Concordia Apostolorum: Christian Propaganda at Rome in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries: A Study in Early Christian Iconography and lconology 9781407329406, 9780860541868

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Preface
Table of Contents
Dedication
Abbreviations and Conventions
List of Illustrations
Introduction
Part I: The Iconography of St. Peter and St. Paul
1. Introduction
2. Peter and Paul in Roman Catacomb Painting
3. Peter and Paul on Sarcophagi of Rome and Ravenna
4. Mosaics and Inscriptions in the Roman Basilicas
5. Peter and Paul in Ivory and Silver
6. Peter and Paul in Glass and Bronze
7. The Significance of the Evidence
Part II: Peter and Paul, and the Primacy of Rome
1. The Popularity of Paul in Rome
2. Peter and Paul in the Roman Liturgy
3. Peter and Paul, and the Apostolica Sedes
4. The Declining Popularity of Paul
Part III: The Concordia Apostolorium
1. The Cults of Rome and Ostia
2. Concordia
3. Primatus Petri
Excursus: The Miracle of the Rock and the Development of a Petrine Iconography in The Fourth Century
1. Introduction
2. The Development of the Iconography
3. The Identification of Peter
4. The Miracle of the Rock in the Second Half of the Fourth Century and Later
Glossary
Bibliography
Index of Objects by Location
Index of Inscriptions by Location
Index of Places and Subjects
Index of People

Citation preview

Concordia Apostolorum Christian Propaganda at Rome in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries A Study in Early Christian Iconography and lconology

J � M. Huskinson

B A R International Series I 48 1982

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A ., b.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S148, .1982: 'Concordia Apostolorum: Christia n Propa ga nda a t Rome in the Fourth a nd Fifth Centuries' ©

J.M.Huskinson, 1982

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541868 paperback ISBN 9781407329406 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541868 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

P REFACE

T he i conography o f t he a postles P eter a nd P aul i s n ot a s s imple a s i t m ight o ften s eem : i t h as p rovoked d ebate a nd w ill p robably c ontinue t o d o s o. N ow a nd t hen i t i s s ensible t o t ake s tock a nd t ry t o c onsolidate t hose a reas w here t here i s a c onsensus. O ften o bjections w hich s eem t o r emain c an b e r emoved w ithout t oo m uch d ifficulty. S uch i s t he c ase w ith t he e mergence o f a P auline i conography i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. T he i mplications o f t his n ew i conography h ave n ot a lways b een f ully a ppreciated. T his w as d rawn f orcibly t o m y a ttention s ome y ears a go b y t he a pparent c onflict b etween t he d iffering i nterpretations o f t wo w ell-known b ronze l amps n ow i n t he M useo A rcheologico i n F lorence. T hese a re i llustrated, c onveniently, o n P late 1 2 o f W . F . V olbach's m agnificent v olume, E arly C hristian A rt, p ublished, w ith p hotographs b y M ax H irmer, i n 1 961. T o m e i t s eemed t hat t here c ould b e n o d oubt t hat t he l amp i n t he f orm o f a s hip ( here f ig. 3 6) c ontained t he a postles P eter a nd P aul, a lthough i t w as n ot q uite c lear w hich f igure w as P eter a nd w hich w as P aul. S imilarly, i t s eemed t o m e t hat t he o ther l amp ( here f ig. 4 7) w as m eant t o r epresent P eter, n ot M oses, s triking t he r ock. I n p ursuing m y e nquiries, i t b ecame n ecessary t o c onsider f urther t he r elationship b etween C hristian a rt a nd p ropaganda i n R ome i n t he f ourth c entury a nd, t o a c ertain e xtent, i n t he f ifth c entury. T his l ed, i neluctably, t o a s tudy n ot o nly o f t he r elevant i conography b ut a lso o f t he i conology o f t he p eriod. T he h istoriography o f t he d evelopment o f t he i conography o f t he t wo a postles i s r ich i n a cademic a chievement. T he b ibliography i s v ast. F or t his r eason a lone a f ull b ibliographical a nnotation w ould h ave b een o ut o f p lace i n a m onograph o f t his n ature. H owever, t he B ibliography i ncludes a ll b ooks a nd a rticles c ited i n t he t ext a nd t his i s u sually s ufficient t o d irect t he r eader t o m ost,

i f n ot a ll,

o f t he

r elevant s pecialized l iterature. N one t he l ess, I f eel t hat I m ust r efer t o t hose p ublications t hat h ave b een o f p articular h elp t o m e. F irst i s t he f undamental s tudy o f t he i conography o f S t P eter b y P rofessor S otomayor, p ublished i n 1 962, w ith i ts i nvaluable c atalogue o f r elated m onuments k nown t o u s p rior t o t he s ixth c entury. C harles P ietri's b asic s tudy o f t he C oncordia A postolorum w as p ublished i n t he p revious y ear, a nd h is a rticle, s ince e xpanded a t l ength i n h is R oma C hristiana, p ublished i n 1 976, n ot o nly s uggested a t itle f or t his s tudy, b ut p rovided a f irm f oundation f or i ts s tructure. A nother w as p rovided b y P ierre B atiffol's a rticle o n t he s edes a postolica, w hich a ppeared a s l ong a go a s 1 925. A lso i nvaluable w ere P rofessor T estini's o bservations, p ublished i n 1 963, o n t he i conography o f t he e nthroned C hrist b etween t he t wo a postles, a s w ell a s a m uch e arlier a rticle b y J ohannes K ollwitz, p ublished i n 1 936, o n ' Christus a ls L ehrer u nd d ie G esetzesübergabe a n P etrus'. M ore r ecently, a c omprehensive c atalogue e dited b y P rofessor W eitzmann, w hich a ccompanied a n i mportant e xhibition o f l ate a ntique a nd e arly C hristian a rt h eld a t t he M etropolitan M useum o f A rt i n N ew Y ork f rom N ovember 1 977 t o F ebruary 1 978, p rovided a u seful c ontrol, a nd w ill l ong p rove t o b e a n i nvaluable a id f or f urther s tudies i n t his p eriod. T he f irst p art o f t his s tudy i s d evoted t o a n a nalysis o f t he i conography o f t he a postles, P eter a nd P aul, a s i t a ppears o n v arious

c ategories o f a rtefact p roduced b y t he w orkshops o f R ome d uring t he f ourth c entury. W here f urther a nalysis o f a rtefacts p roduced i n o ther c entres, s uch a s C onstantinople o r R avenna, o r d uring t he f ifth c entury a nd l ater, w ould c larify t he a rgument, t his h as b een d one. T he s econd p art s urveys t he i ntellectual b ackground t o t he p eriod, r elevant d evelopments i n t he R oman l iturgy, a nd t he o fficial t hinking o f t he C hurch a t R ome a s i t m ay b e g leaned f rom t he c orrespondence o f i ts b ishops a nd f rom t he p roceedings o f i ts c ouncils. W here t here m ay b e a c onnexion b etween a d evelopment, o r a c hange, i n t he i conography o f t he t wo a postles a nd a c hange i n t he l iturgy, o r i n t he p ronouncements o f t he C hurch a t R ome a s t hey a ppear i n t he c onciliar c anons, o r i n t he w ritings o f c ontemporary o bservers o f t he R oman s cene, t his h as b een n oted. I n s ome c ases t hese w ill h ave b een f ors hadowed i n t he f irst p art, w hen a l iterary s ource t hrows l ight o n a n i conographical i nnovation. T he t hird p art d raws t ogether t he e lements c ommon t o t he p revious t wo p arts, a nd s ets t hem i n t he c ontext o f t heir p eriod. Ih ave r esisted t he u sual t endency t o e mphasize d ifferences i n i conographical d etail r ather t han s imilarities, i n o rder t o s tress t he f actors c ommon t o d ifferent i conographies p revalent a t t his t ime. T his, a fter a ll, i s t he p ropaganda e lement. T he E xcursus o n t he m iracle o f t he r ock d emonstrates h ow P eter's p opularity i n R ome i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury c ould t ransform a s cene c onnected w ith M oses i nto o ne o f t hree, o r f our, k ey s cenes c onnected w ith t he L ife a nd P assion o f P eter. Ih ave b enefited d irectly f rom t he a dvice o f m any s cholars, a nd I h ere r ecord m y g ratitude f or t heir h elp. F irst I m ust t hank P rofessor J ocelyn T oynbee: w ithout h er a dvice a nd e ncouragement I s hould n ot h ave p ursued m y e nquiries. M r J . S tevenson v ery k indly r ead a n e arly d raft s aving m e f rom a n umber o f e rrors. I n 1 974 I w as f ortunate t o b enefit i n p erson f rom P rofessor E rnst K itzinger's S lade L ectures d elivered i n C ambridge; t hese h ave s ince f ormed t he b asis f or his b ook o n B yzantine A rt i n t he M aking. P rofessor J . B reckenridge p rovided t he n ecessary i ncentive, a nd a dditional m aterial a t a l ater s tage, t o e nable m e t o c omplete m y w ork. Ia m i ndebted t o P rofessor J osef E ngemann, t o P rofessor J .B. T rapp, t o t he l ate P rofessor G .W .H. L ampe , a nd t o P rofessor J .H. W aszink f or a dvice a nd f or h elp. V ictoria F arrow, n ow M rs T imothy H am, a ssisted i n t he t yping o f e arlier d rafts a nd S ylvia D ennett t yped t he f inal t ext, a s w ell a s l ater r evisions: t o b oth I a m g reatly i ndebted. M ost o f t he p hotographs f or i llustration were s ecured t hrough t he d etermined e ffort o f J ill F ranklin, A rchivist a t t he B ritish S chool a t R ome, t o w hose h elp a cknowledgement h ere i ndeed. T he S ecretary o f t he B iblioteca A postolica V aticana v ery k indly a rranged f or s pecial p hotographs t o b e t aken o f t he V atican a mula, a nd A ndrew M orris, S enior P hotographer a t t he F itzwilliam M useum , c ompleted t he l ist o f p hotographs f or i llustration. F inally, I h ave t o r ecord m y g ratitude t o m y w ife, J anet, f or h elp, p atience, a nd a s obering s cepticism, w hich,

S eptember,

Ih ope, h as k ept m e o n c ourse.

1 982

F itzwilliam M useum ,

v i

C ambridge

C ONTENTS

A BBREVIATIONS AND C ONVENTIONS

i x

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS

xi

I NTRODUCTION I

T HE I CONOGRAPHY O F S T P ETER AND S T PAUL 1 .

I ntroduction

2 .

P eter a nd P aul

3

3 .

P eter a nd P aul o n S arcophagi o f R ome a nd R avenna

4 .

M osaics a nd I nscriptions i n t he R oman b asilicas

3 2

5 .

Peter a nd P aul i n I vory a nd S ilver

4 4

6 .

P eter a nd P aul i n G lass a nd B ronze

5 1

7 .

T he S ignificance o f t he E vidence

6 0

i n R oman C atacomb P ainting

N OTES I I

6 3

P ETER AND PAUL, AND THE PRIMACY O F R OME 1 .

T he P opularity o f P aul

2 .

P eter a nd P aul i n t he R oman L iturgy

i n R ome

8 1

3 .

Peter a nd P aul a nd t he A postolica S edes

8 7

4 .

T he D eclining P opularity o f P aul

9 6

N OTES I II

5 1 3

7 7

9 9

T HE C ONCORDIA A POSTOLORUM 1 .

T he C ults o f R ome a nd O stia

1 08

2 .

C oncordia

1 12

3 .

T he P rimatus P etri

1 14

N OTES E XCURSUS:

1 24 T HE M IRACLE O F T HE R OCK AND T HE D EVELOPMENT O F A

P ETRINE I CONOGRAPHY I N T HE F OURTH C ENTURY 1 . 2 .

I ntroduction T he Development o f t he I conography

1 29 1 31

3 .

T he I dentification o f P eter

1 35

4 .

T he M iracle o f

t he R ock i n t he S econd H alf o f t he

F ourth C entury a nd L ater N OTES

1 37 1 41

G LOSSARY

1 47

B IBLIOGRAPHY

1 51

I NDEX O F O BJECTS B Y L OCATION

1 61

I NDEX O F I NSCRIPTIONS B Y L OCATION

1 68

I NDEX O F PLACES AND S UBJECTS

1 71

I NDEX O F P EOPLE

1 81

T O T HE MEMORY O F MY F ATHER J OHN HUSKINSON 1 898-1968

A BBREVIATIONS A ND C ONVENTIONS

A ge

A ge o f S pirituality. L ate A ntique a nd E arly C hristian A rt,

T hird t o S eventh C entury,

e d. K . W eitzmann.

A ge(S)

A ge o f S pirituality. A S ymposium,

C od.

T heod.

C odex T heodosianus,

C od.

T op.

C odice t opografico d ella c ittä d i R oma, a nd G . Z uchetti.

e d.

e d.

K .

W eitzmann.

T . M ommsen a nd P .M . M eyer. e d.

R .

V alentini

C SEL

C orpus S criptorum E cclesiasticorum L atinorum

D OP

D umbarton O aks P apers

H .E.

H istoria E cclesiastica

I CVR

I nscriptiones C hristianae V rbis R omae. N S 1 a nd 2 , e d. A . S ilvagni, N S 3 , e d. A . S ilvagni a nd A . F errua, N S 4 , 5 a nd 7 , e d. A . F errua.

J bAC

J ahrbuch f ür A ntike u nd C hristentum

J RS

J ournal o f R oman S tudies

J TS

J ournal o f T heological S tudies

L P

L e L iber P ontificalis. T exte, c ommentaire, e d. L . D uchesne.

M EFR

M elanges d 'Archeologie e t d 'Histoire d e l ' gcole F ran ça ise d e R ome

P G

P atrologiae c ursus c ompletus...series G raeca, J .P.

P L

R PARA

e d.

M igne.

P atrologiae c ursus c ompletus...series p rima [ Latina], e d.

R AC

i ntroduction e t

J .P. M igne.

R ivista d i A rcheologia C ristiana R endiconti d ella P ontificia A ccademia R omana d i A rcheologia

R epertorium

R epertorium d er c hristlich-antiken S arkophage, F .W .

e d.

D eichmann.

R ömische Q uartalschrift f tr c hristliche A ltertumskunde u nd f ür K irchengeschichte S L

S acramentarium L eonianum ,

S aecularia

S aecularia P etri e t P auli. C ristiana,

2 8. i x

e d.

C .L.

F eltoe.

S tudi d i A ntichitä

W ealth

W ealth o f t he R oman W orld. G old a nd S ilver, A .D.300-70ö, e d. J .P.C. K ent a nd K .S. P ainter.

F urther d etails, a nd d etails o f o ther a bbreviations u sed i n t he n otes, m ay b e f ound b y r eference t o a uthor's o r e ditor's n ame i n t he B ibliography. T he B ibliography o nly i ncludes p ublications c ited i n t he n otes. R eferences t o c atalogues a re b y n umber o f e ntry, u nless o therw ise i ndicated. R ight a nd l eft r efer t o t he p oint o f v iew o f t he s pectator, u nless o therwise i ndicated b y t he c ontext. S o, o n t he l eft o f C hrist = o n C hrist's r ight.

L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS

N OTE.

1 .

I n a ll i ndexes, n umber o nly.

i llustrations a re r eferred t o b y p age

C hrist a nd t he A postles.

F resco.

C atacomb o f D omitilla, R ome. 2 . N eg: F itzwilliam M useum , 2 .

W ilpert, M alereien, 1 48, C ambridge. N o: F MK 1 1028.

P age 7

C hrist a nd t he A postles. F resco. C rypt o f t he ' Small A postles', C atacomb o f D omitilla, R ome. W ilpert, M alereien, 1 55, N o:

3 .

C rypt o f Ampliatus,

2 .

N eg:

F itzwilliam M useum, C ambridge. 7

F MK 1 1027.

C hrist a nd P aul.

D etail o f f resco.

C atacomb o f V ia

L atina, R ome. N eg: P ontificia C ommissione d i A rcheologia S acra, R ome. N o: 2 6627. 4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

C hrist, P eter a nd P aul, a nd M artyrs. F resco. o f P eter a nd M arcellinus, R ome. N eg: P .C.A .S.

1 5

T rilogia. F ront o f C ristiano, V atican.

1 5

' Dogmatic S arcophagus'. M useo P io N eg: P .C.A .S. N o: 1 2992b.

P eter s triking t he r ock, w ith O rant.

D etail o f

M useo P io C ristiano, V atican.

N eg:

P .C.A.S. 1 6

O rant w ith t wo A postles.

F ront o f s arcophagus. N eg:

P .C.A.S.

O rant, w ith P aul a nd P eter. S . P ietro i n V aticano. N eg: i n V aticano.

1 0.

N o:

N o:

C atacomb

8 244.

1 6

6 03.

C rux i nvicta, w ith a rrest o f P eter a nd m artyrdom o f P aul. F ront o f s arcophagus. F ormerly i n c onfessio o f S . P aolo 2 1

T raditio l egis, w ith a rrest o f P eter. F ront o f s arcophagus ( Lateran 1 74). S . P ietro i n V aticano. N eg:

1 2.

1 6

F ront o f s arcophagus. R ev. F abbrica d i S . P ietro

f uori l e m ura, R ome, n ow M useo P io C ristiano, V atican. N eg: A rch. F ot. M us. V at. N o: X XXII-124-19. 1 1.

1 0

N eg: Archivio F otografico V aticano, M onumenti M usei e G allerie P ontificie, V atican C ity. N o: X XXII-13-46.

o f P raetextatus, R ome. 9 .

C atacomb N o: 5 140.

P eter s triking t he r ock, w ith a rrest o f P eter. F ront o f S arcophagus o f S abinus. M useo P io C ristiano, V atican.

s arcophagus. N o: 1 2295. 8 .

8

P .C.A.S.

N o:

2 1

0 12458.

C hrist w ith c ross, P eter a nd P aul w ith A postolic C ollege. F ront o f S arcophagus o f P etronius P robus, p raefectus u rbi. F ormerly i n M ausoleum o f t he A nicii, n ow S . P ietro i n V aticano.

N eg:

P .C.A .S.

N o:

0 12121a.

x i

2 1

1 3.

1 4.

1 5.

P eter. D etail ( enlarged) o f S arcophagus o f I unius B assus, p raefectus u rbi. S . P ietro i n V aticano. N eg: D eutsches A rchäologisches I nstitut, R ome. N o: 5 7,918.

P age 2 2

P aul. D etail ( enlarged) o f S arcophagus o f I unius B assus, p raefectus u rbi. S . P ietro i n V aticano. N eg: D eutsches A rchäologisches I nstitut, R ome. N o: 3 4,1587. C hrist, P aul a nd t hree A postles.

' Back'

o f

' Sarcophagus

o f B ishop L iberius'. S . F rancesco, R avenna. N eg: D eutsches A rchäologisches I nstitut, R ome. N o: 6 8,1263. 1 6.

1 7.

1 8.

1 9.

2 0.

2 1.

C hrist, P aul a nd t hree A postles.

2 3.

P aul ' receiving' t he L aw f rom C hrist. F ront o f s arcophagus. S . M aria i n P orto F uori, R avenna. N eg: F ratelli A linari S .A., R ome. N o: 1 8084.

2 8

T raditio l egis. A pse m osaic. N eg: A linari. N o: 6 236.

3 3

M aiestus D omini. A pse m osaic. N eg: A linari. N o. 2 8516.

E cclesia e x c ircumcisione. S abina, R ome.

M iracle o f t he r ock.

C onstanza, R ome. 3 3 S .

P udenziana, R ome. 3 7

D etail o f m osaic o ver e ntrance. N o:

4 0

4 001.

S ide o f i vory c asket.

N eg: M useum .

P aul r aising T abitha.

N o:

B ritish 4 5

E C 2 .43.

S ide o f i vory c asket.

N eg: M useum .

N o:

4 1

B ritish 4 5

E C 2 .43.

P aul c onversing w ith T hecla, a nd t he s toning o f P aul. S ide o f i vory c asket. B ritish M useum, L ondon.

P eter. M useum .

N o:

4 5

E C 2 .43.

R epousse p ortrait-medallion. I nv. N o:

I nv .

N o:

( enlarged) N eg: 4 8

8 61. D etail ( enlarged) V atican. N eg:

4 8

8 61.

P aul, w ithin d ecorated m edallion. a mpulla.

D etail

M useo S acro, V atican.

P aul. R epousse p ortrait-medallion. o f s ilver-gilt a mula. M useo S acro, M useum .

2 8.

S .

N eg: A linari.

o f s ilver-gilt a mula.

2 7.

C onstanza, R ome.

E cclesia e x g entibus. D etail o f m osaic o ver e ntrance. S . S abina, R ome. N eg: A linari. N o: 4 002.

N eg: M useum . 2 6.

S .

C hrist with A postles. A pse m osaic. N eg: A linari. N o: 7 255.

M useum, L ondon. 2 5.

F ront o f s arcophagus. 2 8

M useum, L ondon. 2 4.

2 8

S . F rancesco, R avenna. N eg: D eutsches A rchäologisches I nstitut, R ome. N o: 6 8,1248.

S . 2 2.

2 3

F ormerly D omus V alerii

x ii

S ide o f s ilver ( ?), R ome, n ow

M useo S acro, V atican. 2 9.

P eter, within d ecorated m edallion. ampulla.

F ormerly D omus V alerii

S acro, V atican. 3 0.

3 1.

3 2.

N eg: M useum .

N eg: M useum .

P aul. G old-glass b ase. M useum . N o: 6 79.

5 96.

P age 4 9.

S ide o f s ilver

( ?), R ome, n ow M useo

N o:

5 97.

4 9

M useo S acro, V atian.

N eg: 5 2

P eter a nd P aul. B ronze m edallion. N eg: M useum . I nv. N o. 9 78. P eter a nd P aul.

N o:

M useo S acro, V atican. 5 2

I mpression o f m edallion i n m ortar.

F ormerly i n C atacomb o f S . C allisto, R ome, n ow M useo S acro, V atican. N eg: P .C.A.S. N o: 4 637. 3 3.

3 4.

P eter a nd P aul.

B ronze m edallion.

S acro, V atican.

N eg: M useum .

C hrist, P eter a nd P aul. L ondon.

3 5.

3 6.

N eg: M useum .

( Boldetti).

I nv. N o.

3 8.

3 9.

4 0.

5 3

N o:

2 0632/2.

5 6

F igure i n s tern ( gubernator). D etail ( enlarged) o f f igure 3 6. N eg: S oprintendenza a lle Antichitä, F lorence. N o: 4 444.

5 7

F igure i n p row ( proreta). D etail ( enlarged) o f f igure 3 6. N eg: S oprintendenza a lle A ntichitä, F lorence. N o: 4 442.

5 7

O ratio A ugusti. C onstantine a ddressing c itizens ( adlöcutio). D etail o f f rieze o n A rch o f C onstantine, R ome. N eg: A linari. N o: 1 7326. L iberalitas A ugusti.

1 17

C onstantine d istributing l argesse

D etail o f f rieze o n A rch o f C onstantine,

N eg: A linari.

N o.

1 17

1 7325.

T raditio l egis, w ith ' Evangelists' a nd A postles. F ront o f ' Sarcophagus o f B ishop C oncordius'. M usee L apidaire d 'Art C hretien, A rles.

N eg:

P .C.A .S.

N o: n ot g iven.

1 17

C hrist, P eter a nd P aul, w ith o ther S aints. G old-glass b ase. P usey H ouse C ollection, o n l oan t o t he A shmolean M useum, O xford.

4 3.

B ritish M useum,

S hip o f t he C hurch, with P eter a nd P aul. B ronze l amp o f V alerius S everus, p raefectus u rbi. F ormerly D omus V alerii, R ome, n ow M useo A rcheologico, F lorence. N eg:

R ome.

4 2.

B ritish M useum , 5 3

C hrist, P aul a nd P eter. G old-glass b ase. L ondon. N eg: M useum. N o: X II-93.

( largitio).

4 1.

5 2

X II-94.

S oprintendenza a lle A ntichitä, F lorence. 3 7.

M useo

8 01.

G old-glass b ase. N o:

5 2

N eg: M useum .

N o:

K .1088.

C hrist, P eter a nd P aul, w ith o ther S aints. L ine-drawing o f f igure 4 2. G arrucci, S toria, 3 , 1 87, 4 . N eg: F itzwilliam M useum, C ambridge. N o: F MK 1 1029.

1 21

1 21

4 4.

P eter s triking t he r ock, w ith M oses

( ?)

o n h is l eft.

D etail o f ' Sarcophagus o f t he T wo B rothers'. M useo P io C ristiano, V atican. • Neg: A rch. F ot. M us. V at. N o: X XXII-124-37. 4 5.

M oses, w ith m iracle o f t he r ock. t he S heep, N o: 4 137.

4 6.

F resco.

C allisto, R ome.

C rypt o f M eg:

P .C.A .S. 1 33

M iracle o f t he r ock . V atican.

4 7.

C atacomb o f S .

P age 1 33

N eg: M useum .

G old-glass b ase. N o:

M useo S acro,

7 00.

1 38

M iracle o f t he r ock. B ronze l amp. M useo A rcheologico, F lorence. M eg: S oprintendenza a lle A ntichitä, F lorence. N o.

1 38

2 0630/4.

x iv

I NTRODUCTION

T he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury w as a c rucial p eriod i n t he h istory o f t he C hurch a t R ome. P roblems i mplicit i n t he l egal r ecognition o f t he C hristian C hurch b y C onstantine i n t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury a nd i n t he r emoval o f t he t raditional c entre o f g overnment f rom R ome t o C onstantinople, t o his n ew C hristian c ity, i psa n ova R oma, b ecame v ital i ssues i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury. T he a doption o f s trategic c ities, s uch a s T rier, b y t he W estern E mperor a s c entres o f g overnment, a nd r emoval t o M ilan a nd e ventually t o R avenna, a ggrevated t he s ituation: t he r esult, a s teady i ncrease i n t he p ower a nd i nfluence o f t he p raefectus u rbi a nd o f t he R oman a ristocracy, b rought t he p roblem o f p aganism i n R ome, a nd i ts s uppression, t o ah ead. T he p roblem w as f urther c omplicated b y t he d anger t hat e mperors m ight s upport h eretical d octrines, i n p articular f orms o f A rianism , a nd a ttempt t o i mpose t hem o n t he C hurches o f t he E mpire. T his b ecame a r eality o n t he d eath o f C onstantine. T he r eaction o f t he R oman C hurch t ook v arious f orms: p erhaps t he m ost i mportant w as t he e mphasis i t p laced o n i ts c laim t o a postolic p rimacy,

a nd h ence t o a postolic a uthority.

I t i s t his p articular

r eaction, a nd h ow i t f ound e xpression i n t he a rt o f t he p eriod a s p ropaganda, t hat i s t he s ubject o f t his s tudy. T he a postolic f ounders o f t he C hurch a t R ome w ere S t P eter a nd S t P aul a nd t he p ropagation o f t he c ult o f t heir c oncordia i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury s eems t o h ave o ccupied m uch o f t he t ime o f t he R oman b ishops a nd t heir f ollowers, b oth a t C hurch c ouncils a nd i n t heir c orrespondence. T he r estoration o f t he s hrines o f l ocal m artyrs, t he e rection o f i nscriptions b y D amasus, a nd h is a cceptance o f t raditions, s ometimes o f d ubious p rovenance, c an a ll b e u nderstood a gainst a b ackground o f a ttacks f rom a ll s ides o n t he a uthority a nd e ven o n t he c redibility o f t he R oman C hurch. T he d iplomatic c ountero ffensive o f L iberius a nd D amasus c reated a r evived c onfidence i n t he l ocal C hurch, w hich, i n i ts t urn, l ed t o a n a lliance b etween t he W estern C hurch a nd t he E mpire t o c rush A rianism . Ambrose, f irst i n c oncert w ith D amasus a nd t hen t hrough h is u nique c ontacts a t t he I mperial C ourt a t M ilan, p ushed t his a lliance t o i ts l imits. T his c ulminated i n a n o vert a ttack o n p aganism i n t he l ast d ecades o f t he c entury. A bove t his d iplomatic a ctivity l oomed t he b arbarian t hreat; t he c itizens o f R ome t urned, i ncreasingly d uring t his p eriod, t o t he a postolic f ounders o f t heir C hurch f or p rotection a gainst t heir o ld e nemy, a nd t his p rovided t he C ity's b ishops, a nd w orkshops, w ith a f urther o pportunity f or p ropaganda o n b ehalf o f t he l ocal C hurch. T he c ultus o f S t P eter a nd S t P aul w as p resented t o l oyal R oman c itizens,

o f w hatever s ocial s tratum, a s a v alid a lternative t o t he

p agan c ults, i ndeed a s t he c orrect a llegiance f or a ny l oyal c itizen. T his a llegiance i s t o b e f ound r eflected i n m any o f t he e veryday a rtefacts u sed b y i ts c itizens, w hether i n t he h ome o r a t c ult d entres. L ocal c raftsmen had t o m eet t his l ocal n eed a s w ell a s t he e xpectation o f t he h ordes o f p ilgrims t hat f locked t o t he s hrines o f t he m artyrs.

A bove a ll t hey h ad t o m eet t he e ver-increasing d emands

o f t he v arious p atrons o f t he l ocal c hurches.

1

T hese f ound e xpression

i n t he r enovation,

c onstruction,

d ecoration a nd f urnishing o f R ome's

b asilicas, m any o f w hich were b uilt, a fter t he P eace o f t he C hurch, a bove t he a ncient c emeteries s urrounding t he C ity. T he v eneration o f t he t wo a postles w as t o b e f ound n ot o nly i n t he h omes o f t he o rdinary R oman c itizen, b ut o n t he d ecoration a nd f urnishings o f t hese b asilicas, w hich we m ay a ssume, f rom g ifts r ecorded i n t he L iber P ontificalis, t o h ave b een s umptuous. P ropaganda, t o b e e ffective, r equires i mages t hat a re c onstantly b efore t he p eople, w hether t hey a re h umble c itizens, o r t he m ore i nfluential m embers o f t he R oman a ristocracy: t he i conographies o f t he c rux i nvicta, o r t he a nastasis, a nd o f t he t raditio l egis, w ith i ts f lexibility, p rovided j ust t his. I ndeed p ropaganda f or t he c oncordia a postolorum, i n i ts v arious s tagings, r eceived c onsiderable p rominence i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. W ith i t, h owever, w ent o ther i mages c onnected w ith S t P eter, w hich w ere p erennially p opular w ith t he R oman p eople, t hen, a s t hroughout s ucceeding g enerations. L ater S t P eter w as s ingled o ut f or o fficial p ropaganda p urposes, b ut t hroughout t he f ourth c entury h e w as c onsidered b y t he C hristian c itizens o f R ome a s t heir o wn p articular p rotector a nd a postle. M any o f t he l egends a bout t he a postle, t he f ruit o f h is p opularity a t t his t ime, w ere w ritten d own i n t he f ollowing c enturies. T he p opularity o f t he a postle P eter i n t his p eriod, t hen, m ust n ot b e c onfused w ith t he o fficial e mphasis o n t he p rimacy o f P eter , w hich c ame l ater. T he p opularity o f t he a postle P eter w as m atched,

i t w ould s eem ,

i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury, b y t he p opularity o f t he a postle P aul. I n a n i ncreasingly C hristianized R ome, i t w as e ssential f or t he l ocal C hurch t o m ake e very e ffort t o c onvert t he r eal r ulers o f t he C ity, t he R oman a ristocracy, t o C hristianity. T he a postle P aul w as, a fter a ll, t he d octor g entium, t he a postle o f t he e cclesia e x g entibus, a nd i t w ould h ave b een p olitic, a t l east, f or t he b ishop o f R ome a nd h is a dvisers t o s tress t his a uthority. I t i s n ot a c oincidence t hen t hat t he n ew i conography o f t he t raditio l egis, w hich i ncorporated b oth S t P eter a nd S t P aul i n c oncordia, w as d eveloped i n R ome a fter 3 50, p robably i n 3 60, t he v ery y ear J ulian t he A postate b ecame E mperor. H owever, w ith t he i ncreasing s uccess o f t his p ropaganda a nd w ith t he c ontinuing C hristianization o f t he R oman a ristocracy, t he n eed t o s tress t he a uthority o f t he v as e lectionis, a t l east i n R ome, w ould h ave t ended t o d iminish, e specially a fter 3 94, a nd w ould h ave h ad t o y ield g radually t o w ider c onsiderations. T he r elationship o f t he l ocal C hurch a t R ome t o o ther C hurches, i n p articular t o t he a spiring C hurch i n a ltera R oma, i psa n ova R oma, w ith i ts s trong i nterest i n S t P aul, l ed t o a r eappraisal o f t he r ole o f t he a postle i n R ome. A lthough t he w orkshops p roduced v ariants o f t he t raditio l egis, p resumably a t t he r equest o f t heir c lients, s ome o f w hich m ay h ave b een d esigned t o s tress t he p rimacy o f o ne o f t he t wo a postles, t he o fficial i conographies c ontinued t o p resent t he t wo a postles i n c oncordia. T he v ariants, h owever, m ay h ave b een a f actor i n, o r s ymptom o f, t he s plit t hat e merged b etween t he t wo a postles a nd w hich s o e xercised t he C ouncil h eld i n R ome i n 3 82.

2

P ART I

T HE I CONOGRAPHY O F S T P ETER A ND S T P AUL I

I ntroduction T here c an b e n o d oubt t hat b oth S t P eter a nd S t P aul,

a t l east i n

t he a pplied a rts, h ad e ach d eveloped h is o wn i ndividual i conography i n R ome b y t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. T his d oes n ot m ean, h owever, t hat a p art o f t his i conography h ad n ot d eveloped b efore 3 50. A n a nalysis o f c atacomb p ainting a nd s arcophagi, w hich b etween t hem c over t he t astes o f m ost s trata i n R oman s ociety, d emonstrates t hat P eter m ade h is f irst a ppearance o n s arcophagi a t t he b eginning o f t he c entury, a lthough h e w as n ever a ccompanied b y P aul i n c atacomb p ainting, n or o n s arcophagi, u ntil a fter t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury. T he l iterary e vidence a bout t he a ppearance o f t he t wo a postles i s e quivocal. E usebius 2 r ecords t he e xistence o f p aintings p reserving t he ' likenesses' o f t he a postles, 3 a nd h is l etter t o C onstantia, i f i t i s, i ndeed, g enuine, 4 c onfirms t hat a t t hat t ime d ouble-portraits o f p hilosophers c ould b e i nterpreted a s P aul a nd C hrist. E piphanius, i t w ould s eem, k new o f a d istinctive t ype u sed b y a rtists f or P eter, a nd o f t wo d ifferent t ypes f or P au1. 5 A ugustine, w riting a t t he t urn o f t he c entury a bout h is v isit t o R ome i n 3 88, c onfirms t he p opularity o f d epicting p luribus l ocis s imul e os c um i llo p ictos. 8 T he c ontext c onfirms t hat t he p ictures r epresented t he t riumph o f C hrist w ith t he t wo a postles,

P eter a nd P aul, b ut n either h ere n or e lsewhere d o w e

f ind a ny p ointer a s t o t heir a ctual a ppearance. T here w as, o f c ourse, a n a pocryphal t radition a bout t he a ppearance o f P aul, w hich p robably i nfluenced t he l ikenesses o f t he a postle i n t he E ast. T his w as t o b e f ound i n t he i mmensely p opular A cts o f P aul a nd T hecla, w ritten i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c entury. 7 I n f act, i n t he f ourth c entury, t heir a ppearance v aried i n d etail f rom p lace t o p lace, w hether a t M ilan o r R ome,

o r a t C onstantinople o r R avenna.

H owever t here i s n o d oubt

a bout t he g eneral i conography o f e ach a postle. J ust a s t he i conographical t ypes o f v arious e mperors a ppearing o n c oins v aried f rom m int t o m int - a nd e ven f rom d ie c utter t o d ie c utter - a lthough t he t ype r emained c learly r ecognisable, s o d id t he t ypes o f P eter a nd P aul, w hether t hey o riginated i n t he W est o r i n t he E ast. T he f acial f eatures g enerally a ssociated w ith P eter - t hick, s ometimes c urly, h air, s ometimes b alding, a nd a s hort o r r ounded, t hickish b eard - w ere f ound i n R oman a rt i n t he p revious c entury, 8 b ut d uring t he f irst half o f t he f ourth c entury t he R oman o fficinae r esponsible f or s atisfying t he i ncreasing d emand f or C hristian s arcophagi c onsistently r eproduced t hese f eatures w hen c arving t he f igure o f t he a postle P eter. P eter's p opularity w ith t he c itizens o f R ome,

r ecorded i n t he p opular s tories t o b e f ound i n t he a pocryphal

a cts, i s e ncapsulated i n s cenes c arved i n t hese w orkshops. T he s cenes d emonstrate t hat t he f igure w ith t he t hickhair a nd s hort b eard i s P eter; t he f acial f eatures c onfirm t his ( cf. f igs 5 , 6 ). O bviously t here w ere r efinements. T his w as p articularly n oticable w ith t he

3

d evelopment o f t he s o-called s tile b ello, w hen t he f acial f eatures g iven t o P eter ( fig. 4 4) w ere n ot d issimilar t o t hose t o b e g iven l ater t o P aul. T he i conography e stablished i n p receding d ecades, h owever, i dentifies t he a postle, P eter, w ithout q uestion. I t i s, h owever, d angerous t o i dentify r etrospectively t he g ood s hepherd f igures o f t he p revious c entury a s P eter o n t he b asis t hat t heir f acial f eatures a re s imilar t o t hose g iven t o P eter b y t he R oman w orkshops i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. 9 T his i s t o i gnore n ot o nly d evelopments i n s tyle a nd i conography, b ut t he s ocial a nd c ultural d evelopments t hat t ook p lace d uring t he D iocletian P ersecution a nd a fter. W hen t he R oman o fficinae h ad t o i dentify P aul, t hey d istinguished h im f rom t he w ell-known p hilosopher-type o f P eter b y a n e qually w ellk nown t ype o f p ortrait, t he s o-called P lotinus. " T his w as a f igure w ith a b alding, n arrow h ead, n ot u nlike t he d escription i n t he A cta P auli e t T heclae, b ut a lso w ith a l ong, n arrow , s ometimes p ointed, b eard, w hich w as n ot r ecorded i n t he a pocryphal a cta ( cf. f igs 1 0, 1 1, 1 2). T his k ind o f d ifferentiation w as n ot o rig j iji7 1 b ut a fter 3 50 i t w as d eliberately u sed, n ot o nly i n R oman w orkshops, b ut a lso i n t he i mperial w orkshops a t C onstantinople , ipsa n ova R oma, t o d istinguish P aul f rom P eter, a lthough t he d istinction m ade i n a t l east o ne o f t he m ore e xclusive R oman o fficinae l 2 i s s ometimes s o f ine a s t o b e a lmost i ndistinguishable ( figs 9 , 1 3, 1 4). T his d oes n ot m ean t hat t he P auline i conography w as a ccepted, o r a dopted, b y a ll t he w orkshops i n R ome a fter 3 50: t he n otorious d ifficulty o f d ating g old-glass v essels,3 e ven w hen f igures a re i dentified b y i nscription, u nderlines t he p oint ( cf. f igs 3 4, 3 5). L ikewise, i t i s p atently a bsurd f or a P lotinusl ike f igure o f t he p revious c entury t o b e i dentified a s t he a postle P aul. T he d ate o f 3 50 i s t herefore h ighly s ignificant, f or i t m eans t hat t he c laims o f P aul a s a postle o f R ome w ere n ot c onsidered s ufficiently i mportant t o b e r eflected i n p opular a rt b efore t hat d ate, a nd i t a lso m eans t hat c ertain t hemes, n otably t he t raditio l egis, d id n ot d evelop u ntil a fter t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury. B efore c onsidering t he d evelopment o f a P etrine a nd P auline i conography o n s arcophagi, h owever, i t w ould s eem s ensible t o s tudy t he r epositories o f t he e arliest C hristian a rts s till e xtant i n R ome, t he c emeteries o r c atacombs. 1 +

4

2

P eter a nd P aul i n R oman C atacomb P ainting T he e arliest f rescoes i n t he C hristian c atacombs d ate f rom t he b eginning o f t he t hird c entury. H owever, i t h as b een s uggested 1 5 t hat P etrine a nd P auline t hemes t o b e f ound i n c atacomb p ainting w ere a dopted f rom c arved s arcophagi a nd, c onsequently, t hat t he a ppearance o f t he t wo a postles i n t he p ictorial a rt o f t he c atacombs c annot a ntedate t heir a ppearance o n s arcophagi. F rescoes, h owever, a re n otoriously u nstable a nd m any h ave d isappeared w ithout t race. O thers h ave b een r etouched. I t i s d ifficult t o b e c ertain t hat w hat c an b e s een t oday, o r, m ore p ertinently w hat w as r ecorded b y a n e arlier g eneration b efore t he d eterioration o r d isappearance o f a p articular f resco, f aithfully r eflects t he o riginal p ainting. N one t he l ess i t w ould s eem t hat t he a postles, i n c oncordia, f ar o utnumber o ther f rescoes t hat m ight b e a ssociated w ith t he f irst a ppearance o f P eter o n s arcophagi. T wo s cenes i n p articular o n s arcophagi w ould s eem t o h ave b een s uitable f or d evelopment i n c atacomb p ainting: t he m iracle o f t he r ock 1 6 a nd t he b etrayal o f C hrist i n g allicantu. 1 7 B ut n either a ppeared i n c atacomb p ainting u ntil t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury. T his i s p articularly s urprising i n t he c ase o f t he m iracle o f t he r ock, a s t his s cene o bviously w as d eveloped f rom t he s cene o f M oses s triking t he r ock i n t he d esert, a p opular m otif i n c atacomb p ainting i n t he t hird c entury. 1 8 T he s cene h ad c learly t aken o n a P etrine s ignificance i n c atacomb p ainting b y c . 3 75, w hen t he f amous f resco i n t he C atacomb o f C ommodilla 1 9 w as e xecuted. T his r eveals t wo s oldiers, e ach w earing t he p ileus p annonicus, d rinking w ater s truck f rom t he r ock b y P eter,

q uia s iti p ericlitamur. 2 °

S cenes o f P eter

a nd t he c rowing c ock a re r are i n c atacomb p ainting; t here a re o nly t wo e xtant. 21 B oth i ncorporate t he i nnovation o f t he c ock c rowing o n a c olumn, w hich w as d erived p robably f rom a s imilar s cene o n s arcophagi, n otably L ateran 1 74. 22

S cenes o f t he a rrest o f P eter

a re u nknown. B y f ar t he m ost c ommon s cene o f t he t wo a postles i n t he c atacombs p ortrays t he a postles f lanking t he C hrist. T he e arliest f rescoes c onnected w ith b oth P eter a nd P aul, h owever, a re a ssociated w ith t he d evelopment o f t he s cene o f C hrist i n t he m idst o f t he a postolic c ollege. 23 T hese f rescoes a re t o b e f ound i n t he C rypt o f t he ' small a postles' i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla. I n t he l unette o f a n a rcosolium i n t he C rypt i s a f resco o f a n o rant b etween t he a postles, P eter o n t he l eft a nd P aul o n t he r ight, b oth w ith c learly d ifferentiated f eatures: a t t he v ery t op o f t he l unette i s a C onstantinian m onogram . P eter h as a s hortish b eard; P aul a l ongish t hick b eard. 24

U nder t he a rch o f t he a rcosolium i s a f resco o f C hrist

e nthroned a mong t he s eated a postolic c ollege ( fig. 2 ). O n e ither s ide o f t he n imbed C hrist s it t he a postles, P eter o n t he l eft a nd P aul o n t he r ight, b oth a gain c learly d ifferentiated f rom t he o ther m embers o f t he c ollege. 25

I n t he C rypt o f t he f ossor D iogenes,

c lose b y,

i s

a nother, b adly d amaged, f resco, u nder t he a rch o f a n a rcosolium, 2 6 p ortraying P aul i n a s tyle n ot u nlike t hat o f t he f resco i n t he l unette o f t he C rypt o f t he

' small a postles'.

5

P aul a ppears o n t he r ight, w ith

c apsae o n b oth l eft a nd r ight. P resumably P eter a ppeared o n t he l eft. T he t wo a postles a re n ot d ifferentiated i n t his w ay o n e arlier f rescoes i n t he C atacomb. 27 A s t he C atacomb o f D omitilla i s o ne o f t he o ldest p ublic c atacombs i n R ome, t he d evelopment o f t he i conography o f t he a postolic c ollege h ere p rovides a u seful c ontrol o f t he e mergence o f t he t wo a postles i n c atacomb p ainting. T hus t here i s a n o bvious c onnexion b etween t he f resco o f t he a postolic c ollege i n t he C rypt o f t he

' small a postles'

a nd a n e arlier f resco i n t he C rypt o f

Ampliatus, 28 w here C hrist a lready s its o n a n i dentical, a lbeit s ketchy, t hrone, b ut w here t he a postles a re n ot i dentifiable ( fig. 1 ). T his k ind o f d evelopment c an b e t raced f rom t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury i n o ther c atacombs. T he d ate o f t he f rescoes i n t he C rypt o f t he ' small a postles' a nd i n t he C rypt o f t he f ossor D iogenes i s o bviously c rucial, a s t hese f rescoes w ould s eem t o b e t he e arliest i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla, o r i n a ny o ther, t o d istinguish c learly t he f eatures o f b oth P eter a nd P aul.

A n i nscription,

2 9

c rudely s cratched a round a l oculus i n t he

v icinity, i ndicates ..DEPOSITVS E ST... [ ID ]VS F ILIPPO E T S AL{L }IA C OSS. T he y ear r eferred t o i s 3 48. I t i s g enerally a greed o n t he b asis o f t his i nscription " t hat t he d ecorative s chemes i n t he c rypts w ere c arried o ut a t a bout t he s ame t ime. H owever, t his d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow . T he e arlier f resco o f t he a postolic c ollege i n t he C rypt o f Ampliatus i s o ften d ated t o t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury, a nd t he c omplexity, a nd o riginality, o f t he f rescoes i n t he C rypt o f t he ' small a postles' a ll p oint t o a l ater d ate o f e xecution. 3 1 T he f irst d ocumentary e vidence f or t he c ult o f t he t wo a postles o nly a ppeared i n 3 54, i 2 a nd r etouching o f t he h eads o f t he a postles i n w hat w as,

a fter a ll,

a p ublic c atacomb,

c annot b e d iscounted.

I n 1 960 a l andslide i n t he s ame c atacomb r evealed, i n t he l unette o f a n a rcosolium, a m osaic o f a y outhful C hrist e nthroned i n a g reat d isc o f g reen t esserae b etween , a t a l ower l evel, t he t wo a postles, P eter, w ith s hortened b eard, s eated o n t he l eft, a nd P aul, w ith a t hick b lack b eard, s eated o n t he r ight. 3 3 B elow was a c apsa w ith i ts v olumina. I NVENIRIS.

A bove w as a n i nscription: Q VI F ILIVS D ICERIS. E T P ATER T he i nscription i s h eretica1, 3 4 b ut, p resumably, a ccounts

f or t he y outhful a ppearance o f C hrist. I n t he v ault w ere t hree s maller m osaics, w ith a r epresentation o f t he t hree y oung m en i n t he f urnace i n t he c entre. M osaics a re r are i n t he c atacombs; t hese c an o nly b e a ssigned t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury, a lthough p robably n ot l ater t han t he e piscopate o f D amasus. T he n ature o f t he m edium , a s w ell a s t he i nnovations a dopted, s uggest t hat t he m usivarius m ight h ave c opied t he s cene i n t he l unette f rom a m osaic i n a c hurch, p ossibly i n a n a pse, s imilar t o t he m osaics i n S . C onstanza. 3 5 T his m ight h ave b een d one i ntentionally, t o g ive t he i nscription a nd i ts a ccompanying d ecoration t he a ppearance o f o fficial a pproval, a lthough s imilar s cenes m ay h ave f ormed p art o f t he r epertoire o f c atacomb p ainting. 3 8 T hus P aul a ppears o n t he r ight, a s h e h ad i n f rescoes i n b oth t he C rypt o f t he ' small a postles' a nd t he C rypt o f t he f ossor D iogenes.

3 7

N ormally t he m usivarius w ould h ave e xpected c ommissions

t o w ork i n c hurches s ub d ivo; u nusual,

i f n ot u nique,

t hus t his c ommission m ust h ave b een a n

e vent.

T he i conography o f t he a postolic c ollege c ontinued t o d evelop i n t he C atacomb. A f resco i n t he C rypt o f t he M agi s hows C hrist w ith a

6

1 .

C hrist a nd t he A postles:

P eter a nd P aul n ot i dentifiable.

F resco, 2 .

C hrist a nd t he A postles: F resco,

c .

3 50.

P eter a nd P aul c learly i dentified. a fter 3 50.

C atacomb o f D omitilla, R ome.

7

3 .

C hrist a nd P aul.

D etail o f F resco,

C atacomb o f V ia L atina,

0

R ome.

a fter 3 50.

t urquoise-coloured n imbus,

e nthroned a mong t he s eated c ollege. "

I t

i s l ater t han e ither t he m osaic o r t he f resco i n t he C rypt o f t he ' small a postles', b ut, a lthough t he a postles P eter a nd P aul m ay h ave b een d ifferentiated o riginally,

t his c annot n ow b e c onfirmed b y

o bservation. O n t he o ther h and, t he f resco i n t he c ubiculum o f t he ' Fornai', 3 9 b y i ts v ery d esign s eparates t he t wo a postles f rom t he o ther a postles. T he b eardless C hrist s its e nthroned b efore a c apsa, a s i n t he m osaic. P eter a nd P aul, h owever, a re s eated o n e ither s ide o f C hrist, i n s imilar p ositions a s o n t he f amous m osaic i n S . P udenziana, P aul o n t he l eft a nd P eter o n t he r ight. T he o ther, a nonymous, a postles s tand o n e ither s ide. T he i ntention o f t he i maginarius, w orking t owards t he e nd o f t he c entury, d istinguish t he t wo a postles, i n c oncordia. '

o bviously i s t o

I n p arallel w ith t he d evelopment o f t he i conography o f t he a postolic c ollege w as d eveloped a s cene o f C hrist f lanked b y P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia. A f resco o f C hrist b etween P eter a nd P aul ( fig. 3 ) i n t he p rivate C atacomb o f V ia L atina " i s d ated t o t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury, i f n ot l ater. A n e nthroned a nd n imbed C hrist h olds a n o pen s croll a bove P eter - n ow o bscured - w ho s tands o n t he r ight. O n t he l eft, c learly d ifferentiated b y h is l ong, b eard, s tands P aul, h olding, l ike P eter, a s croll i n h is C hrist i s b earded: t he s omewhat s ketchy a rea a round his s uggests t he i conography o f C hrist s eated o n a g lobe. 42

t apering r ight hand. k nees T he o ther

s cenes i n t his p articular c atacomb, b oth C hristian a nd p agan, h ave b een a llotted b y F ather F errua t o a p eriod f rom a bout 3 20 t o a bout 3 50, a lthough a l ater p eriod, c ontinuing a fter 3 50, i s m ore l ikely. " I t w ould s eem t hat t his p articular f resco, p robably t he e arliest e xample o f t he t wo a postles s tanding i n c oncordia t o b e f ound i n c atacomb p ainting, 44 w as o nly c arried o ut t owards t he e nd o f t he d evelopment o f t he p ictorial c ycles i n t he c atacomb. I t t hus c onforms t o t he h ypothesis a dvanced b y P rofessor G erke, " a nd f ollowed b y P rofessor S otomayor, " t hat P aul d id n ot i n f act a ppear i n C hristian a rt u ntil t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury. A f resco o f P eter a nd P aul i n t he C atacomb o f P raetextatus c an b e d ated w ith s ome c ertainty t o t he e arly y ears o f t he e piscopate o f D amasus. T his i s l ocated i n t he v ault o f t he a rcosolium o f C elerina, w hich h as b een s ubjected t o a c areful a nalysis b y C laude D agens. 47 I n t he v ault i s a n i mago c lipeata c ontaining t he b ust o f t he y outhful C hrist a nd, o n e ither s ide, t he r emains o f t wo s ets o f s tanding f igures. O n t he l eft s ide i s S ixtus I I, w ho w as p robably p artnered o riginally b y S t L aurence. O n t he r ight s ide i s P AV/LVS, o n t he l eft, a nd P eter, b adly d amaged, o n t he r ight. " C elerina i n h er p astoral p aradise i s p rotected b y f our o f t he m ost p owerful, o r p opular, o f t he R oman m artyrs. S he h ad b een i n n eed o f p rotection. T he a rtist d epicts h er o n t he o utside o f t he a rcosolium a s a l amb, i nscribed a s S V/SA/NNA, m enaced b y t wo w olves, o ne o f w hich i s i dentified b y i nscription a s a S ENIO/RIS. O n t he r ight s tands a m an, i dentified b y a n i nscription a s L IBE/R[I ]/VS, b ishop o f R ome. " T he a rcosolium w as p robably d ecorated s ome y ears a fter t he d eath o f L iberius ( 366). L iberius h imself h ad c ited t he t hree y oung m en i n t he f urnace a s a n e xample o f h is o wn p ersonal r esistance t o C onstantius I I; 5° a s w e h ave s een, t his w as a s ubject w hich f ormed p art o f t he r epertoire o f c atacomb a rt. T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat f or t he a rtist a nd f or C elerina t he w olves r epresented t he h eretical

9

4 .

C hrist,

P eter a nd P aul, a nd M artyrs. F resco, c . 4 00.

C atacomb o f P eter a nd M arcellinus,

1 0

R ome.

e nemies o f t he C hurch a t R ome, t he A rians, l ed b y t hat l upus r apax, C onstantius I I. T here w as t hus a c lear i ntention, a t l east a fter 3 66, n ot o nly t o d ifferentiate P eter f rom P aul, b ut a lso t o d istinguish b etween R oman b ishops a nd o ther m artyrs, c ertainly S ixtus I I o n t he o ne h and a nd, p robably , S t L aurence o n t he o ther. H ere, n otably i n t he u se o f i nscriptions, t he i nfluence o f g old-glass v essels, t he s oc alled f ondi d 'oro, r ather t han o f t he i nternal d ecoration o f c hurches, o r o f s arcophagi,

i s c learly a pparent.

N ot u nnaturally t he t raditio l egis, w hich,

a t l east

i conographically, i s c learly c onnected w ith s cenes o f C hrist f lanked b y P eter a nd P aul, i s a lso t o b e f ound i n c atacomb p ainting. A f resco w ith t his t heme i s l ocated i n t he C atacomb ' ad d ecimum ', a t t he t enth m ilestone o n t he V ia L atina, n ear G rottaferrata. 5 1 H ere s tands t he b earded C hrist, c rowned b etween a lpha a nd o mega, w ith a l ong s croll, f alling o pen f rom h is l eft h and, i nscribed, i t w ould s eem s omewhat l ater, D OMINVS L EGE[M ] DAT. A t t he s ides a re p alm t rees. P aul, s tanding o n t he l eft, a cclaims t he C hrist; P eter, s tanding o n t he r ight, c arries h is c ross o ver h is l eft s houlder. T he f resco h as b een a ssigned t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury. 52 W ilpert i nsists o n t he i nfluence o f R oman i conography a nd m osaic d ecoration : n ot o f S . C onstanza, a s w ould s eem t o b e t he c ase, 5 3 n or o f t he m osaic i n t he b aptistry i n N aples, b ut r ather o f c ontemporary m osaic d ecoration i n t he L ateran B aptistry. A g raffito o f t he s ame s ubject, n ow i n t he r efectory o f t he C istercian S isters b y t he c hurch o f S S C osma e D amiano a t A nagni, b ut a lmost c ertainly f rom t he C atacomb o f P riscilla, l ikewise c onforms w ith t his R oman i conography. 54 T he C atacomb o f P eter a nd M arcellinus, c onstructed i n t he t hird c entury b ut e xtended i n t he f ourth a nd f ifth c enturies, c ontains p erhaps t he m ost d ramatic f resco o f a ll ( fig. 4 ): a b earded a nd n imbed C hrist s its e nthroned b etween P aul, s tanding o n t he l eft, a nd P eter s tanding o n t he r ight. 55 B elow c an b e s een f our s maller f igures, t he m artyrs w ith w hom t his p ublic c atacomb w as p articularly a ssociated. T he f resco, w hich i s i n t he v ault o f a c ubiculum , w as p robably e xecuted t owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury, o r e ven p ossibly i n t he f irst d ecade o f t he f ollowing c entury. A s i n t he c ase o f t he m osaic i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla, i t i s p ossible t hat t he a rtist c opied t he d esign f rom a l ocal b asilica s ub d ivo; t he e longation o f t he f igures s uggests t hat t he p rototype m ight h ave b een u nder a d ome, 5 6 i f n ot i n a n a pse. A n e qually v alid e xplanation, h owever, w ould b e t he d evel ement o f a n ew, m annerist-type o f s tyle b y t he c atacomb p ainters, a s a lso a ppears, f or e xample, i n t he c ubiculum o f t he ' Fornai' i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla. H owever, e xamples o f a pparent c opies o f c hurch f rescoes o r m osaics i n t he c atacombs a re n ot u ncommon58 a nd t his s uggests t hat b asilican a rt w as h aving a n i ncreasing i mpact o n t he p ictorial a rt o f t he c atacombs. T he o rigin o f t he i conography o f C hrist c ombined w ith P eter a nd P aul h as b een m uch d ebated. M any s cholars h ave t hought t hat i t m ust h ave s temmed f rom t he m osaics, o r f rescoes, o f t he g reat C onstantinian b asilicas i n R ome, i n p articular t he a pse m osaics o f O ld S t P eter's P o r o f S t J ohn L ateran. " A s w e h ave s een, t he d esign f eatures o f s ome o f t he f rescoes i n t he c atacombs s uggest t hat a pse m osaics i n b asilicae, o r m ausolea, m ay h ave i nfluenced t heir c omposition.

H owever,

a s n o e xamples o f s uch m osaics s urvive f rom b efore t he t urn o f t he h alf

1 1

c entury,

i t i s i mpossible t o c ome t o a ny f irm c onclusion a bout t his.

S urveying t he e xtant e vidence, "

i t w ould s eem t hat t he s cene o f

C hrist i n t he m idst o f t he a postolic c ollege h ad a n atural d evelopment i n c atacomb p ainting, a s i n t he p ublic C atacomb o f D omitilla: t he t wo a postles e merged n aturally i n t he s cene, p robably a t t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury, P eter o n t he l eft o f C hrist, a t C hrist's r ight h and, a nd P aul o n t he r ight. T his w as p robably d ue a s m uch t o p opular d emand a s t o o fficial p olicy. A t t he s ame t ime P eter a nd P aul e merged i n a n e ntirely s eparate s cene. H ere t hey s tood o n e ither s ide o f t he C hrist: P aul w as p laced o n t he l eft a nd P eter o n t he r ight. W hen t his i conography w as c ombined w ith t he i conography o f t he a postolic c ollege, a s i t w as l ater i n t he f resco i n t he c ubiculum o f t he ' Fornai', t he a postles, • Peter a nd P aul, w ere s eated e ach o n a s ella p licatilis i n f ront o f t he o ther a postles, w ho r emained s tanding. P eter a nd P aul e ach r emained i n t he s ame p osition r elative t o C hrist, P aul o n t he l eft a nd P eter o n t he r ight. I t w ould s eem, t herefore, t hat t he o rigin a nd s ignificance o f t he t wo s cenes i s d ifferent. T he m osaic i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla, l ike t he n ot unrelated f rescoes i n t he C rypts o f t he

' small a postles'

a nd o f

t he f ossor D iogenes, m ay have d eveloped f rom t he p opular i conography o f t he s eated a postolic c ollege - P eter s its o n t he l eft o f C hrist a nd P aul o n t he r ight - b ut t he i conography o f t he t wo a postles i n c oncordia, w hich o bviously h ad c lose l inks t o t he p arallel i conography o f t he t raditio l egis, m ay w ell h ave h ad i ts o rigins i n s ome o ther, o fficial c ontext. 62

1 2

3 • Peter a nd P aul o n S arcophagi o f R ome a nd R avenna

D uring t he l ast d ecades o f t he t hird c entury a p rofound c hange m ay b e n oticed i n t he s ubject m atter o n C hristian s arcophagi m ade i n R ome. T he i dyllic t hemes, s o c ommon a t t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury a s t o m ake i t d ifficult t o d etermine w hether a p articular s arcophagus i s C hristian o r p agan, c ontinued, b ut w ere s upplemented, o r e ven r eplaced, b y c learly d istinguishable s cenes, n ot o nly f rom b oth t he O ld a nd N ew T estaments, b ut a lso f rom a pocryphal s ources. T o t his p re-Constantinian p eriod, a lmost i nevitably a ssociated w ith t he G reat P ersecution u nder D iocletian a nd G alerius, 3 03-311, m ay p erhaps b e c onsigned t he f irst o f t he p assion s arcophagi - s arcophagi t hat i nclude a pocryphal s cenes f rom t he P assion o f P eter. 63 A s i n t he c ase o f c atacomb p ainting, t he e vidence o n w hich a ny d iscussion o f s arcophagi m ade i n R oman o fficinae i n t he f ourth o r f ifth c entury c an b e p laced i s v ery f ragmentary. M any s arcophagi h ave b een d estroyed, a lthough i n s ome c ases t he d rawings m ade b y t he f irst C hristian a rchaeologists p rovide u seful e vidence a bout t heir a ppearance. O thers h ave b een s o b adly , damaged t hat i t i s d ifficult t o d ecide w hat t he s arcophagus m ay h ave l ooked l ike o riginally. A gain o thers h ave b een r e-worked o r r epaired, o r m ay e ven b e c opies o f a l ater p eriod, a nd f alse c onclusions m ay e asily b e d rawn f rom m aterial t hat b elongs p roperly t o ap eriod l ater t han t he f ourth c entury. F inally, t here w as t he n ormal R oman s hop p ractice o f s culpting s arcophagi, a lready s haped i n t he q uarries, i n a nticipation o f f uture s ale; e ven w hen a ll t he s cenes h ad b een s culpted, d etails w ere o ften l eft u nfinished, t o b e c ompleted w hen t he w ishes o f t he p urchaser w ere k nown. T here c ould b e a c onsiderable t ime-lag b etween a ll t hese o perations. T he d ating o f s arcophagi i s t hus n otorious f or i ts u ncertainty. A f ew s arcophagi c an b e d ated f airly f irmly b ecause t hey w ere d estined f or p articular R oman c itizens, b ut o therwise t he a rchaeologist h as t o r ely o n d evelopments i n d esign a nd t echnique, o r i n s tyle a nd i conography, t o e stablish l ikely s tages o f d evelopment. U nfortunately i t i s n ot a lways p ossible t o l ink a s tylistic a dvance w ith, f or e xample, a n i conographical c hange. T he R oman o fficinae d id n ot a ll f ollow t he l atest f ashion : s ometimes m armorarii a ltered t he o rder o f s cenes, e ither a t t he r equest o f t he p atron o r o n t heir o wn i nitiative; s ome p roduced b etter w ork t han o thers. I t w ould s eem t hat w ith t he i ncreasing C hristianization o f t he R oman a ristocracy, 6 4 t he d emand f or h igh q uality w ork i ncreased. H owever, i t c an n ever b e s tressed t oo m uch t hat t he f amilies o f p erhaps l ess i nfluential C hristians m ust h ave c ontinued t o p atronize t he l ess e xpensive o fficinae o r t o p urchase m ore c onventional t ypes, o r r etardataire t ypes, a t l east u ntil t he e nd o f t he c entury, a nd p ossibly e ven a fter t he c atastrophy o f 4 10. T here i s, n ot s urprisingly, c ontroversy a bout t he f irst s arcophagus l inked w ith P eter. T his i s t he m uch r estored J onah s arcophagus, L ateran 1 19, o riginally f ound i n t he V atican a nd n ow i n

1 3

t he M useo P io C ristiano. 65 I t i s g enerally a greed, o n s tylistic a nd c ompositional g rounds, t hat i t m ust d ate f rom t he v ery b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury. B ut t his a greement r aises a cutely t he d ilemma o f r econciling a n i conographic i nnovation - p ossibly t he f irst a ppearance o f P eter s triking t he r ock a nd o f t he a postle's a rrest, o r f light w ith a v ery f ine, b ut t raditional f rieze s arcophagus o f t he J onah c ycle. T he s arcophagus, h owever, i s o bviously t ransitional i n t he s ense t hat i t f orshadows b oth d ouble-register a nd n arrative-type s arcophagi t hat c ame i nto f ashion a fter 3 13. N one t he l ess t he e arly d ate o f t his p articular s arcophagus w ill a lways m ake a P etrine i nterpretation o f t he t wo t iny s cenes i n t he u pper r egister s uspect. " A fter 3 13 t he R oman o fficinae b egan t o t urn o ut a l arge n umber o f f rieze s arcophagi, w hich i ncluded b oth t he s cene o f P eter s triking t he r ock a nd t he s cene o f t he a postle's a rrest; i ndeed t he t wo s cenes r apidly b ecame a c ommonplace o f s arcophagus d esign. " A n e arly s arcophagus o f t his t ype, L ateran 2 12, a c hild's s arcophagus d iscovered i n t he f oundations o f S t P eter's b asilica, " h as b oth t he ' Peter-in-Rome' s cenes t hat m ay h ave a ppeared o n t he J onah s arcophagus; t he d ouble-register d esign s till r eflects t he t ransitional e lements t hat w ere p resent o n t he e arlier p iece. W hat i s n ew i s t he h eadgear o f t he s oldiers, w ho a re w earing a c ylindrical, l eather c ap, t he p ileus p annonicus. " T his w as t he d istinctive headgear o f s oldiers o f D iocletian, w hich c ontinued t o a ppear r egularly o n s arcophagi m ade i n t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury. T hey a ppear, f or e xample, o n t he s ingle f rieze s arcophagus, L ateran 1 61, ( fig. 5 ) l ikewise d ating f rom p robably t he s econd d ecade. 7 ° T he t wo s cenes a re c learly d ifferentiated o n t he l eft: i n t he c entre i s a n o rant. O n t he f amous d ouble-frieze s arcophagus, t he ' dogmatic' s arcophagus, L ateran 1 04, f rom S . P aolo f uori l e m ura, 7 1 w hich w as p robably p roduced a bout 3 30 i n t he s ame o fficina a s w as r esponsible f or t he f riezes o n t he A rch o f C onstantine, b oth r egisers a re c learly d ifferentiated ( fig. 6 ). T he p ortraits i n t he c entral c lipeus, h owever, a re n ot f inished. I n t he l ower r egister, t o t he r ight, a ppear t hree s cenes, w hich f rom t his d ate c onsistently r ecur:

t he

d enial o f P eter i n g allicantu, P eter's a rrest, a nd, o n t he f ar r ight o n t he c orner, P eter s triking t he r ock. T he t hree s cenes a re o ften c ontinuous: t hey m ay b e s aid t o f orm a t rilogia. I n t he n ext d ecade, 3 30-340, t he t riple s cene a lso b ecame a c onvention o f R oman s arcophagus d esign. P eter m ay b e s een, f or e xample, h olding a v irga t haumaturga i n t he s cene o f h is a rrest. T hus o ver-use,

o r

f amiliarity, o ften l ed t o t he t elescoping o f t he s cenes; t he p oor q uality o f s ome o f t hese s arcophagi c onfirms t he p opularity o f t his P etrine i conography w ith, p erhaps l ess i nfluential, c itizens o f R ome a t t his t ime. T he s cene o f C hrist a nd P eter i n g allicantu h ad a n i mportant d evelopment i n i ts o wn r ight,

a ppearing,

s ignificantly,

i n t he c entre

o f a n ot i nconsiderable n umber o f s arcophagi. 7 2 A p articularly f ine e xample, L ateran 1 54, n ow i n t he M useo P io C ristiano, " w as f ound i n 1 853 b y t he f ourth m ilestone o n t he V ia A ppia. I t i s a s trigilated s arcophagus, w hich has b een d ated t o C . 3 20. T he q uality o f i ts c raftsmanship i s m atched b y i ts u nique e mphasis o n t he s ingle, c entral s cene. I t i s p ossible t hat t he w ealthy p atron o f t his s tunning

1 4

5 .

