Comparative Mysticism: An Anthology of Original Sources 0195143795, 9780195143799

Table of contents :
Comparative Mysticism
Contents
Contributors
General Editor's Introduction
I
II
Epistemological Considerations
Ill
Cultural, Religious, and Sociological Considerations
IV
Linguistic Considerations
Conclusion
Notes
Bibliography
Jewish Mysticism
1. An Introduction
2. Jewish Mysticism: Problems of Definition
3. The Functionalist Approach
4. Historical Development of Jewish Mysticism
5. Jewish Mysticism: General Characteristics
6. The Anabatic Model
7. The Katabatic Model
8. The Status of Mystical Union
Notes
Selection 1: Ascending to Heaven
Selection 1(a): Mystical Ascent to Heaven
Ma'aseh Merkavah
Selection 1(b): In the World Above
Selection 2: Knowledge of Human Power and the Divine Reality
Selection 2
Text and Commentary
Notes
Notes
Notes
Notes
Notes
SECTION 129
Notes
Notes
Notes
Notes
SECTION 133
Notes
SECTION 134
Notes
SECTION 135
Notes
SECTION 136
Notes
SECTION 137
Notes
SECTION 138
Notes
Selection 3: The Sefirot—The Divine Emanations
Selection 3 Explanation of the Ten Sefirot
Notes
Selection 4: Revelation and the Giving of the Torah
Selection 4
All of Israel Saw the Letters
Selection 5: Language and Meaning
Selection 5
Selection 6: The Many Meanings of the Torah
Selection 6
The Old Man and the Beautiful Maiden
Selection 7: The Mystical Sabbath
Selection 7
The Secret of Sabbath
Selection 8: The End of Exile and the Future Redemption
Selection 8 God, Israel, and Shekbinah
Selection 9: Divine Emanation and the Names of God
Selection 9 Introduction
Note
Selection 10: The Essential Quality of God Is Mercy
Selection 10
Note
Selection 11 : The Mystery of Sexuality
Selection 11
Chapter VI: The Fifth Way
Selection 12: Meditation and Other Mystical Techniques
Selection 12(a): Meditation Meditation
Selection 12(b): Preparing for Mystical Experience
Preparing for Mystical Experience
Selection 12(c): Meditations on the Morning Service
Meditations on the Morning Service
Selection 12(d): The Combination of Letters
The Combination of Letters
Selection 12(e): Breathing Exercises
Breathing Exercises
Selection 12(f): Breathing Exercises and Hebrew Letters
Breathing Exercises & Hebrew Letters
Selection 12(g): Shaking of One s Head
Shaking of One’s Head
Selection 12(h): Weeping Weeping
Selection 12(i): Crying to God Crying to God
Selection 12(j): Prayers and Tears Prayers and Tears
Selection 12(k): Meditation and Colors
Meditation & Colors
Selection 13: Clinging to God—Devekut
Selection 13(a): Clinging to God Clinging to God
Selection 13(b) : A Linking of Souls A Linking of Souls
Selection 13(c): Cleaving to the Shechinah
Cleaving to the Shechinah
Selection 13(d): Devekut and the Performance ofMitzvot
Devekut and the Performance of Mitzvot
Selection 13(e): Devekut and Sexual Union
Devekut and Sexual Union
Selection 13(f): Devekut and Worship
Devekut and Worship
Selection 13(g): Loving Relation with God
Loving Relation with God
Selection 13(h): Devekut and Torah Study
Devekut and Torah Study
Selection 14: Mystical Experience
Selection 14
Selection 15: Mystical Union
Selection 15(a): Intellectual Mystical Union
Intellectual Mystical Union
Selection 15 (b) : Loss of Self Loss of Self
Selection 15 (c) : The Annihilation of Selfhood
The Annihilation of Selfhood
Selection 15(d): Reunification of the Self and God
Reunification of the Self and God
Selection 15 (e) : Unto Mystico, Torah, and Mitzvot
Unto Mysticoy Torah, and Mitzvot.
Selection 16: Mystical Actions That Create Mystical Experience
Selection 16
Pronouncing the Divine Names and Meeting God
Selection 17: Mystical Prayer
Selection 17
Come, My Beloved
Selection 18: A Mystical Love Song
Selection 18
Selection 19: Ethical Behavior and Mystical Experience
Selection 19
The Gate of Holiness
The Gate of Love
Selection 20: Heavenly Tutors
Selection 20
The Communications of The Heavenly Mentor to Rabbi Joseph Karo
/
Selection 21 : Mystical Ascents
Selection 21 Mystical Ascents
Selection 22: The Mystical Master—the Zaddik
Selection 22 /
Selection 23: Reincarnation
Selection 23(a): Good, and Evil and Reincarnation
Reincarnation, Good, and Evil
Selection 23(b): Reincarnation and Human Action
Reincarnation and Human Action
Selected Bibliography for Further Reading
Christian Mysticism
An Introduction
Notes
Selection 1 : Mystical Prayer and Preparation
Selection 1(a): Asceticism and “Evil Thoughts”: Evagrius Ponticus
The Hundred Chapters
Spiritual Exercises
Selection 1 (c): The Dark Night of the Senses in John of the Cross
A. The Ascent of Mount Carmel
B. The Dark Night
The Dark Night
Selection 1 (d): Mystical Purgation in Marie of the Incarnation
Selection 2: Biblical Interpretation
Selection 2(a): A Mystical Reading of the Song of Songs
Selection 2(a)
2. The Theme of the Song of Songs
3. The Place of the Song of Songs among the Works of Solomon
Selection 2(b) “Three Kisses”
Selection 2(b)
Sermon 3
Selection 3: Prayer and Itineraries of the Path to God
Selection 3(a). Richard of Saint Victor on the Varieties of Contemplation
Chapter I
Chapter II
Chapter V
Selection 3(b): Bonaventure on the Stages in the Ascent to God
Here begins the reflection of the poor man in the desert Chapter One
On the stages of the ascent into God and on contemplating him through his vestiges in the universe
Selection 3(c): Marguerite Porete s Seven Stages of Ascent
Chapter 118: Of the seven stages of the pious Soul, which are elsewhere called states
Selection 3(d): Mystical Prayer in Teresa of Avila
Chapter XI
Chapter XIV
Chapter XVI
Chapter XVIII
Selection 3(e): The Jesus Prayer
Chapter 1
Chapter II
Selection 4: Accounts of Direct Consciousness of God
Selection 4(a): “Seeing” and “Touching” God in Augustine of Hippo
Selection 4(b) : The Vision of Saint Benedict
Peter
Gregory
Selection 4(c): Mystical Illumination: Symeon the New Theologian
Discourse 16
Selection 4(d): Seeking the Divine Lover: Bernard of Clairvaux
Selection 4(e): Mystical Elevations in Angela of Foligno
Memorial. Chapter IX
Selection 4(f): Ecstatic Experience in Richard Rolle
Prologue
Chapter 15
Selection 4(g) : The “Wound” of Love in Teresa of Avila
Selection 4(h): Pascals Encounter with the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob
Selection 5: Attaining God
Selection 5(a): The Endless Pursuit of God
Eternal Progress
Selection 5(b): Dionysius and the Absolute Mystery of the Divine
Chapter One
Selection 5(c): Mystical Union 1. William of Saint-Thierry
Selection 5(d): Mystical Union 2. Meister Eckhart
Selection 5(e): Mystical Union 3. John Ruusbroec
Part Three: Union without Difference
Selection 6: The Role of the Trinity
Selection 7 : Encountering Christ
Selection 7(a): Erotic Embrace
Selection 7(b): Visions of the Suffering Christ
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Selection 7(c) : An Ambiguous Encounter with Jesus
Selection 8: The Effects of the Mystical Encounter
Selection 8(a): Mystical Experience and Compassionate Action
Part II
Selection 8(b): Love of Neighbor as Mystical Demand
The Dialogue, Chapter 64
Selected Bibliography for Further Reading
Sufism
An Introduction
Selection 1: Mystical Preparations
Selection 1(a): Mystical Training
Instructions to a Postulant
Selection 1 (b): The Structure of the Path
Notes
Selection 2: Mystical Techniques
Selection 2(a): Samd’ (Listening to Poetry and Music,
Dance Rituals)
Chapter on the Audition of Poetry» etc.
Chapter on the Principles of Audition
Chapter on the Various Opinions Respecting Audition
Chapter Concerning Their Different Grades in the Reality of Audition
Chapter on Dancing, etc.
Chapter on the Rending of Garments (fi T-kharq)
Chapter on the Rules of Audition
Selection 2(b): Mystical Music
Notes
Selection 3: The Interpretation of Mystical Texts by Mystics
Selection 3(a): The Esoteric Meaning of the Qur’ân
Selection 3(b): Ecstatic Utterances
Chapter 123 of The Book of Flashes*. The Shathiyät That Have Been Passed Down from Abu Yazid (of Which Junayd Has Explicated a Part)
Chapter 124: The Chapter on the Recalling of What Was Passed Down from Abu Yazid (God Most High Grant Him Compassion)
Chapter 12$: Another Chapter on the Interpretation of an Account That Has Been Passed On Concerning Abu Yazid May Allah Have Compassion on Him
Chapter 126: Another Chapter on the Explanation of Words Related from Abu Yazid May Allah, the Exalted, Have Compassion on Him
Selection 4: The Nature of the Spiritual Master or Shaykh
Selection 4
Letter 5 : Searching for a Spiritual Guide
Letter 6: The Qualifications of a Sheikh
Selection 5: On Language
Selection 5(a): The Language of Love
Section
Section
Section
Selection 5(b): The Nature of Words
Dig a Hole in this Book
Selection 5(c): Words and Text
A Mouse and a Frog
The Long String
Notes
Selection 6: On Prayer, Charity, and Morality
Selection 6(a): Prayer and Morality
Khwaja "Abdullah Ansari
The Song of the Dervish
Selection 6(b): Prayer and Actions
On Resurrection Day
Notes
Selection 7: Mystical Union and Ineffability
Selection 7
Hie Valley of Poverty [Faqr] and Nothingness [Fan&’]
The Moths and the Flame
The sufi who thought he had left the world
Notes
Selection 8: The Understanding of God
Selection 8
Chapter XV
Notes
Selected Bibliography for Further Reading
Hinduism
An Introduction
The Vocabulary of Hindu Mysticism
The History of Hindu Mysticism
The Typology of Hindu Mysticism
Selection 1: The Issue of Ineffability
Selection 1(a): The Inexpressible Nature of Brahman
Selection 1(a)
The All-Conditioning Yet Inscrutable Brahman Is the Agent
The Paradox of the Inscrutability of Brahman
Selection 1(b): Madhva on the Inexpressible Nature of Brahman
Selection 1(b)
Selection 1(c): Sankara on the Inexpressible Nature of Brahman
Selection 1(c)
£aAkara’s Gloss
Note
Selection 2 Mystical Training
Selection 2(a): The Mystical Self The Mystical Self
Selection 2(b): Mystical Understanding
Second Adhyäya First Brahmaqa
Second Brähmana
Third Brahmana
Eighth Khanka
Ninth Khanda
Tenth Khan4a
Eleventh Khanka
Twelfth Khan4a
Thirteenth Khanka
Fourteenth Khanka
Fifteenth Khaju^a
Sixteenth Khandna
Selection 3: Mystical Techniques
Selection 3(a): Fixing the Mind on the Lord
Selection 3(b): Finding the Self
Selection 4: The Understanding of Language
Selection 4(a): Attribution and Negation Selection 4A
Brahman is beyond speech and thought
Brahman is the source of all activity
Notes
Selection 4(b): A Description of the Experience of God
Chapter XI Arjuna
Krishna
Sanjaya
Arjuna
Krishna
Sanjaya
Arjuna
Krishna
Sanjaya
Aijuna
Krishna
Notes
Selection 5: The Interpretation of Mystical Texts by Mystics
Selection 5
Notes
Selection 6: Experience of Loss of Self by Two Women
Selection 6(a): Mirâbâi on Krsna
Krishna’s Bride
Selection 6(b): Lallä on Realization
A Spiritual Experience
Notes
Selection 7: The Nature of the Mystical Master
Selection 7
An Experience in Cosmic Consciousness
Selection 8: Community, Prayer, Morality, and God: Four Selections from The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
Selection 8
April 9,1882
October 28,1882
June 4,1883
Notes
Selection 9 UnioMystico
Selection 9: Ramakrsna’s Experience of the Transcendental Trance
Notes
Selected Bibliography for Further Reading
Buddhism
An Infroduction
The Buddha
Buddhist Scriptures
Tibetan Buddhism
Buddhism in East Asia
Buddhism in Southeast Asia
Buddhist Mysticism
Notes
Selection 1: Mystical Training
Selection 1 (a): The First Sermon
Selection 1(b): Training the Mind
Selection 1(b)
Selection 1(c): All Good Qualities Depend on the Perfection of Wisdom
Selection 1(c)
Selection 1 (d) : The Bodhisattva Works Alone
Selection 1(d)
Selection 1 (e): The Bodhisattva Is Unconcerned with Worldly Things
Selection 1(e)
Selection 1(f): Developing Compassion
Selection 1(f)
Selection 1(g): Why the Path and Result Meditation Technique
Is Superior
Selection 1(g)
Selection 1 (h): Chinul on Sudden and Gradual Awakening
Selection 1(h)
Selection l(i): The Mu Köan
Selection l(i)
Notes
Selection 2: Mystical Techniques
Selection 2(a): The Four Concentrations
Selection 2(a)
Selection 2(b): The Four Mindful Establishments
Selection 2(b)
Selection 2(c): The Mental Attitude of Bodhisattvas
Selection 2(c)
Selection 2(d) : Samatha and Vipafyanâ
Selection 2(d)
Selection 2(e) : Visualizing Oneself as a Deity
Selection 2(e)
Selection 2(f): Instructions on the Practice of Zazen
Selection 2(f)
Notes
Selection 3: Interpretation of Texts
Selection 3(a): Guidelines for Evaluating Teachings
Selection 3(a)
Selection 3(b): Interpretable and Definitive Teachings
Selection 3(b)
Selection 3 (c) : Another Way of Differentiating Interpretable and Definitive Teachings
Selection 3(c)
Selection 3(d): Interpretable and Definitive Doctrines
Selection 3(d)
Selection 3(e): The Uselessness of Omniscience
Selection 3(e)
Selection 3(f): Words Are Necessary
Selection 3(f)
Notes
Selection 4: The Guru
Selection 4(a): Praise of the Buddha
Selection 4(a)
Selection 4(b) : Be Your Own Refuge
Selection 4(b)
Selection 4(c): Extracting the Essence
Selection 4(c)
Selection 4(d): Guru Yoga
Selection 4(d)
Selection 5: Language
Selection 5(a): Types of Language
Selection 5(a)
Selection 5(b): Seventy Verses on Emptiness
Selection 5(b)
Note
Selection 6: Ineffability
Selection 6(a): WrongViews
Selection 6(a)
Selection 6(b): The Heart of Perfect Wisdom Discourse
Selection 6(b)
Selection 6(c): The Buddhas Teachings
Selection 6(c)
Notes
Selection 7: The Buddhist Community
Selection 7(a) : Origins of the Buddhist Community
Selection 7(a)
Selection 7(b): Ordination of Women
Selection 7(b)
Selection 7(c): Why Bodhisattvas Are Superior to Hearers
Selection 7(c)
Selection 7(d): There Is No Comparison between Bodhisattvas
and Hearers
Selection 7(d)
Selection 7(e): On the Differences between Sutra and Tantra
Selection 7(e)
Selection 7(f): Dogen on the Monastic Community
Selection 7(f)
Notes
Selection 8: Charity and Morality
Selection 8(a): The Buddha’s Moral Character
Selection 8(a)
Selection 8(b): The Generosity of Bodhisattvas
Selection 8(b)
Selection 8(c): The Bodhisattva Is a Great Hero
Selection 8(c)
Selection 8(d): The Benefits of the Perfection of Wisdom
Selection 8(d)
Selection 8(e): How a Bodhisattva Should Act in Difficult Situations
Selection 8(e)
Selection 8(f): Bodhisattvas Are Celibate
Selection 8(f)
Notes
Selection 9: Self and No-Self
Selection 9
Selection 10: God, Gods, and Ultimate Reality
Selection 10(a): Buddhas Are Wiser Than Gods
Selection 10(a)
Selection 10(b): The Notion of God Is Untenable
Selection 10(b)
Selection 10(c): The Dalai Lama on Tantric Deities
Selection 10(c)
Selection 10(d): Ultimate Truth (Paramärtha)
Selection 10(d)
Selection 10(e): Discourse on Suchness
Selection 10(e)
Selection 10(f); Buddha-Nature
Selection 10(f)
Selection 10(g): Everything Is Mind-Only
Selection 10(g)
Selection 10(h) : Cyclic Existence and Nirvana Are Not Different
Selection 10(h)
Selection 10(i) One Mind
Selection 10(i)
Notes
Selection 11 : Mystical Union
Selection 11(a): Nirvana
Selection 11(a)
Selection 11(b): The Joy of Release
Selection 11(b)
Selection 11 (c) : Characteristics of Omniscient Persons
Selection 11(c)
Selection 11 (d) The Stage of Completion
Selection 11(d)
Notes
Selected Bibliography for Further Reading
Confucianism and Daoism
An Introduction
Selection 1 (a): Explaining the Diagram of the Great Ultimate
The Great Ultimate
Selection 1 (b): The Meaning of the Great Ultimate
Selection 1 (c): Laozi and the Dao
Selection 1 (d): On the Transformation of Laozi
Selection 2: The Interpretation of Mystical Texts
Selection 2(a): The Doctrine of the Mean
Selection 2(b) : A Reading of the Daodejing
Chapter 6: Image Complete
Chapter 10: Can You?
Selection 3: The Issue of Language and Ineffability
Selection 3 (a) : Making All Things Equal
Selection 3(b): Joining the Ineffable
1. Western Ascension
2. The Depth of the Tao
13. Scriptures and Precepts
14. Deep and Wonderful
37. Good and Evil
38. Serene Intention
Selection 4: The Self in Mystical Experience
Selection 4(a): Growing toward Enlightenment
Selection 4(b): Souls and Demons
Selection 4(c): The Gods in the Energy Centers
Selection 5: Mystical Training
Selection 5 (a) : Learning the Way In Ordinary Life
In Virtues
Selection 5(b): Hermit Practice
1. Cloistered Residence
2. Wandering Like the Clouds
3. The Study of Texts
4. The Preparation of Medicines
5. On Construction
6. Companions in the Tao
Selection 6: The Nature of Community and Ethics
Selection 6(a): The Rules of the White Deer Hollow Academy
Selection 6(b): Basic Rules and Punishments
Selection 7: Mystical Techniques
Selection 7(a): Quiet-Sitting
Selection 7(b): Concentrations Concentrations
Selection 7(c): Visualizations
Selection 7(d): Elixirs
Selection 8: The Nature of the Master
Selection 8(a): Master Mingdao
Selection 8(b): The Daoist Sage
Selection 9: Unio Mystica
Selection 9(a): All Is One
Selection 9(b): Celestial Splendor
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Ten
Selected Bibliography for Further Reading
Native American Mystical Traditions
An Introduction I
II
Method and Indeterminacy in Indigenous Mysticism
Ill
Academic Studies in Mysticism and Indigenous Peoples
IV
Notes
Selection 1: Becoming a Shaman
Selection 1
Selection 2: Visionary States
Selection 2
Selection 3: Cosmic Ritual
Selection 3
Hä’Mats’a Song of the Lau’Itsis
Hä’Mats’a Song of the Koskimo
Secret Song of the Hä’mats’a Who Carries a Corpse.—Awi’k’enôx
Feast Song Used in a Feast Given in Honor of the Hä’mats’a
Feast Song Used in a Feast Given in Honor of the Hä’mats’a
Hä’Mats’a Song» La’Lasiqoala
Selection 4: The Acquisition of Sacred Powers
Selection 4
Selection 5: Lifeway Mysticism
Selection 5
Selection 6: Nature Mystical Experiences
Selection 6
Selection 7 : Prayer of a Shaman
Selection 7
Ceremony on Harney Peak
Selection 8: Visionary Experience
Selection 8
The First Vision
Selection 9: Healings
Selection 9
Selection 10: The Environment
Selection 10
An Iroquois Perspective
Selection 11 : Sacred Forces
Selection 11
Selection 12: Sacred Nature
Selection 12
Selection 13: Tragic Human Existence
Selection 13
Selection 14: Sacred Presences
Selection 14
Selection 15: Loss
Selection 15
Selection 16: Heroic Birth and Death
Selection 16
Selection 17: The Human Condition
Selection 17
Selection 18: The Sage
Selection 18
The Ideal Image of the Nahuatl Sage1
Notes
Selection 19: Shamans and Disciples
Selection 19
Selection 20: Meeting the Ancestors
Selection 20
ATellerinTime
Selection 21: The Mystical Character of the Natural World
Selection 21
Selection 22: Gaining Power
Selection 22
Selection 23: Folk Healers
Selection 23
Selection 24: Folk Healing
Selection 24
Selected Bibliography for Further Reading

