Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Context, Concept, Model and Evaluation [1st ed. 2020] 978-981-15-1639-9, 978-981-15-1640-5

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xvi
Front Matter ....Pages 1-1
Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape: A Historical Macro-Context (Jian Li)....Pages 3-23
Glimpses of Chinese Citizenship Education in a Globalized World: An Academic Micro Context (Jian Li)....Pages 25-44
Glimpses of Policies of Faculty Ethics in a Globalized World: An Social Identity Perspective (Jian Li)....Pages 45-59
Glimpses of Internationalizing Higher Education for Creating World-Class Universities in China: The Perspectives of Stakeholders (Jian Li)....Pages 61-73
Front Matter ....Pages 75-75
Exploring the Emerging Idea of Comprehensive Global Competence in Contemporary China (Jian Li)....Pages 77-87
Examining the Literature on Comprehensive Global Competence for Individual in Contemporary China (Jian Li)....Pages 89-100
Front Matter ....Pages 101-101
Theoretical Model of Constructing Comprehensive Global Competency for Individual (Jian Li)....Pages 103-109
Methodological Model of Constructing Comprehensive Global Competence for Individual (Jian Li)....Pages 111-118
Front Matter ....Pages 119-119
Assessment Items for Measuring Global Competence for Individual (Jian Li)....Pages 121-130
Measurement Validity for Each Scale of Global Competence for Individual (Jian Li)....Pages 131-141
Back Matter ....Pages 143-155

Citation preview

Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education

Jian Li

Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China Context, Concept, Model and Evaluation

Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education Series Editors Zhongying Shi, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China Shengquan Yu, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

This book series brings together the latest insights and work regarding the future of education from a group of highly regarded scholars around the world. It is the first collection of interpretations from around the globe and contributes to the interdisciplinary and international discussions on possible future demands on our education system. It serves as a global forum for scholarly and professional debate on all aspects of future education. The book series proposes a total rethinking of how the whole education process can be reformed and restructured, including the main drivers and principles for reinventing schools in the global knowledge economy, models for designing smart learning environments at the institutional level, a new pedagogy and related curriculums for the 21st century, the transition to digital and situated learning resources, open educational resources and MOOCs, new approaches to cognition and neuroscience as well as the disruption of education sectors. The series provides an opportunity to publish reviews, issues of general significance to theory development, empirical data-intensive research and critical analysis innovation in educational practice. It provides a global perspective on the strengths and weaknesses inherent in the implementation of certain approaches to the future of education. It not only publishes empirical studies but also stimulates theoretical discussions and addresses practical implications. The volumes in this series are interdisciplinary in orientation, and provide a multiplicity of theoretical and practical perspectives. Each volume is dedicated to a specific theme in education and innovation, examining areas that are at the cutting edge of the field and are groundbreaking in nature. Written in an accessible style, this book series will appeal to researchers, policy-makers, scholars, professionals and practitioners working in the field of education.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14177

Jian Li

Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China Context, Concept, Model and Evaluation

123

Jian Li Faculty of Education Beijing Normal University Beijing, China

This study funded by Beijing Education Science Planning (Key project) Research on Internationalization Development Strategy and Evaluation Index System of Capital Universities under the Background of “Double First-Class” (Grand No. AAAA19009). ISSN 2366-1658 ISSN 2366-1666 (electronic) Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education ISBN 978-981-15-1639-9 ISBN 978-981-15-1640-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5 © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

The cultivation of comprehensive global competence has become an increasingly pivotal part of the higher education system worldwide. The initial idea of comprehensive global competence tends to explore universities’ and colleges’ cross-cultural capacities at institutional levels. The concept of global competence at an institutional level is inherently embedded in the interplay of the globalization and internationalization of higher education institutions, which focus on gaining cross-cultural knowledge, cross-cultural skills, cross-cultural attitudes, and cross-cultural habits. The increasingly urgent quests of constructing comprehensive global competence stimulate various higher education institutions to pursue for creating world-class universities in a globalized world. In recent decades, cultivating global competence is frequently mentioned in various universities and colleges worldwide. This book tends to explore and propose a framework for conceptualizing and measuring comprehensive global competence at an institutional level. Based on such framework, the context, concept, model, and evaluation are systematically and empirically examine the rationale and validity. This study is also contextualized by the globalization and internationalization of contemporary higher education systems for advocating world-class universities. The idea of comprehensive global competence is initially identified and elaborated through both conceptual and methodological dimensions. The conceptual definition of comprehensive global competency is synthesized as an institutional cross-cultural capacity in the multidimensional learning domain for valuing cultural diversity. Along with this conceptual definition of comprehensive global competency, the methodological dimensions of comprehensive global competency are characterized as four institutional cross-cultural learning dimensions, including institutional global attitude and perceptions; institutional acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge; institutional global practical skills; and institutional habits of global mind for valuing cultural diversity. These four dimensions are derived from literatures of competency and dimensions of global competency, and Marzano’s (1992) Dimensions of Learning Model. This study also provides both theoretical and practical implications for advocating comprehensive global v

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competency for Chinese universities and colleges in the context of global higher education systems worldwide. Specifically, this book also contributes to defining the idea of “comprehensive global competence” through examining the context, concept, model, and evaluation. Specifically speaking, the context related to identifying comprehensive global competence for creating world-class universities includes three major parts: international higher education: retrospective and prospective; Chinese higher education context; strategical goal of creating world-class universities. The concept associated with constructing comprehensive global competence focuses on investigating the definitions of comprehensive global competence, global competence at student level, global competence at faculty level, global competence at institutional level. The model linked to creating comprehensive global competence concentrates on constructing model of comprehensive global competence through conducting sub-model of global competence for faculty members, and sub-model of global competence for institutions. The evaluation associated with identifying comprehensive global competence involves creating evaluation types of comprehensive global competence, indicators of comprehensive global competences, and dimensions of comprehensive global competence. All these four stages contribute to identifying comprehensive global competence from different perspectives (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 The outline of constructing comprehensive global competence for world-class university

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In response to the intensive discussion on exploring the globalization and internationalization of higher education system worldwide, this book aims to exploring, analyzing, and conceptualizing an initial concept of “global higher education shared community” locally, regionally, nationally, and globally. The introductory chapter involves examining a historical perspective on the Chinese international higher education landscape. It investigates the comprehensive national strategy on examining Chinese international higher education, institutional strategies, and action ideas that influenced the efforts of Chinese higher education institutions to strive for creating world-class universities. It also shed light on analyzing the global development for constructing World-class universities, the challenges, and countermeasures on the difficulties to achieve the comprehensive development of Chinese international higher education institutions, contextually. Chapter 2 aims to examine Chinese citizenship education in a globalized world from an academic micro context. The idea of citizenship education serves as foreign product that appeared in China in the early twentieth century. It is interdependent with the development of the globalization and internationalization of higher education institutions in the Chinese context. This chapter mainly involves exploring the developmental stages of Chinese citizenship education historically, the analysis of the connotation of citizenship education, the overview and analysis of foreign citizenship education, the practice of citizenship education in contemporary China, and the research characteristics and prospects of citizenship education in Chinese context. Chapter 3 aims to explore couples of key policies of faculty ethics since 2014 from a perspective of social identity theory. In the context of constructing comprehensive global competence, faculty serves as indisputable role to shape international higher education development with Chinese characteristics. Especially, faculty ethics are considered core values to influence the trends of Chinese international higher education progress. In particular, with the social identity theory, “identity” is considered as a core of integrating national, regional, and institutional policies of faculty ethics into a more holistic landscape. The hierarchical structure of policies of faculty ethics includes value identity, orientation identity, and behavioral identity. Social identity-based model of analyzing faculty ethics’ policies at national, ministerial regional, and institutional levels mainly involves three key dimensions, including value identity, orientation identity, and behavioral identity. Those three dimensions contribute to shaping a consisting rhythm of “value-orientation-behavior” to explore the inherent rationales in the formation of faculty ethics’ policies in contemporary China contextually. Conclusion and remarks are offered to summarize educational policies related to faculty ethics. Chapter 4 involves internationalizing higher education for creating world-class universities in China from the perspectives of stakeholders. In recent years, internationalizing higher education has been a significant activity for creating world-class universities in the Chinese mainland. Initiating the internationalization of higher education institutions in the global academic market, it is of the utmost essential that most of the elite universities are pushed to rank among world-class universities. Through stimulated policies and financial supports, top universities in

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China devote themselves to accelerate the internationalization of universities to join the ranks of “world-class university” through conducting a series of institutional reforms. Thus, this study focuses on investigating different stakeholders’ attitudes toward the ongoing educational reforms and present barriers of such top-down policies at Chinese top universities. The in-depth interviews have been conducted. Chapter 5 describes the trends of globalization of higher education in contemporary China and the related importance of developing the emerging idea of comprehensive global competence among various higher education institutions. The idea of global competence for Chinese undergraduate students is examined through the statement of purpose and problem definition, illustrates the significance of the study, defines the key terms, and describes some of the limitations of the study related to identifying comprehensive global competence, systematically and contextually. Chapter 6 concentrates on examining the literature on comprehensive global competence for an individual in contemporary China. The idea of comprehensive global competence for an individual includes both students and faculty members in various higher education institutions. It was mainly organized into six sections, providing a comprehensive literature review of global education, illustrating Chinese global education, offering summaries and remarks on global competency, examining the proposed conceptual definition, providing a theoretical framework of global competency, and describing the methodological dimensions of global competency. Chapter 7 involves exploring the theoretical model of constructing comprehensive global competence at the individual level. It focuses on introducing and analyzing the theoretical framework of Dimensions of Learning (Marzano 1992), including the definition, content, implications, and justification of the model. Specifically, the Dimensions of Learning Model (Marzano 1992) is a comprehensive research-oriented framework on learning cognition and learning process. It focuses on improving the quality of teaching and learning in any content area. The most important reason why I apply this model is that the dimension of learning model provides a practical approach to create curriculum and instruction for cultivating global competency. In this sense, the definition of the dimensions, content, and implications are examined to investigate and measure a global multidimensional learning domain for valuing cultural diversity. Thus, this chapter proposes a framework for conceptualizing and measuring comprehensive global competence at the individual level. Chapter 8 involves investigating the methodological model of constructing comprehensive global competence at the individual level. Along with the previous chapter focusing on conceptualizing theoretical model, it concentrates on exploring critiquing current assessments of global competence and proposing a set of dimensions corresponding to the conceptual framework for assessing global competency. Along with the critiques on current assessments and proposed methodological dimensions of global competency, the similarities and differences of dimensions of global competency, structural relations among global competency,

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and implications regarding the proposed measure are examined to clarify, enrich, and shape this methodological approach to measuring global competency. Chapter 9 concentrates on examining the assessment questions for measuring global competence at the individual level. As guided by the proposed conceptual and methodological models, sets of items are proposed for each of the four proposed dimensions of global competence: global attitude and perception; acquired, integrated, extended and refined global knowledge; global practical skills; and global habits of mind. Chapter 10 concentrates on analyzing measurement validity for each scale of competence at an individual level. Measurement validity refers to the “best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition or conclusion”. The idea of validity focuses on an informed judgment of how strongly theory and evidence support the interpretations and decisions based on the measure. In this regard, this section considers discriminant validity, focusing on the distinctions between what is expected to be associated with the proposed four-dimensional measures of global competency. Hence, in this section, the validity argument for each scale is articulated to examine the expected association between student background characteristics (i.e., geographical origin, parental education, study or travel abroad experience, majors, class levels, and academic performance) and the four-scale sets (global knowledge; global practical skills; global attitudes and perceptions; and global habits of mind). Beijing, P. R. China

Jian Li

Acknowledgements In the realization of this book, our contributors have been supportive and willing to share their opinions on how to explore the context, concept, model, and evaluation of comprehensive global competence. I am definitely grateful for the generosity and positive spirit of collegiality. While most of the chapters in this book are original and several chapters are adopted from my previously doctoral dissertation and articles related to conceptualizing and measuring global competence at different contexts and editors are grateful for the kind permissions granted to facilitate this.

Reference Marzano, R. J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with dimensions of learning. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1250 North Pitt Street, Alexandria, VA 22314 (ASCD stock no. 611-92107, $15.95, plus $2.50 handling).

Contents

Part I 1

2

Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Context

Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape: A Historical Macro-Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 National Strategy on Examining Chinese International Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Institutional Strategies and Action Ideas: An Analysis of Higher Education Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Comparative Analysis of Well-Known Foreign Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Comparative Analysis of Well-Known Universities in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Challenges and Countermeasures: Difficulties and Countermeasures for the Global Development of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Responses to the Global Development of Higher Education Glimpses of Chinese Citizenship Education in a Globalized World: An Academic Micro Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Developmental Stages on Chinese Citizenship Education . . 2.2 Analysis of the Connotation of Citizenship Education . . . . . 2.2.1 Definition of Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Overview and Analysis of Foreign Citizenship Education . . 2.3.1 Overview of the Ideas and Concepts of Foreign Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Practice of Foreign Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 The Theoretical System Construction of Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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The Practice of Citizenship Education in Contemporary China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 School Practice of Citizenship Education in China . . 2.4.2 National Practice of Citizenship Education in China . 2.5 Research Characteristics and Prospects of Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Glimpses of Policies of Faculty Ethics in a Globalized World: An Social Identity Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Social Identity Theory Perspective on Policies of Faculty Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 “Identity” as Core Idea to Analyze Policies of Faculty Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Categorizing Identity as a Hierarchical Structure of Faculty Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Analyzing Policies of Faculty Ethics: An Approach of Social Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Dimension of Value Identity in Shaping Policies of Faculty Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Dimension of Orientation Identity in Shaping Policies of Faculty Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Dimension of Behavioral Identity in Shaping Policies of Faculty Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glimpses of Internationalizing Higher Education for Creating World-Class Universities in China: The Perspectives of Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Efforts of the Internationalization of Higher Education for Creating World-Class Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Research Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Context of the Elite University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Conclusions and Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Part II 5

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Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Concept

Exploring the Emerging Idea of Comprehensive Global Competence in Contemporary China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Background of the Global Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 The Purpose of Conceptualizing and Measuring Global Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Problem Definition of Global Competence . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Significance of the Study Related to Global Competence 5.5 Definition of Terms Related Global Competence . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Examining the Literature on Comprehensive Global Competence for Individual in Contemporary China . . . . . . . . 6.1 Review of Literature on Global Education . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Chinese Global Education Development: Efforts and Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 The Summary on Global Competency at Individual Level . 6.4 Debates on Conceptual Definitions of Global Competence References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Model

Theoretical Model of Constructing Comprehensive Global Competency for Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Definitions of Dimensions of Learning Model: A Theoretical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Implications of Applying Dimensions of Learning Model as the Theoretical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodological Model of Constructing Comprehensive Global Competence for Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Critiques on Current Assessments of Global Competence for Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Proposed Methodological Dimensions of Global Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Structural Relations Among Dimensions of Global Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Part IV 9

Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Evaluation

Assessment Items for Measuring Global Competence for Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Sets of Items Related to Global Attitudes and Perceptions . 9.2 Sets of Items Related to Acquired, Integrated, Extended and Refined Global Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Sets of Items Related to Global Practical Skills . . . . . . . . 9.4 Sets of Items Related to Global Habits of Mind . . . . . . . . Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Measurement Validity for Each Scale of Global Competence for Individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 The Six Background Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 The Relations Between Six Background Characteristics and Main Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 The Relations Between Six Background Characteristics and Interaction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendix: Global Competency Survey for Undergraduate Students . . . 143 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

About the Author

Jian Li serves an assistant professor at China Institute of Education Policy, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University. She received her Ph.D. degree in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies (ELPS), School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington. Her research interests focus on global learning, global competence, global citizenship, globalization and internationalization of higher education. Dr. Li’s general area of scholarship is on the assessment of global learning outcomes within higher education institutions comparatively. Within this general area, she has pursued four themes: globalization of higher education, higher education policy and management, undergraduate students’ global learning performance assessment, and faculty academic innovation perspective within higher education and comparative higher education development as a framework for institutional research. Dr. Li has published over 30 articles, monographs and book chapters and delivered over 20 workshops and seminars and offered more than 20 keynotes, peer-reviewed, and invited presentations throughout the USA and in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Dr. Li currently also serves as think tanker at China Institute of Education and Social Development, Beijing Normal University. China Institute of Education and Social Development (CIESD) was co-founded by China Association for Promoting Democracy and Beijing Normal University. It was founded on the base of China Institute of Education Policy and China Academy of Social Management of Beijing Normal University. Beijing Normal University integrated the internal resources and giving solid supports to the foundation of CIESD. Its mission is to advance the modernization of the education and social construction with Chinese characteristics. And it is committed to building a new type of high-end oriented think tank with the characteristics of the education reform and development and the social governance innovation. Over the past decade, hundreds of the research papers have been undertaken by CIESD members, more than 530 of which obtained important instructions from party and state leaders at various levels, CIESD has drafted a number of the national education standards and made great influence on the decision-making and the revision of the education law for the party and xv

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About the Author

government. CIESD has held different classes and high-level series of the forums, which has played positive roles in influencing public opinion. CIESD has created a new mechanism within the international exchange and cooperation filed for the institution’s foundation of public diplomacy. CIESD will continue to adhere to high standard and build a professional high-end oriented think tank with the international visionary and significant influence in educational and social fields.

Part I

Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Context

Chapter 1

Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape: A Historical Macro-Context

This chapter involves examining a historical perspective on Chinese international higher education landscape. It investigates the comprehensive national strategy on examining Chinese international higher education, institutional strategies, and action ideas that influenced the efforts of Chinese higher education institutions to strive for creating world-class universities. It also sheds light on analyzing the global development for constructing world-class universities, the challenges, and countermeasures on the difficulties to achieve the comprehensive development of Chinese international higher education institutions, contextually.

1.1 Introduction International education in China serves a pivotal part of implementing national strategical plan to expose to the outside world. With the new round of globalization and internationalization efforts from Chinese higher education institutions, the international higher education system has entered a period of strategical opportunities with four basic characteristics: first is China has becoming the world’s largest exporter of international students; second is China has becoming the largest number of international students in the world; third is China has becoming Asia’s largest destination country for overseas students; third is China is currently involved in the formation of the international higher education development model with Chinese characteristics. Deepening the development of international higher education exchanges and cooperation, higher education in China has entered a developmental stage. The Sinoforeign cooperation in running schools shows that, compared with the strategic orientation and action ideas of universities at home and abroad, the international higher education in China is encountered many challenges, which are mainly manifested in the following aspects: The quantity is more than enough but the quality is not high, the attraction of high-quality foreign students and excellent teachers is insufficient; © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5_1

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1 Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape …

the input is dominant while the output is insufficient, the advantages and characteristics of higher education going out are not obvious; the homogeneity is obvious and the quality is not high, and the cooperation between China and other countries should be done to achieve high-quality resources; exchange surface but not deep accommodation. The management mode of Chinese higher education is a constraint to the globalization of universities and colleges. It is suggested that, we should adhere to the principles of local and global education improvement, and vigorously attract outstanding international talents for strengthening the advantages and characteristics of running schools to form a number of world-class universities. It also involves clarifying the strategic directions and key deployments, and systematically enhancing the level of Sino-foreign cooperation in running schools for stimulating self-reliance and endogenous motivation and promoting the global development system and practice of universities. Specifically, President Xi Jinping attached great importance to the educational exchanges between China and other countries in the world. He pointed out that the quality and level of education opening up should be improved by coordinating domestic and international situations. With the new round of globalization entering a period of deep adjustment, the pace of global development of higher education has been deepening and has become the focus, mainstream, and trend. The role and function of universities have been endowed with the requirements of the new era of global development. In the critical period of establishing world-class universities, it is necessary to integrate the international dimension, cross-cultural dimension, and global dimension into the purpose, function (teaching, scientific research, service) and provision of higher education at the national and university levels. This paper makes a precise analysis of the pattern and trend of the global development of higher education, accurately grasps the basic elements of the global development of higher education, such as studying abroad, studying in China, international exchanges and cooperation, and Sino-foreign cooperation in running schools, correctly views the strategies and actions of the global development of well-known universities at home and abroad, and then clarifies the main challenges and policy paths of the global development of higher education.

1.2 National Strategy on Examining Chinese International Higher Education China has become the world’s largest exporter of overseas students with the largest number of international students in the world. Studying abroad is the basic embodiment of the globalization of higher education and the necessary way of educational exchange and cooperation. In 2013, Xi Jinping emphasized at the 100th anniversary celebration meeting of the Euro-American Student Association that the party and the state will take the work of overseas students as an important task in implementing the strategy of rejuvenating the country through science and education and the strategy of strengthening the country by talents, in accordance with the principles

1.2 National Strategy on Examining Chinese International Higher … The number of students studying abroad (Units

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

17.98

2008

22.93

2009

28.47

2010

33.97

2011

39.96 41.39

2012

2013

45.98

2014

5

ten thousands

52.37 54.45

2015

2016

60.84

2017

Fig. 1.1 The trends of students studying abroad during 2008 and 2017

of supporting study abroad, encouraging return home, coming and going freely and playing a role, so as to enable overseas students to return to their motherland and remain abroad with the door of repaying their country. In 2014, Xi Jinping wrote back to all the students studying in Germany. He hoped that the majority of overseas students would uphold their lofty ideals, realize their own values in the great struggle of the Chinese people to realize the Chinese dream, and strive to write colorful chapters worthy of the times. Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, the scale of studying abroad has steadily expanded, and China has become the world’s largest exporter of studying abroad, building a new era of talent network for global development. The scale of studying abroad has steadily expanded, and the number of returned students has continued to increase. In 2016, the number of overseas students in China was 544.5 million, an increase of 149.9 million, an increase of 36.26%, and the total number of returnees was 432.5 million, an increase of 159.6 million, an increase of 58.48%, compared with 2012. In 2017, for the first time, the number of overseas students in China exceeded the 600,000 mark, reaching 608,400, an increase of 11.74% over the same period last year. It is the largest exporter of international students in the world (see Fig. 1.1 for the basic trend of the number of overseas students in the past decade). In the same year, the number of returned students reached 4809,000, an increase of 11.19% over the previous year. Among them, 227.4 million graduate students and postdoctoral outbound staff have obtained postgraduate degrees, an increase of 14.90% over the same period of last year. Over the past 40 years of reform and opening up, a total of 5.19.49 million people has studied abroad. At present, 1.4541 million people are studying and researching abroad at relevant stages (see Fig. 1.1). 1 By the end of 2017, the total number of returnees had reached 3.132 million. 83.73% of the returnees chose to return to their home countries after they had completed their studies, thus forming the largest wave of returnees (see Fig. 1.1 for the changes in the number of returnees in the past ten years). Especially since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, 23.136 million people have 1 The

Ministry of Education Focusing on the National Strategy to Provide Talent Support Study Abroad has achieved remarkable results, since the eighteenth big study in working condition is introduced [EB/OL]. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/xw_fbh/moe_2069/xwfbh_2017n/xwfb_ 170301/170301_sfcl/201703/t20170301.

6

1 Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape …

The number of returnees

(Units: ten thousand

60 48.09

50 40.91

40

2013

2014

18.62

20

0

36.48

27.29

30

10

35.4

43.25

6.93

2008

10.83

2009

13.48

2010

2011

2012

2015

2016

2017

Fig. 1.2 Basic trend of the number change of returnees from overseas studies (2008–2017)

returned home, accounting for 73.87% of the total number of returnees since the reform and opening up. In recent years, the “deficit” between returning students and returning students has gradually narrowed, and the proportion of returning students to study abroad has dropped from 1.46:1 in 2012 to 1.26:1 in 2016. This is closely related to a series of policies to encourage and attract high-end talents from all over the world, the deepening of China’s reform and opening up, and the rapid upgrading of national economy and society (Fig. 1.2). 2 The studying abroad is relatively centralized for the purpose of studying for undergraduate degree or above. The destination countries of overseas students are relatively concentrated. In 2016, more than 90% of overseas students went to the USA, Britain, Australia, and other ten countries, of which nearly 80% went to English-speaking countries (77.91%). Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, the top ten destinations for Chinese students studying abroad have remained basically stable. The main purpose of studying abroad is to study for a degree. In 2016, 70% of the overseas students studied for a bachelor’s degree or above (30.56% of the undergraduates and 35.51% of the postgraduates). Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, there have been 107,005 public-sent overseas students. Among them, 44,814 visiting scholars, accounting for 41.88% of the total number, 62,191 doctoral, master, and undergraduate students, accounting for 58.12% of the total number, trained a large number of talents with international vision and professional quality. From the point of view of country distribution, 93,865 people were selected for the developed countries of education, such as the USA, Britain, and Canada, accounting for 87.72% of the total number of national dispatched personnel. From the distribution of disciplines, overseas students mainly choose science, 2 http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/s5987/201803/t20180329_331771.html.

1.2 National Strategy on Examining Chinese International Higher … Table 1.1 Basic information of students studying abroad

Items Types Nations

Principal

7 Populations

Rate (%)

Visiting scholars

44,814

41.88

Enrolled students

62,191

58.12

Western developed countries

93,865

87.72

Others

13,140

12.28

Engineering

39,099

36.54

Science

16,553

15.47

7148

6.68

Medicine Agricultural Social science and humanities

3392

3.17

40,813

38.14

industry, agriculture, medicine, and other disciplines, with 36.54%, 15.47%, 6.68%, 3.17% in science, 38.14% in humanities and social sciences (see Table 1.1). In 2016, 498.2 million students studied at their own expense, accounting for 91.49% of the total number of students studying abroad; in 2017, 430.6 million students studied at their own expense, accounting for 88.03% of the total. Since 2012, the proportion of self-funded study abroad has been maintained at about 92%, which has initially formed a pattern of study abroad with government-sponsored study abroad as the dominant and self-funded study abroad as the main body. 3 Government-sponsored study abroad has always been planned based on the most important and urgent needs of the overall national strategy. It selects talents through nine categories and 1,679 government-sponsored projects, and cultivates a large number of innovative talents, talents of international organizations, talents of noncommon languages, and talents of national and regional issues in a number of key fields. According to the needs of local development, special programs for personnel training and local cooperation programs have been set up in the western region. Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, the two programs have admitted 5346 and 4313 students of various kinds. According to the development needs of departments and industries, the ministry of foreign affairs, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences and other departments and industries, set up projects to train 2064 talents for key industries. According to the needs of future development, carry out the selection project for young backbone teachers; since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, 14,577 young backbone teachers have been enrolled, and 226 cooperation agreements have been signed or renewed. China has become the largest destination country of study in Asia, and the pattern of education opening to the outside world has taken shape. Under the background of further adjustment of the globalization policy of higher education, it has become a 3 http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/xw_fbh/moe_2069/xwfbh_2017n/xwfb_170301/170301_sfcl/

201703/t20170301_297675.html.

8

1 Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape …

common phenomenon for the development of higher education to compete for highquality students globally. Our adhere to the “scale, optimizing the structure, standardized management, and quality assurance” of coming to China to study abroad, through various channels to promote the study in China plan to study abroad, create “study in China” brand, cultivate a large number of international talents, help to promote the exchange civilization for reference, enrich our country high-level talent team, and enhance the national competitiveness. In recent years, the scale of overseas students in China has been continuously expanded; the source structure of students has been constantly optimized, and the development trend of overseas students in China is good, developing to a high level and high quality. The scale of overseas study in China continues to grow and the quality of students increases significantly. China has become the largest destination of students in Asia and one of the most attractive destinations in the world. The attractiveness of studying in China further matches the country’s economic strength and comprehensive strength. In 2017, a total of 935 institutions of higher learning in 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government were established by foreign students from 204 countries and regions, including 75,800 master’s and doctoral students, an increase of 18.62% over 2016. 317,200 students from countries along the “One Belt and One Road” route, accounting for 64.85% of the total number, increased by 11.58%, higher than the average growth rate of all countries. The total number of foreign students in Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and other 11 provinces and cities in the east reached 341,900, accounting for 69.88% of the total number. The total number of students studying in China increased from 1236 in 1978 to 489,200 in 2017. At the same time, more and more foreign students come to China to study academic courses, and the proportion of students with academic degrees and graduate students increases. Among the disciplines of international students studying in China, the number of students majoring in liberal arts ranked first, accounting for 48.45% of the total number. The number of students studying engineering, management, science, art, and agriculture all increased by more than 20% year-on-year. Countries along the “One Belt and One Road” belt and road lead the way, and major countries with stable enrollment have changed. The number of students from countries along the “One Belt and One Road” route has increased significantly. In 2016, a total of 207,746 students from 64 countries along the belt and road studied in China, up 13.6% year-on-year, higher than the average growth rate of all countries. The top 10 countries of origin are South Korea, the USA, Thailand, Pakistan, India, Russia, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Japan, and Vietnam. In 2017, the top 10 countries of origin changed in a stable way, followed by South Korea, Thailand, Pakistan, the USA, India, Russia, Japan, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, and Laos.4 The development of overseas study in China needs to establish a matching investment and security system. Since the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, China has continuously increased the investment in Chinese government

4 See

footnote 3.

1.2 National Strategy on Examining Chinese International Higher …

9

scholarships to improve the efficiency of use. First, scale up. A total of 58,600 Chinese government scholarship students from 180 countries studied in China in 2017, accounting for 11.97% of the total. Among them, 51,600 students, accounting for 88.02% of the total number of scholarship students. Second, serve the national strategy. The scholarships are inclined to neighboring countries and countries along the “One Belt and One Road” and become an important channel for national strategic talents and network reserve. Third, improve the level of talent. In 2017, the total number of postgraduate and doctoral students was 40,800, accounting for 69.57% of the total number of scholarship students, an increase of 20.06% over 2016. Chinese government scholarships have become increasingly attractive to high-level talents. With the in-depth development of international exchanges and cooperation, China’s higher education has stepped onto the world stage. In his speech to UNESCO in 2014, Xi Jinping pointed out that “exchanges and mutual learning among civilizations, with education as the pivot, are the driving force for the progress of human society, the bond for maintaining world peace and the only way to make the world a more beautiful place.” Entering a new era, China has made overall plans to promote the construction of “double tops,” firmly rooted in the land of China to run universities and sticking to the principle of running schools with distinctive features and coordinated development.5 The concept of a community with a shared future for mankind has become the value coordinate of international exchanges and cooperation in higher education. In his report to the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC), Xi pointed out that at present, mankind is faced with many common challenges and people of all countries need to work together to build a community of shared future for mankind and build a new world of lasting peace and common prosperity. Human destiny community is put forward on the reality of globalization care, “education should be suitable the trend, through closer interaction, communication, promote the cognition of all human knowledge and culture, the reality struggle of all ethnic groups and the future vision of awareness, to promote students to enhance mutual understanding, set up the eyes of the world, inspired innovation, establish the contributing to human peace and development of wisdom and strength aspiration.” The building of a community of shared future for mankind has provided unprecedented space and opportunities for international exchanges and cooperation in higher education. Higher education can and must play an important role in facilitating the building of a community of shared future for mankind. It is necessary to build a transnational academic community, a world youth community and a community of social responsibility from the perspective of safeguarding the interests of all mankind, so as to enrich the connotation and vivid practice of the proposition of international cooperation in higher education. In rethinking education: a shift to the idea of a “global Commons?” “To achieve sustainable development in an increasingly interdependent world, education, and knowledge must be seen as a global common interest,” the report argues.

5 See

footnote 3.

10

1 Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape …

“One Belt and One Road” education action provides a new opportunity for international exchange and cooperation in higher education. In 2016, the ministry of education issued “to promote to build” area “action plan for education, proposed” neighborhood “education community, focus on implementation of the” silk road “to study abroad, joint cooperation in running schools, teacher training, talents training and education assistance program, promoting policy, channel interlinked with the mutual recognition, language, education, promote the hearts and minds are interlinked, play to the education in building” fundamental and guiding role in the area along the way.” Among the first batch of 23 regional research and cultivation bases of the ministry of education, there are eight regional research bases involving “One Belt and One Road.” By the end of 2016, 87 universities in 14 provinces and cities in China had carried out Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools with universities in eight countries along the “One Belt and One Road,” including Singapore and Russia. Academic education covers three levels: junior college, undergraduate, and master, among which junior college and undergraduate programs dominate. It is established with the approval of the ministry of education of the foreign educational institutions and a total of 103 projects, including Laos Suzhou University, Xiamen University, Malaysia campus, Yunnan University of Finance and Business, a College of Beijing Language and Culture University of Tokyo, Bangkok, five institutions, such as the opening of a professional, including Chinese language and literature, Chinese medicine, acupuncture, traditional Chinese martial arts, sports, education, business administration, law, education, cooking process and nutrition, etc. A further 98 projects were involved in 15 countries and regions. China has signed mutual recognition agreements for academic degrees with 24 “One Belt and One Road” countries and regions. In 140 countries and regions around the world, 512 Confucius Institutes and 1073 Confucius Classrooms have been established, which have become an important carrier of China’s cultural soft power, an important platform for the world to understand China, an important bridge for language and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries, and an important bond connecting Chinese and foreign people. Global cooperative organizations of institutions of higher learning are important carriers of international exchanges and cooperation in higher education. International exchanges and cooperation in higher education have always played an important role in docking the educational needs of countries along the “One Belt and One Road,” constructing the “One Belt and One Road” education community and serving the “One Belt and One Road” initiative. At the regional level, China has established the “20 + 20” cooperation plan with the Arab League, South Asia and central and eastern Europe, as well as the President of China–Arab states universities, BBS, and Chinese and African universities. In terms of multilateral relations, China–Japan have established mechanisms, such as the China–Japan university exchange and cooperation promotion committee and China–India higher education dialogue, and established China–Latin America education exchange platform and BRICS University Alliance. In terms of bilateral relations, it has established educational exchange mechanisms and platforms with some countries along the belt and road, as well as President BBS of universities in China and Japan, President BBS of universities in China and

1.2 National Strategy on Examining Chinese International Higher …

11

South Korea, and China–Russia university alliance. China road and bridge engineering co., ltd. and Beijing Jiaotong University jointly launched the Kenyan overseas students program, Tianjin in Thailand, the UK, Indonesia, and other places to set up the “Luban workshop,” etc., are participating in global governance in China have flashed the name card of education.6 Overseas education is the touchstone for China’s higher education to “go out” and spread Chinese culture. The friendship between the people and the country lies in mutual understanding between the people. Overseas education is not only a “touchstone” to test the effectiveness and level of international education, but also an important platform to promote educational exchanges and cooperation between China and other countries, as well as a positive attempt to “go global” of Chinese higher education and Chinese culture. In November 2012, Xiamen University officially accepted the invitation of Malaysian authorities to run a school abroad. It is the first branch school with independent legal personality established by a public university in China and has become a model for China to face the world and the future. Since the “One Belt and One Road” initiative was proposed, more than 10 countries, including Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Jordan, and Egypt, have applied to China for overseas education. As of 2016, Chinese universities have held four institutions and 98 school-running projects overseas. The “going out” of China’s higher education is accelerating, and the strength of China’s higher education is gradually manifested.7 Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools demonstrates China’s international education efforts and helps China into a powerful country in the field of higher education. In 2001, China joined the WTO which put forward higher requirements for education opening to the outside world. In 2003, the regulations on Chineseforeign cooperation in running schools came into being and became the first special law in the history of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools. Under the basic guidelines of “opening wider to the outside world, standardizing school running, managing schools in accordance with the law and promoting development,” Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools has entered a stage with laws to be followed and gradually standardized. In 2004, the state council issued the action plan for the revitalization of education from 2003 to 2007, which proposed to strengthen the international cooperation and exchanges of all-round and high-level education and established the ideas, strategies, and measures for the opening up of education to the outside world within five years. Since then, the state has started to issue relevant policies with high density and frequency, and gradually formed a policy system for the standardized development of Chinese-foreign cooperative education, so as to guarantee the quality of Chinese-foreign cooperative education. In 2010, the outline of the national plan for medium- and long-term education reform and development (2010–2020) (hereinafter referred to as the outline) explicitly proposed to introduce high-quality educational resources, attract well-known overseas schools, educational 6 Scale

of the ministry of education. Continue to expand enrollment structure constantly optimize attractive continuously enhance the students work to high-level high-quality development [EB/OL]. http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/gzdt_gzdt/s5987/201803/t20180329_331772.html. 7 See footnote 6.