P eter s triking t he r ock

( far l eft), with a rrest

S arcophagus 6 .

T rilogia

f ront,

( lower r egister,

S arcophagus

f ront,

M useo P io C ristiano,

1 5

o f P eter

3 10-320.

c .

o n r ight). 3 30.

V atican.

( left).

7 .

8 .

9 .

P eter s triking t he r ock t o h is l eft, w ith O rant D etail o f s arcophagus f ront, c . 3 10. M useo P io C ristiano, V atican.

( centre).

O rant w ith t wo a postles ( centre). S arcophagus f ront, C atacomb o f P raetextatus, R ome. O rant

( centre), w ith P aul ( far l eft) a nd P eter S arcophagus f ront, C . 3 60. S .

P ietro i n V atijano.

1 E 1

c .

3 20.

( far r ight).

s arcophagus w as a s e qually c onscious o f t he t hreefold a ffirmation o f t he P etri f ides a s o f P eter's t hreefold d enial. S trigilated s arcophagi, w ith a n o rant i n t he c entral n iche, s o p opular i n t he p revious c entury, a lso c ontinued t o b e m ade b y t he R oman o fficinae i n t he f ourth. T wo e arly e xamples, b oth n ow i n t he M useo P io C ristiano, i nclude s cenes o f P eter s triking t he r ock a t o ne o f t heir c orners. O n L ateran 1 22, 7 4 w hich d ates p ossibly f rom c . 3 10, t he s cene i s o n t he f ar l eft ( fig. 7 ). T he m armorarius, u nderstandably, w as s till u ncertain o f t he i conography o f t he n ew s cene; P eter s trikes t he r ock o n t he r ight, w hereas t he s tandard c onfiguration o f t he s cene, w hen o n t he l eft c orner o f a f rieze s arcophagus, w ould s how h im s triking t he r ock o n t he c orner i tself ( cf. f igs 5 , 4 4). O n t he o ther s arcophagus 7 5 t he s cene i s o n t he f ar r ight. H ere P eter s trikes t he r ock o n t he l eft, w hereas t he s tandard d esign o n f rieze s arcophagi w ould r everse h is p osture ( cf. f ig. 6 ). H owever t his t urning t owards t he i nternal s trigilation m ight h ave b een c onsidered b y t he d ifferent m armorarii c oncerned a s t he a ppropriate c onfiguration f or t his t ype o f s arcophagus. T he o rant i n t he c entral n iche o f t he s econd o f t hese s arcophagi i s a ccompanied b y t wo a nonymous, b eardless a postles. A l ater e xample, 7 6 p ossibly o riginally s culpted c . 3 20, f ound i n t he C atacomb o f P raetextatus, a lso i ncorporates a n o rant i n t he c entral n iche b etween t wo a postles ( fig. 8 ). T he e arly d ates s uggests t hat t he m armorarius c oncerned w ould h ave s culpted o riginally t wo u nspecified a postles, a lthough t he r eworking o f t he h ead o f t he a postle o n t he l eft, i n p articular t he a ddition o f t hickish h air a nd a s tubbly b eard, a s w ell a s o f t he h ead o f t he o ther a postle o n t he r ight, t he t hinning o f h is h air a nd t he a ddition o f a l ong, p ointed b eard, s uggests t hat h is c lient m ight h ave g iven e ach a postle a m ore p articular s ignificance. T hese s trigilated s arcophagi a re i mportant a s t he m armorarii i nevitably h ad t o c oncentrate o n t he c entral a nd c orner s cenes. T hey i llustrate t he t endency o f t he o fficinae i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury t o d istinguish b etween t he a postles o n e ither s ide o f C hrist i n t he c entral n iche, i n s uch p opular s cenes a s t he m iracle o f t he l oaves, 77 b y g iving e ach d ifferent f eatures. O ne m ight b e b ald, w hilst t he o ther w ould h ave t hick h air; o ne m ight h ave a b eard, e ither t hick o r t hin a nd l ong, w hilst t he o ther w ould b e c lean s haven . E ither o f b oth a postles m ight b e g iven t hese f eatures. A f ragment o f a s trigilated s arcophagus n ow i n t he M useo, O stia A ntica, 7 8 d istinguishes t he a postle o n t he l eft o f C hrist b y g iving h im a h igh f orehead w ith a t hickish b eard, a nd b y g iving t he o ther a postle t hickish h air z a ll b y u se o f t he d rill. O n a s arcophagus a t S . S ebastiano i 8 b oth a postles a re g iven t hick h air, b ut t he a postle o n t he l eft i s d istinguished f rom t he o ther, w ho i s c lean s haven, b y h is t hick, w oolly b eard. P eter a ppears o n t he l eft h and c orner o f t he s ame s arcophagus i n t he s cene o f h is a rrest, b ut, a lthough t here a re s imilarities w ith t he a postle o n t he l eft o f t he y outhful C hrist i n t he c entral n iche, t he m armorarius w as c onsciously s culpting t wo d ifferent p eople. T he r everse c an b e s een o n a nother s trigilated s arcophagus i n V igna M ereghiana. 8 8 H ere t he a postle o n t he l eft o f C hrist i s y oung a nd b eardless, w hereas t he a postle o n t he r ight i s b earded w ith m asses o f c urly h air.

T he f act t hat t here c an b e n o

d oubt a bout t he s ubject o f t hese c entral s cenes, r emoves a ny s uggestion t hat t he m armorarii w ere i ntending t o r epresent e ither P eter o r P aul. T hey w ere f ollowing s tylistic c onventions P N one t he

1 7

l ess, t hese s arcophagi m ay w ell h ave p rol/ded p rototypes f or l ater s cenes o f t he t wo a postles i n c oncordia.°‘ O n a s trigilated s arcophagus f ound i n av ery p oor c ondition u nder t he f loor o f t he b asilica a postolorum , a nd n ow i n t he C atacomb o f S . S ebastiano, 8 9 b oth f igures o n e ither s ide o f t he o rant a re b earded. I t w ould s eem t hat, a lthough w orking i n t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury, t he m armorarius, i n h is a ttempt t o d istinguish b etween t he a postles, h as s culpted a P auline t ype o n t he r ight a nd a P etrine t ype o n t he l eft. I ndeed, t he r eworking o f t he f eatures o f t he a postles o n t hese s arcophagi s uggests t hat a t l east o ne o fficina, 8 4 a fter t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury, w as a ltering t hem t o c ater f or t he p opular d emand f or t he a postles, P eter a nd P aul, i nevitably, b ecause o f t he r estrictions o f t he d esign, i n c oncordia. H owever, t he p ossibility o f r eworking a t am uch l ater p eriod c annot b e d iscounted. O ne e xample ( fig. 9 ), 8 5 h owever, w as s culpted c ertainly a fter 3 50, a nd p robably c . 3 60 i n t he s ame o fficina a s t he e arlier s arcophagus o f t he t wo b rothers. 8 8 I n t he c entral n iche, o n h er o wn, i s a b eautiful o rant-type f igure a nd, a t e ach c orner, a re t wo a postles, a lmost c ertainly P aul o n t he f ar l eft a nd P eter o n t he f ar r ight. A s t he s arcophagus w as f ound u nder S t P eter's, i t i s m ore t han l ikely t hat t he i dentities w ere i ntended b oth b y t he m armorarius a nd b y t he c lient: i f s o, i t i s a n u nambiguous e xample o f t he t wo a postles i n c oncordia. T here w ere v ariations o n t he s o-called t rilogia. P erhaps t he m ost i nteresting i s t he u nique s arcophagus o f t he t hree m onograms 8 7 a lso d iscovered b eneath S t P eter's. T he t hree s cenes a re n ot c ontinuous: o n t he r ight P eter, c lutching a s croll, i s a rrested b y s oldiers, e ach w earing t he s tandard p ileus p annonicus; o n t he f ar l eft t he s ingle f igure o f P eter s trikes t he r ock a nd, a t t he s ame t ime, t urns t owards C hrist, a s t he c ock c rows. T wo o f t hree C hi-Rho m onograms a re i ncluded i n t hese s cenes: t he f irst o n C hrist's s croll ( in t he d enial) a nd t he s econd o n a n a lmost i dentical s croll h eld b y P eter a s h e i s l ed a way b y t he s oldiers. T he m onograms e mphasize t he p arallel r oles o f P eter a nd C hrist. T here i s a s imilar p arallel b etween P eter s triking t he r ock, o n t he f ar l eft, a nd t he r aising o f L azarus, o n t he f ar r ight. I ndeed t he s ymmetry o f t he s arcophagus i s s o c ontrived t hat a s tandard p attern o f p opular d esigns, s culpted i n a R oman w orkshop i n c . 3 30, w ould s eem t o b e a s s atisfactory a n e xplanation o f t he o rder o f t he s cenes a s s ome o f t he m ore l earned e xplanations a dvanced t o d ate. H owever t he p urchaser o f t he s arcophagus w as q uite c ertain w hat a spects o f t he p rogramme h e w anted t o e mphasize: t he d enial i s t o b e b alanced b y P eter's a rrest a nd d eath. T he t hird m onogram, a t t he t op, b eneath t he l id, l inks t he o wner o f t he s arcophagus w ith t he o ther t wo s cenes. T he f act t hat t he s arcophagus w as u sed a t S t P eter's s uggests t hat h e w as a d evotee o f t he a postle; a lthough t he o rant i n t he c entre o f t he s arcophagus i s f lanked b y t wo b earded a postles, t here i s n o s uggestion h ere o f a ny i nterest i n P aul, o r i n t he c oncordia a postolorum .8 8 T he g reat a rtistic d evelopment o f t he R oman o fficinae - t he s oc alled s tile b ello - c ame a fter t he d eath o f C onstantine i n t he y ears 3 40 t o 3 60. A t t he v ery b eginning o f t his r enascence c ame t he d ouble-frieze s arcophagus o f t he t wo b rothers, L ateran 5 5, 8 9 o riginally i ntended b y t he w orkshop f or a h usband a nd w ife i n t he d extrarum

1 8

i unctio a ttitude. A part f rom t he s tunning q uality o f t his m asterp iece o f t he s culptor's a rt, i t i s i mportant f or a n umber o f i conographical i nnovations, a lthough t here i s n o a greement a bout t heir i nterpretation. I n t he u pper r egister, o n t he l eft, a ppears t he d enial o f P eter, j uxtaposed o n C hrist's r ight, t o t he y oung a nd b eardless M oses, w ho r eceives t he t ablet o f t he L aw f rom h eaven. T hus t he s cene d iffers f rom t he s ame s cene o n t he s arcophagus o f t he t hree m onograms, w here M oses w as b earded. B elow, a t t he l eft c orner, a b earded P eter i s a pprehended b y t he a pparitores a s h e s trikes t he r ock ( fig. 4 4), a b y n ow n ot u ncommon f eature o f t he R oman w orkshops. A lthough t here i s n othing n ovel i n t his, t he a ppearance o f a y oung m an b eside t he s oldiers has l ed t o t he s uggestion t hat h e t oo m ight h ave b een i ntended t o r epresent M oses. " T he b alding f igure o f t he a postle P eter a lready r eveals t he i nfluence o f t he s o-called P lotinus-type o f p ortrait, 9 1 w hich i s a d istinguishing f eature o f t his p articular w orkshop. A nother i nnovation m ay b e f ound i n t he c entral s cene o f t he l ower r egister, b eneath t he t wo b rothers. T his t akes p lace b etween t wo t rees. T he s cene s hows P eter r eading, s eated b etween t wo s oldiers, e ach, l ike t he o thers o n t he s arcophagus, w earing t he p ileus p annonicus. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t his m ight r efer t o t he c athedra P etri, 92 a nd t he d ates n ormally a ssigned t o t he s culpting o f t his p articular s arcophagus w ould f it i n n eatly w ith t he d ates u sually p roposed f or t he e ntry o f t he f east i nto t he s tational l iturgy. H owever, t he s arcophagus w as n ot u sed a t S t P eter's, s o f ar a s Ik now , a nd i t i s p erhaps m ore s atisfying t o i dentify t he s cene a s a n e xtension o f t he t rilogia, a s a s cene o f c onversion 93 o r f aith, t he f ides P etri. 94 S oldiers, o r a pparitores, w earing t he p ileus p annonicus, p ossibly a s ymbol f or r ecent p ersecution, w ere a lways c losely c onnected w ith P eter's a rrest a nd d eath. W hat i s n ew, h owever, i s t he l inking o f P eter's P assion w ith t he P assion o f C hrist, r epresented b y t he s cene o f P ilate w ashing h is h ands. T he i ndisputable a ppearance o f t he t wo a postles P eter a nd P aul t ogether o n s arcophagi i s a ssociated w ith a nother p arallel d evelopment: t he u se o f t he c rux i nvicta a s a s ymbol o f t he a nastasis. T he l atter m otif e merged f ully d eveloped i n t he m iddle o f t he c entury o n t he f amous a nd u nique s arcophagus, L ateran 1 71, p robably f ound i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla. 95 T his s arcophagus d eals o nly w ith t he P assion o f C hrist, e ach s cene f ramed b etween c olumns, a nd n ot w ith t he t wo a postles. I t h as b een s uggested, " h owever, t hat t he s cene o n t he f ar l eft s hows P eter o n t he v ia c rucis, a lthough t his w ould b e t he f irst a ppearance o f t his p articular m otif. I t i s m ore l ikely t hat t he s cene s hows S imon o f C yrene c arrying t he c ross o f C hrist.

T he c entral s cene s hows t he v ictorious c ross,

g arlanded w ith t he C hi-Rho, a nd h eld b y t he R oman E agle. O n t he c ross-piece s tand t wo d oves; b eneath s it t wo R oman s oldiers. A ll t he s oldiers o n t his s arcophagus w ear t he m ore c onventional h elmet, n ot t he p ileus p annonicus. I t s eems l ikely, g iven a ll t hese c onstituents, t hat t he i conographic s ource f or t he c rux i nvicta i s t he s ignum C hristi a dopted b y C onstantine a s p art o f h is p ersonal i nsignia, a nd a s his s acred s tandard, t he l abarum . 97 T he c ombination o f t he s acred c ross w ith t he r egalia o f E mpire i s u nlikely t o h ave b een t he i nspiration o f a l ocal o fficina: i t m ust h ave r eceived t he a pproval o f a n i mportant c lient. W hether t he c lient w as a m ember o f t he R oman a ristocracy, o r e ven m oved i n t he c ircle o f t he b ishop, L iberius, w e a re n ot l ikely t o d iscover. T he c rux i nvicta, w hich w as u tilized o n t his s arcophagus t o e mphasize a f undamental b elief o f t he C atholic

1 9

C hurch, w as s oon b rought i nto a ssociation w ith t he p ecular R oman w itness t o t he b eliefs o f t hat C hurch. 98 P eter a nd P aul a ppear i n c onjunction w ith t he c rux i nvicta o n a t ree s arcophagus, L ateran 1 64, 9 9 t hat w as d iscovered i n t he c onfessio o f S . P aolo f uori l e m ura ( fig. 1 0): t his i s t he o nly s arcophagus a ssociated w ith t he c oncordia a postolorum t hat h as b een d iscovered, s o f ar a s Ik now, a t P aul's o wn p eculiar c hurch. T he b asic d esign o f t he c rux i nvicta i s t he s ame a s o n t he e arlier s arcophagus, L ateran 1 71: i n p articular t he i conography o f t he R oman s oldiers a nd t he g arlanded C hi-Rho r emains u nchanged. O n t he l eft o f t he c rux i nvicta i s t he t raditional s cene o f t he a rrest o f P eter, b ut, o n t he r ight, i s a c ompletely n ew s cene, t he m artyrdom o f P aul. T he a pparitores, h owever, a re n ot w earing a ny h eadgear: t he p ileus p annonicus, i t w ould s eem , w as n ever u sed o n R oman s arcophagi a ssociated w ith P aul.' " T he o uter s cenes s how e pisodes f rom t he O ld T estament. O ther s arcophagi, m ainly i n f ragments, o f t his t ype h ave b een d iscovered a t S . S ebastiano, 1 01 t he c entre o f t he d ouble-cult o f P eter a nd P aul, a s w ell a s within t he V atican a rea; i t w ould s eem t hat t here a re n o o thers e xtant t hat c an b e g iven a c ertain R oman p rovenance,

a lthough

s imilar s arcophagi m ay h ave b een e xported t o A rles. " 2 T hese s arcophagi, w hich i ncorporate b oth t he c rux i nvicta l " a nd t he s cenes o f t he t wo a postles, a re c rucial t o o ur e nquiry. H owever, t hey p ose a p roblem w ith r egard t o t heir d ate o f m anufacture. I t i s f airly c ertain, h owever, t hat t hey w ere m ade a fter L ateran 1 71, w hich c onfirms a d ate a fter 3 50. O ther d evelopments s uggest t hat t hey w ere m ade a fter c . 3 60. I t w ould s eem, t hen, t hat t hey w ere p robably m ade b etween c . J-6 0 a nd c . 3 80. A l ater d evelopment, a lthough i t c ould e qually b e t he c ontemporary p roduct o f a p erhaps l ess f ashionable w orkshop i n a nother p art o f R ome, c an b e s een o n a s arcophagus f ound n ear t he b asilica o f S . V alentino i n 1 928. 1 04 T his i s a f rieze s arcophagus i n a v ery p oor s tate o f c onservation, w ith t he P assion o f C hrist o n t he t raditional r ight o f t he c rux i nvicta. T he m artyrdom o f P eter i s o n t he l eft a nd t he m artyrdom o f P aul o n t he f ar l eft. T here s eems l ittle d oubt t hat h ere P eter i s f ollowing t he v ia c rucis, a s a s oldier o n P eter's r ight c arries t he c ross. T he o verall p rogramme, h owever, i s c lear: o n t he l eft t he t wo a postles g o t o t heir m artyrdom i n c oncordia; o n t he r ight C hrist,

l ikewise,

f aces i mminent d eath.

L ater d evelopments t owards t he e nd o f t he c entury i ncluded t he p lacing o f t he c rux i nvicta b etween c olumns, " 5 o r s imply i n t he m iddle o f a p lain f ront. " 6 B ut, b y f ar t he m ore c ommon i conography w as t he p lacing o f t he c rux i nvicta i n t he m idst o f t he a postolic c ollege. T his i s t he c ase o n a n u nfinished, f rieze s arcophagus, s till i n s itu i n a m ausoleum i n t he C atacomb o f S . S ebastiano. " 7 T he a postle s tanding i mmediately t o t he l eft o f t he c ross, w ith r ight h and r aised a nd a s croll i n h is l eft, i s s upported b y f ive m ore a postles s tanding i n s imilar p ostures o n h is r ight. A nother a postle, h is p allium h eld i n h is l eft h and, s tands o n t he r ight o f t he c ross, a lso s upported b y f ive a postles i n s imilar p ostures t o t heir c olleagues o n t he l eft. I t h as b een s uggested 1 88 t hat t he a postle o n t he r ight i s P eter, b ut o wing t o t he i ncomplete s tate o f t he f igure t his i s b y n o m eans c ertain. T he l ate d ate u sually g iven t o t his s arcophagus, h owever, w ould t end t o c onfirm t hat t he u nique c onfiguration g iven t o t he

2 0

1 0.

C rux i nvicta, with a rrest o f P eter

( left)

S arcophagus f ront,

a nd m artyrdom o f P aul

3 60-380.

M useo P io C ristiano, V atican. 1 1.

T raditio l egis

( centre), with a rrest o f P eter

S arcophagus f ront, 1 2.

( left).

3 60.

C hrist with c ross, Peter a nd P aul with A postolic C ollege. S arcophagus f ront, b efore 3 95. S .

P ietro i n V aticano.

2 1

( right).

1 3.

P eter.

D etail

( enlarged)

f rom s cene o f a rrest o f P eter.

S arcophagus f ront, S .

3 59.

P ietro i n V aticano.

2 2

4

1 4.

P aul.

D etail

( enlarged) f rom s cene o f m artyrdom o f P aul. S arcophagus f ront, 3 59. S .

P ietro i n V aticano.

2 3

a postle b y t he m armorarius m ight h ave b een i ntended t o i dentify h im a s t he p rinceps a postolorum . "9

A s imilar d isposition m ay b e s een o n

a nother s arcophagus, f ound i n t he s ame a rea. T his i s a c olumn s arcophagus, 1 1° p robably m ade a fter t he f rieze s arcophagus, p ossibly a t t he b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury. T he a postles a re a gain s tanding, b ut n ow c arry w reaths, o r c rowns: 1 11 t here i s n o d istinction m ade b etween t he a postles o n e ither s ide o f t he c ross. L ikewise o n t he s lightly e arlier L udovosi s arcophagus, n ow i n t he M useo P io C ristiano , 112 t he m armorarius h as m ade n o i conographic d istinction b etween t he a postles o n e ither s ide o f t he c rux i nvicta. H owever, t he f acial f eatures o f t he t wo a postles, e specially w hen c ompared w ith t he f eatures o f t he m atching p air o n t he s arcophagus o f P etronius P robus, 1 13 s uggest t hat t he a postle s tanding o n t he r ight o f t he c ross, h olding a r olled s croll i n h is l eft h and, i s P aul a nd t hat t he o ther a postle o n t he l eft i s P eter. T his l atter i conography c onforms with t he n ormal d isposition o f t he a postolic c ollege, a lthough i n a ll t hree e xamples c ited t he a postles a re n ot s eated, b ut s tanding . 114 P eter a nd P aul, h owever, c ould a lso b e p laced o n t heir o wn, i n c oncordia, o n e ither s ide o f t he c rux i nvicta: P aul s tanding o n t he l eft a nd P eter s tanding o n t he r ight, a s i s t he c ase o n a s trigilated s arcophagus a lso i n s itu i n a m ausoleum i n t he C atacomb o f S . S ebastiano. 1 15 T he a postles a re s imilarly p laced, i n c oncordia, o n t he m uch e arlier s arcophagus o f I unius B assus, a lthough h ere t hey s tand o n e ither s ide o f t he s eated C hrist. T he s arcophagus m ade f or I unius B assus, p raefectus u rbi, i s p erhaps t he m ost f amous s arcophagus o f t he w hole c entury . 116 I t w as f ound i n 1 595, o r 1 597, u nder t he c onfessio o f S t P eter's: a dditional f ragments w ere f ound b etween 1 940 a nd 1 943. I unius w as a l ate c onvert t o C hristianity, N EOFITVS I TT A D D EVM, 1 17 a nd a s h e d ied o n 2 5 A ugust, 3 59 i t i s m ost l ikely t hat t he s arcophagus w as f inished i n t hat y ear. I t i s u nlikely t hat i t w as t aken f rom s tock, a s w as t he c ase w ith t he s arcophagus o f t he t wo b rothers, a lthough i t w as p robably m ade i n t he s ame o fficina. T here a re t wo r egisters: t he f ive s cenes o f e ach r egister a re s eparated b y s ix c olumns. I t h as b een m uch r estored. t he c entre o f t he t op r egister t he y outhful C hrist, t he s on o f m an,

I n

s its e nthroned a bove C aelus, b etween P eter, s tanding o n t he r ight, a nd P aul, s tanding o n t he l eft. T he h eads o f t he t wo a postles h ave b een r eworked. I n t he u pper r egister t he m armorarius has p laced, o n t he t raditional r ight, t he t wo s cenes a ssociated w ith t he P assion o f C hrist, b ut, o n t he l eft, a n O ld T estament s cene, t he s acrifice o f A braham , b eside t he a rrest o f P eter. B y d oing t his h e w as f aced w ith t he p roblem o f f itting t he n ew s cene, t he e xecution o f P aul, i nto t he l ower r egister. T he s olution a dopted, o f o ffsetting t he O ld T estament s cene o n t he t op l eft w ith t he e xecution o f P aul a t t he b ottom r ight, s eems p articularly a pt.

T he i conographical m essage i s c lear:

C hrist t riumphs

o ver d eath a nd t he o ld d ispensation, w hile t he C hurch t riumphs o ver i ts e nemies t hrough t he d eaths o f P eter a nd P aul. T he a postle P aul's a ppearance o n t he s arcophagus o f I unius B assus i s p robably h is f irst a ppearance o n a s arcophagus i n t he p resence o f b oth C hrist a nd P eter. T he s cene o f t he e xecution o f P aul c onfirms t he u ndoubted i ntention o f t he m armorarius t o r epresent t he v as e lectionis, w hereas t here i s c ertainly d oubt a bout t his o n e arlier s arcophagi. T he o fficina h ad m ade u se o f t he P lotinus-type o f p ortrait f or P eter ( fig. 1 3), a s i t h ad o n t he e arlier s arcophagus o f t he t wo b rothers

2 4

( fig. 4 4), a lthough t he a pparitores n o l onger w ear t he p ileus p annonicus. T he m armorarius r esponsible f or f inishing t he s arcophagus f or I unius a lso m ade u se o f t he P lotinus-type f or Paul ( fig. 1 4). A f ine d istinction, h owever, w as m ade b etween t he a ppearance o f t he t wo a postles. T here i s a b alance b etween t he P etrine a nd P auline s cenes: t he c oncordia o f P eter a nd P aul i s e xplicit. I n t he c entral, u pper s cene b oth a re e nclosed w ithin v ine f estooned c olumns. T he f ull d elights o f p aradise, a s o n s o m uch e arlier f unerary a rt, b oth p agan a nd C hristian, a re l ocated o n t he s ides o f t he s arcophagus. I unius B assus, a s b efits h is r ank, w as b uried i n t he V atican c omplex: a postles, p assus a utem [ Petrus]

t he d ouble m artyrdom o f t he t wo c um P aulo, 1 18 w as r ecognised a t t he

v ery c entre o f t he P etri c ultus. T he c ulmination o f t he d evelopment o f t he t rilogia t heme i s t o. b e f ound o n a nother s arcophagus, L ateran 1 74, n ow i n t he M useo P io C ristiano. 1 19 T his m ust h ave b een m ade a t a bout t he s ame t ime a s t he s arcophagus o f I unius B assus , p robably a l ittle l ater, c . 3 60, i n a nother o fficina; i t w as a lso u sed i n t he V atican c omplex. I t i s u nique i n t hat t wo o f t he t hree P etrine s cenes,

t he s triking o f t he

r ock a nd t he d enial o f P eter i n g allicantu, a re t o b e f ound o n t he s ides o f t he s arcophagus ; 120 o nly P eter's a rrest i s t o b e f ound o n t he f ront ( fig. 1 1). T his l ast s cene i s o n t he l eft o f t he t raditio l egis, a nother n ew i conography - a n i conography w hich p erhaps r ivalled b ut n ever s uperseded t he c rux i nvicta. T he P etrine e mphasis o f t he s arcophagus i s o bviously d eveloped f rom n umerous s arcophagi m ade i n t he p revious d ecades, a lthough i t i s i mportant t o n ote, a gain, t hat t he a pparitores a re n o l onger w earing t he t raditional p ileus p annonicus. T he f eatures o f P aul, h owever, a re n ow c learly d istinguished f rom t hose o f P eter. T his s hould n ot b e s urprising, a s t he s arcophagus m ay have b een m ade a t a pproximately t he s ame t ime a s L ateran 1 64, b ut n ot, o f c ourse, i n t he s ame o fficina. T he P etrine e mphasis i s f urther u nderlined b y t he n ew i conography o f P eter i n g allicantu, o n t he l eft s ide o f t he s arcophagus. T he i conography o f t he c ock o n a c olumn w as t o b e c opied l ater i n c atacomb p ainting,

a s

w ell a s i n o ther a pplied a rts. T he o rigin a nd m eaning o f t he t raditio l egis i s m uch d ebated , 121 b ut i ts b asic m essage i s c lear: t he t wo R oman a postles, P eter a nd P aul, s tand a s w itnesses t o t he, i nitiallyyoung, C hrist, t riumphant i n H eaven. T here i s t hus a s imilar f unction p erformed b oth b y t his m otif a nd t he c rux i nvicta: b oth b ear w itness t hat o n t he f inal d ay o f j udgment t hose w ho h ave f ollowed C hrist's L aw , l ike P eter a nd P aul, w ill r ise a gain. W hereas t he c rux i nvicta w as o ften f lanked b y s cenes o f t he d ouble m artyrdom o f t he a postles, t he t raditio l egis i s i nvariably f lanked b y t he a postles, P eter a nd P aul: b oth a postles, n ot o ne, r eceive t he L aw f rom C hrist, t he u ltimate L aw-giver. A lthough t he a postles o n L ateran 1 74 a re i n c oncordia, t he P assion o f o f C hrist, o n t he r ight o f t he s arcophagus, i s b alanced o n t he l eft, a s o n t he s arcophagus o f I unius B assus, b y t he m artyrdom o f P eter a nd b y t he s acrifice o f A braham . w ith t he c rux i nvicta t ype,

O n l ater s arcophagi o f t his t ype,

a s

t he O ld T estament s cene w as t o b e

r eplaced b y t he m artyrdom o f P aul.

T he e mphasis o n P eter, h owever,

s eems t o b e u nderlined i n t he n ew i conography b y t he l ong, o pen s croll, o r v olumen, r eceived b y P eter. I n a ll r epresentations o f t he a postles i n c oncordia,

t he m armorarii,

2 5

a s w ell a s w orkers i n o ther

t rades, w ere c ontinually p resented w ith t he d ilemma o f r esolving, o r n ot, a s t he c ase m ay b e, t he c onventions o f p riority i n r epresentational a rt. 1 22 T he t heme o f t he t raditio l egis c ontinued t o d evelop t hrough t he s ixties a nd s eventies. 1 23 T he f ragments o f a c olumn s arcophagus c ontaining a t raditio l egis o f t he l ong s croll t ype w ere f ound n ear t he b asilica o f S . S ebastiano i n 1 926 a nd 1 928. 1 24 C hrist i s n ow b earded a nd, a s M aiestas D omini, s tands i n a c elestial p aradise: u nfortunately t he s ubject m atter o f t he o ther s cenes i s n ot c lear. A s econd c olumn s arcophagus f ound i n a m ausoleum i n t he C atacomb o f S . S ebastiano, 1 25 a lso m ade c . 3 70, r eveals a f resh a ttempt t o p ortray t he c oncordia a postolorum . T he c ombination o f s cenes i s p redictable, b ut t he c onception l ying b ehind t his u nfinished m asterpiece i s u nique. T he b earded C hrist, a s m agister D omini, s tands, w ith t he v olumes o f t he L aw a t h is f eet, b etween t wo s hadowy f igures, t he l eft o f w hom c arries a l ong, u nfurled s croll. T he i conography o f t his s cene s eems t o h ave b een a dapted f rom t he m iracle o f t he l oaves, a lthough a c ontemporary m osaic i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla 1 25 h ad a lso p ortrayed a b eardless C hrist, a s T eacher, w ith c apsa a nd s crolls a t h is f eet. P erhaps t he m armorarius w as n ot a ware o f t he m ore t raditional i conography o f t he t raditio l egis, o r, w ittingly , t ried t o s et a n ew f ashion, 1 27 b ut, w hatever t he t ruth o f t he m atter, t he q uality o f h is w orkmanship, p articularly i n t he s cene o f t he y oung, b eardless C hrist b efore P ilate, p roclaims a s culptor o f g enius.

T he t wo m artyrdom s cenes a re a gain

p laced o n t he l eft, a s was t he c ase o n t he s arcophagus f ound n ear S . V alentino: h ere, h owever, t hey s how g reat o riginality, p articularly t he s cene o f P eter o n t he v ia c rucis. T he p resence o f b oth t hese s arcophagi, a nd o thers, a t t he b asilica a postolorum, d ating n ot o nly f rom t he s ixties o r s eventies, b ut, a s w e h ave s een, 1 28 f rom t he l ast d ecades o f t he c entury, s uggests t hat t he f ollowers o f t he d ouble c ult o f P eter a nd P aul p rovided a l ocal o fficina, o r o fficinae, w ith s ome o f t heir b est c ustom . A c ity-gate s arcophagus m ade b etween 3 80 a nd 3 90,

p ossibly a t t he

b ehest o f Ambrose, b ishop o f M ilan, a nd n ow i n S . A mbrogio, 1 29 h ad a d ramatic i mpact o n t he R oman s cene. I t c ombines a s cene o n t he b ack o f t he s arcophagus o f a y outhful C hrist, s eated a mong h is a postles a nd h olding a b ook i n h is l eft h and, w ith a s cene o n t he f ront o f a b earded C hrist, s tanding a mong h is a postles a nd h olding a l ong s croll i n h is l eft h and. I t t hus f ollows t he d istinctions m ade s ome t wenty y ears e arlier b y t he m usivarius w orking o n t he a pse m osaics i n S . C onstanza. 1 90 I t i s a c lassic e xposition o f t he N icene c reed. O n t he b ack o f t he s arcophagus P aul, s eated o n t he r ight o f C hrist, i s d istinguished b y h is P lotinus-type a ppearance, h olding a n u nfurled s croll i n h is l eft h and; w hilst, o n t he f ront, C hrist h olds a n e xtended s croll t o P eter, n ow s tanding o n t he r ight, c ross o n s houlder. T he l atter s cene i s, o f c ourse, t he b y t hen w ell-established s cene o f t he t raditio l egis, a lthough t he s cene o n t he b ack c ould a lso b e g iven a s imilar i nterpretation e lsewhere.

1 91

T wo s imilar s arcophagi w ere o rdered b y w ealthy R oman c itizens a t t he e nd o f t he c entury,

a nd t hese w ere p robably s culpted i n R ome

i tself: b oth w ere f ound w ithin t he V atican c omplex; b oth s how a s ignificant d ivergence f rom t he M ilanese p rototype o n t he l eft s ide, w here a R oman r iver g od, p ersonifying t he r iver T iber a nd s o R ome,

2 6

l ies b eneath a f lying q uadriga.

T he f irst,

t he B orghese s arcophagus, 1 32

w as f ound b etween 1 447 a nd 1 455 i n t he m ausoleum o f t he g reat R oman f amily o f t he A nicii, a djoining t he a pse o f S t P eter's b asilica. T he m ausoleum w as b uilt i n 3 95. I n t he c entre o f t he f ront i s t he, b y n ow, t raditional t raditio l egis, w ith P eter, h olding a c ross o n h is s houlder, ' receiving' a l ong s croll f rom t he b earded C hrist. A s o n t he e arlier s arcophagus m ade i n M ilan, t he R oman a postles n ow r eturn t o l ead t he o ther a postles: t he m artyrdom s cenes h ave d isappeared. O nly a f ragment o f t he o ther s arcophagus s urvives i n t he C appella C olonna i n S t P eter's, 1 33 b ut t his s hows t he a ll-important t raditio l egis: t he r emainder o f t he s arcophagus c an b e r econstructed f rom e arly e ngravings. T he y oking o f t he t raditional t raditio l egis t o t he s tanding c ollege o f t he a postles a nd t he o mission o f t he m artyrdom s cenes - a s w ell a s t he a ll-important s cene o f t he y oung C hrist a mong h is a postles - p robably r eflects a c hange i n f ashion o r a c hange i n t he t aste o f t he p atrons r esponsible f or t heir c ommission, 1 34

r ather t han a c onscious c hange i n

o fficial a ttitudes. O ther s arcophagi u sed i n t he V atican c omplex a t t his t ime r eveal a s imilar e mphasis, w ith v ariations. O ne c olumn s arcophagus, L ateran 1 51, 1 35 m ade t owards t he v ery e nd o f t he c entury, r eveals a n a lmost u nique e mphasis o n P eter. 1 36 O n t he r ight o f t he t raditio l egis i s t he P assion o f C hrist, b ut o n t he l eft, b eside P eter c onducted a long t he v ia c rucis, i s a s cene o f C hrist w ashing t he f eet o f t he s eated P eter. I f o ne w ere l ooking f or a s arcophagus d epicting t he c athedra P etri, t his w ould p erhaps b e t he m ost c onvincing e xample. O n t he r ight P ilate, i n a uthority, w ashes h is h ands b eside t he s cene o f t he a rrested C hrist; o n t he l eft C hrist w ashes t he f eet o f P eter, s cene o f t he a rrested P eter.

i n a uthority, b eside t he

T he f inal d evelopment i n t hese s arcophagi i s a ssociated a gain w ith t he C atacomb o f S . S ebastiano, a s w ell a s w ith t he V atican c omplex: t he e mergence o f t he y oung v ictorious C hrist, s tanding t riumphant i n h eaven, with a b ejewelled c ross i n his r ight h and. T he b ejewelled c ross r eflects a c hange o f f ashion, n ot u nconnected w ith t he c rux i nvicta a nd, m ore p articularly, w ith t he s tunning m osaic i n S . P udenziana ( fig. 2 0). T he r eappearance o f t he y outhful C hrist, c ross i n h and,

s tanding i n h eaven i n t he m idst o f t he a postolic c ollege,

n eatly s olves t he p roblem p osed b y t he n eed f or t wo s cenes o n t he s arcophagus i n S . A mbrogio, M ilan. T his d evelopment m ay b e s een o n a c ity-gate s arcophagus a t S . Sebastiano 1 37 p ossibly m ade a fter 4 00; a lthough i n f ragments, i t r eveals t he y oung, v ictorious C hrist, c rowned w ith a c orona l emniscata,

c ross i n h and,

s tanding t riumphant i n t he

m idst o f t he a postles. A c olumn s arcophagus, o f s imilar d esign ( fig. 1 2), w as f ound a t t he s ame t ime a s t he B orghese s arcophagus i n t he m ausoleum o f t he A nicii: t his i s t he s arcophagus o f t he w ealthy a nd p owerful P etronius P robus, p raefectus u rbi, w hich m ust h ave b een c ompleted b y 3 95. 1 38 H ere t he y outhful C hrist s tands b etween P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia, o n t he m ountain o f P aradise, e nclosed b y t he c entral c olumns o f t he s arcophagus; P eter, w ith h ands c lasped, i s s tanding, n ot o n C hrist's l eft, b ut o n h is r ight,

t he p osition w hich h e h ad

o ccupied, f or e xample, o n t he b ack o f t he s arcophagus i n M ilan a nd w hich h e w as t o o ccupy l ater i n R ome o n t he a rch m osaic i n S . M aria M aggiore, a s w ell a s i n t he f resco o n t he t riumphal a rch i n S . L orenzo f uori l e m ura. I n his l eft h and t he y outhful C hrist h olds a s croll, a s d o P aul, o n h is l eft, a nd t he r emaining a postles, o r w itnesses, o n t he

2 7

1 5.

C hrist,

' Back' 1 6.

o f

P aul a nd t hree A postles. s arcophagus,

C hrist,

a fter 3 78.

P aul a nd t hree A postles.

F ront o f s arcophagus, S . 1 7.

P aul

F rancesco,

4 00.

R avenna.

' receiving t he L aw f rom C hrist.

F ront o f S .

C .

s arcophagus,

M aria i n P orto F uori,

2 8

C .

4 00.

R avenna.

f ront a nd s ides o f t he s arcophagus. O n t he b ack b etween s trigilated b ands s tand P robus a nd h is w ife, i n t he d extrarum i unctio a ttitude. T he m armorarius s eems t o h ave s ingled o ut P eter f or s pecial a ttention : t he c ross i s o n t he l eft; C hrist l ooks t o t he l eft; a nd P eter, l ike t he o ther a postles o n t he l eft, a cclaims t he C hrist, a lthough a ll t he f igures, a s p resumably o n t he o ther, l ater s arcophagus, a lso b ear w itness t o t he v ictory o f C hrist. A nother s olution i s f ound o n t he f ragment o f a s econd c olumn s arcophagus, L ateran 1 06, 1 39 d iscovered i n t he V atican. T he y outhful C hrist here h olds a m uch-restored c ross i n h is r ight h and, a lso r estored, a nd i s f lanked b y P eter o n t he r ight a nd P aul o n t he l eft, b ut n ow s omewhat r educed i n s ize. I n t he s cene o n t he l eft, P eter, o r p ossibly P aul , 140 i s l ed a way t o h is d eath; o n t he r ight C hrist, u nder a rrest, p atiently a waits h is P assion. T he R oman o fficinae r esponsible f or m ost o f t hese s arcophagi s eem t o h ave c eased t o f unction e arly i n t he f ifth c entury - a t l east n o o ne h as a llocated R oman s arcophagi i ncorporating P eter, o r P aul, w ith a ny c ertainty t o a p eriod a fter t he e arly y ears o f t he c entury. T his m ay h ave b een d ue t o a c hange i n f unerary h abits. T here c an a lso b e l ittle d oubt t hat t he b arbarian t hreat s everely c urtailed t he t rade i n s arcophagi, a nd a s hortage o f s uitable m arble1 41 m ight h ave d amaged i rretrievably t he w orking l ife o f s pecialist s hops i n R ome. T he s ack o f 4 10 w as p robably d ecisive i n t he m atter. I n a ny c ase t he b asilicas, a nd t heir d ecoration, t hen c ame i nto t heir o wn: t he t omb s lab was t o t ake t he p lace o f t he s arcophagus. W hatever t he r eason, t here c an b e n o d ispute t hat t he p henomenon o f P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia, w hich h ad e merged a fter t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury, c ertainly b y 3 60 o n s arcophagi, n otably i n t he v icinity o f t he V atican a nd a round t he b asilica a postolorum a nd t he b asilica o f S . P aolo f uori l e m ura, had b y t he v ery e nd o f t he c entury u ndergone a c hange; t he p re-eminence o f P eter, a c ommonplace o f t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury, h ad b egun t o r eassert i tself b y t he f inal d ecade o f t he c entury, e specially i n t he V atican c omplex - a lthough e ven h ere t here a re a mbiguities - a nd c ontinued t o f lourish, p resumably, u ntil 4 10. T he p rimacy o f P eter i s o ften c onsidered t o b e i mplicit i n t he t raditio l egis, p articularly i f t he a postle i s d istinguished f rom P aul b y a l ong, o pen s croll c onnecting h im t o C hrist. M uch c an, a nd has, b een r ead i nto t his. 1 42 D evelopments i n s arcophagi d esign a t R avenna d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he f ifth c entury p robably j ustify m uch o f t his s peculation. • T he d esign c haracteristics o f t he t raditio l egis a re s ufficiently f lexible f or t he w itnesses t o C hrist's R esurrection a nd G lory t o b e v aried a ccording t o t he w him o f t he m armorarius, o r o f h is p atron, o r a ccording t o t he b eliefs o f t he l ocal C hurch. 1 43 A t R ome t he t wo w itnesses w ere i nevitably P eter a nd P aul. A t R avenna, w hence t he T heodosian H ouse h ad r emoved i ts c ourt i n 4 02, n ot o nly h ad t he i nterests o f t he l ocal C hurch t o b e c onsidered, b ut a lso t hose o f t he W estern E mperor, H onorius. T he T heodosian H ouse w as p articularly d evoted t o S t P aul, a s t he c onstruction o f t he g reat b asilica o f S . P aolo f uori l e m ura a fter 3 84 a nd t he d edication o f t he n ew b asilica a postolorum 1 44 w ithin t he C ity w alls o f R ome i n 4 25/6 t estify. I n C onstantinople t he m armorarius r esponsible f or a m agnificent m arble s arcophagus o f c . 4 00, n ow i n t he A rchaeological M useum ,1 45 c learly d istinguished t he f eatures o f P aul o n t he l eft o f a c ross o n o ne s ide o f t he s arcophagus, b ut n ot t hose o f t he o ther a postles.

2 9

1 46

A nd

t here c an s urely b e n o d ispute a bout t he p rominence g iven t o t he a postle i n t he D umbarton O aks m arble r elief, 1 47 i n a n i mperial w orkshop a t a bout t he s ame t ime.

a lmost c ertainly m ade T here i s t hus a g ood

r eason f or e xpecting P aul t o a ppear o n s arcophagi m ade i n a n i mperial c ity. T here i s o nly o ne s arcophagus s till i n R avenna, s culpted i n t hat c ity, w hich s hows P eter ' receiving'

a nd p robably a l ong, o pen

s croll o n t he r ight o f t he s tanding C hrist. T his i s n ow i n t he M useo N azionale 1 48 a nd i s u sually g iven a n e arly d ate a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury. I t i s a f rieze s arcophagus. T he m armorarius m ight h ave b een i nfluenced b y a m osaic, a lthough h e c ould h ave b een i nfluenced e qually b y a s arcophagus i mported f rom R ome. 1 49 T he s cene o n t he R avennate s arcophagus i s e choed l ater o n t he l eft e nd o f t he s oc alled r eliquary o f S t Q uiricus a nd S t J ulitta. 1 50 B y c ontrast, t here i s a nother s arcophagus ( fig. 1 7), n ow i n S . M aria i n P orto f uori, 1 51 d ating f rom t he b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury, w hich h as t he a lmost u nique s cene o f P aul, i n t he a bsence o f P eter, ' receiving' t he l aw f rom a s eated, a lmost H onorian, C hrist. 1 52 H e s tands o n t he l eft o f C hrist.

I t h as b een a rgued t hat h ere,

a t l east,

t he p rimacy o f P aul

i s u nequivocal. I ndeed K ollwitz, 1 53 f ollowed b y W esse1, 1 54 t race t he P auline t raditio l egis t o a C onstantinopolitan a rchetype, a lthough n o i ncontrovertable e vidence h as y et b een p roduced t o s upport t his h ypothesis. O ther s arcophagi i n R avenna, 1 55 r anging i n d ate f rom a bout 3 90 t o a fter 4 25, s how P aul o n t he l eft o f t he y oung, s eated C hrist ' receiving' a t ightly r olled s croll ( cf. f ig. 1 6). I n t he m ajority o f c ases, h owever, b oth a postles a ppear o n R avennate s arcophagi a nd c an b e i nterpreted a s b eing i n c oncordia, a lthough o n a t l east o ne s arcophagus - t he s arcophagus o f t he t welve a postles n ow i n S . A pollinare i n C lasse1 58 - P eter h olds a k ey. s a s cene t hat c an b e i nterpreted e qually a s t he t raditio c lavium » / t he e xplicit i conography o f t he p rimacy o f P eter. T his i n i tself s uggests a l ater d ate. N one t he l ess t he a mbiguity o f t he r elationship b etween P eter a nd P aul r emains. H owever a r esolution o f t his a mbiguity i s s uggested b y t he s o-called s arcophagus o f b ishop L iberius, 1 58 w ho d ied i n 3 78. T he s arcophagus o f L iberius, a c olumn s arcophagus, n ow f orms t he h igh a ltar o f t he b asilica o f S . F rancesco; i t w as r eworked w hen p laced t here i n t he s eventeenth c entury. T he y oung, e nthroned C hrist a ppears o n b oth t he f ront a nd b ack o f t he s arcophagus. O n t he f ront, a s n ow p laced i n t he b asilica, P eter s tands o n t he l eft o f C hrist, p ossibly r eceiving a k ey, o r a t ightly r olled s croll. N one o f t he t hree o ther a postles s tanding o n t his s ide o f t he s arcophagus i s P aul. O n t he o ther s ide, P aul s tands o n t he l eft o f C hrist, a s P eter h ad o n t he f ront, a nd h e r eceives a s imilar o bject, p robably a t ightly r olled s croll ( fig. 1 5). H is p osture, h owever, i s d ifferent f rom t he p osture o f P eter o n t he f ront: i t i s r eminiscent o f P aul's p osture o n o ther R avennate s arcophagi, n otably i n S .

F rancesco a nd i n S . M aria

i n P orto f uori ( figs. 1 6, 1 7). I n a ll t here a re t welve a postles a round t he s arcophagus: t he m issio a postolorum . T his u nique p rogramme, p robably s culpted o riginally a t t he b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury, s urely a lso u nderlines t he e quality o f t he t wo a postles, o r t he c oncordia a postolorum . I t m ay h ave b ecome a s tandard d esign o f t he R avenna w orkshops a nd i t i s p ossible t hat s ome p atrons, o nly a ble t o a fford, o r o nly r equiring, a s ingle s culpted f ront, w ere c ontent w ith o ne o f t wo b asic d esigns p roduced b y t he w orkshop ( fig. 1 6). I ndeed

3 0

t he p opularity o f S t P aul, p articularly i n C onstantinople, m ay have b een a d ecisive i nfluence o n t he c hoice o f s ubject, w hether b y t he m armorarius o r b y his c lient. W e a re c ertainly a ware o f t he d irect i nfluence o f C onstantinople o n t he s tyle o f t he R avenna w orkshops a t t his t ime. 1 59 O n t he o ther hand s imilar s arcophagi w ith S t P eter m ay j ust h ave n ot s urvived. W hatever t he t ruth o f t he m atter, 1 60 at R avenna t he c oncordia a postolorum w ould s eem t o h ave c ontinued a s a p opular a nd i mportant t heme "' - p erhaps a r eflection o f t hat o ther c oncordia o f s uch i nterest t o t he T heodosian H ouse, t he c oncordia f ratrum, o r t he c oncordia o f t he t wo h alves o f t he E mpire.162

3 1

4 M osaics a nd I nscriptions i n t he R oman B asilicas P erhaps t he f irst p lace t o l ook f or c ontemporary e vidence o f t he c oncordia a postolorum, s ub d ivo, s hould b e t he b asilica o f t he b ishop o f R ome, S . G iovanni i n L aterano, t he f irst a nd o nly C hristian b asilica c onstructed w ithin t he C ity w alls b y C onstantine a fter h is d efeat o f M axentius. 1 63 T he r avages o f t ime, h owever, h ave o bliterated n early a ll t he r elevant e vidence a nd p revent t he e mergence o f a ny f irm c onclusions. W e c an o nly g uess a t t he a ppearance o f t he o riginal a pse m osaic i n t he L ateran, r eplaced b y J acopo T orritti i n t he t hirteenth c entury. T he s ame d ifficulties a pply t o t he b asilica o f S t P eter, w hich w as b egun a cross t he r iver T iber b etween 3 19 a nd 3 22, a nd c ompleted b y, p ossibly, 3 29; t he d estruction o f t he o ld b asilica i n t he s ixteenth a nd s eventeenth c enturies r emoved a lmost a ll t he e vidence o n w hich a f irm r econstruction o f t he i nternal d ecoration m ight h ave b een b ased.

C ontemporary d rawings m ay i llustrate t he

a ppearance, f or e xample, o f t he a pse m osaic i n t he s ixteenth a nd s eventeenth c enturies, b ut t hey c annot p rovide p ositive e vidence f or t he a ppearance o f a m osaic i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. T he s ame d ifficulties a lso a pply t o S . P aolo f uori l e m ura: t he o riginal C onstantinian c hurch, i n a ny c ase, w as r eplaced b y a l arger b asilica a fter 3 84. T his l ater b uilding w as b urnt d own i n 1 823, a lthough p rints a nd d rawings l ikewise r emain o f i ts a ppearance a nd d ecoration b efore t he c onflagration. T he d ifficulty o f e stablishing w hich a reas o f a n e xisting m osaic a re o riginal, r estored, o r c ompletely r e-designed, i s s o f raught w ith d anger t hat i t m ust b e o bvious t hat n o s atisfactory c onclusions c an r eally e merge f rom a dmittedly o ften i naccurate d rawings, c enturies a fter t he o riginal m osaics,

o r p rints, m ade m ore t han t en o r o ther d ecorations, w ere p ut

i n p osition. T he ' complex q uestion o f a uthenticity b y t he t wo a pse m osaics i n S . C onstanza, 1 65

i s a mply d emonstrated a m ausoleum b uilt b y

164

C onstantina, d aughter o f C onstantine, t o t he n orth o f h er b asilica o f S . A gnese. T he m osaics a re s o m uch r estored t hat c ontroversy i nevitably c entres o n t heir e xact r elationship t o e ach o ther a nd e ven o n t he d ate o f t heir a ddition t o t he e arlier s cheme o f d ecoration c ompleted c . 3 50. I t i s g enerally a greed t hat t his w as d one i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury, p ossibly d uring t he e piscopate o f L iberius. 1 66 C onstantina w as b uried i n t he m ausoleum a fter h er d eath i n 3 54 . % a nd f ollowed b y h er s ister, H elena, t he w ife o f J ulian, i n 3 60. 1 6/ T he r eturn o f L iberius t o R ome i n 3 58 m ight h ave p rovided a r eason f or a dding t he a pse m osaics , 168 a lthough t he b urial o f J ulian's w idow s uggests a p erhaps m ore p lausible o pportunity. T he i nferior q uality o f t heir e xecution, w hen c ompared w ith t he s uperlative q uality o f t he o riginal p rogramme, m ight b e e xplained b y t he n ature o f t he c ommission. L iberius w ould n ot h ave b een a ble t o c all o n t he r esources o f a n i mperial w orkshop, a s h ad C onstantina b efore h er d eath, a nd had, p erforce, t o m ake d o w ith a l ocal i maginarius. I n a ny c ase t his m ay w ell h ave b een d eliberate, a s t he i conographies d evised f or t he t wo a pses w ere d esigned t o c onvey a m essage a bout h is a uthority a nd t he a uthority o f t he l ocal C hurch. T heir s uccess w as

3 2

: 4 .2 . .

1 8.

T raditio 1 egis.

1 9.

M aiestas D omini. S .

•

em i

A pse m osaic, A pse m osaic,

C onstanza, R ome.

3 54-384. 3 54-384.

t o b e o ut o f a ll p roportion t o t heir o riginality, O ne o f

t he t wo m osaics

( fig.

o r q uality.

1 9) h as b een i dentified a s t he

t raditio c lavium, b ut t here a re d ifficulties.

T he a postle r eceiving

w ith v eiled h ands a m uch-restored o bject n o l onger l ooks l ike P eter a nd t he o bject c ould e qually h ave b een a r otulus, a t ightly r olled s cro11.

I t h as a lso b een s uggested t hat a nother a postle

1 69

o riginally a ppeared t o t he r ight o f t he b earded C hrist s eated i n i mperial m ajesty o n h is g lobe. r ight,

s uggests

t hat

c ircumstances o f s ymmetry.

T he a xis o f C hrist,

t his w as u nlikely,

t he c ommission c ould w ell a ccount

T he m atching m osaic

t raditio l egis:

( fig.

1 8)

s lightly t o t he

a lthough t he p ossible f or a l ack o f

s hows a m ore t raditional

t he i nscription o n t he l ong,

o pen s croll, D OMINVS/

PACEM D AT 2 m ay have b een c hanged d uring l ater r estoration w ork o n t he m osaic. 17 u W hen c ompared with t he o riginal i nscription o n t he m osaic i n S . P udenziana, i ts i rregular c apitals s uggest a h and i n t he f ollowing c entury,

i f n ot l ater.

T he i conography o f t he y oung,

C hrist, h olding a l ong unfurled s croll, h owever, was a ppearing o n c ontemporary s culpture. o verall d esign s uggests

1 71

n imbed

c onforms w ith w hat

T he u ncertainty o f t he

t hat t he i maginarius w orking o n t his m osaic,

a s o n t he o ther, w as n ot c opying s imilar m osaics e lsewhere, b ut w as a dopting d ifferent m otifs, a pses a s b est he c ould.

1 72

a nd i nserting t hem i nto t he t wo s mall

I t c an b e c onfidently a sserted, h owever,

t hat

b oth m osaics m ust h ave b een a dded, p resumably w ith s ome s peed, t o t he m agnificent p rogramme o f m osaics o f t he i mperial m ausoleum t o a ssert a new d imension,

t he a uthority o f t he l ocal C hurch.

T he i dentification

o f P eter a nd P aul a s w itnesses t o t he t raditio l egis i s s ecure. i t

w itness, i t

A nd

i s v irtually c ertain t hat t he o ther m osaic c ontained a s imilar n ow m uch r estored b ut p resumably o riginally P eter - a lthough

i s P aul w ho a ppears o n t he l eft o f C hrist o n t he o ther m osaic.

1 73

T he d istinction b etween t he b earded C hrist e nthroned o n t he o ne m osaic a nd t he b eardless C hrist s tanding o n t he o ther, u nderlines t he d istinction o f

t he N icene f ormula.

I t w as t o t his t radition t hat t he

f ounders o f t he l ocal C hurch w ere w itnesses,

a nd i t w as o n t his

t radition t hat t he a uthority o f t he R oman b ishops r ested.

T hese

m osaics m ay, t herefore, have s et t he p attern f or t he d evelopment g enerally o f s imilar m osaics, a nd s imilar f rescoes, i n R ome, a nd e lsewhere. 1 7+ T he t echnical d ifficulties o f e stablishing t he o riginal i conography o f

t he t wo a pse m osaics,

o r e ven t he o riginal w ording o f

t he e xtant i nscription, u nderline t he i mpossibility o f e stablishing without d oubt t he a ppearance o f t he o riginal m osaics i n S t P eter's a nd S t P aul's.

1 75

H owever t here a re r easonably r eliable r ecords o f

t ituli, o r i nscriptions, w hich g ive s ome i ndication o f t he l ikely f unction o f t he m osaic d ecorations i n t hese b asilicas. B ut e ven h ere t here i s n o c ertainty , a s c omparison b etween e arlier r ecords a nd e xtant i nscriptions s ometimes r eveals.

T his i s o ften c ompounded b y d oubt a s

t o t he e xact l ocation o f a n i nscription w ithin a b asilica,

o r e ven a s

t o w hich b asilica i t m ight o riginally h ave b elonged. I nscriptions i n S t P eter's a ssigned t o t he C onstantinian p eriod s tress t he i mperial c onnexion w ith i ts f oundation a nd i ts b enefaction:1 76 i t

i s n ot u ntil t he a ddition o f a b aptistry

b y D amasus P eter,

a nd

a queduct a d f ontes

t hat t here w ould s eem t o b e r eference t o t he u nique a postle

c ui t radita i anua c aeli e st.

3 4

T he i nscription 177

s tresses u na

P etri s edes, w hich i s o ne h allmark o f D amasus's p ropaganda. 178 P rudentius, o n a v isit t o R ome b etween 4 01 a nd 4 03, w as m uch i mpressed b y t he d ecoration o f t he n ew b aptistry. U nlike P aulinus o f N ola o n a n e arlier v isit t o R ome i n 3 97, 179 h owever, P rudentius d id n ot r efer t o t he d ecoration o f t he b asilica i tself, a lthough h e w axes e nthusiastically i n h is p oem a bout t he r ecently c ompleted d ecoration i n t he b asilica o f S . P aolo f uori l e m ura: p rinceps b onus h as s acravit a rces/lusitque m agnis a mbitum t alentis. l a I t i s s ignificant t hat l ater i nscriptions i n S t P eter's s tress t he a uthority o f t he R oman b ishops,

r ather t han

t he i mperial c onnexion. H owever, t he T heodosian H ouse s till r etained i ts l inks e qually w ith P eter a s w ith P aul. S t P eter's b asilica, l ike S . P aolo f uori l e m ura, w as a c oemeterium b asilica, a nd i n c . 4 00 a m ausoleum f or t he H onorian d ynasty w as a ttached t o t he s outh- t ransept. I n d oing t his t he E mperor w as n ot o nly f ollowing p ast p recedent f or e xample a t t he b asilica L abicana o r a t S .

( as

C ontanza), b ut c urrent

R oman f ashion ( as f or e xample t he m ausoleum o f t he A nicii, a dded t o S t P eter's i n 3 95). H onorius w as b uried a t S t P eter's i n 4 23, a s l ater w as h is h alf-sister G alla P lacidia,

i n 4 50.

O ne i mportant f act r elevant t o t his e nquiry i s b eyond d ispute. T his i s t he f act t hat C onstantine o nly b uilt o ne g reat b asilica a t R ome e nclosing t he s hrine o f a l ocal m artyr: t he b asilica e nshrining t he m emoria o f S t P eter. C onstantine b uilt n umerous b asilicas a nd m emoriae t hroughout t he E mpire, s ome o f g reat s ize, b ut i n t he c ase o f t he m emoria o f S t P aul, t he o ther g reat a postle m artyr o f R ome, h e o nly b uilt a r elatively s mall c hurch. I n v iew o f t he d ifficulties e ncountered i n c onstructing t he g reat b asilica o f S t P eter, i t w ould s eem t hat t he d ifficult t errain s urrounding t he m emöria o f S t P aul, t he m arshy g round b etween t wo r oads n ear t he r iver T iber, w as n ot t he s ole o bstacle t o t he c onstruction o f a b asilica o f c omparable s ize. 1 82 I t w as p robably n ot u ntil 3 84 1 83 t hat t he t hree r eigning E mperors, V alentinian I I, T heodosius I , a nd A rcadius, o rdered t he c onstruction o f a g reat b asilica w orthy o f t he o ther j oint-founder o f t he R oman C hurch. W hat C onstantine h ad b egun i n t he f irst half o f t he c entury was t o b e c ompleted i n t he s econd h alf b y T heodosius a nd, l ater, b y H onorius. T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he n ew b asilica o f S .

P aolo f uori l e m ura

w as b uilt o n a nalogy w ith t he b asilica o f S t P eter. I t p robably t ook n ot m ore t han e ight y ears t o c omplete. 1 84 T he e arliest r ecorded i nscription i n s ummo a rcul 85 p roclaims T heodosius c oepit p erfecit H onorius a ulam/doctoris m undi s acratam c orpore P auli. S o w as t he i nterest o f t he T heodosian H ouse i n S t P aul m ade e xplicit. T here w ere d ifferences o f c ourse i n s tyle a nd e mphasis f rom t he b asilica o f S t P eter, b ut t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he m emoria P auli w as a t l ast i ntended t o r eceive t he s ame r ecognition a s h ad b een g iven t o t he m emoria P etri b y C onstantine.

T his i s t he g ist o f P rudentius's p oem .

I t i s p ossible t hat t his g esture o n t he p art o f t he E mperors h ad b een p rompted b y a c ouncil h eld i n R ome i n 3 82, a c ouncil t hat h ad e mphasized t he s pecific f act t hat t he l ocal C hurch h ad b een f ounded b y b oth P eter a nd P au1.

1 86

I n t he f ollowing c entury t he b asilica w as d amaged b y l ightning a nd t he t riumphal a rch w as r estored b y L eo t he G reat.

A gain a m ember

o f t he H onorian H ouse, G alla P lacidia, r ecorded h er j oy a t t he r estored s plendour o f t he b asilica; i t i s p robable t hat t he a rch

3 5

1 81

m osaic p ortrayed b oth P eter a nd P aul o n e ither s ide o f t he a rch. i nscription, h owever,

An

e mphasized t he a uthority o f i anitor hic c aeli

e st f idei p etra c ulmen h onoris/sedis a postolicae r ector e t o mne d ecus, a t t he e xpense o f v as [ fi]dei e lectum .1 87 T his c hange o f e mphasis r ecorded i n P aul's o wn b asilica,

r eveals a b ishop, w ho w as o bviously

m ore i nterested i n maintaining h is p osition i n r elation t o t he o ther C hurches o f t he C hristian w orld t han i n p roclaiming t he u nique c laims o f t he v as e lectionis.

T his i nterest w as l oyally s upported b y t he

W estern b ranch o f t he T heodosian H ouse. P erhaps

t he m ost f amous i nscription a ssociated w ith b oth P eter

a nd P aul w as c arved,

p robably b y F urius

D ionysius F ilocalus,

o n a

w hite m arble s lab a nd p laced i n t he b asilica a postolorum b y D amasus, b ishop o f R ome.

T his w as d one b y D amasus o n his o wn i nitiative,

p robably a fter 3 70, H ouse.

A s

a nd d id n ot

1 88

i nvolve a ny m ember o f t he I mperial

t he s ixth-century L iber P ontificalis l ater n oted:

e t i n

C atacumbas u bi i acuerunt c orpora s anctorum a postolorum P etri e t P auli, i n q uo l oco p latoman i psam u bi i acuerunt c orpora s ancta v ersibus e xornavit. S aracens

T he m arble i nscription m ay h ave b een d estroyed b y t he

1 89

i n t he n inth c entury, b ut,

f ortunately,

p ilgrims v isiting R ome b efore t hat d ate. c entury c opy, s urvives.

i t w as r ecorded b y

P art o f a t hirteenth-

o n m arble, w as f ound near t he c rypt o f t he b asilica,

a nd

T he i nscription p robably r ead o riginally a s f ollows: H ic h abitasse p rius s anctos c ognoscere d ebes n omina q uisq.

P etri p ariter P auliq.

D iscipulos O riens m isit,

r equiris.

q uod s ponte f atemur;

s anguinis o b m eritum X pumq.

p er a stra s ecuti

a etherios p etiere s inus r egnaque p iorum : R oma s uos p otius m eruit d efendere c ives. Haec D amsus v estras r eferat n ova s idera l audes. 1 90 I n his

i nscription D amasus d raws a ttention t o t he s alient

f act

t hat b oth P eter a nd P aul w ere R oman c itizens; h e d oes n ot d eny t he c laim o f t he E ast t hat t hey were b oth s ent t o R ome a s d isciples. H owever,

i f d ispute

w ere t o a rise,

a s i t h ad,

a s t o w hich C hurch had

t he g reater c laim t o t he a postles, t he i nscription w as t o m ake i t a bundantly c lear t o a ll, b oth t o v isiting p ilgrims a nd t o l ocal c itizens, hence,

t hat D amasus a nd t he C hurch a t R ome h ad t he p rior c laim a nd,

t he p rior a uthority t hat t his c onferred.

t he c ultus o f t he t wo a postles, t heir c oncordia was u nderlined: T owards

A t t he v ery c entre o f

i t c ould n ot b e o therwise t han t hat P etri p ariter P aulique.

t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury w as c reated p erhaps t he

m ost m agnificent f ourth-century m osaic

s till e xtant i n R ome:

t his w as

t he a pse m osaic o f S . P udenziana. 1 91 I t i s a s hadow o f i ts f ormer g lory, a s i t has b een s everely t rimmed, u ndergoing r estorations f rom t he e ighth c entury t o t he R enaissance p owerful p ortraits o f o f J erusalem, 1 92 w ith

( fig.

2 0).

H owever, w ith

i ts

t he t wo R oman a postles a nd t opographical v iew i ts s plendid b ejewelled, g old c ross s et u p o n

t he s ummit o f G olgotha, i t t estifies t o t he s trength a nd o riginality o f t he p ictores i maginarii w orking i n R ome a t t his t ime. T he i nscription a bove d ates

f rom t he t ime o f I nnocent I ,

t hat w ork b egan w hen S iricius w as b ishop. 1 93 m osaic C hrist t he

t eacher i n i mperial

h olding a n o pen b ook i n

t unic

his l eft h and;

3 6

b ut i t

s eems

I n t he c entre o f t he s its o n h is t hrone,

a bove a re t he a pocryphal

P udenziana,

w E o r z

0 c \J

a nimals. O n t he r ight o f t he b earded C hrist, s its P eter, his r ight h and r aised t o a cknowledge C hrist a s D OMINVS/CONSER/VATOR/ECCLESIAE/ P VDENTI/ANAE; 1 54 o n t he l eft s its P aul, w ith r ight h and r aised, e xpounding f rom his b ook t o t he a ssembled a postles. O riginally t welve a postles

i n a ll s at o n e ither s ide o f C hrist,

l istening t o t he

e xposition o f P aul. A ll t welve t estified t o t he o rthodoxy o f t he l ocal C hurch, b ased a s i t w as o n t he t eaching o f t he f our g ospels r epresented b y t he f our s ymbols o f t he e vangelists a bove: t hus r epresents

t he m issio a postolorum .

R oman a postles a re s ingled o ut a nd c rowned b y t wo w omen, i nterpreted a s g entibus.

