bit Hi ns . ae i oe . Eeehe : a _ oe ae ae ‘i a — ee a ae | . oo a. RG i Drain Tn a wen oo ee SES a i oe . oe on SR . . ai oe ane! a oo ee ant Ne a eR oe ce . vane |... ee: SataCE Pane te ee Le... ._ais_ oo ay A, a iy .aoo . eeAes . Taesi ve. wh ee a= ae Aeeas oo i. .oe a oot a .a Ct oe Hee me Btn ay oy ay oe SS AES sees oe . oo a . ae es | . se | : . . i i ae _ a nn

ns i. i | PS: oreEES ELE es ee ny A RON aeaLae ‘Hi ae eaa .eh eeHY ooreoe cent . Ua lene isHeai oo ivin Li IHSSeBere eS ERE .|.Seo By oo 7.A a. aTemils a eea . Fa aral —aHa Nee fe eee ee ae oo |ati . CO) PAs ee ooRN Lowe. mala al.ae a vy aoo is oo Co : oo aAb) ae oova ae

abeByoo3a aoeoe ges been# —HLH nePane_. .snaCe ——o yFc.a . ester.ae Bn aooASe kee eoGo SN | ae . a. Wa Pat cu,ah ae _a Se . . oeeeMsieeyOY eal ;aey Sa Anaeyoo LooiANB i.eeah a eee ,NN : eee 8 an caeNe Hee oe : . ee i-ae oo| oo . oo ee. eyae i aaoe a. aa oFHt | ve.aaaaae oe ue Ne ae aoo ui tl a. ae Ne ac easeae eeeefeoe See EE_Bee potas SEES .ih POA _ ae Aton aN Ah .a oefk Mi.1) onah ee oo Se Beet eee FES ae .OO ee i 7. ee . Bee ae a. ce at He Gl a nanny ah oe We a ns aah on aS . ee ee ore a De ke . ee es Rane vol . oe a _ : ay THe aN Na Mik Ran a OUR we a va _ Ps sl mi RAT as a eae Ae oo hath

neae _ aee: 2. . oo |oo —.a — oe an 7 osa |Se

ip oo INN EA ae BeESS ie aesEES EEAES 7 ae || es ANareas a Nh inlolhna.ane Vash Leioe Hey iN . Non ae cn 3ooGH eeaaesihHRa etaea:oe SET . ._. BS oFBY OSee By aay Naae a. naa Ae ae oN ooReet aa aihalls . Rat oeams a ne a sli 7 Rake ee SEES : HEHE EES: Ae . ESN) Nee oo ses s . oe . ae ee FOS Ml ea en A Ss sa ahah (i . ia Keen lit Nae ee Ak Uta CN Ht NY ee SV hts Aa tae Nil Hes ue wie 4Ga ati HN Hn Ta oe fe Rae eee mae BEES EES ey . ye iS — * . he a a Oa Me i a ie AN : a va Has RU a Mi . Hia 7a oe en = ae Ce Se ae WES ee oo. . Se _ . Cos es cee BG ai Haste ‘i oo oo . a Ra Wi a a . He al ny i in oe fy — OE ee Bees pa . ae . a . 8 ee — He oo oo aly . ca at a as it oo oo

..| aeeLo co —aES: .ooxGa Gas aea)oo Ae 8ANOS Cees .3a_o. uaREE ae .. eh a eepete ee ooan Bases .7oyas oe Us _ Mae nh i oo So i| SUES i oe ae oo. . eee REE: re _ a. ~~ 2 I — a oa HOS ee oe cet _ roo mo SU .. a oe oo. pe ae By a Ce BS 2; Fue BS ee a . Se Le: |. ce an K ee . Hi nt eae see Hh HN a . As on oo. | Wide SUIS. ey as, oe an | _ites ES Bee |_|oc Ue 2.aoa_ann ESOS! ee .oe.AWS 2iSESE He .Be ._eeaed [es mf EE seed Os oe ae — 2eee |eeee a| ee— a_— fie oe . .Ht Ty eeee ee eee ON aoS Oy||-.i” oe aoes ._ Ae |.a.oo aA i ses .oo ._.ce oS ee PONS 7. BY ee eS aoe — HEE ss ee on Henan EG |i.Se | eeBo As ee es aa SEO eepppeetie os set gine PEED yoHS eS aaS BS .ns _ oo ie — a _>oo _BAS ea aaees ee pene a ar. ooae > 2ne. ae SNi ey Dita.a ee stata ee Bae eee . — ao .oo. Ae: a oo oo oo SSHe | oo. .— SASS a Be Fah oe ae oe Ree . . Oe an cease pare ee Me a co Lay SAGE: eee a. nS HON Ms ~— pra HR a ale Hh Ha doa ‘ihiey oo . at aN oo Vie cu ae ae eS Eee a | ae HDS ee a | oe ane aes et Na Dis Ne By Co uate Lava YAN Nie On a co Rees ene ae oe oo

WEE 2. ae .uate PE oS _ae oes ee _a |.. Lens SS eeses Bane Oe ie ooes oeoe Sos Bees 2Ks oooo. _ yf . oo ESseSEEP ES -EARS Le en ic oe es oe |na 7.ae ee ne ee au Se :ee wee aeBn ee |Oe > . Ya :_.:es.»_ on ay ee : iceia =.— .’1” abal oo WEEE Se aoe ee Hee eae CIN oo Ms oo ee Bee Ue _ ee ae eee Be >. cae Setar oe oe ae — Ce _o ee as 7 . a a ne ON ee Cane a

SE : pope re eee ae inde. URES Wise ae on Ha 8 ps ae BARES IE ReneS ee S oe eNO Ey oe ee ees oo es Bae oe BOS a Bos eee Lo AES eae oe a ol ee a oe ee Nal a iq

: ee — 3 _,. Lo! eee i . , - > ~~

poearons es eee oe Ee carers ee # oe eile oo EM ee oo oe eeeeerene . Ge _ oe oa PEN ms _.ee8. Ath oeHa Mahe arroe ene: eeeeee Hbee SES ess peers sili BO ees a on 8|. oo oo RES: shee Aba aiaoe ak mit TEEN : ee Sone oo ete Beare anaSoa: OES faites °ae .PS aeey Avis ceme |.es3oe ae.aaoS ps Ne Nhe ee \ ee oo a.. i.ait a fn (PES #8 ae 2S Oe eee ee SEE Es EGS nS SESE ae syaSRG 4 Tae aBe ce .oo ee Le iN i oe aooPay anit. OEE SES e HESS EEOAS baaOei:fobenes oeoa rete eat eaecee “gees aeCANS oe as .oo ye aar > .a.se cs aN . oo Bs ee . aeeae co oo

FEES ee eae. aoooes Seeee. oe HeeSseee eeoe a 3eaeeny ee | _..ioe ee aN a_ E> He SESE Hoe ooa- cae co @ .oS a oe PASE ce oe eS se REE oo oe ie wong AO oC _. . Le yy . BS on oe | :a LESS oe oo eS oo 8 oo ee ete " . |. SO — s : _ oo TEL ee eee oe CC ee ss Sa . a oe rt aon fates . be a a a Pe oo is | as oo oe | _a. Sa oe AES : oe _ Le Lee a o oe eee are geeks ‘ | ". < ... ae . oO ee ie _ ;'oN ENN ee | es Be Co | a |. _ t a : — e a | . i —o oe i a4oo ae SN ssORE a.: as \eaoo ea Te oo HON a. | iia Vat acsaaoe Ss amee |ieo Ln\Vee Ne Oe) en . AFO esi ice ev ee as ch ee oe OS Ca osa. ) oe oo. ee aoo oS a | \o.| ;th“"| ~~ oi eoa oe iecoSCS) DES ilk ae aa a.Ua

Ve | oo. _ 7 . ©2. | ... oo i|aSLeee |4_aoF 4 _ se i — eT : .. ~~ . a . — 7 =:Cy — y| oa ceasAGN a: | .A.lltC aoe Aa aoe \oyeeoe oo -ee—, . | 7 |~~ |ae |: :«ee See oe oeOO a.aoe sagasunmeins

.. 1 aa Ua HOARE Ns Sa a Co WG aici A e, NG Bie ees ANGUS Hea ain Hemant ay i i 7 7 ao - — : oe

ae eg Hes Le aes Le ay ey a ete Las SS Ge eY ES CO aN a ae a a a ics ae es os -

h.Sn , ‘,vea |‘WSS 4 la“ee YreS 7 |Gs .a ae ooHeON ee iG _— eeueoe eae reeeeoe AeSSQN) i Sein nee SeHa oo. GeBOCs sale ROI ay) ese aaFF Da — _. oo7-: ee oo. a Us a Se Ce ie an ay ae Hast BSG eas EN Pee PONG Cea Xe oe eee He ae en’ Re aia ane ls Cnn oy en a a. oe OG ie , ae Se | ee ae CG) NS as a ke Oe oe a Dl BEE ooaoenet Bee ~ a:oe es Co Ne ee 0)ieesMCe a awesc a eeoe as a rs i aes oo |.a es ae SEeeNy, ae Te aanOR aul PERG) SSRI Mee Ceoe ee aeNG Oy Mh Oeatonal cs ay oe aae:oki oe a nee es PKae ee VSR a:ate i Oe ty Das Po a NN Pete olES Iain eeaN oeee wu :a et Pespeer eeeea UN Wee eG WS DeTR WES oyNea Tea a oo Sau Ce a eeENS ee SOO GuanOSsani osDe. |ee el cues eee TS FONoa A ee ae es De PGA PURO Es en oN |. oeoe oo a_. oe Hi oo

a} As 5aa Pee LD 2a a One Oa a. ui HONG nde Sen eeEG a.oeOS — |a aoo — ltBe ee eyaaCDNR Ga |aoo RISE oo NG) RN aA, ne oeeea ee |ee Hee Coe Se ae oe CG Ce ae a COE Se es ae ne oo aN a an it re —o. |. es ee oe oe ne ee . . ed ee a ue oo I a Bun Ro Se aie a GO Cay a oe oe a Bey So . es Rae .Be sou . * . oe SANG a ROCA ae ES. ee Me Renae ee Gl NNN ee eine a & oT aee aLoe fe_oa. Fs oo yalh Re aSareea ean isn He uN ae Bova iy iaROO |.aOS oa ee NS oo nats aNe Sm Os INS Sa CS oo ee aayoe A Ona aa aa‘a.Be oe ee Nes aaoy ee CO ee ey can oe Ses aia Coe ya ee — TNO OES oo Hee an Oa .MS caey Oy i.oo. oe oe aeos Oe aOe RE OR (COs ae es)aw aco oLNe aDESK ae ae wey DOs ONY a :oo ee Cea ee oN ee -— Cee oe ee ae . _a.We /a« oo le Pa eS PON ys ane ee Ca Oe eS as ON a.. a.i Woe ye;ye ¥ g ho Se \ a Nh es . ; oo, UI as, sa. Ce a ee NG : | _ oe ’ ae : : ‘ i me ye On ieee Hh ees a. ae SPIN a) KS) Rae a on ane . Ow, oe aa 7‘De| i....Oe | oe :coeatsca: ee aS oe aneOs oo ayy ee oe .aOh. ees aie2._— aa[: an‘ SAA ie aBSG DN aeae ee: bh aSee ace Be Ce LOGS Se : ee We Raeeu eat |eae :aiASS: .a eo ct he . NG DGS Ds oe ee Oe .Ne OG SOS ea aoy Cn) ues HSS ueaaea»oo. oc. ae eo De ae .ue an, aey i..k.ne aaae Ca oo aeeLy oe on eeieay . ae - oe .-oeRK -2ne”. “aaoo :._-“oEN aeae .: Lo i ySy oo aoo._. Le Dees .aeFens |.oeor eRoe essi) _oea .Ke ER eo. as PONS uN.Ca ANSOY) Oe neON es Se Ay en heed Rees ae ENS MeSos FeesOe aeoe a WR ae NG eGeeceuecaue) SMIRS dish aeTRING Na Oy Ra ) c Cone co iBae Ceeerene Ceone Gins ae a RG me Pea ce oo.

eaps [Cs eyaaaesa aaef oe es oe a He Sy eaoR aN..Fee Hi TE OnRUGS Ss eeeme «a - aoe ne we Gi 1) AEanal MiaNe anes EC: ee —. oy) LN SRAEROS ONS eae OSHS SON RONG NSoN i a ee DA Raia S SORIA ane ee ee , ee ey JMG e3 oa eG en UES URN RAO Pie: aS i Deere PO OS Ska A aaa . os : . 4 . : | ue

‘. i.dy i a-LOS iaoe og eeAa iee a ee oF ee .Ne OS cS ON rae es oe eee pe aay ey a_ieiOS ee os oe . oo ve eed =Re..:.E :ne i=:|.. 2aoe Lo oo. Ce CO oo Le oe a-oo, esDORN oo oo es ee Cee |ioe al oeEe —. Nae oe LR ope OY PANS eae es iseg ae ue — aoe On so OM co oe .Dee .ONG oe ..Des *.._oo ... He Co sy ae ey ee ee baa ee aeoN a, TNs oF .._ 2ee Ce uy |.as a.aa7GG es oe eae eae Wee Oe ee oa ae . aN . asaoo Oca Ss Co) ae oF ce se .. Hy 1 a ee AS oy oo a os a ee ee :a aae ee LS a aN oo . a Lo a) ae Os es Un a CLO Hi ON Ae a.ee oe hh comme ee ee oo i.Fy: a:ee ist. oe oe a .San a.aN oe — _._oo .“_— Re _— ay a|... _— eh |. 7.| 7 : a oe ) eae i. oo a . ae os ae — a. CC . aca ae ne eo Core ay a. . Re oe — a | 2 os es As oe : on one CEs | Loe a—_— AG ee i u — .. 7 cian | Loe — -~... ae me 3 ee SIAR, ae . . CsCe ee ye. -ai.aSCo i et a. _ :ae ee Pi oe iae Bie ee aoS .aakw ee)UL Nee ateVe . a. ..ae Oy .a..| a‘eee oe oe a . ae ae . oo “:oo os aHaale a. Fo ,ee a|.|ee A ee eS oe oe > > a ' . e |oy/SN aCI a. ..aRGEN _amon oe a.. aSmee _ge ,nl 8-.:CC il 4— -oo aial :leWe a_— 6lo«= a1|AS oe CO Se SNS aDS |.| ee oe me oe Re Ff ee ASS ANA aen oFaPUR ah a:. vk co ae oo 4 oo} a es a ee ie) . |. at es a) ee . Nat . i Sn . east ee oe ee oo Sanat ‘ ns vg oe CC — | Mah i ee OSU EN eeve . oo |.ae ooa .ag _ 7. .cee a .OO — oe oe cay — Se a.>... box i —. . oo oo oe . fe y as etevi“) aSa, a.Ge Wa Waa a—_. -«.. oe -ase ae — a — ae ee : : oe rr al oo oe a US oe __aeae . | Me oo vo. oe EC i ee Pe ... ee OR oo. eal 8 SB) Os HOS NOON CS ae . as a ¢ = ta ma . a oe “¥ ieeT aa -.LO oe aaesoe PCOS PCOS uyOn RNs —a._. ee eee ye— CS_'™ ad oo. 7ca — ta-.a Ras ea Ane OOD. BOE ON ol as ee a oe oo —— oo. _ : ee oo ae . oe ee as eee ae oo i : a Lo _ . — — oo : y _ MARNE te 7. Cee ee | cee, ey ae oo i a ee oo es i, De — ee DOs os oe | _ c s ea ‘ :;|/ ce oo oo hae —— Cl . oo). a oe ae re oo Ce a i. . oe Coe ae ae i. _ _ . a > os gence é a a at _ Ce ee S — ee eS a oo ae ee — / Bee Res DEE . Bie ey Na Rae -. . a SA nil i ae 2... oo . :ae |... a oo ai»oe iS — ~ .ROU asyeeUA 8on —— 4— _— 2 a ee ae — aa eee “oe .eea._OG . Bee Ee aaie . Ce ee eeee ce a OO a ee a Ps cae eee ONO Es vn’Tae OU OE , oe a——— SNR Ee |ce Be ee a...|.. |.ST . ee =ee a: se : : re : ' : . a ee 2 ; , se “ : : : . : : : « : . —” lt ee |.. .a... aeaaaBi au La aIN ooeoo y-.h—() ae) St Se |.ORG SARS aea ae ca PONE ee eS eee SC oo . Se : aOG aOe As eeCOGN . ae|OO aROR ORR »eee a Ca ives oS ESS Se eo ve aOS saisRRA eon A oe a. __ pea

Ok We me yy Os leoe Oe : iN \sk.We i|. a ee oo ey OGoa oooe i oo We oo oo a-ee ae.ae oo ae -oe eu — es co oo a7. oo va — Dae .aae oo ee oo oboe — as BS oo a. as Ne ae a a i oo DON liOSes Oea A Hh ae oeey La Ores es oe a fecy eeas aN a-.ae ee ae — AO UR Pea ee 8. oF Ay ae on RN oan i. oo a ON oo ee oy % | aN A Coe Re) 0) ue Oy NG .. ee es ce ol. Ue Rie ee) Mi Oe a A oo . al eo Na . es — ae ee oe oe oo se SRS RUS: ee) WN ay xies ee IS ees aN S00 Gas x|ae oe BO i _— RSIS: aeee ES oy nt Wes ee i» DO US HS osa Ksae Sai NON ae Fa SN) Gat oy a-.. Dee ”.xPe @ s..Oy ee a. a, is -SN AHSV Coe oa .eA _— se Le aee Ree ee VEG oe ue. -—. Ss eeeG aSOS aae Rasen oo iOCe al ee on as ae ae ate aa.ae a- ._.|:|.:./i :Soe : = 7. Ce Os oes aN ue a A LEN a >. a . | .. i RS etnias Ce DS ee ne J. oo AN Pa . ea a 8 ee ae ee Ds . bean a oe ol ee ag os os ‘ OO oy Co iw an _. ee . ee . oa OA Ae ie ae co ee Ee oe TO ne Nei ee oe i a a oe _ oe CON ae .... Oe . See Oe eo Bi oo. ee oo ae ee ne ee as a: a a ie a BOR HES eine ass Sie a a BN Bes Ones . Don CARN NG BN VEIN Haaib ats ei Rasen SSS EES 1 PRs on SHA Wiens Haas SNe ReIRON Nlaueiens Ee aa Lee ant ne Ne a

es a ei es ane . — |. ROA Me Q RR ee eG ROARS! See Co oe ee Ce erally SHIN sO a oo a a |

Ras a _..WAS SS - ae Daereer Iss Ns ES seea es Ey) . ONoea ea, : - 4MS . HS Rneeop _ ee) a LO es ee NA a i ee ot

ao oo ‘ee So Coe AO a. ee Ni iN OU Se ae oo ee iy a A Te oo a i .. :

ail iee oe aoea Oe Pe PRR See eheee eo aNOR PORES. aesa HititLeOe Sani sy Aue “i AS OMe oO co GNDes oeOe ea Ca, We aRiN oe a Ne Cos, Le avseca ie SOM xae Bua aOS es oe cahvainh aaeTN Ne aoo ee On TG Ve iaeGes ai ASUS ae es Ba a. aaa [ts.a4oo — a of HAH oo aeRae May ah eae Net seoy ME Lee a NA ben CeOe oo oy a EO Hedak ON) Ne Ce ral oe: eR Ce oe ae as A aaii es ql oeaaeCe aae iG Re ee Te seieee: i LE aoe a. a? Mua ey eee aae oo.llNGS SN aanee DS) es SOO Ae OE Se m PANG _aEe oe Ol ant AG aHeOO oo ONS aSUNY Sees OS | aN AS Oe rll IS ia DESIR el ae EGAe oy an aeseeRiese ee sd He 7. Sine sin TANCE Das Ooen a Oeoe. a. 4

— oe Ning oe a oo ” eS eae Ley ae oo. Se ae — a Hs Be as _— . _ sete ; ' ae iL . oe Cee a sO N SN A Gea . He es a. . ns UN SE ene: eee ote

nt oo . , = | a —| .| OSES: . ae oa tun Cait ONS oe i Aa Jann Pica Nun SENN ESS Naan een SSE a es PSA mn yp ances DED COR NAG Beas oe a COO a _ m : :

reac as Wee DUN _ |. . . PN AN Hea pale BENS) Hee ue AV SN es Pe ei anal eH 2. ee ce a | : ; oF

oo a oe ROE BON io wa A |. AAG a th Ne . 8 a oo oO o . _ —— 4 a

SH | . es eae HRS on HE ies ee —.. es — Pas Sous Py a NG, Ae SNe Ce bah eNOS 1 Coe . ee

i a .Gas ae SANE ohOe es Me oy RG ee -oe es SS es oo) we .OE a— ieee ae ;oooe4Oe ee he .co a a ee oe -ShSsnie onee_ Be es ee de .Be eee oeBer a. ee.

co a oo AestBe ae aoeSho oe vi Cea me os ceRea ne Oe oo... ee CN SOS — i aia aarilin a as oe CES) aeNs Se Cs OeOh Os es ee A.oFoe es Ue Besa .OEE Coe ee .ose oe a|.|BGs . es . ..—. eee . ie ne ey, Dy ae ayAue as oe ae anigh SN oe Che Oe et NG aRe I NE PGS He. ay a..Oe oo. aON oeaeUNE — .Ov ao COS EOores bok .. ae oseS a oe BasUS ee ee GG eG as CNN, ae

La LO a a . oly _ . ae Vo . ee es: IKA

T ge oO Oorn-Ccarry

CORN AMONG THE INDIANS 127 to the fields with large carrying-baskets.’ They went down the rows, snapping the ears and throwing them into small piles at regular intervals. When the time came for returning to the village the ears were placed in the baskets and were carried and piled near the drying platforms in front of the lodges. The next day the women gathered at the piles of snapped corn and the husking began. The husks were stripped back and the outside one removed, leaving the inner and more pliable

ones on the ear. The ears were then laid out im rows. The nubbins and poor ears were entirely husked and spread out to dry on one of the floors of the drying stage.

Whenever an exceptionably good ear, ripe, and hard, long, straight-rowed, and of good color, came to hand it was stuck into a bag reserved for the seed corn, which was later plaited into separate braids. After the ears were all prepared in this manner they

were braided into strands. There was a standard size

for these braids, the length being from knee down around the foot and up to the knee again. One of these braids was the standard measure for corn on the ear; shelled corn was measured by the basket, or by the bull-

boat load. Among the Hidatsas the standard size of 7 Skidi Pawnees: ‘‘ They also made baskets, which served for various purposes; those used for the transportation of the crops from the fields being especially well made and of unusual construction. Such baskets are in use to-day among the Arikara and Mandan.’’ Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee, p. xviii.

Arikaras: ‘‘They have preserved in their basketry a weave that has been identified with one practised by former tribes in Louisiana —a probable survival of the method learned when with their kindred in the far Southwest.’’ Bulletin 30, Bureau of American Ethnology, v. 1, p. 85.

128 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS the braids of corn was 55 or 54 ears, and in trading with other tribes one of these standard braids was reckoned as the equivalent of one tanned buffalo robe.® Buffalo Bird Woman gives a very interesting account

of the Hidatsa ripe-corn harvest. She says that the women went into the fields and snapped the ripe ears, throwing them into piles. This task occupied one day, in the larger fields sometimes two days. On the following morning the women built fires near the piles of corn and set over the fires kettles containing meat and sweet corn. The young men who had been invited to assist at the husking now came into the fields, and a few of the older men usually came also. The girls and young men wore their best clothes and were all painted. The handsome girls always had a large group of these young men gathered about their corn piles. In husking the corn, any unripe ears that were found were laid aside and became the property of the young man who found them, and he either ate them himself or fed them to his pony. If placed in the caches these unripe ears rotted and spoiled much corn. As they were husked, the ripe ears were thrown into piles, the large ears in one pile, the small ones in another. The large ears were braided in the field by the women, 94 or 5d

ears to a braid. After completing a braid a woman often took hold of it by both ends, placed her foot on

its middle and gave a sharp tug. This tightened the braid and gave it a neater appearance. The braids of corn were loaded on ponies, about ten strings making a 8 This information on braided corn was gained during recent visits to the Mandans and Hidatsas.— George F. Will.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 129 load, and were taken to the village and hung up on the

rails of the drying stage. The small ears were later carried to the village in baskets and were spread out on the floor of the drying stage. The latter task occupied the women one or two days. This ripe-corn harvest last about ten days. The young men worked well, husking out the corn of one field and then passing on to the next. After the corn was all braided it was hung about the frame of the drying scaffold. These scaffolds were an important feature in the economy of the village, being

used for drying meat as well as corn and vegetables. In summer the women often gathered under the shade of the platform’s arbor-like roof with their work; at other seasons the firewood was piled here, and in winter the

arbor was often turned into a stable for the horses. Dorsey describes the Pawnee arbor or drying platform as follows: ‘‘A few paces to the east of the lodge was

to be found a structure, open at all sides, and with a flat roof of cottonwood boughs, which served both as a

shelter during the summer and as a platform upon which could be dried corn, pumpkins, ete.’?® Besides the roof of branches, the arbor had a floor raised two feet or more above the ground, upon which the people sat and the corn was spread to dry. The Mandan scaffold had the floor raised five or six feet from the ground, and this was reached by means of a ladder cut from a log. The Arikara dry-stage had a number of long poles placed lengthwise of the scaffold with willows laid across

them, but the Mandan and Hidatsa stages had only two 9 Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee, p. xvi.

130 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS long beams with planks laid crosswise. These tribes build two-section and three-section stages. Part of one of these stages was partitioned off with tipi skins during threshing time, to form a booth in which the corn was

pounded out. The Hidatsas, however, never threshed on the floor, and in winnowing they did not pour the grain from the stage floor or roof, but raised it high in baskets and slowly poured it out.?°

Many of the Indians of today erect these old-time stages or arbors in front of their frame houses. Boller (p. 118): ‘‘When the harvest is gathered in the ears of corn are plaited into a tress (like a rope of onions) and hung upon scaffolds to dry. The variegated hues of the often tastefully arranged traces hanging from the scaffolds gives the village a gay and holiday appearance. ’’

Henry (p. 340): Mandans: ‘‘Fronting the porch stands a stage about 8 feet high, 20 feet long, and 10 feet broad, for the purpose of hanging up corn to dry in the fall and to dry meat. These stages have a tolerably good flooring, which in the fall is covered with beans to dry; and posts are erected upon them, on the tops of which are laid poles and rafters, to which corn and sliced squashes" are suspended in tresses to dry. When the harvest is over this certainly must have a very "10 Hidatsa informants state that the corn was always husked in the field and never taken to the lodges to be husked. The men’s societies went out in bodies to help with the husking; they were invited by the field owner who paid them with a feast. 11 Large quantities of pumpkins and squashes were dried for winter use: ‘‘The pumpkins are cut in slips, which are dried in the sun,

/ : | ] : / 2 a ee oe oo | a ne : ae es oe 2 . se _ ES 5 oo (os ae

d:ZSy -7 .| 7fa: /oe _. ae ae ... : . aaes&Hoe ve oe pee oe : =eeeeLees aS HeeS Ce ee BeeTEES ee oy eecies ae aSeee aS See mSee ee ee ae ae cee a ae a es CEES oe ee eeaeesa ne HEE

: :: >:: oe:4:. oe, be ,oNmo oo cM 4 aSe Ue oe is ee BS EES, eeeEeEEE raePoceBEE ee xteecoe SEE 2EErsoe eae _. pn | : ::a:: 4 i Negwr een SN WES Peaes | ee Us REE rseae aoe mass et eae SEES See a oyes Ee:SEUSS Sa hh Sopaeete Sant ageBoe a Beret patie SEESNE oe SrEs ee piyy q wise eS oy redoS)AGS ‘ aWa —eeRetna aes SERED SEs oeries SSS oe Ras Sanaa

5 oe eS ee 7. ie ad a De a - . ae oe ue oe es es es ES See ee Hs ee oe

.ing hae Ny ae fees Eas ess _2S | eeShs pee aefoe oe fe SESS. mseeSoeaes oe ;| ;ss : ae Oeaaoo poaos ES oe paeae 2 EES saaPoe | 2— ce eee EES aS Seat, oesie oeae SSS ane Pee 7y _aBit ; ae Ps ie LNs ee ania TEES eos 2 : oo of ..as eS oe ee a o oyoo a. of Ce es fee oe See EES Le es coat SES oe oo.ES ae EES a sees Wein See Saeed is Rees SES Rees eee .| eene.ae 2ones. oe eeaofaN8.eeoNoeoO Be, Se ee cae Bs EES

: . A ..., 2 Cee ee tag AS a ly a es ee ee Co ee ee CC sf ee Me eee Botan cere ES soe SORE. i sees oe uae Ease BEE ee ite oe Ae pariee SEER ae eae pastes Pate oS Beam

Fs fa ~ a ue aeyhNae lo | oe me Beet Asses Age 2oeA Ue HS See LR oeOe Co Feet 7 _teaioa Co. Oa BseaSees ue ee SEER_. ay eeiEN CO oe Ose oo sh oo oe oo Mi .Sai: Ase sesoe Rae ee oes cee ay )TOG _‘aoe ORANG oe ae ae oy Coe oeOK ee aoay apl .oo oe eeMes: oe a:ae ey a Ho aWa i aBON ie ae aho ath ees Wes Dye PE) ollNy ON yi cyon oy lank He Hk ae ae“I as aes aera aaAN Waa oo. .Rae : _ee / OSS eeNk ievo aEs .-© Lae OMT BN ae eG Lae ay CINE eS oo Fs ee Hee SS Nie itire eee SESee Re Pal .- Ce at .NaN: .yeLo} aeCME Oa FeO aAer og aOe a..‘| eyWa Niles oo eecn _es oe one EN :GES :es e Ses :|wy :ae2 |SU -Be Lo UO Oe tle ays ANG ah We Ey oality ee ne Sy Ue eeee aeare Goan oo. Us a LL a Ae Ro a Pe a ne ea ON a ao) ‘S a Sal HS Oe oo a cn Sey ea oo % ae oo HA Hee SU ow Boies ae ee ae pone eee sie

oo oo oo es SOS Rae 7. oe oe 5oyin OMG -of — iyRah i oe Ht a} a: oe ee | se.: Ss oo OF Hae ‘ os . ‘.NG, A AOE SCS i oo:Oy | a)Cae aTO Han an ae ! : COR :oo : SECON . aS :oo {i.Hey ey ee on ING ea aaeae aoS eeeea aGes ie ieelie) aa Mas a-ae aoe yeh oo .: ey 7i yaeaCea ‘ ae a ee oopier eeee aa.a. ae ac a oe ae me .ieio 7ee) 2fe 2a

; at ‘ae: i.aee. e_aeoa saNeolUeee RGVane HaNEN essasae Lo oeaea esce_ ee ooiy)NS a oo Ran ONG ._ve4ee:. BS NEA ONG eehe Doin a ohOu ot WN NOOR oF Ais a sane iene SN a) aa SN FBR |ary)ee a oo y4aS Ra)a ene Bs 6SO Coe inSees BSSan Gsve . CO as oe aAa ae FRR a et oole uy:ODEN a we oo. — a Pee oe hee = :As ES ee : : | OG ; , :. .Ws ‘, aAUN : oo ONG as . Hiilge uh ae Si MT oe -. i ERG i M Re oe uy es 7 a oe Or | ee DR a 1 ‘ ant 1 :Gs"4ee

:e. ES : ;a |Doone ; | :oo .cee “ . aes a laa HAS AX ae A ak oo. co ae elon oeaoe BOE ee Bees Ay Os LTR aeoe AES He . oo. ein: eesea NaN ee oo oA Ah aNG oo oo oo Sees we ‘, oo BUSES ieAas ASS Rey RIS ee.ih aaLe Re i a.Ee mat /.xioe -ae : aESS SS A|3. eae OR ieayAO ae a_ Y ui as ahpys aia Ae i oe sae aoT eeae SRG oo Oe oe oo_)RA KO as aeoe aoe is Neat Cy . ae ih aeae Me aeeet aSe oo xg xe Car Bee Bet) oRU Aa a es osa 7aSOU ieee UR FEU 0he oy oo ae . if i

2.;ce a| .oo aoeea Loe a a _.of a aa i.oo A b° aA 7.|oo e..oo x ae 7 . 7 ee ee fh . . oe ae a | oo i oS a , | oe . ... oe2 .. a aS aOe . Deae.. _ue ce ae an oeeene a aaeeae SG oo a.me a4 INS Rue Oe on One oo wee 4 ieeie ee an co aCON ay 4|.aoT i ee 0ae.oe _ee LS MER aSy Sa OS) . ns me .ey ee as«ae aN ae eG — oe oo eae ns My Geass eto e DO Lo oe -se oe Seoe ieFe .oy ae ie:ee ais Seeke ee aSo :EO . a4-aa YOSER es oe ysme fe Ls

ee Ry . . oe Sea oN ee Le. oo One RY Hales Bee as «| Poe es Ca Hint ae Sten ng sie a. ot WeSENS ee oF Pees Hee Hon oo ane SUN os Nes Se SN a nif aS aes

| Sages

ee CCA E}f— -.S 5oo .cTi.Jee cc. oe :a:a |:“ T ' H|— E (oe

? N( xI) AND : : ae a. B A

CORN AMONG THE INDIANS 133 pretty effect and give quite an appearance of agriculture.’’

