Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory to Practice [1 ed.]

Table of contents :
Table of Contents
Preliminaries
Table of Contents …………………………………………………... i
Foreword ……………………………………………………………ii
List of Tables ……………………………………………………….iii
List of Figures ………………………………………………………iv
List of Abbreviations ………………………………………………..v

Section One: Approaches
Chapter One: Technology: A Retrospect ……………………………1
Chapter Two: Technology and Language Learning ……………….18
Chapter Three: Computer Assisted Language Learning ………..…30
Chapter Four: CALL and Complex System Theory ………….……50
Chapter Five: Sociocultural Theory of Language Learning ….……74
Chapter Six: Constructivism and CALL: Revisited …………….…85
Chapter Seven: Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0 …………….……94
Chapter Eight: Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality in CALL .106
Chapter Nine: Moodle and Language Learning/Teaching ……….119
Chapter Ten: Materials Development in CALL ………………….128
Chapter Eleven: Teacher Education in CALL ……………………140
Chapter Twelve: Literacy in CALL ………………………………158

Section Two: Techniques
Chapter Thirteen: Reading in CALL ………………………….….177
Chapter Fourteen: Writing in CALL …………………………..…186
Chapter Fifteen: Listening in CALL ……………………………..194
Chapter Sixteen: Writing in CALL ………………………………201
Appendix: Sites for Teachers and Students……..………...………210
Answer Key ……………………………………………………....228
References……………………………………………………...…232

Citation preview

Computer Assisted Language Learning:

Theory and Practice

By: Hassan Soleimani Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics Payame Noor University

Table of Contents Foreword List of Abbreviations

V VI

Section One: Approaches Chapter One: Technology: A Retrospect Chapter Two: Technology and Language Learning Chapter Three: Computer Assisted Language Learning Chapter Four: CALL and Complex System Theory Chapter Five: Sociocultural Theory of Language Learning Chapter Six: Constructivism and CALL: Revisited Chapter Seven: Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0 Chapter Eight: Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality in CALL Chapter Nine: Moodle and Language Learning /Teaching Chapter Ten: Materials Development in CALL Chapter Eleven: Teacher Education in CALL Chapter Twelve: Literacy in CALL

1 3 13 26 48 74 86 96 109 123 133 146 165

Section Two: Technology and Language Skills Chapter Thirteen: Reading in CALL Chapter Fourteen: Writing in CALL Chapter Fifteen: Listening in CALL Chapter Sixteen: Speaking in CALL

183 185 194 201 208

APPENDIX: Sites for Teachers and Students

217

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To My Sons,

Arshia and Armin

Foreword Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is an academic multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary field which connects language learning and teaching to computer technology. Generally speaking, the role of CALL is to make insights drawn from areas of language, learning, teaching, and technology relevant to decision-making in language learning pedagogy. In this sense, CALL mediates between theory and practice. This book Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice is a work covering key issues in technology and foreign language learning and teaching. The book is divided into two sections: Theory and practice. The section on theory includes twelve chapters with topics commonly referred to in the literature of CALL, and the section on practice has four chapters focusing on using technology for actual practice in the four language skills (Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing). Attempts have been made to identify various technologies and software programs that might be regularly used in the classroom setting for all EFL students to improve their learning. Each chapter provides the reader with an overview of one of the areas of the field. As a teacher of CALL, I have been teaching CALL courses since 2014 to MA and PhD students in computer assisted language learning courses. The book is the result of my years of experience in the CALL courses. Therefore, the book is intended for a diverse audience in

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applied linguistics, but is firmly directed to MA students in TEFL. The book might also be useful for teachers, graduate students, researchers, and practitioners to familiarize themselves with the field. I take responsibility for the contents of the book, including its flaws. Hassan Soleimani Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics and TEFL Payame Noor University

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List of Abbreviations ALLP: Athena Language Learning Project ALM: Audiolingual Method API: Application Programming Interface AR: Augmented Reality BASE: British Academic Spoken English Corpus CAI: Computer Assisted Instruction CALL: Computer Assisted Language Learning CALT: Computer Assisted Language Teaching CALT: Computer Assisted Language Testing CBLT: Computer-Based Language Teaching CELL: Computer-Enhanced Language Learning CERN: The European Organization for Nuclear Research CMC: Computer Mediated Communication CMS: Course Management Systems COCA: Corpus of Contemporary American English CSCL: Computer Supported Collaborative Learning CTML: Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning EFL: English as a Foreign Language ESL: English as a Second Language GTM: Grammar Translation Method ICT: Information Communication Technology IRC: Internet Relay Chat IT: Information Technology

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ITS: Intelligent Tutoring System LINDSEI: Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage LMS: Learning Management Systems MALL: Mobile Assisted Language Learning MICASE: Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English MOODLE: Multiple Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment NELL: Network Enhanced Language Learning NBLL: Network-Based Language Learning NBLT: Network Based Language Teaching NLP: Natural Language Processing OLC: Online Learning Community PC: Personal Computer PLATO: Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations PL: Programmed Learning RQM: Retrodictive Qualitative Modelling SCT: Sociocultural Theory SLA: Second Language Acquisition SLAR: Second Language Acquisition Research SoLET: Science of Learning and Educational Technology TELL: Technology Enhanced Language Learning TPACK: Technological Practical, and Content Knowledge TTS: Text to Speech UNIX: UNiversal Interactive eXecutive VoIP: Voice over Internet Protocol VLE: Virtual Learning Environment VR: Virtual Reality WWW: World Wide Web ZPD: Zone of Proximal Distance

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Section One: Approaches

Chapter One Technology: A Retrospect Introduction The application of technology in education in general and language teaching and learning in particular is not a recent endeavour in pedagogy. The term technology, as a key concept, is an umbrella term that covers a range of technological assets utilized by human beings throughout history to control their environment. Therefore, technology covers an array of old, new, and emerging technologies used to help learning and teaching. In this sense, technology both brings challenges and presents exciting opportunities to enhance learning and teaching. It is challenging since it demands creativity and innovation on the part of curriculum participants (EFL teachers, learners, materials developers, syllabus designers, and policy makers). In the present book, technology is referred to as modern “computer technologies” in the context of language learning and teaching. Later we discuss what “computer technology” actually implies and the scope of technologies that might be called computerized, from Pod/Vodcasting to augmented/virtual learning via smart phones, for instance. A Brief History Technology, in some way or another, has been with us for centuries. To some people, nowadays, technology is reminiscent of language labs, tape recorders, radio, television, computer, and the Internet. However, this is not a rich picture of technology in education.

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

Technology in education started with writing. Historically speaking, the origin of technology use for education dates back to thousands of years. Books are common place objects we see everywhere today; in the past it was not! In a particular point of time, books were considered as the height of technology, with the Gutenberg printing press. In fact, the heyday of books in education continued until the advent of computers in the modern time. It might be amazing to hear that technology utilization might have preceded the emergence of books as well! As mentioned earlier, the beginning of technology in learning was with writing. Cuneiform is the wedge-shaped characters used in the ancient writing systems of Mesopotamia, Persia, and Ugarit, surviving mainly on clay tablets. They used a stylus for their purpose. In fact, a stylus was a writing utensil used by ancient people for marking or shaping on clay and wax. As recorded in the history, the ancient Mesopotamians firstly used styluses in order to write in cuneiform. The styluses were commonly made of reeds and had a slightly-curved section. Egyptians made styluses in different materials: reeds that grew on the sides of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In addition, they used bone and metal styluses in their writings. Cuneiform was entirely based on the "wedge-shaped" mark that the end of a cut reed made when pushed into a clay tablet. The writings were made on clay tablets and were left to dry in the sun until they became hard before being incised by the stylus. Later styluses were utilized in the Western Europe until the late Middle Ages. To meet the requirements of learning and education, the stylus was then replaced by a writing slate (see https://cuneiform.neocities.org/CWT/CWT.html for further information on Cuneiform and stylus forms).

Technology: A Retrospect

Clay tablet

Cuneiform

Wax tablet with stylus

Writing slate, Berlin 1894

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Figure 1.1. Cuneiform and stylus forms

As it can be understood from the previous historical records, the utilization of clay tablets and styluses was the technology of the ancient times for writing. It was before “books” as we know them today were produced. From the mid-14th century, paper mills working with water power produced large and cheap quantities of paper and the wax tablet. As a result, the stylus disappeared completely from daily life. The next technology that appeared was the Gutenberg printing press. As mentioned before, books are commonplace today; however, in the past, the appearance of paper and then book production were the heyday of technology. If we accept that the advent of computers is a radical shift from books, the printing press and appearance of paper was a technology shift from the clay and wax slates and stylus technology in writing. This new technology paved the way for the noble classes of different societies to learn Latin that was the language of politics, philosophy, religion, and other scholarly fields until the end of the 16th century.

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

Gutenberg’s Printing Press It would not be exaggerating to claim that the invention of the Gutenberg’s printing press was as paramount as the emergence of the Internet. Gutenberg was not actually the first to recognize the benefits of printing press. Chinese had probably constructed woodblock printing by around 600 AD. The appearance of the Gutenberg’s machine accelerated developments in many aspects in the world in general and western life in particular. It facilitated the fast spread of knowledge, especially literature, and increased the literacy rate among citizens. Not only did the new invention influence education and literacy but also it greatly impacted religious ideas. For instance, prior to the invention of the Gutenberg’s printing press, Buddhist monks had access to hand-carved blocks in Latin which uneducated people could not understand. In fact, they would depend on what they heard and saw in their small villages. People were preached to by the Catholic Church that was regarded as the only source of education. With Gutenberg’s printing technology, literacy spread and developed and all these changed.

Figure 1.2. Gutenberg’s first printing press

Technology: A Retrospect

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Gutenberg was working on some prototypes of the printing machine in 1440. In fact, he did not instantly make a new printing press but he utilized some older technologies in order to build his own press: He constructed the screw press all by himself and moulded typesetting. Gutenberg improved his printing press and in 1455 printed copies of his infamous Gutenberg Bible: Three volumes of text that was in Latin and included 42 lines of characters per page with colourful illustrations. The printing of the Bible by Gutenberg was a step forward for mankind and a quick and sudden move for technology in the modern world. The Gutenberg technology is very influential for the type of technology that was accessible at that time in history. Now owing to the new technology, new ideas and knowledge could be shared among more people rapidly and education continued to bloom in the world afterwards. The utilization of the printing press in science was not as fast as it was in religion since religion was prominent in everyday life of people. In fact, the effect of printing on science was not observed until the seventeenth century.

Figure 1.3. Illustrated page from the Gutenberg Bible, also known as the 42-Line Bible produced around 1453-1456

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

Magic Lantern and Sandbox Actually introduced in the 1600s, the Magic Lantern (a predecessor to today’s projectors) continued the idea of the importance of images in learning, but now with the ability to have images move, it provides a way to allow the teacher to easily change the images. Now, instead of the teacher relying on each student being able to find the correct image in their textbook, they can instruct their students all at once by projecting an image onto the screen. This also provides the teachers with the opportunity to do more with storytelling, especially an adept teacher who could turn the Magic Lantern into a moving image box. Language Labs Technology evolves and language learning and teaching takes advantage of it to achieve better results. In the 1950s, language teaching witnessed a pendulum change from pure grammar-based instruction (like the GTM) to communication-based methods where listening and speaking were emphasized. Now the older technology could not be used to achieve the above mentioned objectives. To get mastery over speaking, students were required to be exposed to authentic language they had never heard in their classes. The introduction of the language lab began this fundamental shift that continues even today. In the 1950s, the price of personal audio technology made the language lab a practical chance for language learners primarily in the United States. Prior to language labs, vinyl records were played for the whole students in the class and there was only one record player and the sound was not always accessible to large classes. Later, with the appearance of personal headphones and also the accessibility and cost-effectiveness of technology, many universities and high schools took advantage of language labs for language learners. Now, students could practice their own material at their own pace, instead of the entire class doing the same activity at the same time. Students also finally had access to native voices, giving them a more authentic

Technology: A Retrospect

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experience. This shows a great leap towards the personalized learning that is now prominent in classrooms.

Figure 1.4. Language lab

Early 20th Century Technologies for learning In the beginning of the 20th century, some then dominant technologies including audio and visual materials were used together with written texts; consequently, the application of current technology was driven by language teaching methods of the time. Although in the Grammar‐ Translation Method, originally used to teach Latin and Greek, technology had no contribution to language learning and teaching, alternative methods such as the Berlitz Method, the Natural Method, the Direct Method emphasized the ability to speak. These methods advocated extensive oral practice and frequent phonetics/pronunciation exercises while deemphasizing the teaching of grammar. They embraced audiovisual technologies that brought the language as spoken by native speakers to the classroom and provided oral and aural practice. Audio formats used in classrooms evolved from cylinder recordings to phonograph records (Clarke, 1999; Stocker, 1921), to practice pronunciation and intonation, as well as listening comprehension. Later, radio was a conduit for distance language learning for students in school and for the general public. Photographs and slides, which were commonly used for language instruction, were joined by films as media to bring culture and language to life in the classroom (Bernard 1937, cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017).

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

The influence of B. F. Skinner’s behaviorist learning theory and of the Audiolingual Method (ALM), started in the 1950s, (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). It emphasized repetition, and naturally a surge took place in the use of language laboratories. In the 1950s to the 1970s majority of schools and universities had a reel‐to‐reel audiotape language laboratory classroom to provide the learners with access to native‐speaker voices and drills to internalize sentence patterns and to promote automaticity. With the decline of the ALM, the use of language labs in the foreign language curriculum decreased noticeably. In the late 1950s, mainframe computers with high computing power that was accessed via paper punch cards started to appear widely in/at universities and research institutes. Nevertheless, it was not until the late 1960s and early 1970s that computers had evolved enough to support multiple terminals that allowed interaction with the computer via keyboard. This opened the pathway to CALL which emphasizes the application of computers to practice various forms of language, particularly grammar and vocabulary: exercises could be self-paced and self-selected; immediate performance feedback could be provided; assessment of mastery could be done based on cumulative performance. Accordingly, the teacher could be liberated from correcting endless workbook assignments; and class time could be freed up so that the teacher could focus on communicative activities (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Mainframes are powerful computers that are used for large information processing occupations. They are basically used by government institutions and big companies for tasks such as census, industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource planning, and financial transaction processing.

Technology: A Retrospect

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Figure 1.5. Mainframe computers

The first mainframe computer was the Harvard Mark I which started in the 1930s. The machine was not ready for use until 1943. It weighed five tons, filled an entire room and cost about $200,000 to build which is something like twenty-eight million in 2017 money. PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations) was the first computer-assisted instruction project that started in 1960 running on the University of Illinois' computer. By the late 1970s, it supported several thousand graphics terminals distributed worldwide, running on nearly a dozen different networked mainframe computers. Many modern concepts in multi-user computing were originally developed on PLATO, including forums, message boards, online testing, e-mail, chat rooms, picture languages, instant messaging, remote screen sharing, and multiplayer video games. PLATO functioned for four decades and offered coursework from elementary to tertiary levels to students, schools, and other universities. A range of subjects, including Latin and education, were introduced in the courses, and the system contained a number of characteristics that were helpful for pedagogy, including text graphics, contextual assessment of free-text answers, and feedback designed to respond to alternative answers.

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. The beginning of technology in learning has been claimed to be with ….. a) Listening b)Speaking c) Reading d) Writing 2. The ancient ……………… firstly used styluses in order to write in cuneiform. a) Persian b) Egyptians c) Mesopotamians d) Ugarit 3. ………………………………. was the new technology that paved the way for the noble classes of different societies to learn Latin. a) Stylus b) Printing press c) Clay tablets d) Magic lantern 4. It was the ……………………… that continued the idea of the importance of images in learning, and today provides a way to allow the teacher to easily change the images. a) Magic lantern b) Sandbox c) Projectors d) Motion pictures 5. The utilization of the printing press in ……………… was not as fast as in ………. in everyday life of people. a) Science---religion b) Science---politics c) Religion---science d) Politics---science

Chapter Two Technology and Language Learning “What’s wrong with education cannot be fixed with technology.” Steve Jobs

Introduction No teacher, language learner, pedagogue, or applied linguist might deny the role of technology in language learning context. Technologyenhanced practices have revolutionised the ways in which we learn and teach languages. Then, incorporating technology in the foreign language curriculum is a necessity today. The bulk of empirical studies in recent decades has pointed to the significant effect of new technologies on improving language learning and teaching. However, emphasizing the role of technologies does not mean to ignore how significant chalk and board or pencil and paper are in a learning environment. In fact, it is believed that technology cannot be a replacement for such tools, but it might be regarded as complementary to them. ‘”Computers will not replace teachers. However, teachers who use computers will replace teachers who don’t’ (quoted in Healey et al. 2008, p. 2). Remember technology is not a panacea. As Wills and Alexander (2000) correctly pointed out, technology in itself does not change or improve teaching and learning. Paying attention to management processes, strategy, structure, and most importantly roles and skills, are the key to successfully introducing and manipulating technology in academic teaching and learning.

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

What I would like to stress in this book is that, contrary to many views by laymen, computer technology is not a fashion in the classroom today; technology is a necessity in our curriculum. Many reasons might be mentioned as to why technology is a necessity. For Iranian EFL learners, one of the major reasons to use computer technology (call it a techno-pal!) is the fact that studying abroad is not feasible for majority of learners. They are unable or unwilling to take advantage of study-abroad opportunities. In this situation, technology, if used professionally, could play a significant role to improve language through easy contact with the target/foreign language. You might imagine how the Internet, social networks, podcasts, vodcasts, videoconferences, augmented and virtual reality technologies would enhance learners’ language ability. All this is achievable through new technologies. As there have been many changes in ways that learning takes place, the technology in the delivery of information has shifted the responsibility for learning away from the instructor to the learner. Before going through the different characteristics of this modernized life in which technology plays a significant role, it would be better to define the term technology. Technology that is the heart of the CALL comes in many forms and has a rich history. It is often perceived, somewhat narrowly, as an approach to language teaching and learning in which the computer is used as an aid to the presentation, reinforcement and assessment of materials to be learned, usually including a substantial interactive element. The computer itself is a device that processes information with high speed and accuracy. Technology Definition But what is technology? It seems necessary to define technology as explicitly as possible to avoid misinterpretations. As other complex phenomena, technology is hard to define. According to Mehlenbacher (2010), in most definitions for technology, the tendency is not to make any references to prior knowledge and expectations of technology users, contexts for use, and user perceptions of newness, complexity,

Technology and Language Learning

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and danger. He maintains that technology must be defined within the context of its use. Mehlenbacher (2010, p. 122) states “the more complex a tool gets or the more historically contextualized, the more likely we are to describe that tool as an instrument, device, application, technology, or system (from least to most complex)”. Asaolu (2006) summarizes three levels of technology in terms of their historical development: before 3200 BC (low-level technology), 3500 BC to date (intermediate-level technology), and 1950 AD to date (high-level technology). Low-level technologies include primitive tools and machines, are natural, adapted, or manufactured, and include such artifacts as spears, hammers, levers, and wheels. Intermediate-level technologies are manufactured for generalized use and employ natural forces such as wind, water, and combustion. High-level technologies are standardized and automated and can serve the mind (via information and communication) as much as the body (ICT) (Asaolu 2006, cited in Mehlenbacher, 2010, p. 122). According to Collins (1992), technology provides us with powerful tools to try out different designs, so that instead of theories of education, we may begin to develop a science of education. But it cannot be an analytic science like physics or psychology; rather it must be a design science more like aeronautics or artificial intelligence. For example, in aeronautics, the goal is to elucidate how different designs contribute to lift, drag manoeuvrability, etc. Similarly, a design science of education must determine how different designs of learning environments contribute to learning, cooperation, and motivation. Due to this comfortability, it has entered many different fields to provide those who are to deal with technology with the opportunity to reach the peak of their professions. One of the areas into which technology has entered is the field of education. In this case, according to Erben, Ban, and Castadena (2009), technology refers to any electronic device used in the classroom; therefore, it can be used as an aid to education.

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

Technology and Learning As is always true in second language acquisition (SLA), selection of a comprehensive label to refer to a key notion is not an easy task. The same is true when it comes to the role computer plays in language learning and teaching. Since the 1980s, the expression Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has been accepted and frequently used in SLA pedagogy. However, some authors found the term CALL problematic and have proposed other terms. For example, Chapelle (2000) asked whether network-based learning is CALL. Others have proposed the Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) as a new area in SLA pedagogy. The point I am emphasizing here is that the terms CALL and TELL are arbitrary and we use them to refer to digital technology to enhance language learning and teaching. In this book, the expression CALL has been preferred as it has been appreciated by the discipline and used in textbooks, articles, and seminars. Furthermore, computer does not refer to the hardware but the software and related technologies. Chapter Three explains CALL and related approaches and issues. Today technology is an integrative part of life. Laurillard (2010) holds that since technology can be traced in the lives of many individuals, the learning environment is no exception. Pedagogy "deals with the manner in which teaching and learning are managed in order to facilitate desired learning outcomes” (Pears et al., 2007, p. 206) and technology can contribute to this process to be done successfully. However, to make these two concepts of pedagogy and technology fulfil the ultimate learning goal, some suggestions are proposed. From one perspective, technology can be an add-on facilitator which can turn the wheel of pedagogy more easily. From another vantage point, technology can change pedagogy if it behaves as a cultural or social phenomenon. Nevertheless, to better put pedagogy and technology in unity, two types of learning have been proposed: Electronic learning (e-learning) and m-learning (mobile learning). Hoppe, Joiner, Milrad, and Sharples (2003) know “learning

Technology and Language Learning

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supported by digital electronic tools and media” as e-learning and m-learning as “e-learning using mobile devices and wireless transmission” (p. 255). Electronic learning or online learning modes (Moore, DicksonDeane, & Galyen, 2011) date back to 1920 when the initial teaching machine was developed. However, the machine was to let the learners test their previous learning and not use them in the initial stages of learning. Based on Pressey’s (1927) model, Skinner (1961), on the other hand, focused his attention on the learning process and developed a teaching machine which could reinforce learners gradually. With respect to computer-assisted instruction system, in the early 1970s, the Urbana campus of the University of Illinois developed Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations (PLATO) in order to support the students' learning through forum, online testing, and e-mail. Afterwards, electronic learning progressed towards Web 2.0 applications which could encircle learners in a social environment. This social network enabled the learners to exchange their gained knowledge optimally. On the whole, e-learning can be categorized into two learning modalities: Asynchronous and synchronous. As both of these modalities have their own strong and weak points, the pedagogical parties need to take their own conditions into account. For instance, in asynchronous modality, no participant needs to work simultaneously and this modality is more suitable for flexible systems where there are no time and place constraints. However, the major limitations of this type can be ascribed to its absence of face-to-face communication and self-motivation (Ishtaiwa & Abulibdeh, 2012). Synchronous e-learning attempts to boost the versatility of realtime technologies available for the learners in order to bring face-toface interaction into life. These technologies can be chat rooms or desktop video and web conferences. It needs to be noted that although the synchronous mode of e-learning might be a preference for the learners, problems of time constraints with fewer opportunities for discussion and rehearsal will be posed (Hrastinski, 2008).

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

Cheon, Lee, Crooks, and Song (2012) define m-learning as the learning by which no time and place limitation is observed. This type of continuous learning can also be characterized as a “just enough, just in time, just for me” e-learning (Peters, 2007, p. 1). In general, Lefoe et al. (2009) know m-learning as “Personal access to mobile technologies providing learners with opportunities to be flexible in the way they collect, store and share information to support their problem solving” (p. 18). It can be claimed that technology and education have undergone three major developments in response to the available technologies: Programmed instruction which arose from the ordinary technologies of movies, radio, and television; computer-assisted instruction which came into existence after computers; e-learning which was available after the emersion of World Wide Web. However, e-learning gradually yielded m-learning to education. Peng, Su, Chou, and Tsai (2009) hold that m-learning can be distinguished from e-learning through three features of functionality, mobility, and ubiquity. For mobility, the convenience, expediency, and immediacy are important and for ubiquity, the learners' need is important which should be fulfilled at anytime and anywhere. Technology can influence learning regardless of the education model (Laurillard, 2010). In Laurillard's (2010) view, “the effective use of technology in any context, however, is primarily dependent on the reflective practice of the academy, and its willingness and ability to innovate” (p. 421). However, she explains four views of learning in order to better elaborate on the role of technology in learning. The first view is learning through instruction in which the available educational data (i.e., libraries, books, slides, laboratories, and webbased resources) are integrated in the single source of computer; the second view is learning through construction in which technology attempts to make learners engaged in the learning process and construct their learning (i.e., this might be available through the simulation of the real world with the help of technology); the third

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view is learning through discussion in which the technology intends to make the traditional discussion groups available using online discussion forums or online lectures and tutorials; the fourth view is learning through collaboration in which the technology attempts to make a learning community through which the learners can collaborate with each other synchronously or asynchronously, regardless of their geographical location. Technology in the delivery of information has shifted the responsibility for learning away from the instructor to the learner. It is the essential ingredient of a constructivist approach to learning where learners construct their knowledge and frames of reference through individual and social activity (Biggs, 1996). The constructivist theory has several characteristics that has adapted and adjusted itself to webbased activities easily. Some of these features include: Learner construction of meaning, social interaction and student problemsolving in real settings. Ward and Renandya (1999) maintained that technological aids in education can be categorized in many different ways, and these ways include audience, purpose, size, cost, and utility. Some aids are considered indispensable in helping the instructor to clarify his or her lessons. Others may be regarded as non-essential, but nice to have. They further said that perhaps the most widely-used technological aids in individual classrooms are the Over Head Projector and the portable tape recorder. The former is an immediate aid in presenting written or visual material while the latter is a vital aid in presenting the related material. The logic behind the use of technology in other fields and especially in the classroom environment is the fact that it is simple to use, it requires little space, and is relatively inexpensive. The technology utilized in the classroom setting includes programs that have much to offer via enhancing the visual presentation of the subject matter.

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Computer Assisted Language Learning: Theory and Practice

Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) CALL perhaps remains the most commonly-recognized term to refer to any language learning activity assigning a significant role and status to computer that involves both the tutor and tool application. However, Bush (1997) utilized the expression Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) which suggests a more inclusive sense of technology and its impact on teaching and learning the language. Therefore, what is significant is not merely the computer itself but rather the interaction of the learners with the. Levy (1997) places CALL within an interdisciplinary context including psychology, applied and computational linguistics, instructional technology and design, human-computer interaction, and artificial intelligence that reinforces and calls for the need for a more descriptive term such as technology-enhanced language learning. In this book, CALL and the way in which computer-based grammar and vocabulary practice affect composition are focal. Administrators, educators, and other education stakeholders are concerned with utilizing the best methods and technology tools available to improve and enhance student performance. A survey of previous research on computer-assisted language learning (Hubbard, 2003) affirms that a substantial number of experts in the field are primarily concerned with the degree of effectiveness of technology to enhance language learning. Many ponder whether technology should attempt to emulate the characteristics of an open classroom, engaging students in real and meaningful communication, or provide the types of tutorials and drills that tend to be de-emphasized in the current teaching practices. However, he believes that there must be flexibility and a variable role for technology applications as well as instructional methods to appeal to diverse learners. Although with TELL/CALL students are often able to select exercises, tasks or information appropriate to their levels and needs, it acts as some assessment tool or apparatus that raises student accountability and consciousness about the use of technology. This may be due to the unavailability of all resources to maximize technology use (Burston, 1991).

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Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) is an emerging area within the CALL domain that have many instructions and outcomes in common (Warschauer, 1996). CMC and teleconferencing technologies have been used to create authentic communication opportunities for language learners since the 1980s. The uses of CMC technologies, such as electronic mail, bulletin boards, and chat rooms have been found to have many benefits for language learners. CMC occurs when people especially learners use the computer to communicate with each other. It is often used in collaborative and group learning projects where learners share chat groups and tandem learning projects. Not only does it promote equal and better participation, leading to more output in the target language, but also it fosters negotiation and form-focused learning. They usually involve two learners and can be considered a subdomain of CMC. There are various possible combinations. CMC can occur between second language (L2) learners of the same target language (for example, between English and French students of German). It can also occur between the first language (L1) and L2 learners where the L1 learner’s target language is the first language of the L2 learners and vice versa. An example of this scenario would be where Persian students studying English can communicate with English speakers studying Persian. CMC was also found to enhance the writing process and improve student writing (Schultz, 2000). Although CMC communication is conducted in writing, it has been found to improve oral proficiency as well. For instance, Beauvois (1997) found that second-year French learners who held their discussions online achieved better oral proficiency than those who discussed the texts orally in the traditional classroom settings. One of the philosophies behind CMC, in general, is that learners can learn a lot by working with native language speakers. Technology Metaphors Metaphors occupy a good deal of our thoughts, our talk, our work, and

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our world, and this is especially true of the computer technology. Generally speaking, metaphor is used as a conceptual tool to make concrete, and make sense of, complex phenomena. Metaphors help shape our thought and understanding and their use in technology is no exception. In the literature of technology and learning, scholars have used different metaphors to conceptualize complicated phenomena. British researcher and theoretician Higgins (1983, cited in Farr & Murray, 2016) provided a dichotomy between a ‘magister’ and a ‘pedagogue’ role for computer technology. As he put it: For years, people have been trying to turn the computer into a magister. They do this by making it carry the learning system known as Programmed Learning (PL). PL in fact does not need a computer or any other machinery; it can be used just as effectively in paper form, and computers which are used exclusively for PL are sometimes known disparagingly as page-turners. The real magister is the person who wrote the materials and imagined the kind of conversation he might have with an imaginary student. Suppose, instead, that we try to make the machine into a pedagogue. Now we cannot write out the lessons in advance, because we do not know exactly how they will go, what the young master will demand. All we can do is to supply the machine with a template to create certain kinds of activities, so that, when these are asked for, they are available. The computer becomes a task-setter, an opponent in a game, an environment, a conversational partner, a stooge or a tool. (as cited in Farr & Murray, 2016) The conduit and berry-bush metaphors describe whether computer-assisted instruction is preprogrammed (conduit) or open access (berry bush). The conduit metaphor illustrates the situation in which a body of knowledge passes into the waiting brains of learners. This analogy reminds us of the frequently-used terminology including instructional “delivery,” “exposure” of the student to instruction, and “transmission” of knowledge to the learner. When this body of knowledge has been “transferred” into the learner’s brain, we can

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assess how well it has been learnt by testing its presence there. On the contrary, the berry-bush metaphor would depict learners’ sociocognitive development as revealed through the successful performance of authentic tasks, as opposed to discrete bits of information in the conduit scenario (Egbert & Petrie, 2005). Myths on Technology and SLA As I mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, technology is not a panacea; hence, we need to be realistic in our expectations and avoid some misconceptions regarding technology and its application and effectiveness in second language contexts. Blake (2008) mentions four myths about technology. First, some language experts refer to technology as if it were a monolithic concept. This myth implies that technology is either all good or all bad. Second, some teachers who are enthusiastic about technology think mistakenly that technology itself embodies some new and superior methods of language teaching. Although, in fact, what the new computer and digital technologies offer is a new set of tools that can function at the language teaching curriculum's service with the correct application. Mere application of technology by itself does not improve language teaching, it is how the technology is used that makes a difference in teaching. Third, we tend to believe that the current technology suffices the future challenges. The fact that technology evolves seems to be a threat for teachers since they fear that they cannot keep pace with new advances. Finally, the language teaching profession suffers from the fear that technology will replace language teachers. Teachers’ Resistance against New Technologies Contrary to the significance mentioned above for the use of technology, there is resistance against its application among some teachers, and even students. Change is often painful, and most people avoid it if they can, this is the nature of human beings. People feel more comfortable with traditions they have formed, and trust their

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own methods. However, CALL has the potential to revolutionize language learning and teaching. At the pedagogical level, where we are concerned with how learning takes place, CALL and other technology-based approaches might be used to change the quality of learning. CALL provides a flexibility of pace and space that was unattainable when no technology was used in the traditional methods. Furthermore, CALL enables students to more directly participate in their own learning processes and make it possible for them to take control and responsibility of their own learning. Repetto and Trentin (2011) mention several reasons why some of the academicians and teachers fail to adopt technology in the classroom. A large proportion of the them may experience some feelings of technophobia at some time. Some lecturers are anxious about using new technologies because they may have had bad experiences with technology in the past or because they fear that the equipment may be damaged or go wrong in some way, or important data may be lost. Second, many lack the confidence to use technology because of their unfamiliarity with the features and functions of the new technologies, or due to a lack of time available to learn how to maximize their use of a tool, or how to integrate it into their curriculum. In addition, hard-pressed teachers tend to spend most of their time on preparing teaching sessions, creating resources, and instructing and assessing students and there is very little time available for learning new methods or tools. If a new technology or tool is irrelevant or useless in their work, teachers will reject it. In fact, many university staff will claim that their time is fully taken up with day-to-day running of their programmes, and that little or no time is left for them to experiment with new technologies. Fourth, some teachers and practitioners fail to see a need for new technologies, particularly Web 2.0 tools that have strange names. Some of the more seasoned professionals in a department may prefer to continue using the tried and tested methods they have always used. Concerns over electronic safety is another reason for the avoidance of teachers to use technology. Finally, one criticism levelled at CALL-based approaches such as

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technology mediated distance education is that they are impersonal, and reduce tutor roles to those of supporter or facilitator. Some academics are concerned about the peripheralization of the tutor role they perceive is brought about by the implementation of new technologies. In Chapter 10, Teacher Education in CALL, suggestions will be given for mitigating the problem. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. In the …………. approach to learning, learners build their knowledge and frames of reference through individual and social activity. a) Constructivist b) Technological c) Scaffolding d) Formal/traditional 2. CMC and teleconferencing technologies have been used to create ……………….. opportunities for language learners a) Authentic communication b) Feedback c) Language accuracy d) Drilling 3. The conduit metaphor of technology implies that computer-assisted instruction is ……………. a) Preprogrammed b) Open access c) Socio-cognitive nature of learning d) Creativity in learning 4. Higgins (1983) metaphor of a ‘pedagogue’ role for computer technology is the same as ………… metaphor. a) Berry-bush b) Tool c) Conduit d) Transmission 5. Technology and education have undergone all the following major steps in response to the available technologies EXCEPT ………… a) E-learning b) Programmed instruction c) Mobile learning d) Computer-assisted learning

Chapter Three Computer Assisted Language Learning Introduction It is very hard to answer what CALL is indeed! Is CALL a method of language teaching? Is CALL an approach? Or is CALL a theory of language learning? It seems that part of the answer depends upon the historical emergence of CALL in language teaching pedagogy. Historically speaking, CALL, as we know it today, has emerged as a post-method phenomenon (from the 1980s up to now) when prescriptive, teacher-centred, instruction-focused “methods” of language teaching (from the 1920s to the 1970s) proved to be not highly influential in language teaching and learning. The term CALL was first introduced as computer assisted instruction (CAI). Interestingly, the method era (1930s to 1980s) is associated to CAI and post-method era (1980s to present) refers to CALL. Some of the characteristics of method and post-method era are as following. In the method era, 1) a particular technique/method is prescribed (prescriptive in nature), 2) one-method-for-all tradition in language teaching, and 3) focus on teaching and the teacher with passivity of students. On the other hands, in the post-method era, 1) there is no prescription, 2) the focus is on learner and learning, 3) the teacher is seen as a facilitator, and 4) increase in autonomy is evident. We might refer to Garrett (1991) who states that "the use of the computer does not constitute a method". Rather, it is a "medium in which a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented" (p. 75).

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In the present chapter, we present the definitions of CALL by authorities in the field, the applications of the computer technology in learning, and the approaches to CALL. Plethora of Terms By the advent of desktop microcomputers, language teachers were to take advantage of its benefits. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the outcome of this trend was simple: computer programs which reinforced language learning. Afterwards, language teachers and professional organizations came to invent the new field of CALL. With the rapid development of technology and multimedia, using computers changed into a major trend in language teaching and learning. CALL which integrates the four concepts of computerassisted instruction (CAI), computer-assisted language teaching (CALT), computer-assisted language testing (CALT), and electronic learning encompasses three historical periods of structural /Behavioristic CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL (Warschauer, 2000). Lamy and Hampel (2007, p. 8) stated several acronyms concerning computer-assisted language learning such as CALI (Computer-Assisted Language Instruction), CALL (ComputerAssisted Language Learning), CELL (Computer-Enhanced Language Learning), CBLT (Computer-Based Language Teaching), NBLT (Network-Based Language Learning) and TELL (TechnologyEnhanced Language Learning). Within this proliferation of acronyms, CALL stands as the most prevalent acronym, though it is worth mentioning that “computer-assisted language learning” is not merely concerned with computers, but also it encompasses the networks connections, peripheral devices as well as other technological innovations (Hubbard, 2009). Davies and Higgins (1982), among others, suggested the term CALL: Computer-assisted or computeraided language learning, and it became the preferred acronym.

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CALL, on the other hand, can be classified into three models of computer supported classroom teaching, hybrid teaching, and completely online teaching (Xie, 2007). This drastic change in the role of CALL has made a very rich environment for the pedagogical parties in order to better provide language learning opportunities for the learners. Warschauer and Healey (1998) hold that networked communication, multimedia, and artificial intelligence can bring authentic use of second language into ground. This highlights the critical role computer technology can play in language learning and teaching. This is the reason why some authors prefer Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) instead of CALL. Generally, technology and pedagogical approaches are the basic elements in each period. Warschauer (2000) believes that technology could proceed from mainframes and PCs to multimedia and Internet which were used to prepare drills and practice, communicative exercises, and authentic discourse, respectively. However, each of them concentrated on the different issues of accuracy, accuracy and fluency, and accuracy, fluency and agency, in sequence (Warschauer, 2000). They will be explained in details in the following section on approaches to CALL. CALL Definitions As it was mentioned in the introduction of the chapter, there is not a consensus regarding the nature of CALL. Consequently, different scholars have defined CALL differently through the lens they approached the computer technology in language learning and teaching. Each of the definitions put forward here look into the phenomenon from a particular perspective. To Levy (1997), CALL is defined as “the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning”. Levy's definition is in line with the view held by the majority of modern CALL practitioners. The computer itself is a device that processes information with high speed and accuracy. Computers process information by helping to create the

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report itself, by displaying, storing, recognizing, and communicating information to other computers. In general, they treat numbers, words, moving pictures, and sounds. The computer has changed the way people work, learn, communicate, and play. Students, teachers, and researchers use it as a learning tool all over the world, as well as by individuals at home to study, work, and entertain. According to Egbert (2005, p. 4), CALL means learners learning language in any context with, through, and around computer technologies. Whereas Levy’s definition prioritizes “applications of the computer” in its information structure, Egbert’s definition not only prioritizes “learners learning language” but also broadens the potential types of relationships between computer technologies and language learning. Chapelle (2001 ) defines CALL as “the area of technology and second language teaching and learning” ( p. 3). To Beatty (2003), a definition of CALL that accommodates its changing nature is “any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language” (p. 7). Gamper and Knapp (2002) define CALL as “a research field which explores the use of computational methods and techniques as well as new media for language learning and teaching” (p. 329). Warschauer (1999), however, has discussed that the term CALL has outgrown its usefulness as a construct for teaching and research. The problem is that a CALL framework considers the computer as an “outside instrument rather than as part of the ecology of language use”. While this may have been fine in the early days of CALL when computers were used to perform structural drills, it is no longer appropriate when online communication has become a normal part of daily life. For Warschauer, the use of computers should not be framed as a special case but rather as an integral aspect of language learning and language use. To some critics of the term CALL, the opinions by Warschauer have been motivating to argue to replace the term TELL with CALL.