Citation preview

Comparative Mysticism

Comparative Mysticism A n A nthology o f O riginal Sources

EDITED

BY

Steven T. K atz

OXTORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

OXFORD v UNIVERSITY PRESS Oxford University Press is a department o f the » University o f Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective o f excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam H ong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur M adrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto W ith offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark o f Oxford University Press in the U K and certain other countries. Published in the U nited Sûtes o f America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, N Y 10016 © Oxford University Press 2013 All rights reserved. N o part o f this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing o f Oxford University Press, or as expressly perm itted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope o f the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above. You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer. Comparative mysticism : an anthology o f original sources / edited by Steven T. Katz, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-19-514379-9 (hardcover : acid-free paper) 1. Mysticism—History—Sources. I. Katz, Steven T , 1944BL625.C657 2013 204’. 2 2 0 9 -d c 2 2 2010020299

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed in the United States o f America on acid-free paper

Preface

This anthology o f original mystical sources has been created in order to provide students at all levels with a reliable, wide-ranging, methodologically sophisticated, philosophically and logically coherent introduction to the complex subject at hand. Each individual section, rep­ resenting a different major mystical community, has been edited by an expert on the particu­ lar tradition under review. These section editors have provided helpful introductions to the traditions for which they were responsible; have selected the primary texts to be included in this collection; and have compiled useful, if brief, bibliographies o f primary and secondary sources for further study. These bibliographies include some older as well as more recent titles. Readers will also note that in a few cases more recent translations o f the works from which the selections included in this volume have been taken have appeared. Because the nuances raised by these translations in no way affect the quality o f the present collection, nor the arguments regarding the contextual interpretations of mystical experience that it is ad­ vancing, the translations first chosen have been retained. The selection o f texts has followed certain broad guidelines suggested by the volume s editor. As the editor, I would like to thank all my coworkers in this project. They have all done their work with great skill and much courtesy. I would also like to thank my editor at Oxford University Press, Cynthia Read, for all her help and patience while the project was being produced. In addition, a major debt is owed to Charlotte Steinhardt at Oxford, without whose help this volume would never have appeared. Late on the projects production, Ms. Leslie Johnson was very helpful in assuring that the book finally appeared. And for this I am very grateful. Closer to home, I want to acknowledge, with gratitude and appreciation, the invaluable help o f Pagiel Czoka, the administrative assistant at the Elie Wiesel Center for Judaic Studies at Boston University. As usual, she has done everything needed, and more, to make this book a reality. Lasdy, I would like to acknowledge the multifaceted assistance of my wife, Rebecca, without whose efforts this volume would still be forthcoming. Steven T. Katz, editor

Contents

Contributors General Editor s Introduction Steven T. Katz

xxi

3

JU D A IS M Selector: Moshe Idel, Hebrew University Jewish Mysticism: An Introduction Selections:

1. Ascending to Heaven (a) Mystical Ascent to Heaven M aaseh Merkavah (b) In the World Above Pirkei Hekhalot Rabbati

25 25 36 36

57

2. Knowledge o f Human Power and the Divine Reality The Book ofB ahir

58

3. The Sefirot—The Divine Emanations Explanation o f the Ten Sefirot

65

4. Revelation and the Giving o f the Torah “All o f Israel Saw the Letters” from the Zohar (The Book o f Radiance)

70

5. Language and Meaning

71

Zohar, 2:99 a-b 6. The Many Meanings o f the Torah “The O ld Man and the Beautiful Maiden,” from the Zohar

72

7. The Mystical Sabbath “The Secret o f Sabbath,” from the Zohar 8. The End o f Exile and the Future Redemption

78 79

“God, Israel, and Shekhinah? from the Zohar 9. Divine Emanation and the Names o f God R. Joseph Gikatilla, Shaarei €Orah (The Gates o f Light), “Introduction”

88

C ontents

viii

10. The Essential Quality o f God Is Mercy R. Joseph Gikatilla, Shaarei *Orah (The Gates o f Light), "The First Sphere" 11. The Mystery o f Sexuality The Holy Letter, attributed to R. Moses ben Nahman 12. Meditation and Other Mystical Techniques (a) Meditation R. Hai Gaon (b) Preparing for Mystical Experience (c) (d) (e) (f ) (g) (h)

Abraham Abulafia Meditations on the Morning Service R. Alexander Susskind o f Grodno The Combination o f Letters Abraham Abulafia Breathing Exercises Abraham Abulafia Breathing Exercises and Hebrew Letters Abraham Abulafia Shaking o f O nes Head Abraham Abulafia Weeping Midrash, Ecclesiastes Rabbah

(i) Crying to God Anonymous, Perakim be-Hazlachah, sometimes attributed to R. Moses ben Maimon (j) Prayers and Tears R. Abraham ha-Levi (k) Meditation and Colors R. Moses Cordovero 13. Clinging to God—Devekut (a) Clinging to God R. Ezra o f Gerona

93

98 100 101 101 102 103 104 104 105 105 105

105 106 106 106

(b) A Linking of Souls R. Menachem Recanati

107

(c) Cleaving to the Shechinah R. Menachem Recanati

107

(d) Devekut and the Performance o f M itzvot R. Azriel o f Gerona

107

(e) Devekut and Sexual Union

107

Anonymous, The Holy Letter, traditionally attributed to R. Moses ben Nahman

C ontents

ix

(f) D evekut and Worship R. Meir ibn Gabbay

108

(g) Loving Relation with God R. David ibn Zimra

108

(h) Devekut and Torah Study R. Chaim Vital

108

14. Mystical Experience Anonymous text, attributed to a student o f Abraham Abulafia 15. Mystical Union (a) Intellectual Mystical Union Abraham Abulafia (b) LossofSelf R. Isaac o f Acre (c) The Annihilation o f Selfhood R. Levi Yitzchak o f Berditchev (d) Reunification o f the Self and God R. Schneur Zalman o f Liadi (e) Unio Mystico, Torah, and Mitzvot R. Nachman o f Bratzlav 16. Mystical Actions That Create Mystical Experience R. Yehudah Albotini, Sefer Sullam ha-Aliyah 17. Mystical Prayer Lakha D odi, “Come, My Beloved” 18. A Mystical Love Song R. Isaac Luria, H ym n

108 114 114 115 115 115 116 116 126 127

19. Ethical Behavior and Mystical Experience R. Elijah de Vidas, Reshit Hokhmah (The Beginning o f Wisdom)

127

20. Heavenly Tutors.

136

R. Joseph ben Ephraim Karo, M aggid Mesharim (The Speaker of Upright Words)

21. Mystical Ascents

144

The Baal Shem Tov, Letter to His Brother-in-Law 22. The Mystical Master—the Zaddik R. Kalonymus Kalman Epstein, M aor va-Shemesh

147

23. Reincarnation (a) Reincarnation, Good, and Evil

151 151

Sefer ha-Bahir (b) Reincarnation and Human Action R. Isaac Luria, recorded by R. Jacob Zemach in Nagid u-Mezaveh Selected Bibliography for Further Reading

151 152

C ontents

CHRISTIANITY Selector: Bernard McGinn, University of Chicago Christian Mysticism: An Introduction Selections: 1. Mystical Prayer and Preparation (a) Asceticism and “Evil Thoughts”: Evagrius Ponticus Praktikos: Chapters on Prayer (b) Introductory Explanations to the Spiritual Exercises Ignatius of Loyola, Spiritual Exercises and Selected Works (c) The Dark Night of the Senses in John of the Cross Ascent o f M ount Carmel and D ark N ight ofthe Senses in John o f the Cross: Selected Writings (d) Mystical Purgation in Marie o f the Incarnation Marie o f the Incarnation, The Relation o f1654 2. Biblical Interpretation (a) A Mystical Reading o f the Song o f Songs Origen, Commentary on the Song o f Songs (b) “Three Kisses” Bernard o f Clairvaux, Sermons on the Song o f Songs 3. Prayer and Itineraries o f the Path to God (a) Richard of Saint Victor on the Varieties o f Contemplation Richard o f St. Victor, The MysticalA rk (b) Bonaventure on the Stages in the Ascent to God Bonaventure, The Soul'sJourney into God (c) Seven Stages o f Ascent Marguerite Porete, The M irror o f Simple Souls (d) Mystical Prayer Teresa of Avila, Life (e) The Jesus Prayer The Way o f the Pilgrim 4. Accounts o f Direct Consciousness of God (a) “Seeing” and “Touching” God Saint Augustine, Confessions (b) The Vision o f Saint Benedict Saint Gregory the Great, Dialogues (c) Mystical Illumination Symeon, The Discourses (d) Seeking the Divine Lover Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermon 74 o f the Sermons on the Song o f Songs (e) Mystical Elevations Angela of Foligno, M emorial

157 157 163 163 164 165

170 173 173 177 179 180 183 191 194

200 202 203 205 206 208

210

C ontents

(f) Ecstatic Experience Richard Rolle, The Fire o f Love

212

(g) The “Wound” o f Love Teresa o f Avila, Life

.

214

(h) Pascals Encounter with the God o f Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob Blaise Pascal, M em orial

215

5. Attaining God (a) The Endless Pursuit o f God ^ Gregory o f Nyssa, Life o f Moses (b) The Absolute Mystery of the Divine Pseudo-Dionysius, M ystical Theology (c) Mystical Union 1 William o f St. Thierry, The Golden Epistle (d) Mystical Union 2 Meister Eckhart, Sermon 52 (e) Mystical Union 3 John Ruusbroec, L ittle Book o f Clarification 6. The Role o f the Trinity Poem “Mustard Seed,” Attributed to Meister Eckhart 7. Encountering Christ (a) Erotic Embrace Hadewijch, Vision 1 (b) Visions o f the Suffering Christ Julian o f Norwich, the “Short Text” (c) An Ambiguous Encounter with Jesus Simon Weil, Notebooks 8. The Effects o f the Mystical Encounter (a) Mystical Experience and Compassionate Action St. Gregory the Great, Pastoral Care (b) Love o f Neighbor Catherine o f Siena, The Dialogue Selected Bibliography for Further Reading

216 216 219 221 223 227 231 234 234 235 237 239 239 241 242

SUFISM Selector: Peter Awn, Columbia University

247

Sufism: An Introduction

247

Selections: 1. Mystical Preparations

255

(a)

Mystical Training Myhî ‘d-Dîn Ibn A ra b î,^ Tractate on Those Things a Postulant Needs M ust Possess

255

C ontents

xii

(b)

The Structure of the Path Abû ‘1-Najîb al-Suhrawardî, A Sufi Rule fo r Novices

2. Mystical Techniques

* (a) Sam £ (Listening to Poetry and Music» Dance Rituals) Ali ibn ’Uthmân al-Jullâbî al-Hujwîrî, The K ashfA lM ahjub:

The Oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism (b) Mystical Music Majd al-Dîn al-Ghazâlî, Tracts on Listening to Music 3. The Interpretation of Mystical Texts by Mystics (a) The Esoteric Meaning of the Q uran Muhyî ‘d-Dîn Ibn ‘Arabî, A n Ocean W ithout Shore (b) Ecstatic Utterances Abû Nasr al-Sarrâj, Kitâb al-lu m a fi 't-tasawwuf 4. The Nature o f the Spiritual Master or Shaykh Sharafiiddin Maneri» The Hundred Letters 5. O n Language (a) The Language of Love ‘Alt ibn ‘Uthmân al-Jullâbî al-Hujwîrî, K ashfal-mahjûb (b) The Nature of Words Jalâl al-Dîn Rûmî, M athnawî-yi m dnaw î (c) Words and Text Rûmî, Jalâl al-Dîn, M athnawî-yi m dnaw î 6. O n Prayer, Charity, and Morality (a) Prayer and Morality Abdullâh Ansârî, M unâjât (b) Prayer and Actions Jalâl al-Dîn Rûm î, M athnawî-yi m dnaw î 7. Mystical Union and Ineffability Farîd al-Dîn Attâr, The Conference o f the Birds 8. The Understanding of God ‘Alî ibn ‘Uthmân al-Jullâbî al-Hujwîrî, K ashfal-mahjûb Selected Bibliography for Further Reading

261 267 267

272 276 276 278 284 289 289 293 293 299 299 304 305 309 313

HINDUISM Selector: Arvind Sharma, McGill University Hinduism: An Introduction Selections:

1. The Issue of Ineffability

323 323 327

(a) The Inexpressible Nature of Brahman Kena Upanisad

328

(b) Madhva on the Inexpressible Nature of Brahman Commentary on Kena Upanisad

328

C ontents

(c)

Sankara on the Inexpressible Nature o f Brahman Commentary on Kena Upanisad 2. Mystical Training

329 330

(a) The Mystical Self

331

Brhadâranyaka Upanisad (b) Mystical Understanding Chândogya Upanisad

333

3. Mystical Techniques (a) Fixing the Mind o f the Lord

v

Bhagavadgita XII. 6- 12, with commentary o f Ramanuja (b) Finding the Self Bhagavadgita XII. 19-34, with commentary o f Ramanuja 4. The Understanding o f Language (a) Attribution and Negation Bhagavadgita XIII. 12-13, with commentary o f Sankara (b) A Description o f the Experience o f God Bhagavadgita XI 5. The Interpretation o f Mystical Texts by Mystics Bhagavadgita XI. 6-32, with commentary ofjnâneévara 6. Experience o f Loss o f Self by Two Women (a) Mïrâbâi on Krsna Mira Bhajan or Devotional Song (b) Lallä on Realization Lai Vakhs or Utterances

340 340

343 347 348 351

360 380 380 381

7. The Nature of the Mystical Master Paramahansa Yogananda, Autobiography o f a Yogi 8. Community, Prayer, Morality, and God: Four Selections from The Gospel o f Sri Ramakrishna Swami Nikhilananda, The Gospel o f Sri Ramakrishna

383

9. Unio Mystico Ramakrsnas Experience o f the Transcendental Trance

400

Selected Bibliography for Further Reading

385

402

BUDDHISM Selector: John Powers, Australian National University

407

Buddhism: An Introduction

407

Selections: 1. Mystical Training

414

(a) The First Sermon “Discourse Turning the Wheel o f Doctrine”

415

(b) Training the Mind The Path o f Truth

415

XIV

C ontents

(c) All Good Qualities Depend on the Perfection b f Wisdom

416

Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 8,000Lines, chap. 3 (d) The Bodhisattva Works Alone

418

'

Säntideva, Compendium o f Training (e) The Bodhisattva Is Unconcerned with Worldly Things Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 8,000Lines, chap. 16 (f ) Developing Compassion Great Exposition o f the Stages o f the Path (g) Why the Path and Result Meditation Technique Is Superior Tshar chen bo gsal rgya mtsho, Good Explanations Explaining the Generation Stage o f Glorious Heruka, Rays o f Sunlight (h) Chinul on Sudden and Gradual Awakening Secrets on Cultivating the M ind (i) TheM uK oan Zen Comments on the M umokan 2. Mystical Techniques (a) The Four Concentrations Long Discourses, chap. 9, “Pottapada-sutta” (b) The Four Mindful Establishments Long Discourses, chap. 22, uSutta on the Great Foundations o f M indfulness” (c) The Mental Attitude o f Bodhisattvas Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 8,000Lines, chap. 16 (d) £amatha and Vipafyanä Discourse Explaining the Thought, chap. 8 (e) Visualizing Oneself as a Deity Great Exposition o f Secret M antra, part 3 (f ) Instructions on the Practice o f Zazen Rulesfo r Zazen, 1-4. 3. Interpretation of Texts (a) Guidelines for Evaluating Teachings Gradual Discourses, “Great Collection” (b) Interpretable and Definitive Teachings Sutra Spoken by Askayamati (c) Another Way of Differentiating Interpretable and Definiteness Teachings Discourse Explaining the Thought, chap. 7, “Paramirthasamudgata” (d) Interpretable and Definitive Doctrines

419 420 420

422 423 424 424 426 427 428 429 430 431 431 432 433 433

Commentary on the D ifficult Points of[Tsong Khapas] Essence o f Good Explanations, chap. 1 (e) The Uselessness o f Omniscience

434

Commentary on [Dignagas] Compendium o f Valid Cognition (f ) Words Are Necessary Sutras and Other Items

435

C ontents

4. The Guru

xv

435

(a) Praise o f the Buddha

436

Long Discourses, chap. 19, “Mahâgovinda-sutta.” (b) Be Your Own Refuge

436

Long Discourses, chap. 16, “Sutta o f the Great Final Nibbana” (c) Extracting the Essence ' The Garland ofM ahamudra Practices (d) Guru Yoga ^ The Garland ofM ahamudra Practices 5. Language (a) Types o f Language The Questions o f King M ilinda, ch. 1. (b) Seventy Verses on Emptiness Seventy Verses on Emptiness 6. Ineffability (a) Wrong Views M iddle Length Sayings, “Vacchagotta Fire Sutra” (b) The Heart o f Perfect Wisdom Discourse The H eart o f Perfect Wisdom Discourse (c) The Buddhas Teachings Collection Sutra 7. The Buddhist Community (a) Origins o f the Buddhist Community Sutra o f the Four Orders (b) Ordination o f Women Rulesfo r N uns (for the Mahasamghikas) (c) W hy Bodhisattvas Are Superior to Hearers Perfection o f W isdom Sutra in 8,000Lines, chap. 11. (d) There Is No Comparison between Bodhisattvas and Hearers Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 25,000Lines, chap. 3. (e) O n the Differences between Sütra and Tantra Longchen Rapjam, Illum ination o f the M eaning o f A ll Vehicles, the Precious Treasury o f Tenets (f) Dogen on the Monastic Community Regulationsfo r the Auxiliary Cloud H all, 1- 12.

8. Charity and Morality (a) The Buddhas Moral Character Long Discourses, chap. 1, “The Net o f Brahma Sutta” (b) The Generosity o f Bodhisattvas Commentary on Santidevas E ntry into the Bodhisattva Deeds, chap. 1 (c) The Bodhisattva Is a Great Hero Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 8,000Lines, chap. 20

436

437 437 437 438 440 440 442 443 444 444 446 448 449 450

451 452 452 453 454

xvi

C ontents

(d) The Benefits of the Perfection o f Wisdom Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 8,000Lines, chap. 22 (e) How a Bodhisattva Should Act in Difficult Situations

s455 v

Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 8,000Lines, chap. 19 (f ) Bodhisattvas Are Celibate Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 2S,000Lines, chap. 1 9.