1 95

t he m osaic

A t t he s ame t ime t he t wo u sually

t he E cclesia e x c ircumcisione a nd t he E cclesia e x T he t wo,

R ome i n c oncordia.

s ometime h ostile, m issions a re d epicted a t T he m osaic, w ith

1 96

i ts a ccent b oth o n t eaching

a nd o n a uthority, s ubsumes m uch o f t he t heological s peculation t hat h ad b roken o ut i n R ome t owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury. P erhaps o ne o f t he m ost e xplicit r eferences a postolorum i n R ome a t t his t ime i s a n u nidentified c hurch. m undi

[ duo]

T his r ecords:

1 97

t o i ts e xact p rovenance, a postles s uggests t hat

U nfortunately t here i s n o c lue a s

a lthough i t p robably b elonged t o t he a pse

m osaic o f a R oman b asilica.

I ts s tress o n t he u nity o f t he t wo

i t m ight have b een p ut u p a t a bout t he s ame

t ime a s t he a pse m osaic i n S . o f c ourse p ossible.

P udenziana,

' Fornai'

P udenziana o r a s o n t he f resco i n t he

i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla,

s tressed t he r oles o f b oth a postles,

e ach o f w hich

o r o nly p ortrayed t wo a postles

i n a s cene s imilar t o t he c onventional l ikely t o k now.

a lthough a n e arlier d ate i s

W hether i t i ncluded t he f ull a postolic c ollege,

d isposed a s o n t he m osaic i n S . t he

hic P etrus e t P aulus

l umina p raesunt/quos c aelum s imiles h os h abet a ula p ares/

c oeperat hanc p raesul f undare

C rypt o f

t o t he c oncordia

t o b e f ound i n a n i nscription o f

t raditio l egis, we a re n ever

W hat i s a lmost c ertain, however,

i s t hat t he

i nscription w as n ot i ncorporated within a m osaic s imilar t o t he p erhaps c ontemporary m osaic i n t he c appella d i S .

A quilino,

a ttached t o t he

c hurch o f S . L orenzo i n M ilan. 1 99 T his m osaic i ncludes t he f ull a postolic c ollege, j ust a s i n t he s cene o n t he b ack o f t he f amous s arcophagus

i n S .

Ambrogio, b ut o n t he Milanese m osaic P eter s its o n

t he l eft o f C hrist a nd P aul o n t he r ight,

a n i conography t hat

i s m ore

c oncerned with C hristus a s m agister t han a s d ominus. B etween 3 80 a nd 4 80 R ome w itnessed p erhaps o ne o f i ts g reatest p eriods o f c hurch b uilding a nd r estoration. 1 99 T here w as a n i ncreasing e mphasis o n c lassical o rnament a nd d esign,

p ossibly d ue t o t he

C hristianization o f t he R oman a ristocracy a nd, with t he r everses s uffered b y p aganism, m aterial

e specially i n 3 94 a nd 4 10,

s upport f or t heir o wn b ishop.

t o t heir i ncreasing

T he C hristian r eligion,

a fter

T heodosius's e dicts had m ade i t t he s tate r eligion, a fter a ll p rovided t he e stablished a ristocracy w ith a s m uch o pportunity f or p ublic o stentation a s h ad t he o ld p agan c eremonies. T he new b asilica d esign, w hich h ad e merged i n t he f ourth c entury, r eached i ts f ullest, c lassical d evelopment c onstruction o f t he b asilica o f S . S abina.

i n a bout 4 25 with t he I t i s s ignificant t hat

t hese n ew c hurches w ere o ften f ounded b y l ocal c itizens,

b ut o nly

under t he m inistration o f t he R oman b ishop. 200 T he s ole s urviving m osaic i n S . S abina, o ver t he e ntrance t o t he c hurch, i s c entred o n a n i nscription, w hich s tresses

t he a postolic a uthority o f C elestine I ;

3 8

i t i s,

o f c ourse,

a s witnesses t o t his i nscription,

p ersonifications o f t he t wo C hurches, C IR/CVMCISIONE

( fig.

s een t o t his d ay.

2 1)

t hat t he

i nscribed 2 °1 E CLESIA E X

a nd E CLESIA E X/GENTIBVS

( fig.

2 2),

c an b e

T he m osaic m ight b e r egarded b y t he m odern v isitor

a s c omplementing t he u nique c ycle o f m osaics f rom t his p eriod i n R ome t o be f ound i n S . T he g reat

M aria M aggiore.

t riumphal a rch o f S .

E PISCOPVS P LEBI D EI 202

M aria M aggiore p roclaims X STVS

a nd e pitomizes t he c hange o f e mphasis t hat c an

b e d etected i n R oman a rt a fter t he c atastrophe o f 4 10. R ome h as b ecome t he c entral f igure, t o d ecorate t he b asilica. o f S .

T hus

o r m otif,

T he b ishop o f

o f t he p rogramme d evised

t he r estoration o f t he t riumphal a rch

P aulo f uori l e m ura u ndertaken b y t he s uccessor o f S ixtus I II,

L eo t he G reat,

n ot o nly r ecords

t he d elight o f G alla P lacidia i n t he

r estoration o f t he a rch, b ut a lso i n p ontificis s tudio s plendere L eonis; 2 "

a nd t he e xtant m osaic p laced o ver t he e ntrance t o S .

a fter t he d eath o f C elestine,

t he R oman b ishop,

A POSTOLICVM C VM C AELESTINVS HABERET/PRIMVS. 2 " a rchitectural

S abina

r ecords C VLMEN A c hange i n

s tyle m ight a lmost h ave b een c ontrived t o a ccompany t his

e xplicit e mphasis o n t he a uthority o f t he R oman b ishop,

t he s uccessor

o f P eter. T here w ere a lso c hanges

i n s tyle i n t he m osaics,

p erhaps

t he m ost

o bvious being t he i ncreasing u se o f g old b ackgrounds, 2 u5 a s i s i n S .

M aria Maggiore.

T here i s n o

t he c ase

f irm a greement o n t he d ating o f

t hese m osaics, a nd t he v ariation o f s tyles o f o bviously d ifferent m usivarii m akes t his e ven m ore d ifficult. H owever, t he m osaics i n t he n ave w ere e xecuted d irectly o n t o t he w alls, 2 "

a nd t here s eems l ittle

d oubt t hat t he m osaics o n b oth t he a rch a nd n ave w ere c arried o ut a s p art o f o ne, a rch,

o verall p rogramme. 2 °7

a lthough p art o f

o f t he R oman bishop,

T he i conography o f t he t riumphal

t his p rogramme,

S ixtus I II,

b ut,

f irmly u nderlines t he a uthority e qually,

i t r ecognises t he

c oncordia a postolorum . P eter a nd P aul a ppear a t t he c entre o f t he a rch s tanding o n e ither s ide o f t he a pocryphal t hrone, P eter o n t he l eft, P aul o n t he r ight. 2 °8 T he b ejewelled c ross o n t he t hrone r ecalls t he c ross a t S . P udenziana: t he t riumphal g arland r ecalls t he c rux I nvicta o f s arcophagi o f t he s econd h alf o f

t he p revious c entury.

r ests a re t wo b usts,

I n c lipei a t t he e nds o f

a lmost c ertainly P eter,

t he a rm

a gain o n t he l eft,

a nd

P aul o n t he r ight - a n ew m otif o n t he t heme o f t he c oncordia a postolorum,

b ut s imilar i n c onception t o t hose a ppearing o n f ondi

d 'oro o r o n s ilver a mulae. h old o pen b ooks a nd,

T he a postles o n e ither s ide o f t he t hrone

a lthough t he m usivarius r esponsible f or t his p art

o f t he a rch h as n ot a dded i nscriptions, h e m ay here h ave d ifferentiated i ntentially b etween t he a ppearance o f b y P eter a ppears

t heir c ontents:

t o have H ebraic c haracters;

h owever, has n ow n o c haracters.

T here s eems,

t he b ook h eld

t hat h eld b y P aul, p ossibly,

t o b e a n

i ntention t o i dentify P eter a s r epresenting t he E cclesia e x c ircumcisione a nd P aul a s t he E cclesia e x g entibus, t hus e choing t he t heme i mplicit a t i ndeed,

S .

P udenziana a nd e xplicit a t S .

a t t he b ottom o f

t he m osaic,

H IERVSALEM, w ith s ix l ambs, 2 " s ix l ambs. o f

O mega m otif,

a nd B ETHLEEM,

o n t he r ight,

A bove a re t he a pocalyptic c reatures.

t he t wo a postles,

S abina.

t he C hi R ho m onogram,

i s

a lso w ith

T he e mphasize t he u nity

c ombined w ith t he A lpha

a ppears o n t he i ntrados b eneath t he a postles.

3 9

A nd,

o n t he l eft o f t he a rch,

T he

2 1.

E c[c ]lesia e x c ircumcisione. S .

S abina,

1 .n

D etail o f m osaic,

R ome.

c .

4 20.

2 2.

E c[c]lesia e x g entibus. S .

S abina,

D etail o f m osaic, R ome.

c .

4 20.

c ombination o f

t his t heme with t he c rux i nvicta,

f ound e arlier o n s arcophagi, u nderlines

o r t riumphal c ross,

t he u nity a nd o rthodoxy o f t he

R oman a postles a nd t he R oman t radition. T he b ejewelled e mpty t hrone i n t he i mperial s tyle o f t he f ifth c entury, t he i mperial c rown a nd c ushion, t he r oll w ith t he s even s eals, a ll s urrounded b y a r ound, r ainbow m andorla, e mphasize t he a uthority a nd o rthodoxy o f t he l ocal C hurch, w hich e mbraced t he d octrine s o r ecently p roclaimed a t C ouncil o f E phesus

( 431)

I t w as

. 210

t he c oncordia a postolorum, h is o wn C hurch. T he e xtant m osaic a t

t he

r ooted i n t he t raditions o f

t hat t he R oman b ishop p roclaimed d ogma i n

S .

m issions o f P eter a nd P aul

t hus,

S abina a lso r ecorded t he u nity o f

t o t he J ews a nd t o t he G entiles.

t he

A bove,

t hough n o l onger e xtant, w ere a lmost c ertainly t he a pocryphal a nimals a nd t he a postles, p resumably i ncluding P eter a nd P aul a nd t hus c onveying

a m essage s imilar t o t hat o f S .

P udenziana a nd o f S .

M aria

M aggiore. T he f amous w ooden d oors m ade f or t he b asilica o f S . S abina a fter 4 30 may a lso i nclude t he t heme o f c oncordia. O n o ne o f t he p anels t wo f igures,

p ossibly P eter o n t he l eft a nd P aul o n t he r ight,

c rown a w oman i n t he c entre,

w ho m ay r epresent t he C hurch a t R ome.

A s t he i conography i s c ertainly c ryptic l et

t he magnificent

, 211

i t i s p erhaps wiser t o

i nscription o f t he m osaic, w hich s urvives,

h ave

t he l ast w ord. T he c hange o f c limate b rought a bout b y t he s ack o f R ome i n 4 10, w ith b oth i ts p olitical a nd r eligious i mplications, a uthority o f t he C hristianized a ristocracy,

a nd t he i ncreasing

p robably e xplains w hy t here

w as r elatively s o m uch b uilding a citivity, b oth s ecular a nd r eligious, i n R ome i n t he f ifth c entury.

I ndeed i t i s l ikely t hat b y t he s econd

t hird o f t he c entury t he b ishop o f R ome a lone w as r esponsible f or c hurch b uilding i n t he C ity . 2 12 H owever, t his b egan t o s lacken a fter t he h alf c entury a nd a d ecline i n s tandards a nd w orkmanship S .

s et i n.

Maria M aggiore a nd t he L ateran B aptistry w ere t he a pogee o f b uilding

a ctivit »

a nd t he e piscopate o f L eo t he G reat m arks

3

m osaic d ecoration. 214 i n R avenna,

t he a pogee o f

T his c oincides with t he i mperial a chievements

a ssociated w ith G allia P lacidia.

T he m ost n otable o f t hese

i s t he s o-called mausoleum, 215 p ossibly d edicated t o t he R oman m artyr, S t L aurence, w hich w as a dded t o S . C roce a fter 4 24. T he m osaics i n t he m ausoleum r eflect a f urther d evelopment o f b ejewelled c ross,

o r c rux i nvicta:

o n t he c eiling o f

t he u pper z one.

t he t heme o f t he

p airs o f a postles a cclaim t he c ross T he d edication p robably a ccounts f or

t he e mphasis o n t he R oman d eacon, L aurence,

i n t he l unette o pposite t he

e ntrance.

M ilanese b uilding t echniques a nd d esign a re a pparent i n t he

m ausoleum,

a nd Milanese p recedent l ikewise w as a lso p robably r esponsible

f or t he o riginal d esign o f

t he s o-called O rthodox B aptistry. 216

I ts

r enovation b y b ishop N eon, however, m ay w ell h ave t aken a ccount o f t he r enovation o f

t he L ateran B aptistry b y S ixtus I II.

U nlike d evelopments

i n R avenna,

w hich h ad b een f oreshadowed i n 4 10, i nfluence i n R ome i tself.

t he A rian i nvasion a nd t riumph, s eems t o have h ad a d ampening

P ublic a rchitecture i n R ome a fter 4 10 i n

a ny c ase h ad b een v irtually l imited t o r estoration a nd r econstruction, a nd V alentinian I II s eems t o h ave s ponsored o nly t wo m ajor p ublic b uildings. 217

T he s o-called S istine R enaissance218

A gata d ei G oti, R otondo,

b uilt

i n t he y ears 4 62 t o 4 70,

b uilt b etween 4 68

a nd 4 83,

4 2

c ulminated i n S .

a nd i n S .

S tefano

t he l ast i mportant c hurch b uilt i n

R ome i n t hat c entury.

A lready S .

A gata b etrays f oreign i nfluences,

n otably t he d esign o f t he A rian C athedral a t R avenna, t he A nastasis G othorum, w hilst S . S tefana R otondo h as a lmost t he s ame d imensions a s t he A nastasis i n J erusalem . P erhaps i t i s s ymptomatic o f t his c hange o f a ttitude t hat t he B aptistry o f t he A rians i n R avenna, 2 19 s o c lose i n i nterior d ecoration t o t he m osaics o f t he B aptistry o f t he O rthodox, s hould a lso r eveal i mportant d ifferences. T he O rthodox B aptistry, f irst b uilt c . 4 00, w as o nly c ompleted c . 4 50, w hen i t r eceived i ts f amous m osaics. T he z one s urrounding t he b aptism o f C hrist, t he c entral m osaic i n t he c upola, d epicts a postles c arrying m artyrs' c rowns w ith v eiled h ands, a m otif e ncountered o n R oman s arcophagi a nd i n c atacomb p ainting; 220 P eter a nd P aul, e ach e asily i dentified b y i nscription, a s w ell a s b y a ppearance, l ead p rocessions o f f ive o ther a postles, P aul o n t he l eft a nd P eter o n t he r ight. T he o uter z one o f t he c upola m osaic i ncorporates f our a pocryphal t hrones, e ach c ontaining t he i mperial i nsignia o f C hrist, a lternating w ith f our a ltars, e ach d isplaying o ne o f t he f our g ospels. I mmediately b eneath t he c upola m osaic i s a z one o f s tucco a edicules, n ot u nlike t he p erspectives o n t he P ola c asket: i n t his z one t here a ppears a s cene u sually i nterpreted a s t he t raditio l egis. A s eated C hrist, r eminiscent o f t he y oung b eardless C hrist w ith c ross o n t he l atest R oman s arcophagi, h olds o ut h is r ight h and t o P eter o n t he l eft; P aul, o n t he r ight, b y f ar t he l argest f igure , 221 h is f ace c learly d istinguished, a cclaims t he c ross h eld b y C hrist i n h is o ther h and. T he a postles o n t he m osaic i n t he c upola m ay b e i nterpreted a s r epresenting t he m issio a postolorum, t he f our g ospels a nd f our t hrones a ppearing b eneath. T he s o-called t raditio l egis, h owever, s hows P eter o n t he l eft, a p osition u sually o ccupied b y P aul i n t he R oman v ersion: a nd t here i s n o l ong, u nfurled s croll. I t i s n oteworthy, h owever, t hat s ome o f t he p rophets i n t he s ame z one h old o pen s crolls, s ome o f n ot i nconsiderable l ength. T he A rian B aptistry h as s imilar d ecoration i n i ts c upola, b ut t he a pproach i s q uite d ifferent. T he A rian B aptistry w as b uilt i n t he l ate f ifth c entury. H ere t he t wo a postles l ead s imilar p rocessions; P aul a ppears o n t he l eft o f t he a pocryphal t hrone a nd P eter o n t he r ight.

T he a postles a re

p laced a s t hey w ere i n t he O rthodox B aptistry, b ut t hey a re n ow i dentified b y d ifferent a ttributes: P aul b y a d ouble, t ightly r olled s croll; P eter b y t he k eys. P eter, m oreover, i s a lso s ingled o ut b y t he i maginarius f or s pecial t reatment: a ll t he o ther a postles, i ncluding P aul, w ear l ight r obes m ade o f g lass t esserae; P eter's p allium , h owever, i s s et w ith m arble t esserae. 222 T he e ffect i s d ramatic: n o l onger a re P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia; t he p rimatus P etri i s e mphasized b y b oth a ttribute a nd t echnique. H owever, i t i s p robable t hat, j ust a s a R oman w orkshop h ad h ad s ome s mall i nfluence o n t he d esign o f R avennate s arcophagi, s o a R oman m osaic, 223 o r d esign, h ad h ad a s imilar i nfluence o n t he i maginarii w orking i n t he A rian B aptistry, a n i nfluence n ot u nlike t hat e xercised o n t hem b y t he m osaic i n t he n earby B aptistry o f t he O rthodox.

4 3

5 P eter a nd P aul i n I vory a nd S ilver T he r ich a nd p owerful a ristocracy o f I taly, w hether c onnected w ith t he R oman s enatorial o rdo o r t he i mperial c omitatus, m ust i ncreasingly d uring t he f ourth c entury h ave r equired e x v oto g ifts t o r eflect t heir a llegiance t o P eter, o r t o P aul, o r t o b oth a postles i n c oncordia. I vory d iptychs o f t he t wo a postles i n c oncordia w ould, t herefore, h ave s eemed h ighly a ppropriate a t a t ime w hen i mperial i nfluences o n C hristian i conography w ere a t t heir h eight. I f t his w ere t he c ase, n one s urvive, a lthough t here a re e xamples f rom a l ater p eriod. 224 H owever, t he C arrand d iptych, 225 w hich i t i s u sually a greed w as c arved a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury, s hows P aul a nd A dam . P aul, a s t eacher, a ppears a t t he t op o f h is p anel s eated w ith t wo f ollowers; b eneath a re t wo s cenes w hich l ocate h is t eaching a ctivity i n M alta. T he f irst s cene, t he m iracle o f t he v iper, h ad a s pecial s ignificance i n R ome a t t he t urn o f t he c entury. P rudentius, i n h is o pening p reface t o his C ontra o rationem S ymmachi , 226 w ritten i n 4 02, u ses t he e pisode o f t he v enemous b ut, n one t he l ess, i nnocuous b ite o f t he s nake t o i llustrate t he n ature o f t he t hreat p osed t o C hristians b y S ymmachus a nd h is f riends. P aul, h aving s urvived s hipwreck a nd c ured P ublius's f ather a nd t he o ther s ick o n t he i sland ( the s econd s cene), c ontinued s afely o n h is j ourney t o R ome. T he i vory, t hen, m ay h ave b een m ade i n a R oman w orkshop, 227 a lthough a n orth I talian s ource i s u sually p osited.

T he o riginal

o wner o f t he p articular d iptych w as o bviously i nterested i n P aul,

t he

d octor g entium, a nd t his f its i n w ith t he p opularity o f P aul w ith t he g overning c lasses o f M ilan, a nd R ome, a t t his t ime. T he f amous i vory p yxis i n t he S taatliche M useen, 228 B erlin, p ossibly m ade i n a n i mperial w orkshop i n T rier o r M ilan c . 4 00, r eveals P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia s eated o n e ither s ide- o f t he y outhful C hrist. P aul, b alding, with a b ushy b eard, o n t he l eft, h olds a l arge d oubled s croll, w hile P eter, o n t he r ight, a cclaims C hrist s eated i n m ajesty. A R oman p rovenance, b ased o n s imilarities w ith t he p ainting i n t he C rypt o f t he ' Fornai', h as a lso b een s uggested. 229 T he c olumn f ramework, h owever, s uggests t he i nfluence o f s arcophagi, a lthough t he a mbiguities o f t he s croll o f t he l aw a ssociated w ith a n umber o f s arcophagi h ave n ot b een a dopted b y t he e borarius. I ndeed t he c oncordia a postolorum i s e xplicit, a lthough, e ven h ere, t he s croll, o r b aton, i n P eter's l eft h and m ight s uggest a n a ttribute o f a uthority. 230 T hree p anels o f a n i vory c asket,

p robably m ade i n R ome231

s ometime

d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he f ifth c entury, p ossibly c . 4 30, s urvive i n t he B ritish M useum . 232 O ne p anel s hows t wo s cenes f rom t he l ife o f P aul ( fig. 2 5): P aul c onversing w ith T hecla; a nd t he s toning o f P aul.

T he i conography r ecalls t he s arcophagus f ragment o f P aul

s teering t he b ark, T hecla, f ound n ear t he b asilica o f S . V alentino. 233 A s econd p anel s hows P eter r aising T abitha ( fig. 2 4). A t hird s hows P eter s triking t he r ock ( fig. 2 3): t he b ibentes w ear t he n ow o utd ated p ileus p annonicus. 234 T he c asket w as t hus m ade t o c ommemorate t he t wo m artyr-apostles o f R ome, P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia, a nd i ts

4 4

-

2 3. 2 5.

M iracle o f t he r ock.

2 4.

P aul c onversing w ith T hecla

P eter r aising T abitha.

( left);

S ides o f i vory c asket,

c .

B ritish M useum, L ondon.

4 5

s toning o f P aul 4 30.

( right).

f unction w as a lmost c ertainly t o c ontain s anctuaria f rom t he l oca s ancta o f t he t wo a postles. I t i s n ot u nique. T here i s a lso t he P ola c asket w hich h ad a s imilar f unction. T he P ola c asket 235 m ight h ave b een m ade i n N orthern I taly a t a pproximately t he s ame t ime a s t he f irst c asket, b ut i ts c ommemoration o f t he m emoria P etri i n V aticano, a s w ell a s i ts r ecord o f t he d ecoration a nd a ppearance o f o ther R oman b asilicas, s uggests v ery s trong c onnexions w ith R ome. T he c over i s d evoted t o t he t raditio l egis; b eneath t he a postolic l ambs e merge f rom t heir s heepc otes. O n t he f ront p anel s ix a postles s tand a bout t he a pocryphal t hrone. A lthough b oth p anels a re b adly d amaged, P eter c an b e c learly r ecognized o n t he r ight o f t he f ormer, c arrying h is c ross, a nd P aul i n p rofile o n t he l atter, b alding a nd w ith a l ongish b eard, l eading t he a postles o n t he l eft o f t he e mpty t hrone. T he e borarius r esponsible f or t his c asket, c learly, w as f amiliar w ith R oman i conography, i n p articular t he i conography o f c oncordia, a s w ell a s s ome o f t he m ost i mportant r eligious m onuments o f t he C ity. T he m emoria P etri w ithin S t P eter's b asilica i s r eproduced o n t he b ack p anel o f t he c asket. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he c over o f t he c asket r epresents t he a pse m osaic i n t he b asilica o f S t P eter a nd t hat t he f ront p anel r epresents t he a pse m osaic i n t he b asilica o f t he b ishop o f R ome, S t J ohn L ateran. 23° I t i s h azardous e ven t o a ttempt t o p rove s uch h ypotheses; i t c an, f or e xample, w ith e qual v alidity, b e m aintained t hat t he l atter r epresents t he a pse m osaic i n S . P aolo f uori l e m ura. 237 I ndeed t he w ealthy o wner o f t he c asket i s m ore l ikely, o n b alance, t o h ave c ommissioned s cenes c losely c onnected w ith t he l oca s ancta o f R ome - t here c an, n ow, s urely, b e n o d oubt t hat t he c asket i s a l ipsanotheca m ade t o c ontain r elics, o r s anctuaria, f rom R ome - t han s cenes c onnected w ith t he b asilica o f t he R oman b ishop, a C ity c hurch, w hich c ontained n o m artyrs' m emoriae. H owever, w hatever t he s ource o f t he s cenes, t here i s n o o bvious a ttempt t o i solate P eter f rom P aul. A s i n t he c ase o f t he s maller c asket, b oth a postles a re p ortrayed i n c oncordia. I ndeed t he i nsistence o n b alance i n e very p anel o f t he c asket, w hether i n t he c ase o f t he l ambs e merging f rom t he s heepcotes, o r o f t he d oves o n e ither s ide o f ab ejewelled c ross, m akes t his unequivocal. T here i s a n a ssurance a bout t he p rogramme w hich s uggests t hat t he c asket m ight h ave b een m ade a t t he s ame t ime a s t he m osaic o ver t he t riumphal a rch o f S . M aria M aggiore, a lthough t he p osition o f t he a postles a bout t he a pocryphal t hrone i s, a gain, r eversed. I f i t w ere m ade a t t he h eiGht o f t he S istine R enaissance, o r s omewhat e arlier ( c. 4 20), 23 ö i t s till p rovides e vidence t hat a n I talian w orkshop, o r e borarius, p robably w orking i n R ome, w as c apable o f p roducing a c omplicated o rder, f or a c onservative, b ut d emanding, p atron, t hat b ased t he a uthority o f t he l ocal C hurch s ecurely o n t he w itness o f b oth P eter a nd P aul, i n c oncordia. E ven i f m ade a t t his r elatively l ate d ate, i t i s u ndeniably b ased o n t he o lder i conographies, o r b uildings, a ll o f w hich h ad t heir o rigin i n t he f ourth c entury. A lthough t here m ay b e d oubt a bout t he d ate a nd s uggested p rovenance o f b oth i vory c askets, a s ilver-gilt c asket, o r l ipsanotheca, f ound u nder t he h igh a ltar o f S . N azaro M aggiore, M ilan, 239 t ogether w ith t hree l eaden c askets, p rovides a u seful c ontrol. T he c asket w as, w ithout d oubt, m ade t o h ouse t he ' relics'

4 6

o f t he t wo a postles s ent b y D amasus t o A mbrose, b ishop o f M ilan, i n 3 82 a nd i t m ust h ave b een m ade b efore t he d eath o f A mbrose i n 3 97. A lthough h e s uccessfully l ocated t he b odies o f S t P rotasius a nd S t G ervasius, t he d efensores, o r p atroni, 240 o f h is o wn C hurch s everal y ears l ater i n 3 86, A mbrose f ully r ecognised t he e fficacy o f t he R oman a postles P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia. T he t wo a postles, i solated f rom t he o ther a postles o n t he c over, a re f ound i n t he p laces t hey m ight h ave a ssumed i n a s imilar s cene i n R ome, P aul o n t he l eft a nd P eter o n t he r ight. T he i conography, h owever, i s d ifferent. T heir d istinguishing f acial c haracteristics c onform t o t he n orm : P aul o n t he l eft i s b alding, w ith a f lowing b eard; P eter o n t he r ight h as t hick c urly h air a nd a s hort b eard, b ut t he a ngularities o f t he d esign, a nd c hasing, a s w ell a s t he a ppearance o f t he a postles, h ave m ore i n c ommon w ith t he w ork o f t he e borarius r esponsible f or t he i vory p yxis i n B erlin t han w ith t he i vory c askets c arved l ater i n R ome. A c ertain l ooseness o f s tyle d istinguishes t he s ilver c asket c learly f rom t he m ore c lassical s tyle o f t he i vory c askets. T his m ight s uggest t hat t he l ipsanotheca w as m ade i n N orthern I taly s oon a fter t he a rrival o f t he ' relics' i n M ilan, b ut p arallels, n otably i n t he u se o f g arland m oulding, w ith p roducts o f t he s o-called E squiline w orkshop i n R ome , must k eep o pen t he p ossibility t hat, e ven i f n ot m ade i n t hat p articular w orkshop, i t m ay h ave b een m ade i n R ome f or t he o utward j ourney o f t he ' relics' i n 3 82. T his d oes n ot m ean t hat t he a postles, e ven o n a l ipsanotheca, w ere a lways p ortrayed i n c oncordia d uring t his p eriod. T he B rescia C asket, 241 m ade o f i vory, p ossibly i n N orthern I taly, c ertainly a fter 3 60, e mphatica ny d oes n ot. I t r eveals t he i nfluence o f s arcophagi: t he l id, i ndeed, t akes t he d esign o f a d ouble-register s arcophagus p ortraying t he P assion o f C hrist. A t t he t op r ight i s t he d enial o f P eter. T he c ock o n h is c olumn a lso a ppears o n t he f ront o f t he c asket. H ere t he s tress o n t he m issio a postolorum - t he s croll i s h eld b y t he y outhful C hrist t o h is a rms' f ull e xtent - r ather t han o n t he c oncordia a postolorum , s uggests t hat t he p urchaser o f t his e arly l ipsanotheca w as m ore i nterested i n t he e xample o f P eter. 242 T he a postles P eter a nd P aul a ppear w ith t wo o ther a postles o n e ither s ide o f t he y outhful C hrist a t t he t op o f t he c asket, b ut P eter, w ith a l ongish b eard, i s p laced o n t he l eft a nd P aul o n t he r ight. T he b ack o f t he c asket s hows S apphira s tanding b efore a c athedra P etri; o n t he r ight t he f ate o f A nanias c onfirms t he n ature o f P eter's a uthority. T he m otif o f t he d enial o f P eter i n g allicantu i s a lso f ound o n o ne o f t he p anels o f a s econd i vory c asket i n t he B ritish M useum .2 43 T his w as m ade i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ifth c entury, p robably i n R ome b etween 4 20 a nd 4 30, a nd i ts d ramatic i nnovations, n otably t he c rucifixion o f C hrist, r eveals t he g enius o f t he e borarius i nvolved. A s i n t he c ase o f t he o ther i vory c asket i n t he M useum, h e h as t urned t o s cenes o n s arcophagi o f t he f irst h alf o f t he p revious c entury f or i nspiration; h is s oldiers w ear t he p ileus p annonicus, w hich h ad b een d ropped f rom t he r epertoire o f R oman o fficinae a fter 3 50. T he c ompositional a ssurance o f t he c asket, l inking t he d enial o f P eter, c omplete w ith c olumn a nd c ock, t o t he P assion o f C hrist, d emonstrates h ow t he a rguments c ontained o n t he l id o f t he B rescia C asket c ould b e c ombined i n t ime a nd p lace. P eter, s eated, p roclaims h is f aith a nd s o a sserts h is a uthority, a s w ould b e e xpected o f a n a rtefact o f t his

4 7

2 6.

2 7.

P eter.

R epousse p ortrait-medallions S ilver-gilt a mula,

c .

P aul.

( enlarged).

4 00, p ossibly e arlier.

M useo S acro, V atican.

4 8

2 8.

2 9.

P aul.

P eter.

R epousse p ortrait-medallions w ith d ecorated b orders. S ides o f

s ilver a mpulla,

C .

M useo S acro, V atican.

4 9

4 00.

l ater p eriod. A s imilar d evelopment w ould s eem t o e merge i n t he c ase o f t he s mall a mount o f C hristian s ilverwork, o f p ossible R oman p rovenance, s urviving f rom t he l ater f ourth a nd e arly f ifth c enturies. A b adly c orroded, p arcel-gilt s ilver f lagon, o r a mula, c losely r elated t o t he i conography o f t he P ola c asket, a nd a s ilver a mpulla, b oth n ow i n t he M useo S acro V aticano,

c onform t o t he e arlier i conography;

t hey w ere

p robably m ade i n R ome i n t he e arly y ears o f t he f ifth c entury, i f n ot i n t he p revious c entury, a nd b oth, t herefore, m ay w ell h ave b een o rdered, o r p urchased, b y m embers o f t he C hristianized R oman a ristocracy, p ossibly a s e x v oto g ifts f or u se a t t he l oca s ancta. T he f irst 244 i ncorporates r epousse p ortrait m edallions o f C hrist, P eter ( fig. 2 6) a nd P aul ( fig. 2 7), a nd t wo o ther a postles i n t he c entral z one, a s w ell a s a c ross f lanked b y d oves a nd t he l amb a mong s heep i n t he o ther z ones; t he s econd 245 d isplays t wo r epousse p rofile b usts w ithin d ecorated m edallions, t raditionally i dentified a s P aul ( fig. 2 8) a nd, l ess c ertainly, P eter ( fig. 2 9). B oth p ieces w ere p robably i nfluenced b y s imilar d esigns o n f ondi d 'oro; a nd t hus b oth m ay be i nterpreted a s s howing t he R oman a postles i n c oncordia. H owever,

a n o bvious c hange i n i ntent c an b e d etected i n a t hird p iece

o f s ilver n ow i n t he B ritish M useum . T he s ilver j ug 246

o r e wer,

2 47

o r a mula

, 248

i n t he B ritish M useum

i s b adly d amaged, b ut i t w as p robably m ade a fter t he t wo p ieces n ow i n t he V atican. I t s hows t wo s cenes: C hrist h ealing a b lind m an, a s ymbol f or b aptism; a nd C hrist h anding P eter e ither a s croll, t he L aw , o r a k ey, t he p ower t o b ind o r l ose. T he f acial a ppearance o f P eter c onforms t o t he R oman n orm, b ut t he o verall d esign, e specially t he s ense o f m ovement, r ecalls a n i conography f ound i n t he i mperial c ity o f R avenna. P eter n ow n o l onger a ppears i n c oncordia w ith P aul, a nd o ther a postles. A lthough i t c annot b e e stablished b y o bservation t hat P eter a ctually r eceives a k ey f rom C hrist, t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat P eter h as b een s elected b y t he c raftsman, o r h is p atron, f or s pecial a ttention. T his a ttention w ould s eem t o u nderline P eter's a uthority a nd, b y i mplication,

t he a uthority o f his h eir,

o f R ome.

5 0

t he b ishop

6 P eter a nd P aul i n G lass a nd B ronze

P erhaps t he m ost p opular r epresentations o f P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia i n R ome i n t he f ourth c entury a re t o b e f ound o n t he b ase o f C hristian g old-glass v essels u sed b oth f or d omestic a nd f or c ult p urposes. T hese b ases o r f ondi d 'oro u sually t ake t he f orm o f a m edallion, a lthough s ome r epresentations m ight b e e nclosed w ithin a s quare o r o ther r egular s hape. T he t wo a postles i nvariably a ppear t ogether, a lthough t here i s a s mall n umber o f s ingle p ortraits o f e ach a postle s till e xtant ( fig. 3 0). 249 T he u nity, o r c oncordia, o f t he a postles i s e mphasized i n a v ariety o f w ays. T hey n ormally f ace o ne a nother, a s i s a lso t he c ase, f or e xample, w ith d ouble-portraits o n t he i mperial c oinage o r o n i mperial m edallions. T he i nfluence o f a n i mperial i conography c annot h ave b een a ccidental a nd i t i s t his t hat s uggests t hat a c onscious a ttempt w as b eing m ade t o e mphasize t he a uthority o f t he a postles. S ome t imes t he a postles a re c rowned s ymbolically w ith a l aurel w reath o r a c rown; s ome t imes t hey a re c rowned b y C hrist h imself; o n o ther o ccasions t he a postles f lank a m onogram o r a c olumn. A ll t hese v ariations c an b e d erived f rom i mperial s ources: t hey a re a lso p aralleled b y s imilar d evelopments o n s arcophagi m ade d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. W hen a n a ttempt i s m ade t o d ate t hese p articular f ondi d 'oro250

i t

c an o nly b e s aid w ith s ome c ertainty t hat t hey a re a p roduct o f t he f ourth a nd e arly f ifth c enturies. T he i mperial i nfluences w ould o nly h ave b een w elcomed b y t he C hristian c ommunity i n R ome a fter t he P eace o f t he C hurch, w hen i t c ould l ook t owards t he i mperial a uthorities f or t he f irst t ime f or p ositive p rotection o r f avour. I t i s l ikely, h owever, t hat m ost o f t hem w ere m ade i n R ome b etween 3 50 a nd 4 10. A lthough t he m ajority w ere f ound i n t he c atacombs, w here t hey w ould h ave b een l eft a s o fferings f or t he d ead, m any g old-glass v essels m ust h ave b een b ought b y p ilgrims c ongregated i n R ome a t t his t ime. T hey w ould h ave m ade c onvenient a nd p opular s ouveniers o f t heir v isit a nd c ould h ave b een u sed a s N ew Y ear g ifts. I ndeed t here m ight h ave b een a c onnexion b etween t he g reat d evelopment o f p ilgrimages t o R ome b etween a bout 3 50 a nd 4 102 5 1 a nd t he o bvious p opularity o f t his p articular k ind o f g old-glass d ecoration, w hich p rovided t he l ocal C hurch w ith a c onvenient m eans o f p ropagating i ts a postolic a uthority. B esides t heir a ppearance o n t he b ases o f g old-glass v essels, t he a postles i n c oncordia a lso a ppeared o n b ronze m edallions. 252 T here c annot b e a ny d ispute a bout t heir o bvious d ependence o n i mperial p rototypes, o r e ven o n m edallions o f p agan g ods a nd h eroes, i n p articular t he D ioscuri; 253 w here t here i s d ispute, i t i s o ver t he q uestion o f t he d ate o f t heir m anufacture. A lthough t he t hird c entury h as b een s uggested, 254 i t w ould s eem t hat t he e arliest o f t he f ew t hat s urvive c an o nly b elong t o t he f ourth c entury, i f t hey w ere n ot, i n f act, m ade m uch l ater. T he m edallions t hat b ear t he C onstantinian m onogram ( fig. 3 1) w ere m ade a lmost c ertainly a fter 3 13. 255 T he d evelopment o f t heir i conography i s p aralleled b y s imilar d evelopments o n t he f ondi d 'oro.

5 1

3 0. 3 1. 3 2. 3 3.

P aul.

G old-glass b ase,

P eter a nd P aul.

P eter a nd P aul.

P eter a nd P aul.

a fter 3 50.

B ronze m edallion, a fter 3 50.

I mpression o f m edallion i n m ortar.

B ronze m edallion

( Boldetti),

M useo S acro, V atican.

5 2

s eventeenth c entury.

3 4.

C hrist,

P eter a nd P aul.

G old-glass b ase f rom a bove, 3 5.

C hrist,

P aul a nd P eter.

T he s ame o bject f rom b elow .

B ritish M useum,

5 3

a fter 3 50.

L ondon.

T he e arliest g old-glass

' medallions',

l ike t he e arliest b ronze

m edallions , s how t he t wo a postles w ith s imilar f acial f eatures

( figs

3 1, 3 2, 3 4, 3 5): a t f irst n o a ttempt w as m ade t o d istinguish b etween t he t wo a postles b y t heir a ppearance. 256 H owever, i t w as n ot l ong b efore t he R oman c onventionsz 57 f or d istinguishing b etween t wo s ymmetrically p laced f igures w ere a dopted b y t he R oman g lass-houses. I n g eneral, o ne f igure w as b ald, w ith a l ongish b eard, a nd t he o ther w as g iven a m ass o f h air a nd a s hortish b eard, a lthough t here w ere m any v ariations. T he d ifficulty i s t o d etermine w hen c raftsmen, o r t he p atrons f or t hat m atter, a ctually m ade t he t ransition f rom t wo a postles w ithout d ifferentiated f eatures t o t wo a postles e ach w ith h is o wn i ndividual i conograph y.258 T his p roblem a pplies t o o ther C hristian a rtefacts m ade i n t he f ourth c entury. I ndeed i t f orms p art o f t he w ider p roblem o f t he d evelopment o f a n ew R oman s tyle, w hich r eached i ts h eight o f a chievement a t t he t urn o f t he c entury. T he e mphasis o n t he s ame a nonymous f eatures, o f c ourse, e mphasized t he c oncordia o f t he t wo a postles, w hether e ach w ere i dentified b y i nscription, o r n ot. 259 T he p roblem , h owever, i s c ompounded b y t he n atural i nclination o f s ome c raftsmen a nd w orkshops t o c ling t o a r etardataire s tyle t hat, i t w ould s eem, c ontinued t o b e p opular f or t he r est o f t he c entury. I t i s a lso c onnected w ith a c hange i n t he c lass o f p atron. I n t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury p atrons p robably b elonged t o t he r elatively p oorer, o r l ess i nfluential, c lasses o f R oman c itizen. T his i s u ndeniably a f actor i n t he q uality o f a rtefact p roduced a t t his t ime. B ut, a s t he R oman a ristocracy b ecame i ncreasingly C hristianized, a h igher s tandard o f w orkmanship w as d emanded a nd t he b etter q uality c raftsmen, w ho m ay f ormerly h ave d evoted a ll t heir t ime t o t he m anufacture o f n on-Christian o bjects, i ncreasingly t urned t heir hands t o t he p roduction o f C hristian a rtefacts, w hether i n g lass, b ronze, s ilver, i vory o r s tone. I n R ome, t he c entre o f a n i mportant a nd p opular, i f n ot u nique, d ouble c ult, i t i s l ikely t hat d oublep ortraits w ere c onsidered b y m any t o r epresent P eter a nd P aul l ong b efore t hey a cquired t heir o wn i ndividual i conographies: i ndeed t he c onventions a ssociated w ith i mperial C ONCORDIAE m ust h ave l ed p atrons t o e xpect t his. H owever, a s h as b een s een, i t w as n ot u ntil 3 60 t hat a n u nambiguous d istinction w as m ade b etween t he a ppearance o f t he t wo a postles. T his d oes n ot m ean, i f c ourse, t hat t he c heaper a nd p oorer q uality g old-glass v essels w ere n ot i n d emand l ong a fter t hat d ate, n or t hat t he o ld u ndifferentiated i conography d id n ot c ontinue, u ninterrupted, t hroughout t he f ourth c entury, a nd e ven l onger. I t d oes m ean t hat a fter 3 60 t he m anufacturers a nd r etailers o f f ondi d 'oro c ould, a nd o ften d id, c learly d istinguish b etween t he t wo a postles, b ut r arely, i t w ould s eem, a part f rom t he o dd s ingle p ortrait,

d id t hey d epart f rom t he c ommon t heme:

t he c oncordia

a postolorum . A lthough, a s C harles P ietri h as d emonstrated, 260 t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he t wo a postles d epicted o n f ondi d 'oro a re i n c oncordia, i t i s p rudent t o c onsider f urther t he i conographical a mbiguity i mplicit i n t he d esign. N ot l east, i s t he p ossibility o f l ooking t hrough g old-glass f rom t wo o pposing v iewpoints, a f actor o nly c ontrolled b y a n i nscription ( figs 3 4, 3 5). T he d ouble-portraits o f t he a postles a re u ndoubtedly b ased o n i mperial p rototypes, b ut a re

5 4

a lso c losely r elated t o o ther d ouble-portraits o f t he p eriod, n otably t hose o f h usband a nd w ife, u sually d epicted i n t he s cene o f t he d extrarum i unctio. 261 I n t his d esign, a lmost w ithout e xception, t he h usband a ppears o n t he r ight, s lightly i n a dvance o f h is w ife, o n t he l eft. T hus i f o ne w ere s eeking t o e stablish t he p lace o f h onour, o r w hich p erson i n t hese d ouble-portraits h ad p recedence o ver t he o ther, t here w ould b e l ittle d oubt: t hat p lace w ould b e o n t he r ight. 262 T his i conography, t oo, c an b e d erived f rom i mperial p rototypes, 2 63 w hich were a lso d esigned, b y t heir s tress o n C ONCORDIAE, t o e ncourage o bservance o f t he i mperial c ult i n t he p rivate a nd r eligious l ife o f e ach l oyal c itizen. I n e arlier c enturies t he f igure o f C oncordia254 had u sually a ppeared i n s cenes o f t he d extrarum i unctio b etween h usband a nd w ife. B ut i n t he f ourth c entury,

t he f igure o f C oncordia d isappeared,

r eplaced b y t he f igure o f C hrist,

t o b e

o r b y a s ymbol o f h is t riumphant

a uthority.' " T he u nity o f a C hristian m arriage o n f ourth-century g old-glass w as t o b e c onfirmed, n ot b y a f igure with p agan a ssociations,266 b ut b y C hrist h imself. 267 T his p articular m otif a lso e xtended t o o ther d ouble-portraits. I t w as u sed, f or e xample, o n v arious p roducts o f t he s o-called D IGNITAS AMICORVM g lasshouse: w hether d epicting a d oublep ortrait o f t he R oman m artyrs, L AVRENTIVS a nd C RIPANVS, o r a d oublep ortrait o f t he a postles P AVLVS a nd P ETRVS. B oth s ets o f f igures, r epresented o n e xamples i n t he M useo S acro, V atican , 2 68

a re g iven

e qual e mphasis: i n t he f ormer t hey s tand f ully f rontal, b earing t he s ame a ttributes; i n t he l atter t hey a re b oth i n p rofile, with a lmost i dentical f eatures. 269 I t i s o bvious t hat t his p articular h ouse w as n ot c oncerned w ith e stablishing w hich o f t he t wo f igures h ad p riority, a lthough i t i s a s tatistical f act t hat n early a ll e xtant g old-glass d ouble-portraits o f t he a postles s how P eter o n t he l eft. B ut e ven h ere t he g lasshouses w ere n ot c onsistent. F or e xample, P aul c ould a lso a ppear o n t he l eft, a s i n t he c ase o f t he d ouble-portrait a lready c ited. 27° O ther p roducts f rom t he D IGNITAS A MICORVM h ouse s how P aul o n t he r ight, 271 b ut i n t wo c ases272 t he f igure o f P aul o verlaps t he f igure o f P eter ( fig. 3 4), j ust a s t he h usband o verlaps t he w ife o n g old-glass d epicting t he s cene o f t he d extrarum i unctio. H owever, i t w ould b e w rong t o t ry t o e stablish o n t he b asis o f t his e vidence t hat t he g lasshouse w as s tressing t he p re-eminence o f t he a postle P aul a t t he e xpense o f P eter. T he i naccuracies a nd v agaries o f t he g lasshouses a re s o w ell d ocumented273 t hat i t w ould b e r ash t o p lace a ny g reat s ignificance o n t he f act t hat P eter w as u sually p laced o n t he l eft o f P aul.

B ut

i f o ne t urns f rom t he g lasshouses, c atering g enerally f or p opular d emand, t o a w orkshop c atering f or t he i mperial f amily, w here t he g reatest c are w ould have b een e xercised i n s uch m atters, o ne m ay p erhaps t reat t he p lacing o f p ortraits m ore s eriously. O n a c ameo p robably m ade f or H onorius a nd h is w ife, M aria, t he d aughter o f S tilico - a lthough i t h as a lso b een s uggested t hat i t m ight h ave b een m ade f or C onstantius I I a nd h is E mpress - t he E mperor i s p laced o n t he l eft,

i n a dvance o f t he E mpress,

o n t he r ight.

T he c ouple i s n ot

s hown i n t he d extrarum i unctio a ttitude, a lthough i t i s p robable t hat t hat t he c ameo, n ow i n P aris,274 w as m ade t o c ommemorate t he m arriage o f H onorius a nd M aria i n M ilan i n 3 98. 275 T he E mperor, a s b efits a n i mperial i conography o f t he p eriod, a ppears o n t he l eft, t he u ndoubted p lace o f h onour i n t his c ontext.276 S o i t i s p erhaps n ot

5 5

3 6.

S hip o f t he C hurch, w ith P eter a nd P aul. B ronze l amp, 3 75-400. M useo A rcheologico,

5 6

F lorence.

3 7. P eter(?). F igure i n s tern o f s hip ( gubernator). 3 8. P aul(?). F igure i n p row o f s hip ( proreta). D etails ( enlarged) o f b ronze l amp, 3 75-400. M useo A rcheologico,

F lorence.

s urprising t hat w hen t he g lasshouses w ere r equired t o i dentify t he t wo a postles, o r t o d istinguish P eter f rom P aul, t hey p laced P eter o n t he l eft, i n t he p lace o f h onour. 277 B ut, a s w e h ave s een, t his w as n ot a m atter t hat g reatly c oncerned t he D IGNITAS AMICORVM h ouse. C ertain t ypes b ecame p opular a nd t hat p articular g lasshouse, l ike o thers, responded t o t he d emand f or t he t wo a postles i n c oncordia, w hether P eter w as p laced o n t he l eft, a s t he t ype n ormally d emanded, o r o n t he r ight. T he p opularity o f t he t heme o f t he c oncordia a poStolorum i s e qually e xplicit i n o ther a pplied a rts. A b ronze l amp, n ow i n t he M useo A rcheologico i n F lorence, 278 h as l ong b een k nown a fter i ts e ponymous o wner, V alerius S everus ( fig. 3 6). I t w as a lmost c ertainly m ade i n a R oman w orkshop d uring t he l ast q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury. I t u nderlines t he c oncordia o f t he t wo a postles i n a u nique m anner. I t i s i n t he f orm o f a s hip: b oth a s l amp a nd s hip i t r epresents t he C hurch, t he l ocal C hurch a t R ome. 279 T his i s m ade c lear b y t he f eatures o f t he g ubernator, w ith his t hick, b ut r eceding h air a nd s hort, t hick b eard ( fig. 3 7), a nd o f t he p roreta, s tanding i n t he p row , w ith t hick h air a nd l ong, t hick b eard ( fig. 3 8). P erhaps s urprisingly, t here h as b een s ome d ispute a bout t heir i dentity. I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he h elmsman i s C hrist, a lthough t his i s m ost u nlikely, a nd t hat t he f igure a t t he p row i s a n O rans. 28 ° T hey w ere r ecognised o riginally a s P eter a t t he h elm ( cf. f ig. 2 6 w ith f igs 3 6, 3 7) a nd a s P aul a t t he p row, 281 b ut t he c urrent c onsensus a ppears t o h ave r eversed t he r oles o f t he t wo a postles. 282 W hatever t he o riginal i ntention o f t he w orkshop, t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he t wo a postles a re g uiding t he l ocal C hurch t hrough t he d ifficult s eas o f t he d ay. T he i nscription, D OMINVS L EGEN / D AT VALERIO S EVERO / E VTROPI V IVAS, 283 o n t he t abula a nsata s urmounting t he m ast a nd s ail, t he l amp's r eflector, b esides i dentifying t he s upposed r ecipient, o r c ommissioner, o f t he l amp,

a ssociates t he s pectator w ith t he t raditio l egis. 284

T he

c ross m ade b y t he m ast a nd c ross b eam, b etween t he t wo a postles, f orms a c rux i nvicta: C hrist, n o l onger o n t he c ross, i s t riumphant i n H eaven. T he a postles, b oth R oman m artyrs, b ear w itness t o t his e ternal t ruth; t hrough o bedience t o t he L ex D ei, V alerius S everus, p robably t he p raefectus u rbi f or 3 82, c ould c onfidently e xpect, t hrough t he r isen C hrist, t o r eceive e ternal l ife. T he w ealthy o wners o f o ther b ronze l amps s eem t o h ave h ad s imilar c onfidence i n t he c oncordia o f t he t wo a postles. T he h andles o f t hese l amps w ere p opularly i n t he f orm o f a c ross, a nd i t w as t hus b ut a s imple s tep t o p lace P eter a nd P aul o n e ither s ide o f t he h andle. T he m otif o f t he c rux i nvicta, a s w itness t o t he t riumphant C hrist, w as a lways i mplicit i n s uch a d esign. A l amp h andle f ound i n R ome i n t he e arly t wenties, f ormerly i n t he E umorfopoulos C ollection, 285 c onfirms t he n ature o f t his i conography. P eter a nd P aul, c learly d istinguished, s tand o n e ither s ide o f a C hrismon c ross: P eter o n t he l eft a nd P aul, b ald w ith p ointed b eard, o n t he r ight, e ach h olding a s croll i n h is l eft h and. T he p lacing o f P eter o n t he l eft o f t he c ross s uggests p arallels w ith s imilar d evelopments o n s arcophagi a t t he v ery e nd o f t he c entury. 286 T he h andle o f a nother l amp i n t he M useo S acro i n t he V atican 287

s hows s imilar f igures o n e ither s ide o f a c ircled C hrismon

c ross, w hich a lso s uggests a d ate a t t he e nd o f t he c entury. I t w ould s eem t hat t hese l amps, w ith t he t wo a postles, 288 m ust h ave b een c ommissioned o r b ought,

j ust a s w ere t he m ore p opular f ondi d 'oro, b y

5 8

d evotees o f t he c oncordia, o r c ultus, o f t he t wo a postles, a lthough t hey n aturally r eflect t he m ore s ophisticated d emands o f t heir p erhaps m ore w ealthy o wners.

5 9

7 T he S ignificance o f t he E vidence

T his s urvey o f f ourth- a nd f ifth-century a rtefacts a ssociated w ith t he a postles, P eter a nd P aul, d emonstrates t hat b oth a postles, i n c oncordia, p layed a n i mportant r ole i n C hristian i conography i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. T he m ajority o f t he a rtefacts d escribed h ere h ave b een g iven a R oman p rovenance. U nfortunately t heir s tyle i s n ot n ecessarily a s ound p ointer a s t o t heir p lace o f o rigin: c raftsmen c ould, a nd d id, m ove f rom p lace t o p lace, a nd t he s tyle o f o ne l ocality c ould e asily e merge a t, o r m erge w ith, a nother, a s i t d id i n t he R henish g lasshouses i n t he f ourth c entury. T his i s t he b asic r eason f or t he d ifficulty i n d eciding t he p lace o f o rigin o f, f or e xample, t he i vory c askets, o r t he i vory p yxis, p roduced b y d ifferent a nd, p robably i tinerant e borarii d uring t his p eriod, a lthough t here s eems l ittle d oubt t hat R ome h ad b ecome a n i mportant c entre f or t heir p roduction a t t he e nd o f t he c entury, a nd l ater. 289 I ndeed i t s eems l ikely t hat a h igh p ercentage o f t he m armorarii w orking i n t he R oman o fficinae w ere n ot l ocal c raftsmen a t a ll, b ut i mmigrants o f G reek o rigin. 29 ° T he a ccurate r endering o f b uildings i n J erusalem o n t he l eft s ide o f t he s arcophagus L ateran 1 74 s uggests t hat t he m armorarius r esponsible m ay h ave h ad f irst h and k nowledge o f t hat c ity; t his d oes n ot m ean, o f c ourse, t hat t he s arcophagus c ould n ot h ave b een s culpted i n R ome. A s imilar k nowledge w as s hown b y t he i maginarii l ater w orking i n R ome o n t he g reat a pse m osaic o f S . P udenziana. O n t he o ther h and, t he i ntimate k nowledge o f R oman c hurches s hown b y t he e borarius r esponsible f or t he P ola c asket d oes n ot m ean n ecessarily t hat i t w as m ade i n R ome: i t c ould h ave b een m ade i n N orthern I taly, a lthough a R oman p rovenance i s n ow a ccepted g enerally f or i ts c ommission a nd m anufacture. I n t he c ase o f t hose w orks o f a rt s till i n s itu, s uch a s f rescoes o r m osaics, t here i s, o f c ourse, n o p roblem, a lthough t he s tyle a nd q uality o f t he w ork w ould v ary a ccording t o t he a bility a nd e xperience o f t he c raftsmen i nvolved. I n t he c ase o f o ther a pplied a rts, w hich c ould b e m oved e asily f rom p lace t o p lace, t his i s a v ery r eal p roblem . I t i s p erhaps b est i llustrated b y t he e xample o f s arcophagi. S arcophagi w ere u sually b locked o ut i n a s tandard s hape a t t he q uarry, t ransported b y s ea a nd r iver t o t he a ppropriate o fficina, w here t hey w ould b e c ompleted b y t he m armorarius, e ither t o t he o rder o f a c lient, o r f or s ale i n t he m arket p lace. T he s arcophagus c ould t hen b e s old f or u se l ocally, o r i t c ould, a gain, b e e xported. I nformation a bout t he t ype o f m arble u sed i s, t herefore, o f v ital i mportance i n d etermining i ts p rovenance. U nfortunately t his i nformation i s, i n m ost c ases, j ust n ot a vailable. T he c ity-gate s arcophagus i n S . ( Como): M ilan.

A mbrogio, M ilan, w as m ade o f m arble f rom C omum

i t w as, t herefore, i n a ll p robability m ade i n, o r n ear, T he s arcophagus o f t he D ioscuri, n ow a t A rles, w as m ade f rom

P roconnesian m arble ( from M armora), w hich w as e xported a ll o ver t he E mpire. T his f act s upports P rofessor B enoit's b elief t hat t his p articular s arcophagus w as e xported t o A rles: 291 i ts s tyle a nd i conography s uggests t hat i t w as m ade i n a R oman o fficina. T wo o ther i mportant,

a nd r elevant,

s arcophagi,

6 0

a lso a t A rles, 292

w ere m ade o f

L una m arble f rom C arrara, a ctually s culpted.

a lthough i t i s n ot c lear w here t hey w ere

L una m arble w as m uch u sed i n I taly,

a nd i n R ome,

a nd g enerally w as n ot e xported i n a ny g reat q uantity. A part f rom t he L udovosi s arcophagus, w hich w as m ade o f I talic,298 p robably L una, m arble, t here i s n o f irm i nformation o f t he o rigins o f t he m arbles u sed b y t he m armorarii r esponsible f or R oman s arcophagi a ssociated w ith t he a postles, P eter a nd P aul. H owever, i t i s l ikely t hat t he m ajority o f t hem w ere m ade e ither f rom L una m arble, f rom t he l ocal q uarry a s i t w ere, o r f rom P roconnesian m arble, w hich w ould h ave b een u sed f or t he m ore e xpensive a nd l arger p ieces, e specially t he d oubler egister s arcophagi. L94 i n R ome.

T hey w ere a lmost c ertainly f inally c ompleted

T he l ack o f f irm i nformation a bout t he k ind o f m arble u sed f or s arcophagi m eans t hat, p eradventure, p rior e mphasis m ust b e p laced o n t he f ind s pot. A s w e h ave s een, t his c an b e p articularly r evealing. I n t he c ase o f t he o ther a pplied a rts, n otably t he b ases o f g oldg lass v essels f ound i n t he c atacombs, t his c an a lso b e a n a dvantage ( cf. f ig. 3 2). H owever, t he f ind s pot c an a lso b e m isleading, p articularly i n t he c ase o f l uxury o bjects, s uch a s s ilver b owls r eceived a s g ifts. T hese c ould b e f ound t ogether, b ut m ay h ave b een m ade i n q uite d ifferent p laces. 298 M any o ther a rtefacts, w hich m ight h ave b een r elevant t o t his s tudy, d o n ot h ave s uch a r eliable p rovenance. A b ronze m edallion o f P eter a nd P aul ( fig. 3 3), p ublished b y B oldetti i n 1 720, w hich w as s aid t o h ave b een f ound i n t he C atacomb o f P riscilla, o n i nvestigation w as f ound t o h ave h ad n o s uch p rovenance; a lthough m ade i n t he s eventeenth c entury,296 i t i s s till r eferred t o b y s cholars. 297 T he a uthenticity o f t he s ilver-gilt c asket f ound i n 1 578 b eneath t he a ltar o f S . N azaro M aggiore i n M ilan h as a lso b een q uestioned, b ut i t i s n ow c onsidered g enerally t o b e a p roduct o f t he l ate f ourth c entury, 298 a lthough s ome c hasing i n t he s ixteenth c annot b e e xcluded. O n t he o ther h and, t he a uthenticity o f t he b ronze l amp o f V alerius S everus ( fig. 3 6) f ound s ometime b etween 1 670 a nd 1 676 i n t he r uins o f a R oman h ouse o n t he C aelian, n ear t he c hurch o f S . S tefano R otondo, has n ot b een d oubted. T he h ouse b elonged t o t he g ens V aleria i n t he t hird a nd f ourth c enturies, a nd w as b urnt d own, p robably d uring t he s ack o f R ome i n 4 10. 299 T he l amp t hus p rovides a h ighly p ertinent p iece o f e vidence a bout t he a ttitudes o f o ne b ranch o f t he R oman a ristocracy o n t he e ve o f t he f irst s ack o f R ome. T wo a mpullae, i ncorporating b usts o f t he a postles, w ere a lso f ound w ith t he l amp, b ut t heir p resent w hereabouts i s o bscure. 3 ") T he p rovenance o f o ther a rtefacts d escribed h ere, p articularly t hose m ade o f b ronze, m ay n ot p rove t o b e q uite s o r eliable. A ll

t hese a rtefacts,

t he p roducts o f s o m any d ifferent c raftsmen,

w hen t aken t ogether, b uild u p a c omposite p icture o f t he t astes a nd b eliefs o f t he R oman c itizen i n t he f ourth c entury, a nd l ater. I t i s s alutory, h owever, t o r ecall A ugustine's w arni u a bout t he d angers o f m isinterpreting p ictures o f t he t wo a postles. 3 " N one t he l ess, t he c omposite p icture s uggests t hat t he c oncordia a postolorum w as a p opular e lement i n t he t aste o f c lients a nd p atrons o f t he R oman w orkshops a nd g lasshouses a fter 3 60, w hich h ad n ot b een t he c ase i n t he f irst half o f t he c entury. I n s o f ar a s r elevant a rtefacts a nd w orks o f a rt s urvive f rom t his e arlier p eriod, i t w ould s eem t hat o nly S t P eter,

a nd n ot S t P aul,

r eceived s pecial a ttention.

6 1

T his w as

p robably d ue t o h is p opularity w ith t he o rdinary c itizens o f R ome, a nd t his p opularity, o f c ourse, n ever f lagged, b ut c ontinued t hrougho ut t he c entury, a nd l ater. O ther R oman m artyrs r eceived i ndividual a ttention i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury, b ut, w ith t he e mergence o f t he o fficial i conographies o f t he c rux i nvicta a nd t he t raditio l egis a fter 3 50, i t w as t he t urn o f b oth a postles t o r eceive s pecial a ttention. I ndeed, d uring t he p eriod b etween a bout 3 60 a nd 4 00, t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he t wo a postles w ere g iven g enerally e qual p rominence, w hether o n f unerary a rt, a s m ight h ave b een e xpected, o r o n o ther a pplied a rts. I n o fficial a rt, s ub d ivo, i n s o f ar a s i t h as s urvived, o r i ts p urpose c an b e g limpsed a t f rom s urviving i nscriptions, t he s ame e qual e mphasis w as g iven. T he f act t hat r elatively s o m uch m aterial r eferring t o S t P aul has b een f ound i n R ome, a nd has s urvived t he b ias o f l ater g enerations, s uggests t hat t he a postle m ay h ave a ppeared m ore f requently, o r m ore c onspicuously, o n R oman a rtefacts t han t he e xtant e vident w arrants. A fter 4 10, h owever, i f n ot b efore, S t P aul h ad t o g ive w ay i n s ubtle w ays t o S t P eter. I n f act, d uring t he f ifth c entury, S t P eter c ontinued t o g ain a t t he e xpense o f S t P aul, w ho w as n ever t o r eceive a gain i n R ome q uite t he a cclaim t hat h e h ad a chieved b etween 3 60 a nd 4 10. T his f act w as c learly r ecognised b y t he w orkshops a nd c raftsmen w orking n ot o nly i n R ome, b ut e lsewhere. N one t he l ess t he i conography o f P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia h ad n ow b een f ully e stablished a nd, l ike s o m any p owerful i mages, i t c ontinued t o f lourish, s urviving c hanges o f p olicy,

o r e ven b elief,

t hroughout t he M iddle A ges t o t he

R enaissance a nd b eyond.

6 2

N OTES

1

1 .

C f.

f or P eter,

p p.

2 71ff.; 8 ,

I ntroduction

S otomayor, p assim, a nd, n ow, P ietri, R oma,

a nd f or P aul, D obschütz , 2, p p.

1 8.

C f.

G rigg,

2 .

H .E.,

3 .

C f.

4 .

P G 2 0, 1 547f.

5 .

C ited K itzinger, ' Marble R elief', p . 1 7, n . 6 4. M y a ttention w as d rawn t o t his i mportant a rticle b y P rofessor B reckenridge.

6 .

P L 3 4,

7 .

H ennecke, p . 3 51. T hey w ere a lso t ranslated i nto L atin. S chneemelcher's v ersion, i bid., p . 3 54, r eads: ' ..., a m an s mall

S otomayor, p p.

p .

1 2ff.

7 .

1 00f.

C f.

G rigg, p p.

3 0f.

1 049.

o f s tature, w ith a b ald h ead a nd c rooked l egs, i n a g ood s tate o f b ody, w ith e yebrows m eeting a nd n ose s omewhat h ooked, f ull o f f riendliness.' 8 .

F or e xample t he G ood S hepherd o n t hird-century s arcophagi, n ot n ecessarily C hristian.

9 .

C f.

1 0.

L 'Orange, p assim .

S otomayor,

p p.

1 3f.

a nd G rigg, p p.

5 ff.

T he b earded J ulian h as a lso b een s uggested

a s a p ossible p rototype,

T estini,

1 1.

S ee p p.

1 7f.

1 2.

S ee p p.

1 8,

1 3.

S ee p .

1 4.

S ee N estori a nd S tevenson, p assim .

' La l apide', p p.

7 32f.

b elow . 1 9,

2 4f. b elow .

5 1 b elow .

2

C f.

D origo, p p.

P eter a nd P aul i n C atacomb P ainting

1 5.

C f.

F errua, L e p itture,

1 6.

N estori, R upe, p .

1 7.

I bid., N egazione, p .

1 8.

S ee E xcursus.

1 9.

F errua,

p .

9 5.

2 13.

' Scoperta',

2 07.

p p.

5 ff.

6 3

N estori,

5 , p .

1 38.

2 17ff.

2 0.

C avalieri,

2 1.

N estori, 4 , p . 4 3 a nd 5 , p . 1 40. F errua, ' Scoperta', p . 2 0.

2 2.

S ee p p.

2 3.

S ee T estini,

2 4.

N estori, 1 8, p . 1 20. W ilpert, M alereien, 1 54,1; 1 79,1; 1 79,2. S imilar s cenes a t P gcs a nd N is s how t he a postles r eversed. C f. S otomayor, p p. 1 45f.

2 5.

N estori,

2 6.

N estori, 1 9, p .

2 7.

C f. B ruyne, p p. 4 Off.

2 8.

N estori, 4 7, p .

1 24.

2 9.

I CVR, 3 , 6 498.

D iehl, 3 382.

3 0.

W ilpert, M alereien, T exteband 1 , p .

3 1.

W ilpert, l oc. c it., r eferring t o a nother i nscription, I CVR, 3 , 6 499, D iehl, 3 663 , d atable t o 3 56, o n t he o ther s ide o f t he u nderground b asilica, a dmits t hat t he w ell-known f rescoes i n t his a rea ' entweder i n d em f olgenden J ahre, o der k urz d arauf a usgeführt w urde'.

3 2.

S ee p . 8 1 b elow .

3 3.

F errua,

3 4.

S abellian : S tevenson, p . 1 17. C f. F errua, o p. c it., p . a nd T estini, ' Osservazioni', p p. 2 59ff.

3 5.

C f. p .

' Passio', p .

2 42 a nd

' Osservazionii, p assim .

l oc.

IQ VI

c it.

W ilpert, 1 55,2.

1 20.

C f. T estini,

F ILIVS', p p.

S chumacher,

' Osservazioni', p .

2 47.

1 23.

2 16ff.

' Apsiskomposition', p p.

2 24

1 38f., o r D origo,

2 1.

3 6.

C f. N estori,

3 7.

C f.

3 8.

N estori, 3 3, p .