After the corn on the scaffolds was dry came the threshing. The braided corn was usually stored as it was, in strings, while the poor ears which were dried on the platform floor were threshed. This was done on

the floor itself or upon old tipi skins spread on the ground. The corn was beaten with sticks until all of the grain was loosened from the cobs; the cobs were then picked out and the grain winnowed by letting it fall slowly onto a skin from an elevated place, either from the top of the lodge or the floor of the scaffold.

4, Storing the crop When the drying and threshing were over the storing of the crop commenced. After a certain amount had been stored in the lodge in dressed skin bags and rawhide parfleches, the remainder of the harvest: corn, beans, squashes, and sunflower seeds, was stored in caches.

The caches of the Mandans are described by Catlin and afterward woven into mats for the convenience of carrying.’’ Account of the Pawnee Loups, in Long’s Expedition, v. ii, p. 217. ‘¢The pumpkins they cut into thin slices and dry in the sun, which reduces it to a small size [bulk] and not more than a tenth of its original weight.’’ Account of the Republican Pawnees, in Pike’s Expeditions, v. 11, p. 533.

Dougherty tells us that the Omahas cut their pumpkins and squashes into slices, dried them and wove them into ‘‘networks or

loose mats.’’ Some of the tribes wove these dried vegetables into strings or braids. The Mandans sliced the small green squashes which were strung

like rings on a string of braided grass or a leather thong.

134 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS as jug-shaped. They were 6 to 8 feet deep, held 20 to 30 bushels and had narrow mouths just wide enough for

a person to go through. One for the storage of provisions for immediate use was inside the lodge, back of the fireplace, while others were dug outside, near the lodge.

Fletcher and La Flesche thus deseribe the Omaha caches: ‘‘Near each dwelling, generally to the left of the entrance, the cache was built. This consisted of a hole in the ground about 8 feet deep, rounded at the bottom and sides, provided with a neck just large enough

to admit the body of a person. The whole was lined with split posts, to which was tied an inner lining of bunches of dried grass. The opening was protected by grass, over which sod was placed. In these caches the winter supply of food was stored; the shelled corn was put into skin bags, long strings of corn on the cob were

made by braiding the outer husks, while the jerked meat was packed in parfleche cases. Pelts, regalia, and

extra clothing were generally kept in the cache; but these were laid in ornamented parfleche cases, never used but for this purpose.

‘‘When the people left the village for the summer buffalo hunt, all cumbersome household articles — as the mortars and pestles, extra hides, etc. — were placed in the caches and the openings carefully concealed. The cases containing gala clothing and regalia were taken along, as these garments were needed at the great tribal

ceremonies which took place during that period’’ (p. 98).

Dorsey says of the Pawnee caches: ‘‘Just inside the

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 135 lodge and to the north of the entrance was built, in winter, the sweat lodge, while at the corresponding position on the south side was an excavation used as a storage cellar for provisions, such as corn and meat,

intended for service in the near future. The surplus stock of provisions was cached in excavations generally outside and to the north of the lodge.’’ '? John T. Irving, who visited the Pawnees in the early 30’s, states that their caches held 100 bushels, but this is evidently an exaggeration.

Pawnees: ‘‘On the approach of winter they conceal their stores of corn, dried pumpkins, beans, ete., and with their whole retinue of dogs and horses desert their villages. This they are compelled to do from the want of wood, not only for fuel, but for the support of their numerous horses.’’ }8

In Miss Mary A. Owen’s volume of negro folk-tales **

there is a very interesting description of the method of preparing and caching ‘‘sweet corn’’ employed by the negro women of western Missouri a generation ago. These negroes of the lower Missouri Valley had a good deal of French and Indian blood in their veins, and Big Angy is said to have been the daughter of a negro moth12 Tradition of the Skidi Pawnee, p. xvi.

13 Long’s Expedition, v. ii, p. 215. ,

The Indians fed their horses in winter on the small twigs

and bark of the cottonwood tree. The large open groves of these

trees, such as the Big Timbers of Republican River, and the Bunch-of-Timbers on the Smoky Hill Fork, were favorite wintering-grounds of the Indians. 14 Voodoo Tales, as told among the negroes of the Southwest, by Mary A. Owen, New York, 1893, p. 40.

136 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS er and an Iowa Indian father. Several old negro women

are talking about food, and Big Angy deseribes her method of making and caching ‘‘sweet corn’’: ‘“W’en de roas’in’-yeahs (roasting-ears) is in de milk,

me git um, bile um, dig de grains offen de cob wid lil stick, spread um on de big rush mats me mek’ twell dey dry lak sand, den me dig hole in de ground — deep, put in de mats all round, den tek de cawn, putt um in de big bag mek outen de eenside bahk o’ de linn-tree, fling dat bag in de pit, putt on de top mo’ mat, shubble on de dirt, smack um down flat. Dat cachein’!’’ ‘* Uh-huh! uh-huh! dat de rale Injun way.’’ The bag, made of the inner bark of the ‘‘linn-tree,’’ in which the corn was packed, was called a ‘‘splint-bag.’’

Verendrye (Mandans): ‘‘Their fort is full of caves well suited to concealment.’’ ‘‘They made us understand that they came inside in the summer to work their

fields, and that there was a large reserve of grain in their cellars.’’ Lewis and Clark (p. 200): ‘‘We purchased from the Mandans a quantity of corn of mixed color which they dug up in ears from holes made near the front of their lodges, in which it is buried during the winter.’’ Henry (p. 360): ‘‘The village was soon in an uproar, the women meanwhile uncovering their stores of corn, beans, ete. It is customary in the fall, after the harvest when the grain is well dried in the sun, to take it off the cob, and deposit it in deep pits about the village. These

holes are about 8 feet deep; the mouth is just wide enough for a person to descend, but the inside is hollowed out any size, and then the bottom and sides are well lined with dry straw. Such caches contain from

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 137 20 to 30 bushel of corn and beans, which are thrown in

loose and covered with straw and earth. The ground is of such a dry sandy nature, that grain stored in this

way will keep for several years without injury. So numerous about the village are these pits that it is really dangerous for a stranger to stir out after dark.’’ Henry was struck with the great store of corn in these villages

when he saw the women preparing to trade with the visiting Cheyennes from the plains: ‘‘On our way we observed the women all busy, taking their hidden treasures and making preparations for the approaching fair.

I was surprised to see what quantities they had on hand: I am very confident they had enough to serve them at least twelve months without a supply of flesh or anything else’’ (p. 360).

Catlin (v. i, p. 187): ‘‘They are packed away in eaches — holes dug in the ground some six or seven feet deep, the insides of which are somewhat in the form

of a jug, and tightly closed at the top. The corn and even dried meat and pemican are placed in these caches, being packed tight around the sides with prairie grass, and effectually preserved through the severest winters.’’

Hayden (p. 352): ‘‘The crops being gathered in, are stored away in the cellars, before alluded to, or buried on the field in different places, in what are called by the Canadian traders caches, so constructed as to be

impervious to rain, and so well covered that no one could discover them without a knowledge of their locality.’’

Boller (p. 118): ‘‘The trace [%.e., braided corn] is cached —-a hole is dug in the ground, usually near the lodge, some 6 or 8 feet in depth, small at the top but

138 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS widening as it deepens, much resembling a jug in shape, hay is next strewn over the bottom and sides, and when the corn is thoroughly dried it is taken down from the scaffold and packed away. The cache is filled up with

hay, dirt is then thrown on and firmly trodden down, and every sign carefully obliterated. Each family has a generous supply of these caches and as they leave their

summer village early in the fall for winter quarters, the corn remains undiscovered and undisturbed until they return in the spring.’’ The caches did not, however, always prove safe storage

places; for Bradbury informs us that on July 15, 1811,

the heavy rains penetrated the Arikara caches and spoiled all their supplies, so that they expected to be in want until the new crop could be harvested. In early times the Quapaws of Arkansas stored their corn in cane baskets and in gourds ‘‘as large as half-

barrels.’’ The southern tribes appear to have preferred to store their corn above ground, and it was in the south that the primitive form of the modern corncrib was invented, by Indians. Among the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras, the braided corn was placed in the caches first, after the

eache had been lined as Henry describes it. The threshed or shelled corn was then poured in on top of the braided and the cache filled up. Each family usually had several caches filled with corn, besides those containing beans, dried squashes, sunflower seed, and often

dried meat and fat. The position of the caches can still be noted in the old village sites and the number of them cannot fail to impress the beholder with the idea

Se mo = ce a Hee

i. ae ee a » a~ S S Lo le : aoe

Boe eB NG BeaeSEE Pees : eeoe5 @ a - SS f aepoe i cs 2 YSaeee ee 7: pees a -&S E itare Wy ih Be a he 2 5 = Be e a 4 a .. oT ee ees oo ee aw Se ae eee as eats fh a wie

a. a a5 De a S- & . eet _ S ee ae A . ceoe“ ae wes

: Z a. | Cep= oe anoe oe SEES oo a . aee pareoe ohee He aS fens4 .ae ay 7 ae _ eee aaeae ae aEe & =a Baeaeae 4ne a:nee aeee ee we — . ee _Dee eeae s ee ote aoe ‘exe ::.7aaa.a-:Ie2 _& & 28 :eae a_.a.oefeee oe ae :ee oo AY Pee ESE ce eea.oe aee :: 7eae oe : : =..a2a= afps. Beé a ies . cee -ceae ge # noe 5 Bes gsaeSSeryee Be 82 :Se ‘2aoe ae : i. oe . ee oS 2 : . ae _ i 7 ne - Eee ee oe ae = ce ay my mes a BEE sf Hs ee Se : oe 2 ? | : 7 — a. oo ee He ae os eae oe at ie o ee nee Set . BES ee soe ate SS parr eta oh ms Let ae

oe eS=~aBSfecee BoS eefaeSe CEES Be SE oS 8 me oe ee He sf e= oe oe ae ce — 7: a . ag3:2. _. ae : awe 8ee aoe ie ae ae

:2 ce i my:. ee uyi! BS :AG Be a aSee oe: ee pee Seee BESHEE LS JESS es SES cee enee wo : ai& noi fooBes co pee aeso : aeoe ~ | ye «—‘ BES _. soe 8Gan ce _. ee oh Bee ae se

aL aE CS= oe #_ 7a:iMs a aWis a ae SeCee ooasae i= ae os.: 8US oeesaa eee ie ee . |Be A a. ee oe as 2 afee fend aS aai=a oy _ aaBe SSae* ee reiefe_ oe ae a Bee SS2He ee aore aeee eeewees oe 2ee oefe8 os a— - | a7 :oe . SPU Ae ES Be aeee BEHS eaeeee oe Lee : Ee ace 2 ia roe

MEE a@ ae.ee eeHe Be me Se as aants oe oe74pil See nas . 8_. oN ee oe SBoe S es _ oa aS aeae— : rans Be_eoa aeee oe ee _ aa— oOne ae:oe eeBYES Sa7a]. oe aioe oo | .ee 8ce nore

Pee 2oda. 7: |as Hf ae mee :a eee es aeeeE shee es oe ae aeee So . _BS =a ee we soesaa7 . : :CG aay : |say | 7: Oe 7 ee ee. _on ue asaas oe Z LS anoe BES ae a “8 aoe 5| ae a a_% CeoS i.aes ae oe_ ne ee : 8 on SE=:2oe 2S ee es oe ee 8aeBe 2 -4Beag st ce ee ae oe.HS Be _aenoaa ee ae ee eae -He : | _324 | a, i Le ot i. oe ae Ee 8 _ £ ae ae eo ) oe ae | Le ~— Boe — ee . cee Ce Go | ae LL ee ie us ie _ & se a _ Be ) : ny) 7) eee : oe ce 7cose — ae Bae HEE aeoero ae 7Heae fe ee ae aoS of oe ~~ _es| HESS | iTESee ca — ont Hie sash aiean pe ie oe7 uN me oC eya Ce coy. aeue ihNei \\he on aon Le cs Bee BS 1 eee es ssBe SESS SSE iyae Baoe ae a2 By a|. ce. “ee e -Peve aae7ayaasaM, iie Ss ¢a.a eeoe ok oe ve in) oi 4‘8_oece ey oeBES igeae aeI%ae|oa9—@ ce ee

:: 7|-es a‘a2eS ms § i.Be poe— £ =| aoS eee 7_oe 23:9 = 2 ee gs : i on | .. ae es aaoe oe - . ia . a -_ a 4 my ae _ = a ise ve IN _ oS ae ae a foe oC OS | _ x aes Wee EES oeLo BEL ae . Hoe 2 a ee : se eee | eee i = oo 7 mc ~ . eo: a eS eS 2Sy eae 7 nes A a. poe ae ae ce a nh a i o » a5Be TES ith es sare o SHES = a Me a Mores _. ee os iLe Lae oe | 8oe ce Vi a.a ense ok_ . .oe —aecee SS a& ee Sa eS eese . /eS : . : “a 7 — — a a Le Se a OES — . 2a 7 : = _ hs & i. _. _ a gf =; - _/= aeee _ “os: _.'a|=ce aon ene . _coe oe adi _me ae ee oe Da ae i oe 4& aeEe .— _De coe aee2 | : | =o & a _ . a oo = be ee ee oe a = ‘ es | 2p LC oo : a 3 i : e 4 lo . — B _. | 4 a oo i ay ee a i ae 4 ae ce . ae _= ae my oe: oSJES 2 3: ee | cay Ne, xLe?iNom sowy 5— iin_ ys = Bee as Ha i i ._7 oe ee eae oeie_.. ee= oes feae resSORE ee Sete eS Be SON "NALoe Ad, _Base ey HS Le ae a ie oa Teak oe Hue coe ees . aeie 2 _2oeae oe eee iy Heieee ax i, ee ee eos sae 2

- ea = a =: 8 ae : > ie ». a oe Be 2NiiavyoeaeHe ns;3. 3neoo 4o#4Aneeoe |=aeos | ie Pee aeos . ee we = & ae oe —— ES anee ny ay ee ~eei= ateOy a_-: ia 1aoe 2£ao -. :.ae ey mike rean aoa saeee _& onLo eee eaae ey oo =on @;a. ae Ee oo 3.: . .aaiaoe _. .aa _a-|8oe oo _aaaaaS a.ang all xoe ae.| ce 4) oe eeoeee a. BOW oePde 1 ay — ate so. a.| en i se#ga - a7Ms)_ee: es :7 > a oe oes ioeree a. io Re :2 : . . -o "-. os _oF, . [4 / _.7 aace a ih |ue3 oR o_o eai) 7 . =_ ee££ aoo it ea ae9 i eS ceae Eoise pas.ee|.ES Q a = a | : i Q eg _ i] — . 2: =— ee a ecg : e ie. oe ee a8 oo i. ce _iS = & | = Ue Wwe Pt a o _ 7 ” / — : es oe . _ ae Ah a oe oe ED a mi i) oF a ae -.. oe ul es . ge oS ce ren Fy Boe os he _ a . pee 29 | ae _ i i a oS ee oa e mp) a) i :... ~ ? &£ aeoi2CRi)eeone oe2 si ayaeAys — oyceee aeoeoo oeSiha Mian: os Mi TG _ ee8 ceees uy) |ESaoBes. ee oeee| SS .. Soe} ae 2 ce i. i tn) eee See on Ce ee eeee oe ae le iaae i | ae me oe it a ih . ee iy Lope ee BORE

. = _ es EE = ’ Ss y =

me avy oe ed pe i EN 25 On ath la le . oN Ss ys es Sere 8 aie es ee ped ee es is Gin, he ee ae oe Ws oy oe Ha ue ae a il Gee | y ie ey S| a :

Te fe oe ee OS Soe se ._ pe8co _es . ae De . aa.Wa — |8=_:: 7S Ne olay Wa 7 . ee : oe » ps Pe ee AGE HS Ses SS aaa Ay iJ ei Sg et ane iioe _7aHe‘ce Lo ue 8:iioe 4atae Ms _a o “.aoEepe .ceoe -—— :By:rene -fo .cee osaoe — .Lee co asi oe oe epee FEES wy Rea oeMi ne Ws NG anNe Ca et % yae inaes oeOH eSls aoo & as ae a .2al ee ii= ai, Ie 2: oeBhs aCo aoo aeco 2ae aS-i|my ae ae ooo 2oy atlee 2a: ._ 8oy aBia_sfe & £ieoo

aHs —— . -au_; ee-Wh :=_ .aates oe @ ae oe ee faBs a|See wee SE, ae _ ee ee) . . 1a |_ae aeee _.|Ane Hat Hs 1foo ae > =aie oe |aa_a > 22a ene _ ee yfh _o oe a ‘:ase i HG .as iali i7ye .Wh 2_iSy oe cg .. oS oo 2ieaiOlaeoe _anmet oF .ooasaa _:a

S : a . ae - Se ,Be Lae . :L=pS /oe _ao=-7eC _i: Mie :a/.|ae .:_-Lia a_ 2fa PS i_:ooa. ae :See .ie =— = :SZ-BSSHe 8 = Le et ie: ee OEEES ee a BS c ae 22 s ? - — Ls a oS a pasy & eS i oh ms aoe f a ae iN BS 7 oes ce So a 4 a. ves Hy i dae) — i oe a Be ay ih oe ca ya Aan ey igs nate oe a a Ws 7 eh | a cM 4

Ber: noes ee oo 8 ee eo oS . _ . an . oo i my ie es) . Oi oe a8 ae ee ae ae oe, . | a I I CANe cas | ee i vie ah i na

Bo = SE pies SES: aa “ SEES AS ae Bee : ee ee oe oe = Ha oe oF — 3 eh Boe va a ce a . oe oe Ss a 2s a me We 8 me ioe 2 AE ee SS . aaN | &_ mee a i oe Bee E ss pee eeeLEE oS ae: PESne oeES Po 7aSBip ae So _ =ee Lee ee eeoo Sosto a) ey os‘ioco. .oe aoe Ae . . o . oe eS . 2 . Ee oo " _ My Ai oo sg . un i ee oe a a i oe ae Ne ie ee 2 a ut ee

awes ce2' set eSie=iya _aa 5= ae =y—_— =] _. ae : [=oe oo oa SMaree: _ SEos oahs .Bee o:ee 2SE 82S S oe 8 -_ oFaa. i& =Re -& 8 se _oe .eesu§.aai a7 oe oerFi: eS ee: an ae es ae aa aaea a8 _. oCE. .oe | = . _i:. oe

: - - a pe ae 8 S a = a ie si oon ee on & oo a

ee is hey See one wn as HEE oes oe es oss eee ae ee ey _ — AES oo oe ies ch ed a HN . eo 5 ee iu aN see 2 oe oe . Ry eS Bae So ee HU RGR i oS oe aN ee a Ce a“ ne il oe .

ae f :ais 4eefinsBESS ee esBeeae ae ce oe ES 7BON _. _eeonee aeeooaonHiss ee oo oo _ oa oeavon _s -a——s 25: : EES care aeae! ee area. EES e _. ee ae ” oe i 7i 8aeCOeoy up Thnket ue Pe ae Pee)aH weyaE cos: ae=aeoe eaeoe 8 ae _. HEE es SEES es a ee oe ie ee a Aeoe He y2 on aoe Lo_ieoe ae _ _ oy a i

IES ee eeae Hee ee BS: BSBete ae eee S oe ee SS ms a EEEa: ae ae nee _oo oe s: noeCo ue peoe ae a 7| & ny oesee oO oo oe HG Be 4a: |Me :a ee TSE e esamS fy nie aeoemoh oe oF y) aeae29 _. aos| _esie ioea= Za4 ce ae is 8 Bay BES ceoeoeNees oe c ey2eemek oe sore a. g oe pee ce ee Syee 7 aeacae ae pene SEE ee ae ae aeas ce _. oe nea=ee a KeaHa ON_ a . ease: . an oo Sf‘ia oe oe Ah on agaa se

:| :__ae. oe aoS Se :_aaoe 7.oo. is= i: —a. m.aon> :F.-|ee -Q S.-_Q 8 :ae SaeSa. oS oF Co aes : .l.2G aee4] .38. re ee ==— | ...ae.]| aae . oe _. =aaoe Past ae fate Ee Beme e SES. eee a 5aeeaSe =8OO == - oe

./ ee & :. |ae Sco: -a. .oo a ae ee _. “= — |ie==: 7a / . _ : 8 a S i oo : a = ae a on ae a . _ Lo _ S | _oeme oe :a i=Ee a :aes -BS |88 — We .3 Fesof _-re oo;¥i.&oo ee | .. s ee = a _ Se ae 5 a oo i es BE . _ ie . eae a . eae eee S ¢& oe ee ee ao . a a ) . pee ee ne Co oo ee is nee cee eee oo oe > a — oo > . : - te 4 Pee Pee es |. = _ 8ae ce ae S oe its fee oe peeES ee ES i ooul ; )om i _ | :| — | ce -: ee :> ES Be 8 a Hee wee Lepate -AeaeSuvas _. _8 ee : Se eeReeeee .2.aeaaa=oe eea.ooee TC ee cio eaoeae 7a e.oo| ae ee ss oe &: -_77: .yoo a as me oe = . a es He poe ae a " 3 2 oe # a mE os ae ah ae i a ite oe a a) a iB _. a : oe a ae E a _oeLo aeSES BESaeBoe a 2es—eesoe _. oe oea2sae 3 Se ae HOS ae & ae a || es &§: oe 7 .. ~~ ; aaRu a es oe |ce ag . ~~ ee aee 8 ae Hees ee ae ae aS .eeaeBae oO=FE . oe| :; x_ ie

.ooeeHSS | a) Sy “~ as | oe _. : ja , bg - _ ¢€ 6 : . a its a 2 - . oe ne oe : Be a o 4 ie » ee Ee _. hoe ne — fo a a, alse ee: a ee pa ae i oe eee 2 Beas ee ie ne ES Bees oe aoe TEBE ae HS _ . : oy cos ee - velit -

& fe 7 io aoAaLe ae oe 8ieae see oS ee ne ee} 2es 8ea eeS4onoe ee a oo Reaieaa Be a0 ise LeBoe ee Ee np ae ae ee sce i.ES eee:8oe oe Bae pee oe oe ‘i ae ueecee :Ee |IES To o ave &eeeeee ee :a ntoei aere2ai eSee ; aeceoeBee pear acee soe Bae ao ee _oe —— a asi .|4. ae i.\ ooWe Ri i: on 7 aooaBEES oo se oy oae Lee = _ oeHE: eei. :a)a|2 o| _Say ae BeOne a ieaeee 2 ee aOn ee a ue. ES oS ee = ae a es ae Be é oe 2 oeooceoe2oe_ — . _me Demeesss. 4_.i ae . :OM a von re

2So oe ae ae ne pe a :=He a.a 27ae fe_ cae ae 2 . _a ae = eee & —< ‘:__.|| eae Se oF Be . ae oeBoe »—& -aeoe Hs aS Hees oe a3 oe os_=:eeLe§aoe ‘| .aK | oo . — S 2 a ae a ee . i) ve a LS cee ae ee a Be BS a oe ee oe aS Ee me ee BS ie SS oo es a8 8 Ve ee a i . i ie ie o ae

bo Ws ae — oo uk 7 a a _ . 2 a a BES ee 5 we ES SESE ea e as — a i a - ie Boe sa Na 2 ee a . se ue Mee eeKe oe. =e .aS oe oe Hee é=Eee ae 8ee TES gS aSa ae aae*i fn, . |_aoo )a Ls to ifmee a -3S | Ha:;Te Leoe Eees ae me Les Be moe eas See_Oe a_yy on =! -a BES aeeBea| esBic. LS ce oe SEaoeSee aea ooSe ae _. a oo ne

eS es S 8 a 8 Be a : ae ce . : .. 7 om @ a a oea ee ee EE ee oS ceoe 2Soe ai — | 4G ;aooce a a 87|D==3) ;aae =a| ei, aeeya8ae._aea.oo — By ee pf :fpee ee a.ae3S i|ae _B2i:% ae ee =Se oe — 4 eh Se ice a ee —a ee a ze oe oe ae oe a = |a.: 4oe ] se eee | Toe . se oe e . Ae a S 2 ::— oo.i ae ae i ce ae Be oe | | ea eS eefoe a aaoe i - _a oo es ee NeoOcoeeoS oe_ioo | | ae meeaean . eeae| eS aSaecyoeisaeee= S ae :: ee —a8 eeoeae aSae aeoS eeoe a PEE He oeceAe ew =f ee :| 2 a_aBe =e f . 872oe £o. oe Be se ce ane oS aeShe eeaae oe ae ee inee _ -o| ;|a0oo . _:7 a2S 3. @0ae 7 .a— :— Le pee a8 -oe _eoo oS aoeme a230 Le ae eS ES aSs a a Sl& . a .ol o Ve MD ee . ae ESee 2S ae SE nee ee oe we . as . os SS * | oeae oe oe se Bak .— M oe

_< | : £ BS ee _ oo. oe — oo = & ~~ ee a ae _Cay ee Be :ui(8. oe ._ oS-CG : : : :s: a ‘23a ’aepe| Bee |. aBeen = ie i iie :. =a>a=£a. Ao i. ae

i. a. oo a ee ei Ds = ae .oSo.Poe — | ee8oo oo eeSBE ae Ee_a . |= i §3S ‘Bg a).ON aa.oe ._ eee SSiRs . aoe ihoe :2 Be oe 7 See = oe_osee ee ce Bee | [24 ae . 7 oe aa.|... at et : oe oe & mee . A eS Wee Be 7 a Ne tne . a | 2 oe ee ie oe a . oS s—-a |. a. nee — eei \a)24ve Q g23 t ae. 2 aeoe - | aa— ae. ~_oe oe aeoe os one aap ee | |a7aLe oe 8 .gee aa " en : ee | oe ‘iAeaoe = oeee a ae EES aanN oEa _ a -| ay 7co Ny _— . a ee_. ON. me _|— a Ee— | a . oo oe ae me _ EESES Lee See! ae ee ay fee es OES3; ie he eo——. _ee § oe . 2sae |ee: Le : 8oeaea a,a aor ceeEesee noe _ ue ee= Be eeaoe aeeeAue ’o: a: He a 7as hog- vo ee cae 2 3 |aa a i. ee 8 oeBe oo ee neatoe esce ae oe os oe . ae he as ee ee BSoe onet eeaae:

7 a = Ce ace a oe ae oo Be aN a a Wy A ae bis eee _. | ae Is ee ee _ es a = Bee ee eh Le ae sas eo 2 ee sae oan one Ss Se ae we

3S Ne _. |aeae eeoe Oe 3a_a_.|axoF 4 Dhaest _.eslioo Y _. Mok ih aaoe ce mf 4238 ia .aea|aea.:.Saee — aQae _me |a7Das i-My a .|aane ..ee - _.;a.Ve hae oy — Bee LeLoe eaeSeee ce S_.: o Be _iSoo)mn =Le; e aoo.mae ee am :a _ia& :aoe |EeMe ee oo .aoh_aeeS

7:Ss =ue:= ia _ee oo oy) | ge ee oe ie§ i a:esoh as ee aoe AoSo _ oie Na— . im a| esa ae Bs ES . — aa a:)eene |: a& _a :a;&£|oe =a‘iee ee 7:a _ieB ees = |:. he a .cs. ao nD asua _£ Me cae See eB Ve :ce :oo & oo: aLn 7 : , _ — . 7 | a _ . | - a i a be | He au ae & oe es Yee _ Nee i. ie ss Os _ Bs : ee: SEOs SES ce ES s pee eet ey oe ae Fe aan ESE sas :

re eB & “EE = ce : : 3 7: = , blll: -_~, a a) :, aee Ee uy )oeoe ag e_ Be 4g on i) etao feoe7 rype 5a oe 1=ee ;=@ 8;.a te _ BE eS — _ a 7 & eS 7 ae a . — ‘ ee aN Ee | _.. : iy =eeEe, ESS_.ae.ae S86 ;: Let _a a 2e HfisNEES a:a8uasLoz ~_N@ Sc _.sntl |_-oSa a .: Sa. oS a2[_aoe i _2) ae— t -1, veIFp =ap oe i ta _. . i . : ee ee == _ 4?] e 3 deee mo a — oF a a |, = .. i _. eo Heea _. ie a. aa.-_ .TEES as | ose %=ne a:

/ _ me . He ee a i a Ch — . = i 7 | . o > |. e i) ee one | - co ae i SES 8 oe ‘i oe sa :2ysa @ AG :Ueee «C 7osie :§8= .-.: § oe Lo © o = : _ .? ih ia. ES _. aemG oe. a7 Gs wy3 |= aie nN . a ieFe Te Na ae ie Se se & ee a. _ oo = / s +i . ne -& a -_— 8 Me cae |. MG ea 8 a — i in HN ni _ | ae o os : a |esS aas-ae7 We 7 4se2 |.ihi Aes > .soF i cc. . aae—wm ot 8_ON a aN zs & aea oH — oo oy Oa _ He| BE a . ve aanA NB 8 oeSe a a ON ~— ANG a . ay ay i a . a ve ot an ae yen _ oe ae oe _ cae ah Pe ae ie _ a oa) i i ie i “

a— 7:oo _Loe a1oe . 7«bal iansifoa =co oe a_Ha i 7:aA2$25 =aasoe Hees AN 8i.ES . a, _cas Ne aoe i8a| :a8 ee eee . iLs aa~f aoo. atn iLy |a aihe AS pees e_. __:2oe oo oy oe | eo4.:7Le ol ae ay :_Ay aesa~~ iy oe .Re |eeeieseeee ia 2Tee .isatoy — &ee_.ie |be .a8ee -8aave.:aaS: Le *-hag, & _7oe = mae ee a"fs ae —s 77ae .=HOPS _.aa-oe aS & _bi_ee&& am HG @ SS auo ..4ae ue _Ha Be |ve :;aseSEES .at= ce 8ee ee Soe aBee “8 ee _.a|.ae ste _ae ae ni Se .iih on oN oF ao age asy -._ oo .el - “ue -_-mae “oes oa i‘.Le _. oF ee oo See .ibiaa |_aa_ Se aaeeae iprea ay _Wi ii7hee HERS L 7eae ‘7 :a aife Se aa ae .oe LBS Bee .x aAe aae ifnee Oss See HUN oF _. ins Ne ne Ne oeBe a2 -32 ,eds oO ane) aSee Sy o3|eeoy ae oe aa& _me aees a'HG i.ae iWe ae SS oe > oo Me is bas a . . _ ~~ es ep 7s_ea7.Ea .me : a _ . _ ee i o i | : fo — S ee Bae aa.us ee ee chee isoe he Mee es deNs Se ae sia Hl ae baa aaK BO _s:aee oo ntNe _ oe aa cc ;ay ve :oat ROS a os a ae i me oa — a) ee _ oH ue ae Boe Ae ee S05 SS ee a . -— _ «... .Hei hi aAaPes oC ena ee Ags - eos oe - ... _oo uk i0}ae ae aiOu Pee ORG oo oe Hc sia aMean Se ANN Tae ilSURES ee Cee ee.a... ae . .ee oe _Re ..co aae ei ao. hn neeee nA _es RSS aaiitaoe ee eae on SEE ntee aCRESS Ge oe Ce TaN aoe eaPa enMage: Nie DOei aeAalit oo on.‘eoo. usDlnee a iaE aeeeiH aa aS se eS lgTea en LaLees De i Sa eepaestes eeesBeer tits .esae —4: E aSaal sneeat bey Aaeoo hae1Baia, Me a Tia ee a) ae Se es iesBare i. eeeeee oe oo | LS =oeBe 3Las ee

oc a ai Rue oo ON ui Ba oy es a Ci anne Pee ae Ee a Ae ES Oe Ce ag ee os pine oe 2 SR: - fF Niuean

oN a a as Sui aa Sy Fel oy i. Ba oe ei sen . ee ee suas! EN EESGES pean eae . i NN ONG ia F: a ae aTERY weaieoo aa|Leoe Bas ee HN ee seh Al HN On eti Cea HeeCo Fa SHG oo xiii Coe eeee a —Ae es eee oeCe eea.eeee ereee .f 8.Las a oe) - eeaoT iN La oe aoe aie asseoo ee Sas Mes a Ree ee ae SE se aeran Oe

