Comprehension of Narrative and Expository Presentation

Citation preview

c m m rn m s to n of habsatiye akd expository frss^atioks

fcy Jesse Frarfclin Jeter

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy, in the College of Education in the Graduate College of the State University of lora August, 1950

ProQuest N um ber: 10902173

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uest P roQ uest 10902173 Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). C o p y rig h t of the Dissertation is held by the A uthor. All rights reserved. This work is p ro te cte d a g a in s t u n a u th o rize d co p yin g under Title 17, United States C o d e M icroform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346

T

i 'a

c o o . 6.

ACKMOT.'LiaGUElttS

The writer has considered It a 'privilege to conduct this study under the direction of Dr* Ernest Korn* whose interest, efforts* and counsel have proved invaluable through­ out Its progress* It is with pleasure and appreciation that she acknowledges her great indebtedness to him*

..

Her appreciation Is also extended to those other members of the staff at the State University of Iowa who have assisted and advised her* and to the teachers and pupils In Davenport who participated in this study*

{EZ--

11

TABLE OF OOWSmB Chapter I

page Introduction * • • • • • • « • • • « • • ♦

1

Amplification • * • , • • • • • » » • 3 Regulation of Structural Elements • • 8 Vocabulary...................... 15 Sentence Length » ' • » • « « » £5 Sentence Pattern • £7 Punctuation « • * • • • » • » * 30 .......... 33 Use of Uarrativ© Style II III

Revlev/ of Related Research • * ............ 47 Delineation of the Problem • » , « « * * • Definition of Selection and Materials • Limitation of

IV

Tenas * • • • • » . * * preparation of * * » • • « • • • • • • the Study » * • » . . .

Procedure and Results

• • • » • » • • • «

52 52 54 60 64

Scope and Organisation of the Experlmental Study 64 Preliminary Experimentation • • 64 Population Used in the Study » • 65 Section One ........... * 66 Section Two • . * * * ........ 71 Section Three # * » • • » » • » 74 Analysis of Results « » • * • « » • * 75 Section One • » « • • • « » * • 75 Section Two « • • • * * * « • • 109 Section Three ............. 131 V

Conclusion « » • * * • • • • « » » » • • • Stxmary of Results • • • « « • • • • Data from Objective Test « , . » Data from Questionnaire • » • » Data from Pupil Compositions . * Recommendations * « • » » » » » * « iii

156 156 157 161 162 164

Chapter

page

Bibliography Appendix At Appendix B*

170 Copies of Experimental Materials >*•'*>•• *•* •# > v >•

175

Illustrative Bata

22Q

iv

• * • ••

* ♦•*

TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1

page

Relationship between Group Rankings on Standardised and Experimental Tests (Immediate Recall) •

v

85

TABLE OF TABLES Table I II

III

IV V VI VII

VIII

page Pattern for Distribution of Beading Materials in Schools A and B . . . . . .

.

70

Mean Time, in Minutes, Required by Various Groups in Schools A and B for Reading Experimental Materials . . . . » *

78

Relationship Between Other Versions and the narrative Form, in Respect to Length and Mean Reading Time . . . . . .

79

T-Scoros on Objective Tests over Experlmental Material about Cattle » , « , . « •

81

T-Scoros on Objective Tests over Experi­ mental Material about Fossils . . . . . .

82

Moan Performances of Various Groups in Sample Population, on Experimental Tests •

89

Number of Pupils, by Reading Ability Levels, Whose T-Scores on Initial Tests Were Higher in Various Compared Cate­ gories » • ........

92

Percents ofSample Population Answering Items about Cattle Correctly on Both Ad­ ministrations, and Differences Favoring Narrative or Expository Versions • . . . •

97

IX

Percents of Sample PopulationAnswering Items about Fossils Correctly on Both Administrations, and Differences Favor­ ing Narrative or Expository Versions . , • 98

X

Mean T-Scores on Delayed Tests, for Various Groups in Sections One and Two . . . . . . Ill

XI XII

Raw Scores of Sample Population Reading CSM and F*H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

229

Raw Scores of Sample Population Reading CSX and F t N .............................. 2S0 vi

Table XIII XIV XV

pa^e Raw Scores of Sample Population Beading C*L and FcN « • • * • • » » « • • • . » •

231

Raw Scores of Sample Population Heading FtM and CtR » ♦ « « * « « • ' + « • » • • •

2o2

Raw Scores of Sample Population Heading FsX and CtH

*

233

XVI

Raw Scores of Sample Population Reading PtL and C*N . . . . . . . . . .. 234

XVII

Responses of Sample Population on Two,Tests over Material about Cattle, Expressed in Percents * .................... ..

235

Responses of Sample Population on Two Tests over Material about Fossils, Expressed in Percents * * » • • • « • • » • • • • • *

239

XVIII

vii

i

Chapter I II3TBQD0CTION The Importance of textbooks in public school instruction has been widely recognized#

Despite the Intro*

Auction of additional materials or the adoption of less definitely prescribed courses of study in some classrooms* children still have to derive a large share of any info mat ion they may acquire in the ^content# areas from sucn books* That the textbook is subject to certain Inherent limitations as a medium of instruction has also been gener­ ally conceded*

It can offer to its readers in many cases

only a vicarious experience with those situations or proc­ esses which are its subject matter; and it can offer, in every case* only its one unvarying presentation, identical for all pupils who may use it# There are other characteristics, however, more modifiable than those mentioned above, to which educators, writers, and publishers have given increasing attention within recent years#

Three identifying terms may suffice

to indicate the areas within which variations have been attempted?

format, content, and style of presentation#

It is with the last of these that the present study is concerned#

2

“Style of presentation# is a quite inclusive term, involving many variables#

Questions which writers may con*

aider in this connection, for Instance, might range from “Shall we tell everything as a story?# to “How many prepoaitlons should we use, per sentence, in third grade materi­ als?#

Arbitrarily, certain ones can be grouped for discus­

sion* Before turning to specific items, however, it may be well to observe that most of the revisions or innovations vt

proposed in matters of style have been predicated largely upon “armchair analyses*#

Concerned persons have hypothe­

sized that a given variable probably operates to produce a specified effect, and textbook writers have then accepted or rejected each thesis, as they chose*

Such a pattern need

not be undesirable, and the concern with effective writing which it indicates is probably of significant value*

It is

A

likewise important, though, that effort be directed toward testing, experimentally, the effects of specific variables* ?/hen controlled investigation is lacking, writers can be guided only by “Judgment# or by educational “fashions#; and excellent though both may be at times, it is nonetheless true that both have proved crucially fallible, often, in the past*

Answers to some of the questions that arise con*

cerning matters of style can be, and in some cases have been,

s

approached through research* One further point requires mention!

a given

change in style of presentation may effect a variety of results*

It might, for example, arouse greater Interest •

in the content, so that the pupil reads it more willingly*, it might stimulate.greater interest of a kind that will lead to further pursuit of the subject* it might inculcate dif­ ferent or stronger attitudes* it might make possible a more thorough comprehension* or it might, without change in the comprehension itself, so facilitate its attainment that less expenditure of time or energy is required of the reader* There is always the possibility, too, of course, that it may effect no measurable change at all*

Without being an exhaus­

tive list, these suggestions provide some indication of the complex of approaches open to research in this connection* Proceeding now with a review of selected work in this area, our discussion can be limited primarily to those factors in style of presentation which have been studied experimentally in relation to their effects upon comprehen­ sion as measured by responses to tests* &9gjjyU^£|££2g „ The first factor to be considered, amplification, overlaps in some respects into the area of content*

A

4 distinction can toe maintained, however, so long as we re­ strict oyr identification of significant concepts to those included in a limited presentation, and define amplification as the addition of material designed primarily to improve comprehension of the original concepts#

Evaluation then

becomes a question of the relative effectiveness of an elab* orated presentation as contrasted with use of a more terse, concise style#

Several studies directed toward this purpose

have been conducted at The State University of Iowa and are reported below# Price* selected two subject presentations which she termed ^generalised* and prepared comparable treatments in more ^detailed® forms#

Her generalised articles were

about seventy words long and the detailed ones, about two hundred#

Thirty~five~itera tests were constructed for use

with each subject and were administered to one hundred ninety-six children in the fourth grades of eight Davenport schools#

A cross-check distribution of materials was used,

and reading and testing times were recorded*

In average

scores she observed no significant differences*

So far as

accuracy per item was concerned, she found that readers of 1# M# Price, nThe Relative Difficulty of Comprehending Detailed Versus Generalised Statements,® unpublished master*s thesis, State University of Iowa, 1937#

5

the detailed versions surpassed readers of the generalized versions in more cases than the reverse; and on the "harder** items# readers of the detailed versions were consistently superior*

Their responses on completion items were both

more numerous and more variable*

&

Hiller# in attempting to study the effect of elab­ oration# chose a three-page selection of historical material and expanded it to ten times its original length*

Study

guides were prepared and distributed with both forms*

An

elaborately randomized distribution of these materials to three hundred ten sixth grade pupils in fifteen schools was followed by administration of a forty-five-ltem multiple choice test*