Self and No-Self The Questions o f King M ilinda, chap. 1 10. God, Gods, and Ultimate Reality (a) Buddhas Are Wiser Than Gods Long Discourses, chap. 11, “Kevaddha-sutta” (b) The Notion of God Is Untenable The Profound M eaning o f the Tree Treatises, ch. 1 (c) The Dalai Lama on Tantric Deities Kindness, Clarity, and Insight, chap. 12, “Deities” (d) Ultimate Truth (Paramârtha) Asanga, Ornamentfo r the Mahayana Sutras, chap. 6, “Reality,” verse 1 (e) Discourse on Suchness Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra in 8,000Lines, chap. 16 (f) Buddha-Nature Sublime Continuum o f the M ahayana, verses 39-50 (g) Everything Is Mind-Only Ornamentfo r theM ahayana Sutras, chap. 6, verses 6-8 (h) Cyclic Existence and Nirvana Are N ot Different Hevajra-tantra, chap. 9 (i) One Mind The Awakening o f Faith in theM ahayana, attributed to Asvagohsa 11. Mystical Union

456 458 459 461 461 462 462 464 464 465 467 468 468 469

(a) Nirvana Udana 8.1 and 8.3

469

(b) The Joy of Release Songs o f the Nuns, #22.

470

(c) Characteristics o f Omniscient Persons Sutra Explaining the Thought, chap. 10 (d) The Stage of Completion

470

Quoted in The Garland ofM ahamudra Practices Selected Bibliography for Further Reading

472 473

CONFUCIANISM AND DAOISM Selector: Livia Kohn, Boston University Confucianism and Daoism: An Introduction Selections:

479 479

C ontents

1. God or the Ultimate (a) Explaining the Diagram of the Great Ultimate Zhou Dunyi, Explaining the Diagram o f the Great Ultimate (b) The Meaning o f the Great Ultimate Zhu Xi, Collected Works o f M aster Zhu (c) Laozi and the Dao

xvii

486 486 487 488

Like unto a Dragon, 1. 1b - 2a and Seven Tablets from a Cloudy Satchel (d) O n the Transformation of Laozi Scripture on the Transformation o f Laozi 2. The Interpretation of Mystical Texts (a) The Doctrine o f the Mean Dai Zhen, Inquiry into Goodness (b) A Reading o f the DaodeJing Verses and Sayings o f the M aster on the River 3. The Issue o f Language and Ineffability (a) Making All Things Equal Zhuang Zhou, Writings o f M aster Zhuang, chap. 2 (b) Joining the Ineffable Scripture o f Western Ascension, l.la -7 a , 3.13b-21a, 6.10a-l4a 4. The Self in Mystical Experience (a) Growing toward Enlightenment Gao Panlong, Recollections o f the Toils o f Learning (b) Souls and Demons Scripture o f Preserving L ife by Removing the Three Deathbringers, l b - 2b, 7a - 8b (c) The Gods in the Energy Centers Lord Goldtower’s Scripture o f the Three Perfected Ones, 4a-6a

489 491 492 494 496 496 498 500 500 502

504

5. Mystical Training (a) Learning the Way Chen Chun, Collected Works o f Chen Chun

506 507

(b) Hermit Practice Wang Chongyang, Chongyangs Fifteen

509

Articles on Establishing the Teaching

6. The Nature o f Community and Ethics (a) The Rules o f the W hite Deer Hollow Academy Zhu Xi, commentary by Yi T oegye, Rules o f the W hite Deer Hollow Academy (b) Basic Rules and Punishments The Twenty-four Precepts ofthe Perfected o f Great Ultimate 7. Mystical Techniques (a) Quiet-Sitting Okada Takehiko, Sitting in Zazen and Q uiet-Sitting

511 512

513 516 517

C ontents

xviii

(b) Concentrations Secret Instructions ofthe Holy Lord on the Scripture o f Great Peace, 2a-3b

519

(c) Visualizations Scripture o f the Mysterious Perfectedfrom the H all o f L ight o f Highest Clarity, with Practical Instructions, 2a-3a, 4a

520

(d) Elixirs Zhang Boduan, Awakening to Perfection, 5.2a- 17a

520

8. The Nature of the Master (a) Master Mingdao Zhu Xi and Lu Zuqian, Reflections on Things a t H and (b) The Daoist Sage Daodefin g (Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue) 9. Unio Mystica (a) All Is One Wang Yangming, Inquiry on the Great Learning, Zhang Zai, Western Inscription (b) Celestial Splendor Wu Yun, Songs on Pacing the Void, 2.30b-31b Selected Bibliography for Further Reading

523 523 525 528 528

531 534

NATIVE AMERICAN MYSTICAL T RADIT IO NS Selector: John A. Grim, Yale University Native American Mystical Traditions: An Introduction Selections: 1. Becoming a Shaman Knud Rasmussen, Observations on the Intellectual Culture o f the Caribou Eskimo 2. Visionary States Robin Ridington, L ittle B it Know Something: Stories in a Language o f Anthropology

539 539 553

556

3. Cosmic Ritual Franz Boas, The Social Organization and the Secret Societies o f the Kwakiutl Indians 4. The Acquisition of Sacred Powers Thomas Yellowtail (as told to Michael Fitzgerald), Yellowtail: Crow Medicine M an and Sun Dance C hief 5. Lifeway Mysticism James Walker, Lakota B eliefand R itual

558

6. Nature Mystical Experiences

563

560

562

James Walker, Lakota B eliefand R itual 7. Prayer of a Shaman Raymond J. DeMallie (ed.), The Sixth Grandfather:

565

C ontents

xix

Black Elk's Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt

8. Visionary Experience

567

Garter Snake, The Seven Visions o f B ull Lodge 9. Healings '

569

Paul Radin (Jasper Blowsnake), The Road o f Life and Death: A R itual Drama o f the American Indians 10. The Environment

571

Christopher Vecsey and Robert W. Venables, American Indian Environments: Ecological Issues in Native American History 11. Sacred Forces

573

Leland C. Wyman, Blessingway: W ith Three Versions o f the M yth Recorded and Translatedfrom the Navajo by Father Berard Haile, O E M . 12. Sacred Nature

574

13. 14. 15.

16.

17.

Washington Matthews, The M ountain Chant: A Navaho Ceremony Tragic Human Existence Washington Matthews, The N ight Chant: A Navaho Ceremony Sacred Presences Washington Matthews, The N ight Chant: A Navaho Ceremony Loss Alfonso Ortiz, The Tewa World: Space, Time, Being, and Becoming in a Pueblo Society Heroic Birth and Death Dennis Tedlock (trans.), Popul Vuh: The M ayan Book o f the Dawn o f Life The Human Condition Alfredo Lopez Austin, The H um an Body and Ideology: Concepts o f the Ancient Nahuas

575 579 581

584

591

18. The Sage Jacques Lizot, Tales o f the Yanomami

591

19. Shamans and Disciples Miguel Leon-Portilla (ed.), Native MesoAmerican Spirituality

593

20. Meeting the Ancestors Laura R. Graham, Performing Dreams: Discourses o f Immortality

596

among the Xavante o f Central Brazil 21. The Mystical Character of the Natural World Gerard Reichel-Dolniatoff, Desana Texts and Contexts 22. Gaining Power David M. Guss, To Weave and Sing: A rt, Symbol, and

598 601

Narrative in the South American Rainforest 23. Folk Healers Douglas Sharon, W izard o f the Four Winds: A Shaman's Story

602

C ontents

24.

Folk Healing Ana Mariella Bacigulpo, The Power ofthe Machis: The Rise o f Female Healers and Priestesses in Mapuche Society Selected Bibliography for Further Reading Credits/Acknowledgements

Contributors

Peter Awn is currently Dean of General Studies at Columbia University. He received his Ph.D. in Islamic religion and comparative religion from Harvard University in 1978. Previ­ ously he earned a B.A. in philosophy and classical languages and an M.Div. in Christian theology. He is presently Professor of Islamic Religion and Comparative Religion. He has been visiting professor at Princeton University and has lectured widely to academic and busi­ ness professionals on the role Islamic religion plays in the current political and social devel­ opment o f the Muslim world. Professor Awn was the first recipient o f the Phillip and Ruth Hettleman Award for distinguished teaching and research. His book, Satans Tragedy and Redemption: Iblis in Sufi Psychology (1983), a study of the devil in Islamic mysticism (Sufism), was the recipient of a book award from the American Council of Learned Societies. Jo h n A. G rim is currendy a senior lecturer and research scholar at Yale University. W ith Mary Evelyn Tucker he was an Environmental Ethicist-in-Residence at Yale s Center for Bio­ ethics, and he is also coordinator of the Forum on Religion and Ecology at Yale with Mary Evelyn Tucker. Together they edited the ten-volume series, “World Religions and Ecology,” sponsored by the Harvard Center for the Study of World Religions and distributed by Har­ vard University Press. In that series he edited Indigenous Traditions and Ecology: The Interbe­ ing ° f Cosmology and Community (2001). He has been a professor of religion at Bucknell University and Sarah Lawrence College. His published works include: The Shaman: Patterns o f Religious Healing among the Ojibway Indians (1983); an edited volume with Mary Evelyn Tucker entided Worldviews and Ecology (1994, 3th printing 2000); Religion and Ecology: Can the Climate Change? (2001); and with Mary Evelyn Tucker, The Christian Future and the Fate o f the Earth: Collected Essays o f Thomas Berry (2009). John is also president o f the American Teilhard Association. Moshe Idel is the Max Cooper Professor Emeritus of Jewish Thought at the Hebrew Univer­ sity in Jerusalem and senior researcher at the Shalom Hartman Institute. He has also served as a visiting professor and research scholar at numerous universities and institutions in the United States and Europe. His publications include: Kabbalah: New Perspectives (1988, which won a National Jewish Book Award in 1988); Language, Torah, and Hermeneutics in Abraham Abulafia

XXII

C ontributors

(1989); Studies in Ecstatic Kabbalah (1989); Hasidism:'Between Ecstasy and Magic (1995); Messianic Mystics (2000); Absorbing Perfections: Kabbalah and Interpretation (2002, which won the Koret Prize in 2003); Enchanted Chains: Techniques and "Rituals in Jewish Mysticism (2005); Ascensions on High in Jewish Mysticism: Pillars, Lines, Ladders (2005); Kabbalah and Eros (2005); Ben: Sonship and Jewish Mysticism (2007, which won a National Jewish Book Award in 2008); and Kabbalah in Italy 1280-1510 (2011). He was awarded the Israel Prize for Jewish Thought in 1999, the Jerusalem Excellency Prize o f the President o f Hebrew Uni­ versity in 2001, and the Emmet Prize for Jewish Thought under the aegis o f Israels prime minister in 2002. He is a member of the Israeli Academy for Sciences and Humanities. Steven T. Katz, the editor of the present volume, holds the Alvin J. and Shirley Slater Chair in Jewish and Holocaust Studies and is director of the Ehe Wiesel Center for Judaic Studies at Boston University. He received his Ph.D. from Cambridge University. His many publications include: Jewish Philosophers (1975); Jewish Ideas and Concepts (1977); Post-Holocaust D ia­ logues (1983, which won a National Jewish Book Award) ; Historicism, the Holocaust and Zion­ ism (1992); and the multivolume study entided The Holocaust in Historical Context, vol. 1 o f which appeared in 1994, and was selected as “the outstanding book in philosophy and theol­ ogy” for that year by the American Association of University Publishers. Katz has also contrib­ uted to and edited four books on mysticism published by Oxford University Press: Mysticism and Philosophical Analysis (1978), Mysticism and Religious Traditions (1983), Mysticism and Language (1992), and Mysticism and Sacred Scripture (2000). He has edited two volumes on the significance of the Holocaust for Jewish thought: The Impact o f the Holocaust on Jewish Theology (2005); and Wrestling with God: Jewish Theological Responses during and after the Holocaust (2007). He is the editor of the journal M odem Judaism, and has served on the edito­ rial team of The Cambridge History o f Judaism and The Cambridge History ofNineteenth Cen­ tury Religious Thought. He was awarded the University of Tübingens Lucas Prize for 1999. Livia Kohn, Ph.D., is Professor Emerita o f Religion and East Asian Studies at Boston Uni­ versity. A graduate of Bonn University, Germany, she has spent many years pursuing research on medieval Daoism and Chinese long life practices. She has written and edited more than twenty-five books, taught many classes on Asian religions, and worked on a large variety o f related projects. Her books include Taoist M editation and Longevity Techniques (1989); Daoism Handbook (2000); Cosmos and Community: The Ethical Dimension o f Daoism (2004) ; Daoist Body Cultivation (2006); Chinese Healing Exercises (2008); Internal Alchemy (2009); and Daoist Dietetics (2010). Livia Kohn has practiced taiji quan, qigong, meditation, yoga, and other cultivation practices for over twenty years. She teaches regular workshops on Daoism all over the world, runs international conferences on Daoist studies, and is the execu­ tive editor o f the Journal o f Daoist Studies. Aside from her native German, she is also fluent in Chinese and Japanese. Bernard M cGinn is the Naomi Shenstone Donnelley Professor Emeritus o f Historical The­ ology and of the History of Christianity in the Divinity School and the Committees on Medieval Studies and on General Studies at the University o f Chicago. He received his S.T.L. from Gregorian University and his Ph.D. from Brandeis University. He works in the

C ontributors

history o f Christianity and the history o f Christian thought, primarily in the medieval period. He has written extensively in the areas of the history of apocalyptic thought and, most recently, in the areas o f spirituality and mysticism. His current long-range project is a seven-volume history of Christian mysticism in the West under the general title The Presence o f God, four volumes of which have appeared: The Origins o f Mysticism (1991); The Growth o f Mysticism (1996); The Floweting o f Mysticism (1998); and The Harvest o f Mysticism in M edieval Germany (2008). Jo h n Powers is a professor in the College o f Asia and the Pacific at the Australian National University, specializing in Asian religions with a specific focus on Buddhism, India, and Tibet. His teaching program includes the courses “Mysticism”; “Modern Hindu Thought”; “India: Emerging Giant”; and “Buddhism”. He has published fourteen books and more than sixty articles, including: A B ull o f a M an: Images o f M asculinity, Sex, and the Body in Indian Buddhism (2009); (w ithj. Fieser) Scriptures o f the World’s Religions, 3rd Revised Edition (2007); A Concise Encyclopedia o f Buddhism (2000); History as Propaganda: Tibetan Exiles versus the People’s Republic ofC hina (2004); Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism, Revised Edition (2007); Hermeneutics and Tradition in the Samdhinirmocana-sütra (1993); a n d ^ Concise Introduc­ tion to Tibetan Buddhism (2008). A rvind Sharma has been a member o f the faculty of Religious Studies at McGill University since 1987. He has held fellowships at the Center for the Study o f World Religions, the Center for the Study of Values in Public Life, the Center for Business and Government, the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, and the Brookings Institute. He also received a Maxwell Fellowship and was elected Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society, London. His many publications include: Women in World Religions (1987); Our Religions (1993); Classical H indu Thought: A n Introduction (2000); M odem H indu Thought: The Es­ sential Texts (2002); H induism and Its Sense o f History (2003); H induism and Human Rights: A ConceptualApproach (2004); M odem H indu Thought: A n Introduction (2005); A Guide to H indu Spirituality (2006); Religious Studies and Comparative Methodology (2006); A Prim al Perspective on the Philosophy o f Religion (2006); (with Katherine K. Young) Fundamentalism and Women in World Religions (2007); Problematizing Religious Freedom (2010); The World’s Religions (2011); and H induism as a Missionary Religion (2011).

xxiii

Comparative Mysticism

General Editor s Introduction St e v e n T . K a t z

I The term “mysticism” derives, most probably, from the Greek term muein that meant either “to be silent” or “to close the eyes.” It was first used in a religious context in relation to the Greek mystery religions and indicated that individuals should not reveal the secret initiation or other rites of these ancient cults. After the rise of Christianity the term was adopted to refer to the spiritual truths o f Christianity. In the late classical and early medieval eras it began to be associated with the notion of a direct, ineffable awareness o f God, and this usage persisted through the medieval period and into our own. However, this definition is too narrow for contemporary scholarly purposes for it excludes those traditions in which there is no God, for example, Therevada Buddhism or Taoism, and also because it ignores many spe­ cific phenomena integrally related to mysticism and mystical experience. Yet, providing a more inclusive definition of the notion of mysticism is difficult given all the variegated phe­ nomena and different types of experiences to which this term has been applied. At the same time, this difficulty recognized, I believe that the following working definition will serve readers of this book well in trying to understand the material herein collected: “Mysticism is the quest for direct experience of God, Being, or Ultimate Reality, however these are under­ stood, that is, theistically or non-theistically.” It is important to add immediately to this definition these further qualifications and conditions: (1) “Mysticism” and mystical experience do not, as is often erroneously claimed, neces­ sarily involve a loss o f self. Sometimes they do; sometimes they do not. “Mystical experience” is known in both unitive and dialogical forms: the former carries a sense o f loss of self and absorption into God or the Ultimate; the latter involves a sense of relationship in which the human self does not sense itself merging into the Absolute. (2) “Mysticism” and mystical states are not merely psychological. That is, they claim to be experiences o f God or Ultimate Reality rather than solely subjective states of mind, how­ ever pleasurable or exalted. (3) “Mysticism” and “mystical experience” are not to be equated with certain psyche­ delic or drug-induced experiences. The latter are the consequence of transformations in ones subjective awareness o f oneself and the world. Such experiences do not necessarily bring one

4

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into contact with God or Ultimate Reality. However, there are religioiis traditions in which drugs are used as part of a larger process aimed at inducing not only altered states o f con­

sciousness but also contact with, experience of, transcendent realities or Reality. (4) The study of “mysticism” includes many phenomena. Among them are meditatio and contemplation, special forms o f prayer, visions, yoga, trances, auditions, ritual practices, and sacrifice, and the recitation of mantras. Though it is usual to concentrate on the peak moment of ecstasy and/or unity as the core element in mysticism, it is an error to focus solely on these elements to the exclusion of other phenomena that, at a minimum, léad to climactic mystical states and experiences. We shall return to these elemental issues and the methodological problems and ques­ tions they raise as we proceed.