Bt oo — ei|Heals fe Ca ti ae >i_igSi Se aae eS . es SEES oe _ae a, oe ooEN, oo aaoo), Le oo ne See ee .SSisoy _evans oMa aow. uae aioe ie a, Co oo iee aaaoo one eee Wo he a OSES ee ea Poe aPDaHoeaof en /Co — me — Ff ooa aN ai Hehe Seoe UR aac OS OS ONO (Ra ie Scan RRS BO Ses CO eeee eee SUSeee HO Ee aepf Ha VONOG SOSA ae oe ioe ee aaee|FEoo Te _ss SSPe es Bh nt failBani ee SRSE eitaaeAantal a Sia Ao i SESH SNE Halles NBs et HM: eine Dil oe Uieoane cee mae esl BME? Weele weeee ee ape SEEesis ES ee eines . seas.. ay leanxi ay me Sig has Sa al aaa DaleeatetfoNoah a prea A aM NasROR ae | Ce RAGaeen 7. SNES shines eeeEE ESERHESS AhtfHei

oe ae gly aoe oe > ot ayo” _ OS aRa..|ae va aa_ Fs ee: ee aes a.Pe aa oaee Hoes ee . \i|Sy 2S ae aS) Pe oo .. | ( a oD . a . — 8 A aa oo ee ae Be ON oe i 8. @ 8 OOO 7 _ |. on ne ee a | oo ££ af ENS Ue a oe a oo ot le a i oe ee ss a a ae| oo on acy i of oo oo.i:it ‘nie aeee eis an stil cu aN aa |B|oe |De -aeFHe oe Co eA Heal oe. wn oo Uist | ea a. De . |. aN aa Ath Vel . oo ee es Le ae Ces a a ieee es Sa Rai .. a a a ue a. ff & . yt i oy HR Hi oo Sa oe Wee oe ji => i inte 7 . es . es a Rae ae Co Mi _o. ~~ |“aeee@ Cae io oeaaae ae ue oo oe eae ow i.>.7. ol ae ae aes eee ..|oS oNS -i en, oe «= SE ee My a aes Tp hee BEN ||.oeoe s ||ARN pa a thHen Le ee Hs 1os a Se aa “— a ay _es gaee oe .eGeatwd aCe...SAT :stats Ts .SEES oo .ve Ce os oo. oo Hee caeei SESS ee EN | Be Ve |ee: -oe|.ain Pe 4 oo. ian cia Hy Ae ASUS i sah Sian SR INGE Hae DN ae Eon | pet is a ea ONES oo Gees Na a . CSS SEES Rare . . so a SH te a cay Sisal Sau Sel Re eel ARUN a a ce se Poet ay i Nn Oh: Be Sioa a AMS PS Beene EO Baraee abet EAS ORS . iG ENS ei

es en iy:Co a HGH aeneisa Manis: Ahe? SE ..eG a Al Mea aBaa ee ee a.Cal on aeaaShae asCHaemee ee aCe esaNDRC een eae fesse —eaeee ee aak ae eae ooaeaenaNy SO aaee ifos OL oeUe oo Mes i Lo mie: aeeeeDe E ee Soaes fase eee _.ahiWes Deane

ee ee ©|aae a=ie Ss Gg oo ies ,oo a a7oe i> 7| >oo i. - le-eeath

ai:oeEan ao eta eae LES ee es aCoa,/_ _ oo|.... .ay a, aeycd Ae a oe usas a oeiH one i anes ane oeee poce7. aos Hose oeoo ae Be i7aeoe es |...ne aNy i: ay ssi4 a.el oooe oe Uh ON va Aa iitBe ee 2Sag ere ey ea co Skee _aasoF. ey — oe) — ih aH Oa a ONG . ANN eee Nes ane au ore eo sieFE —Oy|il Eee iSAS Si A)_— AE Heaie call oo Nis aca, a Ra oe a ys aut oa _ aR A Se ere ... anes | _ ‘ | 7ws oo. |Tuna an . be et4i TRA | :eT oe ee ap ~~ a-—oeae ny oe NA an ee Di f>. ES Os i ke)F388 Ou BAU biel en BeeCas gw Hie es ean Ne aeaeesi eS aoe is— —| — a CO ol Oa Ten Ey ie He ee ny eevaaloel Oe: oe Bs NAG SS | Ff " a. aaapaBiSenBi . — es ve Uh aS a ae i Chen Ae Leoo a oo a: RES ae esOE a Fas et een ooA8 Aye aoa oy ae Haas ae ae nh CO .NS _ Bere. ns a Ba aNLea ene aon SEEN a Ea ea a. Sst iN Pees a See A a ve OEE atii ain sual Nea saat ie pos ee Ee esas iieNe DN HN \es ie RO aeie ) ON SN SOa,ee .oe! LD Ona US . oo pea oo ih ey oe2 EA: BES als Rt i eea-8ae ail NSE os AW es aueHeres .RAG i ‘ a. — aa al ae Bie mee ee age se: aee vy —.. BASIE ua aieeo ba Bs . aie a ai|G a ee TEE es a. |. oa OS Coe iasoo |Mah A it Be ee es cot _. Re ae ay ee aN ae oe ain ieae enae a eeah ee eas SOM Ne ee ee oiSo) A a _. Tne 2 iiaes ee iPO Bee Coys Coes SUSa.i oe eee esae og. ae ee oe oe i AN i. Ue se Ss -. es _ | oe .i yl Hane Hue a. ny aCeanes ue te SEs AeNa leas USES ee naeEE Bos AUS: % eeos ae aRN maidOe Hehae aa aes pie ee:_eee Os Oe esatecae oo ANG TN Ga wh Co CaS Pea i.EEERE Pee Oo. Be:oyfaeoPe eee: BeceeSEN | Oa iateae Gy: SR a i

(of _TOTES ee ao eo a—.aaa iAs_[|_r|eyoO) aCl|a.|aa.q| Lo ee Sea oe aeleEee ee #Boca ee ..aesCo) oo 2aaos aae cc Pane Bes neoe oe. | Se aes ee oe ‘i aa nea ue .eas me ae oo tae SENG | PE ce i| ae ae Los oe : Se aeae eS ee _ GF isee CN _2 Be eeSe: eee —, Sane EN SUN SEA Meas a Na ee AN os Hoo Ss a SLRS REE a BUN AON inweeee i Bees TERN MS ee ee SENN sy eal in Se ee -. SA . ey saath LORS ee

ana Co ae Hee RON a ih Ans: SE SHELA RS Dace SE lene Ay HAR a re ESR ee WSS. ae Gunes oo eee as Cott eh . Ae ae Ri ed

De ay ee uh con baal il eae ST) eee ee a isa AR Sh ae eee eis ft ata Si SaaS i | ny a. i — 4 F a oe COS ey ee RESI, Soe oe ENG) ee ctLise SEY SESE ae,ae SAN oo Ca ee .yCe Havene US SSS Maas SMe oo |.oo en on De 3oo esae Mos PRE ose: a es eepee: Rea a.oo nay oo _eS WRN iSe alana RY Fee ee oa Ae Ns pees Se OARS ge a—§ ee s aae aie Ne Oe .Bae Zoe eee Ce oe ea aR aN ee Ru! BS 'Me &a. es Loo a. ae oOo _asKES .Aa ges i.EN es ms aoo ‘ Ree iene aeSN | .Mans — ie og

ees NS one aSeoe SOG eee ahey Spee oo. ae | oe oy_.gg Re .a— 8eeGR We es Os alo al_.. ,PON oo ee oHE Wey eee OU oe IN ee ooCe aOG RENTS Fi, oo. Wo ee eee rie ee oooo Wee GNIS era Bina AN ee) iA BRA eees Gi : —_. inate vies Aaa RS aae aoo eeee . Ga O.|. RU aOa |Bee a)ee a)es Ha Bee oe ue 7.ne: ee |eeSSIES vie oo. ete aaPRES Ce ff. uve End oe aeesOT oliaeg Wigs esBre i cena ONS oe re aoe ee ee. OS ee _Nes rath Oooo eSaR: aea. -. Des MEER: Ce nea a. we CHEE ee | | AN — G Kua aa aTOM nese ihSe ae EES Ce Hick oo .|eae Span Ife Hn aees ieSTATENS aaee HaSate nie: NG eens SS eeEran ESoe sit _...ee ih oeihe Sanus a. SES Oeoe Se:. eeFF a as _ aUae 2 | i. _ PRY ie 3 CS x i e ee nM . — ORES Ey a _ AN =f oaoe ae ae a. Renae oe one pe .. _ a — i A a a a. lave oo 3 _ Bo TISS Se a _.. a | es . Ny a ee a. Cay Ei De Ea oe EES es ae ae ae oF — aoa at ee oe CGEoo aoo Beae iEe ee eo ee ee[SEES Sees Nae: . SRST .CD es Ses 8eens oe obSalen eeTA oe ae tialaRON ERs i aRES anaes Mh Geee wae Lak) eee 30 i eee a. Soe, FF BU BH bes me DD . |ee Nien . a2|2Os. he Ces Bi Data sist ila aoe AN gare pases: . CS Ue ee eS ETE: ooeat One: oaea ANTE iA we Beit) Soon re Rene: fae ey oo ee Oe es o ee ieeseeSEE Hosa ae Nee aeeea Aeon i‘| iASaoo Aronian aeUa : GE OTE a. AE .2 Ls . NAS pss .eae REE Rett eae os Re Beye Jes ee eyaSe: LeAeaCS Haiti BN Ot say Nasi a ee a _ eae es oe . ee . hae i Oe. ae Ce ree ae ane Fis oe SSE_ ee eo . Oa ee . Ne st. UES eeoe ee OSS Se | | oN Se Daan aSnneNe ooieaaeHe7-ax aeeKanHda. oo _ees_ zae eeeeeSOeesSee oo Lo _aeifeue Jou aay oe Ue .ee —i. ae Be oe ee oe eee eeHe ees Eran a8 als ee oo SScoe aa8oeTai Rot DaeWo eae Leoe a oo. oo ae asee HESS OARS OES Beare tee Re eee Se: Depeas oe iaeeSona on) oe is es ee: ESLE oes poner a. oo Bi a a. ‘i Ses . Rear ee ee ae iaee eee ipa Secreaeay Su erate er ae Pe raves cine ee AN HN AORN seal ANS See oFa Gon a) oo ee oe eS es pees. ae eeFoe oe ee parce eeee ae aeon Menooe EES pee a ee aae nsene Oy eBe EN CN . aSEES oeADES: SEE | reaHs Om.i ae ooPN)*iOG ooPenh oo) ‘ ce oe owceeyae ONRN —..LOS ee - eS, .i eea eee Heese ies eeeeSASS pescats aIHN Loe oo oe a es aaaoe Soe oo =eeeaFe oeeee aeenae a oe OS AN Fi aka TAN LE My Gl ee es —2 eeeee SOS — . SESS ESS ES: Reece io sama ETERS 2S Ne AAIia)A co i aOeae ee Se one aoeBESS eegues eSReena eeeeNe Des oeneSES Oe oe oo

aooa oe 8 Poe ce Ss — if | ooie a _ ee ee fe ooahU eha oe

Bi ee ooASS oo _C oe.1,oc / Be . oe 7ee—|oe8|a.Na a oeay aWher -a aiafeSe aoy _.7..oeRa 0foe Md i cooe a.feet) os eae ee

oo = | Boas : Sa ae OES oe | We Vee es

_. oo | aeeoe ceed _oe oe ..a._[2 | _a a| Lo a .Iea1aoo. eeeeoN . et ee_i ee Se oe Loe ee oe .aoyoe So CG oFos SESSoo . if ee es oo oo ee oe\eeee BESS— ES . OS i Og ££. oo eA INNa Oy) ee 7 oe Fa Ro oe i.ia Be Cl eH ps rae oe Fee ea a a | DO COS COS ee NK Ss oo San aae>. a-oo PON Ce BOG OO OS ON, ON ee aeee aA eyBe ee a... _ ae- oe SonGu ye PO Ce Lo Seyo. oo Oy OR ~SN —oo oe eeoe oe - —. ff. .EN oe AS ON oo. ._.. ff. a i. . OO US. oo oo aS ee Ne Se a f8 oo UG oe s | oo. US) NG IS ca r\ $l a. aoe oe a aN ae uy Oy Ce He oe ee ae oe oe Oe Ae oe . oo of . ve ASSEN oe FeO a oe CSN oo Oa SS Ce. Ne ee Se . oe i. fs nt NO .. oeORCC Sey a oe ao Oe ae oe .. : nue _ |. ae Op o oo _ RS as aN aN oe ¢g . «& ..OEiOe oo Oa oa ~~ .oeSe iue i._ae ......AG oe co |~oFa2.Ooi.BoeePaes |oSae . . _ oe". ON coy co.oes Cra ek oy, oo. oo Oe Co oe oe ‘ a°ON, So es us ._ .a | ae — ons ey, Ca LC es .owe nt ...oe Al _oo Hes SUR Co a_ ai | Nan |ON |Co ee oo -ee ee ae ee oe °oo NE ik -.-. le ie ee .. ca Ace: oo Co ads Ce a oOoo oe @ ae | ee oe Os Pee _. pe oo _ ee — ee eee ES il oo ee ., coon Bi SANS ONS RANA SANS Be Ne PON alaing Hees: see SPEER | oO gs He eae Seats eee PIGS eee SMe Ee EEE site REE Tete 8 Gabe Sean ee BN: apnea ose pee | Sith naa en yen somulele InN

a Fe ees Oe RNG A aeWANE | iee Resoe esl ety Pape aoe He aeoeaes GaN yo—Os BEERS a... Banat: COLON OS es Oe oeSean of aeeee Bee EEE eee eee USES we ieee a“4 GR INO OG FOUND oe CNGFON See Ma Bees _RS iaoo. re OOS ey Be eas: Pears THEE eae ee Hei BeR ee we PORE OA mes Soe ees NRE

ee Ae Ca Soin eM aN i an ns : Seed ee Ee ENC coe |. | aK oe onan BORN i on ae Oe: Meee EONSee CONNEAN SENS A ISAO i aay en Sn Co SONG % Oi.UNG eee Reeoo. ee Beeoe ge See f esEE Bea Me Neato CECH omi aOy, OO) Lo MA Aa BE, SeSGsee aoe oN Ce ae Co — es aUeee eeFasc oyeonce Bea eeoeSSG Se ale’ OaSON OR Us ON oo eeae oo . see ae EES ae osBoe ABNay BS CN SAG iat Us De MisBONY Tee AON SAND ON |RO NMY: ges BASU abaoeBes Aad Pees Oe Posen eeeee Eee SESE IN:see ee Ne ae a Boeaee1 okee BH np oo EG Ae NERS RU BESS USES i EUS EA NONON VANS BSS: SE ASS ae a eo De aes Ree oe . Staaten Seas ccoetee: ie — Reus sae ee ee Oa at

ee a a Pise Pe en oo Oa SRS OR RE Sa Oe UGS ae sek WRI RN Ry a. oe Soe — | ee 7 a oe Oa ee VON RY AOR INGE CUS Oe Gongs Rea SS SE OS FEROS Se SOE ss EES See HOSES: ee . pa es a a ns

Bil) oe Be Cn OK ASR POI Xa ANT HRS ISS OS NG TUS oh ON AE ea a. | a oe aes ee ee ios ee Le — . oo NDsioo Pcs0Pa... i ie CNY oS GN GRO SQN GS NNR oo Ce .Os Seale eee oo |1a OU a...osCe EN, LER ey Satu eGesUs es eee Ras aosoe Hy a Saou ON osNUON SOR PREM aeWy ON Sees pa Le aSEE o a. ee oo. a Dupe soni ae wT OGBeES eeooae es Ee | puss nee ee eeos aS seeee | oe ee ou so ees Beee eeBaas .eeHoe oars — fees ED ss Tee fe yee SCERESE SEOSSE eis _ |. ocean ae eeee NeXE Bot ee Oh eee we anes Oe OES “Brera iS ee Cee es ARN ika. aN ACERS ms 3 ae poe aSED oe oo ee UO os ee ee A TARO Ce oe SESS: ATI | ‘il iiageaciaeti BN PUES Senet ae eeBRU My aeie tes oes eae oe SS: an AUNTS ao NSRP ANIA .a MOE

ns

| CORN AMONG THE INDIANS 151 be boiled at any season of the year. . . They also pound it into a kind of small hominy, which when boiled

into a thick mush, with a proper proportion of the smaller entrails? and jerked meats is held in much estimation. When the maize which remains on the stock is fully ripe, it is gathered, shelled, dried, and also packed away in leathern sacks. They sometimes prepare this

hard corn for eating, by the process of leying it, or boiling it in a ley of wood-ashes for the space of an hour or two, which devests it of the hard exterior skin; after

which it is well washed and rinsed. It may then be readily boiled to an eatable softness, and affords a palatable food. ‘‘The hard ripe maize is also broken into small pieces

between two stones, one or two grains at a time, the larger stone being placed on a skin, that the flying fragments may not be lost. This coarse meal is boiled into a mush called Wa-na-de. It is sometimes parched previously to being pounded, and the mush prepared from

this description of meal is distinguished by the term Wa-jung-ga. With each of these two dishes, a portion of the small prepared intestines of the bison, called Ta-sheba, are boiled, to render the food more sapid.’”’ ® Green corn was roasted or boiled on the ear and was sometimes buttered with fat or marrow: ‘‘ When boiled green with rich buffalo marrow spread on it (instead of 2 The small intestines of the buffalo were cleaned and turned or inverted so as to enclose the fat which covered their exterior surface. They were then dried in the sun, woven into braids or mats, and stored away for winter use. 8 Dougherty, in Long’s Expedition, Thwaites edition, v. i, p. 303.

152 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS butter), it is very sweet and truly delicious.’’ (Boller, p. 135.)

‘With ears of green corn, which they either bury in the embers, still enveloped in the husks, or roast before the fire; when sufficiently done they season it with bear’s

oil, buffalo suet or marrow, and partake of the rich though simple repast with joyful gratitude.’’ (Hunter, p. 273. This evidently refers to the Osages. ) Sweet corn, or green corn roasted or boiled and then dried in the sun, was called Watongziskithe by the Omahas. The corn prepared in this manner for winter use is very highly spoken of by all of the early travelers and traders. ‘‘Qur supper consisted of very pleasant flavored sweet maize.’’ (Maximilian, p. 40, — Mandans.) Boller, p. 185 (Mandans): ‘‘The feast consisting of Indian sweet corn and tea was set before them.’’ “We were conducted to the lodge of one of their chiefs, where there was a feast of sweet corn, prepared by boiling and mixing it with buffalo grease. Accustomed as

I now was to the [de]privation of bread and salt, I thought it very palatable. Sweet corn is corn gathered before it is ripe, and dried in the sun; it is called by the Americans green corn or corn in the milk.’’ (Bradbury, p. 131, — Arikaras. )

Sweet corn and beans boiled together in the form of a

succotash was a favorite dish among the tribes of the Upper Missouri. It was prepared in various ways. Henry, p. 327: ‘‘Our host presented us with dried

meat, and then a dish of corn and beans; but as the latter is not cooked with any kind of grease or fat, it has a very insipid taste.’’

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 153 Maximilian, p. 28 (Hidatsa buffalo dance): ‘‘Several young men were now employed carrying around dishes of boiled maize and beans which they placed before the guests. These dishes were handed to each person successively, who passed them on after tasting a small quantity.”’

According to Carver the Wisconsin Indians prepared

succotash from fresh green corn and unripe beans: ‘‘Qne dish which answers nearly the same purpose as bread, is in use among the Outagamies, the Saukies, and

other eastern nations, where corn grows .. . is reckoned extremely palatable by all Europeans who enter

their domains. This is composed of their unripe corn, as before described, and beans in the same state, boiled together with bear’s flesh — which renders it beyond comparison delicious. They eall this food succotash”’ (p. 185). The Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras do not appear to have made succotash of fresh green corn and unripe beans; but Dunbar states that the Pawnees boiled their beans and pumpkins when green, as well as when

ripe.* ,

Henry, p. 325: ‘‘On going into the hut we found buffalo hides spread on the ground before the fire for us to sit upon, and were presented with two large dishes of boiled corn and beans.’’ Maximilian, p. 220: ‘‘A large dish of boiled maize and beans was Immediately set before us. It was very tender and well dressed and three of us ate out of the ~ 4Buffalo Bird Woman states that the young girls who watched

the corn patches to prevent the birds damaging the green corn sometimes boiled green corn and green beans together and ate them in the fields.

154 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS dish with spoons made out of the horn of buffalo or bighorn.”’

To the simple dish of boiled corn and beans, other vegetables, meats, and dried fruits were often added: Bradbury, p. 154 (Hidatsas): ‘‘We were treated with a dish consisting of jerked buffalo meat, corn and beans boiled together. ’’

Long’s Expedition, v. i, p. 114 (Kansa tribe): ‘‘ They commonly placed before us a sort of soup, composed of

maize of the present season [August 20], of that description which having undergone a certain preparation

[roasting and drying], is appropriately named sweet corn, boiled in water, and enriched with a few slices of bison meat, grease, and some beans, and to suit it to our palates, it was generally seasoned with rock salt, which is procured near the Arkansa river.’’ Lewis and Clark, p. 214: ‘‘Kagahami or Little Raven brought his wife and son loaded with corn, and she then entertained us with a favorite Mandan dish, a mixture of pumpkins, beans, corn, choke cherries with the stones, all boiled together in a kettle, and forming a composition by no means unpalatable.’’ Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 270 (Omahas): ‘‘Um/’ bagthe: corn boiled with beans, set over night to cool and harden then served cut in slices. Considered a delicacy.’

Parker’s Travels, 1835, p. 53 (Pawnees): ‘‘The daughters of Big Ax served us on the occasion, and bountifully helped us to boiled corn and beans. . . In the evening we were invited to two other feasts. The first consisted of boiled corn and dried pumpkins boiled together, and the other of boiled buffalo meat.’’

SBE IY LI aT deeWEEE yoo es SN oe Sne oy peat y enue en HOARE Eh tea WEEE USS pene foci ail geeatiie ag Rania vehi peers Goes ata uhagwuivce gatie SORELY EEE Ubenay RRS EP iigs CEIane (ANGER su ueiyntygent: Sei ei WUE PEE EOEore ne eres Saath bale coat nee ae aoeSEES ha dad acts SSNS cana i ULSAN NARS aie jai sisaii oe ‘

——en——Oer Oe co _ . Eee eas gr HE Be EEE eo OE TEE eerie eee Ree eee ane Geers Ce OS LS SEN Fe IEee dEeee aE LEE EPEC EET (ESEom Pes ad RREE eeeEE ese Re eae ASee SEU NE NT eee SeSeo ee Renee ee CS ee Ete neeeeae ieee trees Ee EG Eee OgeT UE ThiSUG sii EEE SEE AUTOS SEU ee ee eee ee | SEs eee ESSE Seg lars atinU8tee eeSEBEERE ee DEE ORE Te Eee : oe ee .heme i_.—JS Ee hae VES SEED Re SERIES Secs DEE SUS Ee oneBa ISRSESES Ba ODS IS ee re Pecesericemraman nu DUNG Es SR a Ra {ORLA DURE DEES ET etd LAMA SESS Hout ies Seine eee suaieMbee ec loys chase PSE eR PES E SARESe SSE SE See EL SE perce eee oa a 8 peers toe eee err SEDER SS A RES Se eG ee DEERE a ee ee | eee ELS SES BE SA SE SE Riieiiar een eee Be ae i y SCS CEE Se tes DU PES EE aeee

Llee|._oe EEeeaee#2. WO | aFF ee 2. rCCisidsC el ee ee 7 le _ ae i ee ae ee er ee ee oo INI pea coo iE eel Sei ee ee. eee eee, es aS ae DOSES EE Ee EN oD oe gd a rrtr—i—OC lle Crs oo. oe —C—tr— a h,rr———SEB oe 8a 2, } #3737 2 ee ee en ee ee {ESE NS a .. . ee GOS eS gre Oe eee ee eee oo. =. — ....... CL CC ey _ ee . LCC LEE Cr ee cece oo ESS IS es ee ee eeee ee ee lleee sO JE aeet eee APSE oe gs (a oaoa, Ceaee ee ee SE A ee eeae VARS STR eR Cl ee Ce ee eter ier oo oo 7 fT ee ee 8 rr _ ee

ES a 0 ee HEUER ee ee en ee oe hr ae l,i ee ee ee ee PEED SG Sago Se oe Ee een ipisiiieee tang aun nr eaa are meant, Sak eset ert ee Ce eee een ree ieree ere aen|...eee srs Dlleee. 2Vee ee acta eee aers —rseee TE ee eee ee eee eee ee ee EU ee ee OUI SES es ee ee eee a =n eeeie eee EOE aN ee. a ec lll aee es nee LEE ES EEIU RG ee ee eee eee eee I IIIS eee SUSE EEE Ra . »aeSECCL COC OEE hl aN Fees a. 8 ee ee eee ee hl ee——s—S—“ Eeae -T Sohh eeeae peer.EE aee: EES yu finite ieeeee oieee Aeee AD i See PES 00 ee ee eee eeRae, -—HERE ee eeeePieter eeENING: HEIN S002 SS Sen HES UU oe

[Ss - ROeeSE Rna Ry a ieee Seo EO ee gc ne ttBSeee eeeRELISTS LOSS SS ee ee ESEREC ESE SOE Oeoom JEEVES ee ree SUES Cn Se LE Ss

EERE Ge SINAN SRS as) oe Ses ERS UAE ESR Pei SER De eee SES SE JE EES Ee Rone ean sR SEES SSE ee ee eee ee oe ee ee NS SS EE eS Ss Serie ene ee ere ce emer en ren EE INNES NOE CoS econ Sane ag sac gee uc ee ace a EEE 8 eran DIES Ea aesSRR trea) STEERS EERE Ea Soe EE SHES Ne(eae SLES caneRST retin ey pe SE SES Re LOSERS CORSE REESE PAOLA eaecea aR ESSERE SRE SS 2 TREE Se DoS egEe OTST SEESSE Ue ee Sane See EIUSS SNE RRCaRRL: COOTER ORT CROCE ae ene ae

Ss

EES ee a , a ESSE Eee SE Sere ere et een ees ran CO Pe eae ae Soe Sas See es os ee oe SE See re JERSE SUR eee tee aneOR aera Sb RR RRRae RRAe BERR RE ESOS SLE UR ORR ages Sheer SSR SRN esee JSSeae ee Dee eeiei SR oo. a RUUNG) eee SReeeREET eyaaa[ERE Ono eeeUEDRE Oc a Cones oe eee ee i.SSUES coe De eeSeSORES

[EEE Se ee UE Oe as oe Beg ies ee RE eC eee Se EES 22 SIS EES Oe ee eee ORO NG Sst Cin SRRERE Nag earn ene SoS LES

ee ee oS)ee cePE PES .. SEA STSeeSES eeooESeeeeLe err_ ae eeeeeee—eee RNR oe Ua on eg ee CEE CNG ao eee PERO Cee SESS Sg a SESE AEs ae Eas ee ae ee HER MIRBE oa no SESE RESIS a iy ESD ERE ESATA RANE aR ERR SS) 10 /\ HSS NUS ae 1 Eee SB Sa Ra IU ESERE Semis Poeeis RNERCR) GLUNALOCRORR RORY oy PROINANRDN conc EE EE eM a a RCo OSS SASS Gare aces ene

SIME EESS ee ees PASS Se Pesaeneraie act eaten te See Saienesers sien acer tanee ease cee eee [OLEAN Ge RES: ee ee ee SOAS EG EST I

ee ein teamsTPES Sey reeSAGES Se Wei SuGaie So Se See BOSSE ee SRS Ee ee a RE eeEO eeeeeee eeeeneee ere ote nenee GIES CEGhe2 SR ELI

SESEEEG earrapene ONeee ORNS oe EERO USER ES sca ESSERE SEEaoa SSSSUR odes eeoe Ceens gee oo lS aeice _ SSI myCase / _ ee eeESE ee ee ee eeRee pao) eneSCeee Be en CCl

ee eeoreenren e ee USO GSES Se SEES SS8 IE oo DAN eeEST rian an EER aeESEee eeSoi2ee ee ee ESSE ESS LOTSeee COVES ONIN eis et San Se CNR Sten ORO ep RR OO JSS re panES NGM oa ECced es 2g RS SA eae EeLOS SERIE P cate

,.. 2. DO ees 2ee eeaeee | oo i aaCO eeI2 |.Seis I ee Ae aeeBESS i) eeieeeOeee §. ..Pos Ieeaeeeee ee eee oe a ey ay iy a ee EES ES re nee eo eet one aa a eee enna Pe ee — ee ee

a PR: UU ee aes eeERE A rr CeNON Paphd se 2 |. a ee.eee eee ae Rife eon ReeOE ER eens aan Ssee Fine a aee SROer alge paper tinsCc Supaeiecbia iia mine Lalditnr hensae peSSL ate SIT STI ww SoSS SD ES oiRe I ens aces ee EEBNR SESE SONA Sareea cee eee ean ecm eet ee eee ern eee Oe ee ELIS EEE SDSEC ESS ISeRearaESE OA oe ee Ee aUSIee EEE ee CO i ae

ee ‘ee: - ee ee Ms ee ee ee BA Oe ae eeeeeaeeee eeBE ee SCE EEE IT SSS Se OMI Ee SESE ESSE BeeeeSR ee RE Die DEC COG AMR cn TEES GEES ES TE Eee a RRR Oar ee Se Ss Se See ee eae eae ge EL

ESS es EEO a no a i a figione ed ennai EES EE See RUMOURS ns a SoETEE ESE ee Be ee eee Bee cr oem Se

SEER ee aenc USAy ereEe) EREETO ere gE eAea ERE as Me SR CEI Ue PERSE OSSnig SESLOE REEEERE GE SOURIS OO ere ow ae ee megsa Cae ee ern ioan Ss ee TerSPREE DURES oust ouem Sel cat GRE eat OS Beso ge es

2 ee _— a ee rrrrr—=Ci‘(C;éCOCSOCCiCi«CisCsCCi:CO;:CitC# rr CE Ee ee pat enenneen Eon ieeeeeee Ge eee JESS BESSY ee ee OASS Cee Serena ene Rpaenat crear tra ee ee Se Seeee RR RE ROE Be DDSRGO LSee SIS ee PR eeee Ho OSs SeSe es EES AEE ESS Se a EO Ne reeReomen ene eeete ee oeELINOR a,eeRESee anoe EES EEEIY SEE EEE TING HAN OS SER CaE RE SSCS a EES OS OSes cee reneeeee URE Tn Ree og eee eo ae ce — (ee iereoa rrAten —C HESS SS rrrlrrrr—“‘“‘COCOCOC‘COSS ee ee 20 aLr a Oe HE TEE Rr angie oe oe AEE RE IS ee es eee eae aed PR oO ogee sh ad te [2 hmrrrhmrrrr—“‘ ae oo ee ©= .. .. oo «lhl LLL LU ee ee Ce NR ee es oo oe EES SU |. a ce ee ae : oo a ee ee SOI ee COUN RN NOUN cee | SESE EET _ Ss a ooo _ |. ies ee ee Poeeena ene a ee EE Oe GE Havrarctomatae| Pe an SAMUS SUM CEM cced eo SS Ep eoraseeeesemareearts 1 01 veal Ha Re OMS oc eS Peaaeeearan coerce RUSS IGS Soe: ES oe ee es