3 9.

I bid.,

4 0.

C f.

4 1.

F errua, L e p itture, p .

4 2.

W ilpert, M alereien,

2 5, 1 32, 1 34 b elow .

2 29, n .

p .

4 8.

7 4, p .

1 29.

1 8 b elow .

7 4, p .

T estini,

1 22.

1 29. ' Osservazioni', p p. 6 9.

2 49f.,

2 57f.

N estori, 9 , p .

pp.

2 22f.

C f.

t he p robably c ontemporary m osaic i n S .

b elow .

6 4

7 7.

C f. D origo,

C onstanza.

S ee p .

3 4

4 3.

C f.

t he s ummary i n K ötzsche-Breitenbruch, p p.

4 4.

C f.

T estini,

4 5.

G erke, ' Petrus u nd P aulus', " Duces", p p. 9 5f., 1 01. C f.

4 6.

S otomayor, p p.

4 7.

D agens, p p.

4 8.

I CVR,

5 ,

1 4118.

C f.

4 9.

I CVR, 5 ,

1 4117.

C f. D iehl,

5 0.

S tevenson,

5 1.

W ilpert, M osaiken, 4 ,

5 2.

I bid., T extebande,

5 3.

R ather t han t he a pse m osaic o f O ld S t P eter's: p p. 1 63ff.

5 4.

T estini,

' La l apide', p p.

5 5.

N estori,

3 , p .

5 6.

C f. L 'Orange a nd N ordhagen,

5 7.

D origo,

5 8.

C f.

5 9.

I bid., p p. 1 37ff., o r, f or e xample, K ollwitz, 5 9ff. a nd S otomayor, p p. 2 5Off.

6 0.

B uddensieg, p p. 1 68ff. D avis-Weyer, p p. 2 48ff. C f. K ollwitz, o p. c it., p p. 5 3f.

6 1.

N estori l ists o ne o ther p ainting o f P eter a nd P aul i n t he c atacomb o n t he V ia A rdeatina ( Balbina?), 1 , p . 1 15.

6 2.

C f.

' Osservazioni', p p.

2 52ff.

p p. 3 18ff., c onclusion p . S otomayor, p . 9 9.

3 28,

a nd

9 7ff.

3 27ff.

p p.

p p.

1 3f.

N estori, D iehl,

5 , p .

8 7.

1 970E. l oc.

c it.

7 8ff. 1 32.

1 , p p.

2 69f.

7 19ff.

C f.

c f.

B uddensieg,

D avis-Weyer, p p.

7 ff.

4 8. p .

4 8.

2 24f.

S chumacher,

' Apsiskomposition',

t he c onclusions o f T estini,

p .

1 57 a nd p assim .

2 Off.

' Christus',

p p.

S otomayor,

' Osservazioni', p p.

p p.

2 77f.

3 ' Peter a nd P aul o n S arcophagi o f R ome a nd R avenna

6 3.

C ampenhausen, p assim . S aggiorato,'passim .

6 4.

B rown,

6 5.

R epertorium,

G erke, P assionssarkophage, p p.

6 7ff.

' Aspects', p assim . 3 5.

A ge,

3 61.

T he L ateran n umbers g ive e asy

r eference t o F icker. 6 6.

C f.

E xcursus,

p p.

1 31f.

b elow .

6 5

M oses c ould b e a ccompanied b y

b ibentes:

s ee p .

1 34 b elow .

6 7.

K itzinger, B yzantine A rt, p p.

2 2ff.

6 8.

R epertorium , 4 1.

6 9.

S ee p .

7 0.

S arcophagus o f S ABINVS. R epertorium , 6 .

7 1.

R epertorium , 4 3.

7 2.

B ruyne, p p.

7 3.

R epertorium ,

7 4.

I bid.,

7 5.

I bid., 6 7.

7 6.

I bid.,

7 7.

C f. B ruyne, p p. 4 3ff.

7 8.

R epertorium ,

7 9.

I bid.,

8 0.

I bid., 9 65.

8 1.

S ee n . 2 57. C f. t he d istinction b etween t he t wo D ioscuri o n a s arcophagus n ow a t A rles, p . 1 08 b elow .

8 2.

C f.

8 3.

R epertorium ,

8 4.

I bid., 2 24.

8 5.

I bid., 6 82.

8 6.

C f. n .

8 7.

R epertorium ,

8 8.

C f.

8 9.

R epertorium , 4 5.

9 0.

F or t he r elationship b etween P eter a nd M oses, p p. 1 31ff.

9 1.

S ee p .

9 2.

W ilpert,

1 31 b elow .

C f. B renk, p p.

4 4ff.

3 74.

4 0ff.

C f. R epertorium ,

5 2.

7 7.

7 3.

5 65.

1 025.

2 20.

S aggiorato, p p.

9 8f.

2 22.

C f. T oynbee a nd P erkins, p . 9 3.

1 2. 6 74.

B ruyne, p .

6 0. S aggiorato,

2 . s ee E xcursus,

4 a bove. S arcofagi, 1 , T esto, p p.

p p. 6 51ff., a nd S aggiorato, p p. 9 3.

A ge,

T estini, L e c atacombe, p p.

3 29f. 6 6

1 86ff.

1 3f.

C f. P ietri,

' Le S erment',

9 4.

T he p ositive r esponse t o t he d enial. C f. S tuhlfauth, D ie a pokryphen, ' 5. D ie L ehrszene', p p.35ff., a nd B ruyne, p p. 7 2ff.

9 5.

R epertorium, 4 9. p p. 8 1ff.

9 6.

T estini, L e c atacombe,

9 7.

S aggiorato, p p. 8 7, 9 Off., 1 33ff. B renk, p . 4 3, f or p ossible o rigin.

9 8.

P ietri, R oma, p p.

1 567ff.,

9 9.

R epertorium ,

6 1.

S aggiorato,

1 00.

C f.

1 34 b elow .

1 01.

P robably t he e arliest s arcophagus o f t his t ype k now, R epertorium , 2 15, S aggiorato, 2 1, i s t o b e f ound i n t he b asilica: i t w as m ade

p p.

1 32,

C f.

i bid.,

p .

6 90.

3 31.

S aggiorato,

C f.

5 .

S chäfer, p p. G rigg, p p.

a nd B renk,

l oc.

C f.

i bid.,

6 7ff.

4 f.,

1 5ff.

C f.

c it.

2 2.

a t a bout t he s ame t ime a s L ateran 1 71 a nd,

p ossibly,

i n t he s ame

o fficina a s t he s arcophagus o f I unius B assus. C f. t he f ragment b y a nother o fficina a lso i n S . S ebastiano, R epertorium , 2 12, S aggiorato,

2 0.

1 02.

C f.

1 1.

1 03.

C f. t he f ragment i n t he M useo P io C ristiano, w ith a p hoenix p erched o n a c rux c ommissa. R epertorium , 6 2.

1 04.

I bid., 6 67. a nd T HECLA,

1 05.

I n S .

1 06.

B enoit,

S aggiorato,

2 4.

S ee p .

1 08 b elow .

S aggiorato, 1 5. C f. t he u nique s cene o f P AV/LVS i bid., 8 32, a nd S imon, p p. 1 56ff.

S ebastiano.

R epertorium,

I n t he C atacomb o f C ommodilla.

2 01.

S aggiorato,

R epertorium ,

6 53.

a waiting s trigils. 1 07.

I bid.,

1 75.

1 08.

I bid., p .

1 09.

S ee p .

1 10.

R epertorium,

1 11.

S ee T estini,

1 12.

S ansoni,

1 13.

S ee p p.

1 14.

C f.

1 15.

R epertorium ,

2 24.

1 16.

I bid.,

6 80.

S aggiorato,

1 17.

D iehl,

9 0.

1 11.

9 3 b elow .

1 0. 2 7,

T estini,

2 08. ‚O sservazioni i ,

p p.

2 55f.

R epertorium, 6 5. 2 9 b elow . ' Osservazioni', p p.

7 .

C f.

6 7

2 64ff.

i bid.,

p p.

1 03ff.

6 . U nfinished,

1 18.

S ee p . 8 1 b elow .

1 19.

R epertorium , 6 77.

1 20.

B oth s ides, e specially t he h eads, h ave b een r eworked e xtensively.

1 21.

S ee P ietri, R oma, p p. 1 413ff., f or r eferences. A lthough I d o n ot a gree w ith a ll h is c onclusions, p p. 1 435ff., P ietri's s urvey s tresses r ightly t he d iffering a ccents o f d ifferent c raftsmen i n d ifferent m edia.

1 22.

S ee p p.

1 23.

C f.

1 24.

R epertorium , 2 00. S aggiorato, 1 2. d iscovered i n 1 948, s ee n . 1 57.

1 25.

R epertorium , 1 89.

1 26.

S ee p .

6a bove.

1 27.

S ee p .

1 18 b elow .

1 28.

S ee p p.

1 29.

S ansoni, 1 .

1 30.

S ee p p.

1 31.

C f.

1 32.

T he f ront a nd s ides a re n ow i n t he L ouvre, P aris, t he b ack i n t he M usei C apitolini, R ome. S ansoni, 2 . R epertorium , 8 29.

1 33.

S ansoni,

1 34.

K itzinger, B yzantine A rt, p . 4 4, n .

1 35.

R epertorium , 5 8.

1 36.

C f. R epertorium , 6 79, o f S t P eter's i n 1 607.

1 37.

S ansoni, 8 .

R epertorium ,

1 38.

R epertorium ,

6 78.

1 39.

R epertorium ,

5 7.

1 40.

F icker, L ateran 1 06, p p.

1 41.

T here m ust, h owever, s till h ave b een v ast s tocks o f m arble i n t he y ards b eside t he r iver T iber.

1 42.

S ee p p.

S aggiorato, 1 0.

2 9ff., 5 4ff., 1 14ff. b elow .

S aggiorato, p p.

1 08ff. F or a nother p ossible f ragment,

S aggiorato, 1 1.

2 0, 2 4 a bove.

3 2ff. b elow .

C f. M atthews, p p. 1 99ff.

t he s arcophagus o f C oncordius, b ishop o f A rles, p p. 1 18f b elow .

5 .

R epertorium , 6 75.

S aggiorato,

6 1.

C f. M atthews, p p. 1 97ff.

2 8.

S aggiorato, 2 9,

f ound i n t he f oundations

2 17.

C f. M atthews, p p.

1 95ff.

S aggiorato, 1 6.

1 14ff. b elow .

G rabar, I cemography, p .

4 8ff.

C f.

S aggiorato, p p.

S chumacher,

4 2.

6 8

5 3ff.

' Dominus', p p. 8 ff., a nd

1 43.

A s w as p ointed o ut m any y ears a go b y J ohannes K ollwitz, p p. 6 1f., 6 3f. S chumacher, o p. c it., p p. 3 Off.

1 44.

S . P ietro i n V incoli.

1 45.

K ollwitz, O strömische P lastik, p p. 1 32ff. p p. 1 79ff.

1 46.

T hese, h owever, d o n ot s eem t o h ave b een c ompleted.

1 47.

K itzinger,

1 48.

L awrence, p p.

1 49.

C f. S ansoni, 6 . a fter c . 3 95.

1 50.

L awrence, p p.

1 51.

I bid., p p.

1 52.

C f. t he b alanced e xposition o f W essel, P eter, c c. P aul, c c. 3 09ff.

1 53.

K ollwitz, O strömische P lastik, p p. a nd H erdejürgen, p p. 1 33f.

1 54.

W essel, c .

1 55.

L awrence, p p.

4 ff.

1 56.

L awrence, p p.

4 , 6 ff.

1 57.

S otomayor, p p. 7 Off. P ietri, R oma, p p. 1 442ff. P ietri l ists e ight s arcophagi o f ap robably R oman p rovenance, a s c andidates f or s cenes o f t he t raditio c lavium . T he d ifficulty i s t hat t he r otulus h eld b y a n ( often a nonymous) a postle c an b e r eworked e asily a t a l ater s tage a s ak ey. O f t he e ight, 5 ) d oes n ot h ave a k ey, 6 ) i s a ccepted a s r estored, 1 ), 2 ), 4 ), a nd 8 ) h ave b een r eworked, a s I s uspect, h ave 3 ), a f ragment d iscovered i n 1 948, a nd 7 ). T he e vidence, a t t he l east, i s s uspect. H owever, t he t endency t o p lace t his t ype o f s cene o n t he f ar r ight ( cf. B enoit, 1 1, 1 7), s uggests t hat i t m ight h ave b een d eveloped c onsciously t owards t he e nd o f t he c entury a s a r eplacement f or t he e xecution o f P aul. T his w ould f it i n w ith t he d evelopments d escribed o n p p. 2 7, 2 9 a bove.

1 58.

L awrence, p p. 1 3ff.

1 59.

K itzinger, ' Marble R elief', p p. P lastik, p . 1 58.

1 60.

C f.

1 61.

C f. L awrence, p p. 8 f., a nd K atalog, B 17. T he c oncordia i s e mphasized b y b oth a postles c arrying a c ross. T he a postles, o f c ourse, w ere t o b e t ransformed i nto s heep o n l ater s arcophagi.

1 62.

C ameron, C laudian, p p.

S ee p p. 8 2f. b elow .

' Marble R elief', p p. 1 9ff.

' Christus',

1 9ff.

B ovini, S arcofag r,

C f. A ge, 3 99.

K ollwitz a nd H erdejürgen, K atalog, B 4.

T his s arcophagus m ay h ave b een m ade i n R ome

1 9, 2 5f.

1 2f.

K atalog, B 8. 3 0Off., a nd

1 54ff., a nd n ow, K ollwitz

3 16. C f. K atalog, B 6,

7 , 1 5.

K atalog, B 15.

K atalog, B 7.

P ietri, R oma, p p.

2 3f.

K ollwitz, O strömische

1 423ff.

5 1f. 6 9

4

M osaics a nd I nscriptions i n t he R oman B asilicas

1 63.

K rautheimer, R ome, p .

1 64.

O akeshott, p .

1 65.

S tern,'Mosaiques', p p.

1 66.

C f.

1 67.

S tern,

1 68.

C f.

3 0.

D origo, p p. ö p.

2 4.

1 57ff.

I hm,

1 .

2 10ff.

c it., p p.

1 6Off.

pp.

i bid., p . 1 65, n . 3 7, a nd S chumacher, ' Apsiskomposition', 1 47f. T he C hronograph w as p ublished i n 3 54, s ee p . 8 1 b elow .

1 69.

C f.

S chumacher,

1 70.

W ilpert, M osaiken, 3 , p . 4 . P robably o riginally: D OMINVS/LEGEM D AT. C f. t he i nscription o n a s imilar s croll h eld b y C hrist o n a

o p.

c it., p p.

1 39ff.

l ater m osaic o f c . 4 00, i n t he c upola o f t he b aptistery o f S oter a t N aples. W ilper t, 3 , 3 2. S ee, f or e xample, N ikolasch, p p. 6 3ff. 1 71.

S uch a s C hrist o n t he s arcophagus o f I unius B assus ( 359) o r, m ore p ertinently, C hrist o n L ateran 1 74 o r t he s tatuette n ow i n t he M useo N azionale R omano i n R ome ( both c . 3 60, a lthough a l ater d ate, C . 3 70-380, i s g iven f or t he fitter i n A ge, 4 69). S ee G erke, C hristus, p . 3 8.

1 72.

C onveniently a nalysed b y S chumacher, ' Apsiskomposition',

1 73.

p p.

' Dominus',

p p.

l ff.

a nd

1 37ff.

A nd o n t he p ossibly c ontemporary f resco i n t he C atacomb o f V ia L atina, b ut n ot o n t he, p robably l ater, m osaic i n a n a rcosolium i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla. S ee p p. 6 , 9 a bove. F or t he i dentification o f t his f igure a s M oses, s ee P ietri, R oma, p p. 1 418, 1 438, 1 444.

1 74.

I c annot a ccept t hat e ither o f t he a pse m osaics i n S . C onstanza i s c opied f rom a n e arlier m osaic. I f t here i s a c onnexion b etween o ne o f t hem a nd a n a pse m osaic t hat m ight h ave b een a dded t o t he d ecoration o f O ld S t P eter's a t a bout t his t ime, i t s eems t o m e f ar m ore l ikely t hat t he m osaics i n S . C onstanza i nfluenced t he i maginarii w orking i n t he b asilica, t han t he o ther w ay r ound.

1 75.

S chumacher,

1 76.

B ut n ot n ecessarily i ts d ecoration.

1 77.

I CVR,

1 78.

L ike M . I hm , I f ind t he c omplete d istich s uspect, a lthough t he l ast c omplete l ine a nd h alf l ine r ing t rue. C f. S chumacher, o p. c it.,

1 79.

P L 6 1,

2 ,

p .

' Apsiskomposition', p assim .

4 096.

F errua,

C SEL 2 9,

G rigg, p assim .

E pigrammata, 4 .

1 42.

2 14f.

C f.

9 4f.

7 0

1 80.

P L 6 0, 5 66. C SEL 6 1, 4 22. p . 9 3 b elow .

1 81.

K rautheimer, A rchitecture, p .

1 82.

K irschbaum , p p.

1 83.

C f.

1 84.

D edicated i n 3 91. I CVR, 2 , 4 778. D iehl, 1 857. p p. 2 28, 3 65, a nd K rautheimer, R ome, p p. 4 2f.

1 85.

I CVR,

1 86.

B ut s ee p . 8 4 b elow .

1 87.

I CVR, 2 , 4 786.

1 88.

s ee p .

1 89.

L .P., 1 , p .

1 90.

I CVR, 5 , 1 3273.

1 91.

D assmann, p p.

1 92.

K itzinger, o p.

1 93.

D iehl, 1 772B.

1 94.

O akeshott, p l. 4 5.

1 95.

S ee

1 96.

S ee p .

1 97.

I CVR , 1 , 3 900.

1 98.

W ilpert, M osaiken, 3 , p .

1 99.

K rautheimer, A rchitecture, p p. 1 27ff., p assim , a nd n ow , R ome, p p. 3 3ff.

2 00.

C f. P ietri, R oma, p p.

2 01.

D iehl, 1 778b.

2 02.

I bid., 9 75.

2 03.

I CVR ,

2 04.

D iehl, 1 778a.

2 05.

O akeshott, p p.

1 84ff.

C hastagnol, p p.

2 , 4 780.

P .

F or t he d edication o f S t P aul's, s ee

A pollonj G hetti, p p.

S pain,

2 2ff.

4 21ff. C f. M atthews,

D iehl, 1 761a.

D iehl, 1 761c a nd d .

1 09 b elow . 2 12. D iehl, 9 51.

6 75ff.

F errua, E pigrammata,

c it., p .

C f.

7 7 b elow .

C f. P ietri, R oma, p p.

P .

f igs.

2 1,

2 .

2 2. 1 586ff.

D iehl, 1 764. 4 0.

C f.

T estini,

' Osservazioni, p p.

t ay . X LVIII.

D iehl, 1 761b.

1 2ff.

C f.

K itzinger, B yzantine A rt, p p.

I hm,

3 . 7 1

2 69ff.

' A F ifth-Century R enaissance?',

5 64ff.

C ecchelli, M osaici,

5 19.

I hm ,

4 3.

3 9 b elow .

2 , 4 784.

2 0.

K itzinger, B yzantine A rt, p p. 4 1ff.

p . 9 8 b elow . 2 06.

4 2.

6 8f.

C f.

2 07.

K itzinger,

2 08.

C ecchelli, l oc.

2 09.

I bid.,

2 10.

L ike P rofessor K itzinger, o p. c it., p . 7 4, I f ind i t d ifficult n ot t o s ee s ome c onnexion b etween a n ew c hurch d edicated t o V irgo M aria, D iehl, 9 76, a nd t he f indings o f t he C ouncil o f E phesus. C f. S pain, p p. 5 3Off.

2 11.

A ge,

2 12.

K rautheimer, R ome, p .

2 13.

I bid., p p.

2 14.

F or e xample, t he m osaic o n t he f açade o f S t P eter's, g iven b y F lavius Avitus M arinianus, c onsul, I CVR, 2 , 4 102. D iehl; 1 758. C f.

o p.

t ay .

4 38.

c it., p p. c it.

L XII.

P eter i n g allicantu a lso a ppears o n o ne o f t he p anels. 3 4.

C f.

p .

9 5 b elow .

4 6ff.

B uddensieg, p p.

R ome, p p.

6 9ff.

1 68ff., M atthews, p .

2 15.

K itzinger, B yzantine A rt, p p.

5 3ff.

2 16.

K rautheimer, A rchitecture, p .

1 33.

2 17.

3 67,

a nd K rautheimer,

5 1f.

K itzinger,

.

c it., p p.

5 8ff.

I a m g rateful t o P rofessor B reckenridge f or t his i nformation. C f. M atthews,

p p.

3 52ff.,

a nd P ietri, R oma, p p.

5 58ff.

2 18.

K rautheimer, ' A F ifth-Century R enaissance?', p assim, b ut n ow , R ome, p . 3 38, n . f or p p. 4 3ff.

2 19.

K itzinger,

2 20.

C f.

2 21.

C f. t he o pposite i n t he s cene o f t he l iberalitas o n t he f rieze o f t he A rch o f C onstantine, p . 1 15 b elow .

2 22.

L 'Orange a nd N ordhagen,

p .

K itzinger,

6 1.

2 23.

p .

o p.

c it.,

p p.

6 0f.

2 4 a bove.

o p.

c it., p .

5 9.

F or w orkshop p ractice,

c f.

T he p ositions o f t he a postles o n t he t riumphal a rch o f S . M aria M aggiore, h owever, a re r eversed.

5 2 24.

D elbrück,

7 0.

P eter a nd P aul i n I vory a nd S ilver C f.

' L'iconografia',

V olbach,

' Catalogo',

2 25.

V olbach, 1 08.

T estini,

1 1.

2 26.

P L 6 0,

C SEL 6 1,

2 16,

2 27.

A ge,

1 13ff.

E lfenbeinarbeiten, 6 ,

2 0;

2 18.

4 54.

7 2

a nd A ge,

1 34, 4 85,

1 47; 5 04.

T estini,

2 28.

V olbach, 1 61.

2 29.

T estini,

2 30.

C f. T estini,

2 31.

C f. B uddensieg, p p.

2 32.

D alton, E arly C hristian A ntiquities, 2 92. V olbach, 1 17. ' L'iconografia', ' Catalogo', 1 6. A ge, 4 55.

2 33.

S ee n . 1 04. C f. T hecla, n . 7 .

2 34.

S ee E xcursus, p p. 1 37, 1 39 b elow . T he p ileus p annonicus, h owever, h ad c ontinued t o a ppear i n c atacomb p ainting i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. C f. p p. 1 12f, 1 31 b elow .

2 35.

V olbach, 1 20.

2 36.

B uddensieg, p p.

2 37.

S chumacher,

2 38.

I bid., p . 1 81.

2 39.

T estini, 5 9.

2 40.

P L 1 6, 1 022f.

2 41.

V olbach, 1 07.

2 42.

C f. T estini,

2 43.

D alton,

2 44.

G arrucci, S toria, 6 , 4 60, 1 -4. 6 6 ( ampulla).

2 45.

G arrucci, 6 , 4 35, 3 .

2 46.

S trong, p .

2 47.

W ealth, 1 05.

2 48.

T estini, 5 5. T here i s s ome l ack o f p recision i n t he d escription o f t hese v essels.

C f. A ge, p p. 5 96ff.

' L'iconografia', p p.

2 45f.

' Osservazioni', p .

2 74.

1 88ff. T estini,

t he d escription o f P aul i n t he A cts o f P aul a nd

T estini, 3 0. 1 68ff.

' Apsiskomposition', p p. 1 78ff.

T estini, 4 . ' L'iconografia', p p.

2 91.

V olbach, 1 16.

2 51f.

T estini,

' Catalogol, 1 5.

S trong, p p.

1 86, 1 89.

A ge, 4 52. T estini,

T estini, 6 3.

1 86.

6

2 49.

T estini, 1 .

A ge, 4 00.

P eter a nd P aul i n G lass a nd B ronze

S otomayor, p p.

1 19ff.

F our o f P eter:

G arrucci,

S toria,

3 , 1 69,6;

M orey, 1 30, 2 49 a nd 2 98. T estini, 1 32, 2 09, 1 28, 1 33, ( 162). F our o f P aul: M orey, 5 4, 1 31, 3 23 a nd 2 70 ( with C hrist). T estini, 1 81, 2 10, 1 37, 1 23. C f. R imoldi, ' San P ietro', p . 2 82.

7 3

2 50.

V opel, p p.

4 8ff.

2 51.

B ardy, p p.

2 24,

2 52.

O r g old, c f. S chlunk, c otta, A ge, 5 06.

2 53.

C f.

2 54.

I bid., p p. 3 3, 6 8f. ' L'iconografia', p p.

2 55.

C f.

2 56.

C f. a ppearance o f R oman b ishops, n ot o nly f ormer b ishops n oted f or t heir s anctity, s uch a s S ixtus a nd C allixtus, b ut

G rabar,

Z anchi R oppo, p p.

1 9ff., 4 9ff.,

5 8f.

2 27. 5 8,

T estini,

I conography, p .

C f. S otomayor, p p. 2 6Off. S chlunk,

s uch a s D amasus.

1 7 a bove.

A lso s tamped o n t erra-

6 9.

b ronze m edallion o f P aul,

c ontemporaries,

4 3.

C f.

1 4f., a nd T estini,

1 34.

S ee p .

S otomayor, p p.

9 0 b elow .

2 57.

S ee p .

1 13f.

2 58.

C f. G erke, ' Petrus u nd P aulus', p p. 3 07ff., L 'Orange, ' PlotinusP aul', p assim, a nd V opel, p p. 4 9f. O n p . 5 2, V opel c oncludes ' ... d ass d er U ebergang v om j ugendlichen z um g reisenhaften T ypus e twa i n d ie Z eit d es D amasus z u s etzen s ei.'.

2 59.

S ee p p.55,

2 60.

P ietri,

2 61.

C f.

V opel,

2 62.

C f.

B rilliant, p p.

2 63.

R eekmans,

2 64.

O r,

2 65.

I bid., p p.

2 66.

C f. t he u se o f H ercules o n a f ondo d 'oro, M orey, 3 16, t o c . 3 50 b y t he w oman's h air-style a nd n ecklace.

2 67.

J esus p ronubus.

2 68.

M orey,

2 69.

C f.

2 70.

M orey,

1 12f. b elow .

' Concordia', p assim . p .

p p.

p ossibly,

3 6,

4 9,

C f.

B rilliant, p .

J uno P ronuba.

6 9ff.

C f. A ge,

C f. 2 62,

3 7.

T estini, p p.

2 71.

C f.

2 72.

M orey,

2 73.

F or e xample, G arr.,

2 41,

3 14.

2 87ff. p .

2 63,

1 435, n .

4 .

2 01. 3 1f.

2 81. d atable

2 9.

1 75.

1 95ff.

S otomayor, p .

4 50,

p p.

R eekmans, p p.

F or e xample, M orey,

1 20, n n.

e xamples o f P aul o n t he l eft, M orey,

c it.

1 36ff., a nd P ietri, R oma,

3 2ff.

B rilliant, 3 7.

a nd P ietri, o p.

T estini,

i .e.

1 1,

1 46, a nd A ge,

T estini, 1 25,

1 2,

1 3, o nly q uotes f our

o n P eter's r ight. 5 07.

1 36.

1 71,3, w here t he f igure o n t he l eft,

7 4

a lthough h e h as n o b eard, i s c aptioned a s P aul: h e i s o bviously P eter. C f. i bid., p p. 1 79ff. T he u se o f R AVLVS ( sic) i s c ommon: f or e xample, M orey, 5 2, T estini, 1 79. C f. M orey, 1 87, c ited P ietri ' Concordia', p . 2 87. 2 74.

E .

d e R othschild C ollection.

V olbach, E arly C hristian A rt, 5 9.

2 75.

T he i mperial w orkshop, o r c raftsmen, w ere n o d oubt v ery b usy. C f. A ge, 2 79. T he p oint i s v alid, e ven i f t he c ameo w ere m ade i n C onstantinople i n c . 3 35 f or C onstantius I I.

2 76.

T his i s c onfirmed b y R oman m edallions, f or e xample a m edallion o f D iocletian, M aximian, C onstantius, a nd G alerius, A ge, 3 1, w here t he t wo A ugusti a re p laced o n t he l eft o f e ach f ace, o pposite t heir r espective C aesars, o n t he r ight; o r b y t he m issorium o f T heodosius, s ee p p. 1 14f. b elow , o n w hich V alentinian I I a ppears o n t he l eft o f T heodosius, a nd A rcadius, t he s mallest a nd m ost j unior, o n t he r ight.

2 77.

C f. M orey, 2 40, i n t he M useo N azionale, F lorence. P ET/RVS i s i nscribed o n a t abula a nsata o n t he l eft a nd P AV/LVS s imilarly o n t he r ight: P aul's c olumn, h owever, i s a cclaimed b y t wo f igures, P eter's b y n one.

2 78.

T estini, 4 7.

2 79.

C f. S tuhlfauth, ' Das S chiff', p p. 1 11ff., U llmann, C lementis', p p. 3 05, 3 13, a nd R ahner, p p. 3 71ff.

2 80.

K aufmann, p p. 2 95f., f ollowed b y V olbach, E arly C hristian A rt, p . 3 15. O n s culpture, a s w ell a s o n o ther a pplied a rts, C hrist h as l ong h air, e specially w hen s hown w ith a b eard. C f. G erke, C hristus, p assim . T he f igure a t t he h elm o f t he l amp i s b earded, b ut d oes n ot h ave l ong h air.

2 81.

G arrucci,

2 82.

G arr., 6 , p . 1 05. S tuhlfauth, ' Das S chiff'., ' Bronzelampen', 4 , p p. 1 28, 1 38. B ovini, o p. c it., p . 1 1, f ollowed b y S chumacher, ' Apsiskomposition l , p . 1 66, n . 1 32, a nd S otomayor, A p. 1 61, p . 2 47.

2 83.

D iehl, 1 592.

2 84.

P ietri, R oma, p p. 1 421f., d enies t hat i t r epresents t he t raditio l egis, b ut c f. p . 1 437.

2 85.

T estini, 5 4. S old i n L ondon, 1 940, p resent w hereabouts u nknown. Ia m g rateful t o M r R .M . C amber, f ormerly o f t he B ritish M useum ,

S toria, 6 , p p.

1 04ff.

' Epistola

B ovini, M onumenti, p p.

1 0f.

f or t his i nformation. 2 86.

S ee p p.

2 87.

I bid., 6 9.

2 88.

C f.

2 0,

2 4 a bove, a nd T estini, p p.

2 64ff.

S chlunk, 1 29, T estini, 4 0, A ge, 5 09;

A lso c f. A ge, p .

5 94.

a nd S chlunk, 1 33.

7

T he S ignificance o f t he E vidence

2 89.

S ee p p. 4 4ff.

a bove.

2 90.

C f. t he r elief i n t he M etropolitan M useum o f A rt, N ew Y ork, A ge, 5 02, t he a uthenticity o f w hich h as b een d oubted.

2 91.

B enoit, p p.

2 92.

I bid, 5 , 1 1.

2 93.

S ansoni, p .

2 94.

C f. J ohannes F icker, w ho d istinguishes b etween ' Ital. M armor' a nd ' Griech. M armor'. O f t he s arcophagi d iscussed h ere a nd e xamined b y F icker, o nly t hree, L ateran 5 5, 1 06 a nd 2 12, a re d escribed a s I talic - p resumably L una m arble, t he r est ( nine)

7 ff.

6 1.

a re l isted a s o f G reek m arble . 2 95.

C f. A ge, p p.

2 96.

T estini,

2 97.

G rabar, I conography, p p. 6 8f., f ig. 1 63. i s s uspect.

2 98.

T estini,

2 99.

G atti, p p. 1 47f., 1 53.

3 00.

G atti, p . 2 15. I t h as b een s uggested t hat o ne m ight b e t he a mpulla d escribed o n p . 5 0 a bove, G arrucci, S toria, 6 , 4 35,3, a nd

7 3.

2 97ff. C f.

S otomayor, p p.

' Osservazioni', p p.

C f. T estini, 6 4, w hich

2 71f.

B ovini, M önumenti, p . 9 .

t he o ther G arr., 4 35,2. 3 01.

1 4f.

S ee p . 8 5 b elow .

7 6

M atthews, p .

3 56.

P ART I I P ETER A ND P AUL, A ND T HE P RIMACY O F R OME 1 T he P opularity o f P aul i n R ome

T he i mportance o f S t P aul i n R oman a rt o f t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury h as b een r ecognized n ow f or m any y ears, b ut h is p opularity w ith t he c itizens o f R ome h as n ot p erhaps r eceived t he a ttention i t d eserves. T he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury w itnessed a n a wakening o f i nterest i n t he w ritings o f t he a postle, w hich w as p erhaps m ore t ypical o f t he E ast t han o f a c onservative W estern C hurch, p roud o f t he p reservation o f i ts o wn t raditions. T he f irst w ritten e vidence f or t his a wakening o f i nterest i s t o b e f ound i n t he e arliest L atin c ommentary o n t he P auline e pistles, w ritten i n R ome i n a bout 3 62.

T his w as t he w ork o f Marius Victorinus,1

a f ormer p agan r hetor, w ho, a fter h is c onversion t o C hristianity, h ad a lready i n his A dversus A rium a ttacked t he A rian h eresy. H is c ommentary w as f ollowed b etween 3 75 a nd 3 80 b y a s econd c ommentary o n t he P auline e pistles b y t he Ambrosiaster, 2 a c ontemporary o f D amasus, b ishop o f R ome. T his w as a b rilliant p iece o f w ork, w hich i nfluenced m any l ater c ontemporaries,

i ncluding A ugustine.

J erome w as f amiliar

w ith i t, a s w itness his b itter a ttack i n 3 84 o n t he Ambrosiaster's a dherence t o t he O ld L atin v ersion o f t he e pistles. L ater i n 3 87/8, i n P alestine a t t he r equest o f P aula a nd E ustochium , J erome p roduced, s omewhat r eluctantly, h is o wn c ommentaries o n f our o f t he e pistles. H is c ommentary o n G alatians,

3

a t l east, m ust h ave r eached h is

a ristocratic f riends, i ncluding M arcella, o n t he Aventine s oon a fterw ards: i t i s s ignificant t hat J erome r efers i n h is p reface t o t he e arlier w ork o f V ictorinus b ut n ot t o t he c ommentary o f t he A mbrosiaster. P erhaps o f g reater s ignificance f or o ur p urposes i s t he a ttempt o f b oth t he Ambrosiaster a nd J erome t o r esolve t he d ifference b etween P eter a nd P aul a t A ntioch ( Gal. 2 , 1 1-14);"

i t

w as t he l atter's w ayward s olution t hat p rompted A ugustine's c ritical a ttention f rom 3 94/5 o nward. T he j ourney o f R ufinus o f A quileia f rom J erusalem t o R ome i n 3 97 m ay have f ostered t hese d evelopments. H is t ranslations o f O rigen's c ommentaries o n S t P aul u ndoubtedly h ad a d irect i nfluence o n t he E xpositiones X III e pistularum P auli o f P elagius. 5 H owever, i t w as h is t ranslation, p ossibly i n R ome a t t his t ime, o f t he E pistola C lementis, t hat w as t o h ave a m ore s ignificant i nfluence o n t he d evelopment o f t he j uristic c laims o f t he R oman b ishops. 6 D espite h is c ontact w ith P elagius, h owever, R ufinus l eft R ome i n 3 98 w ith t he f ull s upport o f i ts b ishop, S iricius, a lthough h e w as t o b e c ondemned l ater b y S iricius's s uccessor, A nastasius. T he a rrival i n R ome i n 4 04 o f a d elegation t o p lead b efore I nnocent I t he c ause o f J ohn C hrysostom , t he b ishop o f C onstantinople, t ogether , with m any o ther e xiles, m ay have a lso h ad a q uickening e ffect o n P auline s tudies, w hich w ere e qually p opular i n t he E ast. 7 F or e xample, C hrysostom's c ommentary o n G alatians, w ritten c .

3 98, m ay a gain h ave h ad s ome i nfluence o n

7 7

P elagius. I n t his h othouse o f P auline s tudies, 8 i t i s, t herefore, n ot s urprising t hat s ome p eculiar g rowths s prang u p: n otably t he l etters o f S eneca t o t he a postle, P au1. 8 H owever, i t w as P elagius, u sing t he w ork o f t he A mbrosiaster, w ho w as t o p resent a n ovel v iew o f P aul t o his p atrons a nd p rotectors,

t he C hristianized a ristocracy.

1°

P elagius s pent m any y ears i n R ome, 1 1 a lthough his i deas h ad t o a wait w ider d issemination u ntil a fter 4 05, b ut a nte v astationem u rbis R omae a s M arius M ercator r ecords, 1 2 w hen h is E xpositiones w ere p ublished. Among t hose p atrons w ho g ave P elagius p ositive e ncouragement w ere P aulinus o f N ola a nd t he f uture b ishop o f R ome, S ixtus I II. I n a p eriod o f e ver-increasing u ncertainty t he P elagian m ovement p resented a p rogramme o f r eform t hat s eemed t o a nswer m any o f t he d oubts r aised b y t he m ore d evout c itizens o f R ome. P elagius s tressed t he n ecessity f or h armony w ithin t he C hurch. I n h is I ncipit P rologus E pistulae a d R omanos h e r efers t o t he c oncordia a postolorum : R omani e x I udaeis g entibusque c rediderunt q uam o b r em e os h umilans, a d p acem e t c oncordiam c ohortatur. 1 8 H e a lso l aid s pecial e mphasis o n t he L ex D ei, a s h ad t he Ambrosiaster, b ut a ny c onnexion b etween t he i deas d isseminated i n R ome b y P elagius a t t his t ime a nd t he n ew i conographies, s uch a s t he t raditio l egis, s hould n ot b e p ushed t oo f ar. 1 4 I n t his h e r eflected t he g rowing c oncern o f m any C hristian w riters, i ncluding A mbrose, a bout t he e xact r elationship b etween i us a nd f as, 1 8 b etween t he L aw o f t he E mpire a nd t he L aw o f t he C ity o f G od. T he p opularity o f t he w ritings o f S t P aul i n R ome i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury m ay h ave b een s timulated b y t he p opularity o f t he a postle's c ult, t here a s e lsewhere. H owever, i t i s a lso p ossible t hat t hese v ery w ritings s timulated t hat i nterest: b ut t his, o f c ourse, w as n ever l ikely t o o ccur w hilst t he e pistles w ere s till i n t heir o riginal G reek, w hich, d espite P aul's ' professionalism ', h ad a lways p roved a n o bstacle t o t heir a ppreciation b y t he e ducated R oman. P eter, h owever, w as t he o ne a postle w hose m essage h ad s ufficient i nterest f or t he R oman a ristocracy, s teeped a s t hey w ere i n t he t raditions o f t heir p ast, t o p rovoke d ebate a mong t heir m embers. P erhaps t he m ost n otorious c ontributor t o t hat d ebate w as t he E mperor J ulian h imself, w ho w rote h is A gainst t he G alilaeans, i n G reek, a t A ntioch b etween 3 62 a nd 3 63: h is f amiliarity w ith P aul's w ork i s n ot t o b e q uestioned. T he a ll-pervasive C lassical T radition, n evertheless, p laced a b arrier i n t he w ay o f a f ull c omprehension o f t he P auline e pistles: t he n eed f or s ympathetic c ommentary w as, t herefore, c rucial. A s w e h ave s een, t he e arliest L atin c ommentary o n t he P auline e pistles a ppeared i n R ome a bout 3 62, t he v ery y ear J ulian w as w riting h is d iatribes a gainst t he a postle. P aul m ay i ndeed h ave a ppealed t o a n i ncreasingly C hristianized, R oman a ristocracy, a nd t o t heir c lients, j ust b ecause h is w ritings, a nd i nconsistencies, p rovided a m eans o f r econciling t heir p ast, t heir w ays o f t hought a nd p hilosophy o f l ife, w ith C hristianity i tself. T he p oint h as o ften b een m ade t hat t here w as a f ar g reater g ap b etween t he p agan s enators o f t he f ourth c entury a nd t heir p redecessors o f t he a ge o f A ugustus, t han e ver t here w as b etween S ymmachus a nd h is C hristian c olleagues i n t he S enate. P aul, a fter a ll, w as t he a postle w ho h ad t he a uthority t o p reach t o t he p agan c itizens o f R ome. " T he a ttack o f P rudentius c ontra o rationem S ymmachi, w ritten s ome t ime a fter t he e vent, i n 4 02,

7 8

c ombines a n e pisode i n t he l ife o f P aul, h is j ourney t o R ome 2 8),

i n t he p raefatio, 17

( Acts

w ith a n e ulogium o n S ymmachus, R omani d ecus

e loqui, 1 8 a t t he e nd o f t he b ook. T hus t he s tep t o t he c ultus o f P eter a nd P aul m ay h ave f ollowed f rom t he r eading a nd d iscussion o f P aul's e pistles. T he c oincidence t hat t he p rimacy o f t he R oman C hurch r ested o n i ts f oundation b y b oth P eter a nd P aul w ould n ot h ave i nhibited t his p rocess; t he s upport o f p owerful a nd i nfluential R oman c itizens, w hether m embers o f t he a ristocracy o r o f l ower o rders, c ould n ot h ave i nhibited t he c laims o f t he l ocal C hurch t o a postolic p rimacy w ithin t he C hurch a s aw hole; i ndeed i t m ay h ave g iven f urther c ause t o e mphasize t hose v ery c laims b ased a s t hey w ere o n t he a uthority o f b oth a postles. T he c oncordia a postolorum m ight w ell h ave b een a p roduct o f t hat c onstant i ntellectual p ursuit f or a s ynthesis, f or t he r econciliation o f t he d iverse, s o t ypical o f t he i ntellectual l ife o f t hat t ime . T his g rowth i n s peculation a nd i n t he s tudy o f t he w orks o f S t P aul f ormed p art o f a w ider r enascence o f L atin C hristian l iterature, w hich h ad b egun u nder D amasus. I t a lso c oincided w ith a r evival o f i nterest i n t he s ecular, o r a ntiquarian, t raditions o f R ome. 1 8 D espite t he w idening c hasm b etween C hristian l iterature a nd t he c armina p oetarum, i t w as o ften d ifficult f or t he b ishop o f R ome t o d istinguish b etween t he t wo m ovement, e specially a s t he p atrons o f b oth w ere o ften t he s ame p eople - t he p owerful R oman a ristocracy. I ndeed, t he b ishops, n otably S iricius, f ound i t e mbarrassing t o i nterfere a t a ll i n t he i ntellectual l ife o f t he C ity, a f act t hat p robably e xplains t he a pparent i mmunity o f P elagius u ntil 4 18, a s w ell a s t he i neffectiveness o f t he c ondemnation o f R ufinus b y A nastasius. I t w as d uring t hese y ears t hat t he o ne g reat s urviving m osaic o f P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia w as p roduced f or S . P udenziana. 2° T he t opographical v iew o f J erusalem r ecords v ividly t he c ontacts t hat had b een e stablished w ith t he E ast a t t his t ime. T he w hole m osaic, w ith i ts a ccent b oth o n t eaching a nd o n a uthority, f its n aturally i nto a Rome r ife a t l ast w ith t heological s peculation. G reat c hanges, h owever, w ere t o t ake p lace i n t he n ew c entury. T he t hreat o f t he O strogoths t o R ome i n 4 06 w as s uccessfully a verted b y S tilico, b ut i n 4 08 a nd 4 09 R ome w as b esieged b y t he V isigoths u nder A laric. I n 4 09 P riscus A ttalus, t he p raefectus u rbi, a p agan, w as n ot o nly e lected E mperor o f t he W est b y t he S enate, a t t he b ehest o f A laric, b ut a lso b aptized a n A rian b y t he A rian b ishop, S igesar. I n 4 10 R ome f ell t o t he A rian G oths. 21 T he n ew f ounders o f R ome, P eter a nd P aul, had n ot b een a ble t o p rotect t he C ity f rom t he b arbaric, A rian o nslaught: t he i mpact o n t he C hristian w orld w as t raumatic. 22 A s i s w ell k nown, A ugustine s et h imself t he t ask f rom 4 12/3 o nwards o f a nswering t he q uestions r aised b y m any d isillusioned C hristians a nd o f c ountering t he c riticism o f p agan p ropagandists: t he r esult was h is d e c ivitate D ei. 23 T he c risis o f 4 10,

t he f light o f m any o f t he C hristian

a ristocracy a nd t heir p roteges,

i n p articular R ufinus a nd P elagius,

o pened t he w ay f or t he b ishops o f R ome t o f ind a n i ndependent i dentity, a w ay w hich l ed, a fter t he c ondemnation o f P elagius f or h eresy i n 4 18 a nd t he e lection o f B oniface, t o a f urther a ssertion o f t he r ights a nd a uthority o f t he R oman b ishop, S t P eter, i nevitably a t t he e xpense o f S t P aul.

T he i nterests o f t he C hristianized

7 9

a ristocracy r emaining i n R ome t ended t o c oincide w ith t hose o f t heir • n ew b ishop. E ven t he g ulf s eparating t heir b rilliant c ultural p ast f rom t he C hristianity o f J erome, A ugustine, o r e ven O rosius, w hose s even b ooks, a dversum p aganos, w ere a lmost c omplete b y 4 17, h ad b egun t o n arrow . I n t hat y ear ( 417) C laudius R utilius N amatianus, t he p agan p raefectus u rbi f or 4 14, w rote a c onsidered r eply t o t he f irst e leven b ooks o f A ugustine's d e c ivitate D ei. 24 N one t he l ess, t he b itterness r oused b y r ecent e vents w as g radually s ubmerged b eneath a s entimental v iew o f w hat h ad g one b efore.

I t i s a n i dealized v iew o f

t he p agan a ristocracy i n R ome i n 3 84 t hat M acrobius d escribes i n c . 4 31 i n his S aturnalia. 25 T angible e vidence o f t he g rowing a lliance b etween t he C hristianized a ristocracy a nd t heir l ocal C hurch c ould b e s een i n t he r efurbishment a nd r edecoration o f R ome's b asilicas. f ifth-century r enovatio u rbis o r r enascence, a s w e have s een, 26

T his

c oncentrated o n a n ew s tyle, i n p articular o n a c lassical p urity t hat h ad b een a bsent f rom s imilar b uildings o f t he p revious c entury. T his s trong s tylistic d ifference b etween t he R ome o f C onstantine a nd T heodosius a nd t he R ome o f t he p apacy e mphasizes t his c hange o f o utlook.

8 0

2

P eter a nd P aul i n t he R oman L iturgy

T he p opularity o f P auline s tudies a fter a bout 3 60 i s, h owever, r ather a s ymptom o f a c hange: w hy w as t he a postle s o m uch m ore p opular i n R ome i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury t han h e h ad b een i n t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury? T he c ultus o f t he t wo R oman m artyrs, P eter a nd P aul, p robably b egan i n t he p revious c entury, a t a t ime w hen t he C hurch w as u nder a ttack f rom t he i mperial a uthorities. T he c ult, h owever, h ad t o w ait u ntil t he f ourth c entury b efore i t c ould r eceive o fficial s upport. I t i s p erhaps s ignificant t hat t he f irst d ocumentary e vidence a bout t he i nauguration, o r i nventio, 27 o f t he c ult i s t o b e f ound i n t he D epositio M artyrum, 29 w ritten i t w ould s eem i n 3 36, 29 b ut o nly p ublished b y F ilocalus i n his C hronograph i n 3 54, i n t he e arly y ears o f t he e piscopate o f L iberius. T he s o-called L iberian C atalogue, a lso t o b e f ound i n t he C hronograph o f 3 54, r ecords p assus a utem [ Petrus] c um P aulo d ie I II. K l. i ulias c ons. s s. i mperante N erone. I t i s, t herefore, p articularly s ignificant t hat s cenes o f b oth t he m artyrdom o f P eter a nd t he m artyrdom o f P aul o nly a ppeared o n s arcophagi a fter 3 54. 9 0 T he C atalogue a lso l ists P eter a s R ome's f irst b ishop, P etrus a nn. X XV. m ens. u no d ie V III .., i gnoring P au1. 9 1 H owever, t he p eculiarly R oman n ature o f t he j oint-festival o f t he m artyrdom o f t he t wo a postles o n 2 9 J une w as u ndoubtedly a n i mportant e lement a fter 3 54 i n t he p opularity o f t he i conography o f t he a postles i n c oncordia. T he c ultus o f P eter a nd P aul, a ccording t o t he f ourth-century D epositio M artyrum , w as i naugurated i n 2 58, d uring t he V alerian p ersecution. 3 2 A w all o f t he s o-called m emoria a postolorum o n t he V ia A ppia w as c overed with g raffiti r eferring s pecifically t o P eter a nd P aul a nd t hese h ave b een a ssigned " t o t he s econd h alf o f t he t hird c entury a nd p ossibly t o t he b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury. T he e arliest m ay d ate f rom c . 2 60. T hey r efer s pecifically t o P etre e t P aule, o r t o P aule e t P etre, w ithout d istinction, a lthough i nscriptions i n G reek p lace P aul b efore P eter. I n c ontrast, t he g raffiti u nder t he b asilica o f S t P eter's, w hich c an b e d ated t o t he e nd a nd t urn o f t he t hird c entury, 9 4 w ith o ne e xception, m ake n o c ertain r eference t o e ither o f t he a postles. S ome t ime b efore 3 45, p ossibly a s e arly a s 3 20, o r e ven b efore 3 13, t he b asilica a postolorum , a c emetery b asilica, w as b uilt o n t he s ite i n C atacumbas. 3 5 I f i t w ere b uilt i n 3 1 2 /3 , i t w ould have b een t he f irst c emetery b asilica t o b e b uilt a t R ome a fter C onstantine's v ictory a t t he M ilvian B ridge o n 2 8 O ctober, 3 12. I t w ould h ave p rovided d evotees o f t he t wo a postles, w ho m ust h ave b een n umerous, w ith a mple s pace i n w hich t o c onduct t heir s ervices. I t w as i n t his b asilica t hat D amasus p laced h is f amous i nscription, g iving o fficial r ecognition t o t he c ult.

%

T he a postles P eter a nd P aul s eem t o h ave b een c onsidered b y t he R omans a s C hristian g uardians o f a r enewed, o r C hristianized, R ome a nd a s s uch r eplaced t he p agan g uardians o f t he o ld R ome, t he D ioscuri. 37 T he i nscription o f D amasus h as b een a nalysed b y m any

8 1

s cholars " a nd t he i mplications a re p lain: R ome c laims t he a postles a s s uos d yes a nd D amasus p roclaims t he a postles a s n ova s idera. L ikewise P eter a nd P aul w ere c onsidered t o b e t he f ounders o f t he n ew C ity; t hey r eplaced t he p agan f ounders o f R ome, R omulus a nd R emus. 3 9 I ndeed D amasus t ried h ard t o b ridge t he g ulf b etween t he p agan c ulture o f t he R oman a ristocracy a nd t he o fficial, C hristian r eligion. N ot t heleast o f t hese b ridges w as t he c oncept o f R oma i tself, 40 a lbeit a r ejuvenated R ome. P erhaps, t herefore, i t i s n ot a c oincidence t hat t he r enovatio u rbis, t he f oundation o f a n ova R oma b y P eter a nd P aul, w as c elebrated o n 2 9 J une, t he s ame d ay a s t he a nniversary o f t he f oundation, o r r efoundation, 41 o f R ome b y Q uirinus-Romulus. T he c ult o f P eter a nd P aul c ontinued t o f lourish b y t he V ia A ppia u ntil t he e nd o f t he c entury, w hen i t w as p robably s uperseded b y t he c ult o f S t S ebastian. 42 A s t he l atter c ult i s a lso r ecorded i n t he D epositio M artyrum u nder 2 0 J anuary, i t m ust h ave b een f lourishing t here b efore 3 36. W ith t he c ompletion o f S t P eter's b asilica a nd t he d edication o f t he n ew b asilica o f S . P aolo f uori l e m ura, t here m ay w ell h ave b een a t endency t o n eglect t he b asilica a postolorum . " I ndeed t he d isasters o f 4 08, 4 09, a nd 4 10 m ay h ave d elivered a d eath b low t o t he p opularity o f t he c ult o f t he t wo m artyrs o n t he V ia A ppia. T he a uthor o f t he s ixth-century L iber P ontificalis " d oes n ot m ention t he a postles i n his r ecord o f c onstruction b y S ixtus I II o f am onastery a d C atacumbas. T he S . S ebastiani, p ossibly w ritten i n t hat m onastery w hen S ixtus b ishop, h owever, d oes m ention t hat t he r elics o f S t S ebastian b e b uried i n i nitio c riptae i uxta v estigia A postolorum . "

t he P assio w as w ere t o

A fter t he s ack o f R ome i n 4 10 a b asilica w ithin t he C ity w alls, n ow k nown a s S . P ietro i n V incoli, w as p robably t aken o ver b y d evotees o f t he t wo a postles. A t t he C ouncil o f E phesus ( 431) t he R oman p resbyter, P hilip, s igned a s p resbyter e cclesiae a postolorum , p resumably a s p resbyter o f t his p articular b asilica, " a lthough a w ider i nterpretation m ight have b een i ntended. 47 T he b asilica, w hich m ay h ave b een p artially d estroyed b y A laric's G oths, w as t o b e r ebuilt a t t he e xpense o f t he C ourt a t C onstantinople, " p robably a s a v otive g ift o f t he E astern E mperor, T heodosius I I. A s s uch i t w as t o r e-enunciate t hat c loser u nion, o r c oncordia, b etween E ast a nd W est, t hat h ad b een p romulgated b y t he c onstruction o f S . P aolo f uori l e m ura i n t he p revious c entury. 49 T he n ew b asilica w as r econsecrated b y S ixtus I II s ome t ime b etween 4 39 a nd 4 40 d uring t he s tay i n R ome o f t he E mpress L icinia E udoxia, w ife o f t he W estern E mperor, V alentinian I II, a nd d aughter o f t he E astern E mperor, T heodosius I I. T hus t he n ew c hurch w as s ometimes c alled t he t itulus E udoxiae, o r b asilica E udoxiana. H er h usband, V alentinian I II, a t t he r equest o f S ixtus I II, g ave a n i maginem a uream c um X II p ortas e t a postolos X II e t S alvatorem q uem v oti g ratiae s uae s uper c onfessionem b eati P etri a postoli p osuit, a s w ell a s o rdering t he e nrichment o f t he c onfessionem b eati P auli a postoli e x a rgento, q ui h abet l ibras C C. 5 0 A t t he d edication o f t he r ebuilt b asilica t he o pportunity w as t aken t o s tress t he c oncordia o f t he a postles , P eter a nd P aul, U num q uaeso p ares u num d uo s umite m unus, 5 1 e choing t he c oncordia b etween t he E astern a nd W estern c ourts:

i n a ll o fficial d ocuments u ntil a t l east

5 95 t he b asilica r emained t he t itulus a postolorum . A m ove w ithin t he C ity w alls m ay w ell h ave b een d ictated b y t he f ear o f b arbarian a ttack,

8 2

e specially a t t hat t ime f rom t he A rian V andal,

G eiseric, w ho h ad j ust

s eized C arthage a nd w as p ersecuting o rthodox C hristians i n A frica. T he d edication m ay t hus h ave h ad a nother s ignificance, h aec P etri P aulique s imul n unc n omine s igno, 52 a lthough i t i s a lso h ighly s ignificant t hat t he c hurch s eems t o h ave b een r ecognised - p rimarily b y t he c itizens o f R ome - a s t he b asilica c ontaining t he c atenas/ v incla s acrata P etri. " I t was t his l atter t itle t hat w as e ventually t o r eceive o fficial r ecognition. 54 D uring t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury p ilgrims f locked t o v isit t he s hrines o f t he t wo m artyrs. T he E mperor J ulian r emarked a s e arly a s 3 63, i n h is A gainst t he G alilaeans, w hich w as p ublished i n t hat y ear, t hat t he t ombs o f b oth t he a postles, P aul's a s w ell a s P eter's, w ere w orshipped s ecretly b y t heir f ollowers. 55 A n e arly h ymn, p robably w ritten b y Ambrose5 6 i n t he e arly e ighties, h owever, a ttests t o t he c elebration o f t he f estival o f t he t wo martyrs a t t hree p laces i n R ome; t hese c an o nly b e t he t hree C onstantinian b asilicas o n t he V ia A ppia, t he V ia O stiensis, a nd t he V ia T riumphalis. J erome, w ho l ike Ambrose had a ttended t he R ome C ouncil o f 3 82, r emained i n R ome i n s ome s ort o f s ecretarial c apacity u ntil t he d eath o f D amasus i n 3 84. L ater h e g ives u s g limpses o f t he p ilgrims' a ctivities i n R ome a t t hat t ime. I n h is C ommentary o n G alatians, w ritten c . 3 87, h e a sks U bi a libi t anto s tudio e t f requentia a d e cciesias e t a d m artyrum s epulcra c oncurritur? U bi s ic a d s imilitudinem c oelestis t onitrui ' Amen' r eboat, e t v acua i dolorum t empla q uatiuntur? 57 I n h is D e v iris i llustribus, w ritten l ater i n 3 92/3, h e r ecalls t hat P aul h ic e rgo q uarto d ecimo N eronis a nno, e odem d ie q uo P etrus R omae, p ro C hristo c apite t runcatur, s epultusque e st i n v ia O stiensi58 a nd t hat P eter S epultus R omae i n V aticano, i uxta v iam T riumphalem, t otius o rbis v eneratione c elebratur.59 T here i s, h owever, n o m ention o f t he b asilica a postolorum o n t he V ia A ppia. I ndeed t he i mplication o f h is C ontra V igilantium , w ritten i n 4 06, i s t hat t he b ishop o f R ome o fficiated o ver t he s eparate t ombs o f P eter a nd P aul,

s uper m ortuorum h ominum P etri e t P auli.60

I n 3 87 J ohn C hrysostom, l ater b ishop o f C onstantinople, w rites 81 t hat i n R ome e mperors, c onsuls, a nd g enerals, a ll r an t o t he t ombs o f t he t wo a postles. P rudentius 82 v isiting R ome b etween 4 01 a nd 4 03, j ust a fter t he c ompletion o f t he d ecoration o f S t P aul's b asilica, d escribes i n his P eristephanon t he c rowds, p lebs R omula, p ouring t hrough t he s treets o f R ome o n t he f estival o f P eter a nd P aul, b ut b y s tressing t hat t he R iver T iber s eparated t he t wo s hrines, e mphasizes t he f act t hat t he f estival w as o nly c elebrated i n t wo p laces, b y H adrian's B ridge a nd b y t he O stian R oad. " P aulinus o f N ola m ade a nnual p ilgrimages t o t he s hrines o f P eter a nd P aul a d b eatorum a postolorum n atalem u ntil a bout 4 06; i n 4 08, h owever, h e v isited R ome i uxta s ollemnem m eum m orem p ost P ascha D omini p ro a postolorum e t m artyrum v eneratione .. " a nd f rom t hen o n c ontinued t o m ake h is v isits b efore 2 9 J une. H is l etters d o n ot r efer t o t he b asilica a postolorum ; t he b asilica, i t w ould s eem, 85 b y t hat t ime n o l onger h ad a p lace i n t he p opular c elebrations i n R ome o n 2 9 J une. T he f east o f 2 9 J une w as n ot t he o nly r eligious f estival r ecorded i n t he D epositio M artyrum t hat c oncerned t he f oundation o f t he R oman C hurch. I t a lso r ecorded t he f oundation o f t he C hurch o n 2 2 F ebruary: N atale P etri d e c athedra. " T he c onstant u se o f t he t erm n atalis

8 3

i mperii i n t he C hronograph m akes i t c lear t hat n atalis r efers t o t he a ccession t o t he t hrone, o r, i n t he c ase o f P eter, t o t he c athedra o r b ishopric o f R ome. T he t erm c athedra P etri, r eferring u niquely t o t he b ishopric o f R ome, w as f irst r ecorded b y C yprian i n t he m iddle o f t he p receding c entury, a lthough i t w as p robably i n c ommon u sage a t t hat t ime. 67 A s i s w ell k nown, t he f estival o n 2 2 F ebruary c oincided w ith a p agan f estival, t he C aristia o r C ara c ognitio, d uring w hich t he p agans h eld m eals a t t he g raves o f t heir d ead r eserving a s eat, o r c athedra, f or t he d eparted. " I t s eems l ikely t hat, p erhaps a s e arly a s t he t hird c entury, t he d eaths o f P eter a nd, p ossibly, o f P aul w ere c elebrated a t t he s ame t ime a s t he p agan f estival. " I n t he f ourth c entury, h owever, t he f estival w as g iven a n ew m eaning a nd i t w as t aken o ver b y t he R oman C hurch t o c ommemorate t he a ccession o f i ts f irst b ishop. I t i s p ossible t hat t hat D epositio M artyrum w as w ritten a s a d irect r esult o f t he d edication o f t he n ew b asilica t o S t P eter a nd i ts c onsequent e ntry i nto t he s tational l iturgy.

7 °

A lthough t he s econd half o f t he f ourth c entury w as t he h eyday o f t he t wo a postles i n c oncordia, i t a lso w itnessed t he e mergence o f a s plit b etween t he t wo a postles, w hich w as t o i nfluence t he d evelopment o f t he R oman l iturgy i n t he f ollowing c enturies. T he f irst s ymptom o f t his a ppeared i n t he s o-called t hird c anon o f t he C ouncil h eld b y D amasus i n R ome i n 3 82. T his s tates t hat P aul .. n on d iverso, s icut h aereti[ci ] g arriunt, s ed u no t empore u no e odemque d ie g loriosa m orte c um P etro i n u rbe R oma s ub C aesare N erone a gonizans c oronatus e st: e t p ariter s upradictam s anctam R omanam e cclesiam C hristo D omino c onsecrarunt, a liisque o mnibus u rbibus i n u niverso m undo s ua p raesentia a dque v enerando t riumpho p raetulerunt. E st e rgo p rima P etri a postoli s edis R omanae e cclesiae, .. 7 1 T he c oncordia a postolorum n ow, i t w ould s eem, w as u nder a ttack, u pheld b y t he R oman C hurch.

a lthough s till

T he Ambrosiaster i n h is C ommentary o n G alatians, w ritten a t t he t ime o f D amasus, h ad r ecognised t he p lena a uctoritas o f P eter i n i udaismi p raedicatione a nd t he p erfecta a uctoritas o f P aul i n — p raedicatione g entium, 72 a nd he had a lso r ecognized, i n a n e arlier p assage, u t o stendat c oncordiam s e c um a postolis h abuisse, n ec i n a liquo d issensisse ..73 H e a lso s tressed t hat P eter w as p rimus i nter a postolos a nd t hat t he o rdo o f s uccessive R oman b ishops b egan w ith P eter. 74 T he a pparent d iscrepancy b etween t he s tatus o f P eter a nd o f P aul c ould n ot b e i gnored. I t h ad c rystallized i nto t he t opos o f P aul's p rimacy i n p reaching t o t he G entiles a nd o f P eter's p rimacy i n p reaching t o t he C ircumcision, a nd, a s w e h ave s een, t he t opos w as i ncluded i n t he d ecorative s chemes o f c hurches a t t he e nd o f t he c entury, a nd a fter.75 T he p seudo-Ambrose, w riting p robably i n R ome, 7 8 f aced t he d ifficulty: P rimatum i pse [ Paulus] a cceperat a d f undandum e cclesiam .. s e q uoque p ari m odo e lectum u t p rimatum h abeat i n f undandis g entium E cclesius G ratiam t ar nen p rimatus s ibi s oli v indicat c oncessesam a D eo s icut e t s oli P etro c oncessu e st i nter a postoles.

7 7

A ugustine, b ishop o f H ippo,

a lso c ontributed t o t he a rgument.

H e s peaks o f t he t wo a postles, q uorum n atalicium u no d ie c elebramus, i n P etro e t P aulo. 78 S imilarly, h e p roclaims: C oncordem v itam a mbo d uxerunt, s ocium s anguinem a mbo f uderunt, c oelestem c oronam a mbo s umpserunt, d iem h odiernum a mbo c onsecraverunt. / 9 I n a nother s ermon

8 4

h e s lightly m odifies t he t heme: U nus d ies p assionis d uobus A postolis. S ed e t i lli d uo u num e rant: q uamquam d iversis d iebus p aterentur, u num e rant. P raecessit P etrus; s ecutus e st P aulus.80 W hat h ad b een h eretical i n t he f ourth c entury w as, b y e xplanation a nd d efinition, t he p rocess o f b ecoming a ccepted f act b y t he f ifth. A t t he v ery

i n

b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury, l ooking b ack a t h is s hort s tay i n R ome i n 3 88, A ugustine, i n a w ell-known p assage o f h is D e c onsensu e vangelistarum, i n w hich h e c ondemns a s purious l etter, s upposedly w ritten b y C hrist t o b oth P eter a nd P aul, r ecalls q uod p luribus l ocis s imul e os c um i llo p ictos v iderent; q uia m erita P etri e t P auli e tiam p ropter e umdem p assionis d iem c elebrius s olemniter R oma c ommendat.81 A ugustine i s p ointing o ut l i e d angers o f m isinterpreting p ictures o f P aul i n t he p resence o f b oth P eter a nd C hrist; h e g oes o n t o e xplain t hat P aul w as n ot C hrist's d isciple, b ut o nly C hrist's a postle a fter C hrist's P assion, R esurrection a nd A scension. P rudentius, i n h is C ontra o rantionem S ymmachi, w ritten i n 4 02, s elects e ach a postle a s t he s ubject o f h is t wo p refaces: P aul f or t he f irst 82 a nd P eter f or t he s econd. 83 L ater i n his P eristephanon, w ritten c . 4 05, e choing t he t opos o f t he t wo C hurches, he a gain a cclaims t he t wo a postles: H ic n empne l am r egnant d uo/ a postolorum p rincipes. A lter v ocatur g entium ,/ a lter c athedram p ossidens p rimam, r ecludet c reditas/ a eternitatis i anuas.

8 4

H owever, t his t ime, h e a lso g oes o ut o f h is w ay t o e mphasize t hat P aul w as m artyred o ne y ear a fter P eter: U nus u trumque d ies p leno t ar nen i nnovatus a nno/ v idit s uperba m orte l aureatum . 85 I t w as a t t his v ery t ime t hat P aulinus o f N ola c eased t o v isit R ome b eatorum A postolorum n atali. I n his s ermons, L eo t he G reat, f or j uridical r easons, g enerally s tresses t he p rimacy o f P eter. " B ut i n h is f amous s ermon o n t he f east o f t he t wo a postles, h e n ot o nly d raws t he s ignificant p arallel w ith t he f oundation o f R ome b y R omulus a nd R emus, b ut i nsists t hat t he t wo a postles c annot b e s eparated .. q uia i llos e t e lectio p ares e t l abor s imiles e t f inis f ecit a equales.87 T his p articular s ermon m ust b e p laced i n t he c ontext o f L eo's o ther s ermons, w hich s tress t he p rimatus P etri a nd i nevitably u ndermine t he c oncordia a postolorum . I ndeed a c onsiderable p ortion o f h is s ermon f or 2 9 J une i s d evoted t o t he p rimacy o f P eter, a s ubject v ery d ear t o L eo's h eart. I t i s p ossible t hat t he g reat s tress o f h is c ontemporary, M aximus, b ishop o f T urin, o n t he u nity o f t he a postles ,... P uto e nim i llos a equales e sse m eritis q ui(a) a equales s unt p assione,88 i s t o b e e xplained a s a r eaction t o t he i deas l ater p romulgated b y L eo.

