Concise Encyclopedia of Democracy 9781135963620, 1135963622, 9781579582685, 1579582680

Table of contents :
Content: Cover
Title
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Maps
List of Articles by Subject
Preface
A
Abolitionism
Absolutism
Accountability of Public Officials
Adams, John
Adenauer, Konrad
Affirmative Action
Africa, North
Africa, Subsaharan
Anarchism
Anthony, Susan B.
Anti-Federalists
Apartheid
Apportionment
Argentina
Arias Sánchez, Oscar
Aristotle
Articles of Confederation
Asia, East
Asia, South
Asia, Southeast
Assembly, Freedom of
Athenian Democracy
Aung San Suu Kyi
Australia and New Zealand
Authoritarianism
Autocracy
B
Baker v. Carr (1962)
Ballot
Baltic States. Bicameral LegislatureBill of Rights (English)
Bill of Rights (U.S.)
Black Codes
Bolívar, Simón
Brazil
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954)
Buddhism
Bureaucracy
Burke, Edmund
C
Cabinet
Calhoun, John C.
Canada
Candidate Selection and Recruitment
Capitalism
Caribbean
Catholicism, Roman
Caucus
Censorship
Central America
Checks and Balances
Chile
China, People's Republic of
Churchill, Winston
Cicero, Marcus Tullius
Citizenship
Civic Education
Civil Disobedience
Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
Civil Rights Movement
Civil Service
Civil War Amendments. CoalitionColonialism
Common Law
Communism
Confederation
Confucianism
Congress (U.S.)
Conservative Party (U.K.)
Consociational Democracy
Constitution
Constitution (U.K.)
Constitution (U.S.)
Conventions, Political
Covenant
Critiques of Democracy
D
Declaration of Independence
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
De Gaulle, Charles
De Klerk, F.W.
Democratic Party (U.S.)
Democratization
Desegregation
Despotism
Dictatorship
Direct Democracy
Disability Rights Movement
Disraeli, Benjamin
Divine Right
Douglass, Frederick
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
E. Election CampaignsElections, Monitoring
Electoral College
Electoral Systems
Emancipation Proclamation
Engel v. Vitale (1962)
Engels, Friedrich
Equal Rights Amendment
Europe, East Central
Europe, Western
European Union
Executive
F
Faction
Fascism
Federalism
Federalist Papers
Federalists
Fifteenth Amendment
Four Freedoms
Fourteen Points
Fourteenth Amendment
France
G
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand
Gay Rights Movement
Germany
Gerrymandering
Gettysburg Address
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Gitlow v. New York (1925)
Gladstone, William E.
Gorbachev, Mikhail. Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)H
Hamilton, Alexander
Havel, Václav
Hinduism
Hobbes, Thomas
Human Rights
I
Impeachment
India
Interest Groups
Iroquois Confederation
Islam
Israel
Italian City-states
J
Jackson, Andrew
Jacksonian Democracy
Japan
Japanese-American Internment
Jefferson, Thomas
Jim Crow Laws
Jinnah, Mohammad Ali
Judaism
Judicial Review
Judicial Systems
Justifications for Democracy
K
Kant, Immanuel
Kenyatta, Jomo
Kerensky, Alexander
King, Martin Luther, Jr.
Korematsu v. United States (1944)
L
Labour Party (U.K.)
League of Nations
Legislature
Leninism.

Citation preview

The Concise Encyclopedia of

DEMOCRACY

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The Concise Encyclopedia of

DEMOCRACY

p

Routledge Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

Copyright © 2000 by Congressional Quarterly Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. F irst published in 2 0 0 0 by FITZROY DEARBORN PUBLISHERS T h is ed itio n p u b lish ed 2 0 1 3 by R o u tle d g e 2 P a rk S q u a re , M ilton P ark, A b in gd o n , O xon O X 14 4RN 7 1 1 T h ird A venue, N ew Y ork, NY 1 0 0 1 7

Routledge is an imprint o f Che Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress and the British Library

ISBN: 1-57958-268-0 Cover designed by Naylor Design Inc.

TABLE OF C O N TE N TS List of Maps, ix

Bicameral Legislature, 57

List of Articles by Subject, xi

Bill of Rights (English), 58

Preface, xv

Bill of Rights (U.S.), 58 Black Codes, 60

A

Bolivar, Sim6n, 60

Abolitionism, 1

Brazil, 61

Absolutism, 3

Brown v. B oard o f E ducation o f T opeka (1954), 65

Accountability of Public Officials, 4

Buddhism, 65

Adams, John, 4

Bureaucracy, 66

Adenauer, Konrad, 5

Burke, Edmund, 67

Affirmative Action, 6 Africa, North, 8

C

Africa, Subsaharan, 11

Cabinet, 69

Anarchism, 22

Calhoun, John C., 71

Anthony, Susan B., 22

Canada, 72

Anti-Federalists, 23

Candidate Selection and Recruitment, 75

Apartheid, 24

Capitalism, 77

Apportionment, 25

Caribbean, 78

Argentina, 26

Catholicism, Roman, 82

Arias Sanchez, Oscar, 30

Caucus, 84

Aristotle, 31 Articles of Confederation, 31

Censorship, 84

Asia, East, 33

Checks and Balances, 90

Asia, South, 37 Asia, Southeast, 41

Chile, 91 China, People’s Republic of, 94

Assembly, Freedom of, 45

Churchill, Winston, 98

Athenian Democracy, 46

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 99 Citizenship, 100

Aung San Suu Kyi, 47 Australia and New Zealand, 47

Central America, 86

Civic Education, 101

Authoritarianism, 50

Civil Disobedience, 101

Autocracy, 52

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights, 102

B

Civil Rights Movement, 106 Civil Service, 109 Civil War Amendments, 110

B aker v. Carr (1962), 54 Ballot, 54 Baltic States, 55

Coalition, 110 Colonialism, 111

vi

Table of Contents

Common Law, 113 Communism, 113

F

Confederation, 115

Faction, 175

Confucianism, 115

Fascism, 175

Congress (U.S.), 117

Federalism, 177

Conservative Party (U.K.), 120

F ederalist Papers, 179

Consociational Democracy, 121

Federalists, 179

Constitution, 122

Fifteenth Amendment, 181

Constitution (U.K.), 124

Four Freedoms, 182

Constitution (U.S.), 124

Fourteen Points, 182

Conventions, Political, 129

Fourteenth Amendment, 183

Covenant, 132

France, 185

Critiques of Democracy, 132 G

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, 189 Declaration of Independence, 134

Gay Rights Movement, 190

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 135

Germany, 191

De Gaulle, Charles, 136

Gerrymandering, 195

De Klerk, F. W„ 137

Gettysburg Address, 196

Democratic Party (U.S.), 138

G ideon v. Wainwright (1963), 196

Democratization, 140

Gitlow v. New York (1925), 196

Desegregation, 142 Despotism, 144 Dictatorship, 145

Gladstone, William E., 197 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 198 Griswold v. C onnecticut (1965), 199

Direct Democracy, 145 Disability Rights Movement, 146 Disraeli, Benjamin, 147 Divine Right, 148 Douglass, Frederick, 148 Dred Scott v. S an dford (1857), 149

H

Hamilton, Alexander, 201 Havel, V&clav, 202 Hinduism, 203 Hobbes, Thomas, 203 Human Rights, 205

Election Campaigns, 151 Elections, Monitoring, 152 Electoral College, 153 Electoral Systems, 154 Emancipation Proclamation, 155 Engel v. Vitale (1962), 156 Engels, Friedrich, 157 Equal Rights Amendment, 158 Europe, East Central, 158 Europe, Western, 164 European Union, 171 Executive, 173

Impeachment, 207 India, 208 Interest Groups, 211 Iroquois Confederation, 214 Islam, 214 Israel, 215 Italian City-states, 219

J Jackson, Andrew, 221 Jacksonian Democracy, 222 Japan, 223

Table of Contents

vii

Japanese-American Internment, 227

M iranda v. A rizona (1966), 274

Jefferson, Thomas, 227

Monarchy, 275

Jim Crow Laws, 229

Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de, 275

Jinnah, Mohammad Ali, 229

Mott, Lucretia, 276

Judaism, 230

Multiparty System, 277

Judicial Review, 231 Judicial Systems, 232 Justifications for Democracy, 233

Nationalism, 279 Natural Law, 280

K

Natural Rights, 280

Kant, Immanuel, 235

Nehru, Jawaharlal, 281

Kenyatta, Jomo, 236

New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), 282

Kerensky, Alexander, 236

New York Times Co. v. United States (1971), 282

King, Martin Luther, Jr., 237

Nineteenth Amendment, 283

K orem atsu v. United States (1944), 239

Nkrumah, Kwame, 284 Nyerere, Julius, 285

L

Labour Party (U.K.), 240 League of Nations, 241

Oligarchy, 286

Legislature, 243

Orthodoxy, Greek and Russian, 286

Leninism, 244 Letter from Birmingham Jail, 245 Liberalism, 245

Paine, Thomas, 288

Lincoln, Abraham, 247

Pankhurst, Emmeline, 289

Locke, John, 249

Parliament (U.K.), 289

M

Participation, Political, 293

Machiavelli, Niccolo, 251

Participatory Democracy, 294

Parliamentary Government, 291

Machine Politics, 252

Party Systems, 295

Madison, James, 253

Patronage, 295

Magna Carta, 254

People’s Democracy, 296

Mandela, Nelson, 255

Perestroika, 296

M app v. O hio (1961), 256 M arburyv. M adison (1803), 256

Plato, 297

Marshall, John, 256

Petition of Right (1628), 297

Marx, Karl, 258

Plebiscitarian Democracy, 298 P lessyv. Ferguson (1896), 298

Marxism, 259 Mayflower Compact, 260

Political Parties, 299 Polling, Public Opinion, 301

McCarthyism, 260 M cCulloch v. M aryland (1819), 261

Popular Sovereignty, 302

Media, Mass, 262

Prague Spring, 305

Mexico, 264 Middle East, 267 Mill, John Stuart, 273

President, 305

Milligan, Ex Parte (1866), 274

Primary Election (U.S.), 309

Populism, 303

Presidential Government, 306 Press, Freedom of the, 308

viii

Table of Contents

Prime Minister, 310

Suffrage, 376

Privacy, Right of, 311

Sun Yat-sen, 378

Progressivism, 312

Supreme Court (U.S.), 379

Protestantism, 314

Switzerland, 383

Public Opinion, 315 T

Thatcher, Margaret, 385 R.A.V. v. St. P a u l{1992), 317

Theocracy, 386

Referendum and Initiative, 317

Third Party, 386

Reformation, 318

Thirteenth Amendment, 388

Religion, Freedom of, 319

Thoreau, Henry David, 389

Representative Government, 322

Tiananmen Square Protest, 389

Republic, 324

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 390

Republicanism, 325

Totalitarianism, 391

Republican Party (U.S.), 326

Trail of Tears, 392

Revolution, American, 329

Two-party System, 393

Revolution, French, 332 R oe v. W ade (1973), 334 Roh Tae Woo, 335

Unicameral Legislature, 394

Roman Republic, 335

Unitary State, 394

Roosevelt, Franklin D„ 336

United Kingdom, 395

Roosevelt, Theodore, 337

United Nations, 398

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 338

United States of America, 401 United States v. Nixon (1974), 405

Russia, 339

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 405 Sakharov, Andrei, 344 S ch en k v. United States (1919), 345

Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, 407

Seneca Falls Declaration, 345 Senghor, Leopold Sedar, 346 Separation of Powers, 347 Shared-power System, 348

W

Walesa, Lech, 407 Washington, George, 408

Slavery, 348

Watergate, 409

Smith, Adam, 350 Smith v. Allwright (1944), 351

Wei Jingsheng, 411 Wilson, Woodrow, 411

Social Contract, 352

Wollstonecraft, Mary, 412

Socialism, 352

Women and Democracy, 413

Solidarity, 354 South Africa, 354

Women’s Suffrage (U.S.), 416

South America, 358 Soviet Union, Former Republics of the, 363

Yeltsin, Boris, 419

Speech, Freedom of, 370

Yoshida, Shigeru, 420

Spinoza, Benedict de, 372 Spoils System, 372

Bibliography, 423

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 374

Photo Credits, 431

States’ Rights, 374 Index, 433

LIST OF MAPS Africa, North, 8 Africa, Subsaharan, 12

Germany, 192

Argentina, 27 Asia, East, 34 Asia, South, 38

India, 209

Asia, Southeast, 44

Israel, 216

Australia and New Zealand, 48 Japan, 224 Baltic States, 55 Brazil, 62 Mexico, 264 Middle East, 268 Canada, 72 Caribbean, 79 Central America, 87

Russia, 340

Chile, 92 China, People’s Republic of, 95 South Africa, 355 South America, 359 Europe, East Central, 159

Soviet Union, Former Republics of the, 364

Europe, Western, 164

Switzerland, 383

European Union, 171 United Kingdom, 395 France, 186

United States of America, 402

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LIST OF ARTICLES B Y SUBJECT Bio grap h ie s Twentieth C entury

Calhoun, John C. Disraeli, Benjamin Douglass, Frederick

Adenauer, Konrad

Engels, Friedrich

Arias Sanchez, Oscar

Gladstone, William E.

Aung San Suu Kyi

Jackson, Andrew

Churchill, Winston

Lincoln, Abraham

De Gaulle, Charles

Marshall, John

De Klerk, Frederik Willem

Marx, Karl

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand

Mill, John Stuart

Gorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich

Mott, Lucretia

Havel, Vaclav

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady

Jinnah, Mohammad Ali

Thoreau, Henry David

Kenyatta, Jomo

Tocqueville, Alexis de

Kerensky, Alexander Fedorovich King, Martin Luther, Jr. Mandela, Nelson Nehru, Jawaharlal Nkrumah, Kwame Nyerere, Julius Pankhurst, Emmeline Roh Tae Woo Roosevelt, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Theodore Sakharov, Andrei Dmitrievich Senghor, Leopold S6dar Sun Yat-sen Thatcher, Margaret Walesa, Lech Wei Jingsheng Wilson, Woodrow Yeltsin, Boris Nikolayevich Yoshida, Shigeru Nineteenth C entury

Anthony, Susan B. Bolivar, Sim6n

Eighteenth C e ntury

Adams, John Burke, Edmund Hamilton, Alexander Jefferson, Thomas Kant, Immanuel Madison, James Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Paine, Thomas Rousseau, Jean-Jacques Smith, Adam Washington, George Wollstonecraft, Mary Early Dem ocratic Theorists

Aristotle Cicero, Marcus Tullius Hobbes, Thomas Locke, John Machiavelli, Niccold Plato Spinoza, Benedict de

xii

List of Articles by Subject

C o u n trie s and R e gion s

Covenant Divine Right

Africa and the Middle East

Magna Carta

Africa, North

Mayflower Compact

Africa, Subsaharan Israel

Natural Law

Middle East

Petition of Right

South Africa

Popular Sovereignty

Natural Rights

Social Contract The Am ericas

Argentina

Democratic Process

Brazil Canada

Checks and Balances Civic Education

Caribbean

Machine Politics

Central America

Referendum and Initiative

Chile

Representative Government

Mexico

Republic

South America

Separation of Powers

United States of America

Shared-power System

A sia and the Pacific

Asia, East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Australia and New Zealand China, People’s Republic of India Japan Europe

Executive Branch

Cabinet Coalition Despotism Dictatorship Executive Impeachment Monarchy Oligarchy President Presidential Government

Baltic States Europe, East Central

Prime Minister

Europe, Western

Judicial Branch

France

Judicial Review

Germany Russia

Judicial Systems Supreme Court (U.S.)

Soviet Union, Former Republics of Switzerland United Kingdom

Legislative Branch

Bicameral Legislature Congress (U.S.)

Topics Governing Constitutionalism

Legislature Parliament (U.K.) Parliamentary Government Unicameral Legislature

Constitution Constitution (U.K.)

Public Administration

Constitution (U.S.)

Accountability of Public Officials

List of Articles by Subject Bureaucracy

Jacksonian Democracy

Civil Service

Japanese-American Internment

Patronage

McCarthyism

Spoils System

Revolution, American Revolution, French

State and Local Government

Roman Republic

Federalism

Trail of Tears

States’ Rights

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Unitary State

Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom Watergate

Supreme Court Cases

B aker v. Carr (1962)

International Organizations and Events

Brown v. B oard o f E ducation o f T opeka (1954)

European Union

Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)

League of Nations

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

Perestroika

G ideon v. Wainwrighf (1963)

Prague Spring

Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Solidarity

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

Tiananmen Square

Korem atsu v. United States (1944)

United Nations

M app v. Ohio (1961) Marbury v. M adison (1803) M cCulloch v. M aryland (1819) Milligan, Ex Parte (1866) M iranda v. A rizona (1966) N ew York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964) New York Times Co. v. United States (1971) P lessyv. Ferguson (1896) R.A.V. v. St. Paul (1992)

Nationalism and the Nation-State

Colonialism Confederation Italian City-states Nationalism Philosophies and Theories

R oe v. W ade (1973)

Absolutism

S ch en k v. United States (1919)

Anarchism

Smith v. Allwright (1944)

Apartheid Authoritarianism

United States v. Nixon (1974)

Autocracy Historical G rou p s and Issues

Capitalism Communism

Anti-Federalists

Critiques of Democracy

Articles of Confederation

Fascism

Bill of Rights (English)

Justifications for Democracy

Bill of Rights (U.S.) Declaration of Independence

Leninism

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen F ederalist Papers Federalists

Marxism Populism Progressivism

Four Freedoms

Republicanism

Liberalism

Fourteen Points

Socialism

Gettysburg Address Iroquois Confederation

Theocracy Totalitarianism

xiii

xiv

List of Articles by Subject

Political Participation

Rights and Freedoms

Interest Groups

Affirmative Action

Participation, Political

Assembly, Freedom of

Participatory Democracy

Censorship Citizenship

Elections and Campaigns

Civil Disobedience

Ballot

Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

Caucus

Civil Rights Movement

Candidate Selection and Recruitment

Common Law

Conventions, Political

Disability Rights Movement

Election Campaigns

Fifteenth Amendment

Elections, Monitoring

Fourteenth Amendment

Electoral College

Gay Rights Movement

Electoral Systems

Human Rights

Primary Election (U.S)

Letter from Birmingham Jail Nineteenth Amendment

Party Politics

Press, Freedom of the

Conservative Party (U.K.)

Privacy, Right of

Democratic Party (U.S)

Religion, Freedom of

Faction

Speech, Freedom of

Labour Party (U.K.)

Suffrage

Multiparty System

Thirteenth Amendment

Party Systems Political Parties Republican Party (U.S.) Third Party Two-party System

Slavery and Abolition

Abolitionism Black Codes Civil War Amendments

Public O pinion

Desegregation

Media, Mass

Emancipation Proclamation

Polling, Public Opinion

Jim Crow Laws

Public Opinion

Slavery

Representation

Apportionment Gerrymandering

Types of Dem ocracy

Athenian Democracy Consociational Democracy

Religions and Religious Movem ents

Buddhism Catholicism, Roman Confucianism Hinduism

Democratization, Waves of Direct Democracy People’s Democracy Plebiscitarian Democracy

Islam

W om e n and W o m e n ’s Rights

Judaism

Equal Rights Amendment Seneca Falls Declaration

Orthodoxy, Greek and Russian Protestantism

Women and Democracy

Reformation

Women’s Suffrage (U.S.)

PREFACE As a new century dawns, democracy seems to be gaining a foothold throughout the world, yet it remains fragile in all but a handful of nation-states. Understanding democracy is an essential part of nurturing its often tenuous hold on people and countries. In a world made small by swift transportation and instant communication, such an understanding is in­ creasingly important as competing ideologies inevitably come into conflict. The C oncise E n cyclopedia o f D em ocracy seeks to provide a broad overview of the com­ plex subject of democracy for the student and general reader. Some of the almost 300 arti­ cles in the encyclopedia have been taken from the more scholarly four-volume E n cy clop e­ dia o f D em ocracy. Many are new or completely reworked to meet the special needs of our audience. T he C oncise E ncy clop ed ia o f D em ocracy includes five types of articles: biographies; re­ gional and country profiles; topical analyses; historical overviews; and discussions of im­ portant documents, speeches and U.S. Supreme Court decisions. In presenting a topic as broad as democracy, some choices had to be made in determining the topics included in each of the five categories. The C oncise E ncyclopedia offers the reader biographical sketches of individuals signifi­ cant in the development of democratic theory or in the implementation of democracy in the major nations of the contemporary world. Included are philosophers, political theorists, ac­ tivists, dissidents, revolutionaries and leaders. The biographies span more than 2,000 years— from Plato to Wei Jingsheng. And they span the globe as well. Nelson Mandela of South Africa, Margaret Thatcher of the United Kingdom and Sun Yat-sen of China are among those pro­ filed. Political leaders and theorists are included only if they contributed to theory or fur­ thered democracy. Thus, Kwame Nkrumah is here because of his role as a leader of the move­ ment for independence in Africa—even though later in his career he became a dictator. Surprisingly, Karl Marx has an entry because he, too, developed a theory of democracy. The treatment of countries and regions in the C oncise E n cyclopedia is based on the im­ portance of their democratic experience. With the exception of very minor countries, all in­ dependent nations of the world are covered in regional articles, which contain tables out­ lining the type and structure of government and summarizing recent political conditions. These articles enable readers to compare democratic development in particular areas of the world. Those nations with a unique or significant democratic tradition have separate ar­ ticles discussing their political system and experience in depth. In addition, the C oncise E n cyclopedia presents articles on important nations such as China, in which democracy has become an international as well as domestic issue. Topical articles focus on institutions, mechanisms and processes to illustrate how democ­ racies work in practice, as well as on the fundamental assumptions upon which democracy Preface

xv

is based—freedom of press, speech, assembly and religion. In addition, readers will find ar­ ticles that investigate democracy’s links to nationalism, to religion and to civil and human rights. Still other topical articles address political ideologies and broad philosophical move­ ments. The presentation of some ideologies, such as communism, totalitarianism and ab­ solutism, at first glance may appear odd. These have been included because they have pre­ sented a theoretical and practical challenge to democracy. Because of the needs of our readers, The C oncise E n cyclopedia o f D em ocracy places spe­ cial emphasis on the American experience. It includes articles on the historical develop­ ment of U.S. democracy and its institutions as well as some significant challenges to its de­ mocratic tradition. The Supreme Court has played a major role in the development of the concept of American liberty in the 20th century, and so the C oncise E n cyclopedia includes discussions of important Court decisions as well. Still other articles describe the evolution and workings of the U.S. shared-power system. What exactly is democracy? How has the concept evolved over time? Where does it occur, and under what conditions? How does the concept differ among countries? How have na­ tions implemented their understanding of democracy? Readers will find the answers here. The Editors

The Concise Encyclopedia of

D EM O CRA CY

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A ABOLITIONISM

From its inception, the abolitionist movement in Britain was associated with the m i'venent for other

The political and social movement aimed at eliminating

dem ocratic reforms, such as expandec suffrage and

slavery.

women’s rights. The cause politicized women and reli­

In Great Britain and the United States, abolitionism

gious dissenters who previously had not been a part of

was closely associated with other movements toward de­

the political process. It also provided an organizational

mocratization. The organized movement to abolish slav­

shelter for class, gender and religious protest during the

ery began only in the last quarter of the 18th century.

first decades of the 19th century.

Prior to that period, social, political and religious insti­

Britain had long seen itself as the standard-bearer of

tutions generally accepted and accommodated slavery.

liberty, a position put in question during the American

Throughout most of history, slavery was a fact of life, not

Revolution. Abolitionism gave the nation an opportu­

an issue for debate. Even early democracies such as an­

nity to reassert that status. Between the late 1780s and

cient Athens did not see slavery and democracy as in­

the early 1830s, the abolition movement helped democ-

compatible. Athenians thought democracy dependent on slavery because slave labor freed citizens to participate in government. G re at B rita in

A N T I - 8 L A V E R Y EVENTS D U n iN O T H E T E A R E.S’ DINQ S t u M A R C H

The organized abolition movement began in Great Britain, where Parliament banned the keeping of slaves in 1772, following legal arguments that all persons re­ siding in Britain should enjoy personal liberty. Never­ theless, Britain owned extensive colonies, particularly in the West Indies, in which slavery was a vital part of the economy, and while keeping slaves was considered in­ appropriate in the British Isles, it was tolerated in distant territories. In 1787 and 1788 evangelical Anglicans, led by William Wilberforce, and Quakers launched a major cam­ paign to abolish the African slave trade in the colonies and radically reform, if not end, slavery. Powerful West Indian interests and fears engendered by a slave revolt in French-controlled Haiti slowed the campaign. However, continuing public agitation led to a ban on the slave trade in British possessions in 1807. Britain banned slavery in 1834.

" Can wo behold, unheeding, Ufo'a holicit fooitng* oruihM ; — Whllo IKoaan j heart U Weeding, Shall ffo n a » 'i »*ice bo hm ti'd f

Cover of the Edinburgh Ladies’ Emancipation Society’s 1863 annual report Abolitionism

1

2

Abolitionism

ratize public organizations and public rhetoric. Through

which it existed. The political battles of the period were

their pioneering use of petitions to Parliament, aboli­

fought over the extension of slavery, not its elimination.

tionists legitimized the concept of public opinion as a

Abolitionism emerged as a militant crusade only in

factor in the legislative process. Subsequent movements

the 1830s as other democratic reforms spread across the

for workers, religious minorities, child labor laws and

nation. Spurred on by the growth of Jacksonian democ­

women’s suffrage all drew on the model provided by

racy and the Second Great Awakening, a massive reli­

abolitionist agitators.

gious revival in the 1820s that preached a moral imper­ ative to end sinful practices, antislavery reformers began

U n ite d S tate s Democracy and abolitionism first converged in the

a campaign for immediate emancipation. The movement was led not only by white males but also by blacks and

North American colonies during the struggle for inde­

women who eventually linked the crusade for African-

pendence. Attacks against British “enslavement” of the

American emancipation with the struggle for women’s

colonies were often linked to attacks on slavery. Many of

rights. The abolitionists denounced the “sin” of slavery

the men promoting independence—Benjamin Franklin,

and called for a total reform of society to end racial seg­

John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Paine— opposed

regation and discrimination. In early 1831 radical

slavery, and Thomas Jefferson included a criticism of

William Lloyd Garrison began publishing The Liberator,

slavery in his original draft of the Declaration of Inde­

which became the leading organ of the abolitionist cru­

pendence. Yet the Continental Congress was forced to omit the criticism in the final draft in order to preserve

ery Society (AASS) to mount a national campaign against

colonial unity.

slavery. They held rallies, distributed emancipation

The political philosophy expressed in the Declaration had a significant influence on antislavery actions in the

sade. In 1833 reformers founded the American Anti-Slav-

tracts and petitioned legislatures, demanding action against slavery.

early years of the republic. Slaves in the North petitioned

The widespread, and frequently violent, reaction to

for freedom using the words of the Declaration, and the

the crusade led to serious disagreements in the move­

egalitarian ideas of the Declaration were embedded in

ment over policy and tactics. Moderates in the AASS be­

some free-soil constitutions of the Northern states. The

lieved that abolitionists should become active in politics,

U.S. Constitution, however, sidestepped the issue, again

while Garrison refused to work through a government

to maintain national unity. As part of the “three-fifths

“corrupted” by slavery. The moderates also objected to

compromise,” which stated it would take five slaves to

Garrison’s growing advocacy of women’s rights and his

equal three free persons for purposes of representation,

insistence on equal participation of women within the

Congress was barred from legislating on slavery until

movement. Unable to wrest control of the AASS from

1808.

Garrison, in 1840 the moderates formed the American

In the North, emancipation went hand in hand with

and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society which focused on an­

the expansion of democracy. By the early 19th century

tislavery agitation. Ultimately, advocates of direct polit­

all Northern states had enacted legislation granting grad­

ical action joined the Republican Party after its formation

ual emancipation. During the same period, they were

in 1854.

ending restrictions on white male suffrage. In the South,

In the 1850s radical elements of the abolition move­

on the other hand, the expansion of democracy pro­

ment turned from suasion and political reform to vio­

ceeded in tandem with the strengthening of the institu­

lence as the sectional crisis grew over the extension of

tion of slavery.

slavery into the territories. Following the passage of the

Antislavery advocates attracted few followers during

Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which gave settlers the

the late 18th and early 19th centuries because the great

right to decide the issue of slavery, civil war broke out in

majority of individuals believed that there was no way of abolishing the institution short of revolution. Most

Kansas between pro- and anti-slavery supporters. One of the extremists, John Brown, killed five pro-slavery set­

thought slavery was not subject to federal regulation and

tlers. He later staged the raid on Harpers Ferry in an ef­

that the Constitution obliged them to tolerate it in areas in

fort to foment black insurrection.

Absolutism Ultimately abolition was won by war rather than de­

3

to act as a tyrant. Monarchs had to act in accordance with

mocratic process. The abolitionists supported the Union

divine or natural law and with the fundamental laws of

during the Civil War and championed immediate eman­

the land. In practice the power of the absolute monarch

cipation in Southern areas under Union military control.

was also limited by tradition and entrenched privilege.

Many, including Garrison, left the movement following

Absolutism played a significant role in European history

ratification of the 13th Amendment outlawing slavery in

in the 17th and 18th centuries. It was best exemplified by

1865. However, the American Anti-Slavery Society re­

the reign of France’s King Louis XIV (1643-1715), who

mained active, insisting that its goal would be accom­

declared “I am the state.”

plished only after black men received the vote. The soci­

During the 18th century a new form of absolutism

ety disbanded after the adoption of the 15th Amendment

emerged—enlightened absolutism, or enlightened despo­

in 1870.

tism. These were monarchies in which sovereigns used their power to reform society. Guided by the philosophi­

O th e r N a tio n s

cal ideas of the Enlightenment, they designed programs

Continental European and Latin American govern­

to enhance the economic power of the state, improve liv­

ments tended to move against slavery in response to in­

ing conditions and ensure religious and social tranquil­

ternational pressure, such as British diplomacy, or de­

lity. Among the most important of these monarchs were

mands created by slave insurrections. Abolition was not

Catherine the Great of Russia (1729-96) and Frederick the

generally associated with the expansion of democracy.

Great of Prussia (1712-86). Beginning with the Glorious

Only in France was there a small abolitionist movement,

Revolution in England (1689), a series of revolutions dur­

and that had no connection to internal movements to­

ing the 18th and 19th centuries forced European mon­

ward democratization. In the early 19th century the abo­

archs to yield their power to parliamentary governments.

litionist demands fueled by wars of independence in

In the 17th century absolutism was justified on the

Central and South America resulted in emancipation

basis of the divine right of kings. God was the ultimate

without an abolitionist crusade. The new South Ameri­

source of the monarch’s power and provided a model for

can nations generally freed their slaves very gradually

the monarch’s rule. Just as God had absolute authority in

and without political democratization.

the universe, so the monarch was absolute in the nation.

In Africa and Asia, the process of emancipation usu­

God the father of all was mirrored on Earth by the

ally was fulfilled long before the development of politi­

monarch, the father of his people. The rule of the monarch

cal democracy.

reflected the natural order God created.

S ee also Douglass, Frederick; Slavery.

In the mid-17th century, English philosopher Thomas Hobbes abandoned a justification of absolutism based on religion for one based on rational philosophy. Hobbes had

ABSOLUTISM

a negative view of humanity. He reasoned that people in a state of nature were “brutish” and continually at war with

A form of government, traditionally a monarchy, in

one another. Out of a sense of self-preservation people

which the ruler has unlimited power. Modern absolutism developed in Europe toward the

formed governments giving coercive power to sovereigns

end of the 15th century and with the emergence of the

practical matter. Undivided power was necessary to pre­ vent the formation of warring factions and the outbreak of

nation-state. During that period monarchs crushed the power of both the nobles and clergy and consolidated it in their own hands. The monarch ruled as the supreme executive, legis­ lator and judge. Only he or she could exercise sover­ eignty; no other body had the fundamental right to power. Sovereignty was indivisible. Although the monarch was sovereign, he or she did not have the right

who could protect them. For Hobbes absolutism was a

civil war. As the 18th century progressed, most philoso­ phers abandoned their support of absolutism and called for a limited monarchy or representative government. Today absolutist regimes are generally described as authoritarian. These regimes still exist in several areas, most notably the Middle East. S ee also Despotism; Divine Right.

4

Accountability of Public Officials

ACCOUNTABILITY OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS

The methods commonly relied on by democratic gov­ ernments to supplement the ballot in dealing with un­ desirable officials are the recall of elected officials, the

The ability to determine who in the government is re­

popular referendum or citizen initiative and impeach­

sponsible for a decision or action and the ability to ensure

ment.

that government officials are answerable for their actions.