(2 hl LU _ 8 OL . rrr rr—“—rSC ES SONS A 8S eos EE Onn RG ee PO SES SSE ESS AME NEN ee 7Os ce Ee ES . De ee NL a neFeO ceigseee eeSSE ee SE OeeGEs reg

EEE EE SES Sis GSS SSIES SE Be NN ue ANN Cn MN secs er ELBE EES Ce TEA CURR SDS a ee eR Ea Buea SOS ee ee ee ee

(rrrrC—~——SC—“CECNCsiais“CSORSC ‘S$ oe rrr A eee ee eeBORO erence cnSSM nO oo.es SES ER eeey SSS NOG AE igi eo Ro eeeee eee eeSnRGREN GN oe ce Se Oe a BUMee SORES ATA atcCe aUII Rierea NeiT TC CH REE TSeee ees eee eee eseETN a oeDU Pole ore teliiges inomsee NRSRCR RgSS {SNe rea Se ere res 2eeOTROS OUR eee Se ee ee is HEE SG Ce SUN NN es eee eee ee IS ce Us: em ee occ ne PAE ee ee ee ee | SOU RG ooo SEs Ed

narebCrete eae aneAHR EEN FT aeAN Dee822 IN SECS cos ERLE neOEE Ls MUR IEEaLUGA SAAR oooh Sa es UO ESR UE USE ee BE Sa TITEee AUTE Rao aa PIGS RMON EER SaEsogEe DEE BA ae aLooe UR Ses aun EAS ee OSES PONG ER SHA -eeee ee eS eee ey eeoes DOSES SURG BS Bae Genii Soa PREC ee SEE gS eeNM Sa 8Ui Sco HOI so ees EA SOROS REESE SRSA CAO) Ra ea SanSEP ee a WS eePRIN eeCOOSA ae ISaN OS OO Sees ra teem NO Leyee aR DoOS SENG ASS Sse De acon Tea cs aR EESeSee TSaN SMM MOM Mek Sccacee eee emerge Pao chan inetnAI Geren) eames PE See CS ES

ee FO NN SIME oso: EES I I SII Goo SE EEE NOI OSES ss Reeser ere ree CC AO a OKA

+... i=. ll rr—“‘’YERCOOCOCOC ee

EEG eee i itis ee NS FINN: ee CORE rE See 0 aac Se See SSE TREEI a ERS Cn aes ee a ee eS

ee: AM MUM OS ST UU OUR SMM OHNE gs SE SE TOT Sain ea re Re em Ee EE CO Se Eo UM cic 2

ee ee eeee alii onAROSE cs SEES iesEH yiRN aa aSO AOMAN Geemnnnine nn INN ooee ohh. aNSIT SSS es receeic eetesame EcaaRe meaOE assa eeNR NS See EOE eR a Bd ur. eeeeS eeeeS eeBerea Men BLSS INIT SOU NN ESee ee eee enone LSS TUane UII ese Se ea Sere eee 1 eSihes ey ee SESS eeSO AN eeooa Oa ee aaaa SBE Sg ete eam a aNES Mn Seer arreSS ae Eo eaaam raesacar renee 1 cei (MCN IRSNG I 1 ScWe eS OS se Oe Ee Oa ARSS aes STE TIN eS eeamoere SIUC ES ee IGA AS

Se ee i rl oe fe8 er Ce a ee ee i — |... oo |. oo a |Po 7 | We TIN ee Os a. 2... ene eee Lo ‘ ee : ll | _. ..0 oe ee oo Eee EROS EE Se STIRRE I ScAVES ee INN ihe ie eee oo ESSE OE— ee ee Dn eesIMI I ase cena UATE ee Na ee HSIN i eee ee a ae Ce

ee ee OS eee ee eeeEee ii ST SOE ORS a aeAee COO SeCo : 0 OS citseR ereae HH US CS) Miata NlUS AS reer ee aee OO es eeue errrtr—=“#étRRCCOSRH . ..SeiSS oe POT eee eeeoo |...eeerrr see —LLUmrhrCtisi“‘;;CO:”:C:C:«C«CiC ee

Ne a Oe aa ee eee

—Crti—“‘_—OOOOCSCOT.l..w”w™~™C~C—OCOCOCOCOC ee SU ANNU GION 8 ORO anil a CISD esses SLE Ee

eepre oe Oe eo ee )eea ee eee. 8oR EGEEEON a. Se 1) WN SeCs ee Cy To SSE eSoe A Eeeee ee UU oe on er aSeiSeaac rr eeemer) | aoo aOG i oo a8aera ||RsCteeee ne eo oe |.4WU ee ee Lr oo... 2CNM ee || enoe GeCee 2. ee errr UE Se OES GU SS A POSE ree ee errr UT NOM Ne at I I HS ee eR Re STO SORTING es 22s SSeS TU ACMI ne MOMMIES ose eee yee see

eeoo ee PN Us aeeaESR oe anee ee 7... CC eeEFF re, Os OeoOa_. |ISIE §SS 2&=« een ae FONG KG congee SOEs eee ORIN SES RU A go ating Aye SANSUI eo SES Se eee Sen RE Se Re CNS URNS RN TOS SS ee ee LlrrrrrrlTt—C eea pera otioeeee ae a—=— eee 2. OR ROM HEE EE =F s32

eae ceemee e NNN) FGI OAR OT SU UN ee eaea SESE SEE Oc ERASE CES UNG oso SC Asa 07) ae eres SUTIN ae HEI UP

ll flint 1. Blue flour 5. Yellow 2. White our . i 6 Red fi our 3. Blue speckled 7. Yellow filo i 8.stripe Sweet 4, Red ° corn tC ]

*

*

*

CORN AMONG THE INDIANS 157 LaRaye, p. 157 (Pawnees): ‘‘When they boil it [the meat] they continue boiling it until it can be eaten with a spoon, throwing in a handful of corn if they have it, with a small quantity of bear’s oil.’’ Dried sweet corn, therefore, was boiled by itself, with beans, with pumpkins and squashes, with meat and the small dried entrails of the buffalo, and was sometimes seasoned with salt, with bear’s oil, or with choke cherries. The choke cherries were pounded up stones and all, and were then made into thin cakes which were dried in the

sun for winter use. Salt was obtained by the Omahas from Salt Creek near the present city of Lincoln, Nebraska, and by some of the other tmbes from the salt plains on the Cimarron and Salt forks of the Arkansas.° Parched corn was called Wana*xe by the Omahas, and skin bags of this food were carried on hunting trips, war expeditions, and other journeys. It was usually parched by thrusting a sharpened stick into the butt of the ear and holding it over the fire.

Henry, p. 369: They ‘‘presented the pipe, some meadow turnips, and a few ears of very hard, dry corn which the women had parched.’’ 8 Near the Pawnee villages in 1820, Long’s party met a young

Arikara man who lived with the Skidi Pawnees. ‘‘He had brought with him from one of the upper branches of the Arkan-

sas, two masses of salt, each weighing about thirty pounds. This salt is pure and perfect, consisting of large crystalline grains, so concreted together as to form a mass about twenty inches in diameter and six in thickness.’’ V. il, p. 219. Dunbar states that in early years the Pawnees carried on a

trade in this salt with the tribes farther up the Missouri, including the Mandans.

158 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS Dunbar (Pawnees): ‘‘The corn was sometimes parched before triturating, and by this means the flavor of the food was much improved.’’

Catlin, p. 169 (Four Bears’ exploit): ‘‘He traveled the distance of 200 miles entirely alone, with a little parched corn in his pouch.’’ Parched corn was often pounded into a coarse meal

and boiled into a mush. The Omahas called this WaShon’ge. “‘A stick, nonxpe, was thrust into the cob and the corn roasted before a fire; then it was shelled and the

chaff blown off; finally it was pounded in a mortar (uhe) with a pestle (wehe).’’ Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 270.

Corn meal was made both of parched and unparched corn and was much employed in the cookery of all of the Upper Missouri tribes.

Henry, p. 327: ‘‘The corn is generally bruised or pounded in a wooden mortar, which is fixed firmly into the ground in one corner of the hut; and this is the first work performed by the women in the morning — after having washed themselves in the Missouri.’’ Verendrye speaks of the Mandans gomg to meet him ‘“with coarse grain cooked, and flour made into paste.’’ Bradbury, p. 183 (Arikaras): ‘‘The squaw prepared something for us to eat; this consisted of dried buffalo meat mixed with pounded corn, warmed on the fire in an earthen vessel of their own manufacture. Some offered us sweet corn mixed with beans.’’ Lewis and Clark, p. 189 (Mandans): ‘‘We received a visit from Kagahami or Little Raven, whose wife accompanied him, bringing 60 pounds of dried meat, a robe, and a pot of meal.’’

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 159 Henry mentions fresh corn (green corn?) mixed with parched corn meal: ‘‘We were invited into several huts

successively and presented with . . . corn and beans, together with parched corn and fresh ears pound-

ed up in a mortar; this last dish we found good’’ (p. 3259). And again, p. 332, he says: ‘‘We had a plentiful supply of corn and beans, and were soon invited to several huts, where we were treated with a very palatable dish of pounded peas and parched corn.”’ Fletcher and La Flesche mention two Omaha dishes made of corn meal: ‘‘Wa’ske: pounded corn mixed with honey and buffalo marrow. Wam’de: mush or gruel — pounded corn mixed with water’’ (p. 270). Bread made of corn and beans is occasionally mentioned among the Upper Missouri Indians.

Lewis and Clark, p. 161 (Amkaras): ‘‘They also brought us some corn, beans, and dried squashes .. . they presented us with a bread made of corn and beans, also corn and beans boiled, and large, rich beans which they take from the mice of the prairie.’’ Merrill mentions this same food among the Otoes: ‘‘a piece of bread made of pounded corn and beans, baked in the ashes.’’ ®

Dunbar states that the Pawnees made the meal from the mortar into cakes which were baked in the ashes or on hot stones, and the Spanish accounts of Coronado’s expedition, 1541, state that the Quiviras and Harahays (Wichitas and Pawnees?) had no bread, except the kind ‘‘baked under the ashes. ’’

Bread made of fresh green corn was made by the 6 Nebraska Historical Society, Transactions, v. v, p. 230.

160 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS Hidatsas, according to Buffalo Bird Woman. She says that the corn was shelled from the cob with the thumb nail and was then pounded to a pulp in the mortar. A

row of fresh husks was laid down, overlapping lke shingles, and on these several more layers were laid, every

other layer running crosswise. The corn pulp was then poured on the husks and patted into a cake about two inches thick. The edges of the husks were next drawn over the top of the cake, and the husk covering was then tied down with strips of husk. _:::4}: :Se » _ 7 a 2 sy . ee . Dl aS oe aoe ;ee cS ee oe ge ee A es oe ee ee _ o 7 C. ): _Me ie: : ::oe _ ane Se _o. ae dt | Pe _ oy Ee ee ES |. LS oe. te Se, ee pee ee ae | WO oo ee . ee Cee eee ee LSS . eae a Bee ee a . . :EE _3. eKS :>—Si ee ae . es . oe esaesBOGS . oo eS oe oo eeee ie .eeeeShe BES oeoe es if oe pay i)|:yey aa - oe oe eae =eeeoe oe oo .eeHs bas eeie eee fe ee :7.é aZ oe . oo. EES Le oe | oe ee . ee ee ee SESE EEE Te7 ,ee. é fis ae . i — Seas . _ Co see . Es 7. . aie se Be 2 Spee FF _ oe gD ce |. oa ae See _ *} > . ES _ eee eae Jane Be TEES _ : a oe Lo ee . Os .. ee . . Oe a . : 7 ee oo_.seeee ee eeoe cae Se es oe Wes lee an 7 Boe Ric es es oy . Rae oo >»8. 2oe ee Seas ces SEES Cee ee .oe:een |_£. oo. oo Be . th oe LEGS _ ot HE CARE ce{ > wer ee ES a . ae faees eee ne 8 oe Core ee Es . pees oe

' S 3 : : “i Q * . - | ee 2 Le ee ee ee pee . ee oo oe es Bees: ae eee a ee 2 ee pee ee oe Leese SES an

oo a eats fee ee 4 oe Co < Lo oo es SUS ee eee Rect SRE EES EEE EES oe HESS pees 2 . seniee pao pees es ESSE BeOS . ree ce 8 o . |

ee —_.. Soh aaeeses fs aee oe ee — Nees ~~ || 3_.Leoe — oe oo — aHe ee anaes ee LD oe eer” |.e cee oo arc IES a mee ae ee . _ ow < a PELE ee).e3Ee | oe CeNs RON THES a aesoooe oeee eS pean oe ee eea oe 7) Lt roOe “ ve.a ijES : | :L _ So oe ee ee: ye ae ee es . ee oe ee es ee oe oo ) _ 7. . eee i _ eS | oe — pacer _ oh nS Bs ee oo yo LN Sie Hee. ae Ses or ee ae sll eo ES ES as : pr ge \ . Le eeUe a|Sa As a oe Wi A on 2:oe :ce ee ES aoe ee6 Se Ue ceee ee eee ..aPps rt. |.2 Be : “§gee °. :ae; Pe .Lo i. ) .. MS i r | es EES ot aes . oo ce es ee eo UR pS an pee a..Bee ;— ie "_. oo log Ae Bi > |. feat ee a. ee oe ene ae WEES | Me ae ee co ae ee a SESE eee) ro a ae — 7 | wo _ » of . 7: eee | me . oN Pe >. _ ee ae 7. oe : a oo. wy 7 Ss ay ee ESS: . . | 7 Ce pee Sea EEE. ee eh SS es iS OS Bi cee pe ES ee ee at BACs ee BS Sue ere EES Bs ones ak ar eee Soe Sas atin bciserrans ee dee . EG See eer Spe

_ aeoeCoe ie . ea ee, ee Ce Be2S oeEES ee aan —OS ee Re Hsee 8. oo a Ee. es oe ee cs Seoer ee ee etsee asRES SS ee eeHES eee 7 7 | oo aoe ps ye . Wee: ee oS os Wes - LEDs eS Oe EEN ee et fbee oeEe ee ponies ee eee ee

re SSeeESaeHEE ee ENDS Se Seance ee eeSe ESGS perateee Aes:EN ce aes CC .-.." -ae‘ _oo: 4| .©pi. 4- :. Pee oo. es af eee DoeSeSURG PGSeeoN: LL an ieee.HUES ees Sree es ie aes

7 - —. Rok San ye Sal we ie a Se eee yee ee a EEDESE es sie ee Ce Boers Srcere oF aa Rees pate on . EE uaa lee . ee Ee 7 . a ae Se man eee ENE ss Ev ee Sa Mics: YES i re Oa ee NM: BRS eas EES PEGE Ee pee See ee DS RS aes ers eases eee SUR a, | NaN oo aera ea so ee ETS eon

aLf ee ;Ce ee Rene MRS 8"S iesEI MeoeSPRUE ou aes We 2eeeee fe ee eS BOM SERED _ 7 7teh 7 : érena : \ § SE ws :oes (: : .os.*LESSORS : : ls 7. _ ANG ene eee ee SEES ee eaeaeees oeEE aeeet eespeas RES Rade ouaeree HeyHRs: ES ee ee _.esate

seca AES peeOM Se Ee EES eee BINS _ i oeos NS: _— Seeoe eeSs peeSEES . oe Le 7 ’es 4 ig : ee |Ler “o .DERE “; BS HES, ee “ey eeFF as eee Sees ee . oe. ¢ oa y Dea _— eeeeeeeee _eg) wai LOSS oe a- a! ‘ -oe' a,on : , _BN ile). ates . eeBesar ee oege.oy One ny. ys Pe7.ke Hie) oorecs asoe eae _ ee “

aoo eeieeJoe _. ae Ss oeeee ee oo un ee _ |fe . ae Ay iiBee A lg ci- ‘.a:: oo eseSaebee 7meay) 7. aTORS _Nee &ware A oo oe oF A ose ASS aee|oe |erre Oy Wn a8 esx oe

ANS aeee e BS Se fog eeae oe _i aos 5ceeee EES

_ ae 8 . oa ON i oo YN { ay Y we e st pase BS ee es sg ee fo ae oe ee 8 ‘i e

os i 7ae os pe Aee a co eSa ae ee . 2oooe. aS |a;. i:SS |ye 2 Ve :oo: |7.0)es | Ba ,a| a|nN : , ay | :a:nS | PO ::aue Y ne oeoeie;ee a.-fe ee EN Oe .ye aNwe i i an a. ;aSS ne| pe aaa=air He ee ee ee 7:|a:ve a,ae : " 3|a my oo “a amee |G oo oe ek oo ee aa -oy=oSoa ,.aA . se.iaasits _.Dit 7 ooa i. aMN uy Wes nea uA we o e) e.a He ye oF aee | Ne oo oehs ie Hs ame oS # Gan es_ae :_ _ ae us “o_.ae aa AsAO Le ai.eeaaoY _aeea_|5ES o)_. was:

: si fe _i .mee -|aaae ie ee -a oco aN. Ne a ae ARS oo aene i SN ioy DED an iee Re~ -;ieue og ihaaeiia fae MU ‘ ie vi saisa : .7 ye ace me iooaa yy :ee . 4i.-’ Ny a8 aX aVe oo y-ONS i.o:&in _ae io) "a.ala,8onJe ohh. 2aie ;| ||a||oo.oojiNcaaos)oeoy|auoo ;eyoiosUe uy :sn.:iuy.iS /es5aay .Sa\_.aY :xGm ee ss aiBfae Ie -o e:.Eam ;ue :aDi |ae ee eae GQ oo .aaea:oy” ee 3See o> ee ,a:e“— os mops ze oe Aece e a ai oe ‘ Vs (3 a os Ge 8)Ne . yoy Ai, ge He _ys . .| ’:S i in De Habe a 7 Na Hes ee iby? en) s BN ANP BS) yo _ _e Ni Ne se Wt ce we ee uh el aie Le aS We | oo ne of I ol " a a Le of . a rishi

.me a Ps 37eeae a/ ean ai es “er oe23a aiea a‘izs on | aa a oF se .. cy ue wy _ BS i — :aDoo. oy a 4 a a oy Ae a Se a os ae Boe oS a _ 8 | oo a 0 ee Ce ee 3." ase ee "4 i. ja ae . a | a ee ae oe ce a oo nM we ue a Wie : ae me - - se . pe SE oS . Ae . ce . 7 o | oo a : .

ie ooaKis NGes ) Sas Ss ena)oe o aae xoY oo .a.oe ay ey Oo Bas! iN oeON Oeen LS i) aa. 8 i ax(AY oe Ne a4 Rae §Be ave We BN He Gk ‘|o an e Ee i. aBENS an) venO ee BO fin IES oe -)ve ceee Hoe aen2ARY . oe aoo 7) a|i a a . og a ae | |oo sy oy i.us oBe Hk ay icue 7le mw 3S es at ea . aul aHse oF ||i vo aNya.aaaK ne \ ut oo i Lo ‘i ae Cf u a y oo i i — a es ee ae ie : 2. x an a ) Le |aoo Foe :. |oo , : | : | : . : = © a Be wy ed . Re HA a ‘ih on a a A : MBE a . oo a oo a ) ae|ai) Nl nae Ke oo x 3 > bale ee -_ aM ae Hi ns oe a | a x Sb Re vii:no _a by) ~ ae a oS * a: ee” Bae oe HS ‘i oe aeaeteS eC o att me . .ALo 8 ve oaae oo OG Se a. er OeCe uk ceWe Re OX ms ee os a oO is He: i ne ie ie iae a oea. ;ci veSY oe aSBe AG M) i oe aN — a -a - . oo ‘: a Hi val Hh als ae a ci Sue a May HO U6 Ss Ne eae UN ye WK ae ae i 3 ba os 8 igi aS rae e ee as he ne Bes an: ae “| i nn Be: ao ee e fA a he a a WG BG ie oy aN . yee oo H ve) Ho y sh si eh oo

o VON Wi ey Ne Ue ues SS a Nae oo ua a a ly ty i ae i ol ees ye us a es aa A i ue es ne a Hs '7oa |oeHinn oe na KG ne |7aewe ees — iaeh. — pi uf ¥SKoO Me |afe | Ra saBe ne \aaS ny Ne eea»AM aae SS)oe ame . aN aaoe te oe|oo oc on af vo vie 7‘.aa™ a. oe 3:oo ) oo oe i a ._. a . .a4 aaie oo ae iSaw a.33) Bs: ne ae Ne ae oe iie a2eOe ee iaa,A ny oe ha 7.8ae ac :MO WAC -ES ee 3)a. fie oe te Nias “2 eeose a.uy Be ah ee ol. De , |-a. :Ff aa a .1i. Au .Oa ufi si ys BN gig oe & Aa on oe_.fol) os ee oee AN ae: [|aSee yyaetaAs »(an .We a) :a_a: 4 a WN aue Te i oF a. .oe . Ol .-ae|4— :7)on Ha oT aee eri auyoF mat ee sa:ile ne 5s a3 We

:a :x2 co :UR :iSOx Me ai "aPen .nN ae—_— et amn f 7.OS | HG Ss ve oF .(| 7|3 UR © & * ‘>¢ iae oy oe api | LS :oony7—7og ne ay De oe i eesy al> a|beg .se tt ret ee i: oyee 7ve o- |ie oe AS syee a. a.:.ie a| ql .ave x |yy aoo Bo BY _.ye acoamee iat ne iee Coe ae | ae oS ve ahe a)Gas aeaWea .es aSo OK xmSSO a-aRe iaoeieBeassAUN 3aCPrd ay ioeel_iesYO s4 Te See aAG ue ae Oe Oe Oo AY: e's aVos og vil a(|aWe 4ceBy RK HO .m .a iG aahy as es a_sLSul —o ia >< aaeie ieLan as 7co _oooS 7xi.:8.oEi ou i MG ON a NG we — & as, ™ o . . os ce Lf a co) i oo :| a Ps Lo 2 a sant » a — ae oo Big me Ve oC ‘oe. aaos .neapive Be PSs HN 4 moe aug) oy a, i 4) = a “ ay oe ye Ae 7. i NO) Se RG on ae x eS ae Ue oN a G x | eg S05 2 ai : dey a ¥0 | lees His 3 ni Ha a — a ue _ A oo . a os veueoyweoy‘ me ie C i) ee neth. ».. ai ee oFyiuD = .i 84 ihe ‘ awe - esas °aeaoa a aa _a oN o 7ees Csy 7eRi oy ae is a uesio)_ ee | aUa ofaa- | a ;a oo Oy a ¥ ONG a AG Se iA“se: o usos ‘ “aye 3 os as sk NK -MG

| |Ke | | a2. 4ceai 2oyoo Ss nD | a i|as oS ace | oe eee) . _§ y : aa: :a|

) A Hh at a i a sek ie He es op GN ats ee eee IN on Pas Me WOK eo. a Wii SON BS We eee sal a se (Gh ee . 58 l. ?| aOy ‘ we aehe) )1a sty 7 at osuyNi it aMi hy a iu i oegx 7 neae < Be So)Be Ah iN RSue nK oe HS SR yy, eyee ay ie es ESame nalsee 2 ne . es Bs gy Be on ‘ Be se: He _ oNoo ae aS _. ax_.oe ih aaneat mn. 1 a .

Bi Ow ae aS OH ye a .. v i HA ee ae mae oy yl i pis oF oe x a ih |. on a a i seer - —

a. : &§ o ~— I | » -me a i. EAN _ 7 .Pits Ge , . i©4|

7yaN Oe 2ou ee |--_iaaa7: ae ae i:yy _yy . a«ee — fo aie. a.ie Os .De otans a2a_. a oF a_ xxa re aa Ok ie |Soo ee peve i‘We _: o> | ai || | Ae as eeo~— .A ‘ oe ,ue ae .'| or oe @ 4oKM a_. =" ‘ae 3oo vo oo a7ae aes 3 ees oe ay aN Oe y) AV Sy) ANY Ki ae Ao MOH : a i a oo Be . we @ . a me “— a ES _ i aie e Be oe WS A ON Oe ce a oR iwae 7Ke |Sk|Ve oe :ye 2ee C -=Gs oe aBe 4oS26os¢aaama a= HOR i ae ON) Sioe aiaeige “a UNG — oo. La a7ee18 oo Loao-:aoecD) Oy oy oN on oe Gy = ye _oe aoeae iOSs _xus OSS —Se ._Sik “MG i~~ oo*Y Me aaSy.oh ._aoe aoe a‘eH aLe oS eo io) .mes or ate en cen aon ‘ay, aRo aa oe . son esee oS Be: ING ss aS ts as i)ce eae Seas oe aa3> ee 9y SZ oe aoS Ae 7aann :_iCece .on .oSauNoo o‘ve iEeMon .. ZattsyON aVeoo :ae_Ny 14 — A ON Oe BREE oOg tae oe Ve iG RG i¢ =.a . Ss oe a%Gee ae Ve .oy iotpe li oC 1Me yA a|oo .,URES My aN ne Be aLe eS,Me ee My iMT ai WP ay BO sha ne en fog ae ay a«| | Me _. ae ae a.ee .ay . . _ao a ye a _ iSeoeoe ce ae ‘a ‘3 — 2A»x3.seoea7ae:— OR aeaHen eeer aR ou) saoT aoe .esibm ee an Oy ye ye aayoS ‘::a .:a8 Me a a _ eG \ aAN us SO as Me Se aM ooRo ass i og cAoS! 7aN On Rs » ‘i. -Be Sea ai 1 > Oa») a;Ma a3ON -eeMy con a_ane ce ON a4ac~.— :Ue '= ~ oes aN eS BS BS oe . at Oy2_ae . oh Oo,a.16 a celeaK. SUN a A 1 a- coe an) esi ioo Bees i s >ai @ vo a8 De 7 . Nee -7 Lo i aN Ma eeabia ‘ oo We WeRAMis oo Se: oF |

a| iay ae oy By asewe ie, .ais se i) ee ‘eeaae ON a aoti ae ce Oe ONE ooeo« BR Re .KcraaoS » aSyieyeBAG pte yeieBe eGOe a |eeooLa_“a oeaaa)oy i a oo i * ae

. aa. i. se eel A. ‘a a -eta8aa oS a _ ’7' ooCSaoi7a:ioo y os es te: 7_ \ i ane mn _ a a ... oe . . _aN aa Cr a4 EN AS) oF = me te iN aeSs ~~ . a| ceeo ah .ne:KS . oe . |aa:ae8ee a aa i 8awai Hi . _ c. sol ae : a :_ ae — . yy . a a ve a a ‘ _ a a Ay y ye ) - < | 7. “. ae 1 WD ye ee i y i| ve EN eae as Vesign ii Hei.ceMS He EYie) S aan Soe oy Loe . i. _.aS if a- asera DSSMe ES fee oo a oF a. .Vy . Re 7 i|— : ue oe Ae Wehen a o na 8 a ee od DeeaXS oe .eea ae oo Be i 3 Ls a ee 7.4 eo Y 4 So ae Me ye co a | oo a ) aN oF . ce a oF an } .) Oe aN i Lo con 2 a US oe oo a0) i me x Ae X ae He me 3 a 4 oo 5 a bs ee | Ue ._ uy ae a ue Oo a i _

|5 oei ee aa ia a.a ye a Hhooi aefers 3o ce™ LL _i _| sy Bee ® as ay . of” ae oo _ yey ie a we _.i a-«i‘)A— .Nia as Lei oy =ieoS= ..ioke 3A 032: vcoaay~>.B :e a.aie :ni _Ae:. qA_ _. oo . a|aae7ia|HiaaeaaVed @ ne i. yMsoe - aaos i— aoc Us Nic . sau oe @aLars 7oe Y_. /8 ue..es oF Oo oy ie oa oo 1 _ SS A _ ne il ee gj _ ye we oe oe A i EN o. o 6 : : be . oD NON BS 8 ) ae iat ee Wy oo :. ee al - . 2.2 ae 4 _ oo a Oy : vo Hes vy . RON ae ay G Ny oC EN He os ) BR EKG a ue Nu oe me a ae il ae eee oo Lo oat Mi ye ss NG a a om He Ree se ce AGN ay OG ON oe _ |

ane _ oa iIs dik aeAe oof oes KE 7& a Be AN Y a“SS aeee a Coe 8a. ie2ieaAit =< a ou7eH>*\ SES ce +. sea. a pe i—oe Mas 1;a:ya:i |ne a2_o_sen OW) ave .oe )oo) ak ioe io Ec NN osa im i oo 7aeon ao ‘. ae |a|oo os Pe aeri nee cp. eeBy iaeaN weKh a es — Age fot Ne elles _aa ‘5 Aes ae .ae Oa he ae Bil Aui nS aes— te ifLa asPO aeoS 7ooBe oe aBiG a .aN _. OF ioo — ‘a : a: :iA aa .oo 4oe ams ca me aioe oe Na me 2oe — aiTi aae Ny i aco eae 2 ce Bs aee an i oS OeMy Kc or uy Cy Oo) Hi oo aievf iefe.me RK A oe ao oe ce — 13) oe ae yy aK aa:nis oo aove/ a

a eS i i het sR on > 3. le "ee: a i ot o 0 y

o a a ee ” a sles =Ys a : 2 o | 7A+2

ai ax‘ ae )Cok es ee (Kamat ue :ngaVe aaa=.7.eaBet aos Eeeoo;os 4lag :oe_:2~a)|%Me |ou ’a ae KS uy _ y He _i: yo aeOr BA oo R io e>» oo ae oee aeee i CC oe 4aoo yye oe |.ad fe ic... P ™ os a8 ae a|. ia4_: Ae ‘ae isal 7ee ne 8eS 4oeee .7oe BSie oe a a‘ ee ¢g ON eenes Msae oe aa _os A Ne High eece Mee . ae ak Le 7 Los beg a # ce es aks aaay1.aene ; i aK a | . | : | : | . : vy : Co 35 ne) ah ue, Sa a : woe Si 1 Con ad oe og nN a es pee is peas a ce Mies es ROY: BU pu Sy Oe A ca a

: a Nh oy ee sh aaha Oy aoa| .ae yy veOy a Neh ee yO S esaeoeAe a oe on ay eehs BES hate cc &me NG | oo) ae . Hh ui rhei oH a Hy 2 .HR on oe ys me ay UNG ROK i 7 Ae pe US ae isy a oeeea ore iis oo ee_“ane aseRue ee OS an a7_.a aN

. a oe o One 8 4 - Te a | ey ee 4

| a | a oo i i ae yh ae ie JS mh CG, Nols ie Gk Oy, Ny en | ES ie ae Sty ae ue oh Ge i) ONG oF 6 oo io is oe ce a 5 nee Bats a By oe AM ZN ae

a cya Ren ‘i AW LO So gs ms . weMN es Ness _ We 7 2;Hii4aRS ISiN i FON eea. 2Sli aeoe —e i) _-ee ahsyi;aa __ =aa:oo : . ee ON Rasccws AN Oy oe Ae os aeisys a 7a7.aee saSeof a foe A aiLs RG veyaaay_fSy oF

a cl * || a . és ee oT 7 ee 4 : a : ae: .s—— — : ree eh 7 oo ae _:_|Se o— Le_oe 7a a me : . a * >, _ vo a : | " . : _ oi a ae _ o ie a a a _ / : 7. a “4 A, _oe. 3oeoF2se accorBi —_. i: a;a:

of A.eK — a.Ht|:ofCe 5He co De :oo. i.“tae "aoy _ee8nee a seoe —,. ee _ oo :HK a aveihai . :aaa. i6oe oe aoo oe . veMe Pe eo ae ae ey _iEW) _— ;|SS eG as 3oe me ee x:Oo i_. "aini es os ©ue = oO niMy iDy a.eeCe ee at ae ous‘i co) ‘aSahin Was z.ae iOS .FE .Dy aon mh asa eeee ne ee oo 0— ‘7 sNy ony es:aaR AA 20 as a Ms aIRS Baoe oe iM Bide ast .oN ese .icy —.es oe He Ht o. ge . aMK a 23| ,!. NO :_. he 7_. 7oo Os Bes ee B ae a. 8_*ee Dee — »‘on ES ee ae ie _Be oe ass:an | Ae oe Re Ne Ss On ee ssi oe ne) .My oo ne ke ifva |Be a te Oe iSoO He 7.ae Hel a— o_. Ca ae ea ie‘i‘i oly ce a.Ne - aay aGe ae oe les ne iaosous hi ie ale yee aioe . . i . S in ag ee ee i ee Se Ue ie a ae op ae i aS BGT eg o ‘) he Gua a Oe Ree Lo i oS ~ oS ve BOE y:Uh Ok a . ape oe Non = a fa i aa a . Wg it ace e) Re eee ee ) se n AS wy Me . .Ss in, iWS My ax We oe ) a — 4 mf 2 — _ y !ieiJaaoo oO eG i. : oe ae : Le Oe _ : i Ds 18s oe . oe We ae ae a “ a ae ‘ S ie 4|oS co. oa so|a Doe yen —o ae of|ai, oo "ee He ou& aa oe ne ES eeisae A ae POs, ioo on iion fete oe uo ae ae oe on we re 6ion ee :oo :os |‘_ng a_aa .::pe hy VAS aM rf y Sik = a oe a on a OF ne | . AG ae as >) 4 ae ne» eee a Ae a eS — i a oMe of at oy i. a Ce So x 7 > a aa AN a oo _ AR | o ak Oe Ru a es a. oe a ae ue i a a oe fe Ne os P a 1 ve oO sat a ot i ae a. ce me, ae a a |: _ne .:—neeoo fs cy : Re. . Ke a ah . ue i Ns _imee > ie aN Ke oa a ee. a ae 3 ey i 7) a SK ve on 2 aN i°a : ._i me :uee 1 Le iNG , of ao aoe ‘ae |a yO “ oe eoe a ont Re me ee aebe eS oo ee aNe -Lo V a7 A‘ _aa" 4 : |ae :s:..3_|re Oy a say , C Be Ce ui he 78 oe oa 2 aN | ye ‘i |. He oo beg . oy Se : ae i a oe ee _| co Ye es oo Wa ue 2 ho es al safe Ke oe a ae x . ie . _ we ee ae “ . a;ai — _)Hat gpa ve

—e .aoy :iety ka K aS ee lee S Z2BS Io a8nes aiLS Oe oe Ss Eo as ae ae Be oh avi. aNO ai aio4 ..ae cM ee aLo oF aA Bo i1 iaLO |,ee ‘ay) S -n Ta ye 4ue oe alt ae .oo SS aeoo aye os ae he Le ae i;.7 A aBee sre aoc OG aie _. ee a i se e a ie A 4 see oe a = : . : : os I ae ot Re _ ae se oe a _. a eat Se ee a ae : 4 Ny i oe Le ee oe se oO i aoaee .ES ee aifee aee — -— es Mh |ae sfoe -a.OS c7 aoe iMe .fe aeae oo ee i ang) eit ft ae oe ol— s Los ag pee 2a see ae e_aoe aN xi Ns oe W aoo oea _.a: [email protected] aeae i ue ate a he a ae co 3:a:o oe nie _.ape Macy ore see aa— ai:FP. a_ |ee aaloobok ae _oy nS ce Be a oo _ a ae ie co uo os os _MY KG M m,ok Ktawo oo. Ls oo Nlfen =aaie -eee a.ae3ee ee :Waa7 iS Hs we iMe ne aoe a a _Re ar oy os | a sh Ne ie oC os oe . _! oe sees oe a AN oo Bu ON AWG, oe A .fig aleK aige iee 3 vn ae Ne es oe 8 aie a a ae . i As A f a AG a a eu ae :i‘ce a|ii sl-aoo. 7 i-o7 on aA a:o aeoe a ait _ oe ee :ce‘cNS iM, se aa ue aa"co-=cooe ae a]a:iaoe a::eo) -i8 “— co .Ky _. a7 i |a‘ :M icy is oKe asoo. _a.:aaWe ae aaoo |: .ioeLo. iaeoo :RimyaaeMei.iiaaooaneyaaoaae4Baaooi thog ]| AWN ‘ ae a a i a a i a MN iii suc Hee SH iy) sa a bee ae A le ee a ‘ is ye pe ae ee a as BRU ‘ Bu Nin a ee Ose he Le co a

| 7 a He ne a on i val rn ae ad sn PO a ey Ra oo ul i) Be Be yn i ne ee i He eg ae a me al a Ay! Ce A un EWES se se my Ns fh a ‘ty ae

| : . a i ae a | MY BO a Tg 3 ie if eee oN _ a ive = HAE Ber . an i ti oe ae aM oo yA a rae IONS) Uy Ty ih ae ha at ye: oh so) Ps i a ie oe i OR i: oe a pe iy sy a) La a e co

: : : a ee a | oe ne i AG a aK ee ae Ha He ak

BN a yy ut a a Ou ne on) a

..