12

1 Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape …

and scientific research institutions and enterprises, and establish educational teaching, practical training, and research institutions and projects in cooperation. We will encourage schools at all levels and of all types to carry out various forms of international exchanges and cooperation and run a number of model Chinese-foreign cooperative schools and a number of Chinese-foreign cooperatively run schools. In particular, we have made the project of international exchange and cooperation in education one of the major projects, supported a number of demonstrative Chineseforeign cooperativity-run schools, and supported the construction of a number of international cooperative joint laboratories and research centers in universities and colleges, and introduced a large number of overseas high-level talents. For the implementation of the outline requirements, from 2012 to 2015, the ministry of education developed the notice on strengthening the management of the foreign education specification (2012), “on further strengthening the institutions of higher learning quality of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools security work opinion” (2013), “on further strengthening the supervision of Sino-foreign cooperation in running schools notice (2015), and other normative documents, from regulating the supervision and administration management, quality assurance, such as different aspects of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools policy system to consummate gradually. In 2016, the central government office and the state council office issued several opinions on doing a good job in the opening up of education in the new era, which further stated that the system and mechanism should be improved to improve the level of foreign-related education. By improving the access system, reforming the examination and approval system, carrying out evaluation and certification, strengthening the exit mechanism, strengthening information disclosure, establishing a successful experience sharing mechanism, focusing on the construction of national badly needed natural science and engineering science majors, introducing foreign high-quality resources, and comprehensively improving the quality of cooperative education. The ministry of education proposed to implement the “silk road” cooperative education promotion plan in the “promotion and joint construction of” One Belt and One Road “education action, taking it as an important part of the supporting framework of” carrying out talent training.” Marked by a series of policy announcements, the quality and strategic direction of Sino-foreign cooperative education in the new era have become more prominent. The scale, quality, and influence of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools are increasing rapidly. In 2004, the University of Nottingham Ningbo set a precedent in combining Chinese higher education with foreign high-quality higher education resources. In 2005, the Beijing normal University-Hong Kong Baptist University international college was established in Zhuhai, Guangdong province. In 2006, XITLU was inaugurated in Suzhou, Jiangsu province. In August 2012, NYU Shanghai was founded. In 2013, Duke Kunshan University was listed in Kunshan, Jiangsu province. In 2014, Wenzhou Ken University was approved and established. In October 2016, Shenzhen Moscow University was approved to be officially established. In September 2017, Hainan University and Arizona State University, the country’s first tourism Chinese-foreign cooperative school-running institution, jointly established the school of international tourism in Haikou… As of June 2018,

1.2 National Strategy on Examining Chinese International Higher …

13

there are 2342 Chinese-foreign cooperatively run schools and projects in China, including 1090 institutions and projects above the undergraduate level. China has established educational cooperation and exchanges with 188 countries and regions, carried out educational cooperation and exchanges with 46 major international organizations, signed agreements on mutual recognition of academic degrees with 47 countries and regions, and established eight high-level people-to-people exchange mechanisms with Russia, the USA, the UK, and the European Union. By December 2018, a total of 2389 Chinese-foreign cooperatively run schools and projects have been set up or held across the country, with about 600,000 students, about 90% of the total number of institutions and projects in higher education, and more than 1.6 million graduates. Among the more than 2300 Chinese-foreign cooperatively run institutions and programs in higher education, there are more than 1100 educational institutions and programs at the undergraduate or higher level. Among the Chinese-foreign cooperatively run institutions above the undergraduate level, 61% of the foreign cooperatively run institutions are among the top 200 universities in QS world rankings. At the same time, the quality and level of Sino-foreign cooperation in running schools have been improved steadily. By actively introducing high-level education resources, the university is committed to cultivating high-quality international talents and forming complementary advantages with domestic higher education resources. The exploration and innovation of Sino-foreign cooperation in education, teaching, and management system not only radiate to many domestic universities, but also show Chinese wisdom in the world higher education stage.8 Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools is in line with the national strategy, injecting strong impetus into the development of higher education. Chineseforeign cooperation in running schools, on the one hand, the active docking important areas of cooperation, the introduction of shortage, be badly in need of discipline with the project, including science and medicine, the urgent need of some emerging specialty, cutting-edge professional, blank, atmospheric science, disaster nursing, ecology, ships and ocean engineering, health industry, cultural heritage protection and other fields. Chinese-foreign cooperative education programs for master’s degree and erudite degree have increased greatly. Most of the doctoral programs were approved after 2011, accounting for 83.3% of the total number of doctoral programs. Among the master’s degree level programs, 62 were approved after 2011, accounting for 39% of the total number of master’s degree level programs. In addition, in the past five years, the central and western regions have been supported to host nearly 300 Chinese-foreign cooperative education projects at undergraduate level and above, accounting for about half of the total number of new grants. On the other hand, we should take the initiative to serve both the domestic and international situations and promote the opening up of education to the outside world at a high level. Local governments and colleges and universities actively organize the “One Belt And One Road” construction and the development of Sino-foreign cooperative education BBS, help form the “One Belt and One Road” implementation plan of Sino-foreign cooperative education service, and encourage colleges 8 See

footnote 6.

14

1 Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape …

and universities to carry out cooperative education with high-level universities in countries along the “One Belt And One Road.” According to incomplete statistics, 87 universities in 14 provinces and cities have carried out Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools with universities in countries along the “One Belt And One Road,” and the total number of institutions and projects approved by the ministry of education and local governments has reached 200. This is of great value in the integration of domestic and foreign higher education resources, and it is an important opportunity to establish a good international image of China’s higher education. At the same time, it has accumulated fresh experience for the promotion of high-level education and opening up.

1.3 Institutional Strategies and Action Ideas: An Analysis of Higher Education Institutions 1.3.1 Comparative Analysis of Well-Known Foreign Universities According to Britain’s Times Higher Education World University ranking published in 2019, ranked in the top nine universities are: University of Oxford, Cambridge University, Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), California Institute of Technology, Harvard University, Princeton University, Yale University, and University of Chicago. The Times Higher Education World University ranking has certain influence and credibility, and the strategic positioning of the top ten universities’ global development is typical and referable. Strategic positioning Internationalization is the focus of higher education development and one of the main forces influencing and shaping higher education in the twenty-first century. The international strategy of the top 10 universities is committed to building a global platform and leading the development of higher education in the world. This is not only in line with the strength of the school and the region, The times, but also has a leading role in the development of world higher education. In their strategies, Princeton University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology clearly proposed to serve the national and world development; Harvard University and Imperial College of Technology took the discovery of value and the promotion of change as their strategic goals, while Oxford University led the world in research and education (see Table 1.2).9

9 Tian huisheng. Exchange and cooperation between “One Belt and One Road” and higher education

[J]. University (research edition), 2017, (12), 14–15 (in Chinese).

1.3 Institutional Strategies and Action Ideas …

15

Table 1.2 The strategic aims of global development of foreign universities Universities

The strategic aims

Oxford University

Oxford University has become a world leader in research and education

Cambridge University

Cambridge University strives for the highest level of international excellence in education, learning, and research, contributing to society

Stanford University

Stanford University creates new knowledge

MIT

MIT education, research, and innovation make the world a better place

Harvard University

Harvard University promotes meaning, value, and creativity

Yale University

Yale University cultivates world leaders under the guidance of the concept of light and true knowledge

The University of Chicago

The University of Chicago is rich in knowledge and rich in life

Action ideas Times Higher Education World University top 10 universities build their global development platform mainly through the construction of “global community,” “global exchange,” and “global partnership,” emphasizing their contribution to the world as an important strategic content of global development. The university takes actions that are appropriate to its global development strategy. Harvard University promotes the “harvard movement” to ensure the future development and leadership of Harvard University; MIT trains global leaders through the MIT global leadership program. Based on specific, operable, and targeted action plans, it lays a solid foundation for the global development of universities.10

1.3.2 Comparative Analysis of Well-Known Universities in China In the Times Higher Education World University rankings, seven universities from the Chinese mainland, namely Tsinghua University, Peking University, University of Science and Technology of China, Zhejiang University, Fudan University, Nanjing University, and Shanghai Jiao Tong University, made the top 200. “List of international competitiveness of Chinese universities” (2018) evaluates the degree of internationalization of colleges and universities from the three dimensions of faculty of the thousand talent plan, Sino-foreign cooperative education and the number of international students. The top three universities of international education are Zhejiang University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, and Tongji University. In addition, 10 Hanban/Confucius

institute headquarters. About the Confucius institute/classroom [EB/OL]. http://www.hanban.edu.cn/confuciousinstitutes/node_10961.htm, 2017-03-28.

16

1 Glimpses of Chinese International Higher Education Landscape …

Wuhan University and Xi’an Jiaotong University have also actively explored the globalization of higher education and achieved good results. Therefore, this paper selects Tsinghua University, Peking University, University of Science and Technology of China, Zhejiang University, Fudan University, Nanjing University, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Tongji University, Wuhan University, and Xi’an Jiaotong University as samples to analyze their strategic goals and action ideas for global development of higher education. Strategic objectives The strategic objectives of the globalization development of well-known universities in China are mainly reflected in improving the comprehensive ability of universities, cultivating talents urgently needed by the country and serving the major national strategies, so as to enhance the competitiveness, influence, and reputation of universities in the world (see Table 1.3). Action ideas The action ideas for the global development of domestic colleges and universities mainly focus on personnel training, team building, and scientific research. They increasingly focus on international cooperation and exchanges, closely align and serve national strategies, and steadily improve the scale and quality of overseas cooperation (see Table 1.4). Taking the “internationalization and reputation enhancement program” of Zhejiang University as an example, it mainly includes: overseas Table 1.3 The strategic objectives of international higher education development Universities

The strategic orientation

Tsinghua University

Implementing global strategy of Tsinghua University, cultivating innovative talents with global competencies and influences for promoting the competitive around the world to contribute human development

Peking University

Comprehensively improve institutional global influences and reputation

University of Science and Technology of China

Striving for innovation for creating world-class universities

Zhejiang University

Conducting strategy of “internationalization 4S strategy” for promoting international reputation and influences

Fudan University

Enhancing the academic communication nationally and internationally to expand university’s international influences

Nanjing University

Promoting university’s international reputation and academic influences

Shanghai Jiao Tong Universities

Greatly improving universities’ international reputation and social recognition (continued)

1.3 Institutional Strategies and Action Ideas …

17

Table 1.3 (continued) Universities

The strategic orientation

Tongji University

Constructing the sustainable development-oriented world-class universities

Wuhan University

Increasing institution’s international core competitiveness to increase international management and service capacities to promote the sustainable development of research, teaching, and service

Xi’an Jiaotong University

Inspiriting “Global perspective, opening integration, deepen cooperation and opening to mutual benefits, interactive connection for promoting mutual benefits”

Notes All these materials are summarized from specific institutional policy documents Table 1.4 The strategic action ideas of international higher education development Universities

The strategic action ideas

Tsinghua University

Creating global talent cultivation system, deepening international communication and cooperation, and constructing international campuses

Peking University

Constructing international strategy, focusing on Peking Brand and combing global organization through constructing cross-cultural policy construction

University of Science and Technology of China

Creating the brand of global talent recruitment, building specific international college, and implementing international communication plan

Zhejiang University

Constructing overseas partnership to promote the construction of international higher education cooperation, study abroad education and international research plans

Fudan University

Creating global cooperation networking and building international cooperation and creating international think tank with Chinese characteristics

Nanjing University

Deepen international and cross-cultural communications and actions. Implementing the project international scientific lab, international sample college, and international curriculum

ShangHaiJiaoong University

Constructing international strategy and cooperation through building international schooling and international talent cultivation (continued)

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Table 1.4 (continued) Universities

The strategic action ideas

Tongji University

Constructing the project of “excellent talent,” international cooperation and international partnership

Wuhan University

Innovating international teaching organization model, construction of all-English projects, implementation of exchange program with world-class universities, international academic cooperation program, international academic journal support program, promotion of “Overseas Academic Week” activities, promotion of the international image of the school

Xi’an Jiaotong University

Implementing “International Cooperation and Development Project,” carrying out international scientific research cooperation projects and personnel planning, establishing high-level international academic journals, promoting Sino-foreign cooperative school-running projects, building shared all-English courses, and building the cooperation platform of “Silk Road University Alliance”

Notes All these materials are summarized from specific institutional policy documents

first-class discipline partner enhancement program, international joint college construction, overseas students’ education “two high” program, international scientific research cooperation program, etc. In addition, Tsinghua University, Peking University, Tongji University, Wuhan University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Xi’an Jiaotong University, and other universities attach great importance to international cooperation and exchange in the “double first-class” construction, focusing on personnel training, team building, scientific research, and other university functions, and fully deploying the path of international development.

1.4 Challenges and Countermeasures: Difficulties and Countermeasures for the Global Development of Higher Education Global development of higher education in-depth adjustment, this is related to the current pattern change of opening to the outside world, and multilateralism, unilateralism, national priority, nationalism intertwined, and the development strategy of a country is associated with global responsibility, more with a national strength and the trend of the development of higher education. The global development of

1.4 Challenges and Countermeasures: Difficulties …

19

higher education in China is in such a time of “unprecedented changes in a century,” which is in the period of strategic opportunities for global development. However, it still faces the constraints and difficulties of global development, which constitute the problems and challenges of the global development of higher education. Education opening to the outside along with the country’s opening to the outside world, but it can be before or behind the country’s opening to the outside world, the new era of global development of higher education should be to increase quality as the core, according to the construction of system innovation and mechanism, and communities in properly dealing with the problems and challenges, capacity building, improve the global competitiveness of higher education, to become the world’s higher education development the strategic high ground, adapt and lead the country’s opening to the outside world.11 Challenges to the global development of higher education Quantity is abundant, but quality is not high: It is not attractive to high-quality international students and excellent teachers. The characteristics and advantages of “globalization” of higher education need to be guaranteed by international talents with both quantity and quality advantages, and the global development of higher education needs to be driven by “quality,” so as to continuously increase the attraction to high-quality international students and excellent teachers. Although in recent years, the scale of foreign students climbed, it still faces many problems: foreign students low proportion of students (1%), international students to focus on two adjacent or good peripheral countries, developed countries coming to China to study abroad students enough, foreign student education in proportion is not high, small-scale higher degree students, etc. Compared with the strong attraction of first-class universities in Europe and America to students from all over the world, the attraction of firstclass universities in China to international high-quality students is far from enough. China’s existing talent policy and institutional environment are not enough to attract outstanding teachers with global vision, and there are many restrictions on the full play of outstanding international talents after they come to China. The scale and level of internationalization of teachers in existing colleges and universities cannot well meet the needs of the development of globalization. Input-oriented but insufficient output: The advantages and characteristics of higher education going global are not obvious enough. The ability of Chinese higher education to pursue excellence and innovation needs to be improved. In addition, the differences between Chinese and Western education culture, education system, and education habit cannot be eliminated for a short time, resulting in the insufficient ability of knowledge innovation and knowledge flow. The university’s discipline characteristic is not prominent, the prestige degree is not high, the international brand image has not established, to the international high-quality student, and the high-quality talented person attraction is insufficient. Although some Chinese universities have entered the ranks of the world’s top universities in recent years, their 11 Li

shengbing. Six changes of higher education cooperation between China and “One Belt and One Road” countries [J]. Beijing education (higher education), 2017, (5) (in Chinese).

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international development still shows the characteristics of “dependence” on western experience in many aspects. Most of them use the experience of running world-class universities for reference, but their output is insufficient. How to cultivate and form its own advantages and characteristics on the basis of the “introduction” of international high-quality education resources, and how to realize the “going out” of higher education and effectively integrate into the systems and habitus of other countries will affect the core competitiveness of China’s higher education on the world stage. Obvious homogeneity and low quality: Sino-foreign cooperation still needs to make efforts to achieve high-quality resources. In recent years, we have been seeking to cooperate with foreign high-quality education institutions in running schools, but the difference in development positioning leads to the difference in value demands, which makes the difference in the quality of running schools very large, and the level of running schools to be improved. Although high-quality higher education resources have begun to appear in Chinese-foreign cooperatively run schools and projects, it is still difficult to meet the educational, social, and national needs for accuracy and effectiveness. In particular, the lack of strong professional atmosphere and innovative environment for Sino-foreign cooperative education projects restricts the cultivation of international professionals. Although Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools has the natural advantage of cultivating emerging disciplines, interdisciplinary disciplines, disciplines in urgent need and talents in short supply, the reality is that interdisciplinary disciplines account for too little and emerging disciplines are not enough to truly improve the quality of talent training. The major setting of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools is not scientific enough. The majors of economics, management, and computer are severely duplicated, and there is an extreme shortage of majors in physics, chemistry and electronic science and technology that match the national innovation-driven development. It is an important starting point for the global development of higher education to carry out differentiated, precise, diversified, and high-quality Chinese-foreign cooperative education in combination with the urgent needs of the country, social expectations, and people’s needs. Superficial communication without deep integration: The management mode of higher education hinders globalization. The global development of higher education in China still lags behind the international level in terms of platform construction, student integration, and talent introduction, and its own ability still needs to be improved. Global development of higher education to the first-class discipline construction and the creative thinking training, academic talent selection, certification system construction, production, mutual fusion, science evaluation system construction, especially to the degree management system, quality certification, quality evaluation standard of put forward the new higher request, can effectively achieve these requirements, will largely affect the process of China’s higher education toward the world with quality, and thus affect the global influence of higher education in our country. For example, China implements the double certificate awarding system for academic degree and academic degree, which is not compatible with the degree awarding document system of foreign institutions of higher education and has an impact on Sino-foreign cooperation and exchange in academic degree higher

1.4 Challenges and Countermeasures: Difficulties and Countermeasures …

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education. China implements the dual-track system of the relative separation of international students and local students in the management of overseas students in China, which to a large extent hinders the communication and integration between students and adversely affects the achievement of educational effects. In addition, the education in the teaching of international finance is the core essential factor affecting the development of higher education worldwide, our university in curriculum design, teaching mode, teaching language, content arrangement, although gradually began to offer English courses for foreign students, open courses, teaching resources, etc., but failed to effectively reflect global development thinking and requirements, content is relatively small and fragmentation, presentation is not science, and local education teaching facilities are insufficient, which objectively affect the quality of the international education effect.12

1.5 Responses to the Global Development of Higher Education Adhere to meeting both the local and global mission of improving the quality and vigorously attracting outstanding international talents, the global development of higher education urgently needs to attract high-quality overseas students and outstanding scholars to provide strong support for the construction of first-class universities and disciplines. Give the consideration to the scale and quality of international students in China, optimizing the source structure of international students in China focuses on the balanced and reasonable development of scale structure, hierarchy structure, and professional structure. In terms of the scale and structure, it aims to attract students from countries along the “One Belt and One Road” and neighboring countries to study in China, and at the same time, it makes use of advantageous and characteristic majors to attract students from developed countries to study in China, so as to promote the stable growth of the scale of international students in China. In terms of the hierarchy, we should gradually change or reduce the financial support for foreign students in China who mainly learn the language and experience the culture and increase the financial support for degree education students to attract foreign students to study for the degree. In terms of the professional structure, it aims to build characteristic disciplines, advantageous disciplines and brand disciplines, unifies advantageous discipline resources, strives to build high-level discipline groups, and takes the lead in building interdisciplinary groups of liberal arts majors, science majors and engineering majors. We will make innovations in the international talent management system and mechanism, establish and improve the system of remuneration, talent evaluation and performance distribution, and optimize the environment 12 Xiong

jianhui, Chen huirong. Developing high-level cooperation in running schools with worldclass resources—the path of sino-foreign cooperation in running schools in the 40 years of reform and opening up [R]. The special issue of sino-foreign cooperation in running schools by sinologists 2018: “China’s road for cooperative running schools”, December 27, 2018. (in Chinese).

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for academic and professional development, so as to attract talents that are badly needed for the global development of higher education. We strengthen and highlight the advantages and characteristics of running schools and form a number of world-class universities and disciplines. We adhere to the different development road, avoid the school side, encourage and guide the different levels and different categories and levels of college services and integrated into the national strategy actively, make full use of the discipline, regional high-quality resources, combined with the existing development foundation and the international situation, focus on cultivating the competitive advantage and subject characteristics, and create a world class of China’s higher education. On the basis of the local, cultivate the international vision, strengthen their own opening up, on the one hand in the Chinese mainland to the outside, the formation of a number of world-class universities and disciplines. On the other hand, we should take the initiative to go out and establish overseas campuses to recruit students globally according to the needs of the target countries and their own actual conditions. At the same time, make full use of overseas alumni institutions, university alliance institutions or associations, world academic conferences or BBS, international higher education exhibitions and other resources, on the one hand, keep abreast of the latest achievements and trends of foreign knowledge innovation and university development. On the other hand, we should create more opportunities for the deep connection and substantial integration between ourselves and the frontier of higher education, so as to continuously enhance the international influence of higher education. Clarify the strategic direction and key deployment and systematically improve the level of Chinese-foreign cooperative education. Adhering to the basic principles of “deepening reform, opening wider to the outside world, standardizing development and raising the level of education,” China has made active use of international highquality educational resources through Sino-foreign cooperation in running schools and promoted the transformation of China from an educational power to an educational power. With the improvement of educational competitiveness as the theme, the introduction of high-quality educational resources as the guidance, and the cultivation of internationally competitive talents as the core, we provide diversified, high-quality and personalized education to meet the needs of the country, society, and individuals for education. First, in the strategic direction, with the introduction of foreign high-end educational resources as the basic strategy, it is necessary to classify, standardize, and implement, and strictly enforce market access, so as to give more and greater independent rights to Chinese-foreign partner institutions and project sponsors and stimulate the vitality of running schools. Second, in terms of layout and arrangement, actively expand the cooperation network with global universities, and focus on introducing advanced management experience in running schools, education and teaching mode, curriculum and textbook system, etc., so as to continuously improve the level and level of cooperative running schools. Third, in terms of specific cooperation, we should focus on introducing foreign educational institutions with great academic influence, high educational quality and advanced management experience to run schools in China, and focus on seeking cooperation in weak, much-needed and emerging disciplines and specialties.

1.5 Responses to the Global Development of Higher Education

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Stimulating the independent vitality and endogenous driving force is to promote the global development system and practice innovation of colleges and universities. First, to promote the integration of the current management system and international institutions of higher learning, we will explore ways to implement a system of mutual recognition of academic qualifications and credits, establish a cooperation mechanism among institutions of higher learning in the world’s educational powerhouses, and lay a solid foundation for attracting high-level institutions of higher learning and high-level talents to study in China. Second, we should explore the implementation of integrated management system and mechanism for international students, implement unified management system in accommodation arrangement, education and teaching, practical activities and other aspects, and accelerate the management integration of international students and Chinese students. Third, the quality assurance system and culture of colleges and universities should be established. The concept of global development should be integrated into the whole process of running a school, management, teaching, and evaluation. With quality assurance as the core, a normalized international cooperation and risk warning mechanism should be established in teaching, scientific research, talent cultivation, and introduction. Fourth, we need to build an all-round pattern of global development of colleges and universities, and encourage and guide departments, disciplines, teachers and students to deeply participate in global development.13

13 See

footnote 12.

Chapter 2

Glimpses of Chinese Citizenship Education in a Globalized World: An Academic Micro Context

This chapter aims to examining Chinese citizenship education in a globalized world from an academic micro context. The idea of citizenship education serves as the foreign product that appeared in China in the early 20th century. It is interdependent with the development of the globalization and internationalization of higher education institutions in Chinese context. This chapter mainly involves exploring the developmental stages on Chinese citizenship education historically, the analysis of the connotation of citizenship education, the overview and analysis of foreign citizenship education, the practice of citizenship education in contemporary China, and the research characteristics and prospects of citizenship education in Chinese context.

2.1 Developmental Stages on Chinese Citizenship Education In CNKI, the search for “citizen education” can be used to obtain 4033 articles with the theme of “citizenship education” or title. As shown in the following figure, in 1980, the first “citizenship education” literature appeared in China and then slowly developed to 2002. The number of documents has soared to 50. In 2013, the number of documents reached 377 in the peak period, and there was a downward trend in 2015 (see Fig. 2.1). The topics covered in the literature are very rich. Except for the broad theme of “citizenship education,” the number of “citizen education” studies in the USA dominated by North America is the top two, which is related to the international environment and national culture. The number of documents around the theme of ideological and political education, civic awareness, domestic “citizenship education,” and citizenship education courses is in the top position, which shows the distribution of characteristics of domestic literature, as shown in the following figure. © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5_2

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the number of publication

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2 Glimpses of Chinese Citizenship Education … the trend of publication

Fig. 2.1 Number of publications of “citizen education” literature from 1980 to the present in China

Viewing the development stage from the characteristics of the times The development stage of China’s citizenship education research is closely related to the development stage of the times. The social and political backgrounds of different periods have influenced the development of citizenship education research at that time. Some scholars introduced the development stage of citizenship education in different eras in China from different footholds. Ningjuan (2010) divided the research development of citizenship education since the founding of the People’s Republic of China into two stages. The first stage was the 30-year citizenship education silence stage in the early days of the founding of the People’s Republic of China. During this period, political education replaced citizenship education, and citizenship education was temporarily silenced. The second stage is the revival of citizenship education in the 30 years of reform and opening up. This period is characterized by the improvement of the moral education curriculum system and the increasing research on citizenship education theory. The theoretical research focuses are translating the citizenship education theories and practical experience in various regions and countries, combing and reflecting on the modern Chinese citizens and citizenship education thoughts; after entering the new century, the active exploration of citizenship education and the development and implementation of school citizenship education curriculum become the research focus. The reform and opening up in 1978 promoted China’s political, economic, cultural, and other social undertakings to a new level. China’s citizenship education research has since opened, and many scholars use this period as a starting point to summarize the development of citizenship education research. Li (2006) believes that the three main paths of citizenship education research since China’s reform and opening up are: translation and introduction of theoretical resources and experience of foreign citizenship education, including translation and evaluation of foreign books on citizenship and citizenship education, and evaluation of foreign scholars’ viewpoints on citizens and citizenship and introduces the practical experience of citizenship education in other countries at the practical level, combing and reflecting on the relevant thoughts of citizenship education in modern China. Luo (2010) believes

2.1 Developmental Stages on Chinese Citizenship Education

27

that the research on citizenship education since the reform and opening up includes the following two stages: translation and introduction of the experience of foreign citizenship education (before the 1980s and 1980s). One of the characteristics of this stage of citizenship education is translation, introducing foreign citizenship education, advocating less domestic citizenship education; Chinese citizenship education research recovery stage (1990s), at this stage, mainland scholars have clearly proposed to conduct citizenship education for students in schools; Chinese citizenship education research’s stage of prosperity (from the beginning of the 21st century to the present), at this stage, a new concept for the citizenship education of contemporary college students appeared. Liu Zhengxian’s division of the research and development stage of citizenship education since the reform and opening up is more detailed and specific (2009). He divided it into the following stages: 1. The difficult recovery period of citizenship education research (December 1978 to February 1995), the first citizenship education article “Outlook of Civil Education Teaching” (published in “ Foreign Elementary and Secondary Education, No. 2, 1983)” is the translation of academic achievement of American scholars; 2. The realistic appeal period of citizenship education research (February 1995 to February 2001), the landmark event of this period is “High School Moral Education Principle” promulgated in February 1995. The ethical period of citizenship education research (February 2001 to October 2007), the landmark event of this period was the “Implementation Principle for Citizen Moral Construction” promulgated in February 2001, which became the guiding citizen of the new century. The programmatic documents of moral construction put forward new requirements for the research and practice of citizenship education, and citizenship education research has entered a period of relative prosperity; 4. The period of refined development of citizenship education research (October 2007 to present), during this period, the landmark event is the report of the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China published in October 2007. It clarifies the basic direction and main objectives of citizenship education in the new era. It also proposes the task of strengthening citizenship education. Citizenship education has thus become a hot research topic in academic field.

2.2 Analysis of the Connotation of Citizenship Education Citizenship education is the product of modern nationalism, which is produced by Western society in the process of opposing church rule and monarchy and establishing a modern democracy. In the development process of citizenship education in our country, researchers have different definitions of citizenship education from different perspectives.

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2.2.1 Definition of Citizenship Education Different scholars offer different opinions on how to define the concept of citizenship education. Specifically, Li and Zhong (2002) proposed that citizenship education should be based on the essential characteristics of citizenship and the core of the educational goal system. Chen (2009) believes that citizenship education is a kind of modern education implemented by government organizations and the whole society in order to make citizens have good basic qualities and meet specific social needs, and it is also a lifelong education. Its basic purpose is to promote, consolidate, and develop the modern democratic and legal state system so that each citizen can develop patriotism, public morality, and subjective responsibility. Gu (2009) believes that citizenship education is an education about citizenship and is an education aimed at cultivating citizens’ loyalty to the country and consciously practicing the character and duties of civil rights and obligations. Its main goal is to cultivate civic awareness, including national identity awareness, rights and obligations awareness, and public responsibility. Among them, the national identity consciousness is the most basic requirement of the state for its members and thus constitutes the primary or most basic educational goal of citizenship education. Zheng (2000) elaborated on the definition of citizenship education from the narrow and broad aspects. The narrow civics education refers to the civic discipline that aims to develop the necessary knowledge of participating in the public life of the country or society. Broad citizenship education refers to a combination of various educational methods that foster people’s effective participation in the public life of the country and society and the cultivation of informed citizens in modern society. Wang and Zang (2012) explained the citizenship education in the general and special sense. The former refers to the education of citizens. In this sense, citizenship education emphasizes the education of citizens, which highlights the object of education. As long as he is a citizen, the education he receives is citizenship education. This means the education for citizens is citizenship education; the latter refers to the education about citizens, that is, the education of qualified citizens, although it is also the education of citizens. But it highlights the educational content, which is the education of citizens on how to be a qualified citizen. Desheng and Li (2010) explained the definition of citizenship education from three aspects: 1. (Democratic) citizenship education, Western countries emphasize autonomy, rights, and equality in citizenship education based on the consideration that “democratic polities must have citizens who are enthusiastic about political participation;” 2. National education, this kind of citizenship education will regard the support and recognition of the current political system as the main way of political participation or political participation, highlighting the obligations of citizens as a country, from the standpoint of the nation-state, incorporating culture and national identity into educational goals; 3. Cultivating public people, words such as “publicity,” “public reason,” “public spirit,” “citizen virtue,” and “public virtue” appearing in the field of citizenship education reflects this idea.