A large and complex government is, by definition,

Accountability is a critical concern in a democratic

more difficult to hold accountable. But the ability of peo­

society. Voting someone out of office is the most obvi­

ple to hold officials responsible for what they do remains

ous way to ensure the accountability of, at least, elected

the truest measure of a democracy.

officials. But there are other strategies to address the

See also Referendum and Initiative.

accountability of all public officials— elected or ap­ pointed—and to make sure that they act in a responsi­ ble fashion. While the ballot is the most basic way to ensure the accountability of elected public officials, there are in­

ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826)

herent problems in this process. Many voters are unin­

Revolutionary theorist and leader who served as first vice

formed, or vote for candidates for reasons other than is­

president and second president of the United States.

sues or past performance. Voters often vote for a party,

The descendant of Massachusetts Puritans, Adams

not a candidate, and therefore the party is held account­

graduated from Harvard in 1 7 5 5 and began practicing

able rather than the individual. In addition, the policy­

law in 1 7 5 8 . During the next decade, he became one of

making process is often so complex that voters find it dif­

the leading lawyers in Massachusetts. Adams was an

ficult to determine who did what.

early opponent of British revenue measures in the

One alternative method for holding elected and ap­

colonies, supporting the idea of no taxation without rep­

pointed officials accountable is the public opinion poll.

resentation, but did so as a moderate, never becoming a

Officials look to polls as a gauge of their performance and

blind partisan of the colonies’ cause. His belief in indi­

as a measure of their popularity, influence and legitimacy

vidual rights and equality before the law prompted him

among the citizens. A government official whose conduct

to defend the British soldiers accused of murder in the

generates popular controversy can become the focus of

Boston Massacre of 1 7 7 0 . Britain’s imposition of the In­

official scrutiny.

tolerable Acts of 17 7 4 , designed to punish Massachusetts

There are ethics laws that set standards for conduct

for its continued resistance to parliamentary rule,

and provide mechanisms for punishing ethical offenses.

prompted Adams to call for independence, a radical step

Many governments have policies regulating the investi­

at the time. Adams led the campaign for a formal decla­

gation of alleged misconduct and punishment for proven

ration of independence in the Second Continental Con­

offenses.

gress. Neither an adept politician nor an orator, he per­

In a recent development, many governments have

suaded members through legal argument and his own

passed freedom of information acts that enable individ­

passion. Thomas Jefferson later called him the “colossus”

uals and groups outside government to get personal and

of independence.

job-related information about public officials. Whistle­

Adams served as a diplomat in France, the Nether­

blowing by someone within government, motivated by

lands and England from 1 7 7 8 to 178 8 . With John Jay, he

public concern or personal outrage, has occasionally

negotiated the Paris Peace Ti-eaty in 1 7 8 2 that ended the

been a way to quickly bring the conduct of a public offi­

American Revolution. He was elected vice president

cial to the attention of citizens and may lead to official

under George Washington in 1 7 8 9 and again in 1 7 9 2 . He

action. Many governments have sophisticated policy

served as president from 1 7 9 7 to 18 0 1 . Adams’s presi­

analysis and auditing agencies, which determine how

dency was marred by fear of war with France and by un­

well government programs work and what can be done

popular policies such as the Alien and Sedition Acts (1 7 9 8 ), which, among other things, made it a crime to

to improve them.

Adenauer, Konrad

5

Davila (1790), Adams contended that human beings are driven by self-interest. This self-interest can be ennobling but can also lead to conflict and abuse of power. He therefore championed a federal system of government that would limit power through an internal system of checks and balances. To prevent the domination of a single political leader, Adams endorsed the limitation of the powers of the ex­ ecutive by those of the legislature. However, Adams was also concerned that the legislative branch might be dom­ inated by an aristocracy, which could become an oli­ garchy. He supported the establishment of a bicameral legislature under the Constitution but would have pre­ ferred a structure in which the upper house was reserved for “the rich, the well-born and the able.” He wanted aris­ tocrats segregated not because he favored an aristoc­ racy—although he was frequently accused of this—but to protect the interests of the middle class represented in the lower house. Like many of his day, Adams favored limiting the vote to those who possessed at least some property because they would have a vested interest in the community. Nevertheless, he wanted a broad electorate and supported policies to promote widespread owner­ ship of land.

A D EN A U ER , KONRAD (1876-1967) John Adams First chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany, he played a decisive role in the creation and development criticize the federal government. Adams did not propose

of West Germany as a constitutional democracy.

the acts, but signed them into law. In 1800 Jefferson de­

Adenauer served as mayor of Cologne from 1917 until

feated him for a second term. Deeply hurt by what he

1933, when he was abruptly dismissed by the Nazis. In

thought was a public rejection, Adams retired from po­

the following years he was periodically arrested by the Gestapo and marked several times for execution. For

litical life. The two political enemies were later recon­ ciled and developed a correspondence that many now re­

most of the Third Reich, he lived with his family in

gard as a monument to American intellectual life. Adams

seclusion in a village south of Bonn. Following the war,

and Jefferson died on the same day, July 4,1826, 50 years to the day after the signing of the Declaration of Inde­

Adenauer created and led the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), which became one of the principal politi­

pendence.

cal parties in the three western zones of occupied Ger­

Political T h o u gh t

many. Adenauer was elected chair of the Parliamentary

In his books on the principles of politics, including

Council, which convened in 1948 to draw up a consti­

A D efen se o f the Constitutions o f G overnm ent o f the

tution for a West German state. He used his authority to

United States o f A m erica (1787) and D iscourses on

help engineer a broad consensus among the delegates on

6

Affirmative Action eignty. He helped launch the West European integration movement through treaty agreements to establish the Eu­ ropean Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and the Eu­ ropean Economic Community in 1957. Ultimately, Adenauer’s advancing age and increased resistance to domestic and international change under­ mined his parliamentary support. He reacted hesitantly to the erection of the Berlin Wall in August 1961. In Oc­ tober 1962 the involvement of senior government offi­ cials in an unconstitutional raid on the office of one of Germany’s leading news periodicals triggered a cabinet crisis. The following year he reluctantly stepped down as chancellor. Adenauer continued to serve as CDU chair until shortly before his death in 1967.

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION Programs designed to provide historically disadvantaged groups special consideration or preference in areas such as education, housing or employment. Supporters of affirmative action programs argue that Konrad Adenauer

they are necessary to redress the effects of past discrim­ ination that gave one group advantages over another and that continue to be a barrier to equal opportunity. Some

the legal and institutional bases for the new Federal Re­

opponents fear that affirmative action will overlook in­

public. At the same time he gained domestic and inter­

dividual merit and achievement as the basis for admis­

national visibility for himself as an astute politician. In

sion to schools and jobs, making industry and universi­

1949, at 73 years of age, Adenauer was elected chancel­

ties less competitive and government less efficient.

lor and assumed executive responsibility for the rebirth

Others, who want to build a bias-neutral society, main­

of German democracy.

tain that benefits allocated on the basis of race, gender or

Adenauer’s Catholicism and antipathy to communism

ethnic identity are a form of “reverse discrimination.”

determined the course of his domestic and foreign poli­

The term affirm ative action originated in the United

cies during the formative years of the Federal Republic.

States in the 1960s. Although other countries (for exam­

He established a political rapport with fellow Catholic

ple, Canada, the Netherlands and Switzerland) have

leaders in France, Belgium and Italy. His distrust of

adopted elements of affirmative action, the most exten­

Protestant East Germany was due to its traditions of

sive and comprehensive affirmation action policies in

Prussian militarism and radical socialism as well as to

place other than in the United States are in India,

the difference in religion. This lack of trust underlay his

Malaysia and Sri Lanka.

determination to lead West Germany into a firm eco­ nomic, political and military alliance with the West, even at the cost of deepening Germany’s postwar division.

U n ite d State s Affirmative action in the United States began as a

In rapid succession, Adenauer negotiated the lifting of

product of the civil rights and women’s rights move­

Allied restrictions on economic recovery, German mem­

ments. Although the civil rights movement originally

bership in postwar regional economic and political or­

had pushed for “color-blind” laws to end past discrimi­ nation, by the 1960s many women and members of mi­

ganizations, and the restoration of West German sover­

Affirmative Action nority groups had come to believe that these types of

7

vided for the establishment of reservations, or quotas, for

laws could not sufficiently remedy the effects of past dis­

former untouchables and “scheduled” tribes (tribal

crimination or change societal attitudes that limited op­

groups racially or culturally distinct from the main­

portunity. They argued that legal equality had not trans­

stream Indian population). These groups were given

lated into actual equality and pushed for action that

seats in parliament and in other elected bodies in pro­

would force the integration of those institutions and

portion to their numbers in the total population. Quotas

fields traditionally closed to them by discrimination.

were set for their admission into colleges and medical

Affirmative action began in 1965 when President Lyn­

and engineering schools and for their employment in

don B. Johnson issued an executive order requiring fed­

government services. In all, nearly half the admissions in

eral agencies to give minorities a slight preference in the

higher education and government service were set aside

awarding of government contracts. Over the next few

for these groups, which constituted an estimated three-

years the program expanded, and the federal government

quarters of the total Indian population.

issued “guidelines and timetables” for federal contrac­

In Malaysia and Sri Lanka, affirmative action pro­

tors to employ minorities in proportion to their presence

grams were put in place to benefit majority communities

in the workforce as a whole. In the early 1970s the Equal

who regarded themselves as disadvantaged in relation to

Employment Opportunities Commission went a step fur­

minorities. In Malaysia, the Malay-dominated govern­

ther to establish quotas, or statistical goals, for the em­

ment argued for “special rights” for the Malays, who con­

ployment of certain minority groups. Gradually the pro­

stitute a bare majority but make up a large proportion of

gram spread to state and private institutions, with

the poor, rural and uneducated. Since the 1970s prefer­

colleges and universities as well as some businesses es­

ence has been given to Malays in admissions to univer­

tablishing affirmative action policies.

sities; arrangements have been made to expand Malay eq­

Affirmative action and quota programs were quickly

uity in firms; and land settlement schemes, agricultural

challenged in the courts, with confusing results. During

credit programs and price supports have been designed

the 1970s and 1980s the Supreme Court struck down

to benefit rural Malays.

about half the programs it reviewed but approved some

In Sri Lanka a Sinhalese-dominated government has

affirmative action criteria in job training and college ad­

set up programs that give Sinhalese speakers, who make

missions. In its most significant decision on the subject,

up 75 percent of the population, an advantage over the

Regents o f the University o f C alifornia v. B a k k e (1978),

Tamil-speaking minority. Admission to universities,

the Court ruled that racial quotas were illegal but that

medical schools and engineering schools is in propor­

schools could consider race, gender and economic back­

tion to each group’s percentage of the total population.

ground in determining admissions.

As merit-based opportunities for Tamils declined, re­

Affirmative action remains a highly charged legal and

sentment grew, and young Tamils soon turned to arms

political issue. During the late 1980s and 1990s, an in­

and called for the creation of an independent Tamil

creasingly conservative Court moved to limit its scope,

state.

declaring that affirmative action may be used only where

Affirmative action policies have had significant

the program is “narrowly tailored” to redress specific, demonstrable discrimination. In reaction, Congress

costs. They generate conflicts between beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries; strengthen identities on the basis of

passed the Civil Rights Act of 1991 to strengthen anti-dis­

race, religion, language and caste; encourage individu­

crimination laws. Affirmative action also came under at­ tack at the state level, with state voters and courts, most

als to assert group claims; and generate demands by var­

notably in California and Texas, moving to end or bar its use in university hiring or admissions.

ious groups for inclusion under the system of prefer­ ences. Affirmative action can be a policy to improve the position of disadvantaged minorities, but it can also be an instrument to enable a numerically dominant social

India, M a laysia and Sri Lanka Even before the United States introduced affirmative action programs, India in its constitution of 1950 pro­

class to exercise its political power against high-achiev­ ing minorities. S ee also Civil Liberties and Civil Rights.

8

Africa, North

AFGHANISTAN

territory of Algeria in 1834 and declared Tunisia a pro­

See Asia, South.

tectorate in 1883. Morocco managed to remain indepen­ dent until 1912, when it became a protectorate divided between France and Spain. Except for a period of inde­

A FR IC A , NORTH

pendence from 1711 to 1835, Libya remained under Ot­

The four countries—Algeria, Libya, Morocco and

toman rule until 1911 when it was annexed by Italy,

Tunisia—on the northern coast of Africa bordering on the

which made it a colony in 1934.

Mediterranean Sea. All four nations are predominantly Islamic and share

A lg e ria

more of a kinship with the Arab states of the Middle East

French rule in Algeria produced sporadic rebellions

than with their African neighbors to the south. None has

by Berbers and Arabs who resented European domina­

had practical experience with democracy. Algeria’s ten­

tion of economic and political life. Muslim Algerians, al­

tative democratic reforms were halted in the 1990s when

though French subjects, did not have political rights, and

clashes between the military regime and Muslim funda­

during the 20th century calls for independence grew. In

mentalists led to civil war; Libya is a dictatorship under

1954 the nationalistic National Liberation Front (FLN)

the control of Muammar Qaddafi; Morocco is a monarchy

led an open revolt against the French, during which one

in which the king controls political life; Tunisia is a pres­

million Algerians died and more than two million were

idential republic that for most of its modern history has

interned in camps before France finally granted inde­

been a virtual one-party state.

pendence in 1962. In 1963 a civilian government headed by Ahmed Ben

H isto ric a l B a c k g ro u n d

Bella, a hero of the independence struggle, was estab­

The original inhabitants of North Africa were the

lished and the FLN became the sole political party. Ben

Berbers, still the largest ethnic group in the region. Fol­

Bella consolidated power by suppressing political oppo­

lowing invasions by the ancient Romans, the Vandals

nents and assuming leadership of the party, government

and the Arabs, in the seventh century the region was in­

and military. His increasingly dictatorial policies led to

corporated into the great Moorish empires that eventu­

a bloodless military coup in 1965 by his defense minis­

ally extended across North Africa to Spain. Most Berbers

ter, Colonel Houari Boum6dienne, who suspended the

converted to Islam while continuing to resist Arab po­

constitution and ruled via the National Council of the Al­

litical rule. A series of Spanish crusades against Muslim

gerian Revolution, a group of high-ranking military offi­

power gained Spain a foothold in North Africa at the end

cers. The council presided over a major reorientation of

of the 15th century. Portions of the region were ruled by

the country’s international and domestic policies that es­

the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century, but effective

tablished a socialist state and closer political and mili­

political power remained in the hands of local rulers.

tary ties with the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc

In the 19th century, France became the principal out­

countries. Following Boumedienne’s sudden death,

side power in the region. France formally annexed the

Colonel Chadli Benjedid, the sole candidate, was elected president in 1979. During the 1980s the government moderated its poli­ cies. A new national charter, adopted by the FLN in 1985, encouraged private enterprise and proposed a balance between socialism and Islam as the state ideology. De­ spite these steps, the declining price of oil, widespread corruption and growing foreign debts led to political un­ rest, increased support for Islamic fundamentalists and a surge in migration to France. In the aftermath of wide­ spread riots in 1988, the FLN’s one-party rule came to an end. Benjedid ended the identification of the state with

Africa, North

9

N O RT H A F R IC A C ountry

Type of Government

Executive

Legislature

Party System

Algeria

parliamentary

Chief of State: president

Parliament

multiparty

Head of Government: prime minister

L National People’s

Political Conditions Since 1992, when the military took power and suspended

Assembly (380)

parliament, Algeria has been embroiled in a bloody civil war

U: National Council (144)

between the government and Islamic fundamentalists. Although nominal constitutional government resumed in 1997, the violence continues. Libya

military dictatorship

Chief of State: chairman of the General People’s Congress

General People’s

none

Congress (varies)

Despite limited attempts at political liberalization in the 1980s, Libya remains under the dictatorship of Muammar

Head of Government: secretary general of the

Qaddafi, who refuses to tolerate

General People’s Congress

dissent or to establish a formal constitutional system of government.

Morocco

constitutional monarchy

Chief of State: king Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L Chamber of Deputies

multiparty

Although Morocco is a constitu­ tional monarchy, King Hassan 11 dominated the nation’s politics during his reign (1961-99). Some observers predict major political changes under his successor,

(32S) U: Chamber of Councillors (270)

Mohammed VI, who is reported to favor a more ceremonial role for the monarch. Tunisia

parliamentary

Chief of State: president

National Assembly (163)

Head of Government: prime minister

dominant party in multiparty

Like the other governments in

system

enced an increase in Islamic

North Africa,Tunisia has experi­ fundamentalism. In an effort to limit its growth, the government has initiated reforms designed to ensure greater political par­ ticipation of non-lslamic parties, but most observers do not be­ lieve that this will lead to mean­ ingful reform.The battle between the government and Islamic mili­ tants is likely to continue.

the FLN, and the government abandoned its commitment

Benjedid’s resignation and suspended the National Peo­

to socialism . A new legislative body, the N ational Peo­

ple’s Assembly. The High State Council, formed as an in­

p le’s Assembly, passed a bill perm itting opposition po­

terim governm ent, curtailed the new ly free press, abol­

litical parties to contest future elections.

ished the FIS as a political party, banned all local

In the 1990 elections the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS),

assemblies and removed local FIS elected officials. A state

an amalgam of m oderate and m ilitant M uslims, gained

security system detained FIS leaders and sent thousands

control of about 80 percent of local councils. The follow­

of sympathizers to Sahara detention camps.

ing year the FIS won the first round of voting for a new Na­

Despite som e governm ent attem pts at reform , the

tional People’s Assembly. W hen a FLN victory in the sec­

cou n try degenerated into civil w ar during the 1 9 9 0 s,

ond round was virtually assured, the m ilitary forced

w ith clash es b etw een the g o vern m en t and m ilita n t

10

Africa, North

Islamic groups leading to the deaths of more than 80,000.

During the late 1980s the regime instituted a much-

In an effort to stop the violence, most of the nation’s

heralded program of limited political liberalization, but

political leaders united to issue a “Declaration of

Qaddafi still refuses to tolerate dissent either from the in­

National Understanding,” citing Islam and the Arabic

creasingly strong Islamic fundamentalist movement or

and Berber languages as the pillars of the state, which

from proponents of democracy and human rights. Vio­

could not be exploited for political purposes. A new

lence against opponents, both within the country and in

National People’s Assembly was convened in 1997, but

exile, increased in the 1990s.

the return to nominal constitutional government and multiparty politics has done nothing to resolve the fun­ damental polarization between the secular and Islamic visions of Algerian society. The violence continues. Libya

M o ro c co Morocco maintained its traditional monarchy after in­ dependence from France in 1956. Two constitutions ap­ proved in referendums in 1962 and 1972 gave the king extensive powers, establishing him as the supreme civil

Seized by Italy in 1911, Libya was occupied by the

and religious authority and the commander of the armed

French and the English after Italy’s defeat in World War

forces. The king appoints most important officials, in­

II. Upon independence in 1951, the desert country was

cluding the prime minister and the governors of 43

placed under the rule of the pro-British king, Idris al-

provinces. He dominates the legislative process, having

Sanusi. Libya, then one of the poorest nations in the

the right to initiate constitutional amendments, to pass

world, was forced to rely on Western aid and, in turn,

laws subject to ratification in national referendums, to

had to accept Western military bases within its borders.

declare a state of emergency and to rule by decree.

This dependency on the West, together with the king’s

King Hassan II, in power from 1961 to 1999, was

failure to address problems of severe socioeconomic in­

skilled at playing off competing elites, manipulating

equality, produced political radicalism.

electoral politics to ensure that only members of loyal

In 1969 a group of young army officers led by Muam-

parties serve in government and maintaining tight con­

mar Qaddafi overthrew the monarchy and instituted the

trol over the military. Periodically, he also used repres­

Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) as the highest

sion and imprisonment to silence critics.

authority in the state. Under a Constitutional Proclama­

In the early 1990s Hassan promised a series of polit­

tion, it exercised both executive and legislative functions

ical and constitutional changes that he claimed would

and was empowered to take all necessary measures to

make Morocco the boldest democratic experiment in the

preserve the state. Once in power Qaddafi developed an

Arab world. Legislative changes required that the gov­

idiosyncratic political system, known as jam ah iriy a

ernment submit its program to a vote by the Chamber of Deputies and seek its approval to extend states of emer­

(state of the masses), which was based on Islam, Arabism and popular socialism. In 1977 Qaddafi reorganized the

gency beyond the first 30 days. Constitutional amend­

government, replacing the RCC with a representative

ments enhanced basic political rights and established a

body called the General People’s Congress (GCP).

constitutional council to review new laws. A second, in­

Qaddafi became general secretary of the GCP with the re­

directly elected legislative chamber, the House of Coun­

maining members of the RCC comprising its secretariat.

cillors, was created in 1996, and the existing lower

Qaddafi also established the Arab Socialist Union, a

house made wholly elective beginning with the 1998

mass-mobilization organization designed to ensure sup­ port for the regime while monitoring citizens’ behavior.

elections. Critics remain skeptical about whether top-down

Under the new system every Libyan was required to par­

multiparty system reforms can lead to meaningful

ticipate in government through a system of revolutionary committees that oversaw local and national politics.

democracy. Some observers predict major political changes under Mohammed VI who ascended the throne

These committees reported directly to Qaddafi and were

in 1991. He is reported to favor a more ceremonial role

soon transformed into instruments of repression against

for the monarch. But Morocco is also threatened by the

perceived opposition.

trends evident throughout North Africa today: high un­

Africa, Subsaharan

11

employment among an increasingly youthful popula­

tirement in 1987 in a palace coup led by the prime min­

tion, declining standards of living for laborers, growing

ister, Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali.

awareness of elite corruption and mismanagement, and

Once in power, Ben Ali initiated reforms designed to

rising expectations fueled by comparisons with European

ensure greater political participation and, indeed, in its

living standards. These trends will continue to foster both

first few years his regime implemented several actions

demands for political freedom and support for Islamic

that suggested the government was serious about reform.

fundamentalism.

It permitted opposition newspapers to publish, released thousands of political prisoners and abolished the pres-

Tunisia

idency-for-life. In an effort to find an alternative to legal­

Tunisia has a distinctly Mediterranean culture that

izing Islamic political parties, the government instituted

also reflects its successive waves of invaders. Although it is the most arabized country of North Africa, Tunisia

the six non-Islamic political parties and other groups in

remains dependent on Western investment, capital, trade

government. Yet the Democratic Constitutional Assem­

and tourism. The Arabic influence stems from a succes­

bly continues to dominate politics.

additional reforms designed to increase participation by

sion of Islamic monarchies dating back to the seventh

Most observers do not believe that Ben A li’s actions

century. The traditional ruler, the bey, strengthened the

will lead to a representative opposition bloc in the as­

central state by creating a bureaucratic elite and initiat­

sembly or meet the expectation for meaningful political

ing European-style reforms. Before the colonial era,

reform. While attempting to maintain a reputation abroad

Tunisia—in response to growing Western encroach­

as a champion of human rights and political change, Ben

ments—adopted a constitution promoting Western val­

Ali has used the party-state apparatus to stop political

ues: fair taxation, property rights, religious freedom and

protests and crush Islamic opponents at home. He has

centralized administration. As a French colony after

continued many of Bourguiba’s practices to control the

1883, the country continued to absorb Western ideas and

party and has used the military to prevent overt Islamic

practices in spite of their limited popularity.

political activities. The battle between the government

The French granted Tunisia full independence in 1956. Habib Bourguiba, the leader of the modern nation­

and Islamic militants is likely to continue. Although all four North African countries have made

alist movement, became the country’s first president.

some tentative gestures in the direction of democracy,

During his first years in office he used his image as father

none of them can be truly designated a democratic state.

of the nation to consolidate power, maintain legitimacy

The unwillingness of their leaders to relinquish power,

and gain popular support. Bourguiba dominated all as­

combined with a fear of Islamic fundamentalists, will

pects of political life in Tunisia. He was named “presi­

certainly prevent liberalization and true democratic re­

dent for life” in 1975, and his supporters in the New Con­

forms in the foreseeable future.

stitution Party (renamed the Democratic Constitutional Assembly in 1988) continued to win all the seats in the National Assembly in spite of a declaration proclaiming Tunisia a multiparty system. Bourguiba’s popularity enabled the government to in­ troduce a number of far-reaching reforms such as uni­

A FR IC A , SU BSA H A RA N

versal suffrage and a uniform code of justice that abol­

tries that lie in and to the south of the Sahara Desert, en­

ished many common Islamic practices. Among his most enduring legacies are the substantial legal, political and

compasses all the African continent except the Muslim

social rights enjoyed by women.

Sea.

In the wake of a fiscal crisis, widespread discontent over land reform and the rise of Muslim fundamentalism, however, Bourguiba became increasingly authoritarian.

The region has had a turbulent and largely unsuc­ cessful experience with democracy since European colo­ nial powers began granting independence in the late

Suffering from advanced senility, he was forced into re­

1950s. In a relatively short period of time, virtually all

Subsaharan Africa, consisting of 47 independent coun­

North African countries that border the Mediterranean

12

Africa, Subsaharan

the formally democratic systems left behind by the de­

toral competition paved the way for military interven­

parting colonial rulers gave way to authoritarian regimes

tion, which also swept away the more fragile one-party

of one kind or another. In most cases the death of con­

regimes. By the early 1970s virtually all the independent

stitutional democracy began with the movement to one-

regimes in Subsaharan Africa were either military or one-

party, and typically one-man, rule. In some countries,

party. When Portugal’s African colonies finally broke free

such as Senegal and the Ivory Coast, this development

in 1974 and 1975, after years of armed challenge to some

stemmed from the electoral supremacy of the ruling

of the most exploitative and authoritarian of all African

party and the cohesiveness of the country’s elite before

colonial regimes, those new countries (principally An­

independence, but such rule, nevertheless, was consol­

gola and Mozambique) also became one-party states with

idated with repression. In former British colonies such

Marxist-Leninist orientations.

as Kenya, Zambia, Ghana and Uganda, authoritarian regimes were established shortly after independence but only by extensive coercion and concentration of power in one person.

H is to ric a l B a c k g r o u n d Several factors account for the failure of democracy in the new states of postcolonial Africa. Many of these had

In Nigeria, Sierra Leone and the Democratic Repub­

their origin in European colonial rule. To be sure, colo­

lic of the Congo, growing instability surrounding elec­

nial rule left behind some of the infrastructure and in­

Africa, Subsaharan

13

stitutions of a modem economy and society: transporta­

governments and helped to breed from the start a politi­

tion and communication grids, monetary systems, pub­

cal culture of intolerance.

lic education and a state bureaucracy. Especially under

The colonial legacy was not only authoritarian but

British, as well as French, colonial rule, there also

also statist. The colonial regimes imposed extensive con­

emerged for the first time modern elements of political

trols over internal and external trade; established mo­

pluralism and civil society: political parties, trade

nopolies over the marketing of agricultural cash crops,

unions, churches, organized interest groups, newspapers,

the largest source of cash income; and awarded them­

universities and intellectuals. The British saw preparation of their colonies for self-

the development of infrastructure. Trade and capital de­

rule as part of their mission. However, this preparation

velopment favored the colonizing power, inhibiting the

came quite late in their possessions: it came even later in

emergence of an independent, native capitalist class in

the French colonies, and not at all in the Belgian and Por­

the colonies. Even more significantly, the surviving bu­

tuguese ones. Thus, while the former British colonies

reaucracy provided a welcome means for the new

had some limited success with competitive party poli­

African political elite to accumulate personal wealth and

selves exclusive control over the mining of minerals and

tics, at least for a time, in most of the rest of Africa what

consolidate its grip on power after independence. At the

democratic processes there were quickly collapsed after

same time, African economies were left dependent on

independence.

the fluctuations of international trade.

Certain aspects of colonial rule left a highly unfavor­

Colonial rule, and the carving of Africa into colonial

able legacy for democracy. Colonial rule was everywhere

territories (formally initiated with the Berlin Conference

authoritarian and paternalistic. Even the more liberal sys­

of 1884-85), produced the seeds of modem ethnic con­

tems, like the British colonies in West Africa, allowed

flict as well. The colonial demarcation of African bound­

only limited native participation in government, confined

aries split up some cultural and historical groups while

mainly to a small elite and to local levels of governance

throwing together others with little in common, except

until a few years before independence. For most of the 60

perhaps a history of warfare and hatred. Education, eco­

or so years of formal colonial rule, colonial officials en­

nomic development, military recruitment and other

joyed extraordinary powers with exalted status and few

Western influences were spread unevenly, leaving some

checks. African colonies had few of their own in the

regions and peoples distinctly advantaged over others.

upper reaches of the state bureaucracy when indepen­

Colonial policies and institutions emphasized ethnic dif­

dence came. Most newly independent states quickly em­

ferences as part of a strategy of “divide and rule.” British

barked on sweeping programs of “Africanization” as a

imperial policy deliberately encouraged ethnic and re­

means of asserting political control and new national identity. (Perhaps not coincidentally, Botswana, the one

gional consciousness, as opposed to a national con­

country to have maintained democracy continuously

nial rule preserved regional structures and cleavages that

since independence, took a much more gradual and cau­

ultimately led to civil war.

sciousness. In Nigeria, Sudan and Uganda, British colo­

tious approach to Africanization of the state bureaucracy.)

In at least a few countries where decolonization oc­

Colonial powers established governmental frame­

curred without mass mobilization and violence, such as Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal, Gambia and Botswana, aspects

works that primarily reflected the European experience: there was little concern for the incorporation of native practices and symbols. Thus, African peoples and politi­

of democratic culture were retained. Where decoloniza­

cians alike felt little sense of ownership of, or identifi­

Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau and, to a lesser extent,

cation with, the new postcolonial constitutional struc­ tures. Aspiring autocrats, civilian and military, thus

Zimbabwe, the result was a militant, ideological, au­ thoritarian regime.

tion occurred through armed struggle, as in Angola,

encountered little resistance in sabotaging or overthrow­ ing them. In addition, the colonial state was often bru­ tal as well. Resistance and protest were often bloodily re­ pressed; the practice was continued by the postcolonial

P o stco lo n ial P olitics and Socie ty The problems and contradictions of colonial rule were greatly intensified by the African political leaders who

14

Africa, Subsaharan

S U B S A H A R A N A F R IC A C ou n try

Type o f Governm ent

Executive

Legislature

Party System

Angola

transitional-presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (223)

multiparty

Benin

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (83)

multiparty

Botswana

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (47)

multiparty

Burkina Faso

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L National Assembly (107) U: House of Representatives (178)

multiparty

Burundi

transitional, army-backed regime

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (81)

two-party

Cameroon

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (180)

multiparty

Cape Verde

transitional-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National People’s Assembly (72)

multiparty

Central African Republic

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (85)

multiparty

Chad

transitional-presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (125)

dominant political faction

Congo, Democratic Republic of

military dictatorship

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

none

none

Congo, Republic of

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L: National Assembly (125) U: Senate (60)

multiparty

Djibouti

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (65)

multiparty

Equatorial Guinea

dictatorship

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

House of Representatives of the People (80)

dominant party in multiparty system

Eritrea

transitional

Chief of State: president Head of Government: presidential

National Assembly (150)

one-party

Ethiopia

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L: House of People’s Representatives (550) U: House of Federation (120)

multiparty

Gabon

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L National Assembly (120) U: Senate (91)

multiparty

Gambia,The

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (49)

multiparty

Ghana

limited parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (200)

multiparty

Guinea

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government president

National Assembly (114)

multiparty

Guinea-Bissau

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government prime minister

National People’s Assembly (100)

multiparty

Table continued on following page

Africa, Subsaharan

15

Political C ondition s Following a 20-year civil war between the Popular Liberation Movement of Angola-Labor Party and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, the two groups signed a treaty in 1994 that was to create a unity government. Full-scale civil war resumed in December 1998. From independence in I960 to 1972 Benin was known as the most unstable country in Africa. In the mid-1970s it became a single-party state under a Marxist-Leninist regime. Following a peaceful democratic revolution in 1989, it has evolved into a multiparty democracy with genuine political freedom. Botswana has had the only uninterrupted history of democracy in postcolonial Africa. Despite an aristocratic political culture, in recent years it has expanded the scope of public debate, increased the role of interest groups and broadened minority group involvement in party politics. (

Burkina Faso experienced political instability and military rule for its first 30 years of independence. Since 1991 it has operated as a multiparty political system.Yet, political organizations have flourished in number but not in power.The Congress for Democracy and Progress dominates politics.