Ha

2

:

AG

ey

i

:

‘Ses ayuy

\ } ‘ D I N B L E T “i V V T 1 O oe

CORN AMONG THE INDIANS 179 finally joined a large camp of Assiniboins. Runners were sent ahead to notify the Mandans of the approach of the Assiniboins and French and to fix a place of meeting, the Assiniboins for some reason (fear of the Sioux?) not caring to take their women and children as far as the villages. On November 28 the place of meeting was reached and the Assiniboins went into camp. That same evening a Mandan chief arrived with thirty men and the four Assiniboin messengers. This Mandan chief was from. the most northerly and the smallest of the villages, the ‘‘small fort away from the river’’ with which the Assiniboins appear to have been in closest relations. The chief, however, did not relish the idea of maintaining the large Assiniboin camp which had accompanied Verendrye at free-quarters, for ‘‘if they all came to his fort, there must be a great consumption of grain, their eustom being to feed liberally all who came among them,

selling only what was to be taken away.’’ The chief therefore stated that the Sioux were about to attack his fort and that he was very much pleased that the Assini-

boins had come with the French to aid him. The Assiniboins fearing the Sioux greatly, at once determined to remain where they were and send only a picked body of men to the Mandan fort with the French. The Mandan chief’s thirty followers had brought corn

in the ear and other articles with them, and now proceeded to trade with the Assiniboins, who had a large supply of English and French goods and also buffalo meat and fat. The Mandans traded ‘‘grain, tobacco, peltry and painted plumes, which they know the Assiniboins greatly value’’ for ‘‘muskets, axes, kettles, powder,

180 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS balls, knives and awls.’’ ‘‘They are much craftier in trade than the Assiniboins and others, who are constantly their dupes. ’’

With a score of Frenchmen and 600 Assiniboin warriors, Verendrye marched into the Mandan village on December 3. The Assiniboins at once proceeded to trade, but Verendrye gives no details of the trafficking. He says (p. 19) that the Mandans had besides corn ‘‘ painted ox-robes, deer skin, dressed buck skin and ornamented furs and feathers, painted feathers, and peltry, wrought garters, cireclets for the head, girdles. These people dress leather better than any of the other nations, and

work in fur and feathers very tastefully, which the Assiniboins are not capable of doing. They are cunning traders, cheating the Assiniboins of all they may possess, such as muskets, powder, balls, kettles, axes, knives or

awls. Seeing the great consumption of food daily by the Assiniboins, and afraid that it would not last long, they set afloat a rumour that the Sioux were near and that several of their hunters had noticed them. The Assiniboins fell into the trap and made up their minds quickly to decamp.’’

That the Mandans, like all sedentary tribes, were shrewd traders we may well believe, but that they cheated

the Assiniboins and other hunting tribes in their exchanges is a statement open to much doubt. The hunting tribes would not have made the long and dangerous

trip to the Mandans each year only to be cheated of their goods, and Verendrye himself states that these hunting Indians valued grain more highly than they did European goods, and that the painted robes and feathers,

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 181 ornamented furs, and other articles made by the Mandans were also highly prized. Carver (1767) is the next writer to refer to this trade in corn between the Indians of the Upper Missouri and the Assiniboins. He says (p. 109, edition 1781): ‘‘On this river [Assiniboin] there is a factory that was built by the French called Fort La Reine, to which the traders from Michillimackinae resort to trade with the Assinipoels and Killistinoes. To this place the Mahahs, who inhabit a country two hundred and fifty miles southwest, come also to trade with them; and bring great quantities of Indian corn to exchange for knives, tomahawks, and other articles. These people are supposed to dwell on some of the branches of the river of the west.’’ These people were evidently the Amahami, a little tribe living with the Hidatsas and Mandans, who were always

noted for their daring and for the remarkably long journeys made by their little bands. If Carver’s account of this trade may be trusted, 1t would seem that intertribal wars had stopped the Assiniboin visits to the Mandan villages, and that the Amahamis were taking the

corn up through the danger zone to trade it to the Assiniboins and Crees at Fort de la Reine. Carver also states that these two northern tribes were still getting most of their trade-goods from Hudson Bay, just as in Verendrye’s day. This trade in corn with the Assiniboins continued until after the year 1865 and was only ended by the placing

of this tribe on reservations. Henry mentions the trade

in 1804. Henry (p. 402): ‘‘This afternoon the Assiniboins, old Crane and his party, left on their return

182 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS home to their camp at Moose Mt., all provided with horses, loaded with corn.’’

Larpenteur (p. 255): ‘‘At this time a good strong peace had been made with the Assiniboins by the Gros Ventres, Mandans and Rees, and in the fall they would visit and trade corn.’’ Boller (p. 122), Assiniboins: ‘‘One old fellow took

the lead dragging a broken down bay horse heavily packed with corn, the gift of his Gros Ventres friends.’’ Such then was the trade of the Mandans and Hidatsas with the tribes in the plains north of the Missouri dur-

ing the eighteenth century. At this same period the Mandans, Hidatsas, and Arikaras were engaged in a very

similar trade with the tribes in the plains southwest of

the river —the hunters of the Black Hills region of western Dakota and of the plains of eastern Wyoming and Montana. Laroeque (1805) met the Rocky Mountain Indians (Crows and some Shoshonis) at the Hidatsa and Man-

dan villages and accompanied them on their return journey to their own country, west of Powder River and south of the Yellowstone. On p. 22 of his journal + he describes the arrival of these Indians at the Upper Missouri villages on June 25,1805. ‘‘Tuesday 25th. About

one in the afternoon the Rock Mountain Indians arrived, they encamped at a little distance from the village with the warriors, to the number of 645, passed through the village on horseback with their shields & other warlike implements, they proceeded to the little 4 Journal of Larocque. Publications of the Canadian Archives, no. 3, Ottawa, 1910.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 183 village, Souliers, and then to the Mandans and returned. There did not remain 20 person in the village, men, wo-

men and children all went to the newly arrived camp carrying a quantity of Corn raw and cooked which they traded for Leggins, Robes and dried meat. There are 20 lodges of the snake Indians & about 40 men. The other bands [Crows] are more numerous.’’ On the following day the Hidatsa and Mandan warriors visited the camp of the Rocky Mountain Indians and gave a similar war-parade. The trading then started in earnest; but Larocque does not give us any account

of this. Farther on, on p. 66, he says: ‘‘They have never had any traders with them, they get their battle Guns, ammunitions ete from the Mandans & Big Bellys in exchange for horses, Robes, Leggins & shirts, they likewise purchase corn, Pumpkins & tobaceo from the Big Bellys as they do not cultivate the ground.’’ After the Sioux had occupied the Black Hills country

and the Powder River region, the Crows experienced great difficulty in reaching the villages of the Hidatsas and Mandans; but they often got through, and their trade with these villages continued, to some extent, long

after trading-posts had been established in their own vicinity. Indeed, they did not give up these visits altogether until they were put upon reservations. Mooney ® says of the Kiowas: ‘‘They have more to say of the Arikara than of the others, probably because then, as now, they were the largest of the three tribes, "5 Mooney ’s ‘*Calendar History of the Kiowa,’’ in 17th Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, part i.

184 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS and also, as the Kiowa themselves say, because the Arikara lived nearest.’’

As early at least as 1719 the Plains tribes had procured some horses, and they soon began to make raids and trading expeditions toward the New Mexican frontier. By 1740 they were making regular visits on horseback to the villages on the Missouri, to trade meat, robes, horses, and Spanish goods for corn, dried pumpkins, tobaeeo, and English and French goods, particularly Hudson Bay guns and ammunition. The Crow trade at the Mandan and Hidatsa villages continued after the year 1800, but long before that date the regular visits of the Kiowas to the Arikara villages were discontinued, owing

to the growing hostility of the Sioux. Thus Trudeau (pp. 40 and 45) informs us that in July-August, 1795, the Kiowas and two other Black Hills tribes (apparently the Prairie Apaches and Arapahoes) were hovering in

the Plains, west of the Arikara villages, not daring to come nearer. Trudeau also informs us that the Arikaras had been making raids on the Kiowas —a clear indication that the Sioux had already engaged in their detestable work of stirring up war between peoples that had lived on terms of friendship for generations. After being cut off in this manner from the Arikara villages, the Kiowas continued their trade with that tribe through

the medium of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. A few years ago there were several old people among the South-

ern Cheyennes, since dead, who could remember this trade. The Cheyennes would take horses, meat, and robes to the Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages and exchange them for corn, dried pumpkins, tobacco, guns,

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 185 and European goods. They would then take these articles out to the Black Hills or, in later years, down to the Platte, above its forks, and meet the Kiowas, and perhaps some Comanches, in a trading-fair to which these southern Indians brought large numbers of horses and some Spanish goods, particularly the gaudy striped blankets which the northern Indians so highly prized. After the Cheyennes moved into the Plains they began to trade at the Arikara and Mandan villages. Some of the Cheyenne bands continued to plant a little corn, tobacco, and perhaps some vegetables until after the year 1800, probably on the lower Cheyenne River, where they

often encamped in spring and fall on their return from hunting in the Plains. Perrin du Lac informs us that the Sioux made a practice of robbing the Cheyenne corn and tobacco patches while that tribe was away hunting in the Plains. The Cheyennes therefore could not depend much on their own crops, even as a partial supply, and made regular journeys to the Arikara and Mandan villages to trade for corn, pumpkins, and tobacco. The Sioux, playing their usual part as trouble-makers, frequently stirred up the Mandans or Arikaras against the Cheyennes, or the Cheyennes against these: tribes, and broke up the trade. But if the Cheyennes were at war with the Mandans they were probably at peace with the Arikaras, and in spite of all the bickering almost every spring and autumn found large camps of Cheyennes coming in to trade at one of the villages on the Missouri.

The Sioux, though among the best customers of the agricultural tribes, were never really their friends and could never be trusted. They were the Picts of the Up-

186 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS per Missouri, continually harassing the village dwellers. It 1s probable that they procured as much corn by plunder and extortion as in honest trade. The western Sioux, those of the Missouri, occasionally attempted to settle down to an agricultural life, but they never persisted for any length of time.® The Arikaras were probably most under the influence of the Sioux and suffered most from plundering and intimidation. However, they appear to have reaped some benefits from this very trying intimacy. Trudeau is the first to give some account of the relations existing be-

tween these two tribes. In his journal, 1795, he says (p. 47): ‘‘The Ricaras and this Sioux Nation [the ‘Ta Corpa’ band of Sioux *] live together peacefully. The former receive them in order to obtain guns, clothes, hats,

kettles, cloths, ete., which are given them in exchange for horses. They humor them through fear and to avoid making too many enemies among the Sioux, who would inevitably overpower them.

‘‘The last frequent the Ricaras and make them great promises to live with them in peace and harmony, in order that they may smoke their tobacco, eat their In6 The Minniconjou Sioux, according to the information given by some members of the band, secured seed from the Arikaras almost sixty years ago and have raised this corn ever since. The Yanktons appear to have raised some corn on the east bank of the Missouri, in the vicinity of the town that now bears their

name, as early at least as the year 1850. They were always more inclined to an agricultural life than the other Missouri River Sioux, probably owing to their closer connection with the Santees and other eastern bands that practiced agriculture. 7 ‘Tareoehparh’’ — given by Lewis and Clark as one of the three bands of the Minniconjou Sioux.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 187 dian wheat and hunt freely the wild oxen and beaver on

their lands during the fall and winter. In spring they withdraw to the other shore [+. e., the east bank of the Missouri], from whence they usually return to steal their horses and sometimes to kill them.’’ Perrin du Lac gives a very similar account of the relations of the Sioux with the Arikaras and other tribes with which they were on so-called friendly terms.

Lewis and Clark (p. 144) Arikaras: ‘‘They claim no land except that on which their village stands, and the fields which they cultivate. Though they are the oldest inhabitants, they may properly be considered the farmers or tenants at will of that lawless, savage, and rapacious race, the Sioux Teton, who rob them of their horses, plunder their gardens and fields and sometimes

murder them without opposition. . . They maintain a partial trade with their oppressors, the Tetons, to whom they barter horses, mules, corn, beans and a species

of tobacco which they cultivate.’’ And, p. 165: The Arikaras obtain peltries ‘‘not only by their own hunting, but in exchange for corn from their less civilized

neighbors . . . being under the influence of the Sioux, who exchange the goods they get from the British for Ricara corn.”’

Henry (p. 339) states that when the Sioux came to attack the Hidatsas they ‘‘compelled the Mandans to provide them with corn, beans, squashes, etc., for their sustenance. ’’

Mrs. Holley ® tells us that in 1843 the Mandans and

Arikaras left Primeau in charge of their abandoned 8 Once their Home, or Our Legacy from the Dakotas, p. 179.

188 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS summer villages and corn caches. The Sioux came, and in spite of Primeau’s protests and warnings, broke into the caches and robbed them. From the time when the Sioux first made their appearance on the Missouri the village Indians appear to have attempted from time to time to combine against

them. Thus Lewis and Clark tell us that in 1804 the Arikaras sent embassadors to the Mandans to arrange peace. On their way home the embassadors were way-

laided and whipped with quirts by the Sioux. The Sioux then induced a number of young Arikaras to join

them in a raid on the Mandans, and thus set the two tribes to fighting again. The same authors mention another trick used by the Sioux in stirring up trouble between these village tribes. The Sioux made a raid on the Mandans and scattered some Arikara corn on the ground, ‘‘to induce a belief that they were Ricaras.’’ Even as late as 1867 we find an Indian agent reporting: ‘‘The Arickarees, Gros Ventres and Mandans are at Ft.

Berthold in a truly pitiable condition. . . They are hemmed in by all bands of Sioux: by those we call

friendly as well as by the hostile bands. . . The Sioux have killed a number of them this spring, and are very vindictive toward them.’’ ®

Hayden (p. 352): ‘‘The second market for their grain 1s with several bands of Dakotas, who are at peace

with them. These Indians make their annual visit to the Arikaras, bringing buffalo robes, skins, meat, etc., which they exchange for corn.”’ In the fall of 1853, 2500 Sioux came to the Arikaras 9 Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1867, p. 346.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 189 to trade meat and robes for corn, dried squashes, and beans, and to steal whatever they could lay hands upon. They then ‘‘left for the buffalo country, taking care to set the prairies on fire in order to prevent the buffalo from visiting the Ree country — an act of dastardly malignancy, as it deprived the Arickarees of the means of support for their horses and ecattle.’’ ?° Boller speaks of the distrust the village tribes felt for even the ‘‘friendly’’ bands of Sioux (p. 159): ‘°‘They

expected . . . tidings of the whereabouts of the Blackfoot and Unepapa bands of Sioux, who being just now on friendly terms were likely, since the corn was gathered in, to visit the Rees and Gros Ventres to maintain the entente cordiale.”’ This author also describes the straits to which the Sioux were often reduced during a hard winter and how on such occasions they sought

peace with the agricultural tribes. Boller, p. 209: ‘‘Many were obliged to kill their horses to avoid starvation, and there were rumors of the Medicine Bear’s band desiring to make peace with the Rees and Gros Ventres

in order to procure corn.’’ And again (p. 210): ‘(Small party of Yanctowahs, numbering about sixteen lodges, came to the Gros Ventres to make peace and relieve their pressing necessities by trading corn.’’ Final-

ly (p. 262): ‘‘The Sioux expressed themselves very anxious to make peace with the Rees and Gros Ventres as they invariably do when starving, in order to trade corn, but the latter placed no confidence in their Punic faith.’’

In early times the Mandans and their agricultural "10 Pacific Railroad Surveys, v. i, p. 265.

190 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS neighbers sometimes went out into the Plains to meet the

hunting tribes and trade with them. In 1804 Henry accompanied such a party of Mandans and Hidatsas out into the plains to meet the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. The party consisted of a large force of armed warriors and many women, some with their children, bringing loads of corn, beans, and dried squashes to trade to the Cheyennes. The women, says Henry, ‘‘had their horses loaded with corn, beans, etc., themselves and children astraddle over all, like farmers going to the mill.’’ And after reaching the Cheyenne camp, ‘‘the women were

also busy exchanging their corn for leather, robes, smocks — as if at a country fair.’’ It will be noted that all of this trade in corn, beans, squashes, and European goods with the hunting tribes of the plains came to the villages of the Mandans, Hi-

datsas, and Arikaras. The agriéultural tribes farther south, in Nebraska — Ponkas, Omahas, Otoes, and Pawnees — do not appear to have had any regular trade with

the Plains Indians in early years, either in agricultural products or European goods. One reason for this condition of affairs was that the village tribes of the Nebraska region were constantly at war with the tribes in

the Plains. Another reason was that, up to the year 1820, these village Indians rarely had sufficient European goods to supply their own needs and, setting aside their usual attitude of bitter hostility toward the Nebraska tribes, the Plains Indians preferred to take the longer journey to the Arikara or Mandan villages, where they could procure not only corn and vegetables but also guns, ammunition, kettles, and whatever else they had need of.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 191 The Omahas had an irregular trade in corn with their kinsmen the Ponkas, who sometimes planted fields of their own, but more often preferred to trade robes and meat to the Omahas for what corn and vegetables they

required. Dunbar states that the Pawnees in early times traded corn to the Mandans: a surprising assertion which may have been based on some vague tradition that

the Pawnees supplied seed to the Mandans when that tribe first arrived on the Missouri. There is certainly no mention of such a trade during the historical period in any of our sources of information. 2. Trade with the Whites Besides their trade with the tribes in the Plains, the

agricultural tribes of the Upper Missouri early developed a trade in corn and vegetables with the white traders and explorers. To the Indians this trade was certainly a great benefit, as it enabled them to procure much-coveted articles of European make; on the other hand it seems highly probable that the white explorers and traders would have found it impossible to carry on their operations without the supplies of food obtained from the village Indians. That this trade was established with the first coming of the whites and that it grew to large proportions may be easily demonstrated. Like the non-agricultural] tribes of Indians, the whites who lived in the Indian country always had a craving for vegetable food, especially corn, and never overlooked

an opportuni.y for obtaining a supply. They always took with them as much corn as they could conveniently

carry on their journey into the Indian country. Mack-

192 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS mac Island, in the straights between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, was a famous corn market of the early fur-traders. The great town of the Sacs on the FoxWisconsin River route to the Mississippi, was another

center of this trade. Carver (p. 24) says: ‘‘In their plantations which lie adjacent to their houses and which are neatly laid out, they raise great quantities of Indian corn, beans, melons, ete. For this place is esteemed the best market for traders to furnish themselves with provisions of any kind within 800 miles.’’ Prairie du Chien on the Upper Mississippi was another center of the corn

trade in early times; while on the Upper Missouri the villages of the Mandans, Hidatsas, Arikaras, and Omahas

were the corn markets for parties going into the plains or to the Rocky Mountains. As we have already seen, Verendrye in 1738-39 procured large quantities of corn and meal from the Mandans. Trudeau (1795) is the next to mention this trade definitely. He says (p. 27) that the prices demanded by

the Arikaras for their corn and other provisions had been greatly increased through the foolish action of several French traders who came among these Indians in

1798 and ‘‘paid the Indians three prices for food, a habit and rule which took such deep root in the minds of these people that had I not taken the precaution to provide myself with dried meats from the Cheyennes and Sioux, who sell them more cheaply, I should have run great risk of fasting.”’ Henry also speaks of this trade (p. 328): ‘‘We purchased sweet corn, beans, meal and various other trifles. Having bought all we required, which was 3 horse loads,

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 193 we were plagued by the women and girls who continued

to bring bags and dishes full of different kinds of produce. ’’

Bradbury (1811) mentions the trade with the Omahas:

‘We found a considerable number of the Indians assembled to trade. They gave jerked buffalo meat, tallow,

corn and marrow’’ (p. 87). The Oto missionary, Merrill, states in his diary that

in 1834 a trader named Edwards told him that the Omahas traded corn to the fur-traders at the rate of one bushel of corn for one yard of calico, the trade-price of this cloth being one dollar per yard (p. 173). Lewis and Clark were perhaps the heaviest purchasers of corn of all the whites who visited the Mandans and Hidatsas in early years. The good fortune of these explorers fixed their winter-camp at the villages of these agricultural tribes, a location which certainly prevented much suffering, if not actual death, among their men. The following series of short extracts from the journals of the expedition will give a good idea as to the extent

of their purchases from day to day. Some of their larger acquisitions of corn, running up into hundreds of bushels, have already been referred to.

Lewis and Clark (Nov. 16): ‘‘An Indian came down with 4 buffalo robes and some corn, which he offered for a pistol, but was refused.’’ Mandans (Dec. 21): ‘‘A woman brought her child with an abscess in the lower part of the back, and offered as much corm as

she could carry for some medicine. . .’’ (Dee. 22): ‘*A number of squaws and men dressed like squaws brought corn to trade for small articles with the men.’’

194 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS (Jan. 5): ‘‘The Indians continue to purchase repairs [2. e., pay for blacksmith work] with grain of different

kinds.’’ (Jan. 16): Kagohami visited us and brought

us a little corn.’’ (Jan. 20): ‘‘A number of Indians visited us with corn to exchange.’’ (Feb. 5): ‘“‘A number of the Indians came with corn for the black-

smith . . . who now being provided with coal has become one of our greatest resources for procuring grain. . . The blacksmith cut up an old cambouse, of metal, we obtained for each piece of 4 inches square,

7 or 8 gallons of corn from the Indians who were de-

lighted with the exchange.’’ (Feb. 18): ‘‘Our stock of meat 1s exhausted, so that we must confine ourselves

to a vegetable diet. . . For this, however, we are at no loss, since both on this and the following day our blacksmith got large quantities of corn from the In-

dians .. .’’ (Mareh13): ‘‘Many Indians, who are so anxious for battle axes that our smiths have not a moment’s leisure, and produce us an abundance of corn.’’

Henry (p. 825) mentions the eagerness of the Indians to trade their corn, ete.: ‘‘They soon asked us to trade and brought buffalo robes, corn, beans, dried squashes, ete.’’

The following extracts refer to the early trade with the Arikaras. Manuel Lisa at the Arikara villages: ‘‘The women

then appeared with bags of corn with which to open trade but an Indian rushed forward and cut the bags with his knife.’’™ 41 American Fur Trade, v. i, p. 117.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 195 The winter spent by Maximilian at Fort Clark, among the Mandans, would certainly have been a disastrous one

for the whites had it not been for the supply of corn which the post-trader had secured from the Indians. This corn was for much of the time the only barrier between the men at the fort and starvation. Maximilian (p. 36): ‘‘A high stage was stretched in the court yard

where a part of the stock of maize was deposited. . . We were forced to live on hard dried meat and boiled maize.”’ The engages at the fort: ‘‘The poor fellows had no meat and had lived on maize boiled in water’’ (p. 48). ‘‘We had nothing but maize and beans and the water from the river’’ (p. 58). ‘‘We have lived on nothing but maize boiled in water, and this was really the case with many persons at this place’’ (p. 61). ‘‘“We subsisted entirely on maize broth and maize bread’’ (p.

63). ‘‘As our supply of beans was very low our diet consisted almost exclusively of maize boiled in water’’ (p. 76). That this dependence of the fur-traders upon Indian

corn was not confined to the posts in the immediate neighborhood of the agricultural villages, but that large quantities were shipped to the more distant posts on the Missouri and Yellowstone is evident from the references we find to such shipments.

Maximilian (p. 82): ‘‘On the 15th of April Picotte arrived with about twenty men and had his boat laden with maize which he was to carry to Fort Union.’’ Maximilian (p. 211): ‘‘A boat laden with maize belonging to Mr. Campbell here passed us, it had left the Mandan villages a fortnight before.’’

196 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS We have an account of this corn trade in Hayden, in considerable detail; and Matthews also mentions it. In

the American Fur Trade there is a statement which shows the extent of the trade and the dependence of the traders on corn. Hayden (p. 3852): ‘‘Whatever is concealed [cached | in this way is intended to remain in the ground until the succeeding spring, at which time, the buffalo usually being far distant, it is their only source of food. Besides the great advantage acruing to themselves over other wandering tribes, by tilling the soil, they have two mar-

kets for their surplus produce. The first is the fort of the American Fur Co. located near their village, at which they trade from 500 to 800 bushels in a season. This trade on the part of the Indians is carried on by the women, who bring the corn by panfuls and the squash in strings and receive in exchange knives, hoes, combs, beads, paint ete., also tobacco, ammunition and

other useful articles for their husbands. In this way each family is supplied with all the smaller articles needed for a comfortable existence; and though the women perform all the labor, they are compensated by having their full share of the profits.’’

‘‘The harvest generally took place in October. The corn fields were unfenced and were frequent objects of raids by hostile tribes. The traders made extensive use of the maize and all the larger posts had mills to grind it.’’ ??

‘‘In favorable years they had good harvests and were

able to supply other Indians and to their traders be12 American Fur Trade, p. 807.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 197 sides keeping all they wanted for their own use’’ (Matthews, p. 12). An episode in the early fur-trade which illustrates the quantity of corn the whites were able to obtain from the Mandans and their neighbors, was the establishment of a whiskey still at Fort Union, at the mouth of the Yellowstone, at the time when the government’s agents on the Lower Missouri were very active, making it very dan-

gerous for the American Fur Company to attempt to smuggle liquor up the river in its steamboats.

American Fur Trade (p. 358) quotes a report from Fort Union describing this experiment: ‘‘Our manufacture flourishes admirably. We only want corn to

keep us going. The Mandan corn yields badly but makes a fine sweet liquor.’’ Wyeth, a rival trader, gave information to the government agents and an investiga-

tion was ordered. The men at Fort Union coolly explained that the still had been set up for the purpose of carrying on scientific experiments to determine whether a good wine might not be made from wild fruits which abounded on the Upper Missouri; and their explanation was accepted by the government; but the fur company was so badly frightened that it ordered the whiskey still abandoned.

VI—THE SACRED CHARACTER OF CORN 1. THE CORN AND THE BUFFALO. 2. CORN ORIGIN MYTHS

Primitive peoples have always been strongly drawn toward the worship of their principal sources of food supply, and among the Indians of North Amenica this tendency has been perhaps one of the most marked char-

acteristics of the religious thought of the race. The hunting tribes looked upon the game animals on which they subsisted as sacred, many of their religious rites were intended to procure the aid of these animals; and as the people considered themselves closely related to the animals that gave them life, they often organized themselves into clans or gentes named after these animals. Thus the Elk Gens would be kindred of the elk, would bear the elk totem, practice elk rites, and have a tabu on the eating of certain parts of this animal. In the same way, among the sedentary agricultural tribes the plants cultivated were looked upon as sacred. This was particularly true of the corn, always the main resource, and often considered the mother of the whole tribe or of cer-

tain clans or gentes within the tribe. Corn names for men and women, indicating a close kinship of the people

with the corn, are found in all of the agricultural tribes of the Upper Missouri area, as also among the Sioux; corn tabus are found in at least three of these tribes; but we do not find any trace of the corn clans or gentes,

CORN AMONG THE INDIANS 199 which were a common feature of the social organization of the more advanced agricultural tribes in the Southwest and on the Lower Mississippi.’ The village Indians of the Upper Missouri depended largely on the buffalo as a means of support and considered that animal sacred; but the corn also played an

important part in the lives of the people, and we find evidence that at least certain divisions in some of the tribes looked upon the corn as more sacred than the buffalo. We also find old corn rites changed into buffalo

rites, indicating that at an earlier period the corn held the higher position in the people’s estimation. Corn has a prominent place in the creation traditions, myths, and tales of all of the agricultural tribes of this region; and although many of the old customs and beliefs have been long since discontinued and forgotten we still find quite an extensive body of corn rites, beliefs, and practices. The Pawnees, between whose culture and that of the Pueblos of the Southwest some similarity exists, are said to have had the largest volume of ceremonial observances, connected with the corn and its cultivation, of any tribe in this area. As the Arikaras are really a branch of the Pawnees, we would naturally expect them to have corn

rites similar to those of the Pawnees; but we find that the beliefs and practices of the two peoples have very little in common. This is probably due to the fact that the Arikaras have been living among Siouan tribes for 1 The large number of corn clans among the various Pueblo tribes is particularly noticeable. The Pueblos of Acoma had no less than five of these: the Red, Yellow, Blue, Brown, and White

corn clans. These clans were grouped together into a fratry known as the Corn People.