2.2 Analysis of the Connotation of Citizenship Education

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The intrinsic value of citizenship education It can be seen that there is no unified statement about the definition of citizenship education. Many scholars have defined the connotation of citizenship education according to different classification criteria. From the perspective of citizens and the state, Zhao and Jin (2017) believes that the connotation of citizenship education is based on the requirements of building socialist democratic politics with Chinese characteristics, cultivating citizens’ political knowledge, political ability and political quality, constructing civic awareness, and exerting their own subjective initiative, to promote better participation of citizens in socialist democratic political life, fully exercise the political rights of the people to be the masters of the country, while emphasizing rational understanding and active practice of socialist democratic politics with Chinese characteristics. Some scholars (Chen 2009) have divided the specific connotation of citizenship education into more detailed ones. First, the ideological education of citizens, including civic awareness education, citizen basic moral education, and ideological and political education; second, the democratic, legal and political qualities of citizens education and training; third is the scientific and cultural quality education and intelligent quality education of citizens. Lei Ji’s introduction to the connotation and characteristics of citizenship education is more specific and comprehensive (2004). He believes that the citizenship education connotation includes: The first category is the ideological education of citizens. It includes three parts: citizenship education, citizen basic moral education, and ideological and political education. The second category is the education and cultivation of citizens’ democracy, law, and political quality. The third category is the citizen’s scientific and cultural quality education and the cultivation of intelligent quality. The fourth category is the basic quality of life and healthy and upward psychological quality that citizens must have in their daily lives. And it also proposes that citizenship education has the characteristics of broadness, hierarchy, concealment, and permeability in the content and object of education. Some scholars have put forward different opinions on the specific content of citizenship education (Xinbin 2000). The specific content of citizenship education should include civic awareness, civic wisdom, civic morality, and citizen rule of law. The core content of civic awareness is the consciousness of the unity of civil rights and responsibilities; the mission of civic moral education is to cultivate and improve selfdiscipline; the task of citizen rule of law education is to cultivate citizens’ awareness and ability of political participation under the rule of law in modern countries; the focus of civic moral education is the social morality necessary for cultivating civil society; The goal of citizen rule of law education is to cultivate the rule of law literacy necessary for modern political countries. Gao (2006) proposed that the content of modern citizenship education consists of four parts: One is to cultivate citizens’ rational identification of the state system and the legal system, the core of which is the cultivation of a social subject consciousness; the second is to cultivate the concept of the unity of citizens’ rights and obligations, to realize that the right without fulfill obligations is a privilege, and the obligation

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2 Glimpses of Chinese Citizenship Education …

without enjoying rights will inevitably lead to blind obedience and enslavement; the third is to cultivate a modern spirit of democracy and equality, which is the basic of public life in modern society. The fourth is to educate citizens about moral education and to make citizens have a universally recognized norm of ethical behavior. The value of citizenship education for the development of citizens, society, and the country is self-evident. Chinese scholars have also studied and expressed the value of citizenship education from different fields. Citizenship education plays an important role in the construction and promotion of citizen national identity. First, citizenship education promotes the identity of citizens and the sense of national belonging. This is the premise and foundation for constructing and enhancing the national identity of citizens. Second, citizenship education promotes the recognition of citizens in the national system. This is to construct and enhance the national identity of citizens. Thirdly, citizenship education promotes citizens’ recognition of the country’s core values, which is the core of constructing and enhancing citizens’ national identity. Fourth, citizenship education cultivates citizens’ sense of national responsibility, which is the basis for constructing and enhancing citizens’ national identity (Gu 2009). In the field of building a well-off society, citizenship education can vigorously promote the comprehensive improvement of the overall quality of all citizens (Ji 2004). This is the key to our successful realization of the grand blueprint and national rejuvenation of building a well-off society in an all-round way; the implementation of citizenship education is the inner requirements of the socialist market economy; citizenship education is the essential stipulation for building socialist political civilization; citizenship education can avoid all kinds of “misunderstandings” and “prejudice” that people have formed on ideological and political work for a long time. In the field of improving the status of civil society, citizenship education is an important way to promote civil society to express opinions and differences and to promote citizens to reach consensus and improve the level of consensus. The relationship of citizenship education and civil society is interdependent, which is companied by each other, complement each other, and “be bound together for good or ill”. Research perspective and value orientation of citizenship education Citizenship education is reflected in different aspects of social development, and different research perspectives will bring different understandings. Huang (2006) made an objective and comprehensive overview of this, which is divided into basic theoretical research, citizenship education content research, and citizenship education research in the context of globalization, introducing the concept and value of citizenship education from seven perspectives of globalization, including philosophy, law, sociology, ethics, political science, and psychology. Under the premise of recognizing the important role of citizenship education, there are different views on the value orientation of citizenship education. Ye (2012) introduced and compared the “rights priority” value orientation of Western citizenship

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education with the “responsibility priority” value orientation of citizenship education in China. Compared with the Western liberal citizenship education concept, China’s traditional moral education emphasizes individuality, the group’s moral responsibility, and moral obligation, but thy both have superiority and limitations. Ye Fei believes that cultivating responsible and active citizens based on “priority of rights” is a way to achieve an internal balance between civil rights and civic responsibilities. It can satisfy citizens’ rights claims and promote active fulfillment of civic responsibility. Wang and Zang (2012) uses the background documents of citizenship education proposed by the state as the basis for the development stage of contemporary Chinese citizenship education orientation. He believes that citizenship education orientation includes the following three stages: civic quality education orientation, civic moral education orientation, civic awareness education orientation and explained, respectively, with national policies. According to the embodiment of the value orientation of citizenship education in the social science curriculum, Wang (2007) divides it into three kinds of citizenship education orientations: the study of social science, the cultivation of decision-making ability, and the cultivation of critical thinking. And he proposed, based on different content needs, we should aim at the characteristics of specific student groups while comprehensively applying various teaching strategies and constantly seeking the best teaching methods to achieve the goal of cultivating qualified citizens in the era of globalization.

2.3 Overview and Analysis of Foreign Citizenship Education In the early stage of the development of relative citizenship education research in China, the introduction of foreign citizenship education system and practice was the main content at that time. As China’s citizenship education construction gradually came into effect, more and more scholars began to compare domestic citizenship education with other countries to inject new energy into citizenship education in China. These researches mainly include the exploration of foreign citizenship education concepts, the exploration of the development of citizenship education at home and abroad, and the development of citizenship education from the perspective of globalization.

2.3.1 Overview of the Ideas and Concepts of Foreign Citizenship Education Hong and Xu (2002) analyzed the structural factors affecting citizenship education in all countries from a macro perspective, including the organization and operation

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of educational institutions, the way and extent of government expression of educational values and goals, and the way in which funds are allocated and managed. And four background factors: historical aspects, the history of a country or region, especially the history of civil rights and how to strike a balance between rights and obligations, has an important influence on the understanding of the meaning of citizenship education in the country or region, determines the definition of the basic value of citizenship education in a country or region, and affects the value orientation of citizenship education. Geographically, the geographical location of a country or region determines the direct radiation of this country or region. Those regional environments constitute the external tension that maintains or changes the political, economic, and cultural structure of a country or region, thus affecting the value orientation and implementation path of citizenship education; the social-political structure is the main force affecting social and economic activities. The impact on citizenship education is very great. Among the various variables affecting the social and political structure of citizenship education, the most significant factor is the type of polity, the influence of economic development and globalization trends, and the trend of globalization has become the influence of citizenship education important factor. Zhao (2003) examined the concept of world citizenship education and divided it into two major schools: nationalism and democracy. Nationalism promoted the strengthening and development of democracy. In turn, democracy stimulated and promoted the development of nationalism. Mutual cooperation constitutes the driving force behind the formation and development of modern countries. Democracy is divided into two traditions of liberalism and publicist. The liberal and republican citizenship and citizenship education views are very different: for liberals, citizenship is defined by the concept of “status.” For the citizenship education of republicanism, the practice of civil rights is more meaningful than the civil rights itself. Rao (2006) introduced a new trend of international citizenship education and active citizenship education, and active citizen participation in social participation (civic participation) mainly involved in national affairs, including participation in political processes and participation in governance; civil participation refers to participation in civil society. Compared with the passive citizenship education in the past, active citizenship education has carried out “education for citizenship” through the interaction and cooperation of “course-classroom,” “school-organization culture,” and community (3C) toward “general citizenship education”

2.3.2 Practice of Foreign Citizenship Education Zhu (2017) summarized the characteristics of American citizenship education practice and put forward the enlightenment to our citizenship education. The characteristics of the “Citizens’ Development Program” in the USA are: 1. Encourage students to actively participate in social and political life and effectively enhance students’ political efficiency; 2. Take students as the main body, pay attention to the cultivation of students’ comprehensive ability; 3. Pay attention to the quality and ability of

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the implementers. Citizenship education in our country can start from the following aspects: 1. Create opportunities for students to participate in the management of public affairs; 2. Implement citizenship education into education policies; 3. Strengthen research on the commonality and characteristics of citizenship education. Some scholars have provided reference and countermeasures for China through comparative research on the construction of citizenship education think tanks at home and abroad. Yuan and Wu (2018) summed up the operation mode and main functions of the citizenship education think tank construction experience in the USA, Australia, and Germany, and the characteristics of his national citizenship education think tank. He proposed that China should learn from other countries’ citizenship education think tanks. To develop the experience, it is necessary to build a citizenship education think tank that reflects China’s national conditions and realize the political and public welfare value of the think tank construction. Through the macroscopic investigation of the organizational management, talent use, information collection, countermeasures, results transformation, international cooperation, and other dimensions of the internal operation mechanism of citizenship education think tanks in developed countries, it can also provide enlightenment for the construction of think tanks in China, such as 1. Clarify citizenship education think tank positioning, build a new citizenship education think tank; 2. Strengthen citizenship education think tank team, improve the overall research level of think tank; optimize citizenship education think tank structure, promote the orderly development of think tank organization (Yuan and Shi 2018). The concept of world citizenship and global awareness education reflects the requirements of the integration side of the globalization process. The rise of the multiculturalism citizenship education boom reflects the diversified influence of globalization. The trend of world citizenship education is about to cultivate the citizens of all countries as the trend of “global citizenship.” Song (2018) proposes to use the concept of “community of human destiny” as a guide to lead and reconstruct the concept of citizenship in the world citizenship education. The concept of citizenship education, the dominant subject, the theoretical basis, and the map of thoughts makes it an ideological weapon for China to integrate into the world and show openness and tolerance. The multiculturalism citizenship education concept advocates the promotion of equality of civil rights in two ways. First, by transmitting democratic values that tolerate cultural differences, people can embrace and respect cultural differences and value diversity. Second, foster intercultural adaptability of adolescents by recognizing cultural differences.

2.3.3 The Theoretical System Construction of Citizenship Education Constructing a theoretical system of citizenship education with Chinese characteristics is a necessary measure for the development of citizenship education in China.

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How to construct such a theoretical system has led many scholars to think in recent years. Clarifying the concepts of “citizen” and “citizenship” is a prerequisite for citizenship education (Minggang 2003). Chuanbao (2010) combed the expressions of these two concepts in ancient and modern China and foreign countries. He believed that the most important elements in the definition of “citizenship” should include in the goal of citizenship, and citizenship is first and foremost a confirmation of the individual freedom and rights of citizens. It is the guarantee of this right (social, economic and environmental rights, etc.); in the form of citizenship, citizens are not only legal but also moral, but in fact the law itself is another kind of morality, at the boundary of citizenship. In the above, the concept of citizenship must recognize and reflect the reality and trend of historical development; in the formation of citizenship, the focus should be placed on the construction of appropriate citizenship education concepts. Sun(2011) summarized the logical starting point of citizenship education including the meaning of “citizen.” The meaning of “citizen” determines the practical logic and value logic starting point of citizenship education. He believes that democracy and norms are the characteristics of the process of citizenship education and constitute the starting point of the practical logic of citizenship education. Justice and happiness are the statutes of value of citizenship education, which constitute the logical starting point of citizenship education. The basic framework of citizenship education in our country consists of four parts: citizen’s ideological education, citizen’s democratic legal system and political quality education, citizen’s scientific and cultural quality education, and intelligent quality training, quality of life, and psychological quality (Ji 2005). Li and Li (2011) analyzed the theory and structure of citizenship education in China and defined the theoretical system of citizenship education from three aspects: the nature and significance, the purpose and content of citizenship education, and the way of civic quality. Based on Chinese traditional culture, Yang (2018) put forward “taking China as a method,” standing within “China” and “for China,” based on the joint “public” cultural tradition, discovering, analyzing, and solving China’s own citizens. Educational issues make suggestions for constructing a citizenship education system from three aspects: training objectives, curriculum materials, and school life. Li (2005) starts from the content of citizenship education and puts forward that the theoretical framework of citizenship education content is composed of three dimensions: the content category of citizen concept, the orientation level of citizen individual in civil society, and the content category of citizenship education. The three-dimensional space formed by these three dimensions is the content of the overall category of citizenship education content.

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2.4 The Practice of Citizenship Education in Contemporary China 2.4.1 School Practice of Citizenship Education in China School is the main place to implement citizenship education. The educational objects are composed of primary school students, middle school students, and college students. Some scholars have studied from the aspects of educational content, educational approaches, and educational significance. Liu and Li (2008) puts forward from the overall perspective: integrating citizenship education into school moral education; infiltrating citizenship education in students’ daily life and related courses; offering independent citizenship education courses and comprehensive courses; combining school citizenship education with social citizenship education; and cultivating their civic awareness in the practice of social participation. The content carrier of citizenship education is the citizenship education curriculum. The citizenship education curriculum is a comprehensive collection of educational experiences that students can obtain in the school, including direct courses, indirect courses, and hidden courses, with characteristics of practicality and life, comprehensive, and valuable. Gao (2007) believes that due to the lack of overall design awareness and corresponding theoretical research foundation, China’s citizenship education curriculum is not yet mature to form a system. Since 1949, China’s primary and middle school citizenship education curriculum has been influenced by constitutional construction and policies in different periods. It has experienced different stages of transition, transformation, revolution, recovery, development, and reform and has made certain progress, but there are still problems like fuzzy curriculum orientations, imperfect systems, unclear goals, and unbalanced content (Wang and Huang 2008). According to the design of the three-dimensional goal of the curriculum, Feng (2015) divided the objectives of the citizenship education curriculum into three aspects: citizen cognitive goals, citizen skill goals, and citizen character goals. He also divided the content of the citizenship education curriculum, namely the education of individual citizenship, the education of social citizenship, the education of national citizenship, and the education of global citizenship. The implementation of citizenship education is mainly reflected in the curriculum. There are extensive and in-depth developments. Although balance and convergence are needed in some aspects, it is commendable that China has formed a three-dimensional curriculum dependence and support structure (Li and Print 2017). From the perspective of practical construction, Ye (2012) proposes to carry out various forms of public communication activities (including participatory, communitybased, service-based, and arguing), which can not only cultivate a more stable and stable public spirit, but avoid citizenship education falling into the misunderstanding of knowledge indoctrination, maintain the openness and flexibility of citizenship education, and ultimately promote the goal and mission of citizenship education.

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Chang and Zhongping (2012) proposes that according to the rules of psychology on human quality, in terms of citizenship education in schools, citizenship education can be divided into five consecutive levels of participation civic: behavior norms, civic knowledge, civic awareness, civic virtues, and citizens according to the acceptability and age characteristics of the educated. The significance of the citizenship education curriculum is reflected in the promotion of personal and social development and improving the quality of individual comprehensive citizenship education to create high-quality talents for social construction. The important significance of citizenship education in the ideological and political work of college students includes: Citizenship education is the enrichment and supplement to the content of ideological and political education of college students; citizenship education is the reform and innovation of ideological and political education for college students; citizenship education can avoid the ideological politics of college students from a long-time prejudice and misunderstanding of education (Hou 2005). The citizenship education of the school takes the personality characteristics of the students as the starting point, fully considers the characteristics of the physical and mental development of the young people at different ages, and gives corresponding citizenship education content at different periods and at different stages, constantly guiding the students to move toward higher goals (Yan and Qiu 2018). From the perspective of the role of school public life, school public life has four dimensions of citizenship education: the function of dialog and understanding, the transformation function of the guest and the Lord, the function of reflection and criticism, and the function of rationality and action (Ye 2014). Through the fourdimensional function of school public life, citizenship education will construct its own dialog, comprehension, criticality, and action and ultimately promote the overall improvement of student citizenship (Hun and Liu 2017).

2.4.2 National Practice of Citizenship Education in China In addition to the practice status of school citizenship education mentioned above, such as the development of educational content and ways, the research on the status of citizenship education practice has gradually increased in recent years, which not only reflects the deepening of citizenship education research in China but also provides reflection and consideration about the deep development of citizenship education in China. Through a textual analysis of People’s Daily and Southern Metropolis Daily, Chen (2013) compares the different priorities of citizens at the national and social levels. The former pays more attention to responsibility and citizen participation, while the latter pays more attention to civil rights and puts forward proposals to balance rights with obligations and improve citizen participation to promote the development of citizenship education. In an empirical study of a university in mainland China, citizenship education has played a positive role in the citizen’s will and citizen expression, can significantly promote the enthusiasm of students to participate

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in party-building activities, and make suggestions about the mechanism of citizenship education in China (Zhang and Fagan 2016). The educational methods include classroom guidance and social practice participation (Minghua and Zhang 2015). Tan (2013) did a “questionnaire survey on citizenship education for college students” in two colleges and universities. The results show that there are some problems in the status of citizenship education for students. There are still many problems: Students’ understanding of China’s national political system and traditional culture. There is a lack of college students’ sense of identity as a Chinese citizen; Students’ recognition of current democratic operations is not high, they show distrust of the effectiveness of citizen participation, and they learn political affairs, social affairs, school affairs, etc. China is a unified multi-ethnic country. The citizenship education of ethnic minority areas and Hong Kong and Taiwan regions needs to be adjusted according to different social conditions so that citizenship education can play a role in promoting national identity and thus promote China’s overall development. To promote national identity (Han 2010), citizenship education must pay attention to both universality and commonality, as well as specialty and difference. Citizenship education emphasizes universality and commonality in order to form a sense of commonality and “we-ness” within the border; citizenship education emphasizes particularity and difference so that we can distinguish it from other nation-states. In a survey of citizenship education conducted in a minority area of northwest China (Qi 2009), the Tu minority’s national identity awareness is very high, the concept of the state is deeply rooted in the hearts of the people, and there is a clear national identity. In addition, the concept of “nation” has a large weight in the minds of most Tu people, followed by geography or family, and the concept of the individual is relatively light. The investigators believe that an effective citizenship education system is also the main position for cultivating the people’s overall national outlook, national identity, and patriotism; it is a place for national history education, world outlook, and values; it is the main battlefield to cultivate “good” citizen needed by social development. For different members of ethnic minorities, to transform the resources of national identity into the common consciousness of members of society, it is necessary to deal with the relationship with other types of identity. It is necessary to establish a set of citizenship education systems suitable for the characteristics of ethnic minorities for optimization of minority identity structure. The education of ethnic minority citizens should transform the resources of national identity into the common consciousness of members of all ethnic groups. In fact, it is the process of recognizing structural reconstruction. It is necessary to deal with the relationship between other types of identification and require a difficult and systematic process. This requires a complete set of citizenship education systems. The specific connection between citizenship education and identification sequence reconstruction in ethnic areas is achieved through the goals, contents, and subjects of citizenship education (Ren and Yang 2013).

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Ren (2013) proposed from the national level that under the framework of the overall strategy of citizenship education in ethnic areas, the reconstruction of ethnic identity sequences should be carried out from the three levels of plural governance, hierarchical governance, and participation governance. First of all, multi-governance based on cultural diversity is the premise and basis for ensuring the effectiveness of minority citizenship education. Secondly, the hierarchical governance based on the realization of balanced resource allocation is to achieve policy continuity and ensure the education of ethnic minority citizens. Zhang (2005) proposed from the specific implementation level that the implementation of minority citizenship education mainly relies on school education and social practice. For the design of school curriculum, it is necessary to reflect the characteristics of multiculturalism and emphasize the importance of language to the cultivation of civic quality. For the design of social practice, it is mainly through the recognition of the multicultural society to gain understanding, participate in social affairs in the internal and external areas of the nation, learn the skills of participating in public life, gain respect, and improve the quality of citizens. The national identity and citizenship education in Hong Kong and Taiwan also need to attract the attention of researchers. At present, the participants in the social movements in Hong Kong are showing a trend of aging, which has caused the society to pay close attention to the issue of Hong Kong youth national identity and school citizenship education policy. From the perspective of analyzing the changes and improvement paths of citizenship education policies in Hong Kong schools, Huang and Wang (2017) proposed that the citizenship education policy of Hong Kong schools has insufficient attention to the “one country” in law, the administrative neutrality in governance, the failure to complete the task of cultural decolonization, and the dilution of education. He believes that it is necessary to strengthen the construction of citizenship education in Hong Kong from the four aspects of upholding the law, strengthening administration, basing on culture, and fostering education. Taiwan’s society has always attached importance to the development of citizenship education. Its implementation methods are divided into two ways: school and nonschool. However, school education is still the main body, and the results are easier to demonstrate. From primary schools to secondary schools and universities, they have established a system of relevant courses. Among them, the specific “citizen” courses of the National High School are the most complete, and the university designs related issues through the “general studies course” to implement citizenship education and training civic literacy. Deng (2013) believes that the existence of citizenship education in Taiwan has no complete teaching system, civic knowledge is more important than civic morality, and political chaos confuses civic values, social misuse of civic ideas, and insufficient function to guide social development. Li and Zhang (2016) analyzed the “local awareness, identity confusion,” “concern about social affairs, narrow mentality,” and “democratic awareness” of the Taiwan youth group in the “anti-service trade” and “anti-class” campaigns, democracy is low, “political participation is expanding, political beliefs are vague,” “good at public mobilization, lack of citizen rationality,” and other qualities. Based on this, the countermeasures for improving citizenship education in Taiwan are proposed. Firstly, research on

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Taiwan citizenship education should be strengthened. Secondly, cross-strait citizenship education exchange and cooperation mechanism should be improved. Thirdly, cross-strait youth exchange work should be improved. Finally, modern universal citizenship educational paradigm should be built.

2.5 Research Characteristics and Prospects of Citizenship Education Generally speaking, the characteristics of China’s citizenship education research can be classified according to the development of the times. It is often closely related to the domestic social and political environment and policy themes for a period of time. This is because China’s citizenship education is inseparable from the national will. On a specific level, China’s citizenship education research mainly focuses on the introduction of foreign citizenship education, the enrichment of domestic citizenship education theory content, the practice of citizenship education in different regions of China, and the citizenship education response in the context of globalization. With the development of the times, the research field of citizenship education in our country is becoming more and more abundant. From the initial introduction of Western experience to the criticism, it is conducive to the essence of the development of citizenship education. It shows the coexistence of achievements and deficiencies in the theory and practice of citizenship education. In the situation, many scholars have summarized this and put forward the prospects for the future development of citizenship education research in China. Huang and Huang (2009) believes that the scope of citizenship education research is quite broad. Due to the disciplines and scope, the citizenship education in the basic education stage has not been thoroughly studied. He proposed that cultivating modern citizens with subjective and self-discipline through citizenship education is not only an urgent need for modernization but also an inevitable choice for China’s social development. The basic education for the cultivation of the basic quality of the people bears a crucial task. Specific measures include carry out citizenship education policy research and propose constructive policy recommendations; conduct research on school citizenship education curriculum, build existing subject courses as well as activity courses; have both explicit and potential courses; both on-campus courses and going out of the campus service-learning curriculum. This is an urgent need for citizenship education research to provide relevant results; conduct school citizenship education action research to improve the effectiveness of citizenship education in China. Citizenship education is not only a theoretical issue but also a practical issue. In order to achieve results in citizenship education, students must apply the principles of democracy to practice and train students through democratic practice. Meng et al. (2018) analyzed the citizenship education literature in China from 2011 to 2015 and found that, in general, China’s citizenship education research team is beginning to take shape, academic exchanges are gradually unfolding, and

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theoretical research frameworks, research fields, and research paths are becoming increasingly mature. With the further deepening of the theory and practice of citizenship education, the formation of citizenship education research with Chinese style will be just around the corner. In concrete terms, citizenship education research has the intersection of theoretical appeals and practical appeals in the research orientation and has formed their own research problems. In the research methods, there has been a situation in which historical research, comparative research, and empirical research are separated. At the same time, there are also some problems. For example, there may be misunderstandings in the understanding and research of citizenship education, citizenship education practice lags behind citizenship education theory research and social development needs, and the degree of localization of citizenship education research and practice is not enough. The future research on citizenship education needs to start from the following aspects: First, further clarify the understanding of citizenship education and deepen the study of basic theory; secondly, citizenship education practice is coordinated with citizenship education theory research and social development needs, to promote and expand citizenship education practice; Finally, the internationalization and localization of citizenship education research and practice broaden the horizon, expand international exchanges and cooperation, focus on strengthening localization, and then form a citizenship education theory and practice with Chinese style and Chinese style. Ningjuan (2010) combed the research on citizenship education since the 21st century and found that the research topics mainly include: The discussion of the meaning of citizenship education, the unremitting questioning and answering of meaning, is also the key to citizenship education to overcome the historical inertia and comprehensive development. Therefore, many scholars discuss this issue from the perspectives of globalization, modernization, democratization, legal process, and human development; the concept interpretation of citizenship and citizenship education, these concepts are explained by scholars from the legal, social, and general perspectives; There are three alternative paths for improving the quality of citizens: establishing a citizenship education network of family, society, and school; building citizenship education in schools; realizing real citizenship education through the construction of “citizen life.” Starting from the embodiment of socialism in the study of citizenship education, Wei (2011) concludes that most scholars in China can strengthen the value stand of Marxism and the development direction of socialist citizenship education. From the perspective of citizenship education research, China’s socialist citizenship education research is divided into two major perspectives: theoretical exploration and practical exploration. Generally speaking, since the reform and opening up, socialist citizenship education research has made gratifying achievements in theoretical exploration and practical exploration. The framework for the construction of socialist citizenship education with Chinese characteristics has become increasingly clear. Luo (2010) believes that although China’s current citizenship education research has made great achievements, the biggest achievement is to recognize the importance of citizenship education, but there are also some shortcomings: First, the tendency of citizenship education starts to be generalized; second, although citizenship education

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research has begun to prosper, there is still a lack of well-recognized and unified generalization of related concepts. Third, citizenship education theory research is obviously insufficient. Citizenship education is also an open discipline, and the theory and knowledge of any other discipline are welcome to enter the field for integration and development research. Li (2006) pointed out that the existing research in China is more fragmented and lacks systematicity, thus exposing obvious limitations: The introduction of the theory and experience of foreign scholars on citizenship education should be understood from the combination of time and space; the relationship between “citizens,” “citizenship education,” and related concepts is still lack of clear determination; the understanding of the significance of implementing citizenship education needs to be further expanded and deepened; there is still no systematic and in-depth study on the implementation and development of citizenship education in colleges or universities. The holistic orientation of citizenship education in our country is the value basis for carrying forward the national spirit and safeguarding national unity; the democratic consciousness of citizenship education in our country is the ideological basis for realizing the civic country’s master, so our citizenship education and national spirit are inseparable (Chen 2009). By combing the existing citizenship education research literature in our country, we can see that Chinese scholars have a positive attitude toward the theoretical and practical achievements that have been achieved at present, and at the same time, they have made a comprehensive cognition and summary of the current citizenship education development in China. And the experience of citizenship education construction in other countries can be absorbed in a rough and critical way. However, with the continuous expansion and enrichment of the research on the theory of citizenship education in our country, the practice of citizenship education and the evaluation system of practical effects are the parts that need to be improved during a period of time. Practice is the source of understanding. Only by conducting scientific and objective empirical research on the status of citizenship education practice in China we can accurately understand the practical effects and the lack of practice, as a result, forming a dynamic development of the citizenship education practice system.

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Chapter 3

Glimpses of Policies of Faculty Ethics in a Globalized World: An Social Identity Perspective

This chapter aims to explore couples of key policies of faculty ethics since 2014 from a perspective of social identity theory. In the context of constructing comprehensive global competence, faculty serves as indisputable role to shape international higher education development with Chinese characteristics. Especially, faculty ethics are considered core value to influence the trends of Chinese international higher education progress. In particular, with the social identity theory, “identity” is considered as a core of integrating national, regional, and institutional policies of faculty ethics into a more holistic landscape. The hierarchical structure of policies of faculty ethics includes value identity, orientation identity, and behavioral identity. Social identitybased model of analyzing faculty ethics’ policies at national, ministerial regional, and institutional levels mainly involves three key dimensions, including value identity, orientation identity, and behavioral identity. Those three dimensions contribute to shaping a consisting rhythm of “value-orientation-behavior” to explore the inherent rationales in the formation of faculty ethics’ policies in contemporary China contextually. Conclusion and remarks are offered to summarize educational policies related to faculty ethics.

3.1 Introduction In recent years, there existed a fiercely debate on how to define, construct, and evaluate faculty ethics in Chinese universities and colleges. The construction of codes of faculty ethics plays a significant role to shape faculty professional development in Chinese higher education system. However, there existed few studies on examining educational policies of faculty ethics contextually. Thus, this study aims to explore couples of key policies of faculty ethics since 2014 from a perspective of social identity theory. In particular, firstly, social identity theory perspective on policies of faculty ethics is proposed for integrating national, regional, and institutional policies © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5_3

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of faculty ethics into a more holistic landscape from a perspective of social identity theory. Secondly, social identity-based model of analyzing faculty ethics’ policies at national, ministerial regional, and institutional levels mainly involves three key dimensions, including value identity, orientation identity, and behavioral identity. Thirdly, the conclusion and remarks are offered relatively.

3.2 Social Identity Theory Perspective on Policies of Faculty Ethics 3.2.1 “Identity” as Core Idea to Analyze Policies of Faculty Ethics “Identity” is considered as a core of integrating national, regional, and institutional policies of faculty ethics into a more holistic landscape from a perspective of social identity theory. Specifically, in social identity theory, the term identify involves selfdominated reflection, taking itself as an object and categorize, classify, or entitle itself in particular approaches related to specific social categories or classifications. In other words, identify is considered as one kind of self-categorization or selfidentification (Turner et al. 1992; McCall and Simmons 1978). The idea of social identity concentrates on individual’s knowledge in regard to a social category or community (Hogg and Abrams 1988). An identified social community or group includes a similar social identification or regard themselves as parts of the shared social community. In the process of social comparison, individual who are same to peers that is categorized and labeled the “in-group.” Otherwise, individual who differ from peers, who are categorized as “out-group.” Moreover, both the “in-group” and “out-group” are inherently correlated to the emotional, evaluative, and psychological classification and classification (Turner et al. 1987, p. 20; Hogg and Abrams 1988). In particular, self-categorization focuses on an accentuation of the observed similarities among peers in terms of attitudes, beliefs, values, affection, and behavior (Stryker 1982; McCall and Simmons 1978). Within the social identity theory, the core idea of identity is the categorization of peers’ role to engage self to the expected role, which is consistent with a couple of standards (Burke and Tully 1977; Thoits 1986). In other words, identify focuses on self and other in regard to behaviors (McCall and Simmons 1978). The foundation of identity addresses stable relations of inter-groups and out-groups (Turner et al. 1987).

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3.2.2 Categorizing Identity as a Hierarchical Structure of Faculty Ethics The hierarchical structure of policies of faculty ethics includes value identity, orientation identity, and behavioral identity. Specifically, in social identity theory, value identity is considered as the basic layer of self-categorization (Hogg and Abrams 1988). The layer of identity depends on different factors through social comparison, which make a group identity operative and effective. The specific orientation identity is parallel to social and personal identity, which sustaining the self as an individual. The implicit connection of role identities and person identities is interacted with each other. However, the role identities might be isolated with person identities in terms of origins, language, and orientation. Along with the illustration of identity, social identity, role identities, and person identities, the integration of identity theory and social identity theory fundamentally yield a solid foundation of social psychology with a comprehensive consideration of macro, meso, and micro social dimensions. It aims to combine a couple of ideas related to the reflection, doing and being, behaviors and perceptions, which offers a comprehensive integration of macro, meso, and micro social levels. Thus, next section involves applying the approach of social identity theory specifically.

3.2.3 Analyzing Policies of Faculty Ethics: An Approach of Social Identity In regard to the prior illustration of the rationales of applying social identity theory, social identity-based model of analyzing faculty ethics’ policies at national, ministerial regional, and institutional levels mainly involve three key dimensions, including value identity, orientation identity, and behavioral identity. Those three dimensions contribute to shaping a consisting rhythm of “value-orientation-behavior” to explore the inherent rationales in the formation of faculty ethics’ policies in contemporary China contextually (see Fig. 3.1).

3.3 Dimension of Value Identity in Shaping Policies of Faculty Ethics The dimension of value identity in the proposed social identity-based model focuses on examining value-latten policy formation related to shaping faculty ethics. It follows an implicit logic to integrate national ideological propensity into specific policy formation process of faculty ethics at ministerial, regional, and institutional levels.

48 Fig. 3.1 Hierarchical dimensions of policies of faculty ethics

3 Glimpses of Policies of Faculty Ethics in a Globalized World …

Value identity Orientation identity Behaviorual identity

The consistency and coherence serve as key attributes to epitomize dimension of value identity within social identity-based model. Throughout reviewing Chinese political documents periodically, socialism, democratic centralism, social modernization, and socialist spiritual civilization are considered value-latten key words for the construction of value-based faculty ethics at national, ministerial, regional, and institutional levels. There existed an obviously integrated policy inheritance in the formation of faculty ethics’ policies. Specifically, according to Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (Amendment 2018)— retrieved from (Lo and Chen 2018),1 the general outline clearly ensured that “the People’s Republic of China is a socialist country under the leadership of the working class and under the people’s democratic dictatorship based on the alliance of workers and peasants. The socialist system is the fundamental system of the People’s Republic of China. The leadership of the Communist Party of China is the most essential feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics. It is forbidden for any organization or individual to destroy the socialist system. All the powers of the People’s Republic of China belong to the people. The organs for the people to exercise state power are the National People’s Congress and the local people’s congresses at all levels. In accordance with the law, the people manage state affairs, economic and cultural undertakings, and social affairs through various channels and forms. The state organs of the People’s Republic of China practice the principle of democratic centralism (Announcement of the National People’s Congress on December 4, 1982)—retrieved from (Naughton 2018).2 ”

1 Constitution

of the People’s Republic of China (Amendment 2018) retrieved from http://www. npc.gov.cn/npc/xinwen/node_505.htm, Lo and Chen 2018. 2 According to the Amendment to the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China adopted by the First Session of the Seventh National People’s Congress on 12 April 1988, the Amendment to the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China adopted by the First Session of the Eighth National People’s Congress on 29 March 1993 and the Amendment to the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China adopted by the Second Session of the Ninth National People’s Congress The Amendment to the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China adopted at the 2nd Session of the 10th National People’s Congress on March 14, 2004 and the Amendment to the Constitution of

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In response to the socialism-dominated value latten in Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (Amendment 2018)—retrieved from (Lo and Chen 2018), socialist modern education system as socialist core values is comprehensively constructed and finalized in The Education Law of the Peoples Republic of China. In particular, The Education Law of the Peoples Republic of China3 is the fundamental law of China’s education for governing education, concerning the overall situation of China’s education reform and development, focusing on the construction of socialist modernization. It provides a fundamental law for implementing the strategic policies to give priority to education development for promoting the reform and development of education, establishing a socialist modern education system with Chinese characteristics, safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of the subjects of educational relations, and accelerating the construction of educational legal system. In this sense, The Education Law of the Peoples Republic of China stated that “The promulgation of the Education Law marks that China’s education work has entered a new stage of running education according to law in an all-round way. It will have a significant and far-reaching impact on the reform and development of China’s education, as well as on the construction of socialist material and spiritual civilization. Education must serve the socialist modernization drive and the people. It must be combined with productive labor and social practice to train socialist builders and successors with all-round development in morality, intelligence, physique and beauty.” (p. 12). Consisting with The Education Law of the Peoples Republic of China, Law of the People’s Republic of China on Teachers4 coherently follows core values of socialism, democratic centralism, social modernization, and socialist spiritual civilization to shape the codes of faculty ethics. For example, the basic spirit of this law is to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of faculty, to guarantee the continuous improvement of faculty welfare and social status, to strengthen the standardized management of faculty and to ensure that the overall quality of faculty is constantly optimized and improved. According to this law, Chinese governmental agencies at all levels should take measures to strengthen faculty ideological and political education and professional training, improve their working and living conditions, safeguard faculty legitimate rights and interests, and improve faculty social status. Faculty is professionals who fulfill their educational and teaching responsibilities. They undertake the mission of teaching and educating people, cultivating builders, and successors of socialist undertakings and improving national quality. Along with the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (Amendment 2018)—retrieved from (Lo and Chen 2018), The Education Law of the Peoples Republic of China and Law of the People’s Republic of China on teachers, at ministerial, regional,

the People’s Republic of China adopted at the 1st Session of the 13th National People’s Congress on March 11, 2008. 3 The Education Law of the peoples Republic of China retrieved from http://old.moe.gov.cn/ publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_619/200407/1316.html. 4 Law of the People’s Republic of China on Teachers retrieved from http://old.moe.gov.cn/ publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/moe_619/200407/1314.html.