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Examining each of the above-mentioned definitions, we find that a particular aspect of CALL has been emphasized by each of the scholars: Computer, research, learning, teaching, process, and context. To say which definition is the best, or the most comprehensive one, is not our purpose here. My definition of CALL is: The application of computer and its related technologies to facilitate language learning and teaching. By “computer and its related technologies” we mean both the hardware and software and all technologies, including digital technology, working on the basis of computer technology. In this sense, mobile learning (MALL) is a subcategory of CALL since mobile operates based on computer technology. Therefore, what I mean here is that CALL is an umbrella term which covers all other terms focusing on language learning/teaching via computer and related technologies: TELL. MALL, CAI, CALT, NBLT (Networkbased Language Teaching). Roles of Computer The history of CALL suggests that the computer can serve a variety of uses for language teaching. In fact, different metaphors have been used by authors to refer to the use of computer in language teaching and learning. To some, it can be a tutor which offers language drills or skill practice; a stimulus for discussion and interaction; or a tool for writing and research. With the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication and a source of limitless authentic materials. Computer technology is presently applied in foreign language courses and by individuals to help learners develop their second language skills, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and their understanding of foreign cultural attitudes and values, as well as evaluating them according to these aspects. With the availability of multimedia computing and the Internet, the role of computers in language instruction has now become an important issue confronting large numbers of language teachers throughout the world. The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis on student-centered

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materials that allow learners to work on their own. Such materials may be structured or unstructured, but they normally embody two important features: interactive learning and individualized learning. CALL is essentially a tool that helps teachers to facilitate the language learning process. It can be used to reinforce what has already been learned in the classroom or as a remedial tool to help learners who require additional support. A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as blended learning. Blended learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL (Pegrum, 2009, p. 27). Some of the major applications of computers in EFL contexts might be summarized as follows: CALL can provide a more autonomous, self-paced and individualized learning CALL provides a kind of authentic communication that enhances students’ motivation and attitude CALL offers students immediate feedback and responsiveness CALL assigns the teacher the role of a facilitator rather than a controller. CALL encourages cooperative learning. CALL provides authentic communication by creating information gap etc. CALL allows the learners to access the culture more easily. Approaches to CALL Historically speaking, approaches to CALL have changed in the course of time because three major foundations of approaches have evolved: Theory of language, theory of learning, and the type of technology. Within the CALL history, different scholars have proposed different classifications among which the most important ones are those by Warschauer and Bax. Warschauer (1996) divides CALL history into three phases of behavioristic, communicative, and

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integrative. Bax (2003) has criticized Warschauer’s classification on the grounds that its basis was established inconsistently making use of vague criteria. Furthermore, he demanded this classification be reevaluated specifically in terms of its phases in order to present a more propitious classification. Indeed, he proposed three general approaches rather than historical phases involving restricted CALL, open CALL, and integrated CALL with great emphasis on the integrated CALL that is to say technology would be embedded within our routine life, normalization of CALL. The theoretical mutation in language teaching was so widespread that embraced many of the related fields including the way computer technology can be used in language teaching (Kern & Warschauer, 2000). In essence, three fundamental theoretical frameworks to CALL can be declared which can be framed in three structural, cognitive, and socio-cognitive approaches. The structural approach was more to do with the artificial role of teaching and learning in which technology could only be used to provide drills and practice, explanation, and corrective feedback. The cognitive approach took an analytical approach towards learning in which technology was responsible to expose learners to enough language input and prepare them for analytical and inferential tasks. The socio-cognitive approach, on the other hand, dealt with the social aspects of learning and attempted to provide learners with diverse social contexts and discourse communities in order to make learners more socially adept. In a research-based perspective, these three approaches correspond with different orientations and methodologies. The structural CALL approach was product-based with a quantitative methodology which concentrated on experimental-control comparisons research design. This approach with its quantitative strategy underscored the quantity or the frequency of the data such as words, errors, and structures. The cognitive CALL approach took the cognitive processes into account. However, more than the quantitative methodologies, it is also used in qualitative approaches as well. Besides, to collect data, think-aloud

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protocols, questionnaires, and computers were resorted to. Finally, the socio-cognitive CALL approach had a social and cognitive orientation with a more qualitative methodology. Discourse analysis and analysis of sociocultural context were also resorted to in order to make a better research design. To obtain the desired goal, this approach used the transcriptions of social interactions, ethnographic observations, and interviews. Behavioristic Approach to CALL To examine the major characteristics of every approach to CALL, we need to know the theoretical foundations in psychology and linguistics. The structural/Behavioristic approach to CALL is based on structural linguistics and Behavioristic psychology: language rules plus repetition/imitation. In the late 1970s, the advent of the personal computer (PC) took computing within the range of a wider audience, resulting in a rise in the growth of CALL programs and a flood of publications. In this decade, the production of many other smaller software development projects on mainframes and microcomputers was seen. These projects included the growth of teaching tools to pave the way for exercises as well as packaged exercises and tutorials. Warschauer (1996) describes this phase of CALL as ‘behaviouristic CALL’ because it contained repetitive language drills based on the notion of computer as tutor: In other words, the computer serves as a vehicle to deliver instructional materials to the student. The rationale behind drill and practice was not totally spurious, which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows: Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning. A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the same material and it can provide immediate non-judgemental feedback.

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A computer can present such material on an individual basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities. (p. 4) Olsen (1980) lists 62 language departments from 52 institutions in 24 of the 50 states as using computers for language instruction. In this decade, programs almost exclusively targeted first and secondyear language courses. The top three languages for which CAI programs existed were French, Spanish, and German with Latin a literal truth. In this decade an authorizing package known as simply as Exercise, which was the latest one in its place, had a capability of producing large quantities of drill and practice activities for students of German. The term exercise was also used to create materials for students of Dutch. One of the drawbacks of the exercises was that they could not be employed in the real atmosphere of the classroom setting. Up to now, most of the programs from the 1970s have disappeared, but few survived in one form or another into the early twenty-first century due to success in commercial distribution, but each generation of CALL has resulted in a valuable lesson learning. Each major advance in computing technology has triggered a short step backward in the production and delivery of CALL materials. When microcomputers first appeared, they did not seem to pose a real threat to large mainframes that offered powerful data processing and centralized storage of lessons and record keeping data (O' Reilly, 2005 as cited in Thomas, Reinders, & Warschauer, 2013, p. 25). In the 1970s, the structural approach to curriculum design considered its strengths and weaknesses. While the identification and sequencing of language structures provide the foundation of the structural approach, course designers working in this approach and other language practitioners in the era of structural CALL placed a strong emphasis on grammar, and they employed the use of mainframe computers to help students gain accuracy in their language use. Grammar Translation Method and Audiolingual method, grouped in behaviorism, went hand in hand with programmed instruction.

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Students were able to repeat drills with seemingly tireless and patient computer-as-tutor and instruction appeared to be an utmost efficiency. The main objective of the 1970s from the structural point of view is to develop the accuracy ability to produce grammatically correct sentences but may not include the capacity to speak or write fluently. In this respect, the role of structural CALL is to provide full drill, practice, tutorial explanation, and corrective feedback seen as a system and that investigates the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, and sentences have within this system. Approaches to the teaching of reading and writing also reflected the emphasis on structure. On the whole, in this decade, the emphasis in speaking, reading, and writing was on the achieved linguistic product, not on the cognitive or social processes (Kern & Warschauer, 2000). To sum up, the Behavioristic CALL, conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 70s, was based on the then-dominant Behaviorist theories of learning. Programs of this phase entailed repetitive language drills and can be referred to as "drill and practice" (or, more critically, as "drill and kill"). Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. One of the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which ran on its own special PLATO hardware, including central computers and terminals. The PLATO system included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at various intervals (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers, & Sussex, 1985). Drill and practice courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor (Taylor, 1980). In other words, the computer serves as a vehicle to deliver instructional materials to the students. The rationale behind drill and practice was not totally false, which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows: Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning, a computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting

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the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback, a computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Behaviouristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. First, Behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both theoretical and pedagogical levels. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL, communicative approach to CALL. Communicative Approach to CALL Unlike the Behavioristic CALL that was based on American Structuralism principles in linguistics and Behaviorism in psychology, the communicative approach to CALL is founded upon Transformational Generative grammar and Functional grammar (Halliday) in linguistics and cognitivism in psychology. The communicative approach to CALL then emphasizes communicative competence, fluency, and variability in use. What seems more significant here in the shift from the Behavioristic to communicative CALL is the outstanding change in technology, the emergence of PCs. The impact of CALL and technology enhancement applications for language learning changed dramatically with the advent of the first affordable microcomputers. In the early 1980s, a key set of drill and practice exercises for beginners in German who ran on the Apple 2 computer was developed. In this decade, compatibility between different microcomputers was a major problem. Early microcomputers had limited graphic options and monochrome displays, but they offered great possibilities for text-based practice. Regarding language teaching pedagogy, the clock turned back in the early 1980s, resulting in the production of an abundance of grammar and vocabulary practice programs (drill-practice) although the communicative approach is by now well established. In this decade, the developers of CALL software began to find their feet

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using new medium and discovered new pedagogical approaches that led to the production of text-only simulation. Communicative CALL (here dated to the 1980s and 1990s) was previously said to have ‘‘emerged in the late 1970s and beginning of the 1980s’’ (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). This slippage occurs with ‘Integrative CALL’ which is dated to the 21st century, while it was said to be already in existence in 1998. Though these inconsistencies are not particularly important in themselves, they are peculiar and avoidable. A more thorough historical analysis should surely attempt greater consistency regarding chronology. Warschauer reports that during the communicative CALL phase there were three main uses or ‘models’ of computer application. First, there were a variety of programs to provide skill practice, but in a nondrill format. In these programs, like the drill and practice programs mentioned above, the computer remains the “knower-of-the-rightanswer”; thus, this represents an extension of the computer as tutor model. However, in contrast to the drill and practice programs, the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction. It is certainly less restricted than previous software, but how is it “communicative” exactly? If we take as a benchmark some criteria to CLT, then the examples given by Warschauer may have had useful roles in language learning, but are not noticeably communicative except in very limited computerstudent communication. Furthermore, the actual interaction involved was extremely limited at the time. The second aspect of computer use in the communicative CALL is described as follows: In addition to computer as tutor, another CALL model used for communicative activities involves the computer as stimulus. In this case, the purpose of the CALL activity is not so much to make students discover the right answer, but to stimulate students’ discussion, writing, or critical thinking. Here there certainly may be realistic and valuable communication, but this is not an inherent feature of CALL itself, nor is it particular to this phase. It

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could be achieved by other means, without a computer at all, so it hardly counts as evidence for this period being a communicative phase of CALL. The third model of computers in communicative CALL involves the computer as a workhorse. In this role, the programs do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language. Examples of the computer as tool include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desktop publishing programs, and concordances. According to Underwood (1984), communicative CALL focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves and teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly. It allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language. Communicative CALL avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses. At this stage, the target language is exclusively used and an environment is created in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen. Thus computer in this phase is as a tool to stimulate cognitive thinking and contextualization is a core. Behavioristic approach to CALL, knowledge of language meant linguistic knowledge including vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar; however, in the communicative approach, it is not only the linguistic competence (grammaticality and accuracy) but also knowing when to use, to whom and where to use the grammatically correct sentences (communicative competence): It includes appropriacy and grammatically. Warschauer (1997) believes that in this phase three main uses or models of computers are: 1. A variety of programs providing skill practice in a non-drill format 2. It is not being so much to have students discover the right answer; instead, stimulating students’ discussion, writing, and critical thinking. Example of programs is Oregon Trail, Carmen Sandiego, and A

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Day in the Life, Carmen Sandiego Word Detective, and Amazon Trail II. 3. It is considered as a game believing that “Learning is Fun.” It creates pleasurable learning environment to motivate language learners. Examples of CALL vocabulary games are Spelling Games, Spelling Bee and Magic Hat, Scrambled Word, Word Worm, Hangman, Find a Word, Word Puzzles, Spelling Buddy, Cross Words, I Love Spelling, and Scrabble Deluxe. In addition, some advantages of communicative CALL have been proposed in the literature. To mention some: a) Communicative CALL can adapt to the learners' abilities and preferences, cognitive and learning styles and self-paced learning. b) It can improve learners’ attitudes towards learning English. c) It creates information gaps which provide learners a need to communicate or interact with each other or with the program. d) It promotes direct communicative skills for the learners. e) It can provide immediate responsiveness and feedback. f) It is predictable and non-judgmental. g) Access to authentic materials will be readily presented. h) Learning at home will be made possible. i) Opportunities for flipped learning will be provided. j) It offers individualized and private learning. On the contrary, some authors have mentioned some limitations of communicative CALL: a) Some of the hardware and software are very expensive. It is problematic in schools that have limited funding. b) There is fear that CALL in general might replace teachers. c) There is fear that the computer might isolate students from social activities. d) A lot of ELT teachers still lack training and skills in using the CALL, and training costs are high. e) ELT teachers may lack the necessary computer-related skills.

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f) CALL (e.g. CD-ROMs) is sometimes not suitable for all computers, platforms and hardware. g) CALL presentation is sometimes restricted by the capabilities of the hardware (e.g. not enough RAM to run big CD-ROM programs). h) At present, CALL software still lacks abstract reasoning abilities and problem-solving processes. With the emergence of computer technology, opportunities also were created for the use of games for language learning in the communicative era of CALL. Some of the examples of foreign language games are as following: Spot It: It is a fast-paced card game created by Rainbow Resource. It is great for teaching learners basic vocabulary words related to a variety of subjects such as animals, clothing, family, foods, transportation and even the weather using both words and pictures. KLOO: It is an award-winning educational card game that is loved by many including children, adults, teachers and self-learners. It can be played either alone or with others. The Kloo game consists of two decks of cards and the goal is to create a sentence that makes sense using only the cards that you have in your hand. MIND SNACKS: This gaming app series makes learning foreign languages easy while on the go with gaming apps that help you to not only build your vocabulary, but also aid you in strengthening your conversational skills. Each app usually offers around eight colorful games to help you master over a thousand words and phrases and harbors over fifty language lessons available, all of which are designed by Ivy League instructors. LINGO ARCADE: This terrific language gaming app series for Apple users is created by Innovative Mobile Apps. The app has been praised by many for how user-friendly it is and its arcade style format. Each app comes with four different games with five difficulty settings to help players learn more than just basic vocabulary. With Lingo

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Arcade, users can practice word mastery, understand complex phrases and work on sentence building all at an affordable price. To sum up, the second phase of CALL was based on the communicative approach to teaching which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s. Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much value. One of the main advocates of this new approach was John Underwood, who in 1984 proposed a series of "Premises for Communicative CALL" (Underwood, 1984, p. 52). According to Underwood, communicative CALL focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves; teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly; allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language; does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells; avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses; uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well. https://slllc.ucalgary.ca/Brian/BibWarschauer.html Integrative Approach to CALL As mentioned previously, change in approaches to CALL has always been synchronized with a revolution in technology: From mainframes to PCs to the Internet. The integrative approach to CALL is characterized by the introduction of two significant innovations: (a) multimedia and (b) the Internet. The vantage point of multimedia packages is that they enable reading, writing, speaking and listening to be together in a single activity, when the learner has a high degree of control over the path that he/she follows through the learning materials. The Internet builds on the multimedia technology and enables both asynchronous and synchronous activities. The Internet builds on the multimedia

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technology and also enables both asynchronous and synchronous communication between learners and teachers. The advent of the web has opened up a new range of tasks for MFL learners, e.g. web quests, web concordance, and collaborative writing. Multimedia technology- that is exemplified today by the CDROM allows a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) to be available on a single machine. What makes multimedia even more powerful is that it also entails hypermedia, that is, the multimedia resources are all linked together and learners can navigate their own path simply by pointing and clicking a mouse. Hypermedia provides a number of advantages for language learning. First of all, a more authentic learning setting is created since listening is combined with seeing (watching), just like in the real world. Secondly, skills are easily integrated because various media make it natural to combine reading, writing, speaking and listening in a single activity. Third, students have great control over their learning as not only can they go at their own pace but also even on their own individual path, going forward and backwards to different parts of the program, honing in on particular aspects and skipping other aspects altogether. Finally, a major advantage of hypermedia is that it facilitates a principal focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies. For example, with the main lesson is in the foreground, students can have access to a variety of background links which allow them to get fast access to grammatical explanations or exercises, vocabulary glosses, pronunciation information, or questions or prompts which motivate them to take an appropriate learning strategy. Computer-mediated communication (CMC), which has existed in primitive form since the 1960s but has only become wide-spread in the last ten years, is probably the single computer application to date with the greatest impact on language teaching. For the first time, language learners can communicate directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other learners or speakers of the target language 24 hours a day,

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from school, work, or home. This communication can be asynchronous through tools such as electronic mail (e-mail), which allows each participant to compose messages at their time and pace, or in can be synchronous ("real time"), using programs such as MOOs, which allow people all around the world to have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their keyboards. Not only does it allow one-to-one communication, but also one-to-many, allowing a teacher or student to share a message with a small group, the whole class, a partner class, or an international discussion list of hundreds or thousands of people. Computer-mediated communication allows users to share not only brief messages, but also lengthy documents, thus facilitates collaborative writing, and also graphics, sounds, and video. Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials (e.g., newspaper and magazine articles, radio broadcasts, short videos, movie reviews, book excerpts) exactly in agreement with their own personal interests. They can also use the Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the general public. It is not hard to see how computer-mediated communication and the Internet can facilitate an integrative approach to using technology. The three most popular uses of the Internet for language teaching are electronic mail (e-mail), the World Wide Web, and MOOs. Numerous programs exist for using electronic mail. The Eudora program has several nice features, including "point-and-click" word processing capacity, easy attachment of formatted files, and ability to include foreign characters and alphabets. The free version (Eudora Light) is suitable for most purposes; there is also a more powerful commercial version (Eudora Pro). Eudora requires a direct connection to the Internet. Additional programs which run through the unix system and do not require a direct Internet connection are Pine and Elm. To access the World Wide Web, one needs a special program called a browser. By far, the most popular browser among educators is Netscape, which until now has been free to teachers and students.

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MOOs ("Multiple-user-domains Object Oriented") allow for real time communication, simulation, and role playing among participants throughout the world, and a special MOO has been set up for ESL teachers and students (schmOOze University homepage, 1995). The use of MOOs is greatly facilitated if one uses a special client software program such as TinyFugue (for unix), MUDDweller (for Mac), or MUDwin (for Windows). https://slllc.ucalgary.ca/Brian/ BibWarschauer.html To sum up the explanations on approaches to CALL, we refer to Warschauer’s (2000) classification in the following table that summarizes the major phases of CALL along with their characteristics and technologies used. Table 3.1. Approaches to CALL in Details 21st Century: Integrative CALL

Stage

1970s-1980s Structural CALL

1980s–1990s: Communicative CALL

Technology

Mainframe

PC

Multimedia and Internet

Englishteaching paradigm

Grammar Translation Method, Audiolingual Method

Communicative Language Teaching

Content-based Language Learning, ESP/EAP

Structural

Cognitive

Socio-cognitive

Drill and practice Accuracy

Communicative exercises and Fluency

Authentic discourse and Agency

View of language Principle use of computers Objective

The theoretical socio-cognitive foundation of the integrative CALL will be explained in Chapter Five and Chapter Six. Bax (2003) criticizes Warschauer’s classification and claims that despite the popularity of Warschauer’s classification, it has significant weaknesses including inconsistencies (using different names like structural and behavioristic; using different dates to refer to each

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period), inappropriate use of phases of CALL (if phases, what are the phases? Are they historical? If yes, why do all phases exist today?), and unclear criteria (communicative approach is with us even today; computer as tool and computer as workhorse). To Bax, the most critical problem is with integrative CALL where Warschauer claims that “in the late 1980s and early 1990s [m]any teachers were moving away from a cognitive view of communicative teaching”. To Bax (2003), “this is a doubtful assertion. It would be difficult to adduce evidence that teachers at the time had a ‘cognitive view of communicative teaching’, or that teachers had previously failed to think of ‘language use in authentic social contexts” (p. 18). Bax (2003) suggests a new analysis and introduces his own classification of CALL phases: Restricted CALL, open CALL, and integrated CALL. Restricted CALL in terms of its historical period and its main features differs little from Warschauer and Healey’s ‘Behaviourist CALL’, but the term “Restricted” is preferred since it allows us to refer not only to a supposed underlying theory of learning but also to the actual software and activity types in use at the time, to the teachers’ role, to the feedback offered to students and to other dimensions--all were relatively ‘restricted’, but not all were ‘behaviourist’. Open CALL, which dates to the time Bax wrote the article (2003), like communicative CALL, includes open-ended interactions with both computers and occasionally other users. In the third phase of CALL, which he calls Integrated CALL, the notion of normalization is introduced which makes it different from Warschauer’s integrative CALL. Bax believes it refers to the stage “when the technology becomes invisible, embedded in everyday practice and hence ‘normalised’” (p. 23). He claims that CALL has not reached this phase yet. For normalization to happen, he mentions several stages under the title of “diffusion of innovations”: 1. Early Adopters. A few teachers and schools adopt the technology out of curiosity.

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2. Ignorance/scepticism. However, most people are sceptical, or ignorant of its existence. 3. Try once. People try it out but reject it because of early problems. They can’t see its value—it doesn’t appear to add anything of ‘relative advantage’ (Rogers, 1995). 4. Try again. Someone tells them it really works. They try again. They see it does in fact have relative advantage. 5. Fear/awe. More people start to use it, but still there is (a) fear, alternating with (b) exaggerated expectations. 6. Normalising. Gradually it is seen as something normal. 7. Normalisation. The technology is so integrated into our lives that it becomes invisible—‘normalised’. (Bax, 2003, p. 24-25) The theoretical tenets of the integrative approach to CALL will be explained in details in chapter Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. “Any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language”. This is the definition of CALL by …… a) Levy b) Beatty c) Warschauer d) Chapelle 2. The ……... approach took an analytical approach towards learning in which technology was responsible to expose learners to enough language input and prepare them analytical and inferential tasks. a) Socio-cognitive b) Cognitive c) Structural d) Algorithmic 3. The main objective of the structural/behavioristic approach to CALL was that it did not develop ………….. in learners. a) Grammaticality b) Accuracy c) Fluency d) Automaticity

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4. Functional grammar is linguistic foundation of ………………. Approach to CALL. a) Structural b) Communicative c) Integrative d) Behavioristic 5. The objective of integrative CALL, according to Warschauer, is ……………. a) Accuracy b) Fluency c) Agency d) Accuracy, fluency, agency

Chapter Four CALL and Complex System Theory Introduction Computer-assisted language learning has been widely recognized as an interdisciplinary complex field. The field of language learning has undergone a drastic change from employing deterministic objective approaches into more postmodern complex dynamic approaches. As a matter of fact, complexity theory can provide useful insights into understanding dynamic complex concepts in the educational contexts specifically within language learning domain. On the other hand, computers as inherently complex tools have been held to facilitate the language learning process. Complexity theory seems to fit favourably into CALL domain to explicate elaborately the process of language learning via the use of computers. The current chapter addresses a new perspective on CALL through the lens of complexity theory. Epistemologically speaking, CALL might be reconsidered from a complex dynamical system view with interconnected aspects in the ecosystem of second/foreign language acquisition. The present chapter attempts to introduce the tenets of complex system theory and its application in CALL. It has been suggested that the present dominant traditions in CALL are too simplistic to delve into the nature of language learning and technology. The belief is that the Newtonian conceptualization of language learning cannot be comprehensive enough to deal with the complexities of language acquisition and CALL.

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Complex Systems: Background As mentioned in the review by Soleimani and Alavi (2013), the background of complexity theory is originating in the natural sciences and applied in the human sciences. Complexity theory makes an attempt to expound the way order comes out of chaos in systems. Regarding living systems, the theory explains the creation of complex adaptive systems and their existence. Historically speaking, the origin of complex system theory dates back probably to the meteorologist Edward Lorenz seminal experiment in 1961 when he had managed to create a skeleton of a weather system from a handful of differential equations. Applying computer simulation, he maintained a perpetual simulation that would produce an output of a day's progress in the simulation every minute as a line of text on a roll of paper. Lorenz examined the way an air current would rise and fall while being heated by the sun. His computer contained the mathematical equations which governed the flow of the air currents. Because of the deterministic nature of computer code, Lorenz predicted that by feeding the same initial values, he would obtain exactly the same result when he ran the program. However, Lorenz found that when the same initial values were given, he came into an exactly different result each time. By closer examination, it was revealed that he was not truly imputing the same initial values each time; initial values were a little bit different from each other. The differences were not noticed since they were unbelievably small, microscopic, and insignificant by usual standards. The simulation pattern revealed that nothing ever happened the same way twice, but there was an underlying order. He noticed that a small change in initial conditions can drastically change the long-term behavior of a system (known as Lorenz attractor). Lorenz famous paper entitled "Predictability: Does the flap of the butterfly's wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?" in 1972 is associated with butterfly effect or chaos theory. It came to be known that even the smallest imaginable difference between two sets of initial conditions would result in a great difference (Gleick, 1987; Stewart, 1997).

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In addition, some Nobel laureates including Ilya Prigogine in chemistry, Kenneth Arrow in economics, and Philip Anderson and Murray Gell-Mann in physics are among the advocates of complexity theory. The potential of complex systems is so great since it deals with real systems in the real word, say, transportation system, human immune system, forest, educational systems, weather, and SLAR indeed. As Gell-Mann (1994) states, although complex system theory has originated in the natural sciences, it has exciting and useful contributions to the social and behavioral sciences, and even matters of policy for human society. The chemist Ilya Prigogine coined the term dissipative system to clarify an inherent process quintessential in complex systems. His proposition is that a dissipative system takes in energy from outside of itself and self-organizes its pattern. In fact, a dissipative system is open to the external context and regulates itself to create order. As Larsen-Freeman (2008) quotes him, "the study of dissipative systems focuses on the interplay between structure, on the one hand, and change (or dissipation) on the other" (p. 3). Holland (1995), a biologist and the father of genetic algorithms, enumerates four properties (aggregation, nonlinearity, flows, and diversity) and three mechanisms (tagging, internal models, and building blocks) for each complex adaptive system. Aggregation implies the way complex systems behave. Complex behaviors emerge as the result of interactions of less complex agents. To him, for example, an ant has a stereotypical behavior and usually dies when in non-normal situations; nevertheless, the ant nest is extremely adaptive and can generally survive abnormal conditions. In nonlinearity, the behavior of the whole cannot be reduced to the sum of the parts. According to nonlinearity, the behavior of complex systems cannot be taken by the behaviors of individual members. For instance, a watch, which is a complicated but not complex system, can be understood based on the interactions of the parts as it is a linear system. The third feature is flows which refer to the movements of resources among agents via connectors that change according to the system. For example, the

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connectors in a food transportation system are various vehicles, the resources flowing are the different foods, and the agents are farmers and grocery stores. The last feature is diversity. One can see diversity in educational systems where different types of teachers, staff members, and students interact (Holland, 1995). A complex systems involving chaos are against determinism in philosophy. Determinism is the belief that every event is the inevitable result of preceding events, and thus every event can be completely predicted in advance. Determinism in philosophy dates back to ancient Greece, but its application in science traces back to 1500 A.D. with the idea that a cause-and-effect rule governs all motions (Soleimani & Alavi, 2013). At the beginning of the 17th century, Francis Bacon contributed to the so-called scientific revolution by his empirical method and his emphasis on reliable knowledge. Bacon suggested that empirical observation and formal experiments are the real business of science. Newton's general law of gravitation was published in 1687 which put forward a coherent explanation of the movements of the planets (Jordan, 2004). Accordingly, “given the initial conditions (the position and velocity of each body) and the acting forces, the entire future history of that system is determined uniquely” (Retrieved from http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/lsi/arcadia/newton.html). In contrast, chaos could be considered as a superseder for the Newtonian metaphor of the clockwork predictability, as pointed out by Waldrop (1992). Instead of explaining the universe as a gigantic clock which is governed by simple rules, chaos theory metaphor can be described as “a kaleidoscope: the world is a matter of patterns that change, that partly repeat, but never quite repeat, that are always new and different” (p. 330). In the 20th century, mechanical determinism was attacked and broke down gradually. The idea that quantum mechanics is based on the principle of uncertainty rejected the determinism at a microscopic level; similarly, the butterfly effect resulted in the denial of the determinism at a macroscopic level. Based on the Copenhagen paradigm of quantum mechanics, a microscopic system is considered

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as an uncertain wave motion that gets certain merely when a recognizing subject interferes with the object rather than the object is basically determinate. An issue of great interest in quantum mechanics is the principle of superposition. According to this principle, "quantum mechanics requires that a system exist in a range of possible states…until a measurement is made, at which point one of those states takes on a definite reality" (Lindley, 1997, p.18). Hence, the core of the superposition principle is that an organism exists in more than one state at any given time. To Niels Bohr, the criterion for everything to be real is its observability. At the same time, he, nevertheless, stated that the act of measurement constrains a thing to a single possibility. Both of these observations are embodied in the principle of superposition (Soleimani & Alavi, 2013). Complexity Theory and SLA With the spread of complex system theory in physics, mathematics, and biology, in the last decade the enthusiasm for its modeling to SLA context in general and second language acquisition research in particular has caught the attention of some researchers. It appears the time is ripe for SLA to follow the empirically-based new trend in science and get divorced from absolutely Newtonian camp of causative reality and its reductionist positivistic linear tenets. Some scholars have felt the new conceptualization of science and are heralds of changes in SLA. Consequently, a few articles and studies have been published using terminologies as complexity theory, chaos theory, dynamical system, and complex systems. Complexity theory is scarcely dealt with in the literature of SLA. Two seminal articles by Larsen-Freeman (1997) and van Lier (1997) brought complexity theory into the realm of applied linguistics. Larsen-Freeman's influential article "Chaos/Complexity Science and Second Language Acquisition" in Applied Linguistics in 1997 introduced the main developments of physical sciences contributing to the recent developments in academia. She has enumerated the main features

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of complex systems: dynamic, complex, nonlinear, chaotic, unpredictable, sensitive to initial conditions, open, adaptive, and selforganizing. She also compares complex systems and language in terms of dynamism and finds numerous commonalities including the fact that languages grow and change. She draws readers' attention to the applicability of complex system theory to interlanguage systems of language learners. Furthermore, to Van Lier (1997), it is essential to consider second language classroom context as a complex adaptive system in which the details are all significant. He further maintains that it is not feasible to search for cause-effect relations in SLA. Following the seminal works by Larsen-Freeman and some other researchers to introduce Gleick’s (1987) Chaos: Towards a New Kind of Science and Waldrop’s (1992) Complexity: The Emerging Science at the Edge of Order and Chaos, today, it appears that complex system theory has found its way into recent discussions in SLA and applied linguistics and researchers in the field believe in its role in interlanguage systems. Later, Bates and Thelen (2003) relates connectionist theories of mind to complex system theory. LarsenFreeman (2000) explains language as a dynamic system which is composed of numerous components including syntax, semantics, phonology, morphology, and so forth interacting in non-linear and unpredictable ways. Larsen-Freeman coined the term “grammaring” to describe this dynamic nature of language. Cameron (2003) links the complex system theory to discourse and applies the term “attractor” to explain discoursal features in language use. Verspoor, Lowie, and van Dijk (2008) show that examining intra-individual variability in SLA can provide insight into the dynamics of second language learners. In their study, using Thelen and Smith's (1994) and van Geert's (1994) dynamic systems theory paradigm and concepts from microgenetic variability researches in psychology, they investigated SLA in a rapid development time period applying advanced visualization techniques. A case study of a learner displays a general increase over time for the correlates under study; however, the development is nonlinear, which

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reveals moments of progress and regress. The case study sheds light as well on dynamic interaction of subsystems. In another article, van Geert (2008), introduces the basic tenets of dynamic system theory and explains concepts such as time evolution, evolution term, selforganization, and attractor. Furthermore, the applications of these concepts in first and second language acquisition are discussed. The article also expounds the steps necessary to be taken in modeling dynamic system theory in second language learning. de Bot (2008), focuses on the development of SLA from the perspective of dynamic system theory with a focus on development over time. Numerous examples and applications of dynamic system theory in SLA are given. The author also offers some possible lines of dynamic-systemtheory based research agendas. Plaza-Pust (2008) examines Universal Grammar based on dynamic system theory and proposes a dynamic approach to the development of grammars. He attributes the observed nonlinear behavior to a complex information flow by internal and external feedback processes. He further argues that changes in grammars are because of the amplification of new information leading to system-internal conflicts. A Complex Picture of CALL CALL pedagogy seems to be a complex and elaborate task since such manifold issues need to be taken into account as “materials, design, technologies, pedagogical theories and modes of instruction” (Beatty, 2010). Considerable progress has been achieved with respect to CALL materials that is to say “gap-filling tasks and simple programming exercises” marked the beginning stages of using CALL materials, whereas today, “interactive multimedia presentations with sound, animation and full motion video” are accessible to the learners (Beatty, 2010). CALL materials are normally delivered to students via various methods of delivery including computers, mobile phones, social networking websites etc.

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In addition, computers offer learners a useful and motivating medium for developing different language skills. Regarding grammar, in the early phases of CALL development, grammar-oriented tutorial exercises were assumed as one of the most important applications of CALL, whereas in the recent years, grammar-oriented tasks were more prevalent devised by teachers for their own learners, though generally they are now more formed in a communicative context (Chan & Kim, 2004 as cited in Levy, 2009). Indeed, great interest has been aroused in developing software with more propitious efficiency of analysis and feedback (eg. Heift & Schulze, 2007) as well as collecting learner corpus i.e. the texts produced by L2 learners whose errors are identified and then categorized into groups. In a similar vein, vocabulary has come into focus of attention from the very beginning of CALL, which can be pertinent to fact that vocabulary learning is a huge task for the learner, and computer is inherently more propitiously adjusted to deal with the discrete items of language learning (Levy, 2009). Vocabulary learning can make use of keyword hyperlink and multimedia in order to present fruitful language software. CALL applications encompass specifically-designed multimedia and web-based software to support language competence. A number of studies have been conducted to investigate the effectiveness of technology affordances in enhancing the four basic language skills as well as language-related competences. Parmaxi, Zaphiris, PapadimaSophocleous and Ioannou (2013) introduced the technology affordances that have been explored by different researchers as videos (Sydorenko, 2010), video games (deHaan, Reed, & Kuwada, 2010); email interactions with native speakers (Sasaki & Takeuchi, 2010), multimedia glosses (Ercetin, 2010) and concordances (Chang and Sun, 2009). Moreover, the findings of these studies revealed positive effect of information technologies “on enhancing vocabulary acquisition, listening, proofreading performance and overall comprehension of a foreign language” (Parmaxi, et al., 2013, p. 259).

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Many technologies applied in CALL can expose language learners to the various delicate aspects of L2 culture specifically with respect to authentic materials. As levy (2009) indicated, these learning environments open up a golden opportunity for the students to weigh both their native and target culture. However, Sykes, Oskoz, and Thorne (2008, as cited in Levy, 2009), discussing these issues at a deeper level, pointed to “the danger of learning the pragmatics of the space and not necessarily skills of the L2 itself” (p. 539). Electronic materials will present real challenges for both EFL teachers and learners. As the choices increase, technology users may get into a muddle over this diversity since they need to develop the skill to match the technology with the task they are involved with according to their optimal use in language learning. Farmer and Gruba (2006, p. 155) stated that “requirements in CALL are socio-technical, and multifaceted. Problems with language learning are seldom discrete and binary, making design decisions extremely hard to plan and implement”. Unskilled language teachers in computer technology lack the ability to present complex computer language programs to students. There are manifold factors leading teachers to avoid integrating technology into the classroom practice among which “time pressures, technology-related anxiety, lack of resources, inflexible guidelines, poor technical support, age, and the rapidity at which technology changes” can be mentioned (Egbert, Paulus, & Nakamichi, 2002, p. 112). In addition, teachers should occasionally be able to adapt and even localize various types of electronic materials. In this technology-evolving ambience, teacher education and learner training demand to assume considerable significance (Hubbard & Levy, 2006). Regarding various electronic materials exposed to the students within the CALL framework, successful programming demand the students to get involved in a sort of interaction with the materials rather than merely conveying some information to them. As Norman (1998) indicated practicality of any technological tool relies more on the users’ skill and expertise rather than the inbuilt capacities of the

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related technology. As Levy (2009, p. 778) proposed ubiquitous popularity and use of modern communication technologies does not necessarily reflect its fruitfulness in the educational contexts. Its effective application depends to a great extent on the “affordances of the particular technology and the ways its strengths and limitations may be coordinated and managed as a pedagogical tool”. He further argues that when different technologies are introduced in the learning context to the students, it is deemed absolutely essential to present special learner training since “default position of users is different from that of learners”. In a nutshell, in Garrett’s (1991) words, technology should serve language learning not vice versa or not the other way around. Within CALL realm, socio-cultural theories that assess the influence of social interactions within a cultural environment have received scant attention which as Farmer and Hughes (2005) mentioned can be due to the scarcity of a holistic comprehensive framework in order to assess “cognitive and social requirements of learner-computer interaction”. This problem is regarded as a central concern to CALL system quality commonly referred to as the “social-technical gap” (Farmer and Hughes, 2005, p. 67). As a result, research on CALL grounds demand a transitional shift towards a more socio-cultural holistic CALL approach. They further discuss that CALL setting would necessitate “a flexible, adaptive and holistic framework” at both phases of design and evaluation such as the complexity and interdisciplinarity associated with the CALL setting could be reconciled. Regarding the call development, technology has represented an innovative approach to involve the student learning tasks in a revolutionary way never applied before. In other words, even the first multimedia materials presented an ideal opportunity to offer integrative language samples. On the practical grounds, CALL curriculum seems to be convoluted and complicated to a considerable extent. Accordingly, Stockwell (2014) stated that CALL curriculum highly falls under the influence of the context within which it operates

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whether it operates at an individual level (how individual learners use technologies in their everyday practice), an institutional level (how institutional preferences can affect students use of technologies), and a societal level (society trend makes some technologies more readily accessible than others). Several scholars (e.g. Garrett, Chapelle, and Lafford) greatly emphasized adopting more socially-oriented theories within CALL research than traditional cognitively-based SLA theories. Lafford (2009) expressed concerns regarding an ecological approach toward CALL investigations. From all the above-mentioned issues, of course the list is not exhaustive and some will be raised and fully explained in the next chapter. There are major concerns of CALL that reveal the complexity of CALL pedagogy and the role of multitude of factors involved when we talk about CALL in the context of SLA curriculum, in its broad sense. Complexity Theory and CALL Following Larsen-Freeman (1997), I outline several key characteristics of complex systems, correlating these characteristics with second language learning and then illustrate their specific relations with CALL practices. Interconnected Every variable exerts an influence on every other variable in a complex system that means all variables are interrelated. Complex systems do not function in isolation but demonstrate a mutual interconnectivity between the variables in a multitude of ways. Finch (2004) instanced teacher’s use of competition as a motivator in language classroom which implies speed of performance and winning are more important than the quality of that practice. As a result, interactions between technology and SLA context components change correspondingly. Students replace collaboration to reach a common goal withholding information from each other.