II Epistemological Considerations The academic study of “mysticism,” the singling out o f certain specific forms o f human expe­ rience for classification and analysis under this rubric, began at the end o f the nineteenth century. The reasons why this occurred just at this time are many, but I would suggest that perhaps the most important was the loss of traditional religious commitments by many men and women who still had a deep interest in and commitment to some sense o f “the spiritual” or “the transcendent” and wished to confirm the existence o f such metaphysical realms and access to such Absolutes outside of the boundaries of religious orthodoxy. Thus the “Ulti­ mate Realities” and the human experiences thereof were approached as, and said to be ap­ proachable as, entities and forms of life that were not dependent on religious traditions, dogmas, rituals, priests, shamans, churches, synagogues, mosques, and temples. Above and beyond these institutions there was to be had a purer, more direct, experience o f the divine, o f the Ultimate, the most-Real, the Absolute. And certain men and women o f the past had reached these supreme experiences and had pointed the way for others to do likewise. So the modern scholarly notion of “mysticism” emerged as a separate and distinctive category within the study of religions and of human reality. Now, rather than seeing the great “mystical” per­ sonalities of the past as emerging out of and as inseparable from the world s religious tradi­ tions, these individuals were described as being essentially distinct from their religious communities, as being individuals who only out of necessity used the language, traditions, rituals, and teachings of their tradition. Moreover, having successfully made their own mysti­ cal journeys, they recognized the arbitrariness of the symbols, texts, and doctrines o f their— and all—original religious communities. Still more important, it was argued that, having had authentic mystical experiences, they recognized that at the level o f the Ultimate there was one common experience, the mystical experience, usually described as being unitive in char­ acter, wherein the self was absorbed into the Absolute. This is the analytic position one finds presented with more or less learning and subtlety in the long, dominant, interpretive approach shared by William James, Rudolf Otto, Rufiis Jones, Aldous Huxley, J. B. Pratt, Joseph Campbell, Evelyn Underhill, Walter T. Stace, and Geoffrey

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Parrinder, and more recendy, in the work o f Ninian Smart, Frits Staal, Richard Woods, and William Wainwright. And for many this remains the preferred explanation o f mystical phe­ nomena and experience. The continuing scholarly influence o f William James, Rudolf Otto, and Walter T. Stace, in particular, is evidence enough of this. However, over the past two decades a new model of how one should decipher and ana­ lyze mysticism has emerged. This second methodological approach rejects the earlier inter­ pretive paradigm as simplistic and untrue to the data at hand and argues that mystics do not come to and do not have their extraordinary experiences in isolation from their sociohistorical and religious context. That is to say, mystical experience(s) reveal a necessary relationship between the prior education o f the mystic and their mystical goal, the intentions o f the mystic and their actual experiences. Put more concretely, this means that Sufis are Muslims and that being a Muslim is essential to being a Sufi; that being a Jewish mystic, a kabbalist, is insepa­ rable from other fundamental aspects of Judaism; that Christian mystics are formed by Christian teaching; and that Enlightenment {nirvana) is unintelligible and not sought as an experience outside o f the larger Buddhist worldview. The reason why this is so is due to the fact that neither mystical experience nor more ordinary forms of human experience give any indication or grounds for believing that they are unmediated. A ll experience is processed through, organized by, and makes itself available to us in extremely complex epistemological ways. The notion o f unmediated, that is, pure, experience seems at best empty if not selfcontradictory. This epistemological circumstance exists because o f the sorts o f beings we are, even with regard to the experiences o f those ultimate objects o f concern with which mystics have intercourse, such as God, Being, nirvana, and so forth. This "mediated” aspect o f all our experience has to be properly acknowledged if our investigation o f experience, including mystical experience, is to get very far. This fact leads to the recognition that in order to understand mysticism it is not just a question o f studying the reports o f the mystic after the experiential event but o f acknowledg­ ing that the experience itself, as well as the form in which it is reported, is shaped by concepts which the mystic brings to, and which shape, his or her experience. To flesh this out, what is being argued is that, for example, the Hindu mystic does not have an experience o f x that he or she then describes in the familiar language and symbols o f Hinduism but, rather, has a H indu experience. That is, the experience is not an unmediated experience o f x but is itself, at least partially, the preformed anticipated H indu experience o f Brahman. Again, the Chris­ tian mystic does not experience some unidentified reality, which he or she then conveniently labels “God,” but rather has at least partially prefigured Christian experiences o f God, or Jesus, or the like. Moreover, and importantly, based on the evidence supplied by the great mystics o f the world, the H indu experience o f Brahman and the Christian experience o f God are not the same. We shall support this contention in more detail below. The significance o f these considerations is that the forms o f consciousness that the mystic brings to experience set structured and limiting parameters on what the experience will be, that is, on what will be experienced, and they rule out in advance what is “inexperienceable” in the particular given, concrete, context. For example, the nature o f the Christian mystic s premystical consciousness informs the mystical consciousness such that he or she experiences the mystic reality in terms o f Jesus, the Trinity, or a personal God rather than in

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terms o f the nonpersonal, noneverything Buddhist doctrine o f nirvana. Care must also be taken to note that even the plurality o f experience found in Hindu, Christian, Muslim, Jewish, and Buddhist mystical traditions have to be broken down into smaller units. Thus, for example, we find in Hinduism monistic, pantheistic, and theistic trends, while Christianity knows both absorptive and nonabsorptive forms o f mysticism. Again, close attention has to be paid to the organic changes in ideology and historical development that specific traditions undergo internally and to how these changes affect the experiences that mystics have. For example, absorptive mysticism is not found in th&earliest strata o f Christian mysticism, while the experience of the Jewish mystics of Talmudic times—known as merkavah mysticism, based on the chariot vision of Ezekiel—is different from the Zoharic (late-thirteenth-century) and Lurianic (sixteenth-century) mysticism o f the later Middle Ages. To help understand more clearly why mystics o f different religious traditions have dif­ ferent religious experiences, consider the following comparison o f Jewish and Buddhist mys­ tics. A Jewish mystic will have learned and been conditioned in all kinds o f ways from childhood on that ( 1) there is more to reality than this physical world; (2) this “more” than reality is an Ultimate Reality, which is a personal God; (3) this God created the world and men; (4) men have spiritual souls that can commune with God; (5) God enters into cove­ nants with men; (6) even in covenants He remains a separate reality; (7) Gods Being and mans being are ontologically distinct; (8) God entered into special covenants with Abraham and his heirs, Israel; (9) these covenants are expressed in the acts o f circumcision and the giving of the Torah; and ( 10) the Torah and its commandments (m itzvot) are the most per­ fect expression of Gods Will, as well as the most perfect means o f relation between man and God. Furthermore, the Jewish mystic will have learnt to fit all these items into a special "mys­ tical theology” known by the broad term Kabbalah, in which the visible and perceivable is contingent and imperfect and the unperceived and nonsensual is the real. One could extend this comparatively small list o f learned Jewish thought and behavior at great length. All these cultural-social beliefs and their attendant practices, especially the regular practice o f the m itzvot, clearly affect the way in which the Jewish mystic views the world, the God who cre­ ated it, the way to approach this God, and what to expect when one does finally encounter this God. The entire life o f the Jewish mystic is permeated from childhood up by images, concepts, symbols, ideological values, and ritual behavior and there is no reason to believe that he leaves these aspects behind during his mystical experience. Rather, these images, be­ liefs, symbols, and rituals define, in advance, what the experience is that he or she wants to have and what these experiences, when he or she does have them, will be like.1 Given the mystical evidence we possess, it is clear that this complex, pre-experiential pattern affects the actual experience of the Jewish mystic. The Jewish conditioning pattern impresses itself so strongly on kabbalists that the majority o f them do not have experiences o f God in which one loses ones identity in ecstatic moments of unity. (And when they do have such unitive experiences, and some do, it is because they have been students o f particular, minority traditions of kabbalah, which, drawing on Neoplatonism in various forms, legiti­ mate and encourage the pursuit o f such unitive experience. That is, this sort o f outcome in a Jewish context does not disconfirm the general theory presendy being argued for.)2 W hat the Jewish mystic generally does experience is the Divine Throne, or the angel Metatron, or

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aspects o f the sefiroth (the Divine Emanations that comprise the highest levels o f the upper world), or the heavenly court and palaces, or the Hidden Torah, or (in the medieval and early modern era especially) devekuth, which literally means “adhesion" or “clinging to" God. According to this last circumstance, the mystic is not absorbed into God but has, rather, an intimate relationship with God in which one remains aware o f the duality between God and the individual soul. The limited presence of the kinds o f experience o f unity that are regularly associated with mysticism, even often identified as the “essence o f mysticism," in the majority o f Jewish mystical contexts is strong evidence that pre-experiential conditioning affects the nature o f the experience one actually has. Because the Jew is generally taught that such experi­ ences o f unity do not, as a rule, happen for reasons flowing out o f the Jewish theological tra­ dition—particularly Gods uniqueness and transcendence o f all created things—he or she does not, in fact, in most instances, have such experiences. Now let us compare the most significant Jewish form of mystical experience, devekuth, the act o f “clinging" to God, to the radically dissimilar situation found in Buddhism. The preconditioning o f the Buddhist consciousness is very different from that o f the Jewish, and this variation generates the radically divergent mystical experience that the Buddhist aims at and reaches. Consider the following doctrines that the Buddhist learns from his or her tradi­ tion, starting with the “four noble truths” that lie at the foundation o f Buddhism. These truths are: (a) “Birth is suffering, old age is suffering, disease is suffering, death is suffering, association is suffering, separation from what is pleasant is suffering, not obtaining what one desires is suffering... (b) The cause o f suffering is “craving" or “desire,” “craving for sensual desires, and craving for becoming, and craving for non-existence"; (c) Suffering can be overcome by the proper discipline and understanding; (d) There is an eightfold path that leads to the cessation of suffering {nirvana). (1) Right un­ derstanding, that is, understanding the four noble truths; (2) Right thought, that is, thought free from desire and craving and cruelty, which is referred to as samkalpa, the proper “shaping together” o f ones consciousness; (3) Right speech, that is, refraining from lying, slander, malicious gossip, frivolous speech; (4) Right action, that is, the avoidance especially o f killing, stealing, and general misconduct; (5) Right livelihood, that is, not earning a living by inappropriate means, for example, as an astrologer; (6) Right effort, that is, striving to purify oneself of evil thoughts; (7) Right mindfrdness, that is, being properly mindful o f the nature o f ones body and mind; and (8) Right concentration, that is, practicing the proper meditation patterns, especially the four dhyanas or trance states. Thus we see that the Buddhist is conditioned to reach nirvana by sila or moral behavior, sam adhi or concentration, and prajna or wisdom .3 These elements o f “the four noble truths," and their corollaries, are then further elaborated upon in the Buddhas second great sermon, the “Discourse on the Marks o f Not-SelfT in which he taught the essential doc­ trine o f “no-self" (andtm an)—that there is no simple, pure substance that is permanent and that has its own independent substantial existence analogous to the doctrine o f the

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soul in western traditions or to âtm an in Hinduism. In addition, the no-self anätm an doc­ trine is taken to entail the im portant doctrine o fpratityasam utpada, “dependent origina­ tion,” and to be related to the doctrine o f the impermanence o f all things. The only “something”—or is it a nothing?—that avoids anitya (impermanence) and which we have as our mystical goal is nirvana wherein we avoid the wheel o f suffering that is the condition o f all existing realities. The stages o f sanctification that carry a man upwards toward nir­ vana have been summarized as follows: In passing from existence as a common person (prthagjana) to experiencing nirvana, several stages can be delineated. The first task is to become a member o f the family of spiritually elect noble personages (arya pudgalas). To do this one must first make himself fit to commence the practices that will make him an arya pudgala. Even to begin this quest is significant, resulting in the stage ofgotrabhu or member o f the family (of aryas). From here, depending on temperament and capability, one o f two courses is open: either the follower in faith (skaddhan-usarin) for those with mild faculties, or the follower of Dharma (Dharmanusarin ), for those o f keen intellect. By progressively gaining insight into each of the four noble truths, one becomes, at the culmination o f the process, a srotapanna, or “streamwinner,” the first class o f the arya pudgalas. Having abandoned totally belief in the self, doubts about the Three Jewels (i.e. Buddha, Dharma, Sangha), and belief in the efficacy o f rituals, the streamwinner is assured o f enlightenment within one more lifetime. Progressing further still, the adept becomes an anagamin or “non-returner,” assured o f enlightenment within one more lifetime. W hen all negative qualities have been eradicated and the adept is pure in all respects, he is able experientially to realize nirvana, thus becoming an arhant, and establishing himself as a true saint in Buddhism .4 This brings us direcdy to nirvana, the goal of the entire Buddhist enterprise in all its elaborate detail. While it is a subject of fiercely debated divergent opinion among Buddhologists, for our purposes it seems fair to note that nirvana ( 1) is the recognition that belief in the phenomenal “self” of mundane existence is an illusion; (2) is most especially characterized by the extinction of “suffering,” that is the predominant feature o f ordinary reality; (3) is not a conditional or conditioned reality; (4) provides the attainment of a unique wisdom or insight into the impermanence (anitya) of all existing things; (5) is not a Being; (6) is a state or condi­ tion, that is, in the sense of being “Nirvanaized”; and (7) is not a relational state o f being.5 Among the varied elements in this complex structure let us concentrate especially on two cardinal features of the Buddhist account. First, the basis o f the entire system is the awareness of suffering in the world and the goal of the system is the extinction o f suffering; secondly, the goal, nirvana, is not a relational state in which the finite self encounters a saving or loving transcendental Being, God, but rather is a new ontological state o f being (if these terms are not inappropriate). That there is no encounter o f any sort results from the fact that there is no real self and no transcendental other Self. Again, it should also be noted that ac­ cording to Buddhist doctrine there is no divine will that plays any role in history or nature as there is no divinity. Rather, in place of the divine will, one has the strict law o f ethical

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causality, Karma, that is at the root of the causal chain of existence, reexistence or reincarna' tion, and release.6 Just setting this Buddhist understanding o f the nature of things over against the Jewish should, in itself, already be strong evidence for the thesis that what the Buddhist experiences as nirvana is different from what the Jew experiences as devekuth. However, let us draw this out more clearly. To begin, when/the Jewish mystic performs his special mystical devotions and meditations, kaw anot, he does so in order to purify his soul, that is, to remove the soul from its entrapment in the material world jn order to liberate it for its upward spiritual ascent culminating in devekuth. The Buddhist mystic, on the other hand, performs his meditative practices as an integral part o f the Buddhist mystical quest, not in order to free the soul from the body and purify it, but rather in order to annihilate suffering by overcoming any notion o f “self? holding that the very notion o f a substantial “self” or “soul” is the essential illusion that generates the entire process o f suffering. Buddhist literature specifically represents the Buddha as criticizing the belief in a permanent or substantial self (the H indu doctrine o f atm an) as a false, even pernicious doctrine that paradoxically, insofar as it encourages egoism in ones pursuit o f ones own eternal happiness, makes the fulfillment o f ones happiness an impossibility. In addition to its insistence on the extinction of suffering through the elimination of the “self, ” nirvana is also not a relational state. It is not the meeting o f two distinct selves or realities who come together in loving embrace. Nirvana is the absence o f all relation, all per­ sonality, all love, all feeling, all individuality, all identity. Nirvana is the achievement (if we can use this term, but we have no better one) o f calm, o f peace, o f tranquility. While it is the banishment o f care or anxiety, o f concern or striving, it is not the creation of a new condition o f meeting. Nirvana is not “something,” nor does it contain or permit the continued exis­ tence o f either individual beings or one grand Being. Its ontology cannot even be easily classed as theistic, monistic, or naturalistic. In the world of religious ideas it comes the closest to reminding one o f Wittgensteins remark, made in another connection, about “not being a something nor a nothing either.” Moreover, and this cannot be emphasized too strongly, it is this theoretical structure o f the impermanence o f all existence, the suffering o f all beings, and the doctrines of no-self, meditation, and so forth upon which the whole o f Buddhist life and its goal, nirvana, is built. The Buddhist understanding of reality generates the entire elabo­ rate regimen o f Buddhist practice, and it is this understanding o f reality that defines in ad­ vance what the Buddhist mystic is seeking and what given the evidence we have, he finds. To think that his preconditioned consciousness of how things are and how to find release from suffering in nirvana is extraneous to the actual Buddhist mystical experience is bizarre. Furthermore, it is reasonable to conclude that nirvana and devekuth—insofar as words mean anything and philosophical inquiry has any significance—are not the same thing and do not refer to the same, or even similar, experiences. There is no intelligible way that anyone can legitimately argue that a “no-self” experience of “empty” calm is the same thing as the experience o f intense, loving, intimate relationship between two substantial selves, one of whom is conceived o f as the personal God o f western religion and all that this entails. The losing o f self is not equivalent to the finding o f another, especially when this other is con­ ceived o f as the God o f Jewish tradition.

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One could extend this argument for difference byVintroducing parallel analyses o f the fundamental claims of still other traditions, for example, the Hinjiu, Christian, Taoist, and Muslim. But, in this context, this is unnecessary. Enough has already been said to make the case for a more sophisticated, contextual analysis o f mysticism and mystical experience. In­ stead, I would like to consider further some o f the central, logical-philosophical problems inherent in the study of mysticism, beginning with the issue o f the meaning or meanings o f terms used by mystics to describe or interpret their experiences, for it is this factor—the meaning of words—that misleads many students o f the subject into thinkingthat all mystics are referring to the same experience or to a small number o f similar experiences. For example, W. T. Stace, in his argumentation for the existence of a “universal core" common to all mysti­ cal experiences, compares, among other things, Eckhart s Christian neoplatonic experience o f Nothingness, the Jewish kabbalists experience o f devekuth, and the Buddhist doctrine o f sunyata or the Void. In each case Stace believes that the use o f apparendy similar language reflects an underlying “core" experience. So he holds that the “fact” that in each o f these mys­ tical reports it is claimed that there is no empirical content in the experience—and that these reports seem to describe their experience as being nonspatial, nontemporal, beyond language and ineffable, paradoxical, sublime, and joyfol, among other traits—is clear evidence for his claim as to the existence o f a “common core” to all mystical experience. However, Stace, and others who follow a similar procedure and arrive at analogous results, is here being misled by the surface grammar o f the mystical reports studied. W hat appear to be like-sounding descriptions are not, in actuality, similar descriptions and do not indicate the same experience. And this is because language is itself contextual and words “mean” only in context. The same words—beautiful, sublime, ultimate reality, ineffa­ ble, paradoxical, joyful, transcending all empirical content, and so forth—can apply and have been applied to more than one object. Their mere presence alone does not guarantee any­ thing: neither the nature o f the experience, nor the nature o f the referent o f the experience, nor the comparability o f various claims is assured by this seemingly common description. Consider the following exercise. A Jew could use all these terms to refer to his experience o f devekuth with the moral, personal Absolute Being he or she calls God. At the same time the Buddhist could use all these phrases to refer to the absence of all being in nirvana, while the Hindu could use them to refer to his or her experience o f absorption into the Impersonal Absolute Brahman. Again, the Taoist could use these terms, as well as Plotinus or the nature mystic, in referring to Nature. We can express this unexpected complexity clearly by consid­ ering the following example. Consider the ambiguity of the proposition: X transcends all empirical content, is beyond space and time, is ultimate reality, gives a sense of joy, is holy, can only be expressed in paradoxes and is actually ineffable where X can be replaced by several, radically different and mutually exclusive candidates, such as God, Brahman, nirvana, Nature. W hat emerges from this argument is the awareness that choosing descriptions o f mysti­ cal experience out o f th d r total context does not provide grounds for their comparability but rather severs all grounds of their intelligibility for it empties the chosen phrases, terms, and

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descriptions o f definite meaning. This logical-semantic problem plagues all the attempts that various scholars from William James on have made to provide a common phenomenological description o f mystical experience. The fact is that lists of supposedly common elements not only always reduce the actual variety of disparate experiences to fit a specific theory but also turn out to be o f little help in understanding mystical experience because they are so broad as to fit any one o f several mutually exclusive experiences. Consider, for example, William James’s list o f the supposed common characteristics o f mystical experience set out in his famous Varieties o f Religious Experience.James suggests four common elements: ineffability, noetic quality, transiency, and passivity. W ithout too detailed a review let us consider as models the terms “ineffability” and “noesis,” that James himself considered the most impor­ tant. “Ineffability” James rightly defines as an experience or subject that “defies expression, that no adequate report o f its content can be given in words,” and goes on to conclude as a consequence that “it follows that its quality must be directly experienced; it cannot be im­ parted or transferred to others.”7While this is an accurate description o f “ineffability,”James’s definition is not the basis on which one can compare experiences, nor the basis on which one can conclude that different experiences are actually similar. And this because, though two or more experiences are said to be “ineffable,” the term “ineffable” can logically fit many disjunc­ tive and incomparable experiences. That is to say, an atheist can feel a sense o f dread at the absurdity o f the cosmos which he labels ineffable, while the theist can experience God in a way that he also insists is ineffable. Thus in la n d Thou, Martin Buber describes the dialogical encounter with God, the Eternal Ihouy as ineffable, whose “meaning itself cannot be trans­ ferred or expressed,” while Kafka, whose brilliant and haunting tales also suggest the ineffa­ bility o f existence, intends no such encounter, nor reflects any faith in the existence o f an E ternal Thou. To argue that, because both Buber and Kafka see their respective experiences as ineffable, the dialogical experience of Buber’s relational 1with the Eternal Thou is the same as or similar to the experience o f the lost souls in Kafka’s The Castle is absurd. Where one finds “meaning confirmed,” the other finds “emptiness.” Again, “ineffable” nirvana is not the ineffable Allah o f the Sufi, nor the ineffable Too of Taoism. The ontology or reality o f Brahm an/Atm an that lies “beyond all expression” in the M andukya Upanishads is not the “ineffability” encountered in Eckhart’s Christian experience. “They were dumb because the hidden truth they saw in God, the mystery they found there, was ineffable.” Even less compa­ rable is Eckhart’s “ineffable” God with the reality being pointed to by the Zen master who when asked “W hat is the Buddha?” replied (in quite typical Zen fashion), “A dried shit stick.”8 Let us also briefly consider James’s emphasis on the universality of “noesis” as a distin­ guishing and comparable element in mystical experience. James defines this characteristic in the following way: “Although so similar to states o f feeling, mystical states seem, to those who experience them, to be states o f knowledge.” That is, he continues, “states o f insight into depths o f truth unplumbed by the discursive intellect.”9James has caught something impor­ tant in calling attention to the noetic element in mystical experience, but it is nonetheless not an element that provides the commonality he desires. Consider, to begin with, the variety o f different knowledge claims that could fit James’s definition and which his own examples ac­ knowledge, that is, this characteristic has been claimed for experiences that might be classed