8 9

D uring t he f ifth c entury, m ainly f or j uridical r easons,

t he p rior

c laims o f P eter o ver P aul were g radually a ccepted: P eter w as n ot o nly f irst i n t ime a nd a uthority a s a postle, h e w as a lso f irst i n t ime a nd a uthority a s m artyr. T he n umber o f r eferences t o P aul's m artyrdom o n t he s ame d ay, b ut n ot i n t he s ame y ear a s P eter's m artyrdom y increased. A s ermon b y p seudo-Augustine, " c ertainly w ritten b efore t he s econd h alf o f t he s ixth c entury a nd p ossibly d uring t his p eriod, d istinguishes b etween t he d ifferent y ears o f t he a postles' m artyrdoms. I t i s o ne o f t welve s ermons t o b e f ound i n t he H omiliarum S .

8 5

P etri i n

V aticano, which w as p robably c ompleted d uring t he m iddle y ears o f t he s ixth c entury. 91

A rator,

i n t he c oncluding l ines o f h is g reat p oem

r ecited i n A pril 5 44 i n e cclesia b eati P etri, q uae v ocatur a d v incula, 92 a lso d raws a ttention t o t he d ifferent y ears o f t he a postles' m artyrdoms. E ven i n t he a pocryphal P assio S anctorum P etri e t P auli ( pseudo-Marcellus), a lso w ritten i n t he m iddle o f t he s ixth c entury, w hich n ot u nexpectedly s tresses t he c oncordia a postolorum , a nd i n t he P assio A postolorum P etri e t P auli ( redactio b revior), a lso f rom t he s ixth c entury, w hich i ncorporates t he l iturgical f east o f 2 9 J une i nto t he a pocryphal r ecord f or t he f irst t ime, ' ... l a f igura d i S .

P ietro s ovrasta s empre q uella d i S .

P aolo

1. 9 3

T he f ormulae f or t he 2 9th J une i n t he s acramentarium L eonianum w ere c ompiled p robably n ot e arlier t han a bout 5 60, a nd p ossibly t owards t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury, f rom l ibelli p reserved i n t he L ateran. " I n m any c ases t he l ibelli w ere w ritten o riginally i n t he f ifth, o r e ven f ourth, c enturies; 95 i n a ny c ase m any f ormulae a re c ertainly a mplifications o f e arlier o nes. T hey t herefore r eflect t he a mbivalent a ttitude t o t he t wo a postles c haracteristic o f t his p eriod. Many s tress c orrectly t he c oncordia a postolorum ,86 b ut s ome a lso r ecognize a d istinction b etween t he a postles.97 F or e xample, t he I tem a d S anctum P aulum ,98 r efers i n A ugustinian t erms t o .. a postolatus o rdine p rimus participes

. ..

[ Petrus] e t m inimus [ Paulus], s ed g ratia e t pasAione t empore l icet d iscreto, r ecurrens u na d ies i n a eternum

e t u na c orona s ociavit. T he s ame a mbivalance i s a lso t o b e f ound i n b oth t he G elasian a nd G regorian S acramentaries. T he b asic e lements o f t he R oman L atin l iturgy w ere f ixed i n t he p eriod b etween D amasus a nd L eo t he G reat a nd t he R oman l iturgy w as n aturally c onservative. T he s acramentaria r eflect n aturally t he c onfidence i n t he • c oncordia a postolorum o f a n e arlier g eneration r ather t han t he l ater a spirations o f t he b ishop o f t he l ocal C hurch. T he s uperiority o f P eter o ver P aul w as s pecifically r ecognised i n R ome b y P elagius I I: P etrus, q ui e t P aulum s uperat.99 H is s uccessor, G regory t he G reat, f inally t ook t he m omentous s tep o f a ltering t he l iturgy. T he F east o f S t P aul w as r elegated t o t he f ollowing d ay, 3 0 J une: 1 00 t he a postle w as n ow held t o h ave b een m artyred n ot o nly o ne y ear l ater t han, b ut o n t he d ay a fter, t he m artyrdom o f S t P eter. O n t he o ther hand S t P aul a nd S t P eter e ach h ad h is o wn f estal d ay, w hich a llowed d evotees o f b oth a postles t o g ive t hem e qual a ttention o n s ucceeding d ays. I mproved f acilities a t b oth b asilicas w ould e nable t hem t o d o j ust t his. 1 °1 T he s eparation o f t he t wo f east d ays m ay h ave r emoved t he n eed f or t he e arlier f estival o f 2 2 F ebruary, w hich b y t he s ixth c entury s eems t o h ave f allen i nto d isuse i n R ome. 1 02 T hus t he c oncordia a postolorum , w hich h ad a risen d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury, w as f inally d ropped b y t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury. B ut t he f ormula o f t he j oint-festival o f t he a postles w as n ever l ost: i t w as t oo p otent a p iece o f p ropaganda f or s uch a f ate. I t r e-emerged i n t he R oman l iturgy a nd h as r emained e nshrined i n t he L atin l iturgy t o t his d ay. I ndeed, a s a n i mportant s trand i n t he a postolic t radition p reserved b y t he R oman S ee, i t c ontinued t o p lay a n i mportant r ole i n p apal p ropaganda. 1 03 T he d ifferentiated i conography o f P eter a nd P aul c ontinued t o b e p art o f t he o fficial a rt o f t he b asilicas: l ike t he l iturgical f ormulae, t he b y n ow t raditional i conography o f t he t wo a postles w as f ar t oo f amiliar t o d isappear.

I ndeed t he f unctions o f b oth w ere c omplementary.

8 6

3

P eter a nd P aul, T he b elief

a nd t he A postolica S edes

i n t he j oint-foundation o f t he C hurch a t R ome b y

P eter a nd P aul w as c onsciously d eveloped b y t he b ishops o f R ome d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury a s a j ustification f or j uridical a uthority w ithin t he C hurch a s a w hole. I t w as u sed a s a w eapon i n t he p ropaganda w ar w aged a gainst h eresy, n otably t he A rian h eresy, a nd a gainst t he c laims o f t he E ast t o a n e qual, i f n ot s uperior, a uthority. I mmediately a fter t he P eace o f t he C hurch, t he R oman b ishops, i n p articular S ilvester I a nd J ulius I , h ad c oncentrated o n t he a uthority g ranted t o t he R oman C hurch b y o ne a postle, S t P eter, t hus f ollowing a t radition a ccepted c ertainly b y t he m iddle o f t he p revious c entury, i f n ot e arlier. B ut t he d edication i n 3 30 o f C onstantine's n ew c apital i n t he E ast, i psa n ova R oma, a nd t he c ompromising A rian p olicy r elentlessly p ursued b y C onstantine's s on,

C onstantius I I,

e specially a fter t he d eath o f h is

b rother, C onstans, i n 3 50, l ed t o a r adical r ethinking o f t he p osition o f t he R oman C hurch. T he p ropaganda w ar w aged b y d ifferent c ouncils a nd t heir s upporters, i ncluding e mperors, m ainly i n t he E ast, b ut a lso i n t he W est, f orced t he R oman b ishops t o e mphasize t he u nassailable p osition o f t heir a postolic t radition, b ased a s i t w as n ot o nly o n t he a uthority o f P eter, b ut o n t he t eaching o f P aul. T heir d ouble m artyrdom , q ui n on d iverso s ed u no t empore, u no e odemque d ie, 1 04 p rovided t he R oman C hurch i n t he f ourth c entury, a nd l ater, w ith a p otent a rgument t o p romote i ts a uthority i n t he f ace o f i ts r ivals a nd c ritics, w hether i n t he E ast o r i n R ome i tself.

T he

d ouble-portraits o f P eter a nd P aul, w hether o n t he b ases o f g oldg lass v essels l °5 o r o n t he w alls o f R oman b asilicas, 1 06 b rought t he a postolic a rgument i nto f ocus a nd p rovided t he W estern C hurch a nd i ts s upporters with a v isual s ymbol o f i ts a uthority. C onstantine's p olicy o f u niting t he E mpire u nder t he b anner o f t he C ouncil o f N icaea ( 325) h ad q uickly r un i nto d ifficulties, a nd, a lthough t he E mperor s ummoned a s econd s ession o f t he C ouncil ( c. 3 27), i t h ad b ecome c lear t owards t he e nd o f h is r eign t hat h is s trategy o f u niting t he c onflicting p arties h ad f ailed c ompletely. I n 3 37 C onstantine w as s ucceeded b y h is s ons, C onstantine I I a nd C onstans i n t he W est, a nd C onstantius I I i n t he E ast. T he s omewhat i rregular t ranslation o f E usebius, b ishop o f N icomedia, t o t he b ishopric o f C onstantinople i n t he f ollowing y ear, l ed n aturally t o f resh f riction w ith A thanasius, t he u ncompromising b ishop o f A lexandria. E usebius h ad s tudied w ith A rius a nd w as n ow l eader o f t he A rian p arty, w hilst A thanasius, t he b itter o pponent o f A rius, h ad o nly b een r einstated b y C onstantine I I a t A lexandria i n t he p revious y ear ( 337). T he e cclesiastical w rangle t hat f ollowed m ust b e s een n ot o nly a s a b itter t heological d ispute, b ut a s p art o f a w ider p roblem i nvolving t he r elationships a nd a uthority o f t he d ifferent C hurches i n t he E ast. J ust a s t he o lder E astern C hurches h ad g rown j ealous o f t he p ower o f A lexandria, s o d id t he C hurch a t R ome b ecome a pprehensive a bout t he r ise o f a nother n ew C hurch i n a ltera R oma. T he s ituation w as c omplicated f urther b y t he i nfluence o f t he e mperors, w ho f or r easons s upported o ne p articular b ishop a gainst a nother.

8 7

o f

s tate

T he q uestion o f a ppeal f rom t he f indings o f a c ouncil w as r aised i n a n a cute f orm i n 3 39 b y t he f light o f A thanasius

t o R ome,

a fter

his e xpulsion f rom A lexandria b y t he t roops o f C onstantius I I. E usebians h ad a lready a ppealed t o J ulius g eneral c ouncil,

i n 3 37/8

T he

t o c onvene a n ew

b ut h ad l ater d enied h is r ight t o i nterfere i n a

p urely E astern a ffair. T his d enial w as t he f irst r eally s erious t est o f t he a uthority o f t he R oman b ishop s ince t he P eace o f t he C hurch. A c ouncil m et i n R ome i n 3 40/1 a nd c leared A thanasius o f t he c harges p referred a gainst him a t t he C ouncil o f T yre ( 335), a dmitted h im t o c ommunion a nd r ecognized h im a s b ishop o f A lexandria. t o

t he E usebians,

b ased o n t he a uthority o f t he N icene c anons, ..

t hey w ere

t he a postolorum c anone l°

N am q uae a ccepimus a b eato P etro a postolo,

E arly i n 3 41,

I n h is l etter

J ulius j ustified h is a ctions a s f ollows:

e a v obis s iGnifico.108

a t a s ynod c onvened i n A ntioch t o c oincide w ith

d edication o f C onstantine's

' Golden C hurch'

t he

b y C onstantius I I,

t he

E usebians r eaffirmed t heir c ondemnation o f A thanasius a t T yre. c athedra a postolorum a t A ntioch,

i t w ould s eem,

b y P eter a nd P aul b efore t hey a rrived a t R ome a nd t hus m ents o f a c ouncil a t A ntioch h ad o f a c ouncil a t R ome,

T he

h ad b een f ounded

1 09

t he p ronounce-

t o t ake p recedence o ver t he f indings

a l ater c athedra a postolorum .

T he f indings o f

A ntioch w ere t o b e r econsidered b y a j oint-council a ssembled a t S ardica, s upport

o r S erdica,

i n 3 42/3.

T he C ouncil r eceived f anatical

f rom C onstans, w ho had d efeated a nd r eplaced C onstantine I I

b oth a s e mperor a nd a s c hampion o f t he C atholic c ause, b ut w as o nly g iven t acit s upport b y h is b rother,

t he E astern E mperor,

A s a n a ttempt a t r econciliation, w as a f ailure.

T he a ppeal c annons o f

t he j oint-council a t S ardica t he W estern C ouncil, h owever,

e xplicitly r ecognized t he p rimacy o f t he C hurch a t R ome. C ordoba,

i n t he i mportant

R oman b ishop,

J ulius,

memorium h onoremus.

t hird c anon,

s i v obis p lacet,

C onstantius

O ssius o f

p roposed f inal r ecourse t o t he s anctissimi P etri a postoli

A nd i n i ts l etter t o J ulius t he C ouncil

1 10

v indicated t he a uthority o f t he R oman b ishops:

H oc e nim o ptimum e t

v alde c ongruentissimum e sse v idebitur, s i a d c aput, i d e st a d P etri a postoli s edem, d e s ingulis q uibusque p rovinciis D omini r eferant s acerdotes.

T he i nitiatives o f J ulius h ad b een e ndorsed;

1 11

t he

p recedent s et a t R ome i n 3 40 n ow s et t he p attern f or t he a ppeal f ormula. I t

i s q uite p ossible,

a s s uggested b y P rofessor C hadwick, 1 12

t hat t he p ropaganda c ontained i n t he l etter s ent t o J ulius b y t he c ouncil a t A ntioch, g ave h im a dded r eason t o c oncentrate o n t he a postolic i mpetus

f oundation o f

t he R oman s ee.

t o t he R oman b ishop a nd

I t m ight a lso have g iven a n

t o h is a dvisers t o c oncentrate o n t he

a postolicasedes r ather t han o n t he P etri a postoli s edes. 1 19 I t i s s ignificant t hat t he W estern C ouncil a t S ardica, w hen r eferring t o t he R oman C hurch

i n i ts l etter t o J ulius,

t o r efer t o o ne a postle, i n t he l etter. t he c laims o f b ecause o f

P aul,

P eter,

o nly c onsidered i t n ecessary

a lthough P aul h ad b een q uoted e arlier

i t w ould s ee,

t he R oman C hurch a t

d id n ot p lay a p ositive r ole i n

t hat

t ime.

T his w as p ossibly

t he a postle's p opularity i n t he E ast.

b ishop o f C aeserea i n P alestine f rom 3 14 t o 3 40, o bserver o f

t he s cene,

w as p articularly c onscious o f P aul's p opularity

i n C onstantinople a nd i n t he E ast g enerally. 1 14 o f C onstantine,

T hus E usebius, a nd a n a cute A lthough a c onfident

E usebius h ad o nly a ccepted t he N icene c anons,

8 8

l ike

7

h is n amesake a t N icomedia a nd C onstantinople, w ith r eluctance. P eter's p opularity i n R ome, o n t he o ther h and, i s r ecorded o n t he s ides o f n umerous s arcophagi m ade t here i n t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury. T hese s cenes w ere d erived f rom t he b urgeoning l egends s urrounding h is s tay a nd m artyrdom i n t he C ity, l ater r ecorded i n v arious a pocrypha. T he d evelopment o f a P auline i conography i n R ome h ad t o a wait a c hange o f s trategy a t t he m id-century. A fter h is d efeat o f M agnentius i n 3 53, C onstantius I I t ried t o i mpose h is a mbiguous, c ompromise s olution t o t he A rian p roblem o n t he E mpire a nd, i n p articular , o n t he C hurch a t R ome. b ut e ventually g ave w ay u nder i mperial p ressure.

L iberius r esisted, T he i gnominy o f h is

e xile, 3 55-358, p unctuated b y t he v isit t o R ome o f C onstantius i n 3 57, c ulminated i n t he s ubmission a t A riminum i n 3 59. A s J erome s o s uccinctly, i f m isleadingly, p ut i t, I ngemuit t otus o rbis, e t A rianum s e e sse m iratus e st.115 T his, i n i ts t urn, w as s wiftly f ollowed i n 3 61 b y a p agan r evival u nder J ulian. J ulian's r eign w as t oo s hort t o u ndermine s eriously t he f oundations o f t he l ocal C hurch: i ndeed h e w as r esponsible f or t he r einstatement t hroughout t he E mpire o f e xiled, C atholic b ishops, a lthough t hey w ere t o b e r emoved b y V alentinian I . T here w as i nevitably s ome s hrewd, h ostile p ropaganda d ealt o ut. P articularly n otable i s J ulian's a ttack o n t he c oncordia o f t he C hurch i n h is A gainst t he G alilaeans. T his e xploited P orphyry's e arlier b itter a ttacks o n t he t wo a postles, P eter a nd P aul, w hich, l ater, w ere a lso t o p rovoke a r esponse f rom J erome. 1 1 6 I n 3 61, w hen J ulian s ucceeded C onstantius, n o o ne i n R ome c ould h ave k nown t hat i n t wo y ears' t ime t he p agan E mperor w ould b e d ead. L iberius, a nd h is a dvisers, k new t hat, w hatsoever t he o utcome, t hey had s omehow t o r eassert t he a uthority o f t he R oman C hurch. I t w as a t t his v ery m oment t hat t he f ormer p agan r hetor, V ictorinus, w as w riting h is c ommentary o n t he P auline e pistles. A s w e h ave s een, 1 17 i t i s p robable t hat t he a pse m osaics i n S . C onstanza w ere a dded t o t he o riginal, i mperial p rogramme a t a bout t he s ame t ime. L iberius, o n h is r eturn t o R ome, i t w ould s eem, w as n ot c ontent w ith r esting h is p osition o n h is u ndoubted p opularity, b ut, w ith h is a dvisers, w as a ctively p ursuing a c ampaign o f c ounter-propaganda. B oth L iberius a nd h is s uccessor, D amasus, l ike t he l eaders o f t he R oman C hurch i n e arlier c enturies w hen u nder a ttack, b ased t heir c ase o n t he a postolic f oundation o f t he C hurch a t R ome, b ut n ow t hey i nsisted o n i ts f oundation b y b oth P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia. T he d ecoration o f t he a rcosolium o f C elerina, w ith i ts p ortrait o f L iberius , 118 m ay b e s een i n t his c ontext. H owever, i t i s t he p lacing b y D amasus o f a n i nscription p roclaiming t he n ova s idera i n t he b asilica a postolorum t hat m ust b e s een a s t he u nmistakable a ct o f p ropaganda w hich u nderlined t he c oncordia a postolorum. T owards t he e nd o f his p eriod o f o ffice, D amasus was a ble t o t urn t o t he W estern E mperor, G ratian, w ho h ad s ucceeded h is f ather, V alentinian I , i n 3 75, f or h elp i n e nforcing h is a uthority a nd i n o utlawing h eresy. Ambrose h ad b ecome b ishop o f M ilan i n 3 74 a nd i t w as Ambrose w ho b egan r apidly t o e xercise a d ecisive i nfluence o n t he y oung E mperor.

O n 9 A ugust 3 78

t he A rian E mperor i n t he E ast, V alens,

f ell b efore t he V isigoths n ear H adrianople, a nd o n 1 9 J anuary 3 79 t he C atholic T heodosius w as a cclaimed h is s uccessor.

8 9

I t i s s ymptomatic

t hat a t ome, o riginally d rawn u p i n R ome, w as a ccepted i n t he a utumn o f 3 79 b y a s ynod a t A ntioch, 1 1 9 t he s cene o f t he e arlier C ouncil o f 3 41, w hich h ad b een s o h ostile t o t he a postolic c laims o f R ome. O n 2 7 F ebruary 3 80 t he n ew E astern E mperor, T heodosius I , d ecreed C onctos p opulos, h is a cceptance o f q uam d ivinum P etrum a postolum t radidisse R omanis _ 120 T he c ustom o f u sing t he t erm a postolica s edes f irst a rose d uring t he e piscopate o f D amasus. 1 21 A s D amasus r ecorded o n t he m arble i nscription s et u p t o h is f ather i n t he e ntrance o f h is n ew c hurch, S . L orenzo i n D amaso: h inc m ihi p rovecto X p-§ c ui s umma p otestas, s edis a postolicae v oluit c oncedere h onorem .

122

I t w as u sed a s e arly a s 3 78 a t a c ouncil a d s ublime s edis a postolicae s acrarium 1 29 i n i ts l etter t o t he e mperors c onfirming t hat D amasus w as i nnocent o f t he c harge o f m urder. P eter I I, b ishop o f A lexandria, w ho h ad b een i n R ome s ince 3 71, w as a lso p resent a t t he c ouncil. I t i s s ignificant t hat i t w as t his c ouncil t hat r equested t he o rder t o c onfirm t he a ppelate j urisdiction o f D amasus i n r eligious m atters, a n o rder t hat w as c onfirmed b y t he E mperor G ratian. T he m eaning o f t he t erm , apostolica s edes, b ecame e xplicit i n 3 82 a t a nother c ouncil i n R ome, w hen t he c laims o f t he C hurch o f C onstantinople w ere r ejected. T he a postolic c laims o f R ome w ere b ased, o n t he o ne h and, o n t he p owers g iven t o P eter b y C hrist a nd, o n t he o ther, o n t he s election o f P aul a s t he c hosen v essel o f G od: n ot o n a c onciliar c anon. 1 24 T he R oman C hurch h ad g one b ack t o o ne o f i ts e arliest t raditions, w hich i ncluded t he t eaching o f P aul, f or j ustification o f i ts a uthority. E piphanius, b ishop o f S alamis, w ho a ccompanied J erome t o t he l atter c ouncil, r ecords i n h is A dversus H aereses 1 25 t he t radition t hat P eter a nd P aul h ad b een j ointly t he f irst b ishops o f R ome; h e m ay h ave c opied o ut h is l ist o f R oman b ishops i n R ome a t t his t ime, b ut n ot f rom t he s o-called L iberian C atalogue. 1 28 T he p osition o f P aul h ad b een ' upgraded' f rom j oint-founder a nd j oint-martyr o f t he C hurch, t o j oint-bishop . 127 T his w as t o b e i ndeed t he g olden a ge o f t he t wo a postles.

1 28

D amasus s eems t o h ave p layed a k ey r ole i n t he p romotion o f t he c oncordia a postolorum . T he w eakness o f t he C hurch a t R ome a fter t he a pparent t riumph o f A rianism, a s w e h ave s een, n aturally l ed t o a r ee xamination o f t he C hurch's p olicy a nd t o a r eassertion o f i ts f ull a postolic c laims. A n ew w eapon o f p ropaganda, h owever, w as f ound i n t he f ondi d 'oro p roduced f or p ilgrims a nd f or R oman c itizens b y t he l ocal g lasshouses. T hese, h owever, n ot o nly e mphasized t he p osition o f P eter a nd P aul, b ut, f ollowing t he p olicy o f D amasus, b rought i n a w hole a rmy o f R oman m artyrs t o s upport t he c laims o f t heir l ocal C hurch; t hey e ven p ortrayed D amasus h imself, a s w ell a s s ome o f h is p redecessors. 1 29 T he m artyria a nd t ituli w ere r efurbished a nd r edecorated. T he b ronze l amp o f V alerius S everus, w ith i ts e mphasis o n t he c oncordia o f t he t wo f ounders o f t he R oman C hurch, m ay b e s een i n t his c ontext. 1 3 ° B elief i n t he s econd f oundation o f R ome b y P eter a nd P aul w as t o r estore t he c onfidence a nd p ride o f i ts C hristian c itizens i n t he g lory a nd a uthority o f t heir C ity.

T he r apid d eaths

o f J ulian i n 3 63, f ollowed b y J ovian i n 3 64, m ay h ave m ade t he l eaders o f t he R oman C hurch a pprehensive; t he d eath o f V alens i n 3 78

9 0

m ust h ave b een r eceived w ith r elief. T he p olicy o f D amasus h ad h ad o ther a dvantages. I t h ad a ppealed t o t he g reat R oman f amilies, m any o f w hich, a lthough p agan i n o utlook, h ad b een d ismayed b y s ome o f t he e xcesses o f J ulian, a nd s ome o f w hich h ad b een e ven m ore s hocked b y t he o ften r uthless n eutrality o f V alentinian I . E ven i n t he t ime o f L iberius t he S enate h ad d emonstrated i ts s upport f or i ts e xiled b ishop. T he l uxury a nd p omp o f D amasus's p eriod o f o ffice m ay b e c riticized, b ut i t h ad h ad t he e ffect o f b ringing m any o f t hese f amilies i nto c ontact w ith t he R oman C hurch. O n t he o ther h and, t he S enate h ad a ppealed t wice t o t he W estern E mperors, t o G ratian i n 3 82 a nd t o V alentinian I I i n 3 84, t o r estore t he a ltar o f V ictory t o t he C uria. T hrough t he i nfluence o f Ambrose, h owever, b oth a ppeals h ad b een r ejected. D amasus, a lthough a f riend o f t he i nfluential s enator, V ettius A gorius P raetextatus, h ad l ittle i mpact o n t he g roup s urrounding t hat m uch-respected l eader o f t he P agan p arty. A s m atronarum a uriscalpius, 1 31 h e m ay h ave h ad s ome s light s uccess w ith t heir w ives, b ut i t was l eft t o t he s hy, a scetic J erome t o b e i nvited i nto t heir h omes. T he R oman l iturgy w as a t t he s ame t ime i n t he p rocess o f r eceiving i ts p eculiarly L atin s tamp a nd i t w as D amasus w ho, a t t he v ery e nd o f his e piscopate, h ad r equested J erome t o s tart w ork o n his f amous t ranslation, o r c orrection, o f t he S criptures, i ndeed t o m ake a n ew w ork o ut o f t he o ld. 1 32 T he f our g ospels i n t heir n ew v ersion w ere p resented t o t he b ishop i n 3 84. T ranslation i nto a n a cceptable, a uthorized v ersion w as i nevitably a ccompanied b y t he c onversion o f m uch b iblical t erminology i nto a ppropriate R oman l egal f ormulae. T he e arlier d evelopment o f p eculiarly R oman i conographies, f or e xample t he t raditio l egis, a nd t he u tilization o f i mperial a rt m otifs, m ay b e s een a s p art o f a c ontinuing p rogramme o f p ropaganda. T he c ircumstances o f D amasus's e lection, w hich h ad d emanded t hat h e s hould t ake e very s tep t o s tress t he a uthority o f h is o ffice, w ere n o d oubt a lso f actors i n t his a spect o f his p olicy. T he C hurch a t R ome,

a s i n o ther C hurches, h ad t o c oncentrate o n

i ts l egal e xistence a s t he C ity o f G od: i t h ad t o m eet t he l egal c laims o f E mpire w ith i ts o wn c ounter-claims. 1 33 A s A mbrose s o a ptly w rote: l egem e nim t uam n ollem e sse s upra D el l egem .1 34 I ndeed h is a ttitude m ay b e s ummed u p i n h is f amous a dage: I mperator e nim i ntra E cclesiam, n on s upra E cclesiam e st. 1 35 T his e mphasis o n t he h igher a uthority o f t he C hurch i s r eflected, n aturally e nough, i n R oman i conography: C hrist, t he G ood S hepherd, C hristus p uer, b ecomes C hrist t he K ing, M aiestas D omini. 1 36 B ut i t w as t he c laims o f i psa n ova R oma w hich w ere t o b e r esponsible f or t he c hange o f c ourse o n t he p art o f D amasus a nd h is s uccessors t hat t urned t he R oman C hurch f rom t he c oncordia a postolorum t o t he p rimatus P etri. C onstantinople,

i psa n ova R oma, w as f rom t he s tart a p ower h ouse

o f r elics. B y 3 56 t he r elics o f T imothy, t he d isciple o f P aul, h ad b een s ecured a nd b y 3 57 t he I mperial C ity c ontained n ot o nly t he r elics o f t he a postle A ndrew, b ut a lso t he r elics o f t he e vangelist L uke. T he c laim o f t he C hurch o f C onstantinople, h owever, t o b e a n a postolic C hurch f ounded b y A ndrew,

t he f irst d isciple o f C hrist a nd

t he b rother o f P eter, w as n ot t o b e m ade u ntil m uch l ater. 1 37 J ust a s t he d enial o f t he R oman b ishop's j uridical a uthority b y t he

9 1

E usebians d uring t he A rian c risis h ad f oreshadowed a d irect a ttack o n t he a uthority o f t he R oman C hurch, s o i t s eemed t o t he b ishops o f O ld R ome, d id t he i ncreasing p ower o f t he n ew C hurch, a ssociated, a s i t w as, w ith t he E astern E mperor i n C onstantinople. T he b ishops o f O ld R ome w ere t hus c ompelled t o c oncentrate o n t he a postolic f oundation a nd a uthority o f t he R oman C hurch. I nevitably t hey h ad t o m ute a ny e mphasis t hat m ight h ave b een p laced o n t he s tatus, o r r ank, o f t he f ormer c apital o f t he R oman E mpire. T his p rovided t hat c atalyst f or t he c onversion o f t he s edes a postolica i nto a p apal m onarchy, b ased o n l egal r ight, t he r ight t o t he a uctoritas, 1 38 i ndeed t o t he p otestas, o f P eter a nd t o t he p owers b estowed o n h im b y C hrist. T he u se o f L atin l egal t erminology w as o bviously c rucial f or t his d evelopment. 1 39 T he t hird c anon o f t he C ouncil h eld a t C onstantinople i n 3 81, C onstantinopolitanae c ivitatis e piscopus h abeat p rivilegia h onoris p ost R omanum e piscopum, e o q uod s it i psa n ova R oma, 1 40 h ad p rovided t he f irst t angible t hreat. 1 41 T his w as c ountered, a s w e h ave s een, 1 42 b y a c ouncil h eld i n R ome i n t he f ollowing y ear. A mbrose, w ho w as p resent a t t hat c ouncil, c onsidered t he s ituation s o s erious a t t hat t ime t hat h e t hought i t p rudent t o w arn T heodosius, D olori e nim e rat i nter O rientales a tque O ccidentales i nterrupta s acrae c ommunionis e sse c onsortia. 1 43 I t i s, t herefore, n ot s urprising t hat t he f irst e xtant d ecreta1 1 44 w as i ssued i n 3 85 b y S iricius, t he s uccessor o f D amasus. H e w as t o h old h is f irst c ouncil i n 3 86 i n R ome a d s ancti a postoli P etri r eliquias, 1 45 w hereas D amasus h ad h eld h is c ouncil o f 3 78 a d s ublime s edis a postolicae s acrarium . e mphasis h ad c hanged.

1 +6

I n t he i nterval t he

I n h is d ecretal, E jus c ura q uod e i a P etro s ubsidiam, S iricius a sks q ui n olunt a b a postolicae p etrae, s uper q uam C hristus u niversalem c onstruxit E cclesiam , s oliditate d ivelli? 1 47 I ndeed i t s eems t hat i t w as S iricius w ho f irst s uggested t hat a postolic d octrine h ad s urvived i n R ome b ecause P eter h imself r uled i n t he p erson o f t he R oman b ishop. N one t he l ess, i t w as o n him, p raecipue q uibus s ecundum b eatum P aulum, i nstantia q uotidiana e t s ollicitudo o mnium e cclesiarum i ndesinenter i ncumbit. 1 48 N o p riest, he c oncluded, w as f ree t o i gnore t he s tatuta s edis a postolicae o r t he c anonum v enerabilia d efinita 11 4 9 H is s uccessor, I nnocent, f ollowing h is l ine o f a rgument, l ater w rote150 t hat t hrough s ancto a postolo P etro, .. e t a postolatus e t e piscopatus i n C hristo c oepit e xordium , a nd t hat h e w orked n ot t o e stablish n ova p raecepta, b ut t o r estore t he o ld. H owever, d uring t he c ourse o f t he f ourth c entury, t he s ixth c anon o f N icaea h ad a lready r eceived i ts i ndividual L atin i mprint, e mphasizing t hat t he C hurch a t R ome s emper h abuit p rimatum ,1 51 a nd t he c anons o f t he C ouncil o f S ardica h ad b ecome a ttached, w ithout d istinction, t his d id n ot g o u nobserved.

t o t hose o f N icaea,

a lthough

1 52

A t t he s ame t ime a s P eter w as r eceiving i ncreasing p rominence i n R ome, t here m ay w ell h ave b een a d evelopment o f t he c ultus P auli i n C onstantinople i tself. 1 53 T he l ast d ecade o f t he f ourth c entury h ad s een a n i ntensification o f P auline s tudies i n R ome, a nd t his w as n ot u nconnected w ith p arallel w ork i n C onstantinople, w hich m ay w ell h ave b een e ncouraged b y i ts b ishops 1 54 a nd b y t he p rominent p lace t he a postle t ook i n i ts l iturgy. W e h ave a lready s een h ow t his w as r eflected i n t he s culpture p roduced a t C onstantinople a t t his t ime.

9 2

I t w ould s eem t hat, w hereas P aul, u nlike P eter, h ad r emained a nonymous a mongst t he a postles i n R oman r eligious a rt o f t he f irst h alf o f t he c entury, i n C onstantinople t he r oles w ere n ow r eversed: i t w as P eter w ho r emained u nidentified a nd P aul w ho w as s ingled o ut f or s pecial t reatment.155 I n 3 94 F lavius R ufinus, t he m inister o f T heodosius I , f ound i t e xpedient t o f ound t he A postolaion, a b asilica c onsecrated t o b oth a postles, t o P eter a nd t o P aul, a t Drus, n ear C halcedon. I t i s n ot w ithout s ignificance t hat S iricius h ad g iven h im ' relics' o f b oth a postles o n h is f irst v isit t o R ome, w ith T heodosius, i n 3 89. I t i s p robable t hat R ufinus a nd T heodosius w ould h ave v isited t he n ew b asilica b eing b uilt o n t he V ia O stiensis: t he b asilica w as d edicated, S IRICIVS E PISCOPVS T OTA M ENTE D EVOTVS, 15 8 s oon a fter. I t m ay, t herefore, h ave b een a c onscious a ct o f p olicy o n t he p art o f T heodosius a nd h is s uccessors t o e mphasize t he a uthority w ithin t he U niversal C hurch o f t he v as e lectionis, t he a postle o f t he G entiles, p ossibly a t t he e xpense o f t he u nique a uthority o f P etrus, a nd h is c onnexion w ith t he C hurch a t R ome. 1 5 7 T his, i n i ts t urn, m ay h ave r esulted i n t he d emand t hat P aul a ppear o n s arcophagi a nd o n o ther s culpture. B ut t his, t oo, w as b ut a p assing p hase: b y t he m iddle o f t he f ifth c entury P aul w as t o b e r eplaced i n C onstantinople b y P eter, j ust a s h e h ad b een i n R ome.158 T he d ecline o f t he a uthority o f P aul i n R ome w as a lmost a s r apid a s i ts r ise. D uring t he f irst d ecades o f t he f ifth c entury t he R oman b ishops c ontinued t o r efer t o t he a postolic s ee, b ut t hey a lso b egan t o e mphasize t he n ew f ormulae d isseminated b y S iricius, t he a uthority g ranted t o t heir C hurch b y P eter, p rinceps a postolorum .159 T he s ack o f R ome p roved a m oment o f t ruth. T he W estern E mperor, H onorius, h ad r emained u nharmed i n h is s acred c itadel a t R avenna a nd, a lthough h is R oman t riumph o f 4 16 m ight s eem t o i ndicate t hat h e h ad n ot f orgotten h is m ost s acred C ity, 1 60 i ts r enovatio w as l eft t o i ts c itizens, i n p articular t o i ts s enators a nd t o i ts b ishops, n otably S ixtus I II a nd L eo t he G reat. T he a lliance b etween t he E mpire a nd t he W estern C hurch, f irst f orged b y Ambrose a nd D amasus, h ad a lmost s napped , 161 a lthough i t w as r evived b y G alla P lacidia a nd h er s on, V alentinian I II. I t w as t o b e r eplaced b y a n a lliance w ith t he C hristianized R oman a ristocracy 2 w ho w ere i ncreasingly t urning t o t heir b ishops f or g uidance. l bL T he a uthority o f t he C ity, a s w ell a s o f i ts b ishops, w as t o t urn o n t he p rimacy o f S t P eter. T he b ishops o f M ilan a nd R avenna, p articularly t he l atter, m ight h ave p osed a t hreat t o t he p rinceps a postolorum , e specially w ith t he r emoval o f t he i mperial c omitatus t o R avenna i n 4 02. B ut t his r eally p rovided g reater s cope f or r ivalry b etween t he C hurches i n M ilan a nd R avenna t han w ith t heir m other C hurch a t R ome. I t i s p robable t hat t he C hurch a t A quileia w as g iven ' metropolitan s tatus' b y t he b ishop o f R ome i n c . 4 00 t o o ffset t he m oral a uthority b equeathed t o t he C hurch a t M ilan i" b y i ts g reat b ishop, Ambrose, o n h is d eath i n 3 97. T he C hurch o f R avenna w as g iven s imilar s tatus i n c . 4 30. I t s eems t hat, i n a n a ttempt t o a void a p ossible r epetition o f t he M ilanese s ituation, C elestine I I nsisted t hat t he b ishop o f R avenna, a t l east, s hould r emain h is s uffragan. A lthough a b ishop o f R avenna e ventually w as t o c laim e qual a uthority w ith t he b ishop o f R ome i n 5 48, a s p art o f J ustinian's s trategy t o d estroy t he A rian G othic K ingdom, 1 64

9 3

t he

b ishops o f R avenna, d eath i n 4 50, N eon, b ishops c laimed.

i n p articular P eter C hrysologos a nd, a fter h is a ccorded t o R ome t he f ull a postolic a uthority h er

D uring t he f irst d ecades o f t he f ifth c entury t he i mplacable h ostility o f t he b ishops o f A lexandria t o t he n ew s ee o f C onstantinople, a nd i ts b ishops, l ed t o c ontinual d isagreement, t o a s tate o f c onstant d iscord. T his c ulminated i n t he C ouncil o f E phesus ( 431), w hen N estorius, b ishop o f C onstantinople, w as c onvicted o f h eresy a nd d eprived o f h is b ishopric. N estorius h ad a lready b een c ondemned b y C elestine a t a c ouncil h eld i n R ome i n t he p revious y ear. C elestine's l egates a t E phesus u sed t he o pportunity t o p ress f or f ull r ecognition o f t he a postolic a uthority o f t he R oman s ee, b ut w ith l ittle s uccess. I t i s t his t hat w as s tressed s o c onfidently b y h is s uccessor o n t he a rch m osaics o f S . M aria M aggiore. I t r eally s eems t hat t he E astern C hurches, a t t his t ime, w ere u nable t o c omprehend t he f ull m eaning g iven t o t he t erm ' apostolic' b y t he R oman b ishops: f or t he E astern b ishops a uthority w as d efined i n t he c onciliar c anons. N evertheless, w hen n ecessity c ompelled, t here s eems t o h ave b een l ittle d ifficulty f or a n E astern b ishop, s uch a s F lavian, 1 65 t o m ake u se o f t he a ppropriate f ormulae, a lthough i t i s d oubtful w hether t hey h ad a ny s ignificant m eaning f or h im . T he f ull d evelopment o f t he t heme o f p rimatus P etri, a nd t he c onsequential r elegation o f t he f ormula o f c oncordia a s a c laim t o p rimacy, c ame w ith t he e lection o f L eo t he G reat i n 4 40. I n o ne o f t he g reat s ermons 1 66 p reached o n t he a nniversary o f h is c onsecration, L eo p roclaimed t hat P eter h ad b een c hosen, b oth a t t he c all o f t he G entiles a nd o f t he C ircumcized, t o p reside o ver a ll t he a postles a nd c ollected f athers o f t he C hurch. P aul's l eadership o f t he e cclesia e x g entibus, i t s eems, w as n o l onger o f v ital i mportance. 1 67 I n a nother s ermon L eo, 1 68 e laborating o n t he i deas o f S iricius a nd I nnocent, s tated t hat P eter, a s b ishop , h ad n ever c eased t o p reside o ver h is s ee a nd t o c onfess t o h is s uccessors t he a uthority g iven t o h im b y C hrist. I t i s a lso s ignificant t hat, a ccording t o t he L iber P ontificalis, L eo w as t he f irst b ishop f or s everal c enturies t o b e b uried a pud b eatum P etrum a postolum, 1 69 w hereas m embers o f t he w estern b ranch o f t he T heodosian H ouse h ad b een b uried t here s ince t he b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury. E ven i n h is s ermon o n 2 9 J une, a lthough h e d wells o n t he j oint-foundation o f t he C hurch b y P eter a nd P aul, a s t he c alendar r equired, h e p roclaimed t hat t he R oman C hurch w as: p er s acram b eati P etri s edem c aput o rbis e ffecta ... 1 70 T he p rimatus s edis a postolicae, t he a uthority o f t he P ope a s b lessed P eter, w as r ecognised b y V alentinian I II o n 8 J uly, 4 45: c um i gitur s edis a postolicae p rimatum P etri m eritum , q ui p rinceps e st e piscopalis c oronae, e t R omanae d ignitas c ivitatip, s acrae e tiam s ynodi f irmarit a uctoritas ..,171 b ut n ot e tiam s ocietas b eatissimi P auli a postoli, v as e lectionis.172 T his l ast f ormula h ad been a ccepted b y t he R oman c ouncil o f 3 82 a s i ts c o-called t hird c anon; i t w as n ow o mitted. T he C onstitutio V alentiniani 1 11,173 h owever, w as i mportant f undamentally b ecause i t e ndorsed t he d ecision o f G ratian i n 3 78 t o r ecognize t he b ishop o f R ome's j urisdiction i n r eligious m atters o ver t he o ther C hurches i n t he W estern E mpire; i t a lso d emonstrated t he f ull s upport g iven t o L eo b y t he w estern b ranch o f t he i mperial f amily.

T his b ecame f urther e xplicit i n 4 50 d uring a v isit o f t he

9 4

i mperial f amily t o R ome. A l etter o f V alentinian t o T heodosius I I n ot o nly c onfirmed h is p resence o n t he 2 2 F ebruary a t t he c elebration i n b asilica a postoli P etri o f n atale P etri d e c athedra, b ut a dmitted q uam n os a n ostris m ajoribus t raditam d ebemus c um o mni c ompetenti d evotione d efendere, e t d ignitatem p ropriae v enerationis b eato a postolo P etro i ntemerata e t i n n ostris t emporibus c onservare. 1 74 L etters o f G alla P lacidia, w ritten a t t he s ame t ime, u nderline e ven m ore f irmly, w ith t heir r eferences t o t he c laves r egnorum c oelestium, 1 75 t he p rimacy o f L eo. T he a uthority o f P aul s eems a lmost i rrelevant. B y t he m iddle o f t he f ifth c entury, l argely a s a c ounterblast t o t he c laims o f i psa n ova R oma, r e-enunciated i n 4 51 e ven m ore f irmly i n t he s o-called t wenty-eighth c anon o f C halcedon, a nd t o t he g eneral i neffectiveness o f t he w estern e mperors, t he R oman b ishops i n t heir q uest f or a uctoritas h ad f inally a ccepted t he p rior c laims o f P eter o ver P au1.176 I n 4 52, t he y ear h e r ejected t he o ffending c anon, L eo t he G reat, a s i ndignus h aeres o f P eter, l ocum t enens, 1 77 h elped t o p lead t he c ause o f t he c itizens o f R ome b efore A ttila; t hree y ears l ater h e s ucceeded i n t empering t he o nslaught o f t he A rian V andals. H owever, e ffective p ower i n R ome w as t o b e h eld f rom 4 56 t o 4 72 b y a n A rian, F lavius R icimer, m agister m ilitum a nd, l ater, p atricius. A nd i t w as he, n ot t he b ishop o f R ome, w ho w as t o b e r esponsible, b etween 4 62 a nd 4 70, f or t he c onstruction o f a n ew b asilica w ithin t he C ity w alls, a n A rian c hurch, S . A gata d ei G oti, b ased i n p lan a nd e levation o n t he A rian c athedral a t R avenna, t he A nastasis G othorum .178 I t w as R icimer w ho b esieged R ome a nd f inally s acked i t f or t he t hird t ime i n 4 72. N evertheless, a nother G oth, h is c olleague F lavius T heodobius V alila, b equeathed a b asilica 179 t o t he b ishop o f R ome, s o t hat i t c ould b e c onverted i nto a C atholic c hurch, S . A ndrea i n C atabarbara. T his w as d one b y S implicius, b etween 4 68 a nd 4 83, b y f itting t he a ppropriate m osaic i nto t he a pse, a lthough h e l eft t he r emaining d ecoration u ntouched. 1 80 T he p riorities o f t he b ishops o f R ome m ay h ave c hanged d ramatically, b ut t he b attle a gainsts i ts o ld e nemy, t he A rians,

c ontinued u nabated.

9 5

4 T he d eclining P opularity o f P aul T he s ack o f R ome ( 14-17 A ugust, 4 10) w as t raumatic. A part f rom t he d estruction o f o fficinae p roducing w orks o f a rt a nd t he f light o f p atrons a nd a rtisans f rom t he C ity, t he c ultus o f P eter a nd P aul r eceived a r ude s hock. T he p rotectors 1 81 o f o rthodoxy h ad n ot b een a ble t o p rotect t he C ity f rom c apture b y t he h eretical G oths, a lthough t he b asilicas o f t he a postles h ad i n f act p rovided s anctuary 8 2 A ugustine m ight a nswer, D ebuit e rgo A postolorum M emoria, p er q uam t ibi p raeparatur c oelum , s ervare t ibi i n t erra t heatra i nsanorum?, 183 b ut t his w ould h ave d one l ittle t o r evive p opular s upport f or t he c oncordia a postolorum . O fficial p olicy, i n a ny c ase, w as a lready c oncentrating o n t he p rimatus P etri. N aturally t he f ormula o f t he r efoundation o f t he C ity b y t he t wo a postles, a s w e h ave s een, w as n ever l ost:

i t w as t oo a pt a p iece o f p ropaganda f or s uch a f ate.

T he s tyle o f a rtisans a nd t he t aste o f p atrons d o n ot a lter q uickly, a nd a fter 4 10 t he n eeds o f t he c itizens o f R ome s till h ad t o b e m et. T he s arcophagi o f P eter a nd P aul, a s w e h ave s een, d id n ot s urvive t he c atastrophe a nd a lthough s ome c rude g old-glass p ortraits o f t he t wo a postles m ight h ave b een m ade a fter 4 10, t hey t oo s eem t o h ave d isappeared. T his m ay h ave b een d ue t o t he c ampaign o f A mbrose t o p rohibit r efrigeria a bsolutely. I n R ome r efrigeria a t t he g raves o f t he m artyrs o r, m ore p robably, w ithin t he c emetery b asilicas, w ere a lready i n d ecline b y t he e nd o f t he f irst d ecade o f t he f ifth c entury. 184 T he d emand f or v essels w ith g old-glass f igures o f t he a postles a nd m artyrs, t hen, m ay w ell h ave b een s lackening b efore t he a dvent o f A laric. C hanging f unerary c ustoms, c oinciding w ith t he d estruction o f o fficinae i n 4 10, m atched b y a d ecline i n t he n umber o f p ilgrims v isiting t he C ity, a ll m ust h ave c ontributed t o t he d isappearance o f t hese p articular f orms o f p ropaganda. T he c hange o f a tmosphere a fter 4 10 - w hen t he p apacy a nd R oman a ristocracy w ere f orced, w ith t he c onstant b arbarian p resence i n t he b ackground, t o p ursue a p olicy i ncreasingly i ndependent o f t he W estern E mpire - s eems t o h ave l ed t o a c hange o f a llegiance o n t he p art o f s ome o f t he C hristian c itizens o f R ome. T he c ult o f S t L aurence, a R oman d eacon w ho w as m artyred i n R ome i n 2 58, w ould s eem t o h ave g rown i n p opularity a t t he e xpense o f t he c ult o f t he a postles, a lthough t he d eacon i s n ot p articularly p rominent o n s urviving a rtefacts m ade i n R ome a t t his t ime. 1 85 H is c ultus o n t he V ia T iburtina m ay h ave b een i naugurated a t a bout t he s ame t ime a nd o ut o f s imilar c ircumstances a s t he c ultus o f t he a postles o n t he V ia A ppia: h is f estival a ppears i n t he D epositio M artyrum 1 88 u nder 1 0 A ugust. T he b asilica m aior, 1 87 t he c entre o f t he c ult, a lmost c ertainly b uilt b y C onstantine, a lthough s imilar t o, w as i n f act m uch l arger t han, t he C onstantinian b asilica o n t he V ia A ppia. L ike t he b asilica a postolorum , i t h ad h ad i ts d evotees d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury: p ious m embers o f t he R oman a ristocracy, f or e xample, w ere t o b e f ound a mong t heir r anks b efore 4 10. 1 88 T here w ere a lso a t l east t wo o ther b asilicas d edicated t o S t L aurence i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury: D amasus w as e lected b ishop a t S . L orenzo i n L ucina i n 3 66; a nd h e t hen b uilt t he t itulus D amasi, S . L orenzo i n

9 6

D amaso,

o n t he e state h e h ad g iven t o h is C hurch.

e xpected, D amasus e ither s et, o r f ollowed,

A s m ight b e

t he f ashion.

1 89

A fter 4 10 i nterest i n t he c ult o f S t L aurence q uickened a nd t he b asilica m aior b ecame t he f avourite b urial p lace o f t he p opes.I " Z osimus

( d.

4 18),

S ixtus I II

( d.

4 40)

a nd H ilary

( d.

4 68) w ere b uried

i n c rypta, i uxta c orpus b eati L aurenti. F urther c onfirmation o f t he p opularity o f t he c ult w as p rovided b y t he d iscovery o f a l ead m edal o f t he m artyr, p robably m ade b efore 4 32, i n t he a ger V eranus; 1 91 i t m ay h ave b een d ropped b y a d evotee o f t he c ult. N umerous f ragments o f a mphorae, d rinking b owls a nd d ishes h ave b een f ound o n t he s ite. V alentinian I II n ot o nly g ave i mpressive g ifts f or a s hrine o f t he s aint i n R ome, b ut, i t w ould s eem, a lso d edicated a s hrine t o S t L aurence i n R avenna. E ven L eo I r ecognized t hat R ome h ad b ecome a s f amous i n L aurence a s J erusalem h ad b ecome e nnobled i n S tephen. 1 92 T his e nthusiasm f or t he l ocal s aint c ulminated i n t he c onstruction o f t he n ew b asilica o f S . L orenzo f uori l e m ura b y P elagius 1 1. 1 93 I t m ight s eem t hat t he u nique c onfidence o f t he R omans i n t he c oncordia o f P eter a nd P aull " w as s o s haken a fter t he t hree-day s ack o f 4 10, o r p ossibly b y t he f ourteen-day s ack o f 4 55, t hat t heir a llegiance w as t ransferred t o L aurence, t he l ocal m artyr b orn i n R ome, p erennem c onsulem, w ho t riumphed o ver r itum b arbarum .1 95 L eo h imself, p reaching i n o ctavis a postolorum , t akes a s t he s ubject o f h is s ermon, d e n eglecta s olemnitate, 1 96 a lthough h e d oes n ot n eglect t o c all f irst o n P eter. I t i s, t herefore, n ot s urprising t hat L aurence i ncreasingly t ook a p rominent p lace i n t he R oman s tational l iturgy. B y t he b eginning o f t he s ixth c entury,

t he c ult o f S t L aurence o n

t he V ia T irburtina w as p robably m ore i mportant, o r m ore p opular, t han t he c ult o f S t P aul o n t he V ia O stiensis. I ndeed, o f f our s tations a t S . P aolo f uori l e m ura t hree w ere c losely a ssociated w ith S t P eter a nd S t L aurence. 1 97 P elagius's n ew c hurch f or S t L aurence w as d esigned s pecially t o g ive a n i ncreasing n umber o f p ilgrims m ore d irect a ccess t o t he m artyr's g rave. 1 96 A t a bout a nnular c rypts w ere c onstructed a t S t P eter's 1 99 S t P aul i s200 t o g ive s imilar a ccess t o t he g raves L ong p orticoes a lready l inked t he c ult c entres t o i n t he c ase o f S t P eter's, n ot a rtistic,

t o H adrian's b ridge. 2 °1

t he s ame t ime a nd p robably a t o f t he a postles. t he C ity g ates, o r I n l iturgical,

i f

t erms i t m ight b e s aid t hat t he t hree p atrons o f t he

C ity, S t P eter, S t P aul a nd S t L aurence, h ad c ome t o f orm a l iturgical t rilogia, a lthough i n n umber a nd i mportance o f f estivals, S t P aul w as m uch t he l east o f t he t hree. 2 °2 T his d oes n ot m ean t hat t he a postle P aul w as n eglected.

I ndeed

i t i s i nconceivable t hat t he d octor g entium w ould n ot c ontinue t o h ave h is d evotees i n R ome, a s e lsewhere, a fter 4 10. T he d iscovery, p ossibly a t t he b eginning o f t he n ineteenth c entury, o f a b ronze s itula i n f ront o f t he c hurch o f S . M arco i n R ome i s r elevant. T he s itula, n ow i n t he M useo S acro i n t he V atican, 203 w as m ade i n t he f irst d ecades o f t he f ifth c entury, a nd p robably b rought f rom t he E ast f or u se a t t he w ell o f t he a trium t o t he b asilica. A lthough b adly c orroded, t he s omewhat c rude i ncised d ecoration a nd G reek i nscriptions c onfirm i ts E astern o rigin. C hrist, e nthroned i n t he m idst o f t he a postolic c ollege, t urns t o P aul, s tanding o n t he l eft, a nd n ot t o P eter, s tanding o n t he r ight. T hus, a lthough t he s itula m ay n ot c onform t o t he m ore t raditional i conography o f t he t raditio

9 7

l egis

t here w ould s eem t o b e a s pecial e mphasis p laced o n t he

, 204

a postle o n t he l eft o f C hrist.

T he o riginal b asilica o f S .

b uilt i n 3 36, b ut t here i s n o e vidence a s

M arco w as

t o w hen t he s itula was

a ctually g iven t o t he C hurch. H owever, a n a ccent o n P aul a t t he w ell o f S t Mark's would n ot have g one u nobserved. J ust a s t he j oint-festival o f 2 9 J une r emained w ithin t he l iturgy u ntil G regory t he G reat r elegated S t P aul i conography o f P eter a nd P aul r emained i n u se 205 b asilicas, n otably o n t he t riumphal a rch o f

S .

t o 3 0 J une,

s o t he

i n t he g reat M aria M aggiore.

T he

q uest o f t he R oman C hurch f or a uctoritas l ed t o s ubtle d istinctions within t his i conography.

T hese w ere a ccompanied b y a c hange i n s tyle,

b y a n a lmost u nconscious q uest o n t he p art o f t he w orkshops f or a n e ver-increasing a bstraction. p ointed o ut, 206

I ndeed,

a s P rofessor K itzinger has

i t w as a s tyle t hat was t o p rovide a rtists,

a nd t heir

p atrons, with a t rue ' language o f a uthority'. T he q uest f or t his ' mode' b ecame t he ' great a nd c entral c oncern o f f ifth-century a rt'. T he i conography o f P eter a nd P aul c ontinued t o a ppear o n l ater mosaics.

Many a re s till e xtant,

a lthough m uch r estored,

s uch a s t he

t raditional s ixth-century m osaic f itted b y F elix I V i nto t he a pse o f a f ormer a udience hall t o c reate t he memoria o f S S. C osma e D amiano. T he heavily r estored, l ate s ixth-century m osaic o n t he t riumphal a rch o f

S .

L orenzo f uori l e m ura a ptly i llustrates t he p oint.

a nd P aul

H ere P eter

s hare t heir p ositions with o ther m artyrs, L aurence,

S tephen 2 "

a nd H ippolytus.

T he i maginarii, h owever, h ad b y n ow

d eveloped t he n ecessary c onventions t o s tress n ot o nly t he p rimacy o f P eter, b ut e qually t he p rimacy o f P elagius, his s uccessor a nd h eir. 208

9 8

N OTES

1

T he P opularity o f P aul i n R ome

1 .

B rown, A ugustine, p p. C SEL 8 3.

2 .

P L 1 7, 4 5ff.

3 .

K elly,

4 .

I bid., p p.

5 .

S outer, c f.

p p.

C SEL 8 1,

1 -3.

1 51.

H adot,

p assim .

C f.

C f. M artini, p assim .

1 44ff. 1 47f.

2 ,

i bid.

9 2ff., 1 03,

C f.

T ext.

P ietri, R oma, p p.

1 583ff.

A s a lso d id J erome's c ommentary o n G alatians:

1 , p p.

1 83ff.

6 .

U llmann,

7 .

S ee p p.

8 .

F or a nother c ommentary o n t he P auline e pistles t hat m ight h ave b een w ritten f or t he a ristocratic c ircle o f J erome i n R ome a t t his t ime,

9 .

' Epistola C lementis', p p. 9 2f.

3 12ff.

b elow .

s ee F rede,

M omigliano, p p.

1 , p p. 3 25ff.

2 52ff. P ietri, o p.

c it., p p.

1 547f.

C f.

p .

8 5

b elow. 1 0.

C f.

B rown,

' Aspects',

1 1.

B rown, A ugustine, p p.

1 2.

P L 4 8,

1 3.

S outer,

1 4.

B rown,

p p.

1 61ff.

3 4Off.,

3 57ff.

C f. W ermelinger,

p p.

1 2Off.

8 3. ö p.

c it.,

' Pelagius

p p.

i,

6 f.

p p.

2 02f.

I s t he a ddition o f

' a d omino m ihi

d atam' b y R ufinus t o t he t ext o f t he E pistola C lementis, U llmann, o p. c it., p . 3 13, j ust s uch a n e xample? 1 5.

M orrison, p p.

1 6.

C f.

p .

8 4 b elow .

1 7.

S ee p .

4 4 a bove.

1 8.

P L 6 0,

1 75.

1 9.

C f.

2 0.

S ee p p.

2 1.

C f. M atthews,

p p.

2 2.

P aschoud, p p.

2 18ff.

p p.

5 0f.

C SEL 6 1,

B loch, p p. 3 6ff.

2 42.

1 93ff., a nd n ow, M arkus, p assim . a bove. 2 84ff. ( Jerome),

1 562ff. 9 9

p p.

2 39ff.

( Augustine).

P ietri

2 3.

B rown, A ugustine, p p.

2 4.

C ameron,

' Rutilius',

2 5.

C ameron,

' Macrobius',

2 6.

S ee p .

2 87ff. p p.

3 1ff.

p p.

2 5ff.

3 8 a bove.

2

P eter a nd P aul i n t he R oman L iturgy

2 7.

C hadwick,

' Peter a nd P aul', p p.

2 8.

C od. T op., 2 , p . 1 9. S ee S tern, L e C alendrier, p . R uysschaert, ' Les d eux f etes', p p. 1 73ff.

2 9.

B etween 1 J anuary a nd 7 O ctober,

3 0.

S ee p p.

3 1.

L P 1 , p p.

3 2.

T his w as t he s econd b loody p ersecution i n R ome a t t his t ime,

1 9ff.

4 7f.

3 36.

S tern, o p.

4 4 a nd

c it., p .

4 4.

a bove.

2 f.

C f.

C aspar, p .

1 95.

t he f irst b eing u nder D ecius. M any C hristians w ere m artyred, i ncluding S istus ( Xystus), b ishop o f R ome ( August 6 ) a nd h is c hief d eacon, L aurence ( August 1 0). S ee S tevenson, p p. 2 9ff., a nd p p. 9 6f. b elow . 3 3.

R uysschaert, p p. 1 71f.

3 4.

T oynbee a nd P erkins, p p.

3 5.

S tyger, K atakomben, p p. 3 45f. T oynbee a nd P erkins, p . 1 78 a nd n . 6 6. K irschbaum, p . 1 96. K rautheimer, A rchitecture, p . 3 1.

3 6.

P ietri, p .

' Pierre e t P aul', p .

2 14.

T oynbee a nd P erkins,

1 65f.

' Concordia', p p.

2 97ff., a nd R oma, p p.

3 76ff.

S ee

3 6 a bove.

3 7.

P ietri, R oma,

3 8.

C f. p p.

C hadwick, ' Peter a nd P aul', p p. 3 6f., P ietri, ' Concordia', 3 14ff., a nd R uysschaert, ' Pierre e t P aul', p p. 2 01ff.

C f.

t he e ulogy o f P aul,

3 9.

p p.

1 595ff.

S ee p .

1 08 b elow.

S alvator g eneris R omulei,

i n P rudentius,

P L 6 0, 1 16, C SEL 6 1, 2 18, o r L eo t he G reat's f amous s ermon o n P eter a nd P aul, p . 8 5 b elow . 4 0.

P aschoud, p assim.

4 1.

R imoldi,

4 2.

P esce,

4 3.

C f.

4 4.

L P 1 ,

' San P ietro',

p p.

1 77ff.

C hadwick, p p.

2 34,

o p.

p .

3 4.

C hadwick, c it., p .

' Peter a nd P aul',

4 7,

2 36. 1 00

a nd K irschbaum,

p p.

4 6f.

p p.

1 52ff.

4 5.

C od.

T op.,

2 ,

1 7, n .

4 6.

K rautheimer, ' S. P ietro i n V incoli ' Appendice', p . 3 80.

4 7.

B atiffol,

4 8.

K rautheimer,

4 9.

S ee p .

5 0.

L P 1 , 2 33. G rigg, p . 1 1. F or t he f astidium o r f astigium i n t he I ateran B asilica, s ee i bid. p p. 9 ff.

5 1.

D iehl,

9 74.

5 2.

I bid.,

l oc.

5 3.

I bid.,

1 781.

5 4.

C f.

5 5.

J ulian,

5 6.

P L 1 7,

1 215f.

5 7.

P L 2 6,

3 55.

5 8.

P L 2 3,

6 17f.

5 9.

I bid.,

6 09f.

6 0.

I bid.,

3 46.

6 1.

P G 4 8, 8 25.

6 2.

P aschoud,

6 3.

P L 6 0,

5 61,

5 67.

C SEL 6 1,

4 21f.

C f. n .

6 4.

P L 6 1,

2 47,

3 92.

C SEL 2 9,

1 44f.,

3 79.

6 5.

C f.

6 6.

C od. T op., 2 , p . 1 8. C f. K lauser, D ie C athedra, p p. R uysschaert, ' Pierre e t P aul', p p. 1 75ff.

6 7.

C f.

6 8.

B atiffol, ' Natale P etri, p p. 3 99ff., R uysschaert, o p. c it., p p. 1 77ff.

6 9.

K lauser,

7 0.

R uysschaert,

7 1.

T he s o-called D ecretum G elasianum .

P .

' Papa', o p.

p p.

3 . l,

p p.

3 97f.

S ee n ow P ietri,

1 07f.

c it., p p.

3 93ff.

3 5 a bove.

c it.

P ietri, R oma, p p. 3 , p p.

4 12f.

C f.

p p.

P G 6 0,

o p.

6 77f.,

a nd P G 6 3, 8 46ff.

2 27ff.

P ietri, R oma,

P ietri,

1 541ff.

o p.

P .

1 567, n .

c it.,

c it., p p. o p.

p p.

2 . 1 52ff.,

a nd

3 01ff.

1 76ff.

c it., p p.

1 92.

C f.

1 82ff.

1 01

a nd C athedra,

P ietri, o p. C f.

1 23ff.

c it., p p.

F asola, p p.

T urner,

p p.

1 , p p.

2 81ff.

1 16ff. 1 57f.,

2 45f.

J oannou ,p. T urner, 1 ,

2 85. N ote v ariant i n f inal s ection o f ' Isidori N Q', p p. 1 57f: P rima e rgo s edis c aelesti b eneficio

R omanae e cclesiae q uam b eatissimi a postoli P etrus a tque P aulus s uo m artyrio d edicarunt. C f. C hadwick, ' Peter a nd P aul', p p. 4 9ff. 7 2.

P L 1 7,

3 49.

C SEL 8 1,

3 ,24.

7 3.

I bid.,

3 44.

I bid.,

7 4.

M artini, p . 1 20. G al. l oc. c it. C F. U llman,

7 5.

S ee p p. 3 6ff. a bove. N ikolasch, p p. 4 8ff., a rgues t hat t he t opos i s t he b asis o f s cenes o f t he t raditio l egis.

7 6.

A s e arly a s 3 70-375, a ccording t o B atiffol, C athedra, p . 1 85, b ut p robably i n t he f ollowing c entury, p ossibly d uring t he e piscopate o f L eo I .

7 7.

P L 1 7,

7 8.

C ited J osi, p .

7 9.

P L 3 8, 1 361.

T he s econd o f f ive s ermons o n P eter a nd P aul.

8 0.

I bid., 1 352.

C f.

8 1.

P L 3 4, 1 049.

8 2.

P L 6 0, 1 11ff.

C SEL 6 1,

8 3.

I bid., 1 73ff.

I bid.,

8 4.

I bid.,

3 24.

8 5.

I bid.,

5 56f.

8 6.

S ee p .

9 4 b elow .

8 7.

P L 5 4,

4 28.

8 8.

P L 5 7, 4 04, 5 , c ited S axer, p . 2 21, n . 3 7. S tronger s tatements, e .g. .. e t P aulus p etra e st C hristi g t v as e lectionis e st

1 5. 1 , 1 8: P L 1 7, l oc. c it; ' Leo I ', p . 3 6, n . 3 .

C SEL 8 1, 3 ,

3 32. 1 58.

J osi, p p.

I bid.,

1 58f.,

a nd S axer, p p.

2 17f.,

2 30.

2 15ff.

2 44ff.

3 12f.

I bid.,

4 21.

C f.

R uysschaert,

' Prudence', p .

2 86.

P etrus, P L 5 7, 6 66, w ould s eem n ot t o b e b y M aximus. B ut, c f. P aul, l ike P eter, r eceiving a k ey, c lavem s cientiae, p . 1 27, n .

7 9, b elow .

8 9.

C f.

S axer,

p p.

2 2Off.

9 0.

P L 3 9,

9 1.

C f.

9 2.

C SEL 7 2,

1 49.

9 3.

R imoldo,

' Pietro n ella l ett.

2 126.

t he c alendar e ntries, L öw, p .

1 78.

a pocrifa', p .

1 02

2 11.

9 4.

H ope, p p.

5 9ff.,

1 23ff.,

9 5.

C f. f ormulae 9 , 1 6, o r 1 9, S L, p p. a s tructural o rigin b efore 4 10.

9 6.

P erhaps t he m ost q uoted i s F ormula 2 3, S L, p p. 4 7f., w hich h as a d istinct Ambrosian r ing. I t c ould h ave b een c opied f rom a l ibellus w ritten C . ( Susman, p p. 3 8f.).

4 10,

a nd p assim .

o r i n 4 55

9 7.

C f.

9 8.

F ormula 2 6,

9 9.

P L 7 2,

1 00.

S usman, p p.

1 01.

S ee p .

1 02.

B atiffol, C athedra, p p. 1 29f. D ie C athedra, p . 1 53, n . 8 .

1 03.

F or e xample, A gatho 1 217ff.

S L, p .

7 23.

C f.

S usman, p p.

1 8ff.,

1 85.

( Hope, p p.

5 7f.),

o r i n 5 37

1 63,

1 85ff.

C hevasse, p p.

1 66ff.

9 7 b elow . S usman, p p.

( 678-681)

2 1ff.

C f. K lauser,

s tressed t his v ery p oint.

P L 8 7,

P eter a nd P aul, a nd t he A postolica S edes

S ee p .

1 05.

S ee p p.

5 1ff.

a bove.

1 06.

S ee p p.

3 2ff.

a bove.

1 07.

P L 8 , 8 97.

1 08.

I bid.,

8 4 a bove.

9 08.

C hadwick,

' Peter a nd P aul', p p.

' Epistola C lementis', p p.

1 10.

J oannou, p .

1 11.

P L 1 0,

6 39.

1 12.

S ee n .

1 09.

1 13.

O n t he t erm u na P etri s edes, 1 510, n .

3 .

3 5f.

C f. U llmann,'Leo I ', p .

2 7

3 09f.

8 4. C SEL 6 5,

C f.

1 14.

S otomayor, p p.

1 15.

P L 2 3,

1 16.

H arnack, 1 9-37, p p.

4 5, w hich s uggest

4 9.