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Dynamic In complex systems, since the interacting variables constantly change over time, the consequence of system development cannot be precisely estimated. Modularity does not prevail in a dynamic system, but subsystems actively interact with other. Some scholars have regarded language classroom as a dynamic system (Fanselow, 1992; Hadfield, 1992). Computer and technology play a central role in managing change in the classroom. For instance, computer-learner interaction, the teacher-student relationship, and the CALL environment alter over time. Complex An important characteristic of complex systems is that they encompass numerous subsystems within which a dynamic interaction can be observed (e.g. a flock of birds). Dynamic systems are nested, i.e., every system can consist of another system and each subsystem can entail several other nested embedded subsystems. It is clearly evident that CALL, technology-enhanced language learning, is complex. Each learner or teacher needs to deal with various technological, affective, cognitive, and social factors in a language learning situation (Nunan, 1999). Nonlinear Nonlinear effects reveal that systems do not “add up” in a straightforward manner. According to Lowie (2012), subsequent iteration of a dynamic system emerges as a result of the interaction of its components in a persistent flux with the context in which they thrive. Therefore, as Van Geert (2003) mentioned, the evolving or the (evolution) of such complex systems can be characterized as nonlinear. Linear effects are assumed to be proportionate whereas nonlinear relationships are held to be unpredictable which “signifies that the effect is disproportionate to the cause” (Cameron & LarsenFreeman, 2007, p. 227). Traditionally, many language learning and teaching methods proposed a linear process, though it should be noted that in real context of learning, CALL progresses in a nonlinear

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procedure. Lowie (2012) instanced that a motivation change at one point might affect a change at another point in other subsystems. Nonreducible A complex dynamic system cannot be evaluated via its division into its different parts. Even if all the factors could be distinguished, the system outcome cannot be predicted out of its combination. Within CALL framework, factors influential in the process of language acquisition cannot be isolated. Indeed, these factors are taken into consideration as the interacting subsystems of CALL that alter according to the system's previous point within a developmental context. This finding can be beneficial to the field of language teaching since it denotes the fact that language cannot be acquired by teaching its subcomponents in isolation specially pragmatics that demand their acceptable holistic language context in which they occasionally occur in order to be acquired appropriately. Unpredictable Complex systems cannot be limited to the exploration of a set of rules in order to predict the future status of the system. As Kindt, Cholewinski, Kumai, Lewis, and Taylor (2014) stated in the classroom setting, a student' s present success cannot guarantee his/her success in the future set of his academic affairs. Therefore, complexity theory does not put forward a set of rules for teachers to deal with the classroom complexity rather it supports complexity as a natural concept. As Clarke proposed, “We cannot control [learners], we can only manipulate the constraints under which they work” (1999a, p. 162). It might imply that no cause-and-effect relationship between computer technology and learning is predictable. Equifinal However, it is worth mentioning that in these complex dynamic unpredictable systems, patterns of regularity can be observed as well. According to Finch (2004), the system cannot be regarded predictable in details though certain universal features are displayed in the transition from regularity to chaos. In other words, he further

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discusses that connectivities are assumed to be unique at the micro level (local unpredictability) while the outcome remains similar at the overall level (global regularity). In terms of the CALL context, it might be that at the local level, details cannot be predicted, and every organism in the CALL system shows unique particularities whereas at the global level, some regular patterns can be specified. In the classroom, various learners might utilize various language-learning affordances at their own pace. The ultimate outcome of learning would be similar but the paths different learners go through to reach that outcome would be different. Sensitive to Initial Conditions This concept is recognized as the butterfly effect or chaos theory: Minor changes in one state can lead to significantly wide differences in a later state, that is to say, in general, small causes may bring about substantial effects. Even the smallest differences in the two series of initial circumstances can lead to noticeable differences (Gleick, 2008). Chaudron (1988) mentioned that a motivated skilful student who has adequate courage to initiate the interactions not only paves the way for his/her success but also exerts a positive influence on the interaction of the class as a whole. Open As Kindt et al. (2014) claimed, a closed system is liable to set a “dead or undifferentiated state” (Kauffman, 1995, p. 75) while an open system is an active system which can permeate its borders and harmonize with different conditions. In contrast with the modular approach, dynamic subsystems are held to be open, interacting, and emergent (Spivey, 2007). In CALL approaches, structural/behavioristic mechanical exercises are regarded as closed system in which information is confined to specific determined accurate answers whereas communicative CALL activities rely on students’ wider knowledge of world to get accomplished.

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Self-organizing The substantial principle of self-organization represents that the overall dynamic patterns of a system is shaped by the dynamic interactions of its lower-level subsystems. Since these subsystems are complex and have constant fluctuations over time, self-organizing systems cannot be depicted in a simple form (Lowie, 2012). As Langton (1992) proposed, via the principle of self-organization, the whole scene of a complex system is different from sum of its parts. Autocatalysis is considered as a key feature of self-organization that is to say “the ability of a system to evolve itself, from within” (Morrison, 2008, p. 20). In this process, low-order bottom-up conditions prescribe the nature of the emerging self-organized pattern (Marion, 1999, p. 31). Regarding language learning, Van Geert (2003) regards it as a self-organizational process on the point that child language reveals the complex system of grammar in spite of poverty of stimulus which has emerged through self-organization principle. Chaotic Gleick (1987) looks upon the chaos as a science of process which holds deep patterns not being evident at the beginning. Complexity theory signifies the emergence of a system out of the interaction between its subcomponents each of which dynamically interact with its contexts as well. This non-regulated behavior of the system is defined as chaos. CALL as a complex system seems to be chaotic. Longitudinal studies into different aspects of L2 learning have demonstrated the existence of variability with respect to nondeterministic nature of L2 development (e.g Verspoor, Lowie, & Van Dijk, 2008). In addition, every language learner seems to learn in a unique way (Skehan, 1989) in CALL environment as well. Emergent behaviour According to Kindt et al. (2014), within complex systems, some unexpected behaviors may appear that are taken into account as a property of the system as a whole. This “emergent behavior" arises as a result of the interactions between the individual subcomponents.

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Regarding CALL atmosphere, the group dynamics of the language class have been demonstrated to diverge from the characteristics of its individual participants. As Vygotsky (1986, p. 61) stated, cooperative interaction “produces new, elaborate, advanced psychological processes that are unavailable to the organism working in isolation”. Feedback Sensitive In a complex dynamic system, feedback normally occurs between the interacting subcomponents of the system. Negative feedback plays a regulatory role which controls the changes (Freeman, 1997) and maintains a steady design over long periods of time (Bnggs, 1992). Within the system, positive feedback moves evolution forward (Marion, 1999). That is to say, contrary to negative feedback, it leads the system to change and develop. Feedback also prevail in the language classroom context in different forms, though it is worth mentioning that not all forms of feedback are incorporated into language learners’ competence as part of their intake of language. For instance, within a process approach to writing, the learner receives feedback from his/ her teacher as well as other classmates. A feature of CALL context is the feedback provided by the computer. Adaptive A complex system can adapt itself to the environment managing to reconcile the inhospitalities. Language learning like many other adaptive natural systems in the world can develop in different surroundings. Moreover, both learners and teachers are demanded to adapt themselves to such different issues as different personalities, styles, materials and activities. Strange Attractor In general, attractors reveal existence of constraints within which acts of behavior fall. Indeed, there exist infinite numbers of possibilities, though they are limited to a finite realm (Coveney & Highfield, 1995). For instance, climate can be regarded as the strange

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attractor of weather (Larsen-Freeman, 1997). In language, diverse patterns of language use can be observed with respect to discourse and pragmatics, though they are confined through “overall basins” of language (Ellis, 1997, p. 43). Fractal A geometric figure that is “self-similar at different levels of scale” is called fractal (Larsen-Freeman, 1997, p. 146). The fractal principle can be exemplified via the concept of tree. The shape of a tree in its trunk and boughs is similar to its shape from boughs and branches to its wigs. Likewise, language is itself fractal (Larsen-Freeman, 1997). Within the context of language learning, for instance, students can apply the strategies for developing paragraphs to compose the whole texts (Hodges, Horner, Webb, & Miller, 1998, p. 310). Avalanche effect When the conditions alter too radically for the existing structures to locally adapt themselves, complex systems evolve via creating new structures. When more and more pebbles are thrown on the heap of pebbles on a mountain, they fuse together and make an avalanche though the exact pebble leading to avalanche cannot be identified (Finch, 2004). According to Cameron and Larsenfreeman (2007), a complex dynamic system holds a sequence of states, some of which seem to be stable states. Indeed, the system demonstrates persistent sort of state over course of time called an ‘attractor’. It should be noted that in such systems unstable behaviors may occur as well, which such abrupt changes in a complex system are called phase shifts or bifurcations. Before and after a phase shift, behavior of a complex system is radically different. In the same vein, for instance, discrete-item, multiple choice testing or high-stakes testing might gradually aggravate the conditions of learning and teaching until such grim systems of testing breaks down resulting in a chaotic change.

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Complexity Theory and CALL As a matter of fact, every possible effort has been made to describe the major tenets of complexity theory that might be applied in CALL context in order to elucidate how complexity theory may ground the CALL field with respect to EFL/ESL learning and teaching processes. As the following table displays, the main attributes of determinism, complex theory and CALL are stated which will be put in an elaborate discussion in the next section along with CALL- related pedagogical implications. Table 4.1. CALL and Complexity Theory Determinism

Complexity Theory

CALL

Closed systems

Open systems

Open systems

Predictable

Unpredictable

Unpredictable

linear causality

nonlinear relationship

nonlinear relationship

Objective

Subjective

subjective

Stable

Relative

Relative

Static

Dynamic

Dynamic

Unity

Unity in diversity Contextualized (Sensitive to initial condition)

Unity in diversity Contextualized (Sensitive to initial condition)

Complex Experiential and connectionist Synergy

Complex Experiential and connectionist Synergy

Distributed knowledge

Distributed knowledge

Independent Simple Symbolic Energy Independent knowledge

Regarding open vs. closed systems, CALL classrooms are not considered as closed systems, rather, open system in which external and internal ecological factors interact with each other. According to Jonassen, Davidson, Collins, Campbell, and Haag (1997), function of closed instructional systems are controlled and regulated and

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originates from sum of their individual parts. Contrary to closed systems, an open system is subject to uncertainty in that control of the variables seems to be impossible (Rothwell & Kazanas, 2008). As a matter of fact, “Tool-Design-Evaluation experimental methodology” (Marek & Wu, 2014, p. 573) normally applied to the CALL research adopts a closed system that is to say a specific technology tool use is assumed to bring about all the effects on the outcomes, neglecting other internal and external influences which cannot be taken into consideration in the ecology system of traditional research designs. Regarding predictability and linearity vs. unpredictability and non-linearity, while applying technology-based materials in particular Web 2.0 activities, language learners as active agents can shape their own learning process. Indeed, they can uncover their identity and voice to the other operators of WWW system and change their language learning ecosystem in whatever way they like (Soleimani & Farrokh Alaee, 2014). Therefore, the educational process within CALL learning domain seems to be neither linear nor predictable but manageable at the language learners’ hands who may represent various options in the different contexts as a result of their interaction with various educational and non-educational variables. CALL-based learning/teaching process is not predictable, that is to say presence of various technological and non-technological variables change the static context of class in to a fluid one. Moreover, as complex adaptive systems show both characteristics of diversity and unity simultaneously, each learner demonstrates unique interest and individual characteristics (diversity), but at the same time interacts with other learners in the same class in order to accomplish the same learning outcomes (unity). For instance, within CALL setting, when learners are required to complete a task, they may reach the same outcome but following different routes in accordance with their aptitude, motivation, interest and their facilities among many other factors. Concerning objectivity vs. subjectivity, foreign language classroom can be taken into consideration as a social context.

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According to Breen (2001), language classroom setting cannot be appointed as an experimental laboratory in which an objective form of output may be predicted out of a causal relationship with the related input. On the contrary, CALL classroom setting may be regarded as a sort of ambient replete with various intervening variables which may exercise some influences on the learning outcome (e.g. teacher and learners’ interaction pattern with technology, accessibility of technology tool, cost of technology tool, teachers and learners readiness to cope with the technology tool). Regarding stability vs. relativity, accessibility of the Internet to the learners as well as teachers provides them with a good opportunity to have access to up-dated authentic language materials (Nguyen, 2008). Accordingly, the traditional stable roles of a teacher (provider of knowledge) and a student (recipient of knowledge) has undergone considerable modification to adopt more relative roles. Learners can manage to provide themselves with authentic materials on their own via self-access to WWW. Regarding complexity and dynamicity vs. simplicity, Kim (2008) maintained that integration of CALL into language classrooms brings a number of pedagogical issues into focus of attention adding to the convolution present in the normal language classes such as teachers’ impression of CALL communication, and their visualization of CALL practices. Moreover, applying Web 2.0 material and activities in the language class setting stirs learners’ agency (responsibility) (Thomas, 2009) as well as their active participation. As Soleimani and Farrokh Alaee (2014) stated, language learners may somehow experience a kind of chaos as a result of this active participation since they need to interact with diverse elements in order to reach a kind of equilibrium out of the already-mentioned chaos. While modernist approaches towards language learning take a deterministic symbolic account of grammar into consideration via a product-oriented approach, post-modernist complex adaptive approaches as CALL adopt a connectionist process-oriented stance or

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approach towards the language system within a network of connections. According to Johnson (2006), computer-network based activities seem to promote learners’ skills on a cooperative ground which can be associated with the concept of synergy within the complexity theory. A complex dynamic system to function efficiently needs the energy of all the components i.e. synergy. Concerning independency vs. contextuality, since there exist manifold complex variables within CALL classroom, the initial conditions seem to be different in different contexts resulting in totally different learning outcomes. That’s why the same program may be quite successful in one class while the same final positive results may not be achievable in another class. In fact, within the CALL setting, language learners are feedback sensitive since they are constantly interacting with other learners and other environmental elements via their local interactions. Hence, they need to receive immediate feedback to develop their interactions propitiously and favourably. As a matter of fact, in the complex system, the function of each element seems to be sensitive to the feedback it receives that may lead to overall efficient functioning of the system. For instance, within CMC, the feedback the learner receives from other interlocutors of communication may determine the shape and effectiveness of communication. With regard to distributed knowledge and independent knowledge, according to Morrison (2008) within a complex system, knowledge is not centrally situated in a control centre rather, it is distributed throughout the system. “Communication and collaboration are key elements of complexity theory” (Cilliers, 1998). On the contrary, in deterministic fixed systems, Knowledge is assumed to be an external, quantifiable concept that can be transmitted to the mind of learners. Our findings are in line with those of Hubbard and Levy (2016) who proposed three types of theoretical entities to inform CALL development, among which the first category aroused our interest, i.e. theory instantiations. It refers to those sorts of theoretical approaches that are able to appropriately accommodate the fields of technology

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and language learning (e.g. Complexity Theory, Ecological Theory). Moreover, Hubbard and Colpaert (2019) believe in transdisciplinarity of CALL and put emphasis on a descriptive framework for the CALL development in a broader context due to its complicated intricacies. According to Chapelle (2009), we need to pursue a balance with respect to combining different approaches towards language and language acquisition into a “metatheory” to present a holistic view which is the essence of complexity theory. That’s why Chapelle believes that complexity theory has the potential to attract applied linguists’ attention in this regard. Complexity theory has been assumed to have an adroit power to explicate some phenomena such as society, culture, and economy (Waldrop, 1992; Lewin, 1999). Since a post-modernist complex dynamic perspective towards CALL brings into focus both macro and micro issues, it may pose such questions as “how does technology interact with particular socioculturaleconomic contexts? how do teachers and students interpret new technologies? and how does technology really “assist” language learning”? (Anwaruddin, 2019). Critical CALL, a new development within the CALL field, can grapple with such questions. Anwaruddin (2019) proposed two concepts of technological determinism and instrumentalism in this regard. The former reflects the assumption that technology plays an autonomous role so as it can determine the humanrelated affairs. This perspective toward CALL material development presents a kind of cause-and-effect relationship between language learning and technology and neglects the role of other non-technological factors in the educational outcome of electronic-based learning. Technological instrumentalism assigns a neutral role to technology on the ground that the effects technology produces, rely on how CALL practitioners integrate the electronic tools into their language teaching setting congruent with their specific needs in their specific contexts (Zheng, Yim, & Warschauer, 2018). Regarding Critical CALL approach, as Anwaruddin, (2019) suggested both determinism and instrumentalism seem to be ill-equipped to provide a holistic approach of the CALL

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because they fail to take into account such diverse non-technological issues as socio-economic status, gender, and identity. The literature on the concept of complexity theory has not adequately been applied to the perspectives of fundamental curriculum design, and materials development within the CALL domain. In this relation, Soleimani and Farrokh Alayee (2014) discussed the complexity of the process of teaching and learning referring to the features of a complex system. They proposed that CALL may facilitate the process of language teaching and learning language via integration into the complexity theory and they also substantiated the effectiveness of CALL curriculum in EFL/ESL contexts. Moreover, Soleimani and Alavi (2013) scrutinized SLA research applying complexity theory that took account of SLAR (second language acquisition research) as a complex system consisting of various agents (teachers and learners) and elements (methodology and materials) which are changing over the course of time via interaction with each other and with the ecosystem. Dörnyei (2014) and Marek and Wu (2014) recommended applying a holistic approach taking into consideration the various influential variables that are normally neglected in CALL/CMC studies. It is worth mentioning that how a material developer of CALL curriculum manages to concentrate on so diverse components of various systems at function within the CALL setting. Luckily, Dörnyei (2014) has put forward a procedure by which the most relevant influential factors in a specific context can be specified. Through Retrodictive Qualitative Modeling (RQM), the most conventional interaction patterns between various variables is identified, through which Dörnyei elaborates on three steps: 1) Identifying typical student types, 2) Identifying and interviewing typical students, and 3) Identifying those elements of the complex system that produces profound effect on those student types. Marek and Wu (2014) concluded that many delicate variables are present within CALL and CMC research which have rarely been accosted within this field. Although they produce an effect on the

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outcomes, they seem to be undetectable even to the researcher applying traditional experimental approaches. According to Marek and Wu (2014), making decisions on the technology use in CALL setting needs to be considered as a late phase in the planning process, so as we are able to thoroughly explore the complex environmental factors. They further discuss that the nature of accessible technology designates the lesson plan and instructional materials. On the other hand, pedagogical objectives can mold the choices about which technology to be applied in the educational setting. Colpaert (2012) stated the impracticality of dealing with all the local factors affecting learning and expected these factors to play the same role across different settings of multiple schools. He further focused on evaluating affordances a technology provides rather than exploring the differences use of a particular technology may bring about. Differences reflect an experimental/analytical sort of research, whereas affordances demonstrate components of a wider system. Regarding planning for CALL, material developers demand to reflect upon the students’ needs, including those needs of which the students, themselves, may not be cognizant. As a result, a holistic approach needs to be adopted regarding CALL material development. A post-modernist complex dynamic perspective towards CALL ecology elucidates the fact that there exist many convoluted variables which are able to exert an influence on the learning outcomes as a result of their interaction with ecology of the CALL system. Such perspective assists the EFL administrators and stakeholders in discerning different learning outcomes in different contexts while similar CALL methodologies have been applied. Indeed, complexity theory offers language learners and teachers a novel perspective of language materials development with regard to designing integrative holistic complex tasks within the EFL/ESL field. Various technologies differ concerning the extent to which they facilitate the realization of complexity theory principles. As a result, instructors, in favor of complexity theory, need to detect the technologies as well as the way

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they can be implemented to fulfill their curricular goals. Indeed, CALL needs a transdisciplinary approach that “assumes the embedding, at all levels, of social, sociocultural, sociocognitive, sociomaterial, ecosocial, ideological, and emotional dimensions” (Fir Group, 2016, p. 24). Conclusion In order to represent a new perspective towards CALL-related issues, effective data was presented via a review-based study that covers various previously-done research. Our original claim is that CALL is a complex dynamic system in which manifold internal and external factors play a part, whose control seem to be demanding, and it is consistent with the data reviewed in different studies. According to Chapelle (2009), technology can radically transform the nature of materials exposed to the language learners as well as their interactive activities on the target language samples. He further discusses that all approaches concerned with SLA/ EFL demand to take account of the technology influence on the linguistic input and their language acquisition. Acknowledgment The sections in this chapter on complex system theory and complex system and SLA have already been published in the Journal of Language Teaching and Learning No. 11, 2013. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. Complexity theory makes an attempt to expound …………… in systems. a) the way order comes out of chaos b) social milieu c) certainty and determinism d) interdisciplinary nature

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2. As Larsen-Freeman (2008) explains, "the study of dissipative systems focuses on the interplay between …………… and ……………….". a) Theory-practice b) Structure-change c) CALL-SLA d) Order-disorder 3. A dynamic system approach to CALL ………………. learning. a) Supports the causality of b) Rejects causality of c) Supports atomistic d) Rejects holistic 4. “ Every variable exerts an influence on every other variable in a complex system”. This is the ………. feature of a complex system. a) Interconnected b) Dynamic c) Open d) Initial state 5. The metaphor butterfly effect, implies which of the following characteristics of a complex system. a) Equifinal b) Sensitive to initial conditions c) Avalanche effect d) fractual

Chapter Five Sociocultural Theory of Language Learning Introduction Sociocultural theory (SCT) traces back to the Russian psychologist Vygotsky who knows the cultural artifacts as the fundamental basis by which human mental functioning is flourished. The cultural artifacts, hereby, is used to regulate, monitor, and control the individuals' behavior. SCT proposes that higher mental processes are more to do with social interaction than human neurobiology (Engestrom, 1987). To put it simply, individual development is developed from material, social, and historical environments (Wertsch, 1985). More to the point, Vygotsky’ theory stems from three principles of Marxist theory (Wertsch, 1985, as cited in Lantolf, Thorne, & Poehner, 2015): 1) the idea that human consciousness is fundamentally social, rather than merely biological, in origin; 2) that human activity is mediated by material artifacts (e.g., computers, the layout of built environments) and psychological and symbolic tools/signs (e.g., language, literacy, numeracy, concepts); and 3) that units of analysis for understanding human activity and development should be holistic in nature. (p. 2) This theory revolves around mediation and regulation, internalization, and the ZPD. Mediation is the common point in SCT theories and holds that the three symbolic artifacts, material artifacts, and technologies mediate the individuals' cognitive and material activities. That is to say, higher-order mental functioning is reinforced

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by the cultural activities. By internalization, the formation of the internal mental functioning is meant which is developed through the interaction between the environment and individuals. The ZPD or the difference between the individuals' actual and developmental levels is a developmental, conceptual, and pedagogical process which can help and enable teachers to better find out the learners' learning process. Thus, the ZPD might be more suitable for lower level learners. As one of the practical issues that has been more thoroughly dealt with in the L2 instructional environments, assessment can be enumerated. Even though assessment is a critical part of the teaching and learning processes, most of the instructional programs use the traditional static methods of testing. SCT observes evaluating the end product of the learning process from a very different perspective. In fact, dynamic assessment is so aligned with teaching that can enhance the learners' developmental level and might obstacle the way learning opportunities granted previously. All in all, the SCT is both theoretically and pedagogicallyfounded. To put it simply, it is both a research frame and a methodology which can serve the theoretical and pedagogical parties on the way to achieve the educational goals (Lantolf et al., 2015). Lantolf et al. stated: Though certainly not unique among theoretical perspectives, SCT approaches take seriously the issue of applying research to practice by understanding communicative processes as inherently cognitive processes, and cognitive processes as indivisible from humanistic issues of self-efficacy, agency, and the effects of participation in culturally organized activity. (p. 20) Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) The ZPD was so a different concept that could revolutionize the developmental psychology and the educational processes. Vygotsky (1978) defines the ZPD as” the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving

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and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86). It is widely supposed that the ZPD questions the traditional methods of learning in which the mere independent level of the learners is taken into account. However, the ZPD revolves around the mediation concept which states that mediation with actual level equals with the learners' potential level afterwards. By and large, Vygotsky (1987) observes a connection between the cognitive development and the education students receive. In other words, teachers can regard schooling as a tool by which they can understand and in effect change the model of their students' developmental process through providing the appropriate conditions. In line with the ZPD, Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) conducted a research in L2 environment upon corrective feedback and language learning in the interaction between learner and tutor in order to understand the way mediation might be more beneficial. They diagnosed that mediation needs to be contingent, in such a way that the tutor's help steps forward from a more explicit to a more implicit mediation. In other words, depending on the learners' actual need, mediation should go along with a continuum to a point where no support is needed and he or she can do the task independently. To upgrade form other-regulation to self-regulation, tutors need to continuously understand the learners' emerging level of development and use the appropriate mediation accordingly. In a nutshell, blending assessment and teaching in the ZPD is what DA stands for in its definition. That is why Vygotsky remarks that "social relations or relations among people genetically underlie all higher functions and their relationships" (1981, p. 163). However, the provided developmentally appropriate assistance is not just one-sided (Ohta, 2001) and both individuals can make a contribution in carrying out the task. As a matter of fact, the expert-novice roles can be changed or they can resort to their collective expert (Donato, 1994) in ascending their

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developmental levels. This reflects what Swain (2000) named as "collaborative dialogue" in her "languaging" process in which she elaborates on her previously accepted communicative output “to include its operation as a socially-constructed cognitive tool. As a tool, it serves second-language learning by mediating its own construction, and the construction of knowledge about itself” (Swain, 2000, p. 112). The ZPD is also one of the fundamental pillars in SCT which is easily misled by other concepts in SLA. Chaiklin (2003) elaborates on this and states that the ZPD is so prevalent in SCT but rarely realizable. However, this refers back to the fact that the ZPD is misunderstood by scaffolding (or assisted performance) and Krashen’s i + 1 (Krashen, 1982). Unlike ZPD, scaffolding for Jerome Bruner and his colleagues (Wood et al., 1976) was dealt with any assisting relationship in the framework of experts and novices and it was more to do with the quantity of assistance than its quality. Furthermore, compared with the ZPD which concentrates on dialogic relationship between experts and novices on the way to achieve self-regulation, Krashen’s (1982) notion of i + 1 accounts for the way language can be acquired (i.e., comprehensible input which beyond their current level of development, language acquisition device, and lowering the affective filter). The ZPD supposes a non-static developmental level, but Krashen’s (1982) i + 1 assumes a universal development for the learners (Dunn & Lantolf, 1998; Thorne, 2000). Prediction can be enumerated as one of the other of the differences between the ZPD and Krashen’s (1982) notion of i + 1. To put it simply, Krashen (1982) cannot predict the learners' exact level of development, however, the ZPD can easily predict it. This refers back to the fact that what an individual can do with mediation is what he or she can do independently, afterwards. Scaffolding Wood et al. (1976) defined scaffolding as the support provided by an expert in order to let the novice solve a pre-determined task.

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However, the assistance needs to be dynamic and intersubjective (Puntambekar & Hübscher, 2005). For intersubjectivity, it means that a student “must be able to recognize a solution to a particular class of problems before s/he is able to produce the steps leading to it without assistance” (Wood et al., 1976, p .90). Hannafin, Land, and Oliver (1999) view different types of scaffoldings according to the functions they are responsible for. Hannafin et al. (1999) believe that scaffolding helps learners to find out what to take into account, which strategy to use, and how to evaluate their obtained product (Hannafin et al., 1999). Scaffolding and ordinary assistance are different in some ways. Complexity (Pea, 2004; Puntambekar & Hübscher, 2005) and temporariness (Wood et al., 1976) are the very distinctive features of scaffolding which separate it from other types of assistance. To put it simply, scaffolding is more appropriate for complex processes and knowledge compared to simple usual tasks. In addition, such complex tasks are classified into different stages, each of which needs its own scaffolding support. That is why one scaffolding cannot be used permanently and should be used temporarily depending on the learners' need. Supporting students contingently at the time when they need help and the amount they require on the way to achieve the desired skill might be a more accurate definition for scaffolding (Pressley, Gaskins, Solic, & Collins, 2006; Wood et al., 1976). However, the task and the students' characteristics are important in this regard in order to have a more contingent scaffolding (Collins, Brown, Newman, & Resnick, 1989; Wood et al., 1976). Wood (2003, p. 14) holds that contingency can be of three types: "Instructional contingency-how to support activity; domain contingency-what to focus on next; temporal contingency-if and when to intervene." Contingency enables the tutor to better distinguish the support students need upon the behavior they show in the task (Wood, 2003). This type of support gradually moves towards independency of the learners or the term used by Collins et al.

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(1989) as fading. This is in fact a shift in responsibility from the expert to the novice and occurs when the students cooperate with the expert in the path to achieve independency using questioning or selfexplanation (Belland, 2011; Chi, 1996). Nevertheless, Belland (2011) believes that the necessary condition for the fading to happen is holding the executive control by the learners. This can happen when the learners "make choices, operate at decision points, and select paths of action” (Belland, 2011, p. 584). Scaffolding can promote two basic theories of higher order thinking abilities (e.g., Wood et al., 1976) and content understanding (e.g., Linn, 2000). It was previously thought to be in a one-to-one interaction mode (Pea, 2004; Puntambekar & Kolodner, 2005), however, with the advance of new technologies, researchers supposed computer-based scaffolding to be of prominence in providing appropriate scaffoldings. This went on to the fact that learners of similar ability might be good scaffolding providers for their peers which gave rise to peer scaffolding. As independency is the major goal of scaffolding, in a situation, these three modes of scaffoldings might be integrated in order to achieve self-regulation on the part of the tutee (Puntambekar & Kolodner, 2005). One-to-one scaffolding as the best mode of scaffolding is contingent and observes the continuous needs of the learners. In this mode, teachers consider their students' ZPD and attempt to enhance the learners' level of development according to their emerging abilities (Wood, 2003). The teachers intend to consider the interests of the students in order to let them control their frustration, give them feedback, highlight the important parts of the task, and model the desired performance (van de Pol et al., 2010; Wood et al., 1976). Having these in mind, one-to-one scaffolding provides a path to make fading as a way to transfer responsibility (Collins et al., 1989). Peer scaffolding, on the other hand, knows a more capable peer as the provider of assistance (Wood et al., 1976; Gillies, 2008). Logically, as the students in a class have diverse level of abilities,

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those with higher abilities can assist those with lower ones in order to move to higher order thinking. Angelova, Gunawardena, and Volk (2006) and enumerate questioning and cuing English production as the processes by which higher counterparts can help lower ones. In fact, this does not happen automatically and students cannot provide appropriate influential scaffolding. King (1998) elaborates on this and states that students with similar abilities can hardly support each other. Under such circumstances, students need a framework in order to provide appropriate scaffolding for their peers (Belland, 2014). The third mode is computer/paper-based scaffolding which attempts to use computers or papers in order to provide the appropriate scaffolding. This type of scaffolding comes to the ground when the topic is difficult to teach, the teacher cannot cope up with one-to-one scaffolding, or it is an inquiry-based teaching (Belland, 2014). Belland (2014) summarizes these three modes as the following: Most one-to-one scaffolding (a) provided feedback, (b) indicated important problem elements, (c) modelled expert processes, and (d) questioned. Most peer scaffolding (a) provided feedback and (b) questioned. Most computer-based scaffolding—both context specific and generic—(a) indicated important problem elements and (b) questioned. Not all scaffolding elements were used by each scaffolding modality. As the emerging trend is reinforcing critical thinking, the methods which promote this method of thinking is taken into consideration. To mention one, scaffolding can be enumerated which deals with how the learners can come up with complex skills through gradual contingent support. The previous didactic methods of teaching are outdated, nowadays. The new generation requires more scaffoldintervened instruction in order to develop the needed skills. As mentioned earlier, scaffold can be of three modes of one-to-one, peer, and computer-based or a combination of them (Puntambekar & Kolodner, 2005). In addition, Kheiri, Soleimani, Jafarigohar, and Rostami Abu Saeedi (2019) investigated the effect of web-integrated

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instruction on self-regulated learning ability in EFL writing, and compared and contrasted the effects of paper-based feedback and web-assisted feedback on the self-regulated learning ability. The results of the Mann-Whitney U Test indicated a significant difference between the self-regulatory ability in writing tasks of the webintegrated and non-web-integrated instruction groups. Affordance and Scaffolds Affordance and scaffolding are two important concepts which concentrate on the development of cognitive processes through the integration of environment and agency. For scaffolding, Mascolo (2005) considers four different types: Social scaffolding, ecological scaffolding, and self-scaffolding. Social scaffolding might be taken as what Vygotsky believes about scaffolding, that is highlighting interaction among people on the way to some processes to happen; ecological scaffolding or his “naturalistic scaffolding” denotes the time when natural features of the environment can produce acting; self-scaffolding underscores the humans' actions in producing new conditions for new forms of action and meaning. Coactive scaffolding deals with the time “when elements of the person–environment system beyond the direct control of an individual actor direct or channelize the construction of action in novel and unanticipated ways” (Mascolo, 2005, p. 187). The common point between scaffolding and affordance is the environment which can be related to its material and cultural factors. On the other hand, these two types of supporting attempt to create a connection between perception and action (Estany & Martinez, 2014). Affordances pursue the way environment contributes cognition to flourish. To put a demarcation line between affordance and scaffolding, it can be claimed that scaffolds denote provisional support for the individuals, while affordances are objective characteristics of the environment which are perceived differently by the agents as they interact with the environment (Estany & Martinez, 2014). Estany and Martinez (2014, pp. 8-9) believe that "Those variations form paths to achieving goals through actions that are always directed towards

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changing the environment in such a way as to originate resources that can be exploited in a great variety of manners". Lafford (2009) proposed the basic tenets of an ecological approach to language and language learning as follows: 1. “Language must be studied as a phenomenon situated in context”. 2. “an emic approach is used to contextualize the data.” 3. “Language is seen as a system of relations. Language learning occurs through socialization (negotiation of power and identity).” 4. “Learners acquire language by taking advantage of various affordance”. 5. “Language use is contingent on the communicative needs of the participants in particular speech situations.” 6. “Feedback given to learners and the evaluation of their linguistic abilities also need to be (a) flexible and adaptive to what learners produce.” 7. “Second language learning activities should reflect real-world tasks that learners will encounter outside the classroom 8. “An ecological perspective on education is value-laden.” Along with such ecological approach, Garrett (2009) also adopts a postmodernist view towards CALL efficacy putting an emphasis on the exploration of complex, interconnected CALL variables. Moreover, Chapelle (2009) offering a general theoretical overview towards CALL drew a comparison between various theoretical approaches with respect to their implications for the development of CALL. Chapelle’s considerable dedication to CALL was revealed in her novel redefining of communicative competence in terms of call that is to say “the ability to communicate using readily accessible L2 technology aids (such as online bilingual dictionaries and grammar checkers), the ability to make appropriate linguistic choices in face-to-face, remote, written, and oral modes, and the ability to choose appropriate technologies for communication and language learning (p. 751).