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as aesthetic, ethical, natural, religious, and mystical. To argue, as James, does, that because each such experience claims to give "insight into depths o f truth unplumbed by the discursive intellect” all the experiences are the same, fails to recognize both the diversity o f “insights” one could have into the “depths o f truth” and the variety o f “truths” that can lurk in these depths waiting to be “plumbed.” The competing claims made for such knowledge o f the “truth” is staggering, with a range encompassing Pythagorean speculations; voodoo, ani­ mism, and totemism; Madame Blavatskys theosophy; and Huxleys and Ramakrishnas philosophia perennis, to say nothing of the variety of more traditional religious teachings. Related to the linguistic-cum-ontological confusion just discussed, there is also a sub­ stantial logical issue that was briefly referred to earlier and which now calls for more sus­ tained discussion. This issue relates to the claim that mystical language is defined by its “ineffability” and its “paradoxicality.” These two features are standard elements in all phe­ nomenological descriptions o f mystical experience and are taken to be grounds for their com­ parability; but do they actually support this position? W hat leads me to ask this question is the following consideration: the terms “paradox” and “ineffable” do not function as terms that inform us about the content o f experience or any given ontological “state o f affairs.” Rather they function to cloak experience from investigation and to hold mysterious whatever ontological commitments one has. As a consequence, the use o f the terms “paradox” and “ineffable” do not provide data for comparability; rather, they eliminate the logical possibil­ ity o f the comparability o f experience altogether. Consider the following example: mystic A claims experience X is paradoxical and ineffable, while mystic B claims experience Y is paradoxical and ineffable. The only logically permissible conclusion one can draw in this situ­ ation is that both mystic A and mystic B claim their experiences are paradoxical; nothing can be said about the content o f their respective experiences X and Y for there is no way to give content to experiences X or Y in such a manner as to learn anything about them that could then serve as the basis of a reasonable comparison. To assume, as many scholars have done, that because both mystics claim that their experiences are paradoxical they are describing like experiences is a non sequitur.

Ill Cultural, Religious, and Sociological Considerations In order to gain a fuller, more adequate understanding of the epistemological and contextual issues involved in the study o f mystical materials it is necessary, given the essential link be­ tween what one reads, learns, knows, intends, and anticipates, and the mystical experience one has, to investigate what these premystical circumstances and conditions are and how they influence the eventual mystical experience. This means studying, among other things, the methods, forms, and structures of traditional education; the role o f the learning o f scripture in the formation of consciousness; the substance and implications o f normative doctrines and traditional Weltanschauungen (worldviews); and the role and nature o f religious com­ munities like monasteries and sanghas. Consider, for example, the importance o f religious teachers and gurus in the training for and acquisition of mystical experience. In almost all mystical traditions we find an

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emphasis on the need for a teacher or guru who will lead the novice along “the way.” In the Jewish tradition there is a strong aversion to autodidacticism. Indeed, among kabbalists, until the historic calamity o f the expulsion from Spain in 1492 called for a radical new ap­ proach to mysticism, mystical wisdom was always held very close by its devotees and was only taught in small circles to a select few. The constant fear was expressed that this knowl­ edge, if obtained by the unlettered w ithout the guidance o f a teacher, could lead to antinomianism and heresy. In the Buddhist tradition, one also finds the same emphasis on being guided along the path toward nirvana Ijy a qualified teacher. Only a Buddha reaches self­ enlightenment, all o thers must be helped toward this end. In all schools o f Buddhism spiri­ tual guides are held to be necessary. Here too, one needs to note not only the importance o f a qualified teacher or bhiksu but also how this insistence on proper instruction grew into the widespread institution o f Buddhist monasticism,10 with all its strict discipline and ideological commitments. And these emphases, o f course, are not unique to Buddhism; the institution o f the^wra-like master being is found in all eastern traditions, as for exam­ ple, in Hinduism especially in its Tantric variety, and in Zen. The Zen tradition is highly instructive at just this juncture, for though it made spontaneity a great virtue in achieving satoriy this spontaneity was achieved through the mediating role that the Zen master played in the “enlightenment” o f his disciples. N ot only were the Zen masters considered the paradigms o f Zen practice to be emulated by their disciples, but they even became the ob­ jects o f Zen meditation for their disciples. Even more importantly, it is the Zen master, through the seemingly meaningless koans that he sets his students to meditate upon, as well as in the purposeful physical and mental abuse he subjects his students to, who de­ stroys the illusions in which the disciple is imprisoned and which prevent him from reach­ ing satori. The master induces in the disciple the condition of “Zen sickness” that allows the disciple to break the bonds o f conditional experience and to encounter reality as it really is, in its “suchness.”11 Again, this aspect o f the mystical situation is highly focused in the history o f Sufism, which developed a widespread, highly refined tradition o f Sufi-schools that aided the be­ liever salak at-tariq (“traveling the Path”). The essence o f these mystical Orders, often cen­ tered in special Sufi monasteries known as khanaqahst was the formal relation o f master and disciple, o f m urshid and m urid, based upon the ideology that, though each man, potentially, latently, possessed the ability to merge with Allah in ecstatic union (fana), this potency could be actualized only with the assistance of a qualified master (except in the case o f a small spiritual elite or elect known as khawass or Sufiyya on whom Allah has bestowed special favor). The disciple followed the tariqa (“the way”) which was a practical method for moving upward through a succession o f stages (maqamat) culminating in the experience o f fana— unity in Allah. The tariqa consisted o f set prayers, supererogatory exercises, varied liturgical and penitential acts, fasts, retreats, vigils, and the like. This highly structured procedure pre­ pared the disciple for his experience, putting him in the specifically Sufi frame of conscious­ ness, both ideologically and existentially, for his ecstatic experience, the form o f which was also anticipated in advance.12 Likewise, the overwhelming preponderance o f Christian mys­ tics are found in monasteries and holy orders with their lives centered around chastity, “good works,” and an extremely rigorous regimen of prayer.

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In all these instances, one must ask: “W hat does the guru teach?” The answer is that he teaches a specific way and a specific goal ; his students follow him along the former because they want to reach the latter. Thus, the Buddhist “seeker” comes to his master (and the sangha) and follows his prescribed meditations and yoga practices to reach that state in which suffer­ ing is annihilated and the erroneous notion o f self is completely overcome. Alternatively, the Hindu “seeker” loyally adheres to his gurus instructions because he desires to affirm the ultimacy of his self and its relation to the universal Self. Again, the m urid is loyal to the rigorous discipline of his murshid because he seeks to merge his soul with the personal God o f Islam; while the kabbalist practices his regimen o f prayer and asceticism, as taught by his rabbinicalmystical teacher, in order to achieve devekuth. The Buddhist guru does not teach what the H indu guru teaches, though superficial association o f the term confuses the unwary. The murshid does not teach what the kabbalist teaches, nor again does Teresa o f Avila teach St. John o f the Cross the same “way” as Don Juan13or the Taoist Master. Decisive proof o f this is found not only in a close examination o f the respective “teachings” o f the various teachers but also in the polemical spirit manifest by many, if not most, mystical masters. Shankara does not shrink from entering into heated polemics with his Buddhist opponents about the mean­ ing of the ultimate experience, understood by him in a nonpersonal monistic way, or again from his more theistically minded Hindu colleagues saying, “They are wrong! They do not understand! They do not have the ultimate experience!” Only he and his students find the ultimate experience because only they are properly equipped to find it. Alternatively, in the Christian tradition we find, for example, Ruysbroeck prepared to criticize those mystics for whom mystic experience does not involve moral imperatives as inferior, while Zen Buddhists have tests and rules for investigating whether a person really has achieved satori or nirvana.14 It should also be noted that classical mystics do not talk about the abstraction “mysticism”; they talk only about their tradition, their “way,” their “goal”: they do not recognize the legiti­ macy of any other. The ecumenical overtones regularly associated with mysticism in our cul­ ture have come about primarily as a result of the work o f nonmystics o f recent vintage who have fostered this image for their own purposes. Consider here, too, the complementary role played by respective mystical “models” in each mystical tradition. By “model” in these contexts I do not mean a theoretical construct as in the physical sciences but rather the nature of “individuals” who become norms for their tradition in a variety of ways. Such individuals become Ideals; their individuality becomes categorical; their biographies didactic. The normative individual is the medium o f a universal teaching; the instrument for the revelation o f more general truths. These paradigmatic fig­ ures can be either human or divine and either male or female, with examples o f each o f these types to be found in the sources. Examples o f such figures would include Abraham and Moses among kabbalists, Jesus in Christian tradition, Mohammed in Sufi communities, and the Buddha in Buddhist teaching and practice. In each case, the individual mystic seeks to emu­ late the “model” extolled by his or her tradition—to become like Moses or Jesus or Moham­ med or the Buddha—to the degree that such replication is possible. In this context, another word about the role o f canonical scriptures in mystical tra­ ditions will help to fill out this picture o f the education o f mystics, the formation o f mys­ tical world-views, and the personal ambitions o f those who seek to follow the mystical

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way. I would begin by pointing out that the literature produced by the world’s major mys­ tical traditions is not, as one might infer from scholarly studies on the subject o f mysti­ cism, primarily about an independent and individual religious experience but is, rather, more often than not, composed o f esoteric commentaries on canonical texts. W ithout much effort one can identify, in supporting this essential claim, the following major works that have been created by the Jewish, Christian, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist mystical traditions. The mystical compositions o f the rabbinic era are based primarily on elusive passages in the Bible that are connected with the creation o f the world in the book o f Genesis, Moses* various theophanies, the vision(s) o f Isaiah, the Song of Songs, and the extraordinary vision o f the chariot {merkkavah) in chapter 1 of Ezekiel. Commenting on these passages, the sages o f the Mishnah and the Talmud produced the sources on, and encouraged the experience of, the so-called hekhalot (heavenly palaces) and the M erkavah, as well as related esoteric mate­ rial. Among medieval kabbalistic works the greatest was undoubtedly the Zohar, the preemi­ nent Jewish mystical work, which has the form of a commentary on the Torah. The Christian mystical tradition, developed primarily but not exclusively out o f the Pauline corpus—including Pauls own mystical ascent to the “third heaven” (2 Cor. 12:2-4)— the Gospel o f John, and the same set o f biblical passages that were so influential among the Talmudic sages, drawn from Genesis, Exodus, Isaiah, the Song of Songs, and Ezekiel. The patristic era saw the creation o f such seminal and influential works as Basil o f Caesarea’s (fourth century) Hexaëmeron, on the story o f creation in Genesis; and Gregory o f Nyssa’s (fourth century) D e Vita Moysis and his Homilies on the Song o f Songs. In the medieval era, the products o f the great Christian mystical tradition include Bernard o f Clairvaux’s twelfthcentury Commentary on the SongofSongsyRichard o f St. Victor’s (twelfth century) The M ysti­ cal Arky that deals with various themes in Genesis and other biblical books, and Eckhart's highly influential (late twelfth century and early thirteenth century) Commentaries on Gen­ esis (as well as on other biblical texts), and his German sermons on biblical themes. In addi­ tion, one should take note o f the lives of Jesus (and related works) written by mystics—for example, Julian o f Norwich’s (fourteenth century) Showings and Thomas A. Kempis’s The Im itation o f Christ (fifteenth century). Among Sufis, the Q ur’an is the work around which all speculation, teaching, and expe­ rience revolve, and the experience o f the Prophet Mohammed is the paradigmatic “mystical” moment. Indeed, as Sahl ibn-Adullâh al-Tustari announced, “All ecstasy is vain if it is not witnessed by the Q ur’an and the Prophetic example.” In consequence, Sufis, over the centu­ ries, have been continuously and consistently preoccupied with the production o f commen­ taries on the Q ur’an. Likewise, in the H indu tradition, with its powerful sense of rootedness in the Vedas, and then the Upanisads, traditionally held to be the concluding section of Vedas, commentarial activity, the exegesis o f the canonical texts, is an ancient and fundamental endeavor broadly categorized as Mîmâmsa and Pürva Mlmämsa. In turn, Pürva Mïmâmsa is integrally related to the study o f grammar (ivyâkarana)y and of logic ( nyaya)y two additional disciplines required for the serious study o f scripture. Understood as constituting a spiritual discipline, exegetical effort and Vedic study (svâdhyâya) are means of gaining insight into and ways o f accessing the

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gnostic truths at the core of the original revelation(s). As such» they are intellectual-spiritual procedures of estimable weight that, not surprisingly, have spawned an enormous corpus. Similarly, Buddhism has a rich, internally important, exegetfcal tradition. Moving away from the Suttapitaka, which is probably the earliest record o f the Buddhas teaching, com­ piled by the First Buddhist Council at Räjagrha on the testimony o f the Buddhas closest disciples, following the Buddhas death, the dharma has continued to grow and to be lived through the channels of commentary and explanation. The different schools o f Buddhist interpretation—Mahâyâna, Theravâda, Hlnayàna—that arose after the Buddha gained pari' nirvana,, and the arguments about doctrine that divided them, required theological and logi­ cal defenses that were based on construals of the first, unimpeachable layers o f accepted teaching. And given the nature o f these disputes they could be setded only by arguments, based, in large measure, on the exegesis—or what was claimed to be the exegesis—o f the ac­ cepted canonical writings o f the community. The enormous, varied commentary literature produced within the world s great mysti­ cal traditions offers strong evidence that such interpretive activity has been central to, and essential for, these traditions. The great mystics have come to their experience and wisdom by saturating themselves in and working through the canonical texts o f their traditions.

IV Linguistic Considerations The many ways in which the study of language is inseparable from the study and analysis o f mysticism here needs special emphasis. It is often said, "Mystics do not say what they mean and do not mean what they say"; trapped by the unclosable abyss between experience and utterance, the adept uses a language he or she knows to be necessarily inferior and hopelessly inadequate to the descriptive task at hand. Such futilely employed language is most often the familiar tongue o f a particular religious tradition and specific sociohistorical environment, but this is merely an unavoidable contingency. The mystic knows that all language, including the sacred, dogmatic, ritual language of his or her religious community, is too impoverished to perform the descriptive role assigned it and that, in any case, the true unity o f Being, the nature of God or Brahman, transcends linguistic expression. O r so, at least, is the standard understanding of the subject. But is this all there is to say on such an essential matter ? Are we to take this position as self-authenticating? Or, alternatively, does the close study o f mystical language, o f mystical literary sources in their various forms, reveal a more complex and very different picture o f the way things actually are ? That is, do mystics use language in ways that belie the standard claims that dominate the history, as well as the contemporary study, o f this subject? Before entering into a more detailed philosophical and hermeneutical analysis o f lin­ guistic matters, I remind readers of four facts that require recognition:

(1) The main legacy that we have o f the great mystics is their writings and related lin guistic creations. We have no access to their special experience independently o f these texts.

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W hat we refer to as the great historical mystical traditions o f the world are in fact a series of documents o f differing sorts. No one has any privileged access to the original mystics* experi­ ence outside its textual incorporation. And it is these documents that are the data for all ana­ lytic decipherment and scholarly reconstructions. (2) These literary remains, in their variegated forms, necessarily and inescapably in­ clude “interpretive” structures. Neither mystics nor we, their readers, can overcome this fact. W hat we have are the already encoded experiences now reported—this and this alone is what is available for study. (3) It must be recognized that mystical literature is composed from differing perspec­ tives and in different ways: first-person reports, the mystic’s own interpretation o f his or her experience, and the “interpretation” of such reported experience by members o f one’s own religious community or again by members o f other religious traditions. All these situations can be more or less highly ramified. (4) Mystical literature comes in many forms, and the modality chosen as the means of communication in any instance is not incidental or tangential to the content. These diverse forms include biography, biblical exegesis, aphorisms, theoretical and theosophical treatises, poems, prayers, polemics, sermons, and didactic compositions. All these genres enrich and complicate the decoding o f mystical reports. In this introduction I shall not concentrate on the decipherment o f these literary theological forms. However, the significance of the com­ plexity o f the literary corpus that composes the world’s mystical traditions should be understood. I would now make four arguments about the relationship o f language and mysticism. First, it is customary, and not unreasonably so, to think of language as descriptive in charac­ ter. The word “book” refers to a book, and the sentence “The book is on the table” refers to the factual, ontological circumstance o f a book being on a table. O n this referential and se­ mantic model, the language o f absolutes, such as God and Brahman, must likewise refer to the Absolute (known by its different “names”), and it is just this grammatical possibility that negative and apophatic theologies deny. Indeed, by refusing to accept that any predicates can be correcdy ascribed to the Absolute (called by whatever “name”), this premise o f denial gives rise to the consensus that language and the Absolute remain always asymmetrical and incongruous. But even if one accepts this argument, such denotative and referential meaning is not the only sense that mystical (and other) language can have. Much classical mystical language and many mystical linguistic forms have other purposes; for example, and to begin, language is instrumental in the transformation o f consciousness. The clearest and best-known example of this occurs in Zen koans. In posing the koan, the master is not attempting to pass information of a doctrinal dogmatic sort to his student— although what is taught by the master and what is learned by the student do carry such con­ tent in an extended or a translated sense. Rather, the master is seeking to revolutionize the student’s consciousness, particularly in the context o f meditation—when consciousness is particularly sensitive—such that it breaks free o f and transcends the regulative categories o f knowing and thereby is opened up to new forms o f awareness that are conducive to, and permit, satori. Here language performs an essential mystical task, but it is not a descriptive