Items in the test included only factual ques­

tions based on material contained in both forms *

His results

showed a statistically significant difference favoring the shorter version*

Miller pointed out that his tests had not

Included measures of retention or of "deeper thinking" and that his long form had perhaps been "too long#*1 in compari­ son* 'He cautioned that teachers should not conclude from his study that the briefest account is the best# for there were numerous aspects of comprehension which had not been Included in his measures* 2* H* Hiller# "The Effect of Elaboration upon Comprehen­ sion# n unpublished master*s thesis# State University of Iowa# 1941*

6 3 Wilson ©looted to use three-hundred-word select tions in the social studies area and expanded each of the three (originally prepared) to twice and four times its initial length#

In each amplified version she Included

the Identical statements of the. original and added expla­ nations and details which she felt would be **in line with the experiences and the language** of the children for whoa they were prepared#

Her subjects were four hundred five

pupils in the fifth and sixth grades of seven Louisiana schools#

A system of distribution provided that each child

read one three hundred* on© six hundred* and one twelve hundred word article#

Written tests (and oral interviews

for selected cases) followed the readings#

Wilson found

that mean scores increased with the length of the article* significantly so in two of the three cases#

Both high and

low Intelligence quotient groups did best on the longest articles* with differences being significant in most in­ stances#

On free expression tests* particularly* scores

seemed to increase with the length of the. article read#

The

experimenter commented that concepts far removed from the experience of the child seemed to be most facilitated by 3# M. C* Wilson* ®The Effect of Amplifying Material upon Comprehension* n unpublished Ph# B# dissertation* State ■ University of Iowa*m 1944#i

7

lengthening, while concepts with which he was already famil­ iar were not apparently aided#

She also pointed out that

It -is:extremely difficult to foretell which terms will cause troubles# end that some Items had apparently been hampered by her elaboration# 4 McLaughlin's study overlaps Into the field of educational methodology as well as being concerned with the effects of certain, variations in materials upon comprehen­ sion#

She compared the effects of using a single textbook

presentation of a given subject, a two-textbook presenta­ tion, and a single expanded treatment*

Her amplification

included additions of descriptions, definitions and illus­ trations of words, and comparisons*

Expansion was limited

to approximately twice the slse of the base, or single text­ book article#

Comprehension was evaluated.by means of free-

response tests, oral interviews, and compositions written on the topic involved*

Her subjects were four hundred ten

sixth grade pupils from seventeen classes in six. different towns*

Oral interviews were limited to thirty, six from

each of five schools*

McLaughlin* s treatment of data was

subjective and descriptive in nature, rather than statistical# i but you must get up early," said Ramon. almost by daylight."

"Manuel will be ready to start

The Alvarado ranch house was on a mesa at the edge of a river valley. The land along the river was covered with dense trees and vines, known as jungle. Between the jungle and the high mesa stretched miles and miles of level land covered with grass. In some places lonely trees grew on the land. The mesa which rose from the valley had steep sides. The land on the mesa was •covered with grass, but the grass here was much coarser than that in the valley. There were scattered trees on the mesa, and in a few places there were thickets, or woods. During the dry season Ramon pastured his cattle on the low level land in the valley. When the wet season came, he brought his cattle up to the mesa. His sheep he pastured on the mesa all through the year. They could get along on poorer grass than the cattle.

177 Juan was very happy about going to help with the cattle. After he climbed into his hammock for the night, he lay for some time thinking of the tomorrow. Then finally he fell asleep with a broad smile on his face. During the night he dreamed that he was a real vaquero. In his dream he dashed away over the llanos on a swift horse. Soon he caught up with some cattle and began to drive them across the plain toward a corral. Early the next morning Ramon shook Juan's hammock and said, "Come, Son, let's get going. It's time for a vaquero to be on his way." Ramon's wife already was cooking breakfast in a little lean-to or shedlike room at one side of the house. Inez was still asleep in her hammock near the end of the long porch. After breakfast Ramon and Juan hurried to the qorral, a little way from the ranch house. There they found Manuel waiting with two saddled horses. "Get another horse ready for the trip," said Ramon, smiling. "We have a new vaquero with us today." Soon kanuel brought a third horse, and the three riders started out across the mesa. Ramon led the way along a trail toward the low valley of the river. There were no highways nor fences across the land. The trail passed a spring close by a thicket, or woods. Cool water bubbled from the earth and flowed away in a little stream. nOhi I want a drink before we go on," said Juan. A little way from the spring was a round grass hut. Several children played near the door of the hut. A few cows and goats stood under a tree, and a few chickens wandered here and there, pecking at the earth. A man strolled from the hut and came over to the spring. said, as he came near. "Are you going after your cattle?"

"Good morning," he

"Yes, Jorge, we are going after our cattle," said Ramon. "The river is rising, and we must bring them from the flooded valley to higher land." "What work does Jorge do?" asked Juan of his father, as they started on. "Like many llaneros, Jorge makes a very poor living," replied Ramon. "He keeps a few cows, goats, and chickens, and raises a few vegetables near his hut. He also does a little hunting and fishing to get some of his food." Soon they started dotvn a gully at the edge of the mesa. The gully led from the higher land down into the valley. There were steep slopes on both sides of the gully. The riders paused in the gully for a few minutes to look out on the valley. Nearly all the land was covered with water as far as they could see. Almost the only land in sight was a small hill a short distance away. Small clumps of trees grew on the hill. Ramon's cattle had come to the small hill to get away from the flood. Some of them could be seen from the gully.. They were standing and grazing on the slopes of the hill. "The cattle are out there on that low hill," said Ramon, pointing. see some of them from here •"

"You can

178 , "How can we get them?" asked Juan excitedly. covered with water."

"All the land around the hill is

"First we must ride out to the hill to round them up," said Ramon. drive them back slowly through the water to the mesa."

"Then we*11

They started on, and soon the horses began to splash through the water. The water was not deep, but the horses walked very carefully. In most places it came up only to their knees. Finally the riders reached the hill and began to round up the herd. Most of the cattle were large, but somewhat bony. "These cattle will look very different before long, now that the rainy season has come," said Ramon. "They'll begin to take on a little flesh." By and by they started to drive the cattle through the water. "We'll drive them into the gully leading to Carlos' sheep camp," said Ramon. "There is fairly . good grass for them to eat in that part of the mesa." Carlos was an old sheepherder who looked after Ramon's sheep. He lived in a small grass hut near the edge of a thicket, or woods. His helper was a big, brown, lanky dog, trained to drive the sheep here and there. The cattle walked along very slowly through the water. Ramon rode back of the herd, Manuel on one side, and Juan on the other. They shouted and waved their hats to make the cattle go. Every now and then an animal stopped or tried to go in the wrong direction. Finally they came to the gully, and drove the cattle slowly to higher land. After they reached the gully, the cattle caused little trouble. They seemed to know where they should g o . By now it was early afternoon, and thick clouds began to gather in the sky, hiding the hot sun. The clouds became darker and darker, and a breeze began to blow. Before long the breeze died down, and it began to rain. r Ramon, Manuel, and Juan left the cattle and rode swiftly to Carlos' sheep camp. By the time they reached his hut they were soaking wet. Carlos was standing in the doorway, with his dog close beside him. out of the rain," he called, as the riders jumped to the ground.

"Come in

"The rains always come at this time of the year," said Ramon. "Yes, the rains come and go, just as surely as the sun rises and sets in the sky," said Carlos. "if we only could have rains during the dry season, we would have better pasture," said Manuel. "No," said Ramon. "We are better off with rains only part of the year. • Our wet. and dry seasons help to give us the grass. If we had rains the year round, we would have a jungle. Trees, vines, and many other plants would grow on the land instead of grass."

179 While they were waiting, Carlos told about a-jaguar that had attacked some of the sheep. The jaguar is a large animal, somewhat like a tiger.It is ablood-* thirsty creature that kills other grassland animals for food. nI tried to shoot him, but he got away," said Carlos. up around here again if he knows what is good for himl"

"He had better not show

Within a half hour or so the clouds began to break in thesky, and the rain stopped falling. Soon the sun appeared and began to shine across the land with dazzling brightness. While the rain was falling, the air was fairly cool. After the rain, however, the air became steaming hot. There was no sign of a breeze. Finally Ramon, Manuel, and Juan mounted their horses and rode back totvsrd the ranch house. "We'll leave the cattle here for a few days," said Ramon. "Then we'll drive them to another part of the mesa." As they came near the ranch house, Juan heard a loud voice calling, "Hello, hello." At first he thought the voice was that of his small sister, Inez. "No, that is Angelito," he said. Angelito was a pet parrot that Juan had raised. it was a baby bird and had brought it home with him. part of the world.

He had found the parrot when There are many parrots in his

When Juan climbed down from his horse, Angelito flew up on his shoulder. "Good old Angelito," said Juan, as he walked toward the house with the bird perched proudly on his shoulder. "Vaquero, vaquero," said Angelito. "Yes, Angelito," said Ramon. from the flooded valley."

"Juan is a vaquero.