Deep social divisions between ethnic groups have prevented the establishment of democracy and resulted in civil war.Amid heightened ethnic tensions and violence between Tutsis and Hutus, the military took power in 1996. All political activity and civil liberties were suspended in the wake of the crisis. Cameroon is a highly centralized, nominally multiparty state with power concentrated in the president and his party. During the 1990s considerable foreign pressure was exerted to force movement toward democracy. Nevertheless progress has been slow. Long dominated by the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV), in 1991 Cape Verde became the first single-party state in Subsaharan Africa to hold multiparty democratic elections.The system remained stable as power was transferred from the PAICV to the Movement for Democracy. Long ruled by the military, the Central African Republic made a peaceful transition to a democratically elected government in1993. Yet government corruption, an economy in ruins and the threat of army revolts leave the future of democracy in doubt. Chad has suffered from civil violence since independence in I960. Politics is based on the power of individual factions, rather than on representative government.There is little national loyalty, and people are allied more to clan o r faction than to the state. Formerly known as Zaire, the Democratic Republic of Congo was under the authoritarian rule of Mobutu Sese Seko from 1965 to 1996. His refusal to allow a transition to democratic rule led to a rebellion in which he was driven from power.The present administration has promised a transition to democracy, but currently the nation is under military dictatorship. The Republic of Congo experienced periods of political instability and one-party Marxist rule before adopting a multiparty system of government in 19 9 1.The country’s major political parties were unable to work within this framework,and political violence was frequent during the 1990s. In an effort to control the opposition, President Pascal Lissouba curbed union activity and freedom of the press. Shortly after independence in 1977, Djibouti’s competitive democracy was replaced by a single-party system dominated by President Hassan Gouled Aptidon. Opposition to Gouled eventually led to years of fighting. In 1991 Gouled acquiesced to constitutional reforms, including the establishment of a limited number of political parties. Nevertheless, Gouled remains in firm control. Shortly after independence in 1968, Equatorial Guinea became a military-dominated police state with ties to Moscow.Terror was pervasive, and thousands of people were killed or went into exile. In l979Teodoro Obiang Njueme Mbasogo came to power following a coup. Despite promises of multiparty elections, Obiang has been reluctant to proceed with democratic reform. Since independence in 1993, Eritrea has been a virtual one-party state with political activity as well as social and religious institutions strictly controlled. It was scheduled to move toward a multiparty democracy at the end of the 20th century. For most of the century Ethiopia has been under authoritarian rule, first under the absolute monarchy of Emperor Haile Selassie and then under the Marxist regime of Mengistu Haile-Mariam. Following the overthrow of Mengistu, a transitional government adopted a new constitution in 1994 that called for a multiparty system. National elections were held in 1995, but the overwhelming victory of one party, the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front, leaves democracy in doubt Between 1968 and 1990 Gabon’s political system centered around a powerful president who headed the only legal political party. In 1991 domestic unrest and international pressure led to the establishment of a multiparty parliamentary system and the adoption of a constitution guaranteeing civil liberties. From 1965 to 1994 Gambian politics were dominated by President David Jawara and his People’s Progressive Party.Widespread corruption led to his ouster and the establishment of military rule. In 1996 the ban on political activity was lifted and a new constitution adopted.The country now enjoys a fairly democratic system with civil rights and liberties generally respected. The first Western African country to obtain independence from colonial rule (1957), Ghana has a long-standing civil liberties tradition as well as extensive experience with democratic practices.Yet because of severe economic difficulties and the military’s general hostility to multiparty competition, Ghana has moved back and forth between the poles of authoritarianism and democracy. From independence in 1958 until his death in March 1984, SekouTour6 dominated Guinean politics, establishing a single-party state. In April 1984 the military under Lansana Conte seized power, and it was not until the 1990s that Guineans had a constitution permitting political parties. Conte won election in 1998 only because the opposition was divided. For 16 years after independence from Portugal in 1974, Guinea-Bissau was a one-party state. Following a coup in 1980, the military dominated politics. In response to domestic and international pressure, during the 1990s the government adopted a new constitution, legalized opposition and provided for freedom of expression.Yet the state controls the media, and further democratization may be jeopardized by the power of the military.

16

Africa, Subsaharan

S U B S A H A R A N A F R I C A continued C ountry

Type of Government

Executive

Legislature

Party System

Ivory Coast

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (175)

multiparty

Kenya

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (202)

multiparty

Lesotho

constitutional monarchy

Chief of State: monarch Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L: National Assembly (65) U: Senate (33)

two-party

Liberia

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

multiparty Legislature L: House of Representatives (64) U: Senate (26)

Madagascar

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (150)

multiparty

Malawi

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (177)

multiparty

Mali

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (147)

multiparty

Mauritania

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government prime minister

Parliament L: National Assembly (79) U: Senate (56)

multiparty

Mauritius

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (66)

multiparty

Mozambique

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Assembly of the Republic (250)

multiparty

Namibia

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L: National Assembly (78) U: National Council (26)

dominant party in multiparty system

Niger

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (83)

multiparty

Nigeria

transitional

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly L: House of Representatives (360) U: Senate (109)

multiparty

Rwanda

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government prime minister

transitional National Assembly (70 appointed)

multiparty

SaoTome e Principe

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government prime minister

National Assembly (55)

multiparty

Senegal

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government prime minister

National Assembly (120)

dominant party in multiparty system

Seychelles

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government president

National Assembly (33)

multiparty

Sierra Leone

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government president

Parliament (80)

two-party

Table continued on following page

Africa, Subsaharan

17

Political C ondition s For the first 30 years of independence the Ivory Coast’s politics was dominated by president F6lix Houphouet-Boigny.The nation adopted a multiparty system in 1991, but democratization was inhibited,and a military coup in December 1999 sowed uncertainty. Initially a parliamentary democracy, Kenya became a one-party state in 1964. In 1991, under pressure from foreign donors, President Daniel arap Moi legalized opposition political parties and sponsored multiparty elections the following year. Following the elections, which the opposition contended had serious flaws, he suspended parliament, then reconvened it, though opposition leaders were subjected to harassmentThe opposition to Moi remains inchoate. Lesotho has a history of political instability, with the monarchy and the military vying for power. It is economically dependent on South Africa, which has frequently intervened to end political crises.

Liberia enjoyed stable government until 1980, when a coup installed a military regime that ruled through savagery and terror.The regime’s actions led to civil war in 1989 and the installation of a number of unstable interim governments throughout the 1990s. In 1997 the nation chose a president in the first multiparty election since 1985. Madagascar has a long history of military government under Didier Radsiraka, who came to power in 1975. During his tenure, the government forbade opposition parties and arrested its opponents. Following widespread civil unrest during 1990-91, Radsiraka was forced to accept reforms, including a new constitution that replaced the presidential system with a parliamentary one. In 1993 a new president, Albert Zafy, was elected who returned the nation to presidential government two years later. Zafy was impeached in 1996, and Radsiraka returned to power following democratic elections in 1997. Malawi’s political system was dominated by Hastings Banda, whose repressive one-party rule lasted from 1966 until 1994, when internal pressures forced the regime to adopt a new constitution and hold multiparty elections. Banda’s defeat in free elections ushered in a new era in the nation’s politics. Mali’s political history has been dominated by MoussaTraor6 who came to power through a coup in l968.Traore headed a single-party state in which the military had significant influence. During 1990-91 pro-democracy demonstrations resulted inTraor^’s ouster and the establishment of a transition government that led Mali to multiparty elections in 1992. Four years after independence in 1960, Mauritania became a one-party state under Moktar Ould Daddah. After his ouster in 1978, the country was controlled by a succession of military councils. In the wake of democratization that spread throughout Africa in 19 9 0 -9 1, Mauritania approved a new constitution establishing a multiparty civilian government. Since independence, Mauritius has maintained a stable parliamentary democracy modeled after Westminster. Elections have been held regularly and power has been transferred peacefully. At independence in 1962, Mozambique established a Marxist-Leninist state formally allied with the Soviet Union.The regime alienated a significant portion of the population in its attempt to impose a centrally organized economy. In order to retain support against rebel groups, it began to move toward a multiparty system in 1989, when the Soviet Union reduced support. Pressure for democracy has been primarily external; the W est has firmly set democracy as a precondition to much-needed aid. Namibia gained its independence from South Africa in 1990 after 25 years of armed struggle. Hailed as a model democracy, the political system is still dominated by the South W est Africa People’s Organization, which led the struggle for independence. Constitutionally, government is divided into three equal branches, but the legislature remains subordinate to the executive and the judiciary. Niger has a history of military rule and involvement in government. Efforts to institutionalize multiparty democracy during the 1990s received a major setback in 1996 in the wake of a military coup.The government maintains tight control over the media and the political opposition. Nigeria has very little experience with civilian,democratic government. For all but ten years since independence in I960, it has been under military rule. General Sani Abacha, who held sway from 1993 until his death in 1998, limited political activity and executed several of his opponents, leading to Nigeria’s suspension from the Commonwealth and diplomatic isolation. In late 1999 Nigeria returned to civilian rule following the election of one-time military ruler Olusegun Obvasanjo, who pledged to return to democracy. Since independence in 1962, Rwanda has been plagued by ethnic conflict between Hutus and Tutsis that has led to the death of over one million people. During the spring of 1994 an estimated 500,000 Rwandans were slaughtered and over one million became refugees in one month alone. A government of national unity was announced in July 1994 and a new constitution adopted in 1995. Nevertheless, the development of real constitutional government appears unlikely and peace remains tenuous. SaoTom6 e Principe was a one-party state from independence in 1975 until multiparty elections in 1991. Lack of decisive majorities and political infighting have crippled efforts to form a stable government. These conflicts culminated in a military coup in 1995. Civilian rule was restored that year, but stability remains illusive because of division over how to deal with severe economic problems. Traditionally, Senegal has had one of the most democratic and stable political systems in Africa. It has never experienced a military coup or a violent trans­ fer of power. In the 1970s, at a time when most African nations were constricting pluralism, Senegal underwent significant reforms that opened the political system and institutionalized democracy. Yet political tension and unrest remain significant around elections, and the Socialist Party dominates political life. Three years after independence in 1976, Seychelles became a one-party, socialist state dominated by President France-Albert Rene. Under pressure from Western nations and in the face of democratization that swept Eastern Europe in 1989, Ren£ agreed to return the nation to a multiparty system. Sierra Leone became a de facto one-party state following independence in 196 1. Under tremendous popular pressure, the government acquiesced to the adoption of a multiparty system in 199 1. However, following a coup in 1992, the country degenerated into civil war. A brief attempt at democracy in 1996 ended in another coup the following year. In 1998 the Economic Community ofW est African States Cease-Fire Monitoring Group took control of the capital, permitting the return of civilian government.

18

Africa, Subsaharan

S U B S A H A R A N A F R IC A

continued

C ou n try

Type o f Governm ent

Executive

Legislature

Party System

Somalia

none

none

none

none

South Africa

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L National Assembly (400) U: National Council of Provinces (90)

multiparty

Sudan

transitional

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (400)

none

Swaziland

monarchy

Chief of State: king Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L: House of Assembly (65) U: Senate (20)

none

Tanzania

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (275)

dominant party in multiparty system

Togo

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (81)

multiparty

Uganda

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (276)

none

Zambia

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (150)

multiparty

Zimbabwe

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

House of Assembly (150)

dominant party in multiparty system

came to power with independence. While some histori­

African state, too large and interventionist to allow mar­

ans maintain that failures of democracy in this period

ket forces to generate growth, yet too weak to undertake

were caused by the inheritance of the structures of colo­

government-directed development. The typical African

nial rule, others see these failures as produced by self-

state owned or controlled by far the greatest share of

serving elites who did little to forge a different style of

wealth outside the subsistence economy, in mining, agri­

politics and governance. In the context of extreme poverty

culture and even industry and services. It became the

and economic dependence, deep ethnic divisions, little

leading purchaser of goods and services; the provider of

democratic experience, weak and artificial governmental

schools, roads, clinics and markets for communities; the

structures, shallow constitutional legitimacy, meager civil

principal source of wage employment, contracts, careers,

societies and sweeping state controls over the formal

commissions and scholarships.

economy, the maintenance of relatively liberal and de­

Because of the pervasive poverty and the extreme un­

mocratic governments would probably have required po­

derdevelopment of indigenous entrepreneurship, the

litical leadership exceptional in its self-discipline, de­

African state became the primary arena of class forma­

mocratic commitment and skill at coalition building.

tion after independence, as well as the ch ief means

Except for a few countries, that kind of leadership was

(through political corruption and patronage) for the ac­

missing.

cumulation of personal wealth and the opening of eco­

The colonial structure of government, w hich con­

nomic opportunities to family and friends. State power

tributed to democracy’s failure, took on more crippling

became extremely valuable. Those who held it became

dimensions after independence. There was the swollen

rich; those who did not were virtually without opportu-

Africa, Subsaharan

19

Political C on ditio n s Initially a multiparty democracy, Somalia experienced more than 20 years of military dictatorship under Mohammed Siad Barre, w ho ruled from 1969 to 1991. Barre was overthrown before opposition groups could form a viable government. Subsequently, civil war, based upon clan rivalries, escalated until Somalia virtually ceased to be a viable state. During the 1990s South Africa made a dramatic transformation from a political system based on apartheid, in which the black majority had no role, to a multiethnic democracy led by the nation's first black president. Nelson Mandela. Yet South Africa remains a divided society in which pluralism and compromise are viewed as unavoidable necessities, not preferred options. It remains to be seen whether democracy can flourish under these conditions.

Through the 1990s Sudan suffered from an authoritarian form of government, extensive human rights violations and a devastating civil war. The historical experience with democracy— most notably the parliamentary government established at independence in 1956 and the two parliamentary periods that followed military rule in 1964 and 1986— demonstrates the latent strength of the nation’s democratic tradition. Although Swaziland adopted the Westminster parliamentary system on independence, its political system has been dominated by the monarch. Political parties are banned and the legislature is limited to debating government proposals and advising the king.

Two years after independence in 1962, Tanzania became a one-party state under the leadership of President Julius Nyerere. His party, the Tanganyikan African National Union (TANU), became the center of political decision making, with the National Assembly merely approving legislation. Pushed by the wave of democratization sweeping Africa in the early 1990s,Tanzania became a multiparty state in 1992. Nevertheless.TANU continues to dominate government. Although a parliamentary democracy at independence in 1960, Togo degenerated into a military dictatorship following a bloodless coup by Etienne Eyadema in 1967. In the wake of increasing domestic unrest, Eyadema agreed to establish a multiparty system under a new constitution adopted in 1992. Nevertheless, Eyadema continues to control the executive and legislative branches. Since independence in 1962, Uganda has had a history of civil wars and military dictatorships interspersed with short periods of democratic government. A new constitution was adopted in 1995, establishing a National Assembly but proscribing political parties. In 1996 democratic legislative elections were held for the first time since 1980. For most of its history, Zambia was a one-party state dominated by President Kenneth D. Kaunda. In 19 9 1, during the wave of democratization that swept Eastern Europe and Africa, Zambia adopted a new constitution providing for multiparty elections. Kaunda was displaced in the subsequent presidential voting. Although Zimbabwe had a multiparty parliamentary system at independence, the nation gradually became a one-party state under the leadership of Robert Mugabe and the Zimbabwe African National Union-Popular Front. In the late 1990s Mugabe’s hold on politics was threatened by domestic unrest in the face of economic problems.

nity. The idea o f “anything goes” prevailed in the strug­

into gross mismanagement and brazen plunder of public

gle for power: violence, vituperation, demagoguery, in ­

resources. Econom ies were driven into bankruptcy, with

tim idation, assassination, rigging of election s, census

massive foreign debt, staggering inequality and explosive

m anipulation, arrests and repression.

public anger.

Where civilian politicians did not put an end to mul­

A final factor that m ust be weighed in assessing the

tiparty com petition, politics became so chaotic and cor­

causes o f dem ocratic failure in Africa is international

rupt that the m ilitary was easily able to seize control, ini­

politics. Throughout the period o f d ecolonization and

tially w ith enthu siastic popular support. Invariably,

postindependence politics— from the 1950s through the

however, m ilitary rulers fell victim to the same tem pta­

late 1980s— the principal powers in the Cold War viewed

tions as had civilian politicians. But the m ilitary rulers

Africa primarily as an arena of com petition for geopolit­

displayed even less respect for law and opposition, and

ical and occasionally military advantage. The Soviet bloc

an even greater disposition to use violence and repres­

provided cru cial support to M arxist-type regim es like

sion as substitutes for legitimacy.

those in Ethiopia, Angola and M ozam bique, and also

Statism and corruption had other devastating conse­ quences for democracy. Strict state controls prevented in­

supported liberation m ovem ents in Zim babwe, South Africa and Namibia.

centives for investment to raise agricultural productivity

T he United States, Great B ritain and France backed

and launch new business ventures. Unchecked by any re­

their own allies and surrogates in the struggle, especially

straints from independent institutions, such as the judi­

the authoritarian regim e of Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire

ciary or the mass media, nepotism and corruption turned

(now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). This regime

20

Africa, Subsaharan

became pivotal in the American strategy to stem the

lapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the end of the Cold

spread of Soviet influence in Africa. The United States

War. The downfall of communism in Europe transformed

also offered close support to Jaafar Mohammed al-Nu-

the international environment. It freed the United States

meiri in Sudan, to Samuel Doe’s dictatorship in Liberia,

from its absorption with countering Soviet influence on

to Daniel arap Moi’s increasingly one-party state in

the continent, enabling it to give democracy and human

Kenya and to the dictatorship of Mohammed Siad Barre

rights a higher priority in its diplomacy there.

in Somalia after it had freed itself from its pro-Soviet al­

In June 1990 France’s President Frangois Mitterrand

liance. France turned a blind eye to pervasive corruption

warned that France would link aid to former colonies to

and repression while maintaining intimate and even

institutional progress toward democracy, as evidenced

heavily controlling ties with the governments of its for­

by free and fair elections among competing parties, press

mer African colonies. If there was one thing that did not

freedom and judicial independence. Political openings

seem to matter much to the major world powers in their

soon swept through French-speaking Africa, some lead­

aid, trade and military assistance relationships with

ing to genuine transitions to democracy and others to

Africa, it was democracy.

mere cosmetic reforms that nevertheless created more space for opposition.

The Second Liberation

The United States and Britain also moved increasingly

In February 1990 two historic events took place that

to integrate the promotion of democracy and human

were to transform the character of politics in Africa. In

rights into their foreign aid programs worldwide and to

Benin, a committee that had been convened to consider

impose democratic conditions for assistance. In 1991, for

constitutional reforms that would help prop up the

example, after months of warning about the corruption

weakening government instead seized sovereign power

and repression of the Moi regime in Kenya, the United

and effective authority from President Mathieu Kerekou,

States and Scandinavia cut off aid. One week later

established a transitional government and prepared the

Kenya’s ruling party repealed the ban on opposition par­

way for multiparty elections under a new constitution.

ties, paving the way for multiparty elections. A similar

And in South Africa, the recently installed president, F.

freeze in 1992 on aid to Malawi prompted the Banda

W. de Klerk, lifted the bans on the African National Con­

regime to release political prisoners, legalize opposition

gress and other outlawed parties and released Nelson

movements, and conduct a 1993 referendum on a multi­

Mandela from prison.

party system, which finally proved the regime’s undoing.

Over the next three years a wave of democratic tran­

External pressure and support could not have suc­

sitions swept across Africa. Inspired by Benin’s experi­

ceeded, however, were it not for the emergence of native

ence, several French-speaking African countries—Togo,

democratic movements demanding a new political order.

Niger, Madagascar, the Democratic Republic of the

During the repressive years of the 1970s and 1980s there

Congo, the Republic of Congo and Mali—organized na­

emerged a host of independent associations, movements,

tional conferences out of which constitutional change

networks and media that challenged the predatory power

and multiparty elections followed in Mali, Niger, Mada­

of the African states. Professional associations of lawyers,

gascar and the Republic of Congo. Under rising domestic

doctors, journalists and teachers, university staff, stu­

and international pressure, one African dictator after an­

dents and human rights and pro-democracy groups

other legalized the opposition and agreed to hold multi­

formed specifically around issues of democratic reform.

party elections: Kenneth Kaunda in Zambia, Daniel arap

These popular movements for democracy arose out of a

Moi in Kenya, Jerry Rawlings in Ghana, Omar Bongo in Gabon and Paul Biya in Cameroon. In Malawi the voters

justices of every type of authoritarian rule, whether so­

endorsed multiparty elections and voted out the dictator

cialistic or dictatorial.

of 29 years, Hastings Kamuzu Banda. This move toward democracy has been called Africa’s second liberation. It was no coincidence that these events in Benin and South Africa came on the heels of the col­

longtime frustration with the mounting failures and in­

In spite of these democratic advances throughout Sub­ saharan Africa, there remain many areas of conflict. In the late 1990s civil wars raged in Sierra Leone and in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where both factions,

Africa, Subsaharan

21

for the first time in African history, attracted support

quires patience and time; it will occur in Africa only if

from neighboring countries. Rwanda and Burundi have

competitive, constitutional politics can, for the first time

huge ethnic conflicts that have resulted in large-scale

there, attain a longer tenure without interruption by a

massacres and numbers of refugees. Fragile transitional

military or presidential coup or by civil war.

governments, beset by sporadic fighting, exist in Liberia,

Economic reforms are also indispensable to the future

Sudan, Nigeria and Angola, all countries with recent

of democracy in Africa: first, to reduce the ability of

civil wars. And Somalia is still in chaos despite United

politicians to manipulate state economic regulations and

Nations peacekeeping efforts in the 1990s.

controls for their own profit; and second, to unleash and mobilize the entrepreneurial energy and investment that

Pro sp e cts fo r D em o cracy

has been evident in the African private sector. Yet the

To be successful, democracy in Africa will demand

transitional costs of reform are enormous: socially, in

broad changes in political culture, beginning with the po­

terms of lost jobs and consumer subsidies; financially, in

litical elite. No challenge is more important to a democ­

terms of the need for government restructuring and so­

ratic future than structuring institutions wisely. Strong

cial safety nets to ease adjustment.

autonomous institutions are needed to build a rule of law,

How will Africa obtain the resources to manage this

regulate electoral contests and monitor the actions of

adjustment? Except for a few mineral-rich countries like

those in public office. To control corruption, two types

Botswana, Nigeria and Angola (and the last two have

of institution are essential: an audit agency to monitor all

bankrupted themselves), most African countries have lit­

government accounts and transactions and a commission

tle prospect of economic recovery without renewed in­

to examine the assets and conduct of all public officials.

ternational assistance. The end of the Cold War has been

These institutions themselves need rigorous professional

a mixed blessing for Africa. Although it has largely

standards and insulation from partisan politics. They also

ended the desire of the major world powers to manipu­

need the resources to exercise effective oversight. These

late Africa’s internal conflicts and embrace its authori­

structures of oversight will not come cheaply. But unless

tarian regimes, it has also greatly diminished their inter­

the virulent malignancy of corruption is contained and

est in Africa altogether. Africans have found themselves

diminished and a new ethic of public service and devel­

in the paradoxical position of being urged to reform and

opmental purpose is generated, competitive, multiparty

democratize while receiving less interest and support

politics in Africa cannot possibly develop the mutual re­

from the established democracies, especially the United

straint and popular legitimacy necessary to survive. In addition, innovations are needed for managing

States. How long can the new democracies (and quasi-democ­

Africa’s vast ethnic diversity, perhaps creating local eth­

racies) survive without renewing economic development

nic areas and devolving power from the center to these

and improving their peoples’ lives? How long will elected

ethnic enclaves. In this way, citizenship, the most basic

governments stick with painful economic reforms if those

building block of democracy, could be actively nurtured in Africa for the first time. Nigeria, even while under mil­

reforms fail to rekindle economic growth? What ruling elite will summon the courage and self-discipline to in­

itary dictatorship, has led the way in showing how a

stitute the hard measures necessary to ensure public ac­

presidential party system can generate incentives for

countability? Will the Western democracies realize that the

transethnic politics. Nigeria’s system requires a broad

cost of investing in democracy and economic reform in Africa is far cheaper than the likely alternative of re­

ethnic and regional distribution of support for election to the presidency, mandates broad ethnic representation in

sponding to an endless stream of humanitarian emergen­

government appointments and bans avowedly ethnic or regional parties. To prevent abuse of power by a strong

cies, civil wars and collapsed states?

president, the countries perhaps need a parliamentary

recognize that democracy is not a luxury or a mere ideal

system with fair representation throughout society; they

but a necessity for development, justice and conflict

similarly need strong political parties that transcend and bridge ethnic groups. But institutionalization also re­

management in their countries.

The answers are unclear, but, increasingly, Africans

S ee also South Africa.

22

Anarchism

A LB A N IA See Europe, East Central.

do other, more overtly authoritarian political institutions. Second, democrats often claim that the will of the people informs and controls government policy. But, according to

ALGERIA S e e Africa, North.

anarchists, the idea of a single, consistent popular will is a myth. It is absurd to suppose that a majority view, ex­ pressed in a ballot at one moment in time, constitutes the will of the people. Third, they attack the idea that popu­

ANARCHISM From a Greek word meaning rule by no one, anarchism

larly elected members of legislatures represent the will of the people. Anarchists argue that people frequently elect the well educated and articulate rather than those who un­

is a political ideology that would do away with all forms

derstand their concerns. But even those representatives

of government.

that do understand eventually would be corrupted by their,

Anarchists believe that any government, no matter

new position as servants of the state. Except in very spe­

how well-meaning, ultimately serves the interests of a

cial circumstances, therefore, anarchists have favored a

small ruling elite that exploits the rest of society, espe­

policy of political abstention and have sought to encour­

cially the working class. Anarchism holds that the state

age a revolutionary transformation of society through a va­

must be abolished and society reorganized from the bot­

riety of extraparliamentary means, including propaganda,

tom up, based on the varying needs of individuals and

direct action and, finally, insurrection.

small local groups.

Anarchism had its greatest practical success at the

There are two main schools of anarchistic thought: the

outset of the Spanish civil war in the 1930s, when many

individualists and the collectivists. Individualists, such

areas came for a time under anarchist control, but sub­

as the American anarchist Benjamin Tucker (1854-1939),

sequently its influence has waned. Anarchists today are

envisioned a market-based societal system of free ex­

effective chiefly through their participation in the peace

change and contract between individuals, with private

and ecology' movements.

associations acting to safeguard the rights of each indi­ vidual who has bought their services. In contrast, col­ lectivists, such as Russia’s Mikhail Bakunin (1814-76),

ANGOLA

and communists, s\ich as his fellow countryman Pyotr

See Africa, Subsaharan.

Kropotkin (1842-1921), believed that social needs could be met through voluntary cooperation in the workplace and small local communes. Experimental anarchistic

AN TH O N Y, SUSAN B.

communes were organized by 19th-century Welsh in­

(1820-1906)

dustrialist Robert Owen in England and the United States. The kibbutzim, communal farm communities in

An early feminist, Anthony was a leader of the 19th-cen­

Israel, are another example.

tury women’s suffrage movement in the United States.

While most anarchists advocate peaceful means to

Anthony was born in Adams, Massachusetts. The

achieve their goals, there has been a school of revolu­

daughter of Quakers who believed in equality of educa­

tionary anarchism favoring force and terror. Assassina­

tion for women, she was educated in private schools and

tions by anarchists of such high-profile targets as Russia’s

became a teacher. In 1851 Anthony began collaborating

Czar Alexander II (1881), President William McKinley of the United States (1901) and Greece’s King George I

with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a suffragist orator and writer. Anthony was committed to three areas of social

(1913) have left the false impression that all anarchists

reform: temperance, abolition, and women’s equality.

are terrorists.

She joined the Daughters of Temperance and organized

Anarchists criticize Western-style democracy on three points. First, a democratic state is still a state: Its way of

the Women’s State Temperance Society in 1852. She campaigned for equality for married women. An outspo­

operating shows the same insensitivity to social needs as

ken abolitionist, she was the principal New York agent of

Anti-Federalists

23

AWSA, the NWSA became involved in many aspects of women’s liberty, including birth control and divorce. The AWSA, in contrast, focused on the issue of women’s suf­ frage and pushed for changes in state constitutions. The organizations merged in 1890 to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which Anthony headed from 1892 to 1900. To publicize women’s disenfranchisement, Anthony and 14 other women voted in the 1872 congressional election in Rochester, New York. She was arrested and fined but refused to pay the fine. Because no action was taken against her, she could not appeal her case to a higher court. From 1868 to 1870 Anthony helped publish the weekly suffragist newspaper Revolution. She also contributed to the six-volume History o f Woman Suffrage (1881-86). She remained politically active until her death in Rochester at age 86. S ee a lso Abolitionism; Pankhurst, Emmeline; Seneca William Lloyd Garrison’s American Anti-slavery Society.

Falls Declaration; Stanton, Elizabeth Cady; Women and

In 1863, after Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation

Democracy; Women’s Suffrage (U.S.).

Proclamation freeing slaves in territories in rebellion, Anthony and Stanton organized the Women’s Loyal League, which petitioned Congress to end all slavery.

ANTI-FEDERALISTS

The league disbanded when the 13th Amendment abol­ ishing slavery was ratified in 1865. With the end of slavery, Anthony and Stanton re­

Term applied to those who fought ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1787 and 1788.

newed efforts to enfranchise women. Feminists and abo­

The Anti-Federalists can be traced back to the Revo­

litionists formed the American Equal Rights Association (AERA) to urge democratic reform for women and blacks.

lutionary period, when they were called Federalists, be­ cause they favored a loose federation of states. Their op­

Under the organization’s male leadership, however, sup­

ponents, the Nationalists, wanted a centralized system of

port for women’s rights became secondary to the fight for

government. During the debate over the Constitution the

black male suffrage. Anthony and Stanton opposed this

Revolutionary-era Federalists became known as Anti-

emphasis. In 1869, when AERA lobbied to ratify the 15th

Federalists as the pro-federal government Nationalists as­

Amendment, which, among other things, gave black men

generalize about the members of the movement, Anti-

the vote but failed to mention women, Anthony and

Federalists were generally small farmers, laborers, debtors and people who feared that a strong central gov­

Stanton formed the National Woman Suffrage Associa­

sumed the name of Federalists. Although it is difficult to

tion (NWSA). A more moderate group, the American

ernment would limit individual liberty. Anti-Federalists

Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), was founded the

held that democracy worked best in small political so­

same year by women supporting the amendment’s rati­

cieties such as local governments and states. There citi­

fication. This began a split in the women’s movement that lasted 20 years. Although both groups pushed for

zens could exercise their citizenship to the fullest—not only by voting but also by sharing in debate over issues

women’s rights their emphasis and tactics differed. The NWSA focused on ratification of a women’s suffrage

and holding office. They preferred direct democracy but acknowledged that in their contemporary world, large

amendment to the constitution. More radical than the

nation-states had become necessary; and they accepted

24

Apartheid

representative government as an alternative to direct rule

federal government and to reserve to the states all pow­

by citizens. The Anti-Federalists agreed with the Feder­

ers not mentioned in the Constitution.

alists that the loose coalition of states formed under the

No one knows how the general public viewed the de­

Articles of Confederation had to be replaced. The Arti­

bate over ratification, but in most states there was com­

cles had created a weak central government that had

paratively little opposition to ratification, considering the

proved unable to deal with the problems of the new na­

dramatic changes the Constitution introduced. The Fed­

tion. The Anti-Federalists, however, argued that the

eralists were better organized, better financed and more

Framers of the Constitution had given too much power

politically sophisticated than their opponents. Also, the

to the central government.

Anti-Federalists were at a distinct disadvantage since

The Anti-Federalists saw the Constitution as a radical

they acknowledged that the Articles of Confederation had

document that would destroy American liberty and be­

to be changed but presented no alternative to the Consti­

tray the principles of the American Revolution. Their

tution. Once backers of the Constitution agreed to the ad­

greatest fear was that the new system would destroy the

dition of a Bill of Rights, much of the opposition disap­

independence of the states. The very opening words of

peared. In the end, only Rhode Island and North Carolina

the Constitution— “We the people,” rather than “we the

voted against ratification. The first Congress approved the

states”—convinced many that the aim of the document

Bill of Rights in September 1789. Ironically many Anti-

was to create a centralized government. They observed

Federalists opposed it, hoping for a second constitutional

that America was too varied for a central government to

convention that would limit the power of the central gov­

govern it justly. Under the Constitution, the states would

ernment. The Bill of Rights became part of the Constitu­ tion in 1791 following ratification by nine states.

wither away, leaving a national government so removed from local communities that it would have to rule by

S ee also Constitution (U.S.); Federalists.

force. In reacting to the tyranny of the states under the Articles of Confederation, the Framers had opened the door to tyranny by the central government. The Anti-Federalists were deeply concerned about the

ANTIGUA AND BA R BU D A See Caribbean.

construction of each branch of the federal government. In reviewing the powers given to the president, Patrick Henry, one of the Anti-Federalist leaders, said the office “squints toward monarchy.” Anti-Federalists believed that the Congress was too small and too far removed from

APARTHEID The official policy of racial segregation followed by the

the people to adequately represent their interests. They

South African government between 1948 and 1990. (The

recognized that the wealthy were better at forming po­

word “apartheid” is from the Afrikaans word meaning

litical associations than the poor and middle class, and

separation.)

so feared that Congress would become an oligarchy. They

Apartheid laws solidified a racist society in which

wanted a larger congress, smaller districts and more fre­

whites held political, social and economic power while

quent elections to keep representation close to the peo­

all other groups were powerless. These laws created a

ple. They were alarmed by the constitutional provision

completely segregated nation where all aspects of life

giving Congress broad powers to legislate for the “general

were determined by race. Government was in the hands

welfare” and pass all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out that function, fearing it furnished Congress

African independence and preserve white domination.

of a white minority determined to resist the tide of black

with virtually unrestricted power. Even the organization

South Africa’s policy of segregation predated apartheid.

of the judiciary did not meet with their approval. The

During the first decades of the 20th century a series of laws

feared that the federal judiciary would encroach on the powers of the more responsive local courts. The Anti-

were enacted that were designed to maintain white su­ premacy over the black majority, which made up over 75

Federalists demanded a bill of rights be added to the

percent of the population, and to provide white business

Constitution to guarantee individual liberties against the

with a cheap labor pool. The black population was dis­

Apportionment

25

enfranchised and political protest restricted. Other leg­

from white liberals and from younger blacks attracted by

islation prohibited black Africans from certain skilled

Black Consciousness ideology. Buoyed by the overthrow

trades and restricted their land ownership to only 13 per­

of colonial rule in neighboring Mozambique and Angola,

cent of the nation’s area. Apartheid became South

blacks continued to push for self-determination. Oppo­

Africa’s official policy in 1948, when the National Party

sition to the racist regime came from the international

won power based on a campaign of preserving white su­

community as well. The United Nations in the early

premacy. It proclaimed a policy under which each race

1960s declared apartheid a crime against humanity. Over

would “develop along its own lines in its own area.”

the years public opinion forced many Western nations to

Over the next two decades the South African govern­

impose sanctions against South Africa.

ment passed the largest and harshest body of racial laws

In the mid-1970s increased strikes, demonstrations

in modern times. The result was a rigidly segregated so­

and boycotts, together with pressure from the world com­

ciety. The government classified South Africans into four

munity, forced the government to relax some of its re­

main racial groups: whites. Coloureds (people of mixed

strictive policies. After 1978 the term apartheid was it­

descent), Asians, and Bantus or blacks. Where you lived,

self rejected, and debate centered on how to share

who you married, what type of education you received

political power between blacks and whites. Reform went

and what jobs you could hold were all determined by

slowly. Not until 1984 were constitutional changes made

race. Black anti-apartheid political organizations were

to include Coloured and Asian representation in gov­

banned. To uphold these laws, the government devel­

ernment. The fact that there was no provision for black

oped an elaborate police and informer system designed

representation resulted in a period of sustained unrest,

to control every aspect of South African life. Although

with the government declaring a state of emergency.

the system impacted most dramatically on blacks, whites

Violence escalated on both sides.

were also affected. The laws required that they, too, ob­ serve the regulations underpinning white supremacy.