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and institutional levels, couples of education policies were established to implement. Specifically, Opinion on Establishing and Perfecting Long-term Mechanism of Teachers’ Morality Construction in Colleges and Universities5 follows prior value identity to shape specific codes of faculty ethics. In order to implement the spirit of President Xi Jinping’s important speech on Teacher’s Day, strengthen and improve the construction of teacher’s morality, and strive to cultivate and bring up a highquality professional college teacher team with noble teacher’s morality, exquisite professional skills, reasonable structure and full of vitality, the Ministry of Education issued the “Opinions on Establishing and Perfecting a Long-term Mechanism for the Construction of Faculty Morality in Colleges and Universities.” In order to thoroughly implement the spirit of General President Jinping’s important speech at the Symposium on Teachers’ and Students’ Representatives of Beijing Normal University on September 9, and actively guide faculty in colleges and universities to be “Good Teachers” who have ideals and beliefs, moral sentiments, solid knowledge, benevolence and the satisfaction of the Party and the people, we should vigorously strengthen and improve the construction of faculty ethics, and strive to cultivate and bring up a noble faculty ethics, professional excellence and structural integration. In regard to Opinion on Establishing and Perfecting Long-term Mechanism of Teachers’ Morality Construction in Colleges and Universities,on August 25, 2016, the Ministry of Education issued Guiding Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Faculty ‘Assessment and Evaluation System in Colleges and Universities [Teacher (2016) No. 7].”6 This opinion includes seven parts and 22 items, focusing on grasping the overall requirements of evaluation, strengthening the assessment of faculty morality, highlighting the achievements of education and teaching, perfecting the orientation of scientific research evaluation, attaching importance to social service assessment, guiding faculty professional development, and strengthening the organization and implementation. Moreover, Ministry of Education issued The Opinions of the Ministry of Education on Fully Implementing the Responsibilities of Graduate advisor’s Strengthening Moral education and Cultivating People on January 17, 2018 to fully implement the responsibilities of graduate advisors’ ethics. It advocates socialism with Chinese characteristics, guided by Marxism–Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of “Three Representatives,” the scientific development concept and Xi Jinping’s new era socialism with Chinese characteristics, concerning on enhancing the road self-confidence, theoretical self-confidence, system self-confidence, and cultural self-confidence of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Specifically, in 2014, “Seven Red Principles” of Moral Banning Behavior of Faculty in Colleges and Universities was released to establish and improve long-term 5 Opinion on Establishing and Perfecting Long-term Mechanism of Teachers’ Morality Construction

in Colleges and Universities retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/A10/moe_1801/ztzl_cxjz/ cxjz_jyb/. 6 Guiding Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Faculty ‘Assessment and Evaluation System in Colleges and Universities retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/moe_2082/zl_2016n/ 2016_zl49/.

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mechanisms for the construction of faculty morality in colleges and universities, which include education, propaganda, assessment, supervision, incentive, and punishment. It concentrated on innovating the education of faculty morality and guiding them to establish lofty ideals, strengthening the propaganda of faculty morality and cultivating the good custom of attaching importance to morality and morality, improving the assessment of faculty morality and promoting faculty self-cultivation, strengthening the supervision of faculty morality and effectively preventing faculty deviant behavior, paying attention to the encouragement of faculty morality and guiding them to improve their spiritual realm; strictly punish faculty morality and play the role of system and norm. In addition, Ministry of Education issued “Action Plan for the Revitalization of Teacher Education (2018-2022).”7 This action plan is guided by Xi Jinping’s socialist ideology with Chinese characteristics in the new era, we should study and implement the spirit of the Nineteenth National Congress of the CPC in an all-round way, promote the overall layout of the “five in one” and coordinate the strategic layout of the “four in an all-round way,” adhere to and strengthen the overall leadership of the Party, adhere to the people-centered development idea, adhere to the comprehensive deepening of reform, firmly establish the new development concept, and comprehensively. Implementing the Party’s educational policy, adhering to the socialist orientation of running schools, fulfilling the fundamental task of building morality and cultivating people, actively adapting to the new requirements of the modernization of education for teachers, following the laws of education and faculty growth and development, focusing on the long-term, based on the current situation, focusing on improving the quality of teachers’ education, taking strengthening the construction of faculty education system as the support, and structural reform of teachers’ education supply side as the support. Reform is the driving force to promote innovative, coordinated, green, open and shared development of faculty education, strengthen the construction of teachers’ ranks from the source, and focus on cultivating teachers with noble morality, exquisite business, reasonable structure, and full of vitality satisfied by the Party and the people.

3.4 Dimension of Orientation Identity in Shaping Policies of Faculty Ethics Along with the prior illustration on value-latten policy formation of faculty ethics, orientation identity is vividly presented in the policy implementation of faculty ethics. Insisting principle of faculty morality, strengthen the socialist core values, enhancing a sense of social responsibility, and innovating spirit and practical ability plays a significant role to shape policies of faculty ethics.

7 Action

Plan for the Revitalization of Teacher Education (2018–2022) retrieved from http://www. gov.cn/xinwen/2018-03/28/content_5278034.htm.

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According to The Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, education should adhere to the principle of morality, cultivate people, strengthen the education of socialist core values for educators, and enhance their sense of social responsibility, innovative spirit, and practical ability. The state educates the educated in patriotism, collectivism, and socialism with Chinese characteristics, and in ideals, morality, discipline, rules of law, national defense, and national unity. Education shall inherit and carry forward the excellent historical and cultural traditions of the Chinese nation and absorb all the outstanding achievements of the development of human civilization. In regard to The Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, Law of the People’s Republic of China on Teachers aims to take measures to strengthen the ideological and political education and professional training of teachers, improve their working and living conditions, safeguard their legitimate rights and interests and improve their social status. According to Opinion on Establishing and Perfecting Long-term Mechanism of Faculty Morality Construction in Colleges and Universities, the ideological and political quality and moral sentiment of faculty directly affect the formation of young students’ world outlook, outlook on life and values, determine the quality of personnel training, and relate to the future of the country and the nation. Strengthening and improving the construction of faculty morality in colleges and universities is of great and far-reaching significance to comprehensively improve the quality of higher education, promote the scientific development of higher education, train builders and successors of the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics, and realize the Chinese dream of great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. In this sense, the basic principles of establishing and perfecting the long-term mechanism for the construction of faculty morality in colleges and universities are to adhere to value guidance, to take socialist core values as the basic principle for faculty morality and self-cultivation, and to promote faculty to take the lead in cultivating and practicing socialist core values. Moreover, the opinion adheres to the principle of faculty morality as the top priority, take moral education as the starting point and foothold, find out the resonance point with faculty thoughts, strengthen the pertinence and closeness of the construction of university faculty morality, and cultivate the noble moral sentiment of faculty. We should adhere to the principle of people-oriented, pay attention to the development demands and value aspirations of faculty, implement the principal position of faculty, and stimulate the sense of responsibility and mission of faculty. We should persist in improving and innovating, constantly explore the regularity and characteristics of the construction of faculty in colleges and universities in the new era, and be good at using the methods and methods that teachers in colleges and universities like to see and hear, so as to enhance the actual effect of the construction of teachers’ morality in colleges and universities. The working requirements of establishing and improving the long-term mechanism for the construction of faculty morality in colleges and universities are as follows: fully respecting the principal position of teachers in colleges and universities, paying attention to the unity of propaganda and education, demonstration and guidance, practice cultivation, linking up policy guarantee, system norms and legal restrictions, establishing a working mechanism for the construction of teachers’ morality in colleges and universities that combines education, propaganda, assessment, supervision and rewards

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and punishments, and guiding teachers to self-respect, self-discipline and to be a teacher of conduct and learning respected by students, a demonstrator of socialist morality, a leader of integrity, and a defender of fairness and justice. In consistence with Opinion on Establishing and Perfecting Long-term Mechanism of Teachers’ Morality Construction in Colleges and Universities, Guiding Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Faculty ‘Assessment and Evaluation System in Colleges and Universities [Teacher (2016) No. 7]8 is released to examine the orientation identity in shaping policies of faculty ethics. In particular, the ultimate goal of this opinion is to improve the methods for assessing faculty morality, improve the long-term mechanism for the construction of faculty morality, and run the assessment of faculty morality throughout the whole process of daily education, teaching, scientific research, and social services. Moreover, it also aims to establish faculty ethics archives to construct corresponding punishments according to the law and regulations, respectively, and the “one vote veto” of faculty morality is implemented. It also highlights that we should strictly control the ideological and political quality of the selection and evaluation and take ideological and political quality as the basic requirement of faculty selection and assessment. We should insist on the double inspection of ideological and political quality and professional ability. In response to Guiding Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Faculty ‘Assessment and Evaluation System in Colleges and Universities (Teacher [2016] No. 7), Ministry of Education issued The Opinions of the Ministry of Education on Fully Implementing the Responsibilities of Graduate advisor’s Strengthening Moral education and Cultivating People on January 17, 2018 to fully implement the responsibilities of Graduate advisors’ ethics. The model abides by the professional ethics of teachers, is a model of teachers, loves and devotes himself to his work, infects and guides students with noble moral sentiments and personality charm, and becomes the inheritor of advanced ideology and culture and an active promoter of social progress; abides by academic norms, abides by academic ethics, consciously upholds the academic environment of fairness, justice, and integrity; scientifically chooses talents, standardizes enrollment, and correctly exercises guidance. Faculty power ensures fair and just enrollment; sense of responsibility and mission, due diligence, sufficient time, and energy to promptly inspire and guide graduate students; kindness, moral education, and cultural people. In 2014, “Seven Red Principles” of Moral Banning Behavior of Faculty in Colleges and Universities aims to the accountability mechanism should be established to investigate the responsibility of the principal person in charge of the university if the teacher’s serious violation of teacher’s morality has caused adverse effects or serious consequences. In addition, in 2018, the purpose of Action Plan for the Revitalization of Teacher Education (2018–2022) is to establish a number of high-level and distinctive normal colleges and universities for laying a solid foundation for the long-term sustainable development of faculty education in China. Faculty moral education has 8 Guiding

Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Faculty ‘Assessment and Evaluation System in Colleges and Universities retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xwfb/moe_2082/zl_2016n/ 2016_zl49/.

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been significantly strengthened, the content and methods of teacher training have been continuously optimized, and the comprehensive quality, professional level, and innovative ability of teachers have been significantly improved, providing strong teacher guarantee and talent support for the development of higher quality and fairer education.

3.5 Dimension of Behavioral Identity in Shaping Policies of Faculty Ethics Based on the prior illustration on value and orientation-latten policy formation of faculty ethics, behavioral identity is reflected in the policy implementation of faculty ethics. All those political efforts and actives contribute to following the value and orientation logics relatively. According to Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (Amendment 2018)—retrieved from (Lo and Chen 2018), the state should train all kinds of professionals serving socialism, expands the ranks of intellectuals, creates conditions, and gives full play to their role in socialist modernization. The state strengthens the construction of socialist spiritual civilization by popularizing ideal education, moral education, cultural education, discipline, and legal education, and by formulating and implementing various codes and conventions among the masses in different areas of urban and rural areas. The state advocates socialist core values; advocates the public morality of loving the motherland, the people, labor, science, and socialism; educates the people in patriotism, collectivism, internationalism, and communism; educates them in dialectical materialism and historical materialism; and opposes capitalist, feudal, and other decadent ideas. Along with The Education Law of the People’s Republic of China, educational activities must conform to the public interests of the state and society. In the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Teachers, faculty shall fulfill the following obligations: To abide by the Constitution, laws, and professional ethics and be a model teacher; Implementing the state’s educational policy, abiding by rules and regulations, carrying out the school’s teaching plan, fulfilling the appointment of teachers, and fulfilling the task of education and teaching; To educate students on the basic principles set out in the Constitution, patriotism and national unity, legal education and ideological, moral, cultural, scientific and technological education, and to organize and lead them to carry out beneficial social activities; Caring for caring for all students, respecting their personality and promoting their all-round development in morality, intelligence and physique; To stop acts harmful to students or other acts that infringe upon their legitimate rights and interests, and to criticize and resist phenomena harmful to their healthy growth; Continuously improve the ideological and political awareness and the level of education and teaching. In response to the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Teachers, Opinion on Establishing and Perfecting Long-term Mechanism of Faculty Morality Construction

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in Colleges and Universities aims to innovate the education of faculty morality and guide them to setup lofty ideals. Faculty ethics education should be put in the first place in the training of faculty members. Young faculty induction training must setup a special topic of faculty ethics education. Faculty ethics education should be regarded as an important part of the training of outstanding faculty. We should focus on strengthening the education of socialist core values, attaching importance to the education of ideals and beliefs, the education of legal system, and the education of mental health. Specifically, this Opinion also concentrates on establishing a database of experts on the construction of faculty ethics, inviting important models of faculty ethics in colleges and universities, national models of teaching and educating people. Combining teaching, scientific research, and social service activities aims to cultivating faculty ethics education. Strengthen the propaganda of faculty morality and cultivate a good custom of stressing morality and upholding morality. We should grasp the correct guidance of public opinion, adhere to the institutionalization and normalization of the propaganda of faculty morality, and regard the propaganda of teachers’ morality as an important part of the propaganda and ideological work in colleges and universities. We should improve the assessment of faculty morality and promote teachers’ self-cultivation. The assessment of faculty morality is an important part of the assessment of faculty in colleges and universities. Strengthen the supervision of faculty morality and effectively prevent faculty morality anomie. Faculty ethics construction is regarded as an important content of supervision of higher education quality. Institutions of higher learning should establish and improve the system of annual appraisal, investigation, and study of faculty morality, report on major issues of teachers’ morality and rapid response of faculty morality to public opinion, and timely study the policies and measures to strengthen and improve teachers’ morality construction. We should pay attention to the inspiration of faculty morality and guide them to improve their spiritual realm. We should improve the system of commendation and reward for faculty ethics and take the performance of teachers’ ethics as the primary condition for evaluating awards and merits. In 2014, “Seven Red Principles” of Moral Banning Behavior of Faculty in Colleges and Universities includes acts that damage the interests of the state and the legitimate rights and interests of students and schools; words and deeds contrary to the Party’s line, principles and policies in educational and teaching activities; fraud, plagiarism, tampering with and embezzling other people’s academic achievements, illegal use of scientific research funds, abuse of academic resources and influence in scientific research work; part-time salary businesses that affect normal educational and teaching work For example: in the recruitment, examination, student promotion, research and other work of favoritism fraud; request or accept students and parents gifts, gifts, securities, payment vouchers and other property; sexual harassment of students or improper relations with students; other violations of the professional ethics of University teachers. Teachers in colleges and universities who violate the “Red Seven Articles” shall be given corresponding punishments according to law and regulations. Moreover, Guiding Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Faculty ‘Assessment and Evaluation System in Colleges and Universities [Teacher (2016) No.

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7] focuses on strictly checking the ideological and political quality of the selection and employment. Taking ideological and political quality as the basic requirement of faculty selection and assessment runs through the whole process of teacher management and professional development. In the process of teacher recruitment, we should insist on the double inspection of ideological and political quality and professional ability. Strict employment procedures, standardize employment contracts, incorporate ideological and political requirements into faculty employment contracts, and serve as an important part of the evaluation of teachers’ professional titles (positions), postemployment and employment period assessment. In 2018, Ministry of Education issued The Opinions of the Ministry of Education on Fully Implementing the Responsibilities of Graduate advisor’s Strengthening Moral education and Cultivating People fully implement the responsibilities of Graduate advisors’ ethics. It concentrates on the improvement of the evaluation and assessment mechanism. We should adhere to the principle of cultivating people by virtue, regard teaching and educating people as the core content of the evaluation of graduate tutors, highlight the evaluation of educational and teaching achievements, and put the task of talent training center into practice. Educational administration departments should incorporate “Li De Shu Ren” into the teaching evaluation and subject evaluation index system, strengthen the evaluation of the implementation of the duties of graduate tutors; graduate training units should formulate the assessment methods of the duties of graduate tutors “Li De Shu Ren” in light of their own school-running practice and subject characteristics, and adhere to the evaluation of academic committees, teaching supervision and evaluation, based on the annual assessment. Combining graduate student evaluation with tutor self-evaluation, a scientific, fair, impartial and open assessment system is established. Specifically, the opinion proposed that clear recognition and reward mechanism to take the evaluation results of graduate tutors as the important basis for talent introduction, Title evaluation, postpromotion, performance distribution, and evaluation first, and give full play to the appraisal, guidance, incentive, and educational functions of evaluation and evaluation. To strengthen demonstration guidance, graduate training units should commend and reward graduate tutors with outstanding achievements and promote the replication of successful experience of excellent tutors and excellent teams. It advocated implementing the supervision and inspection mechanism. Educational administration departments and postgraduate training units should incorporate the implementation of postgraduate tutor’s duty of cultivating morality into the scope of teaching supervision and strengthen supervision and inspection. For postgraduate tutors who fail to fulfill their duties, the postgraduate training units shall take such measures as interview, restriction of recruitment, suspension of recruitment, and cancelation of the qualification of tutors as appropriate; for those who violate their faculty ethics, one vote shall be vetoed, and corresponding treatment shall be given in accordance with the law and regulations. In 2018, Action Plan for the Revitalization of Teacher Education (2018–2022) advocates developing and promulgating documents for strengthening teacher ethics education in faculty training and guiding standards for faculty ethics training courses. The education of Chinese excellent traditional culture is widely carried out among

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normal school students and in-service faculty. It focuses on cultivating faculty morality through Chinese excellent traditional culture, and drawing on cultural essence and inheriting Chinese faculty morality through classical reading, offering special courses, and organizing special training. In conclusion, through reviewing bundles of policies related to faculty ethics, the model of value-orientation-behavioral is reflected in specific educational documents (see Table 3.1). Table 3.1 Dimensions of shaping political documents on faculty ethics Dimensions of policies of faculty ethics Policies documents

Value identity

Orientation identity

Behavioral identity

Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (Amendment 2018)—retrieved from (Lo and Chen 2018)

Socialism democratic centralism; social modernization; socialist spiritual civilization

Socialism education system with Chinese characteristics

Train all kinds of professionals serving socialism

The education law of the Peoples Republic of China

The construction of socialist modernization

Cultivate people, strengthen the education of socialist core values; enhance sense of social responsibility; innovative spirit and practical ability

Abide by the constitution, laws and professional ethics

Law of the People’s Republic of China on teachers

Core values of socialism

Strengthen ideological and political education and professional training of teachers

Improve the ideological and political awareness and the level of education and teaching

Opinion on establishing and perfecting long-term mechanism of teachers’ morality construction in colleges and universities

A noble faculty ethics

Strengthening and improving the construction of faculty morality

Innovate the education of faculty morality

Guiding opinions on deepening the reform of faculty ‘assessment and evaluation system in colleges and universities [Teacher (2016) No. 7]

The assessment of faculty morality

Improve the methods for assessing faculty morality, improve the long-term mechanism for the construction of faculty morality

Strictly checking the ideological and political quality of the selection and employment

(continued)

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Table 3.1 (continued) Dimensions of policies of faculty ethics Policies documents

Value identity

Orientation identity

Behavioral identity

The opinions on fully implementing the responsibilities of graduate advisor’s strengthening moral education and cultivating people

Socialism with Chinese characteristics, Marxism–Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of “three representatives,” the scientific development concept and Xi Jinping’s new era socialism with Chinese characteristics

Implement the responsibilities of Graduate advisors’ ethics

The improvement of the evaluation and assessment mechanism

“Seven red principles” of moral banning behavior of faculty in colleges and universities Action plan for the revitalization of faculty education (2018–2022)

Establish lofty ideals, strengthening the propaganda of faculty morality

Construct he accountability mechanism Laying a solid foundation for the long-term sustainable development of faculty education

Given corresponding punishments according to law and regulations Strengthening teacher ethics education

3.6 Conclusion This chapter tends to analyze the rationales of applying social identity theory to examine faculty ethics’ policies at national, ministerial regional, and institutional levels, including value identity, orientation identity, and behavioral identity, which shaping a consisting rhythm of “value-orientation-behavior” to explore the inherent logics in the formation of faculty ethics’ policies in contemporary China contextually.

References Burke, P. J., & Tully, J. (1977). The measurement of role/identity. Social Forces, 55, 881–897. Eriksen, E., & Weigard, J. (2000). The end of citizenship? New roles challenging the political order. In C. McKinnon & I. Hampsher (Eds.), The demands of citizenship (pp. 13–34). New York: Continuum. Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and groucp processes. London: Routledge, Hogg.

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Lo, P. Y., & Chen, A. H. (2018). The Judicial Perspective of Separation of Powers in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China. J. Int’l & Comp. L., 5, 337. McCall, G. J., & Simmons, J. L. (1978). In W. J. McGuire, C. V. McGuire (Eds.), Identities and interactions. New York: Free Press. Naughton, B. (2018). Xi’s System, Xi’s Men: After the March 2018 National People’s Congress. China Leadership Monitor, (56). Simon, B., Loewy, M., Stuermer, S., Weber, U., Freytag, P., & Habig, C., et al. (1998). Collective identification and social movement participation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 646–658. Stryker, S., & Richard T. S. (1982). Commitment, identity salience, and role behavior: A theory and research example. In W. Ickes, E. S. Knowles (Eds.), Personality, R6les, and social behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag. Thoits, P. A. (1983). Multiple identities and psychological well-being. American Sociological Review, 49, 174–187. Thoits, P. A. (1986). Multiple identities: Examining gender and marital status differences in distress. American Sociological Review, 51, 259–272. Turner, R. H. (1962). Role-taking: Process versus conformity. In A. M. Rose (Eds.), Human behavior and social processes (pp. 20–40). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. New York: Basil Blackwell. Turner, M. E., Pratkanis, A. R., Probasco, P., & Leve, C. (1992). Threat, cohesion, and group effectiveness: Testing a social identity maintenance perspective on groupthink. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 781–796.

Chapter 4

Glimpses of Internationalizing Higher Education for Creating World-Class Universities in China: The Perspectives of Stakeholders

This chapter involves internationalizing higher education for creating world-class universities in China from the perspectives of stakeholders. In recent years, internationalizing higher education has been a significant activity for creating world-class universities in the Chinese mainland. Initiating the internationalization of higher education institutions in the global academic market, it is of the utmost essential that most of the elite universities are pushed to rank among world-class universities. Through stimulated policies and financial supports, top universities in China devote themselves to accelerate the internationalization of universities to join the ranks of “world-class university” through conducting a series of institutional reforms. Thus, this study focuses on investigating different stakeholders’ attitudes toward the ongoing educational reforms and present barriers of such top-down policies at Chinese top universities. The in-depth interviews have been conducted. First, we found that a fund reform had been conducted to be consistent with the performance benchmark, but that it has subsequently been suspended due to the confliction among stakeholders’ interests. Second, it appeared that foreign faculty at the selected university is at a disadvantaged and marginalized status for both internal and external reasons. Third, it was found that the policy of recruiting returnees (graduates returning from study abroad) is partly responsible for igniting the “White War” in the job market between domestic degree holders and overseas degree holders. Fourth, the policy of enrolling international students has triggered lots of pressure on the quality of education. Last, finding an approach of compromising the attributes of “internationalizing for world-class” and “localizing for world-class” is difficult to be obtained.

4.1 Introduction In current China, the advocacy of “internationalization of higher education for creating World-Class Universities (WCUs)” has become an increasingly hot topic, mainly associated to the recruitment of foreign faculty, the attraction of returnees, and the © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5_4

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enrollment of international students (Hong 2018; Li 2018; Rui 2014; Zha et al. 2019). Those efforts aim to promote the comprehensive performance of the internationalization of higher education institutions for creating WCUs (Wu 2018; Yang and You 2018). Moreover, the Chinese central government provides some elite universities sufficient funding support to encourage them to internationalize the higher education institutions to be world-class universities quickly. In short, implementing the internationalization of higher education for WCUs initiatives covers both institutional and individual levels, including funding reform, managerial principles, recruitment standards, international curriculum, international campus, and international research collaboration and networks (Song 2018; Zong and Zhang 2019). Some scholars have been put forward that the endeavor to promote the internationalization of higher education is beneficial to accelerate the speed of becoming WCUs through integrating local and international students, internationalizing campus culture, and motivating the whole higher education mechanism (Maringe and Foskett 2012; Mok 2005; Marginson 2006; Qiang 2003). However, there are some potential risks in the dynamic process of the internationalization of higher education in China (Qiang 2003; Shin and Kehm 2012). For example, in order to achieve internationalization, the neglect of institutional context leads to the imbalance development of universities. Striving for the internationalization of higher education for creating WCUs might destroy the current local internal academic system and traditional value of universities and those unattainable goals would have a demoralizing impact on the traditional professional performance of academics (Altach 2015; Altbach and Balán 2007; Altbach and Salmi 2011). In addition, the inevitable conflicts and gaps exist among different subjects, teaching, and learning (Huang 2003; Deem et al. 2008; Kim et al. 2018; Cheng et al. 2014. In this study, a qualitative approach was used to investigate the current barriers and dilemmas that were being expressed to achieve world-class status through the process of internationalizing higher education institutions. Twenty-six academics (domestic, returnees, and foreign faculty) from three major disciplines (humanities, social science, and science), thirty students (undergraduate, graduate, and international students), and twenty managers (presidential officers, administrative managers, and departmental managers) were interviewed with the expectation that they would express their perceptions and criticisms of the ongoing internationalization reforms and show the current challenges and dilemmas associated to implementing top-down WCUs initiates at China’s elite universities.

4.2 Efforts of the Internationalization of Higher Education for Creating World-Class Universities Internationalizing higher education for creating WCUs is regarded as a national strategy devised and guided by leading policy makers in recent years. Chinese central government plays a fundamental role in constructing and implementing the policies

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and rules of the internationalization of higher education for creating WCUs. The State Council proposed “Comprehensive and Deepening Reform of General Plan for Promoting the Construction of World-Class Universities and First-Class Disciplines” for the key construction of higher education institutions, such as “211 Project,” “985 Project,” and “Advantage Discipline Innovation Platform,” were integrated into the construction of world-class universities and first-class disciplines. In 2017, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Finance, and the National Development and Reform Commission jointly issued the “Implementation Measures for Promoting the Construction of World-Class Universities and First-Class Disciplines as a Whole Plan” to clearly state the importance of encouraging the internationalization of higher education through encouraging international cooperation and exchanges. On September 21, 2017, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Finance, and the National Development and Reform Commission jointly issued the Notice on Publishing the List of Universities and Construction Disciplines of World-Class Universities and FirstClass Disciplines, formally confirmed and published the List of Universities and Construction Disciplines of World-Class Universities and First-class Disciplines. The first batch of double-class construction universities totaled 137, of which 42 universities and universities of World-Class (Category Thirty-six, six in category B, 95 world-Class disciplines and 465 double-class disciplines (44 of which are selfdetermined disciplines). On October 18, 2017, President Xi Jinping pointed out in his report in the Nineteenth National Congress that the internationalization of higher education should be consistent with the construction of first-class universities and disciplines. In 2019, The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council issued the document “China Education Modernization 2035,” which requires that local undergraduate colleges and universities should be continuously promoted to transform and develop the innovation system of colleges and universities should be strengthened, a number of international first-class national science and technology innovation bases should be built, applied basic research should be strengthened, and the original innovation ability of colleges. And universities should be improved in an all-round way. A sound scientific research system is conducive to stimulating innovation and promoting the transformation of scientific and technological achievements. The “Implementation Plan” mentioned that we should further speed up the construction of “double-first-class” to promote the construction of institutions of higher learning to implement the construction plan in an all-round way and study, and establish a comprehensive evaluation system of “double-first-class” construction with Chinese characteristics. Throughout the world-class universities, the notion of internationalization is an important part of their development strategy (Maringe and Foskett 2012; Mok 2005; Marginson). The internationalization of higher education presents an all-round, multi-level, and wide-ranging development trend, which integrated into the national development strategy of creating world-class universities (Shin and Kehm 2012). The internationalization of higher education is boosted in the process of deepening world multi-polarization and economic globalization, the transnational and trans-regional flow. In the field of higher education, international mobility also occurs consciously or unconsciously. Despite the different

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cultures and characteristics of universities in different countries, open, inclusive and complementary cooperation has become common choices for creating world-class universities.

4.3 Research Method 4.3.1 Context of the Elite University University B is a national elite university affiliated with the Ministry of Education under the central administration at the deputy ministerial level. According to the date offered by the 2018 Essential Science Indicators (ESI), six of the subjects it offers have ranked the world’s Top 50 and are entered leading groups among domestic universities. It is one of the First Ten Key Universities built in the 7th and 8th Five-Year Plan, enrolled in the Everest Program, Project 211, Project 985, Outstanding Legal Talents Education and Training Program, State-sponsored Postgraduate Program for Building High-level Universities, National Innovative Experimental Program for College Students, and Chinese Government Scholarship for Overseas Students Receiving Institutions. In March 2019, University B had 24,700 full-time students, including 10,260 undergraduates, 12,891 postgraduates, and 1600 longterm overseas students and employed 3086 full-time faculty members, of which 654 are returnees from foreign universities, and in recent years, the proportion of returnees being recruited has been rapidly increasing. In order to internationalize higher education institutions (HEIs) for entering WCUs ranks, University B is enthusiastic about promoting the quality of international academics in all aspects, such as recruiting returnees, training young scholars, creating international programs for students, attracting international students, and creating international campuses. We are adhering to the international academic standards for recruiting faculty and international students, striving to increase significantly the proportion of overseas Ph.D. students from elite universities or being supervised by outstanding scholars. In 2018, about 85% of the new recruited faculty members hold overseas degrees. In addition, attracting and enrolling more international students is considered one of the effective strategies that would promote its internationalization performance, relatively.