He helped to bring the cattle

160

(torn CsM) MOVING CATTLE FROM A FLOODED VALLEY

This story is about some people who always eat their meals on their porch. They live in a faraway part of the world where it is very hot all through the year. Their home is in Venezuela, a country in northern South America. This country is only a little way north of the Equator. The man is a rancher with a large herd of cattle and a small flock of sheep. His ranch is in a region known as llanos, or plains. Fart of this region lies in Venezuela, and part in other countries near by. The region has two seasons through the year, a wet season and a dry season. For about half the year it rains almost every day. During the other half year it hardly rains at all. At the time our story opens, the rancher is thinking about the wet season. The river is rising rapidly and flooding the valley. The next day he and his helper must bring the cattle away from the lower land. The helper is a vaquero, or cowboy, on the ranch. Each day he rides out from the ranch house to help the owner look after his herd of cattle. What will the rancher do with the cattle when he brings them away from the flooded valley? He will bring them up to the higher land of the mesa. season h e ’ll keep them up there away from the flood.

All through the wet

When the dry season comes, he'll drive them back from the mesa into the valley. The best pasture during the dry season is found in the valley. Anyone who goes with him to bring the cattle to the mesa must get up early. The vaquero will be ready to start almost by daylight. The ranch house is on a mesa at the edge of a river valley. The land along the river is covered with dense trees and vines, knownas jungle. Betweenthe jungle and the high mesa stretch miles and miles of level landcovered with grass. Insome places lonely trees grow on the land. The mesa which rises from the valley has steep sides. The land on the mesa is covered with grass, but the grass'there is much coarser than that in the valley. There are scattered trees on the mesa, and in afew places there are thickets, or woods. During the dry season the rancher pastures his cattle on the low level land in the valley. When the wet season comes, he brings his cattle up to the mesa. Ilis sheep he pastures on the mesa all through the year. They can get along on, poorer grass than the cattle. A rancher's son is very happy when he is old enough to help with the cattle. He likes to think that he will soon be a real vaquero. In his dreams at night he dashes away over the llanos on a swift horse. When he catches up with some cattle, he drives them across the plain toward a corral. But early in the morning his father may shake vaquero to be up and on his way.

his hammock. It is time for a

181 The rancher's wife cooks breakfast in a little lean—to or shedlike room at one side of the house. Little girls in the family may still be asleep in their hammocks near the end of the long porch. After breakfast the rancher hurries to the corral, a little way from the ranch house• There he finds the vaquero waiting with horses saddled and ready for the trip. 4

Soon the riders start., out across the mesa. One leads the way along a trail toward the low valley of the river. There are no highways nor fences across the land. The trail passes a spring close by a thicket, or woods. Cool water bubbles from the earth and flows away in a little stream. Perhaps one of the riders may want a drink before they go on. A little way from the spring is a round grass hut. Several children play near the door of the hut. A few cows and goats stand under a tree, and a few chickens wander here and there, pecking at the earth. A man strolls from the hut and comes over to the spring. they are going after their cattle.

He asks the riders if

The rancher tells him that they are. The river is rising, and the cattle must be brought from the flooded valley to higher land. What work does this man do? Like many llaneros, he makes a very poor living. He keeps a few cows, goats, and chickens, and raises a few vegetables near his hut. He also does a little hunting and fishing to get some of his food. Soon the riders start down a gully at the edge of the mesa. The gully leads from the higher land down into the valley. There are steep slopes on both sides of the gully. The riders pause in the gully for a few minutes to look out on the valley. Nearly all the land is covered with water as far as they can see. Almost the only land in sight is a small hill a short distance away. Small clumps of trees grow on the hill. The rancher's cattle have gone to the small hill to get away from the flood. Some of them can be seen from the gully. They are standing and grazing on the slopes of the hill. The cattle are on the low hill.

The men can see some of them from where they

are. But how can they get them?

All the land around the hill is covered with water.

First they must ride out to the hill to round them up. them back slowly through the water to the mesa.

Then they will drive

The riders start on, and soon the horses begin to splash through the water. The water is not deep, but the horses walk very carefully. In most places it comes Up only to their knees.

IBB Finally the riders reach the hill and begin to round up the herd. Most of the cattle are large, but somewhat bony. The rancher knows that his cattle will look very different before long, now that the rainy season has come. They'll begin to take on a little flesh. By and by they start to drive the cattle through the water. decides to drive them into a gully that leads to his sheep camp. good grass for them to eat in that part of the mesa.

The rancher There is fairly

The rancher has an old sheepherder who looks after his sheep. This man lives in a small grass hut near the edge of a thicket, or woods. His helper is a big, lanky dog, trained to drive the sheep here and there. The cattle walk along very slowly through the water. Someone rides back of the herd, and someone on each side. They shout and wave their hats to make the cattle go. Every now and then an animal stops or tries to go in the wrong direction. Finally they come to the gully, and drive the cattle slowly to higher land. After they reach the gully, the cattle cause little trouble. They seem to know where they should go. By the time this is done it is early afternoon, and thick clouds begin to gather in the sky, hiding the hot sun. The clouds become darker and darker, and a breeze begins to blow. Before long the breeze dies down, and it begins to rain. The men leave the cattle and ride swiftly to the herder's sheep camp. time they reach his hut they are soaking wet. The herder stands in the doorway, with his dog close beside him. the riders to come in out of the rain, as they jump to the ground.

By the

He calls to

The rains always come at this time of the year. The rains come and go, just as surely as the sun rises and sets

in the sky.

Some people may think that if they only could have rains during the dry season, they would have better pasture. But the rancher knows that they are better off with rains only part of the year. Their wet and dry seasons help to give them the grass. If they had rains the year round, they would have a jungle. Trees, vines, and many other plants tvould grow on the land instead of grass. While they are waiting, the sheepherder tells them about a jaguar that has attacked some of the sheep. The jaguar is a large animal, somewhat like a tiger. It is a bloodthirsty creature that kills other grassland animals for food. The herder tried to shoot him, but he got away. around there again if he knows what is good for him!

He had better not show up

Within a half hour or so the clouds begin to break in the sky, and the rain stops falling. Soon the sun appears and begins to shine across the land with dazzling brightness. When the rain is falling, the air is fairly cool. After therain, the air becomes steaming hot. There is no sign of a breeze.

however,

183 Finally the men mount their horses and ride back toward theranch house. The rancher plans to leave the cattle where they are for a few days. Then he will drive them to another part of the mesa. As they come near to the ranch house, the riders hear a loud voice calling, "Hello, hello." At first they think the voice is that of a little girl. But no, it isn’t a girl. It is a pet parrot that the rancher’s family has raised. They found the parrot when it was a baby bird and brought it to their home. There are many parrots in that part of the world. The riders climb down from their horses and walk toward They have moved the cattle from the flooded valley.

thehouse.

(Form CiX)

184

MOVING CATTLE FROM A FLOODED VALLEY

You know, of course, that some parts of the world have climates that are very different from ours. One region which is quite different from ours is the llanos, or plains, in South America. Part of this region lies in the country of Venezuela, which is only a little way north of the Equator, The rest of it is in other countries near by, in the northern part of South America, It is very hot all through the year in that faraway part of the world. People there live in little grass huts, or in ranch houses that have long porches on one side. They eat all their meals out on the porch, and may even sleep out there, in hammocks. A little lean-to or shedlike room at one side of the house iB used for cooking. Even though it is hot all the time, this region has two seasons in each year, a wet season and a dry season. For about half the year it rains almost every day. During the other half year it hardly rains at all. There are two main kinds of land in this region. In some places there are big, flat stretches of land, up high, which are called mesas. In others, such as river valleys, the land is down much lower. There may be milesand miles of low, level land stretching out along the sides of a river. These low plains are covered with grass, and in some places lonely trees grow on the land. The land on the mesas is covered with grass, too. But the grass up there is much coarser than that in the valley. There are scattered trees on the mesa, also, and in a few places there are small thickets, or woods. Where a mesa rises up from the valley, it has very steep sides. At the edge of the mesa are gullies that lead from the higher land down into the valley. There are steep slopes on both sides of a gully. Right next to the river in a valley the land is covered with dense trees and vines. That part is known as the jungle. Between the jungle and the high mesa lies the level valley grassland. Most people who live in the llanos region have their homes up on the mesas. During the rainy season the land in the lower valley is flooded when the river rises* The plains there may be covered with water as far as a person can see. Almost the only land in sight there will be a few small hills. Small clumps of trees sometimes grow on those low hills. Men in this region may be ranchers, and raise cattle and sheep. Their helpers are called vaqueros. They are cowboys who ride out from the ranch house each day to look after the herds of cattle, Vaqueros ride over the llanos on swift horses. Sometimes they drive the cattle across the plain toward a corral, which is only a little way from the ranch house. During the dry season the rancher1s cattle are left on the low land in the valley to graze. The best pasture during the dry season is found in the valley. When the wet season comes, the rancher and his vaqueros drive the cattle up to the higher land of the mesa. All through the wet season they are kept up there, away from the flood.

185 Then when "the dry season comes again, they are driven back down from the mesa into the valley, to the better grass. A rancher’s sheep can be pastured on the mesa all through the year. get along on poorer grass than the cattle can.