A number of factors contributed to end apartheid. The policy no longer commanded loyalty among whites who

From 1960 to the mid-1970s the government pursued

had much to lose from the general social unrest. Foreign

a course of what it called separate development, promis­

banks withheld investment capital, creating a crisis in an

ing eventual independence for each race. Blacks were as­

economy already weakened by recession and high un­

signed to “homelands,” separate impoverished enclaves,

employment. With the end of the Cold War, South Africa

where they could enjoy their “freedom” and exercise

was no longer considered a crucial ally whose politics

their “democratic rights.” In reality this policy meant

must be tolerated, and allies increased pressure for de­

that blacks lost their right to reside in South Africa out­

mocratization. By the end of the 1980s there was major­

side their homeland and could be deported from white areas in the event of political unrest. By forcing blacks

ity support for change. Under the leadership of President F. W. de Klerk, the

into homelands that could not support them, the gov­

government lifted the ban on the ANC and released Man­

ernment ensured whites a cheap labor force. Principal opposition to apartheid came from the

dela from prison in 1990, signaling apartheid’s official

multi-racial African National Congress (ANC) led by Nel­

been repealed. In 1994 Mandela was elected president of South Africa in the country’s first multi-racial elections.

son Mandela. The 1950s saw the largest, most intensive mobilization of anti-apartheid forces in South African

demise. By 1992 all principal apartheid legislation had

S ee also De Klerk, F. W.; Mandela, Nelson; South Africa.

history. Influenced by the ideas of Mohandas Gandhi, the ANC used civil disobedience campaigns to protest gov­ ernment policy. The movement was so strong that, fol­ lowing anti-apartheid riots in Sharpeville in March 1960, the government banned all black political organizations. ANC leaders were exiled or imprisoned. Mandela was convicted of sabotage and sentenced to life in prison. Criticism of the regime continued in the 1960s and 1970s

APPORTIONM ENT The process of allocating representatives in a legislative body. The term apportion m en t is sometimes distinguished from districting, which refers to the ways in which dis­

26

Argentina

trict boundaries are drawn. In practice the terms are often

portionment as a political issue that should be handled

used synonymously.

by legislatures rather than the courts.

Nations apportion representatives in various way. Two

The Supreme Court reversed itself in 1962, holding in

of the most common are by population and by political

B aker v. Carr that issues involving apportionment could

unit (state, county, etc.). In nations with bicameral leg­

be brought to federal courts. Two years later, in Reynolds

islatures, such as the United States or Canada, each

v. Sims, it ruled that state electoral districts must be ap­

house may be apportioned on a different basis. Tradi­

portioned on the basis of population. Districts must be

tionally, lower houses were established to represent the

“substantially equal”—what became known as the “one

interests of constituents, and so are frequently appor­

person, one vote” criterion. During the 1960s the Court

tioned by population. Upper houses were established to

extended the ruling to congressional districts and local

represent wider interests; their seats are often allocated

governments as well. In 1969 the Court insisted that

by political unit.

states make their congressional districts be precisely

Some nations, such as Israel, use a system of propor­

equal in population, but it stepped back slightly in 1973

tional representation in which seats are given to each po­

when it ruled that state legislative districts did not have

litical party based on the percentage of the vote it re­

to be exactly equal if the districts reflected legitimate

ceived in an election. Some nations also set aside seats

concerns such as preserving political boundaries.

for special groups. Bangladesh, for example, has a num­

The Supreme Court rulings resulted in large-scale re-

ber of seats in its lower house reserved for women.

districting throughout the United States. Although re-

U.S. Syste m

become a major partner in the process. In the redistrict­

districting is in the hands of the legislature, courts have Under the Constitution, each state has two seats in

ing of the 1980s and 1990s all but a few states saw their

the Senate regardless of population. Voters select sena­

plans challenged in court, and courts had to draw up a

tors in statewide elections. Seats in the House of Rep­

number of plans.

resentatives are allocated according to population with

The Justice Department also plays a major role in re-

each state having at least one seat. Voters select their

districting, especially in the South and Southwest. Under

representative in district elections. Under the Appor­

the provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, jurisdic­

tionment Act of 1929 Congress fixed the size of the

tions in which minority participation in elections is low

House at 435 seats. Congress reallocates these seats to

(including all the states of the Deep South) must have all

the states every ten years based on the results of the lat­

redistricting plans preapproved by the Justice Depart­

est census. The state legislatures then carry out the re-

ment to prevent discrimination. As a result states have

districting process, adjusting the districts to fit the num­

dramatically increased the number of legislative and con­

ber of seats assigned.

gressional districts drawn with African-American or His­

Historically the size of congressional districts varied

panic majorities. The Supreme Court has ruled that race-

from state to state and district to district. Frequently this

conscious districting is constitutional, but that districts

was the result of partisan politics. Parties hoped to win

drawn solely to segregate the races are prohibited.

elections through manipulating district boundaries in a

S ee also B aker v. Carr, Gerrymandering.

process that came to be called gerrymandering. Malapportionment also occurred naturally. As Amer­ icans moved from rural areas to cities and then to sub­ urbs, some districts developed considerably larger pop­

ARGENTINA

ulations than others. Frequently urban areas had less of

South American nation chronically beset by political tur­

a voice in legislatures than did rural districts. Politicians

moil and long periods of authoritarian rule.

were reluctant to equalize districts for fear of upsetting the political balance in the state. Reformers attempted to

The traditional presence of a powerful military steeped in the interests of its wealthiest citizens has often

force redistricting through court action but failed be­

served to deny rather than preserve democratic freedom

cause, until the 1960s, the Supreme Court viewed ap­

in Argentina. Frequent acts of civil unrest have disrupted

Argentina

Official Nam e: D ate of Independence: D ate o f C urrent Constitution: Form of Governm ent:

Argentine Republic July 9, 1816 (from Spain)

Chie f o f State: H ead o f Goverment: Legislature:

president president National Congress Chamber of Deputies: 257 members elected by proportional representation Senate: 72 members indirectly elected

Term o f Legislature:

Chamber of Deputies: 4 years (one-half the membership elected every 2 years) Senate: 9 years (one-third the membership elected every 3 years) 2 dominant parties 18

Party System : M inim u m Voting Age:

27

May 1,1853 presidential

executive, legislative and judicial branches. While exec­ utive powers have frequently emerged as dominant, con­ stitutional provisions added in 1983 and 1994 have at­ tempted to enhance parity among the branches. Executive

Executive power is vested in a president who is chief of state and head of government. As “supreme c h ie f’ he has extensive powers in both domestic and foreign af­ law and order (especially dur­

fairs. He is responsible for the conduct of foreign policy

ing the 20th century) and led to

and the implementation of laws. The president can in­

widespread, government-insti­

troduce laws and can veto legislation either in part or in

tuted repression. Yet since the

whole. He nominates candidates for the Supreme Court

reestablishment of democratic

of Justice and appoints senior military officials subject to

government in 1983, Argentina

Senate approval. In the case of national emergency, the

has evolved into a democracy

president retains the right to suspend some civil liberties

whose future appears brighter

temporarily, with the consent of the Senate.

than ever before.

The president is directly elected for a four-year term and is eligible for reelection for one further term. Elec­

S tr u c tu re o f G o v e rn m e n t Argentina has a republican political system with a fed­

tions are held under a system that requires a runoff if the leading contender gets less than 40 percent of the vote or

eral structure. The country’s constitution, in both its pre­

if he gets between 40 percent and 45 percent but has less

amble and much of its text, largely reflects the ideas and

than a 10 percent advantage over the second most pop­

intent of the U.S. Constitution. Distilled from a document

ular candidate.

first drafted in 1853, the present Argentinean constitution

H istorically the president has dominated the legis­

provides for a presidential system with well-delineated

lature and judiciary. In an effort to achieve a greater bal­

28

Argentina

ance among the branches, constitutional amendments

Local Government

in 1994 created the chief of cabinet who is responsible

Argentina’s 23 provinces and the federal capital elect

to the National Congress, which can remove him on a

their own governors and legislatures. Under the consti­

vote of non-confidence. He undertakes the general ad­

tution, the provinces retain all powers not specifically

m inistration of the country and responds to congres­

given to the federal government.

sional inquiries. Electoral System Legislature

Argentina’s legislative power is vested in a bicameral

Argentina has universal suffrage, and voting is com­ pulsory. Elections are generally fair and honest and are

National Congress, which consists of a lower Chamber

administered by an electoral board headed by a federal

of Deputies and an upper-chamber Senate. Under the

judge called an electoral judge. Party officials are present

constitution, the lower chamber is to represent the na­

at the polls and during the counting. Because voting is

tion as a whole, the upper house the individual prov­

compulsory for all citizens 18 years of age or older, 85 per­

inces. Both chambers have similar powers. Congress

cent to 90 percent of those eligible vote in most elections.

makes all laws, levies taxes, regulates commerce, ratifies

Constitutional reforms in 1994 established regulations

treaties and establishes the courts below the Supreme

designed to increase the number of women in Congress.

Court. Most legislation requires approval by both

Under this law, at least every third candidate on a party

houses. The Chamber of Deputies has the right to insti­

slate must be a woman.

tute impeachment proceedings against high officials, who are then tried in the Senate. The Senate has the ex­

Political Parties

clusive right to authorize the president to declare war or

Two parties have dominated Argentinean politics in

a state of emergency; it also approves important presi­

the 20th century: the Justicialist Party and the Radical

dential nominations.

Civil Union. The Justicialist or Per6nist Party (PJ), cur­

Argentina’s Chamber of Deputies is elected directly

rently headed by President Carlos Saiil Menem, was

through a system of proportional representation. Deputies

formed in the 1940s to advocate support for Juan Domingo

serve four-year terms and are eligible for reelection. One

Peron and his populist program. Under Menem, the party

half of the House is up for reelection every two years. The

has endorsed free-market policies and limited state regu­

Senate, which also is directly elected, consists of three

lation of the economy. These policies have generated

members from each of Argentina’s 23 provinces and the

strong criticism from party traditionalists who want to

federal capital. Two of these senators represent the major­

maintain the close ties between government and labor es­

ity party, the third the largest minority party. Senators

tablished by Per6n.

serve for six-year terms and are eligible for reelection.

The nation’s oldest party, the Radical Civil Union (UCR), was founded in the 1890s to oppose the ruling oli­

Judiciary

garchy. It has represented the left-of-center in Argen­

Federal judicial power is exercised by the nation’s Su­

tinean politics since the 19th century, favoring economic

preme Court of Justice, 17 appellate courts, and district

nationalism and state intervention in oil and mining in­

and territorial courts on the local levels. The provincial

terests. The radicals have consistently opposed military

courts are similarly organized, consisting of supreme, ap­

rule.

pellate and local courts. The nine federal supreme court judges are appointed by the president with the Senate’s ap­ proval and hold office for life. The Supreme Court is the

H is to r y o f D e m o cracy Argentina’s independence from Spain in 1816 inau­

nation’s constitutional court.

gurated a succession of civil wars that ended only after

Under the constitution, the judicial branch is formally

the election of Bartolom6 Mitre as president in 1862.

independent of the other branches. Nevertheless, tradi­

Mitre, who governed until 1868, unified the country and

tionally it has been the weakest branch, subject to exter­ nal pressure, particularly from the president.

developed a nation formally committed to liberal prin­ ciples of constitutional law and representative govern­

__ ment. Yet, in practice, Argentinean government evolved

_

Argentina

29

weak, semidemocratic regimes alternated with blatant

as an oligarchy using political patronage and military

military dictatorships until Per6n’s return from exile and

might to maintain control.

restoration to power in 1972. He died after only 10

From 1870 to 1914 Argentine politics were dominated

months in office and was succeeded by his wife, Isabel,

by a small landowning elite and powerful commercial

who proved unable to deal with the country’s growing

and livestock interests. Represented by the Conservative

economic problems. When the radical youth wing of the

Party, this group effectively banned the majority of the

Peronist movement initiated a campaign of urban guer­

population from political representation. Yet economic

rilla warfare, the military ousted Isabel Peron.

and social changes during this period, particularly the

The coup ushered in one of the worst chapters in Ar­

growth of the urban middle class and increased immi­

gentina’s history—a seven-year “dirty war” of systematic

gration, laid the foundation for the destruction of the oli­

state terrorism waged against dissenters from all societal

garchy. In 1891 Argentina’s first mass political party, the

strata. Under military rule, economic conditions worsened

Radical Civil Union, was formed to work for reform. Con­

and, largely to distract public attention from domestic

vinced that the Conservatives would not share power, the

problems, the military staged an invasion of the Islas

group staged several unsuccessful rebellions and boy­

Malvinas (Falkland Islands) in April 1982. Following Ar­

cotted all elections to 1912. Following electoral reform

gentina’s humiliating defeat by Great Britain, the discred­

in 1912, it came to power in the 1916 election under the

ited junta had no choice but to accede to elections.

leadership of Hipdlito Irigoyen. But while Irigoyen’s

The ensuing October 1983 elections were won by the

leadership provided a tranquil blend of liberal democ­

Radical Civic Union, whose presidential candidate, Raul

racy and stability, he never really challenged the power

Alfonsfn, a respected opponent of military rule and a

base of the ruling class. In 1930, amid economic chaos

champion of human rights, promised “Peace, Freedom

generated by the worldwide depression and popular dis­

and Progress.” But under Alfonsm the country faced re­

illusionment with Irigoyen, the army carried out a coup

newed military unrest, spiraling debt and crippling in­

d’etat with broad support from the nation’s commercial

flation (consumer prices rose 3,610 percent from August

elites. Its action ushered in the “infamous decade”

1988 through July 1989). The continuing crisis assured

(1930-43)—a period of conservative dominance featur­

the victory of Per6nist Carlos Saul Menem in the May

ing a succession of short-lived military regimes and high­

1989 presidential elections.

lighted by repression against reformers.

Repudiating the traditional populist and statist poli­

From this political confusion emerged Colonel Juan

cies of the Per6n movement, Menem launched a free-

Domingo Peron—certainly Argentina’s most influential

market program that featured privatization of state en­

leader of the 20th century. Following a military coup in

terprises, deregulation and promotion of foreign

1943, Per6n, as the minister of labor, forged an immense

investment. Labor reforms undercut the power of the

power base among Argentina’s struggling working class

trade unions, once a virtual partner with the Peronists in

and destitute masses (Per6n’s popular mass organization

government. Menem also reduced the defense budget

was known as D escam isad os, the “shirtless ones”) by

and dismantled much of the arms industry. Conse­

promising vastly improved living conditions and in­

quently, the military’s power was sharply curtailed. Under Menem’s direction, the economy revived and Ar­

creased earnings. He was elected president in a free elec­ tion in 1946.

gentina achieved several years of spectacular economic

Per6n’s regime combined elements of representative

growth. Menem won reelection to a second term in 1995.

government and electoral democracy with corporatist ties to organized labor and policies of aggressive nation­

D em ocracy: Present and Future

alism calculated to appease the military. The country re­ mained loyal to him until his increasingly authoritarian

a liberal, politically competitive democracy. Despite mo­

Today, Argentina is well on its way to consolidating

rule, spiraling inflation and slowed economic growth eroded his support. A military coup toppled his regime

ments of peril, the threat of a return to authoritarian gov­

and sent him into exile in 1955. A subsequent parade of

forces of the past— the armed forces, the elite, revolu­

ernment has receded dramatically. The authoritarian

30

Arias Sanchez, Oscar

tionary movements and portions of organized labor— now use electoral politics to further their programs. Yet Argentina still faces several major challenges in ensuring the future of democracy. First, it must achieve a better balance of power among the three branches of government. The autonomy of the National Congress and the judicial system must be expanded and the broad dis­ cretionary powers of the president and executive branch must be limited. Second, democratic values must be en­ couraged and strengthened, and the military made com­ pletely subordinate to civilian authority. Finally, the gov­ ernment must develop an economic program to reduce poverty and social inequalities. Menem’s policies have engendered significant oppo­ sition among those who believe that his economic achievements have been accompanied by a consolidation of power in the executive branch. Opponents also point out that his economic reforms have resulted in an un­ precedented level of unemployment and economic vul­ nerability for large segments of the population. Currently voters are evenly divided between support­ ers and opponents of the administration. The economy

Oscar Arias Sanchez

will play an important role in future elections. Yet re­ gardless of the path of domestic reform, the course of democracy seems assured.

and democratic stability and urged that Costa Rica take the lead in seeking their resolution. Arias asserted that there could be no successful development in Central

ARIAS SA N CH EZ, OSCAR (19 4 0 - )

America without peace and no peace without democ­ racy. He adopted “peace for my people, peace for my land” as the mission of his presidency.

President of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990, Arias won the

Arias’s emphasis on democracy, political compromise

Nobel Peace Prize for his plan to end the warfare that had

and demilitarization as the sole means for achieving peace

engulfed Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua in the

distinguished his diplomatic efforts. The peace plan Arias

1980s.

designed—known as Esquipulis II—was based on inter­

Arias received degrees in law and economics at the

locking agreements throughout Central America. These

University of Costa Rica in 1967 and a doctorate in po­

agreements called for cease-fires and free elections. They

litical science from the University of Essex, England, in

also required rebel groups to disband and called for na­

1974. He first gained national prominence as Costa Rica’s

tional reconciliation. Despite initial opposition by the

minister of planning and economic policy from 1970 to 1978. In 1978 he was elected to the National Assembly

United States, which was backing the contra rebels against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, the Arias plan was

where he promoted constitutional and electoral reforms.

eventually accepted throughout Central America. Arias

He became president of Costa Rica in 1986. As president, Arias called for peaceful coexistence

won the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. As a re­

with the revolutionary leftist Sandinista government in

warfare ended in Nicaragua in 1989. The fighting in El

Nicaragua. He argued that wars in neighboring Nicaragua

Salvador was stopped in 1992.

and El Salvador threatened Costa Rica’s economic health

sult of his initiatives, the contras were demobilized and

Arias used the Nobel Prize money to establish the

Articles of Confederation

31

Arias Foundation for Peace and Human Progress. Under his leadership the foundation promotes demilitarization and development throughout Central America, with strong emphasis on environmental concerns and women’s rights.

ARISTOTLE (384-322

BCE)

Greek philosopher who offered the first theoretical analy­ sis of democracy. Aristotle was the son of the court physician of Philip of Macedon (father of Alexander the Great). He studied in Athens with Plato for 20 years. After Plato’s death, he trav­ eled extensively in Asia Minor, returning to Macedonia to tutor the young Alexander. In 335

b ce

Aristotle returned to

Athens, where he founded his own philosophical school, the Lyceum, which enjoyed Alexander’s patronage. Fol­ lowing Alexander’s sudden death, anti-Macedonian feel­ ings erupted in Athens, and Aristotle was charged with impiety (lack of reverence for the gods). Fearing that he would face the same fate as Socrates, whom Athenians had executed for impiety in 399

bce,

he fled to the nearby

city of Chalcis. He died there the following year.

Aristotle

Political T h o u g h t Aristotle thought that man was by nature a political

Aristotle favored a regime in which a large number of

animal. Humans alone possess speech, which enables

individuals took part, but not so large a number as to cre­

them to debate issues. Only in the setting of the Greek

ate instability or allow the poor to participate. He thought

city-state known as the po lis—and particularly in the as­

the most stable political system would be one with a

sembly—could humans engage in such debates. To be

large middle class that would outnumber the rich and the

human, one must live in a community in which one ex­

poor, thus holding the balance of political power.

ercises the powers of one’s speech, debating the collec­

S ee also Athenian Democracy.

tive choices that a community must make. Aristotle classified governments according to the number of people who have power (the one, the few or

ARM EN IA

“the many”) and whether those in authority rule in the interest of the whole or in their own interest (good or bad

S e e Soviet Union, Former Republics of the.

regimes). He called a regime in which the many rule for the interest of the whole a polity, the generic term for all

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

regimes; he labeled a regime in which the many rule for their own interest a dem ocracy . Aristotle opposed democracy as he defined it because he thought it always

The first constitution of the United States, in force from

would be the rule of the poor, since there were more poor than rich in society. The poor, he believed, did not have

While the Second Constitutional Congress was debat­ ing independence in 1776, it appointed a committee to

the qualities to govern justly.

develop a governmental framework for the emerging na-

1781 to 1788.

32

Articles of Confederation The articles were finally ratified after the states agreed to A R T IC L E S O F C O N F E D E R A T IO N Adopted Ratified

1777 178!

Provisions • Establishes loose confederation of independent states; “firm league of friendship" • National government consisted of unicameral congress in which each state had one vote • Congress could set up postal department; raise armed forces; con­ trol development of western lands • Congress could estimate government expenses and request do­ nations from states; it did not have power to tax • Government financed through donations of states based on value of each state’s lands • With consent of 9 of the 13 states, Congress could enter into for­ eign treaties and alliances, declare war • Congress could arbitrate disputes between states • Amendment of the Articles required unanimous consent Accom plishm ents • Conducted successful war with Great Britain • Negotiated international support for Revolutionary War • Negotiated Treaty of Paris in which Great Britain acknowledged American independence • Enacted Northwest Ordinance of 1787 organizing Northwest Ter­ ritory and forbidding slavery in the region W eaknesses • Did not provide power to govern efficiently • Lacked executive; states were free to ignore national government which could not enforce cooperation • Lacked national court system; Congress could only arbitrate in dis­ putes between states • Inability to regulate interstate and foreign commerce led to trade wars paralyzing interstate commerce • Inability to regulate currency had detrimental effects on economy • Inability to impose taxes prevented government from paying off foreign debt or debt owed Revolutionary W ar soldiers o r from raising army to defend western borders from Spanish and British incursions

give the central government control of all western lands. The Articles of Confederation created a loose confed­ eration of independent states bound in a “firm league of friendship.” The Articles provided for a weak central government without an executive or a federal judiciary. The government consisted of a single house of Congress in which each state had one vote. When the Congress was in recess, the government was managed by a com­ mittee made up of one delegate from each state. Each state legislature selected its delegation, paid for its sup­ port and had the right to recall its members whenever it wished. Congress had the right to raise an army, regulate In­ dian affairs and control the development of western lands. With the consent of 9 of the 13 states it could coin or borrow money, make alliances with foreign nations and declare war. The only judicial power Congress had was to arbitrate disputes between states. Congress could request donations from the states for its support, but it did not have the right to levy taxes. The Articles reserved the important powers to tax and control commerce to the states. The Articles created a weak government that could not deal with the problems of the new nation. Because it did not have the power to tax, the central government did not have a stable source of funding. States that dis­ agreed with government policies simply refused to send it money. As a result Congress was always short of funds. It was unable to meet the interest payments on foreign loans made during the American Revolution or to pay the soldiers who had fought in the war. Because it could not control commerce, tariff wars erupted between the states,

tion. John Dickinson, who headed the committee, pre­

almost paralyzing interstate trade. The central govern­

sented his report on the proposed organization to Con­

ment could not force state compliance with the Treaty of

gress just eight days after it had declared independence

Paris (1783), which ended the Revolutionary War, nor

on July 4. Dickinson outlined a plan for a strong central

could it protect the nation’s borders from Spanish and

government with the power to levy taxes and control over

British encroachment.

western lands. Congress, fearing a powerful central gov­

By the mid-1780s, sentiment had grown for a strong

ernment as a result of the colonies’ experience with Great Britain, drastically changed his plan before sending it to

national government. In 1787, Congress called a consti­ tutional convention, which drafted the present Consti­ tution of the United States.

the states for ratification in 1777. Preoccupation with the Revolutionary War and disputes among the states post­

Despite its weaknesses, the Articles of Confederation

poned ratification until 1781. The states argued over equal representation of small and large states and particularly

made lasting contributions to American government. On

over the control of western lands claimed by some states.

operation. Under its framework the nation prevailed in

the most basic level, it gave the states experience in co­

Asia, East

33

A R T IC L E S O F C O N F E D E R A T I O N V S . U .S . C O N S T I T U T I O N

Adopted Ratified Agreement Executive

Judiciary Legislature

A R T IC L E S O F C O N F E D E R A T IO N

U N IT E D STATES C O N S T IT U T IO N

1777 1781 Between the states None; each state delegation selects one individual to serve on the Committee of the States, which conducts government business when Congress is not in session; Committee selects one individual to preside; this president serves a one-year term. None Unicameral Congress Each state has one vote; delegates appointed “in such manner as the legislature of each state shall direct”

1787 1791 By the people President

Delegates supported by states

Supreme Court and inferior courts Bicameral Congress Senate: two from each state chosen by state legislature (until 1913) House: representation based on population Establish and regulate post office Supervise Indian affairs Control development of western lands Sole authority to coin money Appoint military officers Raise armed forces Declare war Sole right to conclude international treaties and alliances impose taxes Establish inferior courts Regulate commerce between states and with foreign nations Make all laws "necessary and proper” for carrying out assigned powers Simple majority in both houses of Congress and signature of president Presidential veto, which may be overridden by two-thirds vote of Congress Members of Congress paid from national treasury

Unanimous vote of the states

Ratification by three-fourths of the states

Powers of National Government

Establish and regulate post office Supervise Indian affairs Control development of western lands Coin money Appoint military officers Raise armed forces Declare war Conclude treaties and alliances (states may also do so with consent of Congress) Petition for funds

Passage of Legislation

Vote of 9 out of 13 states N o legislative veto

Congressional Financing Constitutional Amendment

the Revolutionary War and concluded a peace treaty with

C h in a

Great Britain. The Confederation Congress set landmark

Except for a brief period in the 20th century, China

policies governing the settlement of western lands. Most

has had an unbroken history of authoritarian govern­

importantly, the Articles established a nascent federal

ment. Until 1911, dynastic monarchs or warlords ruled

system that became the basis for the governmental struc­

the nation. Nationalists under Sun Yat-sen overthrew the

ture under the Constitution.

monarchy and established the Republic of China that

See also Constitution (U.S.).

year, but the nation quickly degenerated into warlordism. When the Nationalists reemerged in 1923, internal chal­ lenges within the party and threats from a growing com­

ASIA, EAST

munist movement led to increasingly authoritarian rule under Sun’s successor Chiang Kai-shek.

Lands and islands located at the easternmost end of Asia,

Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the communists

including China, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Mon­

took power in 1949 and imposed a totalitarian dictator­

golia and Taiwan. Two of these countries— China and

ship that permitted no dissent. Demands for democratic

North Korea—have authoritarian communist govern­

reform emerged in the mid- and late 1980s that culmi­

ments; the remaining four nations are either emerging or

nated in a mass demonstration in Tiananmen Square in

developed democracies.

1989. The government saw the movement as a challenge

34

Asia, East perceived as unresponsive and incapable of making im­ portant economic decisions in the face of a severe reces­ sion. The LDP lost the 1993 election but still remains the nation’s most powerful political party. Electoral reform has produced little change, and young Japanese seem disinterested in politics. N o r th K ore a The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea is a Stal­ inist, one-party state that has also operated as a commu­ nist hereditary monarchy, an arrangement unknown any­ where else. One of the most secretive and self-isolated countries in the world, there is much that is unknown about its inner workings.

to its existence and crushed the protest. During the 1990s

North Korea emerged from the 1948 U.S.-Soviet divi­

the communist regime continued to suppress opposition

sion of Korea along the 38th parallel under a Soviet-style

and jail dissidents. International protests against its vi­

government in which decision making resided with the

olations of human rights have been met with demands

Korean Workers’ Party (KWP). Led by Kim II Sung, the

that foreign governments stop “interfering” in China’s in­

party continued the social and political reforms it had

ternal affairs. China remains one of the world’s last com­

begun in the north even before the state was formally es­

munist states. As such, the prospects for democracy look

tablished. It eliminated political competition, suppressed

bleak.

religion, collectivized agriculture and centralized eco­ nomic planning.

Japan

Following the Korean War, Kim II Sung established a

Japan was the first Asian country to establish demo­

totalitarian regime influenced by Confucian thought. Kim

cratic institutions. It began its limited democratic course

viewed himself, and became viewed as, the father of the

in the 1890s when it promulgated its first constitution.

nation. The nation, in turn, was perceived as a family

The constitution guaranteed limited suffrage and estab­

that owed fealty to its head. This type of political orga­

lished a weak legislature, but sovereignty remained with

nization appealed to the conservative Korean society,

the emperor. Democratic developments continued into

which is still centered on a strong, extended family.

the 1920s and 1930s, when the military gradually as­

Kim developed a nationalist doctrine of Ju ch e, self-

sumed control of the state and suppressed democratic in­

reliance, that isolated North Korea from most of the

stitutions.

world both politically and economically. Domestically he

After Japan’s defeat in 1945, the U.S. occupation

developed an all-encompassing, mass political party and

forces put a new constitution into effect, creating a dem­

ruthlessly dealt with political dissent, sending as many

ocratic parliamentary system. Accompanyng these

as 100,000 people to prison or reeducation camps.

changes was a massive campaign that encouraged belief

In keeping with a long-standing Korean tradition of fa­

in democracy as the best form of government. Following

milial succession, Kim effectively made his son Kim Jong

U.S. withdrawal in 1952, the Japanese retained most

II his successor in 1980 when he appointed him head of

democratic reforms, as well as the American-inspired constitution.

the armed forces. Kim Jong II succeeded his father in 1994. He became secretary of the KWP in 1997 but has

Japan has one of the most stable parliamentary sys­ tems in the world. For decades the Liberal Democratic Party dominated politics, providing all prime ministers from the party’s creation in 1955 to 1993. During the 1990s calls for reform grew as the party was increasingly

not yet formally assumed the presidency. North Korea remains defiant, closed, suspicious and ill-equipped to adapt to the post-Cold War era. Only its recent famine has led it to open up slightly to receive Western and Japanese aid.

Asia, East

35

EA ST A SIA C ou n try

Type o f G overn m e nt

Executive

Legislature

Party System

Political C ondition s

China

communist dictatorship

Chief of State: president Head of Government: premier

National People’s Congress (2,978)

one-party

China has an almost unbroken history of authoritarian rule.The communist government views dissent as a threat to the regime and has attempted to silence demands for democracy It views inter­ national calls for the observation of hurights as intrusions in its internal affairs.

Japan

constitutional monarchy

Chief of State: emperor Head of Government: prime minister

Diet L: House of Representatives (500) U: House of Councillors (252)

dominant party in multiparty system

Japan has been a stable democracy since the U.S. occupation following W orld W a r II. Its politics was so dominated by the Liberal Democratic Party from 1955 to 1993 that it was a de facto one-party state. Calls for change mounted in the 1990s as political scandals rocked the country and the government proved un­ able to deal with a severe economic recession.The LD P lost the election of 1993 but it still remains the most pow­ erful party in the country. Electoral reform has produced little change, and young Japanese seem disinterested in electoral politics.

North Korea communist dictatorship

Chief of State: president Head of Government: premier

Supreme People’s Assembly (687)

one-party

North Korea is a totalitarian communist state, which was dominated by Kim II Sung until his death in 1994. He established a personal dictatorship that isolated North Korea from the world community and ruthlessly sup­ pressed dissent In a move unprece­ dented in the communist world, he named his son as his successor. In the late 1990s the government remained reluctant to open the nation to the out­ side world even in the face of a devas­ tating famine.

South Korea presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

National Assembly (299)

multiparty

For many years an authoritarian state. South Korea began its move toward democracy in 1987, prompted, in part, by dynamic economic growth that created conditions conducive to demo­ cratic government. Korean democracy has not been institutionalized, and the people’s commitment to democratic rule is uncertain.

Mongolia

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

State Great Hural (76)

multiparty

Once the prototype of a Soviet satellite, Mongolia made a comparatively smooth transition to democracy in the 1990s. Aided by a relatively homogeneous pop­ ulation, much of which is involved in poli­ tical life, as well as the development of education and communications, the nation is now institutionalizing its democracy.