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He classifies the SLA-related theories into four categories of cognitive linguistic, psycholinguistic, general human learning, and approaches that explore language in a social setting. She criticizes the limiting approach of selecting a single theory to drive CALL and advocates for a more comprehensive and integrated approach in order to probe the CALL approach. She further calls direct attention to complexity theory as a holistic approach in order to illuminate the quality by which various compound elements function together simultaneously as language learners are involved with technologybased affordances within their language learning process. As a matter of fact, she also draws attention to the capacity of complexity theory to create a magnificent display of delicate complexities concerning the individual, social, and environmental elements involved in the SLA process. As a result, CALL evaluation approach needs to adopt an integrative set of frameworks in order to demonstrate the nuanced intricate complexities involved with the CALL setting. Since CALL has reshaped the ways language is practised in the EFL classrooms settings, EFL curriculum developers have shown interest in the application of computer-based materials in their syllabi. Today, there is a considerable amount of supplementary foreign language materials some of which have been supported by such other media, as computers, multimedia and the Internet. However, a number of issues need to be taken into consideration in the complex task of preparing electronic materials such as type of materials, technology, and modes of delivery. Presence of CALL experts specialised in evaluating CALL materials is necessitated in the CALL context in order to supply language teachers with detailed appropriate instruction. According to Reinders and White (2010), computer-based materials offer various sorts of affordances to EFL practitioners, including interactivity, ease of access and storage, authenticity, collaboration, instant feedback, control and empowerment, and facilitation of learning, whereas these affordances are not easily

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accessible in the traditional EFL/ESL context and some of them are specifically designed for CALL materials. Since electronic materials give both teachers and students a wide range of choices, flexibility is regarded as one of the influential merits of using electronic materials in the educational contexts. It is worth noting that computer-based materials may demonstrate more popularity and fruitfulness within EFL/ESL pedagogic settings due to their more accessibility compared to the materials used in face-to-face language teaching courses. As a matter of fact, technology cannot effect a change on its own, how practitioners implement CALL materials in their teaching practices seem to be of great centrality (Reinders & White, 2010). Therefore, EFL teachers as practitioners of CALL materials need to undergo special teacher training concerning efficient use of CALL materials. Tomlinson (2012) cautions against use of CALL material as the only panacea leading to success in language learning and recommends critical evaluation of CALL methods and materials as well as their appropriate use. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. Sociocultural theory of learning states that the ………….. are the fundamental bases by which human mental functioning is flourished. a) Historical events b) Cultural artifacts c) Technological affordances d) Socio-cognitive artifacts 2. According to Mascolo (2005), scaffolding contains social scaffolding, ecological scaffolding, and …………….. a) Self-scaffolding b) Technological affordance c) Zone of proximal distance d) Others scaffolding

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3. An ecological approach to computer assisted language learning follows an ……………… perspective. a) etic b) emic c) intersubjective d) dialogical 4. Considering the sociocultural theory, a computer in the classroom might be considered as ………………… a) A stimulus b) A tool c) An affordance d) The ZPD provider 5. According to Chapelle, a coherent theory of CALL includes ……………… categories a) cognitive b) psycholinguistic c) social d) all of the above

Chapter Six Constructivism and CALL: Revisited Introduction Constructivism as a philosophy, epistemology, and a theory of communication originated from the cognitive development of Piaget, as the father of constructivism, who believed that we get active learning, schemes, assimilation and accommodation, and the sociocultural theory of Vygotsky who stated that we get social constructivism, group work, and apprenticeship. The schools of constructivism are as follows: Cognitive constructivism, derived from the assimilationaccommodation and schema models of Piaget (1955), states that knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received by the environment. Radical constructivism, derived from Von Glaserfeld (1995) proposes that the learner’s constructions do not essentially reflect knowledge of a real world. Knowing is a process of dynamic adaptation toward viable interpretations of experiences. Social constructivism, a theory by Vygotsky (1978), accentuates that learning takes place through interactions with other students, teachers, and the world. Cultural constructivism, derived from Hutchinson (2006), as its name suggests brings customs, religion, language, and tools such as computers, books, etc. to learning context. Critical constructivism, derived from Fluery (2004), adds a dimension of critical evaluation and cultural reform to the educational process.

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The changes occurred in teaching and learning approaches have resulted in the emergence of constructivist view of learning. This chapter highlights the interconnectedness of CALL and constructivism with language learning and teaching. To do so, the constructivism and language pedagogy is stated. Besides, the relationship between CALL and constructivism is mentioned. Constructivism and Language Pedagogy The education and pedagogy have been under diverse changes in recent years being deeply-rooted in two comprehensive theoretical developments called behaviorist view and constructivist view. Behaviorism initiated in the 1960s in psychology and with the passage of time extended into the area of education. The implementation of behaviorism in educational system was in terms of this assumption that providing the correct stimuli can lead to student learning and also the measurement of learning through observations of student behaviors. Furthermore, it resulted in a series of strategies for schools such as management by objective, outcome-based education, and teacher performance evaluation systems. Behaviorism in schools claimed that the teachers were responsible for learning. Simply speaking, if learning was not happening, then the teachers would be in charge of restructuring the environment, determining the most appropriate reinforcement to promote the desired student behavior, or providing a negative reinforcement to extinguish unwanted ones. After years of implementation, behaviorism extinguished as a result of not being practical in the complex classroom setting. Constructivism, following the behaviorism, as a theory of knowing emerged in teaching-learning process. Constructivism has entered the pedagogy by emphasizing knowledge-centered and learner-centered approaches, rather than teacher-centered ones, that focus on cognitive and social processes in learning. Generally speaking, in constructivist-based instruction, students’ learning must take educational priority. The cognitive view of constructivism

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(cognitive constructivist theory) setting in the work of Piaget stresses the cognitive development and individual construction of knowledge, and the social view of construction (social constructivist theory) accentuates social construction of knowledge and is grounded in the work of Vygotsky. According to Piaget, learning is a developmental process that involves change, self-generation, and construction, each building on prior learning experiences. Vygotsky advanced the view that children’s thinking and meaningmaking is socially constructed and develops in their social interactions with their environment and learning is facilitated by the people around them. He, moreover, proposed the ZPD as the learners’ readiness to learn. It is the distance between the learners’ actual developmental level and the level of their potential development. Also, active engagement and scaffolding are central to the learning process. Teachers are learners in constructivist view. In this theory, teachers observe and identify students’ ZPD; design appropriate, authentic, and meaningful learning modules; and provide instructional support and scaffolding to shoot students to construction of higher levels of understanding. Notice the diverse definitions of constructivism by some scholars below: "The doctrine itself holds that 'language users must individually construct the meaning of words, phrases, sentences and texts.'" (Suchting, 1998, pp. 61-62; von Glasersfeld, 1989, p. 132) "Constructivists allege that it is we who constitute or construct, on the basis of our theorizing or experience, the allegedly unobservable items postulated in our theories." (Nola, 1998, p. 32) "The central principles of this approach are that learners can only make sense of new situations in terms of their existing understanding. Learning involves an active process in which learners construct meaning by linking new ideas with their existing knowledge." (Naylor & Keogh, 1999, p. 93) "Constructivists of different persuasion (hold a) commitment to the idea that the development of understanding requires active engagement on the part of the learner." (Jenkins, 2000, p. 601)

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What all these definitions have in common is that the learners’ active engagement in meaning-making is required in the development of understanding. Constructivism, in contrast with behaviorism, is based on this idea that "knowledge is not passively received but built up by the cognizing subject" (Von Glasersfeld, 1995, p. 18). Therefore, constructivism shifts the focus from knowledge as a product to knowing as a process (Jones & Brader-Araje, 2002). What makes the constructivism as an appealing theory to education is its perspective on the role of the individual, on the importance of meaning-making, and on the active role of the learner. Furthermore, Dalgarno (2001) states that the constructivist view of learning is defined by three broad principles. The first and the fundamental principle, ascribed to Kant (1998), is that each person forms his or her own representation of knowledge, building on their individual experiences, and consequently that there is no single correct representation of knowledge (Von Glaserfeld, 1984). The second one, ascribed to Piaget (1970), is that people learn through active exploration, and that learning occurs when the learner’s exploration uncovers an inconsistency between their current knowledge representation and their experience (McInerney & McInerney, 1994; Slavin, 1994). The third one, ascribed to Vygotsky (1978), is that learning occurs within a social context, and that interaction between learners and their peers is an essential part of the learning process. The interpretations of constructivism have been labelled by Moshman (1982) as endogenous constructivism that emphasizes the individual nature of each learner’s knowledge construction process, and suggests that the role of the teacher should be to act as a facilitator in providing experiences which are likely to result in challenges to learner’s existing models. Exogenous constructivism is the view that formal instruction, in conjunction with exercises requiring learners to be cognitively active, can help learners to form knowledge representations which they can later apply to realistic tasks. Dialectical constructivism is the view that learning occurs through

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realistic experiences, but that learners require scaffolding provided by teachers or experts as well as collaboration with peers. The Relationship between CALL and Constructivism Computer-assisted language learning falling under the interrelationship between language and technology refers to “the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning” (Levy, 1997, p.1). Its main objective is to “improve the learning capacity of those who are being taught a language through computerized means” (Cameron, 1999). There is a relationship between CALL and language learning theories such as Behaviorism which puts an emphasis on a stimulusresponse chain that is sustained by reinforcement and reward alternation and also on the verbal behavior of language acquisition through the process of habit formation resulting from repeated reinforcement-reward administration, Mentalism, as a reaction to the behaviorist theory, which emphasizes the impact of the speakers’ inborn knowledge of language (LAD) that allows them to acquire a language as a normal maturational process, and Constructivism in which the main emphasis is on the learner-centered instruction, meaning making occurs in the individual and results from his/her experience in the interaction. The use of CALL is suitable for a constructivist approach to English language teaching and learning because it lets the learners discover and interact with the language and develop their own learning environment. Furthermore, through the extensive development in the field of information and communication technology and also the implementation of CALL, the role of teacher as a facilitator in constructivism will be preserved. CALL makes use of a constructivist, technology-based approach. It brings students the motivation towards learning (Valerie & Zumbo, 2009). The extensive progress in the field of technology hinders from passive learning approaches and extensive use of teaching aids and brings a more learner-centered approach, combining computer and digital technologies.

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The extremely optimal media for the application of constructivism to learning and teaching has been supplied by the digital tools such as the computer, video, and wireless technologies, the communities of learners will be created in electronic learning environments, and the learning achievement will be enhanced (Beatty, 2003; Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000). “The new technologies have extended learning environments to nonlinear, multidimentional, and interactive and have greatly expanded the horizons of learners beyond their local communities into a global context” (Kaufman, 2004, p. 306). Firmly speaking, despite the high level of worldwide technology in education, technology without interaction is nothing in language learning. In other words, technology alone in the absence of human interaction cannot create a suitable environment for language learning. CALL facilitates the three forms of interaction – learner-content, learner-instructor and learner-learner (Moore, 1989). Most contemporary learners are accustomed to utilize various types of technologies in their routines. This generation has been described as the “net generation” (Zaid, 2011, p. 196), due to the essential role of the Internet in communication and provision of up-to-date information. The role of teachers in the digital age has shifted from being 'the sage on the stage' to being ‘the guide on the side’, moving from a behaviorist towards a constructivist approach. This means that not only do teachers need to stick at their role as a content expert (Palloff & Pratt, 2003) but also they should follow the state-of-the-art technology. The learner’s role is emphasized within a constructivist approach. Here, learners’ active role usually consists of working together and advocating each other while utilizing different tools and information resources to solve problems. Constructivism yields the foundation for education in which learners discover new integrated multimedia environments and are allowed to learn individually, part from others, as they participate in online learning communities. Alsofyani (2008), through using Jiajin’s (2003) model to apply computer associated language learning, designed a constructivist framework for computer assisted language learning as follows:

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Constructivist Theory of Learning Cognitive and Social Context, Collaboration, Conversation, Construction INTERACTIVITY CONSTRUCTIVIST CALL INPUT  Pronunciation  Vocabulary  Textual Function

 Micro-level Interaction  Help  Hypertext & Hypermedia  Navigation

LEARNER FACTORS  Attitudes and Motivation  Learning and Cognitive Styles

Figure 6.1. A constructivist framework for CALL software design (Alsofyani, 2008)

This model illustrates the exchanges and interactions that happen within groups of learners. The opportunity to exchange ideas is considered motivating. Such a learning environment can extend the ability to develop both learning and critical thinking. This way of thinking can expand the learning styles and knowledge of students. Teacher plays a considerable role. It is essential to provide more than information and knowledge (Jiajin, 2003). According to this model, CALL has been built on the foundation of constructivism. The structure of the model allows interaction between the learner and the learning community comprising of the students and teachers. They interact through cooperation in activities. This leads not only to the solution of the problem in question but also to the generation of new ideas. By doing so, the construction of knowledge is initiated (Jiajin, 2003). The students through interaction can form and individualize their own capacity for interpretation and understanding of meaning. In this way, learners’ activities contribute to the acquisition of knowledge, while the teacher shares the process of learning equally with the students. Three approaches to CALL that have been developed as a result of constructivism are endogenous constructivist approaches, exogenous constructivist approaches, and dialectical constructivist approaches.

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The importance of learner-directed discovery of knowledge is accentuated in endogenous constructivism. Hypertext, first coined by Nelson in the 1960s, hypermedia environments, simulations, and microworlds are constructivist CAL materials in this approach. Hypertext consists of chunks of textual information (nodes) with groups of words acting as automatic links to other chunks (McKnight, Dillon, & Richardson, 1991). Hypermedia implies that the nodes can be composed of a variety of media. It lets the browsing of content under complete learner control. The freedom to browse through the content is in line with the constructivist principle that learners should be provided with the opportunity to discover knowledge through their own active exploration. Hypertext, on the other hand, lets the learner make a choice from a range of relevant examples of the concept being illustrated. It, moreover, allows for a certain area of the content to be examined many times from different perspectives. A simulation is defined as a model of a real world environment, usually with facility for the user to interact with the environment (Thurman, 1993). A microworld is a model of a concept space, which may be a very simplified version of a real world environment, or it may be a completely abstract environment (Papert, 1993; Rieber, 1992). Both simulations and microworlds make active discovery within a virtual environment possible. The constructivists are familiar with both because simulations provide a realistic context in which learners can explore and experiment through. This allows the learner to construct their own mental model of the environment. Furthermore, the interactivity inherent in microworlds allows learners to see immediate results as they create models or try out their theories about the modelled concepts (Rieber, 1992). The exogenous view of constructivism underpins the value of direct instruction, not the teacher-centered instruction of behaviorism. According to this view, learners should have some control over the sequence and selection of content, have the opportunity to actively construct their own knowledge representations and articulate these representations at all stages. Moreover, after instruction they should

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have the opportunity to apply their knowledge to realistic tasks. Constructivist CAL materials that draw on the exogenous view include tutorials that incorporate learner control over instructional sequences, cognitive tools which help with knowledge construction and articulation during interaction, and practice modules which let the learner obtain feedback on their own construction of knowledge. In dialectal constructivism, the role of social interaction in the learner’s knowledge construction results in an emphasis on cooperative and collaborative learning strategies. The Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) is utilized to describe the tools to assist in this type of learning. Furthermore, the provision of support (scaffolding) for learners is emphasized. Conclusion The present chapter is a summary of the pedagogical theories and the emergence of constructivism and technology in language learning. The contribution of constructivism and application of new technologies to language teaching and learning is undeniable. Constructivism in education arose following the behaviorism containing the novel view of leaning which focused on active learner role within the teachinglearning process. Despite the development of technology and the emergence of constructivism, the very major issue in education is that teachers and learners be literate enough in using computer as a modern pedagogical tool and other software in combination with constructivism principles to properly facilitate learning. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. ……………….. constructivism proposes that the learner’s constructions do not essentially reflect knowledge of a real world. a) Cultural b) Radical c) Cognitive d) Social

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2. According to ……………….., learning is a developmental process that involves change, self-generation, and construction, each building on prior learning experiences. a) Vygotsky b) Lantolf c) Bruner d) Piaget 3. Applying constructivism to CALL might imply that it is ………….. constitute or construct the allegedly unobservable items postulated in our theories. a) Technology that b) We who c) Pedagogy that d) Computer that 4. There is a relationship between CALL and learning theories below except ………………… a) Behaviorism b) Mentalism c) Constructivism d) deconstructivism 5. New technologies in CALL have extended learning environments to ……………….., multidimensional, and interactive and have greatly expanded the horizons of learners beyond their local communities into a global context. a) Virtual b) Linear c) Nonlinear d) Competitive

Chapter Seven Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0 Introduction The present chapter aims to take a flashlight on the application of WWW as a communication channel. The programmatic interfaces made available are referred to as web services. Today, the Internet has greatly influenced people's life. The paper provides definitions needed for web 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 in detail. The web of documents has morphed into a web of data. The Internet growth is embraced through semantic wave in three stages. The first stage, web 1.0, refers to connecting information and getting on the net. Web 2.0 refers to connecting people putting the "I" in user interface, and the "We" into a web of social participation. The later stage, web 3.0, is getting to start now. This stage is to represent meanings, connecting knowledge, and putting them to work in ways that make our experience of the Internet more relevant, useful, and enjoyable. In today's world of extreme competition on the commercial market, information exchange and efficient communication can be viewed as the need of the day. Accessing information also has changed, and more people are relying on the Web as a primary source of information. This information can be obtained from different places such as websites, blogs, online publications, social networks, databases and much more. The web is an increasingly important resource in many aspects of life: education, employment, government, commerce, healthcare, recreation, and etc. The web stands for a

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system of interlinked, hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, a user observes web pages involving texts, images, videos, and other multimedia and traces them using hyperlinks. The term Web service (WS) is defined as a service offered by an electronic device to another electronic device, communicating with each other via the World Wide Web. In practice, a Web service commonly provides an object-oriented Web-based interface to a database server, utilized for example by another Web server, or by a mobile app, that provides a user interface to the end-user. Many organizations that provide data in formatted HTML pages will also provide that data on their server as XML or JSON, often through a Web service to allow syndication. Web services sound not new and usually take the form of an Application Programming Interface (API). Sir Tim Berners-Lee designed the web in 1989, he worked at CERN (The European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Geneva, Switzerland. Since then, his influential role in guiding the development of web standards could not be ignored (such as the markup languages in which web pages are composed). In recent years, he has advocated his vision to a Semantic web. Web 1.0 was dated from when people thought Netscape was the contender for the computer industry crown. Web 2.0 appeared when people concluded that "it's not the software enabling the web that matters as much as the delivered services over the web. Over time, novel technologies will make online search more intelligent and may even lead to a web 3.0. A vision of the web was created by the emersion of web2.0 in which information was broken up into “micro-content” units that can be distributed over dozens of domains. The web of documents has morphed into a web of data. Web 1.0 Web 1.0 is a term utilized to refer to the first stage of development on the World Wide Web characterized by simple static websites. The term Web 1.0 did not appear until the term Web 2.0 was coined in 1999 by Darci DiNucci. During that time, the web was

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undergoing a major transformation. In web 1.0, a small number of writers created web pages for a large number of readers. As a result, people could get information by going directly to the source. The WWW or Web 1.0 is a system of interlinked, hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. According to Berners-Lee, the first implementation of the web representing the web 1.0 could be considered the "read-only web." In other words, the early web allowed us to search for information and read it. There was very little in the way of user interaction or content contribution. However, this is exactly in line with what most website owners intended: they were looking for a website to establish an online presence and make their information available to anyone at any time. Web 2.0 Web 2.0 is the term applied to describe a variety of websites and applications allowing anyone to create and share online information or materials they have created. A key element of the technology is that it allows people to create, share, collaborate and communicate. At the present, we face the Web 2.0 immature, or the "read-write" web if we follow Berners-Lee's method of describing it. We have recently experienced an ability in contributing content and interacting with other web users which dramatically shifted the landscape of the web in a short time. Referring to the version numbers that usually determine software upgrades, the term Web 2.0 refers to a better version of WWW technologies such as blogs, social bookmarks, wikis, podcasts, RSS feeds (and many other forms of publishing), social software, web APIs and online web services such as eBay and Gmail. Tim O'Reilly made Web 2.0 popular as a phrase when he wrote a relatively coherent definition. Web 2.0 is certainly the next big thing in the WWW. It utilizes the latest technologies and concepts to make the user experience interactive, useful and interconnected. It has provided another way to connect to the world by gathering information and sharing it emotionally. There is definitely a bright future with lots of

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Web 2.0 based websites coming up. It is a revolution in the field of computers, and it is definitely going to be a lot more successful. Based on some sources, the term Web 2.0 has been around since about 2004. Ultimately, web 2.0 services are expected to replace desktop computing applications for many purposes. Definition and Features Ian Davis takes an effective standpoint in order to differentiate between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 stating that: "Web 1.0 took people to information, Web 2.0 will take information to the people". Web 2.0 as coined by O’Reilly (2005) holds that: “Web 2.0 is the business revolution in the computer industry caused by the move to the Internet as platform, and an attempt to understand the rules for success on that new platform” (p. 2). Coombs (2007) similarly explains that Web 2.0 is "a space that allows anyone to create and share information online – a space for collaboration, conversation, and interaction; a space that is highly dynamic, flexible, and adaptable." Hoegg, Martignoni, Meckel, and Stanoevska-Slabeva (2006) regard collective intelligence as the premise behind Web 2.0 and describe it as follows: "philosophy of mutually maximizing collective intelligence and added value for each participant by formalized and dynamic information sharing and creation” (Hoegg et al., 2006, p. 13). That is why, collaborative sites were published such as Facebook, Bebo, MySpace, and Friendster. The influence of this new generation can be felt in many academic and professional domains. Birdsall (2007) calls Web 2.0 a “social movement” which attempts to gather diverse individuals together. Web 2.0 as a revolution changed the way Websites or the information interaction were prospected. It has made a personal environment in which the learners can not only read but also write the web. Web 2.0 concept and characteristics are rooted in the issue of usability. Web 2.0 and Language Learning Rüschoff (2009) resorts to a deeper definition of language learning which gives prominence to the linguistic and cultural features of

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language and communication in the target language, information processing, and knowledge construction (high agency), active, creative, and socially interactive process, and knowledge construction. However, in a nutshell, he attempts to elaborate on a model of language learning which is more fitted in Web 2.0 context. In this model (Figure 7.1), agency is given the highest priority in order to characterize learners not only as the receivers of vocabulary and grammar, but also as the active and competent agents in target language use. Agency is composed of functional awareness, linguistic awareness, language awareness, intercultural awareness, and learning awareness. Functional awareness is to do with communicative functions; linguistic awareness deals with structural knowledge and the equivalence between function and form (Halliday); language awareness concerns with the way target language is organized in to the learners' mental and communicative system; intercultural awareness relates to the diverse cultures which people need to be aware of; learning awareness is to do with the learning skills and strategies which learners need to be familiar with in order to guide their language learning process. Rüschoff (2009) declares that this model of language learning is not adaptable to the traditional instructivist paradigm but to the constructivist paradigm. The constructivist paradigm adopts contradictory view for the learner and the learning process. It places learners at the centre of attention and cares about their autonomy (Wolff, 1994). Learning is also seen as the integration of previous and new knowledge (Bruner, 1990). Furthermore, learning is a social activity which occurs when learners work together and cooperate. Learning can be regarded as a process of meaning-making to make sense of the world around us. Participatory knowledge construction, in this approach, paves the way for more collective intelligence Web. The effect of new technologies and the Internet is ambiguous due to their invisible circulation in the human life. Although Web 1.0 denotes an "information-oriented web" platform which is composed by some individuals for a wide variety of users, Web 2.0 stays far from such stable environments and elaborates on an interactive

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social community. On this standpoint, Web 2.0 denotes a collective intelligence platform which can be observed in the large examples of webpages on the Internet. The social web can promote collaboration among language learners in order to better enable teachers and students to interact and make a community of knowledge. On the other hand, since Web 2.0 makes a modern, collaborative, nonregulated, non-filtered, and non-reviewed stance for the learners on the way to their meaning-making process, teachers have to become well-equipped with new skills. Along the same lines, learners also have to make large amount of information about their own opinions and knowledge (Mika, 2007). This type of new data which is critically developed is like Web 1.0 (Scardamalia, 2002) with diverse intricate supports and tools. Rubinstein (2007) puts a step forward (goes even further than that) and states that social Web can elaborate on unseen ways to solve the problems. To put it simply, "wisdom of crowds" can provide more impressive and efficient ways to solve problems. There are many social web applications and services which are helpful in language learning. Rüschoff (2009, pp. 15-18) enumerated some of the Web 2.0 applications and services in foreign language education: a) "Self-expression: sharing self-made images, ‘everyday’ wisdom, personal experiences and moods through texts and images" such as MSN Live Spaces, You Tube, and Yahoo. b) "Making friends: introducing oneself through answers to a common questionnaire and a self-built collection of photos, video clips, a blog and a contact list" such as Yahoo! 360, Facebook, Hi5, and Friendfeed. c) "Making professional contacts: these sites specialise in connecting people of the same profession in order to facilitate networking, on both a formal and a personal level" such as LeMill, LinkedIn, and Plaxo Pulse. d) "Communication and collaboration: these services offer network building functions and may be used to create learning groups as

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well" such as Second Life, Google Documents, Tokbox, and Livejournal. e) "Sharing expertise, giving advice: offering subject-specific knowledge, giving recommendations, evaluating services, things and places" such as Wikipedia, Realtravel.com, SlideShare, Del.icio.us, and Digg. f) "Edited information services with social contribution: these pages not only offer topic-related, edited and frequently updated information, but also allow RSS feeds, a format for syndicating news and the content of news-like sites" such as Upcoming.org, CiteULike, and Housingmaps.

Figure 7. 1. House of language learning in a Web 2.0 context by Rüschoff (2009).

There are number of different types of web 2.0 applications including wikis, blogs, social networking, folksonomies, podcasting and content hosting services. Many of the most popular websites are Web 2.0 sites such as Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, Myspace, and Flickr. Other Web 2.0 Technologies include:

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Agami Creative: Oversized navigation makes it easy to move around the site, it has an interesting combination of type/fonts. Adit Shukla: Simple layout with a well-developed header illustration, which also houses the navigation, Creative solutions to common elements, such as the sidebar and the header. Pinch Zoom: Embraces the web’s current technology without becoming cumbersome. Viget: Watercolor theme is extremely contemporary, and though it’s image-heavy, it’s been engineered to load lean and mean. Scribd: Users can upload any documents on the website where other users can either download or view those documents online Flickr: A photo sharing website which allows users to upload their photographs and share it with anyone and everyone. Orkut: Social networking site which allows the users to send messages and communicate with other members. Web 3.0 Web 3.0 is the third generation of internet services for websites and applications that will focus on using a machine-based understanding of data to provide a data-driven and semantic web. The ultimate goal of Web 3.0 is to create more intelligent, connected and open websites. Web 3.0 is a term emerged to describe the evolution of Web usage and interaction that includes transforming the Web into a database. Web 3.0 is an era in which we will upgrade the back-end of the Web, after a decade of focus on the front-end (Web 2.0 has mainly been about AJAX, tagging, and other front-end user-experience innovations.) This in turn drives us to the buzz and generosity we hear about Web 3.0, which seems to guarantee that the alias of the web version is vague to stay here. By expanding the Berners Lee team's description, Web 3.0 can be something like a "read-write-execute" web. Web 3.0 is defined as the creation of high-quality content and services produced by gifted individuals using web 2.0 technologies as an enabling platform. Web 3.0 is a term that is used to describe various evolutions of Web usage and interaction along with several paths. These include

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transforming the Web into a database, a move towards making content accessible by multiple non-browser applications, the leveraging of artificial intelligence technologies, the Semantic web, the Geospatial Web, or the 3D web. Gartner suggests the need to differentiate incremental changes to Web 2.0 from Web 3.0. Tim Berners-Lee coined Giant Global Graph (GGG) as another facet of Web 3.0. When Web 3.0 becomes evident, the concept of website or webpage will be ignored, where data is not owned but instead shared, where services show different views for the same web/the same data. Those services can be applications (like browsers, virtual worlds or anything else), devices or other, and have to be focused on context and personalization, and both will be reached by using vertical search. It can be surmised that the Google/Sun Microsystems alliance for the creation of a web-based operating system for applications such as word processing and spreadsheet is an early indication of this trend. As mentioned above, we introduced well-defined web 1.0, web 2.0 and web 3.0. Similarly, one needs to know whether there are differences among them. We briefly refer to some here as follows (Table 7.1): Table 7.1. Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0 Web 1.0

Web 2.0

Web 3.0

Mostly Read-Only

Wildly Read-Write

Portable and Personal

Company Focus

Community Focus

Individual Focus

Home Pages

Blogs / Wikis

Live-streams / Waves

Owning Content

Sharing Content

Consolidating Content

Web Forms

Web Applications

Smart Applications

Directories

Tagging

User Behavior

Page Views

Britannica Online

Cost Per Click Interactive Advertising Wikipedia

User Engagement Behavioral Advertising The Semantic Web

HTML/Portals

XML / RSS

RDF / RDFS / OWL

Banner Advertising

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Studies on Web Technologies Many studies have examined the effect of particular multimedia tools in producing language outcomes among students. O’Bryan and Hegelheimer (2007), for instance, studied how podcasting could be regarded as an innovative way of teaching language in the classroom. Not only was the podcast viewed as an easy method by the instructor, the students also viewed podcasting as a positive tool by the students, despite the technical difficulties experienced. Grgurović and Hegelheimer (2007) implemented a multimedia listening activity using video in order to help students with language comprehension using target language subtitles compared with video with transcripts. The use of captions and subtitles in the video lecture were found to stimulate the participation of students who interacted more frequently with subtitles as help rather than with transcripts. Brett (1995) developed multimedia language learning software in order to help students communicate in English within the context of business situations. It was found that multimedia use resulted in better listening skills among students in terms of listening for the gist and guessing the meaning from context. Using a quasi-experimental research design, Verdugo and Belmonte (2007) explored the effectiveness of digital stories by applying this intervention into the experimental group. The results showed that the experimental group scored significantly higher in listening comprehension than the control group who did not received multimedia lessons. In Turkey, a quasi-experimental study was conducted by Isik and Yilmaz (2011) to evaluate the effectiveness of computer-assisted listening instruction on listening comprehension of 21 students. The findings indicated that the experimental group which received multimedia-aided instruction outperformed their counterparts in the control group which received traditional language instruction. Yet in another study, Sandaran and Lim (2013) attempted to investigate the effects of digital stories on listening comprehension skills with 9-year old third grade students in a Malaysian primary

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school which used instruction in Chinese. The participants listened and watched eight fairy tales designed as digital stories. The findings obtained from observations revealed that the students’ interest, concentration and motivation increased substantially, and their listening comprehension skills developed during the listening activities. As one of the most recent studies in the field of multimedia, Ciğerci and Gultekin (2017) tried to determine the effect of digital stories on the Turkish listening skills of fourth grade students in a primary school. Turkish lessons were conducted using digital stories and activities were designed according to the digital stories during the 8-week application process. The researcher observed the process while the lesson plans were put into action by the classroom teacher. Research data were obtained also from a listening comprehension test, and teacher and student interviews. The findings showed a significant difference between the listening comprehension post-test scores for the experimental and control groups. The qualitative data from student and teacher interviews, and from classroom observations, demonstrated that digital stories, listening activities based on the stories, and the creation of a more engaging and motivating classroom environment had positive effects on listening comprehension skills in the experimental group. Conclusion The web provides people with opportunities in such a way that without this facility it would be impossible to take advantage of such opportunities via any other medium. Freedom and independence are offered by web. The point, however, is that if a website is not designed considering its accessibility, a group of the society might be deprived from benefiting from it. In fact, majority of people do not follow such a goal, excluding those with disabilities. This issue has made organizations and designers to be cognizant of providing accessibility of their content for most of the population. The Semantic Web (Web 3.0) is anticipated to put the

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world’s information in order more neatly and logically that what Google is able to do presently. This point is particularly true in association with machine comprehension versus human comprehension. In order for semantic web to get through, it requires the application of a declarative ontological language like OWL to create domain-specific ontologies that enable machines to deal with information and come up with new conclusions, not just match keywords. The impacts of Web 2.0 are extensive. Just as every paradigm shift, it influences the users who use it from a wide range of political, social, and cultural backgrounds. Among the most affected people are those who design and develop such an area; not just because they experience changing their technical skills, but because they are required to deal with content as a segment of a unified whole, as a system. Initially, knowledge from all types emerge in a fashion that is possible to be interpreted by users and machines. Second, different forms of language of expressing the knowledge start getting interconnected and interchangeable with each other. Finally, the moment knowledge is encoded semantically, it becomes clear and accessible to an array of reasoning engines. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. ……………….. is to represent meanings, connecting knowledge, and putting them to work in ways that make our experience of internet more relevant, useful, and enjoyable. a) Web 1.0 b) Web 2.0 c) Web 3.0 d) Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 2. Web 1.0 could be considered as ………………… a) Read-only b) Read-and-write c) Write-only d) Create-and-discover

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3. Services such as MSN Live Spaces, You Tube, and Yahoo are considered as …………………… web services. a) Sharing experience b) Edited information c) Making friends c) Communication and collaboration 4. As far as Web 2.0 is concerned, “agency” involves functional awareness, linguistic awareness, language awareness, intercultural awareness, and ………………. awareness. a) Learning b) Noticing c) Interaction d) Dialogical 5. Web 3.0 will focus on using a machine-based understanding of data to provide a ……………… and …………... web. a) Semantic/data-driven b) Data-driven/pragmatic c) Authoring/sharing d) Data-driven/conceptually-driven

Chapter Eight Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality in CALL Introduction In the preceding chapter, we explained web technologies in general and Web 1.0, Web 2.0, and Web 3.0 in particular. In the present chapter our purpose is to introduce two recently developed but rarely applied technologies in the context of CALL especially in Iranian EFL curriculum. To this end, augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) will be explained in details and then the applications of the new CALL technologies will be explained in English language teaching. In addition, studies done on AR and VR will be explained to see how this Web 2.0 based technology might play a role in EFL/ESL. The marriage between technology and teaching in educational milieus in recent years has been a major concern among educational researchers in general and applied linguists in particular as far as AR and VR are concerned. Augmented reality after virtual reality received much attention over the last decades in mobile assisted language learning context. AR mixes virtual world onto real environment, VR delves the participants into the virtual world. Furthermore, CALL technologies, and more specifically mobile-based ones in this domain, might be a favourable platform to achieve the purpose of teaching writing proficiency. Augmented Reality as a more recent CALL technology and the basic connector of the twenty-first century (Kroeker, 2010) is believed

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to have a rich capacity in augmenting learning and teaching (e.g., Billinghurst & Duenser, 2012). Contrary to VR, which involves the participants in the virtual environment (Bower, Howe, McCredie, Robinson & Grover, 2014), AR can sharpen the primary senses of individuals to see a more productive teaching environment. AR appears to have a rich potential to enhance the learners' motivation (Billinghurst & Duenser, 2012; Tarng & Ou, 2012), achievement (Tarng & Ou, 2012), and learning attitudes and perception (Jerry & Aaron, 2010). Furthermore, some studies (Wang, 2017a; Wang, 2017b) have investigated improving second language proficiency using AR as an assistance technology. Augmented Reality AR technology as one of the fruits of recent technologies has attracted the attention of many individuals. The basic reason behind this refers back to the ubiquity of this modern tool (Johnson, Smith, Levine, & Haywood, 2010). In fact, AR revolves around the integration of real and virtual objects in real time and space. This type of integration creates a new possibility for the learners in order to be exposed to real- time fruitful and functional facilities (Billinghurst, Kato, & Poupyrev, 2001). Realization of reality with an outer virtual cover can be denoted as the integral feature of AR. This virtual cover can be one or a combination of different media such as text, picture, voice, clip, and set forth. Having these in mind, many researchers believe that AR has the possibility to make a meaningful and rich environment to fortify teaching and learning experiences (Billinghurst & Duenser, 2012; Johnson et al., 2012). In their reality–virtuality continuum, Milgram, Takemura, Utsumi, and Kishino (1994) know AR as one of the demonstrations of mixed reality which considers different combinations for real and virtual content (Figure 8.1).

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Figure 8.1. Physical-virtual environment continuum (cited in Bower, Cram, & Groom, 2010).