4.3.2 Data Collection A qualitative method was used in this study. The semi-structured interviews were conducted to explore stakeholders’ perceptions of new actions and strategies of the ongoing policies of internationalization of HEIs for entering WCUs ranks. In addition, the relevant political documents focus on funding reform, regulations of foreign faculty recruitment management, the institutional actions and response to

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external expectations. Applying random sampling, 26 faculty members from humanities, social science and science and 30 students (undergraduate students, graduate students, and international students), and 20 presidential officers and administrative managers from Office of International Exchange and Cooperation and different departments at University B were selected for interview. For the academic, all the ranks were included: professor, associate professor, and assistant professor; on the administrative side, both the institutional and departmental staff were interviewed to find out their various perceptions of internationalizing University B for WCUs initiates. In addition, various academic backgrounds were included, and both local graduates and returnees were selected in each group. By this way, it is expected to obtain a comprehensive perspective of the response of faculty members at all levels at University B (see Table 4.1). In this study, the following questions include: How do you think about the fund reform and why? In your efforts to internationalize University B, what difficulties and challenges are you confronted with? What do you think about the ongoing institutional reform to the internationalization of higher education? What do you think about the relations between the idea of the internationalization of higher education and world-class universities? With regard to the academic managers, in addition to the abovementioned questions, we also tend to explore their roles and major duties in the devising and implementing internationalization of higher education with university policies and regulations. Table 4.1 Sample of interviewees at University B Students

Subjects

Levels

Overseas

Students (30)

Humanities (10)

Undergraduate (12)

Social Science (12)

Graduate (10)

Have 17

Science (8)

International students (8)

Not have 13

Faculty

Discipline

Academic Rank

Status

Faculty (26)

Humanities (8)

Professors (7)

Domestic (8)

Social Science (12)

Associate professors (8)

Returnees (11) Foreigner (7)

Science (6)

Assistant professors (9)

Manager

Department

Positions

Mangers (20)

Humanities (5)

Presidential officers (5)

Social Science (8)

Administrative mangers (6)

Science (7)

Departmental mangers (9)

Notes The term “manger” refers to the vice presidents related to international affairs, deputy deans, and departmental directors for international exchange and cooperation. To make sure the confidentiality, most of specific administrative positions are not shown here

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4.3.3 Data Analysis The data obtained from the interviews were transcribed into texts. The initial coding of the data and the documentary evidence was completed by NVivo. According to the Attride-Stirling et al. (2001) analytic tool for qualitative research, the basic themes emerged in the first coding by NVivo. Then, the authors tried to group these basic themes into organizing themes, which are the middle-order themes in clusters of similar issues. Finally, super-ordinate themes were summarized from the sets of organizing themes; together, these present an argument, which is the global theme. If the above-illustrated elements that are forcing the Chinese traditional academic paradigm of humanities and social science subjects into dilemmas come from the “participator,” the following elements come from the “dominator.” On the one hand, the international academic experience of the president has a pivotal impact on formulating and implementing the strategy of the internationalization of higher education at higher education institutions. At current Chinese HEIs, most of current presidents graduated from domestic universities and their advocated institutional policies have always the tendency to benefit faculty members from domestic HEIs, while the returnees’ specific characteristics and needs of research and teaching are partly ignored or neglected. In this study, the current president at University B also received his doctoral degree from domestic universities and has limited international academic cooperation experiences. The members of foreign scholars mentioned that their international working hardware and software are not qualified and seriously disturbed their daily works. Their departments are always at a grave disadvantage in bilingual academic propaganda, English academic communication, and bilingual conference arrangement. On the other hand, the current trajectory is contributed to by the policy of constructing “Take Chinese roots to run Chinese own higher education” (zha gen zhong guo da di ban jiao yu) and a large proportion of academic publication in Chinese made implicitly to the prohibition of using Western ideological or cultural perspectives to examine Chinese themes or topics in humanities and social science subjects. Due to the alternative status and of foreign scholars in humanities and social science subjects, it is not supportive for them to take seriously and assigned as “key roles.” In addition, since it is limited for foreign scholars without Chinese nationality to apply research funds from Chinese National Social Science Foundation or Chinese National Science Foundation contributing to the academic performance of the university, those foreign scholars are not regarded as a “powerful weapon” with which to defeat other completing elite universities at institutional level. The presidential officers argued that in the eye of the president, the current domestic faculty members graduated from University B are “biological offspring with kinship,” while others, including foreign scholars and returnees are “adoptive.” Thus, taking into account both internal and external perspectives, both the recruited foreign scholars and returnees have become the “decorative vase” of the competing process of WCUs rankings and not served as “valuable treasures” for policy practitioners to sustain. This has also made the policy makers confused about whether the internationalization

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of higher education can really support creating WCUs as well as balance the localized culture with Chinese characteristics. Chinese policy makers represented their anxiety of Western cultural homogenization throughout the whole higher education system in much public presentation. The internationalization of higher education for creating WCUs should be consistent with socialist ideological theories, including Marist theories, Mao thoughts, Deng theories, and so on. He also emphasized the fact that internationalizing HEIs should insist on creating world-class universities with Chinese characteristics in Chinese contextual background. Otherwise, the students at the universities and colleges will be influenced by the Western ideology and ethical values that permeate the courses offered by foreign scholars and returnees. Those key points in various public publications were expressed at higher education institutions, mainly in order to judge whether Chinese elite universities were qualified for world-class rankings through internationalizing higher education. Most importantly, it means that national education sovereignty is required to retain Chinese traditional culture and norms. The “White War” in the job market between domestic degree holders and overseas degree holders. The aggressive priority being chosen to recruit overseas scholars and returnees have dominated the elite universities into the dilemma’s status. This is because those current recruitment policies offer an obvious signal to domestic degree holders “The Ph.D. degree holders who were graduated from Western universities have much more advantages than their domestic degree” and “If you would like to get a good academic position, studying abroad are shortcuts.” A department manager from the Faculty of Education said that, “few years ago, we only recruited new faculty members who have graduated from foreign universities. We would not like to employ domestic graduates, even though the top universities or institutions. But, in recent years, along with increasing number of returnees in the academic job market, we tend to recruit the returnees with strong records of English publication, such as SSCI, SCI. Thus, no matter where you were graduated, the quality and English publication is ‘magic weapon’ to guarantee someone receiving and sustaining academic position in a long term.” Thus, in the current situation, it seems clear that the strong English publication records as “only amulet” play a conclusive role to sustain your dream academic position rather than where you were graduated. However, most of the domestic Ph.D. graduates felt that the serious academic discrimination in the job market and they have to work at teaching-dominated universities or non-academic-oriented universities. Some returnee responses to the arguments from domestic graduates that, “from personal observation, the quality of domestic graduates cannot guarantee their obtaining and sustaining their academic position without strict academic training. If you were Ph.D. student in the USA, you are required to complete 70–90 credit hours (taking about 20–25 graduate courses), pass the qualify examination and oral defense and then be the Ph.D. candidate so that you are officially qualified to prepare your dissertation proposal and final defense. Usually, receiving a Ph.D. degree in social science subjects would spend more than five years in the USA. Comparing with the strict doctoral academic training, domestic Ph.D. students are required to take two semester courses (about 30–36 credits) in their first academic years and then transform to complete their doctoral thesis within about

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two years.” The obvious differences in doctoral curriculum, academic training, and requirements cause distinctive learning outcomes and quality. The current academic job market is offering a clear message that domestic universities are incapable of creating “international qualified scholars” so that more and more domestic students are deciding to pursue their doctoral degree at Western developed universities. As a result, the challenge domestic universities must encounter that both Western elite universities select the high quality and promise students and the rest of those enrolled in domestic universities to pursue their graduate degrees. The global academic competition in higher education is featured as an antidirectional flow of students and asymmetrical cultural transformation. China serves as one of the exporters in terms of the inadequate number of places available on the reputable degree program. Thus, when students graduated, most domestic universities tend to recruit returnees as faculty members since the domestic graduates are not competitive compared with their counterparts. This will also increase the pressure for the domestic elite university to become world-class universities in terms of cultivating international competitive scholars in the global academic job market. In the current higher education system, the fact is that elite universities are exporting their promise students to Western top universities, such as the USA and UK. The cultural invasion is being contributed to by institutional fund reforms and is pushing universities to become first-class. Questionable of attracting, enrolling, sustaining and cultivating international students, Since promoting the degree of internationalization of higher education is a key aspect of universities’ endeavor to become world-class, creating a strategy to attract more international students is fundamental. Enrolling international students is considered as diversifying internationalization of higher education for creating WCUs. One department manager said that, in the current situation, most of the international students choose Chinese Culture and Language department. Thus, the university’s reputation as a potential WCU is questionable. In most international university rankings, the proportion of international students and foreign faculty serves as a key indicator of the university international rankings. In regard to this, this university increasingly enlarges the enrollment rate of international students without providing relevant international teaching and learning resources, such as the bilingual department website, English course selection system, and English service website system. Most of the 21 international students argued that the campus life is exclusive and boring, and they have not much more opportunities to contact with Chinese local students actually. The international students are separated from the domestic students in their academic works and campus life. Most of the international students noted that current Chinese universities should shape colorful and openness international campus life, as the best approach to attract and sustain international students. In addition, there are limited teaching and administrative faculty and staff who are skilled in English so that most English courses have been canceled. This is also another reason why more and more universities are striving for recruiting returnees to teach in English. The lose standard of international graduation for non-domestic students is criticized.

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Most of the faculty members argued that the more restrictive benchmark for students’ curriculum is essential to guarantee the quality and reputation of universities. In regard to this question, the administrative manager in the department of math pointed out: internationalizing higher education is a process rather than an approach, and most of Chinese universities have no confidence to attract excellent international students. The process of recruiting international students from the global academic market system is a considerable challenge for most universities. Thus, providing sufficient funding support is to promote the quality of higher education. It is not difficult to find out how to receive the goal of world-class status than that of creating an internationalizing academic environment. It is not easy for humanities subjective to be consistent with the international context. The world-class university indicators include the numbers of paper, the patterns, scientific awards, the number of international faculty members and students, and all those are predictable for practitioners. Internationalizing higher education is not only quantitative indictors. The university is powerless to balance two main requirements “world-class in qualitative” and “world-class in quantitative” features. There is a misunderstanding of the internationalization of higher education for WCUs initiatives. The expression of the internationalization of higher education in the construction plan is mainly reflected in the comprehensive reform. Promoting international cooperation and exchange in the reform mission, include international substantive cooperation, improving the internationalization level of the teaching staff; Strengthening internationalized personnel training; through Confucius Institute, publishing academic achievements, etc. Chinese universities are encountered with confliction between centralized governmental mechanism and universities’ function. The hierarchical higher education system causes Chinese universities which have less freedom to choose program and curriculum, faculty employment, student enrollment, and financial allocation. The shortage of openness and democratic academic environment resulted in the authoritarian hierarchical system. Internationalizing for “world-class” or localizing for “world-class” With regard to the construction of world-class universities, there are serious debates on internationalizing for “world-class” or localizing for “world-class”. In the practice of WCU policies at universities, it is not difficult to find how to receive the goal of WCUs from internationalization indicators than that of considering “localized context.” More precisely, it is not easy for policy makers and institutional managers to focus on localized context, and it is the most severe critique in the WUCs policies. Practically, whether or not a university is world-class can be identified by the number of English publications, international students, foreign faculty and returnees, etc. These are predictable in reality that the international strategies needed to obtain them are obvious to the practitioners. However, unlike those quantitative indicators observed that the idea of “localized context” is qualitative and it is much vaguer to investigate the best approach to setting it into practice promptly. Actually, it is the institutional management system that best embodies the “localized context,” but to reform the hierarchical mechanism that operates in higher education institutions is beyond what the field of universities can complete.

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The universities have no absolute power to respond to the key conceptualized orientation “internationalizing for world-class” or “localizing for world-class” simultaneously, which reflect two conflict and meanings. The orientation involved on “world-class” insist on the cognitive and behavioral mindsets that universities are reformed for the pursuit of excellence in producing knowledge; the other orientation, which focuses the significance of “Chinese internal local status and context”, advocates that universities should serve the national interests, which is kind of valuelatten mentality. It is a paradox to balance “internationalizing for world-class” or “localizing for world-class” in the world-class landscape. Moreover, most institutional presidents have emphasized on the indicators of “internationalizing higher education for WCUs,” while the policy maker pays more attention to the outcome of “WCUs.” However, most of the academics in the field agree that these two are not mutually contradictory, and some of them feel that the tendency to imitate Westernized approaches that Chinese universities are becoming more Western world-class universities. Conversely, others argued that there is no need to consider “Chinese local context” since all the WCUs have and should hold the same requirements and standards. First, compared with other countries, it is not necessary to take Chinese local context into account in order to create WCUs; second, most of the university president and administrators have no accurate idea of how to deal with Chinese local context in teaching and research; third, university administrators insist that to obtain the international top rankings through the internationalization of higher education is the best pathway to receive “World-class.” Internationalizing higher education for the construction of world-class universities is to respond to the requirements of national policies with “evaluation-oriented” and “utilitarian” candidates to win more benefits. Deviating international talent cultivation and expanding superficial instruments In Mainland China, higher education institutions are struggling in fierce tension between universities and central government. In the centralized governmental mechanism, the higher education institutions serve as a “functional organ” of the governmental “giant monster “and all the behaviors are controlled by the hierarchical policy framework. For the internationalization of higher education, the universities are powerless to regulate the international curriculum and programs, international student enrollments, foreign faculty recruitment, and funding allocation. The closed political environment is rooted in the authoritarian hierarchical mechanism of the higher education system. In this sense, unfortunately, there is a tendency of utilitarianism in the construction of internationalization of higher education for creating world-class universities, which is mainly manifested in humanism. In reality, the core task of internationalization of higher education for creating world-class university is to follow student-centered pedagogy to cultivate international talents as guiding school-running philosophy. Most colleges and universities emphasize the traditional Chinese principle of “cultivating talents by fostering virtue” (Li de shu ren). However, the current political scheme of the internationalization of higher education for creating WCUs paid less attention to creating international curriculum system and English degree projects, improving the quality assurance evaluation system,

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enhancing cross-cultural capacity of domestic faculty and staff, etc., while it emphasizes boosting the visualized international indicators, such as increasing the number of foreign faculty, returnees, international students, which focus on the pursuit of materialized international results and quantitative indicators. With regard to this institutional context, the internationalization of higher education is being challenged by the “expansion of instrumentalism” through measuring visual indicators. Institutional presidential managers are dominated by the hierarchical power of the Chinese central government and provide less attention to the bottom-up voices from students, faculty, and staff. Universities and colleges hold less autonomy to decide the direction of how to implement internationalization of higher education, specifically. It means that the degree of decentralization was inadequate and insufficient, and the international benchmarks and standards influence the current research orientations and assessments. Most of the faculty members who took part in the process of the interview argued that Chinese professors spend less effort to promote the quality of teaching in the process of internationalization of higher education, and the same situation applies to Chinese higher education institutions’ attention to the improvement of international talents cultivation. The universities appear to be confused and lack of confident to seize the world-class dream in the current Chinese education system and their limited competence to respond to the pressure of international competition, domestic needs, and political orientations. The quasi-Western internationalizing higher education strategies have been facing considerable challenges in current Chinese context. Chinese higher education institutions are affiliated to the central government without autonomy and marketization. Universities in China are fundamentally rooted in the centralized hierarchical mechanism. Although the internationalization of higher education involves practical measures, there will not be sufficient without constructing international talent cultivation system and plans for stakeholders of the university. Usually, in the process of internationalizing higher education for creating WCUs, mainstream values and leading perception play significant role and hold decisive impact on the success of the implementations. Obviously, the fund reform for foreign faculty and returnees did not gain the success of indigenization, which imitated from developed countries as expected, as it neglected the attitudes and needs of most of the universities’ stakeholders.

4.4 Conclusions and Remarks From the fund reform policies at University B, we can find the emerging gaps among different academic backgrounds, which echo the findings that the dramatic reform has destroy universities’ commitment of academics. In addition, the imbalance resource allocation damages institutional harmony. The administrative system has also become the most important element in enabling Chinese higher education institutions to achieve world-class status.

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Moreover, the unpredictable and deep-imbedded dilemmas have emerged in constructing WCUs in current China’s higher education system. First, the fund reform plan was suspended, but the strategy to promote academic performance in the domestic and international markets through the recruitment of foreign scholars and returnees is still functional. Second, foreign scholars and returnees have dominated the absolute discourse on judging what type of research approaches is scientific and how to construct research works. This is one major reason for the serious confliction of the scientific analytic approaches into humanities and social science subjects. The aggressive priority being chosen to recruit overseas scholars and returnees have dominated the elite universities. Third, the returnee recruitment policy is partly responsible for igniting the “White War” in the job market of domestic degree holders and overseas degree holders. Fourth, the policy of enrolling international students has triggered tremendous tensions and pressure on the current higher educational resource allocation and optimization. Last, it seems that realizing the goal of the construction of world-class universities involves the debates on internationalizing for “world-class” or localizing for “world-class” and finding a pathway of coordinating the attributes of internationalizing for “world-class” and localizing for “world-class” is crucial to future success in creating WCUs, essentially. Although the query on “what is the internationalization of higher education for creating world-class universities in Chinese context?” in the current Chinese higher education system, most universities or colleges appear to be striving to become the WCUs. The best-selected approaches are always the implementation of fund reform, recruitment of foreign scholars and returnees, and enrollment of international students. Absolutely, from their performance in various international activities, the Chinese higher education institutions should be applauded for their previous effort and practices. However, the imitative of internationalizing higher education for creating world-class universities is fundamentally associated with then domestic needs for international talent cultivation to encounter the pressure of global competition. Chinese universities are expected to continuing internationalizing higher education institutions for creating world-class universities contextually.

References Altbach, P. (2015). The costs and benefits of world-class universities. International Higher Education, 33. Altbach, P. G., & Balán, J. (Eds.). (2007). World class worldwide: Transforming research universities in Asia and Latin America. JHU Press. Altbach, P. G., & Knight, J. (2007). The internationalization of higher education: Motivations and realities. Journal of studies in international education, 11(3–4), 290–305. Altbach, P. G., & Salmi, J. (Eds.). (2011). The road to academic excellence: The making of worldclass research universities. The World Bank. Attride-Stirling, J., Davis, H., Markless, G., Sclare, I., & Day, C. (2001). ‘Someone to talk to who’ll listen’: Addressing the psychosocial needs of children and families. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 11(3), 179–191.

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Cheng, Y., Wang, Q., & Liu, N. C. (2014). How world-class universities affect global higher education. How World-Class Universities Affect Global Higher Education (pp. 1–10). Rotterdam: SensePublishers. Deem, R., Mok, K. H., & Lucas, L. (2008). Transforming higher education in whose image? Exploring the concept of the ‘world-class’ university in Europe and Asia. Higher Education Policy, 21(1), 83–97. Hong, M. (2018). A comparative study of the internationalization of higher education policy in Australia and China (2008–2015). Studies in Higher Education, 1–12. Huang, F. (2003). Policy and practice of the internationalization of higher education in China. Journal of Studies in International Education, 7(3), 225–240. Kehm, B. M. (2019). Global University rankings–impacts and applications. In Metrics and misconduct: New ecologies of academic research. MIT Press. Kim, D., Song, Q., Liu, J., Liu, Q., & Grimm, A. (2018). Building world class universities in China: exploring faculty’s perceptions, interpretations of and struggles with global forces in higher education. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 48(1), 92–109. Li, J. (2018). The Global Quest to Building World-Class University in China. In Conceptualizing soft power of higher education (pp. 113–132). Singapore: Springer. Li, J. (2019). Conceptualizing and contextualizing higher education with Chinese characteristics: Ontological and epistemological dimensions. Springer. Marginson, S. (2006). Dynamics of national and global competition in higher education. Higher Education, 52(1), 1–39. Maringe, F., & Foskett, N. (Eds.). (2012). Globalization and internationalization in higher education: Theoretical, strategic and management perspectives. A&C Black. Mok, K. H. (2005). The quest for world class university: Quality assurance and international benchmarking in Hong Kong. Quality Assurance in Education, 13(4), 277–304. Qiang, Z. (2003). Internationalization of higher education: Towards a conceptual framework. Policy futures in education, 1(2), 248–270. Rui, Y. A. N. G. (2014). China’s strategy for the internationalization of higher education: An overview. Frontiers of Education in China, 9(2), 151–162. Shin, J. C., & Kehm, B. M. (Eds.). (2012). Institutionalization of world-class university in global competition (Vol. 6). Springer Science & Business Media. Song, J. (2018). Creating world-class universities in China: Strategies and impacts at a renowned research university. Higher Education, 75(4), 729–742. Wu, H. (2018). Three dimensions of China’s “outward-oriented” higher education internationalization. Higher Education, 1–16. Yang, R. (2002). Third delight: The internationalization of higher education in China. Psychology Press. Yang, X., & You, Y. (2018). How the world-class university project affects scientific productivity? Evidence from a survey of faculty members in China. Higher Education Policy, 31(4), 583–605. Yuan, R., Li, S., & Yu, B. (2018). Neither “local” nor “global”: Chinese university students’ identity paradoxes in the internationalization of higher education. Higher Education, 1–16. Zha, Q., Wu, H., & Hayhoe, R. (2019). Why Chinese universities embrace internationalization: An exploration with two case studies. Higher Education, 1–18. Zong, X., & Zhang, W. (2019). Establishing world-class universities in China: deploying a quasiexperimental design to evaluate the net effects of Project 985. Studies in Higher Education, 44(3), 417–431.

Part II

Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Concept

Chapter 5

Exploring the Emerging Idea of Comprehensive Global Competence in Contemporary China

This chapter describes the trends of globalization of higher education in contemporary China and the related importance of developing the emerging idea of comprehensive global competence among various higher education institutions. The idea of global competence for Chinese undergraduate students is examined through the statement of purpose and problem definition, illustrates the significance of the study, defines the key terms, and describes some of the limitations of the study related to identifying comprehensive global competence, systematically and contextually.

5.1 Background of the Global Competence Over the past three decades, the trend of globalization of higher education has developed rapidly in contemporary China. Globalization is considered a phenomenon that includes multiple, drastic changes in different areas of social life, particularly economics, technology, and culture . The definition of globalization varies in the economic, technological, sociocultural, and ethical aspects: from an economic perspective, globalization refers to marketization and economic growth; from a technological perspective, globalization involves the accessibility of knowledge across space, time, and peoples; from a sociocultural perspective, globalization focuses on the movement of populations and the mingling of cultures and identities; from a ethical aspect, globalization relates to outlooks on life that shape individual’s attitudes and behavior toward others. A variety of educators have suggested that globalization is an appropriate concept to characterize twenty-first-century life in a way that condenses social and cultural evolution. Because of globalization, higher education has been subjected to intense pressure to change and a worldwide university reforms agenda has emerged from a sense of crisis facing higher education in countries that are culturally and political diverse (Altbach 1991). Globalization has implications for

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various issues, such as the quality of education, educational access and opportunity, and education accountability and authority. The paradox and complexity of globalization are considered according to the epistemological underpinnings that have guided scholars and educators who have contributed to expand the discourse on globalization, global education, and localization of global norms. The paradox of globalization, the increasing tensions between local and global are considered an apparent feature in current context. The process of globalization is treated as the knowledge and power from developed nations passed off as priorities onto the developing nations. The emergence of globalization disturbs the methods and pathways by which people experience their cultural belonging and national identities with a focus on how difference itself has become a norm (Suárez-Orozco 2004). In other words, responding to the trend of globalization toward cultural convergence leads to cultural communications and nation-states asserting their cultural uniqueness, including their own histories, spirituality, ways of living, and working rooted in their demographic characteristics. It is widely accepted that, global force is often considered the dominated power to exploit local cultures to shape national policies. Thus, it is complicated and difficult to balance local and global power in terms of the confliction of cultural identity contextually. By this logic, within current education system, both students and faculty are challenged to examine ethnicity, race, gender, and cultural identity and faculty are expected to teach students to adapt to a global-based economy, concentrating on negotiating local communities’ values and globalized societal norm. Within the higher education system, the debate on the emergence of globalization mainly involves education quality, inequality educational resources, and wealth distribution. The ambiguity of identifying international benchmarks and criteria is still considered one key point to reasonably assess unfamiliar foreign qualifications (Altbach et al. 2010; Anderson-Levitt 2003; Gaudelli 2013, 2016). The inequality among higher education systems has increased over the past several decades. The academic world has gradually been polarized by the emergence of globalization. For example, the strongest institutions always occupy the leading power and reputation as a central role, such as in the USA or United Kingdom. African institutions, for instance, barely register on the world universities’ ranking and are viewed as producing a very small percentage of the world’s knowledge and technology production. Thus, the increasing tension between central (the USA) and marginal (African) contributors results in a significant negative effect on the development of globalization. In addition, Altbach et al. (2010) also highlighted that the wealth of nations play a pivotal role in guaranteeing a high level of globalization of academic systems. In this sense, the developing countries engage in globalization from a disadvantaged position. Addressing the dilemmas between local and global norms is fundamental to promote the idea of globalization in the current context. In a globalized era, one key goal of higher education is to provide sufficient assistance to students for addressing cultural pluralism (Gaudelli 2013, 2016). Institutions are responsible for balancing the

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tension between localization and globalization. Respecting cultural diversity rooted in individual’s cultures and beliefs is fundamental to navigate an interconnected world. Collaborating with parents, faculty, and peers in an integrated open-minded community is essential to address the dilemmas between local and global interests. The complexity of globalization can be considered in two forms: visible and invisible. Visible complexity on globalization focuses on apparent and perceptible phenomena, such as dilemmas between local and global norms and multiple perspectives on identifying globalization. Invisible complexity on globalization involves hidden or less readily discernible phenomena, including political ideological identities and commitments. Visible Complexity on Globalization The multifaceted and ambiguous definitions of globalization trigger lots of complexity about how to identify and implement globalization in different economical, political, and cultural contexts. As previously noted, the tensions between local and global values and norms are one kind of visible complexity that impacts a variety of issues, such as how might globalization intensify or diminish the local cultural identities and commitments? How does the mingling of cultures influence the approaches by which people and cultural groups shape their own identities? (Altbach et al. 2010; Gaudelli 2016). In addition, the multiple perspectives of globalization, such as economic, political, sociocultural, and philosophical ethical-oriented definitions deepen the complexity of understanding, analyzing, and promoting globalization. For example, the economic conception of globalization focuses on marketization and economic growth in the process of globalization. Sociocultural conception on globalization involves the movement or process of populations and mingling of diverse cultures and identifies. The philosophical or ethical conception on globalization concentrates on individual’s outlooks on life shaping their attitudes or behaviors toward others (Altbach et al. 2010). Moreover, the complexities of globalization are also manifest in the process of mingling with different competing and non-consensual ideas or concepts, such as cosmopolitanism, transnationalism, human rights, and citizenship (Castells 2011; Li and Xu 2016a, b). Thus, the complexity is considered one featured of identifying and implementing globalization in different contexts. Invisible complexity on globalization is fundamentally rooted in the different ideological identities and commitments. Comparing the invisible ideological characteristics between Western and Eastern cultures might offer an in-depth understanding of discrepancies pertaining to identifying global education, global learning, and global competency. In this study, for example, comparing Western (USA) and Eastern (China) in regard to defining global education and global learning, we epitomize that, America focuses on “individualism”(liberal democratic)-oriented globalization through advocating social justice, human rights, democracy, and citizenship. Along with the initial notion of individualism ideology, the idea of globalization serves as a mediator to spread western ideological identities and commitments, including social justice,

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humanity, human rights, democracy, and citizenship (Robertson 1992; Velasquez 2000). In this sense, most US scholars are more likely to identify the term global competency as promoting the student-central pattern of advocating cross-cultural awareness and intercultural capacities at the individual level. In contrast, in China’s context, “collectivism”-oriented global education is more likely to focus on promoting global economic competitiveness and advanced technology improvement (Yang 2000, 2002, 2011; Zhao 2009; Wang 2014; Li and Xu 2016a, b). For example, in order to keep pace with the trend of globalization in the higher education system, the Chinese central government launched a series of top-down educational policies to promote Chinese universities’ global competitiveness at the national level, including Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-class Universities Project. China’s global education policy predominantly emphasizes nationaloriented global engagement (e.g. economic growth and global competition) in a globalized world, compared with the USA focusing on individual-central cultural dissemination (e.g. social justice, democracy, and humanity). The obvious distinctions between Western (US) and Eastern (China) thought are also examined in identifying global learning, global knowledge, and global skills. For example, Western-oriented concepts of global education emphasize creating and implementing student-centered international curricula or projects, such as improving students’ cross-cultural awareness and capacities, preparing students as qualified global citizens, helping students become global learners. In contrast, Easterndominated concepts of global learning focus on building macro-level global initiatives or activities, such as globalizing the Chinese higher education system, making Chinese higher education more globally competitive. In other words, the macrobased (China) and micro-based (US) global educational missions or goals contribute to different global education policy formations and implementations (Wang 2014; Li and Xu 2016a, b). Thus, different ideological identifies or commitments deeply shape different understandings of globalization (Yang 2000, 2002, 2011; Zhao 2009; Wang 2014). By this logic, this study focuses on conceptualizing and measuring global competency for Chinese undergraduate students in China’s context. Hence, providing a deeper understanding of the complexity of globalization in China’s context provides broader and deeper thoughts on identifying the nature of global competency in the Chinese context. From the Elmore’s (1985) forward mapping perspective, the Chinese central government launched a series of top-down policy implementations to stimulate the globalization of Chinese higher education system in the recent three decades. The Chinese central government is trying to keep pace with broader globalization trends to improve the quality of Chinese universities and colleges (Ayoubi and Massoud 2007). Specifically, the development of the Academic Rankings of World Universities (ARWU) at Shanghai Jiao Tong University exemplifies this approach as an effort to enhance the global reputation of Chinese universities and colleges. The globalization of Chinese higher education is deeply rooted in the integrated process of transformation of higher education worldwide. An attempt to accelerate the globalization of Chinese

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higher education has been on the agenda at international, national, and regional levels (Rui 2014). However, there is a gap between top-down policy implementation approaches typically applied in China and the bottom-up or, as Elmore would characterize, backward-mapping activities that are required to implement these policies effectively. Since the 1990s, the Chinese central government has launched a wide range of educational policies in accordance with a national educational mission of enhancing the internationalization and globalization of higher education systematically. Since the 1970s, the goal of the internationalization of higher education has been a component of the broader policy in China to fulfill “Four Modernizations” (i.e. industry, agriculture, defense, and science and technology). Toward this end, the internationalization of higher education was first addressed by sending Chinese students and faculty abroad for international study and research; integrating the international orientation into university teaching and learning; and offering transnational projects consistent with foreign institutional partnerships with Chinese universities (Yang 2011). In 1993, the Outline for Reform and Development of Education in China focused on the internationalization of Chinese higher education. The Chinese central government began to initiate educational reforms to promote international academic and technology exchange and cooperation (CCP CC and State Council 1993). Improving foreign language education was promoted to obtain a higher level of academic capacity in a globalized world. The 1993 Education Policy also described the overall mission of internationalization to build 100 major universities of leading quality to achieve academic competitiveness, focusing on advocating international academic exchange and cooperation; promoting cooperation between Chinese and foreign universities; encouraging Chinese students to study overseas; and developing the teaching of foreign language (Li 2014). In 1995, the Ministry of Education (MOE) and Ministry of Finance issued a series of documents entitled “The 211 Project Plan” aimed at developing 100 universities and colleges by the early twenty-first century that would play a leading role in economic and social development. Moreover, the Chinese central government setup special funding to attract outstanding academics through global recruitment. The visiting scholarship programs have been established for international exchange and cooperation. A second program, Project 985, was designed and first announced by CPC General Secretary and Chinese President Jiang Zemin at the 100th anniversary of Peking University in 1998. In order to enhance the globalization of the Chinese higher education system, Project 985 provided a large amount of national financial support to attract world-renowned faculty as talented scholars into the Chinese higher education system. Since 2011, in accordance with a national long-term talent development plan (2010–2020), the Changjiang Scholar program aimed to strengthen Chinese academic institutions of higher learning, improve the quality of teaching personnel, and train a large number of international leading scholars. However, the Chinese government encountered a variety of dilemmas and paradoxes in its efforts to internationalize higher education (Hayhoe 1994, 1996; Li and Du 2016). Specifically, there is a paradox related to discussing how to balance the educational sovereignty and globalization of higher education consistent with the

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dominant socialist ideology in China. The Chinese government actively focuses on promoting collaboration with foreign universities without providing a comprehensive legal explanation of foreign universities in the contemporary Chinese higher education system. This ambiguity of defining the legal status of foreign higher education activities in China also triggered tensions and pressures in the process of globalization (Li 2012). In order to boost the international capacity of Chinese universities, the Chinese government and institutions embraced foreign languages but failed to attract foreign students to enroll in Chinese universities. In other words, Chinese higher education institutions offered foreign languages (such as English, French, Germany) as the medium of instruction yet failed to attract foreign students to study in Chinese universities. The imbalance of input (financial support and political intervention) and output (enrollment rate of foreign students, high-quality academic performance) encouraged the Chinese government to establish joint education projects that align with the guidelines of globalization of education (Hayhoe 1994; Chang 2006). The Chinese government efforts were entirely based on top-down policy implementation. As such, the government neglected the critical activities that emerge from the bottom-up in order to achieve their objectives (Li 2016). In the Chinese higher education system, both students and faculty play a bottom-up role in higher education globalization. For example, building university rankings and branding for Chinese universities and colleges are considered as one feature of advocating globalization of Chinese higher education. The development of the Academic Rankings of World Universities (ARWU) at Shanghai Jiao Tong University exemplifies this approach for promoting global reputation of Chinese universities and colleges. However, the rankings emphasize visible standardized indicators (such as SCI or SSCI) to assess the global performance of universities and colleges, neglecting student-centered indicators from a more holistic perspective, such as their ability to work competitively and cooperatively within international projects. In contemporary Chinese universities and colleges, Chinese scholars and scientists concentrate on producing high-level international publications, such as those which are incorporated into the Science Citation Index (SCI) or Social Science Citation Index (SSCI), to demonstrate the high quality of globalization of Chinese higher education. However, I argue that the globalization of Chinese higher education does not only require high university rankings, international branding, and Chinese international scholarly publications. It is equally, if not more important to cultivate Chinese undergraduates as open-minded and socially responsible global learners and citizens capable of learning and working with people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. It is, therefore, essential for the Chinese central government to pay attention to student-centered global education in contemporary China. By 2016, the total number of overseas Chinese students, including traditional college study, intercultural training, and internship reached around 660,000. The increasing number of overseas Chinese students is inherently associated with the trend of globalization of higher education. The great task facing the Chinese government for globalizing higher education is to give all students, not just the small proportion that study overseas, a thorough understanding of the world and its crosscurrents. Specifically, enhancing educational interventions, providing cross-cultural curriculum and

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advocating transnational exchange programs all contribute to cultivating students’ thorough understanding of the interconnected world. Furthermore, cross-cultural education is considered as one of the most significant approaches to improve university students’ global awareness and intercultural capacities in the early twenty-first century-global higher education system (Li 2016). Faced with the rapid development of the global economy, many higher education institutions strongly promote global educational exchanges and opportunities (Yang 2011). Global competency has been regarded as a crucial cross-cultural capacity in the context of globalization in the higher education systems in order to enhance global educational competitiveness (Li 2016). In accordance with the global economy, countries and cultures are becoming more and more interdependent. Therefore, it is important to generate intercultural opportunities and exchanges for undergraduate students in the contemporary Chinese higher education system to foster political, economic, and cultural perspectives. Unfortunately, there are few studies on how to cultivate Chinese undergraduate global competency for students and the country to thrive in the interdependent globalized world. From a pedagogical perspective, students’ background characteristics shape the cross-cultural capabilities, attitudes, and motivations that the student has come into college, including geographic origin, parental education, and intercultural experience. Especially, in current China, geographic origin plays a pivotal role as there are large gaps between rural and urban origin students in their propensity to acquire cross-cultural capacities. From a political perspective, the Chinese household registration system (Hukou system) serves as the fundamental reason for the large rural and urban gaps in contemporary China. Wu and Treiman (2004) argued that the Chinese household registration system (Hukou) serves as the most important determinant of differential privilege in current socialist China. Compared to rural residents, urban residents can get access to the best job positions, more educational resources, housing, and health care. The rigid segmentation of Chinese society is supported by the Hukou system in contemporary China. Rural origin people have few opportunities to switch their rural origin into urban status (Wu and Treiman 2004). The exceptions to the system are few and inequitable. Party members are more likely to change their Hukou status than are non-party members. Both educational and political credentials are essential for Chinese social mobility in current China. The dual-path model (rural and urban) impedes the social mobility from rural to urban (Wu 2001; Wu and Treiman 2004). Thus, the Hukou system significantly constrains social mobility from rural to urban status. The causal relationship between the Hukou system and educational attainment has been well established by sociologists (Wu 2001, 2010; Wu and Treiman 2004; Zhou et al. 1998). Wu (2010) highlighted that, since 1990s, China’s educational stratification is closely associated with Hukou system. According to the findings from Wu (2010), students with rural Hukou status became more disadvantaged compared to their urban counterparts, and the impact of their parent’s socioeconomic status on higher education enrollment was enhanced. Educational inequality in contemporary China is deeply imbedded in the Hukou system, determining which Chinese citizens

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are entitled to different life opportunities. China is currently confronted with the problems of narrowing educational inequality and increasing the proportion of rural origin students’ college attainment. For this study, rural origin students have fewer opportunities to acquire global knowledge and capacities prior to entering college compared to urban origin students in contemporary China. It is essential to address rural and urban gaps in order to cultivate student-centered global competency for all Chinese students.