They can

When vaqueros ride out across the mesa, they follow little trails, toward the low valley of the river. There are no highways nor fences across the land. Where a trail passes close to a thicket,^or woods, the men may find a spring of cool water. The water of the spring bubbles from the earth and flows away in a little stream. Near to a spring like that you might see a round grass hut. Men who are called llaneros live in such places with their families. They may keep a few cows, goats, and chickens, and raise a few vegetables near their huts. They also do a little hunting and fishing to get some of their food. But most llaneros make a very poor living. When riders get to the edge of the mesa, they must go down through a gully to get down into the valley. Prom the gully they can look out on the valley. If the cattle have not been moved away from the lower land when the river starts to rise, they go to the small hills to get away from the flood. There they stand and graze on the slopes of the low hills. The ranch men then have to ride out to the hills and round up the cattle. drive them back slowly through the water to the mesa.

They

The water is not deep, but the horses walk very carefully as they splash through the water. In most places it comes up only to their knees. The cattle, too, walk along very slowly through the water. Someone rides back of the herd, and someone on each side. The men shout and wave their hats to make the cattle go. Every now end then an animal stops or tries to go in the wrong direction. When they come to the gully, they drive the cattle slowly up to the higher land. After they reach the gully, the cattle cause little trouble. They seem to know where they should go. The rancher takes his cattle to some part of the mesa where there is fairly good grass for them to eat. He leaves them there for a few days. Then he drives them to another part of the mesa. Most of the cattle in that region are large. But by the end of the dry season they may look somewhat bony. They will look very different in a short while, however, after the rainy season comes. They begin to take on a little flesh then. Some people think that if the llanos could have rains during the dry season, too, they would have better pasture. But the ranchers know that they are better off with rains only part of the year. Their wet and dry seasons help to give them the grass. If they had rains the year round, they would have a jungle. Trees, vines, and many other plants would grow on the land instead, of grass.

186 The rains always oome at the same time of the year. surely as the sun rises and sets in the sky.

They come and go, just as

In the early afternoon, almost every day during the wet season, thick clouds gather in the sky and hide the hot sun. The clouds become darker and darker, and a breeze begins to blow. Before long the breeze dies down, and then it begins to rain. A person who is outdoors at that time will get soaking wet. But within a half hour or so the clouds begin to break inthesky,andthe rain stops falling. Soon the sun appears and begins to shine across the land again with dazzling brightness.

the

While the rain is falling, the air isfairly cool. After the rain,however, air becomes steaming hot. There is no sign of a breeze then.

A rancher who raises sheep in this region usually has a sheepherder to look after his flock. The sheepherder lives in' a small grass hut on the mesa, near the edge of a thicket or woodB. Kis place is called the sheep camp. His helper is a big, lanky dog, trained to drive the sheep here and there. One thing a sheepherder must do is protect the flock from other animals that might attack them. The jaguar, for example, is a bloodthirsty creature that kills other grassland animals for food. The jaguar is a large animal, somewhat like a tiger. There are many parrots, also, in that part of the world. Sometimes a person there may find a parrot when it is still a baby bird and take it home, to raise it as a pet. Some of them can even be taught a few words which they can say. So not only the climate and the land, you see, but even some of the animals to be found in the llanos region are different from ours.

(Fora

Oth)

137

MOVING CATTLE FROM* A FLOODED VALLEY You know, of course, that some parts of the world hre very different from ours. Their weather may be different, and the kind of land they have. One "Llanos" flat and which is near by,

region which is quitA different from ours is the ll*anos in South America. is the Spanish word for plains (big stretches of ground which are mostly smooth). Part of this llanos region lies in the country of Venezuela, only a little way north of the Equator. The rest of it is in other countries in the northern part of South America.

It is very hot all through the year in that faraway part of the world. People there never have any winter, such as we do. They can live in little grass huts. Or they may live in ranch houses that have long porches on one side. Then they eat all their meals out on the porch, and may even sleep out there, in hammocks. A little lean-to or shedlike room at one side of the house is used for cooking. But even though it is hot all the time, the region we are talking about has two separate seasons in each year. They are a wet season and a dry season. So when the weather changes there, it is not from hot to cold, but from wet todry. For about half of the year it rains almost every day. During that season people expect the rain, and instead of saying they will do something tomorrow "at five o’clock," they may say they will do it tomorrow "after the rain.,r But during the other half of the year it hardly rains at all.For many weeks at a time not a drop of rainwill fall, and things get very dry. Most of the grass turns brown. /

In the llanos region there are two main kinds of land. In some places the flat plains are up high and are called mesas. "Mesa" is the Spanish word for table. These land mesas are really flat-topped hills, with very steep sides. They stand up higher than the other land around them, just as tables stand higher than the floor. In the edges of these mesas, where they rise up from the valley, are some gullies. The gullies are just rough ditches that lead from the higher land down into the valley. There are steep slopes on both sides of a gully. In the rest of the region, especially in the river valleys, the land is down much lower. Right next to the river in a valley the land is covered with dense trees and vines. That part is known as the jungle. The hot weather and the damp ground cause plants to grow quickly there. But between the jungle and the high mesas lie the big, broad valley grasslands. Here there are miles and miles of low, level land stretching out along the sides of the rivers. These smooth plains are covered with grass, and in some places lonely trees grow on the land. The land on the mesas is covered with grass, too. But the grass up there is much coarser than that- in the valleys. There are scattered trees on the mesas, and in a few places there are even small thickets, or woods. During the rainy overflows its .banks. see. Almost the only Small clumps of trees

season the land in the lower valley is flooded when the river Those plains .may be covered with water as far as a person can land in sighi*there will be a few small rises, or hills. may grow on some of those little hills.

180 People who live in the llanos region are generally ranchers, and raise cattle and sheep. Their helpers are called vaqueros. They are cowboys who ride out from the ranch house each day to look after the herds of cattle. Vaqueros ride over the llanos on swift horses. Sometimes theydrive the cattle across the plain toward a corral, which is only a little way from the ranch house, on the mesa. During the dry season the rancher18 cattle are left on the big plains in the valley to graze. The best pasture during the dry season is found in the valley. The land there stays damp a little longer, so the grass can stay green and fresh longer than grass on the mesa can. But in both places most of it turns brown before the dry season ends. When the wet season comes, the rancher and his vaqueros drive the cattle up to the higher land of the mesa. They have to be moved out of the way of the rising waters. All through the wet season they are kept up there, away from the flood. Then when the dry season comes again, they are driven back down'to the better grass in the valley. But a rancher's sheep can be pastured on the mesa all through the year. can get along on poorer grass than the cattle can.

They

When vaqueros ride their horses across the mesa, they follow little trails toward the low valley of the river. There are no highways nor fences across the land. There are not many people living there, to need fences or roads. Sometimes a trail passes close to a thicket, or woods, and the men may find a spriftg of cool water there. The water of a spring bubbles up from the earth and flows away in a little stream. Near to a spring like that you might see a round grass hut. Men who are called llaneros live in such places with their families. They may keep a few cows, goats, and chickens, and raise a few vegetables near their huts. They also do a little hunting and fishing to get some of their food. But most llaneros make a very poor living. Llaneros get their name, of course, from the fact that they live on the llanos. Had you already noticed how much the two words are alike? When riders get to the edge of the mesa, steep to go down. Usually they follow one of They can look out over the valley and see for

they must find a the gullies down many miles.

placethatisnot too intothelowervalley.

If the cattle have not been moved away from the lower land when the river starts to rise, they go to the little hills to get away from the flood. There they stand and graze on the slopes of the low hills. The ranch men then have to ride out drive them back slowly through the water

to the hills and round up the to the mesa.

The water is not deep, but the horses walk very carefully the water. In most places it comes up only to their knees.

cattle.

They

as they splash through

The cattle, too, walk along very slowly through the water. Someone rides back of the herd, and someone on each side. The men shout and wave their hats to make the cattle go. Every now and then an animal stops or tries to go in the wrong direction. When they come to the gully, they drive the cattle slowly up to the higher land. After they reach the gully, the cattle cause little trouble. They seem to know where they should go.

139 The rancher takes his cattle to some part of the mesa where he thinks there is fairly good grass for them to eat. He leaves his cattle in one place on the mesa for a few days, and lets them eat the good grass there. Then he drives them to another part of the mesa. Most of the cattle in the llanos region are large. By the end of the dry season, though, they may look somewhat bony. But after the rainy season comes, they begin to take on a little flesh. The fresh grass makes them look very different in a short while. Some people think that if the llanos could have rains during the dry season, too, they would have better pasture. They think that would keep the grass green all the time. But the ranchers there know that they are better year. Their weather is so hot all the time that they if they had rains the year round, too. Trees, vines, grow on the land, instead of grass. So their wet and them the grass.

off with rains only part of the would just have a big jungle, and many other plants would dry seasons really help to give

The rains in the llanos always come at the same time of the year. About the time our summer is beginning, their rainy season starts. Their rivers overflow, and thousands of square miles become flooded. But by the time our winter returns, their rainy season is gone and the llanos region is very dry again. These rains come and go each year, just as surely as our winters and summers do. In the early afternoon, almost every day during the wet season, thick clouds gather in the sky and hide the hot sun. The clouds become darker and darker, and a breeze begins to blow. Before long the breeze dies down, and then it begins to rain. A person who is outdoors at that time will get soaking wet. But within a half hour or so the clouds begin to break inthe sky,and the rain stops falling. Soon the sun appears and begins to shine across the land again with dazzling brightness.

it

While the rain is falling, the air is fairly cool. After the rain.,however, becomes steaming hot. There is no signof a breeze then.