1 04.

a nd

4 3f.,

S axer, p assim .

3

1 09.

4 0,

p p.

1 27.

3 4f.

P ossibly a n i nterpolation.

s ee P ietri, o p.

( n.

1 78), 8 4

( n.

c it., p p.

7 1)

C f. n .

1 21.

1 506, n .

2 ,

a bove.

1 00f.

1 72.

2 85f.,

s pecially 2 1 a nd 2 2

1 591. 1 03

( Jerome).

C f.

P ietri, R oma,

1 17.

S ee p .

3 2 a bove.

1 18.

T he f irst

1 19.

J oannou,

1 20.

C od.

1 21.

B atiffol,

1 22.

F errua,

1 23.

P L 1 3,

1 24.

T urner, 1 , p p. 1 55ff. J oannou, 8 9. S ee C aspar, 1 , p p. 2 47ff., f ollowed, f or e xample, b y U llmann, o p. c it., p . 2 97, D avisW eyer, p p. 3 Off., a nd P ietri, p p. 8 66ff. C f. D vornik, p p. 5 6,

' portrait' 7 4.

T heod.

C f. X VI,

o f a p ope i dentified b y L adner, p p.

P ietri, 1 ,

o p.

c it., p p.

l lff.

8 73ff.

2 .

' Papa', p p.

E pigrammata,

1 03ff., a nd C athedra, p p.

1 52f.

5 7.

5 76.

8 8, w ho r ejects t his i nterpretation. 1 25.

P G 4 1,

3 71ff.

1 26.

C f.

8 1 a bove.

1 27.

T he o lder t raditions, i n R ome a s i n t he E ast, r egarded t he a postles a s u niversal t eachers, w ho f ounded C hurches a nd c reated

p .

C f.

C aspar, p p.

1 68ff.,

' bishops', b ut w ere n ot t hemselves p p. 2 46f. 1 28.

1 94ff.

' bishops'.

S ee T urner,

1 ,

T he C lementine t radition w ent f urther:

L inus h ad b een o rdained

b y P aul a nd C lement b y P eter.

o p.

p p.

3 94, n .

1 ,

1 591f.,

U llmann,

c it.,

p .

3 00.

P ietri,

1 598.

1 29.

L adner, p p.

1 30.

S ee p .

1 31.

C SEL 3 5, 4 .

1 32.

P L 2 9,

1 33.

M orrison,

1 34.

P L 1 6,

1 005.

1 35.

P L 1 6,

1 018.

1 36.

G erke,

C hristus, p assim .

1 37.

D vornik, p p.

1 38ff.

1 38.

C f.

( 363)

1 39.

U llmann, ' Leo I ', p p. 3 3ff., p assim . C f. a lso t he i mpact o f t he L atin t ranslation o f t he E pistola C lementis, p . 7 7 a bove, a nd

5 8 a bove.

5 25.

P L 6 7,

C f. U llmann,

' Leo I ', p .

4 0, n .

4 .

p assim .

L iberius

U llmann, 1 40.

1 6ff.

C f. M orrison,

C f.

p p.

4 0ff.

B eck, p p.

3 1ff.

r eferring e x a postolica a uctoritate.

' Epistola',

p p.

3 10ff.

7 7f.

1 04

P L 8 ,

1 373.

1 41.

A s trong c ase c an b e m ade o ut t hat t he C ouncil w as, i n f act, o nly c onsidering t he r estoration o f o rthodoxy i n t he E astern C hurch a nd, t herefore, a t R ome.

t hat i t

i n n o w ay i ntended t o t hreaten t he C hurch

1 42.

S ee p .

9 0 a bove.

1 43.

P L 1 6,

9 54.

1 44.

P L 1 3,

1 131-47.

1 45.

I bid., 1 155.

1 46.

S ee n .

1 23.

1 47.

P L 1 3,

1 136.

1 48.

I bid.,

1 138.

1 49.

I bid.,

1 146.

1 50.

P L 2 0,

4 70.

1 51.

C ited D vornik, p . R oma, p . 1 84.

1 52.

C f.

1 53.

K itzinger,

1 54.

C f. C hrysostom , D e l audibus S . p . 2 0.

1 55.

S ee p p. 2 9f. a bove. K ollwitz, O strömische P lastik, p . 1 41. T here i s s uch a p aucity o f m aterial w ith a f irm C onstantinopolitan p rovenance a nd r eliable d ates t hat n o f irm c onclusions c an b e r eached. C f. B ovini, ' Sarcofagi', p p. 1 79ff.

1 56.

I CVR,

1 57.

T he E mperor's d ecree o f 3 80, n . 1 20, had b een s uperseded b y t he t hird c anon o f t he C ouncil o f 3 81, n . 1 40. C f. K itzinger, ' Marble

8 4.

T urner,

1 ,

p p.

l etter o f t he C ouncil o f C arthage

2 ,

R elief',

' Marble R elief',

4 778.

p p.

p p.

D iehl,

p p.

1 03,

1 21,

( 424).

1 48.

C f. P ietri,

P L 5 0, 4 22ff.

1 6ff. P auli, P G 5 0,

5 07,

c ited K itzinger,

1 857.

1 7f.

1 58.

I bid.,

2 3f.

1 59.

P robably f irst u sed b y J erome i n 3 92. C athedra, p .

1 91, a nd P ietri, R oma,

M atthews,

p p.

P L 2 3, p .

6 7.

C f. B atiffol,

1 498.

1 60.

C f.

3 54f.

1 61.

H onorius, h owever , c ould, a nd d id, i ntervene d ecisively i n t he a ffairs o f t he R oman b ishops. C f. D vornik, p . 2 9 a nd P ietri, p p.

9 11ff.

1 62.

C f.

P ietri,

1 63.

M ilan p robably a chieved

p p.

6 99ff.,

a nd K rautheimer, R ome, p . ' metropolitan s tatus' 1 05

4 0.

a t t he e nd o f t he

t hird c entury.

C f.

p assim .

L anzoni, p p.

1 016ff., a nd P ietri, p p.

C f. D vornik, p p.

9 58ff.

1 64.

S imson,

1 65.

D vornik, p p. 7 1ff. C f. T heoderet, b ishop o f C yrrhus, w ho u sed a ppropriate f ormulae, s uch a s ' apostolica s edes', ' Petri e t P auli s epulcra'.

1 66.

P L 5 4,

1 49.

1 67.

S ee p .

8 5 a bove.

1 68.

f j , 5 4,

1 53.

1 69.

L P 1 ,

1 70.

P L 5 4,

1 71.

C ertum e st.

1 72.

J oannou, p .

1 73.

P L 5 4,

6 34ff.

1 74.

I bid.,

8 59.

1 75.

I bid.,

8 65.

1 76.

C f. p .

p .

2 39.

P G 8 3,

C f.

1 51ff.

1 311ff.

P icard,

p p.

7 45,

7 47, a nd 7 42ff.

4 23. I bid.,

6 37.

D vornik, p .

7 1.

2 85.

P ietri, p p. 1 512, n n.

5 ,

1 510ff. 9 ,

F or t he a uctoritas o f P aul,

a nd p .

c f.

1 77.

U llmann,

1 78.

K rautheimer, A rchitecture,

1 79.

P robably b uilt b y I unius B assus, c onsul o rdinarius, 3 31, f ather o f I unius B assus, p raefectus u rbi, 3 59.

1 80.

D iehl,

' Leo I ', p assim .

1 785.

4

1 81. 1 82.

C hadwick, C f.

M atthiae,

p p.

' Damasus', p p.

D ei,

p .

1 38.

1 ,

1 31f.

1 095,

3 16ff. C rosius, H ist.,

1 a nd 3 4.

1 83.

P L 3 8,

1 357.

1 84.

K rautheimer,

' Mensa',

1 85.

C f. A ge,

5 66f.

1 86.

S ee p .

p p.

t he

T he D eclining P opularity o f P aul

J erome, P L 2 2,

d e c iv.

i bid.,

8 4 a bove.

p p.

4 5ff.

8 1 a bove.

1 06

7 , 3 9,

a nd A ugustine,

1 87.

K rautheimer, C orpus,

2 , p p.

1 88.

K rautheimer,

1 89.

C f. F errua, E pigrammata, 1 0, 3 3, 5 8, o r h is a ppearance o n f ondi d 'oro, V opel, p p. 5 3f., o r o n a f ifth-century f resco w ith P aul i n t he C atacomb o f S . G ennaro a t N aples, A chelis, T af. 4 1. C f.

' Mensa', p p.

g enerally M atthews, p p. 7 38,

6 ff.,

4 1f.,

1 33ff.

4 8.

3 63ff.

1 90.

P icard, p p.

7 44.

1 91.

G rabar, M artyrium ,

1 92.

P L 5 4, 4 37.

1 93.

S ee n .

1 94.

A s f or e xample, P aulinus o f N ola, U t R omana s alus e t p ublica v ia

2 , p p.

1 3f.,

7 7.

1 87.

m aneret. H ic P etrus, H ic P aulus p roceres, w ritten i n 4 06. P L 6 1, 5 72. C SEL 3 0, 1 58. 1 95.

P rudentius, P eristephanon, C SEL 6 1,

3 16,

2 96.

C f.

1 96.

P L 5 4,

1 97.

W illis,

1 98.

K rautheimer, R ome, p p.

1 99.

I bid., p .

2 00.

K irschbaum, p p.

2 01.

K rautheimer, R ome, p p.

2 02.

C f.

P L 6 0, 3 35,

p .

T estini,

2 04.

S ee p p.

2 05.

C f.

8 6.

C f.

8 3ff.

T oynbee a nd P erkins,

1 9Off.

C f. 2 5,

2 16ff.

T oynbee a nd P erkins, p p. 2 8,

1 355.

' L'iconografia', 1 15f. b elow.

C f.

5 99.

S usman, p .

2 42f.

5 4.

F or t he r ise o f t he c ult o f S t

' Catalogo', S otomayor,

s ee D vornik,

p p.

1 52ff.

7 0. 4 06,

p p.

2 29f.

1 76.

K itzinger, B yzantine A rt, p .

7 5.

F or t he f raternal l ink b etween S tephen a nd L aurence, B erchem a nd C louzot, p .

2 08.

p p.

t he p icture o f b oth a postles g iven b y G regory t o S ecundinum

i n M ay,

2 07.

3 24f.

9 5 a bove.

2 03.

2 06.

i bid.,

5 5.

A ugustine, P L 3 8, p .

C f.

4 33f.

A ndrew i n R ome i n t he f ifth c entury, C f.

2 95.

i bid., 3 12f.

S ee n .

1 92.

9 9.

1 07

s ee

P ART I II T HE C ONCORDIA A POSTOLORUM I t i s i mportant, a s O scar C ullmann p ointed o ut, t o d istinguish c learly b etween t he f oundation o f t he C hurch a t R ome, o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he p rimacy o f t he R oman C hurch o n t he o ther.' S imilarly a d istinction m ust b e d rawn b etween t he c ultus o f P eter a nd P aul a nd t he p rimatus P etri.

1 T he C ults o f R ome a nd O stia T he C ity o f R ome, e ven b efore t he E mpire, h ad h ad a l ong h istory o f a ssimilating v arious c ults w ithin i ts r eligious l ife. M any h ad r eceived o fficial s upport. T his n ot o nly a llowed c itizens, w ho w ere d evotees o f t hese c ults, t o w orship w ithout l et o r h indrance, i t a lso p rovided t he C ity w ith a n a dditional m eans o f p rotecting i tself a gainst i ts e nemies. T raditionally, t he c itizens o f R ome h ad t urned i n n eed t o t he c ult o f t he G uardians o f t he C ity, t he D ioscuri. 2 I t m ay, t herefore, b e s ignificant t hat t he f amous h orsemen o f t he Q uirinal w ere s culpted a nd p robably f irst p laced t here i n a bout 3 30. 3 T he D ioscuri a lso a ppeared o n s arcophagi. A c olumn s arcophagus, 4 p robably m ade i n R ome b etween 3 40 a nd 3 50, a nd e xported t o A rles,5 p roclaims t he t wo D ioscuri, o ne o n t he f ar l eft, w ithout b eard, a nd t he other o n t he f ar r ight, w ith b eard, e ach w ith h is h orse a s w as t he c ustom . I n t he c entre a re t wo s cenes o f h usband a nd w ife. 6 C hristian s cenes h ave b een a dded t o t he s ides i n l ow r elief, p robably a t t he r equest o f t he c lient, a C hristian, w ho a lso i nsisted o n o ther C hristian d etails o n t he f ront. O n t he l eft s ide i s t he m iracle o f t he l oaves a nd, o n t he r ight, a P etrine s cene, b adly d amaged, b ut r ecognisable a s a s cene c onnected w ith t he f ides P etri. B oth s cenes had a ppeared r egularly o n R oman s arcophagi a t t his t ime, t he l atter, f or e xample, o n t he l ower r egister o f t he s arcophagus o f t he t wo b rothers. 7 T he s arcophagus t hus s ubsumes a ttitudes c ommon i n R ome, a nd e lsewhere i n t he W est, d uring t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. I n 3 59 t here w as a s hortage o f f ood i n R ome.

8

I unius B assus h ad

d ied, a nd t he s olution o f h is s uccessor a s p raefectus u rbi, 3 59-361, T ertullus, a p agan, w as t o h urry d own t o O stia t o s acrifice a t t he t emple o f t he D ioscuri f or a f avourable w ind t o b ring i n s upply. H is s uccess a verted t he s erious t hreat o f r iots O stia, i t w ould s eem , w as a p opular c entre f or t he c ult. C astor a nd P ollux,9for e xample, a re f ound i n t he c entral f loor m osaic i n o ne o f t he l argest o f t he l ate h ouses i n

t he c orn i n R ome. T he t wins, e mblema o f a O stia. I t

h as b een d ated t o t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury a nd i t h as b een s uggestedl° t hat t he h ouse m ight h ave b elonged t o C . C eionius R ufius V olusianus L ampadius, p raefectus u rbi, 3 65/6. S imilar c onflicting a ttitudes a re f ound s ide b y s ide i n t he C hronograph o f 3 54.

1 08

A s w e h ave s een,

1 1

t he C hronograph c ontained t he e arlier

D epositio M artyrum a nd t he s o-called L iberian C atalogue, b ut i ts m ain f unction w as t hat o f a c alendar, l avishly p roduced w ith m agnificent i llustrations. T he f irst p art w as p agan, p roviding e ssential i nformation a bout p agan f estivals a nd, i n p articular, d etails o f t hose f estivals d evoted t o t he i mperial c ult. i mperial p recedent, t he winter s olstice,

S o, f ollowing b inding t he 2 5 D ecember, w as r ecorded

a s n [atalis s oils] i nvicti.12 T he s econd p art w as m ade u p o f u seful l ists, i ncluding t he D epositio M artyrum a nd t he L iberian C atalogue. T he p rominence g iven t o t he f irst p art c onfirms t hat V alentinus,

t he

r ecipient o f t his m agnificent n ew y ear g ift, a lthough a C hristian h imself, s till had t o b e w ell v ersed i n t he p araphernalia o f t he p agan c ults, a s w ell a s i n t he o fficial r esponsibilities o f a p rominent R oman c itizen. I ndeed, a s h as b een p ointed o ut m any t imes, t he o bservance o f t he a ncient c ustoms a nd t raditions o f R ome s o i mpressed C onstantius I I o n h is v isit t o t he C ity i n 3 57,

t hat h is s ole a nti-

p agan a ct s eems t o h ave b een t he r emoval o f t he a ltar o f V ictory f rom t he f orum . H is t riumph, c elebrating t he e arlier d efeat o f M agnentius i n 3 53, w as c ommemorated a ccording t o p recedent b y t he r e-erection o f a n E gyptian o belisk i n t he c entre o f t he s pina o f t he C ircus M aximus. 13 T he c oexistence o f C hristian a nd p agan w ays o f t hought i s p erhaps b est i llustrated b y t he d ecorations i n t he p rivate c atacomb o n t he V ia L atina. T he p reponderantly C hristian d ecoration, i ncluding a f ine s cene o f t he t wo a postles P eter a nd P aul ( fig. 3 ) i n c oncordia, i s m atched b y t wo c ubicula d evoted t o p agan s ubjects. O ne i s c overed w ith a m agnificent s eries o f p ictures o f H ercules, a lthough t he o ther s till a waits a s atisfactory e xplanation.14 T he c atacomb m ay h ave b een c ompleted b y 3 60, a lthough l ater d ates h ave b een p ut f orward. 1 5 T he o rdinary p ilgrim v isiting t he C hristian h oly p laces i n R ome i n t he f ourth c entury, a s t oday, w as i nterested n ot o nly i n t he r elics o f P eter a nd P aul, b ut i n t he r elics a nd s ites a ssociated w ith m any o ther m artyrs. A fter t he d ifficulties e xperienced b y t he R oman C hurch d uring i ts c onfrontation w ith C onstantius I I a nd d uring t he p agan r evival i naugurated b y t he a ccession o f J ulian, D amasus, w ho h ad s ucceeded L iberius a s b ishop i n 3 66, d ecided a s a m atter o f p olicy t o m emorialize t he m artyrs o f R ome. H e w as w ell q ualified t o d o t his. H e w as a R oman, a s had b een h is f ather, e xceptor, l ector, l evita a nd s acerdos, b efore h im .1 8 H is p oems, c ommemorating t he m artyrs i n h alting h exameters 2 w ere t o b e c arved o n m arble, p ossibly d uring t he y ears 3 70 t o 383,11 i n a f ine, c ostly s cript b y F urius D ionysius F ilocalus, t he s cribe r esponsible f or t he m agnificent C alendar o f 3 54. T he m emorials w ere t hen t o b e s et u p o n t he a ppropriate s ites. T he s cript, d esigned b y F ilocalus, w as a c ompletely n ew d eparture f rom a nything t hat had p receded i t. I n c ontrast t o t he n ew i conographies d eveloped i n R ome a t t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury, w hich h ad u tilized i mperial m otifs t o s tress t he a uthority o f t he C hurch, t he n ew s cript w as t o e mphasize t he i ndependence o f t he l ocal C hurch, u nshackled b y i mperial p recedent. T he i nscriptions p roclaimed t o p ilgrims a nd d evotees a like t he s acrifices t he l ocal C hurch h ad m ade i n t he p revious c entury, a nd b efore, f or t he t rue, C atholic f aith, o f w hich t he R oman C hurch w as t he g uardian. T he a uthoritative s tyle o f t he s cript m arked a c onscious a ct o f p ropaganda b y D amasus o n b ehalf o f h is C hurch a nd i ts m artyrs, a nd o n b ehalf o f h is o wn p osition a t i ts h ead. 1 8

1 09

T he a ction o f D amasus r ecorded t he t raditions o f t he R oman C hurch f or a ll t o s ee.

T he b urial p laces o f h is p redecessors w ere o bviously

a c rucial l ink i n t he p reservation o f t hat t radition. T hus h e p laced a gainst t he b ack w all o f t he ' Crypt o f t he P opes', i n t he C atacomb o f S t C allixtus, o ne o f his g reat i nscriptions, 1 9 c ommemorating t he C OMITES X YSTI, a s w ell a s o ther b ishops o f t hat c entury. T he s etting u p o f t he f amous i nscription i n t he b asilica a postolorum a lso f ormed p art o f t his p rogramme o f p ropaganda. A s w e h ave s een, " t he i nscription n ot o nly a sserted t he p rior c laims o f R ome t o t he a uthority o f t he a postles, a s R oman c itizens, i t a lso c laimed t he a postles a s d efenders o f t he C ity. A lthough t he r eference t o n ova s idera m ay n ot n ecessarily h ave i ncluded t he D ioscuri, 21 t heir r ole a s G uardians o f t he C ity w as, n evertheless, t o b e t aken o ver b y t he t wo a postles. O fficial r ecognition, a s i n p receding c enturies, w as n ot o nly t o g ive s upport t o t he d evotees o f t he c ultus, i t w as t o p rovide t he C ity w ith a n a dditional m eans o f d efending i tself. T his r ecognition, h owever, a s t he F ilocalan s cript w ould h ave u nderlined, c ame n ot f rom t he e mperor, b ut f rom t he R oman b ishop, D amasus. D uring t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury, b elief i n t he C hristian c ults, a nd i n t he c ult o f t he a postles, P eter a nd P aul, i n p articular, m anifested i tself o n n umerous a rtefacts m ade i n t he l ocal w orkshops, e specially o n t he f ondi d 'oro. A t a nother l evel, t he p opularity o f t he f ondi d 'oro i s m atched b y t he o bvious p opularity o f t he c ontorniates, s truck a t t he p ublic m int i n R ome a nd i ssued u nder t he p raefectus u rbi f rom c .

3 57 u ntil 4 10.

T heir f unction i s u nknown,

a s i s t heir u se, a lthough t hey w ere p robably c onnected i n s ome w ay w ith t he g ames. T heir v aried s ubject m atter i s p reponderantly p agan, a nd t his h as l ed t o t he t heory t hat t hey m ight h ave b een i ssued a s c ounter-propaganda b y t he R oman a ristocracy.

2 2

T he d isappearance i n 3 79 o f t he i mperial b usts f rom t he v ota p ublica c oins, a lso s truck a t t he R oman m int, a nd i ssued o n 3 rd J anuary e ach y ear, i s a nother m atter. I t m arked t he w ithdrawal o f i mperial s upport f rom a n i ssue c losely c onnected w ith t he I saic c ult. B ut t he i ssues c ontinued t o b e s truck a t t he p ublic m int u nder t he a uspices o f t he p raefectus u rbi, p resumably a t t he e xpense o f t he R oman a ristocracy. S ome o f t he m ost b eautiful o f t hese c oins w ere i ssued d uring t he e arly y ears o f V alentinian 1 1. 23 I ncluded a mong t hem w ere d ouble-portraits o f S erapis a nd I sis: t he i mage o f t heir c oncordia c ontinued t o a ppear o n l ater i ssues, m ainly i n t he l arger d enominations, 24 u ntil t heir v irtual d isappearance i n 3 94. 25 T he h ostility o f t his O riental c ult t o t he c oncordia a postolorum s uggests t hat t hese d ouble-portraits m ight h ave b een o pposed c onsciously t o t he d ouble-portraits 26 o f t he a postles. T he l ikeness o f a S erapis t o C hrist c onfirms t hat t he c onfrontation b etween p agan a nd C hristian d evotees c ould t ake u nexpected f orms.

2 7

B efore 3 79 s upport f or t he c ultus o f P eter, o r f or t he c ultus o f P eter a nd P aul, o r e ven f or t he c ultus o f t he R oman d eacon, L aurence, m ay b e s een a s f orming p art o f t he n ormal p attern o f l ife o f a ny R oman c itizen o f t he f ourth c entury. S ome m ay h ave s een l ittle d ifference b etween a dherence t o a C hristian c ult i n a t ime o f c risis a nd a dherence t o o ne o f t he n ewer c ults,

s uch a s I sis a nd S erapis, o r

e ven M agna M ater, C ybele a nd A ttis. 28 I ndeed t he s tep t o c ultus, w hether o f P eter, o r o f P eter a nd P aul, m ay h ave b een a s tep t o

1 10

adherence, if not conversion, to the official religion, to Christianity itself. None the less, the support of the pagan cults by members of the Roman aristocracy posed a continuous threat to both the local Church and to its bishop. This was epitomized in the person of the leader of the pagan party, Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, who was appointed praefectus urbi in 367 during the bitter dispute as to who should succeed Liberius as bishop of Rome. He earned the respect of pagans and Christians alike by the tactful manner in which he handled the contending factions. Praetextatus remained praefectus until 369, and during his period of office was responsible in 367 for the restoration of the porticus deorum consentium, the last pagan monument to be restored officially, it would seem, in the City.29 Others were restored after this date, notably the Temple of Vesta, significantly in 394, and, perhaps. surprisingly, the Temple of Saturn at the end of the century.30 In 374 Ambrose,consularis Aemiliae et Liguriae, became bishop of Milan. It was not long before his influence had a dramatic effect on paganism in general, and on the Roman cults in particular. In 379, as we have seen, the Emperor Gratian signalled their fall from favour by crdering the remov�l of the imperial busts from the vota publica coins. In 380 and 382 Ambrose attended councils in Rome and, no doubt at the prompting of Damasus, he must soon have become acutely aware of the current strength of pagan feeling in the City, where, after all, he had been brought up. It was in the latter year (382) that Simplicianus, the Milanese archdeacon who was to succeed Ambrose as bishop in 397, brought 'relics' of Peter and Paul from Rome to Milan, where they were to be deposited by Ambrose beneath the altar of the basilica apostolorum in a silver-gilt casket. In the same year the altar of Victory was again removed from the Curia in Rome and, more ominously, the imperial supply for the maintenance of the public cults severed. After the death of Gratian in 383, however, the citizens of Rome were again left, generally, to their own devices. On his visit to Rome in 389, Theodosius treated the Senate with the same condescension as had Constantius II on an earlier visit. Two years' later, however, all this had changed. Ambrose was again in a position to influence dramatically events in Rome. On 24 February, 391, a law 31 was sent from Milan to the praefectus urbi, Rufius Albinus, a pagan, forbidding pagan cult. The effect was traumatic. The ancient cults, in particular those of Iuppiter and Hercules, the very gods who had been the patrons of Diocletian, as Iovius, and Maximian, as Herculius, rose in revolt. On 6 September, 394, the two gods were defeated on the river Frigidus by the insignia crucis, held by the Christian Emperor, Theodosius. The great Roman families, sescantas numerare domos de sanguine prisco nobilium licet ad Christi signacula versas turpis ab idolii vasto emersisse profundo, 32 and they were followed, not unnaturally, by the plebs urbana.33 The future lay with the Christian cults, although the sack of Rome in 410, even for them, was to prove a moment of truth.

111

2

C oncordia T he t heme o f c oncordia h ad e ngaged t he a ttention o f m any o f R ome's e mperors l ong b efore C onstantine, a s w itness i ts u se o n n umerous c oins, m edallions a nd g ems. A t t he b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury t he c oncordia o f t he t etrarchs w as r ecorded b y a n E astern w orkshop i n t wo p orphyry g roups, 3 4 o ne n ow i n t he V atican a nd t he o ther a t a c orner o f S . M arco i n V enice. 3 5 C onstantine's i mperial s trategy, a fter 3 13, o f b uilding v ast b asilicas n ot o nly i n R ome a nd C onstantinople, b ut i n J erusalem a nd A ntioch, h owever, w as b ased o n t he g lorification o f t he C hristian C ult, a r eflection o f t he C hristian c oncordia o f t he E mpire. 3 8 T his e xplains h is i ntense p ersonal i nterest i n e nsuring r eligious u nity a t N iceae, a nd a fter. I n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury t his e mphasis w as t o c hange; i t w as t o b e a p eriod o f r estoration, r eparatio s aecull. 37 E qually, i t w as t o b e a p eriod o f r enewal i n t he a ffairs o f t he C hurch, i n p articular o f t he C hurch a t R ome. T he p osition a nd a uthority o f t he b ishop o f R ome w as t o b e r estored a nd s ecured b y t he c oncordia a postolorum . A t t he v ery e nd o f t he c entury, w hen t he E astern a nd W estern E mpires h ad b een e stranged, t he t heme o f c oncordia, o r o f t he c oncordia f ratrum, w as a gain t o p lay a p rominent r ole i n t he p ropaganda o f t he W estern E mpire. 3 8 I t i s t herefore n ot s urprising t hat t his p owerful a nd p opular i dea, i n i ts v arious f orms, d ominated r eligious t hought a nd a rt i n R ome a t t his t ime. T he m ain u nresolved p roblem o f f ourth-century R oman i conography i s t he o rigin o f t he g reat n ew i conographies, u sually a ssociated w ith b oth P eter a nd P aul, t he c rux i nvicta a nd t he t raditio l egis. C onstantine, i t w ould s eem, " h ad b een o pposed t o t he u se o f c ult i mages i n c hurches, a s w ell a s i n o fficial, p ublic a rt. T his m ay h ave b een d ue t o t he h ostility o f a s mall g roup o f i nfluential b ishops o r a dvisers, n otably o f O ssius o f C ordoba. I n p articular, i t w ould s eem t hat t hey h ad o pposed t he u se o f a ny i mage p urporting t o b e a l ikeness o f C hrist, o r o f G od, i n c hurches a nd, m ore g enerally, t he u se o f a ny i mage t hat m ight h ave become a n o bject o f w orship o r o f i dolatory. T here i s, o f c ourse, a c onnexion b etween C onstantine's ' saving s ign', t he s ignum C hristi, a nd t he c rux i nvicta. 40 N one t he l ess, t he c rux i nvicta a nd t he t raditio l egis, p ortraying a s t hey d o f undamental b eliefs o f t he l ocal C hurch, m ust h ave e merged a s o fficial i conographies o nly a fter h is d eath, a lmost c ertainly a fter 3 50, a nd m ost p robably a s a r esult o f h ostile i mperial p ressures n ot u nlike t hose e xperienced b y t he R oman C hurch i n t he p revious c entury d uring t he D ecian a nd V alerian p ersecutions. T hese i conographies w ere m ade u p o f m any c omplex s trands, a nd f or t hat r eason a lone m ay b e s een a s a p opular a ssertion o f t he u nity o f t he l ocal C hurch i n t he f ace o f i mperial o ppression. I n t heir q uest f or a m eans o f r estoring t he a uthority o f t he R oman b ishop, t he s upporters o f L iberius h ad t o t urn t o t he o nly i conographies r eadily a vailable t o t hem f or t his p urpose, t he i conographies o f t he E mpire. I t i s, t herefore, o f s ome s ignificance t hat t he p ileus p annonicus, m uch u sed i n t he e arlier, m ore p opular i conographies, w as n ow s uperseded b y t he m ore t raditional h elmet, o r i ndeed,

d ispensed w ith e ntirely

( cf.

f igs 1 0,

1 1),

t hus p roviding a n

i mage t hat m ay h ave a ppealed m ore t o t he i ncreasingly C hristianized,

1 12

o r p otentially C hristian, a ristocracy, a s w ell a s t o t he C hurch a uthorities a t t hat t ime. L ater, i n h is q uest f or a n a uthoritative f ormat f or h is m emorials t o t he m artyrs, D amasus w as t o d evelop, t hrough t he g enius o f h is s cribe, F ilocalus, a c ompletely n ew s cript. Y et t his t oo w as u nequivocally R oman a nd n ot u nconnected w ith t he s quare c apitals c arved, f or e xample, o n t he A rch o f C onstantine. 41 T he n ew i conographies q uite n aturally i nfluenced b oth t he c raftsmen i n t he l ocal w orkshops a nd t heir c ustomers. T he g lasshouses p roducing g old-glass h ad t o s atisfy t he n eeds o f t he d evotees o f v arious R oman m artyrs, a s w ell a s t he d evotees o f t he m ost i mportant, i f n ot t he m ost l ucrative, o f t hem a ll ( cf. f ig. 4 2). S imilarly t he o fficinae p roducing s arcophagi f or t he c itizens o f R ome h ad t o p roduce s culpture t o s atisfy t he l ocal d emand f or t he m ost p opular i mages, o r i conographies, o f t he d ay. I n R ome i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury t hese i mages, s uch a s t he t rilogia, h ad r eflected t he p opular l egends o f t he l ife o f S t P eter a nd, a s s uch, h ad f ormed p art o f a n e fflorescence o f p opular a rt ( cf. f ig. 6 ). T his w as n o d oubt s timulated b y t he c onstruction o f a g reat b asilica o ver t he s hrine o f t he a postle, t he m emoria P etri. T he g radual C hristianization o f t he R oman a ristocracy, h owever, h ad a n e ffect o n t he q uality o f t he g oods m ade: s ome o f t he b est w orkshops a nd c raftsmen h ad t o t urn, i ncreasingly d uring t he c entury, f rom t he p roduction o f p agan o bjects t o t he p roduction o f C hristian a rtefacts, w hich h ad t o r eproduce n ot o nly t hese s ame i conographies, b ut a lso t he n ew o nes t hat had c ome i nto f ashion a fter 3 50. 42 T hese, a s w e h ave s een, w ere c losely a ssociated w ith t he a postles, P eter a nd P aul i n c oncordia. I t i s, t herefore, n ot s urprising t hat t his e xpanding m arket r equired t he o fficinae t o d ifferentiate b etween t he a ppearance o f P eter a nd P aul, w ho n ow a ppeared n ot o nly o n t he f unerary a rt o f t he p eriod, b ut a lso o n t he m ore e xpensive a pplied a rts, n ot o nly o n g old-glass v essels b ut o n b ronze l amps ( fig. 3 6) o r s ilver a mulae ( figs 2 6,

2 7).

T he r esult w as t hat b oth p rivate a nd p opular a rt, a s

w ell a s o fficial a rt, w ere s tressing t he s ame t hing i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury: t he c oncordia a postolorum . T he d istinction, r ightly r ecognised b y P rofessor C ullmann, h ad b ecome b lurred. T he t heme o f t he c oncordia a postolorum w as s tressed i n m any w ays. I ts u ndoubted p opularity o n f ondi d 'oro i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury h as b een d emonstrated a nd a nalysed b y C harles P ietri. 43 A t i ts m ost c ommon l evel i t m ay b e s een i n t he p opularity o f t he n ames o f t he a postles a s C hristian n ames. 44 H owever, t he d ifferent e mphases o f o fficial a rt, a s r eflected i n s urviving e xamples o f p rivate a nd p opular a rt,

s uch a s f ondi d 'oro o r s arcophagi, a lthough o f i nterest

a s d emonstrating t he c omplex i nfluences t hat l ed v arious w orkshops t o p roduce, f or e xample, d iffering v ersions o f t he t raditio l egis, m ust n ot b lind t he o bserver t o t he m essage c ommon t o t hem a ll: t he i mportant r ole o f b oth P eter a nd P aul ( but n ot L aurence) i n t heir d esign. T he n ew i conographies w ere b ased o n t he a postles' c ommon r ole a s f ounders o f t he R oman C hurch. T his r ole w as o f s ignificance t o t he d evotees o f t he c ultus o f t he a postles; i t w as e qually o f s ignificance f or t he b ishops o f R ome i n t heir q uest f or a uthority. T his i s w hy t he f indings o f t he C ouncil o f 3 82,

a s r evealed i n t he D ecretum G elasianum, 45

a re s o i mportant f or u nderstanding t he o fficial v iew o f t he R oman C hurch a t t his t ime.

T he i conographies o f t he c oncordia a postolorum r eflect

a nd c onfirm t his v iew .

1 13

3

P rimatus P etri

T he i mages o f t he c oncordia a postolorum w ere s upported b oth b y t he p ronouncements o f t he l ocal C hurch a nd b y t he h omilies o f i ts b ishops. T hey h ad b een a ccepted, p resumably, f irst a s o fficial i conographies b efore t hey h ad b ecome p opular i mages, " a nd t hey c ontinued t o p lay a n i mportant r ole i n t he a rt o f R ome, p articularly i n t he d ecoration o f i ts c hurches, l ong a fter t heir r aison d 'être h ad p assed. T his i s a w ell-known i conographical p henomenon. H owever, t he c hange i n o fficial p ropaganda, t he s tress o n t he p rimatus P etri, o n P eter a t t he e xpense o f P aul, b egan, i n i ts t urn, t o i nfluence t he a pplied a rts a t t he b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury, i f n ot b efore. U nfortunately, t he s ack o f R ome i n 4 10 d estroyed m any o f t he w orkshops p roducing t he e vidence o n w hich s uch a g eneralization m ight b e b ased. N one t he l ess i t i s c lear t hat b y t hat d ate t he w orkshops, w hether p roducing g old-glass o r s arcophagi, h ad a lready d eveloped c onventions w hich s eem t o u nderline t he p rimacy o f P eter. A s w e h ave s een, 47

t he c onventions o f p riority i n f ourth-century

p ortraiture a re s omewhat c onfused. I n t he c ase o f f ondi d 'oro P eter n early a lways a ppears o n t he l eft o f e ach j oint-portrait. T his c an b e i nterpreted a s t he p lace o f h onour, a lthough t here i s l ittle d oubt t hat t he w orkshops, r esponding t o p opular d emand, w ere u sing t he c onventions o f a n i mperial i conography t o s tress t he c oncordia a postolorum . I n t he c atacombs P aul a ppears g enerally o n t he l eft o f C hrist a nd P eter o n t he r ight; 48 s imilarly, o n s arcophagi, P eter ' receives t he L aw' o n C hrist's l eft. 49 I f t he t raditio l egis, w ith i ts l ong u nfurled s croll, i s i nterpreted a s m arking o ut P eter, a t t he e xpense o f P aul, a s r eceiver o f t he ' New L aw', t here i s, o f c ourse, n o p roblem . I t i s s ignificant t hat t he p opular s cene o f P eter s triking t he r ock,

a s cene d eveloped a t t he v ery b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury

f rom a n e arlier s cene o f M oses s triking t he r ock, 5 ° w as n ever u sed i n w hat m ight b e c alled ' the i conography o f p rimacy'. T he r ejection o f t his p opular i mage b y t he C hurch a uthorities m ust c ounsel c aution w hen c onsidering t he o ther o bvious p arallel b etween M oses a nd P eter: M oses r eceiving t he L aw o n M ount H oreb i n S inai a nd P eter, a nd P aul, r eceiving t he L aw, t he N ew L aw, f rom C hrist. T he p arallel m ay h ave b een a n e lement i n t he t hinking t hat l ed t o t he d evelopment o f t he t raditio l egis a fter 3 50, b ut, u nlike t he m iracle o f t he r ock, t here i s n o o bvious c onnexion b etween t he t wo i conographies. I n t he e arlier i conography, M oses r eceives a t ablet, o r f olded s croll, f rom h eaven, a nd s tands a lone; i n t he i conography o f t he t raditio l egis t here a re n ormally t hree p ersons p resent: i n a ddition t o C hrist, i t r equires a t l east t wo a postles, n ot o ne, a nd t he a postles a re i n c oncordia. T he i conography o f t he t raditio l egis i s u ndoubtedly d erived f rom i mperial p rototypes, t he m ost r elevant, p erhaps, b eing t he o ne u sed o n t he m issorium o f T heodosius I , a p arcel-gilt, s ilver d ish m ade a s a g ift t o c ommemorate t he d ecennalia o f t he E mperor i n 3 88. 5 1

1 14

A h igh o fficial, k neeling o n t he l eft o f t he E mperor, r eceives f rom h im his s croll o f a uthority; t here i s, h owever, n o o fficial o n t he r ight. I f t here h ad b een a ny n eed a t t hat t ime t o s tress t he u nique a uthority o f P eter, a t t he e xpense o f P aul, P eter c ould h ave b een s ingled o ut, a s w as t he h igh o fficial o n t he m issorium , f or t he u nique a ttention o f C hrist. T he i conography o f M oses r eceiving t he L aw f rom h eaven, w hich a ppeared o n a c onsiderable n umber o f d oublef rieze s arcophagi m ade i n R ome a fter 3 30, 5 2

a s w ell a s i n c atacomb

p ainting, 5 3 c ould, a s w e h ave s een, h ave p rovided a s imilar p rototype, b ut s uch a p rototype w as r ejected. I t i s l ikely t hat t he l ocal w orkshops i n R ome t urned f or t heir i nspiration t o p erhaps t he m ost i nfluential o f a ll t he p ublic m onuments t hen a ccessible: t he A rch o f C onstantine. 54 T his h ad b een d edicated t o C onstantine b y t he S enate o n 2 5 J uly 3 15. T he f rieze s culpted f or t he m onument i ncludes t wo s cenes o f p articular i conographical r elevence, b oth o n i ts n orthern s ide: t he a dlocutio55 o ver t he l eft e ntrance ( fig. 3 9) a nd t he l iberalitas ( largitio)56 o ver t he r ight e ntrance ( fig. 4 0). T he l atter i s, p erhaps, m ore p ertinent f or t he ' receiving' o f a s croll f rom C hrist; t he f ormer f or t he a cclamation o f C hrist. H owever, a lthough t he w orkshop r esponsible f or t he f rieze o n t he A rch w as a lso r esponsible f or C hristian s arcophagi, w hich i ncluded s cenes o f t he t rilogia,57 t here i s n o e vidence t hat i t p roduced a ny s arcophagi i ncorporating t he s cene o f t he t raditio l egis. T his i conography h ad t o w ait f or s everal d ecades b efore i t w as p ut t ogether. I t s eems m ost l ikely t hat t he t raditio l egis w as d eveloped d uring t he e piscopate o f L iberius. J ust a s t he s ignum C hristi c ould o nly e merge a s t he c rux i nvicta a fter t he d eath o f C onstantine, p robably a lso d uring t he e piscopate o f L iberius, s o h ad t he t raditio l egis t o a wait t he c rises p recipitated b y C onstantius I I a nd J ulian. T he s cenes o f t he a dlocutio a nd t he l iberalitas o n t he f rieze o f t he A rch o f C onstantine, a lthough t hey m ay h ave p rovided t he i nspiration f or t he d evelopment o f t he n ew i conography, i n f act m ade n o d istinction b etween t he l eft o r t he r ight s ides o f t he E mperor, e xcept, p ossibly, i n t he s cene o f t he l iberalitas. H ere t he f igure o n t he l eft o f t he E mperor i s b oth b roader a nd t aller t han t he f igure(s) o n h is r ight. S o t he w orkshops, o r c raftsmen, i mplementing t he n ew i conography c ould l engthen P eter's s croll w ithout o ffending t he s ource o f t he i conography. W hy t hey s hould h ave d one t his i s a m atter f or c onjecture. T he d istinctive f eature o f t he m osaic i n t he l eft-hand a pse o f S . C onstanza ( fig. 1 8) i s i ts l ong, i nscribed v olumen, o r s cro11. 5 8 T his f eature i s r epeated o n a s imilar m osaic, c ompleted a t t he e nd o f t he c entury, i n t he b aptistry o f b ishop S oter i n N aples, w here t he e xtant i nscription, D OMINVS L EGEM D AT, c onfirms t he n ature o f t he i conography. 5 9 I n b oth c ases t he i maginarius h ad t o i ncoporate a l ong s croll i nto t he m osaic t o c ater f or t he i nscription. I f t he i nscription w ere t o b e r ead b y t he s pectator, u nlike p ortable o bjects s uch a s i vories, " i t h ad t o b e e xtended f rom C hrist's l eft h and, e ither t o t he r ight, o r, a t l east, a llowed t o f all t o t he g round, a s f or e xample

o n t he f resco i n t he C atacomb

' ad d ecimum ', n ear

G rottaferrata, 6 1 o r o n t he b ase o f a g old-glass v essel, n ow i n t he T oledo M useum, O hio. 62 T hus t he a postle p laced o n t he r ight o f C hrist i s s ingled o ut

' to r eceive'

t he L aw .

1 15

A t t he s ame t ime t he a postle

p laced o n t he l eft o f C hrist, i n t he t raditional p lace o f h onour a t C hrist's r ight h and, i s n ow i dentified b y t he i maginarius a s P aul, t he d octor g entium . T o t he f ides P etri w as a dded t he d octrina P auli. L ike T heodosius o n t he l ater m issorium, C hrist, i n t rue i mperial f ashion, s tares s traight i n f ront o f h im . I t i s i nvidious, t herefore, t o i nterpret t he i ntention o f t he i maginarius a s t o s ingle o ut o nly P eter t o r eceive C hrist's L aw : b oth a postles a re e qually w itnesses t o t he L aw : t hey a re i n c oncordia. I f P eter h ad b een i ntended t o r eceive t he u nique a ttention o f C hrist, w hy d id t he i maginarius i ntroduce t he a postle P aul, a n i nnovation i n i tself, o n t he l eft? T his w as h ardly d one m erely a s a n e xercise i n s ymmetry. I t i s h ardly a c oincidence t hat, a t a t ime w hen t he s uppression o f p aganism , i n p articular a mong t he R oman a ristocracy, w as amatter o f g rave c oncern, t he a postle o f t he e cclesia e x g entibus, t he j oint-founder o f t he l ocal C hurch w as g iven s uch p rominence. T he d ate o f t he f irst a ppearance o f t he v olumen, o r l ong s croll, o n s arcophagi, s uggests t hat t he m osaic i n S . C onstanza m ay h ave b een a s eminal s ource o f t his p articular i conography. T he l ong, o pen s croll f irst a ppeared o n L ateran 1 74. H ere t he o verall d esign ( fig. 1 1) i ndicates t hat t he m armorarius a nd h is p atron w ished t o i nclude a l ong, o pen s croll, b ut t hat, u nlike t he i maginarius i n S . C onstanza, n either w as c oncerned w ith t he p ractical p roblem o f i ncluding t he a ppropriate i nscription: i t w ould s eem t hat t his w as n o l onger n ecessary, a s i ts m essage w as a lready u nderstood. P eter b ends h is k nees, a s h e d oes i n t he m osaic; 63 P aul l ikewise a cclaims C hrist. C hrist t urns s lightly t o t he l eft, t owards P aul, a s h e d oes o n l ater s arcophagi i ncorporating t he s ame m otif. O n t he o ther h and t he s arcophagus o f I unius B assus, d ateable t o 3 59 a t t he l atest, d oes n ot i nclude t he n ew m otif. T he m armorarius o f t he e xpensive o fficina s culpting t his m agnificent s arcophagus f or t he p raefectus u rbi n o d oubt h ad i nstructions t o i ncorporate t he l atest s cenes, i ncluding t he n ew s cene o f t he m artyrdom o f P aul

( cf.

f ig.

1 0):

t he o mission, h owever,

o f a l ong,

o pen s croll f rom t he c entral s cene s uggests t hat e ither t he m osaic i n S . C onstanza h ad n ot b een c ompleted b y 3 59, o r t hat t he n ew m otif w as n ot c onsidered t o b e s ufficiently i mportant, o r r elevant, t o b e i ncluded. A s t he i nscription i n S . C onstanza, a n i mperial m ausoleum , m ust h ave h ad o fficial a pproval o f s ome k ind, t he f irst o f t he p ossibilities s uggested s eems m ost l ikely. O fficial a pproval w ould n ot h ave b een g iven b y a n a iling C onstantius,

o r l ater b y t he

a postate J ulian: i t w as p robably s anctioned b y t he b ishop o f R ome, L iberius h imself, w ho m ay h ave l ived i n t he v icinity o f t he m ausoleum , o n t he V ia N omentana. 64 O n a c olumn s arcophagus, p erhaps m ade i n t he s ame o fficina a nd a t a bout t he s ame t ime a s t he s arcophagus o f I unius B assus, a nd n ow i n t he c hurch o f S . B ernadino i n P erugia, 65 t he s ame y oung C hrist a ppears i n t he c entral n iche, e nthroned a bove t he a rch o f h eaven. I n t he f oref ront6 6 o f t he s urrounding n iches a re f ive a postles, a ll c arefully d istinguished b y t he m armorarius i nvolved. H owever, t he n iche i mmediately t o C hrist's r ight i s o ccupied b y a n o rant-type f igure, r eminiscent o f t he f igure i n t he c entral n iche o f a s trigilated s arcophagus o f c omparable d ate, a sain p robably m ade i n t he s ame o fficina, a nd u sed a t S t P eter's. b7 I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he o rant-type f igure w as i ntended t o r epresent M ater E cclesia. I f s o, i t i s t empting t o d iscern t he f eatures o f t he a postle P eter o n t he

1 16

7 0, 1 0 /0 1 1f feeek " m le ui r

1

3 9.

TW SV IV IE2 W 4 .0 1

> m tv 1 S 1 I KTv ! ! ! 1 I N EU M IKK ' g ee r fre t s !

C onstantine a ddressing c itizens

( adlocutio).

4 0. C onstantine d istributing l argesse ( largitio). D etails o f f rieze o n A rch o f C onstantine, 3 12-315. R ome. 4 1.

T raditio l egis, w ith

' Evangelists'

S arcophagus f ront,

a nd A postles.

3 75-390.

M us e L apidaire d 'Art C hretien, A rles.

1 17

o ther s ide o f C hrist:

a s w e h ave s een, " a t l east o ne m armorarius

i n t he o fficina d id n ot d istinguish c learly b etween P eter a nd P aul. T he c lose p roximity o f t he a postle's l ong, b are r ight a rm , w hich c overs t he h and h olding h is r otulus, t o C hrist's l eft h and, a lso h olding a s croll, m ay s how t he v ery m oment w hen t he r adical s tep o f o verlapping t he c olumn w ith a n e xtended s croll, o r v olumen, w as f irst c onceived. " T here i s, o f c ourse, n o p ossible d oubt a bout t he r ole o f t he s eated C hrist o n t his s arcophagus: he i s C hrist t he t eacher. T he m otif o f a l ong s croll a ppears o n o ther t ypes o f s arcophagi, n otably o n a l ater c olumn s arcophagus f ound i n a m ausoleum c lose t o t he b asilica a postolorum . 7° T he c entral n iche p robably d erives i ts i nspiration f rom t he i conography o f t he m iracle o f t he l oaves, w hich h ave b een c hanged i nto v olumina.

T he f igure o n C hrist's l eft h olds

a l ong, u nfurled s croll, m atching i n l ength t he s croll h eld b y t he y oung C hrist i n t he s cene o n t he r ight. C hrist's r ight a rm i s b ared, j ust a s o n t he f igure o n t he r ight o f C hrist o n t he s arcophagus i n P erugia. P eter a nd P aul m ay b e d istinguished i n t he t wo s cenes o n t he l eft. T he t ype o f t he f ive s cenes o n t his s arcophagus m ay b e : i nterpreted a s C hristus m agister, C hrist t he t eacher; 7 1 i t c ould a lso b e i nterpreted a s a t raditio l egis, t he b earded C hrist p erforming h ere t he s ame f unction t hat h e p erforms, f or e xample, o n t he f amous f raument o f t he m ore t raditional t raditio l egis f ound i n t he s ame a rea. / 2 T he d istinction b etween C hrist t he t eacher a nd C hrist t he l aw g iver, a s ymbol f or a uthority, i s p erhaps b etter u nderstood b y m odern s cholars t han i t w as b y t he m armorarii w ho m ade t hese s arcophagi, o r b y t he d evotees o f P eter a nd P aul w ho c ommissioned t hem . 7 3 T he i conographies o f b oth s tress t he s ame p ositive r ole o f C hrist, b ut t he c rises f aced b y t he R oman C hurch d uring t he e piscopate o f L iberius w ould i nevitably i ncline i ts m embers t o s tress t he a uthority o f C hrist's t eaching, a nd t he a uthority t hat t his b estowed o n t heir C hurch. T he t raditio l egis, a t l east o n s arcophagi, d id n ot n ecessarily r equire t he i conography o f a l ong, o pen s cro11. 74 T he i nscription, D OMI/NVS/LEGE/M D AT, a lso a ppears, u p s ide d own, i n a n o pen c odex h eld b y a b earded C hrist, e nthroned i n t he m idst o f t he a postolic c ollege,

o n a s arcophagus f ront a t A rles.

7 5

I t w as m ade o f

P roconnesian m arble b etween 3 75 a nd 3 90 a nd u sed, w ith a s uitably i nscribed c over, f or t he b urial o f C oncordius, b ishop o f A rles, o n h is d eath c . 3 90. T he c over i s s lightly d amaged, b ut i t i s c lear t hat t he s cene o n i ts f ront r epresents t he m issio a postolorum : t welve a postles, a ll a nonymous, s tand w ith o pen s crolls i n t heir h ands, o r t ightly r olled v olumina a t t heir f eet. E ight a postles s it o n t he f ront o f t he s arcophagus i tself ( fig. 4 1), f our o n e ither s ide o f a n e nthroned C hrist, t ogether w ith t he f our e vangelists, M AR/CVS a nd MATTEVS o n t he l eft, L VCANVS a nd I OAN/NIS o n t he r ight, t heir n ames i nscribed o n o pen s crolls o r i n o pen b ooks. P eter, w ith a h alf u nfurled s croll, r ight a rm r aised, s its o n t he r ight o f C hrist, p osition r eserved f or h im, a lthough i nvariably s tanding, i n t he t raditional i conography o f t he t raditio l egis. C hrist t urns t o a t t he a postle o n t he l eft, w ho i s, p resumably, P aul. T he o nly

t he m ore l ook o ther

c omparable s cene o n s arcophagi i s t he o ne o n t he b ack o f t he f amous s arcophagus i n S . Ambrogio, M ilan. T here t he y outhful C hrist h olds a s imilar b ook, n ot i nscribed, a nd t urns t o t he a postle o n t he r ight,

1 18

w ho i s p robably P aul:

t here i s n o s uggestion, h owever,

o n t he

s arcophagus i n M ilan t hat t he s eated f igures a re o ther t han s eated a postles. E ven i f t he m armorarius r esponsible f or t he s arcophagus a t A rles had i ntended o riginally t o r epresent t he f ull, s eated a postolic c ollege o n t he f ront o f his s arcophagus, t he f ollowers o f C oncordius, w ho w ere, p resumably, r esponsible f or t he i nscriptions, 7 8 w ere i n n o d oubt a bout t he m eaning t o b e g iven t o t he s cene. T he t raditio l egis t hen, w as n ot t o b e r estricted t o o ne a postle, o r t wo t wo a postles, o r e ven o nly t o t he a postolic c ollege,

t he m issio a postolorum; 77

i t w as i ntended t o i nclude a ll i n c oncordia, w ho, l ike t he e vangelists, h ad p roclaimed a nd f ollowed t he L aw .7 8 T he d iversity d isplayed b y t he o fficinae a nd m armorarii e mployed o n t he p roduction o f t hese s arcophagi i ncorporating C hrist a s m agister, o r a s d ominus, c onfirms t hat t he l ocal C hurch a uthorities e xercised l ittle c ontrol o ver t heir d esign. T here a re c onsequently a mbiguities, a lthough a ll s tress t he c ommon t heme o f c oncordia. T he a doption o f o ther a ttributes b y t he w orkshops, e specially a fter 4 10, i s a nother m atter.

T he u se o f t he s ignum C hristi b y C onstantine h ad h ad f ar

r eaching c onsequences, n ot t he l east o f w hich h ad b een t he c reation o f t he c rux i nvicta, a nd t he d evelopment o f t he m otif o f t he b ejewelled c ross. T he c onversion o f P eter's r otulus i nto a k ey w as t o h ave a n o l ess s ignificant e ffect, a lthough e ven h ere t here a re a mbiguities. 7 9 H owever, i t i s i mportant t o s tress a gain t he c ommon f unction o f t hese a rtefacts, t he m ajority o f w hich w ere m ade i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. W hether s culpture o n s arcophagi, p aintings i n c atacombs, o r e ngraving o n g old l eaf, t hey w ere, f or t he m ost p art, f unerary a rt, a nd a s s uch c losely c onnected w ith t he d oublem artyrdom a nd t riumph o f t he l ocal m artyrs, P eter a nd P aul. T hey n aturally r eflect o fficial a rt, b ut, a s f unerary a rt, a re n ot n ormally c oncerned d irectly w ith p ropaganda a bout t he s tatus a nd a uthority o f t he l ocal C hurch. B ut, a s w e h ave s een, t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t heir s ophistication, i n m any c ase, i s d erived f rom t he i conographies o f a p ublic a rt,

s ub d ivo.

T he e mphasis o n t he c oncordia a postolorum i n p ublic a rt, 8 ° n otably o n a pse m osaics i n S . C onstanza ( figs. 1 8, 1 9) a nd i n S . P udenziana ( fig. 2 0), a nd a s a ttested b y e xtant a nd r ecorded i nscriptions, i s s o c lose t o t he o fficial p ronouncements o f t he R oman C hurch d uring t he e piscopates o f L iberius a nd D amasus, t hat i t c an o nly b e c onsidered a s a n o fficial i conography p roclaiming t he a uthority o f t he l ocal C hurch, t he s edes a postolica. H owever, t he d ifficulty o f e stablishing w ithout d oubt t he o riginal a ppearance o f t he f ew e xamples o f p ublic a rt s till e xtant, p recludes v alid g eneralizations a bout t he c onventions o f p riority i n p ublic C hristian a rt i n t he f ourth c entury. T he f act t hat P aul i s t o b e f ound t o t he l eft o f C hrist i n t he a pse m osaic i n S . P udenziana h olding, l ike C hrist, a n i nscribed c odex, 8 1 s hould n ot b e t reated a s a m atter o f g reat s ignificance i n t hat c ontext, a lthough o n t he m issorium o f T heodosius, p roduced a t a bout t he s ame t ime, t he o fficial r eceiving h is s croll o f a uthority i s p laced o n t he l eft o f t he E mperor. T he m osaic c onfirms, i f t hat i s n ecessary, t hat P eter w as n ot c onsidered a t t hat t ime t o b e m ore i mportant t han h is c olleage, P aul. I t s tresses b oth t he m issio a postolorum a nd t he c oncordia a postolorum . I t t hus c ombines t wo s trands o f p ropaganda t hat w ere b oth h ighly p opular i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury.

1 19

I n t he l ast d ecade o f t he f ourth c entury s arcophagi m ade i n R ome b egan t o r eveal a n ew d evelopment t hat w as t o h ave a n i mportant i nfluence o n C hristian i conography i n f ollowing c enturies. O n s ome o f t hese s arcophagi ( cf. f ig. 1 2), i ncorporating t he s tanding a postolic c ollege, 82 P eter s tands o n t he l eft o f C hrist, w ho h olds a b ejewelled c ross, 8 3 o r o n t he l eft o f t he c rux i nvicta. 8 4 P eter's p osition o n t hese s arcophagi t hus b egan t o t ally w ith h is p osition i n s cenes o f t he m issio a postolorum i n c atacomb p ainting, o r w ith h is p osition o n f ondi d 'oro. A p articularly p ertinent e xample o f t he l atter i s i n t he P usey H ouse C ollection, O xford ( figs. 4 2, 4 3), n ow o n l oan t o t he A shmolean M useum . 85 I t s hows a b eardless P ETRVS, w ith a r otulus, s itting o n t he l eft o f a b eardless C hrist, w ho h olds o ut a n i nscribed t ablet t o p resumably [ PAV IJV[S], s itting o n t he r ight. B elow, s eparated f rom t he a postles, a re s ix o ther s aints. T he c ombination o f P eter, o n t he l eft o f C hrist, i n t he p resence o f P aul, w ith o ther s aints, w as t o a ppear l ater o n t he t riumphal a rch o f S . L orenzo f uori l e m ura, b ut t he e mphasis t hen w as t o b e q uite d ifferent. O n t he g old-glass P eter a nd P aul a re s hown i n c oncordia, s itting i n p ostures s imilar t o t hose t hey a dopt o n t he m osaic i n S . P udenziana, b ut w ith t he p ositions o f P eter a nd P aul r eversed. T he s ame p ositions o f t he a postles, h owever, a re t o b e f ound o n a p erhaps c ontemporary m osaic i n t he C appella d i S . A quilino, a ttached t o t he c hurch o f S . L orenzo i n M ilan. 8 6 T his l atter s cene, o f c ourse, r epresents t he m ore t raditional m issio a postolorum . T he o riginal f unction o f t he c appella i s n ot c ertain: i t m ay h ave b een a n i mperial m ausoleum, n ot u nlike t he m ausoleum o f S . C onstanza i n R ome. T here w ould s eem t o h ave b een a t endency t o m ove a way f rom a n i conography, w hich s ingled o ut b oth a postles f or s pecial a ttention, a s e xemplified o n t he g old-glass i n O xford o r o n t he m osaics i n S . C onstanza a nd i n S . P udenziana - t he a ccent o n t eaching o n t he M ilanese m osaic, t he p lacing o f a c apsa a nd s crolls b efore C hrist, c onfirms t hat t he m osaic h ad a n ot d issimilar f unction t o t he m osaic i n S . P udenziana - t o a n ew i conography, w hich p laced P eter, a nd n ot P aul, i n t he p lace o f h onour, o n t he l eft o f C hrist. 87 T he c oncordia a postolorum w as y ielding g radually t o t he p rimatus P etri. A fter 4 10 t he d istinction b etween t he c ultus o f P eter a nd P aul a nd t he p rimacy o f t he l ocal C hurch m ay a gain b e c learly d istinguished. T his i s c lear f rom e xtant m osaics i n R ome a nd f rom t he a pplied a rts c onnected w ith t he C ity, a lthough s ome, n otably t he P ola c asket, r eflect o fficial i conographies o f a n e arlier p eriod. T he s o-called L eonine, a nd l ater s o-called G elasian a nd G regorian s acramentaries, l ike t he P ola c asket, e qually r eflect t he f aith a nd e xperience o f a n e arlier g eneration. T he g reat c ycle o f m osaics i n S . M aria M aggiore, o n t he o ther h and, r eveals a n ew a ttitude. T he d ecoration o f t he b asilica w as d esigned a s a c omplete p rogramme; i t i ncorporates t he d ogma a nd a uthority o f a n ow c onfident a nd i ndependent C hurch. 8 8 D amasus, w ith h is m onumental i nscriptions, h ad b egun t his p rocess. T he l ater i nscription i n S . S abina p layed a s imilar r ole. I t i s w ritten i n l etters o f c lassic s quare p roportions, w ith c ontrasted s trokes, n ot u nlike t he F ilocalan s cript a dopted b y D amasus. I ts m essage, h owever, f oreshadows t he c onfidence o f t he p rogramme i n S . M aria M aggiore: C VLMEN A POSTOLICVM C VM C AELESTINVS H ABERET P RIMVS E T I N T OTO F VLGERET E PISCOPVS O RBE .. 8 9

1 20

4 2.

C hrist, P eter a nd P aul, w ith o ther S aints. G old-glass b ase, a fter 3 50. 4 3.

L ine d rawing o f s ame o bject.

P usey H ouse C ollection,

o n l oan t o t he A shmolean M useum , O xford.

17 1

I n c ontrast t he s cript b eneath t he f igures r epresenting t he E CLESIAE i s i n c ondensed,

i rregular c apitsl

c ertainly i ntentional:

( cf.

a uthoritative f unction o f a m emorial f unctions o f o ther i nscriptions, m other. "

f igs 2 1,

2 2).

T his w as a lmost

D amasus had d istinguished b etween t he i nscription a nd t he m ore p rosaic

s uch a s t he i nscription t o his

T he a uthoritative s cript a sserting t he p osition o f

C AELESTINVS i s s upported o n e ither s ide b y t he t wo E CLES1AE i n c oncordia, b ut m emorialized i n t he l esser s cript. T he d edicatory

i nscription o f

t ibi X ystus n ova t ecta d icavit, 9 1

S .

M aria M aggiore, V irgo M aria

w as p robably p laced o riginally a bove

t he e ntrance t o t he b asilica, l inking t he m osaics i n o ne c ontinuous w hole n ot u nlike t he e xtant m osaic a t S . S abina, a lthough i t i s a lso p ossible t hat i t w as l ocated u nder t he o riginal m osaic i n t he a pse. T he e xtant

i nscription o n t he t riumphal a rch,

d ecorative p rogramme, p roclaims:

a t t he keystone o f t he

X YSTVS E PISCOPVS P LEBI D EI. 92

T he f igure o f P eter i s p laced a bove t he i nscription X YS...., o n t he l eft o f t he a pocryphal t hrone. I t i s p ossible t hat t he p rinceps a postolorum a lso a ppears i n t he u pper r egister o f t he a rch m osaic, t he r ight,

o n

i n a p osture n ormally a ssumed b y t he a postle o n t he r ight

o f t he t raditio l egis.

T his f igure i s i dentified t raditionally a s

S imeon, b ut he has a lso b een i dentified a s A braham, o r e ven a s S ixtus himself. 93 T he l ast w ould b e p articularly a pt, e specially i f t he s cene i s i nterpreted a s a k ind o f l argitio o r t raditio. t he R oman bishop,

T he p osition o f

i n c ontrast t o his p osition a t t he t ime o f L iberius

a nd D amasus, was n ow a ssured. T he m osaics

i n t he n ave m ay be s een a s a m agnificent b y-product

o f t he l uxurious manuscripts, w hether p agan o r C hristian, e arlier d ecades f or t he R oman a ristocracy.

p roduced i n

A t t he s ame t ime t he

p ictores i maginarii i ncluded i mages f rom R ome's p agan p ast, n otably i n t he m osaic o n t he t riumphal a rch. U nlike t he m osaic i n S . P udenziana, w hich had d epicted J erusalem a s i t m ight have a ctually a ppeared t o J erome o r R ufinus, t he m usivarius r esponsible f or t he s imilar s cene i n S . M aria Maggiore i dentified t he c elestial c ity b y t he t emplum U rbis, b y a t emple d edicated t o t he g oddess R oma.

S ixtus,

l ike D amasus

b efore him, was s till b ridging t he g ulf b etween R ome's p agan p ast a nd t he C ity's C hristian f uture, b ut unlike D amasus,

S ixtus n ow h ad t he

f ull s upport o f a C hristianized a ristocracy. T he p osition o f t he b ishop o f R ome a s a postolicus, w as n ow p roclaimed t o t he w orld a lmost, i ndignus haeres,94 o f p ersonal r ight. H e n ow u sed his p osition t o d etermine t he d ecorative p rogrammes o f c hurches, a dopting t he c lassical t radition t o r einforce t he c redibility o f his a uthority, a nd t he a uthority o f t he R oman C hurch.9 5 H e w as n ow t o a ppear i n p erson,

s ub d ivo. 9 6

t riumphal a rch o f

L orenzo f uori l e m ura i n t he c ompany o f o ther

m artyrs,

S .

S o P ELAGIVS.

i ncluding P eter a nd P aul.

E PISC. 97

H e i s n ow P eter,

a ppears o n t he

l ocum t enens.

T he a postle P eter, c ross i n h and, s tands, a s i n S . M aria M aggiore, o n t he l eft, 98 b ut n ow b eside a b earded a nd n imbed C hrist, e nthroned o n a g lobe,

a s i n t he a pse m osaic i n S .

C onstanza.

T he d ominating f igure

o f L aurence, t he R oman d eacon, s tands, c ross i n hand, o n P eter's r ight, a nd t he R oman b ishop, P elagius, o ffers a m odel o f t he c hurch o n t he f ar l eft. t he

P aul

i s a ccompanied o n t he n ow

' brother'

f ar r ight.

o f L aurence,

' inferior'

r ight, 99

a nd b y t he f ormer b ishop,

T he c lassic p roportions o f

1 22

b y S tephen,

H yppolytus,

o n t he

t he i nscriptions u nderline t he

i ndependent a uthority o f t he l ocal C hurch.

T he c oncordia a postolorum

i n a c hanging c limate s ubtly c hanged i ts f unctions:

i t s urvived t o

s tress t he u nbroken t radition o n w hich t he C hurch a t R ome w as b ased, b ut i t n ever a gain a ssumed t hat p riority i n p apal p ropaganda, p apal a uthority,

t hat

o r i n

i t had h ad d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth

c entury.

1 23

N OTES

1 .

C ullmann, p p. 1 61ff. A lso b etween a postolic s uccession a nd j uristic s uccession. C f. U llmann, ' Leo I ', p p. 2 5ff., c ited i n h is ' Epistola C lementis', p . 3 07.

1

T he C ults o f R ome a nd O stia

2 .

C f.

D avis-Weyer,

p p.

2 6ff.,

a nd p assim .

3 .

R umpf, p . 1 3. s uggestion.

4 .

B enoit,

5 .

I bid., p p.

6 .

C f.

7 .

S ee p .

8 .

M eiggs, p .

9 .

T he s hip t hat b rought P aul f rom M alta t o P uteoli w as c alled C astor a nd P ollux ( Acts, 2 8).

1 0.

M eiggs,

1 1.

S ee p .

1 2.

S tern, L e C alendrier, p p.

1 07f.,

1 3.

R e-erected i n f ront o f S .

G iovanni i n L aterano i n 1 588.

1 4.

S tevenson, p p.

1 5.

S ee p .

1 6.

F errua,

1 7.