5.2 The Purpose of Conceptualizing and Measuring Global Competence The purpose of this study is to propose a framework for conceptualizing and measuring the global competency of Chinese undergraduate students. The focus is on undergraduates at public state-sponsored universities where a survey will be conducted to empirically assess elements of the validity of the proposed framework as an approach to assessing global competency in the context of globalization of higher education. The broad research question focuses on how global competency of Chinese undergraduate students might be conceptualized and measured in order to provide sufficient education policy and curriculum development information to better prepare Chinese students to contribute constructively to China’s efforts in a global economy. For this study, global competency is explored through both conceptual and methodological frameworks. The conceptual framework considers global competency as a cross-cultural capacity in a multidimensional learning domain for valuing cultural diversity. The proposed framework is derived from the academic literatures related to competency, global competency and cultural diversity. In accordance with the Dimensions of Learning Model (Marzano 1992), the methodological framework of global competency characterizes global competency according to four dimensions: (1) global attitudes and perceptions; (2) acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge; (3) global practical skills; and (4) global habits of mind for valuing cultural diversity. These dimensions are derived from the literature supporting the broad conceptual framework as interpreted through the lens of Robert Marzano’s (1992) Dimensions of Learning Model. Researchers (Yang 2011; Li 2016; Li and Du 2016) often acknowledge that crosscultural capacity influences the quality of student life on a cross-cultural campus. There have been few successful attempts, however, to identify and measure such capacity within the Chinese higher education system. Thus, the present global competency model is set forth with two broad objectives: first to identify important dimensions of global competency, and secondly, to provide a framework for measuring these dimensions.

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5.3 Problem Definition of Global Competence The impetus for developing this conceptual global competency model originates from an examination of the literature on global learning and global competency. The vast literature on this topic suggests that global competency is cultivated through global learning; it is, therefore, important to examine the relationship between global competency and global learning. Unfortunately, there have been few consistent research findings establishing this relationship (Yang 2011; Li and Du 2016). Researchers have applied several perspectives to the study of global competency. These perspectives help focus attention toward a more holistic view of global competency. For example, Hunter (2004) proposed a broad definition of global knowledge as related to a set of foreign countries’ history, geography, culture, and policies, but neglected to identify how to gain this knowledge through a learning process. From an international and comparative perspective, advocates of global competency have generally not stimulated a systematic program of research, either because the perspectives are not comprehensive enough or they do not facilitate the measurement of the conceptual attributes they describe (Reimers 2009; Li 2013).

5.4 Significance of the Study Related to Global Competence This study provides both theoretical and practical implications for further research on investigating the relationship between global learning and global competency in China. Theoretically, this study initially applies learning and competency theories to define and measure global competency. The conceptual and methodological frameworks of global competency are identified and elaborated in this study, using a conceptual framework to define global competency and a methodological approach to measure it among Chinese undergraduate students in two state-sponsored Chinese universities. In addition, this research provides a specific lens (learningcompetency mode) to integrate the ideas of global competency and global learning for conceptualizing and measuring the global competency of Chinese undergraduate students. Practically, this study focuses on narrowing the gap between forward mapping or top-down policy implementation and backward mapping or bottom-up policy implementation for enhancing the globalization of state-sponsored Chinese higher education by focusing on the conceptualization and measurement of undergraduate students’ global competency. From a comparative education perspective, this research initially focuses on investigating Chinese undergraduate students’ global competence and the current status of global learning in the contemporary Chinese higher education system. It also offers ideas for empirical research on policy implementation and suggestions to help Chinese undergraduate students cultivate global competency. Based on the results of this study, it is hoped that policy makers and

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administrators can use this knowledge to inform the implementation of effective policies to stimulate and cultivate global competence in Chinese university students.

5.5 Definition of Terms Related Global Competence 1. Competency: Competency is identified as the quality of being capable and having the ability to achieve something. 2. Global learning: The Association of American Colleges and Universities identified the term global learning as a focus on what students are expected to learn through cross-cultural curriculum and international educational experiences. 3. Cross-cultural Capacity: The term cross-cultural capacity refers to the ability to understand people from different cultures and engage with them effectively. 4. Cultural diversity: Cultural diversity refers to the quality of diverse or different cultures, as opposed to monoculture. The value of cultural diversity is to guarantee a powerful balance and the equitable development of biodiversity. 5. Global competency: The term global competency is identified as a cross-cultural capacity in the multidimensional learning domain for valuing cultural diversity. 6. Dimensions of global competency: Global competency is viewed as encompassing four dimensions: (1) global attitudes and perceptions, acquired; (2) acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge; (3) global practical skills; and (4) habits of global mind for valuing cultural diversity.

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Chapter 6

Examining the Literature on Comprehensive Global Competence for Individual in Contemporary China

This chapter concentrates on examining the literature on comprehensive global competence for individual in contemporary China. The idea of comprehensive global competence for individual includes both students and faculty members in various higher education institutions. It was mainly organized into six sections, providing a comprehensive literature review of global education, illustrating Chinese global education, offering summaries and remarks on global competency, examining the proposed conceptual definition, providing a theoretical framework of global competency, and describing the methodological dimensions of global competency.

6.1 Review of Literature on Global Education This part provides the literature on global competence, focusing on summarizing how different scholars’ works contributed to the ongoing debates, acknowledging their motivations behind their approach and their contributions to the field of global competency. Altbach et al. (2010) provides a cogent analysis and comparative perspectives on several central issues affecting global education. He provides a profound and comprehensive analysis investigating the relationship among academic mobility in the global age, the major global forces in higher education, and inequality in global education. Academic mobility is considered a hallmark of the global age (Albtach et al. 2010). Global academic systems have been changed and expanded by the forces of globalization. The emergence of global knowledge and global skills are gradually disseminated in the interconnected world. For example, the proficiency of English is considered as one of the important cross-cultural learning skills to evaluate students’ global communicative capacities. English has become the global main language for academic communication tool (Altbach et al. 2010). Without doubt, academic mobility is deeply imbedded in the technology revolution. The impact of technology revolution plays an important role in the field of higher education, such as © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5_6

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online teaching and learning, distance education. Higher education is fundamentally influenced by these global forces. However, global forces trigger lots of tensions on higher education worldwide, such as funding higher education, including the debate as the extent to which education is a “private good” or “public good.” The debate on how to support mass higher education has occurred in many countries. For example, in most East Asian nations, higher education has long been considered a responsibility of the nation and is regarded as a “public good.” In other words, higher education is responsible not only for benefiting people, but also for building national and societal productivity, consistent with national missions and goals. However, in accordance with the concepts of globalization and neoliberalism, the financial pressures have been triggered by massification of higher education during the last two decades. The notion of higher education as a public good is challenged, and most of the countries’ higher education development emphasizes on treating universities as a “private good,” with implications for the allocation of the responsibility for costs. Students and their families need to afford and share the educational financial burden. Thus, both globalization and neoliberalism contribute to the dramatic rise of privatization of public higher education worldwide (Altbach et al. 2010). Albtach et al. (2010) also highlighted the inequality of global education. He characterizes the academic world into two types: centers and peripheries. Some nations have stronger universities or colleges than others in terms of their wealth, political, or cultural factors. The developed countries have a central leading with stronger universities than the developing countries, which have a peripheral role. The tension between the leading role and peripheral role is enlarging the inequality of global higher education systems. In order to eliminate the inequality and imbalance of the world’s higher education systems, developing countries are trying to build world-class universities that can compete with traditional central universities in developed countries. However, many Western scholars suggested that the developing countries should pay more attention to how to meet specific local and regional benefits or interests than fully focusing on promoting their global status (Altbach et al. 2010). Altbach et al. (2010) further noted that academic inequality would continue to enlarge in a variety of ways in the coming decades. In order to overcome the inequality of global education worldwide, universities or colleges are expected to create global teaching and learning approaches to cultivate students’ global knowledge and skills, such as intercultural curriculum, cross-border academic exchange program, and different types of global activities. Overall, Altbach et al. (2010) contributes to identifying different types of global issues in the trend of globalization. He epitomizes global academic world into centers and peripheries and applied them to examine the complex relations among academic mobility and inequality in global education. His research provides comprehensive insight into examining global education for cultivating students’ global competency theoretically and practically. Consistent with the research of Altbach et al. (2010), Anderson-Levitt (2003) offers an anthropological perspective to examine the relations between global schooling and local meanings. She also contributes to apply world cultural theory to investigate the cultural differences and global schooling. Cultural differences among

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national school systems are well examined by many anthropologists and comparative educationalists in recent decades (Anderson-Levitt 2003). World cultural theorists, such as Meyer and Boli, pointed out that schooling concepts and practices are becoming more similar in accordance with the trend of globalization. World cultural theorists insisted that the common global model of schooling as one of the general cultural model components that is spreading around the world. The general cultural model includes organizing and managing government, creating education systems, and building military. According to world cultural theory, the massification of higher education is rooted in the development of globalization worldwide. World cultural theorists argued that the increasing trend of globalization has generated common educational principles, educational policies, and educational practices among different countries with various demographic or cultural characteristics (Anderson-Levitt 2003). For example, school curriculums are becoming more and more similar to others, and official national missions for education are also becoming more alike in terms of advocating global education in recent decades (Anderson-Levitt 2003). From the world cultural theorists’ perspectives, a global model of schooling transforms from diverging to converging process, with a focus on creating a common model of global learning and teaching. In order to provide an in-depth understanding of global schooling and local meanings, Anderson-Levitt (2003) applied several case studies, including Brazil, China, and the USA to scrutinize the issues behind world cultural theory. She used ethnographic methods to examine the specific conditions of different schools. For instance, as she illustrated, local teachers and local actors often transform their official models into their methods. The educational policy is less homogenous at a practical level. The world cultural theorists overlook and underestimate the significance of local power and voluntary adoption (Anderson-Levitt 2003). By this logic, the world cultural theorists neglect the significance of local forces in the globalizing process of education. Thus, Anderson-Levitt (2003) contributes to embracing different viewpoints to integrate various aspects of world culture theory for improving global schooling at both individual and institutional levels. In addition, Anderson-Levitt (2003) also challenges the notion of “isomorphism” from world culture theory. She provided additional case study research to challenge the notion of a uniform and coherent set of educational reforms as advocated by world culture theorists. She also argued that increasing the national control and standardization of curriculum serves the major approaches for world culture theorists to spread global education. Moreover, Anderson-Levitt (2003) highlighted that promoting student-centered global schooling is essential to build global education in the long term. In conclusion, Anderson-Levitt (2003) contributes to building anthropological viewpoints to investigate the relations between global schooling and local meanings. World cultural theory is applied to explore to the relationship between cultural differences and global schooling in different contexts. Different case studies are examined to illustrate specific educational issues behind world cultural theory from the ethnographic methods’ perspective. Compared with the anthropological insights on

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global education from Anderson-Levitt (2003), Gaudelli (2013) emphasizes examining the world-class global education for teaching and learning in global times. Gaudelli (2013) also contributes to providing a comprehensive review of global education. Specifically, Gaudelli (2013) contributes to examining different definitions of global education. He addressed six themes pertaining to identifying global education, including concentrating on teaching and learning, controversy of identifying global education, rethinking the national role in global education, cultural diversity, civic behavioral activities, and empirical studies on defining global education. He argued that the multiplicity of defining global education is problematic in several aspects. Global education is deeply rooted in the totality of human thoughts and behaviors. He collected a variety of definitions of global education to compare the similarities and differences. Along with comprehensive review of different definitions of global education, Gaudelli (2013) suggested that it is impossible to provide an adequate definition of global education, and it is possible to characterize different types of global education within different contexts. Thus, in this sense, Gaudelli (2013) identified the concept of global education as a curriculum for preparing students to live and learn in an interconnected world. For example, in his definition, students are expected to learn the knowledge of human values and international institutions’ policies and activities contextually. In addition, his studies on identifying global education also focus on examining how teachers and students in classrooms interpret the concept of global education from different perspectives. From Gaudelli’s (2013) perspective, identifying the notion of global education is associated with shaping teachers and students’ behaviors in the real world of classrooms. Theoretically, Gaudelli (2013) provides a social constructivism lens to examine teaching and learning for identifying global education. He provided epistemological and ontological hypotheses on identifying global education from a constructivist pedagogical perspective. In his arguments, along with the core concepts of constructivist pedagogy, the term learning refers to self-motivated and directed learning processes, focusing on aesthetic, moral, emotional, physical, and spiritual motivations of the learners. In his proposed global education, knowledge is identified as a dynamic interacted relation between teachers and students (Gaudelli 2013, 2016). Along with the proposed definition of global education, Gaudelli (2016) also examines the concept of global citizenship education from multiple perspectives. The notion of global citizenship education resonates in recent decades. Examining the nature of global citizenship is considered a key point to understand the content of global citizenship education fundamentally (Gaudelli 2013, 2016). Facing lots of tensions of globalization, educators are responsible to teach the next generation to actively respond to the complexity and interdependence of the world effectively. This is the key reason why universities or colleges should advocate the notion of global citizenship education (Gaudelli 2013, 2016). Gaudelli (2016) also suggested that all stakeholders, including governments, universities or colleges, international corporations or organizations, teachers, students, and parents are expected to participate in shaping the discourse on identifying global citizenship education. Theoretically, Gaudelli (2016) applied hermeneutic theory to interpret different documents, materials, and articles for answering the core question of what is global

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citizenship education. Hermeneutic theory is explored to examine different interpretations of global citizenship education. He also used interviews to extend and clarify the core ideas of global citizenship. Gaudelli’s (2013, 2016) efforts mainly focus on examining different definitions of global education, providing a social constructivism lens to analyze teaching and learning for identifying global education and identifying the concept of global citizenship education from multiple perspectives. His research on identifying global education and global citizenship provides meaningful and important implications for future scholars in this field. Hanvey (1982) contributes to examining and defining global perspective from different perspectives. The concept of global perspective is fundamentally rooted in the global education. Formatting global perspective is closely associated with cultivating students’ global capacities in the globalized world. Hanvey (1982) identified global perspective into five dimensions, including perspective consciousness, “State of the Planet” awareness, cross-cultural awareness, knowledge of global dynamics, and awareness of human choices. Hanvey (1982) offered clear definitions and illustrations to expand his ideas of global perspective. For example, the term perspective consciousness refers to the recognition or awareness of people’s views of the world (Hanvey 1982). Hanvey (1982) also contributes to making the distinction between opinions and perspectives for conceptualizing global perspective. The term “State of the Planet” Awareness refers to awareness of prevailing world conditions and developments, including emergent conditions and trends (Hanvey 1982). Hanvey (1982) argued that the media play a negative role in transmitting news around the world with declining values on creating a global perspective. The term cross-cultural awareness refers to awareness of the diversity of concepts and actions to be found in human world (Hanvey 1982). Hanvey (1982) argued that cross-cultural awareness is essential for students to acquire a global perspective through the learning process. The term knowledge of global dynamics focuses on some modest comprehension of important traits and mechanisms of the world, concentrating on theories and conceptions that improve intelligent consciousness of global issues (Hanvey 1982). Hanvey (1982) also suggested that there exist three categories of global learning, including basic principles of change in social systems, growth as a form of change, and global planning (Hanvey 1982). The term awareness of human choices refers to some awareness of the problems of decisions for people, nations, and human beings. Thus, Hanvey (1982) provided five dimensions of global perspective for students to cultivate their global capacities in the interdependent world. Consistent with the study of global perspective of Hanvey (1982), Braskamp (2011) contributes to conceptualizing and measuring cross-cultural perspectives through the development of an instrument for measuring it, specifically, the Global Perspective Inventory (GPI). The GPI measures how students think and view themselves as people with cultural heritage and relate to people from other cultures, backgrounds, and values. Braskamp (2011) proposed three components of global perspectives as measured in the inventory, including the cognitive dimension, interpersonal dimension, and intrapersonal dimensions. He employs the concepts of intercultural maturity and intercultural communication as scales for measuring students’ global perspective. Understanding holistic human development, including thinking,

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feeling, and relating are interrelated facets of human development, is pivotal to cultivate students’ global perspectives. Methodologically, Braskamp (2011) contributed by creating the global perspective assessment (Global Perspective Inventory, GPI). In doing so, Braskamp (2011) provides clear definitions of two cognitive scales: (1) knowing refers to the degree of complexity of one’s view and the importance of cultural context in judging what is important to know and value; (2) knowledge involves the degree of understanding and awareness of various cultures and their impact on our global society and level of proficiency in more than one language. Braskamp’s (2011) primary contribution has been to provide a concrete way to assess global perspectives through the Global Perspective Inventory (GPI). The GPI is based on three components of global perspective: the cognitive dimension, interpersonal dimension, and intrapersonal dimensions. Green and Olson (2003) contributed to preparing students to succeed within the globalization of education. Their studies focused on examining the key issues such as how students could benefit in the process of globalization, why it is important to advocate global learning in the contemporary world, and how to cultivate students’ global knowledge and global skills. Green and Olson (2003) suggested that building the internationalization team is beneficial to cultivate students’ global learning and global skills and that it is fundamental to advocate the internationalization strategic plan for students, faculty, and administrators at different types of educational institutions. Thus, the internationalization team is expected to establish and advance the process of internationalization (Green and Olson). They also suggested that to build an effective team, the campus-based model of an internationalization team is considered an advanced approach to create system or institution-wide initiatives. The researchers specifically, Green and Olson (2003), highlighted the importance of selecting the right team members and chair with the consideration of its legitimacy throughout the educational institutions. An internationalization team should be composed of volunteers, and the team membership should be created to keep a broad discourse by inviting different individuals from all parts of the campuses to engage in the conversation on the internationalization of education. Furthermore, effective tools promote a successful internationalization team, examining the key issues such as why we need internationalization, how does the internationalization process meet specific institutional missions or goals, and what might motivate different stakeholders on the internationalization team. According to Green and Olson, tools for advancing internationalization team include clarifying language and philosophy, determining the institutions’ vision of internationalization, offering support for the internationalization team, and building a communication and engagement plan. Green and Olson’s (2003) efforts also contributed to approaching internationalization through global learning outcomes and assessments. It is widely accepted by scholars that creating a strategic model for comprehensive internationalization is crucial to advance the internationalization of higher education in the contemporary world. Global learning outcome assessments bring more coherence and a more accurate evaluation for creating cross-cultural curriculum and intercultural programs. Thus, Green and Olson’s research follows “a continuous four-step cycle” learning assessment: establishing learning goals, providing learning opportunities, assessing

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student learning outcomes, and using the results. The global learning assessment could enable educators to investigate how reasonable their curriculum is to cultivate students’ cross-cultural experience, knowledge, skills, and values. For each educational institution, applying the assessment is beneficial to guide their internationalization strategies at different levels. The learning assessment would serve as an essential guide to address specific questions and to prioritize the competing issues that arise when implementing internationalization strategies at different educational institutions. Mapping the curriculum is the key to build a global learning assessment because the outcome of global education is associated with curriculum reform. For pedagogical improvement, educational institutions should prepare to incorporate the concept of global learning into their courses. Green and Olson (2003) created the internationalization review framework and process, which entails an articulated commitment, the environment of internationalization, strategy, structures, policies and practices, the curriculum and co-curriculum, a study and an internship abroad, engagement with institutions in other countries, campus culture, synergy and connections among discrete activities, conclusions and recommendations, and an internationalization plan (p. 48). The key purpose of building an internationalization review is to map the whole content of internationaloriented programs. The quality of conducting an internationalization review is closely related to the institution’s size, complexity, time frame, and available educational resources (p. 49). Along with a review, developing an internationalization plan is also beneficial to guide campus action. It could offer the campus holistic viewpoints, strategic priorities, and concrete behaviors for assessing new initiatives and making key decisions on distributing educational resources. The contributions of Green and Olson (2003) prepare students to succeed within the globalization of education and that creating an internationalization team is beneficial to cultivate students’ global learning and skills. Furthermore, a strategic model for comprehensive internationalization is crucial to advance the internationalization of higher education, and the global learning would enable educators to shape their curriculums. Finally, building an internationalization review works to map the contents of the internationaloriented programs. In accordance with the literature on global education above, the next section examines China’s efforts and concerns about advocating global learning and global competence, contextually.

6.2 Chinese Global Education Development: Efforts and Concerns This section focuses on expanding the literature related to China’s educational policy and practices to cultivate students’ global learning and competency. The efforts and concerns on Chinese global education are examined through the tensions between globalization and localization, the ambiguity of defining global education, and advocating global learning assessment. As the introductory chapter illustrated, since the

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1990 s, to promote the globalization of Chinese higher education, the Chinese central government launched a variety of educational policies to boost the development of globalization in its higher education system. For example, to enhance the global reputation of Chinese universities and colleges, Shanghai Jiao Tong University created the Academic Rankings of World Universities (ARWU). In addition, sending Chinese students and faculty abroad for international study and research is considered as another approach to advance Chinese higher education. Project 211, Project 985, and the recently initiated double world-class universities also contribute to enhance the globalization of Chinese higher education with a focus on providing a large amount of national financial support to some selected universities or institutions. Since 2011, to attract more world-renowned faculty into the higher education system, the Changjiang Scholar program, which consists of the Thousand Youth Talents Plan and the Recruitment Program of Global Experts, aims to strengthen Chinese academic institutions to improve the quality of teaching personnel and train a large number of leading international scholars for Chinese higher education improvement at a national level. However, the Chinese central government has encountered many challenges in shaping global education in contemporary education system. Tension between globalization and localization is widening the inequality and imbalance of educational resource allocations in the higher education system (Altbach et al. 2010). A small proportion of Chinese universities or colleges (such as Project 211, Project 985, and double world-class universities) received sufficient educational financial support for the implementation of global education. The majority of Chinese universities or colleges (such as private universities or colleges and province-sponsored institutions) have no access to the development of global education. The tension between nation and state is considered the core dilemmas to construct global education (Altbach et al. 2010; Anderson-Levitt (2003); Gaudelli 2013, 2016). Because of the inequality of educational resource allocation, rural origin students are less likely to be able to cultivate global competence rather than urban origin students. The massive urban-rural gap is enlarging the advocated biased-based global education policies. Thus, addressing the dilemma between local and global is fundamental to cultivate student-central global competency within the current Chinese context. The ambiguity of defining global education is problematic for the Chinese central government to launch global educational policies in the contemporary Chinese higher education system. As stated above, identifying the notion of global education as a starting point is closely associated with shaping teachers’ and students’ behavior in the real world of the classroom (Gaudelli 2013, 2016). The government has not provided a clear definition of global education within the Chinese context. Defining global education within the Chinese context, cultivating students’ global learning and global competency can create a global education curriculum, how to assess students’ global learning outcomes, the implication of a global learning assessment on the current Chinese higher education system are the issues that guide government to make a clear and accurate definition of global education within the Chinese context. The Chinese central government has failed to build a comprehensive and effective student-centered global education strategic plan, such as a national global learning

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assessment system. Advocating the internationalization strategic plan for faculty, students, and administrators is beneficial to advance the improvement of globalization of higher education at the institutional level (Green and Olson 2003; Anderson-Levitt 2003; Gaudelli 2013, 2016). The global learning assessment could provide an effective approach to enable educators to investigate whether or not their curriculum is reasonable to cultivate students’ cross-cultural experience, knowledge, skills, and values (Green and Olson 2003). Thus, conducting global learning outcomes assessments is pivotal to implement student-centered global education strategic plan (Hanvey 1982; Green and Olson 2003). To cultivate student-centered global competency for Chinese undergraduate students, addressing the tension between globalization and localization, eliminating the ambiguity in the meaning of global education, and advocating global learning assessment are fundamental steps for the government and for Chinese higher education institutions to implement.

6.3 The Summary on Global Competency at Individual Level This section summarizes the theoretical and empirical research pertaining to how college learning contributes to the development of students’ global competence. In addition, the impact of the students’ background also plays a pivotal role to cultivate their global competency, contextually. Altbach et al. (2010) provided a reasonable analysis and insightful visions on some central issues affecting global education, worldwide. Investigating the relationship among academic mobility and the global age, the global force in higher education and inequality in global education are considered as core issues for conceptualizing global competency. Anderson-Levitt (2003) offered an anthropological perspective to examine the relations between global learning and local meanings. Applying world cultural theory to investigate the cultural differences and global learning provides a broader horizon to examine the internal or external conflicts between local and global education. In a college education, the major, the class level, and the learning outcomes, for instance, contribute to identifying individuals’ global learning performance in the student-centered learning process (Hanvey 1982; Green and Olson 2003). Specifically, Gaudelli (2013) advocated examining the student-centered global education for teaching and learning in global times. Hanvey (1982) argued that cultivating crosscultural awareness is deeply rooted in college learning, and it is essential for students to acquire a global perspective in learning process. To assess students’ global learning outcomes, Braskamp (2011) offered the concept of cross-cultural perspectives and created the Global Perspective Inventory (GPI), which focuses on measuring how students think, how they view themselves with a cultural heritage, and how they relate to people with different values and who come from other cultures and backgrounds. For creating cross-cultural curriculums and intercultural programs and preparing students to succeed within the globalization of education, Green and Olson (2003) advocated conducting global learning assessment. Contextually, the students’

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background characteristics such as geographic origin or parental education, is also closely associated with cultivating Chinese students’ global competency. Their background shapes their cross-cultural capabilities, attitudes, and motivations that they bring into their college experience (Wu & Treiman 2004; Wu 2001). Wu (2010) found that students with rural-hukou status became more disadvantaged as compared to their urban counterparts. By this logic, rural students are less likely to get access to global education and intercultural experience than urban students. Therefore, it is vital to narrow the rural and urban gap in order to cultivate student-centered global competency for all Chinese students.

6.4 Debates on Conceptual Definitions of Global Competence In this study, in a learning-competence mode, the idea of global competency is proposed as a cross-cultural capacity in the multidimensional learning domain for valuing cultural diversity. The literature on defining global competency has generally been approached from four perspectives: an adaption-change mode, an inputoutput mode, a willingness-tolerance mode, and a learning-competence mode. In this sense, all these modes contribute to identifying global competency from multiple perspectives. In an adaption-change mode, Hunter (2004) viewed the idea of global competency as an interaction between “student’s adaptation” and “cross-cultural environmental change.” Student’s adaptation is a student’s tendency to be a global learner through performing different specific skills directed toward engaging in a crosscultural environment. A cross-cultural environmental change is the external environmental change in terms of cultural and value differences cross campus life. In this sense, Hunter (2004) identified the idea of global competence as having an open mind while actively seeking to understand cultural norms and expectations of others, leveraging the gained cross-cultural knowledge (student’s adaptation) to interact and communicate, and work effectively in a globally interdependent cultural environment (cross-cultural environmental change). Global competence as one element of intercultural competence is defined as one’s capability to accurately understand and adapt behavior to cultural difference and commonality in response to a changing global environment (IDI 2009). In other words, global competence refers to an intercultural capacity focusing on students’ adaptation to cultural differences in values, beliefs, and behaviors in response to a global environmental change. The input-output mode of identifying global competency is represented in the study of National Education Association (Nussbaum 2009). The idea of global competency focuses on integrating “input attributes” into “output features”: Input attributes include cross-cultural knowledge and cognition of international issues; output feature focuses on proficiency in foreign languages and communicative skills. In other words, the idea of global competence concentrates on the acquisition of knowledge and understanding of international issues (input attributes) and then gaining ability to learn and work with people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds,

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proficiency in a foreign language, and skills to function productively (output features) in an interdependent world community (output features). Nussbaum (2009) further identified key factors, including international awareness, appreciation of cultural diversity, proficiency in foreign languages, and competitive skills as “input and output components” of being globally competent. Marginson (2011) also applied this input-output mode of identifying global competency to identify the idea of global competency as abilities to be fluent in foreign language, fluency with Internet and communication technology, a well-versed knowledge of geography, and some knowledge of the political and cultural history of different countries or regions outside of Western Europe. The willingness-tolerance mode of defining global competency is epitomized by the studies of Reimers (2009) and Green and Olson (2003). Their studies focus on recognizing the importance of improving global competence and the willingness to hear and exhibit tolerance toward enhancing global intercultural understanding and mitigating cross-cultural isolation to fulfill global education efforts. This perspective on global competency requires that students are willing to cultivate multicultural insights and attitude toward international cultures by recognizing the advantages of acquiring multicultural knowledge. In this sense, Reimers (2009) further highlighted the significance of an individual’s willingness to learn different cultures without confusion and uncertainty of communicating with other cultures. In addition, Green and Olson (2003) also pointed out that it is important to cultivate openness to intercultural opportunities and build tolerance to cultural difference and ambiguity in a global context. The core concept of global competence is the willingness to understand and act on issues of global significance (Mansilla and Jackson 2011a, b). Thus, both willingness to learning cross-cultural knowledge and tolerance to cultural diversity are essential to guarantee study and career success in the context of globalization of higher education. In a globally integrated labor market, it is worth to note that striving to help students sustain their willingness to learn cross-cultural knowledge and tolerance to cultural diversity can promote their successful engagement in cross-cultural learning and address different kinds of issues in response to different cross-cultural learning tasks. The current study adopts a learning-competence perspective of global competency. The term global competency was chosen to characterize cross-cultural capacity in a multidimensional learning domain. The idea of competency refers to a quality that needs to be developed by learners conceptually and physically. The learningcompetence perspective is proposed as a conceptual model for the in-depth understanding of rationales of the relationship between global competence and global learning. Specifically, a few researchers focus on investigating the relations between global learning and global competency. For example, Li (2013) pointed out that global competence is considered as the teachable attribute that can be effectively and completely enhanced by providing students with well-integrated global learning process (Li 2013). Hanvey (1982) identified five dimensions of cultivating global perspective, including perspective consciousness, “State of the Planet” awareness, cross-cultural awareness, knowledge of global dynamics, and awareness of human

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choices. Olson et al. (2005) also highlighted that global learning and global competency are interdependent for understanding pedagogical complexities. Torres (2015) argued that global competency involves multidimensional learning bringing an individual’s knowledge, understanding, skills, and attitudes and values together through a learning process. In cognitive science, the idea of competency requires a clear mental model or schema . In this sense, the proposed conceptual definition of global competency provides an additional lens to examine the definition of global competency from a learning-competency perspective, which focuses not only on what learning competency entails, but also on how it is learned.

References Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2010). Tracking a global academic revolution. Change The Magazine of Higher Learning, 42(2), 30–39. Anderson-Levitt, K. M. (2003). A World Culture of Schooling? In K. M. Anderson-Levitt (Ed.), Local meanings, global schooling (pp. 1–26). New York: Palgrave Macmillan US. Gaudelli, W. (2013). Critically theorizing the global. Theory and Research in Social Education, 41(4), 552–565. Gaudelli, W. (2016). Global citizenship education: Everyday transcendence. Routledge: Routledge Press. Green, M. F., & Olson, C. (2003). Internationalizing the campus: A user’s guide. Washington, DC: ACE (American Council on Education). Retrieved on 19 Dec 2009. Hanvey, R. B. (1982). An attainable global perspective. Theory into Practice, 21(3), 162–167. Hunter, W. D. (2004). Knowledge, skills, attitudes, and experiences necessary to become globally competent. Lehigh University. Li, Y. (2013). Cultivating student global competence: A pilot experimental study. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 11(1), 125–143. Mansilla, V. B., & Jackson, A. (2011a). Educating for global competence: Preparing our youth to engage the world. Council of Chief State School Officers’ EdSteps Initiative & Asia Society Partnership for Global Learning. Mansilla, V. B., & Jackson, A. (2011b). Educating for global competency. New York: Asia Society. Retrieved from http://asiasociety.org/files/book-globalcompetence.pdf. Marginson, S. (2011). Global perspectives and strategies of Asia-Pacific research universities. Paths to a World-Class University, 3–27. Nussbaum, M. C. (2009). Education for profit, education for freedom. Liberal Education, 95(3), 6–13. Olson, C. L., Green, M. F., & Hill, B. A. (2005). Building a strategic framework for comprehensive internationalization (Vol. 1). American Council on Education. Reimers, F. M. (2009). Leading for global competency. Educational Leadership, 67(1). Torres, C. A. (2015). Global citizenship and global universities. The age of global interdependence and cosmopolitanism. European Journal of Education, 50(3), 262–279. Wu, X. (2001). Institutional structures and social mobility in China, 1949–1996 (p. 216). Los Angeles: University of California. Wu, X. (2010). Economic transition, school expansion and educational inequality in China, 1990– 2000. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 28(1), 91–108. Wu, X., & Treiman, D. J. (2004). The household registration system and social stratification in China: 1955–1996. Demography, 41(2), 363–384.