A rancher who raises sheep in the llanos usually has a sheepherder to look after his flock. The sheepherder lives in a small grass hut on the mesa, where he has his sheep camp. His helper is a big, lanky dog, trained to drive the sheep here and there on the mesa. The coarse grass there is good enough for the sheep, in both seasons. One thing a sheepherder must do is protect the flock from other animals that might attack them. The jaguar, for example, is a bloodthirsty creature that kills other grassland animals for food. The jaguar is a large animal, somewhat like a tiger. There are many parrots, also, in that part of the world. Sometimes a person there may find a parrot when it is still a baby bird and takeit home, to raise it as a pet. Some of them can even be taught a few words which they can say. So not only the climate and the land, you see, but even some of the animals to be found in the llanos region are different from ours.

(Form mi)

X90

JACK FINDS SOME FOSSILS

Jack had to take a letter to Bill, the sheep herder. Bill lived in a sheep wagon in the mountains* He looked after the sheep that grazed on the mountain sides. When the sheep had eaten the grass froih one place, Bill moved his wagon and drove his sheep to another place. Then he let the sheep graze in the new place. Jack did not know just where he would find Bill. He rode Rat Tail along the mountain trails until he saw sheep grazing. Then he knew that Bill was somewhere near. Soon he saw Bill's sheep wagon near a stream of water. nHi, Bill," Jack shouted. Bill came to the door of his wagon and waved. "Hi, yourself, Jack.

Glad to see you."

Jack jumped off Rat Tail and ran to the wagon. "Here's a letter for you, Bill," he said, it might be important."

He handed Bill the letter.

"it came by air mail.

Dad thought

"Thanks, Jack," said Bill as he took the letter, "it's good to see someone again. I haven't talked to anyone but my dog for three weeks. I get lonesome up here sometimes." While Bill was reading his letter, Jack walked toward a stream that trickled down the mountain side. He noticed some unusual looking tracks in a rock and knelt down to look at them. "What queer looking tracks! They're in the rock. he asked, as Bill walked toward him.

What kind are they, Bill?"

"They are peculiar," answered Bill. "They look as if some animal had made them. But no animal I know anything about could make tracks that large." "I guess I'll ask Cowboy Hal to come up," said Jack. what kind of animal made them."

"Maybe he can tell us

The next day Cowboy Hal came to Bill's camp with Jack. When he saw the tracks in the rock, he exclaimed, "Say Jack! Those are fossils'. Perfect fossils! The best I ever saw!" "What's a fossil?" asked Jack. "A fossil may be a print of an animal or a plant that is left in a rock," Cowboy Hal explained. "It may even be the remains of an animal or plant that lived long ago. It may be large or small. Fossils that have been found seem to show that a long time ago some huge animals lived on the earth. They were larger than any animals living today. But finally they all died. Their skeletons were covered with mud and all that remains today is the print of their skeletons or tracks that were left when the mud hardened. You have found fossil footprints of one of those ancient animals. We'll see if we can find out about those animals in your new reference books." They rode back to the ranch and looked in Jack's new books. pictures of the ancient animals.

There were many

191 Whew1 , What enormous fellows they were!" cried Jack. "They must have been lots larger than elephants. And look at their names! The names are almost as big as the animals. Cowboy Hal, how do you say this name?11 Cowboy Hal told him how to say di-no—saur. "There were many kinds of dinosaurs,11 said Cowboy Hal, "just as there are now many kinds of birds and many kinds of fish. Here is a big fellow! This one is called a Bron-to-saur—u s . It means 'thunder lizard.'" "A Brontosaurus was so large," continued Cowboy Hal, "it could almost shake the ground when it moved* Can you imagine an animal seventy feet long, Jack? That's longer than our barn. And an animal seventy feet long must have weighed several tons!" Jack laughed. "I'd like to see an animal as big as our barn! it could even move!"

I don't see how

"As a matter of fact, dinosaurs couldn't move very fast," said Cowboy Hal, "They were the most stupid creatures you can imagine. At least, we think they were stupid. You see, no man ever saw one of these creatures." "Then how do we know they lived and what they looked like?11 asked Jack. "That's an interesting story," said Cowboy Hal. "When men first found tracks like those you found, they didn't know what animals had made them. They found foot­ prints, the printB of bones, and sometimes whole bones. At first people were not so curious about the prints. Finally there were some men who became very much interested in them. The prints told stories of ancient life. They dug into the ground and uncovered more prints. The men poured wax into the prints and when the wax was cold, they lifted it out. They found that the wax had been molded in the shape of bones. They kept on doing this until they had wax models of many of the bones and teeth of animals. Then they put them together. It was hard work and took a great deal of patience. But when all the models were put together, they looked like the skeleton of a huge animal. From those skeletons the pictures of dinosaurs in your books have been drawn." *1 wonder what kind of animal made the tracks I found," said Jack. these books tell me."

"None of

Jack sent to the library in town for some books about animals that lived long ago. The books had interesting pictures in them. They answered many o'f Jack's questions. They did not tell him which animal made the footprints. "The men who put the skeletons together had to imagine how the animals looked," Jack told Cowboy Hal. "Those men had to know a great deal about animals." "Yes, they knew that bones can not move without muscles to make them move," said Cowboy Hal, "so they put in models of muscles where muscles should be. They also knew that every animal has a covering to protect the muscles and bones. The men then imagined the kind of skin the big animals had. Usually they could tell from the bones whether the animals were fish or birds or land animals. Sometimes they had to guess." "I think I'll do some guessing about ray fossils," said Jack. story about them."

"I'll make up a

192

Why not write a letter to a man who knows a great deal about fossils?" suggested Cowboy Hal. "Perhaps he could tell you something about the footprints you found.11 This is the letter that Jack wrote. He sent it to a man who worked in a museum. Fossils of ancient animals were kept in the museum. Dear Sir: I found some fossils.

They look like this:

O Can you tell me what kind of animal of long ago made them? Yours truly, Jack Hill Jack was very much excited when he received this answer.

He read it to Cowboy

Hal. Dear Jack, Your letter concerning the fossils sounds very interesting. You may have found the prints of a rare animal. May I come to your ranch and look around for myself? Then I can tell you about your fossils and perhaps I can find some more. Sincerely yours, Joseph E. Peters "He'll come to our ranch!" cried Jack.

"Isn't that great?"

Jack wrote Mr. Peters a letter immediately and invited him to come to the ranch. A wee.k later Cowboy Hal and Jack rode to town to meet the train. When Mr. Peters stepped off the train, Jack said, "How do you do, Mr. Peters. I'm Jack Hill. I'm glad you came." "Thank you, Jack," said Mr, Peters as he took Jack's hand. "We'll have some fun exploring, I'm sure. We're partners right now. I hope we find a lot of fossils." Early the next morning, Jack, Cowboy Hal, and Mr. Peters rode off to Bill's camp* As soon as Mr. Peters saw Jack's fossils he said, "Those are some of the best fossils I have ever seen. I think they are the footprints of a dinosaur. Which dinosaur, I'm not sure. But I'll find out. Perhaps I can find more fossils. Then I can build a model of the animal as it used to be. "Here is a fossil of a tooth," he said, after he began exploring. is a fossil of part of the backbone.

"And this

193 "These prints look as if only one animal had made them. If that is so, we are very lucky. Often we find fossils of many animals in the same place. Then it is hard to separate the fossils and build the model of just one animal. This animal may have come here for water and died at this spot. Its skeleton was covered with mud. For ages and ages it has remained here in this same place. The prints of its bones were left in the mud. The mud finally turned into rock. The rock was covered with dirt. Finally water washed the dirt away from the rock and now we can see the fossils. "There were several kinds of dinosaurs," he explained. "One dinosaur was a plant eater. It was a very curious animal. It had two rows of large plates along its back. Its tail was probably used as a weapon against its enemies. "Some of the dinosaurs were flesh-eating animals. They had long teeth, big jaws, and thick necks. But their front legs were no larger than those of a man. We can tell when we have found a fossil of a flesh-eating animal because it had bones that were hollow. Hollow bones are light. They make it possible for an animal to leap through the air. This dinosaur could leap upon other animals and tear their flesh. "One kind of dinosaur is called the duck-billed dinosaur. There must have been a great many duck-billed dinosaurs. We have found many fossils of them. They ate plants. They are interesting because they had so many teeth. Some of them had as many as twenty-five hundred teethl" "Twenty-five hundredl" laughed Jack. "And I'll have only thirty-two when I'm grown. Myl what a lot of food those teeth could take care of I" "But what a lot of toothaches a duck-billed dinosaur could have had," laughed Mr, Peters. "Why aren't there dinosaurs on the earth now?" asked Jack. "There are different ideas about that," said Mr. Peters. "Scientists believe that dinosaurs were cold-blooded animals that had to live in a wet, warm country. They think the climate of the world may have changed while the dinosaurs were living. They think the dinosaurs may have died because they could not stand the change. "It seems also that many of the dinosaurs had poor teeth and could eat only the tenderest of plants. Some scientists think that the plant life may have changed. They think the dinosaurs may have died because they could not get enough food. "Many scientists believe that dinosaurs could not protect themselves. Dinosaurs were big and clumsy. They could not move fast. They were so awkward they could not fight all their enemies. "Another belief is that the dinosaurs may have been drowned by the seas which overflowed the land at one time." "Were dinosaurs the only animals that lived long ago?" asked Jack. "Ch, no," said Mr. Peters. fossils of them."