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task. Meditation on the “nonsensical” koan, defined bysparadox or absurdity, “the sound o f one hand dapping,” is the linguistic means whereby language corrects itself. That is, it corrects the errors o f propositional and descriptive language that lead the mind to false ontic commit­ ments, which, particularly in the Buddhist context, are understood in terms o f selfhood, the substantiality o f things, and the (non)existence o f a (or the) One. By denying, necessarily, any logical, and hence transcendental, analysis, by repudiating regular and regulative forms o f epistemic construction and deconstruction, the koan undermines the absoluteness o f the or­ dinary, the force of the syllogism, the requirements of the law o f the excludedmiddle, and the metaphysical and epistemological daims of an ontology o f substance, and it pushes the dis­ ciple toward the deeper, highly counterintuitive truth o f “not-self ” and nirvana or, in Nagarjuna’s language, sunyata (Emptiness). It is the ability of language to induce “breakthroughs” o f consciousness by being employed “nonsensically,” literally non-sense-ically, that is funda­ mental to the traversal of the mystical path, to the movement from consciousness A to con­ sciousness B. Second, an elemental premise o f the dominant theory regarding the insufficient fit be­ tween language and transcendental experience is that language is a human convention. As such it is earthbound, ill-suited to objects/subjects of ultimate concern. But this repercussive thesis is not universally accepted. Many of the world s most significant religious and mystical traditions begin with the belief that their language is sacred—the very language o f God or Being. As such, it possesses an ontic status altogether different from merely immanent/ conventional languages, making it capable o f expressing transcendental realia in various ways, with a particular competence. This claim, among others, is made by kabbalists on behalf o f Hebrew, Sufis on behalf of Arabic, and Hindus on behalf o f Sanskrit. In each case, the mystic o f the said tradition sees him- or herself as possessing, in language, both the vehicle o f divine/ transcendental expression and one o f the very sources o f divine creativity. Accordingly, the employment of linguistic forms in these languages, particularly as embodied in sacred texts, is not subject to the same restrictions as are imposed by the utilization o f conventional semi­ otic systems. Knowledge o f the Tetragrammaton, the Hebrew four-lettered name o f God, for example, and its appropriateness vis-à-vis the Divine is not the same as either the correspon­ dence between the word “chair” and a chair, or even that between the English word “God” and the Divine. For the Tetragrammaton is the Absolutes ^^identification, possessing powers, by virtue of this ontic ground, this metaphysical source and connectedness, that other linguistic ascriptions lack. For the kabbalist, therefore, meditation and manipulation o f the four-lettered Name is a theurgic, meditative, and transformative act made possible by the necessary link between it and its transcendental source/Object. Kabbalah is, o f course, not alone in offering up these types o f linguistic speculations. Pythagoreans as well as Muslims and individual Christian mystics engaged in these sorts o f explorations share the presupposition that language is not merely utilitarian, conventional, or instrumental in character. In Sufism, for example, Arabic words and roots connected to the ninety-nine names of Allah, particularly the supreme name Allah itself, were manipu­ lated in much the same way as the Hebrew names o f God were by kabbalists in order to construct prayers and incantations for various contemplative and practical (e.g., healing) purposes. As part of al-asma a l husnat the theology of the Divine Names, Sufis have employed

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these names in order to empower their spiritual movement heavenward and to affect the world below. Third, there is the conception o f language as power, one o f the elemental employments o f language in mystical traditions. Contrary to asserted, oft-championed, apophatic claims, most mystical traditions are keenly sensitive to the energizing ontic possibilities that (cer­ tain) language, employed with spiritual integrity and in an efficacious manner, is said to pos­ sess. This understanding manifests itself in, for example, the manipulation o f alphabetical signs in the world’s mystical teachings in order to achieve contemplative and cosmic ends. Here, however, I would like to consider this idea in several of its additional manifestations, beginning with the conception that language direcdy aids in mystical ascents to other worlds and realms o f being. W hich is to say, words are held to exert locomotive power. They trans­ port the spiritual self from the world below to the world above. Perhaps the clearest expres­ sion o f such a doctrine, even o f such an experience, is found in the Hekhalot and Merkavah texts o f the rabbinic era (i.e., texts o f the first six centuries of the common era). In these docu­ ments, words serving as magical names, formulations, and “seals” make it possible for the adept to ascend to a hierarchically arranged heaven where, with their aid, he is able to con­ tinue his upward journey until he comes to the Seventh Heaven, in which he encounters the Almighty seated on His celestial throne (see Isaiah 6:11 for the origin o f this description). The theme o f ascent likewise plays a central role in Sufism. Related essentially to Muhammed s m i raj (ascent to heaven), the Sufi seeks to replicate the Prophets heavenly journey through prayer and meditation. Although Muhammed’s m i raj lacks the linguistic and magi­ cal elements o f Hekhalot and Merkavah ascents (the only residue o f this earlier tradition being Muhammed’s examination by the angel Ismail, which Muhammed passes successfully), the Sufi wishing to make a similar ascent uses words, especially prayer, after Muhammed’s own teaching on prayer, to facilitate his transport. It is not at all surprising that Sufis from the time o f Bayezid Bistami employed the language o f the m iraj as the primary linguistic re­ source from which to draw the vocabulary for their own transcendental experiences.15 D hikrt the recollection o f Allahs names, or some related formula (e.g., la ilaha ilia A llah), plays a complementary role in Sufism as well. Most o f the main handbooks of Sufi teaching emphasize this activity as a key to mystical ascension. Najmuddin Kobra (Abu ‘1-Jannab Ahmad),16 for example, includes such linguistic performances as among the re­ quired ritual activities o f the Sufi Ten-Fold Path. D hikr causes man to be present to Allah and Allah to man; on hearing Allah’s name(s), the soul is transported. It is this meaning that many Sufis give to the Koranic passage “I am the prayer companion o f whoever remembers [read dhikr] me; and when my servant seeks Me, he finds Me.” Mantras, mystical alphabets, lexicons, ascent texts, prayers, the repetition o f scripture, the recitation o f religious poetry, and still other linguistic acts embody a primal, radiant, metaphysical energy. They incorporate and encapsulate a dynamic power, the kind o f dy­ namic power that enlivens the entire cosmic order. By deciphering their meaning, by utilizing their potential, the mystical personality is empowered to alter its own nature and fate, and thereby affect the historical and metahistorical order o f things. Finally, in addition to the transformative, magical, and theurgical tasks that language performs in the world’s mystical traditions, language operates informatively. It is used to

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describe, however this term is qualified—and it is, o f course, regularly so qualified—that “knowledge“ that is gained in the mystical moment. This use o f language, constantly underval­ ued by analysts of mysticism, presents us with particular and fascinating intellectual puzzles. W hich is to say that, contrary to their own sincere declamations regarding ineffability, the structural logic of mystical theories, such as Neoplatonism and mystical utterances, necessarily tell us more than proponents of apophasis recognize. A n d thisfact should be taken as häng true o f mystical systems universally. Despite their avowal of neti neti, “not this, not this," the reality is otherwise. That is, mystics reveal, however unintentionally, more o f the ‘‘truth* they have come to know in language than their overt negations of meaning and content would suggest. In light o f the surprising richness and complexity o f mystical language, o f the many ways that language is used by mystics, it is evident that whatever else the world s mystics do with language they do not, as a rule, merely negate it. Pressed to the outer limits o f the “sayable* by the transcendental objects/subjects o f their concern, yet often assisted by the re­ sources o f positive revelation and/or the content of their (and others*) “noetic* experience (including states o f consciousness reached through various forms o f meditation), and, as a rule, urgently desirous o f sharing these extraordinary truths and experiences, they utilize lan­ guage to convey meaning(s) and content(s) in a variety o f amazingly imaginative ways. It is, indeed, their success at just this sort o f substantive communication that allows us to speak of, to learn of, and to participate in mystical traditions at all. This fact does not yet explain or resolve the still more recalcitrant logical problems generated by claims o f ineffability and the like but it does indicate that resolution is to be sought in ways more informed by the many things that mystics actually do in and with language than has hitherto been the case.

v Conclusion We return, in conclusion, to the definition o f mystical experience offered at the beginning o f this Introduction. As a consequence of the epistemological and socioreligious factors at work in the creation o f religious experience, it can now be understood that mystics—and this is what makes them mystics—have what philosophers call knowledge by acquaintance as com­ pared to knowledge by description. They possess firsthand, existential knowledge o f what their co-religionists know only through propositions. Moreover, it is the search after such immedi­ ate, if meditated, experience, and the report of such experience, that comprises the bulk o f the world s mystical literature. To begin to understand all this more adequately let us now turn our attention to this intriguing primary literature. Instead o f talking about these sources let us engage them.

Notes 1. For further material on the Jewish tradition see Steven T. Y^xz Jew ish Ideas and Concepts (New York, 1977); Ephraim Urbach, The Sages (Jerusalem, 1975); Solomon Schecter, Some Aspects o f Rabbinic Theology (New York, 1961); Hayim Donin, To Be aJew (New York, 1972); George Foot Moort, Judaism (New York, 1973); and Milton Steinberg, BasicJudaism (New York, 1947).

G e n e r a l E d i t o r ’s I n t r o d u c t i o n 2. For details see Gershom Scholem, M ajor Trends in Jewish Mysticism (New York, 1954); idem. Kabbalah (New York, 1974); and idem, “Devekuth,” in his Messianic Idea in Judaism (New York, 1972), 203-26. Cf. Moshe Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives (New Haven, 1988); and Moshe Idel and Bernard McGinn, eds., M ystical Union in Judaism, Christianity andjslam (New York, 1989), who argue for a more prominent place for unitive experience in kabbalah. 3. This account generally follows the excellent summary of the Buddhist position in Charles S. Prebish, ed., Buddhism: A M odem Perspective (Pennsylvania, 1975), 29-35. See also Edward Conze, Buddhism: Its Es­ sence and Development (London, 1974; New York, 1965); Richard Robinson, The Buddhist Religion (Cali­ fornia, 1970); Walpola Rahula, W hat the Buddha Taught (New York, 1962); and David Rhys, Buddhism (London, 1914). 4. Prebish, Buddhism: A M odem Perspective, 34. 5. For a technical discussion of the Buddhist doctrine of nirvana see David Kalupahana, Buddhist Philosophy (Hawaii, 1976), 69-90; Prebish, Buddhism: A M odem Perspectives L. de la Vallee Poussin, Nirvana (Paris, 1923); Isaline Blew Homer, The Early Buddhist Theory o f M an Perfected (London, 1936); Rune Johansson, The Psychology o f Nirvana (New York, 1970); Fedor I. Stcherbatsky, The Buddhist Conception o f Nirvana (Leningrad, 1927); and Guy Welbon, The Buddhist Nirvana and Its Western Interpreters (Chicago, 1968). 6. In addition to the sources already cited see Ninian Smart, Doctrine and Argument in Indian Philosophy (London, 1964); Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy (London, 1941); David J. Kalupahana, Cau­ sality: The Central Philosophy o f Buddhism (Hawaii, 1975); Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in India (Michigan, 1967); Kulatissa Nanda Jayatilleka, Early Buddhist Theory o f Knowledge (London, 1963); and idem. Survival and Karma in Buddhist Perspective (Kandy, 1969). 7. Varieties o f Religious Experience (New York, 1958), 292-93. 8. Ibid., 293. 9. From Reginald Horace Blyth, Zen and Zen Classics, vol. I (Tokyo, 1960), 114-15. 10. O n Buddhist monasticism see Charles S. Prebish, Buddhist Monastic Orders (Pennsylvania, 1975). Consult also Nalinaksha Dutt, Early Monastic Buddhism (Calcutta, I960); Sukumar Dutt, BuddhistMonks and Mon­ asteries o f India (London, 1962); Isaline Blew Homer, trans.. The Book o f Discipline, 6 vols. (London, 1938-66); and Gokal Das, Democracy in Early Buddhist Sangha (Calcutta, 1955). 11. For more on Zen Buddhism, see Shoku Watanabe, Japanese Buddhism (Tokyo, 1968); Heinrich Dumoulin, A History o f Zen Buddhism (London and New York, 1963); Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Introduction to Zen Bud­ dhism (New York, 1964; London, 1969); Joseph M. Kitagawa, Religion in Japanese History (New York, 1966); and Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism, 3 vols. (London, 1949-53). 12. O n Sufi monasticism and the Sufi orders see the excellent work by John Spencer Trimingham entitled Sufi Orders (Oxford, 1971). See also Annemarie Schimmel, M ysticalDimensions o f Islam (North Carolina, 1975); and Richard Grämlich, D ie schutischen Derwischorden Persiens (Wiesbaden, 1965). 13. This is the name o f Carlos Castanedas Mexican Indian teacher. See for more details Castanedas trilogy Teaching o f Don Juan: A Yaqui Way o f Knowledge (Berkeley, 1970); A Separate Reality: Further Conversa­ tions with Don Juan (New York, 1971); and Journey to Ixtlan (New York, 1972). The authenticity of this work, however, has been called into question and students should be aware of its highly problematic nature. For our present comparative purposes citing it can, nevertheless, serve a purpose. 14. For Zen sources on “testing” nirvana or satori see the discussion of the Zen koan and other procedures that take place between a Zen Master and his disciples. Some discussion of this matter can be found in, for example, Heinrich Dumoulin, A History o f Zen Buddhism (London and New York, 1963); Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars o f Zen (Boston, 1967); Guy Welbon, TheBuddhistNirvana and Its Western Interpreters (Chicago, 1968); Etienne Lamotte, Histoire du Buddhisme indien (Paris, 1967); Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Introduction to Zen Bud­ dhism; and Zen Comments on the M umonkan, trans. Sumiko Kodo, with comments by Zenkei Shibayama (New York, 1974). 15. For more details see Schimmel, M ystical Dimensions o f Islam, 219. 16. Wajmuddin Kubra, Faiva’ih aljam al wafawatih aljalal, ed. Fritz Meier (Wiesbaden, 1957).

Bibliography Almond, Philip., M ystical Experience and Religious Doctrine. Mouton Publishers (New York, 1982). A thoughtful study o f the philosophical issues raised by the study of mysticism.

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G e n e r a l E d i t o r ’s I n t r o d u c t i o n Brainard, Samuel R, Reality and M ysticalExperience. Pennsylvania State University (University Park, 2000). A sophisticated inquiry into metaphysical issues that arise in the analysis of mysticism. Deikman, Arthur, The Observing Self: Mysticism and Psychotherapy. Beacon Presi^Boston, 1982). A basic contribution to the study connecting mysticism and extreme psychological states. Forman, Robert K, C, ed., The Problem o f Pure Consciousness. Oxford University Press (New York, 1990). A challenge to the view that mystical experience is contextual. Argues all mystical states are, ultimately, the same. James, Williams, The Varieties o f Religious Experience. Fontana Library (London, 1960). The most influential study of mysticism and religious experience ever written. All readers will benefit from reading this early in their course of study. Jones, Rufus, Studies in the M ystical Religion. Macmillian (London, 1909). * An old, but valuable, collection of thoughtful, learned essays on basic issues connected with the study of mysticism. Katz, Steven T, ed .^Mysticism and PhilosophicalAnalysis. Oxford University Press (New York, 1978). This collection of new essays sparked the debate o f the last quarter century on the issue of the contextualization of mystical experiences. .. .Mysticism and Religious Traditions. Oxford University Press (New York, 1983). The essays in this collection extend the discussion of the need to contextualize mystical experiences especially in relation to the world s major religious traditions. .. .Mysticism and Language. Oxford University Press (New York, 1992). A collection of original essays that explores the many-sided nature of this foundational issue. .. .Mysticism and Sacred Scripture. Oxford University Press (New York, 2000). This collection brings together new essays that show the profound influence o f the sacred scriptures of the world s religions on the mystical practitioners of those traditions. Otto, Rudolf, Mysticism East and West. Macmillan (New York, 1976). A classic study of comparative issues. Somewhat dated but pan of the central corpus of academic studies of its subject. Pike, Nelson, M ystic Union: A Essay in the Phenomenology o f Mysticism. Cornell University Press (Ithaca, 1992). One of the more penetrating philosophical investigations of mysticism in the literature of the last quaner century. Proudfbot, Wayne, Religious Experience. University of California Press (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1985). A valuable contribution to the modem phenomenological analysis of mystical experience. Smart, Ninian, “Interpretation and Mystical Experience.” Religious Studies I (1965). A basic essay by one of the leading students of religion of the second half of the twentieth century. Staal, Frits, Exploring Mysticism: A MethodologicalEssay. University of California Press (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1975). An attempt to show how to study mysticism. Though only partially successful, it repays reading. Stace, Walter T., Mysticism and Philosophy.].B. Lippincott (Philadelphia, 1960). One of the classic twentieth-century efforts to draw a typology of mystical experience. ...T he Teachings o f the Mystics. Mentor Books (New York, 1960). A collection of primary sources for beginners. Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro, Mysticism Christian and Buddhist. George Allan & Unwin (London, 1957). The best-known comparative study o f mystical experience by an Asian Buddhist scholar. Underhill, Evelyn, Mysticism. OneWorld Press (Oxford, 1999). An old, but still standard, study, but to be used with care. Zaehner, R.C., H indu and M uslim Mysticism. Schocken Books (New York, 1969). Professor of comparative religion at Oxford, this is his attempt to compare two major mystical traditions. It shows erudition and methodological sophistication. .. .Mysticism Sacred and Profane. Clarendon Books (Oxford, 1957). Zaehner s study of mysticism across cultures attempts to provide a typology of mystical experience. This study has had considerable influence.

JUDAISM

Jewish Mysticism M oshe Idel , H ebrew U niversity

1. An Introduction An introduction to Jewish mysticism may take several methodological forms. It may be his­ torical, describing the different phases o f Jewish mystical literature in a chronological order; sociological, dealing with the social status of the mystics and their impact on larger audi­ ences; anthropological, one that emphasizes, for example, the role of rituals and myths in the general economy of this literature; comparatist, by emphasizing the differences and similari­ ties between this form of mysticism and others; theological, dealing mainly with the esoteric theories concerning the structure o f the divine realm; functionalist, dealing with the func­ tion which a certain type o f literature played in the life o f an individual or group; psychologycak phenomenological; semiotic, attempting to describe the symbolic codes o f this literature; or—last, but not least—hermeneutical, namely dealing with the interpretive transformations that Jewish writings have undergone at the hands of mystical authors. Each o f these ap­ proaches has its particular strength and each has its weaknesses.1 In the history o f scholarship dealing with Jewish mysticism there has been a strong tendency to emphasize the historical and philological approaches, that concentrated on the sources and developments of the Jewish mystical schools and on the important task o f identifying authors o f treatises and printing them. W hen approaching the content o f the mystical sources, most o f the dominant scholarship is theological: it concentrates on an anal­ ysis o f the theosophical system that informs the writings of a certain mystic. In consequence, the vast body o f literature that comprises the corpus o f Jewish mysticism still awaits a full, polyvalent analysis. Needless to say, this introduction does not claim to address all o f these variegated matters, but rather adopts, after some preliminary discussion concerning matters o f definition, an alternative approach, that o f introducing the most salient aspects o f Jewish mysticism by means o f a theory o f models.

2. Jewish Mysticism: Problems of Definition “Jewish Mysticism,” like many generic terms, is as helpful as it may be misleading. Though a good definition may help locate some meaningful relationships between a large body o f ma­ terial, be it comprised o f texts, figures, or experiences, the actual complexities inherent in the diversified data itself emerges rather soon after the definition has been offered. However, by exploring these complexities, one can better understand not only what is specifically in the material, but also why certain materials have to be pushed to the margin o f ones consider­ ations or even excluded as irrelevant to the phenomena under discussion.