I bid.,

1 8.

M orison, p p.

1 9.

F errua,

o p.

c it.,

2 0.

S ee p p.

3 6,

8 1f.

2 1.

F errua,

p .

2 2.

C f.

2 3.

A lföldi, F estival, p .

I a m i ndebted t o P rofessor B reckenridge f or t his

1 . 1 2f.,

R eekmans,

a nd m ore g enerally, p p.

p p.

5 ff.

5 5f.

1 9 a bove.

p .

3 45.

2 12.

8 1 a bove. 1 10.

1 25ff.

9 a bove. E pigrammata, p p.

B loch,

5 7.

1 2f. 9 1ff.

1 44. p .

C f.

p .

1 6.

1 13.

I CVR,

4 ,

9 513.

D iehl,

1 986.

a bove. T he D ioscuri w ere t he t win s tars,

2 02,

t he G emini.

a nd n ow, A lföldi, K ontorniat-Medaillons, 3 8.

1 24

p assim .

2 4.

A E

I bid., P reliminary C atalogue, X II-XV,

2 5.

T hey m ay have c ontinued i nto t he e arly f ifth c entury.

2 6.

I n p articular,

2 7.

I bid.,

2 8.

C f. A d S enatorem e x C hristiana R eligione a d I dolorum S ervitutem C onversum, C SEL, 3 , 3 , A ppendix, 3 02ff., w ritten t owards t he e nd o f

p .

5 4.

C f. M orey,

3 0.

C f.

3 1.

C od.

3 2.

P rudentius.

3 3.

A lföldi,

I bid., p .

4 1.

1 28.

t he f ourth c entury, a nd B loch, p assim . o rdinary c itizen, s ee N ock, p assim . B loch, p .

9 3ff.

C atalogue, X IV.

3 8, n .

2 9.

p p.

F or t he a ttitude o f t he

1 95.

K rautheimer, R ome, p . T heod.

1 6,

1 0,

1 0.

P L 6 0,

F estival,

3 5.

1 67. p .

C SEL 6 1,

4 1.

2

C oncordia

3 4.

B rilliant, p .

3 5.

K itzinger, B yzantine A rt, p p.

3 6.

G rabar, M artyrium,

3 7.

K ent,

3 8.

C ameron,

3 9.

G rigg, p p.

4 0.

S ee p p.

4 1.

M orison, p p.

p p.

2 40.

1 97.

2 , p p.

9 ,

1 2.

2 19ff.

8 3ff. C laudian, p p. 2 3ff.

1 9ff.

5 1f., 3 68.

C f. G rabar,

I conography, p p.

3 7ff.

a bove. 4 6f.,

9 5.

T he p ileus p annonicus,

o f c ourse, a lso

a ppeared o n t he A rch. 4 2.

K itzinger,

p .

c it., p p.34ff.

4 3.

P ietri,

' Concordia', p assim .

4 4.

F errua,

' Memorie', p p.

4 5.

S ee p p. 8 4, 8 7, 9 0 a bove. E ven i f i t i s w rong t o t race t he s oc alled t hird c anon b ack t o t he C ouncil o f 3 82, t he o ther e vidence,

1 42ff.

a dduced here i n s uch a bundance, c onfirms t he r ole p layed b y b oth a postles i n t he c laims o f t he R oman b ishops t o a postolic a uthority a t t hat t ime.

1 25

3

4 6.

C f.

4 7.

S ee p p.

5 4ff.

a bove.

4 8.

S ee p p.

8 ff.,

a nd f or t he e arlier t radition,

4 9.

S ee p p.

2 5ff.

a bove.

5 0.

S ee E xcursus.

5 1.

K itzinger,

5 2.

C f. R epertorium, 3 9, 4 0, 4 2, 4 8, 1 88, 6 25. T he s cene a lso a ppears o n a t l east o ne s ingle f rieze s arcophagus, s ee p . 1 9 a bove, a nd o n a t l east o ne c olumn s arcophagus, i bid., 5 2.

5 3.

G rabar,

P rimatus P etri

I conography, p p.

B yzantine A rt,

4 1ff.

p p.

3 1f.

A ge,

5 ff.

a bove.

6 4.

U sually a ccompanied b y t he s cene o f M oses r emoving h is s andals. N estori, p p.

2 04f.

C f.

p .

7 0, n .

1 73.

5 4.

A s p ointed o ut b y, C f. K itzinger, o p.

5 5.

B rilliant,

p p.

5 6.

I bid.,

1 7Off.

5 7.

K itzinger,

5 8.

S ee p .

5 9.

W ilpert, M osaiken, 3 , 3 2.

6 0.

C f.

6 1.

S ee p .

6 2.

A ge,

6 3.

C f. a n a lmost e xact r eplica o f h is s tance o n a l ater s arcophagus f ound a t S t P eter's i n 1 607, R epertorium, 6 76, w here P eter c arries

p p.

' Christus',

p p. 6 0f.

1 65ff.

c it., p .

2 2.

3 4 a bove.

t he d iptych o f P robianus, c .

4 00.

D elbrück,

6 5.

A ge,

5 3.

1 1 a bove.

5 03.

his c ross, 6 4.

o p.

f or e xample, K ollwitz, c it., p p. 7 ff.

a s o n t he m osaic i n N aples.

U nfortunately, t here i s n o c onsensus a bout t he d ate o f t he m osaic. I f i t w ere a s l ate a s 3 90, a s i mplied b y T estini, ' La l apide', p . 7 38, b y a nalogy w ith t he g raffito a t A nagni - w hich m ust s urely p ost-date t he m osaic! - t he s temma o f t he i conography o f t he l ong, o pen s croll m ight w ell f ollow t he o rder o utlined o n p . S arcofagi,

6 5.

W ilpert,

6 6.

T here a re o ther f igures b ehind t hree o f t he a postle a nd b ehind t he f emale f igure,

6 7.

S ee p .

2 8,

3 .

S aggiorato,

9 .

C f . ibid., p .

7 36.

p resumably a lso a postles.

1 8 a bove.

1 26

3 2,

1 02.

6 8.

S ee p p.

6 9.

C f. R epertorium , p p. 7 28f.

7 0.

S ee p .

7 1.

C f.

7 2.

R epertorium,

7 3.

O r f or e xample,

7 4.

C f.

7 5.

W ilpert,

7 6.

2 4f.

a bove. 5 02,

a nd T estini,

' La l apide',

2 6 a bove.

S aggiorato,

p .

6 77, A ge,

p .

1 07.

2 00. l ater b y P elagius i n h is E xpositiones.

4 3 a bove. S arcofagi,

1 , p p.

4 6ff.

I t i s p ossible, b ut u nlikely,

B enoit,

4 .

t hat t he n ames o f t he e vangelists

w ere i nscribed o n t he b ooks a fter 3 90. 77 .

C f.

W ilpert,

o p.

c it.,

1 , p p.

3 2f.,

1 81f.

7 8.

C f.

T estini,

' Osservazioni', p p.

7 9.

A bout t he t urn o f t he c entury, p ossibly l ater, M aximus, b ishop o f T urin, r emarks .. A mbo [ sc. P etrus e t P aulus] i gitur c laves a D omino p erceperunt, s cientiae i ste, i lle p otentiae. P L 5 7, 4 04.

2 34f.,

2 64ff.

I c annot a ccept t hat o ne o f t he m osaics i n S . C onstanza r epresents t he t raditio c lavium . T he k ey(s) a ppear l ater. C f. n . 9 8 a nd p p.30, 4 3 a bove, o r t he i vory p laque a t B ryn A thyn. P ennsylvania, V olbach, 8 0.

1 34,

T estini,

' L'iconografia l , 6 , A ge, 4 85.

T he d istinction b etween p rivate a nd p ublic a rt i s n ot c lear c ut, a s f or i nstance i n t he p ublic c atacombs.

8 1.

R estored:

8 2.

S ee p p.

8 3.

R epertorium,

8 4.

I bid.,

6 5.

8 5.

M orey,

3 64.

p p.

L I/BER/ G ENERA/TIONIS.

2 7,

C f. M atthiae, n .

4 3,

p .

7 6.

2 9 a bove. 6 78. C f.

K ollwitz,

T estini,

' Christus',

1 52.

A ge, 4 72.

p p. C f.

5 5f. K ollwitz, o p.

c it.,

5 1f.

8 6.

W ilpert, M osaiken,

3 , p .

4 0.

I hm ,

8 7.

C f. a s ilver p yxis, w hich w as p robably m ade i n n orthern I taly a t t his t ime, a nd n ow i n V ienna, T estini, 8 1, A ge, 5 68, w here C hrist s tands b etween t he a postles. P eter i s o n t he l eft a nd P aul o n t he r ight.

8 8.

K itzinger, B yzantine A rt, p p.

8 9.

S ee p .

3 9 a bove.

1 21

7 1f.

2 0.

C f. D origo,

p p.

2 27ff.

9 0.

F errua,

E pigrammata, 1 0.

9 1.

D iehl,

9 76.

9 2.

S ee p .

3 9 a bove.

9 3.

C f.

9 4.

S ee U llmann,

9 5.

K rautheimer, R ome, p p.

9 6.

L iberius, o f c ourse, had a ppeared i n t he a rcosolium o f C elerina, a nd D amasus o n f ondi d 'oro.

9 7.

I CVR,

9 8.

S chumacher,

9 9.

C f. t he s imilar i conography, p ossibly c opied f rom a t riumphal a rch, o n a f resco o f t he t raditio c lavium i n t he u nderground b asilica i n t he C atacomb o f C ommodilla. N estori, 3 , p . 1 37.

S pain, p p.

7 ,

5 35ff.,

' Leo I ',

1 7671.

C f.

C f. M orison,

e sp. n . p p.

p .

9 4.

7 8.

2 9ff.

5 1ff.

D iehl,

1 771.

' Apsiskomposition', p .

M orison, p p.

1 06f.

1 41.

T he m ore t raditional p lacing o f t he a postles w as n ot n eglected a nd, i ndeed, w as t o p rove t he s tronger t radition . C f. t he a pse m osaics i n S S. C osma e D amiano ( 526-530) a nd i n t he C appella d i S .

V enanzio i n t he b apistry o f S . G iovanni i n L aterano

1 28

( 625-650).

E XCURSUS

T HE M IRACLE O F T HE R OCK A ND T HE D EVELOPMENT O F A P ETRINE I CONOGRAPHY I N T HE F OURTH C ENTURY

1 I ntroduction G eorg S tuhlfauth's a nalysis o f s cenes f rom t he a pocryphal l ife o f S t P eter o n e arly C hristian s arcophagi w as p ublished i n 1 925. 1 I t s et o ut t o e xplain t he a ppearance o f S t P eter o n n umerous a rtefacts, n ow n ormally a ssigned t o t he f ourth a nd f ifth c enturies, a nd t o r esolve f inally t he ' Moses-Peter' p roblem p osed b y G iuseppe M archi i n t he p revious c entury. 2 S tuhlfauth i dentified n umerous s cenes o f P eter s triking t he r ock 3 a nd l inked t hem t o a pocryphal s ources. 4 H e d id n ot, h owever, m ake u se o f t he a rguments p ut f orward b y C elestino C avedoni i n 1 859 i n h is a nalysis 5 o f t he s cene o n a f ondo d 'oro, n ow i n t he V atican ( fig. 4 6). T his i s s urprising, a s C avedoni h ad r eferred t o t he a pocryphal a cta t o s upport h is c ase. C avedoni's o bservations h ad b een p rompted b y t he p ublication i n t he p receding y ear ( 1858) o f a b ook b y R affaele G arrucci o n R oman g old-glass; 8 a nd t he d ebate o n t he M osesP eter p roblem h as r umbled o n e ver s ince. 7 T he a nalysis o f S tuhlfauth s et t he s eal o n t he P etrine a rgument b ased o n a pocryphal l egend, b ut d ebate a s t o w hether a rtefacts p rompted a pocryphal a cta, o r w hether a rtefacts r eflected,

l ike t he a pocryphal w ritten-sources o f t he f ifth

a nd s ixth c enturies, l egends t hat w ere c urrent i n t he f ourth c entury, o r e arlier, c ontinued. 8 I t i s i mportant t o a ppreciate t he s ignificance o f t he m iracle o f t he r ock a nd t he s ubtle t ransformation t he s cene u nderwent i n R ome d uring t he f ourth c entury. W ith t he o fficial r ecognition o f t he C hristian C hurch, t he c itizens o f R ome, f or t he f irst t ime, h ad a n o pportunity t o s elect n ew i conographies, m any o f w hich w ere d eveloped f rom o lder i mages b y t he l ocal w orkshops i nto f ashionable i conographies t hat b ecame v ery p opular. M any s ources, i ncluding t hose l ater r ecorded i n t he a pocryphal a cta, w ere d rawn o n f or t his p urpose a nd i t i s q uite p robable t hat s ome o f t hese, e qually, w ere i nspired b y t he o lder i conographies. P io F ranchi d e'Cavaliere, f or e xample, h as s uggested t hat s cenes o n R oman s arcophagi w ere r esponsible f or s ome o f t he s tories a ssociated w ith P eter:3 L ikewise, t he s cene o f M oses, t he t ype o f P eter, "

s triking t he r ock i n t he d esert,

l ent i tself t o t he

d evelopment o f a n a pocryphal s tory o f P eter s triking t he r ock w hilst i n R ome. S oon P eter w as s triking l ife-giving w ater f rom a r ock i n t he M amertine P rison, s o t hat h e c ould b aptize h is g uards, S t P rocessus a nd S t M artinianus.

t he j ailors

A lthough t he M oses-Peter p roblem h as e xercised t he a ttention o f s cholars a t l east s ince t he c ontroversy b etween C avedoni a nd G arrucci, i t i s s till a sserted c onfidently t hat a rtefacts d epicting t he m iracle o f t he r ock, e ven o f a R oman p rovenance a nd d ating f rom t he f ourth c entury, w ere i ntended t o r epresent M oses, n ot P eter, s triking t he r ock.

T he u ndisputed f act t hat s ome o f t hese o bjects w ere m ade

1 29

t owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury, p robably i n R ome, s hould g ive c ause f or r eflexion. I f t hey a re p laced i n t he c ontext o f t heir m anufacture a nd s ale, i t c an b e s een t hat i t i s f ar m ore l ikely t hat t hey w ere m eant t o r epresent P eter i n R ome, a nd n ot M oses i n t he d esert. A fter a ll, n obody n ow d enies t hat t he s cene o f P eter s triking t he r ock r apidly b ecame a c ommonplace o f s arcophagus d esign i n t he R oman w orkshops a fter 3 13. 1 1

1 30

2

T he D evelopment

f t he I conography

T he t ransition f rom r epresentations o f M oses s triking t he r ock t o r epresentations o f P eter s triking t he r ock h as b een a nalysed b y P rofessor S otomayor, 1 2 a nd h is a nalysis h as b een a mplified b y v an M oorse1.

1 3

A k ey t o t his t ransition,

i n t erms o f e arly C hristian

i conography, i s t o b e f ound i n t he i dentification o f t he p ileus p annonicus, t he p eculiar h ead-gear w orn b y s oldiers a t t he t ime o f t he E mperor D iocletian. 1 4 P reviously t his h ead-gear h ad b een i dentified a s a J ewish c ap. 1 5 I n s ome s cenes o f t he m iracle o f t he r ock, a ll d ateable t o t he f ourth c entury, t he a pparitores, t he m ilitary p olice, e ach w earing t he p ileus p annonicus, c rouch b eneath t he w ater g ushing f rom t he r ock, d rinking i t i n c upped h ands. T his a ction, a s a f irst s tep, h ad t o b e l inked t o t he a pocryphal a cta o f o f P eter. T he e arliest t ext r elevant t o t he p roblem, t he M artyrium b eati P etri a L ino e piscopo c onscriptum ,1 6 t he p seudo-Linus, c an b e d ated t o t he f ifth, o r e arly s ixth, c entury. 1 7 I t d escribes t he i mprisonment o f P eter i n t he M amertine P rison a nd, f onte p recibus e t a mmirabili s igno c rucis d e r upe p roducto, h is b aptism o f t he j ailers, P rocessus a nd M artinianus. T his s tory w as e laborated i n l ater, m ore p opular, r edactions, n otably t he A cta S ancti P rocessi e t M artiniani, w hich d ate f rom t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury. 1 6 B oth P eter a nd P aul a re n ow i mprisoned i n t he c ustodia M amertini a nd, i n c oncordia, p erform m any m iracles. T he p risoners c lamour: d onate n obis a quam , q uia s iti p ericlitamur; P eter t hen, f acto s igno c rucis i n m onte T arpeio, i n c ustodia M amertini, e adem h ora e manaverunt a quae d e m onte. T unc b aptizati s unt b eati P rocessus e t M artinianus m agistriani m elloprincipes a b eato P etro A postolo. 1 9 P eter s trikes a r ock, t he T arpeian r ock; t he s older-jailers, f ollowed b y f orty-seven o thers, a re b aptized, t heir t hirst q uenched. I n s cenes o f M oses s triking t he r ock i n t he d esert, f or e xample o n a f resco i n t he C atacomb o f P eter a nd M arcellinus, 20 p ossibly p ainted c . 2 90, t here i s n o s ign o f a ny o ther p articipant: M oses i s a lone. S imilar f rescoes o f M oses s triking t he r ock a re t o b e f ound i n t he C atacomb, 2 1 a s w ell a s i n o thers. 22 A p articularly f ine e xample i n t he C atacomb o f P eter a nd M arcellinus " w as p ainted a fter 3 30. M oses i s a gain a lone, b ut b earded; h e w ears s andals a nd h olds a v irga t haumaturga i n his r ight h and. O n t he o ther h and, a f resco p ainted n early h alf a c entury l ater i n t he C atacomb o f C ommodilla 24 i ncludes t wo s oldiers, e ach w earing t he p ileus p annonicus, d rinking t he w ater s truck f rom t he r ock, q uia s iti p ericlitamur. I n t he i ntervening p eriod i t i s c lear t hat P eter h ad t aken t he p lace o f M oses. T he d ifficulty i s t o d ecide w here a nd w hen t his t ook p lace. T he p roblem i s c ompounded b y t he a ppearance o f b ibentes, w ho d o n ot a lways w ear t he i dentifying h ead-gear,

t he p ileus p annonicus. 25

T he w ell-known, b ut m uch-restored J onah s arcophagus, L ateran 1 19,26 i ncludes t hree s mall s cenes i n i ts u pper r egister: o n t he l eft t he r aising o f L azarus,

a nd t wo o ther s cenes, w hich c an e ither b e g iven a

1 31

M osaic i nterpretation,

2 7

o r a P etrine i nterpretation.

2 8

T he

a rguments a nd r eferences m arshalled b y P rofessor S otomayor w ould s uggest t hat t he t hree p articipants i n t he f irst s cene, a lthough t hey a re n ot w earing t he i dentifying p ileus, a re s oldiers w earing a ppropriate u niforms, a nd t hat t he s cene, c onsequently, p robably r epresents P eter s triking t he r ock. I f s o, t he s econd s cene r epresents t he f light o f P eter. 29 T his s arcophagus o bviously r epresents a n i mportant p hase i n t he t ransition f rom M oses t o P eter. T here i s m uch d ebate a bout i ts d ate. L ater d evelopments o n s arcophagi m ade i n R ome d uring t he C onstantinian p eriod s uggest t hat i t w as m ade p robably b efore t he P eace o f t he C hurch. A s econd k ey m onument i n t his d evelopment w as t he s arcophagus o f t he t wo b rothers. 3 0 I t h as t wo r egisters a nd m ay b e d ated b etween 3 40 a nd 3 50. I n t he u pper r egister, o n t he l eft, a re t hree s cenes: t he d enial o f P eter i n t he c entre, w ith C hrist r aising L azarus o n t he l eft, a nd M oses r eceiving t he L aw o n t he r ight. I n t he l ower r egister b eneath, i s a n e xtended s cene f rom t he L ife o f P eter ( fig. 4 4). O n t he f ar l eft i s t he t elescoped s cene o f P eter s triking t he r ock, c ombined w ith h is a rrest. T here a re n o b ibentes, b ut t he s oldiers m aking t he a rrest, t he a pparitores, w ear t he p rescribed p ileus p annonicus. T he s ame s oldiers a lso a ppear i n a nother s cene o n t he r ight o f t he i ntervening s cene o f D aniel a mongst t he l ions. I n t his l ast s cene P eter i s s itting b etween t wo t rees, r eading f rom a v olumen;

i t m ay b e i nterpreted a s t he f ides P etri.

3 1

O n t he t op r egister, M oses, a b eardless y oung m an, r eceives t he Law f rom h eaven. O n t he l eft, P eter, b alding b ut b earded, h olds u p his l eft h and i n c onfusion, w hilst a t h is f eet, b efore C hrist, t he c ock c rows. T he s ame b eardless y oung m an a ppears i n t he l ower r egister i n t he s cene o f t he a rrest o f P eter: a s J ohannes F icker p ointed o ut, 3 2 h e m ust b e M oses. T he s cene t hus e mphasizes t hat M oses i s t he t ype o f P eter a nd t hat t he a mbiguity i n e arlier s cenes, a s f or i nstance o n t he J onah s arcophagus, m ight h ave b een i ntentional. T his a rgument, h owever, h as b een d eveloped f urther b y v an M oorsel.

3 3

I n t he C atacomb o f S t C allixtus ,in t he C rypt ' of t he s heep', i s t he w ell-known f resco ( fig. 4 5) o f M oses, b eardless, r emoving his s andals,

a nd,

o n t he r ight,

t he m iracle o f t he r ock.

3 4

I t c an b e

d ated t o t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury. I n t his s cene a b earded f igure s trikes t he r ock w ith h is v irga t haumaturga; b eneath a c ascade o f w ater a s econd f igure i n m ilitary u niform d rinks l ife-giving w ater. T here i s n o s ign o f a p ileus p annonicus. V an M oorsel s tresses t hat t he b earded f igure m ay b e d istinguished f rom t he f igure o n t he f ar l eft b y h is b eard, j ust a s P eter a nd M oses w ere d istinguished o n t he s arcophagus o f t he t wo b rothers.

T he s econd f igure, h e c oncludes,

i s

P eter. 3 5 P rofessor S otomayor i s u nwilling t o c ommit h imself; 3 6 P rofessor T estini r everts t o t he t raditional i nterpretation: b oth s cenes r epresent M oses.

3 7

T he s ame p roblem i s r aised b y a nother s arcophagus n ot d iscussed i n t his c ontext b y e ither P rofessor S otomayor o r v an M oorsel. T his i s t he j ustly a cclaimed s arcophagus, L ateran 1 74.38 I t c an b e d ated t o a bout t he y ear 3 60. O n t he l eft s ide a re C hrist, P eter, a nd t he c ock o n a c olumn, t ogether w ith a v iew o f J erusalem; i t i s p ossible

1 32

4 4.

P eter s triking t he r ock

( far l eft), with M oses

( ?)

D etail o f l ower r egister o f s arcophagus f ront, M useo P io C ristiano, 4 5.

Moses

t he r ock

e nd o f f ourth c entury.

C atacomb o f S .

C allisto, R ome.

1 33

t o t he r ight. 3 40.

V atican.

( left), with m iracle o f F resco,

C .

( right).

t hat t he c olumn l ocates t he s cene o utside t he s outh w all o f J erusalem , a t t he c hurch o f S . P etri i n g allicantu. O n t he r ight a re t wo s cenes: t he m iracle o f t he r ock, a nd t he w oman w ith a n i ssue o f b lood. S everal h eads h ave b een r estored a nd o ther p arts o f t he s arcophagus r eworked; 3 9 a n i nterpretation o f t he s cene o f t he m iracle o f t he r ock i s t hus f urther c omplicated b y r estoration. T here s eems l ittle d oubt t hat t he m an h olding a w edge-shaped o bject w as o riginally b earded. A t p resent h e h as a s mall b eard a nd c ould b e m istaken b y his a ppearance f or M oses. " T he k neeling f igure i s i n m ilitary u niform; h e w ears t he p aludamentum ,4 1 b ut t here i s n o s ign o f a p ileus p annonicus. A s econd f igure, i n m ilitary u niform, b ut w ithout t he p aludamentum, s tands o n t he o ther s ide o f t he r ock, h is t hirst q uenched. T he b ibentes a nd a pparitores o n R oman s arcophagi c ease f rom a bout t his t ime t o w ear t he d istinguishin p ileus p annonicus. 42 F rom t he r ock g rows a v igorous t ree. 4s I f t he m ain f igure w ere o riginally b earded, a s s eems l ikely, t here w ould b e l ittle d oubt a bout t he s ubject o f t he s cene: i t w ould r epresent P eter s triking t he r ock t o s atisfy t he t hirst o f h is t wo c aptors, l ater t o b e c alled P rocessus a nd M artinianus.

T he a rgument o n t he s ides o f t he

s arcophagus, t he l apse o f P eter o n t he l eft, b alanced b y t he m iracle p erformed b y P eter, t riumphantly p roclaimed b y a s oldier, o n t he r ight, w ould b e v ery c onvincing. I t w ould a lso t end t o c onfirm t hat t he s arcophagus w as i n f act m ade i n a R oman w orkshop f or a d evotee o f S t P eter. T here r emains a l ingering d oubt a bout t he c orrect i nterpretation o f t hese s cenes. H owever, i t i s l ikely t hat b y t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury t he t heme o f t he b ibentes w as f ully a ccepted i nto t he c anon o f t he s cene o f t he m iracle o f t he r ock i n R ome, " i f n ot e lsewhere: a s M oses w as P eter, a nd P eter M oses, a t l east a ccording t o c ontemporary t exts,

c raftsmen, o r p atrons, w ould i nterpret t he s cene a ccordingly. 45

A s t he i ntellectual c limate o f R ome i n t he f ourth c entury was p articularly f avourable t o a P etrine i nterpretation o f t he m iracle, i t i s l ikely t hat m any p eople w ould i dentify t he m iracle w orker a s P eter, t he f ounder, w ith P aul, o f t he l ocal C hurch. T he b etter i nformed w ould r ecognize M oses b ehind P eter.

T he s cruples o f t he

m odern s cholar a re p robably i rrelevant: t he h ymns a nd s ermons, i ndeed t he w hole l iturgy o f t he C hurch i n t he f ourth c entury, w ere i nterwoven w ith d ouble m eanings. T he g eneral p attern i s c lear. B efore t he f ourth c entury t here i s n o p roblem. M oses, o ften a b eardless y oung m an, w ould s trike t he r ock i n t he d esert, a nd h e w ould b e a lone. T here i s n o d oubt a bout h is i dentity, w hether h e b e b earded, o r n ot. A t t he t urn o f t he c entury b ibentes m ade t heir a ppearance. "

T his d evelopment c oincided w ith t he

e mergence o f n ew a pocryphal d etails a bout t he L ife a nd P assion o f P eter, a lthough t his d id n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat b ibentes c ould n ot a ppear b eside M oses. 47 A fter 3 00, h owever, M oses i s u sually b eardless, a lmost i nvariably o n his o wn; " P eter, i n c ontrast, i s i nvariably b earded, " o ften a ccompanied b y o ne, o r m ore, b ibentes, w earing t he p ileus p annonicus.

1 34

3

T he I dentification o f P eter

S o f ar n o r elevant w ritten e vidence, c ontemporary w ith t he f rescoes o r s arcophagi d escribed i n t he p receding s ection, h as b een a dduced. T he e arliest r edaction o f t he L iber P ontificalis w as w ritten i n t he s ixth c entury 5 ° a nd, a s w e h ave s een, 5 1 T he p seudoL inus d ates f rom t he f ifth, o r e arly s ixth c entury. T he P assio S S. M artyrum P rocessi e t M artiniani, a n e laboration o f t he p seudo-Linus t ext, d ates f rom t he s ixth c entury, a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t he r elevant s ection i n p seudo-Linus i s a l ater i nterpolation, a dded w hen t he P assio i tself w as w ritten. T he c lassic a rgument a gainst t he r elevance o f t his l ater a pocryphal l iterature t o a n u nderstanding o f o bjects m ade i n t he f ourth c entury w as p ut f orward i n 1 909 b y P io F ranco d e'Cavalieri. 52

T his a rgument t urns t he c ase u pside d own a nd

c oncludes t hat t he a uthors o f t he a pocryphal l iterature c an o nly p rovide a f ifth-, o r s ixth-century i nterpretation f or f ourth-century o bjects.

T he a nswer t o t his a rgument, n ow i nvariably a ccepted, 5 3

t hat t hese l egends o ften r eflect e arlier l iterature n ow l ost, l east, i deas c urrent i n t he f ourth c entury. 54

i s

o r, a t

T here i s o ne c orpus o f c ontemporary e vidence, h owever, w hich h as b een c onsidered r elevant a t l east s ince 1 859: t he f ondi d 'oro. A s mall n umber o f e xtant b ases o f g old-glass v essels p ortrays t he m iracle o f t he r ock, a nd t hese p rovide a v aluable s ource o f e vidence. T he s killed c raftsmen w ho m ade t hese o ften e xpensive a nd f ragile o bjects s ometimes i dentified t he f igures t hey h ad d epicted b y a n i nscription: t hese i nscriptions p rovide f urther e vidence t hat i n t he f ourth c entury t he m iracle o f t he r ock w as a ssociated with P eter. s eems t hat n ow t here a re o nly t wo s uch g old-glass b ases, e ach

I t

i nscribed a s P ETRVS, s till e xtant. T his i s s urprising, a s t his p articular m iracle w ould s eem, a part f rom i ts m essage o f h ope f or f orgiveness a nd e ternal l ife, p articularly a pt f or t he A postle c alled P etrus. B oth a re n ow i n t he M useo S acro i n t he V atican. T he f irst 5 5 ( fig. 4 6) i s t he g old-glass a nalysed b y C avedoni i n 1 859. T he s econd 5 8 i s i n a v ery p oor s tate o f p reservation, b ut, l ike t he f irst, i t d epicts a b earded P eter w ithout t he s upporting r ole o f a b ibens. T here i s a n e ngraved g lass i n t he H ermitage M useum , L eningrad, 57 p ossibly m ade i n t he f ifth c entury, w hich i s a lso i nscribed: P ETRVS V IRGA P ERQ/VODSET/FONTES C IPE/RVNT Q VORE/RE. P eter, h ere, i s b eardless a nd w ould s eem t o b e s triking a t ree. O ther s urviving g oldg lass w ith t he t heme o f t he m iracle o f t he r ock, a ll p robably m ade i n t he f ourth c entury,

a re n ot i nscribed.

s cattered o ver E urope.

T hey a re n ow t o b e f ound

5 8

P erhaps t he m ost i nteresting o f t hese s urviving r epresentations o n g old-glass i s t o b e s een o n a b lue g lass b owl, f ound i n K ölnB raunsfeld i n 1 907 a nd n ow i n t he R ömisch-Germanisches M useum a t C ologne. 59 I t w as p robably m ade i n C ologne, a lthough a R oman p rovenance h as a lso b een s uggested. I t i s m ade u p o f a n umber o f g old-glass m edallions a nd c an b e a ssigned t o 3 25/6, t he y ears o f C onstantine's v icennalia. 80 T he m edallion w ith t he r ock c ontains a f igure with a r od, w ho i s b eardless. I t a lso c ontains t hree p rostrate

1 35

f igures, a rranged v ertically, d rinking t he l ife-giving w ater. T hey a re b are-headed. F rom t he t op o f t he r ock s prings a y oung t ree. T his m otif a lso a ppears i n a s cene o f M oses s triking t he r ock i n t he C atacomb o f P eter a nd M arcellinus, w here i t i s p aired with a s cene o f A dam a nd E ve, a nd t he t ree o f k nowledge. " M oses i s b earded i n t his s cene, 62 a s w as p resumably P eter i n t he c omparable s cene o n t he s ide o f t he s arcophagus, L ateran 1 74. 63 I t i s a m otif t hat c an m ore r eadily b e a ssociated w ith M oses i n t he d esert, o r w ith M oses s weetening t he w aters o f M arah, t han w ith P eter i n t he M amertine P rison. I t i s p ossible t hat t he R henish c raftsman 64 r esponsible f or t he b owl w as i nfluenced b y a s imilar s cene o n s arcophagi. 65 T he h igh q uality o f t he b owl's w orkmanship s uggests t hat t here m ight b e s ome c onnexion w ith R oman o fficinae, p ossibly a c ommon s tylistic s ource, b ut t his i s h ighly s peculative. T he p resence o f b ibentes a lso p rompts t he q uestion w hether t he f igure w ith t he r od m ight n ot b e P eter? H owever, t he f act t hat t he o ther s cenes o n t he b owl a re a ll d erived f rom t he O ld T estament, i ncluding a n e pisode f rom t he o rdeal o f J onah i n t he c entral m edallion, m ust r ule o ut a n a ffirmative a nswer t o t his q uestion. 66 A c onclusion t hat c an b e d rawn f rom t his b rief s urvey o f e xtant g old-glass f rom t he f ourth c entury, i s t hat P eter n eed n ot n ecessarily b e a ccompanied b y b ibentes, a s i s g enerally t he c ase o n s arcophagi. H e i s b earded o n b oth t he i nscribed f ondi a nd t hus t he d istinction, s o o ften d rawn b y s cholars, b etween t he b earded P eter a nd t he b eardl ess M oses, m ust b e a ccepted a s t he s tandard c onvention u sed b y t he w orkshops i n R ome, a nd e lsewhere, i n t he f ourth c entury. M oses, o n t he o ther hand, c ould, l ike P eter i n t he s tandard s cene o n s arcophagi, b e a ccompanied b y b ibentes. A n i mportant d istinction m ay b e m ade b etween t hose i dentified b y t heir u niforms a s s oldiers a nd t hose t hat a re n ot, a lthough w hen t he m otif w as t aken f rom R ome t o C ologne, i ts s ignificance m ay n ot h ave b een f ully a ppreciated i n t he l ocal g lassh ouses a nd w orkshops. 67 T he c raftsmen w orking i n t he g lasshouses i n R ome, a s w e h ave s een, " c ould a lso m ake o bvious m istakes.

1 36

4

T he M iracle o f t he R ock i n t he S econd H alf o f t he F ourth C entury a nd L ater

M oses, w hile c ontinuing t o p lay a n i mportant r ole i n h is o wn r ight i n f ourth-century i conography, 89 a lso a ppeared, i t w ould s eem, o n a t l east o ne s arcophagus, a s a b eardless y oung m an b eside t he o lder P eter, t he t ype b eside i ts a nti-type. I f t he c riteria a dduced i n t he p revious s ections a re a pplied t o f ourth-, o r f ifth-century a rtefazts, t here w ould s eem, i n g eneral, t o b e n o d ifficulty i n d istinguishing P eter f rom M oses, 7 0 a lthough t his i n i tself d oes n ot r esolve t he M oses-Peter p roblem. T hus t wo w ell-known o bjects, a n i vory p anel i n t he B ritish M useum, L ondon, 7 1 a nd a b ronze l amp i n t he M useo A rcheologico, F lorence, 72 b oth o f w hich a re o ften c laimed t o r epresent M oses s triking t he r ock, " m ust r epresent P eter s triking t he r ock i n R ome. T he i vory p anel i n t he B ritish M useum ( fig. 2 3) o riginally f ormed p art o f a c asket, w hich w as m ade p robably d uring t he f irst d ecades o f t he f ifth c entury. T he m ain p rotagonist o n t he p anel i s b earded a nd, h is r ight a rm c rossing h is b ody, l ifts a v irga t haumaturga t o s trike t he r ock o n t he f ar r ight. W ater, s o f amiliar f rom R oman c atacomb a rt, s treams t o t he g round. A f igure i n p aludamentum a nd p ileus p annonicus c ups h is hands t o d rink t he w ater. A s econd s oldier a lso w earing a p ileus, h is p aludamentum b illowing i n a b reeze, t urns f rom t he w ater t o a cknowledge t he m an w ho h as p erformed t he m iracle. B ehind P eter, f or a ccording t o o ur c riteria h e c an o nly b e t he a postle, 7 4 a ppears a f ourth f igure, i n i dentical c lothing. H e s tands i n a p osture s imilar t o t hat o f P eter, b ut i s b eardless a nd h olds a s croll i nstead o f a v irga.

T he i dentity

o f t his f igure i s o bscure. H e i s n ot P au1, 75 b ut, f ollowing t he a pocryphal r ecord, h e m ight h ave b een i dentified i n t he f ifth c entury a s a f ellow p risoner. H owever, a c ase h as b een m ade i n a nalogous c ircumstances, n otably i n t he C rypt ' of t he s heep' i n t he C atacomb o f S t C allixtus, t o i dentify a s imilar b eardless f igure, i n p arallel t o P eter, a s M oses. P erhaps t he p arallel o f t ype a nd a nti-type s hould n ot b e p ushed t oo f ar, b ut t his i s n ot t he f irst t ime t hat t he s uggestion h as b een m ade. 7 8 I f t he o ther t wo s urviving p anels f rom t he c asket, w hich a re a lso i n t he B ritish M useum, a re p laced b eside t he f irst p anel, i t i s n ot u nreasonable t o c onclude t hat t he c asket w as m ade t o c ommemorate t he t wo m artyr-apostles o f R ome, P eter a nd P aul. s hows P eter r aising T abitha s cenes f rom t he l ife o f P aul

( fig.

T he s econd p ane1 77

2 4) , a nd t he t hird p ane178

( fig.

2 5):

s hows t wo

P aul c onversing w ith T hecla,

a nd t he s toning o f t he a postle. T he f irst p anel, t herefore, m ust f orm p art o f a P etrine-Pauline p rogramme. I t c annot r epresent M oses; i t m ust i ndeed r epresent P eter s triking t he r ock i n c ustodia M amertini i n R ome. 7 9 T he i vory c asket w as p robably m ade i n R ome. 8 0 C onfirmation o f i ts i conographic p rogramme m ay b e f ound i n a n u nexpected q uarter: t he d rawings o f a D r J äger, w ho r ecorded t he d iscovery o f a s mall,

1 37

4 6.

M iracle o f t he r ock.

I nscribed P ETRVS.

G old-glass b ase, a fter 3 50. M useo S acro, V atican. 4 7. B ronze l amp,

M iracle o f t he r ock. s econd h alf o f f ourth c entury.

M useo A rcheologico, F lorence.

11 R

g old-glass c asket, n ow l ost,81 a t N euss i n 1 847. H is d rawing 82 i ndicates t hat t he c asket b elongs t o t he s ame R oman t radition a s t he i vory c asket i n L ondon. T he t op o f t he g lass c asket c ontained a s cene w ith P ET/RVS a nd P AVL/VS ( inscribed), b oth c learly d istinguished i n a ppearance, i t w ould s eem, s tanding o n e ither s ide o f a s eated C hrist. T wo o f t he o ther s ides o f t he c asket c onfirm a R oman p rovenance f or t heir i conography: 83 o ne s hows t wo R oman b ishops, ITS/LIT[V 1S a nd S VST/VS ( inscribed) o n e ither s ide o f a s cene o f I OB B LASTE/MA ( inscribed); t he o ther c ontains P ETR MV IS ( inscribed) s triking t he r ock. " T he p airing o f P eter a nd P aul, H ippolytus a nd S ixtus I I, r ecalls t he d ecoration o f t he a rcosolium o f C elerina i n R ome. 8 5 T here i s,lowever, o nly o ne b ibens r ecorded i n t he s cene o f t he m iracle o f t he r ock, a nd i t w ould s eem8 8 f rom t he e xtant d rawing t hat t his b ibens w as m ore c losely r elated t o t he b ibentes o n t he b owl a t K öln-Braunsfeld t han t o t he b ibentes o n R oman s arcophagi, o r t o t he b ibens o n t he b ronze l amp n ow i n F lorence ( fig. 4 7). T he m ost s triking f eature o f t he b ronze l amp i s i ts w reath-like h andle. 87 T he c ircular s hape i mmediately b rings t o m ind t he m edallion d esigns o n g old-glass; 88 t he l ightness a nd s ubtlety o f l ine r evealed b y t he l amp a re r eminiscent o f t he d elicate w ork o f t he e ngraving n eedle. T he f igure i nside t he h andle o n t he r ight i s b earded a nd h olds a v irga i n h is o utstretched r ight hand. 8 9 A ny a mbiguity i n t he s cene i s r emoved b y t he b ibens o n t he l eft: h e i s w earing m ilitary u niform a nd t he p ileus p annonicus. T he i nfluence o f g old-glass d esign t allies with t he d ate n ormally g iven t o t he l amp:

t he s econd

h alf o f t he f ourth c entury. T he m essage i s u nequivocal: P eter, n ot M oses, i s s triking t he r ock f rom w hich g ush t he w aters o f l ife. T he t riumph o f P eter i s c rowned b y t he s urrounding w reath. O n t he t wo g old-glass b ases o f t he m iracle o f t he r ock i nscribed a s P ETRVS, P eter s tands o n t he l eft, h is r ight a rm c rossing h is b ody a nd s triking t he r ock o n his r ight. T his w as a lso t he c ase w ith t he i vory p anel i n L ondon, a nd i s t he n ormal c onfiguration o f t he r ight h and s cene o n s arcophagi. " T he b ronze l amp s hows t he a lternative c onfiguration, w hich a ppears f ar m ore f requently o n t he l eft s ide o f s arcophagi. 9 1 I t s eems r easonable t o c onclude t hat t he c raftsmen w ho e ngraved t hese s cenes o n g old-glass w ere i nfluenced b y t he s cenes o n s arcophagi ( cf. f igs. 5 , 6 , 7 ). T here w ere, t hen, p robably t wo t ypes o f d esign o n g old-glass, 92 a nd t hese w ere p robably p roduced i n s ome n umber d uring t his p eriod. B oth t he i vory c asket a nd t he b ronze l amp f orm p art o f a c orpus o f m aterial p roduced t hroughout t he f ourth c entury, a nd l ater, w hich r eproduced, u nambiguously, P eter s triking t he r ock i n R ome. T he i mage o f t he r ock h ad b een p opular i n t he t hird c entury, w hen i t w as a ssociated w ith M oses. I t i s f ound e arly o n i n t he c entury o n a f resco i n t he s o-called C appella G reca, 9i w hich m ay h ave b elonged t o aw ealthy R oman f amily, b ut w as l ater c onnected t o t he C atacomb o f P riscilla. I t b ecame i mmensely p opular i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury, w hen t he s cene w as a ssociated m ore w ith P eter t han w ith M oses. I t w as f ound o n n umerous s cenes o f t he t rilogia s culpted o n s arcophagi, n ormally w ith b ibentes, p annonicus. s uggested94

e ach w earing t he p ileus

I t m ight e ven h ave b een b orrowed b y p agans,

a s h as b een

i n t he c ase o f a f ragment o f a m osaic e xtant i n t he

H ypogeum o f V ia L ivenza.

I ts p opularity c ontinued t hroughout t he

1 39

c entury, a ppearing i n c atacomb p ainting a nd, m ore c onspicuously, o n t he a pplied a rts i n t he s econd h alf o f t he c entury, a nd l ater. T he b ibentes i n t hese s cenes r etained t he p ileus p annonicus ( cf. f ig. 2 3), w hich had b een d ropped b y t he o fficinae m aking s arcophagi b y t he t urn o f t he h alf c entury. S ome o f t hese i tems w ere e xpensive, s o i t c an b e s aid w ith s ome c onfidence t hat t he s cene's p opularity t ranscended s ocial b arriers. H owever, i t w as u ndoubtedly a p opular i mage r ather t han a n o fficial i conography, s uch a s t he c rux i nvicta. I ndeed t he m etamorphosis o f M oses s triking t he r ock i n t he d esert i nto P eter s triking a r ock i n R ome m ight b e e xplained a s m uch b y a p opular m isinterpretation o f t he e arlier s cene, a s b y a c onscious c onversion o f M oses, a t ypus P etri, i nto P eter, p rimus i nter a postolos. 9 5 T he a ddition t o t he s cene o f t he a pparitores, D iocletian's m ilitary p olice, a s b ibentes, s uggests t hat t he G reat P ersecution i naugurated i n 3 03 m ay h ave b een a n i mportant f actor i n t he c onversion: P eter, i mprisoned a nd m artyred i n R ome, w ould h ave h ad a f ar m ore d irect a ppeal t o C hristians p ersecuted i n R ome t han t he, b y t hen, t raditional s cene o f M oses i n t he d esert. T his t urning t o P eter d uring t he f irst d ecades o f t he f ourth c entury, f ar f rom c onscious m ove o n t he p art o f t he R oman b ishops t here w as n o b ishop - w as r ather a r ecognition o f a p eriod o f p ersecution a nd a d anger a verted i n a

b eing a f or s everal y ears a c ommon d anger i n p eriod o f p eace.

A s s uch, t he i mage a ppealed t o C hristians t hroughout t he W estern E mpire, w hether t hreatened b y p ersecution o r, a s w as g enerally t he c ase, a nxious t o i nvoke t he p rotection o f t he a postle i n d eath. I n t he f ifth c entury, a t l east i n p ublic a rt, t he s cene o f M oses s triking t he r ock w as t o b e r eplaced b y t he s cene o f M oses c asting a l og i nto t he b itter w aters o f M arah. I t i s t his s cene a nd n ot t he s triking o f t he r ock t hat a ppears o n t he m osaics o n t he r ight s ide o f t he n ave o f S . M aria M aggiore. " T he c ycle f rom t he l ife o f M oses, w ho i s b eardless t hroughout, t akes i t a ppropriate p lace i n t he s eries o f s cenes f rom t he O ld T estament. A s w e h ave s een, 97 P eter, w ith P aul, t akes his p lace o n t he t riumphal a rch. T he M oses c ycle h ad t o w ait u ntil t he s econd h alf o f t he f ifteenth c entury b efore i t c ould p lay a m ajor p art i n p romoting p apal p rimacy, w hen S ixtus I V a nd h is a dvisers u sed t he o pportunity p rovided b y t he d ecorating o f t he S istine C hapel t o r eaffirm t he s upremacy o f t he R oman b ishop. 9 8

1 40

N OTES

1

I ntroduction

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2 .

I n 1 854.

3 .

I bid.,

' 6.

4 .

I bid.,

p p.

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6 .

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7 .

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p .

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p p.

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T he c onnexion b etween M oses a nd P eter i s c onfirmed i n c ontemporary l iterature.

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C f.

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2

S otomayor, p p.

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' Custodia',

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p .

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C avalieri,

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a bove.

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3 23.

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s eemingly r estraining P eter,

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1 8f.

a bove.

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1 9 a bove.

b y P eter. 3 3.

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p p.

2 36ff.

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E arly C hristian A rt, p .

4 1.

C f.

p p.

o p.

1 06.

8 2f.

c it., p . 6 77.

C avalieri,

f or P eter's f ace i n f ull c olour, w ith C f. S tuhlfauth, p p. 3 9f.

3 03.

S ee p .

2 5 a bove. 7 1f.

' Vestiti', p p.

1 42

C f.

S otomayor, p p.

3 20.

2 25ff.

C f.

2 20f., n .

c aption t o p l.

2 17.

4 4.

4 2.

C f.

p p.

4 4f.

a bove.

4 3.

S ee p p.

4 4.

F or e xample, a f resco i n t he C atacomb o f T hecla, N estori, 3 ,

1 35, 1 36 b elow .

p . 1 41, o r a d amaged f resco i n t he C atacomb o f D omitilla, N estori, 1 9, P . 1 20, n ot l isted b y S otomayor, w here t he f eet o f ab ibens c an b e s een. 4 5.

C f. M oorsel, p . 2 47. C f., o f P eter, B renk, p . 4 0.

f or e xample,

t he s cene o f t he a rrest

4 6.

F or e xample, a f resco i n t he C atacomb o f H ermes, N estori, 3 , p . a nd W ilpert, M alereien, 1 19, 1 .

4 7.

S ee p .

4 8.

A c onvention t hat m ight h ave d eveloped f rom f rescoes i n t he C atacomb o f t he G iordani. T here a re, o f c ourse, e xceptions.

4 9.

M oorsel, p . 2 44, l ists t en f rescoes ( nine i n R ome), f rom t he f ourth c entury, i n w hich b ibentes a ppear. t he head o f t he m ain p rotagonist i s s till v isible: d efinitely b earded.

3 ,

1 36 b elow .

3

a ll d ating I n s even c ases s ix h eads a re

T he I dentification o f P eter

5 0.

L P, p p.

c cciiiff.

5 1.

S ee p .

5 2.

C avalieri,

5 3.

S otomayor, p p.

5 4.

F or e xample, t he l egend o f P eter's d og a ppears i n t he s econdc entury A cts o f P eter, a nd t he d og i s f ound o n a t l east o ne s arcophagus, p robably f ourth-century, n ow i n V erona. W ilpert, S arcofagi, 1 50, 2 . C f. S otomayor, 3 24.

5 5.

M orey, 8 1.

T estini,

' L'iconografia',

5 6.

M orey, 8 0.

T estini,

1 97.

5 7.

T estini,

5 8.

Z anchi R oppo, p p. 3 8f. A part f rom t he e xamples c ited i n t he t ext, t here d o n ot s eem t o b e a ny o ther e xamples o f P eter s triking t he r ock e xtant. C f. T estini, 1 08 ( location u nknown) a nd 1 44 ( lost,

1 31 a bove. ' SS. P rocesso e M artiniano

1 09.

s eepp. 1 37,

l,

p p.

3 5ff.

2 9ff.

C f.

S otomayor,

1 98.

4 33.

1 39 b elow ).

5 9.

M orey, 4 21(e).

F remersdorf, p p.

2 03ff.

A ge, 3 77.

6 0.

T he a rgument t urns o n t he i dentification o f t he f our h eads i n t he s pandrils a s t he f our s ons o f C onstantine,

1 43

i .e. b efore t he d eath

o f C rispus i n 3 26.

F remersdorf, p p.

2 04ff.

6 1.

N estori,

6 2.

S ee p .

1 31 a bove.

6 3.

S ee p .

1 34 a bove.

6 4.

P resumably R henish, b ut h is w ork r eveals a k nowledge o f e astern o rnament a s w ell a s o f R oman i conography. H e m ight h ave b een J ewish. M r R .V.

5 1, p .

C f.

5 5.

S ee S chüler, p p. 5 1f. I a m g rateful t o m y c olleague, N icholls, f or d rawing m y a ttention t o t his a rticle.

6 5.

N ot o nly a s arcophagus, s uch a s L ateran 1 74, b ut p ossibly o ne as t hree b are-headed s imilar t o t he J onah s arcophagus, w hich h b ibentes.

6 6.

N or s hould t oo m uch b e m ade o f t he m otif o f t he t ree, a s i t i s t o b e f ound o n o ther g lass m edallions o n t he b owl, n otably i n t he s cene o f D aniel b etween t he l ions.

6 7.

C f. t he e ngraved g lass g oblet f ound a t C ologne a nd n ow i n t he B ritish M useum, D alton, o p. c it., 6 52, a nd t he f ourth-century b ronze c askets f rom V ermand, T estini, 5 0 ( location u nknown) a nd K astel,

6 8.

S ee p .

4

6 9.

T estini, 4 4

( Römisch-Germanisches M useum , B onn).

5 5 a bove.

T he M iracle o f t he R ock i n t he S econd H alf o f t he F ourth C entury a nd L ater

T here w ould s eem t o b e n o i nscribed g old-glass b ases o f M oses s triking t he r ock e xtant. A g old-glass b ase i n A quileia, C alvi, p p. 3 8ff., T estini, 1 17, A ge, 3 82, r eveals a n e legant, b eardless M oses s triking t he r ock, w ho c ould n ot b e m istaken f or h is a ntit ype, P eter. C f. S otomayor, p . 8 1, n . 3 . O ther g old-glass b ases t hat m ay r epresent M oses s triking t he r ock a re: G arrucci, S toria, 3 , 1 71, 2 ( location u nknown); M orey, 3 88 ( in f ragments) a nd 3 66 ( Pusey H ouse, O xford, o n l oan t o t he A shmolean M useum ); M orey, 1 42 a nd 1 43 ( Museo S acro, V atican); a nd M orey, 3 12 a nd 3 47 ( British M useum, L ondon).

7 0.

O f t he n ine f rescoes l isted b y v an M oorsel, P eter s triking t he r ock, v iz:

N estori,

1 ,

p .

2 44,

p . 7 2,

6 ,

s ix r epresent p . 8 4,

4 5,

p . 1 06, 3 , p . 1 13, 5 , p . 1 28, 3 , p . 1 41. A lthough i n p oor c ondition ( there a re n o h eads) i t s eems l ikely t hat N estori, 1 9, p . 1 20, d epicts t he s ame s cene. N estori, 4 0, p . 1 23, i s d oubtful „ w hilst t he i ntention o f W ilpert, M alereien, 1 19, 1 , n o l onger e xtant i n t he C atacomb o f H ermes, 7 1.

D alton,

7 2.

B ovini, M onumenti, p p.

7 3.

I vory p anel:

i s a mbiguous.

E arly C hristian A ntiquities,

D alton,

1 3ff. p .

2 92(a).

T estini,

T estini,

1 6.

4 8.

5 0, w here t he s cene i s i dentified a s

1 44

M oses s triking t he r ock M useum );

( as d oes t he c urrent l abel i n t he

t he s oldiers a re d escribed a s

O riental c ostume'.

' two I sraelites i n

V olback, E lfenbeinarbeiten, 1 17,

i dentifies

t he s oldiers, b ut l abels t he s cene a s'Quellwunder d es M oses'. B ronze l amp: G arrucci, S toria, 6 , P . 1 03. B ovini, p . 1 3. V olbach, E arly C hristian A rt, p . 3 15, a nd p l. t he s cene a s M oses s triking t he r ock.

1 2,

i dentifies

7 4.

A s r ecognised b y L . K ötzsche i n A ge, P . 5 07, w here r eference i s m ade t o t heir f ur hats, t he p ileus e x p ellibus.

7 5.

T he f eatures o f P aul a re c learly d istinguished o n t he t hird p anel, D alton, 2 92(c), w here h e i s b ald, w ith a l ong b eard.

7 6.

D alton, I vory C arvings, p . 6 , s uggested t hat t he s econd f igure m ight b e ' a s econd r epresentation o f M oses'.

7 7.

D alton,

7 8.

I bid.,

7 9.

S ee p p. 4 4ff . above. C f. t hree p anels o f a nother i vory c asket o f t he e arly f ifth c entury a lso i n t he B ritish M useum, D alton, 2 91, V olbach, E lfenbein, 1 16, T estini, 1 5, A ge, 4 52. T he s oldiers o n a ll t hree p anels w ear t he p ileus p annonicus a nd t he p aludamentum . T he b ibentes o n t he f irst c asket c annot b e I sraelites; t hey m ust b e s oldiers. T he a llusion t o D iocletian's a pparitores, w hich h ad d isappeared f rom s arcophagi i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury,

E arly C hristian A ntiquities,

2 92(b).

2 92(c).

m ust h ave b een a n i ntentional 8 0.

C f.

8 1.

F remersdorf, p p.

8 2.

F remersdorf, A bb.

8 3.

I bid‘, p .

8 4.

D iehl,

8 5.

S ee p p.

8 6.

O n t he p ossible l imitations o f t his e vidence, p p.

8 7.

B uddensieg, p p.

1 88,

' quotation' b y t he e borarius c oncerned.

2 07ff.

1 90f. T estini,

1 44.

5 4.

2 11.

1 970 M . 9 ,

1 1 a bove.

I t c ould b e p laced o n t he g round,

o n a s tand,

c eiling b y i ts c hain, n o l onger e xtant. 8 8.

s ee F remersdorf,

2 12ff.

C f.

o r h ung f rom t he B ovini,

p .

1 5.

O r o n b ronze m edallions. O ne t hat m ight c ommemorate t he m iracle o f t he r ock, T estini, 7 4, f ormerly i n t he B arberini C ollection a nd n ow i n t he M useo S acro i n t he V atican,

d ates,it w ould s eem,

f rom

t he f ifth c entury, o r p ossibly l ater. C f. t he s cene, i n r epousse, o n a p arcel-gilt, s ilver j ug, T estini, 4 6, p robably m ade i n t he f ifth c entury, a nd n ow i n t he N ational M useum o f A ntiquities, E dinburgh. 8 9.

T his p erformed t he f unction o f a llowing o ne t o h old t he l amp s ecurely. 1 45

9 0.

F or e xample, R epertorium, 3 9, 4 3, 4 4.

9 1.

F or e xample, i bid., 4 1, 4 2. T here a re e xceptions. F or e xample, i bid., 4 0, h as P eter t urning t owards t he r ock a nd t he g ushing w ater, w hich s eparates h im f rom t he s cene o f h is a rrest o n t he r ight. A s oldier c ompletes t he s cene o n t he c orner. C f. p p. 1 5ff . a bove.

9 2.

C f. G arrucci, S toria, 3 , 1 73,1, 2 , a nd 3 . t ype' i s c onveniently i llustrated a t 4 .

9 3.

N estori, 3 9, p .

9 4.

C ecchelli, M onumenti, p p. 2 01ff., t ay. 2 6. I t s hould b e n oted t hat M ithras, a ccording t o l egend a nd t o s urviving i nscriptions, s truck a r ock t o p rovide w ater t o q uench t he t hirst o f h is f ollowers. I n e xtant r epresentations a f igure o ften k neels b efore a r ock.

9 5.

M artini, p . 1 20.

9 6.

C ecchelli, I m osaici, T ay.

9 7.

S ee p p. 3 9, 4 2 a bove.

9 8.

E ttlinger, p assim .

T he

' uncommitted

2 7.

3 4.

1 46

G LOSSARY

A d1ocutio

F ormal a ddress b y t he e mperor t o t he a rmy.

A mpulla

F lask,

Amula

E wer, o r j ug, u sually w ith h andle.

A nastasis

T he R esurrection o f C hrist.

A postolica s edes

T he a postolic s eat, R ome.

A pparitores

M ilitary a ids, p olice.

A rcosolium

A rched r ecess,

B ibens

C rouching f igure d rinking w ater.

C apsa

L idded c ase o r c ontainer f or s crolls.

C athedra P etri

T hrone,

C hrismon c ross

C ross i n t he f orm o f t he m onogram X P.

C hristus p uer

C hrist a s a b oy,

C lipeus

R ound s hield, m edallion.

C odex

B ook, m ade o f p archment.

C oncordia a postolorum

o riginally w ith t wo h andles.

e specially i n c atacomb.

o r b ishopric,

o f P eter.

o r y oung m an.

T he a postles

( Peter a nd P aul)

i n c oncordia.

C omitatus

I mperial c ourt.

C orona l emniscata

C rown w ith h anging r ibbons, g arland, w reath.

C rux c ommissa

C ross i n t he f orm o f a T .

C rux i nvicta

T he i nvincible c ross.

T he s leeping s oldiers a t

t he f oot o f t he c ross e quate i t w ith t he A nastasis. C UbicUlum

T omb c hamber,

e specially i n c atacomb.

D ecennalia

C elebration o f t enth a nniversary,

e .g.

o f

a ccession o f t he e mperor. D extrarum i unctio

J oining o f r ight h ands o f h usband a nd w ife.

D octor g entium

T he T eacher o f t he G entiles.

D octrina P auli

T he D octrine o f P aul.

D ominus l egem d at

C hrist g ives t he L aw, L egis.

1 47

e quated w ith t he T raditio

E borarius

C raftsman w orking i n i vory.

E cclesia e x c ircumcisione

C hurch o f t he C ircumcision o f t he J ews.

E cclesia e x g entibus

C hurch o f t he G entiles, t he p agans.

E mblema

A s eparate p anel i nserted i nto a m osaic.

F ides P etri

T he F aith o f P eter.

F ondo d 'oro

B ase o f v essel m ade f rom g old-glass.

F ossor

P rofessional g rave-digger.

G ubernator

S teersman i n s tern o f s hip.

I n c oncordia

I n u nity,

I n g allicantu

A t c ockcrow .

I nsignia C hristi

T he s igns o r s ymbols o f C hrist's t riumph o ver d eath a dopted b y C onstantine.

I maginarius

C raftsman m aking i mages, p ainter.

I mago c lipeata

P ortrait i n a r ound m edallion.

I psa n ova R oma

L iberalitas

o f

i n h armony.

( altera R oma) T he n ew R ome, C onstantinople.

L abarum

o f t hose n ot J ews,

t he o ther R ome,

M ilitary s tandard. ( largitio) I mperial l argesse. D istribution o f m oney t o t he p eople o n c eremonial o ccasions.

L ipsanotheca

C asket f or r elics.

L oculus

H ollow f or g rave i n w all o f c atacomb.

M agister D ominus

C hrist t he t eacher.

M aiestas D omini

B earded C hrist i n m ajesty,

M armorarius

i n h eaven.

C raftsman w orking i n m arble o r s tone,

i n

p articular o n s arcophagi. M ater E cclesia M issio a postolorum

M other C hurch. T he m ission g iven b y C hrist t o h is a postles,

t he

a postolic c ollege. M usivarius

C raftsman w orking i n m osaic.

O fficina

W orkshop,

O rant

A f igure p raying w ith o pen a rms, a s ymbol o f t he

e .g.

f or s arcophagi.

1 48

s pirit o f a d ead p erson i n heaven. P allium

W ide c loak o r m antle.

P aludamentum

M ilitary c loak, h eld b y c lasp o ver r ight s houlder.

P ileus e x p ellibus

C ylindrical m ilitary c ap m ade f rom a nimal s kins, i .e. p ileus p annonicus.

P ileus p annonicus

C ylindrical m ilitary c ap.

P rinceps a postolorum

P rince o f t he a postles, P eter.

P roreta

S teersman i n p row o f s hip.

Q uadriga

C hariot d rawn b y f our a nimals.

R otulus

R olled s croll, u sually i ndicating a s cholar o r t eacher.

S crinium

C ase o r c hest f or s crolls.

S ella p licatilis

F olding c hair.

S ignum C hristi

S ign o f C hrist,

o f t he c ross o r t he m onogram,

b oth a dopted b y C onstantine. a nd L abarum .

C f.

I nsignia C hristi

S itula

B ucket.

S pina

L ow w all d ividing t he l ength o f t he C ircus.

S tile b ello

B eautiful s tyle, n ormally a ssigned t o t he p eriod 3 40 t o 3 60.

S trigulation

T ype o f f luted d ecoration o n s arcophagi, s traight o r c urved, r esembling s trigils,

e ither o r

s crapers. S ub d ivo

U nder t he g od

( Iuppiter),

i n t he o pen a ir.

T abula a nsata

T ablet f or i nscription, h andles.

T essera

C ut o r s moothed c ube o f s tone, m arble, g lass o r o ther m aterial, u sed i n m aking m osaics.

T raditio c lavium

T he h anding o ver o f t he k eys.

T raditio l egis

T he h anding o ver o f t he L aw .

T rilogia

A t rilogy.

o riginally a t ray w ith

A g roup o f t hree r elated s cenes,

e vents. V as e lectionis

T he c hosen v essel, P aul.

V ia c rucis

T he w ay o f t he c ross.

1 . 49

o r

V icennalia

C elebration o f t he t wentieth a nniversary, o f a ccession o f t he e mperor.

V irga t haumaturga

M iraculous o r h ealing r od.

V olumen

L ong s croll.

1 50

e .g.

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A CHELIS,

H .,

D ie K atakomben v on N eapel,

A LFÖLDI,

A .,

A F estival o f I sis i n R ome u nder t he C hristian Emperors

o f t he I Vth C entury, A LFÖLDI, B erlin,

A .

a nd E .,

B udapest,

L eipzig,

1 935/36.

1 937.

D ie K ontorniat-Medaillons,

e d.

C .L.

C lay,

1 976.

A POLLONJ G HETTI, B .M ., ' Le b asiliche c imiteriali d egli a postoli P ietro e P aolo a R oma', i n S aecularia, V atican C ity, 1 969. B ARDY,

G .,

' Pelerinages ä R ome v ers l a f in d u I Ve s iècle', A nalecta

B ollandiana,

6 7,

1 949.

B ATIFFOL, P .,

' Papa,

B ATIFFOL,

C athedra P etri. .tudes d 'Histoire a ncienne d e l 'iglise,

P aris, B ECK,

P .,

S edes A postolica,

A postolatus',

RAC,

2 ,

1 938. H .-G.,

' Constantinople.

i n A ge(S), N ew Y ork, B ENOIT, P aris,

F .,

s iècle, B LOCH,

S arcophages p algochrgtiens d 'Arles e t d e Marseille,

van,

G eneva, H .,

C entury',

a nd C LOUZOT, E ., Mosaiques c hretiennes d u I Ve a u X e 1 924.

' The P agan R evival i n t he West a t t he e nd o f t he F ourth i n T he C onflict b etween Paganism a nd C hristianity i n t he

F ourth C entury, B OVINI,

T he R ise o f a N ew C apital i n t he E ast',

1 980.

1 954.

B ERCHEM , M .

e d.

A .

M omigliano,

O xford,

1 963.

G ., M onumenti f igurati p aleocristiani c onservati i n F irenze,

V atican C ity,

1 950.

B OVINI, d . C .',

G ., ' Sarcofagi c onstantinopolitani d ei s ecoli I V, V , C orsi d i C ultura s ull'Arte R avennate e B izantina, 9 ,

B OVINI,

G .,

a nd B RANDENBURG,

S arkophage. B RENK,

1 925.

3 .,

N ew Y ork, B RILLIANT,

1 ,

R om u nd O stia,

H .,

e V I 1 962.

Repertorium d er c hristlich-antiken

e d.

F .W .

D eichmann, W iesbaden,

' The I mperial H eritage o f E arly C hristian A rt',

1 967.

i n A ge(s),

1 980. R .,

B ROWN,

P .R .L.,

B ROWN,

P .R .L.,

A ristocracy',

G esture a nd R ank i n R oman A rt, N ewhaven, A ugustine o f H ippo,

1 967.

' Aspects o f t he C hristianization o f t he R oman J RS,

5 1,

A ims a nd E nvironment', o f P elagius.

L ondon,

1 963.

1 961,

1 -11;

J TS, N S 1 9,

' Pelagius a nd h is S upporters. 1 968,

9 3-114;

a nd

' The P atrons

T he R oman A ristocracy b etween E ast a nd W est',

1 51

J TS,

N S 2 1, 1 970, 5 6-72, i n R eligion a nd S ociety i n t he A ge o f S aint A ugustine, L ondon, 1 972. B RUYNE, L . d e, ' L'Iconographie d es a pötres P ierre e t P aul d ans u ne l umi re n ouvelle', i n S aecularia, V atican C ity, 1 969. B UDDENSIEG, T ., ' Le C offret e n i voire d e P ola, L atran', C ahiers A rcheologiques, 1 0, 1 959.

S aint-Pierre e t L e

C ALVI, M .C., m iracolo d ella f onte n el v etro d orato d el M useo d i A quileia', Aquileia N ostra, 3 0, 1 959. C AMERON, A .,

' The D ate a nd I dentity o f M acrobius',

C AMERON, A ., ' Rutilius N amatianus, D e R editu', J RS, 5 7, 1 967. C AMERON, A ., C laudian. O xford, 1 970.

S t A ugustine,

E .,

C AVALIERI,

G eschichte d es P apsttums, P .

5 6,

1 966.

a nd t he D ate o f t he

P oetry a nd P ropaganda a t t he c ourt o f H onorius,

C AMPENHAUSEN, H .F . v on, D ie P assionssarkophage. a ltchristlichen B ildkreises, Marburg, 1 929. C ASPAR,

J RS,

F ranchi d e',

' Come i S S.

1 ,

Z ur G eschichte e ines

T übingen,

1 930.

P rocesso e M artiniano d ivennero

i c arcerieri d el p rincipi d egli a postoli?',

S tudi e T esti,

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E lfenbeinarbeiten d er S pätantike u nd d es f rühen

M ittelalters, M ainz, V OPEL, H ., 1 899.