"There were many other animals.

We have found

"Fossils certainly tell interesting stories about animals," said Jack.

194 "Fossils tell interesting stories about plants, too,* said Mr. Peters. places fossils of plants have been found.

"In many

"It is certain that some plants which once grew on the earth have also disap­ peared. Some of them seem to have been enormous plants — much larger than any we have today. Most of them seem to have been large ferns. It is believed that these ferns grew in damp places, so close together that they looked like great forests. "When the plants died they were covered with mud. The leaves of the plants made prints in the mud. Many, many plants were pressed together. After years and years they formed coal. We find fossils of ferns and large plants in beds of coal. "The shells and bones of water animals were pressed together in the same way. After many, many years they formed limestone. These animals were mostly animals like snails, clams, and coral. Many such fossils may be found in limestone." Mr, Peters worked for days and days digging in the rocks. He put wax into every print that he found. The wax hardened and came out in the shape of bones. Then he made models of every bone print he had found. When he had finished, he said, wJack, you found fossils of one of the largest dinosaurs known. This animal was a Brontosaurus." "Ohi" cried Jack, "that’s the name Cowboy Hal and I found in i;.y book." "We have not found many fossils of this animal, but from those we have found, we know that it was huge," said Mr. Peters. "We have found most of the fossils in old lake beds. These animals had no way to protect themselves except to go into lakes. Then they could get away from their enemies, the flesh-eating dinosaurs. They had long, thin necks which made it possible for them to stay in deep water. They were different from the flesh-eating dinosaurs because theywalked on four feet. The flesh-eating dinosaurs walked on their two hind feet, and their two front legs were helpless. But they were all stupid creatures. "This is the best fossil of a Brontosaurus I have ever seen," he told Jack, "When I have packed it and taken it to the museum, I’ll put the bones together. I can construct the best Brontosaurus model in any museum. And you., Jack, are responsible for this fossil. You found the prints and wrote me about them. Sometime you must come to see me and I'll show you the other dinosaurs we have constructed from fossils, .You have been a fine little worker, Jack. Good-bye and good luck to you," Several months later Jack received a package from Mr. Peters. It contained a photograph of a model of the Brontosaurus as it had been put together at the museum. "Just think!" said Jack. "I discovered this Brontosaurus when I found those fossils up at Bill’s sheep camp!".

(Fona F s M )

195

YCU MIGHT FIND SOME FOSSILS

Have you ever had a chance to spend some time in the mountains? Whenever you do, be sure to walk around near the streams that trickle down the mountain sides. You may notice some unusual looking tracks in a rock. Kneel down and look at them. ’.Vhat queer looking tracks!

They're in the rock.

You will wonder what kind they

are. They are peculiar. They look as if some animal had made know anything about could make tracks so large.

them.

But noanimal we

If you were to ask a man who knows about such things, he could tell you that they are fossils. Maybe even perfect fossils, or the best he ever saw! Do you know what a fossil is? A fossil may be a print of an animal or a plant that is left in a rock. It may even be the remains of an animal or plant that lived long ago. It may be large or small. Fossils that have been found seem to show that a long time ago some huge animals lived on the earth. They were larger than any animals living today. But finally they all died. Their skeletons were covered with mud and all that remains today is the print of their skeletons or tracks that were left when the mud hardened. And you might find fossil footprints of one of those ancient animals. You could find out about those animals by looking in reference books. many pictures of the ancient animals.

There are

What enormous fellows they were! They were lots larger than elephants. And their names! The names are almost as big as the animals. How would you say this name? Di-no-saur. There were many kinds of dinosaurs, just as there are now many kinds of birds and many kinds of fish. There was one big fellow called a Bron-to-saur-us. It means "thunder lizard." A Brontosaurus was so large that it could almost shake the ground when it moved. Can you imagine an animal seventy feet long? That's longer than some barns are. And an animal seventy feet long must have weighed several tons! You might like to see an animal as big as a barn! could even move!

It is hard to see how it

As a matter of fact, dinosaurs couldn't move very fast. They were the most stupid creatures you can imagine. At least, we think they were stupid. You see, no man ever saw one of these creatures. Don't you wonder, then, how we know they lived and what they looked, like? That's an interesting story. When men first found such tracks, they didn't know what animals had made them. They found footprints, the prints of bones, and sometimes whole bones. At first people were not so curious about the prints.

198 Finally there were some men who became very much interested in them* The prints told stories of ancient life. They dug into the ground end uncovered more prints. The men poured wax into the prints and when the wax was cold, they lifted it out. They found that the wax had been molded in the shape of bones. They kept on doing this until they had waxmodels of many of the bones and teeth of animals. Then they put them together. It was hard work and took a great deal of patience. But when all the models were put together, they looked like the skeleton of a huge animal. From those skeletons the pictures of dinosaurs have been drawn. You would be sure to wonder what kind of animal made any tracks you found. perhaps none of the books you have at home will tell you.

And

In the libraries there are some books about animals that lived long ago. Those books have interesting pictures in them. They can answer many of your questions. But even there you may not find a book that will tell you which animal made the footprints The men who put the skeletons together have to imagine how the animals looked. Those men have to know a great deal about animals. They know that bones can not move without muscles to make them move, so they put in models of muscles where muscles should be. They also know that every animal has a covering to protect the muscles and bones. The men then imagine the kind of skin the big animals had. Usually they can tell from the bones whether the animals were fish or birds or land animals. Sometimes they have to guess. You might decide to do some guessing about your fossils. story about them.

You could make up a

Or would you like to write a letter to a man who knows a great deal about fossils' Perhaps he could tell you something about any footprints you have seen. This is the kind of letter you might write. You should send it to a man who works in a museum. Fossils of ancient animals are kept in museums. Dear Sir: I found some fossils.

They look like this:

O Can you tell me what kind of animal of long ago made them? You will be very much excited when you receive your answer. It may say something like this? Your letter concerning the fossils sounds very interesting. You may have found the prints of a rare animal. May I come there, too, and look around for myself? Then I can tell you about your fossils and perhaps I can find some more. You would be glad to invite him to come. You can have some fun exploring. will be partners and hope you find a lot of fossils.

You

197 A® soon as he has seen the fossils, the man from the museum may say that he thinks they arethe footprints of a dinosaur* Which dinosaur, he can’t be sure. But he’ll find out* Perhaps he can find more fossils. Then he can build a model of the animal as it used to be. Maybe h e ’ll find a fossil of a tooth, and a fossil of part of the backbone. The prints may look as if only one animal had made them. If that is so, the museum man is very lucky. Often men find fossils of many animals in the same place. Then it is hard to separate the fossils and build the model of just one animal. The animal may have come to the place for water and died at that spot. Its skeleton was covered with mud. For ages and ages it remained in the same place. The prints of its bones were left in the mud. The mud finally turned into rock. The rock was covered with dirt. Finally water washed the dirt away from the rock and now we can see the fossils. There were several kinds of dinosaurs. One dinosaur was a plant eater. It was a very curious animal. It had two rows of large plates along its back. Its tail was prbbably used as a weapon against its enemies. Some of the dinosaurs were flesh-eating animals. They had long teeth, big jaws, and thick necks. But their front legs were no larger than those of a man. We can tell when we have found a fossil of a flesh-eating animal because it had bones that were hollow. Hollow bones are light. They make it possible for an animal to leap through the air. This dinosaur could leap upon other animals and tear their flesh. One kind of dinosaur is called the duck-billed dinosaur. There must have been a great many duck-billed dinosaurs. Men have found many fossils of them. They ate plants. They are interesting because they had so many teeth. Some of them had as many as twenty-five hundred teethI Just think — twenty-five hundred! And you111 have only thirty—two when you're grown! What a lot of food those teeth could take care of! But what a lot of

toothaches aduck-billed dinosaur could have had!

Are you wondering

by this time why there aren't dinosaurs

on the earth now?

There are different ideas about that. Scientists believe that dinosaurs were cold-blooded animals that had to live in a wet, warm country. They think the climate of the world may have changed while the dinosaurs were living. They think the dinosaurs may have died because they could not stand the change. It seems also that many of the dinosaurs had poor teeth and could eat only the tenderest of plants. Some scientists think that the plant life may have changed. They think the dinosaurs may have died because they could not get enough food. Many scientists believe that dinosaurs could not protect themselves. Dinosaurs were big and clumsy. They could not move fast. They were so awkward they could not fight all their enemies. Another belief is that the dinosaurs may have been drowned by the seas which overflowed the land at one time. Of course dinosaurs were not the only animals that lived long ago. There were many other animals.

Men have found fossils of them.

193 You can see that fossils certainly tell interesting stories about animals. Fossils tell interesting stories about plants, too. plants have been found.