Taiwan

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: premier

L Legislative Yan (225) U: National Assembly (334)

multiparty

Taiwan is a rare example of an authori­ tarian state whose government gradually let go of power and promoted democ­ racy. Its rapid transition from a limited democracy to a full democracy between 1986 and 1996 was a political miracle in 20th-century Chinese politics, making Taiwan the first Chinese democracy.

36

Asia, East

___

So u th K o re a

his ties to his predecessor’s regime, moved toward

The Republic of Korea is a model of an authoritarian

democracy. Parliamentary elections were held in 1988 in

system that sponsored economic growth and develop­

which for the first time in South Korea’s history the gov­

ment only to set the stage for a transition to democracy. Korea has a long history of authoritarian rule under na­ tive dynasties and, from 1910 to 1945, as a Japanese

erning party failed to obtain a majority. In 1992 Kim Young Sam became the first civilian to win the presi­ dency since 1960.

colony. After World War II the nation was formally divided

The process of democratization that began in 1987

into two states: the Republic of Korea (South Korea) and

made South Korean society more open and diverse than

the Democratic People’s Republic (North Korea). Syngman

it had ever been before. The mass media were freed from

Rhee was elected the first president of South Korea by its

government restrictions, thousands of political prisoners

National Assembly. His government initially attempted to

were released from prison and long-suppressed labor

establish a constitutional democracy, but in response to

unions were permitted to organize. Nevertheless, many

the Korean War and the continuing threat of aggression

elements of democracy have not been institutionalized.

from the North, Rhee established a brutal, authoritarian regime. Student demonstrations brought down the gov­

Political parties, for example, are still organized on the basis of personalities. More importantly, the popular

ernment in 1960. The parliamentary government of Chang

commitment to democracy remains uncertain. A public

Myon, which followed Rhee’s regime, was considered the

opinion survey conducted in 1992 showed that a large

most democratic government in South Korea’s history. In

percentage of the South Korean population still sup­

1960 it was overthrown in a military coup led by General

ported an authoritarian political culture.

Park Chung Hee. Park, who assumed the presidency, ruled the nation

M o n g o lia

with an iron fist, disbanding all opposition political par­

Until the 1990s Mongolia had no experience with

ties and democracy movements in the name of national

democracy and, for much of the 20th century, it was the

security. In 1979 Park was assassinated by his own secu­

prototype of the Soviet satellite state. Historically, Mon­

rity chief over disagreements about how to cope with in­

golian politics was concentrated in the hands of a hered­

creasing disorder and demands for democracy. Following

itary nobility and powerful lam as (Tibetan Buddhist

a brief period of liberalization, the military again seized

monks). The people had no active role in government.

power. General Chun Doo Hwan established the most re­

China occupied the nation from 1636 until 1911 when

pressive regime in modern Korean history. He banned all

the Mongolians, with the backing of Czarist Russia, de­

political activity, jailed dissenters, censored the press,

clared an independent monarchy under the leadership of

closed the universities and suspended parliament.

the head of the lamaist church, who became the B ogdo

While suppressing dissent, the government engaged

Gegen, the head of state. A decade of political turmoil

in a program of aggressive economic development dur­

followed, ending when the communist Mongolian Peo­

ing the 1960s and 1970s that transformed the nation from

ple’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP) gained power in 1921

a predominantly rural, agricultural country to an urban,

with Soviet support. When the B ogdo Gegen died in

industrial nation. Literacy rates rose, systems of mass

1924, the MPRP set up a government modeled after that

communication developed and a middle class emerged,

of the Soviet Union. The government ruthlessly de­

all factors considered strongly conducive to democracy.

stroyed lamaism, conducted a series of purges that dec­

In the late 1980s a democratic movement led by stu­

imated the traditional political elite and attempted to im­

dents and intellectuals and including many members of the middle class forced Chun to hold elections. Against

country. In 1939 Horloogiyn Choibalsan gained power.

pose agricultural collectivization, which savaged the

the background of civil disorder, Roh Tae Woo, the gen­

For the next 13 years he ruled as a Stalinist dictator, with

eral’s chosen presidential candidate, promised that

virtually no consultation with formal governmental bod­

Chun’s successor would be elected by popular vote in a

ies. At his death in 1952 he was succeeded by the more

free election under a democratic constitution. Roh, who had helped Chun seize power, won the race, and despite

moderate Yumjagiyn Tsedenbal whose attempts at in­ dustrialization left the nation’s economy in ruins.

Asia, South

37

During the 1980s a nationalistic generation of young,

Party was committed to democratic development, but

pragmatic politicians emerged who demanded an end to

only on its schedule and under its conditions. Because of

political corruption as well as bureaucratic lethargy and

the severity of external and internal threats, the Nation­

incompetence. As the Soviet Union loosened its grip on

alist leadership waited until the spring of 1986 to reform

its client states in the late 1980s, opposition to the regime

the polity.

grew, forcing the government to hold elections in 1990.

The speed of democratization was unprecedented in

The MPRP, which had the benefit of an established or­

Chinese history. The government ended press censorship

ganization, won an overwhelming majority of seats in

and permitted the operation of political parties even be­

parliament and took the presidency. Two years later a

fore lifting martial law in 1987. The transition to democ­

new constitution established a democratic system of gov­

racy was not only permitted but also encouraged by the

ernment. The communists lost the 1996 election, mark­

government of President Lee Teng-hui. Under his guid­

ing the first transition from communism to democratic

ance, the Temporary Provisions were annulled in 1991

rule in Asia.

and the constitution later amended to provide for a mul­ tiparty democracy and the popular election of the presi­

Taiwan A small island about 100 miles off the coast of main­ land China, Taiwan provides a rare example of an au­ thoritarian state gradually letting go of power to promote

dent. The rapid transition to full democracy in Taiwan was a political miracle in 20th-century Chinese politics, making Taiwan the first Chinese democracy. S ee also China, Japan.

a democratic political system. The central government of the Republic of China and its ruling Nationalist Party moved from the mainland to Taiwan in 1949, after being defeated in a civil war by the

A SIA , SOUTH

communists. The government of the Republic of China

A region encompassing seven countries—Afghanistan,

insisted that it represented the mainland provinces and

Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

that the regime of the communist People’s Republic was illegitimate.

With the exception of India and Sri Lanka, the nations in this area have virtually no democratic traditions. Their

To underscore that claim, the Republic of China in

political histories have been characterized by authori­

1948 had added to its 1947 constitution amendments,

tarian rule, and political instability and civil war have been common.

called the Temporary Provisions, which were to be ef­ fective during the ongoing period of communist rebel­ lion. These nullified much of the constitution and

A fg h a n ista n

granted the president great powers. Upon their arrival in

Until 1973 Afghanistan was a traditional monarchy

Taiwan, the Nationalists exercised these provisions, to

whose rulers maintained power by manipulating tribal

include declaring martial law, which enabled military

disputes and ethnic rivalries. Politics was dominated by

courts to prosecute any individuals or groups threaten­

tribal struggles to preserve autonomy from the central

ing national security. This action served to guarantee that

government and by government efforts to impose reform

no political party would organize to challenge National­

on a conservative population. The overthrow of the

ist Party domination.

monarchy in 1973 led to a decade of political instability

The Nationalist government controlled Taiwan’s soci­

in which Marxists and Islamic groups contended for

ety rigidly and dealt harshly with dissent. The govern­

power. In 1979 a Soviet invasion to bolster the struggling Marxist regime led to a national uprising that devastated

ment conducted a campaign of “white terror” in the 1950s, arresting anyone alleged to be a critic of or a threat to the government and the ruling party. It is estimated that tens of thousands of people were incarcerated for varying periods. Unlike the communists, however, the Nationalist

the country. In the 14 years of war that followed the econ­ omy was decimated and 10 percent of the population was either killed or maimed. The Soviet Union began withdrawing its troops in 1988. Four year later the resistance fighters, the mujahidin, came

38

Asia, South

TAJ1M STAN

to power, but within days factional disputes within the

IIJRK.MINISTAN

group precipitated another civil war. Amid the chaos a fun­

C H IN A

damentalist Islamic student organization, the Taliban, grad­

- C h i n j anci Indii

w n »w d by China

A FG H A N IST A N

ually emerged that filled the political vacuum. The Taliban disarmed the mujahidin and brought peace to much of the nation. In so doing, however, the movement imposed a

BHUTAN

PAKISTAN

H*:.w

strict, puritanical version of Islam. Law is based on the Sharia, the Islamic code that stipulates that thieves have

BANGLADESH

their hands amputated and adulterers be stoned. Women’s .THAILAND ^

Arabian Sea

BURMA

Bay of Bengal NICOBAR f ISLANDS *

LACCADIVE \ ISLANDS

(IN DIA ) ®

(INDIA)

completely veiled in public and may have no contact with men outside their families, thus preventing them from working and limiting their educational opportunities. The Department of the Propagation of Virtue and the Suppres­ sion of Vice ensures compliance with religious regulation. Under such a system, there can be no democracy.

SRI LA N K A MALDIVES i*.

rights have been dramatically curtailed. They must be

Indian Ocean

B a n g la d e s h

In 1947 the Bangladesh region became part of the newly created state of Pakistan; it was separated geo­ graphically by India from the rest of the nation 1,000 miles to the west. After a bitter civil war, Bangladesh de­ clared its independence in 1971. For 20 years thereafter

SO U T H A SIA C o u n tr y

Type o f G o v e rn m e n t

Executive

Le gislatu re

Pa rty S y ste m

Afghanistan

transitional

Chief of State and Head of Governm ent chairman of the provisional government council

none

multiparty

Bangladesh

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Parliament (330)

multiparty

Bhutan

monarchy

Chief of State: monarch Head of Government: monarch

National Assembly (1 SO)

none

India

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Union Parliament I: House of the People (545) U: Council of States (250)

multiparty

Nepal

constitutional monarchy

Chief of State: king Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L House of Representatives

multiparty

(205) U: National Council (60) Pakistan

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Federal Legislature L: National Assembly (217) U: Senate (87)

multiparty

Sri Lanka

presidential-parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Governm ent president

Parliament (225)

multiparty

Asia, South

39

the nation experienced authoritarian rule, with changes

For the first half of the 20th century the Wangchuk kings

of government coming through coups or assassinations.

ruled as absolute monarchs, but in 1953 the king estab­

Although its constitution was never abrogated, it was

lished an elected national assembly (the Tshogdu) with

often suspended or changed to meet the needs of the cur­

limited power over some legislative matters. The king

rent ruler. Politics centered around a patron-client sys­

still has final voice in decision-making although, since

tem in which government spending provided the regime

1968, he can be removed by a two-thirds vote of the

with its support.

Tshogdu.

Civil unrest in 1990 prompted the military to force the

The present king, Jigme Singye Wangchuk, who as­

resignation of the president, but rather than impose a re­

cended the thrown in 1972, has attempted to open the

pressive regime, it established a neutral caretaker govern­

political system both informally and formally. He has

ment that permitted honest elections the following year.

been careful to ascertain the sentiments of the Tshogdu

In 1996 the provision that elections always be held under

before initiating policy and has instituted a program of

caretaker governments became part of the constitution.

decentralization under which elected local officials are

This amendment raises hope for the future of parlia­

given a major voice in economic and social issues. He

mentary government. Nevertheless, democracy remains

has also established an autonomous judiciary and intro­

fragile. Political institutions are weak, the opposition

duced a legal code that combines traditional Buddhist

often operates outside the constitutional system and in­

laws with modern principles of jurisprudence.

terest groups necessary to balance the power of the regime are virtually nonexistent.

In the late 1980s the king instituted a broad program designed to preserve Bhutanese culture. Dzongka became the national language and all Bhutanese, regardless of

B h u ta n

ethnic background, were required to wear national dress.

Bhutan is a hereditary monarchy with no democratic

The program met with serious opposition from the

tradition. The nation has no constitution or bill of rights.

Nepalese minority in the south. Many fled the country or

Political Conditions Afghanistan remains divided among various ethnic and Islamic factions, with civil war fanned by foreign involvement.The country has no functioning government, although the fundamentalist Islamic Taliban movement, which controls the capital and approximately two-thirds of the country, has declared itself the legitimate regime. In areas under its control, the group has significantly curtailed rights, particularly for women. Bangladesh achieved independence from Pakistan in 1971 after massive civil strife. Since that time it has had difficulty consolidating democratic institutions. Elections are orchestrated by the party in power to maintain its position, and neither the norms of government formation nor policy development have been institutionalized. Long an absolute monarchy, Bhutan is moving toward limited government.Although decision-making still rests with the king, he is careful to ascertain the views of the National Assembly, which has been granted some legislative powers. During the 1980s the king introduced a policy of decentralization that has given local elected officials a major voice on economic and social issues. Since achieving independence from British rule in 1947, India has remained a democracy despite ethnic and caste cleavages, massive poverty and a hierarchical social structure, all conditions considered inhospitable for the functioning of democratic governmentThe biggest threats to Indian democracy during the 1990s were the weakening of its political party system and the emergence of Hindu nationalism. Nepal has been a monarchy since unification in the 18th century.A brief experiment with parliamentary government in 1959 ended when the king dissolved the legislature the following year. Political pressure ultimately led to the establishment of a parliamentary democracy in 1990. Nepal's democracy remains fragile. Political parties are fragmented, making governing difficult, and the king still maintains significant power. Founded in 1947, Pakistan has been viewed by many political scientists as a test case for Islamic democracy.As such it compares well with other constitutionally Islamic states. But when measured by the extent of popular participation, the effectiveness of representative institutions and commitment to a constitutional order, democratic rule in Pakistan has been inconsistent and shallow. For more than half the time since its founding, it has experienced military rule. Its first peaceful transfer of power occurred in 1988 and no government has completed its term of office since the lifting of martial law in 1985. The army again seized power in 1999. From the 1930s on, Sri Lanka developed a strong tradition of constitutional, democratic practice. In the 1980s, however, ethnic tensions between the Tamils and the Sinhala led to a civil war in which an estimated 30,000 people died and hundreds of thousands became refugees. Peace was restored in 1992, but communal differences remain acute, and militant, radical Tamil groups are still a problem in some areas.

40

Asia, South

joined a resistance movement that continues to harass

A brief experiment in parliamentary democracy in

border communities from bases in Nepal. In response,

1959 ended the following year, when the king sus­

Bhutanese political leaders have discussed expelling rel­

pended the constitution and banned all political parties,

atives of the dissidents, a proposal the king opposes.

which he denounced as divisive and anti-national. In

Nevertheless, the issue remains a threat to Bhutan’s po­

1961 he instituted what he called the p an ch a y a t system

litical system.

of guided, “partyless democracy” to mask his personal­

In d ia

port and the king maintained his power through coer­

ized rule. The system failed to attract widespread sup­ India has been a democracy since independence from

cion and patronage.

Britain in 1947. There have been only three moments of

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s agitation for demo­

serious challenge to democratic government: when eth­

cratic reform continued, and in the wake of the wave of

nic and caste conflicts erupted in the late 1960s; when

democratization that swept the world in the late 1980s,

Prime Minister Indira Gandhi suspended democracy for

Nepal became a parliamentary democracy in 1990.

a year and a half in the mid-1970s; and when Hindu-

Nepalese democracy remains fragile. Squabbling be­

Muslim rioting broke out in the early 1990s. This re­

tween and within parties makes governing difficult,

markable record is all the more extraordinary given the

strikes and violence by the radical left plague the gov­

number of conditions traditionally considered inhos­

ernment, and the king still wields significant power.

pitable to democracy: a huge number of ethnic and reli­ gious groups speaking more than 200 languages and di­

P ak istan

alects; a strict class structure; extreme poverty; extensive

A constitutionally Islamic country, Pakistan was cre­

illiteracy; and frequent ethnic clashes, especially be­

ated in August 1947 as the British, hurriedly departing,

tween Hindus and Muslims.

partitioned colonial India in the wake of massive Hindu-

The success of India’s democratic system is based on

Muslim conflict. Since independence Pakistan has pur­

several factors. First, the Congress Party, which has dom­

sued a very different course than India and has had a

inated politics since before independence, has operated

much more troubled and shallow experience with de­

on the basis of consensus and inclusion and has empha­

mocratic rule than its neighbor.

sized nonviolence. Second, the nation had significant ex­

For more than half the time since its founding, Pak­

perience in self-rule before independence. Finally, the

istan has experienced military rule. A parliamentary vote

men who led India to independence were dedicated to

in 1970 was the first conducted under universal suffrage,

constitutional government and provided a strong demo­

and the election of 1988 was the first in which a trans­

cratic foundation.

fer of power occurred smoothly, without military inter­

India’s democracy remains strong but faces serious

ference. The army again took power in 1999. No govern­

challenges from continuing conflict between Hindus and

ment has completed its term of office since the lifting of

Muslims, the fragmentation of the Congress Party and the

martial law in 1985. In 1990 a popularly chosen prime

rise of Hindu nationalism.

minister was dismissed, and the federal legislature was dissolved by a president who had been chosen indirectly.

N e p al Nepal has a history of monarchical and oligarchic rule that has restricted the development of democratic institutions. Nepal’s modern history began when the

When, in 1993, the same president again attempted to re­ move a government, his action was overturned by Pak­ istan’s Supreme Court.

present king’s ancestor unified the nation in 1768. Dur­

For many years Pakistan’s leaders saw no need to cul­ tivate popular support, and the people, in turn, had little

ing the 19th century power passed from the king to a

understanding of the kind of vigilance necessary for cit­

succession of influential families, whose members be­ came hereditary prime ministers. In 1951 a revolt by the

izens to hold political leaders accountable. Power was concentrated in the hands of an elitist bureaucracy and

people and the king, supported by India, restored monarchical rule.

an overbearing military. Large, wealthy landowning fam­ ilies remained the traditional power brokers, prepared to

Asia, Southeast

41

lend support to any leader who promised to protect their

versity. Tamils, in turn, agitated for some form of auton­

interests.

omy, and radical groups pushed for secession. In the

Political observers have suggested many reasons for

1980s tensions erupted into civil war.

Pakistan’s comparative lack of democracy. Some cite a

Peace was restored in 1992, and the following year Sri

poor quality of leadership and failures of institutional

Lanka returned to orderly democratic processes. Never­

design, while others point to the absence of a supportive,

theless, communal differences remain acute, and the

participatory political culture. Still other observers point

government faces a seemingly intractable revolt from the

out that elected officials have had difficulty competing

radical Tamil Liberation Tigers in the northern part of the

with a military that is integrated, disciplined and re­

island.

spected. Pakistan’s institutions are sufficiently weak and

S ee also India.

discredited, and its politicians are held in enough con­ tempt, that the military has easily dislodged them. Finally, many trace the problem to Islamic tradition.

A SIA , SOUTHEAST

The most common assertion is that Islam, by basing ul­ timate authority on God’s word, must reject the principle

Region that encompasses the nations of Brunei, Burma

that sovereignty lies with the will of the people. Like­

(Myanmar), Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the

wise, Islam fails to support democratic values because

Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.

it makes no provision for legitimate opposition. To many,

The number and variety of countries in Southeast

Islam also has a particular reverence for the military be­

Asia make it the most diverse region in Asia. Culturally

cause its concept of holy war gives the military the kind

the area is a kaleidoscope of differing racial, linguistic

of prestige that inevitably leaves civilian-run democratic

and religious communities. Politically, nine different

rule vulnerable.

types of regime were represented in the late 1990s. These

For democracy to prosper in Pakistan, it must survive

ranged from an unconstitutional military junta (Burma)

the elites that subvert it in pursuit of economic interests,

and an absolute monarchy without parties or elections

ideologies and personal ambitions. Despite the common

(Brunei) to an American-style presidential-legislative

religious identity, its varied ethnic groups have yet to

democracy (Philippines). Most regimes limit individual

shed the resentment and distrust that deny Pakistan its

rights; Freedom House, a New York-based organization

full nationhood.

that monitors changing levels of freedom around the w’orld, branded Southeast Asia the least free region in

Sri Lanka A British colony (called Ceylon) from 1815, Sri Lanka

Asia. In its 1998-99 survey, Freedom House rated only two Southeast Asian countries as “free,” the Philippines

achieved independence in 1948. From the 1930s on, Sri

and Thailand. Rated “partly free” were Indonesia,

Lanka developed a strong tradition of constitutional, de­ mocratic practice. Elections were regular and fair and the

Malaysia and Singapore, leaving Brunei, Burma, Cam­ bodia, Laos and Vietnam classified as “not free.”

nation had a high level of political participation. This record was all the more remarkable because the country is a complex multiethnic society. The Sinhala-speaking majority, mostly Buddhist, make up 70 percent of the population. Tamils, mostly Hindu and speaking Tamil,

H isto ric a l B a c k g ro u n d The region’s lack of freedom is a result of a number of political variables, including violence, organization and ideology. War has been endemic to parts of the area.

are the nation’s principal minority, representing 12 per­

Burma, for example, has suffered from civil war and in­

cent of the population. In the 1980s and 1990s, however, clashes between

wars since World War II.

these groups challenged the democratic political system. Majority leaders began emphasizing the Sinhala charac­ ter of the nation and restricted Tamil recruitment into the national police and military service as well as the uni­

surrection since independence; Indochina has seen three Burma’s civil wars have been more numerous and longer lasting than those of any other Southeast Asian state. Shortly after independence in 1948 local commu­ nists rebelled, and over the years several ethnic minori­

42

Asia, Southeast

S O U T H E A S T A S IA C ou n try

Type of Governm ent

Executive

Legislature

Party System

Brunei

absolute monarchy

Chief of State: sultan Head of Government: sultan

Legislative Council (21)

none

Burma

military dictatorship

Chief of State and Head of Government: none prime minister & chairman of the State Law and O rder Restoration Council

Cambodia

constitutional monarchy

Chief of State: monarch Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (120)

multiparty

Indonesia

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

L: People’s Representative Council (no fixed number) U: People’s Consultative Assembly (no fixed number)

multiparty

Laos

communist dictatorship

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (85)

one-party

Malaysia

constitutional monarchy

Chief of State: elected king Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament L House of Representatives (192) U: Senate (68)

multiparty

Philippines

presidential

Chief of State: president Head of Government: president

Congress L: House of Representatives (226) U: Senate (24)

multiparty

Singapore

parliamentary

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

Parliament (83)

dominant party

Thailand

constitutional monarchy

Chief of State: monarch Head of Government: president

National Assembly L: House of Representatives (393) U: Senate (270)

multiparty

Vietnam

communist dictatorship

Chief of State: president Head of Government: prime minister

National Assembly (450)

one-party

none

ties took up arms. Fearing that rebellion and domestic

following the withdrawal of U.S. forces, the communists

political discord threatened national unity, the military

won this Second Indochina War. A scant three years later

seized control in 1962. Since that time it has held real

Vietnam invaded and occupied Cambodia. Although

power either directly or through military-dominated

Vietnam announced in 1989 that it had withdrawn its

civilian regimes. In 1990 the junta annulled the results of

troops from Cambodia, the Cambodian core of this Third

a free election and has since ruthlessly crushed any signs

Indochina War continued into the early 1990s.

of opposition.

Alongside endemic violence, centralized organiza­

Indochina has seen war for most of the last half of the

tion and socialist ideology further stymied whatever po­

20th century. The First Indochina War (1946-54) ended

tential these countries may have had to become liberal

in the French military defeat at Dien Bien Phu, a nego­

dem ocracies. Burm a’s m ilitary regime, for example,

tiated division of Vietnam in 1954 and the establishment

headed a one-party state from 1964 to 1988 that badly

of a communist state in North Vietnam. Within five years

mismanaged the economy in the name of a “Burm ese

warfare resumed in the south between the U.S.-backed

way to socialism .” In Cambodia in the 1960s Prince

state of Vietnam and its communist opponents. In 1975,

Norodom Sihanouk advocated “royal Buddhist social-

Asia, Southeast

43

Political Conditions Brunei is an Islamic autocracy with no democratic procedures; all power and authority derive from the sultan.The Legislative Council is an advisory body appointed by the sultan. Political parties are banned. Burma has been under military dictatorship or military-dominated government since 1962.The State Law and Order Restoration Council, which seized power in 1988, has suspended the constitution and rules with apparently unlimited power.The regime has violently repressed the pro-democracy movement.

After suffering genocide and decades of war, Cambodia became a constitutional monarchy in 1991, but the coalition that governed following elections in 1993 disintegrated by the end of the decade. Prime Minister Hun Sen has begun consolidating power and cracking down on the opposition. Political as­ sassinations are common, and law and order have begun to disintegrate. Modern Indonesia history has been dominated by General Suharto, who took power following a military coup in 1966. His regime, whileeconomically developing the nation, was characterized by corruption, political repression and human rights abuses. Massive riots in the wake ofthedownturn in the Asian economy in the late 1990s led to his resignation in l998.The country held democratic elections the following year.

Laos is a communist dictatorship in which political life is controlled by the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party.Although a constitution promulgated in 1991 modernized the political system, it did not permit political pluralism. Malaysia is formally a parliamentary democracy with a history of political stability.Yet it is considered a quasi-democracy because of limitations on civil liberties. The prime minister has succeeded in controlling the bureaucracy, the political parties, the judiciary, the press and the sultans from whom the king is chosen. Since 1987 he has moved toward authoritarian rule. Opposition to his regime has led to mass detentions.

After independence from the United States in 1946, the Philippines became known as Southeast Asia’s “showcase democracy,” albeit one plagued by corruption and insurgency. In 1972 President Fernando Marcos declared martial law and ruled as a dictator until 1986, when massive demonstrations brought down his government.The nation returned to democratic rule with the adoption of a democratic constitution in 1987. Yet while the Philippines is constitutionally a democracy, its politics is dominated by a few politically powerful clans. Although constitutionally a parliamentary democracy, Singapore is in fact a one-party state dominated by the People’s Action Party. Government is hierarchical and centralized. Influenced by Confucian philosophy, the society emphasizes communitarian values rather than individualism, strong state intervention and discipline. Thailand’s steady progress toward democracy in the late 1980s was temporarily ended by a military coup in 1991. Democratic civilian government was restored the following year through the intervention of the king, but the coalition governments that have followed have proved unstable.

In recent decades Vietnam has undertaken market-oriented reform while retaining political power in the hands of its Communist Party. The dominant Confucian philosophy, which emphasizes order and authority, coupled with the party’s role in improving material conditions, ensures it will continue to control the government.

ism .” P o litical rivalries and a local com m u n ist revolt

Econom ic and Political R e fo rm s

led Sihanouk to assume special powers in 1 9 6 7 , only to

In com m unist Indochina political reform did not a c­

be ousted three years later in a m ilitary coup that

com pany the m arket-oriented econ om ic reform s of the

plunged the cou ntry into civ il war. In 1 9 7 5 Pol Pot's

1 9 8 0 s and 1 9 9 0 s. Instead, rulers assum ed that m arket-

com m unists established a Leninist state w ith a fanati­

based policies w ould revive the econom y and, therefore,

cally anticapitalist agrarian ideology and set about de­

strengthen the authoritarian state and eliminate the need

stroying w hat urban ed u cated class there w as. The

for liberalizing political reforms. The Laotian con stitu ­

regim e im posed on C am bodia by its Vietnam ese in ­

tion, drafted in 1 9 9 1 , w hile endorsing the econ om ic

vaders in 197 9 , though m uch less brutal and m ore prag­

changes, nevertheless also enshrined the continuation of

m atic than Pol P o t’s had been, brooked no opposition

a one-party state. A dvocates of political pluralism have

to the ru le o f its ow n Len in ist party. N eith er did the

been jailed. In both Laos and Vietnam, new constitutions

com m u n ist regim es in the S ocialist R epublic of Viet­

(Vietnam’s in 1992) and laws created a basis of author­

nam and the Lao P eop le’s D em ocratic Republic.

ity other than that of the Com m unist Party. V ietnam ’s constitution stated that the ruling Com m unist Party was

44

Asia, Southeast

THAILAND '

Bangkok

[C A M B O fl

Port Moresby

Jakarta

not above the law. Yet in

tion.” In Thailand the promise of 1992, a banner year for

both Laos and Vietnam it

democratization, faded into wrangling over constitutional

proved difficult to imple­

amendments. The new constitution was finally signed in

ment written laws against

1997, and the situation there has improved enough for

the wishes of party conser­

Freedom House to classify the country as “free.”

vatives.

In Malaysia and Singapore years of rapid economic growth, far from bringing significant political liberaliza­

P ro sp e cts fo r D em o cracy Prospects for the advent of liberal democracy in South­

tion, institutionalized existing political practices. In Brunei the long-awaited democratizing effect of students

east Asia have not been encouraging. In Cambodia de­

returning with Western ideas has not materialized. As for

mand for the elections that were finally held in May 1993

the Philippines, the formally liberal democracy has been,

arose not from the Khmer people but from international

in practice, burdened with cronyism, venal elites and

negotiations to end the Third Indochina War. Although

stalemated institutions ill suited to achieving the rates of

the balloting succeeded in isolating Pol Pot’s followers,

economic growth enjoyed by its more overtly authoritar­

the Khmer Rouge, it also resulted in a divided govern­

ian neighbors.

ment whose two prime ministers, Hun Sen and Prince

The Asian economic crisis that began in 1997 hit

Norodom Ranariddh, were still unable to defeat the Khmer Rouge. Moreover, by 1997 relations between the

Southeast Asia particularly hard. As a result, currencies lost value, unemployment rose and standards of living

Cambodian prime ministers had deteriorated into civil

plummeted. The downturn had a dramatic effect on In­

war. Hun Sen’s followers deposed the prince in July 1997

donesia. There the economic reforms required by the In­

and then cracked down on his followers. In 1998 Pol Pot

ternational Monetary Fund as a condition for aid led to

died and several Khmer Rouge leaders were welcomed back to Cambodian society in the name of “reconcilia­

riots and demonstrations that were largely responsible for the downfall of the authoritarian president, Suharto,

Assembly, Freedom of

45

who had governed the country since 1966. Nevertheless,

and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights,

democracy in the archipelago is fragile. As the region’s governments keep an eye out for further unrest, it is pos­

contain the right.

sible that repression may be used to keep order, further

While all nations guaranteeing the right require as­ sembly to be “peaceable” and “lawful,” some countries

inhibiting democratic progress.

are more protective of unconventional and potentially

All this does not mean that democracy has no future in

disruptive assembly than others. The United States pro­

Southeast Asia. Rather, one may expect that diversity will probably continue to characterize the region’s polities—

tects hate speech and dangerous speech that fall short of threatening imminent lawless action, but most countries

including effective autocracies and illiberal democracies.

prohibit racist and hate speech in public assemblies and

In the long run, economic development could well liber­ alize these relatively closed polities. But in the near term,

more readily permit restriction of disorderly assembly. The German Basic Law, for example, prohibits associa­

one should not overestimate the prospects for liberal

tions whose purposes or actions are counter to the prin­

democracy through economic growth in Southeast Asia.

ciples of democratic order and mutual understanding among people. These differences stem from diverse his­

ASSEMBLY, FREEDOM OF The right to petition the government for redress of griev­ ances and to meet for other political purposes. Freedom of assembly protects the people’s right to ex­ press their views in a variety of ways including picket­

torical experiences and the varied understandings of de­ mocratic citizenship that prevail among countries. The A m erican Experience Freedom of assembly is guaranteed under the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibits

ing, demonstrating and lobbying. It has permitted the cre­

any law “abridging . . . the right of the people to peace­ ably assemble and to petition the Government for a re­

ation of political parties and labor organizations as well as special interest groups. Freedom of assembly is inter­

dress of grievances.” Over the past century the Supreme Court has developed a broad understanding of this free­

twined with freedom of speech. The right to express one­

dom, rarely denying the right to assemble or petition the

self is guaranteed by freedom of speech; the scope of that

government. Nevertheless, the Court has put some re­ strictions on assembly to protect other people’s rights or

right is extended by freedom of assembly. Freedom of assembly is one of the hallmarks of a de­ mocratic society. It is explicitly affirmed in many con­ stitutions and is supported by practice and proclamation in democratic systems without written constitutions. H isto ry The right of freedom of assembly was born in 1215 when England’s King John signed the Magna Carta, grant­ ing nobles the right to petition the Crown. Four centuries later, the right was formally extended to all English sub­ jects in the Bill of Rights (1689). All six of the nations that had written constitutions before the 20th century (Argentina, Belgium, Luxem­ bourg, Norway, Switzerland and the United States) rec­ ognized or alluded to freedom of assembly in their con­ stitutions. More recent constitutions, including those of Germany, Ireland and Japan, have incorporated similar provisions. In addition, several international covenants, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

because of a compelling government interest. The Court initially viewed freedom of assembly nar­ rowly, ruling in United States v. C ruikshank (1876) that the right was limited to petitioning Congress or other­ wise influencing the federal government. Agitation for a broader understanding grew in the first decades of the 20th century as radical groups such as the Industrial Workers of the World challenged laws restricting their gatherings. Union leaders, too, contested curbs on or­ ganizing or picketing during labor disputes. These groups succeeded in arousing widespread debate over First Amendment freedoms, including the freedom of assembly. The Supreme Court extended the boundaries of free assembly during the 1930s. In Dejunge v. Oregon (1937) it held that the freedom of assembly was as important as freedom of speech and ruled that the due process clause of the 14th Amendment protected this right from state and local government interference. Two years later, in

46

Athenian Democracy

H ague v. C.I.O., the Court established what became

Cleisthenes, who lived at the end of the sixth century,

known as the public forum doctrine, protecting the right

is credited with creating the institutions associated with

to assemble in places, such as parks, that historically

Athenian democracy. In an appeal for political power to

have been used for public gatherings. In 1941 the Court

the people, Cleisthenes “founded” democracy by reorga­

declared in Cox v. N ew H am pshire that a state could not

nizing the city. Until his time, citizenship was based on

limit freedom of assembly because a demonstration’s

descent from one of the four tribes that had founded

message was unpopular.