In other words, mixed reality is composed of AR and augmented virtuality. AR accepts the superimposition of virtual data on the real content, while augmented virtuality respects this imposition through the real environment on the virtual content (Milgram et al., 1994). As education through both real and virtual environments can be more productive and attractive for the learners, AR turned into a generating platform for the educational parties to work on. Notwithstanding the fact that AR is realized through an installed application, it also needs some outer hardware (Billinghurst et al., 2001): A video camera, appropriate space to analyse the virtual data, a processor to integrate the two digital and real content, and an interface between the two real and virtual content. The added requirements for AR are enumerated as the following: GPS Technology to recognize the real location of the learners, Image Recognition Software to detect the real images as triggers and scaffoldings of virtual content, Speakers and Sound Systems to allow the linked sounds to play, Internet Access to act as the integral platform through which these possibilities can come to the ground, and Intuitive Interfaces such as touch screen, gyroscope, and haptic input to make interaction between the individuals and objects possible (Johnson et al., 2010). Billinghurst et al. (2001) believe that although these facilities are applicable to other services as well, the mere synthesis of real and virtual environments in real time and in a context-relevant environment is the distinguishing feature of AR. Spotting these distinctive characteristics, AR can be claimed as the principal user interface of the twenty-first century (Kroeker, 2010)

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The application of AR in different disciplines can be observed in medicine, tourism, manufacturing, robotics, aeronautics, entertainment, and education. As AR attempts to superimpose extra information over the ordinary real data, it has the potentiality to relieve the cognitive load of difficult tasks in different disciplines (Bower et al., 2014). To enumerate the disciplines which have used AR, the following can be mentioned: driver training, parts of complex surgery, and changing a filter on a space station (Cristancho, Moussa, & Dubrowski, 2011; Regenbrecht, Baratoff, &Wilke, 2005; as cited in Bower et al., 2014). More elaborately, it can be said that modern advanced smart phones have made mobile AR systems accessible to ordinary individuals (Johnson et al., 2010). Bower et al. (2014) name a few of the AR software, namely, Wikitude (superimposing a text layer on camera), Plane Finder AR (over imposing the distinctive information of any plane on the plane observed), Worksnug (superimposing the information of the Wifi found on the mobile camera), SekaiCamera (allowing the individuals to have “airnotes” on the locations they find and put them disposable to other people), and StreetTag (superimposing a graffiti layer on the world in order to let the individuals to have their street art). They note a few of the educational software in AR as well. LearnAR as one of these software is a box composed of 10 marker-based AR learning experiences which includes different disciplines of biology, physics, languages, English, mathematics, and religion. Another example is Fetch lunch rush which attempts to reinforce basic mathematics skills of the individuals. Zooburst, on the other hand, takes the individuals' photos, texts, and audio and gives them as 3D digital stories output. In the field of language learning, Wordlens can be mentioned as a supporting instrument (Bower et al., 2014). Wordlens is a software which overlays language translations on the documents. This software translator is denoted as another example of language learning software in AR. It enables the learners to have the translation and pronunciation of more than 30 languages at hand. This makes the software a very

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useful language learning scaffoldings for the learners. Taking these points into consideration, we come to the conclusion that AR can become more advantageous for the learners if the designation, building, and management of these experiences be on the side of the learners and teachers (Bower et al., 2014). Aurasma, Layar, Junaio, and BuildAR can be noted as the examples of this type of software in AR. Augmented Reality in Language Learning Many studies have recently been conducted to examine the effect of AR on learning different language skills and components. AR enhances the students' motivation (Billinghurst & Duenser, 2012; Johnson et al., 2010; Tarng & Ou, 2012) and learning achievement (Jerry & Aaron, 2010; Tarng & Ou, 2012) of the individuals. It also fortifies the learners' positive attitudes towards learning and its relatedness to the real life experiences (Jerry & Aaron, 2010). In addition to the very many advantages of AR, rescaling or manipulation of objects in real time in the interaction of virtual and real objects is considered as one of its essential features (Johnson et al., 2010). The systematic work of AR is built around two main components of trigger and overlay. To put it simply, the trigger in real world behaves as a scaffolding instrument upon which the virtual overlay is settled. This type of design helps the learners to conduct their tasks, practise, underscore important information, introduce beneficial educational tools, and demonstrate their tasks (Regenbrecht et al., 2005). Some researchers have mentioned some practical advantages of AR in the field of education. For instance, it can provide the learners with useful advanced instruments otherwise could be so costly. On the other hand, Regenbrecht et al. (2005) believe that concentration is another beneficial point in using AR. However, this comes to the ground when we consider this type of mixed reality through another perspective. That is, triggers and overlaying multimedia information can put a lot of burden on the learners, while no such behavior is observed. This is traced back to a critical feature of AR, meaning

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providing completely situated scaffoldings by which the learners can anchor their real-world observed content (Bower et al., 2014). In broader terms, Johnson et al. (2010) and Shelton (2002) endeavour to put AR in wider standpoints or pedagogical approaches. They declare that AR is a demonstration of modern era which is laid in the domain of constructivist learning, situated learning, games-based learning, and enquiry-based learning. For constructivist learning, it is confessed that since AR is anchored on deep learning and engagement and constructivism is also based upon the integration of new with older knowledge, it can be deduced that AR is placed in this type of learning (Kerawalla, Luckin, Seljeflot, & Woolard, 2006). For situated learning as the name implies authentic or contextualized learning comes into focus. As AR denotes educational scaffoldings in real world, it can support learners in their tasks. For game-based learning, it is stated that since AR has the capacity to provide contextualized learning, assign different roles to learners, make digital narratives accessible to learners, and store authentic information, the principles of game-based learning are denoted (Squire & Jan, 2007). On the other hand, using AR donates real life into the educational platform and in effect can make the transference of skills to the learners' real life more convenient. For enquiry-based learning, it is pertinent to the virtual information which AR provides to the learners in order to let the learners analyse them afterwards (Johnson et al., 2010). It is claimed that since AR has created so many educational opportunities for the individuals, the educational platform needs to be conformed with (Kaufmann & Schmalstieg, 2003). However, no one pedagogical framework is suitable for AR and a combination is required (Tarng & Ou, 2012). Nevertheless, working in the most appropriate educational platform in using AR cannot guarantee the highest achievement for the learners. As a matter fact, this is traced back to the logistics of the classroom use and the affordance of AR (Kerawalla et al., 2006), since AR needs technical knowledge in order to work on schedule (Billinghurst & Duenser, 2012; Rakes & Rakes,

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2004). This might be a crucial reason why AR is not yet widely used in the educational domain (Johnson et al., 2012). To make the most use of AR, teachers need to have a deeper belief in its usefulness and find congruous teaching and learning strategies with it. On the other hand, teachers should consider a conceptual implementation framework in applying AR in order to have a richer and more fruitful teaching (Ertmer, Ottenbreit-Leftwich, Sadik, Sendurur, & Sendurur, 2012). To mention some of the educational mobile applications which have used AR in their technologies, Learn AR, Fetch Lunch Rush, and Zooburst can be mentioned (Wang, 2017a). Bacca, Baldiris, Fabregat, and Graf (2015) and Cifuentes, Garcia, Andrés-Sebastia, Camba, and Contero (2016) followed the way AR can fortify the learning skills of the learners. Mobile AR was also an intriguing instrument by which learners could enhance their skills in different disciplines and in effect, increase their retention (Bacca et al., 2015). In the field of language learning, however, few studies have been conducted. Ting (2015) intended to observe the influence of AR in improving the Chinese writing skill of elementary school students. To this end, the picture-based techniques and AR- based techniques of teaching writing were compared. It was found that AR cannot bring about significant differences regarding the skill and content of writing. Wang (2017a), in a more elaborate study, attempted to observe the effect of AR-based learning material with paper-based supports and only paper-based writing support on Chinese writing skill of 30 twelfth-grade students. It was concluded that intermediate participants could become dominant over some areas such as content control, article structure, and wording in their writing. On the other hand, using AR had the advantage of faster beginning their writing and richer outlining for low-achievers. In a similar investigation, Wang (2017b) worked on 103 college students in order to compare onlinebased and AR-based groups in a software editing course. The AR group revealed higher motivation, engagement, involvement, and peer

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interaction on the part of the participants. Nevertheless, he mentioned some limitations, as well, namely, insufficient experience to work with AR, internet deficiencies, mobile requirements and its small size of the screen, and cognitive load of the AR information. Soleimani, Jalilifar, Roohi, and Rahmanian (2019) examined the effect of augmented reality and virtual reality scaffoldings on improving the abstract genre structure in a collaborative learning environment. To this end, 12 intermediate proficiency pairs (high and low proficiency) participated based on their scores on TOEFL and a hypothetical abstract writing task. The participants were required to write an abstract according to the sub-moves of Hyland's (2000) move analysis provided through three mobile applications including AR-, VR HeadSet virtual reality-, and paper-based scaffoldings for four weeks in a collaborative context. In evaluating the groups' abstract writing scores before and after the treatment, no significant differences were found among the three groups. However, the AR group revealed better mean average results (M = 33) compared to the other VR (M = 24) and paper-based groups (M = 29). Besides, the low intermediate proficiency subjects in the AR group received higher scores (M = 40) compared to heir higher counterpart (M = 37). Results imply that the integration of real and unreal worlds might be a good asset in teaching the genre of abstracts to EFL learners in general and low intermediate proficiency learners in particular. Virtual Reality Virtual world as the world beyond nature immerses the learners in another world in order to revolutionize their previously-accepted concepts of participation, interaction, and exploration on the purpose of meaning construction (Dreher, Reiners, Dreher, & Dreher, 2009). Creating three-dimensional environments with fun which can enhance the learners' motivation and attention might be considered as the fundamentals of VR. The influence of VR on the learning environments was very crucial for different researchers in different

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disciplines (Inman, Wright, & Hartman, 2010). The crucial features of the technological advances of VR are immersion, interaction, and involvement of the learners in the target context (Pinho, Bawman, & Freitas, 2009). These features, especially the immersion factor makes the ultra-world so real that the learners can hardly bypass the intended learning content superficially (Wang & Braman, 2009). This, in fact, denotes enquiry learning in which learners need to work diligently to discover the unknown content. Immersion is systematized into two types of mental and physical immersions (Sherman & Craig, 2003). For the physical immersion, the individual needs to realize the visual, auditory, and haptic symbols in order to guide and control the existent objects. For the mental immersion, the widely-accepted definition of immersion comes to the mind, that is, to be engaged in the environment. Spotting the development of modern tools in information technology, VR environment is turned into an important and fruitful field of learning and teaching. Virtual Reality in Language Learning Ivan Sutherland devised a new platform through visualization and head-mounted devices that is VR (Sutherland, 1968). In the new environment, computer graphics is of paramount importance in producing new simulation. Due to the potentiality of VR, it has created rich and meaningful learning opportunities for the learners (Peterson, 2006). The wearable eyeglasses of VR with its concerned facilities brought about a promising field that many educational parties have invested on. Concerned with the influence of virtual worlds on student learning, researchers have conducted some studies in this domain. The development of an authentic context might be an integral feature of virtual learning environments (VLEs) which, accordingly, can enhance the learners' achievement and bring about an enhanced significance for them. In the field of language education, virtual worlds are so profitable and off use for the learners (Peterson, 2006).

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Chen (2016) holds that this extraordinary world can provide the context to interact in another language and have collaboration with each other. The virtual trips or role playing can be considered as the examples of using VR in this field. In a nutshell, the involvement of learners in the target task and the negotiation of meaning they produce can be enumerated as the main reasons why VR is beneficial in language learning (Chen, 2016). It is known that virtual simulations are more influential compared to the very realistic environment of the classroom. In fact, the very visualization of the situations and concepts in the concerned field is the distinctive feature of VR which makes it separated from other technologies. In their study, Thorsteinsson and Page (2008) found that utilizing SmartVR can provide learners with cognitive conflicts and disequilibrium in an online course in order to make them suspicious about their previous findings and let them examine other points of view. Duncan, Miller, and Jiang (2012) in a comprehensive study intended to observe the activities and learning philosophies used in the VR of the classroom. These are included as the following: problembased learning, enquiry-based learning; game-based learning, role playing; virtual quests, collaborative simulations (learn by simulation), collaborative construction (building activities), design courses (game, fashion, architectural), language teaching and learning, virtual laboratories, virtual fieldworks, and attending lectures or classes. Morrison (2017), however, points to an important factor in these philosophies. He states that the language teaching and learning item is basically different from the others since it cannot be considered as an activity or philosophy. Lightbown and Spada (2013), on the other hand, attempt to put the language teaching and learning item at the centre in a case that the other items fortify it. In a nutshell, the real-life immersion of VR presents a very different platform of L2 environment which intends to simulate a real life learning situation for the learners. While preparing such a platform for the language learners might be a difficult task, recent

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developments in technology have made it possible. As a matter of fact, the immersive VR environment can mostly come into existence through head-mounted eyeglasses display which provide an immersive and interactive context. This intriguing filed has attracted the attention of some researchers in this filed. For instance, Jeong et al. (2010) conducted an experiment in order to find out the influence of simulated action videos on L2 learning. The online computer-based virtual environments were also the other platforms which some other researchers (e.g., Berns, Gonzalez-Pardo, & Camacho, 2013; Chen, 2016; Ibanez et al., 2011; Wang, Petrina, & Feng, 2017) worked on. Berns et al. (2013), in a study, examined 85 Spanish speakers who previously learned German for 8 months. The platforms used were VirtUAM and OpenSim which needed the computer mouse, keyboard, avatar-based movement, and text-chat. They understood that the learners' L2 writing, reading, and listening skills could be developed and that working with game-like applications has the advantage of enhanced motivation, engagement, and L2 achievement. In a similar vein, Chen (2016) traced the development of nine participants aged between 21 and 55 who learned English as a foreign language. He resorted to flexible chat modes, build option, engaging platform, and multicultural part in the 3D platform of Second Life. He concluded that the virtual environment could enhance collaboration and L2 communication skills on the part of the participants. In their major study, Ibanez et al. (2011) considered 12 nonnative Spanish learners and six foreign language teachers in the platform of Open Wonderland. They argued that the virtual environment could provide an engaging L2 platform. To put it simply, natural chatting occurred through chatbots which contributed to effective communication skills. Jeong et al. (2010) experimentally demonstrated how the two text-based and situation-based items can be remembered more flexibly. To this end, they used desktop videos and revealed the dependency of the text-based item accuracy on the testing context and more remembrance for situation-based items. In attempt

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to make a comparison between picture-word and virtual world context, Lan et al. (2014) carried out an experiment upon 36 native English speakers in Second Life 3D platform and found out that the virtual environment could yield better and faster L2 learning with less exposure, compared to the picture-word group. To determine whether the listening comprehension skill could be reinforced in the virtual environment, Levak and Son (2017) resorted to 35 students aged 18–30 and compared the 3D platform of Second Life, Skype, and Second Life integrated with Skype. The striking result to emerge from the data was that there was no significant difference between using Skype and Second life virtual environment in the improvement of listening comprehension. As a matter of fact, seeing facial expressions in Skype was a determining factor in its efficacy while engagement in Second life and its text-chat option was very useful in the beneficence of Second life platform. In another study, Si (2015), in his analysis of 20 native English children aged between six and eight years who learned Mandarin Chinese language, considered the way the virtual environment could enhance the L2 learning skills of the participants. In his Unity as the 3D platform, he realized that this environment could promote the engagement, vocabulary repertoire, and speaking skills of the children. He valued Kinect part for its developing embodied experience and chatting part for its enhancing the communication skills. To have a comprehensive look at the virtual environment, Wang et al. (2017) attempted to combine the virtual environment with other facilities of chatbox and time machine in the 3D platform of OpenSimulator in its diverse conditions. The participants were 80 native Chinese speakers who learned English. They revealed that the participants who used the virtual environment with chatbox and time machine were significantly more successful in perception of immersion and presence in comparison with the other testing conditions. In a more recent study on L2 vocabulary learning, Legault et al. (2019) examined whether immersive VR or word–word paired association conditions are beneficial in learning L2 vocabularies. They

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found out that accuracy was more observable for the immersive VR condition in comparison with the word–word condition. In their investigation, they put a demarcation line between the more successful and less successful participants in both conditions and found that the immersive VR could make a significant difference between the more and less successful students while no such significant difference was observed for the word–word condition. In conclusion, the considerable amount of literature published on the virtual environment denotes the fact that immersing learners in the ultra-world can bring about a very different and useful learning environment. In fact, the learning engagement, acceleration, and interaction which VR provides can make it so distinct from the other learning conditions. Conclusion AR and VR technologies are a matter of changing or substituting the real environment. The marriage between technology and learning/teaching in educational milieus in recent years has been a major concern among educational researchers in general and applied linguists in particular. Furthermore, as far as EFL/ESL is concerned, new technologies have recently been the focus of many researchers and practitioners, CALL technologies, and more specifically mobile-based ones in this domain, might be a favourable platform to achieve the purpose of teaching writing proficiency. Augmented Reality as a more recent CALL technology and the basic connector of the twenty-first century (Kroeker, 2010) is believed to have a rich capacity in augmenting learning and teaching. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. Realization of reality with an outer virtual cover can be denoted as the integral feature of ……………. a) Virtual reality b) Augmented reality c) Integrated reality d) Mixed reality

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2. As far as trigger and overlaying in AR are concerned, the trigger in real world behaves as a/an ……………… upon which the virtual overlay is settled. a) Artifact b) Scaffolding instrument c) Mediator d) Self-regulation 3. All of the following contribute to the theoretical foundation of AR EXCEPT ……. a) Situated learning b) Game-based learning c) Constructivism d) Algorithmic learning 4. Augmented reality is considered as one of the demonstrations of ………… which regards different combinations for real and virtual content. a) Blended reality b) Mixed reality c) Physical world d) Virtual world 5. Augmented reality and virtual reality both share the principles of …………………. a) Inquiry learning b) Imitation to learn c) Skinnerian conditioning d) Operant learning

Chapter Nine Moodle and Language Learning /Teaching Introduction The emergence of smart technology is changing the educational systems around the world. In the same way, the new digital native young generation with mastery on digital technology is more motivated with learning through technology, especially virtual courses, than traditional monotonous classes. As reported in a study by Jeong (2015), digital native university students preferred technology-integrated learning to traditional learning. In a study, Lunts (2002) found that with the integration of digital technology into their learning, learners' knowledge retention rate increased and were more highly motivated to study and succeed. Therefore, with the appearance of technology and the Internet in recent years, opportunities have been created to learn language with no or partial presence in actual classrooms. This has led to the growth of distant education in general and distant language learning systems in particular. Unlike the traditional classes, where all teaching and learning activities happen in the classroom, virtual classes pave the way for learners to experience learning no matter where they are and when they intend to. To this end, Learning Management Systems (LMS) provide suitable virtual platforms by which virtual environments offer great opportunities to learn. One of the platforms for this purpose is the Moodle. This chapter introduces Moodle and its features to be used in EFL contexts.

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Moodle Moodle might be imagined as a classroom with all its components and partners (syllabus, content, tests, videos, podcasts, vodcasts, exercises, photos, chats, discussion rooms, avatars, etc.) in your PC. Moodle can do much more. One of the amazing advantages of Moodle is that Moodle can work for learners of all ages and levels: Young learners, adolescents, and adults can use Moodle. Clearly, what we need is to adapt the example activities for your particular students and to make sure learners have the content and tasks that they are likely to enjoy and find useful. Go to http://download.moodle.org/ and download it yourself. Since the 1970s, when Moodle was developed by Martin Dougiamas from Australia, many features have been added to make it more useful. As mentioned in the introduction, because of the development of the digital technology and the native digital students, virtual learning environments is becoming the prototype educational system in some developed countries in the world, and we hope the same trend happens in Iran soon; it is a necessity not a fashion indeed. In this regard, Moodle is one of the platforms. As mentioned on Moodle website (https://stats.moodle.org/), its statistics shows that there are 180,000,000 users around the world in 232 countries in 2020 (I checked the statistics on the Moodle website on February 2020 exactly). Moodle provides 21,000,000 courses with 100,000 sites. Top ten from 232 countries by registration are the United States, Spain, Mexico, Brazil, Germany, France, United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, and Columbia. I report the statistics here to show how widespread Moodle is in the world and how countries are using Moodle to meet the requirements of digital education. Now, what is Moodle? Moodle stands for Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment. It is a free and open sources e-learning management system or platform. Moodle is one of the fastest growing VLEs (Virtual Learning Environment) around presently in the world. It is also commonly referred to as an LMS

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(Learning Management System) or a CMS (Course Management System). There are already thousands of registered Moodle sites, as you can see on the Moodle site: http://moodle.org/stats/. Open source means that the code is available by licensing agreement and that you can customize it and redistribute it (http://opensource.org). A VLE is a way of providing a teaching and learning environment online. Some of the features that make Moodle particularly attractive to all teachers, according to Stanford (2009), are: Easy to use: Learners only need basic computer skills Access to resources via the Web Interaction between learners and tutors Collaboration between learners Independent learning pathways Learner tracking Feedback on tasks Secure environment Automatic backup The Moodle website sums up its characteristics as follows: The heart of Moodle is courses that contain activities and resources. There are about 20 different types of activities available (forums, glossaries, wikis, assignments, quizzes, choices (polls), SCORM players, databases etc.) and each can be customised quite a lot. The main power of this activity-based model comes in combining the activities into sequences and groups, which can help you guide participants through learning paths. Thus, each activity can build on the outcomes of previous ones. There are a number of other tools that make it easier to build communities of learners, including blogs, messaging, participant lists etc., as well as useful tools like grading, reports, integration with other systems and so on (https://docs.moodle.org/38/en/Pedagogy).

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Theory behind Moodle The theoretical foundations of Moodle are constructivism and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approaches. As we discussed in Chapter Five and Chapter Six, Constructivism is based on the idea that individuals learn new concepts and construct knowledge through experience by comparing new information to what they already know. They do so by solving realistic issues mostly through collaboration with others. Moodle was built on this approach, and this type of learning is well lent to many of the core activities. Communicative language teaching is intended to help learners become effective users of the language in specific contexts. On the website of Moodle, as far as the philosophy of Moodle is concerned, it has been mentioned that the design and development of Moodle is guided by a "social constructionist pedagogy". This section attempts to unpack this concept in terms of four main concepts: constructivism, constructionism, social constructivism, and connected and separate. Constructivism From a constructivist point of view, people actively construct new knowledge as they interact with their environments. Everything you read, see, hear, feel, and touch is tested against your prior knowledge and if it is viable within your mental world, may form new knowledge you carry with you. Knowledge is strengthened if you can use it successfully in your wider environment. You are not just a memory bank passively absorbing information, nor can knowledge be "transmitted" to you just by reading something or listening to someone. This is not to say you can't learn anything from reading a webpage or watching a lecture, obviously you can, it's just pointing out that there is more interpretation going on than a transfer of information from one brain to another. Constructionism Constructionism asserts that learning is particularly effective when constructing something for others to experience. This can be

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anything from a spoken sentence or an internet posting, to more complex artifacts like a painting, a house or a software package. For example, you might read this page several times and still forget it by tomorrow but if you were to try and explain these ideas to someone else in your own words, or produce a slideshow that explained these concepts, then it's very likely you would have a better understanding that is more integrated into your own ideas. This is why people take notes during lectures (even if they never read the notes again). Social Constructivism Social constructivism extends constructivism into social settings, wherein groups construct knowledge for one another, collaboratively creating a small culture of shared artifacts with shared meanings. When one is immersed within a culture like this, one is learning all the time about how to be a part of that culture, on many levels. A very simple example is an object like a cup. The object can be used for many things, but its shape does suggest some "knowledge" about carrying liquids. A more complex example is an online course not only do the "shapes" of the software tools indicate certain things about the way online courses should work, but the activities and texts produced within the group as a whole will help shape how each person behaves within that group. Connected and Separate This idea looks deeper into the motivations of individuals within a discussion. Separate behaviour is when someone tries to remain 'objective' and 'factual', and tends to defend their own ideas using logic to find holes in their opponent's ideas. Connected behaviour is a more empathic approach that accepts subjectivity, trying to listen and ask questions in an effort to understand the other point of view. Constructed behaviour is when a person is sensitive to both of these approaches and is able to choose either of them as appropriate to the current situation. In general, a healthy amount of connected behaviour within a learning community is a very powerful stimulant for learning, not only bringing people closer together but also promoting deeper

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reflection and re-examination of their existing beliefs. (https://docs.moodle.org/38/en/Philosophy#Constructionism) CLT and TBLT Principles in Moodle Moodle definitely originated from / is deeply ingrained in a communicative approach to language learning. Therefore, wherever possible, Moodle tries to make the learner the centre of the learning. It looks at ways to encourage interaction, make materials engaging and effective and foster reflection and self-improvement on the part of language learners and teachers. For details on the CLT principles and tenets, you might find Richards and Rodgers (2001) a valuable book. Moodle accommodates all features of the CLT and task-based language teaching (TBLT) using a virtual platform. Stanford (2009) summarizes the application of CLT and TBLT in Moodle. Learner autonomy: Giving learners greater choice over their own learning, both in terms of the content of learning and processes they might employ. The use of small groups is one example of this, as well as the use of self-assessment. Moodle supports the CLT features through the following opportunities: Customization of learners' home pages if My Moodle is turned on. Using questionnaires and polls (Choice module) to allow learners to influence curriculum, Use of wikis for learners to determine processes, Group and groupings feature for dividing students. The social nature of learning: Learning is not an individual, private activity, but a social one that depends upon interaction with others. Moodle supports this principle with these features: Interaction is built into Chat, Forum, and Wiki modules. In addition, assignment and workshop modules that allow collaborative writing. Curricular integration: The connection between different strands of the curriculum is emphasized, so that English is not seen as a standalone subject but is linked to other subjects in the curriculum. Textbased learning reflects this approach, and seeks to develop fluency in text types that can be used across the curriculum. Project work in

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language teaching also requires students to explore issues outside of the language classroom. What Moodle supports here is HTML pages with hyperlinks and webquests which are good examples of how Moodle can be linked to the outside world. Focus on meaning: Meaning is viewed as the driving force of learning. Content-based teaching reflects this view, and seeks to make the exploration of meaning through content the core of language learning activities. As far as Moodle is concerned, it's easy to incorporate authentic spoken and written texts into Moodle and activities based on them. Diversity: Learners learn in different ways and have different strengths. Teaching needs to take these differences into account, rather than try to force students into a single mold. In language teaching, this has led to an emphasis on developing students' use and awareness of learning strategies. Moodle facilitates the principle of diversity in learning. Learners can go at different speeds. Learners can be grouped according to interests, level, and needs. Teachers can help learners use the glossary to build their own records. The Journal module allows learners and teachers to reflect on learning processes and make changes as a result. Thinking skills: Language should serve as a means of developing higher-order thinking skills, also known as critical and creative thinking. In language teaching, this means that students do not learn language for its own sake but in order to develop and apply their thinking skills in situations that go beyond the language classroom. Moodle provides the learners with critical thinking skills in specific ways: A wide range of tasks is possible. For example, Reading Activities is based on Bloom's taxonomy to foster higher-order thinking tasks. In addition, The Webquest module is a good place to develop critical evaluation skills. Alternative assessment: New forms of assessment are needed to replace traditional multiple-choice and other items that test lowerorder skills. Multiple forms of assessment (for example, observation,

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interviews, journals, portfolios) can be used to build a comprehensive picture of what students can do in a second language. Moodle offers traditional tests as well as journals and add-on portfolios. Teachers as co-learners: The teacher is viewed as a facilitator who is constantly trying out different alternatives; that is, learning through doing. In language teaching, this has led to an interest in action research and other forms of classroom investigation. In Moodle, the Workshop and Questionnaire modules make it easy to get learner feedback. Teachers can also monitor the popularity of different activities by tracking student use (Stanford, 2009, pp. 12-13). Assessment in Moodle There are also some aspects of assessment in Moodle which have a specific language-teaching slant. Moodle allows you to provide your students with detailed feedback on specific areas of language performance. So you can give separate marks on areas such as grammar, fluency, and pronunciation, for example. You do this by setting up rating scales for each type of activity. In Moodle speak, categories for assessment are called Outcomes (see Chapter 2, Getting Started with Moodle for more information). Moodle also allows us to create marking scales which relate specifically to language work. One example of this would be the use of the language achievement evaluation scales set by the Council of Europe's Common European Framework. http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp). Many Moodle activities can be assessed. All the marks can be collected in an online gradebook. Moodle also provides some basic statistics which teachers can use to see how well their tests are working, and to improve them if necessary. There is also an add-on ordering task for the Quiz module. This lets students practice ordering the words in a sentence, sentences in a paragraph, and paragraphs in a text, and put a sequence of events in chronological order (Stanford, 2009).

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Conclusion Moodle is an online educational platform that provides learning environments for students. Teachers can use Moodle to create lessons, manage courses, and interact with students. Teachers can create and manage virtual classrooms where students can access videos, documents, and tests. Course chat allows students to communicate with the teacher and other students in a secure environment. Students can use Moodle to review the class calendar, submit assignments, take quizzes, and interact with their classmates. Moodle has been adopted so widely because it is configurable, highly-flexible and feature-rich. With over 180,000,000 Moodle users developed by the global community in more than 230 countries, learners, teachers and administrators have the opportunity to flourish in an environment that makes learning collaborative, engaging and fun. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. Moodle is primarily considered as ……………. a) A leaning management system b) Course management platform c) Virtual learning environment d) All of the above 2. ………… asserts that learning is particularly effective when constructing something for others to experience. a) Constructivism b) Constructionism c) Social constructivism d) Connectedness 3. Within Moodle environment, it might be stated that learning experience is based on ………. a) Diversity b) Individualization c) Both diversity and individualization d) Competition

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4. The fact that that English is not seen as a stand-alone subject but is linked to other subjects in the curriculum refers to ………. a) Focus on meaning b) Curricular integration c) Virtual nature of learning d) Skills integration 5. It has been claimed that Moodle is useful for ……….. a) Adults b) Young learners c) Intermediate to advanced learners d) All ages and levels

Chapter Ten Materials Development in CALL Introduction The marriage between technology and teaching in general and English language teaching and learning in particular has been an issue of great concern in the past decades beginning in the 1980s. With the emergence of new computer technologies, researchers in language learning and teaching have conducted lots of studies to examine the effectiveness of the marriage in the pedagogy. Two major research trends might be appreciated: Development research and effect research. The first trend focuses on the development and production of computer programs, software, and materials to bolster language acquisition process. The present chapter is a brief review of major issues regarding materials development in terms of technology and computer contribution, an interdisciplinary field of study usually referred to as CALL. CALL Materials in the Past Several developments of hardware and software are highlighted in the history of CALL. In the 1950s and 1960s, the first and most significant applications were used on the Programmed Logic/Learning for Automated Teaching Operation (PLATO) system for language teaching and learning at the computer (Beatty, 2010). As a matter of fact, a significant landmark in the early development of CALL refers to the PLATO project, which initiated in 1960 (Marty, 1981).

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In the 1970s and 1980s, some videodisc programs were discovered such as Macario as a linear program and Montevidisco and Interactive Digame as a non-linear program (Gale, 1989). Of course, such non-linear approach is an essential element of many current interactive software learning programs. Essentially, these programs feature a constructivist instruction model. Moreover, since the nonlinear approach in computer-based learning materials allows for greater learner autonomy and encourages critical thinking, it is attractive but not immune to some specific concerns such as a reassessment of the place of scope and sequence in language learning (Beatty, 2010). The Athena Language Learning Project (ALLP) was among the 1970s and 1980s projects which examined the computer role in education. It relied on UNiversal Interactive eXecutive (UNIX) workstations instead of working with large mainframe computers or independent videodisc technology. In comparison with common laptop computers today, such workstations were far less powerful. In 1980s, HyperCards, a material authoring program, was one of the applications which took advantage of the theoretical hypertext and hypermedia capabilities of computers. Using it, teachers and learners were allowed to create their own CALL applications (Beatty, 2010). Some years later, The World Wide Web was launched in 1992. It offers huge potential in language learning and teaching. However, it has some way to go before it can catch up with the interactivity and speed of access which is offered by CD-Roms or DVDs (Davies, 2010). Multimedia CALL Sound, photographic-quality still images and video recordings were combined in imaginative presentations and the earliest manifestation of multimedia CALL and interactive videodiscs for language learners were developed. The techniques learned by the developers of interactive videodiscs in the 1980s were adapted for the multimedia personal computers (MPCs); they incorporated CD-ROM drives and

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were widely used by the early 1990s. Now, the MPC is the standard form of personal computers. In the 1980s, CD-ROMs were used initially for storing large quantities of text and later for storing sound, still images, and video. Multimedia CD-ROMs were available in a wide range for language learners by the mid-1990s, including imaginative simulations (Davies, 2010). As a matter of fact, multimedia is a term tending to make use of several types of media including text, images, sound, video, and animations (Beatty, 2010). Thompson, Simonson, and Hargrave (1992) believe that multimedia is a mode of presentation. Their definition is in line with the structure of many multimedia programs available on the market. Multimedia-enhanced CALL can easily create learning situations of great authenticity through audio and video input providing real-life situations as realistically as televisions but with more interaction (Beatty, 2010). Many multimedia CALL programs make use of role play activity, other multimedia programs use Automatic Speech Recognition software (Davies, 2010). In the last four decades, CALL materials have moved toward interactive multimedia presentations with sound, animation and full-motion video. However, this movement has not been purely linear and the new and improved pedagogy has not always replaced the old one. Instead, many programs currently being produced feature little more than visually stimulating variations on the same gap-filling exercises of 40 years ago. This lack of concerted progress in this movement can be due to several reasons including the point that material designers are often either teachers with limited technical skills or competent technicians without enough teaching experiences (Beatty, 2010). Most CALL programs currently being developed are subsumed under the multimedia CALL category (Davies, 2010). The term multimedia has been associated with literacy to put emphasis on this issue that literacy extends beyond the ability of reading and writing the alphabetic code, and should include various

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audiovisual forms of representation. Many scholars and educators believe the conceptions of literacy and the way of its development should not focus exclusively on printed materials, but should include electronic media which have moved into the mainstream of communication, particularly at the end of the twentieth century. This belief has been highlighted by the association of multimedia with literacy. Implicitly, these views show that research and practices which are related to literacy must be transformed to accommodate new ways of accessing, processing, and using. Technology in Present-day Pedagogy More recent CALL materials have followed a learner-centred, explorative approach. In language classrooms, such approach is characterized by the use of concordance programs. Nowadays, the explorative approach is used widely and includes the use of Web concordancers and other Web-based CALL activities (Johns & King 1991). Of course, much has changed in CALL in the 21 century. One of the great changes refers to the time when computing facilities were integrated into many aspects of life. Mobile telephones can be a good example in this case. Televisions are other appliances which are connecting to computers more, and new opportunities for CALL delivery are presented by each technological advances. Moreover, the Web 2.0 moniker has led to a larger part of the changes, particularly through social networking, to enhance creativity and collaboration (Beatty, 2010). Since the 1960s, computers have been used for language teaching. This history can be divided into three main and distinct phases (stages): Behavioristic CALL, Communicative CALL, and Integrative CALL (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). Traditional CALL programs presented a stimulus, and learners had to provide a response. Common features of this type were discrete error analysis and feedback (Last 1989). Communicative CALL stresses that computerbased activities should focus more on using forms than the forms

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themselves, teaching grammar implicitly, allowing and encouraging students to generate original utterances, and using target language predominantly or exclusively (Jones & Fortescue,1987; Phillips, 1987). Among the popular communicative CALL programs are text reconstruction programs and simulations. Interactive CALL seeks to integrate different skills and technology more fully into the process of language learning. In fact, students learn to use various technological tools as an ongoing language learning process and use (Yang, 2010). Warschauer (2000; as cited in Bax, 2003) has produced a summary of the phases as a reference point. However, the framework seems to have a number of significant weaknesses (Bax, 2003). In different publications, the discussions of the CALL phases show considerable differences. For instance, Structural CALL (proposed by Warschauer, 2000; as cited in Bax, 2003) was previously called Behaviouristic CALL by Warschauer and Healey (1998) with different date. Likewise, for Communicative CALL, inconsistent date of emergence can be found (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). Finally, whereas Integrative CALL was argued to be already in existence (Warschauer & Healey, 1998), it is dated to the 21st century by Warschauer (2000; as cited in Bax, 2003). Therefore, there are some inconsistencies in these cases (Bax, 2003). The three stages do not fall into neatly contained timelines. Previous stages continue as each new stage has emerged. Current uses of computers in language classrooms correspond to all of the three paradigms (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). Moreover, they have been regarded as paradigms or perspectives in some places. Therefore, this seems ambiguous and needs clarification. Behavioristic CALL is perhaps the most plausible one and would attract most agreement. However, Communicative CALL and Integrative CALL are less satisfactory. This has also been proved and explained by Warschauer (1996) that why the second category gave the way to the third one (i.e. Communicative CALL). Since Communicative CALL was never actually communicative in a

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significant way in the 1980s, there is a need to reassess or rename the phases, or completely revise the analysis (Bax, 2003). Integrative CALL is the most doubtful of all. Warschauer and Healey (1998) state that many teachers were moving away from a cognitive view of communicative teaching to a more social or sociocognitive one, which greatly emphasized language use in authentic social contexts. Adducing evidence for this claim would be difficult. Warschauer and Healey (1998) have enumerated a number of integrative approaches. However, accepting that those approaches are not communicative but integrative is under question. Consequently, these categories should be referred to approaches but not phases. The approaches, then, should be called Restricted CALL, Open CALL, and Integrated CALL (Bax, 2003). Technology and CALL Tasks Technology-mediated L2 learning tasks comprised of two types of tasks which teachers can construct for their students. One type is developed from software for computer-mediated communication such as e-mail. Another type is based on interactions between the learner and the computer such as concordancing (Chapelle, 2003). Besides, Information Communication Technology in language teaching and learning encompasses many various types of software applications which tend to fall into two distinct types: Generic software applications including Word-processors (e.g. Microsoft Word), Presentation software (e.g. PowerPoint), Email packages, and Web browsers. CALL software applications including content-specific or content free types. The former refers to applications which are multi-purpose programs not targeted specifically for language learning. The latter refers to those applications which are intended specifically for promoting language learning; they have a considerable degree of interactivity indeed (Davies, Walker, Rendall, & Hewer, 2010).

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Various Range of CALL Programs It is worth mentioning that there are several hundred CALL programs with immense range of their types on the market or currently being designed. Some can be outlined as follows.  dedicated programs  authoring programs  single programs and whole suites of programs  primarily text-based programs  overtly instructional/testing programs  programs making maximum use of graphics facilities as an additional motivating factor  programs adopting a 'learning by doing' approach and even the 'learning by programming' approach. (Ferney, 1989) Criteria for CALL Material Development Some CALL-based materials are targeted for the development of language learning autonomy. Since autotomizing CALL materials are not based on solid foundations of language learning autonomy, one specific aspect should be considered in their design: whether CALLbased materials intend to develop learner autonomy or intend for already autonomous learners (Blin, 1999). This aspect is a basis for defining pedagogical criteria contributing to the development of a theoretical framework concerning the design of autotomizing CALLbased materials. Of course, if criteria are defined, they can be suitable for other types of CALL materials (Ruiz-Madrid, 2006). From an autotomizing perspective, some authors (Hoven,1999; Murray, 1999; Murray & Barnes, 1997; Blin, 1999; Holliday, 1999; Shin & Wastell, 2001; Marqués, 2000; cited in Ruiz-Madrid, 2006) have defined some criteria for designing CALL based materials. The criteria fall into the categories below regarding their:  learner-centeredness  incorporation of strategies and diversity  user-friendly design

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CALL materials should be designed from an integrative and coherent holistic approach which includes all the above mentioned aspects. However, experiences have shown that these criteria are too general to put into practice. Therefore, the following description of the criteria are provided to reach to a more particular set of criteria:  language/language learning approach;  teachers and learners’ role;  learners training;  materials/activities Consequently, CALL materials intended for developing language learning autonomy should take into account the cognitive and metacognitive strategies and implement learning-to-learn strategies as well (Ruiz-Madrid, 2006). As a result, it can be argued that CALL materials should teach learners the way of setting acquisition goals, the way of acquiring the means to reach the goals, and finally the way of evaluation, recognition, and orientation of their own process of learning. Some skills appear from the new medium that is new technological/ pedagogical strategies. Therefore, CALL materials should incorporate tasks to teach learners such skills. Although there is not a direct relationship between the new strategies and autonomous learning practices, such strategies are beneficial for learners as they reduce the technological anxiety of learners in a CALL situation and help them to make the most of the program. Consequently, they become more efficient and successful in their learning process and feel a higher level of self-confidence. Eventually, one of the key aspects for developing learner autonomy effectively refers to self-evaluation. Thereby, if this aspect is integrated into CALL materials, learners will become aware of the way of their learning evolution. It might be expected that CALL materials and activities:  have varied formats  have flexibility in presentation, length, and duration  be interrelated and indexed

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be related and relevant to learning goals promote using various sources enhance collaborative work be contextualized in a particular framework (Ruiz-Madrid,2006)

Problems in CALL Material Design Although there are various CALL-based and technology-mediated materials on the market or currently been designed, many of them face some problems and weaknesses which some of them are mentioned here to pave the way for the better development of the materials in the future.  Like any other language learning activity, CALL programs will soon, if this is not already true, only motivate if they are challenging, perplexing, and interesting in themselves. Consequently, the argument that CALL was based on its motivating power is not strong enough today (Farrington, 1989).  Classroom language teachers and applied linguists are expressing their serious doubts concerning the pedagogical value of CALL programs (Thomas, 1986).  It is really obvious that the nature of the currently available hardware is already undergoing a change (Beatty, 2010).  Some computer-based materials lack a clearly determined scope and sequence. Instead, individual learners can pursue links which they find useful and interesting (Beatty, 2010). In a study by Heffernan and Wang (2008), it was demonstrated that in classrooms, teachers regularly make their own decisions on how to use materials without paying much attention to the laws of how to use the materials. They believe when a material is used for educational purposes, sticking on laws is not necessary.  Another problem refers to the lack of guidance on how to work with computer-based learning materials, particularly with constructivist learning materials which present learning materials in a wide range. Without the guidance, there is the probability of facing the disorientation problem and being lost in the materials (Beatty, 2010).