In many places fossils of

It is certain that some plants which once grew on the earth have also disap­ peared. Some of them seem to have been enormous plants —— much larger than any we have today. Most of them seem to have been large ferns. It is believed that these ferns grew in damp places, so close together that they looked like great forests. Vfoen the plants died they were covered with mud. The leaves of the plants made prints in the mud. Many, many plants were pressed together. After years and years they formed coal. We find fossils of ferns and large plants in beds of coal. The shells and bones of water animals were pressed together in the same way. After many, many years they formed limestone. These animals were mostly animals like snails, clams, and coral. Many such fossils may be found in limestone. When a fossil has been discovered, a man from a museum may work for days and days digging in the rocks. He puts wax into every print that he finds. The wax hardens and comes out in the shape of bones. Then he makes models of every bone print he has found. When he has finished, he can tell what kind of animal made the fossils. it was one of the largest dinosaurs known. It may have been a Brontosaurus.

Perhaps

That's the name you read a while ago. Men have not found many fossils of this animal, but from the ones they have found, we know that it was huge. They have found most of the fossils in old lake beds. These animals had no way to protect themselves except to go into lakes. Then they could get away from their enemies, the flesh-eating dinosaurs. They had long, thin necks which made it possible for them to stay in deep water. They were different from the flesh-eating dinosaurs because they walked on four feet. The flesh—eating dinosaurs walked on their two hind feet, and their two front legs were helpless. But they were all stupid creatures. When a good fossil of a Brontosaurus is found, men pack it and take it to the museum and put the bones together. They may be able to construct the best Bronto­ saurus model in any museum. And someone is responsible for each fossil, who found the prints and wrote to the museum about them* Sometime you must go to the museum and see the other dinosaurs that have been constructed from fossils. Maybe you can find a photograph of a model of a Brontosaurus as it has been put together at a museum. And just think! open for fossils!

You might even discover a Brontosaurus, if you keep your eyes

(Form FtX)

199

THE STORY OP FOSSILS

Of course you have seen animal tracks in snow, and probably in mud. you ever seen their tracks in solid rock?

But have

If so, you were looking at fossils. Perhaps you didn’t know that name for them, but you would be interested in such tracks. They may look as if some animal had made them, but it seems queer to find them in hard rock. And some of them are too large to have been made by any animal that we have ever seen. Fossils that have been found seem to show that a long time ago some huge animals lived on the earth. They were larger than any animals living today. But finally they all died. Their skeletons were covered with mud and all that remains today is the print of their skeletons or tracks that were left when the mud hardened. Fossils may be the prints of animals or plants that have been left in rock. They may even be the remains of an animal or plant that lived long ago. They may be large or small. When men first found fossil tracks, they didn’t know what animals had made them. They found footprints, the prints of bones, and sometimes whole bones. At first people were not so curious about the prints. Finally there were some men who became very much interested in them. They saw that the prints told stories of ancient life. They dug into the ground and uncovered more prints. The men poured wax into the prints and when the wax was cold, they lifted it out. They found that the wax had been molded in the shape of bones. They kept on doing this until they had wax models of many of the bones and teeth of animals. Then they put them together. It was hard work and took a greatdeal of patience. But when all the models were put together, they looked like the skeleton of a huge animal. From such skeletons the pictures of ancient animals have been drawn. There are many pictures of those ancient animals in reference books. They were enormous fellows — lots larger than elephants. And their namesI The names are almost as big as the animals. How would you say this name? Pi-no~8aur.

-

There were many kinds of dinosaurs, just as there are now many kinds of birds and many kinds of fish. One big fellow was called a Bron-to-saur-us. That means "thunder lizard.” A Brontosaurus was so large that it could almost shake the ground when it moved. Can you imagine an animal seventy feet long? That's longer than some barns are. And an animal seventy feet long must have weighed several tonsl You might like to see an animal as big as a barn. could even move.

It is hard to see how it

As a matter of fact, dinosaurs couldn't move very fast. And they were the most stupid creatures you can imagine. At least, we think they were stupid* You see, no man ever saw one of these creatures.

wo The men who put the skeletons together had to imagine how the animals looked. Those men had to know a great deal about animals. They knew that bones can not move without muscles to make them move, so they put in models of muscles where muscles should be. They also knew that every animal has a covering to protect the muscles and bones. The men then imagined the kind of skin the big animals had. Usually they could tell from the bones whether the animals were fish or birds or land animals. Sometimes they had to guess* If you ever find a fossil, of course you will wonder what kind of animal has made it. Library books about animals that lived long ago have interesting pictures in them* They can answer many of your questions. But they may not tell you which animal made certain prints. However, you might write a letter to a man who knows a great deal about fossils. Fossils of ancient animals are kept in museums. Perhaps a man who works in a museum can tell you something about any prints you find. A man like that is interested in hearing about fossils that are discovered. They may be the prints of a rare animal. Sometimes he will come to the place they were found and look around for himself. Perhaps he can find some more fossils there. Then he can build a model of the animal as it used to be. As soon as he has seen a certain fossil, the man from themuseum may thinks it is the footprint of a dinosaur. Which dinosaur, he can't be sure. But he'll find out, if he can find more fossils. Perhaps he

will find a fossil of

a tooth, or a fossil

ofpart of the

saythat he

backbone.

The prints may look as if only one animal had made them. If that is so, the museum man is very lucky. Often men find fossils of many animals in the same place. Then it is hard to separate the fossils and build the model of just one animal. Sometimes a fossil footprint is found in the rocks beside a stream of water that trickles down a mountain side. It may be that the animal went there for water and died at that spot. Its skeleton was covered with mud. For ages and ages it remained there in the same place. The prints of its bones were left in the mud. The mud finally turned into rock. The rock was covered with dirt. Finally water washed the dirt away from the rock and then the fossil could be seen. There were several kinds of dinosaurs. One dinosaur which was a very curious animal was a plant eater.. It had two rows of large plates along its back. Its tail was probably used as a weapon against its enemies. Some of the dinosaurs were flesh-eating animals. They had long teeth, big jaws, and thick necks. But their front legs were no larger than those of a man. Men can tell when they have found a fossil of a flesh-eating animal because it hadbones that were hollow. Hollow bones are light. They make it possible for an animal to leap through the air. This dinosaur could leap upon other animals and tear their flesh. One kind of dinosaur is called the duck-billed dinosaur. There .must have been a great many duck-billed dinosaurs. We have found many fossils of them. They ate plants. They are interesting because they had so many teeth. Some of them had as many as twenty-five hundred teeth.

201 Just think — twenty-five hundred! And you’ll have only thirty-two when y o u ’re grown. What a lot of food those teeth could take care ofj But what a lot of toothaches a duck-billed dinosaur could have had! One of the largest dinosaurs known was the Brontosaurus. read a while ago.

That’s the name you

Men have not found many fossils of this animal, but from the ones they have found, we know that it was huge. They have found most of the fossils in old lake beds. These animals had no way to protect themselves except to go into lakes. Then they could get away from their enemies, the flesh-eabing dinosaurs. They had long, thin necks which made it possible for them to stay in deep water. They were different from the flesh-eating dinosaurs because they walked on four feet. The flesh-eating dinosaurs walked on their two hind feet, and their two front legs were helpless* But they were all stupid creatures. Are you wondering by this time why there aren’t any dinosaurs on the earth now? There are different ideas about that. Scientists believe that dinosaurs were cold-blooded animals that had to live in a wet, warm country. They think the climate of the world may have changed while the dinosaurs were living. They think the dinosaurs may have died because they could not stand the change. It seems also that many of the dinosaurs had poor teeth and could eat only the tenderest of plants. Some scientists think that the plant life may have changed. They think the dinosaurs may have died because they could not get enough food. Many scientists believe that dinosaurs could not protect were big and clumsy. They could not move fast. They were so fight all their enemies.

themselves. Dinosaurs awkward they could not

Another belief is that the dinosaurs may have been drowned by the seas which overflowed the land at one time. Of course dinosaurs were not the only animals that lived

long ago.

There were many other animals.

them.

We have found fossils of

You can see that fossils certainly tell interesting stories about animals. Fossils tell interesting stories about plants, too. plants have been found.

In many places fossils of

It is certain that some plants which once grew on the earth have also disap­ peared. Some of them seem to have been enormous plants — much larger than any we have today. Most of them seem to have been large ferns. It is believed that these ferns grew in damp places, so close together that they looked like great forests. When the plants died they were covered with mud. The leaves of the plants made prints in the mud. Many, many plants were pressed together. After years and years they formed coal. We find fossils of ferns and large plants in beds of coal. The shells and bones of water animals were pressed together in the same way. After many, many years they formed limestone. These .animals were mostly animals like snails, clams, and coral. Many such fossils may be found in limestone.

When a fossil has been discovered, a man from a museum may work for days and days digging in the rocks. He puts wax into every print that he finds. The wax hardens and comes out in the shape of bones. Then he makes models of every bone print he has found. When he has finished, he can tell what kind of animal made the fossils. turn out to have been a Brontosaurus.

It may

When a good fossil is found, men pack it and take it to the museum and put the bones together. They may be able to construct the best model of that animal in any museum. Sometime you must go to a museum and see the dinosaurs that have been constructed from fossils. Maybe you can find some photographs of models as they have been put together at museums. And someone is responsible for each fossil, who found the prints and wrote to the museum about them. Just think! for fossils!