1 961.

1 976 3 .

D ie a ltchristlichen G oldgläser,

1 59

F reiburg i m B reisgau,

W EITZMANN, K .,

e d., A ge, M etropolitan M useum o f A rt, N ew Y ork,

W EITZMANN, K .,

e d., A ge(s), M etropolitan Museum o f A rt, N ew Y ork,

W ERMELINGER, O ., R om u nd P elagius. 1 975.

P äpste u nd P apsttum,

W ESSEL, K .,

Z ur D eutung a usgewählter f rüh-

' Das H aupt d er K irche.

c hristlicher B ildwerke', A rchäologischer A nzeiger,

7 ,

1 979.

6 5/66,

S tuttgart,

1 950/51.

W ILPERT, 1 903.

J ., D ie M alereien d er K atakomben R oms,

W ILPERT,

J ., D ie r ömischen M osaiken u nd M alereien d er k irchlichen

B auten v om I V . W ILPERT,

J .,

°R estauro

m oderne', R AC, W ILPERT, W ILLIS,

J ., G .G .,

Z ANCHI R OPPO, I talia,

b is X III.

4 ,

J ahrhundert,

1 980.

F reiburg i m B reisgau,

F reiburg i m B reisgau,

1 916.

d i s culture c ristiane a ntiche e a ntichitä

1 927.

I s arcofagi c ristiani a ntichi,

V atican C ity,

1 929-36.

F urther E ssays i n E arly R oman L iturgy, L ondon,

1 968.

F ., V etri p aleocristiani a f igure d 'oro c onservati i n

B ologna,

1 969.

1 60

I NDEX O F O BJECTS B Y L OCATION

N OTE.

O bjects a re l isted b y p resent l ocation o r b y l ast r ecorded l ocation.

A nagni:

S S.

C osma e D amiano

g raffito, A quileia:

1 1, 1 26, n .

( Refectory): 6 4

M useo A rcheologico:

g old-glass b ase, 1 44, n .

6 9

A rles: M usge L apidaire d 'Art C hrgtien: s arcophagus o f b ishop C oncordius, s arcophagus o f t he D ioscuri, 6 0, o ther s arcophagi, 6 0, B erlin:

i vory p yxis,

1 19

1 08

6 1

7 5, n .

4 4, 4 7,

S taatsbibliothek,

2 88

6 0 S tiftung, P reussischer K ulturbesitz:

i vory d iptych o f P robianus, 1 26, n . B onn:

1 18,

S taatliche M useen, P reussischer K ulturbesitz:

b ronze s tatuette,

B erlin:

1 17,

6 0

R heinisches L andesmuseum : b ronze c asket,

1 44, n .

6 7

B rescia: M useo d ell'Etä C ristiana: i vory c asket, 4 7,

6 0

B ryn A then, P ennsylvania: i vory p laque, C ologne:

1 27, n .

G lencairn F oundation: 7 9

R ömisch-Germanisches M useum :

g old-glass b owl, E dinburgh:

1 35,

1 39

N ational M useum o f A ntiquities:

s ilver-gilt j ug,

1 45, n .

8 8

F lorence: M useo A rcheologico: b ronze l amp o f V alerius S everus,

1 61

5 6,

5 7,

5 8,

6 1,

9 0

o ther b ronze l amp, 1 37, 1 38, 1 39 F lorence: M useo N azionale d el B argello: C arrand d iptych, 4 4 g old-glass b ase, 5 5, G rottaferrata:

C atacomb

7 4, n .

2 72,

7 5, n .

2 77

' ad d ecimum ':

f resco, 1 1, 1 15 I stanbul: A rcheological M useum : c hild's s arcophagus, 2 9, 9 3 L eningrad:

S tate H ermitage M useum :

e ngraved g lass, 1 35 g old-glass b ase, L ondon :

7 3, n .

2 49

B ritish M useum :

g old-glass b ases,

5 3, 5 4,

5 5,

g old-glass g oblet, 1 44, n .

7 4, n u.

2 66,267, 1 44, n .

6 7

i vory c askets, 4 4, 4 5, 4 6, 4 7, 6 0, 1 37, 1 39, 1 44, n . s ilver e wer, 5 0 L ondon:

E umorfopoulos C ollection:

b ronze l amp, M adrid:

5 8,

7 5, n .

M ilan:

2 76, 1 14, 1 15, 1 16, 1 19

2 6,

2 7, 3 8, 6 0, 1 18, 1 19

S . L orenzo, C appella d i S aint' A quilino:

m osaic, M ilan:

7 5, n .

S . A mbrogio:

s arcophagus, M ilan:

2 85

R eal A cademia d e l a H istoria:

s ilver m issorium ,

3 8, 1 20

S . N azaro M aggiore:

s ilver-gilt r eliquary, 4 6, 4 7, 6 1, 1 11 N aples: B aptistry o f S oter m osaic, 1 1,

7 0, n .

6 9

( S. G iovanni i n F onte):

1 70

1 62

7 3

N aples:

C atacomb o f S . G ennaro:

f resco, N euss:

1 07, n .

1 89

C ollection o f D r J äger:

e ngraved g lass, New Y ork:

1 37,

American N umismatic S ociety:

g old m edallion, New Y ork:

1 39

7 5, n .

2 76

M etropolitan M useum o f A rt:

g old-glass b ase, r elief,

7 6, n .

5 5,

7 4, n .

2 71

2 90

N is: H ypogeum : f resco,

6 4, n .

2 4

O stia A ntica: H ouse: f loor m osaic, O stia A ntica:

1 08

M useo:

s arcophagus f ragment, O xford:

A shmolean M useum :

g old-glass b ases, P aris:

1 7

C ollection E .

c ameo,

1 20,

1 21, 1 44, n .

6 9

d e R othschild:

5 5

P aris: M usge d u L ouvre: B orghese s arcophagus, P gcs:

2 6,

2 7,

6 8, n .

1 32

C atacomb o f P eter a nd P aul: f resco,

P erugia:

S .

6 4, n .

B ernadino:

s arcophagus, R avenna :

1 16,

1 18

B aptistry o f t he A rians

m osaics, R avenna :

2 4

(. M aria i n C osmedin):

4 3

B aptistry o f t he O rthodox

m osaics,

4 3

.G iovanni i n F onte):

s tucco,

4 3

R avenna: M ausoleum o f G alla P lacidia: m osaics,

4 2

R avenna: M useo A rcivescovile: m arble r eliquary,

3 0

R avenna: M useo N azionale: s arcophagus, 3 0 R avenna:

S . A pollinare i n C lasse:

s arcophagus o f t he t welve a postles, R avenna:

S .

F rancesco:

s arcophagus o f b ishop L iberius, o ther s arcophagus, R avenna:

1 4,

B aptistry m osaic,

R ome:

( S.

5 ,

2 21,

1 15,

1 17

G iovanni i n F onte): 9 9

1 28, n .

5 , 6 ,

9 9,

1 31

6 , 9 ,

7 ,

9 ,

1 1, 1 2,

1 2,

3 8,

2 6,

4 4,

7 0, n .

1 43, n . 1 73

C atacomb o f G iordani: f rescoes,

1 43, n .

4 8

C atacomb o f H ermes: f resco,

R ome:

7 2, n .

C atacomb o f D omitilla:

m osaics,

R ome:

3 0

C atacomb • o f C ommodilla:

f rescoes,

R ome:

2 8,

1 28, n .

f rescoes, R ome:

3 0

A rch o f C onstantine: f rieze,

R ome:

2 8,

2 8, 3 0, 3 1

S . M aria i n P orto F uori:

s arcophagus, R ome:

3 0

1 43, n .

4 6,

1 44, n .

7 0

C atacomb o f P eter a nd M arcellinus: f rescoes,

1 0,

1 1,

1 31,

1 36

4 4

R ome:

C atacomb o f P raextextatus: f rescoes,

9 , 8 9,

s arcophagus, R ome:

1 32,

R ome:

1 43, n .

2 0,

6 5, n .

2 0,

2 4,

2 6,

2 7,

6 7, n .

1 01,

1 18,

1 20

T hecla: 4 4

2 6,

4 4, 6 7, n .

1 04

( Balbina?):

6 1

7 0, n .

( Via D ino C ompagni): 1 73,

1 09

H ypogeum , V ia L ivenza: m osaic,

R ome:

1 8,

C atacomb o f V ia L atina f rescoes, 8 , 9 ,

R ome:

S ebastiano:

C atacomb o n V ia A rdeatina f resco,

R ome:

1 37

C atacomb o f S . V alentino: s arcophagi,

R ome:

1 7,

C atacomb o f S . f resco,

C allisto:

1 33,

C atacomb o f S . s arcophagi,

R ome:

1 7

1 39

C atacomb o f S . f resco,

R ome:

1 6,

C atacomb o f P riscilla: f resco,

R ome:

1 39

1 39

M usei C apitolini: B orghese s arcophagus

( back), 6 8, n .

1 32

R ome: M useo N azionale R omano: s tatuette, R ome:

S .

S .

9 5

C onstanza:

m osaics, 1 19, R ome:

S S.

1 71

A ndrea i n C atabarbara:

m osaics, R ome:

7 0, n .

6 ,

1 22,

1 1,

2 6,

1 26, n .

3 2,

6 4,

3 3,

3 4,

1 27, n .

7 9

C osma e D amiano:

m osaic,

9 8,

1 28, n .

9 9 1 65

3 5,

7 0, n .

1 73, 8 9, 1 15,

1 16,

R ome:

S . L orenzo f uori l e M ura: m osaic

R ome:

2 7, 9 8, 1 20

S . M aria M aggiore: m osaic m osaics

R ome:

( triumphal a rch),

( triumphal a rch ,

2 7, 3 9, 4 2, 4 6,

( nave), 3 9, 1 20, 1 22, 1 40

S . P udenziana: m osaic, 9 , 2 7, 3 6, 3 7, 3 8,

R ome:

9 4, 9 8, 1 20, 1 22, 1 40

S .

3 9, 4 2, 6 0,

7 9, 1 19, 1 20, 1 22

S abina:

m osaic, 3 8, 3 9, 4 0, 4 1, 4 2, 1 22 w ooden d oors, 4 2,

7 2, n .

2 11

R ome: V igna M ereghiana: s arcophagus, 1 7 T oledo, O hio: T oledo M useum o f A rt: g old-glass b ase, 1 15 V atican C ity: M useo P io C ristiano: s arcophagi,

( Lateran 5 5: t wo b rothers), 1 8, 1 9, n . 2 94, 1 08, 1 32, 1 33 ( Lateran 1 04: ( Lateran 1 06), ( Lateran 1 19: 1 42, n . 2 7

d ogmatic), 1 4, 1 5, 2 9,

7 6, n .

( Lateran 1 51), 2 7,

7 6, n .

7 6, n .

( Lateran 1 64),

2 1,

2 5,

2 94

7 6, n .

2 94, 1 31, 1 32,

2 94

2 94

S abinus), 1 4, 1 5, 2 0,

7 6, n .

7 6,

2 94

( Lateran 1 54), 1 4, 1 7, 7 6, n . ( Lateran 1 61:

2 5,

2 94, 1 20

J onah), 1 3, 1 4,

( Lateran 1 22), 1 6, 1 7,

2 4,

7 6, n .

7 6, n .

2 94

2 94

( Lateran 1 69: L udovosi), 2 4, 6 1 ( Lateran 1 71), 1 9,

2 0, 6 7, n .

( Lateran 1 74), 5 , 2 1, 1 16, 1 32, 1 34, 1 36

2 5, 6 0,

1 01,

7 6, n .

7 0, n .

1 71,

( Lateran 2 12, c hild's s arcophagus), 1 4, o ther s arcophagi, 1 7, 6 7, n .

1 03

V atican C ity: M useo S acro: b ronze l amp,

5 8 1 66

2 94 7 6, n .

7 6, n .

2 94,

2 94

b ronze m edallion

( Boldetti),

o ther b ronze m edallions,

5 2,

i mpression o f m edallion,

5 2

5 2, 6 1 1 45, n .

8 8

b ronze s itula, 9 7, 9 8 g old-glass b ases, n . 6 9

5 2,

5 5,

7 5, n .

p orphyry g roup o f T etrarchs, s ilver a mpulla, 4 9, s ilver-gilt a mula, V atican C ity:

S .

2 73,

1 29,

4 9,

2 2,

1 6,

1 8,

2 7,

2 3, 2 1,

2 4, 2 4,

P ola c asket, 4 3,

4 6, 4 7,

6 8, n .

5 0, 6 0,

1 36,

1 20

S . M arco:

p orphyry g roup o f T etrarchs,

1 12

U nknown:

b ronze c asket,

1 44, n .

6 7

G iovanni d ella V alle:

s arcophagus,

1 43, n .

5 4

K unsthistorisches M useum :

s ilver p yxis,

1 27, n .

8 7

W ashington D .C.: D umbarton O aks C ollection: m arble r elief,

3 0,

9 3

1 67

2 5,

1 71,

1 16

2 7,

2 9,

1 20

1 8, 1 9

V enice: M useo A rcheologico:

V ienna:

7 0, n .

P ietro i n V aticano:

o ther s arcophagi,

S .

1 44,

5 0

s arcophagus o f t hree m onograms,

V erona:

1 39,

5 0

s arcophagus o f P etronius P robus,

V ermand:

1 38,

1 12

s arcophagus o f I unius B assus,

V enice:

1 35,

1 16,

1 26, n .

6 3

I NDEX O F I NSCRIPTIONS B Y L OCATION

N OTE.

I nscriptions a re l isted b y p resent l ocation o r, b y l ast r ecorded l ocation, F = F errua,

A rles:

E pigrammata;

F lorence:

F lorence:

1 17,

1 19

5 6,

5 8

M useo N azionale d el B argello:

G rottaferrata: f resco, L eningrad:

( M 2 40),

7 5, n .

( M 2 41),

5 5,

C atacomb

1 1,

2 77

7 4, n .

2 72

' ad d ecimum':

1 15

S tate H ermitage M useum:

e ngraved g lass, L ondon:

1 18,

( D 1 592),

g old-glass b ases

1 35

B ritish M useum :

g old-glass b ase

( M 3 14),

B aptistery o f S oter

m osaic,

7 0,

n .

1 70,

5 3,

( S.

5 5,

7 4, n .

N ew Y ork:

1 15

g old m edallion, N ew Y ork:

7 5, n .

S ociety:

2 76

M etropolitan M useum o f A rt:

g old-glass b ase O xford:

1 39

American N umismatic

( M 4 50),

5 5,

7 4, n .

A shmolean M useum :

g old-glass b ase

( M 3 64),

1 20,

1 21

Arch o f C onstantine: i nscription,

2 72

G iovanni i n F onte):

C ollection o f D r J äger: e ngraved g lass,

R ome:

M = M orey.

M useo A rcheologico:

b ronze l amp

N eus:

I = I CVR;

1 13

1 68

2 71

i f n ot e xtant,

A bbreviations:

M usge L apidaire d 'Art C hr f tien

s arcophagus,

N aples:

i f k nown.

D = D iehl;

R ome:

C atacomb o f D omitilla: f rescoes

( I 6 498; D 3 382), 6 ( I 6 499; D 3 663), 6 4, n .

3 1

m osaic, 6 R ome:

C atacomb o f P raetextatus: f rescoes

( I 1 4117; D 1 970E), 9 ( I 1 4118; D 1 970E), 9

R ome:

C atacomb o f S .

C allisto:

i nscription ( F 1 6; R ome:

S .

C onstanza :

m osaic, R ome:

3 3,

3 4, 1 15, 1 16

S . L orenzo f uori l e M ura: m osaic

R ome :

I9 513; D 1 986), 1 10

( I 1 7671), 1 22

S . L orenzo i n D amaso: i nscription ( F 5 7), 9 0, 1 09

R ome:

S . M aria M aggiore : m osaics

R ome:

( D 9 75),

3 9, 1 22

( D 9 76),

7 2, n .

2 10, 1 22

S . P aolo f uori l e M ura: i nscription ( I 4 778; D 1 857), 9 3 m osaics

( I 4 780; D 1 761a), 3 5 ( I 4 784; D 1 761b), 3 9 ( I 4 786; D 1 761c, d ), 3 6

R ome:

S .

P ietro i n V incoli

i nscriptions

( Titulus a postolorum ):

( D 9 74), 8 2, 8 3 ( D 1 781), 8 3

R ome :

S . P udenziana: i nscription ( D 1 772B), 3 6 m osaic,

3 4, 3 6, 3 7, 3 8, 1 27, n . 8 1

1 69

R ome:

S .

S abina:

m osaics

( D 1 778a),

3 8,

3 9,

( D 1 778b), 3 9, 4 0, R ome:

S .

S ebastiano

i nscriptions

4 2,

1 20

4 1

( Basilica a postolorum ) ':

( I 1 3273; D 9 51), 3 6, 8 1, ( I N S5, 1 2907ff.),

R ome:

8 2, 8 9,

1 10

8 1

U nknown: i nscription

T oledo, O hio:

( I 3 900; D 1 764),

3 8

T oledo M useum o f A rt:

g old-glass b ase,

1 15

V atican C ity: M useo P io C ristiano: s arcophagus V atican C ity:

( Lateran 1 61),

M useo S acro:

b ronze s itula,

9 7

g old-glass b ases

V atican C ity:

1 5

S .

i nscriptions

( M 3 6),

5 5,

7 4, n .

2 68

( M 3 7),

5 5,

7 4, n .

2 68

( 1 4 5 2),

7 5, n .

( M 5 4),

5 2

( M 8 0),

1 35,

1 39

( M 8 1),

1 35,

1 38,

P ietro i n V aticano ( I 4 096; F 4 ),

3 4,

( I 4 102; D 1 758), s arcaphagus

( D 9 0),

2 4

2 73

1 39

( Old S t P eter's): 3 5,

7 0, n .

7 2, n .

2 14

1 78

I NDEX O F P LACES A ND S UBJECTS

N OTE.

B uildings a re l isted u nder p lace n ame, e xcept t hose l ocated i n R ome o r i ts e nvirons, w hich a re l isted u nder t ype o f s tructure, e .g. B asilica. E vents, e .g. C ouncils, a re t reated s imilarly.

A d C atacumbas, 3 6, 8 1 b asilica, s ee B asilicas, S . S ebastiano. m onastery, 8 2 A cta, 3 , 4 , 1 29, 1 31 M artyrium b eati P etri a L ino e piscopo c onscriptum ( pseudo-Linus), 1 31, 1 35, 1 41, n . 1 7 P assio A postolorum P etri e t P auli ( redactio b revior), 8 6 P assio S ancti M artyrum P rocessi e t M artiniani, 1 31, 1 35 P assio S anctorum P etri e t P auli ( pseudo-Marcellus), 8 6 P assio S . S ebastiani, 8 2 P auli e t T hecli, 3 , 4 P etri, 1 43, n . 5 4 A dlocutio, 1 15, 1 17 A lexandria, 8 7, 8 8, 9 4 A lpha a nd o mega, 1 1, 3 9 A ltar, 4 3 o f V ictory, 9 1, 1 09, 1 11 A nagni: r efectory, S S. C osma e D amiano, 1 1, 1 26, n . 6 4 A nastasis, 2 , 1 9 A nnular c rypts, 9 7 A ntioch, 7 8, 1 12 c ouncils: ( 341), 8 8, 9 0 ( 379), 9 0 ' Golden C hurch', ' Golden O ctagon', d edicated t o C oncord ( 341), 8 8, 1 12 A postles ( anonymous), 1 6, 1 7, 1 8, 2 9, 3 0, 4 4, 5 0, 1 16, 1 26, n . 6 6 A postolic c ollege, s cenes o f, 5 -7, 9 , 1 2, 2 0, 2 1, 2 4, 2 6, 2 7, 2 8, 2 9, 3 0, 3 6, 3 7, 3 8, 4 2, 4 3, 4 6, 4 7, 8 2, 9 7, 1 17, 1 18, 1 19, 1 20 S ee a lso M issio a postolorum . A postolaion, s ee D rus. A postolica s edes, 3 4, 3 5, 3 6, 8 4, 8 7-95, 1 02, n . 7 1, 1 03, n . 1 13, 1 06, n . 1 65, 1 19 A postolicus, 1 20, 1 22 A pparitores, 1 9, 2 0, 2 4, 2 5, 1 31, 1 32, 1 34, 1 40 A queduct, 3 4 A quileia, 9 3 M useo A rcheologico d i A quileia, 1 44, n . 6 9 A rch o f C onstantine, 1 4, 7 2, n . 2 21, 1 13, 1 15, 1 17 A rianism, 1 , 1 1, 4 2, 4 3, 7 7, 7 9, 8 3, 8 7, 8 9, 9 0, 9 2, 9 3, 9 5, 9 6 A riminum ( Rimini): c ouncil ( 359), 8 9 A ristocracy, 1 , 2 , 1 3, 1 9, 2 6, 2 7, 3 8, 4 2, 4 4, 5 0, 5 4, 5 8, 5 9, 6 1, 7 7, 7 8, 7 9, 8 0, 8 2, 9 1, 9 3, 9 6, 9 9, n . 8 , 1 08-113, 1 16, 1 22, 1 39, 1 40 A rles, 2 0, 6 0, 1 08 M us e L apidaire d 'Art C hrgtien, 6 0, 6 1, 1 08, 1 17, 1 18, 1 19 A rrest o f P eter, s ee M artyrdom . A uctoritas, 8 4, 9 2, 9 4, 9 5, 9 8, 1 04, n . 1 38, 1 06, n . 1 76

1 71

B aptisteries: O ld S t P eter's,

3 4,

3 5

S . G iovanni i n L aterano ( S. G iovanni i n F onte), B arbarians, 1 , 2 9, 7 9, 8 2, 8 3, 8 9, 9 5, 9 6, 9 7 B asilica a postolorum :

1 1,

4 2,

1 28, n .

9 9

S ee B asilicas, S . P ietro i n V incoli a nd S . S ebastiano. B asilica m ajor, s ee B asilicas, S . L orenzo f uori l e M ura ( first b asilica). B asilicas, 2 , 6 , 1 1, 1 2, 2 9, 3 2-43, 4 6, 8 6, 8 7, 9 6, 9 8 L abicana ( SS. M arcellino e P ietro), 3 5 S . A gata d ei G oti, 4 2, 4 3, 9 5 S . A gnese, 3 2 S . A ndrea i n C atabarbara, 9 5 S S. C osma e D amiano, 9 8, 1 28, n . 9 9 S . G iovanni i n L aterano ( St J ohn L ateran), 1 1, 3 2, 4 6, S . L orenzo f uori l e M ura: f irst b asilica ( basilica m aior), 9 6, 9 7 s econd b asilica, 2 7, 9 7, 9 8, 1 20, 1 22 S . L orenzo i n D amaso, 9 0, 9 6, 9 7, 1 09 S . L orenzo i n L ucina, 9 6 S . M arco, 9 7, 9 8 S . M aria M aggiore, 2 7, 3 9, 4 2, 4 6, 7 2, n . 2 10, 9 4, 9 8, S . P aulo f uori l e M ura ( St P aul's), 1 4, 2 9 c onfessio, 2 0, 8 2

8 6

1 20,

1 22, 140

f irst b asilica, 3 2, 3 5, 8 3, 9 6 s econd b asilica, 2 9, 3 2, 3 4, 3 5, 3 6, 3 9, 4 6, 8 2, 8 3, 9 3, 9 6, 97 S . P ietro i n V aticano, 1 4, 1 6, 1 8, 1 9, 2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 2 4, 2 5, 2 7, 2 9, 6 7, n . 1 01, 6 8, n . 1 36, 7 0, n . 1 71, 1 16, 1 20, 1 26, n . 6 3 c appella C olonna, 2 7 c onfessio, 2 4, 8 2 O ld S t P eter's, 1 1,

1 8,

2 7,

3 2,

3 4,

3 5,

4 6,

6 5, n .

5 3,

7 0,

n n. 1 74,178, • 7 2, n . 2 14, 8 2, 8 3, 8 4, 9 4, 9 5, 9 6, 9 7, 1 13 S istine C hapel, 1 40 S . P ietro i n V incoli, 8 2, 8 6 b asilica ( titulus) a postolorum, 2 9, 8 2, 8 3 S . P udenziana, 9 , 2 7, 3 4, 3 6-38, 3 9, 4 2, 6 0, 7 9, 1 19, 1 20, 1 22, 1 27, n . 8 1 S . S abina, 3 8, S .

3 9,

4 0,

4 1,

4 2,

7 2, n .

S ebastiano, 2 6, 6 7, n . 1 01 b asilica a postolorum , 1 8, 1 18

S . S tefano R otondo, 4 2, 4 3, S . V alentino, 2 0, 2 6, 4 4

2 6,

2 9,

2 11,

1 20, 1 22

3 6, 8 1, 8 2, 8 3,

8 9,

9 6,

1 10,

6 1

B erlin: S taatliche M useen, P reussischer K ulturbesitz, 4 4, 4 7, 7 5, n . 2 88 S taatsbibliothek, S tiftung, P reussischer K ulturbesitz, 1 26, n . 6 0 B ethlehem, 3 9 B ibentes, 4 4, 1 31, B lind m an,

1 32,

1 33,

C hrist h ealing,

1 34,

1 35,

5 0

B lood, w oman w ith i ssue o f, 1 34 B onn: R heinisches L andesmuseum, 1 44, n . B rescia: M useo d ell'Etä C ristiana, B ridges: H adrian, 8 3, 9 7 M ilvian, b attle o f

1 36, 1 37,

4 7,

6 0

( 312), 8 1

1 72

6 7

1 38,

1 39,

1 40

B ryn A thyn, P enn: G lencairn F oundation,

1 27, n .

7

C apsa, 6 , 9 , 2 6, 1 20 C ara c ognitio, 8 4 C aristia, 8 4 C arrara, 6 1 C arthage, 8 3 c ouncil C atacombs, 1 40

( 424),

2 ,

1 05, n .

3 ,

4 ,

5 -12,

C ommodilla,

5 ,

1 28, n .

D omitilla, 5 -7, 1 43, n . 4 4 G iordani,

9 ,

1 43, n .

1 52

1 3,

1 1,

2 5,

4 3,

9 9,

1 31

1 2,

1 9,

5 1,

2 6,

3 8,

1 14,

1 15,

4 4, 6 4, n .

1 19,

3 1,

1 20,

1 37,

7 0, n .

1 73,

4 8

H ermes, 1 43, n . 4 6, 1 44, n . 7 0 P eter a nd M arcellinus, 1 0, 1 1, 1 31, P raetextatus, 9 , 1 6, 1 7, 8 9, 1 39 P riscilla, 1 1, 6 1, 1 39 S . S . S .

6 1,

C allisto, 1 10, 1 32, S ebastiano, 1 7, 1 8, T hecla, 1 43, n . 4 4

1 33, 1 37 2 0, 2 4, 2 6,

1 36

2 7,

6 7, n .

1 01,

1 18,

1 20

S . V alentino, 2 0, 2 6, 4 4, 6 7, n . 1 04 v ia A rdeatina ( Balbina?), 6 5, n . 6 1 v ia L atina, 8 , 9 , 7 0, n . 1 73, 1 09 C athedra a postolorum, 8 8 C athedra P etri, 1 9, 2 7, 4 7,

8 4,

8 5

S ee a lso F estivals. C emeteries, C hains, 8 3

s ee C atacombs.

C halcedon, 9 3 c ouncil ( 451), 9 5 C hapels: C appella C olonna, 2 7 C appella G reca, 1 39 C appella d i S . V enanzio, 1 28, n . 9 9 S istine, 1 40 C hi-Rho, 1 9, 2 0 S ee a lso C hrismon c ross a nd M onogram . C hrist: b earded, 8 , 9 , 1 0, 1 1, 1 2, 2 6, 2 7, 3 0,

3 3,

3 4,

3 6,

3 7,

3 8,

9 7,

2 1,

2 4,

2 5,

2 6,

2 7,

2 8,

1 10, 1 16, 1 17, 1 18, b eardless, 5 , 6 , 7 ,

1 19, 1 22 9 , 1 2, 1 7,

2 9, 3 0, 3 3, 3 4, 3 8, 1 18, 1 19, 1 20, 1 21 C hristus p uer, 9 1

4 3,

4 4,

4 7,

5 3,

7 0, n .

2 4,

2 5,

2 6,

2 7,

2 9,

c rucifixion o f, 4 7 p assion o f, 1 9, 2 0, J esus p ronubus,

7 4, n .

1 8,

1 9,

1 71,

4 7

2 67

C hronograph ( 354), 6 , 7 0, n . 1 68, 8 1, 8 4, 1 08, 1 09 C ockcrow , i n g allicantu, 5 , 1 4, 1 5, 1 8, 1 9, 2 5, 4 7, C odex, 2 6, 3 6, 3 7, 3 8, 3 9, 4 0, 4 1, 1 17, 1 18, C ologne, 1 35, 1 36, 1 44, n . 6 7 R ömisch-Germanisches M useum , 1 35, 1 39 C olumn,

5 ,

2 5, 4 7,

5 1,

7 5, n .

S ee a lso S arcophagi. C omo, 6 0 C oncordia, 1 , 5 4, 5 5, 8 2,

7 5, n .

2 77,

1 32,

1 12-113

1 73

1 34

1 19,

1 32, 1 34

1 21

2 80,

1 16,

C oncordia f ratrum, C onstantinople

3 1,

1 12

( altera R oma;

i psa n ova R oma),

7 5, n . 2 75, 8 2, 8 7, 8 8, 9 0, c ouncil ( 381), 9 2, 1 05, n n. C ircus M aximus, 1 09 C ontorniates, 1 10 C ouncils ( at R ome): ( 340/1), 8 8 ( 378), ( 380),

9 1, 9 2, 9 3, 1 41,157

1 ,

2 ,

9 4,

3 ,

9 5,

4 ,

2 9,

3 0,

3 1,

1 12

9 0, 9 2 1 11

( 382), 2 , 3 5, 8 3, 8 4, 8 7, 9 0, ( 386), 9 2 ( 430), 9 4 C ross, 1 1, 1 9, 2 0, 2 1, 2 4, 2 6, 2 7, 6 9, n . 1 61, 1 19, 1 20, 1 22 C hrismon c ross, 5 8 c rux i nvicta, 2 , 1 19, 1 20, 1 40

1 9,

2 0,

2 1,

9 2,

9 4,

1 11,

2 9, 3 6,

2 4,

2 5,

3 7,

2 7,

1 13

3 9, 4 2,

3 9,

4 3,

4 6,

4 2,

5 8,

6 2,

7 1,

1 04, n .

5 0,

1 12,

5 8

1 15,

c rux c ommissa, 6 7, n . 1 03 S ee a lso C hrist, c rucifixion. C rown, 2 4, 4 2, 4 3, 5 1, 8 4, 8 6, 9 4 c orona l emniscata, 2 7 C rypts ( in C atacombs): Ampliatus ( Domitilla), 6 , 7 ' Fornai' ( Domitilla), 9 , 1 1, 1 2, 3 8, 4 4 f ossor D iogenes ( Domitilla), 5 , 6 , 1 2 ' Magi' ( Domitilla), 6 , 9 ' Popes' ( S. C allisto), 1 10 ' sheep' ( S. C allisto), 1 32, 1 37 ' small a postles' ( Domitilla), 5 , S ee a lso A nnular. C uria, 9 1, 1 11 D ecretal, 9 2 D ecretum G elasianum , 8 4, 1 25, n . 4 5 D efensores, 4 7 D epositio M artyrum, D extrarum i unctio,

8 1, 8 2, 1 8,

1 9,

8 7,

9 0,

8 3, 8 4, 2 9,

6 ,

7 ,

9 4,

9 6,

9 ,

1 2

1 01, n .

1 24, 1 13,

1 09

5 5

D ignitas a micorum, s o-called g lasshouse, D octor g entium, 2 , 4 4, 9 7, 1 16 D ominus, 2 6, 3 8, 1 19 D ove, 1 3, 4 6, 5 0 D rus ( near C halcedon): A postolaion, 9 3

s ee W orkshops.

E agle, R oman, 1 9 E cclesia: e x c ircumcisione, 3 7, 3 8, 3 9, 4 0, 4 2, 7 8, 8 4, 8 5, 9 4, 1 22 e x g entibus, 2 , 3 7, 3 8, 3 9, 4 1, 4 2, 7 8, 8 4, 8 5, 9 4, 1 16, 1 22 S ee a lso M ater E cclesia. E dinburgh: N ational M useum o f A ntiquities,

1 45, n .

8 8

E phesus: c ouncil ( 431), 4 2, 7 2, n . 2 10, 8 2, 9 4 E vangelists, 3 8, 1 17, 1 18, 1 19 F astidium ,

f astigium ( in S t J ohn L ateran),

1 _ 74

1 01, n .

5 0

F estivals: c athedra P etri ( 22 F ebruary), 1 9, 8 3, L aurence ( 10 A ugust), 9 6 n avigium I sidis ( 3 J anuary), 1 10

8 4, 8 6, 9 5

P eter a nd P aul ( 29 J une), 8 1, 8 2, 8 3, P aul ( 30 J une), 8 6, 9 8 w inter s olstice ( 25 D ecember), 1 09

8 5, 8 6,

9 4, 9 8

F ides P etri, 1 7, 1 9, 3 6, 1 08, 1 16, 1 32 F lorence: M useo A rcheologico, 5 6, 5 7, 5 8, 6 1, 9 0, 1 37, 1 38, M useo N azionale ( Bargello), 4 4, 5 5, 7 5, n . 2 77 F ornai, c ubiculum o f, s ee C rypts. F ossor, 5 , 6 , 1 2 F rigidus ( river), b attle o f ( 394), F urnace, t hree y oung m en i n, 6 , 9 G lobe, 9 , 3 3, 3 4, 1 22 G olgotha, 3 6 G ospels, 4 3, 9 1 G rottaferrata: c atacomb ' ad d ecimum l , 1 1, G ubernator, 5 7, 5 8 H adrianople, b attle o f H aeres, 5 0, 9 5, 1 22

( 378),

2 ,

3 8,

1 10,

1 39

1 11

1 5

8 9

H ills: A ventine, 7 7 C aelian, 6 1 Q uirinal, 1 08 H omiliarum S . P etri i n V aticano, H ouse ( domus), V alerii, 6 1 H ypogeum, v ia L ivenza, 1 39

8 5, 8 6

I nscriptions, 1 , 4 , 1 1, 3 4, 3 5, 3 6, 5 4, 1 23, 1 35 S ee a lso I ndex o f I nscriptions. I stanbul: A rcheological M useum ,

2 9,

3 6,

3 7,

K astel, 1 44, n . 6 7 K ey, 3 0, 4 3, 5 0, 9 5,

3 9,

6 0,

1 02, n .

9 7,

1 09,

1 19,

1 20,

9 3

J erusalem, 7 7, 9 7, 1 12 b asilicas: A nastasis, 4 3, 1 12 S . P etri i n g allicantu, v iews o f,

6 2,

1 34

7 9,

8 8,

1 22,

1 19,

1 32

1 27, n .

7 9

L abarum, 1 9 L amb, 9 , 1 0, 3 9, 4 6, 5 0 L argitio, 1 15, 1 17, 1 22 L ateran a rea: S ee B aptisteries a nd B asilicas. L eningrad: S tate H ermitage M useum,

7 3, n .

2 49,

1 35

L etters: C hrist t o P eter a nd P aul, 8 5 E usebius t o C onstantia, 3 S t P eter t o C lement ( Epistola C lementis),

1 75

7 7, 9 9, n .

1 4

1 22,

S eneca t o S t P aul, 7 8 L ex D ei, 2 5, 2 6, 5 0, 5 8, 7 8, 9 1, 1 14, 1 16, 1 19 L iber P ontificalis, 2 , 3 6, 8 2, 9 4, 1 35 L iberalitas, 7 2, n . 2 21, 1 15, 1 17 L iberian C atalogue, 2 5, 8 1, 9 0, 1 09 L ipsanotheca, 4 6, 4 7 L oaves, m iracle o f, 1 7, 2 6, 1 08, 1 18 L ondon : B ritish M useum, 4 4, 4 5, 4 6, 4 7, 5 0, 5 3, 5 4, 5 5, 6 0, 1 37, 1 39, 1 44, n n. 6 7,69,73, 1 45, n n. 7 3,79 E umorfopoulos C ollection, 5 8, 7 5, n . 2 85

7 4, n .

2 66,

M adrid: R eal A cademia d e l a H istoria, 7 5, n . 2 76, 1 14, 1 15, 1 16, 1 19 M agister, 2 6, 3 6, 3 8, 4 4, 1 18, 1 19 M aiestas D omini, 2 6, 3 3, 3 4, 9 1, 1 22 S ee a lso C hrist, b earded, a nd D ominus. M alta, 4 4 M andorla, 6 , 4 2 M arah, s weetening t he w aters o f, 1 36, 1 40 M arble, 2 9, 6 0, 6 1, 6 8, n . 1 41, 7 6, n . 2 94 C omum , 6 0 I talic, 6 1 L una, 6 1 P roconnesian, 6 0, 6 1,118 M armora, 6 0 M artyrdom : L aurence, 4 2, 1 00, n . 3 2 P aul, 2 0, 2 1, 2 3, 2 4, 2 5, 2 6, 2 7, 2 9, 8 1, 1 16 P eter, 5 , 1 3, 1 4, 1 5, 1 7, 1 8, 1 9, 2 0, 2 1, 2 2, 2 4, 2 5, 2 6, 2 7, 2 9, 8 1, 8 9, 1 32, 1 33, 1 34 S ixtus ( II), 1 00, n . 3 2 M ater E cclesia, 4 2, 1 16 M ausolea: b asilica L abicana ( SS. M arcellino e P ietro), 3 5 S . C onstanza, 6 , 1 1, 2 6, 3 2, 3 3, 3 4, 3 5, 7 0, n n. 1 73,174, 8 9, 1 15, 1 16, 1 19, 1 20, 1 22, 1 26, n . 6 4, 1 27, n . 7 9 S . P ietro i n V aticano ( Old S t P eter's): A nicii, 2 7, 3 5 H onorius, 3 5 M emoria a postolorum , 8 1, 9 6 M emoria P auli, 3 5 M emoria P etri, 3 5, 4 6, 8 8, 1 13 M ilan, 1 , 3 , 4 2, 4 4, 4 7, 5 5, 6 0, 9 3, 1 05, n . 1 63, 1 11 b asilicas: S . A mbrogio, 2 6, 2 7, 3 8, 6 0, 1 18, 1 19 S . L orenzo, 3 8 S . N azaro M aggiore ( basilica a postolorum ), 4 6, 4 7, 6 1, 1 11 c appella d i S . A quilino, 3 8, 1 12 M issio a postolorum , 3 0, 3 8, 4 3, 4 7, 1 18, 1 19, 1 20 M onogram , 5 1 C onstantinian, s ee S ignum C hristi. C hi-Rho, 1 8, 3 9 M ons T arpeio, 1 31 M useums: C apitolini, 6 8, n . 1 32

1 76

N azionale R omano, P io C ristiano

7 0, n .

1 71

( Vatican),

5 ,

1 3,

1 4,

1 5,

1 6,

2 4, 2 5, 2 7, 2 9, 6 0, 6 1, 6 7, n . 1 03, 7 0, n . 1 16, 1 20, 1 31, 1 32, 1 33, 1 34, 1 36, 1 42, n . S acro ( Vatican), 4 8, 4 9, 1 12, 1 29, 1 35, 1 38, 1 39,

5 0, 5 2, 1 44, n .

1 7, 1 71, 2 7

1 8,

1 9,

7 6, n .

5 5, 5 8, 6 1, 7 5, n . 6 9, 1 45, n . 8 8

2 0,

2 1,

2 94,

1 08

2 73,

9 7, 9 8,

N nples: b aptistery o f S oter, 1 1, 7 0, n . c atacomb o f S . G ennaro, 1 07, n . NJ ' a ils, 8 3, 8 4, 1 \ i ss, 1 37, 1 39 N ov J Y ork:

8 5,

9 5,

American N umismatic S ociety,

3 4,

8 8,

1 15

1 09

M etropolitan M useum o f A rt, c anons,

1 70, 1 89

7 5, n . 5 5,

2 76

7 4, n .

2 71,

7 6, n .

2 90

9 2

c ouncils:

( 325), 8 7, 1 12 ( 327), 8 7, 1 12 f ormula, 2 6, 3 4 N imbus, 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0, 1 1, 3 3, N is, 6 4, n . 2 4 O belisk, 1 09 O rant, 5 , 1 4,

1 6,

1 7,

1 8,

5 8,

O stia A ntica, 1 08 c ults, 1 08 d omus, 1 08 m useum, 1 7 t emple o f t he D ioscuri, O xford: A shmolean M useum, P usey H ouse,

1 20,

3 4,

3 7,

1 22

1 16

1 08 1 21,

c ollection,

1 44, n .

1 20,

1 21,

6 9 1 44, n .

6 9

P aganism, 1 , 9 , 1 3, 2 5, 3 8, 4 4, 5 1, 5 5, 7 8, 7 9, 8 0, 8 1, 8 2, 8 4, 8 9, 9 1, 1 08-111, 1 13, 1 16, 1 22, 1 25, n . 2 8, 1 39 P alestine, 7 7, 8 8 P alm t ree, 1 1, 3 3 P aludamentum , 1 5, 2 1,

4 5,

1 33,

1 34,

1 37,

1 42, n .

4 1

P aris: C ollection E . d e R othschild, 5 5 M us j e d u L ouvre, 2 6, 2 7, 6 8, n . 1 32 P assiones: S ee A cta. F or C hrist's P assion, P atroni, 4 7 P ecs, 6 4, n . 2 4 P ersecutions, 4 ,

1 3, 8 1,

P erugia: b asilica o f S . P hoenix,

6 7, n .

s ee C hrist.

1 12,

1 40

B ernadino,

1 16,

1 18

1 03

pileus e x p ellibus, 1 45, n . 7 4 P ileus p annonicus, 5 , 1 4, 1 5, 1 8, 1 9, n . 2 34, 1 12, 1 31, 1 32, 1 33, 1 34, P ilgrims, P ola, 4 3,

1 , 3 6, 5 1, 8 3, 9 0, 4 6, 5 0, 6 0, 1 20

9 6, 9 7,

1 77

2 0, 2 4, 2 5, 4 4, 4 5, 4 7, 7 3, 1 37, 1 38, 1 39, 1 40, 1 41, n . 1 4 1 09

P orticoes 9 7 P orticus d eorum c onsentium, 1 11 P otestas, 9 0, 9 2 P raefectus u rbi, 1 , 2 4, 2 7, 5 8, 7 9, 8 0,

1 08,

P rimatus P etri, 4 3, 8 4, 8 5, 8 6, 8 7, 8 8, 9 1, 1 23 P rinceps a postolorum , 2 4, 8 5, 9 3,94, 1 22 P rison, M amertine, 1 29, 1 31, 1 36, 1 37 P ropaganda, 1 , 2 , 1 23 P roreta, 5 7, 5 8 Q uadriga, 2 7 Q uarries, m arble,

5 1,

8 6, 8 7, 8 8, 8 9, 9 0,

1 10, 9 2,

9 1,

1 11,

9 3,

9 6,

1 16

9 4,

1 09,

9 6,

1 08,

1 14-

1 10,

1 12,

1 19,

1 3

R efrigeria, 9 6, 9 7 R eparatio s aeculi, 1 12 R avenna, 1 , 3 , 1 3, 2 8, 2 9-31, 4 2, 4 3, 6 0, 9 3, 9 4, 9 5 b aptisteries: A rians ( S. M aria i n C osmedin), 4 3 O rthodox ( S. G iovanni i n F onte), 4 2, 4 3 b asilicas: A nastasis G othorum ( Arian c athedral), S . A pollinare i n C lasse, 3 0 S . C roce, 4 2 S . F rancesco, 2 8, 3 0, 3 1 S . M aria i n P orto F uori, 2 8, m ausoleum : G alla P lacidia, 4 2, 9 7 m useums: M useo A rcivescovile, M useo N azionale, R hineland, g lasshouses o f, R imini, s ee A riminum . R oads: v ia v ia v ia v ia v ia v ia v ia v ia v ia

R otulus,

3 0

3 0

3 0 s ee W orkshops.

A ppia, 1 4, 8 1, 8 2, 8 3, 9 6 A rdeatina, 6 5, n . 6 1 D ino C ompagni, s ee v ia L atina. L abicana, 3 5 L atina, 8 , 9 , 1 1, 7 0, n . L ivenza, 1 39 N omentana, 1 16 O stiensis, 8 3, 9 3, 9 7 T iburtina, 9 6, 9 7

v ia T riumphalis, 8 3 R ock, m iracle o f, 5 , 1 4, 1 5, 1 14,

4 3, 9 5

1 6,

1 73

1 7,

1 8,

1 9,

2 5,

4 4, 4 5,

7 2, n .

1 29-140 s ee S croll.

S abellianism, 6 4, n . 3 4 S ack ( of R ome): ( 410), 2 9, 3 8, 3 9, 4 2, n n.95,96, ( 455),

9 7,

( 472),

9 5

1 10,

1 11,

1 03, n .

5 1,

1 14,

6 1,

1 19

9 6

S acramentaries: G elasian, 8 6, 1 20 G regorian, 8 2, 1 20

1 78

6 2,

7 9,

8 2,

9 3,

9 6,

9 7,

1 03,

2 11,

L eonianum ,

8 6,

1 20

S arcophagi, 3 , 4 , 5 , 1 3-31, 4 4, 4 7, 5 8, 6 0, 6 1, 7 6, n . 2 94, 8 9, 9 2, 9 3, 9 6, 1 05, n . 1 55, 1 08, 1 14, 1 15, 1 16, 1 18, 1 19, 1 20, 1 30, 1 36, 1 39 c hild's, 1 4, 2 9, 7 6, n . 2 94, 9 3 c ity-gate, 2 6, 2 7, 3 8, 6 0, 6 8, n .

1 32,

1 18,

1 19

c olumn, 5 , 1 8, 1 9-31, 6 0, 7 0, n . 1 71, 7 6, n . 2 94, 1 08, 1 16-120, 1 32, 1 33, 1 34, 1 36 d ouble-register, 1 3, 1 4, 1 5, 1 8, 1 9, 2 2, 2 3, 2 4, 2 5, 4 7, 7 0, n . 1 71, 7 6, n . 2 94, 1 08, 1 15, 1 16, 1 26, n . 5 2, 1 32, 1 33, 1 42, n . 2 7 f rieze, 1 3, 1 4, 1 5, 1 7, 1 8, 1 31, 1 32, 1 42, n . 2 7 o fficinae, s ee W orkshops.

1 9,

2 0,

s trigilated, 1 4-18, 7 6, n . 2 94 t ree, 2 0, 2 1, 2 5, 6 7, n n. 1 01-103, S ardica ( Serdica): c anons, 8 8, 9 2 c ouncil ( 342/3), 8 8 S cript: F ilocalan, 3 6, 1 09, 1 13, 1 20 R oman, 1 13, 1 20, 1 22, 1 27, n . 8 1 S croll:

2 4,

2 7,

7 6, n .

3 0,

( Rotulus), 8 ,

3 4, 4 3, 4 4, 4 5, 4 7, S ella p licatilis, 1 2 S erdica, s ee S ardica.

5 0,

9 ,

1 14,

S heep, 3 3, 5 0, 6 9, n . 1 61 S hepherd, g ood, 4 , 6 3, n . 8 , 9 1 S hip, 4 4, 5 6, 5 7, 5 8 S ignum C hristi, 5 , 1 9, 4 3, 5 1, 5 2, S tile b ello,

4 ,

T emples: S aturn,

1 11

1 8,

1 15,

2 0, 1 17,

1 11,

1 0,

2 8,

3 6,

3 7, 3 9,

T iber ( river), 3 2, 3 5, 6 8, n . 1 41, 8 3 T itulus a postolorum, s ee B asilicas, S . T ituli, s ee I ndex o f I nscriptions. T oledo ( Ohio): T oledo M useum o f A rt, 1 15 T raditio c lavium, 3 0, 3 4, 6 9, n . S ee a lso K ey. T raditio l egis, 2 ,

4 ,

1 1,

4 3, 4 6, 5 8, 6 2, 7 8, 1 17, 1 18, 1 19, 1 22

1 2,

1 57,

2 1,

9 1, 9 7,

2 5, 9 8,

1 5,

1 8,

1 9,

2 5,

1 13,

2 6,

1 19,

3 3, 3 4, 4 3, 6 4, 1 32

2 7,

1 20,

2 8,

3 0,

1 21,

1 37

3 3,

1 19

( 335),

8 8

1 79

4 6,

9 7,

1 17,

1 18,

1 21,

P ietro i n V incoli.

1 27, n . 2 6,

2 7,

1 02, n .

1 15,

T yre: c ouncil

2 9, 3 0, 1 26, n .

2 4,

1 15,

4 2, 4 3,

S ee a lso S croll ( Volumen). T rees, 1 9, 2 0, 2 1, 1 32, 1 34, 1 35, 1 36 S ee a lso P alm t ree a nd S arcophagi. 4 4 1 4,

1 20,

1 8

U rbis, 1 22 V esta, 1 11 T hrone, 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 22

T rier, 1 , T rilogia,

2 1, 1 18,

1 12,

2 94,

2 94

l ong s croll ( Volumen), 6 , 1 1, 2 1, 2 5, 2 6, 2 7, 4 4, 7 0, n . 1 70, 1 14, 1 15, 1 16, 1 17, 1 18, 1 20, r olled s croll

7 6, n .

1 39

7 9, 2 8, 7 5,

1 28, n .

9 9

2 9,

3 3,

1 12,

3 0, 1 13,

3 4,

1 14,

3 8,

1 15,

V as e lectionis,

2 ,

2 4, 3 6, 9 3, 9 4

V atican a rea, 1 3, 2 0, 2 5, 2 6, 2 7, 2 9 S ee a lso B aptisteries a nd B asilicas. V enice: b asilica o f S . M arco, 1 12 M useo A rcheologico, 4 3, 4 6, 4 7, 5 0, 6 0, 1 20 V ermand, 1 44, n . 6 7 V erona: S . G iovanni d ella V alle, 1 43, n . 5 4 V ia: V ia c rucis, 1 9, 2 0, 2 6, 2 7 S ee a lso R oads. V ienna: K unsthistorisches M useum , 1 27, n . 8 7 V igna M ereghiana, 1 7 V iper, m iracle o f, 4 4 V irga t haumaturga, 1 4, 4 5, 1 31, 1 32, 1 33, 1 37, 1 38, 1 39 V olumen, s ee S croll. V ota p ublica, c oins, 1 10, 1 11 W ashington D .C.: D umbarton O aks C ollection, 3 0, 9 3 W olf, 9 S ee a lso C onstantius I I. W orkshops ( officinae), 3 , 4 , 1 3, 1 4, 1 7, 1 8, 1 9, 2 0, 2 5, 2 6, 2 9, 3 4, 3 6, 3 8, 3 9, 4 3, 4 4, 4 6, 4 7, 5 4, 5 5, 5 8, 6 0-62, 6 7, n . 1 01, 8 0, 9 0, 9 3, 9 6, 9 8, 1 08, 1 10, 1 13, 1 14, 1 15, 1 16, 1 19, 1 22, 1 29, 1 30, 1 34, 1 35, 1 36, 1 39, 1 40, 1 45, n . 7 9 ' Arch o f C onstantine', 1 4, 1 13, 1 15 ' Dignitas Amicorum', 5 3, 5 5, 5 8, 7 1, n n . 2 71,272, 7 4, n n. 2 68,271, 2 72 ' Esquiline', 4 7 I mperial, 4 , 2 9, 3 0, 3 1, 3 2, 4 4, 5 5, 7 5, n . 2 75, 1 12 R avennate, 2 9-31, 5 0 R henish, 6 0, 1 35, 1 36, 1 39, 1 44, n . 6 4 ' Two B rothers', 4 , 1 6, 1 8, 1 9, 2 2, 2 3, 2 4, 2 5, 6 7, n . 1 01, 1 16, 1 18, 1 33 W reath, 2 4, 3 7, 5 1, 1 38, 1 39 Y oung m en,

s ee F urnace .

1 80

I NDEX O F P EOPLE

A braham,

2 4,

2 5,

1 22

A dam, 4 4, 1 36 A gatho, S t, b ishop o f R ome,

1 03, n .

A laric, king o f t he V isigoths,

1 03

7 9, 8 2, 9 6

A lbinus, C eionius R ufius, p raefectus u rbi, 1 11 A mbrose, S t, b ishop o f M ilan, 1 , 2 6, 4 7, 7 8, 8 3, 8 9, 9 1, 9 2, 9 3, 9 6, 1 11 A mbrosiaster,

7 7,

7 8, 8 4, 1 40

Ampliatus, c rypt o f ( Catacomb o f D omitilla), A nanias, 4 1 A nastasius I , S t, b ishop o f R ome, 7 7, 7 9 A ndrew , S t, a postle, 1 07, n . 2 02 A nicii, 2 7, 3 5

6 ,

7

S ee a lso P robus. A rator, 8 6 A rcadius, Emperor o f t he E ast, 3 1, 3 5, 7 5, n . 2 76 A rius, 8 7 A thanasius, S t, b ishop o f A lexandria, 8 7, 8 8 A ttalus, P riscus, p raefectus u rbi, E mperor o f t he W est A ttilla, k ing o f t he H uns, 9 5 A ttis, 1 10 A ugustine, A urelius, S t, b ishop o f H ippo, 8 6 A ugustus, Emperor, 7 8

3 ,

6 1,

7 7,

B assus, I unius, t onsul o rdinarius, 1 06, n . 1 79 B assus, I unius, s igno T heotecnius, p raefectus u rbi, 7 0, n . 1 71, 1 06, n . 1 79, 1 08, 1 16 B enoit, F ., 6 0 B oldetti, M ., 5 2, 6 1 B oniface, S t, b ishop o f R ome,

( usurper),

7 9

7 9, 8 0, 8 4, 8 5,

2 4,

2 5, 6 7, n .

1 01,

7 9

C aelestine, s ee C elestine. C aelus ( Coelus), 2 4 C allixtus, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 7 4, n . C astor a nd P ollux, s ee D ioscuri. C avalieri, P . F ranchi d e', 1 29, 1 35 C avedoni, C ., 1 29, 1 35

2 56

C elerina, a rcosolium o f, ( Catacomb o f P raetextatus), 9 , 8 9, C elestine I , S t, b ishop o f R ome, 3 8, 3 9, 9 3, 9 4, 1 20, 1 22

1 39

C hadwick, H ., 8 8 C hrysostom , S t J ohn, b ishop o f C onstantinople, 7 7, 8 3 C laudian ( Claudius C laudianus), 6 9, n . 1 62, 1 25, n . 3 8 C lement, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 1 04, n . 1 28 F or E pistola C lementis s ee I ndex o f P laces a nd S ubjects, L etters. C oncordia, 5 5 C oncordius, b ishop o f A rles, 1 18, 1 19 C onstantia, h alf-sister o f C onstantine, C onstans,

E mpress o f L icinius,

C onstantina, d aughter o f C onstantine, 3 2 C onstantine t he G reat, E mperor, 1 , 5 , 1 4, 1 8, 8 7,

3

E mperor o f t he W est, 8 7, 8 8

8 8, 9 6,

1 12,

1 15, 1 17,

1 19,

1 81

1 35,

1 9, 3 2,

1 43, n .

6 0

3 4, 3 5, 8 0, 8 1,

C onstantine I I, E mperor o f t he W est, 8 7, 8 8 C onstantius I , E mperor o f t he W est, 7 5, n . 2 76 C onstantius I I, E mperor, 9 , 11 , 55 ,75 , n. 2 75 ,87 , 88 , 8 9 , 109 , 1 11 , 115 , 116 l upus r apax, 1 1 C ripanus, s ee C yprian. C rispus, C aesar, E mperor o f t he W est, C ullmann, O ., 1 08, 1 13 C ybele, 1 10 C yprian, D agens,

S t, b ishop o f C arthage, C .,

1 44, n .

5 5, 8 4

9

D amasus I , S t, b ishop o f 7 7, 7 9, 8 1, 8 2, 8 3, 1 11, 1 13, 1 19, 1 20, D aniel, 1 32, 1 33 D ecius, E mperor, 1 00, n .

R ome, 1 , 6 , 9 , 3 4, 3 5, 3 6, 4 7, 7 4, n . 2 56, 8 4, 8 6, 8 9, 9 0, 9 1, 9 2, 9 3, 9 6, 9 7, 1 09, 1 10, 1 22 3 2,

1 12

D iocletian, E mperor o f t he E ast, 4 , 1 3, D iogenes, f ossor, 5 , 6 , 1 2 D ioscuri

6 0

( Castor a nd P ollux),

5 1,

1 4,

6 0, 8 1,

7 5, n .

1 08,

2 76,

1 10,

1 11, 1 31,

1 24, n n.

9 ,

1 40

2 1

E piphanius, S t, b ishop o f C onstantia ( Salamis, C yprus), 3 , 9 0 E udoxia, L icinia, d augher o f T heodosius I I, E mpress o f V alentinian I II, 8 2 E umorfopoulos, c ollection, 5 8 E usebius, b ishop o f C aesarea ( Palestine), 3 , 8 8 E usebius, b ishop o f N icomedia, l ater o f C onstantinople, 8 7, 8 8, 8 9, E ustochium I ulia, S t, 7 7 E ve, 1 36 F elix I V ( III),

S t, b ishop o f R ome, 9 8

F errua, A ., 9 F icker, J ., 1 32 F ilocalus, F urius D ionysius, 3 6, 8 1, 1 09, 1 10, F lavian, S t, b ishop o f C onstantinople, 9 4 F lorus,

S t,

G alerius,

1 20,

1 13,

1 20

1 21

E mperor o f t he E ast,

1 3, 1 7, n .

G alla P lacidia, E mpress o f t he E ast, G arrucci, R ., 1 29 G eiseric, k ing o f t he V andals, 8 3 G elasius I , S t, b ishop o f R ome, 8 6,

3 5,

2 76 3 9,

4 2, 9 3,

9 5

1 20

G erke, F ., 9 G ervasius, S t, 4 7 G ratian, E mperor o f t he W est, 8 9, 9 0, 9 1, 9 4, 1 01, n . 7 1, 1 11, 1 13 G regory t he G reat, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 8 6, 9 8, 1 07, n . 2 05, 1 20 H adrian, E mperor, 8 3, 9 7 H elena, E mpress o f J ulian,

3 2

H ercules,

1 11

7 4, n .

2 66,

1 09,

H erculius, 1 11 H ilary, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 9 7 H ippolytus, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 9 8, 1 22, 1 39 H onorius, E mperor o f t he W est, 2 9, 3 0, 3 1, 3 5, H osius,

s ee O ssius.

I nnocent I ,

S t, b ishop o f R ome,

3 6,

7 7,

1 82

9 2,

9 4

5 5, 9 3,

1 05, n .

1 61

9 2

I ovius, 1 11 I sis, 1 10 I uno P ronuba, 7 4, n . I uppiter, 1 11

2 64

J äger, D r, 1 37 J erome, S t, 7 7, 8 0, 8 3, 8 9, 9 0, 9 1, 9 9, n . 8 , 1 22 J ob, 1 39 J onah, 1 3, 1 4, 1 31, 1 32, 1 36 J ohn, S t, e vangelist, 1 18 J ovian, E mperor o f t he W est, 9 0 J ulian, t he A postate, E mperor, 2 , 3 2, 6 3, n . 1 0, 7 8, 8 3, 8 9, 9 0, 9 1, 1 09, 1 15, 1 16 J ulitta, S t, 3 0 J ulius I , S t, b ishop o f R ome, 8 7, 8 8 J ustinian, E mperor o f t he E ast, 9 3 K itzinger, E ., 9 8 K ollwitz, J ., 3 0 L aurence, S t, d eacon, 9 , 1 1, 4 2, 5 5, 9 6, 9 7, 9 8, 1 00, n . 3 2, 1 07, n . 2 07, 1 10, 1 13, 1 22 L azarus, 1 8, 1 31, 1 32 L eo t he G reat, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 3 5, 3 6, 3 9, 4 2, 8 5, 8 6, 9 3, 9 4, 9 5, 9 7, 1 20 L iberius, b ishop o f R avenna, 3 0 L jberius, b ishop o f R ome, 1 , 9 , 1 9, 3 2, 8 1, 8 9, 9 1, 1 09, 1 11, 1 12, 1 15, 1 16, 1 18, 1 19, 1 22 L icinia E udoxia, s ee E udoxia. L inus, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 1 04, n . 1 28 L ot, 1 42, n . 2 7 L uke, S t, e vangelist, 9 1, 1 18 M acrobius, 8 0 M agna m ater, s ee C ybele. M agnentius, E mperor o f t he W est ( usurper , 8 9, 1 09 M arcella, S t, v idua, 7 7 M archi, G ., 1 29 M aria, d aughter o f S tilico, E mpress o f H onorius, 5 5 M arinianus, F lavius A vitus, c onsul, 7 2, n . 2 14 M ark, S t, e vangelist, 1 18 M artinianus, S t, 1 29, 1 31, 1 34 M atthew , S t, e vangelist, 1 18 M axentius, E mperor o f t he E ast, 3 2 M aximian, E mperor o f t he W est, 7 5, n . 2 76, 1 11 M aximus, S t, b ishop o f T urin, 8 5, 1 27, n . 7 9 M ercator, M arius, 7 8 M ithras, 1 46, n . 9 4 M oses, 1 9, 1 29, 1 32, 1 33, 1 34, 1 37, 1 41, n . 1 0, 1 45, n . 7 6 r eceiving t he l aw , 1 9, 7 0, n . 1 73, 1 14, 1 15, 1 26, n n. 5 2,53, 1 32 s triking t he r ock, 5 , 1 14, 1 29, 1 30, 1 31, 1 36, 1 37, 1 39, 1 40, 1 42, n . 2 7, 1 44, n . 7 3 s weetening t he w aters o f M arah, 1 36, 1 40 M oorsel, v an P ., 1 31, 1 32 N amatianus, R utilius C laudius, p raefectus u rbi, 8 0 N eon, b ishop o f R avenna, 4 2, 9 4

1 83

N ero, Emperor, 8 1, 8 3, 8 4 N estorius, b ishop o f C onstantinople, 9 4 O rigen, 7 7 O rosius, 8 0 O ssius ( Hosius), b ishop o f C ordoba, 8 8, P aula,

S t, v idua, w ife o f T oxotius,

1 12

7 7

P aulinus, M eropius P ontius, b ishop o f N ola, 3 5, P elagius, 7 7, 7 8, 7 9, 1 27, n . 7 3 P elagius I I, b ishop o f R ome, 8 6, 9 7, 9 8, 1 22

7 8, 8 3, 8 5,

1 07, n .

1 94

P eter I I, b ishop o f A lexandria, 9 0 P eter C hrysologos, S t, b ishop o f R avenna, 9 4 P hilip, R oman p resbyter, 8 2, P hilocalus, P ietri, C ., P ilate, 1 9,

s ee F ilocalus. 5 4, 1 13 2 6, 2 7

P lotinus, 4 , 1 9, 2 4, 2 5, 2 6 P orphyry, 8 9 P raetextatus, V ettius A gorius,

p raefectus u rbi,

9 1,

P robianus, R ufius, v icarius u rbis, 1 26, n . 6 0 P robus, S extus C laudius P etronius, p raefectus u rbi, P rocessus, S t, 1 29, 1 31, 1 34 P rotasius, S t, 4 7 P rudentius, 3 5, 4 4, 7 8, 7 9, 8 3, 8 5, 1 00, n . 3 9 P ublius, S t, p raefectus, 4 4

1 11 2 4,

2 7,

2 9

P seudo-Ambrose, 8 4 P seudo-Augustine, 8 5 P seudo-Linus, 1 31, 1 35, P seudo-Marcellus, 8 6 Q uiricus,

S t,

1 41, n .

1 7

3 0

Q uirinus-Romulus, 8 2 R emus, 8 2, 8 5 R icimer, F lavius, p atricius, 9 5 R oma, g oddess, 8 2, 1 22 R omulus, 8 2, 8 3, 8 5, 1 00, n . 3 9 R othschild, E . d e, c ollection, 5 5 R ufinus o f A quileia, 7 7, 7 9, 1 22 R ufinus, F lavius, p raefectus p raetorio O rientis, 9 3 S abinus,

s arcophagus o f,

1 5,

6 6, n .

7 0

S apphira, 4 7 S ebastian, S t, 8 2 S enaca, 7 8 S erapis, 1 10 S everus, V alerius,

s igno E utropius, p raefectus u rbi,

S igesar, A rian b ishop,

5 6,

5 7,

5 8,

6 1,

7 9

S ilvester I , S t, b ishop o f R ome, 8 7 S imeon, S t, a postle, 1 22 S imon, S t, 1 20, 1 21 S imon o f C yrene, 1 9 S implicianus, S t, b ishop o f M ilan, 1 11 S implicius I , S t, b ishop o f R ome, 9 5 S iricius I , S t, b ishop o f R ome, 3 6, 7 7, 7 9, 9 2, 9 3, 9 4 S ixtus ( Xystus) I I, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 9 , 1 1, 7 4, n . 2 56, 1 10,

1 20,

1 21,

1 39 1 84

1 00, n .32,

9 0

S ixtus I II, S t, b ishop o f R ome, 3 9, 4 2, 4 6, 7 8, 8 2, 9 3, 9 7, 1 22 S ixtus I V, b ishop o f R ome, 1 40 S oter, b ishop o f N aples, 7 0, n . 1 70, 1 15 S otomayor, M ., 9 , 1 31, 1 32 S tephen, S t, 9 7, 9 8, 1 07, n . 2 07, 1 22 S tilico, F lavius, 5 5, 7 9 S tuhlfauth, G ., 1 29 S usanna, 9 S ylvester, s ee S ilvester. S ymmachus, Q uintus A erelius, s igno E usebius, p raefectus u rbi, 4 4, 7 9, 8 5

7 8,

T abitha, 4 4, 4 5, 1 37 T ertullus, p raefectus u rbi, 1 08 T estini, P ., 1 32 T hecla, S t, 3 , 4 , 4 4, 4 5, 6 7, n . 1 04, 1 37 T heodoret, b ishop o f C yrrhus, 1 06, n . 1 65 T heodosian f amily, 2 9, 3 1, 3 5, 3 6, 9 4, 9 5 T heodosius I , E mperor, 3 5, 3 8, 7 5, n . 2 76, 8 0, 8 9, 9 0, 9 2, 9 3, 1 11, 1 14, 1 15, 1 16, 1 19 T heodosius I I, E mperor o f t he E ast, 8 2, 9 5 T iber ( river g od), 2 6 T imotheus, S t, ( buried i n s mall c atacomb o n V ia O stiensis), 1 20, 1 21 T imothy, S t, d isciple o f P aul, 9 1 T orriti, J acopo, 3 2 V alens, E mperor o f t he E ast, 8 9, 9 0 V alentinian I , E mperor o f t he W est, 8 9, 9 1 V alentinian I I, E mperor o f t he W est, 3 5, 7 5, n . 2 76, 9 1, 1 10 V alentinian I II, E mperor o f t he W est, 4 2, 8 2, 9 3, 9 4, 9 5, 9 7 V alentinus, r ecipient o f C alandar ( 354), 1 09 V alerius, E mperor, 8 1, 1 12 V alerii, 6 1 S ee a lso S everus. V alila, F lavius T heodobius, 9 5 V ictorinus, C . M arius, r hetor, 7 7, 7 8, 8 9 V olusianus, C . C eionius R ufius, s igno L ampadius, p raefectus u rbi, 1 08 W essel, K ., 3 0 W ilpert, J ., 1 1 X ystus, Z osimus,

s ee S ixtus. S t, b ishop o f R ome, 9 7

1 85