200 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS at least two hundred years, and that their religious concepts, their rites, and their mode of life have been profoundly affected by their long intimacy with these neighbors of alien stock. Of the Siouan tribes of this region, the Mandans and the Omahas appear to have had the most highly developed body of rituals and beliefs relating to the corn and its cultivation. The religion of the Pawnees was a star cult overlaid with a very highly developed system of ritualistic prac-

tices. Their name for the Creator was Tirawa. His wife was the goddess Atira, a name meaning literally ‘‘Comes-from-Corn’’ or ‘‘Born-from-Corn.’’ In the beginning Tirawa tells the Evening Star — Bright Star — to stand in the west. She is to be ‘‘the Mother of all things.’’ Great Star — the Morning Star — is to stand

in the east. He is to be a warrior. Bright Star has a garden in the western skies in which all things to be placed on earth are created: all animals and birds, and even the sun’s fire (light).? After the earth is made by Tirawa himself, all of these things are placed upon the earth by the four servants of Bnght Star: Wind, Cloud, Lightning, and Thunder. Great Star comes from his

position in the east and marries Bright Star in her garden, and from this marriage a girl 1s born in winter. The Sun marries the Moon and they have a son born in summer. These first two human beings are now placed upon earth, where they marry. Other stars create other human beings and place them on earth. Each pair, man - 2The altar which was erected in every Pawnee lodge was given the same name as this garden of the Evening Star in the west: wtharu, ‘‘the place of the wonderful things.’’

(. si eae 9p Loe oe ” aoo a _ oe ssa sssisi 4. oo a Ne at a ea . oe a

i sc asc xpoe aoo re ce ee siren Co iy . sili . iCo ae mt ; Osiite r 7oo 2 oe suet oe a sith ai oo, oo Se ooooaoo oe oe) cosa

Le fieSs ee a ail ay) Hee ui ie

oe - oo oo Cae iio

aee oe aaaoo oe Hs ane 4aoo aia ae ao a i aae Myayoe — aS oe ao sin aaauy inh aaoo. oe oo ie he, at a|. Pata ooHVA ae7vaI eal i nw Coa. aiee a_ oo eeaia oo. ii oe Te a a ! ee a ne vn Hin i iG

oo oo HG — aa Ge ae ne es iio} ee ae RONG sii

ae at 2a ps Dis72..« oooun — ison Loe

bs any TAN bal . NG Mit aa=oesii Ce ail ao aaoecoLe ul oaaa us | Hae oa. eee i.a -Ne Wee a aBi oe 7ET iaaieioo Con eN ooiaaEeoee aoll ee oe i ul Ma mt ee ores — eeoe aiih a : Hae ail a Bees ene sees ages ROES oe essere BENE ee ee _ eeeoe all Ai a .,vial 3De oo FBS ane oo Se co ith oneaoo oo Be Ree essao ee aeeee eeae a .y as oy eea|Soul eeaoe .oe Pa ae vaci) eeee UN oo oe ee a af ee a ce oe — Dl aps xAaiDaa aie ae Hh : ay ponds es ee Wes vee He oo eeoeena aoo aa) aeeeisn aa a ay eG He ee a ER Ni cs Pee coe ge eee i et oe oo i ca”: Sn aint Hl oooe Ve sas a) ae os ae oF oo iAHa ae HIG ocee pee. pee ONE: a2.Lae oe as aWhee ee .La a oy iAO A eeae) aaeoe ish aaBe 7 va oa Hsiof Co ana.Moin cities aae: edoeIM ES ae ee Wee ee— .a ae aea ee Aah oy Mn ,oe me 7 oe oo ees aonaeaooie oo eeee uae aOeOo _y MAIS 8SUoo_aeeoAa.aeBaeaeooe7weileeSeLooeosails». es oe en aane oF nea.Pt1eG) ia eeiGN oe sieni

ed a. i 2s . Stn . oo .. oe AO Co nSlate oo Ieee eeeee : eeESSagat BES il | ianie es Nooo Puli ee on a) eeoeaeithe ee oe ootbe oeMU Be eae ule RON Peg oy ae ee ESBets Beate Eeeae SON mevA a aiesei

oe i a ae ae al ee oo oe : oe a) o _ 8 ue a oo Sy aa a i a " a oF a _. ooo:

Bi eli ne ‘ ye | Dl a HM: ae IE y oe EM We es pee" y oo Ne — ay are es pees an Hah ee Hie ae eee Ee ee Hi NS vt is AY SE Peigag AAI asi

”

oo ey E aa ne eseoo. ees |NS | Ipoe oo.yo joey ee aoAve ise: .oeaeoeve. oo aoo—. — _ a8 coe oobee. aee 7..ores ae " 1M oo.ve oo. aoo eee oe oe oe OF oe 7; 7.aoe Se — ‘i. ai).atb -.—. ee Poo eat ee JSS es_7. oe i Le es eeaae me |.ESO 7: ae a._ ee iain 8_ aKG iy a / og es . ae _ [ oe ey Les se oe Oo |. | a a Wie | ae . a oo a -.a Oe oo. ye: ae oo _ Se ee aig SO ee . Se ee oo ee Ne a ee 7. pee) ee ee oo ee | — — ead oe — iL oe ao Si — 2 Ne Ne oe y ecu Cae eo Be 7 a oe ol ee Ds ane oN ff a A a. ioo | eS oa oe a. as oe _ oe _ ee aoe Gs a oe Le a oo hai a eo ES oo a i oe . eee a HS Se .. bi —_ We i. KES es 2s eee Na, 7. i a bell oo Le | Wiof oo 8atae| itihoe aoe|7 AWoes | | »oy a .ceeGe:Bea.es. 8Heei ckBN as. a}i—i coaei oyHisoo oe eea, noHR eebe. Ae OeMya.ws ee38eeBeater oe ae 8 EERE aMOu ee ae

yh ae oo oiae ee HI Oe aeySe |.8Ha .aeoe ia en ae ail iei MAS Aatve8ehfe a SHES tasoo SES Leas oeoO ES oeote 3} eeicogs .uh hs ee: eG al ee . fe ey aWie an eo as.iaih eet eyeei ait i te a aseein ce mn Bah Eeeee EN Mu ooLee: 2S ll oe as eBoe |2WE i Hk Hi oy Hf a

_ co es_>:_ @ LS—— aN a. ae ;(es Lo| le a oe C7_aaoe. 7 a .. oo nn |yee ee oe Se .geA __. oe oeoe 7. |a.ae Pee es ee aeoo a— - , a. a. .q : oo , _oeoe .ee_co .esoo[_ ce ni |an 7ooLoe ioo_ Hs 7. ooLo oeoe Be eS: “os _.ieAik a ek Rees vi Bee — aa ae i.a Wee! Bae . |Lie _ RK ol r eealaaCo a __ |wae ee sseeseBi ee ae pe ea ae iat) oe a ae ea AM i Co oe Eg oN Oe oe Be oo one oe oo it ae oe sal coe ee OSs e oo eee BAS ae ye NN Wan oo Ba OR ae Salant a a a. a en

Pala en on ih oT. a aN GRE eee Hees ae pairs ae aie eee BO. ee Be ee Wee ES ey sin a fo A Rei a Inn: ee ae nes ee) oe He | ae a oe aie - es on Ga Gi Be.

an oo ae ma Sete SS ee eae ES fe eee Hone US ee x eel Ree De GN oo. 3) yh Hi es eS ah LES a) aa Lo ee : a A oe eal Hh i ny ie i oy ee i cl a i .

He oe i aa ittfen | ssaBee Lee aeEM eaeSp Hila LESS HB:Se eas eaCs 7. tie oi PA SEEN BeooaLN eesoR aeeeEN et ao anian *aiemeu oo ee oe ieeee oe PsWie ee: og Ke ae .BIR Sen BE eee es EeKaui ON Ne aae Bri) a ei at aoo ve hi ne Sal i waa ae on aegos es ge eek he ee Bas s co. ah EESiis Auoe ee 7 HEE RS eeoS Beyee a ON iliue nil Us anu hyoo ones Pee ue Hii Hill ie Wve cee Soe 2A8 aOH ON ey aaaMSS 0) esSo aeey Sal on aae i Pee: oe oa ceON ee Ce eS Be ana ap ala iM aeeaaang |.on pa Ha Ht an: eon Ra Beane SERIE: ae oe URC: if be peis il lin: RyoR eeeo cullsiPn a a|.ye Ea GS oeee Bins Net iaaei Ne An onan EE, EN eee ae oe ge eesBey ee me Ce Nee Nae _i aes ee EE Be a@ eeSay x Sail aeSe oo ai.He —i aaNAA ee oosii oo ii oo i aSes pies Sones 2eS |llHea Ce Ne, oN ae tle 7bit? ee aN eeyinil) |oeee |atloe oe Ba aaa — HBDi es oh We a ee oe ee NESE Slee PeAga) EGGS Ay CM i |KO Digs NSS Hist oo rh a ioo oeoo8 ie ati ei iEee 7eet ee eae _see .aaosoe eyee Sig Me peer IO oo. Be oo es AN ae Brae US HS A ae Na eee Re

oe co 7 ee ae ees ia 8 ai _ a} ve oo oe ah _ ce oe i 7 8 a ee He oe a oo ._

ee a ae |aaeea_iyoy eoHH 2 ve | :mn | eeAes . _ aa _ | a_ iog a aaao | ae ae es es |eei ce Oe — |:|.@ aee co.4-.2S i _.a a|ee ~ co oo| ee a ge . ey aioe oe a"aiMn) — .— 7) oo. Dsa_oo aaa aoe as ei nh HSM a ee ne oe a a a. hen es a mals. Hag oo -_— . i i a Ph UH it ~Shy i Ree a es oe Fe of oe We_ ge Ae: a— oy Nene oo |ul[.a-vey ly ae 7 . Ase 7 a oo ae i.. oo 7 esooveOSs oe oe as oe oe ..NG ae Peay ia4 i & 7 : oe ae a 7 2 . ; aoo —. i — ahs ae a a _.. 2. nae . Ke es Mie ee ie ee _.oo a | 4 a a oy oo .. oe Ke — Oo ol a aoo:a ae oe i oe Ee . oa on a WRN . ay . oo " ee. aes i i i, . eS i Be oe oh oo a: ooeeaama;_ | xee ._ ay a oo oo. oo . Htii a iiaN as a_a ae , oo eex— ee a AN SRE aillee _| yg va OS: BAR: a8 mEHas) esHet eyLa a aoh_. oS 8Aen2= ieBae ai aae eySores oo ee Mm eiaE: - yeWe CES ee oo oe .as,i a oTauy eeBey oe 7pom eeEg as a eeoe Peeye et Me RESoe te aie ae ee ee ily es Ree RM eeAe oe oie eee

ae ee mes. : he 8 foe a a oe. — uh a@ iA ee ae eeeaae aease oo ini ee ee oo a Boe oe) i ee cee ieala Seas | on awall Ne HOH Ta ae it Eee ee ae a| scNe i aeHill oo aeees Bei oo ant — SeHe: ay ee ia .aN ein aa aeae Bc a Sn He aAe — By Aanee | i Me a.Be | EO: |tN onHe eee coCo sea a4 aa oe a ni a Loy Hie- aoe _ ge Le me He one 55 ny Ge agSee Ses aWe aang a) Weah ae ae % eeBe ae a ee oe se iy oe Bran i oo i ooaHNN Wee ee Dee Pb Be ay oo eae, ine eePS ; DNs - yl aaarea in I: oe GeeMe Pa ne ae ae He 3 |eeSe Sah Piss Coa ieHa Nl ae HMoc. a ee9AN aae oniWi Lae aa ‘8 tlSA a Ieee oeae ae‘canal aeaeUS Paioe a 3‘Mh I aAN f ol | aohWigs esol aeasBOA Uaa oo cealiy aeee en Ne an . ee | | ae A — ... es _ s . . SE _ a " a; oe Co ae og coe se es le a oo een oe a oy iS a oS a oo a eo oe ot a a oe oe ae - i) vt meer oe i ce a iB ma 8 SS - aM Bs ge z, Cy uA oo oo. Iiooa ‘ EAIay Leneat PTA re est He nN A Asian eeeEES a | *Beaespe Acs ahee ihAoosiesa poate: BaieMs matINE ye iit ehh HW HilWie a. ce Seth it iAh oo ee ees LGaesAB OSE ah 0a oa aNas eas she Bi ayoeSee ee neal Aeeae sh aae feeoeReotEES SalceHIRteeaed BOS ea Pon Ean cl an oo HG

But He Ha maa AT icanSages Aen HleeCooeSea OAS Be, HeSeg Se ve ne ee SE eG a Neaoo. cA Nae uN Se ge, ee ys Gee Reset eeWel ANOS: Oy eioe eeeFa ei nA ae he Hi a. oe ee ae oo nl oe a Ne Lea IM Wn: OeMls Gin8 aBrea in) a ii He i aleG Na panel HU NGsini cies Wants oe) | a oe ae Hee al SMe ES ay Co uN ‘ oe a i ee oe Seis EN Mi eyme oo ee Pens oy si a onoeaeiy a Nosh

a a a a 7. a _ oe ao CS - ) _ 7 — . oo. i. ae | ss

oe a Seah Ee ee ee te ne a ee PASS) oa A MN) Cy yoy ages — Ae oo an es a _. ae ue tas Dine oo Me ae oo o

ae ae a on ee a TEP ie L — ee oe ve a oo) oF oy ae ee oo ae ae oe | | Cae oe ot a i on oo cen a _ vu

oo ees a isos Soi.oo 7. i oe _ a2oea| _ae a sei/aa[eeioea oe es ae uiao i oo oo. —ee Na oo aeen a " ace os: 5oo ooae a at— a8 ee sesh aoe 4 es2Dealt oe . ue . i)ERY Lee ‘. Sa ol aeiM na _Hairis __.1 4inl Le Mon oe | Ze i |se Ose eeof Bay oo a Net a | etoeAa8A eae a va aeeanoost i)oo —a aee ie a inl Si aaa FEES i eeMi BB esa: ee es VN a oe ny oi SEs Fa A Lae a ee, ental a oeaSA Pe,_ a eal oo a ee Hh di ie Rae EPS BERS = Aeae wae a BAIR Gea oo a. SNe ae .Ges oa canoe sana ies :iSiy i is Heb balia Sn Ws NN a oe fs oo eS cnaR aah oe oeeons i hain OM oe) aAS Ne oe ala oo a .i Wl eae Ve bsoerack ee oo 4 nn ho aa [_ i eeon ae — Tae oo ahi aan ON ee ae a a HA. i_ eee EES Ree as oe a iBPS ie oe oe AiHah Dat aa— Ny Aa Wie AAA eaANSE UN) i MeN Be ON A | eS)vl er al fey AtRn iG 7 — EN aoo mi a ee Cau Hs ee yee Age ‘i ee Wi le Le ei 3 PN . a) oo RN oe fa ee whe ore Me a He ao a say ROK abi Hn en ae oo mye oa ae ae @ 7. @ en oe sy .. a. a a ti ia a 1 eee lh Bend a BG . singeeey a 8 a ae ne .Dees Me ai oo in Sci nN iy Wee ee se a a es oi), Re ee any LAN a Ca ey i a ae a Wes cal oe! Hees 7. a aa a Ve ay a ae AAC Mh ath HAO ae en WS . Ae Sih I fee is eee Be a He oe ae Ga HN Panny HUA RO te ey aan MI ee Hoy ch EN ae PENS bees Ta an Pe ae Obie Nye ab Aah sa Hai ii ia oo 4 i‘

oe oa Hlee Mie Exe a i oo 7 Hi . BeHae en Hy ee TYBAN oe Paatlieen ROU pea ee cot aa CG a. 4 i ai aeee ee _aoaoo afs Meh Hi .Bae -fsOy, ioe.ae |en|oe oo ee aeDeaaM _é8aeal a_ te| eeoo .oo oo aoo Pe vaoo_ee -oS .a. ue) ae oo coe ae ae.oe_eea. ee es oe Ue ee .8 Hea.aany AN ceHa aaas:ao a. ii a Ta seal on Wane ae mie: ee Bee i ant ae De OS IG i AO Ge aM on ee ey - as cas EMR) As GU RES ee sel aK US min es aan: A a an ) sah iM ae al Ms ce th Ne We ees eu ss oe ee oe ea Pai Aes NR Soe a es il i Ni a sl Tt a Ne te Ree ey AN iG Ta CA cS oN HHI ae xa Su a ant AE a Litas as

aee aHa oe Be aee cA ee a.ee iaie co aoo Se oe aoe ee .qae oii Le.a. a eo ie sy Wee i‘ey ee ae neTe aa|aue i.ee ee Pees Tey Laan aa— oe a.ESS ao aEES oy ee _oe |eo Ha MG ee oeeeie aoo ‘o OO aal sees as ieeS i as ee oo _ a_os iia..on Eee oF a SNe i._oe aU SSA Miao Aah it aieee aN Sees ace oe—. UA oo oo ani ISG eee A _oe Re 7we Se: ae ee .el Ls ie aoe oo _eae an ioe NR oe oe ahaa oei|afat oe ne . es HAL ae, ae oe oo. aeae oS ae ae _ oo See nN ee ee a ee pe _ BY oe a Baie oo oe von ae at Hatt ee ee oo oe co 2 oo a | 4

. en oe 3fei e eros BEES ee i Lae oeah oe A ok Ne oe Si . ie ey ae eaa ioe a ae a ce Cee ee Bo)oo IS _ st Sool aH . He Y » | _eS | aeoe .Wi ee: a aa) ae ila beets eaeaag _ae oo A) Hoh Di ri( ap oe SS noe aa aoo |oe ee ea a iN es ne aes a Hoe aA(|. ce et .oF es SE: ae ae aa oe ae eh aHSC aa‘ioe Ae ae ah aea .aeaoo i.oe4::4. oe HH Mae Bey oeaay ROS oo ae mek feeSNe at Hah ae aoe ae ‘|..anes a oo Dt os 7.aaN ae va oe Stal Loo on _aa .anWisk oy |hee . Was ietau ‘8i,aa— :ooAn — ee . eee ”)theSiasa Ps Oe oo oe ce We eae eya )aoe Bre He . oeoea ae) vei oo aa oFaaRe oo.o egy a NG taeoyieaee

oo og oe . a a oo ah Ae ai 2. oe . . Eo i ... ue a7, ee oo .,.i — 4 ae4e§oe 8ee_oo oe | =7. oo ee oo Oe .2eee i. oe a _|2. ieof ai a Hae cot a i Me ee hie Soca oa ve pe oO saa _ | aa a) ae fae eat ae Pa a sg HG SoS ae Whose a a) Me iM NEN Techy AUG a oe nies

eG a aon Pea aee .Bee Beg SaooeiatND Ree Keee a) RS ee - ie eS eees yaon oo _oo eu Si Se oe Smit Res el2G TAR Nh (aaee bo eoa sea eeeal.co A as oo aeae ooaahe aM oeae ueoeial ane oein Rene oo .2aiN — — sit oa . aeaN Us SAN (oe a.a i ve Hea en. aan Hl Pee Htes heen aeSe teesane ee Aeoo oi A NS oo Koa CNS 5Saae Wie: oolls ne Sh ial i a .Ge poe @ aui Soe.eeVa aeaeee— —_— ioy agfa)_— ic co oo aat1ooakeiaoeoaoie aiMea[_ — oo al acooo aS)De a aa a.ee oe a eaeith HnnN en eeey eeeBee aeey % me ey Hors hy a ah=o ATA Ha oo Fk ae aaogEUS ye = — a aa) heeo.

4aUeosco :|eeooseoo.=thheey fe a|a a.Heen7.aloooo oe oo oo .eeaos S. a ai2 oe aey ,.ee .Pood .a.ge — ES aaa_eeMsNoe oo .Ee oe ca L mS ee oo ge oo EAS —_| aeWe oeaee BS >ai. ael aooe a| a a a ee ee oe es Ns a Woe oe i ie a . ae ae i ie i Wn ye a ae cee es ae neal hilt 28 ae oo a ae eG oe Na

— 7. rN Ut ee re oT oeaa[ees oe ees cn oS oe ot ee ¢ Hoe 2 Se . oe _. ae >.a7 ee ae —oe *i—. oo oo. 2 i *. |a 8 oo oui _ i ae e a — ee on oF 4Ce ae ee LS i| oe .oe a oo. a iy. ey a)ce ooi .oe a SO . a ae 7 Ue - ' . ee - oo . . oo. _ fee oF oo . eh ne iMs oe HSER ets Bese SOG eeSE aH Dial Sl ESDaN Be iS ASS AeA AO a on aR HGse i Laan Ane.a |. aN Pa Nh les ne iil sii ees pte Aine ae IN — ; eauCe ea oe lh Ae bi La WE Metal oo oo geNe eeeeei ae Ea eeaitabiaRN De oo. AN Ts iaee3ESaWee | Mie ce all Un i CEE Eiate HEiesaa oFKe a aa pisces US uA SONA PN We Satie aaa oo. aoies ele HA aa ouLealmm aia,all ae ny aaOesea EES oo As Pa _Sa ae esi ae aoe Po Asa aOn Gn Heli aia SRE eats Kove Been oe i)Ges ao iiachi.aaa.olHein ioe oe iaei. aaaM asane - As os NS ee ae Hause te Tea eeBs uli ee ene Giaoh, Oe ee eh on) oe aa..oo ne eea Diva ry ee oo aus eee Ses a Tea ce syHi aaaaval ee ow ai see BESS ce ae oo .aaaeaae nu ae oa .SAVES: Oe io. oo a yee aa ai Le eal Aaa aTaN oon enUa aAte ee. oo HN HN ol. |.Bere ooavey et 2i-MR One

HT oe OG ane REED oe Os he Hoe caaoea Alloe a Raa ue a Ge a.aoe a a SA aaony A a: : es oe ee ooa Bha Ha a i neee ah aa se NON a Hee.Ben aa HNaCeee oea anSG HN aaEae Oa }i

a3oeaoeeeoePg 7oe . 7. 7 oe ee oe ee gsee ne ee OG eee SS | Ce ee eeaN ooOsco oo HOES Gh ESE Pe ES Gesee ee Oe:gee 7 eee eeee i eae ee Se ReeC. See.lui Rae sean al ee Sl Neee aan GED Ee eee EES eee 8ee He Oe eae ene ee 8ae aSCN an sn eaBese i.acef:ee Ms otcelSS ee Eee oegs:eee Sees eaeos Ee eeeepe es .eeaS :aeeesee Ce CC oo ae oaea, ae ee eee eee Es ne eeeees eee eg ieHes er ae. a_ee Ne eePear ¥ ey ro aConia eee ee eeBeene ss Seer ee eS POOR: .iaS Sn iNy tt CNG DO ae eahai mi aUe GaiaES mestEE pence eaeeect SG Es SS Remean ene Hgeee SE ESS EE: aES EEaoa Bae oo Hers eee eeHasna aGiVeRO a| SOE oo. Sina ae LS eoeemnras EES ESSE earners iraeetttin See cise — eee DEREEES eeEES DERE i: eae. eeSOM pe nas fi olaaR HH Gee a| AA i Ser lly Ae i IN eases tua a tise i) eae Semen AOEETS Seater seae Petts DRUG ae aeRe asEES nee es eae We Pn at ISa oF. erin SE ee eee DogEe penee EEEe Ke 8UES, eee iEROS ee SHEER EES SSUES ERD Se ee Meah OREN uaeeae Haws aan a RING 0 Sane 1 neiea eerie lth es uiDAE Why se oesPINES: EE BI ES SEOs Poors eeEE oe Beene ee SHeee ee pera ereeeare CSReRei a SO iin Simca neeeeeeaas eas Reteeerie tae aaa eR eae seesghee Sep Besant: Reena Bahia, SEESNee es eeOG Eo icae Bee ccseae SS Oe CU ae Reeah( oo Ae aeias nnPanes i RSTONS Nan S|aaSea eae Ne ia iin

[Ce Os ee oe | ae ee aesSees .ceeeeee|... ~_ FHie |coave ahlee Claeeees —Z_ =. iooPsiioeee ;.aPe A Ns ica Ne SUL ceeae ge eses. (ee es es eae Se Cooo a Se es ee N,..-. i ee-SSS gs Es:te a pees ee, ee : aes eaa_ oC eee are oe ee poe ESS Be a.Oe : es SN ee coer BES ee eS — Oe CE SIE Ss Rie VEG cee Ree osy ae PM GRyD Hera ee SHO see aD ae il An RR pean nae PASE eer Anko! Rascece SSS sea eee ae SSG SEG eeeOS S26 Re ee Banos Ra eee oem28 PattCN ae MWe DEEN SUG allyHc ii Tae Vi ea aaHe EISENAA Se ROGUES Ae Ue RSE yoda CnrsBR ee UES Hee eE ae : Ee UG Ghie: eeeoroo eaeUEON oe Us BeGoeee ie ear Ls) Fea RAG Hints vee PRE aan

Ses CC . SOs Je ee oe oo RR, ESS ae 2a ee 3 ee ol sinus oe DNS Giecernes aces ean Saas ees

ee pert Hee SESS eeee. ESE Ri ve eeie: Ny WS ae a tilts SN ssrisa ee eeecBEE HES ee— See ee ES peareee ee sponds AesSe eenei vail spiel a EE Vue ras MeS oiFS Seal His Es Se ae SeCo CN aeyee eee ti ene eeeeee SeSe Ee Sees ee eee ee CC ES ..eeeBe ee aee ES ess E .Ssas ee ss ees es osene es oe ee .Nt Sl eeBEES eS HEU Ee es ae2es eee.spe: sees EEE EE ss biialaoaanatiee eemm ee oanee aeae aesEUs HES a CC eeee2.eeAe eines EEN Ue a eaee Ieeefoietes GisPSE oe ae .. Isiah Yves Ee Se sngitoen

_. ee ae ae _ ee ee ee a ee ee OE ae ES ee oes ae NR ed ES ee oe a. Le eae - BES

ee care CE ee ere ee ORE ee SURES: Ranaeeet ee poe ecnane eae SUS BE Gere oe ORO ee ASI ELEN ee eee eee _ a Cees ee ene BEES

. — ee Ges Oe . Eee ees sousiuis:

aeeesiHeee.eseae Eee Bees ee oe oe eeee: Seca eeeeee oecpcoien DESSE sagvisieeins pases es Ss i ee egnepes Seen aeane oeSeareat esBEE EES eepocneateneates . eae eeEe Rae Bees HENGE CeRES ert EN ieee) ee Gees EER SPS ee ore TEESE Seeaes eesee pain eaeSerene HESS nears Rtn aera sae EEOes ESDEES Pana Seeghee RR SEESPERE SERS sonia tenia,US BEEN: Beae AMES OE Seer acereeceaee 5 oe 0Oe ARUN a RRL eenspea se BERG ieee oa nemunen eccrine eS Sg pera: panePERSE PICAN Rae PERE PERE Saeaive a SUCRE Siae eeeretas Se SSS Seen ST ee o oy oepecarned erence os ee pon ARATE ee Se pe vane arrears Serer eeei ae ee eoeraents ESS . ‘ oe eeeoARSaEee | oyoe aEES ee eSome eecones oo e.oeSeaes ee eeSEES ess ie Boe Ee: RU ee Poe eo Ge Sees Ue Poe wie a. ee eeff es SESS eerecenteee ee Ee es ESSERS ene ” Kad Leas Aes aeey Rennes HESS creereras gs Be es WY, areDD ee sees sage HEROES: ee ee reeutaeLes EERE eek meet SNES peers es eas RSS pitasoe 23 pereey : EEE Pitter ies PERSE anes : epee coe gia pe oo LEU ee es ee. oe eaeee EE Oe ss ee ome ere ae schemes ce eee ae Ses cee EES eae Sap eee oeies. eg >.ae_Pieeae ee ae BEES eeeeoe aan eoeoPc anenat ae cee aesEES eee

ws Dae -. See ee . — eke ES

te 0) > a ee ee 8 Recs es ee Baereee

Bee HOR Spee Sine iones aoe ee nye PES, ore ee a ESSSLES EESSerene ee Bremen oeeens Baoan EE TEES eneSEE OSES eeSeabees oe LE SES EES eotas es geee ASRiayEs Gaee Nes GUNG eee SEE pecearaeas ESE ee aesGS pater eaeneaeae TERIeae nN ie ERED: saneeaeets PeeSORE sesinar.: OPES EEE as Sennehee DEE. oo ae see ee|eee Ff SEE eee ee in one eeeeSe Es ESoE SEES Eee ES: aeSes PT ee .Se atON Re ee eeee Ses OE aECR ES LEE ee Ede esBrera gas @ oe oe | ears a *.oe oul geet sein eeeae oe Gu EEE es ENEoe cous Seu errs aes peagenney ens peereaes ee eeSerene Satna ORES ee see ees Seer SEE EEUES ON: a ena Sera DEES BE ee ii aha sles LOSSES CSE Soe Of parieceratin perenne: Paces SRR SEES, 1 See HESSEN REESE REE Seas Sono

ES ES As ee rit Ne en DA A Nii as eg Rae ees essa 8 Speen aes eee HOME ES SRE ERE SRE Ee ae aces Reactor: SSR pean ESE ees PEARED PERBESSS seeier — oeotee eooe pees Le a i)Ne CT fFa Meee: :ie ef oe ae— Es Ee ESOS GES eee eo Se ee ones aeeySe eeee eee seat oe eer ee SM siee ae EES ee panties oe DSSS ian Heeee BEE See er eeeoe eeee PES SEES Bas: CC ae oe OES eeSRGaeees Ss sg ee Pere aene ea inl st iy Hd UR ee ees oo.oo . areas SRM DM = ee eereneres SEESes percaeoncs ane Seneca EE SOREL TEN See SEEAN SS eM seieiteeh (ASLES aD Rens cir

ee a||eeateas it ..ae ee ae | ae eeeee aries eae PEE Ee a|-. ae cee cae ee He 8Oe eee ee — eee Ce ee EE Se aSee ia, ee ees eeSES es ae a Ee es ee ee cyeoy =ee Bree toeee ES HESS Se Beenie

ae cee 4eee eo es Soi) oe..‘fe . ::: 7te — ee eeeeeS eseeesee ee ae es — ay Bee Pane cae BE a. —0lisi 7S| oD 2.ee Wage ee5s SSS Ses es ei iia He PGi i eee poe ce RE es Wat Te ee eae HEE ee eee ae ares SEP EEDS SEES: SESS SEA Prceraeeacart SEGRE Sa Lada EES Preeeennees SRST 7

eeee 7 castanesae Wg See oneees OEEE HeaSe CON WES Peace poeeeretrnne ES ee EEE pnts ee Soars ERE PORES TS my Es mee pone ea ARS. as ee a ian Ne iba le oe Be _ nee Oe CO Sy oN sassSIS oer SEES peers eeSESE Sees DeeFae MeN ee 97 wa ieee ee ee 2 a ren Hale Ses PETES, aaoa: ar ee esrerenes ESBS Uno Sed pecneneae spore eee: ee ss HE peucraee _ oC | Te i a. aORS iaSoe Le|oes) 2 aooPen Nes pyeeraren ee ees Lge Sarees Ee oes Phy ee paper ie eee soe peeoe 8 ipo eaeee se aN Seen: oe Mee ses ae eer SERIES Ba Sate setaeeee Serene Sore ores Seeds: Lee

ee oe aei.Cee | es Se ce EATS oe Soe Poin a.i eS ae, # Wee a ae Breesee - es SU ee es iis re Pere 7 a ee ee aeeee pea 3 BEES es HERES EE ee ae oe 8.Cl Hs 0onacil C.D — Oe 8_ao EES Ree eessen eeseatin antes ee SESE erate Be ee BOOES Be Tl ieseS aes 8 ES ee BEES Ce eee ere eee ee Sea eae nae ea~~ . ea Doe ea sil a esas LEN ES‘ae et aae Re! senna WEES pens ECE oat paras ane oe ..aTS ee) oy . 7 ees Poe e BES . Sorat prea EneLie a. es oo ee te i i ee a ee CEES ee ee ae ee ee See ta Se | ae i. a i : se nies ee ee ae oo Beaters : Be on fo in: vi Ne CC ae etn Si oe EGS es Bea || i wisi ies: ~~ ee SESE eerrenaeseae BSE2 ee

. oe a ow LLaecree — EES EeeSeis he We | ae — - - |. aey8oei ve CC eeEs ee eee

tae ee oul oe 2. Gg ee

ee eee oe SIR HES HES ee eee" So ey io He ees pect yO tia ss Ah ae Serr areas EN Lesa at ene perace Seat! ENCES) SSE ene Se teeaseete PRESSES ce Ee oe ee eee anh ma ca Sa Ee _ AGA CNHI DUG CEES ee | Ace AN Nii ‘ages Wess ES: eterna oe eect cate = eee Sooner ae itee uence PAE!