You might even discover a Brontosaurus, if you keep your eyes open

(Form Ftli)

SOS

THE STORY OF FOSSILS

Of course you have seen animal tracks in snow, and probably in mud. you ever seen their tracks in solid rock?

But have

If so, you were looking at fossils. Perhaps you didn't know that name for them, but you would be interested in such tracks. They may look as if some animal had made them, but it seems queer to find them in hard rock. And some of them are too large to have been made by any animal that we have ever seen. It is almost hard to believe that real animals could ever have left such prints. But fossils that have been found prove to us that a long time ago some huge animals lived on the earth. They were larger than any animals living today. Finally, however, those biggest animals all died. Their skeletons were covered with mud, and about all that remains today is the print of their skeletons, or some tracks that may have been left when the mud hardened. In some places, though, the bones them­ selves have been kept safe in old, dried mud. When fossils like that arefound, we can see the real bones of animals that lived here thousands of years ago. Fossils, then, may be the prints of animals — or of plants — that have been left in rock. Or they may even be the remains of an animal or a plant that lived long, long ago. They may be very large, or they may be quite small. When men first found fossil tracks, they didn't know what animals had made them. They found footprints, the prints of bones, and sometimes even whole bones. But at first people were not very curious about the prints. Finally there were some men who became very much interested in them. They saw that these prints could tell them stories of ancient life. They began to dig into the ground, and uncovered still more prints. The men poured wax into the prints and , after the wax was cold, they lifted it out. They found that the wax had been molded into the shape of bones. They kept on doing this until they had wax models of many of the bones and teeth of animals. Sometimes they were lucky enough to find the real bones or teeth. Finally they began to put the different parts together. It was hard work, of course, and took a great deal of patience. But when the models had been puttogether, they looked like the skeleton of a huge animal. From such skeletons, the pictures of ancient animals have been drawn. You can see many pictures of those ancient animals in reference books now. Many different kinds have been found. They weren't all large, of course. There were small animals then, too, just as there are today. Some were no bigger than our house cats, and some were even smaller. But some of them were enormous fellows — lots larger than elephants. In fact, an elephant beside one of those big ancient animals might seem no larger than a dog would today, if he stood by an elephant. And their names! The names seem almost as big as the animals themselves. For instance, how would you say this name? Di-no-saur.

204 There were many different kinds of dinosaurs, in the ancient days, just as there are now many kinds of birds and many kinds of fish. One big fellow was called a Bron-to- saur-us. His name means nthunder lizard.” You can notice how part of his name looks very much like part of the word ”dinosaur.” That shows us that he was a member of the big dinosaur family of animals, with his own special ’’first name." A Brontosaurus was so large that it could almost shake the ground when it moved. Can you imagine an animal seventy feet long? That’s longer than some barns are — which gives you an idea of his size. And you know that an animal seventy feet long must have weighed several tons] Do you think you would like to see an animal as big as a barn? see how it could even move. As a matter of fact, dinosaurs couldn’t move very fast. very large that they were actually clumsy.

It is hard to

Some of them were so

Arid they were the most stupid creatures that you can imagine. At least, we think they were stupid. Of course noman ever saw one of those creatures alive, to make sure. Since no one had ever seen them, the men who put the skeletons together had to imagine how the animals looked. Those men had to know a great deal about animals. They understood that bones can not move without muscles to make them move. So they filled in models of muscles where muscles need to be. They also knew that every animal has some kind of covering, to protect the muscles and bones. The men then imagined what kind of skin the big animals had. Usually they could tell from the bones whether the animals they found were fish or birds or land animals, because different kinds of animals have different kinds of bones. But sometimes they justhad to guess. If ever you find a fossil, of course you will wonder what kind of animal has made it. Library books about animals that lived long ago have interesting pictures in them. They can answer many of your questions. But they may not tell you which animal made certain prints. However, you might write a letter to a man who knows a great deal about fossils. Fossils of ancient animals are kept in museums, where people may go to look at them or study them. Perhaps a man who works in a museum can tell you something about the prints or bones you find.. A man like may turn out to place they were fossils there.

that is interested in hearing about fossils that are discovered. They be the prints of some rare animal. Sometimes he will come to the found and look around for himself. Perhaps he can find some more Then he can build a model of the animal as it used to be.

As soon as he has seen a certain fossil, the man from the museum may be able to tell what kind of animal it came from. Perhaps he will know that it is the footprint of a dinosaur. Which dinosaur, he probably can't be sure. But he’ll find out, if he can find more fossils to go with it. Maybe he will find a fossil of a tooth, or a fossil of part of the backbone. Each little piece or print can help him to decide.

805

The prints that are found in one place may look as if only one animal had made them. If that is so, the museum man is very lucky. Often, though, men find fossils from many different animals in the same place. Then it is hard to separate the fossils and*build a good model of just one animal. Suppose that you were to find a fossil footprint in some rocks — maybe beside a stream that trickles down the side of a hill or a mountain. How do you imagine it happened to be there, in the first place? tVe can't be sure, of course, but probably the animal that made it went there for water, and then may have died at that very spot. Itsskeleton, little by little,, was covered with mud. Then for ages and ages it remained in the same place. The prints of its bones were left in the mud, as it got dry and hard. Finally the mud turned into rock, and that rock may then have been covered over with new dirt. Later, after water happened to wash the dirt away from the rock, the fossils could be seen. There were several kinds of dinosaurs, in the ancient days. One dinosaur which was a very curious animal was a plant eater. It had two rows of large, bony plates that stood up sharply along its back. Its tail was probably used as a weapon against its enemies. Some of the other dinosaurs were flesh-eating animals. They had long teeth, big jaws, and thick necks. They were big animals that walked around on their two back feet. But their front legs were small — no larger than the legs of a man. Men can tell when they have found a fossil from a flesh-eating animal, because it had bones that were hollow. Hollow bones are light. They make it easier for an animal to leap through the air. This kind of dinosaur could leap upon other animals and then tear their flesh with its long teeth. One other kind of dinosaur has been named the duck-billed dinosaur. There must have been a great many duck-billed dinosaurs. We have found many fossils of them. They were one of the kinds that ate nothing but plants. They are interesting to us because they had so many teeth. Some of them had as many as twenty-five hundred teeth. Just think — twenty-five hundred] And you'll have only thirty-two when you're grown. What a lot of food that many teeth could take care ofi Of course, a duck­ billed dinosaur could have had a lot of toothaches, too. One the same

of the very largest dinosaurs we know about was the Brontosaurus. name you read a while ago.

That's

Men have not found many fossils of this animal, but from the ones they have found, we know that it was huge. They have found most of the fossils in old lake beds. These animals had no way to protect themselves except to go into lakes. They were too clumsy to move very quickly. But they had long, thin necks which made it possible for them to stay in deep water. There they could get away from their enemies, the flesh-eating dinosaurs. The Brontosaurus, you see, was another one of the plant-eating dinosaurs. They were different from the flesh-eating dinosaurs, also, because they walked on all four feet. The flesh-eating dinosaurs walked on their two hind feet, and their two front legs were helpless.

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But they were all stupid creatures. They never learned to do ar^ything that seems very bright, to us. They were not even very clever about taking care of themselves. Are you wondering by this time why there aren't any dinosaurs living on the earth now? There are different ideas about that. Some scientists believe that dinosaurs were cold-blooded animals that had to live in a wet, warm country. They think the climate of the world may have changed while the dinosaurs were living. They think the dinosaurs may have died because they could not stand the change. It seems also that many of the dinosaurs had poor teeth and could eat only the tenderest of plants. Some scientists think that the plant life may have changed. They think the dinosaurs may have died because they could not get enough food. Many scientists believe that dinosaurs could not protect themselves. Dinosaurs were big and clumsy. They could not move fast. They were so awkward they could not fight all their enemies. Another belief is that the dinosaurs may have been drowned by the overflowed the land at one time.

seas which

Those are some of the ideas that may help to explain why dinosaurs have all disappeared. We would not even know they had ever lived at all, if it weren't for fossils. Of course dinosaurs were not the only animals that lived long ago. many other animals. We have found fossils of them, too.

There were

You can see that fossils certainly tell interesting stories about animals. Fossils tell very interesting stories about plants, too. fossils of plants have been found.

In a great many places

It is certain, for example, that some plants which once grew on the earth have also disappeared. Some of them seem to have been enormous plants — much larger than any we have today. Most of them seem to have been large ferns. It is believed that these ferns grew in damp places, so close together that they looked like great forests. When the plants died, they too were sometimes covered with mud. The leaves and stems of the plants made prints in the mud. Many, many dead plants were pressed close together. After years and years they formed beds of coal. Today we find fossils of ferns and other large plants in beds of coal. The shells and bones of water animals were pressed together in much the same way. After many, many years they formed limestone, instead of coal. These animals were mostly animals like snails and clams and coral. Many fossils of such water animals may be found in limestone now. When an interesting fossil has been ^discovered, a man from a museum may work for days and days, digging in the rocks near by. He puts wax into every print that he finds. "When the wax hardens, he takes it out. Then he makes models of every print he has found.

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