Athens. Cleisthenes replaced these tribes with ten arti­

The Court has restricted freedom of assembly in order

ficially created tribes, composed of locally based admin­

to ensure public order and to protect private property. In

istrative units, or dem es, which were themselves divided

Cox v. N ew H am pshire it upheld the right of local gov­

into three sub-units. Each of the tribes contained dem es

ernments to require parade permits because such laws

from three distinct geographic areas, thus ensuring that

were not designed to silence unpopular ideas but to en­

each tribe contained members of various families from

sure that demonstrations would not interfere with other

different parts of the city-state.

citizens’ rights to use public spaces. In the case of Feiner

It was following Cleisthenes’s reorganization that

v. N ew York (1951) it ruled that the police could stop a

Athens, in the fifth century

demonstration “when the speaker passes the bounds of

mocratic institutions. The Assembly replaced the aristo­

argument and undertakes incitement to riot.” During the

cratically dominated Areopagus (Council of Elders) as the

1960s and 1970s it also restricted assembly that inter­

center of the city’s decision-making. Participation was

fered with the normal use of property. Using this criteria,

open to all citizens. Citizenship at first required only an

it prohibited picketing outside jails and banned demon­

Athenian father but by mid-century both parents had to be

strations on military bases. One of the most controversial

from the city-state. An executive council determined the

contemporary issues involving the freedom of assembly

agenda for each meeting of the Assembly and formulated

is the right of anti-abortion groups to block access to pri­

draft proposals. The Assembly convened about 40 times

bce,

developed its major de­

vate abortion clinics. The Court has been unwilling to

each year. Membership on the executive council, which

protect this type of assembly.

was determined by lot, changed each month, while the chair, also chosen by lot, changed each day. The courts were also open to all citizens; service again was deter­

ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY First recorded development of democratic institutions.

mined by lot. All offices in the city were likewise assigned by lot. It is estimated that close to 1,000 positions were filled this way each year.

The political transformation of Athens from a landed

At the end of a year of service, all public officers

aristocracy to a democracy began in the early sixth cen­

were subjected to scrutiny to ensure that no untoward

tury BCE with the reforms of Solon, the elected leader of

actions, particularly embezzlements, marred their ser­

Athens in 5 9 4 BCE. Faced with social unrest, Solon tried

vice. Toward the end of the fifth century, officers re­

to balance the conflicts between the rich and poor by en­

ceived modest remuneration for their service, as did

acting laws controlling consumption and display, freeing

those attending the Assembly. The major elected offi­

those men who had sold themselves into bondage and

cials were the ten military commanders. Pericles (c.

opening political offices to a wider portion of the popu­

495-429

lation. In poems describing his reforms he emphasized

racy, derived his political power from his repeated

that all members of the city, not the gods, w’ere responsi­ ble for saving the city and maintaining the principles of

yearly election as a commander. Scholars debate the degree to which Athenians actu­

justice. Although Solon did not institutionalize democ­

ally participated in their democracy. Recent archaeolog­

racy in Athens, and his reforms were almost immediately replaced by the tyranny of Peisistratus, he articulated the principles of community action and responsibility central

ical work suggests that the site where the Assembly met had space for only 6,000 individuals, and, though that number is large, it is a fraction of the 20,000-30,000

to the emergence of a democratic regime.

Athenian citizens eligible to attend. Participation in the

b c e ),

the renowned leader of Athenian democ­

Australia and New Zealand

47

life of the city, however, did not depend only on the As­ sembly. There were many offices to be filled at the city and dem e levels. Calculations of the number of citizens and of offices to be filled suggest that few citizens could have avoided serving in an office during their lifetimes. Athenian democracy disappeared with the battle of Chaeronea in 338

bce,

when Philip of Macedon con­

quered Greece and subjected the Greek city-states to Macedonian rule.

AUNG SAN SUU KYI (19 4 5 - ) Leader of the movement for democracy in Myanmar and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. Aung San Suu Kyi was born in Yangon (formerly Ran­ goon, Burma) into a prominent political family. Her mother was a diplomat. Her father, Aung San, was the founder of an independent Burma. He was assassinated in 1947 along with most of his cabinet. Aung San Suu Kyi spent most of her early life abroad. She was educated in India, where her mother was ambassador, and Eng­ land, where she attended Oxford University.

Aung San Suu Kyi

In 1988 Aung San Suu Kyi returned to Myanmar, which was then under the control of a harsh military gov­ ernment. Determined to fight for democracy, in August

pressure, she was released from house arrest in 1995 but

1988 she helped found the National League for Democ­

forbidden to lead the NLD. Despite such restrictions, she

racy (NLD). The National League opposed the ruling

continues to speak out against government repression

Burma Socialist Program Party and subsequently the

and for democracy.

State Law and Order Restoration Council, a military regime that came to power in a coup in September 1988. As leader of the NLD, Aung San Suu Kyi electrified her country with her passionate speeches in favor of

AUSTRA LIA AND NEW ZEALAN D

democracy. Influenced by Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi, she used a nonviolent strategy of rallies and

Pacific nations and members of the British Common­

pacifism to oppose the regime. In July 1989 she was placed under house arrest. She was forbidden by the mil­

wealth that have a long tradition of maintaining democ­ ratic institutions.

itary to run in the election of May 1990, in which her

Although Australia and New Zealand share a common

party received 80 percent of the seats in the National As­ sembly. The regime ignored the election results.

British heritage, their political development has diverged in several important respects.

Aung San Suu Kyi’s confinement drew international attention to the political situation in Myanmar. While under house arrest she received many awards for her ad­

H isto ric a l B a c k g ro u n d A long-established aborigine population inhabited

vocacy of democracy and human rights, including the

Australia when white settlers began colonizing the island

Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. In response to international

continent in 1788. The six separate colonies founded by

48

Australia and New Zealand tions, the aborigines in Australia constitute only 1 per­ cent of the population, whereas the Maori in New Zealand make up 12 percent of the population, and Pa­ cific islanders comprise an additional 4 percent. Ques­ tions of racial equity in democratic institutions have therefore been given greater priority in New Zealand. A u s tr a lia n Federalism Of several themes that have shaped Australia’s 20thcentury experience of democracy, perhaps the most im­ portant is federalism, itself a consequence of Australia’s large size. The Australian constitution (1901) makes a clear distinction between the functions of the state and federal governments: The states accept responsibility for community services such as health and transportation, and the federal government handles foreign affairs, trade and defense. Various forces, including judicial interpre­

the settlers—New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia,

tation of the constitution, the bias against state-level gov­

Tasmania, Queensland and Western Australia—were

ernance of the nation’s oldest party, the Australian Labor

self-governing until 1901, when they entered into a fed­

Party, and the increasing complexity of modern govern­

eral arrangement. The Northern Territory and the Aus­ tralian Capital Territory joined the federation in 1911.

ment, however, have led to a shift in political power in - favor of the federal government. The most significant

Ocean about 1,200 miles southeast of Australia. New

event in this shift occurred in 1942 when the High Court, the nation’s supreme legal body, upheld the federal gov­

Zealand’s settlers came somewhat later than Australia’s,

ernment’s right to deny the states income tax powers.

New Zealand, a small island nation, lies in the Pacific

after the formal establishment of British sovereignty in

Since then the states have been dependent on the federal

1840. In 1852 legislation passed by the British Parliament

government for revenue.

established an institutional framework of government. National elections were first held in 1854.

Australian democracy has placed the government in a central, regulatory role. The Australian government has

The populations of the countries are quite different in

traditionally taken on a wide range of social and eco­

origin and outlook. Australia’s early white population

nomic responsibilities, including intervention in the

consisted mainly of convicts transported from Britain, to­ gether with their guards. The 19th-century working-class

economy, the regulation of trade and the control of in­

immigrants to Australia influenced the new country’s

political values of the earliest settlers, whose outlook re­

dustrial relations. The role of the state originated in the

class consciousness, attitudes toward women and accent.

flected the Benthamite utilitarianism (a philosophy

Australia’s Irish immigrants contributed anti-British sen­

based on the work of Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832) that

timent and Catholicism. Only since 1947 has there been

was prevalent in early 19th-century England. The Aus­

a large influx of non-British immigrants, many from Asia.

tralian state is regarded as an instrument for arbitrating

By contrast, convicts were never transported to New

disputes rather than as an agent for preserving individ­

Zealand, and until very recently that nation had relied

ual liberty and freedom, as in the United States. The

mainly on Great Britain for immigrants. New Zealand re­ ceived more middle-class English immigrants than did Australia and had a larger proportion of farm owners,

clearest political embodiment of these utilitarian values is the system of compulsory voting, adopted for federal

making its mainstream political values more like those of

elections in 1924 as a solution to the problem of declin­ ing turnout. Australia is one of the few democracies in

the English middle class.

the world to enforce compulsory voting.

Although both countries have indigenous popula­

A strong two-party system is another characteristic of

Australia and New Zealand

49

Australian democracy. The Australian Labor Party was founded in 1891, with members from the trades and

Official Nam e: D ate of Independence:

labor councils of the 1870s and 1880s. Australia formed the world’s first Labor government, which lasted for seven days, in 1899. Between 1901 and 1997, Labor has held federal office for 33 years. The Liberal Party (the name of the conservative party) was formed in 1944 to combine non-labor groups into one party. A third party,

Date of Current Constitution: Form of Government: Chief of State: Head of Government: Legislature:

the National Party of Australia, formed during World War I. Except for short breaks, it has been in permanent coali­ tion with the Liberals. With one exception, in 1990, no

Term of Legislature:

other party has won more than 10 percent of the Aus­ tralian House of Representatives since federation. This strong two-party system has resulted in a great stability for Australian democracy during the course of

Party System: M inim um Voting Age:

Australia January 1,1901 (from the United Kingdom) January 1,1901 parliamentary British sovereign represented by governor-general prime minister Federal Parliament House of Representatives: 148 members elected by plurality Senate: 76 members elected by proportional representation House of Representatives: 3 years Senate: 6 years (half of member­ ship elected every 3 years) 2 party 18

the century. It reinforces the British form of government embodied in the Australian constitution. Voters choose between parties that offer alternative social and eco­ nomic policies. Party discipline, high in England, is even stronger in Australia, where voting against one’s party is almost unheard of and is regarded as a cardinal politi­ cal sin. Westminster conventions of collective cabinet re­ sponsibility and ministerial responsibility have also been

Official Nam e: Date of Independence: Date of Current Constitution: Form of Government: Chief of State: Head of Government: Legislature:

adopted from British practice, although they are less fre­ quently observed. Australian society is based almost entirely on massive

Term of Legislature: Party System: M inim um Voting Age:

New Zealand September 26,1907 (from United Kingdom) none parliamentary British sovereign represented by governor-general prime minister House of Representatives: 120 members elected by proportional representation 3 years 2 party 18

immigration. It has a higher percentage of foreign-born residents than any other advanced industrial society, with the exception of Israel. Despite the ethnic, cultural and linguistic diversity of these immigrants, they have had comparatively little effect on the character or style of Australian democracy, including its institutions, politi­ cal parties or major actors.

N e w Z e a la n d ’s D e m o c ratic S e ttin g New Zealand, small in area and population, has al­

In today’s Australian federal democracy, two related themes are of increasing importance. The large number

ways suffered from a greater sense of isolation than has

of non-British immigrants who do not identify with

greater reliance on British settlers, has made New

Australia. This isolation, coupled with the nation’s

Britain or with British political traditions has helped give

Zealand more conscious of its British identity. New

rise to proposals to make Australia a republic, to replace

Zealand’s highly centralized government provides a per­

the queen as head of state, and to remove the British Union Jack from the Australian flag. In addition, Britain’s

fect example of British-style parliamentary democracy. Egalitarianism is a major theme in New Zealand

entry into the European Community in 1972 altered Aus­

democracy. Early on the nation established a strong wel­

tralia’s traditional trading relations and forced it to play

fare state. The commitment of successive governments

a greater political, economic and military role in the Asian-Pacific region and to reconsider its European, and

to providing individual economic security was reflected

specifically British, identity.

in a very low level of unemployment until the 1980s, when joblessness increased rapidly. W hile the state played a major role, the economy was essentially a cap­

50

Authoritarianism

italist, free enterprise system. Within New Zealand’s po­

While Australia is becoming a multicultural society,

litical culture, the two themes are not contradictory but

with increasing Asian influence, in New Zealand the fu­

complementary.

ture appears increasingly bicultural, with a new balance

Organized settlement of New Zealand dates from

between the European and Pacific influences.

1840. Between 1860 and 1876 the settlers fought a num­ ber of wars with the native Maori, eventually defeating them and granting them token, separate representation in Parliament. The 1852 New Zealand Constitution Act pro­

AUSTRIA See Europe, Western.

vided for six separate provincial assemblies (abolished in 1876) as well as for a national parliament. The parlia­

AUTHORITARIANISM

ment was made up of a lower house popularly elected every five years and a Legislative Council (abolished in

Political system in which a leader or a small group ex­

1950). Since 1950 the legislature has been unicameral.

ercises power without formal limits.

After experimenting with several kinds of voting sys­

Authoritarian regimes differ in the types and intensity

tems, New Zealanders in a referendum in 1993 voted to

of their oppression but, in general, they limit the free­

implement a proportional system, which went into ef­

doms of their citizens and politically repress their oppo­

fect beginning October 1996. Traditionally, turnout in

nents. Activities such as membership in parties and par­

New Zealand has been among the highest in the estab­

ticipation in strikes are illegal. The police have few limits

lished democracies; however, in recent years it has

on their power, and mistreatment and torture are not un­

begun to decline.

common. Some regimes have engaged in conduct that

The Maori Representation Act of 1867 provided for a

even their own legislation considers illegal—for exam­

separate electoral system for the Maori, whose candi­

ple, “disappearances,” secret detention centers, torture

dates could run on the Maori electoral roll. This system,

and assassination. Democracies that succeed such

however, guarantees only minimal Maori parliamentary

regimes face a difficult legacy of official investigation of

representation. Since 1975 Maori have been allowed to

the regime’s crimes and restitution to its victims.

register and run in non-Maori electorates, and many have elected to do so.

Unlike totalitarian regimes, authoritarian states usu­ ally allow some form of opposition, usually closely con­

By 1938 New Zealand’s political parties had coalesced

trolled. For example, in communist Poland the opposi­

into a two-party system—the Liberal Party (like Aus­

tion of the Catholic Church and, later, the illegal trade

tralia, also conservative) and the Labour Party. Other par­

union Solidarity were tolerated as part of political life.

ties do contest elections, but so far they have not under­

Another difference between authoritarianism and total­

mined the essentially two-party system.

itarianism is that most authoritarian regimes lack the

Although the character and style of New Zealand’s

guiding ideology that characterizes totalitarian states.

democratic culture and institutions have changed little

Whereas a totalitarian government indoctrinates its peo­

during the course of the century, recent events have sug­

ple and encourages them to participate in attaining ide­

gested several directions in which New Zealand may

ological goals, most authoritarian states prefer a quiet

evolve. If the increasing success of third parties contin­

and apathetic populace that will do as it is told.

ues in the long term, the foundation of the two-party sys­ tem may crumble, leading to a period of political uncer­

Types o f A u th o r ita r ia n R egim es

tainty. Changes to the traditionally interventionist role of the state under Labour resulted in significant shifts in the

headed by military officers such as Francisco Franco in

distribution of wealth, although how much this altered

Spain (1936-75) and Augusto Pinochet in Chile (1973-90).

popular democratic values is unclear. Meanwhile, the Maori are demanding compensation for past injustices

In a strictly military regime, decisions are made directly by the top institutional leadership of the armed forces with

Many 20th-century authoritarian regimes have been

and greater recognition of their language and culture in

limited participation by civilians and without the creation

society and government.

of a single party. Sometimes the officers remain in the bar-

Authoritarianism

51

resentation by interest groups—business or professional A U T H O R IT A R IA N

SYSTEM S

Major Characteristics • government rests on the obedience of citizens rather than their consent • constitutional restraints ineffective or nonexistent • individual rights subordinated to state • unlimited authority exercised by one person or group • no free elections • no true, popularly elected assembly • no independent judiciary • institutions such as media carefully controlled or censored • opponents imprisoned

associations, churches, unions, neighborhood organiza­ tions—where each group is authorized by the authori­ tarian government and given the sole right to represent citizens in its category. In exchange for this right, groups must accept state control over the selection of their lead­ ers and their expression of political views. Examples of corporatism could be found in Spain under Franco and in Argentina under Juan Per6n (1946-55; 1973-74). Cor­ poratism can disenfranchise certain groups of people by

Types

allocating representation to particular professions and

Communist— based on Marxist-Leninist doctrines of centrally

not to others. One problem with corporatism is its as­

planned economy and democratic centralism (all important deci­ sion-making handled by central core of political leaders); political power in the hands of the Communist Party and its leaders; non­ governmental institutions must conform to party policy One-party— party and state are fused; only state-backed party

candidates are allowed to run for office; party shares political power with other institutions such as military or tribal leadership Military— military assumes role of government (direct rule) or

installs puppet administration that does its bidding (indirect rule) Dynastic or court— sovereignty and authority rests with heredi­

sumption that all members of a particular group have the same interests, an assumption that has proved to be false. Whereas democratic political parties are organized to represent voters on a wide range of issues, corporative representation can serve only very specific interests. Thus, while it may seem that the collective interests of people are served in this kind of government, it is really

tary monarch who often rules through fear

a false democracy. Since no authoritarian government

Theocracy— state governed by religious leaders

has accepted the principle that it can be dismissed by a

Historical Examples Russia under the czars Japan under the military (1930s) Argentina under Juan Per6n Contem porary Examples Vietnam, Cuba (communist) Syria (one-party) Nigeria, Myanmar (military) Saudi Arabia, Brunei (dynastic) Iran under Khomeini (theocracy)

vote of no confidence from a corporative chamber, such groups have had at most an advisory function. The true power remains at the top. Another type of authoritarianism is called sultanistic, sometimes referred to as n eopatrim on ial or despotic. Sul­ tanistic rule is motivated largely by personal goals and by the pursuit of power and wealth for the rulers and their families and friends. In such a regime, separation between the state treasury and the pockets of the ruler is consider­ ably blurred. Payoffs and bribes are collected in exchange for state contracts or even the right to do business. Position in such a society is not defined by class or wealth but by

racks and direct a puppet civilian government that imple­

how close a friendship one has with the ruler, a closeness

ments the military’s policies. Sometimes the officers in

that can be extended liberally on one day and totally with­

power do not consider themselves a permanent govern­

drawn on the next—completely on the whim of the ruler. Examples of such regimes are those of Jean-Claude “Baby

ment (even though some last a long time). These regimes end when the armed forces decide to step down and hand

Doc” Duvalier in Haiti (1971-86) and Ferdinand Marcos

the government over to civilians as happened in Greece

in the Philippines (1965-86).

under the colonels (1967-74).

Totalitarianism is the most repressive form of author­ itarianism. In addition to the differences cited above, a

Another form of authoritarianism is called organic statism, also known as state corporatism . Corporatism is the

totalitarian regime’s control of its population is virtually

one type of authoritarian government that includes an

absolute. In a totalitarian state there is an elaborate ide­

ideological component. It has generally been associated

ology identified with the ruling group or leader and the

with fascist governments, especially that of Benito Mus­ solini in Italy (1 9 1 9 ^ 3 ). Corporatism is a system of rep­

party serving the leaders. The rulers use this ideology as the basis for their policies; the population’s active par­

52

Autocracy

ticipation in political and social tasks is encouraged and rewarded.

M onarchy Historically, monarchies have been the most com­

Some theorists have included in the broad category of

mon form of autocracy. Monarchs may have different

authoritarian rule the communist regimes in Eastern Eu­ rope after Stalin (d. 1953), which lost or modified their to­

czar, emperor. These rulers generally have acquired

titles depending on the culture: king, prince, sultan,

talitarian characteristics after an extended period of total­

their positions through inheritance, although there

itarian rule. The Communist Party allowed greater

were some monarchies, such as the Holy Roman Em­

autonomy of institutions, bureaucracies and public enter­

pire and the Kingdom of Poland, that were nominally

prises even though it still retained its leading totalitarian

non-hereditary.

function. An emerging “parallel” culture began to appear

Until the end of the 18th century, most European

in civil society. The leadership was still recruited from the

monarchs ruled without formal limits to their power.

party but political or ideological loyalty was less impor­ tant. The arbitrary use of power and state terror was less­ ened. There was a growing skepticism and disregard for

They were the source of sovereignty and possessed all executive, legislative and judicial authority. They based

the official ideology, whose utopian and motivating value had been lost. With this loss, the regime was less able to mobilize its population. There was a growing privatization

thority came from God. These types of rulers were called absolute monarchs. The English experience, however, was different. Beginning in the 13th century

of the people. Because the previous totalitarian society had

with the Magna Carta and increasingly after the Glori­

been so closed, it was often difficult for the population to conceive of any alternative form of government.

ous Revolution of 1688, agreements and laws limited the power of the king. During the 17th and 18th century the idea that sover­

A u th o rita ria n ism and Dem ocracy

eignty resided in a divinely appointed monarch was re­

their power on the concept of divine right; their au­

Authoritarian rule does not permit two of the defining

placed with the concept that sovereignty and power

elements of democracy: free competition for political of­ fice and free participation of citizens in politics. A tran­ sition to democracy requires authoritarian rulers to allow people to vote in free, competitive elections and to be

came from and resided with the people. Gradually par­ liaments, representing the people, gained political power. The hereditary rulers became constitutional mon­

ready to give up power should the voters not support them. This does not necessarily mean that people iden­

constrained by their counties’ laws. Most contemporary monarchs are only ceremonial heads of state who have

tified with the former regime will be barred from com­

little to do with making policy. Queen Elizabeth II of Eng­

peting in elections. Sometimes they may even win, as

land is such a ruler. Nevertheless, a few absolute mon­

happened in Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland and Lithuania in

archs exist—in the Middle East (Saudi Arabia, for exam­

recent years. S ee a lso Communism; Fascism; Leninism; Totali­ tarianism.

ple) and in Brunei and Swaziland.

archs, sharing authority with the elected legislatures and

D ictatorsh ip In the second type of autocracy, dictators generally ac­ quire and maintain their power through war or military

AUTOCRACY

takeover, but some gain control legally during times of

A system of government in which one person holds all power and authority. Autocracies are among the oldest and most common forms of government. Autocrats generally derive their power either through inheritance or use of force. There are two forms of autocracy: monarchy and dictatorship.

crisis. They then attempt to strengthen their rule by sup­ pressing all political dissent. Generally they have ab­ solute control of the military or police. In the 20th century a new type of dictatorship de­ veloped called totalitarian dictatorship. These dictators were not content with holding political power. For these absolute rulers, the state and society were syn­

Autocracy

53

onymous. As Italian dictator Benito Mussolini declared:

power, and the dictators suppressed brutally all forms

“Everything in the state, nothing outside the state, noth­

of behavior not in keeping with their ideas.

ing against the state.” They took control of all aspects of society and reshaped their country to reflect their per­ sonal ideas and goals. Totalitarian dictatorships have

S ee also Authoritarianism; Fascism; Monarchy; To­ talitarianism.

included those of Adolf Hitler’s regime in Germany (1933-45) and Joseph Stalin’s rule in the Soviet Union (1928-53). In such dictatorships, the people had no

A ZERBA IJA N See Soviet Union, Former Republics of the.

B BAH AM AS

BALLOT

Se e Caribbean.

The means by which voters secretly select their choice in

BA H RA IN Se e Middle East.

an election. The practice of secret voting dates back to ancient times. Greeks placed balls (white for yes, black for no) in

BA K ER V. C A R R ( 1 9 6 2 ) Far-reaching case in which the Supreme Court ruled that electoral malapportionment was a violation of the equal protection guarantees of the 14th Amendment.

a container to register their votes. The Romans used bal­ loting during the republic (510-27

bc e)

and in 139

bce

formally established a system of secret voting. In modern times, ballots were used initially to conceal the voting records of members of legislatures; with the

The case arose from Tennessee’s use of 60-year-old

growth of democracy and the demand for increased ac­

district boundaries in electing state legislators. The

countability, the practice was abandoned. The use of se­

boundaries no longer reflected the state’s population dis­

cret ballots in general elections began in Europe only

tribution and gave proportionally greater representation

during the last half of the 19th century. France adopted

to rural interests at the expense of ethnic minorities and

it in 1852, Italy in 1859 and Great Britain only in 1872.

African Americans in the growing cities. Legislators from

The American colonies used secret ballots and the

urban areas represented ten times as many voters as

newly established states continued the practice after in­

those from rural districts.

dependence. The Early National Period saw the estab­

Prior to the B aker decision the Supreme Court had de­

lishment of a tradition of candidates and political par­

clared apportionment a political rather than a judicial

ties printing and distributing ballots to voters. This

question and looked to state legislatures to handle the

practice, conducive to fraud, led to widespread calls for

issue. The Court reversed itself in the B aker decision. It

reform by the mid-19th century. In 1888 Massachusetts

found that the case involved a political right and there­

became the first state to adopt what was known as the

fore fell within the Court’s jurisdiction. The judiciary

Australian ballot. Under this system government agen­

could direct that political boundaries be redrawn, but

cies printed and distributed ballots and supervised elec­

could not specify those boundaries.

tions. Ballots listed the names and party affiliations of

The Supreme Court established guidelines for imple­

all candidates and provided room for write-in votes. All

menting this decision in a series of 1964 cases. In

states subsequently adopted the system. The Australian

R eynolds v. Sim s the Court ordered the states to redraw their state electoral districts on the basis of population,

ballot itself was modified, first by use of what is called

thus establishing the principle of “one man, one vote.” Westberry v. Sanders applied the same principle to con­ gressional districts. The rulings resulted in a large num­ ber of state reapportionments. See also Apportionment. 54

B aker v. Carr (1962)

the Massachusetts format and subsequently, in the mid20th century, through utilization of the Indiana format. The former lists candidates under the office for which they are running, the latter by party affiliation. Neither type of ballot organization is politically neutral. The Massachusetts format encourages ticket-splitting while

Baltic States

55

the Indiana format facilitates a straight party vote. During the 20th century most states began using me­

Gulf of Finland

chanical voting machines in order to facilitate counting and reduce fraud. The machines generally list the can­ didates by office on the face of the machine. Voters step into the voting booth and pull a lever to close a curtain that ensures com plete privacy. They then select their candidates by turning down a series of pointers. When they have finished making their selection, they again pull

Cult of Riga

the lever to open the booth and record their vote.

BALTIC STATES Llcpaja

The countries Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which bor­

Sfaullal

Dftugavpth

der on the Baltic Sea and were constituent republics of the Soviet Union until they were recognized as inde­

Klaipeda

pendent republics in the early 1990s. Annexed to Russia in the 18th century, the Baltic na­

Kaunas

tions first achieved independence following the 1917 Russian Revolution. They initially established demo­ cratic electoral systems, but by the 1930s the political landscape had deteriorated and all three countries came under the rule of dictators. In 1940 Russia reoccupied the Baltics, deporting democratic proponents and leaving lit­ tle of prewar democratic practices in public life. With incorporation into the Soviet Union, the Baltic

lished a separation of pow­

nations became communist states under Soviet domina­

ers and the supremacy of

tion. At first the Soviet regime was ruthless and all di­

citizens and their human

rectives came from Moscow. Nevertheless, the Baltic na­

rights. Private property and

tions never accepted Sovietization, and nationalist

the free market are now the

feelings and the desire for democratic institutions per­

bases of economic activity

sisted in all three countries.

in all three countries. All

Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev’s p erestroika, or “re­

countries are parliam en­

structuring,” in the late 1980s reduced the fear under

tary dem ocracies, with

which the citizens lived and permitted multiparty elec­

presidents elected by citizens in Lithuania and Estonia

tions that led to the establishment of nationalist, non-com­

and by the parliament in Latvia. Presidents do not have ex­

munist governments in the Baltic states in 1990. All three

ecutive power, which is given to the governments formed

nations then pursued independence as a basis for democ­

in parliament. Because the division of power is ill defined,

ratizing their future political life. Lithuania declared in­

there is substantial rivalry between the presidents and the

dependence in 1990 and Latvia and Estonia in 1991.

executive and legislative institutions. After independence the new countries quickly moved

Th e N e w G o v e rn m e n ts

to develop political parties and based their electoral sys­

Estonia and Lithuania promulgated new constitutions

tems on European models of proportional representation.

in 1992; Latvia readopted its 1923 constitution the fol­

In general, the new systems produced stable governments,

lowing year. The constitutions of all three states estab­

with opposition parties included in each of the parlia-

56

Baltic States

B A L T IC S T A T E S C o u n try

Type o f Governm ent

Executive

Estonia

parliamentary

Latvia

parliamentary

Lithuania

parliamentary

Legislature

Party System

Political Conditions

Chief of State: State Assembly (101) president Head of Government’ prime minister

multiparty

Estonia declared its sovereignty from the Soviet Union in 1988. Multiparty elections the following year established a non-communist government side by side with the Estonian Supreme Soviet which claimed to play a transitional role between Soviet rule and renewed independence.The nation gained indepen­ dence in 1991. Estonia enjoyed a rela­ tively easy transition to democracy and a market economy that has made it a textbook case of how these changes can be made. Its most significant social problem is the large number of ethnic Russians (one-third the population) in the nation who have not been granted citizenship.

Chief of State: president Head of Government prime minister

Parliament (100)

multiparty

Chief of State: president Head of Government premier

Parliament (141)

Spurred on by Mikhail Gorbachev’s perestroika, Latvians began to demand

independence from the Soviet Union in the late 1980s. Multiparty elections saw the establishment of a non-communist government in 1990, and the following year the Latvian Supreme Soviet de­ clared independence.Although Latvia initially experienced difficulty in its tran­ sition to a market economy, its move­ ment toward democracy has been smooth. Latvia’s most pressing social problem is that approximately half the population are ethnic Russians; their cit­ izenship remains an issue. multiparty

The first Soviet republic to challenge Soviet power in the late 1980s, Lithuania held multiparty elections in 1989, with the popular front handily defeating the communists. It declared indepen­ dence from the Soviet Union in 1990 and in 19 9 1 the Soviet leadership tried to reestablish control over the nation by force.The attempt failed, and the Soviet Union recognized its indepen­ dence later that year. Lithuania’s transi­ tion to a market economy has been rocky, but it has begun institutionalizing its multiparty democracy.

ments. At present, local elections are not important because

politics has been controlled by important individual

these nations have granted little power to their localities.

politicians rather than dominant political parties. Civil

Although the Baltics have made great strides in firmly

servants in the Baltics still are beholden to the political

establishing democratic government, they still must in­

groups in power, a situation that inevitably creates cor­

stitutionalize several key elements of a democracy. Par­

ruption and a misuse of state power. To democratize

ties have yet to become central to the political process.

fully, the Baltics will need to establish civil services with

Leaders of the independence movements, many of them

selection for positions based on merit rather than politi­

professionals in the arts and humanities, were unwilling

cal connections. Also, the Baltics have yet to devise in­

to integrate themselves into political parties. As a result,

dependent legal and law enforcement systems.

Bicameral Legislature O b stacle s to D e m o cracy

57

BICAM ERAL LEGISLATURE

The transition from the Soviet Empire to indepen­ dence, and from a state-run economy to a market one has created both poverty and division. Poor and socially di­

Legislative body having two chambers. Bicameral legislatures, which first appeared in 14th-

vided societies are not the most fertile ground for democ­

century England, developed as a means of representing

racy. A strength of the Baltic states is their peoples’ high

both the common people and the elite. Thus the framers

level of education, which may constitute a firm base for

of the U.S. Constitution saw the House of Representatives

developing a civic society with a functioning legal sys­

as expressing the wishes of the people while the Senate

tem, respect for human rights and voluntary organiza­

represented the states. (This distinction faded after rati­

tions, all of which help protect citizens from the misuse

fication of the 17th Amendment to the Constitution in 1913 mandated the popular election of senators.)

of state power. The most pressing social question facing these nations

In most countries with a bicameral legislature the

is what to do about their large non-native populations.

lower house is directly elected while the upper cham­

The Soviets moved large numbers of Russians into the

ber is hereditary, appointed or elected under different

Baltics, especially to Latvia and Estonia. At indepen­

rules than the lower house. Most upper houses have had

dence Russian speakers constituted one-third the popu­

their powers restricted over time, and they now play a

lation of Estonia and one-half of Latvia. Many were de­

limited role in the law-making process, checking or de­

nied citizenship, bringing the countries into conflict with

laying legislation introduced by the lower house. This

Russia and, for that matter, with the international human

is the case in nations such as Canada, whose appointed

rights community. The governments involved confront

upper house has the power to block legislation from the

the need to resolve this problem, as the large portions of

House of Commons but almost never does so. It is also

their populations living without legal status threaten

the case in Great Britain, where the House of Lords can

their political stability.

hold up legislation only for a year. Even this limited

S ee also Democratization.

power is rarely used. The upper house has remained powerful in a few na­

BANGLADESH

tions, most notably the United States. There the Senate

See Asia, South.

has an equal role with the House of Representatives in the legislative process. It is probably the most powerful upper

BARBAD O S See Caribbean.

chamber in the world. The upper house also maintains equal control over legislation in Australia. Germany’s upper house, the Bundesrat, which is appointed by the

BELARUS See Soviet Union, Former Republics of the.