Part III

Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Model

Chapter 7

Theoretical Model of Constructing Comprehensive Global Competency for Individual

This chapter involves exploring the theoretical model of constructing comprehensive global competence at the individual level. It focuses on introducing and analyzing the theoretical framework of Dimensions of Learning Model (Marzano 1992), including the definition, content, implications, and justification of the model. Specifically, the Dimensions of Learning Model (Marzano 1992) is a comprehensive researchoriented framework on learning cognition and learning process. It focuses on improving the quality of teaching and learning in any content area. The most important reason why I apply this model is that the Dimensions of Learning Model provides a practical approach to create curriculum and instruction for cultivating global competency. In this sense, the definition of the dimensions, content, and implications is examined to investigate and measure a global multidimensional learning domain for valuing cultural diversity. Thus, this chapter proposes a framework for conceptualizing and measuring comprehensive global competence at the individual level. The idea of constructing comprehensive global competence at the individual level is contextualized by the globalization of contemporary higher education systems worldwide. The idea of global competence is initially identified and elaborated through both conceptual and methodological perspectives. The conceptual definition of global competency is synthesized as a cross-cultural capacity in the multidimensional learning domain for valuing cultural diversity. Along with this conceptual definition of global competency, the methodological dimensions of global competency are characterized as four cross-cultural learning dimensions, including global attitude and perceptions; acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge; global practical skills; and habits of global mind for valuing cultural diversity. These dimensions are derived from the literature of competency, dimensions of global competency, and Marzano’s (1992) Dimensions of Learning Model. This chapter also provides both theoretical and practical implications for advocating global competency for Chinese undergraduate students in the context of global higher education systems worldwide.

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7.1 Definitions of Dimensions of Learning Model: A Theoretical Framework Dimensions of Learning Model is identified as a comprehensive model that focuses on the learning process in relation to planning curriculum, instruction, and assessment (Marzano 1992). Dimensions of Learning Model is associated with dimensions of thinking for students in a complex learning environment. Dimension 1—Attitudes and Perception. Most educators recognize that attitudes and perceptions impact on students’ learning performance. As a learner, when our attitudes and perceptions are positive, our learning performance is improved; when they are negative, our learning performance may be decreased. In this sense, keeping and developing positive attitudes and perceptions of learning can offer positive learning outcomes. Therefore, helping students develop and keep positive attitudes and perceptions toward the learning process is important to improve their learning outcomes (Marzano 1992). From a pedagogical perspective, Marzano (1992) suggested establishing an environment that can help students feel accepted by teachers and peers and experience a sense of comfort and order: We can talk informally with students about their interests; be aware of important events in students’ lives, such as some extracurricular activities; provide opportunities for students to get to know each other on campus; and help students promote their abilities to apply their own strategies to obtain acceptance and support from their peers and advisors. In order to promote students’ positive attitude and perceptions in a learning process, offering students a sense of “comfort” influences their capacity to learn. The idea of “Comfort” refers to “physical comfort, identifiable routines and guidelines for acceptable behavior, and psychological and emotional safety (Marzano 1992, p. 23).” It is important for individuals to recognize their attitudes and perceptions that significantly impact on what quality of their learning process and learning performance. Dimension 2—Acquire and Integrate Knowledge. Marzano (1992) highlighted that analyzing the type of knowledge is the first step for acquiring and integrating knowledge. It is widely accepted that there are two major categories of knowledge: declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Declarative knowledge focuses on helping learners know or understand some kinds of information; the procedural knowledge requires the learners to perform a process or demonstrate a skill or take some kinds of action. Declarative knowledge is organized into several types, including descriptions of vocabulary terms, facts, characteristics of specific living and non-living things, and characteristics of a specific event; times sequences, process, cause-effect relationships, episodes, generalizations/principles, and concepts; the procedural knowledge is always identified as skills or processes: Skills refer to a specific unit of procedure performed in a strict order without much conscious thought; a process involves procedures that are performed with more conscious thought and consideration. Skills are always embedded in the process (Marzano 1992). Understanding declarative and procedural knowledge can directly impact on how to identify knowledge from different units that help in selecting appropriate learning strategies. Constructing meaning, organizing, and storing processes are considered as three

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major steps to learn declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge in a learning process. Dimension 3—Extend and Refine Knowledge. This is associated with seven complex reasoning processes, including comparing, classifying, abstracting, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, constructing support, and analyzing errors (Marzano 1992, pp. 115–210).” These eight reasoning processes focus on helping students identify and articulate similarities and differences among categories; group things into definable categories on the basis of their attributes; identify and articulate the underlying theme of information; infer unknown principles from information or observations; apply principles to infer unstated conclusions about specific information or situations; create systems of support for assertions; identify errors in thinking; find multiple perspectives on an issue; and examining the reasons or logic behind each (Marzano 1992). From a pedagogical perspective, Marzano (1992) suggested that helping students understand the process of comparing and helping them focus on critical steps and difficult steps of reasoning process are important for individuals to extend and refine knowledge within a learning process. Dimension 4—Use Knowledge Meaningfully. The goal of learning knowledge is to be able to apply knowledge meaningfully. This dimension involves several steps: decision-making, invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, and system analysis (Marzano 1992, pp. 191–230). These steps focus on creating criteria to select from among similar alternatives; coping with multiple constraints or difficulties that are in the way of pursuing goals; offering specific processes that meet requirements; creating and testing illustrations of observed phenomena; defining and dealing with problems about which there are confusions or contradictions; and analyzing the parts of a unit and the manner in which they connect (Marzano 1992). Specifically, problem solving includes structured problems that focusing on clear aims and different resources available to obtain the goal as well as unstructured problems, in academic or real life, needing clarification of the goal, the constraints or limiting conditions, and the resources available. In other words, focusing on dealing with structured problems and unstructured problems can offer students effective learning outcomes. The idea of investigation is considered as an effective process for identifying and dealing with problems and contradictions (Marzano 1992, p. 235). Based on the elaboration of the dimension of using knowledge meaningful, it provides practical skills and capacities for individuals to address different kinds of problems and tasks in reality. Therefore, in conceptualized dimensions of global competency, the dimension of using knowledge meaningful is characterized as global practical skills. Dimension 5—Habits of Mind. The dimension of habits of mind is identified as productive mental habits along with attitudes and perceptions in a learning process. Promoting such habits of mind can improve students’ learning performance (Marzano 1992). It includes three major categories: critical thinking, creative thinking, and self-regulated thinking. Critical thinking involves being accurate and seeking accuracy; being clear and seeking clarity; keeping an open mind; restraining impulsivity; taking a position when the situation warrants it; responding appropriately to someone’s feelings. Creative thinking refers to persevering; pushing the limits of

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your knowledge and abilities; generating, trusting, and maintaining your own standards of evaluation; generating new ways of viewing a situation that are outside the boundaries of standard conventions. Self-regulated thinking focuses on monitoring your own thought; planning appropriately; identifying and using necessary resources; responding appropriately to feedback; and evaluating the effectiveness of your behavior (Marzano 1992, p. 262) (see Figs. 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5).

Global knowledge

Global attitudes

Global skills

Global habits of mind

Fig. 7.1 Overall conceptual four dimensions of global competence

Fig. 7.2 Theoretical model related to constructing global competence

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Fig. 7.3 Structural relations related to constructing global competence

Fig. 7.4 Intercorrelated relations related to constructing global competence

7.2 Implications of Applying Dimensions of Learning Model as the Theoretical Model The Dimensions of Learning Model (Marzano 1992) is an extension of Marzano’s earlier Dimensions of Thinking model. The Dimensions of Learning Model (Marzano 1992) contributes to transforming different learning theories and learning models into a practical framework for educators or teachers to promote the quality of teaching and learning in different learning environments. The model also highlights that learning

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Fig. 7.5 Sub-dimensions related to constructing global competence

involves a complex unit of integrated processes that includes different types of thinking or learning. In this sense, learning assessment should concentrate on students applying knowledge as a complex reasoning process. In addition, the dimensions are also used in developing guidebooks to assist educators in understanding how to construct curriculum, instruction, and assessment for learning performance. This study applies Marzano (1992)’s Dimensions of Learning Model, focusing on learning cognition and learning process, as a framework for defining and measuring global competency. In doing so, I combine Acquire and Integrate Knowledge (Dimension 2) and Extend and Refine Knowledge (Dimension 3) into one integrated dimension entitled acquired, integrated, extend, and refine global knowledge. In addition, I recast Use Knowledge Meaningfully (Dimension 4) as global practical skills to conceptualize the dimensions of global competency. The most important reason why I apply Marzano (1992)’s Dimensions of Learning Model to conceptualize global competency is that this model focuses on learning cognition and learning process consistent with my original idea of taking the learning-competency perspective for conceptualizing and measuring global competency. One major contribution of this study related to conceptualizing and measuring global competency is to provide a learning-competency mode for reconstructing and reshaping the theoretical and methodological framework of global competency. In this sense, Marzano (1992)’s Dimensions of Learning Model offers a fresh insight into conceptualizing the idea of global competency. The conceptual framework of global competency is synthesized as a cross-cultural capacity in a multidimensional learning domain, encompassing four dimensions: global attitude and perceptions; acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge; global practical skills;

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and habits of global mind for valuing cultural diversity. This conceptual definition of global competency involves cross-cultural learning process and learning performance in order to promote the quality of cultivating global competency.

Reference Marzano, R. J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with dimensions of learning. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1250 North Pitt Street, Alexandria, VA 22314 (ASCD stock no. 611-92107, $15.95, plus $2.50 handling).

Chapter 8

Methodological Model of Constructing Comprehensive Global Competence for Individual

This chapter involves investigating the methodological model of constructing comprehensive global competence at the individual level. Along with the previous chapter focusing on conceptualizing theoretical model, it concentrates on exploring critiquing current assessments of global competence and proposing a set of dimensions corresponding to the conceptual framework for assessing global competency. Along with the critiques on current assessments and proposed methodological dimensions of global competency, the similarities and differences of dimensions of global competency, structural relations among global competency, and implications regarding the proposed measure are examined to clarify, enrich, and shape this methodological approach to measuring global competency.

8.1 Critiques on Current Assessments of Global Competence for Individual There have been several studies on the assessments of global competence, some of which focus on measuring dimensions of global competence. Unfortunately, some assessments of global competency do not clearly distinguish between global skills and foreign language skills. The approaches to assessing global competency can be characterized as having a dimensions scope, a foreign language proficiency scope, a cultural difference scope, and a perspective scope. Hunter et al. (2006)’s assessment epitomizes the dimension scope, placing more emphasis on measuring dimensions of global competency. He created the Global Competence Aptitude Assessment (GCAA) focusing on the extensive international investigation of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which are the dimensions of global competency. He based his formulation on surveys of internationally renowned experts in aspects related to global competence. Hunter’s assessment served as a good example to measure dimensions of global competency. Hunter et al. (2006) proposed © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5_8

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the dimensions of global competency that include global knowledge, skills, and attitudes. However, Hunter’s GCAA assessment focuses on measuring employers from cross-national business companies and associations without considering other population groups, such as students and faculty. Torres (2015) also employed dimensions of global competence in the 2018 PISA assessment of global competence. This assessment focuses on valuing human dignity and cultural diversity, including global skills; global knowledge as the assessment of the cognitive components; and global attitudes as self-reported in the PISA student questionnaire. There are three notable limitations to Hunter’s assessment. First, Hunter et al. (2006) proposed three dimensions of global competency without clearly illustrating the internal structural relations among these three dimensions, including global knowledge, global skills, and global attitude. Second, Hunter et al. (2006) identified the content of global knowledge that including political, economic, cultural, and geographic information of foreign countries or regions. He did not pay attention to articulate and analyze what kinds of global knowledge and how to get access to these from the knowledge classification perspective. The ambiguity of defining and clarifying the definition of global knowledge is considered as one major limitation of conceptualizing global competency. Third, from a comparative and international perspective, Hunter et al. (2006) fails to bring international scope into conceptualizing global competency. Because the questions form Global Competence Aptitude Assessment (GCAA) are mainly based on the US context without considering the international cases. Therefore, it is not reasonable to directly apply Hunter et al. (2006)’s Global Competence Aptitude Assessment (GCAA) for other regions. From a foreign language proficiency scope perspective, several associations have concentrated on measuring students’ foreign language proficiency as an assessment of global competency. The American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language (ACTEL) test of oral proficiency focuses on guidelines for proficiency in speaking, writing, and listening. The Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) also pointed out that a foreign language proficiency test aims to improve foreign language skills, especially as it pertains to identifying global competency. ACTEL proposed practical foreign language proficiency test for students as a positive example of measuring global competency; the foreign language proficiency test could not measure all dimensions and contents of global competency as one of components of global skills as mentioned previously. Critically speaking, the key critical point related to foreign language proficiency test is the misunderstanding of the distinction between foreign language capacity and cross-cultural capacity: foreign language proficiency and foreign language ability are considered as one component of constructing cross-cultural capacity. The cross-cultural capacity encompasses a set of components, including global knowledge, global practical skills, and global attitudes or perceptions. If a student can speak one foreign language and fluently communicate with individuals who speak that language, he or she cannot be identified as fully globally capable to learn and work with students from diverse cultural background. Therefore, testing students’ foreign language proficiency is at best considered as one component of assessing global competency.

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From a culture difference scope perspective, Hendrickson and White (1964)’s study focuses on examining cultural difference by applying the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI): it is the cross-cultural assessment of intercultural competence that is applied by individuals and organizations to measure intercultural abilities to obtain both international and domestic diversity and inclusion outcomes focused on individual orientations toward cultural difference. It was designed for international and domestic workplace contexts for the leaders and staff in cross-cultural organizations and instructions. The IDI questionnaire contains relevant questions that ask respondents to describe personal cross-cultural experiences in terms of their cross-cultural goals, the barriers they encounter with cultural differences, critical (intercultural) situations they face with the cultural differences, and methods they use to investigate the cultural differences. IDI is considered as a cross-culturally valid and reliable assessment of culture difference and it provides a good example of analyzing cross-cultural barriers that individuals encounter and identifies intercultural abilities. I offer three points of critiques on Hendrickson and White (1964)’s Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI): First, IDI does not provide comprehensive assessments of global competency without the clear distinction between intercultural development and intercultural capacity. Specifically, IDI focuses on examining the intercultural development steps from denial, polarization, minimization, and acceptance to adaptation. However, it does not clarify the difference and connection between intercultural development and intercultural capacity; Second, with Hendrickson and White (1964)’s Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI), it is confusing as how can we promote intercultural capacity through intercultural development stages. Hendrickson and White (1964) does not provide an accessible and clear approach as to how an individual can gain intercultural capacity by assessing personal intercultural development. Third, from an international perspective, Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) does not have comprehensive translation versions considering the world’s population diversity. From a perspective, Braskamp’s (2011)’s measure focuses on testing crosscultural perspectives using Global Perspective Inventory (GPI). The GPI focuses on measuring how students think, view themselves as people with cultural heritage, and relate to people from other cultures, backgrounds and values. Three components of global perspective inventory include the cognitive dimension, interpersonal dimension, and intrapersonal dimensions. Braskamp (2011) suggests that intercultural maturity and intercultural communication are beneficial to improve students’ global perspective and he also argues that understanding holistic human development including thinking, feeling, and relating are interrelated facets of human development is important to improve global perspectives in the global context (Hendrickson and White 1964). The cross-cultural insight is regarded as one main approach to deepen students’ global perspectives and competences. Braskamp’s (2011) Global Perspective Inventory (GPI) can be critiqued from several perspectives. First, Braskamp (2011) does not clarify the structural relations among different scales that he proposed. Specifically, in the cognitive domain, Braskamp (2011) identifies two cognitive scales: (1) knowing refers to the degree

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of complexity of one’s view and the importance of cultural context in judging what is important to know and value; (2) knowledge involves the degree of understanding and awareness of various cultures and their impact on our global society and level of proficiency in more than one language. However, Braskamp (2011) fails to clarify and illustrate the internal relationship between knowing and knowledge, identity and affect, social responsibility, and social interactions. Second, Braskamp (2011) focuses on identifying global perspective without discussing the relationship between global perspective and global competency. Does a person having a high degree of global perspective means that she or he is globally capable? What is the correlation between global perspective and global competency? Theses questions and concerns are associated with clarifying the relations between global perspective and global competency.

8.2 Proposed Methodological Dimensions of Global Competence To measure global competency, I propose using an adaption of Marzano’s (1992) Dimensions of Learning model previously. For the current study, global competency is characterized according to four dimensions: global attitudes and perceptions (Dimension 1); Acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge (Dimension 2); involves in reasoning processes that global practical skills (Dimension 3); and habits of global mind (Dimension 4). The purpose of the dimensional model is to subsequently support organizing, describing, and developing learning strategies that engage students in the types of thinking involved in meaningful learning. It will also provide ways to integrate the instructional strategies by showing how they are connected and where the overlaps occur (Marzano 1992). This learningcentered framework serves as instructional planning tool that translates the research on global cognition and global learning into practical intercultural strategies. Dimension 1: Global Attitude and Perceptions: positive or negative cognition or attitudes toward global issues or problems in a global context.

Braskamp (2011) examined the components and strategies of a global perspective. Braskamp (2011) identified cross-cultural perspective as how students think, view themselves as people with cultural heritage, and relate to others from other cultures, backgrounds, and values. He identified three specific components: cognitive, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. The cognitive domain refers to knowledge content and has three associated scales to assess the degree of complexity of an individual’s opinion about the importance of cultural context and the degree of awareness of different cultures impacting on the global society. The intrapersonal domain includes identity and affect, including the level of awareness as part of an individual identity, the degree of acceptance of the ethnic, racial, and the gender dimensions of personal identity, and the level of respect for and acceptance of cultural perspective. The interpersonal

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domain refers to social responsibility and social interactions focusing on the level of interdependence and social concern and the degree of interdependence. Braskamp (2011) identified strategies to improve an individual’s cross-cultural perspective. He suggested that intercultural communications are beneficial to improve students’ global perspective and argued that understanding holistic human development including thinking, feeling, and relating and interrelated facets of human development is important to improve global perspective in the global context (Hendrickson and White 1964). The degree of global involvement in a number of curriculum activities and the perceptions of the campus community are essential to enhance the global perspective for students. Dimension 2: Acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge: is comprised of declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge (acquired and integrated global knowledge) gained through comparing, classifying and abstracting global learning process (extended global knowledge) through reasoning processes of inductive, deductive, constructing support, analyzing errors, and perspective (refined global knowledge).

Many researchers have emphasized the content and significance of global knowledge. However, there have not been sufficient attempt to classify, abstract, and refine what kinds of global knowledge are proposed or how an individual obtains global knowledge through learning processes. The literature related to global knowledge was summarized according to two categories: a content focus and a significance focus: From a content focus, Hunter et al. (2006) characterized global knowledge as acquiring cross-cultural knowledge including political, economic, cultural, and geographic information about foreign countries or regions. In order to absorb global knowledge, Mansilla and Jackson (2011) suggests that global knowledge should be viewed comprehensively, including such things as world history, geography, and other global topics such as health, climate, and the economics of globalization, in order to acquire various capacities to think and react critically and creatively about the complexity of global issues and challenges. Li (2013) also suggested that global knowledge involves knowledge of one’s own culture and about other cultures and global issues, processes, trends, and systems; from a significance focus, Reimers (2009) highlighted the significance of global knowledge. He argued that global knowledge could be sufficiently in-depth to understand the complexity of global environments. He further pointed out that the importance of cross-cultural knowledge serving as one significant step to develop cultural empathy and identity. Rollins and Thomas (1979) pointed out that the importance for policymakers to master multidisciplinary global knowledge crucial to be competitive with nations in a global context. The acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge dimension focuses on dealing with global challenges and opportunities in the trend of globalization and multiculturalism. Most studies emphasized measuring types of global knowledge without classifying, comparing, and contrasting different types of global knowledge in a learning process. Therefore, in this study, Dimension 2 involves distinguishing declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge, through compar-

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ing, classifying and abstracting learning processes (extended global knowledge) through reasoning processes of inductive, deductive, constructing support, analyzing errors, and perspective (refined global knowledge). In other words, global competency requires cross-cultural knowledge through acquiring, integrating, extending, and refining learning processes. The dimension of acquired, integrated, extended, and refined global knowledge aims to cultivate the capacity to understand the interconnection among global issues, trends, and systems throughout the world. In this sense, students are expected to acquire, integrate, extend and refine cross-cultural knowledge and information in order to develop an understanding of others’ perspective. Dimensions 3: Global Practical Skills: include decision-making, problem solving, invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, and system analysis for examining and understanding global issues or problems in an interdependent global context.

Within the literature on the global skills, many researchers concentrate on examining the content and function of global skills. The literature includes both a descriptive and functional focus. Descriptively, Reimers (2009) suggested that the dimension of global skills refers to intercultural communication, such as foreign language skills. Li (2013) argued that global skill refers to demonstrating a series of skills that are is significant to improve global competence in a global environment. Kot (2011) also suggested that important skills include those are closely associated with gathering fresh information and problem solving. Bok (2009) more clearly illustrated and described global knowledge. Specifically, he summarized global skills as having three sub-dimensions: (1) the ability to acquire, analyze, and evaluate information and use cultural references to think critically and solve practical learning problems; (2) the skills to listen, observe, and relate, so that one can communicate and connect with people from other cultural backgrounds; and (3) the capacity to use acquired knowledge to extend one’s access to learn the unknown. Several researchers focus on examining positive functions of global skills: Reimers (2009) insisted that global skills help students understand the flat world in which they live, integrate across disciplinary domains to comprehend global affairs and events, and create possibilities to address them. He also noted that involved attitudinal and ethical dispositions make it possible to interact respectfully and productively with others from diverse geographies (Reimers 2009). Many internationalists regarded intercultural communication skills as global skills. They also highlight that excellent intercultural communication skills in learning in cross-cultural settings are essential to improve global competency. The dimension of global practical skills involves the capacity for conducting a complex and well-organized cognitive or behavioral skill in order to be engaged in a cross-cultural environment. In other words, global practical skills include numerous practical skills, aimed at having an ability to communicate in more than one language; interact effectively and appropriately with students from different cultural backgrounds; comprehensively understand others’ ideas, beliefs, and feelings; viewing the world from a cross-cultural perspective; adjusting feelings or behaviors to adapt to a global context and diverse situations; analyzing and thinking critically in a interdependent world.

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Dimension 4: Global Habits of Mind: refers to critical thinking habits of minds and creative thinking habits for solving intercultural issues or problems in an interdependent world.

Marzano (1992) argued that critical thinking and creative thinking habits of minds are beneficial to deal with complex issues or problems in a complicated learning process. Cultivating global competency is considered as a multidimensional complicated learning behavior. Therefore, assessing critical and creative thinking habits is important for individuals to deal with complicated intercultural issues or problems in an interdependent globe. Torres (2015) also mentioned that critical and analytical thinking describes abilities to interact with others appropriately and effectively.

8.3 Structural Relations Among Dimensions of Global Competence The four dimensions of global competency interact and are interdependent for valuing cultural diversity in the process of cultivating global competency. Specifically, the relations among these four dimensions of global competency are illustrated as follows. Briefly, when the positive attitudes and perceptions are in place and productive habits of minds are being applied, individuals are expected to acquire, integrate, extend, and refine knowledge (Dimension 2), and apply global practical skills (Dimension 3). In other words, when learners focus on extending and refining knowledge, they continue to absorb knowledge and when they apply global knowledge meaningfully, they are still in the state of acquiring and extending knowledge. The relations among these circles refer to different types of thinking that interact simultaneously during global learning. The dimensions of global learning model provides a metaphor in the learning process through providing an approach to thinking about the complicated process of learning so that we can get access each aspect and enrich insights into how to interact effectively.

References Bok, D. (2009). Our underachieving colleges: A candid look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more. Princeton University Press. Hendrickson, A. E., & White, P. O. (1964). Promax: A quick method for rotation to oblique simple structure. British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 17(1), 65–70. Hunter, B., White, G. P., & Godbey, G. (2006). What does it mean to be globally competent? Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 267–285. Kot, F. C. (2011). Factors associated with partnership experiences, attitudes, and perceptions: A comparative case study of two African Universities. University of Minnesota. Li, Y. (2013). Cultivating student global competence: A pilot experimental study. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 11(1), 125–143.

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Mansilla, V. B., & Jackson, A. (2011). Educating for global competence: Preparing our youth to engage the world. Council of Chief State School Officers’ EdSteps Initiative & Asia Society Partnership for Global Learning. Marzano, R. J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with dimensions of learning. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1250 North Pitt Street, Alexandria, VA 22314 (ASCD stock no. 611-92107, $15.95, plus $2.50 handling). Reimers, F. M. (2009). Leading for global competency. Educational Leadership, 67(1). Rollins, B. C., & Thomas, D. L. (1979). Parental support, power, and control techniques in the socialization of children. In: W. R. Burr et al. (Eds.), Contemporary theories about the family: Research-based theories. Torres, C. A. (2015). Global citizenship and global universities. The age of global interdependence and cosmopolitanism. European Journal of Education, 50(3), 262–279.

Part IV

Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China: Evaluation

Chapter 9

Assessment Items for Measuring Global Competence for Individual

This chapter concentrates on examining the assessment questions for measuring global competence at individual level. As guided by the proposed conceptual and methodological models, sets of items are proposed for each of the four proposed dimensions of global competence: global attitude and perception; acquired, integrated, extended and refined global knowledge; global practical skills; and global habits of mind.

9.1 Sets of Items Related to Global Attitudes and Perceptions Global competency Dimension 1 is identified as global attitudes and perceptions within global learning processes. Specifically, in the Dimensions of Learning Model (Marzano 1992), it is widely accepted that attitude and perception have a direct impact on learning. For example, when the attitudes and perceptions are positive, the learning is improved; when they are negative, the learning is decreased. Based on this logic, keeping and developing positive cross-cultural attitudes and perceptions of learning are important to offer positive learning outcomes. Students are expected to feel accepted by peers who are foreigners. Establishing a friendly relationship with other foreign students on campus is associated with successful global learning strategies. In this sense, there are some learning strategies for offering positive cross-cultural attitude and perception of learning: help students understand that crosscultural attitudes and perceptions related to international campus climate impact on learning; establish relationships with each student on campus; monitor and attend to tour own cross-cultural attitudes, and engage in equitable and positive international campus behavior; recognize and provide for students’ individual differences nationally or ethnically; respond positively to foreign or international students; get to know and accept others; use their own strategies for gaining acceptance from their faculty and peers who are foreigners from different countries. All these strategies contribute © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5_9

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to examine global attitude and perceptions for conceptualizing dimensions of global competency. Along with the learning strategies illustration previously, there are some research questions that are related to measure global attitudes and perceptions as follows: Dimension 1: Global attitudes and perceptions—students are asked to indicate their agreement with each item using a 5-point Likert scale: Strongly disagree; disagree; neutral; agree; strongly agree • I enjoy interacting with students from other countries on campus. • I enjoy interacting with students from other countries on campus. • I enjoy learning about how people live in different countries with various cultures. • I would like to establish friendly relationships with students from other countries on campus. • I enjoy helping international or foreign students and faculty and respond positively to them. The first two questions focuses on general perception or cognition of foreign peers on campus. Positive and friendly perception or cognitions can provide effective learning communication and cooperation in order to enhance global or intercultural capacity. The second two questions in this scale are mainly associated with attitudes toward foreign students and faculty on a diverse campus. Along with Dimensions of Learning (Marzano 1992), the positive attitude is based on positive perception that is closely connected with friendly commutations and interaction with peers and faculty. In this sense, global attitudes should be in consistent with global perceptions that can be measured by the degree of friendly relations, positively despondence among students from diverse cultural backgrounds.

9.2 Sets of Items Related to Acquired, Integrated, Extended and Refined Global Knowledge Acquiring and integrating global knowledge serves as Dimension 2 of global learning model. Specifically, identifying the type of knowledge is considered the first step to acquire and integrate knowledge. It is argued that the idea of knowledge can be summarized into two major categories: declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Specifically, declarative global knowledge focuses on helping learners know or understand some kinds of international information; procedural global knowledge requires learners to perform a process or demonstrate a skill or take some kinds of action globally or internationally. Most actions are cognitive and some are physical.

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Procedural knowledge refers to knowledge that entails performing different actions through a series of steps. Although the sequence of different steps might not be linear, we need to perform in the skills and processes that make up procedural knowledge. The significance of understanding the nature of global learning is closely associated to identifying global knowledge. Dimension 2: Acquired, Integrated, Extended and Refined Global Knowledge Students are asked to indicate their agreement with each item using a 5-point Likert scale: Frequently; very often; often; sometimes; never • Studied a foreign language. • Learned about foreign politics, economic, or culture through my studies or attending extracurricular activities. • Read Global Times, World News Journal or CAN KAO XIAO XI. • Learned about global climate or global environmental issues by myself. • Given presentations or speeches about issues related to other countries or cultures. • Whether have attended such an international academic conference (Yes or No). • Included diverse perspectives (international politics, global economics, cultural diversity etc.) in course discussions or assignments. • Learned something new about another country or culture. Declarative global knowledge can be summarized as several common organizational patterns: Description involves knowledge of vocabulary terms, facts, time sequences, process/cause effect relationships, episodes, generalizations/principles, and concepts. In this sense, survey items that focus on foreign countries’ history, culture, policies, economy and global ideas and concepts are asked in order to measure declarative global knowledge. Procedural knowledge concentrates on identifying the types of skills and process without strict hierarchy. Skills and processes construct the levels of generality of procedural knowledge. The skills might be embedded within the steps of the process that comprised a number of skills. In order to specify the procedural knowledge, students are required to complete specific lessons/units that focus on general processes and comprehension. Most learning tasks concentrate on both declarative and procedural knowledge. Hence, acquiring and integrating declarative and procedural global knowledge are important to figure out how to identify knowledge for selecting appropriate instructional strategies. Learning procedural knowledge includes constructing models, shaping, and internalizing. The relations of these phases within these two types of knowledge are different. As previously elaborated, declarative knowledge contains information that the learners should know and understand in order to acquire

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new information and integrate it with what has been learned previously. Three phases including constructing meaning, organizing, and store define more precisely what the learner must do to be successful. The survey items of this scale focus on examining students’ declarative global knowledge and procedural global knowledge through asking questions in relation to studying a foreign language; learning about foreign politics, economic, or culture through my studies or attending extracurricular activities; reading Global Times, World News Journal or CAN KAO XIAO XI; learning about global climate or global environmental issues. Specifically, both learning declarative and procedural knowledge require to students develop a more in-depth understanding of information and knowledge rather than simply memorized information or mechanically performing a procedure (Marzano 1992). In order to offer this understanding, learners are expected to extend and refine their knowledge they initially acquire, such as examining and analyzing knowledge and information in an approach that can make new connections with previous information and procedure, discovering different meanings, enriching new insights, and identifying misconceptions and misunderstanding. Thinking about the information and procedure applying reasoning processes can deepen and enrich cognition of knowledge. Hence, the reasoning processes are required for students to extend and refine knowledge, including comparing, classifying, abstracting, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, constructing supports, analyzing errors, analyzing perspective. Based on these eight complex reasoning processes, global knowledge should include them. Each of these reasoning processes is applied unconsciously and consciously in daily life. We can examine these reasoning processes by informal or formal interactions with students’ perspective and opinions in learning situations. All these complex reasoning processes should be systematically and rigorously cultivating at individual and institutional levels. If students can internalize all these eight complex reasoning processes, they can shape and improve them over time. Extended knowledge includes comparing, classifying, and abstracting learning processes. Comparing refers to the process of identifying and articulating similarities and differences among items. It is the process of describing how things are the same and different. Comparing is considered as a reasoning process in a powerful way of helping students examine key attributes of important content knowledge; classifying involves the process of grouping things into definable categories on the basis of their attributes. Applying classifying involves a process to organize the world that influences our perceptions. The idea of classifying is not only a natural human behavior but also understanding the process that influencing the learning. Abstracting focuses on the process of identifying and articulating the underlying theme or general pattern of information. It is the process of finding and explaining general patterns in specific information or situations. Recognizing in the structures, designs, behaviors, and natural phenomena aims to understand and respond to the stimuli bombarding us in a complex global context. Abstracting forces can increase the understanding

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of each unit of information; analyze similarities and differences in each information unit, compared with the reasoning process of comparing and classifying. As the illustration above, asking about comparing, clarifying and abstracting processes of global common knowledge includes cultural, political, economic, and geographical information about foreign countries or regions examine extended global knowledge. Refined global knowledge should include major reasoning processes as follows: inductive reasoning refers to the process of inferring unknown generalizations or principles from information or observations that focusing on making general conclusions from specific information or observations. We can be reasoning inductively when we infer that that a potential candidate is looking for someone who is assertive and confident. Inductive reasoning concentrates on making conclusions on observation and information without their assumptions and perspectives; deductive reasoning concentrates on the process of using generalizations and principles to infer unstated conclusions about specific information or situations, that using general statements to come to conclusions about specific information or situations. Applying deductive reasoning, students are expected to connect and integrate formal logic that practicing the skills. Analyzing perspectives is the process of identifying multiple perspectives on an issue and examining the reasons or logic behind each. Simply speaking, it is the process of describing reasons for different points of view. Analyzing others’ perspectives is a process of trying to understand the reasoning logic underlying different kinds of ways of examining issues and problems. As previously elaborated of refined global knowledge, the relevant survey items contribute to examine students’ global refined knowledge about how can they implement inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, construct supports, analyze errors and perspectives in a global learning process within a global interdependent world. The four survey items pertaining to this dimension contribute to identifying and examining students’ comparing, classifying, and abstracting learning processes through inductive or deductive reasoning and analyzing perspectives. Specifically, students are expected to improve their global knowledge through attending, presenting, and completing international conference or course assignment. Students who frequently give presentations or speeches about issues related to other countries or cultures are expected to compare, classify, and abstract different kinds of information and knowledge through their inductive or deductive reasoning process accounting for enriching global knowledge. If students have attended international academic conference, they are more likely to have opportunities to contact with foreign peers or faculty members to exchange academic viewpoints or concepts. In the connecting process, students are expected to promote analyzing perspective and reasoning. The final two items contribute to measuring students’ reasoning and analyzing perspective through including diverse perspectives (international politics, global economics, cultural diversity etc.) in course discussions or assignments and learning something new about foreign countries.