7. aBes ee eea ee eeasLles Va aoeaeeyes ee ae ee ee ee a ee ee eee |ee ou ee saham ER en HSS ee(ay .apee JEEISESS ee CCC Ma asian a8- ESSE oeci NTE ee iesSs SaenERae eae EL Siete CL BeaniesSeeees SEES feeb oe oO ae _eeEsee a:oeee Se ee aaoe aEeeeee ae ee Le ae ee oe Fe a ai as eeBeNOR ee Oe UE We arena ee cee EE 22 ESoe —Sparen ak aie isooeepete ee ene EESgay Beeoat eepeers ae EES Rees LORE Be ee ee a ee te ai,emir PROS SESS ee PRLS TADS RES eet :

ee es UH. on a eeae eeBe, oe a aaeeG Al ioo CoWee ae oe es eres) 5ee eoNAN oat ati 2eee SeeLacan Sena SES a SEES SSeS. Rares ee Cee Es a icially Se De eeDri ee Nae ee press ee ees poe es SEE oie ee ee .1|a. es ee 7NEEe oo SS ee eeavESSER ees oo. ee Bn ee ee Uincuill ae eae oe eee eae ae caeee AMM ES ee es ESS aneSe Oi aaes (aN aera ee ateraes aSELES eee ee eee re ~~ —— tt i)ee etoe| A oc. eee aee eaten SS ee EES: oo SEE Reaper arte eee eéezf 2LESS Oi aM cae eee EES SEES EES SEE a ae aLowe nn Wi eeZa iYT aee i Nh oe ee —

ee ae PeeeEe Be ea i SONG) seceeenreeete HUSA ae cere ae aes eeeeeeseeeeOEE ERspencers Es arene Bee Eeeee) oe ee| aaseee ee asa! ny ieee EUs ee ae ie Co ee ae ve HAN eerie fe Eo La a Be Belnpana BEESeats ee aes Ronee

eo aais Oe (fe. ee sfaeene.ee es ee oe ee esre aeEee ee ee fg 2DSlHESS? a ¢-—— i®& i| ee«@ eya GN Ee ee|ee oe> BNE EL eos SOES EE eee ee —_ La Mi He . MisLS : 3Bee ENam eeeRee SESeee Ssee See PES ceee Pee: BES ne ae [-aBEES He oe . a. a _ a ie se ee ee SS Cl eee ate Se ees ee aoone oo ee | eii, as eoperce aoe escoypoaeeaae 7 eeEESee iSee8 ee Beaeeee ees eee Ss ee REraemaria es SSE EN CC eae aepear MN eeaeee es Mac: eR Es 2SeBe feoEASES RES TES: Es eea eee nenies SU i HiHE i Saagaeae rae eats aN alse A RS Ay ina allrenee TT ea NOS es ESSE 2 Reena ee eee arASSET orate SE _ arias ee ponent ts canna YN ns pi aa oo ee USELESS eee Ail Foca Tees Wn tae TERESA reenete BES A ais ics ON TESS roan SER ARES HERES SEES i Guna CEREAL A EERE Roane Scare

ee cee oo aa oe esaetae —eoaesRHE oe ee _ " ie __ ee es ee ee & eeoe paras Seeaeriocy os oe We | eeSe De ee arane The vl Ee ee ELS ee eres Cl oe coe 7. Ee EGE i. aaieaililces ee Sea aouEES —... ee ee coe ESE on Boe SCAG eeoe isSe oe Neene SM ESE Pern Sy ieeee POSS REO oe wan ae |PM RIMM Reread Bi ee EOE SE SECRETS Henin Tit fa EEE AGO: ean mR ee esSay ee ee A eo eeNit fo SM Tee a onAPRESS eke PEE Pes: SERRE ay Es SESS: Site See PENS oe aeEe ee! | ae ‘ieea TMI 8s HEBUS as my pee SEC ree EySone we oeee es Baca pee pie aeSHEE EEE . EES er Rite aneene SEES fe Sere AM HN eae Wee aSoS oeereSpats SSE LES eae essen A iseseaaiis PSEEE Bie seAEE apes SSSR See Senne ae iees ee Des ga Sonera Ee, Re TO aera DES i a G i ee RESP REESE ee Series See Sonne eeSe a. ee. ee eeey) ee eeA oeWai aCR es Se Ns ee Vaile OT See RSs ee eee es ae SpE secreSoe Sevens val ee CL Os Nn CC EES CC RE is ee ee aeae ae: eee oes Heeae Seas Ee ie SS ence eae EES :_ _ Sn aS) cea Lau nia te 2 a-oe|sl es Hs 1 Sin Ce Sy Wiicanan sano Gack EG EASES REE Rape _ ees pte ae EES ee ere whe

Supieeres a ne a i We Te .... cao 8 NTE ESI es

eae pea eomacnae ceoe SNS Speieree eee Se Saeeen NN ea see Rear nrne EEE ESO RTEs es sh irrac eeDS I Bearers JOR eS ot aBES| eee oe) ——— . SeMass: — =F es a||Vereen ess EES LeheS uae! ee ee ees eeieeae ee aeae ay ee eesetae asii ee eseee eeeeSpeer See Ss PARIS ee fee ee eens ee Hs eeeOSs ee——_— OM SUIoo pe HG SEES sare ae _ rears SEB eae: ares Pactra Baas ES, .eeoe Ses oo ee ee . ice: ‘ a. ge pee SepeeBs eeSHeeoeES ee : es EE . pears EES Spe

Aa

8 EE ae oa ae oO oe | _ Toe oo. ee eres ees Be ee «aeenee i eee age eet pe — eeCooe ae eea eeoe ee He Ss ss aencen SEIS Re SES) pee ee 7aei iil ~~oo EER eeSENS UeSeca ae ee ares SEIS Sn ee eeee eaeee ReCarES en Tal AMI: Fieee ES ae .ee INO Bares) SNe Baas Renee PELE eneScere ae Peete HEME ES

ee ee ee ee he aee esae Cees a| LO ian OO sas aSena oe LE esaE pees Bares ae Es ss Cee ES Se a ee — |ee Caea.etoe oei aEN ees eeeRese as . i.ee eeESee Ee:eee Soren As BME Peer ee Repases Eeear ie «et fFHie Ga a: ieee RIN SERRE SEES SSS SE Beet Renee SND ihe pie wi cee ge ES SeGe Seeas Hise ee — SEES ESRIEEBE aeneaaey spanHenge nsLIE) aera reat ee,8 eg Mme) Gol oeGealtty oeMesa ee eeee ee 8epee oe Le IeaEES ee aeES eePLES ees ss Pee Gian st eR i. Oui ee -— EE aeesaaaevee eee aa Loi ec vn Ce Hee an neoeee ee oeSm .i oo FFA ——— et a)«= eh — See oe Se eeSer De ” eke Hea |. yoe Nae i,Ke Be>Seie: a ae Tales pias Ee._ uy .Wi aes eee 3 : EES : ;oh eae es =: ie Oa Oe oe Be oes es es eee Pea Dl oo ie aan —— asa a all aN ee a... ee eee TERS > Fs” ooPlaHsGNA a. _eeSAiee eae a. aneee ae Wey oe| eesDe — See aSEERA ee ©ES eeSe ..SESoe) a7.Hee ie oa NI Os on BS oo BEE Ee eg ee Cee ecm Besah | vianaeoy lh aeSSA Perrerenet ereaoe Bei aa aSne ee Gaines SR: SEESEs enone tean Rees EEE Hs |ea ouaaan aay au eeeeee aes lin sa sagecncana ci es, ees aeHEEB eee CATES SEEBete negPA .. Eee 2. aeoo LG oeLa. Las La LalgaLes ue Seer — a@ Ess OE eos ee Bee Ee Re i eee ge seh aad ON a i ge IG ae NPN eeseee ae a aia a ia Usage Fe«ee WN mw” ie— es a.eee eae See aee GE Ae EES BES pees omnes aa : a 7c. eae eee yy pi ee Ee EEE es oe Ce Meaaty Hae oe spa TRG yen ae Ge| ONIN aN aN sane aeee Re bea ee Ce eapa peoHEE ences EOE Ce a ae oe a i)en i oh amepeanuts ee hs oo iRe _. yegece ee ee gei:eepane eos Ee es aes 7 Ss aeee oo.Le a a. Aa ee .es on eat eae aioo Se EE os ee PERSE OSS: ame DE is ae aaa Fee ae OMe a lian DAN a . ae uppe wah aeee iis .DS eae i Sil aes A Wie bigs: soe ee Set HUME MAA AT Co eo iy cunt Oy ee ee es PiePE SERS fetes (se AG oo oe AL HM UNM a: spat oe Ce Caan ee ice ol Sareea: SHES ROE SSN .aodo aia I!oe Seiten: ie .. Bale ao. ne STEER EES EN SEES Gee oo HNN oe oe nh a a ae ae So Na Hh Beli Ne Sa ial Uo: BEES ES Ee .a..aAye ae a ee . ue Cae Ln ae oe ae EN aOO es ee ey >. a a oo ei ee oF oy es: a Ae aacaa ae Tey Coeae Pagar Wi er aONBi.aSOO ee ee ee ee eS: Se USSG : eaoe Me ReeeRe ae vail eree: oe 6eeneee fae oe

. \|. _. 2Poe. ceae: ee 3Ll ooeS oT ia. —rsOe : oR: oF oe oe: i:>—— : ie oe eeee ee ees_Bs see an -: a . eae ae _ *. a a eee _. Dees Bee .. COC ee BS oe oo. a oo oF Pe ee ig —. oF. -— ee Ue ees ee ee . i ae oo oo oo oa Ce ee i pete oolas es_ cc .... ie ...eee ote RE — aaeCe oe ee RE a de oo aa.LlRe Me le ESS cee ee Ie eee ah TAG saaaal PAT i SG aise aul Heer Slain ai HOS esl! eS ee a Ales. fees Sirsa Some Ness ada Mise GIANNI a ees paar og e SERRE popes ERE ae Tabentatntiae MEREE SEER

alten ae atte . si .. ee ) SE :Oe O Jneti Ce 1. Omaha A H SOTO i wil , Iowa, — 2. Omah 4 O CO 3. O ue aha bla °)maha |] 5 O ck wn sacred . lowa Iowa red ro °6.wa I. Oto8blblu sacré .O yee Genesis oe ee | eal Hoy Taare HEN A SN Un: ie Oe aN ST sag tania seine! perereneres pee totter HIN uy cere eit San oes ee Saaaemencceee Ee TRE HS REE Fea eeeeeenti ELSES

OU oo a Tent St cane Se ENC oe (ia iaaearoes

HANA Ae ay Lian Oe SENOS Sen Aa Hous PA AAT A See me

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 215 knew her, for she was the Mother-Corn. The people and the animals also knew that she had the consent of all the gods to take them out.’’

Mother Corn now ealls for aid, and the mole, the badger, and the long-nosed mouse come forward and be-

gin to dig a passage from the cave to the surface of the

earth. Mother Corn starts to lead the animals and people forth, but as she reaches the mouth of the tunnel the thunders sound in the east, the earth heaves and the animals and people are cast out upon the surface of the earth. Some of the people wish to remain at this place, so they are changed into moles, badgers, and mice and live with these animals in holes in the ground. Mother Corn leads the rest of the people toward the west. They

have many adventures before crossing the Missouri. Mother Corn now returns to heaven and comes back with

aman. Some of the tales state this was Nesaru himself. He establishes the office of chief and gives the people

rules of life. Mother Corn says to the people: ‘‘The gods in the heavens are the four world-quarters, for they

are jealous. If you forget to give smoke to them they

will . . . send storms. Give smoke to me last. The Cedar-Tree that shall stand in front of your lodge shall be myself.17 I shall turn into a Cedar-Tree, to remind you that I am Mother-Corn, who gave you your life. It was I, Mother-Corn, who brought you from the east. I "17 Among the Omahas also the cedar represents life and is eonnected with thunder. The Omahas had a sacred cedar pole,

which belonged to the gens that kept the thunder rites. This gens also had the sacred shell, and it seems probable that the pole, and perhaps the shell also, was formerly connected with the

cultivation of the corn. See Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 194.

216 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS must become a Cedar-Tree to be with you. The stone that is placed at the right of the Cedar-Tree is the man who came and gave you order and established the office

of chief. Itis Nesaru. . . watching over you. It will keep you together and give you long life.’’ *8

Among the Pawnees there appears to be no trace of this story of the flood and of Mother Corn leading the people out of the ground, but the Wichjtas have a tradition that during the fiood a woman took people and seeds upon a raft and saved them.*®

The Arikara traditions agree that after Mother Corn had led the people into the Missouri Valley she turned herself into corn and thus provided seed for the people

to plant. In one of the tales the whirlwind becomes angry at Mother Corn and comes to attack the people; Mother Corn turns herself into a cedar tree and a rock (the black meteoric star of the eastern heavens, repre-

senting Nesaru?) falls beside the cedar tree. Whirlwind strikes the cedar tree (Mother Corn) injuring her, and she throws out first an ear of red corn, then a yellow, then a black, last a white ear (the four sacred colors).

This Cedar Tree becomes the ‘‘Wonderful Grandmother’’ and is placed before the Arikara medicinelodge, while the black meteoric rock becomes the ‘‘ Won-

derful Grandfather’’ and is placed beside the Cedar Tree. Mother Corn then gives the four sacred ears to the people: ‘‘My people, this corn is for you. They are seeds. You shall plant them, so that in time you can offer this corn to the gods also. This will be done to 18 Dorsey, Traditions of the Arikara, p. 17. 19 Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee, footnote 74.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 217 remind them that I was once Corn up in the heavens and was sent down to take you from the ground.’’ 7° Mother

Corn taught the people the rites associated with the sacred bundles; she then returned to the place in the east, from which she had come. Before departing she bids the people bring her all of the children’s moccasins

which she ties in a bundle, placing the bundle on her back. She then turns herself into an ear of corn and the people throw her, and the children’s moccasins, wrapped up in a buffalo skin, into the river, so that she may return to her place in the east. After many years she returned one autumn and taught the priests more bundle ceremonies and songs. Then she departed and was never seen again.?! The Pawnees do not appear to have had any traditions

telling of Mother Corn leading the people out of the ground, but they had tales of the Spider Woman who kept the buffalo and corn in a cave underground. This old woman lived in the center of the earth in a vast cave in the far north, where the sky touches the earth. Tuira-

wa gives her seeds of all kinds and bids her plant the seeds and give the increase to the people for seed; but she hoards her crops and gives the people nothing. Tira-

wa sends the Sun Boys against the old woman; they cause the grasshoppers to attack her and carry her up and put her in the moon, where she may still be seen. The Sun Boys then give all of her hoarded seeds to the people.?2, Another version says that the Spider Woman "20 Dorsey, Traditions of the Artkara, p. 22. 21 Same, p. 22.

22 Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidt Pawnee, p. 39.

218 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS kept all of the seed and also spun a great web to keep all of the buffalo underground. The buffalo ask her to permit them to go south to the people; she refuses; but they attack her and trample her into the ground. They then go south and the old woman’s body turns into a forked root and her web into a long vine.”®

The complete entanglement of the Mandan and H1datsa traditions and ceremonies renders it exceedingly difficult and often impossible to say to which tribe certain features must be ascribed. The Mandans, however, are known to have had for at least one hundred years an origin tradition, of which the following is a good version :

‘‘Many hundreds of years ago the Mandan Corn People came out upon the earth at a place somewhere down along the Missouri River.?* The exact spot is not known, although the older Indians think that they could find it by tracing the old villages, and certain landmarks.

‘‘These Mandans were really corn people living down

under the ground. One day one of these people saw an opening above into this world. Soon all the people began to talk about the world up above, and to wonder

about it. So the great chiefs of the corn people sent

the black-bird to go up and . . .. look through the opening. He returned and told the chiefs that there was a beautiful prosperous country up there which the 23 Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee, p. 36. 24 Several of the Mandan traditions state that the underground home from which they came was east of the Missouri, which agrees

with the statements of the quite similar Arikara tales.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 219 corn people would enjoy. At once the people began agitating the question of going up into this new country. At last the chiefs magically caused a vine to grow up to the small opening. They then sent the fox up to enlarge the hole; after he had done his best they sent up the red fox. The badger was the third animal sent up to enlarge

the opening, and fourth and last the elk went up and completed the work with his broad antlers.”°

After this the people began climbing up one by one and the chiefs led them into the world above. For four days and four nights the people kept steadily climbing out of the hole. Then a woman heavy with child started up and the vine broke with her so that no more people were able to ascend. Now the Mandan corn people were in the upper world

with their chiefs. The head chief was Good Fur Robe, then there were Long Ear-rings, Uses His Head for a Rattle,2® Swaying Corn Plant, and their sister, Yellow Corn Woman. These five were the leaders of the new nation. Good Fur Robe located and laid out the first village built by these people. This village was laid out with the houses all in rows to represent a field of corn. The same chief also laid out the fields and allotted the fields among the families.

After this Good Fur Robe started the ceremony of cleansing the seed. He had in his possession many vari-

eties of corn, beans, and squashes. The village caller 25 The Arikara versions of this tale are similar to the Mandan one; each version gives a somewhat different account as to which animals helped.

26 This name evidently refers to the gourd, often used as a

rattle.

220 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS was first sent out to give notice that the chief would issue

seed on the following day. The next morning all the women came to his lodge with presents in their arms to receive the cleansed seed. Each woman was asked what kind of corn she wished, what kind of beans, and what kind of squashes. Then each woman received two seeds of each sort. When they had gotten home the seeds had increased to a quantity sufficient for each one’s planting, and the women then went out and planted their fields. ‘‘For a long time these Mandan Corn People lived in this place unmolested. But soon enemies began to bother them and they formed a society for protection, called the Brave Warriors Society. Good Fur Robe said that they must have a symbol, he said that when you take a handful of corn you hold a great deal in your hand, and the same of many sorts of seeds, but when you try to pick up a handful of red beans they are like glass, slippery, and you cannot hang onto them. Therefore he said that they should have a red bean for a symbol to show that they could slip out of the hands of their enemies, and

they painted the red beans on their shields. Then he placed two young men ahead of the Brave Warriors and

he said that these two would be the defenders of the society and the village. He placed a sunflower stalk in the hand of each one and said that that was to show that they were the bravest of the village and that when they planted the sunflower in the ground in time of war they might never move from that spot even if they must be killed there.?7 This was one of the first societies organized in the tribe.”’ 27 Old Cheyennes state that one hundred years ago (about 1815) their tribe had a battle with the Mandans on the Upper

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 221 The Sun now comes to woo Yellow Corn Woman; she rejects his suit, and in revenge he attempts to destroy the growing corn, but she protects the corn and saves it from him. In the autumn Good Fur Robe organizes the Goose Society among the women and gives them the power to

protect the corn and to see that no one misuses it. The chiefs and their sister, Yellow Corn Woman, then die and the people put the skulls of the two head chiefs in the sacred bundle.?®

This Mandan tradition of the origin and adventures of the Corn People reminds one very strongly of the Arikara tale of Mother Corn leading the corn people out of the ground, the main defference being that the part played by Mother Corn in the Ankara tradition is taken by Good Fur Robe and his companions in the Mandan

version. Among the Mandans and Hidatsas we find a ‘‘mysterious being’’ who corresponds closely to Mother Corn in some respects, although in others, and especially in many of the Hidatsa stories, she is an entirely differ-

ent sort of character. This is the Old Woman Who Never Dies, or the Grandmother, as she is also called. Many of the Indians say that she belonged originally to

the Hidatsas, and it is possible that she was early Missouri, and that a few men on each side ‘‘pinned themselves down’’ to certain spots of ground and remained where they were

until killed. The Cheyenne men who did this belonged to the Dog Soldier Society. They had ‘‘dog ropes’’ with picket pins attached to them, by means of which they picketted themselves out and remained where they were until they were killed or until their friends carried them off the field by main force. 28 This custom of placing the head chief’s skull in the sacred bundle belonging to his village was a very old one among the Pawnees.

222 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS adopted by the Mandans and was given by them some of the attributes of the Corn Mother. In any event she is bound up with many of the agricultural beliefs and practices of the Mandans and Hidatsas. To her many miracles are ascribed, and frequently these have nothing

to do with agriculture. There is a great volume of stories about her, most of which have never been collected. The following general account of her is from Maximilian : ‘“‘The Old Woman Who Never Dies has very extensive

plantations of maize, the keepers of which are the great stag and the white tail stag [the elk and the white tailed deer?]. She has likewise many blackbirds which help to

guard her property. When she intends to feed these keepers she summons them and they fall with avidity upon the maize fields. As these plantations are very large she requires many laborers and the mouse, the mole,

and the before mentioned stags perform the work. The birds which fly from the sea shore in the spring represent the old woman who then travels to the north to visit the old man who never dies, and who always resides in that quarter.2® She does not, however, stop there long, but generally returns in three or four days. In former times the old woman’s hut was near the Little Missouri where

the Indians often went to visit her. One day twelve Manitaries came to her and she set before them a pot of ~~ 29 Compare Mr. Grinnell’s version of the Cheyenne creation

tradition, in the Journal of American Folk-lore, v. xx, p. 171. In this Cheyenne version it is the man who is placed in the south

and the woman in the north. In the spring the man advances toward the north; he is the Thunder, or is accompanied by the Thunder, and also by the migratory birds.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 223 maize which was so small that it was not sufficient to satisfy even one, but she invited them to eat and as soon as the pot was empty it was instantly filled and all twelve men had enough. This occurred several times while the old woman resided in that spot.’’ Her residence was for a long time on the west side of the Missouri, some ten miles below the Little Missouri River on the banks of a little slough known as the Short

Missouri. A single large house-ring here is pointed out as the site of her home and the high bottom there is said to have been the Grandmother’s field. According to the traditions she became impatient at the too frequent visits of the Hidatsas and moved into the west. - The Spider Woman of the Pawnees, who kept the corn, the beans, the squashes, and the buffalo in her underground home, resembles the Mandan and Hidatsa Old Woman Who Never Dies, but in some respects she is very

different. She lived in the far north, and she had to be forced to give up the seeds and animals which Tirawa through his servants, the Sun and Moon, had given her to distribute among the people. In the Arikara tale of The Girl Who Married a Star,*° when the girl’s son reaches the earth he goes toward the west and finds an old woman who has a large field of corn and squashes and flocks of blackbirds which work for her and which she feeds with corn. She also has many animals. The boy, by means of his magic power, takes the birds and animals (and the corn?) out of the old woman’s control and scatters them over the country, so that they may be

of use to the people. This is said to have happened ~~ 80 Dorsey, Traditions of the Arikara, p. 45.

224 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS somewhere to the northwest of the Arikara village, which

is said to have been on the Missouri; but the tree which the girl climbed when she was led to the sky by the star’s magic power, 1s said to have been: near Armstrong. In this tale, as in the Pawnee versions, the old woman has to be overpowered and compelled to give up the animals, birds, and corn for the benefit of the people. Several Cheyenne traditions dealing with the origin of the corn and buffalo have been collected by Mr. George Bird Grinnell.*?. There were evidently two sets of these traditions originally, one set belonging to the Cheyennes and the other to the Suhtai, a cognate tribe which joined the Cheyennes long ago north of the Missouri but kept

up a separate tribal organization until about the year 1830. The traditions of the two people have now besome so entangled that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to separate them. There are two culture heroes: Sweet Root Standing of the Cheyennes, and Standing on Ground of the Suhtai, who act together in bringing the corn and buffalo to the people. In some of the versions Standing on Ground, the Suhtai, is the leader and Sweet Root Standing is the follower or servant, but the positions are reversed in at least one of the tales, and Sweet Root Standing takes the lead. Each of these men has several names. Sweet Root Standing, more often ealled simply Sweet Root, may possibly be a corn name. His other names are Rustling Leaf, Rustling Corn Leaf, Corn Leaf, and Sweet Medicine. Standing on Ground is also called Erect Horns, Straight Horns, Red Tassel 81 George Bird Grinnell, ‘‘Some Early Cheyenne Tales,’’ part i, in Journal of American Folk-lore, v. xx, pp. 169-194.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 225 (of corn), and in one tale when he is asked his name he says: ‘‘My name is Mai-tum, Red, red, red, red.’’ *? The first of Mr. Grinnell’s Cheyenne tales seems to

refer to an earlier period than the others. It relates how the people were given the buffalo, but later the herds

disappear. Long after this Standing on Ground and Sweet Root Standing again bring the buffalo, and the corn also, to the people. The first tale is that of Yellowtop-to-Head Woman. It states that long ago the Cheyennes were living far on the other side (northeast) of the Missouri in a flat, sandy country. They were starving. Two young men were sent out to find food. They

traveled for eight days toward the north and came in

sight of a high peak with a stream flowing near it. While crossing the stream one of the young men was seized by a great serpent or water monster. An old man, the Coyote Man, comes out of the peak and kills the ser-

pent. He calls the young men his grandsons and conducts them into the peak, which is really a lodge. There they see an old woman and a girl, Yellow-top-to-HeadWoman, who is the daughter of the old couple. The woman 1s given to the younger of the two Cheyennes to be his wife; then the coyote man bids the youths look

toward the north and they see a great field of corn; toward the east are herds of buffalo, toward the south elk, deer, and other game; toward the southwest herds of horses, and toward the west birds of all kinds. After they have looked at everything, the coyote man says to them. ‘‘Now you shall go to your home. Take this 82 In these Cheyenne tales red seems to be employed to symbolize abundant life.

226 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS woman back with you to your camp . . . she is to be a great helping power to your people; she will take everything I have shown you to your people; everything will follow her.’’ The old people tell their daughter that if she ever sees a little buffalo calf brought into camp she must not say, ‘‘My poor animal.”’ The three young people now returned to the Cheyenne camp in the south; the buffalo follow and the famine 1s ended, but no mention is made of the woman also bring-

ing the corn. Hight years later some boys dragged a little buffalo calf into camp. Yellowtop-to-Head Woman

pitied the calf and said, ‘‘My poor ealf.’’ That day the buffalo all disappeared. Yellowtop-to-Head Woman now sets out to visit her parents in the peak, taking the two young men with her; they do not return, and the buffalo are not seen again until Sweet Root Standing and Standing on Ground bring them the second time. Of this second tale there are many versions, most of which are in agreement as to the main facts, but they differ

widely in details. These events evidently happened while the Cheyennes were still on foot, living far to the northeast of the Missouri, in the present MuinnesotaNorth Dakota borderland. It is to be noted that in these tales Sweet Root and Standing on Ground are usually given their corn names: Rustling (corn) Leaf and Red Tassel (of corn).

In a big camp of Cheyennes two young men met. They were dressed and painted in a peculiar fashion and both in exactly the same way. ‘‘Where did you get your dress?’’ said one: ‘‘Where did you learn it?’’ said the other.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 227 The man first addressed pointed to a big white bluff far off, and said, ‘‘I learned it in that big hill far off where there 1s an overhanging cliff and a stream of water pouring out. There is where I got my dress.’’

‘“Why,’’ said the other, ‘“‘that is just where I got mine, the same place you mean.’’ Both were astonished.

They then induce the tribe to move to that place, in

order that they may try to secure something for the people, who are very poor. The people encamp in front of the bluff and the two young men go to the bluff and

pass in under the water falling over the cliff. This is sometimes spoken of as a waterfall. In the first version given by Mr. Grinnell the two young men enter side by side. In the other versions one or the other goes in first. Behind the waterfall the young men find an old woman who addresses them as grandsons and welcomes them. She is sitting in a lodge. She bids them look one way and they see herds of buffalo, deer, antelope, ete.; she bids them look another way and they see a great field of

corn. She now gives one of them a bowl with a few grains of corn, the other a bowl of meat, cut into little pieces, and bids them take these things to the people. The young men feed the people, and the little bowls con-

tain enough for all. In some of the tales the young men are each given meat and corn, and they feed the people ceremonially, Standing on Ground or Red Tassel feeding the males, Sweet Root or Rustling Leaf feeding the females. In these details the versions do not agree. Continuing the first version: the buffalo follow the young men out of the old woman’s lodge in great herds. On the following day the two young men reénter: the

228 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS lodge and the old woman instructs them as to how to plant corn. When they come out of her lodge one bears a pipe and a bundle of paint, the other seeds of corn and vegetables. From this little supply of seed each person, including the children, is given some seed corn and some pumpkin seed, and all of the males are given tobacco seed. The people now move to a good planting place and Corn Leaf shows them how to plant the corn. ‘The man showed them how to dig up the ground and how to plant this corn, in quineunxes, the sharp end of the grain pointing upward.’’ The people next go on a buffalo hunt and the man who had brought out the pipe

and paint (evidently Red Tassel) teaches them the method of hunting these animals. In the fall they return and harvest their crops. ‘“‘Some of the patches did not grow very well, and this was a sign that whose who

had planted these patches would not live very long. Other patches grew well, and this was a sign that those who had planted these patches would live to a great age. This is where the first corn came from.”’ The Inkesabe gens of the Omaha have a tradition of the coming forth of the buffalo from a cave under the earth.23 The old woman who kept the buffalo and corn is not mentioned, however, and the corn is not included in the story. In this same gens the Ninibaton subgens kept the sacred pipes, had a tabu on the sacred red corn

and a tradition of the origin of that corn. This tradition states: ‘‘The Inkesabe were the first of the Omaha to exist. There were one man and one woman. They lived together and children were born to them. The wo33 Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 147.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 229 man went out one day and found little mounds on the ground. In a few days she went again, and saw that out of the mounds plants were growing not known to her. From time to time she went to look at these plants. They grew tall, and by and by ears grew on them. These she

gathered and took to her husband and children. They roasted the ears by the fire and ate them. These were the people to whom the corn was sacred; so to this day they do not eat the red ear of corn.’’ ** The sacred tradition of the Omaha states that the buffalo were found first, then the corn. ‘‘A man in wandering about found some kernels, blue, red, and white. He thought he had secured something of great value, so he

concealed them in a mound. One day he thought he would go to see if they were safe. When he came to the mound he found it covered with stalks having ears bearing kernels of these colors. He took an ear of each kind and gave the rest to the people to experiment with. They tried it for food, found it good, and have ever since called it their life. As soon as the people found the corn good,

they thought to make mounds like that in which the kernels had been hid. So they took the shoulder blade of the elk and built mounds like the first and buried the

corn in them. So the corn grew and the people had abundant food.’’ %5

Henry Fontenelle in 1884 gave the same Omaha tra-

dition, but with the following details: The Omahas were living at or near the mouth of the Missouri long

ago, and they were very destitute. One day a man "34 Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 147. 35 Same, p. 71.

230 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS found an ear of corn in a mole hill. He divided the seed among the people; they planted the corn, and from that time the people have always planted corn.*® The sacred tradition of the Ponka, given by Standing Buffalo of the Wazhazhe gens, states that after the peo-

ple had wandered a long time, ‘‘Wakonda gave the people a bow, a dog, and a grain of corn. . . The corn they planted, and when it grew they found it good to eat, and they continued to plant 1t.’’ 3”

The Honga group in the Osage tribe have a tradition that when the land appeared out of the water the elk rolled in the mud, his loose hairs stuck in the mud and began to grow; and as they grew they turned into corn, bean vines, grass, trees, and other plants.*® One of Mr. Dorsey’s Osage traditions, however, states that a buffalo bull dropped four ears of sacred corn: black, red, blue, white.*?