BELGIUM See Europe, Western.

BELIZE See Central America.

provincial governments, must give its consent to legisla­ tion in which the federal and provincial governments share jurisdiction. Since most jurisdiction is shared, the Bundesrat plays a significant role in government. Democratic governments maintain bicameral legisla­ tion for three reasons. First, the upper house may act as a check on what Benjamin Franklin termed the “Im­ pulses of Passion” and “Intrigues of Faction” of the lower house. Second, the upper house helps the lower house carry out its duties, particularly oversight of the execu­

BENIN

tive. Third, the upper house allows representation of spe­

See Africa, Subsaharan.

cial groups or constituent parts of the federal system. S ee also Unicameral Legislature.

BHUTAN See Asia, South.

58

Bill of Rights (English)

BILL OF RIGHTS (ENGLISH)

make up Great Britain’s unwritten constitution. Its pro­ visions resulted in the transfer of real political power

Document, enacted by the British Parliament in Decem­

from the monarch to Parliament, whose consent was

ber 1689, limiting the powers of the monarch and af­

needed to make laws and levy taxes. The American

firming the constitutional rights of the people.

colonists used the principles in the Bill of Rights to jus­

During the 17th century England was torn by the po­ litical struggle pitting Royalists, generally Catholics who

tify their struggle against Great Britain. S ee also Constitution (U.K.).

supported the divine right of kings to rule without Par­ liament, against the Puritan Parliamentarians, who in­ sisted that Parliament have a greater role in governing the country. The struggle resulted in civil war during the 1640s, in which Parliament was victorious. Parliament

BILL OF RIGHTS (U .S .) The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution.

had King Charles I beheaded for treason in 1649 and es­

Ratified in 1791, these amendments were designed to

tablished a Commonwealth led by Oliver Cromwell.

safeguard fundamental rights against abuse by the na­

Cromwell ruled in a thinly veiled dictatorship until his

tional government that had been established under the

death in 1658. He was succeeded by his son Richard,

Constitution. The precedent for such a statement of rights

who had very little popular support. In 1660 Parliament

reached back into English history to the Magna Carta

voted for the restoration of the monarchy and asked

(1215), the Petition of Right (1628) and the Bill of Rights

Charles II, elder son of Charles I, to return from exile.

(1689), each guaranteeing certain basic rights to English

Charles II reigned from 1660 to 1685. Upon his death,

subjects.

the throne went to his brother James II, a Catholic who

When the Continental Congress asked the newly des­

asserted the divine right of kings. In response, Parliament

ignated states to establish their own frameworks of gov­

invited James’s Protestant daughter Mary to overthrow

ernment following the Declaration of Independence in

her father. When the army refused to support James,

1776, several included sections ensuring fundamental

Mary and her husband, William of Orange, took the

rights in their constitutions. Virginia, in 1776, was the

throne in what was called the Bloodless or Glorious Rev­

first to do so. In style similar to the Declaration, it stated

olution. At their coronation, the joint rulers recognized

that all men by nature were equally free and possessed

Parliament as a partner in governing. To clarify the lim­

inherent rights of which they could not be deprived;

its of royal power, Parliament in 1689 drafted the Bill of

these rights were life, liberty, the means of acquiring and

Rights, to which the monarchs consented.

possessing property, and the pursuit of happiness and

The Bill of Rights, which incorporated elements from

safety. The underlying theory was that even governments

the Magna Carta, asserted that monarchs do not rule by

based upon the consent of the governed needed to be re­

divine right and included a number of provisions that

strained by constitutional checks when they approached

limited their power. These prohibited a monarch from

the sensitive area of personal liberty.

suspending Parliament’s laws and levying taxes without

The issue of a bill of rights for the proposed U.S. Con­

Parliament’s permission. The Bill also prohibited the

stitution came up late in the Constitutional Convention

monarch from interfering with Parliamentary debate, pe­

of 1787 and then the delegates rejected the proposal.

nalizing citizens who brought grievances to the Crown,

Supporters of the Constitution felt it was unnecessary be­

keeping a standing army in peacetime, and assigning ex­

cause the new system of governance did not give the fed­

cessive bail. Other clauses declared that William III and Mary II were the country’s lawful sovereigns and assured

eral government the power to do the things a bill of rights would prohibit. Furthermore, there were already rights

that a Roman Catholic could not become England’s

in the Constitution: bills of attainder (which declare a

monarch. Along with the Magna Carta and the Petition of Right,

person or group guilty of a crime and impose punish­

the Bill of Rights helped shape the development of British government. It is one of the major documents that

applied to acts committed prior to passage of the laws) were prohibited; the writ of habeas corpus could not nor­

ment without a trial) and ex post facto laws (which are

Bill of Rights (U.S.)

59

mally be suspended; crimes had to be tried before juries in the state where the crime had been committed. Indeed,

B IL L O F R IG H T S

backers such as Alexander Hamilton argued that a bill of

Am endm ent

Provision

rights might be harmful because it would suggest that cit­

First

Guarantees freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly and right to petition government

Second

Guarantees right to bear arms and to organize state militias

Third

Prohibits quartering soldiers in homes in peacetime

Fourth

Forbids unreasonable searches and seizures

Fifth

Requires grand jury indictment for arrest for serious crimes; bans double jeopardy; protects against self-incrimination; guarantees due process of law

Sixth

Guarantees right to speedy, public trial and right to counsel in criminal cases

if the proposed rights were unnecessary, they could do

Seventh

Guarantees jury trial in civil cases

no harm as extra precautions against an abuse of power.

Eighth

The passage of such amendments would bring reassur­

Prohibits excessive bail or fines; forbids cruel or unusual punishment

Ninth

Stipulates that the rights of the people are not confined to those enumerated in the Constitution

Tenth

Stipulates that powers not expressly delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states and the people

izens possessed only those rights specified. Nevertheless, when several states, including Massachusetts and New York, refused to ratify the Constitution unless it con­ tained a bill of rights, supporters, including James Madi­ son, the Constitution’s chief architect, promised to add one once the Constitution was ratified. M a d iso n an d th e Bill o f R ig h ts Fulfilling his promise, Madison offered a bill of rights during the first session of Congress. He argued that even

ance to those who had doubts about the Constitution, of whom he thought there were still a great many. Fur­ thermore, even if a list of rights constituted only a paper barrier and was ineffective in checking abuses of power, it would help to focus attention on these rights and arouse public opinion to support them; moreover, the courts would consider themselves the guardians of those rights. Congress eventually proposed 12 amendments; con­

assembly or the right to petition government. The Second Amendment gives the people the right to bear arms. The

ventions ratified 10 of them by 1791. Neither of the de­

next two amendments protect citizens in their homes:

feated proposals was directly concerned with rights. One

People have the right to be secure against unreasonable

applied to the size of Congress in relation to population,

searches and seizures; government cannot force citizens

and it soon became obsolete with the rapid growth of the

to shelter troops, a British practice the former colonies

nation. The other prohibited Congress from voting itself

hated.

pay raises that would become effective before the next

The fifth through eighth amendments deal specifically

election. Curiously, this amendment received the requi­

with judicial procedures and processes. These include

site number of state ratifications some 200 years later, in

the right of the accused to be indicted by a grand jury, to

1992.

call witnesses, to confront the accuser, to have counsel,

C o n stitu tio n a l R ig h ts

to be entitled to reasonable bail and to have a speedy public trial before a jury drawn from the district where

The passage of the Bill of Rights would not have been

the crime was committed. No punishment may be cruel

possible had there not been broad agreement among the

or unusual.

people as to what liberties were of such basic importance that without their protection one’s life, liberty, property and pursuit of happiness would be in jeopardy. The First

The last two amendments in the Bill of Rights estab­ lish a more general protection of rights. The Ninth

Amendment protects freedom of expression. It prohibits Congress from establishing a religion or impeding the

Amendment declares that the enumeration of rights is

free exercise of religion. It also restricts Congress from

not meant to deny or disparage others retained by the people. The Tenth Amendment declares that those pow­ ers not delegated to the federal government, nor prohib­

abridging free speech, freedom of the press, the right of

ited to the states, remain with the states and the people.

60

Black Codes

The A m e n d m e n ts an d th e State s One of Madison’s proposed amendments, which passed the House of Representatives but failed in the

to them in any case. Frequently statutes denied blacks rights enjoyed by whites; African Americans could not bear arms and were not permitted to vote.

Senate, would have prohibited any state from violating

The primary objective of the codes was to provide the

the civil rights of conscience, freedom of the press or trial

white South with a cheap labor supply similar to that

by jury. Madison believed that these rights would be

which existed before emancipation. Consequently, many

more endangered by the state governments than by the

of the laws involved labor rights. Blacks were restricted

federal government. Had this amendment become part of

to employment in farming and domestic service; other

the Constitution, states would have been subject to the

occupations were closed to them. Vagrancy laws requir­

same restrictions as the federal government regarding

ing written proof of employment forced many blacks to

conscience, the press and jury trials.

sign long-term labor contracts with their former owners.

It was not until the enactment of the 14th Amendment

If they left before their contract expired, they forfeited

in 1868 that states were prohibited from denying any per­

their wages. In Florida blacks who broke their contracts

son the equal protection of the laws or from depriving

could be whipped. African Americans could reside in

any person of life, liberty or property without due

some areas only if they were servants; in other sections

process of law. Even then, these prohibitions were nar­

they had to have permission from their former owners to

rowly interpreted. For some 50 years the courts contin­

leave. Those found guilty of misdemeanors were fre­

ued to find the restrictions in the Bill of Rights applica­

quently hired out to whites who paid their fines.

ble only to the federal government. Then, commencing

The black codes infuriated the North, prompting Con­

in the 1920s, and in an increasing number of cases over

gress to pass a series of laws designed to protect African

the next 40 years, the Supreme Court ruled that the pro­

Americans. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 declared that

hibitions in the 14th Amendment meant that no state

blacks were citizens with the same rights enjoyed by

could violate the fundamental rights listed in the Bill of

whites. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 granted black

Rights. Today most of the rights in the Bill of Rights

men the right to vote. Black civil rights were incorpo­

apply in the states as well as at the federal level.

rated into the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870) amend­

S ee a lso Assembly, Freedom of; Civil Liberties and

ments to the Constitution. Black codes were a major fac­

Civil Rights; Constitution (U.S.); Press, Freedom of the;

tor behind the imposition of Radical Reconstruction.

Religion, Freedom of; Speech, Freedom of; Supreme

Once Reconstruction ended in 1877 the South again re­

Court (U.S.).

stricted black rights and created a system of legal segre­ gation that lasted until the 1960s.

BLACK CODES Laws enacted by Southern states immediately following

BOLfVAR, SIMON (1783-1830)

the Civil War that were designed to control former slaves. Black codes differed in severity from state to state but

Liberator of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bo­

all set out to keep blacks in a state of peonage very sim­

livia from Spanish colonialism, he is known as “the

ilar to slavery. The codes gave African Americans some

George Washington of South America.”

rights they did not have under slavery but in most cases these rights were severely restricted. Blacks could sue

The son of a very wealthy Venezuelan family, Bolivar

and testify in court but only in cases involving other

traveled extensively in Europe as a young man. There he absorbed the liberal political ideas of the day and grew

blacks. Laws legalized former slave marriages but forbade

to admire the military feats of Napoleon. While in Europe

the marriage of blacks to whites. Often the rights had no

he vowed to liberate Venezuela, then under Spanish con­

relevance to the former slaves’ actual situations. The

trol. Following his return he joined the group of patriots

codes permitted African Americans to buy property but

that proclaimed independence in 1810.

most were too poor to do so, and whites would not sell it

Over the next 15 years Bolivar became the military

Brazil

61

sistance. He resigned as Colombia’s president in 1830 and marched into exile. Already in ill health, he died along the way before departing Colombia. P olitical T h o u g h t Bolivar’s constitution set forth a system of limited democracy that incorporated some monarchical features. He established a lifelong presidency, with the president appointed by Congress. The president had charge of the armed forces and foreign relations; the vice president, who would succeed the chief executive upon his death, directed the day-to-day administration. Congress had two chambers. The lower was elected by a limited franchise. In the upper chamber senators, selected from civilian and military leaders who had distinguished themselves dur­ ing the revolution, were appointed for life. Their seats could be inherited. A third house, of “censors,” oversaw the morality of officials and the practices of the press. Bolivar refused to copy foreign models in developing his governmental system. He incorporated some ele­ ments from the British system and echoed Aristotle’s search for a mixed government combining elements of Simon Bolivar

monarchy, oligarchy and democracy.

BOLIVIA and political leader of the South American independence

See South America.

movement. In 1816 he freed Venezuela, where he became dictator. Three years later his forces liberated Colombia. At the end of 1819 Bolivar succeeded in joining the newly independent areas into the republic of Gran

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA See Europe, East Central.

Colombia with himself as head. Panama entered the re­ public in 1821 and Ecuador the following year. Bolivar became dictator of Peru in 1823. The following year Boli­

BOTSWANA See Africa, Subsaharan.

var’s forces defeated the Spanish at Ayacucho, ending Spanish power in South America. Peru split in 1825 with Upper Peru named Bolivia in Bolivar’s honor. The con­ stitution he drew up for the new nation reflected his more important political ideas. Bolivar’s Gran Colombia was short-lived. Local lead­ ers refused to take orders from the central government

BR A ZIL Largest and most populous country of South America, with a substantial, although not fully consolidated, tra­ dition of democracy.

and the area’s mountains and jungles isolated each sec­

Brazil was first a Portuguese colony (1500—1822) and

tion. In 1830 it split into three separate states—Colombia

then a constitutional monarchy closely associated with

(including Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela. Bolfvar,

Portugal (1822-89) before it became a presidential re­ public modeled on the U.S. system. Both transitions, from colonial to independent status and from monarchy

once hailed as a liberator, assumed unrestricted presi­ dential power in Colombia and met with increasing re­

62

Brazil

.GUYANA SURINAME RENCH

GUIANA

Belem

Fortaleza

Recifc

Salvador

G o ia n ia

Rio de Janeiro Paulo Curitiba Porto Alegre

to republic, were achieved without bloodshed. Although

Legislature

democracy has been guaranteed for much of the repub­

Brazil’s legislative power is vested in a bicameral Na­

lican period, its implementation has been unstable.

tional Congress, which consists of a lower, 513-member

Thirty-three of Brazil’s first hundred years as a republic

Chamber of Deputies and an upper, 81-member body

have witnessed nondemocratic rule.

called the Federal Senate. Deputies serve four-year terms; senators serve for eight years. Under the constitution

S tru c tu re o f G ove rnm e nt Brazil is a federal republic composed of 26 states and

each house must approve the legislation passed by the other. A majority vote of the full Congress sitting in joint

a federal district. It has a presidential system of govern­

session is necessary to override a presidential veto. Con­

ment outlined in a constitution adopted in 1988.

gress must approve presidential declarations of war or

Executive

nominations for high office and authorizes governmental borrowing. The lower house institutes impeachment pro­

states of emergency. The Senate approves the president’s The executive branch is headed by a president with considerable power. The president commands the armed forces, appoints the cabinet, prepares the budget and pro­

ceedings against the president, which are then judged by the Senate.

poses legislation. He may veto all or a part of bills sent him by Congress. The president can also sign decrees that

Judiciary

have the force of law. Although they are valid for only 30 days, they may be renewed if Congress does not object.

bunal, which reviews the constitutionality of legislation

The nation’s highest court is the Supreme Federal Tri­

Brazil

63

and executive action on both the state and federal level. The president appoints its 11 judges to life terms with the Senate’s approval. The Supreme Federal Tribunal heads a system that includes regional courts and an ap­ pellate Superior Court. Brazil also has special military, labor and electoral courts.

Official Name: Date of Independence: Date of Current Constitution: Form of Government: Chief of State: Head of Government: Legislature:

Local Government

Each of Brazil’s 26 states has a governor and legislature directly elected for four-year terms; a governor appointed by the president administers the federal district. The states

Term of Legislature:

are divided into districts or municipalities with an elected mayor and lawmaking body governing each. Electoral System

Party System: M inim um Voting Age:

Federative Republic of Brazil September 7, 1822 (from Portugal) October S, 1988 presidential president president National Congress Chamber of Deputies: 513 members elected by proportional representation Federal Senate: 81 members elected by plurality Chamber of Deputies: 4 years Federal Senate: 8 years (one-third and two-thirds of membership elected alternately every 4 years) multiparty 16

Brazil has universal suffrage for all citizens 16 and over. Voting is compulsory for voters over 18 and under 70. It is optional for younger and older voters as well as for illiterates.

H is to r y o f D e m o cracy

Brazil’s president is elected directly by majority vote.

A former Portuguese colony, Brazil became an inde­

If no candidate receives an absolute majority on the first

pendent constitutional monarchy in 1822. Brazil’s first

ballot, a runoff is held. Presidents serve four-year terms

emperor, Pedro I, granted Brazil a constitution in 1824.

and are eligible for immediate reelection. Seats for the

The constitution established a bicameral legislature with

Chamber of Deputies are allocated through proportional

little power; the emperor could dissolve Congress at will.

representation in multi-member electoral districts. The

In 1889 Emperor Pedro II was overthrown in a bloodless

total number of deputies for each state varies with pop­

military coup supported by the nation’s powerful

ulation but no state has fewer than 8 or more than 70

landowners who opposed his abolition of slavery with­

deputies. Senate elections are held every four years, al­

out compensation the previous year. The Republic of

ternately for one-third and two-thirds of the chamber’s

Brazil was proclaimed and, in 1891, a constitution was

members. In a year when one member is chosen, voters

adopted that established a decentralized federal system

cast a single ballot for one candidate elected by a plu­

with a directly elected president. During the “Old Re­

rality. If the election is for two seats, voters cast two bal­

public,” which lasted until 1930, government remained

lots and the two candidates with the largest number of

in the hands of the elite. Political bosses controlled local

votes win.

elections while an oligarchy determined national policy.

Political Parties

The “official” presidential candidate inevitably won. The Old Republic fell after the global economic crisis of

Brazil has one of the most fragmented party systems

1929 plunged the nation into political turmoil. The mili­

in Latin America. Most parties are weak with ill-defined ideologies and are unable to hold the allegiance of their

tary transferred power to Getulio Vargas, the losing candi­

members. Among the most significant are the Liberal Front Party, the largest in the nation; the Party of the Brazilian Democratic Movement, a catchall alliance for

date in the 1930 presidential election. He ruled by decree for four years. In 1934, a constituent assembly completed a new constitution and elected Vargas president. The con­ stitution authorized increased political participation and

politicians of a variety of ideologies; and the left-of-center Social Democratic Party, best known for its standard-

extended the vote to 18-year-olds and women. But as the effects of the worldwide Great Depression worsened, Var­

bearer, President Fernando Henrique Cordoso.

gas became convinced that he lacked the authority to deal effectively with Brazil’s economic problems. In 1937, with

64

Brazil

the aid of the military, he dissolved Congress and assumed

Weak and fragmented, the Brazilian multiparty system

dictatorial powers. He banned political parties, imposed

could not meet the demands created by rapid urbaniza­

press censorship and reorganized the government in imi­

tion, economic stagnation, mounting inflation and ideo­

tation of totalitarian Germany. While Brazilians lost most

logical polarization. On March 13,1964, a military coup

of their constitutional freedoms in a fascist-model New

ushered in a period of prolonged authoritarian rule. The

State (Estado Novo, 1937—45), Vargas instituted a variety of

military curbed civil liberties, dissolved political parties

massive public works projects providing widespread na­

and ended direct elections for president. While firmly

tional employment.

controlling the reins of power, it maintained a democra­

In October 1945, military leaders, reflecting mounting

tic facade, establishing two “official” political parties and

liberal influences in society, deposed Vargas. In elections

requiring that its nominees for president be approved by

held that year Eurico Gaspar Dutra, an army officer, was

the legislature.

elected president. The following year, a new constitution

The military regime, which pledged to put an end to

restored individual rights and gave an elected legislature

“communism and corruption” and to stabilize and mod­

the authority to make the nation’s laws. Within the mul­

ernize the economy, enjoyed substantial support during

tiparty system that emerged in the new constitutional

its first decade. Between 1967 and 1973 Brazil was trans­

framework, the Communist Party was outlawed in 1947.

formed into a semi-industrialized and highly urbanized

The pro-fascist movement reappeared as a conservative

society in what became known as the Brazilian eco­

electoral party but enjoyed little political success. The legacy of Vargas’s E stado Novo, far from damaging

nomic “miracle.” After 1968, however, military repres­ sion increased, with further restrictions on political dis­

his political prospects, enabled him to reemerge as a for­

sent, pervasive censorship of the press and gross

midable leader. Elected to the Senate in 1946, he main­

violation of human rights including systematic and in­

tained a low profile but made a full comeback in the 1950 presidential election, winning with 48 percent of the pop­

stitutionalized torture. In the late 1970s President Ernesto Geisel began

ular vote and with the support of a broad coalition of

opening the political system. Press censorship was

workers, industrialists and the urban middle class. Vargas

greatly reduced, although not eliminated, and while

immediately undertook a program of social and economic

right-wing “vigilante” acts against suspected leftists con­

reform that met with stiff opposition from conservatives.

tinued and reports of torture and disappearances circu­

In 1954 the military once again took over the government. Vargas committed suicide. Juscelino Kubitschek, who had

lated widely, police repression was less evident. His successor, Joao Figueiredo, reinstituted direct state elec­

the support of Vargas’s followers, took office in 1955.

tions in 1982. Opposition candidates gained a majority

Rapid industrial growth and spectacular projects (notably,

in the Chamber of Deputies and captured several im­

the construction of a new capital city, Brasilia) combined

portant governorships.

with Kubitschek’s political skill to create a climate of op­

In early January 1985, elder statesman Tancredo Neves

timism. But this optimism was shattered by the sudden

was chosen by the electoral college as the first civilian pres­

resignation of Kubitschek’s reformist successor, Janio

ident since 1964. Scheduled to take office on March 15, he

Quadros, in August 1961 because of what he referred to

fell ill on the eve of his inauguration and died 36 days later.

as the “forces of reaction” that blocked his efforts.

Vice President Jose Samey, a longtime supporter of the mil­

Quadros’s vice president, Joao Goulart was regarded as

itary regime (chosen by Neves only to balance the ticket),

left of center on Brazil’s narrow ideological spectrum of the

became president. Nevertheless, the move toward democ­

early 1960s. He was declared unacceptable by Quadros’s

ratization continued. In 1988 Brazil approved a new con­

military ministers. In a negotiated settlement, Goulart took office as head of state in a semiparliamentary system and

stitution, and the following year, Brazilians directly elected a president for the first time since 1960.

Tancredo Neves, a conservative leader of the Social Demo­

The first hundred days in office of the young, energetic

cratic Party, became prime minister. This compromise

president Fernando Collor de Mello left the impression

worked precariously until January 1963, when a plebiscite

that he could deal with Brazil’s chronic economic stagna­ tion and high inflation. Less than one year later, however,

returned full presidential powers to Goulart.

Buddhism these expectations were proved wrong. Facing charges of

65

segregation of American public schools.

corruption by a congressional investigating committee,

In the early 1930s the National Association for the Ad­

Collor was impeached by overwhelming votes in the

vancement of Colored People (NAACP) developed the

Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Popular support for

legal strategy of chipping away at the “separate but equal”

Collor’s impeachment reinforced the public’s confidence

doctrine of P lessy v. Ferguson (1896) by challenging

in democracy until Brazilians learned of further instances

school segregation as a violation of “equal protection of

of corruption in high office perpetrated by Collor’s suc­

the laws.” Over the years it won several cases, under­

cessor, Itamar Franco, and his administration.

mining P lessy in higher education. With Brown v. B oard

A plebiscite was held in April 1993 to decide whether

o f Education the NAACP attacked segregation at the pri­

the country should have a monarchal, parliamentary or

mary school level. In presenting the NAACP’s case, its at­

presidential system. Although 55 percent of the elec­

torney, Thurgood Marshall, did not concentrate on the

torate voted to maintain the existing presidential system,

equality of facilities. Both sides agreed that black and

the campaign was marked by considerable apathy and

white facilities in Topeka, Kansas, were equal. Instead,

hostility toward politicians. Opinion polls revealed the

Marshall asserted that the mere fact of segregation made

public’s low esteem for Brazil’s political parties and three

equal education impossible. He presented a series of psy­

branches of government. Public confidence in the Franco administration was

chological studies that showed that Southern black chil­

restored in mid-1993 when Franco appointed the re­

itself handicapped African-American students and seri­

spected foreign minister, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, to

ously damaged both black and white children.

dren had internalized a sense of inferiority. Segregation

the Ministry of Finance. Cardoso’s popularity increased

In a unanimous opinion, the Supreme Court sup­

when his economic stabilization program proved an ini­

ported Marshall’s argument. Speaking for the Court,

tial success. He left the ministry in 1994 to run success­

Chief Justice Earl Warren declared, “We conclude that in

fully for the presidency. Once in office he kept inflation

the field of public education ‘separate but equal’ has no

low and maintained economic growth. His popularity re­

place. Separate educational facilities were inherently un­

sulted in his reelection in 1998.

equal.” Separate facilities are, therefore, a violation of the 14th Amendment.

D em ocracy: Present an d Future Despite considerable progress, Brazil’s democratic in­

The decision had a profound effect on American society. Segregated schools did not disappear easily. Over the next

stitutions still face major difficulties. Brazil remains a

25 years, America’s racial tensions were played out in bat­

country with dramatic social inequalities. Mass poverty, income inequality and associated illiteracy need to be ad­

tles over school desegregation. Brown v. Board o f Education

dressed if Brazilian democracy is to be secured. The

ate the legal environment in which the court challenges of

country can no longer be governed by a small elite, but

the civil rights movement would find a hearing.

its influential, higher-income groups remain a powerful

removed the legal support for segregation and helped cre­

S ee a lso Civil Rights Movement.

force for stratification in Brazilian society. Brazilian democracy confronts the dual challenge of cementing its recent institutional gains while finding a common polit­ ical ground for improving the social and economic cir­

BRUNEI Se e Asia, Southeast.

cumstances of most of the populace.

BUDDHISM BROWN V. BO ARD OF EDUCATION OF TOPEKA ( 1 9 5 4 )

Religious system based upon the teaching of the histori­

Landmark Supreme Court decision overturning the

spread over vast regions of East Asia. Democracy was born in the West and nurtured in the Judeo-Christian tra­

doctrine of “separate but equal” and ordering the de­

cal Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama (c. 5 6 3 - c . 4 8 3 bce ). Buddhism originally developed in India but later

66

Bureaucracy

ditions of Europe. In general, therefore, there has not

In principle, the popular consent of his Buddhist subjects

been a close historical relationship between Buddhism

legitimizes the rule of a Buddhist king. As a corollary, it

and democratic government. Nonetheless, some tenets of

may be argued that popular consensus might even de­

Buddhism contain democratic elements. Central among

prive a king of his claim to rule, if the king has been

them is the fundamental idea of salvation through self­

judged to be without dham m a.

emancipation. As a sacred text called the D ham m apada

The traditional Buddhist concept of a political leader

states: “Only a man himself can be the master of himself:

as “king of righteousness” is a persistent theme in the po­

who else from outside could be his master?” This saying

litical culture of modern, Buddhist Southeast Asia,

clearly expresses the respect for the dignity of the indi­

where popular criticism of government is couched in

vidual human being that is a fundamental condition for

terms of deviation from righteousness. The English po­

democracy.

litical term legitim acy is usually rendered in Thai, for ex­ ample, as “being in accordance with righteousness.”

The B u d d h ist B ro th e rh o o d Historically, the community that preserved and con­

B u d d h ist D em o cracy

tinued Buddhism was a brotherhood known as the

In order to be respected as members of the family of na­

sangha, which provided a center of spiritual practice

tions, many Buddhist nations, which lack the Western

among Buddhist monks. The san gha was structured

historical experience of democracy, seek a unique Bud­

around a code of conduct called vinaya. The sangha in

dhistic democracy. In the mid-1960s, for example, Japan­

its original form was an autonomous and democratic in­

ese political leaders put forth the concept of “dhammic

stitution. Each member of this self-governing body had a

democracy,” which would achieve the peaceful coexis­

voice in deciding on the group’s adaptation of the vinaya

tence of liberty and equality through “the union of King

and was entitled to express his views on the daily ad­

and Buddha.” A Buddhistic democracy would be just one

ministration of the monastic community. Disputes

among varying versions of democracy. Whether a Bud­

within the sangha were settled according to the vinaya,

dhist version of democracy can help Asian countries sur­

which called for the decision by majority in some in­

vive and achieve further political development may de­

stances. This practice resembles that of majority rule in

pend upon the cultural tolerance of the rest of the world.

Western democratic decision-making. The G re at Elect Early Buddhism developed a unique concept of an

BULGARIA See Europe, East Central.

“elected king.” In some Buddhist scriptures an archaic king is depicted as the Great Elect, chosen by the people to maintain the worldly order. He was expected to ad­ minister justice and, in return, he was to receive a por­ tion of the people’s harvest for his service. A good Buddhist king must always behave as a pro­

BU REAU CRACY The totality of the structure of an organization that ad­ ministers its day-to-day operations, including its offices

tector of the dh am m a, or the teachings of the historical

and personnel, its hierarchy, its division of labor, and its

Buddha that constitute social justice. He lives in kind­

rules and regulations.

ness and shows goodwill to all beings. He also upholds

Bureaucracies can be found in all sorts of large orga­

the four principles of justice: to assess the rightness or

nizations, including corporations, churches, unions and

wrongness of any deed that is done to him; to uphold what is righteous and truthful; to acquire riches only

schools, but the word is most often used to refer to fed­ eral and local governments. Used in this way, the word

through just means; and to maintain the prosperity of his

“bureaucracy” often has negative connotations indicat­

state only through just means. When he is seen by his

ing inefficiency and red tape. In today’s democracies the

people to be properly performing his expected duty, he is praised as the dham m araja, or “king of righteousness.”

bureaucracy is the primary organization for carrying out the administration of government at all levels in society.

Burke, Edmund

67

All types of governments rely on bureaucracies: they are

organization and to specific job responsibilities and pro­

an important factor in democratic countries but were also

cedures, bureaucracies tend to be resistant to changes in­

essential in regimes like those of Nazi Germany and So­

troduced from outside by public officials, who in turn

viet Russia, where vast bureaucracies controlled virtually

may be responding to calls for change by citizens. More­

every aspect of the economy and the state. The manage­

over, any change in the responsibilities of the bureau­

ment and reform of bureaucracy have become a principal

cracy must be accompanied by the necessary related

focus of modem government.

changes in bureaucratic procedure, routine and policy.

The most important theorist on modern bureaucracy

Change, when it does occur, is usually slow.

was the early 20th-century German sociologist Max

Another challenge is the reliance on the expertise of a

Weber. He defined a bureaucracy as comprising at least

bureaucracy by both political leaders and citizens. Such

some of the following elements: a clear definition of the

reliance can undermine the independent political au­

organization’s purpose and responsibilities; established

thority of elected officials, who may find themselves re­

rules and procedures about how it will carry out its re­

acting and responding to changes in the political envi­

sponsibilities; rules that will limit the possibility of ar­

ronment that have been created by the bureaucracy.

bitrary action by individuals or by the organization itself;

Another problem is the tendency of a bureaucracy to ex­

hiring or appointment and promotion based on compe­

pand, with the associated costs incurred. Bureaucracy

tence and/or on testing or experience; all positions and

has, therefore, proven difficult to reform, resistant to

salaries arranged hierarchically, with each position

change and resilient to attack.

under a higher, or superior, one; and all decisions and ac­

Despite these drawbacks, bureaucracy will, in all like­

tions of the bureaucracy written to help provide ac­

lihood, be very influential in shaping the future of liberal

countability and to serve as a guide to future action.

democracy.