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9.3 Sets of Items Related to Global Practical Skills The process of applying knowledge meaningfully is essential for students to obtain and apply knowledge. The key challenge for students is to applying knowledge in different context that provides meaningful implications to them. When students are given a meaningful task, they are motivated to gain relevant knowledge and information to fulfill these responsibilities. In the process of extending and refining knowledge, applying knowledge meaningfully makes students engage in reasoning that is quite different from simply remembering, restating, recognizing, recollecting or reorganizing. This dimension pertains to applying knowledge in complex thinking and reasoning processes, including decision-making, problem solving, invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, and systems analysis. Dimension 3: Global Practical Skills Students are asked to indicate their agreement with each item using a 4-point Likert scale: Have already done so; Have set plan to do so; No set plans, but I hope to do so; I have not and do not plan to do so. • Participated in an international internship. Students are asked to indicate their agreement with each item using a 5-point Likert scale: Frequently; very often; often; sometimes; never • Participated in an international student organization or group. • Participated in a study abroad or international exchange program. • Worked with foreign faculty on an international research project. Decision-making process refers to the process of generating and applying criteria to select from among alternatives. It is the process of developing and using criteria to select from choices that seem to be equal. Decision-making skills are required for students to obtain intercultural requirements in a global learning environment. In order to have multiple opportunities for developing their international cognitions, students are required to develop decision-making tasks within an interdependent world. Engaging in the decision-making processes provides students global knowledge and intercultural motivations that they need to acquire in order to gain new insights into new international information and global knowledge. The problem-solving skill is identified as a skill for overcoming constraints, limitations, or barriers that are in the way of reaching goals in a global context. There are two kinds of problems: unstructured problems and structured. Unstructured problems are the kind you face in real life: They often have unclear constraints and require unidentified resources; sometimes the goal is not even clear. Unstructured problems also typically have more than one solution. Trying to improve efficiency in

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a workplace that is steeped in traditions is an example of an unstructured problem. Structured problems are the type we usually find in textbooks, games, and puzzles. They generally have clear goals and specify the resources available to accomplish the goals. In addition, structured problems usually have one right answer. The goal, constraints, and alternative ways of receiving goals are required for students to consider when they are in the state of problem solving. The structural problem concentrates on holding clear goals, specific resources available to obtain; the unstructured problem focused on identifying academic or daily life, clarification of the goals and constraints. As illustrated above, both structured and unstructured questions or problems are in consistent with measuring problem-solving skills in the conceptualized dimensions of global learning and global competency. Invention skill refers to the capacity of developing unique/specific products or processes that fulfill perceived needs that developing original products or processes that meet their unique needs in a global learning climate. The key differences between invention and problem-solving processes are the freedom and creativity that associated with invention strategies. Problem solving is always driven by constraints and conditions of problems whereas the key point of invention is dominated by the standards or criteria of problems. The constraints and conditions are embedded in the context of the problem; the inventor imposes the standards and criteria. The invention process of learning must identify clear goals that guide an understanding of a specific situation. In a global learning context, the invention skills that relate to developing unique or specific activities or projects for intercultural engagement are essential to examine global application skills in the conceptualized dimensions of global competency. Experimental inquiry skill involves the process of generating and testing explanations of observed phenomena. It is the process of developing and testing explanations of things we observe. Experimental inquiry focuses on a useful understanding of what the student has observed. In the process of experimental inquiry, there are some key questions that need to be considered, such as what do we observe? How can we explain what we observe? What do we predict based on our explanations? How can we test our prediction? The experimental inquiry is always applied in science activities and less commonly used in the social science and fine arts. It is difficult for students to explain why they react to specific literature and social knowledge. The process of experimental inquiry is an effective approach to expand knowledge in a complex situation. Based on this, above experimental inquiry is considered as one of global application skills to examine the dimensions of global competency in the processes of global learning in a global context. Investigation skills are divided into definitional investigation, historical investigation, and projective investigation in the processes of global learning. Specifically, the investigation skill focuses on the process of identifying and resolving issues about which there are confusions or contradictions. It is the process of suggesting and defending ways to clear up confusions about ideas or events. Digging deeper into a problem that contains the contradictions, inconsistencies, or indications is the key point in the process of investigation. In a global context, the major goal of the process

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of investigation is to figure out what global conflicts exist and clear up inconsistencies and confusions that uncover or create information that is missing or unknown. There are three types of investigation, including definitional investigation, historical investigation, and projective investigation. Specifically, definitional investigation involves constructing a precise definition of a concept for which there is no generally agreed-upon definition, such as global citizenship and global competence. Historical investigation involves generating a scenario for an event or situation from the past for which there is no agreed-upon explanation or sequence of events; projective investigation refers to constructing a scenario for a future event or for a hypothetical past event; for example, predicting what would have happened if Japan wins World War II. Based on the classifications of investigation skills, survey items relate to how to examine definitional investigation, historical investigation and projective investigation have been created and generated in order to conceptualize the dimensions of global competency. System analysis skill involves the process of analyzing the parts of a system and the manner in which they interact. It is the process of describing how the parts of a system work together. Students are required to engage in system analysis that make up of individual units or groups of units. System analysis is a quite complex reasoning process of which all steps of it are challenging. Therefore, some survey items can be asked to figure out the parts of the whole global systems, such as global finance system, global political system, global commercial system, global education systems. The four items for this scale all contribute to investigating students’ complicated global practical skills, including problem-solving skill, invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, systems analysis. Specifically, the first two items focus on examining student investigation and problem solving through participating in an international internship or international student organizations. Students are expected to cultivate problem solving and investigation through developing and using criteria to make decisions and resolve issues about which there are confusions or contradictions in the specific workplace. By this logic, if students work in an international company or foreign institutions, they are more likely to get access to multiple opportunities for developing their international problem-solving skill in the decisionmaking tasks within an interdependent world. Engaging in international internship provides students intercultural motivations that they need to acquire in order to gain their problem-solving skill and investigation skills. The second two items concentrate on examining students’ invention and system analysis skill through participating in a study abroad or international exchange program and working with foreign faculty on international research projects. Students are expected to have opportunities to enhance their invention skills and system analysis skills through developing unique or specific activities or projects for intercultural engagement and analyzing global finance system, global political system, global commercial system, or global education systems in their specific academic programs.

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9.4 Sets of Items Related to Global Habits of Mind Habits of mind are identified as productive mental habits that are associated with the specific attitudes, perceptions in the process of learning. Enhancing such habits of mind is essential to improve students’ learning of academic knowledge. Students are always expected to show their productive mental habits, such as seeking clarity and accuracy. The productive mental habits in the process of learning can offer students successful learning outcomes and results. The habits of mind in the Dimensions of Learning model involve major three general categories, including critical thinking, creative thinking, and self-regulated thinking. Dimension 4: Global Habits of Mind Students are asked to indicate their agreement with each item using a 5-point Likert scale: Frequently; very often; often; sometimes; never • Reviewed information about an international topic to understand better the world outside China. • Explained a global issues or problems (e.g. global climate change, global ecosystem) in a class assignment or for an outside class activity. • Thought critically and analytically about global issues to become a more informed and active global citizen. • Identified and summarized cross-cultural issues or problems from multiple perspectives and experience. Critical thinking refers to seeking accurate and clarify, maintaining an open mind, responding appropriately to others’ feelings and different levels of knowledge. In an integrated world, keeping an open mind is fundamental to students’ global learning in order to enhance global competency individually. The survey items related to sustaining an open mind in a global context is also identified in different assessment scales of global competency. Creative thinking concentrates on perseverance, pushing the limits of your knowledge and abilities, generating and maintaining your own standards of evaluations, generating new approaches to viewing a situation that are outside the boundaries of standard conventions. Self-regulated thinking aims to monitor your own thinking, plan appropriately, identify necessary resources, and respond appropriately to feedbacks. It is argued that including mental habits in the dimensions of learning is significant for students to successfully achieve learning outcomes and performance. Maintaining an open mind can improve learning and increase the likelihood of success in a competitive society. As previously illustrated, survey items can be created consistent with the major content of creative thinking habits in conceptualizing dimensions of global competency.

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The four scale items focus on measuring students’ critical thinking habits and creative thinking habits through reviewing information about an international topic to understand better the world outside China; explaining global issues or problems in a class assignment or for an outside class activity; thinking critically or analytically about global issues to become a more informed and active global citizen; identifying and summarizing cross-cultural issues or problems from multiple perspectives and experience. Students who can review information about the world outside China, explain global issues or problem, think critically or analytically about global issues are expected to accurate and seek accuracy and clarity, maintain an open mind, respond appropriately to others’ feelings and different levels of knowledge and persevere, push the limits of knowledge and abilities, generate and maintain their standards of evaluations, and generate new approaches of viewing a situation that are outside the boundaries of standard conventions.

Reference Marzano, R. J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: Teaching with dimensions of learning. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1250 North Pitt Street, Alexandria, VA 22314 (ASCD stock no. 611-92107, $15.95, plus $2.50 handling).

Chapter 10

Measurement Validity for Each Scale of Global Competence for Individual

This chapter concentrates on analyzing measurement validity for each scale of competence at an individual level. Measurement validity refers to the “best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition or conclusion”. The idea of validity focuses on an informed judgment of how strongly theory and evidence support the interpretations and decisions based on the measure. In this regard, this section considers discriminant validity, focusing on the distinctions between what is expected to be associated with the proposed four-dimensional measures of global competency. Hence, in this section, the validity argument for each scale is articulated to examine the expected association between student background characteristics (i.e., geographical origin, parental education, study or travel abroad experience, majors, class levels, and academic performance) and the four scale sets (Global knowledge; Global practical skills; Global attitudes and perceptions; and Global habits of mind).

10.1 The Six Background Characteristics The six background characteristics are also expected to be interrelated to various extents. For example, geographical origin is likely related to parental education (urban students having more highly educated parents on average), and both geographical origin and parental education to study abroad experience (with urban students and students who have more highly educated parents being more likely to have studied abroad). Similarly, majors and class level are both likely related to academic performance (which is known to be higher, e.g., among social science majors than among STEM majors and is likely higher as students’ class levels increase). Each of these characteristics is a part of the cluster of factors that are likely related to the four global competency scales, but to differing magnitudes. Cultural capital (Baker 1990) refers to the value of social networks, bonding similar people and bridging between different people, with norm of reciprocity (Sander © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5_10

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2002). Parental education, geographical origin, personal learning, or training experience all interact and contribute to “valuing,” “bonding,” and “bridging” social capital for individuals (Baker 1990; Sander 2002). In this sense, these four characteristics, including geographical origin, parental education, family income, and study or travel abroad experience are inherently interrelated as important elements contributing to students’ cultural capital. These background characteristics included in this study (geographic origin, and parents’ education serve as indicators of cultural capital that, in general, are expected to distinguish students who have had more opportunities to learn about and gain experiences related to the various aspects of global competency. Bourdieu (1984) developed the concept of cultural capital to explain how aspects of social inequality are created and sustained through the educational system. Cultural reproduction and social reproduction are fundamentally rooted in the learning process in daily life. Students from urban areas with higher parental education background are more likely to engage in diverse cultural reproduction activities through multiple learning processes, such as foreign language courses, international exchange programs, and international summer/winter camps compared to others from rural areas with lower parental education background. The cultural reproduction activities also included non-formal learning processes, such as museum, theater, or concert attendance. The inheritance of cultural wealth is accumulated through formal or non-formal learning process from generation to generation. Within the education system, cultural capital transforms dominant culture and implicit pedagogic values into specific learning processes and activities that require initial familiarity with the dominant culture, consisting of linguistic and cultural competence for the success of the transmission and inculcation practices on the learning process in daily life (Bourdieu 1984; Baker 1990).

10.2 The Relations Between Six Background Characteristics and Main Effects The main effects and interaction effects between students’ background characteristics (Major, Class Level, Grade Performance, Geographic Origin, Parental Education, and Intercultural Experience) and four scales of global competency (Global Knowledge; Global Practical Skills; Global Attitudes and Perceptions; and Global Habits of Mind) are examined and illustrated as follows. Main Effects Major Major is expected to be associated with students’ Global Knowledge, Global Practical Skills, Global Attitudes, and Perceptions and might not be related to students’ Global Habits of Mind. Major is expected to influence students’ prior and learned knowledge. Students taking social science majors are likely to have more interest in and exposure through their classes to global knowledge compared to science majors. Students from

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social science majors are more likely to hold better global knowledge than others from science majors. Students in the social science majors focus on understanding ideas, values, beliefs, and experiences, the nature of the individual and relationship between the self and the community. Thus, students from social science majors are more likely to enrich their heightened cross-cultural knowledge through the curriculum of their major compared to science majors. Major is expected to influence students’ Global Practical Skills. Given the same geographic origin and parental education, students from social science majors with higher academic performance are more likely to cultivate global practical skills than others from science majors. In particular, students majoring in anthropology, geography, history, political science, psychology, and sociology are expected to learn more cross-cultural skills that relate to intercultural communication capacities than would science majors. Major is also expected to influence students’ Global Attitudes and Perceptions. Students from social science majors are more likely to be aware of current world events, international issues, and global problems, know multicultural concepts and theories, and be more willingness to study and work with peers from different cultural and educational backgrounds. In particular, students from social science majors are more likely to cultivate their global attitudes and perceptions than science majors. Major might be not expected to influence students’ Global Habits of Mind. Students’ learning habits are rooted in complicated learning processes. Global habits of mind as one kind of habitual behaviors are the invisible and unnoticed behaviors. There might not exist universal major-based criteria to evaluate students’ learning habits for all students. There is difficult to estimate how social science majors may or may not have better global habits of mind than science majors. Class Level Class Level is expected to be associated with students’ Global Knowledge, Global Practical Skills, Global Attitudes, and Perceptions and might not be related to students’ Global Habits of Mind. Class level is expected to be associated with students’ Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills. Knowledge is considered the theoretical or practical understanding of one subject. Senior students might know much more theoretical knowledge than freshmen or sophomores in the learning process. Senior students are more likely to accept more formal educational training than lower class level. In other words, class level does guarantee students’ absorbing various and comprehensive knowledge and skills within formal education. The relationship between Class Level and Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills will be discussed as interacting with major in a later section. Given the expected interaction, the status of the main effect is less important. Class Level is expected to be related to students’ attitudes and perceptions. Global Attitudes and Perceptions are considered students’ actual feelings or ways of thinking about something or someone based on their judgments. Individuals’ actual feelings or ways of thinking are gradually changed through the complicated process of mental maturity. In other words, students from freshmen to senior are expected to be mentally

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and physically mature. Hence, students from senior are more likely to cultivate Global Attitudes and Perceptions compared to freshmen and sophomore. Class level is not expected to be associated with students’ Global Habits of Mind. Habits of mind are considered one routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously. From the standpoint of behavioral psychology, habitual behavior is an invisible and unnoticed behavior in a learning process. New mental and behavioral habits are difficult and time-consuming to construct. Old mental and behavioral habits are also hard to break and give up. When mental and behavioral habits are regularly repeated in a consistent learning process, there would occur an incremental increase in the connection between social context and actual activities. By this nature, the span (from freshmen to senior) of cultivating crosscultural learning might be not enough for students to improve their Global Habits of Mind. Students are expected to spend their whole lifelong learning to enrich their Global Habits of Mind. Grade Performance Grade performance is expected to be associated with students’ Global Knowledge, Global Practical Skills, and Global Habits of Mind and but not be related to students’ Global Attitudes and Perceptions. Grade performance is reflected in part students’ Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills. Knowledge and skills are inter-correlated in the complicated learning process. Within a formal education context, grade performance is considered as a visible indicator to display students’ learning performance. Grade performance aims to assess students’ different aspects of learning performance, including learning content (knowledge) and learning practical capacities (skills). Hence, grade performance is closely associated with students’ knowledge and skills. Students with higher grades performance are more likely to have obtained more knowledge and skills from learning process. Grade performance is expected to distinguish students’ Global Habits of Mind. Students with higher academic performance are more likely to create new ideas that transforming from the complicated learning process and think critically and analytically toward global issues than others with lower academic performance. Students with higher GPA ranks are expected to be more capable to identify and summarize international issues or problems from multiple perspectives in order to cultivate their global habits of mind. Grade performance is expected not to be associated with students’ Global Attitudes and Perceptions. Although students’ motivation plays an important role to stimulate their learning behaviors, it doesn’t guarantee students with high grade performance are more likely to hold positive attitudes toward learning. Generally speaking, grade performance only focuses on testing students learning performance without considering satisfaction of learning itself. Global attitudes and perceptions is related to personal feeling and viewpoints toward something or someone that could not be assessed by GPA or any forms of learning outcome in daily life.

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Geographic Origin Geographic origin is expected to be associated with all four scales. From a cultural capital perspective, students from urban areas are expected to have more opportunities to take foreign language courses; read international newspapers, such as Global Times or World News Journal; have opportunities to give international presentations or speeches and to have included diverse international perspectives in their class assignments; and to have learned something that changed the way they understand or analyze a global issue or problem. The enrichment from these experiences in relation to global knowledge is expected to favor students who were raised in urban locations and present a knowledge gap in relation to their rural-raised peers. Students from urban areas are also more likely to participate in an international internship; hold a leadership role in an international student organization or group; participate in a study abroad or international exchange program; worked with foreign faculty and peers on an international project rather than students from rural areas with first generation status. Geographic origin is also expected to be associated with students’ Global Attitudes and Perceptions since it is inherently imbedded in the accessibility of cultural diversity through formal or non-formal learning processes, such as international exchange program or museum attendance. Geographic origin impacts on how students cultivate an international outlook and global awareness. In other words, students who grew up in a metropolitan area are more likely to have been exposed to advanced international technologies, international bestsellers, and the latest Hollywood movies compared to students who are living and studying in rural areas. The distinct geographic origin (rural/urban) indirectly shapes and constructs students’ international outlook and global awareness. It is worth noting that students’ emotional attitude and perception are deeply rooted in cultivating their international outlook and global awareness. By this logic, students from urban areas with international outlook and global awareness are expected to hold a positive global attitude or perception comparing to students who living and studying in rural areas. Geographic origin is also expected to be associated with students’ Global Habits of Mind. Generally speaking, students from urban areas are more likely to form new ideas or understanding from various international information; use diverse examples of illustrations to explain global issues or problems; think critically and analytically toward global issues as an informed global citizen; identify and summarize international issues or problems from multiple perspective and global learning experience as compared with students from rural areas with lower levels of parental education. Parental Education Parental education is expected to be associated with students’ all four scales. Students with highly educated parents are expected to have a greater global knowledge. They are more likely to take foreign language courses; read international newspapers; have opportunities to give international presentations or speeches and to have included diverse international perspectives in their class assignments; and to have

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learned something new that changed the way they understand or analyze a global issue or problem. From a cultural capital perspective, parental education is one dynamic cultural symbolic factor that is expected to influence students’ knowledge. A variety of studies provided empirical evident about the influences of parental education levels on students’ learning performance, such as students’ ACT scores, cumulative grade point averages (GPA) (Rollins and Thomas 1979; Miller 1988; Melby and Conger 1996). These studies find that mother’s and fathers’ education level is positively linked to their children’s learning performance (Melby and Conger 1996; Miller 1988). On the basis of the results, I hypothesize that parents’ education level also impact students’ global knowledge. Using the same logic, parental education is expected to have a fundamental impact on the development students’ Global Practical skills. It is widely accepted that parents have a significant direct experience on the education of their children. Higher education shapes and constructs the levels of cognitive ability, social value, and public behaviors of human beings. By this logic, parental education level is expected to have both direct and indirect impacts on students’ learning skills and capacities. Better-educated parents are more likely to consider the importance of cultivating global practical skills to equip their offspring with global skills. Cultural capital theory (Bourdieu 1984) suggests that, parental education as symbolic of culture plays an influential role in cultivating students’ Global attitudes and Perceptions. Parental education is closely associated with cultural reproduction and social reproduction through specific learning process and activities. Parental involvement is consistently found to be positively associated with students’ attitudes and perception in the learning process. Students’ perceptions of learning are mediated by parental involvement and their performance on the standardized examination (Hill and Craft 2003). By this logic, parental education is known to be associated with the levels of parental involvement. In other words, parents with high education degree are more likely to be more involved in their child’s education, formally and informally compared to parents with lower educational attainment. Parental education incrementally shapes students’ attitudes or perceptions toward the global world. Assuming that, well-educated parents are more likely to cultivate and encourage their children to exposure to the global environment to enrich their studying or traveling abroad experience. The majority of current research suggests that there exists a positive correlation among parental education and students’ learning habits. Global habits of mind mainly focus on cultivating students’ critical thinking and creative thinking. Both critical and creative thinking are embedded in daily learning and living environments. Parents incrementally influence students’ thinking and acting habits. Within a family, given the common situation, the role of parents dominates students’ well-being physically and mentally. Given otherwise similar situations, if parents have earned their advanced degrees from a college or university are more likely to think critically and creatively than parents with a lower level of education.

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Intercultural Experience Intercultural experience is expected to be associated with students’ all four scales. Intercultural experience is expected to influence students’ global knowledge learning. Study or travel abroad experience can enrich students’ experience-based knowledge. Students who have intercultural experience are more likely to receive more knowledge than others. Kolb’s Experience Learning Theory uncovered that the experience-based knowledge is created through the transformation process of learning experience. In other words, the experience-based knowledge is rooted in the combination of transforming learning experience. Thus, study or travel abroad experience serves as one type of intercultural experience that influence students’ knowledge learning. Study or travel abroad experience is also expected to be positively associated with cultivating Global Practical Skills. Students study or travel abroad are more likely to have more opportunities to cultivate global practical skills compared to those who do not have these experiences. The relationship between skills and experience are explained by Kolb’s et al. (2001) experiential learning theory (ELT). Experiential learning has a positive impact on elevating individual’s learning skills. According to ELT, experiential learning plays a central role for cultivating students’ learning skills. ELT is inherently consistent with traditional learning theories, such as Dewey’s philosophical pragmatism, Piaget’s cognitive genetic epistemology, and Lewin’s social psychology. Intercultural experience is expected to most strongly correlate with students’ Global Attitudes and Perceptions. Students who have studied or traveled abroad should demonstrate a tendency to enjoy interacting with foreign peers, establishing friendly relationships with international students and faculty on campus and helping and responding positively to them. Generally, when people decide to study or travel abroad, they are likely to hold a positive expectation and viewpoints on staying, working, and learning with people from foreign countries. Studying or traveling abroad is expected to enrich attitudes or perception toward the globalized world. If students actively participate in short-term or long-term study abroad program, they gained an in-depth understanding of foreign societal norms or values as compared to those who have never studied abroad and have no experience with or exposure to an international environment. When traveling abroad, students that receive a friendly reception and good service from local foreign people and agencies likely have an open and friendly attitude or perception toward foreign students or faculty on campus. If they have a negative traveling experience, they will likely not to hold a positive attitude or perception toward foreigners, but it is assumed most such experiences are very positive. The idea of “exposure” is regarded as a key concept to investigate the relations between experience and attitude. Experiential learning theory posits that student learning experience fundamentally impacts their learning attitudes. Specifically, students’ adaptation through the transformation of studying or traveling abroad provides a reasonable way to understand the connections between studying or traveling

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abroad experience and global attitudes or perception. The value of studying or traveling abroad is to provide opportunities for students to adapt behaviorally, exhibit curiosity, and to accept the experienced differences positively. Global attitude and perception is mediated through students’ global exposure experience. Students who engage in real world differences through travel abroad, interpret, describe, and value what they experience. Thus, students who study abroad are expected to have a more positive attitude and perception than students who have not participated in such programs. Intercultural experience is expected to correlate with students’ Global Habits of Mind. The term of habits is considered as a routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to remain subconscious. The idea of habit is identified as a fixed way of thinking, willing, or feeling through previous repetitive mental or behavioral experience. Habit formation is identified in the process of automatic repetitive action or experience (Hull 1943; Lally et al. 2010). Habitual behavior is associated with mental or behavioral experience. In other words, the new habit is incrementally increased through behavioral experience in a consistent context. By this logic, intercultural experience is considered as one behavioral experience in a consistent global learning context. For the main effect, the expected association between student background characteristics (Major, Class level, Geographic origin, Parental education, Grade performance, Intercultural experience) and the four scale sets (Global knowledge; Global practical skills; Global attitudes and perceptions; and Global habits of mind) are summarized in Table 10.1. Table 10.1 The proposed validity arguments for the main effects between background characteristics and four scales of global competency Knowledge

Practical skills

Attitudes/perceptions

Habits of mind

Major

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Class level

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

Grade performance

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Geographic origin

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Parental education

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Intercultural experience

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

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10.3 The Relations Between Six Background Characteristics and Interaction Effects Major and Class Level For the combination of Major and Class Level, Class Level is expected to make a larger difference for social science majors than for science majors in terms of Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills. For students from social science majors, they are more likely to take courses that impart more global knowledge and skills from freshmen to senior. Senior students from social science majors are more likely to learn more about how to examine and address a range of social, cultural, economic, and political issues related to the interconnected global world than others from freshmen or sophomores. For example, senior students majoring in linguistics or sociology are more likely to learn more global knowledge and global practical skills, focusing on how people communicate through foreign languages and intercultural skills or how to make a better understanding of the processes of contemporary global world and interconnected society than others from freshmen or sophomores. In contrast, for senior students from science majors, they are more likely to participate in different projects or senior designs to solve specific tasks or goals than freshmen or sophomores. They are less likely to attend social or cultural courses for cultivating their global knowledge or global practical skills than freshmen or sophomores. For example, senior students majoring in math or statistics are more likely to learn how to solve equations, functions, polynomials or normal distributions than freshmen or sophomore. Thus, for the scales of Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills, Class Level is expected to be positively associated with the two scales for social science majors, but not for science majors. Grade Performance and Major By the same logic, Grade performance is expected make a difference in their Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills for social science majors, but not for science majors. For Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills, students in social science majors with high grade performances are expected to have cultivated more Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills, since that is likely a key component of the curriculum and their grades demonstrate mastery of the curriculum. For example, students from history or sociology majors with high grade performances are more likely to acquire diverse foreign cultural or historical knowledge and skills than students in the same majors with low grade performance. Thus, for social science majors, the grade performance is positively expected to be associated with students’ Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills. Conversely, students from science majors with high grade performances are expected not to improve their Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills. Specifically, students from chemistry or physics majors with high grade performances are more likely to acquire more knowledge or skills about elements, atomic number,

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compounds or Newton’s Law, conservation of energy, special relativity than others with low grade performance. Their high grade performances will not necessarily be associated with improving their cross-cultural knowledge or practical communicative skills on the increasingly globalized campuses, since that is not a focus of the science curriculum. Thus, for student from science majors, grade performance is not expected to be associated with Global Knowledge and Global Practical Skills. Geographic Origin and Parental Education For the combination of Geographic Origin and Parental Education, I argue that Parental Education Status matters more for rural students than for urban students for cultivating students’ Global Knowledge, Global Practical Skills, Global Attitudes or Perceptions and Global Habits of Mind. For students from rural areas, those with highly educated parents (non-first generation status) are expected to acquire more Global Knowledge, Global Practical Skills, Global Attitudes or Perceptions and Global Habits of Mind than rural origin student whose parents are not college educated (first generation status). Many researchers have demonstrated that parental education has direct or indirect impacts on students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes and habits. The positive correlation between parental education and rural students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes and habits is well established. Despite the deficits of rural upbringing, highly educated parents are expected to encourage and cultivate their offspring to participate in international matters. For urban origin students, it is expected that parent’s educational status is less important, because of the richness of opportunities offered within the urban environment. The Geographic Origin provides much more pivotal impact on students’ knowledge, skills, attitudes and habits than Parental Education Status. For example, first generations students from urban areas are more likely to receive invitations from international exchange programs or foreign internship. They are also more likely to participate in these international learning opportunities to enhance their global knowledge, skills, attitudes and habits than others as non-first generations from urban areas. Thus, Geographic Origin provides urban students’ more external impetus to influence their knowledge, skills, attitudes and habits toward the global world than rural students. Along with the illustration from internal acquired incentive (Parental education) and external support (Geographic origin), we conclude that, for rural students, Parental Education matters more than geographic origin for cultivating students’ cross-cultural knowledge, skills, attitudes or habits. For urban students, the Geographic Origin matters provides for more external motivation than Parental Education for their intercultural knowledge, skills, attitudes or habits in the interconnected society. The expected interactions are summarized in the following Table 10.2. To sum up, this section of validity arguments elaborates the hypothesized main effects and interaction effects between for each four scale and students’ background characteristics. In order to confirm whether the four scales are justified, factor analysis, scale reliability tests, and tests of group differences are explored to test the previous validity argument.

References

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Table 10.2 Expected interaction between background characteristics and four scales of global competency Variables

Scales

Expected interaction

Major X class level Major X academic performance

Global knowledge Global practical skills

The interacting variable (class level and academic performance) will be positively associated with each scale for social science majors but not for science majors

Geographic origin X parents’ education status

Global knowledge Global practical skills Global attitudes and perceptions Global habits of mind

Parents’ education status will have a greater positive association with the four scales for rural origin students than for urban origin students

References Baker, W. E. (1990). Market networks and corporate behavior. American Journal of Sociology, 96(3), 589–625. Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. Harvard university press. Hill, N. E., & Craft, S. A. (2003). Parent-school involvement and school performance: Mediated pathways among socioeconomically comparable African American and Euro-American families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(1), 74. Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. Kolb, D. A., Boyatzis, R. E., & Mainemelis, C. (2001). Experiential learning theory: Previous research and new directions. Perspectives on Thinking, Learning, and Cognitive Styles, 1(2001), 227–247. Lally, P., Van Jaarsveld, C. H., Potts, H. W., & Wardle, J. (2010). How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(6), 998–1009. Melby, J. N., & Conger, R. D. (1996). Parental behaviors and adolescent academic performance: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Research on Adolescence. Miller, S. A. (1988). Parents’ beliefs about children’s cognitive development. Child Development, 259–285. Rollins, B. C., & Thomas, D. L. (1979). Parental support, power, and control techniques in the socialization of children. In: W. R. Burr et al. (Eds.), Contemporary theories about the family: Research-based theories. Sander, T. H. (2002). Social capital and new urbanism: Leading a civic horse to water? National Civic Review, 91(3), 213–234.

Appendix

Global Competency Survey for Undergraduate Students

Do you agree with the following statement? (Experience) 1. I have taken formal or informal foreign language training courses at colleges or institutions within five academic years. 1. Yes 2. No 2. I have studied in or visited in foreign countries in the last five years. 1. No 2. Yes, for less than 6 months 3. Yes, for 6 months or longer 3. Over the past year, I have read foreign language books, articles, newspapers, or other foreign language publications. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Never Rarely Occasionally Frequently

4. What is your proficiency in English? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

No proficiency Elementary/limited proficiency Professional working proficiency Full professional proficiency Native or bilingual proficiency

To what extent do you agree with the following statement? 5. I enjoy interacting with students from other countries on campus. 1. Strongly disagree; 2. Disagree; 3. Neutral; © Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 J. Li, Comprehensive Global Competence for World-Class Universities in China, Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1640-5

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4. Agree; 5. Strongly agree Survey Questions 6. I enjoy learning about how people live in different countries with various cultures. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Strongly disagree; Disagree; Neutral; Agree; Strongly agree

7. I would like to establish friendly relationships with students from other countries on campus. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Strongly disagree; Disagree; Neutral; Agree; Strongly agree

8. I enjoy helping international or foreign students and faculty and respond positively to them. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Strongly disagree; Disagree; Neutral; Agree; Strongly agree

During the current academic year, how often have you done the following? 9.

Studied a foreign language 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

10. Learned about foreign politics through my studies or attending extracurricular activities. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

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145

11. Learned about foreign economic, or culture through my studies or attending extracurricular activities. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

12. Learned about foreign culture through my studies or attending extracurricular activities. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

13. Read Global Times, World News Journal, or CAN KAO XIAO XI. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

14. Learned about global climate or global warming issues by myself. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

15. Learned about global environmental or global ecosystem issues by myself. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

16. Given presentations or speeches about issues related to other countries or cultures. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

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17. Whether have attended such an international academic conference. 1. Yes 2. No 18. Included diverse perspectives (international politics, global economics, cultural diversity, etc.) in course discussions or assignments. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

19. Learned something new about another country or culture. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

Which of the following have you done or do you plan to do before you graduate? 20. Participated in an international internship. 1. 2. 3. 4.

Have already done so Have set plan to do so No set plans, but I hope to do so I have not and do not plan to do so

21. Participated in an international student organization or group. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

22. Participated in a study abroad program (long-term). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

23. Participated in an international exchange program (short term). 1. Frequently 2. Very often 3. Often

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147

4. Sometimes 5. Never 24. Worked with foreign faculty on an international research project. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

25. Taken online international MOOCs courses. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

26. Taken bilingual courses at different departments. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

During the current academic year, how often have you experienced the following? 27. Reviewed information about an international topic to understand better the world outside China. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

During the current academic year, to what extent have you done the following? 28. Explained a global issues or problems (e.g., global climate change, global ecosystem) in a class assignment or for an outside class activity. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

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During the current academic year, how often have you done the following? 29. Thought critically and analytically about global issues to become a more informed and active global citizen. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

30. Identified and summarized cross-cultural issues or problems from multiple perspectives and experiences. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Frequently Very often Often Sometimes Never

Basic Information Why do we ask about your personal background? 31. What is your gender identity? A. Female B. Male

C. I prefer not to respond

32. What is your ethnic identification? A. Han B. Mongol C. Hui D. Another racial identity, please specify: ______ E. I prefer not to respond 33. What type of university or college do you attend? (Institutions classification) A. Project 985 B. Project 211 C. Others 34. Score of College Entrance Examination (in total) Please enter______ Current GPA (in total), please enter ______ 35. What is your major? A. Philosophy B. Economics C. Law D. Education E. Science F. Art G. Language and Culture H. History I. Agriculture J. Engineering K. Public Health L. Political Science M. History N. Sociology 36. What is your class level? A. Freshman B. Sophomore 37. Family geography A. Rural

C. Junior B. Urban

D. Senior

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149

38. Parental Education 8.1 Father’s education A. High school or lower B. Vocational colleges/institutions; C. Research Universities/colleges (public or private); 8.2 Mother’s education A. High school or lower B. Vocational colleges/institutions C. Research Universities/colleges (public or private) 39. Family income (Monthly) A. Less than 1000 Yuan C. 3000 and above.

B. 1000–2999 Yuan.

Thanks so much for your participation!

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