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 A lack of funds, expertise and authoring programs are among other barriers in CALL program development (Beatty, 2010).  There is a gap between the CALL material authors and the programmers. This gap results in some problems such as inappropriate lesson content, poor documentation, errors in format and content, and improper feedback. Moreover, teachers find little chance to add to or modify the existing programs in most software (Ravichandran, 2000).  Lack of ways to monitor and correct unpredictable student answers is among the barriers to develop better CALL materials (Beatty, 2010).  Existing too many CALL materials is a new pedagogical problem presented by computer-based multimedia. Thereby, a central concern of CALL refers to determining goals and priorities (Beatty, 2010). Designing Better CALL Materials and Optimal Use By considering the above-mentioned weaknesses and making an attempt to avoid them, the following issues are taken into account for better developing and using CALL materials. If learners want to be successful when they are using a CALL program, first and foremost, they should reflect upon their learning, and, through their reflection, examine the learning materials and the way of approaching them. If learners want to make better use of CALL programs, they should determine what they know and what they do not know and have the ability to determine the working process. Of course, CALL materials should be designed in a way that motivate and encourage learners to shape their working process and their roles. Various software programs have been promoted as a virtual teacher, a teacher’s helper, a guide, an instrument, a teaching tool and a learning tool. Without human intervention, software programs cannot be much effective in language teaching. Therefore, considering the role of computers and software in the current model of classroom practice is important (Beatty, 2010).

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It is necessary for computer-based learning materials to have a degree of excitement, particularly for young learners who lack motivation for learning (Beatty, 2010). Moreover, there is novelty for learners using CALL programs. As a matter of fact, language is both taught in various interesting and attractive ways and presented through games, animated graphics, and problem-solving techniques. Consequently, all kinds of drills even more tedious ones become interesting. Students, in a CALL situation, are motivated to go beyond the initial mastery and practice until they become automatic learners (Ravichandran, 2000). Although most educational and pedagogical games use a form of subversive teaching, learning takes place as an activity peripheral to play and learners can acquire critical thinking and editing skills through such manipulation and development. Beside materials especially targeted for language learning, there are many other materials which can be adapted. For example, many games and simulations not targeted for language learning can be adapted for learning, especially for advanced learners (Beatty, 2010). If this point is considered, the problem of lacking excitement may be solved. According to Bailin (1995), if teachers are involved in the creation of new software, they can ensure it is of a pedagogical quality. When learners are able to choose a path of learning, they all are not constrained to learn the same materials in the same way (Beatty, 2010). Different materials can be good complements for the previous one and even for the traditional materials. It is not a good argument that CALL materials have replaced the traditional ones. Due to individual differences, there are some learners who feel uncomfortable working with technology. Therefore, such materials are not a good option for them. Computers have the potential to offer something different, if not better, than traditional teaching and learning materials through their special features of hypertext, hypermedia, and multimedia (Beatty, 2010). An ideal CALL course ware is not an alternative tool but a complementary one which reinforces activities in classrooms (Ravichandran, 2000).

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Conclusion It can be concluded that in the process of materials development, on one hand, the above-mentioned points should be considered. We cannot develop just one final product suitable for all types of learners, all situations, and all purposes. The following aspects are key points in helping to have a better materials development: Learners’ level of proficiency, their goals and purposes, and their needs The level of learners’ and their teachers’ awareness of how to work with the technology itself, first Individual differences Facilities, ease of access, and the degree to which materials are practical Different roles of learners and teachers in the classroom Setting a path of instruction and some specific rules concerning how to work with the materials for optimal learning Holding consultation of material developers with teachers and learners Not thinking of replacement On the other hand, there are too many various CALL-based materials on the market. Thereby, this question may occur to the mind that whether such diversity is necessary for preparing learners to learn effectively or not. Therefore, if there is diversity in materials, it is good to avoid presenting a wide range type for them. Otherwise, the purpose of optimal learning will not be fulfilled. Acknowledgment This chapter is the reprint of Soleimani, H. & Mola Esmaili, M. (2016). Technology in materials development: A CALL perspective. In M. Azarnoosh, M, Zeraatpishe, A. Faravani, and Kargozari, H. R. (Eds.), Issues in materials development (135-145). The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.

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Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. Programmed Logic/Learning for Automated Teaching Operation (PLATO) is based on the tenets of …………….. a) Behavioristic CALL b) Communicative CALL c) Integrative CALL d) Integrated CALL 2. Traditional CALL materials presented a stimulus, and learners had to provide a response stressing ……………. and feedback. a) pragmatic issues b) discrete error analysis c) task complexity d) integration 3. Text reconstruction programs and simulations might be classified as materials developed in the ……………….. approach to CALL. a) Integrative b) Communicative c) Behavioristic d) Sociocultural 4. Generic software applications in information communication technology (ICT) refer to ………………… a) Language for specific purpose application b) Only mobile assisted language learning c) All-purpose applications d) Language for general purpose applications 5. There is a gap between the CALL material authors and the programmers. This gap results in some problems such as inappropriate lesson content, poor documentation, errors in format and content, and improper feedback. The best solution to the problem might be ………….. a) Teacher education in CALL b) CALL teachers not to develop materials c) CALL materials authors be the same as programmers d) Programmers themselves act as authors

Chapter Eleven Teacher Education in CALL Introduction The normalization and growth of the Internet and proliferation of computers in school and home settings has led to a significant expansion of the use of technology in foreign and second language instruction. Increasingly, both language teachers in training and practicing will find themselves at a disadvantage if they are not adequately proficient in CALL. In-service and pre-service programs alike are recognizing the need for filling this gap, and work is being done independently by hundreds of trainers in this area. There are already CALL certificate programs, CALL courses as part of master’s curricula in applied linguistics, second language acquisition, and language pedagogy, and even entire graduate programs dedicated to CALL. CALICO (Computer-Assisted Language Instruction Consortium) has a special interest group devoted to CALL teacher education, and the number of conference presentations in this area has grown noticeably in recent years. All this implies the significance of teacher education in CALL. The type of expertise CALL teachers need is basically beyond the teaching skills in traditional non-CALL classes. In CALL pedagogy, teachers should be equipped with variety of skills and competences related to computer and related technologies. The present chapter intends to examine the status of CALL teacher education in the context of CALL pedagogy and CALL curriculum.

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Therefore, teacher education in computer assisted language learning is an issue which has been receiving a growing attention in the language and technology literature in the past decade. Two valuable books on CALL teacher education are Hubbard and Levy (2006) and Schmid (2017). In addition, in some handbooks on language and technology, scattered chapters have been devoted to CALL education (see Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). This shows first of all the inadequacy of materials developed on CALL teacher education. In addition, it reveals the significance and recognition of the status of CALL teacher education in CALL pedagogy. So, it demands ample grounding in CALL theory and practice on the part of teachers in addition to knowledge of what technologies are accessible to them to effectively apply CALL in their language learning classrooms and other contexts. CALL Teacher Education The emergence of CALL teacher education dates back to the 1980s with workshops, seminars, and courses not in a systematic way but sporadically. In 2002, the area of teacher education became more picturesque in CALL with the publication of a special issue of Language Teaching & Technology where two of the five articles in the issue basically were related to student needs, and the three others specifically explained the effect of CALL courses from the lens of the teacher educator (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Both CALICO and EUROCALL have introduced successful Teacher Education SIGS during this time, and the latter has organized international workshops and conferences in recent years. This transition toward professionalism has resulted in professional organizations setting standards, or uniform requirements reflecting the minimum technical skills, expertise and abilities that language teachers need. Kessler (2012) in a chapter called “Language teacher training in technology” in the Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, edited by Chapelle, classifies basic and advanced CALL skills for classroom teachers (see Table 11.1).

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Example teacher action

Basic Locate

Use Internet search engine to find relevant movie files

Evaluate

Watch videos to determine if the language level is appropriate, if the content is accurate, if the quality of the video is acceptable, etc. Select the file that best meets pedagogical needs

Select Distribute Integrate

Determine the best means for distributing a video file to students, including Web links, CDs, local files, etc. Construct a language lesson around the content of the video file that utilizes the images, audio, and text in meaningful pedagogical ways.

Advance Create Customize Convert Repurpose

Create a video using a combination of personally created images, texts and voice recordings. Edit the movie file expanding the narration with a more challenging version for a higher‐level class. Edit the movie file deleting the audio to utilize as a reading activity Use instructional materials, media, or technology in multiple contexts with relatively minor alterations.

According to Hubbard (2013), teacher education also needs to communicate to would-be teachers the ways in which integration of technology can also accommodate enhancements in student behavior tracking, individualizing instruction and training learners to be more autonomous. Such directions take inspiration from research in CALL teacher education, suggesting that technology integration will contribute to increased student engagement and motivation: Assessment Technology offers new opportunities for learners to perform both formative and summative assessments. This field of study, computeraided language testing (CALT) is mainly located within language

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testing. The two areas directly related to classroom assessment are perhaps automated writing evaluation (AWE) and automated speaking evaluation (ASE). Feedback for students Feedback covers a wide and diverse set of activities in the literature on second language learning and there is a lot of debate about the appropriate conditions and circumstances that make feedback the most salient. Therefore, it is increasingly important for language teachers to be prepared to understand the changing nature of feedback and assessment. Observation and monitoring The ability of the language instructors to track or control student behavior and development by digital means has brought many benefits. Some researchers investigated the teachers ' ability to observe, monitor and control students remotely when engaging in learning experiences. This student performance monitoring can provide valuable insights to teachers on how students actually use learning technology. Such perspectives will help teachers understand linguistic and technical challenges facing the students. These practices can also contribute to more prominent feedback, making these emerging areas not only individually important, but also as an integrated component of CALL ecosystem. Social networking CALL teacher training also needs to keep up with the proliferation of educational social and new media applications that have had a dramatic impact on all facets of communication and learning. The pedagogical use of social media for language learning is one of the issues that CALL wants to identify for future work (as cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Kessler (2012) tackles some of CALL's teacher education issues. Most language teachers still graduate without sufficient formal training despite some advances and there is still a general lack of autonomy among teachers when using technology. In this regard, they

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cite four obstacles. First, Teachers must be prepared to engage with the teaching changes. New technologies and course configurations are responsible for the rapid introduction of new classroom techniques. Mobile assisted language learning (MALL) for example has recently begun to present new language learning opportunities. Practicing these changes also allow teachers to be prepared for a climate of relentless innovation. The number of courses taught in an online or hybrid format is increasing rapidly with respect to course configurations, requiring teachers who are able to teach language online. Indeed, much of the recent research into CALL teacher training includes specifically preparing teachers for distance or hybrid instruction. Second, the opportunity for their students to have a continuing variety of engaging experiences is one major change in practice that teachers need to learn about. One type of interactivity is evident in online games. The growing interest in game-related language teaching practices stems in large part from findings that such activities can provide meaningful experiences for students that support language teaching. The tutors and tools produced by new natural language processing (NLP) technologies are making another form of immersive experience for language learners possible. NLP-based tutoring systems can offer students individualized interactions to help them work on specific language features, such as articles, verb tenses, and relative clauses. Such tutoring services, called Smart CALL, improve the individualization and interactivity of language classroom instruction. Another challenge is the social nature of communication and learning which the software tools for communication and networking stimulate. With the abundance of new social technologies that allow so many people to engage in interactive activities, language teachers will learn to use such tools for classroom learning and to expand learning opportunities beyond the classroom. The last task is the "normalization" challenge. Education technology is becoming so natural that it will be invisible soon. Description of the inevitability of normalization by Bax (2003)

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implies that CALL will become standardized, or fully integrated and transparent within language pedagogy. It seems unlikely that the teacher education call for action will be taken seriously if it is to address pedagogies seen as already fully integrated. CALL Education Scope Along with the increasing influence of technology in language teaching and learning, parallel progress has been made in designing course work to prepare language teachers to use the technology. Such preparation could be from reading a chapter in a comprehensive textbook on methodology (e.g., Sokolik, 2001) to participating in an in-service workshop and seminars, CALL course series, CALL certificates, and even CALL graduates. This creation was usually bottom-up and for the often ad hoc, like other new fields. There have been several books and articles in the past few years dealing with different aspects on CALL methods, materials, and techniques. In the literature there are only unsystematic attempts to define the knowledge and abilities that a language teacher or other educational institutions should have, such as a technical support worker for a language project. Because there is a quite significant difference between CALL and language teaching in general about the optimal, or even appropriate, uses of technology, and this absence is not surprising. Perhaps other domains in education have shifted more definitely. International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has introduced a list of recommendations for technological competence for both teachers (ISTE, 2000) and elementary and secondary students (ISTE, 1998). Similar recommendations will inform related programs in CALL; however, language learning is widely recognized as a distinctive field that should be cautious to rely heavily on specific standards of education. Murphy-Judy and Youngs recognize advancement in this area by other bodies, such as ACTFL (American Council on Foreign Language Teaching) and the Council of Europe,

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however, these are yet in premature phases. It should be noted that there is a danger that such programs may be somewhat inflexible, often following a "best-practices" approach that relegates alternate conceptualizations by institutionalizing similar dominant views and perspectives. There are logical reasons for upholding these standards in language teaching, they are what allows it to assert the status of a discipline but, given the constraints of our current state of knowledge with regard to the application of technology in this area, the outcomes of such undertakings for CALL must be studied with a particularly critical eye, even as they are welcome. CALL education was meant to have a much wider goal to educate all teachers and others interested in technology integration and language learning process. In line with that perspective, this chapter describes the broader scope of CALL education and presents a paradigm to define the components of CALL knowledge in a manner that is comprehensive at a fairly general level but implies the necessary framework to dig into depth as expected. This continues with the idea that a meaningful approach to communicating knowledge applies to positions that the individual plays in the field, since it is the person that we are ultimately educating. This approach was inspired by ideas from a field of social science known as position theory (Biddle 1986). While experimental / empirical hypotheses and the theory of social identity have followed him in social psychology (Schmidt, 2000), "position" has at least been a compelling pre-theoretical concept. It's based on the idea that we're talking about ourselves and others in terms of expectations formed by positions and the marks that go with them. It is believed that a logical framework for solving the problem of defining what teachers and others must know in terms of using computer technology in language learning will be given by discussing CALL education in this manner. In second or foreign language, teaching.is not the first effort to apply roles as a distinctive form. Nevertheless, the new language

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teaching literature is full of references to the teacher's positions, especially to the teacher's role as a guide or facilitator. The commonly-cited model of Richards and Rodgers (1982), at the descriptive level, describes the design of a language teaching method mostly in terms of the roles of the teacher, the students, the syllabus, and the materials. Remarkably, the functions of the technologies are defined when discussing the roles of humans involved in the use of technology. In this way, the current paradigm could be viewed as a relative to earlier structures, separately suggested as Hubbard's analytical structure (1996) and Levy's tutor-tool system (1997). The State of CALL Teacher Education Throughout EFL / ESL environments around the globe there is a great diversity in the shape, content, and amount of teacher education. However, we cannot find a comprehensive approach like the type introduced by Hubbard and Levy (2006). They believe that we must recognize four general trends in CALL education: The production of training and support materials directly oriented toward classroom teachers; A small but growing literature in CALL teacher education itself at the levels of both research and practice; Frameworks that attempt to define CALL practice on the basis of principles derived from particular language teaching approaches, especially those supported by SLA (second language acquisition) research; The use of online collaborative learning techniques in CALL teacher education with a growing interest in the quality of the transfer of skills and expertise from formal courses to the language classroom. The first trend is predominantly observable in textbooks that intend to introduce newcomers to the field. Some new cases contain an edited book on teaching with technology (Lomicka & CookePlagwitz 2004) and volumes by Beatty (2003) and Egbert (2005) for computer assisted language learning in general and Warschauer,

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Shetzer, and Meloni (2000) for the Internet in particular. In addition to these printed editions, the ICT4LT (Information and Communications Technologies for Language Teachers) homepage introduces 16 online training modules targeted at in-service teachers, that offer free materials equal to a good-sized textbook. The second trend is reflected in the increasing production of publications planned publicly by teacher educators for research and practice. Davies (2003) provides a genuinely comprehensive picture of some of the major issues in online and offline language teaching application research, in addition to debating for efforts to resolve these. One of CALL's most popular teacher education publications could be articles published in a special issue of Language Learning & Technology (September, 2002). Egbert, Paulus, and Nakamichi (2002) put the following questions in one of the articles in that issue to inspire research in the area of technology and teacher training and education: How do teachers learn about CALL-based activities? How does what they learned in their coursework impact their current teaching Contexts? What factors influence whether they use computers in their classrooms? How do participants continue to acquire and master new ideas in CALL after formal coursework ends (professional development)? (p. 109) Such questions can pave the way for researchers who are examining the significant domain of the processes of CALL teacher education. In this way, they accomplish the following framework that emphasizes content and objectives. The third viewpoint to be discussed on CALL education is one that explains CALL with respect to a particular system of language teaching or similar approaches. A key argument for communicative approach to CALL is in Underwood (1984). Recently, we have found linkages between the philosophy of second-language acquisition and study culminating in a definition of basic principles which could be

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used to establish CALL course objectives. Egbert and Hanson-Smith (1999) is potentially the most proper research directed at teacher education. In addition to organizing their book around eight generalizations regarding ideal language learning based on SLA research, they provide helpful questions and activities that make the book not only as a professional reference book but also as a textbook. Chapelle (2001) is also an effective volume for many students of CALL. Her commonly-referred to framework provides six general criteria for the design and evaluation of CALL activities and tasks in language learning potential, focus on meaning, learner fit, authenticity, impact, and practicality, each of which can be expanded. In a CALL program there are two subjects that are directly connected to second language research findings. Doughty and Long (2003) present a set of conditions for describing best practice in distance learning settings, drawing again on SLA research findings, incorporating 10 task-based learning principles adapted to the specific CALL field of online teaching. While practical, it is clear that their principles could form the core of a distance language education training program. The fourth theme concerns the evolving dynamics of computerassisted teacher education and a question about the degree to which practitioners can successfully apply the ideas and skills they learn from books, publications or standardized courses to the language classroom (see Nunan, 1999; Egbert et al. 2002). Collaborative learning and interactive communities supported by e-mail, chat and discussion groups can enable practitioners make this connection, the way the computer assisted courses themselves representing an important online component. Witnessing the first-hand use of these tools for language teaching and CALL will help bring home the benefits and limitations of the individual learning technologies. It is also possible to form discussion groups and learning communities, both within pre-service and in-service classes, and beyond, so that colleagues can share experiences and practitioners can be effectively

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connected to trainees. These kinds of interaction can allow trainees to better understand and resolve the complexities and contradictions that may come with the everyday use of language learning technologies. This kind of interaction can also provide valuable oversight for teacher educators who appear to be working in university environments where total funding and support is poor under relatively well-resourced circumstances. Under these circumstances, language teacher trainees can infer that technology is always working, and that technology support is always available. Current situations can be very complex, and the trainees have to deal with some of the complexities and conflicts that often arise. Since time and resources tend to be scarce or unpredictable, school settings are an example. Individual schools often have idiosyncratic systems, especially in terms of technological services (e.g. how to handle security), technical support, and preparation. To help the trainee understand realistic experiences and conditions, a number of strategies are being created. These include situated learning and critical incidents. Situated learning is related to how learning happens in everyday contexts. From this point of view, man knowledge “develops in the course of activity” and is considered as, “a capacity to coordinate and sequence behavior, to adapt dynamically to changing circumstances” (Clancey, 1995, p. 49). Situated learning can be of great help to think about the facts of actual practice. The use of a critical incidents file can similarly be useful for professional progress with an emphasis on practice (Tripp, 1993, p. 68). When regularly reviewed later, a report or record of crucial events experienced in the classroom will feed back into understanding what is needed to ensure an educated response if a similar situation or occurrence is to happen again. Such kinds of approaches are quite applicable to the CALL classroom, where the language teacher has to be prepared for the unexpected. Language teachers and learners work within a number of interrelated limitations. Such constraints, often associated with the

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restricted time and resources accessible to teachers and students, typically include the number of set contact hours for a course, the length and duration of the class, preparation period, access to new technology and software development budget, technical support, ancillary learning materials, etc. All of these will directly affect the teacher in the classroom. The language teacher must be able to identify and understand the impact of genuine constraints and be able to work within them creatively. Conceptualizing language teaching or CALL without such restrictions and suggesting "ideal conditions"-as is often the case for theoretically driven models of language teaching and learning-is something that should be ignored in terms of effective planning and execution in actual educational settings. Working to an ideal without limits or constraints does not really offer much in this sense. That's why the best professional development courses in pre-service and in-service incorporate realistic constraints into the activities that trainee language teachers are required to complete. Then, later, novice teachers will be in a much stronger position to operate within the constraints that will inevitably impinge on their work during their professional lives. TPACK and Teacher Education In Chapter Twelve, we discuss the issue of literacy as far as CALL environment is concerned. We will introduce a range of literacies from computer literacy, to information literacy, multimedia literacy, to digital literacy. Furthermore, we explain that teacher literacy is one factor contributing to CALL success. Teacher technophobia and lack of self-confidence due to lack of digital literacy are also mentioned as major obstacles in front of teachers. One of the models regarding teacher literacy in CALL education is TPACK. TPACK is an acronym for Technological Practical, and Content Knowledge. This model was developed by Mishra and Koehler in 2006. This model is the most well-known one; however, there are other models including High possibility Classroom (HPC)

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and Substitution, Augmentation, Modification, and Redefinition (SAMR). In this section, we focus on the TPACK model and interested readers to expand their knowledge on the HPC and SAMR will find Hunter (2015) a useful source. TPACK might be used to expand our understanding of how teachers could conceive their knowledge of technology integration in teaching. Mishra and Koehler (2009) argued that knowledge about technology was not context-free, and good teaching required an understanding of how technology related to pedagogy and content. Mishra and Koehler (2009) claimed that “there was no single technological solution that applies for every teacher, every course, or every view of teaching” (p. 66). In Chapter Four, we discussed the complexity of CALL based on the complex system theory in details. In this regard, we maintain that if technology is to be effectively incorporated into classroom practice, all three aspects of curriculum, pedagogy, and technology have to be taken into consideration, not in isolation, but in dynamic, vibrant relationships that characterize teaching practice. The framework of TPACK developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006) emerged over the last decade and changed from TPCK, to its current TPACK form a couple years later. The framework built on Shulman’s (1986, 1987) conception of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) by explicitly integrating the component of technological knowledge. The TPACK framework gained widespread popularity in 2006 after Mishra and Koehler’s seminal paper was published. The paper outlined the framework and articulated the relationship between content, pedagogy and technology both in isolation and in pairs of content knowledge (CK), pedagogical knowledge (PK) and technology knowledge (TK). This move evolved into pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), technological content knowledge (TCK) and technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) and all three came together as technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). Figure 1 displays the relationships between and among the elements in TPACK.

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Figure 11.1. TPACK framework and its elements

As Figure 11.1 displays, the seven components of the model and their relationships are explained below (Hunter, 2015): Content knowledge (CK): It is knowledge of the particular subject matter to be learned or studied. Awareness and the essence of inquiry varies significantly between disciplines and it is crucial that teachers consider the deeper components of awareness of the discipline they teach. Pedagogical knowledge (PK): This is in-depth understanding of the teaching and learning processes and activities or approaches and it covers instructional objectives, principles and goals. Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): It is related to the concept of pedagogy by Shulman (1986, 1987) which refers to the teaching of specific material. This expertise involves understanding what methods to teaching match the material, as well as understanding how material components can be organized for effective teaching. Technology knowledge (TK): It is experience of modern

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technology like books, chalk and blackboard, and new technologies like the Internet and streaming media. This means the expertise required to manage different technology. Technological content knowledge (TCK): That is the knowledge of the way that technologies and information are connected to each other. Although technology limits the kinds of representations that are available, emerging developments also offer younger and more diverse representations and more freedom to maneuver through these representations. Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK): This is knowledge of the nature, components and capabilities of different technologies as they are used in teaching and learning environments, and conversely understanding how teaching could change as a result of the use of such technologies. Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK): Following this landmark paper was added the "A" defining TPACK. This is an new field of information that goes through all three (content, pedagogy, and technology) elements. This expertise is separate from a professional or technology expert's expertise and also from the broader pedagogical information that teachers share across disciplines (Hunter, 2015). Assessing CALL Teacher Training The use of CALL in language programs has become a standard and expected part of a curriculum. ESL and EFL programs find the use and knowledge of CALL to be essential to effective instruction (Warschauer & Healey 1998). Nevertheless, CALL education and training basically is obtained in informal contexts such as seminars and conference and workshops. It then seems that accredited CALL education and training systems have largely stopped equipping their students with respect to the technical knowledge and skills that trainees need in technically qualified classrooms to excel. Kessler (2005) notes that in early 2004, a visit to 50 North American TESOL

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graduate websites found that only eight had any mention of CALL as a feature within their course work. Only three of these included a CALL course among requirements (Kessler, 2005). The situation of CALL education Iran in 2020 might be the same as, if not worse, the atmosphere Kessler reported in 2005. There are a few universities in Iran that have CALL education in their Masters or PhD programs. As a component of teacher education in CALL, there is general consensus that teachers ought to know how to evaluate CALL materials. Chapelle (2001) believes that some aspects must be considered for evaluating CALL tasks: Aspects of theory and research, learner fit, meaning focus, authenticity, and practicality. In addition, Levy (1997) states that teachers require continuous support to implement and appreciate CALL effectively. As commonly referred by many authors, the lack of sufficient teacher training for technology-enhanced instruction is the biggest limitation in CALL education. Clark and Gorski (2001) say that CALL's inexperienced teachers often use technologies in ways that detract from teaching. One of the main problems they have found is the difficulty of identifying when not using technology; when it would be more acceptable based on traditional techniques. For example, through having students interact with each other in real time via web-based discussion boards when they are physically in the same position, it can confuse and detract from the opportunity for meaningful contact. Abdal-Haqq (1995) suggests that classroom training programs still fail to meet the needs of teachers at school due to the outdated existence of the tools they choose to use. Participants are likely to learn how to use older technologies and programs in these courses, and are therefore not prepared to integrate new developments that better serve their participants ' needs. It has also been suggested that a sense of fear exists among technology consumers who are not fully inspired. Teachers not inclined to use technology often react negatively to conditions where they are expected to do so (Egbert & Thomas, 2001). It may seem logical that our

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personal use of computers will have a positive influence on our professional use of computers, but the background and opportunities may be quite different. This theory would counter the long-held myth that any native speaker should teach grammar without a strong study of grammar. Just like grammar education, the use of CALL involves intimate and comprehensive knowledge of technology that is guided pedagogically and educated by literature. Our knowledge and use of CALL should not depend solely on the skills we learn when we dabble in personal Internet use, email, and online chatting (Hubbard & Levy, 2006). Several studies suggest teachers sometimes fail to continue to practice the computer / technology-related skills they have acquired in teacher training classes at CALL (Butler-Pascoe, 1995). CALL teacher training has been reported to have little effect on the way teachers learn about technology and its use in classrooms (Cuban, 1986; Feiman-Nemser & Remillard, 1996). Research has found that teachers tend to apply and implement very little of what they learned before they start teaching in CALL teacher training programs unless they were already technically involved in prior to the education training program. They may be more interested in broadening their knowledge and skills by their peers than any other formal training approach (Egbert et al., 2002). However, some attempts have been made to find potential alternative solutions to technology training. Notwithstanding many reasons that make technologies ineffective or underused, resource quality is mostly considered to be the reason why technology was not used to teach. ESL societies are generally developed on a multicultural makeup and therefore are subject to the negative effect of this phenomenon (Clark & Gorski, 2001). Despite ongoing debate regarding the digital divide, it is necessary for teachers to know current conditions. Conclusion Research findings on teacher preparation include suggestions for teachers to be able to evaluate language learning systems, incorporate

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tutors and resources, identify applicable emerging technologies, and reconcile alignment with instructional objectives. As research remains more sophisticated and more conscious of the increasingly complex nature of language learning and teaching, Valuable insights will be offered on how CALL teacher preparation is best conducted to address these recommendations. They can also predict the development of criteria programs outlining specific expectations for a variety of cultural and linguistic contexts. All of these advances are likely to contribute to a greater awareness among language teachers about the importance of lifelong learning. CALL application is now becoming more widespread in EFL/ESL language pedagogy especially with the normalization of the Internet, and teachers are required to be more proficient in their knowledge of CALL methods, practices, and potentials. Moreover, teachers need to be keen to experiment with CALL possibilities to understand which one might work best for their purpose. Research on the efficiency of different CALL training methods and approaches is necessary to promote our knowledge of the way training may best be done. To sum up, it is not only the duty of CALL researchers but also of managers and academy who ought to act purposefully to respond to this increasing dilemma. Consequently, teachers must be educated explicitly in CALL to be competent for making sound decisions concerning the method of application. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. …… knowledge refers to the knowing how the elements of content can be arranged for better teaching. a) Content b) Pedagogical c) Technology d) Technological pedagogical

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2. CALL education and training basically is obtained in ...... contexts such as ......... a) Formal, seminars and conferences b) Informal, websites and social networks c) Informal, seminars and conferences d) Formal, websites and social networks 3. What is the effective instruction in the view point of ESL and EFL program? a) The use of CALL in language programs b) The knowledge of CALL in language programs c) The use and knowledge of CALL in language programs d) The use literacy of CALL in language programs 4. Which of the following is the characteristic of basic CALL skills for language teachers? a) Using internet search engine to find relevant movie b) Using a combination of personally created images c) Using instructional materials, media, or technology d) Editing the movie files 5. Which one is NOT among CALL teacher educational challenges? a) Preparing for a distance or hybrid instruction b) Expanding learning opportunities beyond the classroom by incoming abundant new social tools c) Invisibility of technology in education by normalization d) lacking their students’ interactive activities

Chapter Twelve Literacy in CALL Introduction As mentioned in the previous chapters on the history of CALL and approaches to CALL in details, the emergence of CALL dates back to the 1950s and 1960s when mainframe computers were used for language teaching. During this time, some important projects such as Stanford and PLATO were developed for writing instructional materials. These early attempts were limited due to the cost of the mainframes and were based on behavioristic psychology. Later, the spread of inexpensive microcomputers in the early 1980s and the introduction of multimedia and the Internet in 21st century, as well as an awareness of the potential benefits of technology in language learning, led to an increase in the use of technological tools in language instruction (Chapelle, 2001). Instructors can exploit new technology facilities such as authentic materials, multimedia, and communication through networking to improve language pedagogy. The Internet can be used to design more student-centered materials by considering learners' individual differences (Shin & Son, 2007). Moreover, technologies such as e-creation tools provide great opportunities for both teachers and learners to participate actively in creating educational products. These tools open up numerous potential dynamic zones for language learners' proximal development. Likewise, utilizing communicative, writing/reading, and listening facilitating e-tools (e.g., discussion

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boards, instant messaging, writeboard, wikis, podcasts, and vodcasts) promote language teaching and learning in terms of different language skills. According to Erben, et al. (2009), the use of technology in classrooms has been found to promote discovery learning, the autonomy of learners, and learner-centeredness of pedagogy. Furthermore, it facilitates the implementation of differentiated instruction. Computers and the Internet empower language teachers to plan tasks and projects for language classrooms (Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000). Naturally, these ongoing developments in the use of computer for language teaching necessitate literate teachers and learners in this field. Currently, the traditional concept of literacy has been changed into a broader concept which includes computer literacy (Bitter & Davis, 1985). This new definition of literacy is due to widespread use of computers which has exerted considerable influence on everyday lives and educational institutions. Accordingly, teachers should be prepared for technology-driven educational systems. To this end, the need for training knowledgeable teachers in terms of using and integrating computers in education appropriately seems to be of paramount importance (Overbaugh, 1993). Ozsevges (2010) believes that today computer literacy forms an essential part of undergraduate curriculum. Foreign language teachers like all other teachers are bombarded by the elements of the computer age. Zhang and Barber (2008) emphasize the role of computer in language learning and teaching and the necessity of taking advantage of computer scientists' knowledge for a more successful use of technology in the process of language teaching. In spite of the importance of computer literacy, teachers are less skilled in relation to their students regarding the use of new technologies. This situation makes the teachers update their skills for the use and integration of new technologies in the process of language teaching. In addition, Milman and Kortecamp (2006) claim that a large number of pre-service teachers are not computer literate. According to

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Winnas and Brown (1992), teachers' low implementation of computer is due to their lack of knowledge and skills for computer. Kessler (2006) asserts that one of the teachers' obstacles in using technology for language teaching is the focus of training programs on digital literacy or software specific orientation. Although these programs help them in the use of technology, they cannot prepare them to employ technology in the process of language teaching. Compton (2009) suggests offering trainee teachers virtual field experience in online language teaching. Hasselbring (1991) states that merely providing teachers with powerful technology does not suffice and there is a need for long-term pre-service and in-service training for the efficient use of technology. However, as Pilus (1995) mentions, teachers should not think of computers as magicians or teachers' substitutes; instead they must treat them like other teaching tools. In the other words, as Norman (1993) states, "technology should serve us". He believes in a learner -centered approach toward technology use which means adopting multimedia and technologies in a way that enhances human learning and aids human cognition. Therefore, to adopt this approach, as it was mentioned by other researchers, teachers must be trained enough to use this tool appropriately (Pilus, 1995; Daniel, 2010). As Luke and Britten (2007) mention, teacher education programs are the starting point for teachers in acquiring technological knowledge. Furthermore, Kern (2011) emphasizes and highlights the need to be familiar with technology constraints and knowing when the use of computer is not appropriate. Language teachers might have affirmative attitudes towards CALL but be not competent when it comes to the application of CALL for class purposes. As previously mentioned in the chapter on teacher education, it needs to be rightly considered in teacher training/education courses to appropriately tackle and mitigate the problem. Using CALL has been regarded as a revolution affecting all areas of human life throughout the language learning history. The computer as a tool is used in order to facilitate learning of language (Hubbard,

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2010). It is powerless and has no inborn wisdom; no initiative and inherent ability to learn or to teach and it is totally the servant of the user, and it is dependent on the teacher in many cases. For example, it is impossible to create educational materials without the help of the teacher. All the teaching, linguistic materials and instructions must be specified by the teacher. It is the teacher who decides what degree of control the computer will have in his/her classes (Chapelle, 2001). In other words, the teacher should have literacy in this filed. Throughout the 20th century, calls to expand the concept of literacy have arisen from a number of scholars from different disciplinary and intellectual backgrounds, including media studies, technology education, literary studies, library and information sciences, education, cultural studies, and the visual arts. By and large, the discourse between these scholarly fields has been limited, and only a few scholars have served as intermediaries and translators, framing ideas across multiple fields (Kellner, 1995; Tyner, 1998). Literacy has come under different terms in the literature: “Digital literacy” (Gilster, 1997), “electronic literacy” (Warshauer, 1999), “techno-literacy” (Erben, 1999), “new literacies” (Lankshear & Knobel, 2003), “media literacy” (Semali & Pailliotet, 1999), and “multiple literacies” (Pierce, 2002). Some of them will be explained later in this chapter. A Sociocultural Concept of Literacy The intricacy attached to the term teachers' literacy with respect to CALL can be elucidated by ecological and sociocultural (SCT) perspectives (Vygotsky, 1978; Lantolf, 2000; van Lier, 2004) and complexity theory (Larsen-Freeman, 1997; Soleimani & Alavi, 2013; Waldrop, 1992). According to van Lier, "since ecology studies organisms in their relations with the environment‚ ecology is a contextualized or situated form of research" (p. 3). Actually, he highlights the complexity existing in our relations with a dynamic environment, or more exactly a situated context, which, as he elaborates, is non-linear or emergent, value-laden, critical, variable,

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diverse, and active. It can accordingly be said that relying on the ecological perspective, one can envisage teachers who would act in a world convoluted by many agents and even teachers act as components adding more to this complexity. In the same vein, SCT gives crucial significance to functioning in context or situations of cultural, institutional, and historical considerations. Central to SCT is mediation, which is realized by others, self, or artifacts (Lantolf, 2000) and that mediation has turned far more complex. Teachers play the role of mediators in the interactions shaped in the complex environment of CALL. Further, as Lamy and Hampel (2007) put it, presently to be an effective CALL teacher, it would not suffice to solely depend on our expertise rather we will need to identify strategies to make online learning more facile and drive learners to apply those strategies. Therefore, no longer are teachers the mere distributors of knowledge, rather they are in momentary and steady connection with the applicants in a multidimensional context. Back to the theoretical foundations, to create a link between teachers' literacy, CALL, and complexity theory, it sounds reasonable to think of teachers acting in a system represented by a collective behavior as the consequence of interactions among elements in the system in a "complex, dynamic, non-linear, self-organizing, open, emergent, sometimes chaotic, and adaptive [manner]" (LarsenFreeman, 1997, p. 4). These characteristics which specify the complexity of any system in the world could be generalizable to teachers' literacy, making it a more intricate definition than ever. No longer are teachers living in a static environment and the very dynamic nature of their career with respect to CALL evokes technical knowledge, computer knowledge, knowledge on online infrastructures developed for educational purposes and the multidirectional interactions.