The 19th-century French sociologist, Emile Durkheim

S ee also Civil Service.

saw the need for bureaucracies stemming from simple, primitive societies to become larger and more complex and to require a division of labor to run them. He viewed

BU R K E, EDMUND

contemporary society as having a central authority but

(1729-1797)

needing the administrative skills of a bureaucracy to im­ plement that authority. In highly developed democracies like the United States, the bureaucracy constitutes a major portion of the gov­ ernment and exists somewhat removed from the processes

British statesman and political philosopher whose ideas were influential in many European countries. Born and educated in Ireland, Burke studied law be­ fore beginning a career as a writer and journalist in Lon­

political neutrality and merit, principles at odds with the

don. In 1765 he won a seat in Parliament, where he fre­ quently spoke out on the important issues of the day.

overriding concern with public opinion that tends to drive

Burke supported the American colonists in their dispute

elected officials. The makeup of legislative and executive

with the British government, believing they should enjoy

of partisan elections. Bureaucracy rests upon notions of

institutions may change frequently, but the responsibili­

the rights of English citizens. He opposed the slave trade,

ties, authority and character of the bureaucracy are resis­

criticized despotic British rule in India and condemned oppressive penalties imposed on Catholics in Ireland. In

tant to change. Bureaucracy therefore exerts something of a conservative force upon government and is oriented to­ ward the status quo. Bureaucracies present special challenges to democra­

1790 he wrote R eflection s on th e R evolution in France, a critical analysis of the ideas and conduct of the French revolutionaries. Burke thought the French Revolution

tic governments. One of these is the difficulty of citizens

dangerous because of its attacks on individuals and ef­

and elected officials in keeping bureaucracies account­ able and in implementing reforms. Their vast size and

forts to undermine religious belief and traditional moral­ ity. He complained that the revolutionaries were guided

complexity limit their degree of accountability. And be­ cause their employees respond to superiors within the

by abstract theories and denounced the Revolution’s at­ tempt to build a new social order. He called the revolu-

68

Burke, Edmund fications for governing. Governing required knowledge, intelligence, prudence and the ability to foresee the con­ sequences of one’s action. He thought these qualities were more likely to be found among the privileged than among the common people. Second, Burke thought that the common people had angry passions that would be aroused and vented if they gained power. He believed that one of the functions of government was to restrain such passions. Democracy was incapable of doing so. Once in power, the people had no incentive to control their passions and so democ­ racy could lead to fraud and violence. Burke offered a third argument against democracy: It had a tendency to tyrannize minorities. Democratic ma­ jorities had a certain “fearless” character, for they sensed that as holders of power and makers of law they were above punishment. Burke therefore emphasized that de­ mocratic majorities must not be allowed to believe that their will was the standard of right and wrong. The risk that a majority might seek arbitrary power was increased by its inclination to follow the lead of ambitious, selfish demagogues. Burke’s fear of majorities was similar to James Madison’s concern about majority factions and an­

Edmund Burke

ticipated Alexis de Tocqueville’s warning about the tyranny of the majority.

tionary government “a despotic democracy” and cor­

BU R K IN A FASO

rectly predicted that it would soon turn into a “mischie­

See Africa, Subsaharan.

vous and ignoble oligarchy.” P olitical T h o u gh t Burke was deeply skeptical about democracy. He was

BURM A See Asia, Southeast.

not absolutely opposed to it, acknowledging that in some circumstances it might be necessary, even desirable. But he could not foresee what those circumstances might be and

BURUNDI

he strongly believed they did not exist in his own time.

See Africa, Subsaharan.

Burke opposed democracy on three grounds. First, he thought that the average person did not have the quali­

c CABIN ET

British cabinet system although the specific composition and powers of a cabinet vary from country to country. The

A body of advisers to the head of government in a par­

British cabinet heads a government of about 100 minis­

liamentary system; the administrative heads of the chief

ters, ministers of state and junior ministers. About 20

executive departments in a presidential system.

ministers, who are said to be of cabinet rank, make deci­ sions for the government as a whole. The cabinet exer­

P a rlia m e n ta ry C ab in e ts The cabinet first developed in 17th-century England

cises supreme executive authority and is the sole advi­ sor to the Crown, embodying the institution of the state.

as an advisory body to the monarch. As the king’s Privy

Members of the cabinet are chosen by the prime min­

Council grew too large to be an effective instrument of

ister, who leads the majority party in the parliament,

government, the monarch began to rely on a small group

from among other party leaders in the legislature. They

of ministers from the Council, which met in the royal

retain their seats in the parliament and thus combine ex­

chamber or cabinet. Hence, this group became known as

ecutive and legislative duties. Under the principle of par­

the Cabinet Council. Initially the Cabinet Council had no

liamentary accountability, they ultimately are responsi­

special authority, but during the 18th century, when the

ble to the parliament, but the prime minister may remove

king ceased to attend cabinet meetings, it began making

them at will. In practice he or she is reluctant to do so be­

decisions on its own or under the direction of the first, or

cause ministers frequently head important factions

prime, minister. By the 20th century it had evolved into

whose support is necessary to maintain a parliamentary

the modern cabinet of senior ministers, headed by the prime minister, with the authority to make decisions on

majority.

behalf of the government.

tems where no one party has a clear legislative majority.

In a parliamentary system the cabinet is composed of a group of legislators who are chosen by the prime min­

cabinet from among several parties, which together pro­

ister to act as senior advisers and head major government

vide the necessary support. Seats in such cabinets are

ministries. It wields executive power in the nation. The

usually apportioned according to the strength of each

cabinet is responsible to parliament, a principle called parliamentary accountability, and remains in power as

as those involving one party because the leaders of the

Coalition cabinets govern in many parliamentary sys­ Under these conditions a prime minister tries to form a

party in the coalition. Coalition cabinets are not as stable

long as it retains legislative and popular support. If it

various parties in the coalition generally do not agree on

lacks that backing, it is said to have fallen, and a new

all issues and will leave in disputes over policy, thus

cabinet must be formed. Parliamentary governments are

shattering the coalition.

based on the idea of collective responsibility. All mem­ bers take responsibility for the decisions of the group. Ministers may express disagreement with policy within

U.S. C ab in e t The U.S. Constitution makes no formal provision for

the cabinet room, but they are bound to support the final decision. If they cannot, they must resign.

a cabinet, although it does give the president the right to

Many nations have adopted the basic features of the

the executive departments.” The cabinet grew out of

“require the opinion . . . of the principal officer of each of

Cabinet

69

70

Cabinet knowledge and ability to administer particular depart­ U .S . C A B IN E T Departm ent Department of State Department of the Treasury Department of Justice Department of the Interior Department of Agriculture Department of Commerce* Department of Labor* Department of Defense** Department of Health and Human Services*** Department of Housing and Urban Development Department ofTransportation Department of Energy Department of Education Department of Veterans Affairs

ments and so appoints academics and business and labor Date Established 1789 1789 1789 1849 1889 1903 1913 1947 I9S3 I96S 1966 1977 1979 1988

‘ Created as Department of Commerce and Labor; Labor be­ came a separate department in 1913. **Combined the Department of War, formed in 1789, and the Department of the Navy, established in 1798. ***Originally known as the Department of Health, Education and Welfare; divided in 1979.

leaders in addition to politicians. He usually chooses people from his own party, although several presidents have included members of the opposition party to show that the administration represents the entire nation. A president frequently selects representatives from certain regions or interest groups. The secretary of the interior is often from the West, which contains large amounts of government land, while the secretary of agriculture is usually from a farming state in the Midwest. Tradition­ ally, the secretary of labor has ties to organized labor while the secretary of commerce has connections to busi­ ness. Contemporary presidents also want to make sure that their administrations are representative of the pop­ ulation as a whole and so take care to include women and minorities. The U.S. cabinet wields no executive power. It is an advisory body to the president, and each president de­ termines how he will use it. Several presidents, includ­ ing Calvin Coolidge, relied heavily on their cabinets to

George Washington's practice of meeting regularly with

carry out their administrative duties, but others, such as

his secretaries of state, war and treasury as well as the at­

Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln, let their cabinets

torney general to ask their advice. Contemporary news­

play only minor roles in their administrations. Although

papers called this group the cabinet, the name used in

the cabinet was designed to be an advisory body, presi­

Great Britain for advisers to the king. As the government

dents do not have to ask for advice and do not have to

grew, other departments were added to represent signif­

take it once given.

icant interests. The U.S. cabinet is composed of the heads of 14 ex­

Most presidents, particularly strong presidents like Franklin D. Roosevelt, have been reluctant to give the

ecutive departments under the direction of the president.

cabinet a major advisory role for several reasons. First,

The vice president also sits in during cabinet meetings,

because of the nature of their position, all members of the

and the president may accord other administration offi­

cabinet have conflicting loyalties. They must advise the

cials cabinet rank, although only Congress can create cab­

president but they also become spokespersons for their

inet departments. Unlike a cabinet in a parliamentary

departments and the interests these departments repre­

system, the American cabinet is responsible to the pres­

sent. Consequently, they may advocate policies that are

ident, not the legislature. Because the U.S. governmental

at odds with the president’s plans or clash with other

system is based on the principle of separation of powers,

cabinet members over programs and directions. Second,

cabinet members may not hold other government offices.

cabinet members traditionally have been unwilling to

Thus cabinet members have no legislative function as they do in a parliamentary system. Nevertheless, Con­

maintain secrecy about policy disagreements when they

gress can consult them or ask them to testify in congres­

feel their department’s interests are threatened. Finally, in many cases cabinet positions go to relative strangers for political reasons. The president may barely know a

sional committee hearings. The U.S. system of checks and balances provides that cabinet members are chosen

cabinet member and therefore is reluctant to trust him or

by the president but must be confirmed by the Senate.

her. Consequently, most presidents rely on trusted

Several factors go into a president’s choice of cabinet

friends in the administration for advice. Early in his ad­

members. He or she wants individuals who have the

ministration, Andrew Jackson formulated policy with a

Calhoun, John C(aldwell)

71

group of journalists, treasury officials and some cabinet members known as the “Kitchen Cabinet” because it met near the White House kitchen. Franklin D. Roosevelt turned to a "Brain Trust” of academics as well as his wife Eleanor for advice during the Great Depression. S ee also Coalition; Parliamentary Government; Pres­ idential Government.

CABIN ET GOVERNMENT See Parliamentary Government; Prime Minister.

CALHOUN, JOHN C(ALDWELL) (1782-1850) Defender of states’ rights and seventh vice president of the United States. The son of one of South Carolina’s wealthiest planters, Calhoun was born near Abbeville, South Carolina, and ed­ ucated at Yale. After serving briefly in the South Carolina legislature, Calhoun was elected to the U.S. House of Rep­ resentatives in 1811. An ardent nationalist, Calhoun be­

John C. Calhoun

lieved that the national government had broad powers and advocated protective tariffs, a national bank and a system of nationwide internal improvements. He served as sec­

the power in question through a constitutional amend­

retary of war from 1817 to 1825. Calhoun was elected vice

ment. If the state opposed the action of the majority, it

president in 1824 and again in 1828. He resigned in 1830

could secede. South Carolina attempted to put Calhoun’s

and was named senator from South Carolina. He became

theory into practice by nullifying the tariffs. When Pres­

secretary of state in 1844. In 1845 he returned to the Sen­

ident Andrew Jackson threatened to use troops to enforce

ate, where he remained until his death in 1850.

the law, South Carolina retreated. A compromise tariff

Political T h o u gh t In 1828 Calhoun reversed his position on tariffs fol­

ended the crisis. Calhoun devoted the remainder of his career to trying to unite the South behind his theories and defending

lowing the passage of what became known as the Tariff

slavery. He argued that the federal government had an

of Abominations, which benefited the industrial North

obligation to promote the interests of slave owners and

but adversely affected the agrarian, slave-owning South.

that free states could do nothing to interfere with its ac­

South Carolina extremists spoke of secession as a way out from under the law, but Calhoun advocated a more

tions. Calhoun resisted any efforts to increase the power of the Northern, free states. He warned that the South

moderate position, nullification. Calhoun argued that the

might secede unless slavery was made secure. His his­

Constitution was a compact between states who gave the federal government certain powers to act as their agent. Sovereignty remained with the people of each state who

toric debate with Senator Daniel Webster in 1833 over states’ rights and slavery crystallized the theoretical basis for the opposing positions for years to come. Calhoun’s

had the right to nullify any law they deemed unconsti­

theory of states’ rights laid the groundwork for the

tutional. The law would remain null in that state until

South’s secession and the creation of the Confederacy.

three-fourths of the states gave the federal government

S ee also States’ Rights.

72

Canada

CAM BODIA

from all over the world). Canada’s evolving demands for

See Asia, Southeast.

a fully sovereign state have also played a major part in its political evolution. S tru c tu re o f G ove rnm e nt

CAMEROON

The government of Canada was modeled on the sys­

See Africa, Subsaharan.

tem in the United Kingdom although, unlike Great Britain, it is federal in structure. It is a multiparty, par­ liamentary democracy made up of an executive branch,

CAN AD A

a bicameral legislature and a separate judiciary. Each Confederation of 10 provinces and three territories with

province also has its own pop­

a parliamentary government that is a product of both its

ularly elected legislature and

French and British past.

maintains

Among the issues contributing to the evolution of

autonomy

in

a

number of areas.

Canadian democracy have been relations between the provincial and federal governments, between native

Executive

tribes and European settlers and between French and

The executive branch is head­

English speakers {complicated by recent immigration

ed by the British sovereign, al-

G R E E N L A N D (DENM ARK)

ALBERTA PRINCE*^ EDWARD ' IS IA N Q , W innipeg M o n tre , Ottawa

NOVA C O T IA

Canada

73

though, as in Great Britain, this is largely a ceremonial position. The Crown’s representative to the federal gov­ ernment is the governor-general; in each province it is a lieutenant-governor. These are officially to be appointed by the monarch for six-year terms, but in reality they are chosen by the Canadian prime minister. Executive power is wielded by the prime minister and his cabinet, which are responsible to the House of Com­

Official Nam e: Date of Independence: Date of Current Constitution: Form of Government: Chief of State: Head of Government: Legislature:

mons. The prime minister is generally the leader of the political party with a majority in the lower house. If no party commands a majority, the party with the largest number of seats forms the government. If a government loses the support of the House, it is either replaced or Parliament is dissolved and new elections called. The

Term of Legislature: Party System: M inim um Voting Age:

Canada July 1,1867 (from the United Kingdom) patriated April 17,1982 constitutional monarchy British sovereign repre­ sented by governor-general prime minister Parliament House of Commons: 301 members elected by plurality Senate: 104 members appointed 5 years 2-party 18

cabinet, which is chosen by the prime minister, varies in size but has grown dramatically over the past 50 years with the expansion of the federal bureaucracy. Legislature

The legislative branch of government is made up of

Judiciary

Canada’s highest court is the Supreme Court, which

two chambers, the House of Commons and the Senate.

serves as a court of appeal for criminal, civil and consti­

The House of Commons, the lower house, is currently

tutional issues. Its nine judges are appointed for life (or

made up of 301 popularly elected members each rep­

retirement at age 75). Each province has its own court

resenting a district. House members are elected for five-

system culminating in a provincial supreme court. Fed­

year periods. Seats are distributed in proportion to pop­

erally appointed judges sit on provincial superior and in­

ulation. The Senate’s members are appointed for life by

termediate courts. The courts administer criminal law,

the incumbent prime minister. The longer a prime min­

which is made at the federal level, as well as civil law

ister stays in office, the more appointees he or she will

made by the provinces. All provinces follow the tradi­

generally make and the more the Senate will reflect the

tions of common law except Quebec, whose system is

incumbent’s politics, making it more difficult for the

based on the French Napoleonic Code.

successive prime minister. The number of Senate seats from each province differs and is fixed by law. Cur­

Local Government

rently there are 104 Senate seats. In theory the House

Canada’s 10 provinces and three territories are each headed by the appointed lieutenant-governor and each

and Senate are equal bodies and new bills must be passed by both houses to become law. However, the

elects a legislature in a similar fashion to the federal elec­

Senate rarely opposes legislation approved in the lower

tions except that provincial legislatures are made up of

chamber. There has been opposition to the continued

only one chamber. Constitutionally, the provinces con­

existence of the Senate by many who see it as a bastion

trol social services, health, education and the civil

of cronyism. Parliamentary committees exist but new legislation is

have fully elected assemblies but remain under the con­

generally prepared by the executive branch and submit­

stitutional control of the federal government. The history

courts. The Yukon, Nunavut and Northwest Territories

ted to a committee that is expected to follow the party

of relations between the provincial and federal govern­

line. The opposition party—the one with the second

ments has been an evolving one. From a tradition of a

highest number of seats— is able to question the govern­ ment daily about its policies.

strong centralized government, the trend since the 1970s has been to devolve more powers onto the provincial governments.

74

Canada

Electoral System

Canada has two electoral systems—federal and provin­

ernment and the provinces through elected legislatures based on majority rule. Principles of representation and

cial. All citizens 18 years or older are entitled to vote by

responsibility were extended to federal and provincial

secret ballot in both federal and provincial elections. The

parliaments.

average turnout is from 60 to 80 percent of registered vot­

Over time Canada slowly achieved full independence.

ers. Candidates are elected in a simple plurality system.

It gained a sovereign role in foreign affairs after World

Unless the sitting government is defeated or dissolved,

War I, when it became a separate signatory to the Treaty

the prime minister must call for elections to the House

of Versailles. This status was confirmed by the Statute of

every five years. There are many who consider the cur­

Westminster (1931), which created the British Common­

rent system unfair and have called for proportional rep­

wealth. The final act severing colonial ties with Great

resentation. As yet, no changes have been made to that

Britain came only in 1982 when the Canadian govern­

effect.

ment requested that the British Parliament return

Political Parties

was renamed the Constitution Act, 1867, and new con­

Canada’s written constitution to its homeland. The BNA Canadian politics has evolved into a two-party system

stitutional provisions were put in place, including the

dominated by the Liberals and the Progressive Conserv­

Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Canada’s first compre­

atives. The former favor government involvement in sup­

hensive constitutional guarantee of internationally rec­

port of the general welfare; the latter favor limited gov­

ognized human rights. The Constitution Act of 1982 was

ernment. Two major third parties emerged in the 1990s;

adopted by all provinces but Quebec, which declined to

the conservative Reform Party and the Bloc Qu6becois,

sign it because it did not guarantee French-Canadian cul­

which favors an independent Quebec.

tural survival.

H is t o r y o f D e m o cracy

society, always a major theme in Canadian politics, has

The place of French language and culture in Canadian Canada was first settled in the early 17th century by

dominated the political debate since the 1960s. Three vi­

the French, and France controlled Canada until it was

sions of the Canadian community emerged during the

lost to Great Britain in the Seven Years’ War (1756-63).

last 35 years. French Canadians saw themselves as a dis­

The many French who remained were joined by mount­

tinct society whose culture had to be preserved through

ing numbers of British colonists. The population also

a strong provincial government. Over the years Quebec

was swelled by Americans loyal to the British Crown

governments took increasingly militant separatist ac­

who fled northward during and after the Revolutionary

tions, first making French the official and sole language

War. From the outset, there was friction between French

of the province in 1974, and then restricting the teaching

and English speakers and between the colonists and in­

and public display of languages other than French. In

digenous peoples.

1980 the province held a referendum on changing its sta­

Canada’s first steps toward independence began in

tus to one of “sovereignty-association.” The measure was

1867 when the British Parliament passed the British

defeated but nationalist demands increased, culminating

North America Act (BNA) granting Canada dominion sta­

in a 1995 referendum on independence that failed by the

tus and confederating its four colonies, Nova Scotia, New

slimmest of margins.

Brunswick, Ontario and Quebec as provinces. The other

A second view of the Canadian community, expounded

provinces joined the confederation between 1870 and

by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau in the late 1960s, was as

1949. The BNA extended to Canada the liberal democ­ ratic practices and protections then prevalent under

a bilingual and bicultural society of equals. This was re­

British common law and at the same time gave Canada

flected in the Official Languages Act of 1969 under which French and English had coequal status as official Cana­

a written constitution. Although the act provided for

dian languages. The act, however, did not succeed in ad­

elected legislative bodies, executive authority remained with the British monarchy and its representatives. The

First, despite serious efforts to promote bilingualism

constitution divided powers between the federal gov­

throughout Canada and especially in the federal public

dressing the general concerns of Quebec nationalists.

Candidate Selection and Recruitment service, the legislation did not result in large-scale up­

75

that is no longer the case. While more Canadians than

ward mobility for francophones outside Quebec. Second,

ever believe that sovereignty belongs to the people, they

politicians in Quebec were more concerned about the in­

still do not agree on the identity of that people. Greater

roads of English into their province rather than what

democracy has meant giving legitimacy to the expression

bilingualism might mean outside their province. A third vision emerged in the 1970s in response to in­ creased immigraton from Europe and the Third World. It

of a wide range of collective grievances, but it has not yet provided the means for achieving solutions in the spirit of workable compromise.

saw Canada as a multicultural society in which all groups were encouraged to retain their distinctiveness. Multiculturalism became part of official government pol­ icy in 1971, but it led to greater resentment by those of French origin who took the policy as a message that their

CANDIDATE SELECTION AND RECRUITM ENT

claims for recognition were no greater than those of other

Process by which candidates are chosen to run for pub­

ethnic groups.

lic office.

The absence of Quebec from the original signatories to

In most democratic nations the process involves two

the Constitution Act led to efforts at accommodation in

steps: candidate selection and nomination. A political

the 1980s and 1990s. In 1987 the Meech Lake Accord rec­

party selects the person who is to run as its designated

ognized Quebec’s claim to be a “distinct society,” with

candidate for a public office. Formal nomination occurs

a constitutional veto and control over immigration into

when government electoral authorities certify that the

the province. However, not all provinces approved the

person is a qualified candidate for the particular office.

measure and the sense of crisis increased. In 1992 polit­ ical leaders finalized a more comprehensive agreement

N o m in a tio n by P e titio n

involving extensive constitutional changes, including

Petitions are used in most democracies that have elec­

recognition of Quebec as a distinct society and self-gov-

toral systems modeled on the single-member district sys­

ernment for indigenous peoples. The Charlottetown Ac­

tem used for selecting members of the British House of

cord, as it was called, satisfied mainly the politicians

Commons. In Great Britain, those wishing to run for elec­

who developed it. Facing popular discontent with deci­

tion to the House acquire an official nomination paper

sion-making behind closed doors, the government held a

from the election office in the district they hope to rep­

national advisory referendum on the issue. The accord

resent. On that paper they write their name, address and

went down to defeat in a vote that reflected discontent

occupation. The paper must be signed by one voter in the

with Canada’s political leadership as much as with the

district acting as proposer, another acting as seconder,

proposed agreement. A constitutional accommodation

and eight others acting as assenters. The candidate then

acceptable to both Quebec and the English-speaking provinces remains to be negotiated.

files the completed petition with the election authorities and puts down a substantial deposit. The deposit is in­ tended to discourage “frivolous candidatures” and is for­

D em ocracy: Present and Future The constitutional debates that have engaged Canadi­

feited to the national treasury if the candidate wins less than five percent of the district’s votes in the ensuing

ans since the 1960s have profoundly changed the char­

election. The candidate’s name is then placed on the bal­

acter of their democracy. There is new recognition of the

lot. If he or she chooses, the party affiliation is added as well. Other countries that have similar electoral systems,

importance of individual rights along with a new legiti­ macy for the rights of various groups. There has also been an attempt in recent years toward more citizen partici­

such as Canada and New Zealand, use substantially the same nominating procedures.

pation in constitutional changes. Research has indicated that if Canadians were once in­ clined to trust their political leaders to carry out their re­ sponsibilities in the best interests of their constituents,

P a r ty Lists A majority of democratic nations use some form of party-list proportional representation. Under this system

76

Candidate Selection and Recruitment

each election district elects several members of the na­

regional party. The next most common is selection by na­

tional legislature, and each ballot contains lists of the can­

tional agencies after consultation with regional or local

didates nominated by each party for that district’s seats.

agencies. Some parties in some countries give their na­

In most of these nations an authorized agency (usually

tional leaders the power to veto a locally selected can­

a national party executive committee) draws up its list of

didate if he or she does not meet the party’s requirements

candidates for each district, specifies the order in which

of ideological loyalty or personal ethics. Such vetoes are

it wishes the candidates to appear on the ballot, and sub­

rare, but because the possibility exists, local agencies

mits the list to the election authorities. The authorities

generally choose candidates they feel confident will be

verify that the candidates are legally qualified to serve in

accepted by the national party authorities. Some national

the legislature and then print the parties’ lists on the elec­

party leaders also have the power to place candidates by

tion ballot. In some countries this is the only procedure

persuading or requiring local selectors to choose candi­

by which candidates can get their names on the ballots;

dates the national leaders designate. Because such can­

write-in votes are not permitted. In others a hundred or

didates often arouse voter resentment, most national

so independent voters can also nominate a single candi­

leaders use their placement power rarely and gingerly.

date or a list of candidates by petition. In general, how­

The degree to which rank-and-file members of politi­

ever, nomination procedures in the party-list countries

cal parties participate in the selection of candidates

are dominated—in some cases monopolized—by party

varies from country to country. At one extreme is a situ­

organizations.

ation in which a single party leader or a small group of party leaders chooses the candidates for all elective of­

U.S. P rim aries

fices; the rank-and-file members have little or no role.

Nomination procedures in the United States are unlike

Until electoral reform in the 1990s, Israeli parties came

those of any other democratic system. In the United States

very close to this extreme. In Israel each party’s national

voters, rather than party leaders, select party candidates

executive committee chose the names for the list and also

in government-supervised direct primaries. Those seek­

determined the order in which they would appear on the

ing a particular party’s nomination file a petition con­

ballot (important because, after the election, each party’s

taining the required number of voter signatures with elec­

allotted seats were filled in descending order of the list).

tion authorities, and the authorities put their names on

U.S. parties stand at the other extreme of the selection

the ballot. The authorities supervise the party’s primary

procedures. Under the direct primary system voters

and then certify the winner as that party’s nominee.

choose party candidates in government-supervised, se-

Some parties in a few nations (for example, Bel­

cret-ballot primary elections. Thus, whereas fewer than

gium, Germany, Norway and Turkey) make nom ina­

a hundred leaders choose an Israeli party’s candidates for

tions by party-conducted elections among enrolled,

the Knesset, many thousands, sometimes millions, of

dues-paying party members. The United States, how­

voters choose the Democratic and Republican parties’

ever, is the only country that uses the direct primary in

candidates for national and state offices. Moreover, the

the strict sense: Party nominations are made by gov­

voters enjoy this power without assuming any obligation

ernment-conducted elections in which by law all reg­

to the party. They do not have to pay party dues; they do

istered voters may participate.

not have to subscribe to the party’s principles; they do not even have to support the party’s candidates in the

C a n d id a te Selection Processes The way in which parties select candidates varies

general election. They need only choose to vote in the primary election.

from nation to nation and from one party to another. Nev­

Most parties’ selection processes lie somewhere be­

ertheless, some generalizations can be made both about how centralized the process is and how much participa­

tween the Israeli and American extremes. In New

tion rank-and-file party members have in the process.

Zealand, for example, parliamentary candidates are se­ lected by small committees of dues-paying party mem­

The most common manner of selecting candidates is

bers in the districts. In Belgium, Denmark, Germany and

by district party agencies supervised by the national or

Sweden candidates are selected by direct votes open to

Capitalism all local party members. In Italy and Switzerland they are

77

gave rise to sustained conflicts between social classes.

selected by regional and district party committees. In

At the same time, the expansion of capitalism made

general, national party agencies are stronger in countries

available economic resources necessary for the rise of the

with multimember district systems of proportional rep­

modern state. Growing state revenues funded territorial

resentation, and local and regional party agencies are

conflict, expansion and consolidation of control, and

stronger in countries with single-member district plural­ ity systems.

were also critical in converting hereditary state institu­ tions into modern, bureaucratic structures. Capitalism also proved to be a source of tremendous technical inno­

S ee also Caucus; Election Campaigns.

vation and economic growth. Turning states away from military conflict and conquest and toward a peaceful role

CAPE VERDE

of service to the capitalistic economy was an important

See Africa, Subsaharan.

element in the self-understanding of early capitalism. Evolving C apitalism

CAPITALISM

The textbook model of unrestrained competitive cap­ italism does not match historical reality. Fully competi­

Social system in which economic activity is dominated

tive capitalism never existed, and Karl Marx’s attempt to

by the owners of the means of production, or capital, rather than by workers, landowners, political rulers or re­

identify laws of capitalist development turned out to be wrong in many respects. Marx was right, however, in as­

ligious leaders.

suming that capitalism was able to transform itself, al­

Under capitalism, not only goods and services, but also the major factors of production—capital, land and

though this process was less predictable and more de­ pendent on historical circumstances than he thought.

labor—are exchanged on the market. Labor is contracted

Advanced capitalistic societies have typically under­

in return for wages rather than being supplied through

gone a number of changes. These include the concentra­

slavery, serfdom or the obligations of citizenship. In cap­

tion of productive property within a small percentage of

italist systems, profit is the main criterion in economic decision-making. Profit is made by decentralized and

the population, the emergence of one or a few firms dom­ inating an industry, the unionization of parts of the labor

more-or-less competitive private enterprise.

force and an increase in state action in the economy and

Scholars have long debated the relationship between capitalism and political democracy. While some theorists claim that capitalism has brought about a fundamental

society. In all capitalist countries there has been a long­ term increase in politically imposed limitations on prop­ erty rights, public regulation of production and market exchange, and state supports for essential capitalist pro­ duction and for the needs of the disadvantaged. These have varied from country to country in the speed of in­ tegration, in their particular form and in the ways they combined with each other. As a result capitalist societies differ substantially from each other. This is evident if one compares the limited welfare-state institutions in the United States with the more expansive practices in Eu­ rope, especially in Scandinavia.

democratization of society and politics, history shows that the political outcomes under capitalism have been varied and ambiguous. The State and Capitalism Capitalism was fostered by, and in turn fostered, the rise of the modern state. A high degree of separation be­ tween economic decision-making and political rule is an essential feature of capitalism, yet a strong state was re­ quired for capitalism to develop. State action gave legal shape and protection to new forms of property, contract and business organization that often went against privi­ leged interests, established social customs and popularly held ideas of fairness. By redistributing wealth, capital­ ism disrupted cultural and traditional social orders and

D em ocracy and C apitalism Much scholarly and political argument assumes that democracy and capitalism are closely linked, and mod­ ern democracies indeed are associated with the rise of capitalism. Several theories have been suggested to ex­

78

Caribbean

plain the connection. One view holds that only democ­

C A RIBBEA N

racy is sufficiently flexible and complex to deal with the political issues generated by an increasingly complex

The islands in the Caribbean Sea, which were for many

capitalist economy and society. A related position sees

years colonies of the Western European powers, espe­

market choice and electoral choice as parallel and mu­

cially Spain, France and England.

tually reinforcing mechanisms. In this view, unfettered

Progress toward democracy in this area has been

economic freedom provides the necessary underpinning

shaped by colonial legacies and by the influence and in­

of political freedom. Perhaps the oldest explanation for

tervention of the United States. Democracy in the Span­

the relationship between the structure of society and con­

ish and French Caribbean has faced several obstacles: the

stitutional form is one that goes back to Aristotle: that

institutions and methods of Spanish and French rule

democracy rests on, and is advanced by, a large and vi­

were almost always hostile to popular participation;

brant middle class, which tends to support a culture of

many political leaders in the area have perceived a con­

moderation and tolerance.

flict between national autonomy and the goals of democ­

Nevertheless there are many capitalist societies that

racy; and pressure by the United States has sometimes

have existed in authoritarian political systems. The Ger­

assisted but has often undercut democratic efforts.

man and Italian fascist regimes of the 1920s and 1930s

British colonies, on the other hand, experienced years of

were capitalist as were the Latin American dictator­

self-government.

ships of the 1960s and 1970s. More recently, authori­

pushed for democratization, and colonial rule served as

tarian regimes in East Asia have engineered capitalist

a buffer for the repressive tendencies of native elites.

Well-developed

political

parties

development. Thus democracy is not a predetermined outgrowth of

Spanish an d French C arib be an

capitalism. Democratic development depends not only on

Christopher Columbus discovered La Espanola (His­

the historic situation in each country but also on the re­

paniola) in 1492, and within 10 years Spain had estab­

lationship between the political and economic systems

lished a colonial administration there that set the pattern

and the balance of power among socioeconomic classes.

for its domination of a large part of the Western Hemi­

Democracy evolved in capitalist societies only where po­

sphere over the next 300 years. Authority was vested in

litical authority and economic property rights were insti­

autocratic governors and viceroys who seldom remained

tutionally separated. Although some state regulation is

more than a few years and who exerted royal military

necessary, complete state control of the economy and a

and naval power in close cooperation with the Roman

strong and autonomous military are unfavorable condi­

Catholic Church. The governors sought to organize both

tions for democracy. Most importantly, democracy devel­

society and the economy to benefit the interests of the

oped in societies where capitalism shifted power from a

Spanish Crown.

few large landholders to the middle and working classes, traditionally the most pro-democratic groups in society.

The Spanish influence started to decline in 1697 when Spain formally recognized France’s flourishing

Democracy, in turn, transformed capitalism in many

plantation colony in western Hispaniola; in 1795 Spain

nations, as powerful unions and political parties achieved

ceded its section of the island to the French. Almost im­

policies that built strong welfare states and reduced eco­

mediately France’s hold was challenged by a slave re­

nomic inequality. Political democracy is unlikely to

bellion, which by 1804 had created Haiti, the world’s first

achieve a similar transformation in all countries, but it

black republic. Haiti dominated the Spanish portion of

will continue to make a difference by providing the im­ petus for improvements in areas such as health, education

Hispaniola until 1844, when a rebellion established the

and the environment that cannot be achieved by the in­ terplay of private interests operating on profit motives. S ee also Smith, Adam.

Dominican Republic as an independent country. A succession of military leaders controlled Haiti dur­ ing the 19th and early 20th centuries. The promise of democracy remained unfulfilled as the elite mulattos ex­ cluded blacks from power, and the government ruled in alliance with merchants who controlled the nation’s

Caribbean

A T L A N T I C

79

O C E A N

'X TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS (M) VIRGIN ISLANDS

ANGUILLA