Perhaps the most interesting of these traditions relating to the origin of the corn are those in which the corn people come out of the earth, and those in which the corn is kept by the old woman in her underground lodge. The story of the corn people we find among the Mandans and Hidatsas and among the Arikaras also: a fact which raises a question as to whether the tale is of Siouan or Caddoan origin. As the tale is not found among the Pawnees and as the Arikaras are known to have adopted many of the customs and traditions of the Mandans dur"36 Nebraska Historical Society, Transactions, v. i, p. 77. 87 Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 49. 38 Same, p. 63. 39 Dorsey, Stouan Sociology, p. 237.

FS a a Oy Pie a elie See ede Tayo nS oft Pe foe Soo pip espn:

oe reesei ee ee Meee et eae Se Ea foe ae A ae) RD eee

er rter rt eee eee eee REASONS Mei AY Be SN TI Den te aE Lae Sel Cos bis 9 MaoEORE eee aeee ee PEE Le070ptee De et STE rs nee pea vet fo Were SPE REPIPURDRREEE Sets BORD SEE 11 eerie Lee ene ee raPELE o Yor foeee . QeES oo

ere Ne To. SeAEE reid sete Sets totSST nfsSeevey Seth USryse be : : : CP Le ate = gis,ae a | SII es CCINS ee oe os SERRATE ISNEE E SES EAT en OEE APIS pe nbs plilegte goon op SUS Ss1Bi yeSIE II SSO ES GMM RES OMIM og a SE SCeeoe Wee SeTE bes Se Dovey slo weet EEE TRU. NN neces pare PSG Do ORSas SST 8 Dene nen ogeean leeoe ee fae ;2 a ETTORE SEEMS 03000) (0 ea a A TN es SI oe a ce AMR SR CIT Dye ee DOS Le ote see OT ERE ett Do.

I BEES eae ee eeeSSS eee eee eee ong oat POMS Set Pg ne eeCae en wooe . aoS a ee gePhe ee Se ee ESE i eeSORE eee we eheen onlefl. ws :es : [i Be . ee EET ge OST Te tif pesDate sees: Peter ceeApe ET Bette .:

,Eeei aee oo, ee eee Pope t eee Bed Se A eee INDE 8 gh oe honoris tie oS en we oo eee eee ne ene eee eee TTT I PS RIE so MIN ee ee oe Set ete a et pesty te PLee so:

, td ee Fe eeeOUI [eegeo Dee ee SAPS ae SP SeeOe. nS, : . Ua PesEe LEER HGsea i MMI ogED eet ieee Dots NTSA POPES REne SSeee SEDBoer fey : coe -_ Lge eo,

coe DOD Be eg: PEE FS SE Ea aSE Dn Sts : Ces CDE SSPLIES MC 2 ee ceSS on Stee aanRATES Selenite SAE reece en itai adi ad er etpg a Ue ES :ne EUR nS CeGe DoE RTE TE ee as ChSE aeee Wee oo fe ifeER =. ee ET Teles ae Dae en re Pt eittteeSe Deeeg Et os tt F :

Co ESS ees os hep A

: .eens SetePS SeEEEEEES i Ns TN OMS los Coe Bee ae oS Pe ccBane cy Ne Ue . .. :ar at WP Serperepernanrcsssenssoingta OiMUG cas TAEek: SN Ls le pe ie Se oaattees ree ; le: ee ES fo S . 7set ee aa 605.0 a GR Rarer eae UeDe ee2 ane eee.Se :.

i DORMER i se 4 PS Sse errs i eaee oo.Se ee eeee eeaa Lp i i ee eee DE LE Se La he.se eree ee ee SSeS le ete PUES SE cae pee i ll ee Die Ael ee a a) feat Se Ene ee Oe ee eee ree eT OTE aS ce vie oo OESia SN Gc ie OO WeUeP ESTEE le ee 2 2eeeBeSnEEE oei eC i Ce eeeec SE SSS SEEANE oe ee ees en

aaeLa) oe a UM Ce ee SEE pete 8mEeeBe SE .Ree te Leh LaCO. UMN Mis SO ee TE Sco oo BGS ee se 2S eal Maer os ott Ce 8fersALRe ASA a UIE IETS SU Se Be ER Se Mees iiisye tere ee plows : weEELS SEE AOoo), cc HE i BS OM lh LO asei OZtebe U LM A caT aen ra ea re: Boe ee 2

. Pog Des be SE ge SOONG TE AN OMAR 2 IR iN A OS SO ais COU ge SUS To arian a ee ER SUS SB te oar

: .ee Preemie reOOO RS PUI ESN BSEEE Sat Aye fein et) :; SNR ESE | tan NNT eee tyPO) ee oe Settee REE TSoe Dente a hel eT 7 Vote oles oe CSEsesad na:ey ‘aeSa eeeUNUM eee aes eRe aeight nNCE etaig sgfsPe, Bogs Co (Of fasnes 3tt ii aoe REA Ui Gaal AO ea ea aDee ee ee ese ee UT esaad ey ent ae oe i ee eee Sc SS OSE UY et dca sl ft ee OOS _ ee _ ee USES SERS Sle ets Pe Sy wots wo: . C8 De a a. . ee erent des os ROPES ae USA Ee is Oranie NaeSe a oa ae ps oe: EE TeESSE rrrCCHu eee fepitas Denied Brith debs

ee res er 2. cme ees

2 mmemrrererrcrre 0)a ie iM‘ aaa ieaSrrerdarnse: Te NE Tg NG CO RUE Geese BER Pe DED Pe PO es eee 2 et Ce: Bp Gg ayeeos nea CESSES ESD , , Satie eee LECOE CCGES A Ee RIG AA i iygis Eee eeaea eee Te tte vated g te We Phe hive ee eese eetee i 28cells a Ds

Pe Lah A eeOO FNom eg ee a aC*™” ee ee ae eee PETS 2gh eeeEA DSeea ES Ee Bi eee ;Cash ;eee ce St pe i eT ie ek 0 eee OSES | COMMER ee ee ago ae Ailes Sia ee : pparmmererimrre ren NeWU ee ge SNese uea Gc SS eS wh EeSe eS oe Bene SO ge Dre eelt Hi Ceesuw DOS SU oe eeSsSeen asEge ee aetRee Dus Pe ee ll A, ee rc ee le DEE Lg eS: PARINE DS Sees tee oe ans PENS ee ae i TT ee ee ee Pe Ln SEE ee te ee ae core ae UU) OSGUM Co ae Ce BOGS INNe AGU oo SS Tee IA eeeR aeGaal Me iSSS a he Me TENG oo ee SS Fate oeeteee fnPele Se Co Siu nc aS 22MIN ie Toy oe edie ee 7 AS Se a ae ee De ie . ee ee ee LOS ee oo SS III se ee ST aUp SLUTS Sf a a i. ee, oe of a ce ee re eS ee OR see eee SITING EE Se SS se sO DEES =ceneMaat eee aMIM Ioeueoon Be ee Se oe Cits a) TIN a ea TaN ale: Meco ee |) er es Poe Se we eeSMM iClean | BO COR GEwm NN SeaDEES ouCeeserfete fee Set :o.Pe Do Gi ee ee ES BE PSaeeee eeiee eee ll teoo WERE ne En a Sennen ea, a MN eo RN HMRES eet eeSTS ert Ey Uea eee het s eee aaaee SOLES Nee

Ne i cn, os ee a ee Oe ol Oe TT Senne enceAnce Ts NM Ue RG i MMMM cc aie ON eGACRE Seekers en Site Da aeLe Sa :Peet lope: :; .eeRREMCPerree ietbal eeaSiSil WME Me MN OID ONG SES EINViet Cn fees Pest: ° oe EAE EErey UN OO aa ee CC ne UMN SO MR OSS T Sens BiceLES Soo 2eeaDee he a ean 7 ; Pnreemrrenreats 0 OU OS alin ile 2 PO UU i Me Pas Se RS ese on Sts nie ne er ono efi dete Poe

SMe SUSE 0h RI aALE SOU Mi Mn OE MGSUK sibs eS Vn oney a aE Geeee: arene or Nicos Meai ToD ee et ee re WDE SeSUT 2k SES a Rn Ayyee eeOM OS RHA NOSUTTON ceePT MU BRIE SEs AGS oeAti CTT PL veee: pee : a 7 Po Ue ASS SSSUG en PO aN sy saan i Ae TP ie EE TSS USSG Se a) Neigh e wt es ST wed ee

ECRMmCneRR iis Sen i i NO Mo iN Milling) ee PS ES LARP pe ee EOE ST

. oS EES Se OS SG SG Ae EARLS NI lacie Cal INE es oe aE UA ica ann pee SE 20 2AM ONIN Soc od ee eS go a tor . . : Co, a Conse ts RO Be Pc RO Aaa nT UATO aT Npes Fi oan Ree eae PALS ie a Men 1 RR eR foe Soeeniee Ce Sees ees BEAST Sit tt : : : DI SN a es ae Ga iii lt EE EMO lll: UUM INGE CaN OMe MINIM TOT ME Ss MMII ee 2) WG Sos Te eis Bo ASSES EE

CORN AMONG THE INDIANS 233 ing their long intimacy with that tribe, we might suppose the tale to be of Siouan origin; but an examination of the available material fails to disclose any such tradition among the other Siouan tribes. The Omahas have

a tradition of the buffalo coming out of a cave; but if they ever had a similar tradition of the origin of corn it must have been lost long ago.

The story of the old woman who kept the corn and buffalo is found among the Pawnees (two versions), among the Arikaras (who seem to imply that she lived on the earth, and not underground), among the Mandans and Hidatsas (who also imply that she lived on the earth and not under it), among the Cheyennes (who have at least five versions, all of which place the old woman’s home underground), and among the Blackfeet. The Atsinas have the same tale in a somewhat different form: The girl marries the Moon instead of a star; when she escapes to earth and is killed her son finds an old woman who has a field; he steals things to eat from the field, but just what he takes from the Grandmother’s field: is not stated. Neither corn or vegetables are mentioned.*® The Arapahoes also have several versions of this tale, in some of which the boy finds the old woman, Grandmother, in others she is not mentioned, and in none of the stories is her field or garden referred to.** This tale of the woman who kept the plants and animals that supplied the people with food, reminds one of the Algonquian tradition of Nanabozho and Mesakkummikokwi. Nanabozho is the life-giver; he makes animals "40 Kroeber, Gros Ventre Myths and Tales, p. 90. 41 Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, nos. 134-138.

234 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS and plants to help the people, and also plants and roots to cure disease and to be used as ‘‘medicine’’ to attract game animais. ‘‘These plants he confided to the watchful care of his grandmother, the great-grandmother of the human race, Mesakkummikokwi, and lest any man should invoke her in vain she was strictly forbidden ever to leave her lodge. So, when collecting plants, roots, and herbs for their natural and magic virtues, an Algonquian Indian faithfully leaves on the ground hard by the place whence he has taken the root or plant a small offering to Mesakkummikokwi.’’ 4? This is evidently a tradition of the non-agricultural Algonquians who lived by hunting and fishing, and we may conceive how natural it would be for one of these tribes, like the Cheyennes, on

first procuring corn to attribute the gift to the grandmother, Mesakkummikokwi.

The tradition giving the origin of corn preserved by the Potawatamis and some other agricultural Algonquian tribes states that after the flood a man was created, and as he was lonely he was given a sister to keep him com-

pany. The man dreams that five man-beings will visit his sister. She must reject the first four and welcome the fifth. The first four to arrive are Sama or Tobacco, Wapekone or Squash, Eshketamok or Melon, and Kojees

or Bean. On being rejected by the girl they fall dead. The fifth man then appears. He is Mandamin, or Corn.

The girl takes him for her husband. He buries the bodies of his four rivals, and from them grow tobacco, squashes, melons, and beans. From the marriage of the

girl with Mandamin sprang the Indian race.*? In 42 Bulletin 80, Bureau of American Ethnology, v. 11, p. 21. 43 Same, pp. 21-22.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 230 another Algonquian tradition —the one made famous by Schooleraft and Longfellow — Mandamin wrestles with a young man, is overcome and buried, and from

his body corn grows. It will be noted that in these eastern and central Algonquian tales the corn is male and

is presented as a young man; while in the Upper Missourl area the corn is invariably referred to as female and is personified as a woman. Although the Arapahoes, as late as 1880, had a tradi-

tion that they formerly planted corn on the Upper Missourl, their sacred traditions collected in recent years by Dorsey and Kroeber contain only one mention of corn. This is found in the second fragment of the origin myth. In these myths the Flat Pipe, the tribal medicine, is us-

ually referred to as the creator. In the second fragment, which appears to be much less corrupted with mod-

ern additions than the others, we are told that the pipe was floating on the great flood, and on the pipe rested a man, his wife, and their boy. The man sets about makIng the earth. A duck brings him some mud from the bottom and he makes a little earth, but it is not large enough. The turtle then brings up more mud and the man makes the present earth. He then takes the pipe and with its aid makes rivers and creeks, mountains and hills. ‘‘The man then lived on dry land with his family. He took the duck and turtle and placed them with the flat pipe. Some time afterwards, these made Indian corn .for the first food. Thus the earth was made, and the flat pipe contained then the body of a duck, and turtle

and corn.’’** Here we have the corn made first. In ~~ 44 Dorsey and Kroeber, Traditions of the Arapaho, p. 3.

236 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS all of the other Arapaho and Gros Ventre traditions the animals are made first; indeed, corn is not mentioned in

any of them. The Arapahoes still preserve with the sacred pipe a stone image of an ear of sacred corn. Clark

states that he was informed in 1881 that an ear of corn was given to the Arapahoes by their ‘‘god’’ before he returned to his home in the east.*®

45 Clark, Indian Stgn Language.

VIIL—CORN CEREMONIES 1. CEREMONIAL ORGANIZATION. 2. SACRED CORN. 3. SPRING, SUMMER, AND FALL CEREMONIES. 4. VARIOUS CEREMONIES, BELIEFS, AND PRACTICES

During the past one hundred years considerable material on the religious ceremonies of the agricultural tribes of the Upper Missouri has been published and, incidentally, the ceremonies connected with the cultivation of corn have often been described. Much of this material, however, is of a fragmentary character, and too often it has been gathered by men who seem to have thought the ceremonies connected with corn and its cultivation of no special interest and worthy only of passing notice.

So far as we have been able to learn, no careful detailed account of any of the interesting Pawnee and Arikara corn ceremonies has ever appeared. There is Miss Alice Fletcher’s splendid volume on the Pawnee Hako; but the Hako is not a true corn ceremony. On the Mandan and Hidatsa ceremonies somewhat fuller information

has been published, but it is of a rather unsatisfactory nature, and we are usually left in doubt as to the underlying meaning of things. The corn rites of the Omahas have not been practiced for a very long time and all detailed knowledge of them apparently has been lost. Of the corn ceremonies of the other Upper Missouni tribes we have no information whatever.

238 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS Judging from the material available, it may be said that the corn rites and ceremonies of the Upper Missouri

tribes were never as elaborate as those of the tribes of the Southwest and ‘of the Lower Mississippi valley. There

is evidence, however, that some of these tribes formerly had corn ceremonies more highly developed, and that upon reaching the buffalo plains, two hundred to three hundred years ago, the corn rites were gradually given up or subordinated to the more important buffalo rites.

Among the Omahas we find clear evidence of this. Among the Pawnees the corn rites are said to be the oldest and the most important; and yet we have very good evidence that the Pawnees have lived in the buffalo

plains longer than any of these Siouan tribes, with which we are dealing.

1. Ceremonial orgamzation What this older ceremonial organization — on an agricultural basis——- may have been like in its prime it Is very difficult to judge from the meager material now available. The Pawnees appear to have preserved their corn ceremonies and ceremonial organization much more

fully than have the other tribes under consideration. Nevertheless, we have little detailed information concern-

ing Pawnee corn priests and their work. The Pawnees do not appear ever to have had a clan organization. They were organized into village-groups, each of which had a sacred bundle, which had usually been given by a star. These bundles were termed ‘‘rains

wrapped up’’ and were in the hands of hereditary keepers; the rites accompanying the bundles were kept

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 239 by priests and the priesthood was not hereditary but was ‘fopen to all proper aspirants.’’ 4

In the Skidi creation myth, as told by Irisa, an old priest, it 1s stated that the son of the first pair of human beings was led toward the west by a meadow lark and

there found the four servants of the Evening Star — Cloud, Thunder, Lightning, and Wind — sitting in a lodge, who taught him prayers to the Evening Star (the First Mother) for good crops and abundant supplies of buffalo. They taught him how to plant and gave him a

bundle containing seed; and when he returned to the people he became the first head-priest. In the spring he gave the people seed to plant, and im the fall the people returned seed of the new crop to him, to be placed in the sacred bundle.? It would seem, therefore, that the keeper of the sacred bundle of each village was considered the head-priest.

He kept the bundle and, perhaps, directed the rites which were performed by the other priests. These village bundles were all wrapped in buffalo skin and each contained Mother Corn, a pipe, tobacco, paints, and some

birds. Their contents differed only in minor details. Each bundle had its own ritual, tabus, and sacrifices. To the Morning Star bundle (male) the Skidi made human sacrifices. Captured maidens were sacrificed to

this star. But to the bundle of the Evening Star (the First Mother) only the heart and tongue of the buffalo and some tobacco were sacrificed.

Whether the Pawnees had special priests to perform 1 Bulletin 30, Bureau of American Ethnology, v. ii, p. 215. 2 Dorsey, Traditions of the Skidi Pawnee, p. 21.

240 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS the pumpkin, bean, and other rites which they practiced, is not stated. The Arikara ceremonial organization, from what little can be learned of it, appears to have been very similar to that of the Skidi Pawnee. Like the Skidi, they had corn priests and sacred bundles, but their bundles were given to them by Mother Corn herself, and not by the stars. Their organization was based on the village, each village

having its own sacred bundle and rites. Besides the Mother Corn bundles, the Arikaras also had the Bird Case and the Seven Gourds, and these things also had their special rituals. Besides the village bundles, each Arikara (and Pawnee?) family had its own sacred bundle, containing, among other things, an ear of corn, which symbolized the

Corn Mother. Matthews (p. 18): ‘‘In every Arikaree lodge there is a large ear of corn which has lasted for generations, sticking out of the mouth of the medicine bag. At their feasts they make offerings to the corn by rubbing a piece of meat on it while they pray to it for plentiful harvest, and address it by the name of Mother.’”’ All of the agricultural Siouan tribes of the Upper Mis-

sourl, with the possible exception of the Mandans and Hidatsas, had a well developed gentile organization, very

different from the village organization of the Pawnees and Arikaras. Among these Siouan peoples the rites

and the sacred objects (which take the place of the sacred bundles of the Pawnees and Arikaras) were the hereditary possessions of certain gentes and subgentes. In historic times the rites and sacred objects of the Omaha-Ponka had mainly to do with the hunting of the

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 241 buffalo. These people gave to the buffalo a higher place

than they did to the corn: to them the buffalo was a ‘‘orandmother’’ and the corn only a ‘‘mother.’’ The evidence, however, points strongly to the fact that prior to their arrival in the Missouri Valley the Omaha-Ponka (then organized in a single tribal group) gave to the corn the higher place and that their rather highly developed ceremonial organization had mainly to do with the pro-

curing of abundant crops. All detailed knowledge of this older ceremonial organization appears to have been lost; but the following fragments of information will exhibit the systems in outline. The Ninibaton subgens of the Inkesabe gens have the tradition of the origin of the sacred red corn, and they

have a tabu on the eating of that corn. This subgens kept the sacred tribal pipes and the mtes connected with

the cultivation of the maize. ‘‘This indicates that the group who controlled the rites of the maize were regarded

as the proper persons to have the care of the symbol of tribal authority because of their connection with the ancient sacred rites which secured food for the people.’’ 3 The hair of the Ninibaton children was all cut off with the exception of two little round tufts which were supposed to represent the mounds in which the sacred red corn was discovered. This division also provided the ears Of sacred red corn to be used m the spring rites. Four seeds of this sacred corn were given to each family. The Ninibaton also had charge of the Hedewachi ceremony, a very old rite, resembling in some ways the Sun Dance, and dating back to the time previous to the tribe’s 8 Fletcher and La Flesche, p. 148.

242 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS arrival in the buffalo plains. The tribal herald was also a Ninibaton man; indeed this division which had the sacred red corn and its rites appears to have been the most important one in ancient times. The Omaha corn rites were all of the Wewaspe class —

that is, they were official or tribal rites. They were in the nature of prayers from the whole tribe to Wakonda. The Hongaxti division had charge of the rites connected with the cultivation of corn. In the spring the Ninibaton gave ears of the sacred corn to the Hongaxti men, who performed the sacred rites. The seed was then distributed among the people. The Washabeton subgens kept the sacred White Buffalo Hide and its rites and

had the White Buffalo Tent. On this tent are painted two plants of growing corn with green ears. The Hongaxti have a tabu on the husks of green corn. The evidence seems to indicate that the Hongaxti were formerly a very important group, having charge of rites connected with the consecration of seed, the planting and cultiva-

tion of corn; that they had a sacred tent with growing corn plants painted thereon; but that upon arriving in the buffalo plains the old corn rites became subordinated to buffalo rites, and the sacred green corn tent was turned into a sacred buffalo tent.*

The Thatada gens had three subdivisions which possessed rites connected with the cultivation of corn. Of these divisions the Wasabe ‘‘shared in the rites observed at the awakening of spring;’’ it had a black bear 4Fletcher and Le Flesche, p. 155. Mr. Dorsey states that the Inkesabe sacred tent had plants of green corn painted on it, the green ears painted with black tips.

OF THE UPPER MISSOURI 243 tabu and old rites connected with the black bear, which have been lost long since. The Wazhinga subgens had a tabu on birds and possessed rites for the protection of the crops, now lost. Mr. Dorsey states that Fire Chief, who belonged to this Omaha subgens, had stalks of growing corn painted on his lodge, and that the men of this division feared to eat the first ears of corn that matured, because if they did so the small birds, and particularly the blackbirds, would come and devour the rest of the crops. The Kein subgens had rain rites, long since lost, and a tabu on turtles. This division protected the crops both by bringing rain when needed and by dispelling violent storms that might have injured the corn. The Inshtasunda gens, which had a tabu on worms and insects, formerly possessed rites for protecting the corn from such creatures. The oldest sacred objects preserved by the Omahas, the Shell and the Cedar Pole, are supposed to have been connected with agricultural rites in ancient times. There are many more little fragments of evidence — all pointing to the conclusion that the old Omaha-Ponka group had a very high reverence for the corn, and that in their ceremonial organization each gens and subgens performed certain rites and duties, one group keeping the sacred corn and its tradition, another consecrating the seed and performing the rites connected with planting and cultivation, while other groups protected the corn

from insects, brought rain, and insured abundant harvests. There is reason to believe that the ceremonial organiza-

tion of the other Siouan tribes living farther to the

244 CORN AMONG THE INDIANS south: the Iowas, Otoes, and Missouris, the Kansa and Osages, was very similar to that of the Omaha-Ponka group, but we have less information on the old organization of these tribes. The Iowas although now almost extinct, as far as full-bloods are concerned, still have two sacred varieties of corn, one of which belongs to the Arukhwa or Buffalo gens. This is a red corn, and the Arukhwa people have a tabu on eating it.® Among the other two agricultural Siouan tribes of this area — the Mandans and Hidatsas — we fail to find the same clear evidence of an older ceremonial organization with the corn rites in the hands of certain gentes and

subgentes. In these two tribes most of the corn rites were kept by the Corn Priest, and by the Goose Society, an organization of women. This society also had buffalo rites. The Corn Priest, or Corn Singer, among the Mandans had many duties besides that of singing and drumming for the Goose Women. In the spring he distributed the sacred seed and sometimes performed a special rite of cleansing the seed. During the growing season he performed the duties of a peace chief. There was no tribal harvest ceremony, but in the fall the priest was called

upon to perform the rites termed ‘‘Offerings to the Corn,’’ as some of the women were always anxious to make these offerings. In the winter whenever a cache was opened the priest was called in to bless its contents. It is stated that he could bring rain and prevent early frosts, hail, and wind storms. He also kept, or used, the sacred pipe. 8 Information of Joseph Springer, an Arukhwa man.

aa ;7| _. ._. eS Co os - ee _B a a | _ ae — .BE Co a 7 7 a oO oe oo aaeHaie-_ . .oe.esSoelhei aefoa.|.”a Ae ee oe Pe _|ioooo aCo oe ON . aeLe oe ii— as ooaHan ics |._ee i 7 . : i oo ee O-A.58... ce SOs a a ee als ee ae a Hie Loin He OMS oe Coa oo. ee ve as ne slic ae a. . eS We oe a.EEE We wy _ a ne ai aan a, ae oe ae a oe Bos oo oo atpn? aGlve i oo1yor seeMe vremaaes ee Co we oe. Oe a a . a he oo en oe ereaas a Oe ce : a— aaHA a oka. aN Tees |. ae et .aeoe ee esi . A .. a. a. AuO |.yWy a.Wie ii Co oo. HES i Co aof Oe Oe LoHe ceoe ey | |_|. oe "ey oeoooe ihoe _ntCo i.ne as.> aa oo |oF BUS ai a ae_oo oN ae ea oe ae a_Haba ae oO oo Rael el a. i oe oo eSCe ae Peek EOE EE§ aBe 8Eee | Peas Lo .ee oeReena ae oe aRES SS :ee . oe oeEEE cagannnes TEESE Rae oeee ee eee eeen EsRenee see Bes . SESE ES AG aUGA ERs SOE PA: ESee oe ee EEEpares HAL: eeeee Betas

FEES sha oo DE IS ee LOn a ae eea. pre oeRs EGE ess.. peesEEN see ES eae a pees ae ae Kaa .ees “: Be Ds ON iis _. oo. os oSOe ke leee ee Co \oe rs ond oo a ‘ 1ee i‘ ..ne. 8 eeoe es oe eeis asa... ae |_tetCr sa EB) a 3. a oe oo Me ees aie 5 Oe ANCES AN We al ‘ in ese i ee aM ne) Warne CONN zce & 2:we i ae Benn pe B 3_ . | as oa oe aes ee eS Me _ oe i ve . BKEeHe weg,

ee on oe oe Baa es ES ee He EE eeoe meoo.. ee ... ee ooHES oe ee nsoeeeeeee eeee eecee ooioiieriee Ee genta

mS oo Ne i ee Cs Ge ee ee met on oo. a8 oo oe on ae Ce) es oo oe oe ee ae a ’

eee Set Sas Nae eh Pa Aiea aKO Hl altoo Cn ees Cn cna a mS SOUS eG ialk liePa eyAPi eeON SAere GH i ot Uy)a.ee oy Ce od _aR Ap Sees a aiG als MR esoo eeCae Ssane no We es aNie ee ae N, iy . iyON fCED NOR. Be eeisla a 2ee ONT Ga _oe a Os ee iiaeee aa We a) ae Sica ieae rent — 4— aue oe a BS oses Ha Oe on foe asoo coae seu of nt aug aeoo) Bae aH Ni . ae .Sat Aa me WAS eee Ce TNiGS as aseaMK a ON Da ss aCOG sie imcs aLee ne ehOs aeHN es Ge aDi7aHin Hi ait ae ae a |. oe aR uh —aCe SERIES ieoo SaaNG Neal ae aaasCe Sey eeee Reva: Oss nite See otCy mloh ee NN SS SESS PERE oN mn i a,AG Aoo ANH eaoe Ee ie oo jitee nk BG, thyWie Hy es eal Mh Hy SOTA LA Syoo iin Ss ants ae iuay ei aeeaeoh CG ‘Si A_atas.HN So ieLeSg ce agifaN Siaan if Wee ae ene UsLR Oe Annes tae ae a .Re .. a..

moar eeTek . ee aae mehaia oo a Ue. oo ee es a Ske — aee sili | EE a: ae_i ..oo es — Paes Lo pee oe oooF co . aa .ie. oaae a a. : ae a Dea7. .vo aae ee Lee |_ aa onaa ate .ee _ . Eg S __ooera.oo>ea—l oe Oe HvINS aa “Se oo ey .. Sy Cee |. ee a BS Ae He Hycin eyanSAA CYTNA Aa HA ee Hat ae AeSa aS MESS CePeau) sineelLe PA TA i a. es ‘ail .. eeeas PEE ee soos co ‘ilat eePS He an Seslte DCHaeas Se NyLO AUS aneRay a RNPAS SAE Nucla i Soi SaiMSS i sigesin HinAO an oeney Wise GeelAN RSNie al aepe eetsiBy TASS

DALES oe Ts _o..aaaaes Pa ai Ceeeoo og aofal oo ea aaeae ee ee Gh me ane- ie SEES . ve_ a ol oo eM ma ie Haas a ws eee a oe) ERE ee. ee Re Nias ol a SHIA ih RN AaROHS Ieee oeeeEi oe ee egeres . Os ue AysiaBG oe Rag rae Fn Faia tae nyisA Ly onoo ye stl oe . Sek . thOn sess eiSoli oe 1:aesai oy a Dies: eae 1ee ee ARN ae io aaone aan ae vegei.oo

SDISESE SEES, -. . > eS oo oe es Se aN _ i SS yh oa oo eis Le: _ De PSERARS ies eps-_ ue oo ee . oe peeee BEESee Beesee Ce peeoeraree ia MoO oeet ee Cae FAN Lo ne eae oo SNE Res cane Gn Dai aaa a Man oi aon Ce oeae eee ee ae Lee ae aeae aioe .1EEole eepes ee oe os ae os cin avesf)Bee aeM SESE areas -Bees aeoepes eeerase ees aSarees es sea Baas a ye oe oo ait Feels Agitise USES we _ ee eS oesee erent pate Sete Bs Sy aKey oe oan aiaees uiSMG oe otaoNh oe von EN a Ae Re pete ee ae RUE eM _..OG a| ee Cee reaaaae Sei Nea, WY Wash EESHEGES SAREE |. _ pooeee re SESS: ESS SyBOSS EEE ESee EEE Haan oo PGE HN Saya RN eeie wi ON a ye ioo aie Co uh HES BRS

bees Se ._ eo oe SsSee ee oe . . Ne 7 i— oooo . | a oea ve a. OUURESS oeee eeeo aS SS es oe eeaeae eee oe: _ e gesate ae |NS ees SS: pecomeentae co oe on . . Seern iy eS ee eee ; aaeee Co .— — oe SsPESoo oa SESS ee oe ow os oo eee ee oo ene eeas eeBESS ee oe oC _BEES: Bees .-a.oeEge ae oe tee eeSsHOSS es ee — :enoe iH acm! i ee ee— oo ae 7. ie eeoeoe poe ee prea pean 8 Le 2ce oe

. i . ie a . -| So i.°_eee a= af < :* ue se : go ' a. .a.Ba .oy =.iif :_oh Bs i& -oo ayn A tt. . x. wy :NE i. AR =« _— |ia a— ee ia : : '. \ 4 . 7 ; | a 3 i —s . & a . ) 7 a c | a A 3 Bs . ue me : . A es “i ae i ..ue 7i «|i) C om iy: os Cale 6Ped =\ .i‘a ae a.f we |_ae .aoe 4. 1._aie 3 Ve Co f . a y . i ‘aa.a.”ae a| a7Le Me v 1a8a.aait We aa ‘e aeae :Bi _ aiC a3 all iLe ue aseOy a) bay ae|ne

oean : -. 7: s\ Hae ee a ai“seIhe o4a— eeaaK- aiN |: S a\od N 4g ‘»0an . aiea:ie ca ue s. ON | oO . :Mi.iMe

Oe | | a a . 7 o. aS i. _ Hone . a

NY:S iS‘ .— oo — a mS ae fe aHk Ba By .:.i_ * it . i) fo 7 i a y i a i uy __co| uli itoyRSqi KOs 3Te Co us a=4fe — Mt meme ..;oe a.| us y ieoo

(i-a

i 7 ane ie a i ne ae me ie - oC x

_ao.ee a