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W hat may be the meaning o f the adjective “Jewish" in this context: is it pointing to the religious beliefs o f those who produced the mystical literature or, alternatively, to a specific text that has been produced by someone who is considered Jewish? We shall come back to the former point in a moment. However, if the latter assumption is accepted, as indeed is often the case, then, for example, Simone Weils [1909-1943] writings will have to be de­ scribed as belonging to the corpus o f Jewish mysticism, a fact that would be opposed not only by Weil herself, but by many o f the Jewish mystics. H er christological leanings, as well as her negative attitudes to Judaism, were so strong that a reasonable scholar would not be inclined to count her as a Jewish mystic. Thus, the very fact that someone has been bom a Jew and has not converted to another religion does not suffice to describe his/her writings as instances o f Jewish mysticism. Weils case is an extreme one, and thus an easy one for our purpose. However, the situation is much more complex with less conspicuous border cases. Could, for example, a Christian kabbalist—writing about kabbalistic issues w ithout intro­ ducing Christological elements—compose a treatise that would righdy belong to the body o f Jewish mysticism? The answer o f a Jewish kabbalist would be “no.” A scholarly approach would reply “yes.” From a statistical starting point, the genetic approach (i.e., one that emphasizes the Jewishness of a text s author) seems to operate in a very large segment o f the literature and in some ways it may help in defining and describing the Jewish mystical corpus, but, what­ ever its value, it deals much more with the world o f the author and his Lebenswelt than with the world o f the mystical texts themselves. The content, or better the huge spectrum o f ideas, concepts, structures o f thought, experiences, or literary genres that comprise the to ­ tality o f the Jewish mystical tradition remain outside the range o f a discussion that adopts as the sole criterion the biological background o f the author. Alternatively, what would con­ tribute to an attempt to define a certain mystical writing as Jewish, using the criteria o f themes and content? W hat is “Jewish” in the domain o f content such that it would serve to distinguish one type of mysticism from another? I must admit that it is rather difficult to offer a convincing description o f particularly “Jewish” ideas for at least two major reasons: first, much o f what is considered to be Jewish ultimately stems from other cultures: Meso­ potamian, Egyptian, or Greek; second, Jewish cultures have had their own impact on other cultures and civilizations, and therefore an emphasis on content may well be misleading. So, for example, a Christian kabbalist, like Pico della Mirandola [1463-1494] or Johannes Reuchlin [1455-1522], writing about Jewish concepts, or usingjewish mystical hermeneutics, does not automatically produce Jewish mystical texts for two reasons similar to those men­ tioned above in the case o f Simone Weil. Pico himself would decline any attempt to include his writings in the range o f Jewish mystical writings, but would prefer, as he indeed did, to remain part o f the Christian flock—he died as a monk in a convent. O n the other hand, I wonder if Jewish mystics would welcome his inclusion among them. However, both Pico and Reuchlin come closer then Weil to producing something that might, by any standard, be included within the realm o f Jewish mysticism. Thus, the very emphasis on Jewish issues, including some that belong to the sacrosanct kabbalah, as is the case with the writings o f many Christian kabbalists, still raises important questions as to the appropriateness o f a purely thematical approach for defining Jewish mysticism. Indeed, such an approach was

J ew ish Mysticism

embraced by Jewish mystics, mainly in cases o f controversies, when they defined their kab­ balah in contradistinction to other forms o f kabbalah, or again as occurred when one sought to compare Hasidim to kabbalah. However, these definitions, which are very helpful for the understanding o f one branch o f kabbalah, are much less helpful when someone attempts to describe the entire domain o f Jewish mysticism, beyond the divergences stressed by the dif­ ferent parties. So, for example, R. Meir ibn Abi Sahula, writing at the beginning o f the fourteenth century, defined his brand o f kabbalah in terms that combined theological ele­ ments and ritualistic ones: Despite the fact that our knowledge is limited and we cannot comprehend the issues according to their precise depth it is incumbent upon us to inquire into the issues in accordance to our comprehension, and follow the way trodden by those called, in our generation and in those of the former generation, for two hundred years,2 [by the name] Mequbbalim [kabbalists]. And they call to the wisdom of the ten sefirot [Divine Emanations] and some few rationales of the commandments by the name Kabbalah.3 However, in contrast, the earlier kabbalist, R. Abraham Abulafia defined kabbalah as consisting in three principles, all of which are related to language: The names o f those principles are letters, combinations [of letters] and vowels.... The combination turns the letters and the vowels turns the combinations and the spirit o f man, given by God, turns the vowels until they will cause the emergence and the illumination o f the concept that is proper to any intelligent kabbalist.4 Nothing ritualistic and theological is involved in this definition of kabbalah. Again, and dif­ ferent, one o f the more explicit definitions o f kabbalah in terms related to the experience o f light is found in a spurious responsum of R. Joseph Gikatella. The anonymous kabbalist an­ swers the following question: How is the [mystical] intention in prayer [possible], especially since it is a thing hidden from us, because we do not know how it is: if we direct [our prayer] to the sefirot, which are lights \meorot] there is no similitude on the high.5 The answer consists in a long treatment of the nature of the sefirot and the Hebrew language; however, I shall adduce here only two sentences from its beginning: These wondrous topics6... cannot be expressed by mouth, a fortiori to be written down in a book, since these wondrous topics are the essence o f kabbalah, either the practical kabbalah or the speculative one.7 This diversity recognized, it needs to be emphasized that the different definitions avail­ able should supply starting points for a comprehensive description that would attempt to integrate the most pertinent aspects o f these self-perceptions o f the Jewish mystics. Most important in this context is to remember the existence of a vast kabbalistic literature, designated by the kabbalists as “practical kabbalah,” which deals with magic, an issue rele­ gated to the margin in modem scholarship.

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3. The Functionalist Approach The two last examples illuminate, in fact, an issue that can be described as the functional aspect o f mysticism. I imagined the negative reactions of both Weil and Pico to a hypotheti­ cal attempt to include their writings within the literary corpus o f Jewish mysticism, and those o f their Jewish mystical counterparts, who would object to the introduction o f those writings within anything that could be related to Jewish mysticism. In other words, these two authors can hardly be included in the category of Jewish mystical writings since theydid not play any meaningful and positive role in Judaism. This means that another criterion should be admit­ ted for characterization of a certain writing as Jewish: its role in shaping the religious or spiri­ tual life o f at least some Jews. This criterion will immediately raise the question o f the heretical forms of Jewish mysticism, like the pseudo-messianic movement known as Sabbateanism [seventeenth century] or Frankism [eighteenth century], but it seems that even those sectar­ ian movements, which have been sharply criticized by some rabbinic authorities, served as spiritual guides for many Jews, in a way that cannot be compared to the influences o f Pico or Weil. In other circumstances, it may well be that both Sabbateanism or even Frankism could remain religious phenomena with a greater impact within Judaism but I shall refrain from discussing the implication o f the extent of the impact as a major criterion here. In other words, a functionalist definition of a certain writing or figure as belonging to Jewish mysti­ cism may emphasize not only the content or the themes o f a certain writing but also its role within the framework o f a certain segment of the Jewish community. Then, too, the term “mysticism” is not unambiguous. The variety o f scholarly understand­ ings of the notion is huge, and the range of the more popular use o f the term even greater. I would prefer not to enter a long discussion of the possible usages of the concept but to offer one possible way of understanding it. Following Plotinus, and many scholars,8 including Gershom Scholem,9 let us describe mysticism as the search for, and sometimes the attainment of, direct contact with God. In other instances Scholem described the relations o f the human and the divine as an “immediate experience” or “immediate awareness.”10By such a description I mean that the term “mystic” is to be attributed in Jewish texts to phenomena related to employing techniques to ensure, and sometimes to attain, a relational or unitive experience, of whatever kind. In this context “unitive” would stand for being in the immediate presence of God, either by a contemplation of His structure, His body, His attributes or powers, or by con­ tributing to processes taking place between them, or by being united with them. Thus, my assumption is that Jewish writings as mystical forms of literature have primarily to do with contact with, rather than symbolic knowledge of or meditation upon, the divine realms.

4. Historical Development ofJewish Mysticism The main stages in the development of Jewish mysticism are usually understood to involve the following historical epochs:

A) The biblical era. Here the accounts o f creation and various personal religious expe riences are taken as paradigmatic expressions o f mystical doctrine and phenomena. So Genesis

Jewish Mysticism

is seen as embodying the secrets o f creation; and the experiences o f Abraham, Moses, and the Hebrew prophets, especially Ezekiel, are understood as the models o f all subsequent humandivine encounters. B) The rabbinic era (circa 200 BCE to 600 CE). Developing themes drawn from the Bible, the rabbinic sages produced a variety of mystical doctrines. In particular, they empha­ sized the possibility o f the human .ascent to Heaven and the experience o f mans encounter with God as king in the heavenly palaces that make up the world above. The sources in which these themes are expressed and developed comprise what is known as Merkavah and Hekhalot literature. The former because it is rooted in Ezekiels vision o f the Heavenly Chariot— called the M erkavah (Ezekiel, Ch. 1). The latter because it concerns itself with the heavenly ascent, primarily by magical means, to the Palaces—the Hekhalot—o f the seven heavens. In addition, the mysticism of the rabbinic era was concerned with the secrets revealed in Gene­ sis. This speculation culminated in the important early work known as the Sefer Yezirah, the Book o f Formation. C) Medieval Kabbalah. Beginning in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, a new form of Jewish mystical speculation emerged in Spain. This focused on the doctrine o f divine emana­ tion and the related notion o f the sefirot, the divine manifestations of the Ultimate and Un­ knowable One. This theosophical trend beginning with texts like the Sefer ha-Bahir and the speculations o f R. Isaac the Blind and his circle, culminated in the greatest product o f Jewish mysticism, the Zçhar. Though this last mentioned work has traditionally been attributed to R. Simeon bar Yohai, a second-century Palestinian sage, the work, at least in its definitive form, is now held by scholars to be the work o f R. Moses de Leon, a Spanish kabbalist, who published it between 1280 and 1290. After its publication, all subsequent forms o f kabbalah reflected its immense influence. D) Safed in the sixteenth century. Following the expulsion o f the Jewish community from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496, a community o f mystics emerged in the town o f Safed in northern Israel. Initially the main figures in this mystical circle were R. Moses Cordevero [1522-1570] and R. Joseph Karo [1488-1575]. However, both were eclipsed in im­ portance by R. Isaac Luria [ 1534-1572], known by the Hebrew acronym the Ari (the Lion). Luria refashioned the inherited medieval kabbalah in several radical ways and through his disciples shaped all subsequent Jewish mystical teaching. E) Sabbateanism, the false messianism of the seventeenth century. In the mid­ seventeenth century a false messiah named Shabbatai Tzevi [1626-1676] emerged in the O t­ toman Empire. Eventually he convened to Islam [in 1666] under threat o f execution by the Sultan. However, his disciples, drawing upon and reworking elements in Lurianic and earlier kabbalah, interpreted his apostasy as a necessary action required of the messiah in order to secure the final redemption. This act o f apostasy, and its theological construction, had signifi­ cant long-term consequences upon kabbalah in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. F) Hasidism. This Eastern European movement, begun in the eighteenth century by R. Israel ben Eliezer [1700-1760], better known as the Baal Shem Tov—the Master o f the Good Name, i.e., one who knows how to employ Gods names (“the Good Names”) for prac­ tical magical and mystical purposes—spread the teachings of kabbalah among the Jewish masses o f eastern Europe. Its basic doctrines, and its main innovations, centered around belief

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in “Zaddikim”—special individuals who were endowed with religious power and authority who could perform healing and beneficial acts in the world below as well as create unification (out o f the present disunity) in the world below and the world àbove. Through the work o f the Baal Shem Toys disciples, especially R. Dov Baer, the so-called Maggid o f Mezritch [d. 1772], the movement grew throughout eastern Europe, except for Lithuania where it met strong resistance at the hand of the great rabbinic authority R. Elijah o f Vilna, better known as the Vilna Gaon [“the Genius o f Vilna”] [1720-1797], and became, one of, if not the main form that Jewish religiosity and spirituality took between the end o f the eighteenth century and the Holocaust. Today, Hasidism—and with it the tradition o f Kabbalah—continues in various forms, especially in the United States and in the State o f Israel.

5. Jewish Mysticism: General Characteristics Jewish mysticism displays several main features that are characteristic o f this lore, though they are not unique to this form of literature:11 A) This is an activist type of mysticism. This aspect o f the Jewish mystical tradition becomes especially conspicuous when compared to Christian mysticism in which the recep­ tion of divine grace or sudden revelations are a prominent preoccupation. In Christianity, it is faith, rather than action, that is answered by grace. In contrast, on the mystical plane Jewish mysticism reflects the active form o f religiosity found in the non-mystical formulations o f this religious tradition. From certain important points o f view, various forms o f Jewish mysti­ cism come closer to H indu forms o f mysticism, due to their common emphasis on ritual and its cosmic effects and their employment of the techniques o f breathing to help induce mysti­ cal states o f consciousness. B) The importance of ritual in Rabbinic Judaism is reflected in its profound concern with precise performance in the observance o f the commandments as well as in what I pro­ pose to designate as anomian forms o f action. Given a belief in the paramount impact o f re­ ligious—and sometimes non-religious—acts, apreoccupadon with exactness is quintessential. Thus, even the anomian techniques, those techniques which differ from halachic behavior [acts prescribed by religious law], were formulated in forms that are reminiscent o f the hala­ chic preoccupation with precision. C) The fascination with details and precise performance has to do not only with the nature o f halacha [religious law] but also with the question o f efficacy. Some o f the special techniques that are prevalent in Jewish mysticism are indeed deeply related to the perfor­ mance o f an action as halachically required. However, a fair number o f them can be de­ scribed as anomian, namely techniques which though not in contradiction to the halacha, and certainly not in opposition to the halacha, are, to a great extent, indifferent toward the halacha. Some of those techniques stem from earlier magical contexts and their efficacy is related to their precise performance. In other words, there is an aspect o f magic in the preoc­ cupation with techniques and their exact performance. For kabbalists o f all ages, the mysti-

Jew ish Mysticism

cal experience is conceived not only as a touch o f grace but also as a change in the “objective” nature o f reality. This issue, which is not unique to Jewish mystics, is however unusual in the West, though it has substantial parallels in the East, especially in H indu religiosity. D) Jewish mystics since the early period of the so-called H ekhdot [Heavenly Palace] literature [200-600 CE] continuing up to modem Hasidism [begun in the second half o f the eighteenth century] via many kabbalistic sources have emphasized the role o f mystical transformation. Kabbalah is about radically changing oneself. E) Part o f the conviction in the efficacy o f certain practices, both nomian and anomian, is the belief that they are not mere human inventions but revelations from above, either in the form o f traditions that have been revealed in the past and transmitted through genera­ tions; or, in some other cases, as revelations of supernal powers in more recent times. Medi­ eval and modem kabbalistic practices, as well as many o f the earlier forms o f Jewish mysticism, should, therefore be conceived o f not merely as effective triggers of mystical experiences, but as catalysts that have been sanctified from above. In this connection, the existence o f a wide variety o f mystical techniques is important evidence indicating that extreme mystical experi­ ences were sought after by Jewish mystics. F) Mysticism was conceived o f not only as a matter o f individual experience but, also, and centrally, as the revelation o f inner dimensions o f the Torah [the “Five Books o f Moses,” from Genesis to Deuteronomy]. For this reason, nature mysticism has been totally marginal­ ized in Judaism in favor o f a mysticism o f text and language. The text o f the Torah is the most significant universe in which the Jewish mystic lives. It is this reality he contemplates and attempts to fathom. These concerns are reflected in numerous ruminations on and interpre­ tations o f the nature o f the sacred book, o f language and o f interpretation. The nature of Jewish mysticism and mystical interpretations have been thoroughly influenced by this con­ centration on a sacred text and its sacred language. G) Jewish mysticism is linguistic in a double sense: it not only conceives Hebrew as being crucial but also views language as both the medium as well as the locus o f the experi­ ence. Many Jewish mystical sources indicate a great respect for Hebrew as a primordial, natu­ ral, intellectual, prophetic, holy, and even divine language. They also emphasize that the letters o f the Hebrew alphabet and language can serve as a domain of contemplation. I here emphasize certain positive characteristics which though not unique to Jewish mysticism are nevertheless helpftd in delineating its nature. I have consciously chosen to deemphasize matters o f content, o f ideas or abstract concepts, in favor o f more technical issues, or modes o f activity, which do not presuppose a certain defined theology. It is this shift in focus from the study o f the theological to that o f the experimental/experiential that is crucial for the above description o f Jewish mysticism.

6. The Anabatic Model A possible way o f overcoming the problems inherent in the theological analysis o f Jewish mysticism or o f an approach that emphasizes the history o f ideas is to stress the im portance o f specific processes, and the interface between them. To judge from the

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most im portant processes recurring in Jewish mysticftm we may speak about the follow­ ing: (a) the ecstatic experience that occurs after using a particular discipline described in detail in certain handbooks; (b) the theurgical processes that involve an awareness o f and the attem pt to influence the divine powers and the processes taking place between them; and last but not least (c) the talismanic model which assumes that various prac­ tices are able to draw down astral and divine influx into and onto the terrestrial world.12 The three models, separately or together, may be characterized as via perfectionis, which assume that positive religious results may eiqerge out o f initiated encounters w ith the divine powers. Sometimes, these models were combined. And in what follows, I will present some instances o f a more comprehensive model, the anabatic one, which assumes the need for an ascent on high, in practice or metaphorically, in order to bring down divine powers. This model combines the mystical-ecstatic and the talismanic, while also including theurgical aspects in many instances. Examples o f ascending to the world above and bringing down entities o f crucial religious importance, e.g., the Torah and divine names, are found already in late antiquity in connection w ith the ideal figures o f Moses or Rabbi Akiba. In the thirteenth century we find a dear nexus between the ascent above and the draw­ ing down of divine influx from the sefirotic realm to the world below. The most notable example is found in ‘Iggeret ha-Qodesht a short and very influential treatise dealing with the mystical significance o f intercourse: Human thought has the ability to strip itself [of the alien issues] and to ascend to and arrive at the place o f its source. T hen it will unite with the supernal entity, whence it comes, and it [i.e. the thought] and it [i.e. its source] become one entity. And when ones thought returns downwards from above, something similar to a line appears, and w ith it the supernal light descends, under the influence o f the thought that draws it downwards, and consequently it draws the Shekhinah [female aspect o f the divine] downwards. T hen the brilliant light comes and increases upon the place where the owner o f the thought stands... and since this is the case, our ancient sages had to state that when the husband copulates w ith his wife, and his thought unites with the supernal entities, that very thought draws the supernal light downward, and it [the light] dwells upon the drop [of semen] upon which he directs his intention and th o u g h t... since the thought on it [the drop] is linked to the supernal entities it draws the brilliant light downward.13 In this case, no importance is placed on any theurgical operation while the drawing down o f the brilliant light upon the operator is stressed. Hence the link between the mystical union of human thought to the divine, on the one hand, and the operation o f drawing down a divine force is explicit. Similar and related views o f the human possibility o f drawing down the divine influx can be found in the ZoharyR. Yitzchak o f Acre (late thirteenth, early four­ teenth centuries), R. Yehudah Albotine (sixteenth century), R. Elijah de Vidas, author o f the influential work Reshit Chochmah [sixteenth century], R. Hayyim Vital [1542-1620], the

J ewish Mysticism

major disciple o f R. Isaac Luria, the central figure in the Safed Circle o f mystics in the six­ teenth century, and R. Moses Cordovero [1522-1570]. Here it needs to be recognized that according to the mystical-magical model cleaving to God means the return to the source o f the soul and thus the possibility o f receiving the divine influx. W hat is particularly significant is the coalescence o f two important themes in the understanding o f the mystical adept: the perfected man is described as a Tzaddiq [holy man] and, at the same time, he is depicted as a channel. That is to say, the pre-hasidic Jewish mystics formulated a view that is strongly reminiscent of the Hasidic version o f this teaching. Indeed, the human Tzaddiq is conceived in several influential pre-hasidic texts not only as an exem­ plary figure, a magician or a mystic, but also as the lower extremity o f the divine continuum. The divine not only flows upon the righteous man, but also divine reality is extended in order to add him to the divine realm. Again, the anabatic model is presented at the end of one of the most influential books o f the eighteenth century, R. Moshe Hayyim Luzzattos Sefer Messilat Yesharim, that culmi­ nates with a discussion oîdevequt [clinging to God] and the magical powers acquired by the consummated mystic, portrayed as being able to draw down life and resurrect the dead. Given this chain o f texts and authors it is evident that the anabatic model is present in the most important forms o f Kabbalah: the Geronese, the Zoharic, the ecstatic (as represented, for example, by Abraham Abulafia [1240-1291]), the Safedian and post-Safedian schools, in­ cluding Hasidism.