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Warshauer’s Taxonomy of Literacy in CALL A taxonomy by Warshauer (2002) differentiated four electronic literacies, namely “computer literacy” dealing with being at ease while keyboarding and operating computer, “information literacy” pertaining to locating and evaluating online information, “multimedia literacy” in relation to sounds and images, and “computer-mediated communication literacy” on teachers’ knowledge of how online interactions are formed by individuals and groups. Computer Literacy Computer literacy is the ability to use computer adequately for creating, communicating and collaborating in a literate community (Son, Robb, & Charismiadji, 2011). Computer literacy can be defined from two vantage points, each of which is informed by a dynamic mixture of skills that are needed to access and manipulate digitally encoded information. For an individual, it simply means being able to use the computer as a means to an end. A person who uses a vehicle to get from point a to point b must know how to drive, have a basic understanding of the need for automobile maintenance (such as having the oil changed), and demonstrate knowledge of the rules of the road. That person does not need any in-depth knowledge of how a car functions. In a similar fashion, attaining competence in using computers to perform personal or vocational tasks is the most rudimentary form of computer literacy. It is not essential that computer users know how the machine does what it does, although such knowledge might provide motivation for more sophisticated or increasingly efficient use or serve as a foundation for understanding how computers function in the social order. Hence, computer literacy can also be defined as one element of information literacy and as a collective concept that includes a grasp of the economic, social, and political consequences of widespread computer use. Computers receive information as input by human beings. They then store, process, retrieve, and provide results in the form of displayed or printed output. All computer operations transpire in

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accordance with instructions that are written by human beings. At the most basic level, computer literacy means having the aptitude to manipulate these sets of instructions-rendered as programs or applications—to tell computers to process digital data in ways that serve human ends. Mastery of a word-processing program affords one the ability to create, edit, format, display, or print a document in record time. Computer literacy enables a person to exploit the computer's capacity for calculation and representation through use of spreadsheet and database applications. Computer literacy is critical for easy and immediate sorting, management, and association of a mixture of information that can be used for financial or inventory purposes. In their role as communication tools, computers serve to transfer information through programs that shift information from computer to computer, allowing it to be displayed as text or in graphic form. The concept can also include knowing how to connect to storehouses of information to satisfy curiosity or be entertained. A person who is computer literate should be able to use computers to perform a few tasks such as writing letters or reports, calculating and comparing numbers or objects, or communicating via connections that support e-mail or (perhaps) a web-page, as personal, business, or educational circumstances require. A modest definition of individual computer literacy turns, therefore, on knowing how to use computers to personal advantage. It means using computers to do what they do best—storing, accessing, and repetitively and rapidly processing massive quantities of data for human interpretation, which adds value that turns data into information. The definition might include knowing how to connect to storehouses of information to satisfy curiosity or be entertained. Computer literacy is not corroborated through a tidy checklist that enumerates how many and which functions an individual can complete using the tool. It occurs in the intersection of knowing how to do or find what one needs or wants in a particular place, at a particular time, for particular reasons. Similar to the driver's

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understanding of the need for basic car maintenance, a rudimentary definition of computer literacy would also include awareness of the basic elements of, and forces associated with, this machine. The coincidence of computer use and connectivity have brought about a changed atmosphere wherein users, regardless of their level of knowhow, are aware that terms such as "hardware," "byte," "monitor," "modem," "bandwidth," "virus," and "protocol" have distinct meanings. Even if a user does not fully understand all of the vocabulary that comes with computer use, these words permeate public consciousness and emphasize a presumed need for computer literacy. Fundamental understanding of computer capabilities and configuration in networks suggests an expanded definition of computer literacy that recognizes the effect that computers have had on society. The notion of computer literacy thus grows to include access to means of improving one's computer skills through education or additional experience. Some empirical studies on the role of computer literacy has been done to examine its effect in CALL settings. Ozsevgec (2011) in a study investigated the computer literacy of sophomore and senior preservice teachers. The results revealed no significant difference between these two groups in terms of computer literacy. He suggested that the content of computer courses should be improved and redesigned. Son and Robb (2010) examined the level of computer literacy of in-service EFL teachers and found teachers were low competent in the use of CALL and there is a need for offering them opportunities to use different applications and improve their competency. In addition, it was found that their level of computer literacy was under the influence of individual differences which implies a need for different training programs for teachers. Ozsevgec (2011) investigated the computer literacy of 270 sophomore and senior pre-service teachers. The result indicated no difference between the two groups in this regard. The result implies a need for improving the content of computer courses and skills. In another study, Sardegna

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and Yu (2015) examined the computer literacy of 32 in-service elementary school teachers attending an EFL teaching certification program. According to the results, most of the teachers assessed their computer literacy as adequate. However, some of them need to be trained on some basic computer skills. The results of an action research by Dellicarpini and College (2012) suggest that highlycontextualized practice during pedagogy courses allows language teachers to improve their knowledge and skills in terms of technology use in the classroom. To Soleimani, Rohani, and Jafarigohar (2017), if distance education pedagogy is to be successful, it requires teachers with different levels of computer, information, and multimedia literacy. Teachers' computer literacy has caught considerable attention due to the great opportunities provided by modern technology for promoting language education. In a study, they explored computer, information, and multimedia literacy of 255 Iranian EFL teachers, and found that the level of EFL teachers' multimedia and information literacy ranged from low to moderate which necessitates improving teachers' training courses and preparing them for implementing technologies in real language teaching contexts. Information Literacy Information literacy is defined by the Association of College and Research Libraries as "the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning.” The United States National Forum on Information Literacy defines information literacy as "... the hyper ability to know when there is a need for information, to be able to identify, locate, evaluate, and effectively use that information for the issue or problem at hand." The American Library Association defines "information literacy" as a set of abilities requiring individuals to "recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed

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information. Other definitions incorporate aspects of "skepticism, judgment, free thinking, questioning, and understanding..." or incorporate competencies that an informed citizen of an information society ought to possess to participate intelligently and actively in that society. According to Bawden (2001), information literacy refers to recognizing a need for information, identifying, locating, evaluating, and using that information effectively for dealing with a problem. This definition is similar to that of American Library Association (1989). An information literate person discerns the necessity for information and is able to locate, evaluate, analyze and use the information appropriately (Kurbanoglu, Akkoyunlu & Umay, 2006). The Internet has offered us numerous opportunities for gathering, producing, and disseminating information (Thorne & Black, 2008). This avalanche of information available on the Internet shows the importance of information literacy in academic settings. Saracevic (2014) compares the information environment to a jungle which includes rapid changes and evolvements. Moreover, Bruce (2002) considers complexity and the constant change of this environment as the main factors which necessitate equipping learners with competencies for handling this situation. Korobili, Malliari, Daniilidou, and Christodoulou (2011) state that the importance of information literacy is widely accepted by teachers according to the results of previous studies; However, they come up with difficulties in promoting it for different reasons. Korobili, et al., (2011) examined the information literacy level of 500 high school teachers in Greece. The results showed that teachers were low users of e-sources and they were not at a level to help students in attaining information literacy. So, they recommended teachers to attend information literacy training seminars to improve their competencies. Probert (2009) in a study among teachers of three schools in New Zealand found that although a number of teachers had some understanding of information literacy, they were not successful at conveying helpful strategies and skills to students.

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As far as the importance of information literacy is concerned, a set of answers might be reasonable: Acquiring skills to translate information into knowledge is relevant to all disciplines, better research skills can produce more effectively-argued research papers, information literacy empowers students to learn for themselves and make informed decisions, students are new to scholarship and the academy, and their mental models can be different from those of faculty, and information literacy gives students strategies to look for bias and assess context when evaluating information, information literacy is linked to professional competency and gives graduates skills that are relevant to their work and personal lives. Media Literacy Media literacy encompasses the practices that allow people to access, critically evaluate, and create media. Media literacy is not restricted to one medium. The US-based National Association for Media Literacy Education defines it as the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, create, and act using all forms of communication. Media literacy education is intended to promote awareness of media influence and create an active stance towards both consuming and creating media. Media literacy education is part of the curriculum in the United States and some European Union countries, and an interdisciplinary global community of media literacy scholars and educators engages in knowledge sharing through scholarly and professional journals and national membership associations. Multimedia Literacy In a multimedia world, it is not possible to focus exclusively on the spoken or written element, treating everything else as marginal - as non-linguistic extras. All the elements combine in a single communicative act, and their joint roles need to be considered. With the advent of digital technologies and generational online developments such as Web 2.0, media literacy has now turned into multimedia literacy, where future media professionals learn to write, produce video and audio, edit, link, curate, and disseminate the

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content produced as individual communicators rather than members of a production team where each member specializes in one or two of these aspects to media production. Multimedia literacy is the set of abilities that enables an individual to effectively find, interpret, evaluate, use, and create multimedia. Simultaneously there has been an increase in efforts to globalize educational experiences for students. Mayer (2001) defines multimedia literacy as the ability to understand the information which is presented using a combination of different forms of media such as audio, images, and videos. Multimedia literate students are both involved in creating and consuming multimedia documents challengingly (Unic, Preradovic, Sudarevic, & Boras, 2014). Table 12.1 displays various views on multimedia by Mayer (2009). Table 12.1. Three Views of Multimedia (Mayer, 2009) View

Definition

Delivery media

Two or more delivery devices

Presentation mode

Verbal and pictorial representations

Sensory mode

Auditory and visual sense

Example Computer screen and amplified speakers; projector and lecturer's voice On-screen texts and animation; printed texts and illustrations Narration and animation; lecture and slides

According to Ware (2008), multimedia literacy motivates students much more than mere print-based literacy. It can afford language learners alternative visual and verbal ways to create texts. He states that technology should be integrated in both in-school and after school learning activities. CMC Literacy The prevalence of text-based computer-mediated communication has enormous impact on the growing amount of research into the

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distinctive features of the text-based CMC (e.g. Baron 1984, 1998, 2001; Herring 1996; Davis & Brewer 1997; Snyder, 1998; Paolillo 1999; Crystal 2001). Communication which is mediated by the computer and the Internet may be described with a number of terms, including virtual communication, online communication, electronic communication, cyber communication, or even cyber conversation. All these are technically referred to as CMC, which can simply be defined as a domain of information exchange via the computer (Baron 1998). To be more precise, this domain includes all those electronic messaging tools and systems, which can be divided into two major categories: asynchronous communication tools and synchronous CMC. Typical examples of asynchronous CMC are electronic mail systems, bulletin board system (BBS), newsgroups, and mailing lists. Synchronous CMC tools include instant messaging systems like ICQ (I-Seek-You), Yahoo Messenger, MSN Messenger, or chat room systems such as Internet Relay Chat (IRC). Apart from the aspect of synchronicity, CMC systems can also be characterized in terms of structures of interaction: One-to-one interaction, one-to-many interaction, and many-to-many interaction (also called group interaction) (Moran & Hawisher 1998). For instance, a mailing list like the Linguist List2 would be an example of one-to-many CMC system, where a message is often sent to an unknown group of recipients. Having information in this field and learning how to use them to communicate refers to its literacy. Multimedia in the Teaching/Learning Process Generally speaking, multimedia learning involves utilizing components of multimedia to produce an integrated educational environment. Soleimani and Mirsayafi (2018) have summarized the role of multimedia theory in teaching and learning process. According to Mayer (2001), multimedia learning refers to the cognitive effects or mental images which are formed as consequences of being exposed to a multimedia show. Multimedia learning occurs when people build

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mental representations from words (such as spoken text or printed text) and pictures (such as illustrations, photos, animation, or video). The process by which people build mental representations from words and pictures is the focus of Mayer’s (2001) Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. He believes that multimedia offers teachers and students new ways to enhance the teaching/learning process. Multimedia is important in education because it holds great promise in improving the quality of education. That is, it provides teachers and students with the tools to access multiple images and sounds. Teachers can “break free” from the constraints of textbooks and the chalkboard. Classes can experience specific learning material, know about its background in real-time or slow motion (Mayer, 2001, p. 34). Furthermore, in learning English there is interactivity which means mutual actions between the learner, the learning system, and the learning material (Stanfford, 1990). Multimedia Principles In order to take many advantages of multimedia in language learners’ skills development, certain conditions and principle need to apply. Soleimani and Mirsayafi (2018) in a comprehensive study reviews the basic principles for designing multimedia learning environments which are briefly presented below. Multiple Representation Principle Based on this principle, it would have better results to present an explanation using two modes of representation rather than one. For example, students who listened to a narration explaining how a bicycle tire pump works while also viewing a corresponding animation generated twice as many useful solutions to subsequent problem-solving transfer questions than did students who listened to the same narration without viewing any animation. This result is called a multimedia learning effect. The multimedia effect is consistent with a cognitive theory of multimedia learning because students given multimedia explanations are able to build two different

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mental representations verbal model and a visual model--and build connections between them. Contiguity Principle Based on contiguity principle students understand an explanation better when related words and pictures are presented at the same time than in separated time. For example, students who read a text explaining how tire pumps work that included captioned illustrations placed near the text generated about 75% more useful solutions on problem-solving transfer questions than did students who read the same text and illustrations presented on separate pages (Mayer, Steinhoff, Bower, & Mars, 1995). Accordingly, this result is called a contiguity effect. The results are consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning because corresponding words and pictures must be in working memory at the same time in order to facilitate the construction of referential links between them (cited in Soleimani & Mirsayafi, 2018). Split-attention Principle According to this principle, when giving a multimedia explanation, it is best to present words as auditory narration rather than as visual on-screen text. In other words, the third principle is that words should be presented auditory rather than visually. For example, students who viewed an animation depicting the formation of lightning while also listening to a corresponding narration generated approximately 50% more useful solutions on a subsequent problemsolving transfer test than did students who viewed the same animation with corresponding on-screen text consisting of the same words as the narration (Mayer & Moreno, 1995). Individual Differences Principle The fourth principle is that multimedia effects, contiguity effects, and split-attention effects depend on individual differences in the learner. This principle is more important for low knowledge than high-knowledge learners, and for high-spatial rather than low-spatial learners. For example, students who lack background knowledge

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tended to show stronger multimedia effects and contiguity effects than students who possessed high levels of prior knowledge (Mayer et al., 1995). Additionally, students who scored high on spatial ability tests showed greater multimedia effects than did students who scored low on spatial ability (Mayer & Sims, 1994). Coherence Principle This principle expresses that students learn better from a coherent summary which highlights the relevant words and pictures than from a longer version of the summary. Thus it is recommended to use few rather than many extraneous words and pictures when giving a multimedia explanation. For example, students who read a passage explaining the steps in how lightning forms along with corresponding illustrations generated 50% more useful solutions on a subsequent problem-solving transfer test than did students who read the same information with additional details inserted in the materials (Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars & Tapangco, 1996; Harp & Mayer, 1997). Conclusion Technology provides numeral opportunities for language learning such as interacting with native speakers and accessing authentic materials for language learning and these language learning potentials necessitates enhancing language instruction in the classroom (Lai & Gu, 2011). So, teachers should be technologically knowledgeable enough to implement appropriate technological tools for instruction. Moreover, teachers' technological literacy is essential for guiding language learners on how to use technological resources for learning. Since language learners usually spend a short time in language classrooms in EFL contexts and have no access to native speakers, teachers are recommended to help and guide language learners to use technology outside the classroom (Lai, 2014). Accordingly, teachers themselves should be competent enough for applying technology in instruction and guiding learners.

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A radically different image of the student is implied in the classrooms described than in more typical transmission-oriented classrooms. Within the framework of multi literacies pedagogy, broadly defined, educators expand the opportunities for students to express themselves, their intelligence, imagination and linguistic and artistic talents. When this kind of expression is enabled, students see themselves as intelligent, imaginative and talented. It is essential that the concept of literacy be expanded to include visual, audio, interactive and combined media, and that we continually ask ourselves what it means to be truly literate and, by extension, educated in the 21st century. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. The intricacy attached to the term teachers' literacy with respect to CALL can be elucidated by all of the following theories except ……… a) Ecological theories b) Sociocultural approaches c) Complex system theory d) Automatizing theories 2. Based on the taxonomy by Warshauer (2002), “computer literacy” deals with ……………. a) being at ease while keyboarding and operating computer b) locating and evaluating online information c) sounds and images d) computer-mediated literacy 3. “The hyper ability to know when there is a need for information, to be able to identify, locate, evaluate, and effectively use that information for the issue or problem at hand” is called …………… literacy. a) Digital b) Information c) Multimedia d) Computer

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4. Based on Mayer’s view of multimedia, verbal and pictorial representations is a part of …………… a) Delivery media b) Presentation mode c) Sensory mode d) Multiple literacy 5. According to Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia, “when giving a multimedia explanation, it is best to present words as auditory narration rather than as visual on-screen text”. This is referred to ……………. principle. a) Contiguity b) Split-attention c) Multiple representation d) Individual difference

Section Two Technology and Language Skills Introduction As a consequence of post-method pedagogy in EFL/ESL, the integration of four language skills has been supported both theoretically and empirically. In the same way, CALL principles encourage to integrate all the listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills to promote the language proficiency of the learners. An advantage of CALL environments over traditional methods, as far as language skills are concerned, is the individualization of learning and learner autonomy. CALL tools and software available to students and teachers support learning specific skills. In the 20th Anniversary Issue of Language Learning & Technology (June, 2016), Robert Blake provides a valuable review of some key developments in the four skills for CALL, framing it under the umbrella of task-based language teaching. He notes that isolating each of the four-skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) in practice is no longer as relevant as it was historically, given contemporary views of integrated language development and multi-modal expression. However, the content and commentary that the article provides remain valuable for curricula incorporating technology, regardless of whether they isolate or integrate those skills. In the new millennium, with the spread of and access to the |Internet, the use of computer technology for teaching and learning all language skills has dramatically increased. It paves the way for

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learners and practitioners to get access to Web tools (especially Web 2.0 and web 3.0), social media, reference materials, online instruction, and more. The end goal of language learners is communication in the real world; therefore, focus on different language skills in separation and integration of skills are major concerns in CALL classrooms. Because of globalization in language learning and teaching and the spread of technology, educators must try to prepare students for emerging literacies (they were discussed in the chapter on CALL literacy) that involve digital literacies (Leu et al. 2004) and skills in collaborative learning and co‐construction of knowledge, as discussed in the previous chapters on sociocultural theory of learning and constructivism and language learning. Simultaneously, many Web 2.0 technologies are being designed and used for different L2 learners to improve their language skills for effective communication through language.

Chapter Thirteen Reading in CALL Reading theories: A Brief Review In the literature related to reading theories, there are three types of perspectives to explain the reading process: Structural, cognitive, and metacognitive. Structural theories are in fact the “bottom-up” or the “outside-in” views. They focus on the printed page and believe that meaning exists in the text and readers have to decode the meaning from the text with their knowledge of grammar and vocabulary (linguistic knowledge). In other words, to decode meaning, they are required to know a set of hierarchically-ordered sub-skills that finally result in improving reading comprehension ability. In this view, readers are passive recipients of information. However, this structural view has been criticized since it heavily relies on the linguistic and formal features of language such as vocabulary, structure/grammar, and text itself and deemphasizes the role of factors other than language itself which contribute to meaning including the contextual comprehension factors. The cognitive view or the “top-down” approach, on the contrary, believes in the role of background knowledge in reading and emphasizes the interactive nature of reading and the constructive aspects of comprehension. From the top-down perspective, reading is defined as a psycholinguistic guessing game where readers use their background knowledge and schema and contextual cues to make hypotheses and then to test it (confirm or reject them) or probably to make new hypotheses.

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Proponents of the metacognitive view claim that reading is a process of active meaning construction where readers make use of both linguistic knowledge from the external printed text and their own internal background knowledge and schemata. Furthermore, proficient readers often use a variety of appropriate metacognitive strategies to comprehend a text and monitor their understanding of the text. They believe that readers are better at activating background knowledge, identifying and planning reading tasks, and monitoring their own reading by applying metacognitive strategies (cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Reading with Technology Reading is a complex process, and when technology is added, reading gets much more complex. In the context of CALL, digital environments add visual and auditory features to a text; as a result, the reader needs to mix the information afforded by these technologies into the processes of reading comprehension (for affordance and technology, see the chapter on SCT and constructivism). In addition, due to the interactivity that is provided by Web technologies, especially Web. 20, reading has a social dimension of instantaneous connectedness not only with text but also with other people for exchanges and co‐construction of understanding. Within the cognitive theory of learning where noticing, working memory, automatization of word recognition, and activating prior knowledge are highly emphasized, theoretical bases for how online or multimedia reading scaffolds, such as dictionaries, glosses, and annotation have been provided that might affect reading comprehension. For example, Schmidt’s (1990) “noticing hypothesis” which maintains that attention is critical in the acquisition process of an L2 has provided the theoretical framework for exploring the effects of different types of multimedia glosses on text comprehension and vocabulary learning of computerized text (Hegelheimer & Chapelle, 2000, cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017).

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In addition, Mayer’s (2005) cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) has also been applied to develop multimedia text for L2 reading. Based on three general cognitive science principles (i.e., the dual‐channel assumption, the limited capacity assumption, and the active processing assumption), CTML states that successful learning happens in case readers select appropriate words and pictures, organize them into coherent pictorial and verbal models, and integrate them with each other and appropriate prior knowledge. An area which has not yet been fully studied is the integration of technology and sociocultural theories of learning. From the sociocultural point of view, reading is not a series of individualistic skills to be mastered but it is a social skill which needs active participation and interaction of learners involved. Although its implications have not been examined, the use of Web technology for social‐networking‐based learning in general and reading comprehension in particular has led to an increased interest among researchers and CALL material. Technologies to Teach Reading Commercial courseware One popular commercial courseware that was studied for its effectiveness for L2 learning of listening and reading is Longman English Online. A newer version, Longman English Interactive (LEI), was again examined and compared to another commercially available online courseware, Quartet Online (Quartet Scholar) by Dinçer and Parmaksız (2013). Rosetta Stone and Auralog’s TELL ME MORE are also popular, commercially available, technology‐mediated self‐study packages. Dictionaries, glosses, and annotations Today one can easily access millions of word definitions, spellings, audio pronunciations, example sentences, and word origins free from publishers like Cambridge, Oxford, Macmillan, and Dictonary.com who have teams of experienced lexicographers to

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compile and continuously update the content of their dictionaries. There are also dictionaries created by individual enthusiasts, such as WordReference.com. The SmartReader designed by Oflazer, Kemal, and Mitamura (2013) allows users to either choose a text from the system’s library or upload a document of their own to create intelligent e‐books. The vocabulary learning tool MyVLS‐Reader was specifically designed by Hsu and Ou Yang (2013) for university students majoring in science and technology and also provides multiple learning choices for its users. Concordancing tools A concordancer is a corpus analysis tool that extracts instances of a given word from a corpus, database, or the Internet and then presents to the user a list of the occurrences of the word, part of the word, or combinations of words, together with their contexts, from a corpus of texts. The development of corpus analysis software and computer networking makes it easier for learners to access free online concordances. Tom Cobb’s (2015) LEXTUTOR and William Fletcher’s (2015) Phrases in English are two sophisticated websites with concordancing tools freely available to users. More concordancing tools and other text analysis software can be found on the website made by David Lee (2010) (http://www.uow.edu.au/~dlee/ software.htm#Concordancers). Reading‐level classification tools Progress in computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, information extraction and retrieval enables the investigation of text using language variables related to text comprehension, cognitive processes, and other factors to go beyond the surface level features of language measured by traditional readability formulas. Cobb (2007) introduced frequency profiling software, VocabProfile, and a text comparison program, TexLexCompare. VocabProfile can find, adapt, or create texts to a pre‐specified lexical profile and coverage. TexLexCompare can establish degree of lexical recycling over a series

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of texts. Ghadirian (2002) developed a computer program, TextLadder, which can sort through teacher‐selected articles and find texts with a high proportion of target words ensuring multiple encounters with these words, and then sequence them for optimal presentation of vocabulary. Speech synthesis and speech recognition Text‐to‐Speech (TTS) is the process of synthesizing natural sounding speech from text via computer programs. Speech synthesis technology has been around since the 1960s and the tools applying the technology are now quite accessible. Many of them are freely available (e.g., Speak Selection, Screen Reader, Natural Reader) but some are commercial (e.g., Text Reader, Voice Dream Reader). Google Chrome also provides free TTS tools to support teaching and learning of reading (e.g., Select and Speak, SpeakIt!, Reading & Write for Google). Some TTS applications are created specifically for L2 learning. Voki, created by Oddcast, allows users to create their own talking avatar, speaking different accents. They can even be emailed, embedded on websites, or shared on social media. Teachers can use its classroom management system to assign students classwork. Speech recognition (SR), in essence, is the process of allowing computer software to interpret the meaning of a speaker’s utterances. SR also has been increasingly incorporated in L2 learning. There are many providers of commercially available CALL systems that use technology, including Rosetta Stone (Tell Me More), Pearson (MyLab), Scientific Learning (Soliloquy Reading Assistant), eLanguage (Learn to Speak), Carnegie Speech (NativeAccent), L Labs (MyET), Livemocha, English Central, Duolingo, Babbel, Aleo, and Berlitz. Studies have examined some SR software (e.g., IBM Reading Companion and Watch‐me!‐Read, Carnegie Mellon’s Project LISTEN, Colorado Literacy Tutor, University of Birmingham STAR Project) (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017).

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Webquests A webquest is a tool used to focus learners’ attention on particular content and promote their inquiry through the World Wide Web. These activities can be carried out individually or in small groups, depending on the organization of the task. As the link to content information is provided by the creator of the activity, it permits students to access the content they need to complete the task without spending a lot of time searching. If necessary, links to content on the Internet can be given to the learners instead of them searching for their own sites. Webquests are predesigned activities for learners to use to answer questions about a specific topic. Most are designed to be group activities therefore enhancing interaction. Teachers can create webquests that are developmentally appropriate for their own students. In this case, technology can be used for students to manage student learning and strategy learning. Using a webquest, student research skills can be practiced through guided inquiry. There are six or seven steps to create a webquest for your students’ use: Title: You need to begin by creating a title for your webquest. Introduction: In the introduction, explain what the students will learn. Here you need to speak directly to the students about how the activity will be carried out. Task: In this section, you must outline the end result of completing the activity. You must describe their success in terms of problem solving, project design, or something they need to analyze and then describe. In short, here you will clearly explain how the learner will use the information to create something, or change something. In other words, you will present the big picture of the assignment. Process: In this section, you will describe the exact steps the learners need to go through to find the information to do the task. Here, you may want to include suggestions on how to present the information they gather.

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Evaluation: The evaluation section will give learners feedback on how successfully they completed the assigned task. It is important to state specific objectives and provide a scale for evaluating the task. You must also indicate whether or not the task will be evaluated individually or as a group. Conclusion: The conclusion describes what the students have learned through the successful completion of the task. Credits: In this section, you must list any electronic sites or books that you cited in the creation of the webquest. Tip 1 There are a number of webquest makers especially designed for teachers and students. Two user-friendly sites are Zunal (http://zunal.com) and Questgarden (http://questgarden.com). Tip 2 Bernie Dodge from San Diego State University is credited as the inventor of webquests. His site at http://webquest.org contains hundreds of useful links and additional pages to learn more about the use of webquests in a classroom. He has also a database of webquests across all curriculum areas and grade levels that a teacher would find helpful for their ELLs (Erben, et al., 2009). Hypertext Hypertext refers to links among textual items, often indicated on a computer or website by key words set in underlined blue type, that, when highlighted by a pointer device (e.g. mouse, trackball, finger on a touch-sensitive screen) and selected or clicked, take the reader to the referent. These links are usually defined in terms of their activity and are referred to as hotlinks or hyperlinks or, increasingly commonly, simply links. The referent of the hyperlink might be a separate screen or so-called ‘page’ that obscures or replaces the first page, or simply a small box of text that appears to float above the initial page. For example, in a language-learning program, one might click on a hypertext link to go to one of several choices in a branching story and arrive at that link on another page, or simply click on a word

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to get a floating box offering its dictionary definition. Hypertext is often used to link text to materials traditionally contained in footnotes and annotations but may also include much more (Beatty, 2010). Hypermedia Hypermedia refers to similar links to those used in hypertext, but instead of simply linking text to text, hypermedia involves linking various media, such as sound, images, animation and/or video. For example, a word or picture might have a link to a sound file giving its pronunciation. A video of a language-learning opportunity, such as a shopping excursion, might be linked to an animation that shows the same exchanges simplified, omitting the distracting elements around the interactions between the shopper and the sales clerk. Or, an animation might focus on a related aspect, such as a review of the value of different denominations of money (Beatty, 2010). Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. Due to the interactivity that is provided by Web technologies, especially Web. 20, reading in CALL has a ………….. dimension of instantaneous connectedness not only with text but also with other people for co‐construction of understanding a) Bottom-up b) Top-down c) Social d) Textual 2. According to the ………… approach to reading in CALL, reading is a process of active meaning construction where readers make use of both linguistic knowledge from the external printed text and their own internal background knowledge and schemata. a) Metacognitive b) Cognitive c) Bottom-up d) Top-down 3. A concordancer is a …………….. tool that extracts instances of a given word from a database, or the Internet and then presents to the user a list of the occurrences of the word together with their

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contexts, from a corpus of texts. a) Corpus analysis b) Metacognitive c) Sociocultural d) Genre analysis 4. A ………………….. is a tool used to focus learners’ attention on particular content and promote their inquiry through the World Wide Web. a) Hypertext b) Hypermedia c) Webquest d) Concordance 5. A case in which , for example, a word or picture might have a link to a sound file giving its pronunciation is called ……………… a) Hypertext b) Hypermedia c) Webquest d) concordancer

Chapter Fourteen Writing in CALL Introduction In the modern world of digital technology and computer technology, the emergence of CMC technologies and IT are affecting writing practices in meaningful ways. As Relles and Tierney (2013) put it, “the integration of communication technologies with academic culture suggests that the writing habits of tomorrow’s students will be navigational across myriad discourse situations that do and will yet exist” (p. 501). Students at schools and high schools are required to do writing tasks to put together PowerPoint slides, or contribute text to blogs, and university students might be required to write persuasive or expository essays using Facebook or Twitter posts, or they write research reports using multimodal compositions containing text and visuals. At the same time, teachers must be prepared to face the challenge nature of writing in CALL settings. Fortunately, the new technologies that are influencing writing tasks also provide students and teachers with a variety of tools and software for improving the teaching of EFL/ESL (cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Technologies for L2 writing The technologies for second language writing are commonly divided into three kinds (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). First of all, the Web 2.0 program requires multiple users to be written, who contribute material to a popular web repository. The first division is the three's most

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general function. The second form is automatic writing assessment systems which are built essentially to evaluate the writing of the learners and give input to authors during the writing process. The third kind of technology is the corpus-based tools. In practice, they serve as a guide for L2 writers since they tactically analyze the language used in collections of existing electronic texts. Web 2.0 applications Web 2.0 tools include the variety of social media sites, such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as blogs. Beyond opportunities for communication, Web 2.0 applications like Google Docs provide the tools for collaborative writing. Lang‐8 (http://lang‐8.com/) is a good example of a social networking site designed to encourage L2 communication by creating a community where language learners are matched with native speakers of target languages. In addition to written corrections, Lang‐8 has integrated Skype, an online tool allowing for international, live video communication. Lang‐8 allows learners to practice writing on their own. Language instructors can also create groups on Lang‐8 and design collaborative writing activities for their students and others in the larger community. Google Docs, another important example, is a free online word processor within Google Drive, an office suite developed by Google Inc. Users need a Google account to create, edit, and share Google Docs files. Google Docs features a full-fledged word processor with an easy-to-use text-editing interface. Additionally, the composing and revision history on Google Docs is automatically saved and a record of the entire composing process is available for review (cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Automated writing evaluation Automated writing evaluation (AWE) systems have been developed to assist both native speakers and L2 learners to write more accurately by providing them with automated corrective feedback.

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Criterion (http://www.ets.org/criterion/) is a web-based commercial writing evaluation and feedback tool developed by Educational Testing Service (ETS, 2015). Criterion targets the writing instruction both in K12 programs and higher education and provides a holistic score. This web-based tool can be used at different stages of writing instruction for various purposes. Language instructors can use it in-class for an essay planning or a peer-feedback activity, or out-of-class for students to submit and revise based on the feedback. Turnitin (http://turnitin.com/) was initially launched as an online plagiarism prevention service by iParadigms, LLC, in 1997. Recently, through partnering with or acquiring other companies, iParadigms added more functions to Turnitin and transformed it from an originality-checking tool to a comprehensive platform of online automated grading and peer review (Turnitin, 2015). Writing Pal or W‐Pal is an automated intelligent tutoring system (ITS) developed by the Science of Learning and Educational Technology (SoLET) Lab at Arizona State University. W‐Pal’s intended users are native English-speaking students in high schools. However, English language learners in high school and college freshmen have also been included in some empirical studies of W‐Pal in the United States (cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Corpus‐based tools Corpus‐based pedagogies, data‐driven learning, are based on the idea that students need to have access to examples of language (i.e., data) as they write, and that such examples need to meet specific writing needs at the time of writing (Flowerdew 2009). Corpus tools, therefore, consist of corpora of texts as well as the software tools required for searching and displaying the examples. The Corpus of Contemporary American English (henceforth COCA, Davies 2008) serves as a good example of a widely used corpus. COCA (http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/) is a freely available online corpus of English, created by Mark Davies at Brigham Young

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University. The corpus has over 450 million words of text that covers spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspapers, and academic text genres. Users can search for exact words and phrases, parts of speech, and collocations through the COCA interface (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). In addition to the three categories mentioned above, some other technologies might be used in L2 writing classes including Writeboard, Blogs, and Wikis, to name some. Writeboard A process writing e-tool, such as Writeboard, is a web-based space that can be shared in collaborative projects, or edited by individual writers. Although each document can be saved, it is also possible to return to previous documents. This tool provides a space where language learners can collaborate on the production of writing tasks. This permits the ELLs to feel comfortable sharing ideas, making writing mistakes, and editing their classmates’ work. In keeping with the concept of differentiated learning, it is easy to organize writing projects with like-level or with multiple-level students. Because process writing e-tools save different versions of the same document, ELLs can edit and re-edit their work without being concerned about losing their work. This function also allows users to evaluate or self-evaluate their own writing progress by looking back at previous versions of the same text. Collaboration and peer-revision is a further advantage that this tool fosters. Tip 1 EFL Classroom Buzka at http://eflclassroom.buzka.com/Writing is an online resource primarily for English language teachers but content-area teachers will find many useful ideas here as well; it suggests ways of using process writing e-tools for working with ELLs. (For details on how to create writeboards see Erben, et al., 2009) Wikis A wiki is a collaborative website that many people can work on or edit. This idea was originally conceptualized by Ward Cunningham in 1994; he named it wiki, which is a term meaning quick in Hawai’ian. The computer program allows users to access the original

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postings and add or change content. The original intention of this shared writing was to allow as many participants to contribute and make changes, therefore resulting in a webpage that could be constantly updated. Participation in a wiki is a good example of Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development (ZPD) in action. Participants are socially mediated by others in a problem-solving situation. In this case, the problem would be the elaboration of one or more document(s) that informs others about a certain topic. Vygotsky (1978) highlighted the fact that the ZPD need not be a relationship between a novice and expert, but can be the relationship between likelevel peers, who mediate each other. Tip ESL Writing Tech (http://eslwritingtech.wikidot.com/2006latesol-cool-online-tools) lists resources for wikis, blogs and other tools for online teaching of ELLs (Erben, et al., 2009). Blogs Blogs are web logs or journals, posted to a website where they can be seen by anyone. Unlike a wiki, they cannot be edited, unless the owner activates the “comment” feature inviting responses from lectors. As a result, both previous postings and new comments are on the site. Originating in the mid-1990s, blogs were also known as online diaries. Blogger at http://blogger.com has features that let people post something to a blog through a call on their cell phones (Blogger Mobile) or through an email (Mail to Blogger). You can also call Blogger from your cell phone and leave a message. It will be posted to your blog as an MP3 audio file. This does not even require having an account. Some free blogging site are: ƒ www.livejournal.com ƒ http://wordpress.com ƒ http://blogsome.com ƒ http://spaces.msn.com ƒ http://360.yahoo.com ƒ http://blog.ning.com

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“Suel’s English Learning Blog” (http://suelenglishblog.blogspot.com/) is an example of a blog that an English teacher uses with his students. Listservs Listservs allows a group of people with a common interest to join and participate in an organized and moderated email discussion group. A listserv is created with readily available software programs. Once the listserv has been established, users send an email to the listserv address and all members of that list receive an email in their inbox. There are two types of listservs teachers can use in the classroom: already existing and established listservs or listservs created by the teacher and students. To join an already existing group, teachers can use “Correct My English,” “Learn English,” and “Practice English.” “Correct My English” is a Google-Group that contains discussions about common English words, specific help on expressions, etc. In this group, members help non-native members to correct their work. Non-native English members can inquire about grammar, writing, reading, and listening. Discussion boards A discussion board is an online bulletin board; a communication tool whereby an individual, the teacher or the student, can “post” a comment on a virtual announcement/communiqué board. Other participants who are members of the discussion board can respond to the original “post.” This collection of postings creates “threads” of discussion that can go on as long as the group continues to discuss this topic. In the sample screen shot, both “testing” and “test” are threads or main topics of discussion. Like listservs, a teacher can search already-existing discussion boards. however, a closed discussion board where only students in the class are participants might be the best option as these discussion boards are password-protected and are restricted to the teacher and students in the class. Teachers can find and create free discussion boards using programs services such as boards 2 go (www.boards2go.com/). Boards2go is a password-protected site and teachers and students become members by selecting a username and a password. If the teacher is

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already using a virtual learning environment (VLE) such as blackboard (www.blackboard.com/), nicenet (www.nicenet. org/), or sakai (http://sakaiproject.org/), (s)he can use the discussion board function already present in many of these VLEs. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. …………….. systems which are basically developed to analyze the learners writing and provide feedback to writers during the writing process. a) Web 2.0 b) Corpus-based c) Automated writing evaluation d) Web 3.0 2. Corpus‐based pedagogies, data‐driven learning technologies like ……………, are based on the idea that students need to have access to examples of language. a) COCA b) Google Doc c) Turnitin d) Criterion 3. The Writeboard as a technology-based writing is based on …………… writing e-tool that can be shared in collaborative projects, or edited by individual writers. a) Process b) Product c) Interactive d) Metacognitive 4. …………….. allow a group of people with a common interest to join and participate in an organized and moderated email discussion group. a) Wikis b) Blogs c) Discussion boards d) Listservs 5. Social media sites, such as Facebook and Twitter, as well as blogs that can be used for improving writing are based on ………… technologies. a) Web 1.0 b) Web 2.0 c) Web 3.0 d) Web 1.0 and Web 2.0

Chapter Fifteen Listening in CALL Introduction Listening comprehension is a vital skill in foreign language learning but it is mostly ignored or deemphasized by both teachers and students. Listening comprehension is significant for two reasons. It might be used as a source of comprehensible input through which students can learn the foreign language words, structures, and pronunciation. In addition, listening is regarded as a communication process to facilitate interaction in a communicative setting. Despite other skills, listening has always been integrated with technologies from the beginning of the then scientific methods of language teaching in the 1950s and 1960s with radio, television, films, video tape, and audio tapes. Early in the 1980s with the emergence of PCs and in the 1990s, CD-ROMs and the World Wide Web changed the listening comprehension practices. Podcasts (Pod: Play on demand), Vodcasts (Video on demand), YouTube, Skype and other streaming media, mp3 players, smartphones, and tablets have provided learners with wealth of sources and materials for listening practice. As listening and speaking skills are rarely employed in isolation, often used and therefore taught in tandem, we regard them as integrated skills. Therefore, some of the activities that are introduced here in this and next chapter are basically used in integration in EFL classes. In fact, the CALL tools selected for discussion are primarily

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those aimed at oral/aural integrated skills instruction. However, for the purpose of systematicity in presentation for the audience who are supposed to be higher education learners, we have decided to separate them and present in two different chapters. Digital affordances In CALL literature, following the SCT and mediation and mediator metaphors, as discussed in the previous chapters, many scholars talk about technology tools and applications in terms of their affordances. According to Norman (1988), “affordances are the perceived possibilities that a user has for such tools and applications”. Hampel (2006), defines affordances as “possibilities as well as limitations having “an impact on its [Lyceum’s] use”. For example, the affordance of a button for turning on and off captioning in videos may differ depending on whether a teacher or learner perceives it as (1) a shortcut to comprehension that can privilege reading over listening (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012), (2) an enrichment of the audio channel to support noticing (Schmidt 1993) during dual coding or (3) a means to identify and capture new vocabulary items (Danan, 2004) in combination with the additional function of pausing (Erben, et al., 2009). Hubbard (2010) in a particular framework specifies the features of the digital devices and networks that make them potentially useful for computer-mediated listening, features which are similar to underlying affordances. The purpose of the framework is to explain categories and subcategories of the operations that digital devices and networks do are able to do. The basic rationale is that “(1) computer mediation changes the way that humans interact with one another and with language content in particular ways that are different from faceto-face or one-to-many encounters, (2) those changes can impact the second language use and acquisition process in non-obvious ways, and (3) pursuing research and development with a goal of understanding the nature of that impact can be more fruitful than just considering a

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particular technology at a particular time and place with a particular group” (as cited in Erben, et al., 2009). Technology and listening Chapelle (2003) makes a connection between technology to SLA theories. While she argues for sociocultural approaches and depth of processing theory, she supports the interactionist view in this regard. Chapelle applies the tenets of the interaction hypothesis (Long 1996) and explains methods where the computer can help the learner by making input more comprehensible. She states, “The concern for developing good CALL tasks is how to design materials that can direct learners’ attention to particular linguistic forms within the input” (Chapelle, 2003, p. 41). Therefore, one of the significant functions of the computer for listening based on this theoretical view is to provide enhanced input by means of increasing salience, input modification, input simplification or elaboration. To achieve salience, targeted language forms in the listening material (e.g., transcripts or captions) can be underlined, boldfaced, or colored differently, or a word or phrase could be stressed. Plass and Jones (2005) follow Chapelle’s (1998) framework of the interactionist view and integrate it with Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia (Mayer, 2001) to formulate a model of multimedia language learning that can be applied to both listening and reading. Mayer’s theory connects verbal and pictorial input through parallel processing, or dual coding, reinforcing one another when conditions are right. Some principles in the theory describe those conditions. For example, according to Mayer’s Contiguity Principle, complementary text and pictorial materials that are close to one another are processed better than when they are far apart. This means that presenting a video with captions might result in better comprehension than presenting a video with a transcript in a window to the side. they believe that this dual coding might reinforce each stage in Chapelle’s framework of the SLA process: Apperception (including noticing aspects of the input),

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comprehension, intake, and finally integration into the learner’s linguistic system (as cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Plass and Jones (2005) use their model in order to interpret the multimedia research existing up to that time and propose three principles for using multimedia to help language learning: Multimedia Principle: “Students acquire language better from input enhanced by text and pictures than by text alone.” Individual Differences Principle: “Students acquire language better when they have the choice of visual versus verbal annotations… Advance Organizer Principle: Advance organizers in reading and listening activities aid language acquisition and those “presented in visual and verbal modes are more effective than those presented only in the verbal mode” (pp. 480-481, as cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Technologies for Listening Podcasts A podcast is a digital file that is created and posted on the Internet and can be played back on a mobile device or on a personal computer at a time convenient to the listener. The prefix “pod” comes from the expression “play on demand.” There are several web-based podcast directories where you can also search for podcasts. Some of the most common used dictionaries include Podcast directory (www.podcastdirectory.com/), yahoo podcasts (http://podcasts.yahoo.com/), Podcast Alley (www.podcastalley.com/), Podcast. net (www.podcast.net/), Odeo (http://odeo.com/), and Podcast Pickle (www.podcastpickle.com/). In addition to authentic podcasts, there are a plethora of podcasts that focus specifically on language learning. Teachers and students can search the web, the podcasts directories, or iTunes to find podcasts designed specifically for language learning. One such site is www.eslpod.com/website/index.php. One such site is www.eslpod.com/website/index.php. On this site, podcasts are

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designed especially for language learning and teaching and use strategies that assist in building listening skills as well as overall language learning (Erben, et al., 2009). Vodcasts A vodcast is similar to a podcast but, instead of only audio, a vodcast contains video. Vod is an acronym for “video on demand.” The vodcast is comparable to the podcast, in the manner that it is posted on the internet and can be played back either on a mobile device or on a personal computer. This benefit is especially significant for the ELL student because (s)he can connect visuals to the audio. A quick search of the Internet reveals that most major news networks provide their audience with free news vodcasts on their web pages. Some of these are ABC news (http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/Podcasting/), CBS news (www.cbsnews.com/), CNN (www.cnn.com/services/podcasting/), and NBC (www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8132577/). (Erben, et al., 2009). Audioblogs Audioblogs successfully combine blog and audio file technology. Users can post audio files online, instead of or in addition to text files, and share these files with an audience. The entries are catalogued by date and time and are stored as an audio portfolio. Audioblog services include www.audioblog.com/ and www.audioblogger.com/. Audioblogs are an excellent place for students to post their opinions and ideas (Erben, et al., 2009). Video Sharing Libraries In the last couple of years, several video sharing libraries have appeared on the Internet. These video libraries contain short video clips uploaded and posted by viewers. Often viewers rate the videos and videos are categorized by most popular, most viewed, etc., typically using a star system. A word of caution: Although you can find excellent resources, many videos also contain inappropriate material. It is recommended that, if videos will be used, the teacher search for a specific video and provide the student with the video or

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the specific link. Some of the most popular video libraries are http://video.yahoo.com/,www.youtube.com/, ww.aolvideoblog.com/, and www.metacafe.com/. All of these video libraries have a search capability. The user enters a topic such as “rain forest” and several videos on rain forests will be available (Erben, et al., 2009). ClipFlair ClipFlair is a specifically designed CALL resource and an online project launched in 2011 and funded by the European Commission: ClipFlair is a web platform for foreign language learning through interactive re-voicing and captioning of clips. The application gallery hosts easily accessible and shareable activities in 15 languages which can be used by teachers in their courses or carried out by learners independently. The activities offered by ClipFlair have been organised into three categories (Banos & Sokoli, 2015, p. 209): 1 repeat (rendering the verbal part of the clip as literally as possible) 2 rephrase (free rendering or noticeable rewording of the text) 3 react (producing a new communicative contribution in response to a previous one). These activities certainly offer learners opportunities to practice the well-defined elements of listening that Rost (2011) highlights: receptive, constructive, collaborative and transformative. Within this framework, ClipFlair’s approach to oral/aural activities can be seen as supporting an ‘informed teaching’ of the skills. The platform will be freely accessible until 2020 (cited in Farr & Murray, 2017). Remember, the above-mentioned technologies are not exhaustive. Listening is currently supported by a range of digital devices. Desktop and laptop computers remain widely used, but these have been supplemented by tablets and smartphones (which in reality are just small mobile computers). In addition to these general‐purpose devices there are more narrowly dedicated ones such as DVD players, mp3 players, feature phones (the “traditional” mobile phone with some additions like an mp3

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player but without the smartphone’s web connectivity), and streaming media players like Apple TV and Google Chromecast that work with a digital TV or monitor. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. According to Norman (1988), “……….. are the perceived possibilities that a user has for such tools and applications”. a) Mediators b) Artifacts c) Affordances d) Scaffoldings 2. To achieve salience, targeted language forms in the listening material (e.g., transcripts or captions) can be underlined, boldfaced, or colored differently, or a word or phrase could be stressed. This is in line with ……………. a) Long’s Interaction hypothesis b) Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis c) Input enhancement hypothesis d) Mayer’s multimedia theory of learning 3. “Students acquire language better when they have the choice of visual versus verbal annotations…” This is the …………. principle by Plass and Jones (2005). a) Multimedia b) Individual differences c) Advance organizers d) Input enhancement 4. The activities offered by ClipFlair have been organized into the three following categories EXCEPT ………… a) Repeat b) React c) Rehearse d) Reconstruct 5. According to Mayer’s …………… Principle, complementary text and pictorial materials that are close to one another are processed better than when they are far apart. a) Contiguity b) Multimedia c) Approximity d) Digital affordance

Chapter Sixteen Speaking in CALL Introduction Computer assisted language learning can be a notable support for speaking proficiency in EFL contexts. CALL support is achievable through technology-assisted activities of two types: Tutorial activities and computer mediated communication tools. Useful CALL practices are consistent with best activities for teaching oral language in the classroom; they provide opportunities for the negotiation of meaning, focus on form, and a sense of learner autonomy and agency. CALL activities can be used to improve all dimensions of foreign language speaking proficiency including the dimensions of accuracy, complexity, and fluency. It has been claimed that EFL/ESL learners no longer need to rely on classroom activities to engage in these speaking activities since they can apply CALL technologies and tools to exchange text, sound, and video in various formats, each with its own affordances. As stated in the introduction to Chapter Fourteen on listening and CALL, we believe that listening and speaking are integrated skills. As Hinkel (2006) states, “In meaningful communication, people employ incremental language skills not in isolation but in tandem” (p. 113) and “one needs to be able to speak and comprehend at the same time” (ibid.). Hinkel invites language teachers to deal with these skills simultaneously and claims that aural skills immediately lend themselves to the integrated teaching of oral skills. “The simplest and

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most basic type of integrated teaching incorporates the skills in the same language medium, either spoken to include listening and speaking, or written to include reading and writing’ (Hinkel, 2010, p. 116, as cited in Farr & Murray, 2016). Speaking and Technology Models The theoretical foundations of speaking technologies, as stated in the previous chapters, are the Vygotsky’s ZPD as stated in the sociocultural theory (Lantolf & Thorne, 2007), the interactionist hypothesis by Long (1991) and Long and Robinson (1998), and autonomy and student agency. In the CALL context, increased “student agency not only guides how students use technology, but also implies that they become creators of L2 texts through their active creation of blogs, wiki entries, chat exchanges, audio and video postings” (Blake, 2013, cited in Chapelle & Sauro, 2017, p. 108). Cognitivists, furthermore, argue that speaking proficiency consists of three separate but integrated constructs: Accuracy (the lack of phonological, lexical, or grammatical errors), complexity (the number of words or clauses per T‐units or sentences), and fluency. Second language fluency depends on a series of time measures including the delivery speed and length of the utterances, the number of pauses, repetitions, lexical gaps, or discontinuities/interruptions in spontaneous speech (Chapelle & Sauro, 2017). Task-based instruction (TBI) is also contributing to CALL pedagogical frameworks. Skehan (2003) states that the best tasks are those that (1) are carefully structured with both a pre‐planning and a post‐task phase, (2) are organized around familiar information, (3) require analysis or justification, and (4) are interactive or dialogic in nature by virtue of asking the participants to work together.

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Online Community Studies in the literature of language learning have revealed that interaction and dialogue are vital for productive learning. Furthermore, Internet and multimedia technologies play significant and growing roles in reshaping how knowledge is delivered, and provide useful substitutions to traditional classroom learning. Online learning suggests just one more approach to learning in addition to new ways of collaborating (Tomei, 2010). In addition to learning, an online learning community (OLC) needs to promote community which is calculated in terms of social capital. In a virtual context, social capital is a common social resource that makes information exchange, knowledge sharing, and knowledge construction easy through continuous interaction, built on trust and maintained through shared understanding. Huysman and Wulf (2005) suggest that the higher the level of social capital, the more members are motivated to connect and share knowledge. This sharing feature stimulates an individual to draw upon and provide value for themselves and the community. Social resources often contain common identity, familiarity, trust, and a degree of shared language and context among individuals (cited in Tomei, 2010). Technologies for Speaking Proficiency Considering the theoretical foundations mentioned regarding speaking construct and speaking proficiency, some of the most common CALL tools that are used worldwide are introduced in the following section to help teachers and students improve their oral language proficiency. Voice over Internet Protocol VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol provides the capability for any computer to call and speak to a user utilizing another computer or landline telephone. Unlike the instant messaging software, this type of software is specifically designed to transmit voice and do so efficiently. VoIP is like using a regular phone except that it uses the Internet to make the call. The biggest advantage of VoIP technology is that it is usually inexpensive and

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often even free. In addition, these technologies prepare the ELL to work with communication lacking visual clues such as when speaking via a telephone. The most commonly used VoIP software includes Skype (www.skype.com/), yahoo (http://messenger.yahoo.com), Google Talk (www.google.com/talk/), and Gizmo (www.gizmoproject.com/). Telecollaboration Telecollaboration is the process of involving distant groups of language learners in contact with each other using Internet-based communication tools to facilitate intercultural exchange and learning of foreign languages. It originated in the 1990s as a method of network-based language teaching (NBLT), which involved the use of computers in networks linked to one another. Two most commonly referred to models of telecollaboration are eTandem and Cultura (Farr & Murray, 2016). eTandem is a face-to-face development of tandem learning which started to gain popularity in foreign language learning in the 1980s. Tandem is based on the shared language exchange between partners where each learner is usually a native speaker of the language that their partner is learning. The model is based on concepts of reciprocity, with the same amount of time spent on each language, and learner autonomy, whereby the learners meet, set goals and choose learning materials independently. The main emphasis of eTandemstyle exchanges appears to be on linguistic competence development, with learners being encouraged to provide input on the foreign language output of their partners, correct errors and offer new formulations. The other key model is based on the Cultura project (Furstenberg, Levet, English, & Maillet, 2001), founded at the MIT by French teachers as a foreign language in order to make culture the subject of their telecollaborative activities. This model is originally taken from the views by the Russian philosopher Mikhail Bakhtin: ‘It is only in the eyes of another culture that foreign culture reveals itself fully and profoundly.

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The major characteristic of the Cultura model is that while it is bilingual, like eTandem, the language learners interact in their first language, that is, native/institutional language, and the communication is asynchronous. The logic behind this is twofold: First, learners can explain cultural subtleties more accurately in their native language and, secondly, in this way language learners provide rich linguistic input for each other. Although the Cultura was originally designed for French/English interactions, the model has not only been used for different languages but also adapted to different methods, with students interacting in the foreign language at various points of the project and using other channels of communication such as videoconferencing (Farr & Murray, 2016). Social Networking Tools Social networking tools provide chances for language learners to improve their digital and multiliteracy skills, communicate in and through the target language, work collaboratively and develop their linguistic and pragmatic competence. According to Blyth (2008), there are four approaches to language learning research: Technological, psycholinguistic, sociocultural, and ecological. Technological approaches contain studies on new technologies as they move from usage in society to their instructional application in the class, as well as the way teachers and students react to their application. Studies based on psycholinguistic theories combine the interaction hypothesis and noticing, whereas the sociocultural research, based on Vygotsky’s theories of constructivism and the ZPD, describe how learning is mediated within those contexts. Finally, ecological approaches try to take into account the whole context of a learning and examine how all of the components of a learning milieu, such as the students, teachers, environment and technologies, integrate to form the whole. The most popular social networking tools to be used by EFL/ESL students are as following:

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PodOmatic A website that specialises in the creation of tools and services that enable users to easily find, create, distribute, promote and listen to both audio and video podcasts. http://www.podomatic.com Voice Thread An interactive collaboration and sharing tool that enables users to add images, documents, and videos, and to which other users can add voice, text, audio files or video comments. http://www.voicethread.com Edmodo Education-oriented site, shares layout of popular SNS. Provides a safe and easy way for your class to connect and collaborate, share content and access homework, grades and school notices. http://www. edmodo.com Google Hangout Hangouts bring conversations to life with photos, emoji and even free group video calls. Connect with friends across computers or Android or Apple devices. http://www.google.com/hangouts Instagram An online photo-sharing, video-sharing and social networking service that enables its users to take pictures and videos, apply digital filters to them, and share them on a variety of social networking services, such as Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr and Flickr. http://www.instagram.com Facebook Online social networking service is originally designed for college students but is now extended to general population. http://www.facebook.com Spoken Corpora Spoken corpora are collections of recordings of speaking which have been transcribed to form a database or corpus. A distinction is

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generally made between spoken corpora and ‘speech corpora’, which are usually collections of speech (such as recordings of people reading out loud) that are compiled for purposes such as the analysis of the phonetic substance of speaking or the creation of voice-to-text applications and telephone technology (Harrington, 2010, cited in Farr & Murray, 2016). Considerable large-scale spoken corpora that were developed internationally include the 5-million-word Longman Spoken American Corpus. By the turn of the millennium, the American National Corpus (ANC) was set up as a comparative corpus to the BNC. It is available as an online resource including a total of over 14.5 million words, 3.2 million of which are spoken data (see http://www.anc.org/data/oanc/contents/). The largest available online corpus of one variety of English now available is the 450-millionword Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), which includes 85 million words of spoken data, including unscripted conversation from nearly 150 different TV and radio programs. Despite the availability of substantial amounts of spoken American English data, there is a dearth of spontaneous faceto-face conversation. An exception to this is the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English (SBCSAE), a collection of approximately 249,000 words of recordings of natural speech, representing a wide variety of speakers. Some of the major developments in specialised spoken corpora have taken place in the domain of academic discourse and include, for example, the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE) and its British counterpart, the British Academic Spoken English Corpus (BASE) and the Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage (LINDSEI, Farr & Murray, 2016).

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Conclusion Speaking proficiency is a very hard construct to define, and no single theory or model can be used to explain the psychological reality of speaking. The issue gets more complicated when technology enhanced speaking proficiency is involved. What has been confirmed by research is that technology might affect the learning outcome as far as speaking ability is concerned. Therefore, in the present chapter, we attempted to provide the teachers and learners with an array of technologies and CALL resources that we expect might result in more and better L2 production. Undoubtedly, as we have emphasized elsewhere, the mere use of technology might not lead to development of speaking proficiency in language learners. In addition, considering the learners' styles of learning and individual cognitive preferences, one technology might not fit all learners and teachers will have to adapt tasks and tools to each group of students they deal with. Furthermore, new technologies and CALL tools are being invented all the time that is a great asset and advantage to teachers and learners, but it also creates the challenging task for them to get up-dated with these technological changes in the CALL field. Teachers and students should not think of using technology as intimidating because it keeps changing so rapidly; however, new CALL technologies must be appreciated as a userfriendly tool that might be served to teachers and learners to achieve the purpose of language learning, communication in real life. Comprehension Check Now you are expected to answer the following questions. Select a, b, c, or d that is appropriate considering each item. 1. The claim that students should know how to use technology and they become creators of L2 texts through their active creation of blogs, wiki entries, chat exchanges, audio and video postings refers to the concept of ………………. a) Affordance b) Agency c) Autonomy d) Reflectivity

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2. In a virtual environment, an online learning community (OLC) needs to promote community which is calculated in terms of ……………….. a) Social capital b) Social integration c) Self-confidence d) Collaboration 3. A good example of the Voice over Internet Protocol is the ………………. a) Facebook b) Skype c) PodOmatic d) Instagram 4. As a kind of telecollaboration, ……………… is based on the shared language exchange between partners where each learner is usually a native speaker of the language that their partner is learning. a) Cultura b) Tandem c) Edmodo d) VoIP 5. ……………….. approaches contain studies on new technologies as they move from usage in society to their instructional application in the class. a) Psycholinguistic b) Sociocultural c) Ecological d) technological

APPENDIX

Sites for Teachers and Students

Mainstreaming ELLs: Meeting Individual Needs www.celt.sunysb.edu/ell/tips.php Created by the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching at Stony Brook University. The site offers readers a range of tips on how to accommodate individual ELL needs in the classroom. www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/mi/index.html created by the Educational Broadcasting Corporation. Tis site offers a range of detailed workshops to do online. This particular site allows readers to explore through online demonstrations and explorations how multiple intelligences can be used to accommodate ELLs. Teaching and Learning English Using Online Tools www2.alliance.brown.edu/dnd/dnd_links.shtml Created by the nNYC Board of Education & OFCE of English Language learners as well as the Education Alliance at Brown University. Tis site offers viewers a gateway compendium to sites that allows teachers to think about how to incorporate and embed language learning for ELLs into their content classes. www.usingenglish.com/ This site provides resources to learn English for ELLs. www.sitesforteachers.com/ Tis site is a gateway compendium of ELL resources for content teachers.

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http://eslwritingtech.wikidot.com/2006-latesol-cool-online-tools This is a wiki site that is dedicated to using online tools to aid ELLs in their writing development. Useful information about how to use blogs and wikis. The One-Computer Classroom and Creating Work-Stations www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/webquests/index.html Created by the Educational Broadcasting Corporation. This site offers a detailed online workshop to explore the use of webquests to accommodate ELLs. www.esl-galaxy.com/worksheetmakers.htm This is a site created by Futonge nzembayie Kisito. It provides online downloadable activity templates to use with ELLs to help them build on their English skills. Project-Based Work www.techlearning.com/db_area/archives/TL/2003/01/project.php techLEARNING is not necessarily specific for ELLs, but it does provide an interactive website to explain how to use project-based learning in a classroom. Easily adapted for ELLs. www.pbl.cqu.edu.au/content/online_resources.htm This is a compendium gateway site created by Central Queensland University in Australia on problem-based learning. Lots of useful links, examples and simulation role plays. Teachers can adapt for ELLs. www.bie.org/pbl/pblhandbook/tools.php Provides downloadable rubrics to use in assessing project-based learning.

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Differentiated Learning www.frsd.k12.nj.us/rfmslibrarylab/di/differentiated_instruction.htm This site provides information on understanding your heterogeneous classroom as well as providing teaching strategies to facilitate learning in a heterogeneous classroom. http://members.shaw.ca/priscillatheroux/introduction.html Created by P. Teroux, a teacher in Alberta, Canada. Tere are over 100 pages on how to effectively use technology to cater to a heterogeneous classroom. Not Understanding Your ELL and Making Yourself Understood www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/inquiry/index.html Created by the Educational Broadcasting Corporation. This site offers an online workshop designed to assist teachers with principles of inquiry-based learning. This particular site allows readers to explore through online demonstrations and explorations how inquiry-based learning can be used to facilitate an ELL’s understanding of the curriculum. Questioning and Discussion: Making Modifications http://eslinfusion.oise.utoronto.ca/index.asp A site developed by the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. This site offers a practical guide for content teachers on how to infuse their curriculum to meet the needs of ELLs. Evaluation Strategies: Ideas for Traditional, Alternative, and Authentic Assessment www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/assessment/index.html Created by the Educational Broadcasting Corporation. This site offers an online workshop designed to assist teachers with principles of assessment. This particular site allows readers to explore through

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online demonstrations and explorations how inquiry-based learning can be used to measure an ELL’s learning trajectory. www.ncela.gwu.edu/resabout/assessment/ This site was created by the national Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational Programs. It offers handy resources about assessment and accountability for ELLs. www.fairtest.org/nattest/NCLB_assessing_bilingual_students.pdf A PDF link that leads to a document detailing the problems and solutions associated with assessment of ELLs under NCLB legislation. Cooperative Learning: Learning with and from Peers www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/coopcollab/index.html Created by the Educational Broadcasting Corporation. This site offers an online workshop designed to assist teachers with principles of cooperative learning. This particular site allows readers to explore through online demonstrations and explorations how cooperative and collaborative learning can be used effectively with ELLs. www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/index.html Created by the Educational Broadcasting Corporation. Tis site offers an online workshop designed to assist teachers with principles of constructivism. Language Arts http://askeric.org/cgi-bin/lessons.cgi/Language_Arts From AskErIC, this offers a collection of lesson plans contributed by K-12 teachers on a wide range of language arts topics.

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www.atozteacherstuff.com A website dedicated to providing hundreds of lesson plans devoted to teaching literacy in the elementary school, this is associated with http://LessonPlanz.com, which is a search engine with over 4,000 lesson plans. www.coollessons.org This provides an extensive list of webquests and lesson plan sites. www.eslcafe.com/ The internationally renowned Dave’s ESL Café is a large site for teachers and students of ESL/EFL. www.teachers.net/mentors/esl_language ESL and Language Teachers’ Chatboard offers chat with other teachers. www.eslmag.com An online magazine for ESL educators. http://a4esl.org/ Online activities for ESL students from the Internet TESL Journal. www.cln.org/subject_index.html Community Learning network offers curriculum resources and online instructional materials for ELLs. ELL Starter Kit for the Teacher www.colorincolorado.org/guides/sampler

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Games, Activity Generators and E-templates for Instructional Tasks www.quia.com Offers activity generators as well as access to a database of hundreds of activities. http://iteslj.org/links/ESL/Games Offers online activities and templates as well as additional links for ELLs to learn English. www.classroominc.org Computer software simulations that place students in virtual workplaces where they assume a managerial position and use literacy, math, and other skills to make decisions and solve problems. www.socialimpactgames.com/ Lists over 500 serious online games for educational purposes. www.arcademicskillbuilders.com/ An academic skill builder through online educational games that offer a powerful approach to learning basic math, language arts, vocabulary, and thinking skills. Blogs www.frstmonday.org/issues/issue9_6/huffaker A short article with links on how to use blogs to promote literacy. http://schoolblog.epals.com ePALS SchoolBlog lets you manage a safe place on the internet that enables collaboration and participation among teachers, students and parents.

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http://blogger.com Associated with google.com and podomatic.com, this allows users to set up a free blog account. Concept Mapping Software www.inspiration.com/productinfo/inspiration Inspiration is a tool students can rely on to plan, research and complete projects successfully. With integrated diagram and outline views, they create graphic organizers and expand topics into writing. www.inspiration.com/productinfo/kidspiration As above but for younger students. www.socialresearchmethods.net/mapping/mapping.htm An online gateway site for concept mapping. Flashcards www.esl-library.com/ Over 2,000 flashcards on a variety of topics. Generic Online Multimedia Resources (All Adaptable for ELLs) www.pbs.org/teachers/ This website has more than 4,000 free lesson plans and activities, as well as online professional development opportunities for teachers. www.teachersdomain.org/ Teachers’ Domain is an online educational service with two related components-Collections and Courses-that help teachers enhance their students’ learning experiences and advance their own teaching skills. Included are high-quality multimedia from NOVA, American Experience, and other public television productions and partners; video and audio clips, interactives, images, and documents;

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correlations to state and national curriculum standards; media-rich lesson plans. www.englishdatabase.com/Default.aspx Lessons draw on all forms of modern multimedia: TV, video and DVD, radio, newspapers, magazines, music, and the internet. The aim is to create original, innovative materials that provide useful and practical lessons to deliver in the classroom. Materials are ready to use in the classroom; simply print out and off you go! Graphics Editing and Drawing Programs www.openofce.org OpenOfce.org is a multiplatform and multilingual office suite and an open source project.R Lesson Plan Ideas and Strategies www.newhorizons.org/strategies/multicultural/freed.htm new horizons for Learning provides an example of a culturally responsive lesson plan in science that centres on Myths, Legends, and Moon Phases. www.lab.brown.edu/tdl/tl-strategies/crt-research.shtml The Education Alliance, Brown University, provides a list of researchbased strategies to promote cultural responsive instruction and learning. www.alliance.brown.edu/tdl/tl-strategies/crt-principles.shtml In addition, this website also offers a succinct account of what culturally responsive pedagogy is. www.mhhe.com/catalogs/0072408871.mhtml Tis book helps teachers plan lessons for today’s diverse classrooms

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and learn to create and use such lessons in their classrooms. It is the first book to provide well-developed content-specific lesson plans that reflect cultural diversity in the United States. www.ankn.uaf.edu/standards/standards.html This website is an illustration of standards developed by Alaska native educators to provide a way for schools and communities to examine the extent to which they are attending to the educational and cultural well-being of the students. These “cultural standards” provide guidelines or touchstones against which schools and communities can examine what they are doing to attend to the cultural well-being of the young people they are responsible for nurturing to adulthood. www.learnnc.org/lessons/search?phrase=ELL LEARN NC provides a database of 23 lesson plans across a wide range of curriculum areas that have been modified for ELLs. www.download-esl.com/ Download-ESL is a great site to download PowerPoints, podcasts, MP3 and MP4s, videos, audioslides, worksheets, and quizzes for ELLs. www.jason-ism.com/english.html English Teaching Program is a very good site that provides a host of ELL activities, drama workshops, role plays, projects, discussions, etc. www.englishlanguagespacestation.com/ English Language Space Station provides online PowerPoints, grammar lessons, reading lessons, lesson topics, and listening quizzes as well as web links for teachers and students, all of which are arranged for ELLs at various levels.

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www.esl-galaxy.com/ ESL-Galaxy provides an extraordinary amount of free PowerPoints, activities, language lessons, games, and teaching downloads, all for ELLs Podcasts www.china232.com/index.php Learn English for free through English learning podcasts, videos, and free written lessons. Listen and learn the way English is spoken by real native speakers. http://australianetwork.com/learnenglish/ English Bites from nexus, the educational wing of the Australian Broadcasting Commission, gives vibrant daily content about life ‘down under’ with a whole assortment of activities to complete as you watch streamed media direct from Australia. PowerPoint Games http://it.coe.uga.edu/wwild/pptgames/index.html Fifty-one PowerPoint games in a variety of subject areas. www.elaineftzgerald.com/powerpoint.htm PowerPoint templates for teachers. Reviewing Sites and Software www.ncrel.org/engauge/resource/resource/index.html reviews of a variety of classroom resources organized by discipline, as well as a resource evaluation tool that includes a handy evaluation form. http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/eel/Conc/conceot.htm Offers a process for evaluating software and its effect on learning.

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Webcasts www.colorincolorado.org/webcasts/ Webcasts offer an exciting new way to learn about teaching ELLs. Each webcast features a 45-minute video program, which includes recommended readings, suggested discussion questions, and a PowerPoint presentation accompanying the video. Webquests http://webquest.sdsu.edu/about_webquests.html Provides useful ideas about constructing webquests. http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/staffdev/buildingblocks/p-index.htm Outlines, with examples, the building blocks of a webquest. http://webquest.org/search/ A searchable database of hundreds of webquests in languages such as English, French, Spanish. Especially useful for ELLs because they can complete content-specific webquests in their home language. http://webquest.sdsu.edu/designpatterns/all.htm Provides an extensive list of different design patterns to build your own webquest. http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/staffdev/tpss98/patternstaxonomy.html Provides a taxonomy of different webquest possibilities to use with students. http://webquest.sdsu.edu/taskonomy.html Another taxonomy of webquest types.

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Sites that Build Language, Literacy, and Grammar Skills for ELLs www.breakingnewsenglish.com/ We have placed this site first because it is an absolutely exceptional resource for ELLs and teachers, well worth bookmarking on your computer. Tis site offers a plethora of newsworthy items (for listening with audio files and reading) with all types of accompanying grammar activities and tests. Can be adapted for ELL use in social studies, health, geography, economics, history, language arts, music, and art classes. Grammar www.mansioningles.com La Mansión del Inglés is an excellent site to learn English. Tis site contains a lot of free exercises and materials. www.english-the-easy-way.com English Grammar: The Easy Way is an excellent site to learn English grammar. Tis site explains English so that everyone can understand. http://netgrammar.altec.org netGrammar provides extensive grammar practice through a great variety of reading, writing, and listening activities. www.1-language.com Language.com-The ESL Site offers lots of resources including worksheets, listening modules, quizzes, and more. Listening www.headsupenglish.com/ A good site with four 30-hour listening units with activities.

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www.eslpodcards.com/country-index.php This site offers a host of PodCards with accompanying worksheets. Listen to a variety of English accents. PodCards are audio postcards that you can download to your iPod, your MP3 player, or your computer. you can also burn the files to CD to use in class, at home, in the car-wherever you want. They contain information about a particular town or city from different countries around the world and biographies of famous people, inventions, films, or events that make these places famous. www.elllo.org/ ELLLO is a free online listening resource of over 1,000 listening activities designed especially for ESL and EFL students and teachers. Most listening activities include images, an interactive quiz, transcript of the audio, and downloadable MP3. www.esl-lab.com/ An amazing archive of short audio clips designed to replicate real-life situations. All the clips come with a nice selection of pre-, during, and post-listening activities. Clips are divided into listening for academic purposes and everyday speech. www.esldesk.com/esl-links The ESL Links Site offers some thematic listening activities which incorporate native listening materials via realAudio. www.EnglishListening.com In the English Listening Lounge an ELL can listen to real people speaking English. Literacy www.literacycenter.net

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Provides safe learning activities for parents and teachers to share with young children. All online lessons are free of advertising and free of charge. Pronunciation www.esl.net/pronunciation_power.html A CD-ROM tool for both Windows and Macintosh that teaches proper pronunciation of all 52 American English sounds. Tis program is designed by ESL language professionals. It reinforces the learning through interactive drills and many exercises. It has QuickTime movies to illustrate proper tongue and lip position. Reading www.colorincolorado.org/educators/teaching An extremely useful site with many reading activities designed for the bilingual student and family. www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/ell-readcomp0708 From the LEARN NC site, this provides a very user-friendly overview of preparing ELLs for reading comprehension. http://w2.byuh.edu/academics/languagecenter/CNN-N/CNN-N.html Cnn newsroom and WorldView for ESL Students includes news stories with ESL exercises. www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/r21270/NOVA_SCOTIA/comenius_fables.htm Achieving fluency through fables for use in reading comprehension. http://english-zone.com/index.php?ID=6 reading Zone offers lots of reading activities.

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www.geocities.com/Athens/Academy/1929/ESLquiz.htm The ESL Quiz Zone offering vocabulary and reading comprehension exercises. http://home.earthlink.net/~eslstudent/read/read.html Online reading Exercises offers a variety of reading activities. wwwedu.ge.ch/cptic/prospective/projets/anglais/exercises/welcome.html English Exercises Online provides extensive reading activities for all levels of ESOL. www.ohiou.edu/esl/english/reading/activities.html Ohio ESL is a gateway site for reading and offers lots of websites to choose. Spelling http://iteslj.org/links/ESL/Spelling/ Gateway site to lists of links to sites that promote spelling for ELLs. Vocabulary www.insightin.com/esl/ The 6,000 most frequently used words in English. www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/teachingenglish/plans/w itn_2007.shtml The BBC offers word-building and grammar-learning lessons through newspaper articles. Writing www.writely.com An online writing sharing facility by Google.

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http://writeboard.com Shareable, web-based text documents that allow edit saves, rollbacks to any version, and change comparisons. Very good for writing process practice; peer-reviewing, drafting, and editing. www.epals.com ePals is the leading provider of school-safe collaborative learning products for K–12 across 200 countries and territories. http://free-gamedownloads.mosw.com/abandonware/pc/educational_games/games_s_ z/storybook_weaver.html An excellent edutainment title from MECC, Storybook Weaver is an incentive for developing writing skills, allowing children to express their creativity with pictures and sounds. Storybook Weaver is designed for kids who want more than just a sheet of paper to jumpstart their creative writing. Young writers choose between themes such as outer space, a king’s castle, oceans, and more, and then pick from a variety of characters available to fit with the almost neverending choices of scenery. www.zianet.com/jkline/orgcomp.html Organizing Compositions helps ELLs to structure and organize parts of a composition. www2.actden.com/writ_den/menu.htm Writing Den offers writing topics with background information. www.ohiou.edu/esl/english/index.html Writing resources offers tips on the mechanics of the writing process. www2.actden.com/writ_den/tips/contents.htm Lets ELLs look up grammar rules, helper words, and other writing tips.

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Conferences Although most curriculum and subject-specific disciplines have their own national organizations holding their own conferences, which usually in turn include SIGs and conference strands on technology, there are a number of technology-specific conferences that target the use of technology in facilitating language learning in the classroom. These include: ƒ CALICO, a national technology and language-orientated conference held in the frst half of every year (https://calico.org/p-308Conferences.html); ƒ International Association for Language Learning Technology, hosted every two years, focuses on administrating language learning programs; ƒ National Educational Computing Conference (nECC) focuses on classroom-based technology use; ƒ AsiaCALL concerns itself with computer-assisted language learning through integration and interaction with technology in educational settings and can be found at www.asia-call.org/index.php; ƒ EUROCALL, the European Association for Computer Assisted Language Learning, provides a European focus for the promulgation of innovative research, development, and practice relating to the use of technologies for language learning (www.eurocalllanguages.org/index.html). Journals Not all journals are the same, obviously! What is listed below is a selection of journals and magazines, some of which are primarily intended for a university readership and others are primarily intended for a school readership. All aim for best pedagogic practice in the integration of technology into the classroom. Electronic School at http://electronic-school.com is an awardwinning K–12 magazine about technology integration in classrooms. International Association for Language Learning Technology

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(IALLT) Journal readers are administrators or technical support staff of language technology centres, ESL and language labs, and other centres in which technology is applied to language teaching and learning; the readership also includes language faculty and teachers who use technology. o Journal of Computing in Teacher Education (JCTE) focuses on training and certification issues. o Journal of Research on Technology in Education (JRTE) focuses on educational computing.188 Teaching English Language Learners through Technology o Learning & Leading with Technology (L&L), a magazine specifically for teachers that provides ideas on how to integrate technology in the classroom, is published through ISTE. o Technology and Learning at http://techlearning.com is written to inform teachers about new developments in technology and how to use these in the classroom. o Language Learning & Technology at http://llt.msu.edu/ is a refereed journal that began publication in July 1997. The journal seeks to disseminate research to foreign and second language educators in the United States and around the world on issues related to technology and language education.

Answer Key Chapter One 1. D 2. C

3. A

4. A

5. A

Chapter Two 1. A 2. A

3. A

4. A

5. B

Chapter Three 1. B 2. B

3. C

4. B

5. D

Chapter Four 1. A 2. B

3. B

4. A

5. B

Chapter Five 1. A 2. A

3. B

4. C

5. D

Chapter Six 1. B 2. B

3. B

4. D

5. C

Chapter Seven 1. C 2. A

3. A

4. A

5. A

Chapter Eight 1. B 2. B

3. D

4. B

5. A

Chapter Nine 1. D 2. B

3. A

4. B

5. D

Chapter Ten 1. A 2. B

3. B

4. C

5. A

Chapter Eleven 1. B 2. C

3. C

4. A

5. D

Chapter Twelve 1. D 2. A

3. B

4. B

5. B

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Chapter Thirteen 1. C 2. D

3. A

4. C

5. B

Chapter Fourteen 1. C 2. A

3. A

4. D

5. B

Chapter Fifteen 1. A 2. B

3. B

4. D

5. A

Chapter Sixteen 1. B 2. A

3. B

4. B

5. D

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