7. The Katabatic Model An additional major model in Kabbalah and Hasidism may be designated as the katabatic one. In general terms, this model assumes that it is possible to rescue the souls and the broken divine sparks by the descent o f the kabbalist—and later by the descent o f the Hasidic master, and finally by the descent o f the Messiah—to hell, or into the realm o f the demonic. As it deals with the rescue and elevation o f divine entities this model is consistent with the view o f mysticism suggested above, that is as an experience or contact with the divine. This is, moreover, a paramount example o f what is known in the study o f mysticism as the via passionis.14 The classical form o f the katabatic model is of ancient origins and in Jewish mystical literature is already visible in the Zohar in the context o f the descent o f the Tzaddiqim [the holy righteous ones]. It then underwent further development in sixteenth-century kabbalah, especially in Safed.15 The explicit nexus between the katabatic model and messianism, and not only redemption in general, is held in modern scholarship to emerge from Nathan of Gaza’s interpretation o f the pseudo-messiah Sabbatai Tzevi’s conversion to Islam [in 1666] which he understood as being the immersion of the messiah into the realm o f the shells, symbolically representing evil, in order to annihilate the domain o f evil.16 As in many other cases, the relatively early kabbalah may provide an important, and quite explicit, antecedent which may have something to do with the much more famous de­ scent o f Christ to hell in order to save the souls o f sinners who reside there. In an anonymous manuscript, authored by R. Yitzhaq o f Acre, the following prediction is made: “The Messiah

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will take out Korah and his party and some o f the wicked o f Israel from hell and he will revive many of the people of Israel.”17 It should be emphasized that though this claim is similar in many respects to the Christian messianic katabasis, there are, at the same time, some essential elements that distinguish it from its Christian counterpart. First, R. Yitzhaqs passage only speaks about a very limited sort o f redemption that does not include all sinners, not even all Jewish sinners, but only a part o f them, unlike the universal redemption suggested in Christ s mission. Second, the kabbalist speaks about a future deed, while in Christianity the act has already occurred. By identifying the Messiah with the lowest rung o f their emanationist system, both philosophers and kabbalists elevated this concept, that was usually understood as involving a human being, to a spiritual and divine level. They put a strong accent on its status as an exten­ sion of the divine.

8. The Status of Mystical Union A claim often made regarding Jewish mysticism is that it does not involve strong experiences o f mystical union.18According to the proponents o f this view, the transcendental theologies found in classical rabbinic Judaism inhibit developments conducive to more extreme forms o f unitive mysticism. In other words, the nature of mysticism is understood, to a very great degree, as being a reflection or the actualization o f the possibilities inherent in a certain type o f “normative” theology. Now while I agree that theology had a formative role in mystical systems and mystical experiences, one should not over emphasize this single factor. Let me emphasize that there is no one dominant and crystallized type o f theology in any type o f clas­ sical religion; at the very least there are variations—versions—which can differ substantially from each other. Therefore, though raffinic theology could and did exert a conservative influ­ ence, akabbalist was able to turn to more congenial forms of theology. As against the argument o f Gershom Scholem regarding the inhibiting nature o f Jewish theology, it should be recognized that important forms of Jewish theology, which are strands o f rabbinic and Jewish philosophical thought, do explicidy emphasize the importance o f devequt [adhesion to God]. Though, admittedly, not all rabbinic and philosophical writings would agree on this issue, there is no reason to assume that the impression o f the kabbalists was that the authoritative “theologian,” a category that I find rather evasive, would criticize them for embracing extreme unitive understandings of devequt.1* We should recognize that rabbinic theology contained transcendental and immanentistic approaches. Moreover, there are some discussions in this literature as to the union between God and Israel that do not leave room for doubt as to the possibility of the cleaving between man and God.20 O n the other side, the Plotinian description of the union o f the soul with the One was translated into Hebrew by a thirteenth-century philosopher, R. Shem Tov ibn Falaquera, who used the term devequt in this context.21 As Scholem has remarked, this translation could have influenced a version o f Plotinus’s passage found in R. Moshe de Leon.22 Therefore, instead o f assuming that Jewish philosophy would, invariably, inhibit Jewish mysticism from using extreme ex­ pressions, there are examples of the very opposite: Jewish philosophy has indeed provided concepts and terms that contributed gready to the language of extreme mysticism.

J ewish Mysticism

Notes 1. The need to resort to different methodologies in order to investigate such a complex phenomenon as Jewish mysticism should remain on the agenda o f ipodem scholarship, as proposals suggested years ago only rarely succeeded in changing the methodological stasis in the study in Jewish mysticism, or were misconstrued: See Moshe Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives (New Haven. 1988), p. XIX. 2. This dating o f the emergence of kabbalah is strikingly reminiscent of the modem scholarly findings as to the emergence o f kabbalistic texts. See Gershom Scholem, Origins o f Kabbalah, tr. A. Arkush, ed. R.J. Zwi Werblowsky (Princeton, 1987). 3. Ms. Roma-Angelica 454 fol. 2b. 4> 4. Sefer Hayyei ha-O lam ha-B\ Ms. Oxford 1582, fol. 45b. On the influence of this quote on one of the descrip­ tions o f R. Moses Cordovero s kabbalistic activity see Moshe Idel, Studies in Ecstatic Kabbalah (Albany, 1989). p. 137. 5. Ms. New York, JTS 1737, fol. 59a. in print now in Moshe Idel, “Kavannah and Colors: A Neglected Responsum,” in eds. Moshe Idel, D. Dimant, S. Rosenberg, Tribute to Sara: Studies in Jewish Philosophy and Kabbalah Presented to Professor Sara O. Heller Wilensky (Jerusalem, 1994), pp. 1-5 [Hebrew]. 6. Namely those referred in the question quoted above. 7. Ibid. 8. See section 6 below. 9. See Plotinus, Enneads, 6.9.11. Insofar as Jewish mysticism is concerned, the term “contact,” as reflecting the manner o f relationship between the mystic and God, has already been used especially by Gershom Scholem. See his On the Kabbalah and Its Symbolism, tr. R. Manheim (New York, 1969), p. 8; and his M ajor Trends in Jewish Mysticism (New York, 1968), p. 4. 10. See respectively On the Kabbalah, p. 5 and M ajor Trends, p. 4. See also Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives, p. XVIII. 11. For an important exposition o f the main features of Jewish mysticism see G. Scholem, M ajor Trends, Introduction. 12. For a more detailed exposition o f these three models see Moshe Idel, Hasidism (Albany, 1995) pp. 45-145, where a more detailed description o f the anabatic model in kabbalah and Hasidism may be found. On models in the study o f religion see Steven T. Katz, “Models, Modeling and Mystical Training,” Religion, vol. 12 [1982], pp. 247-275, as well as his contribution in Steven T. Katz, ed., Mysticism and Religious Traditions (New York, 1983), pp. 43-51. 13. Printed in Charles Dov Chavel, ed., Kitvei ha-Ramban [Jerusalem, 1964], Vol. II, p. 373. 14. I would like to mention two other kabbalistic versions of via passionis. Both share the assumption that the Messiah had a strong contact with evil, even before his descent into the realm of evil, or the beginning of the eschatological drama. One of them assumes that the Messiah was bom out o f evil, the other assumes that the Messiah must have some type of relation to evil in order to prevail. In this context, the concept that the Messiah was bom from the powers of evil should be mentioned. According to a passage authored by R. Joseph o f Hamadan, a late thirteenth-century kabbalist active in Castile, the Messiah is the offspring of sexual rela­ tions between God and the collective spirit of evil, described both as the divine concubine, and as Metatron. This is part of the divine strategy, in fact a divine deceit, to save the people of Israel by means of the Messiah who, stemming as he is from the demonic realm, is not opposed by it when undertaking the redemptive activ­ ity. The second version is represented in texts of Safedian kabbalists like Moses Cordovero and R. Moses Galante and claims that some form o f qelippah [“shell” i.e., negative reality] must be found in the Messiah and again in a Hasidic text which describes the incest as necessary for the birth of the Messiah. See Moshe Idel, “Additional Remnants from the Writings o f R. Joseph o f Hamadan.” Daat, vol. 21 (1988), pp. 47-53 (Hebrew). Compare the view of Moses Cordovero, discussed in Bracha Sack, The Kabbalah o f Rabbi Moshe Cordovero (Beer Sheva, 1995), pp. 97-98 [Hebrew]; R. Moses Galante, adduced by Gershom Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, The M ystical Messiah (Princeton, 1973), pp. 57-58, who assumes that there must be some power o f the demonic world in the Messiah» in order for the Messiah to succeed in his mission. Scholem, ibid., assumes that this view is part of the Lurianic Kabbalah. 15. Isaiah Tishby, The Wisdom o f the Zohar (New York, 1989). Vol. Ill, pp. 1425-1426,1457; Mendel Piekarz, The Beginning o f Hasidism: Ideological Trends in Derush and M usar Literature (Jerusalem, 1978), pp. 280-302 [Hebrew].

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16. G. Scholem. Sabbatai Sevi, pp. 806-807. s 17. Ms. New York, JTS 1853, fol. 9a. 18. See here most especially the work of Gershon Scholem, e.g., his The Messianic Idea in Judaism, pp. 203,227. I. Tishby has suggested qualifying Scholem s sweeping statements. See, e.g., his The Wisdom o f the Zohar, vol. II, pp. 228-230. However, his views were openly rejected by Scholem, Origins o f the Kabbalah, p. 303 n. 206. Scholem s views were followed by R.J.Z. Werblowsky, e.g., in his review essay of the Hebrew edition o f Tishby s Wisdom o f the Zohar in Tarbiz. voL 34 [1965], pp. 203-204 [Hebrew] and again in a public lecture devoted to defending Scholems stand by Joseph Dan in 1984. The single scholar who added significant new material to the debate since the publication of Tishby s work was Ephraim Gotdieb, Studies in Kabbalah Literature, ed. Joseph Hacker (Tel Aviv, 1976), pp. 234-238 [Hebrew]. See more recently Moshe Idel, Kabbalah: New Per­ spectives, pp. 59-73; and Studies in Ecstatic Kabbalah, pp. 1-31. 19. It should be emphasized that the meaning of the root D V Q is rather loose in the biblical and rabbinic texts and there is no authoritative interpretation of its significance. 20. See Moshe Idel, Kabbalah: New Perspectives, pp. 38-39. 21. See Sefer ha-M aalot (Berlin, 1894), p. 22. 22. On the M ystical Shape, pp. 256-257. However, Scholem does skip over the devequt passage when discussing Falaqueras version o f the Theology o f Aristotle.

Selection 1: Ascending to Heaven The first two selections to be considered are from two classical Jewish texts known as Maaseh M erkavah and Pirkei Hekhalot Rabbati. Drawing on the vision o f the divine chariot in chapter 1 o f the biblical book o f Ezekiel, they describe the mystical ascent to the world above. Here the mystic learns the structure o f the upper worlds, the magical use o f specific divine names and hymns, and even gains, in an obscure way, a vision o f the Divine. Importantly, the authorship of these and related mystical texts from the rabbinic era (third to sixth century) are attributed to major rabbinic figures. In the present case, the first text is attrib­ uted to Rabbi Akiba, who was martyred by the Romans after the suppression o f the BarKochba revolt in the land o f Israel between 132 and 135 CE. The second text centers around R. Ishmael, a great sage o f the same era.

Selection 1(a): Mystical Ascent to Heaven Ma'aseh Merkavah Section 1 (§ 544) Rabbi Ishmael said: I asked Rabbi o f Akiba the prayer that one recites {when he as­ cends to the Merkavah,} {and I asked o f him} the praise o f RWZYY, Lord, God o f Israel— who knows what it is? He said to me: [There must be] purity and holiness in his heart, and he says a prayer: 1. Be praised forever. At the Throne of Glory You dwell, 2. in the Chambers on high, and the exalted Hekhal. 3. For you have revealed the secrets and the deepest o f secrets, and the hidden things, and the most hidden things

Jewish Mysticism

4. to Moses, and Moses {taught them} to Israel 5. So that they can engage in Torah with them, and increase study with them. (§545) Rabbi Akiba said: W hen I ascended and gazed at the Power (Gevurah), I saw all the creatures that are in all the paths o f heaven-those whose lengths are above and widths are below, and those whose widths are above and whose lengths are below. (§ 546) Rabbi Ishmael said: How do the ministering angels stand on them? He said to me: like a bridge laid over a river that everypne passes over; so is a bridge laid from the begin­ ning o f the entrance to its end; and the ministering angels go around on it and recite song before TRQYLYY Y H W H God o f Israel. The fearsome Soldiers stand upon it, the awesome Captains; a thousand thousand thousands and a myriad o f myriads o f myriads, and give praise and approbation before KS Z H YHWSYH YWY God of Israel. How many bridges are there, How many rivers o f fire are there, How many rivers of hail are there, how many storehouses o f snow are there, how many balls o f fire are there, how many ministering angels are there ? [There are] twelve thousand myriads {of bridges}; six above and six below. [There are] twelve myriads o f {rivers of fire;} six above and six below. {[There are] twelve thousand myriads o f rivers o f hail; six above and six below. [There are] twelve thousand storehouses of snow; six above and six below.} [There are] twenty-four myriads of balls of fire; twelve above and twelve below. And surrounding the bridges, the rivers o f fire, the rivers o f hail, the storehouses o f snow, the ministering angels, many ministering angels at each entrance and at each passage­ way stand inside {them} facing all the paths of heaven. (§ 547) W hat does RWZYY YWY God o f Israel do? Rabbi Ishmael said to him: How can he gaze on them? He said to him: I said a prayer for mercy, and because o f it I was saved: “Puissant God, Y H W H G od o f Israel: Blessed are You, God, great, mighty in power.” And what does RWZYY YWY, God o f Israel do? Therefore hear what Rabbi Akiba said to him. He revealed to him that this great secret is revealed to anyone o f flesh and blood who has the praise o f RWZYY YWY, God o f Israel in his heart. He must recite it every day at sunrise, and

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cleanse himself o f iniquity and falsehood, and o f all evit Then RWZYY YWY, G od o f Israel will deal justly with him in this world, and it will stand on his behalf, and he will be assured a place in the world to come. (§ 548) {And this is the prayer:} 1. 'El KWZYY YWY God of Israel: 2. Blessed are you, God, great in power. W ho is like you in heaven or on earth Holy in heaven and holy on earth? He is a holy King, He is a great King, He is a magnificent King over all the Merkavah. 3. You stretched out the heavens and established Your Throne, and Your great name is adorned at Your Throne o f Glory. {You spread out the earth; You founded in it a seat for your footstool, Your glory fills the world.} Your name is great and mighty in all power, and there is no limit to your understanding. 4. You know the mysteries of the world and oversee wisdom and hidden ways. W ho is like You, who searches hearts and {examines} the innermost parts {and understands thoughts}? {There is nothing concealed from You; and nothing hidden from Your sight.} All life and death, blessings and curses, good and evil, are in Your hand; 5. and Your name is mighty in heaven and earth, {of great strength in heaven and earth, blessed in heaven and earth, honored in heaven and earth, merciful in heaven and earth,} holy in heaven and holy on earth, Power is the remembrance o f Your name forever and ever, to the end of all generations. 6. (§ 549) This is Your name forever, and this is Your renown from generation to generation. Your name is Compassionate and Merciful. Your mercy prevails over those above and below. Your word is good for those who love Your Torah, Your utterance is pure for those who sanctify Your name 7. Your way and Your path You have established in heaven ; Your throne on high in force and might, song and hymn, clouds o f fire,

*

Jewish Mysticism

fearsome Soldiers, awesome Captains, a thousand thousand thousand and a myriad of myriads of myriads give praise and approbation to Your great, mighty, and awesome name. Before You stand all the Mighty Ones, who are magnificent in praise and hymn in the chambers of Torah and treasures o f blessing; they praise from the ‘aravot and they bless from the firmament; a blessing from one, a blessing from another, and praise from another. W ho, God, is like You, bearing iniquity and passing over sin? W ho is there in heaven who has the power to do such as Your works and mighty deeds? 8. Your Power (Gevurah) is fire, Your chambers are fire, M S. M 22: Your name is etched in a flame o f fire. God, In the highest heavens, whose name is fire consuming fire, Your throne is fire, and Mighty Ones of fire stand before You.

M S. N Y8128: You are fire consuming fire and Your throne is fire; Your teaching is fire and Your Servants are fire etched in a flame o f fire. HY YH Y H W holy and awesome, 9. Blessed are You, Y HW H, magnificent, blessed, magnificent in the chambers o f song.

9. You know the secrets o f above and below. There is none like You, none like Your Might, none like Your deeds, none like Your mercy, none like Your great name for ever and ever. My spirit is entrusted to You, My breath is placed into Your hands. For You are the Lord o f all, the glory o f all those above. Holy, Holy, Holy, Rock o f Eternity, 10. YH YH YH Y H W Y H W Y H W Y H W YH Y H W Y H W YH Y H W Y H W Y H W N W R’ D*N NWR* D ‘N NWR* D ‘N ’RY ‘ZY DRW SYYT KSS KSSH NWSY QLWSY H Y W H W H N W ‘ZBWHY DGNHGGT 11. Holy, King, high and exalted, dwelling in the chambers of awe, great in might, mighty over all the Merkavah, Magnificent over all the Magnificent Ones forever,

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Your name is forever, Your remembrance is forever, Your kingdom is forever. Be sanctified and glorified in the chambers of the holy ones, for You are living God, Lord o f all, Beauty of all the world, exalted among the holy ones. 12. Blessed are You, YY, the Holy God. (§550) Rabbi Akiba said: W hen I recited this prayer I saw 6,400,000,000 angels o f Glory standing facing the Throne o f Glory, and I saw the knot o f the tefiflin o f GDW DY YWY God o f Israel and I gave praise for all my limbs: (§551) N Y 8128 It is [incumbent] upon me to praise the Lord of all, to ascribe greatness to the Former o f creation, W ho did not make us like the nations of the lands, and did not place us like the families o f the earth, who did not place my lot among them and my destiny among all their masses; for they bow down to vanity and emptiness, and pray to a god who cannot save. But I pray before the King of kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.

M S .M 2 2 [missing in MS.] to praise the Lord o f all, to ascribe greatness to the Former o f creation, W ho did not make us like [those who follow] the ways o f the wicked, and did not place us like [those who follow] the ways o f falsehood, who did not place my lot among them and my destiny among all their masses; for they bow down to vanity and emptiness. and pray to a god who cannot save. But I bend the knee, prostrate, bless, sanctify, praise, pray before, glorify, and revere the King o f Kings, the Holy One, blessed be He.

Both Recensions: 2.a. For he stretches out the heavens and establishes the earth, and His powerfiil Shekhinah is in the lofty heights. He is our God, there is no other. Truly He is our King, there is none but You. b.

Y H W H , He is God, Y H W H ; He is God; Y H W H , He is God. (1 K 18:39) He is One and His name is One, our God Y H W H is One. (Zech. 14:9) Y H W H Y H W H is a gracious and merciful God, slow to anger and o f great kindness and faithfulness. (Ex. 34:6)

J ew ish Mysticism

3. Therefore, we hope for you, our God quickly to see the splendor o f Your power to banish idols from the earth and [that] the false gods be cut down; to perfect the world under the reign o f Shaddai, and [that] all flesh and blood call upon Your name, that all the wicked o f the earth turn to You.

4.a. b. c.

5.

May all who dwell on Earth recogni^ and know That to you every knee must bend and every tongue swear, that before you every living thing must kneel and prostrate; to the Glory of Your name they must give honor. For kingship is Yours and forever You shall reign in glory. And I shall sanctify Your great, mighty, and awesome name: Holy, Holy, Holy is Y H W H o f Hosts, Great, mighty, and awesome, beautiful, magnificent, wondrous, and honored: HDYRYRWM steadfast, great, pure, explicit, Your name is carved in flames o f fire H Y YH YHW, holy and awesome. Blessed are You YWY, magnificent in the chambers of song.

In M S. M 22 only: {(§ 552): Rabbi Ishmael said: W ho can adorn and sanctify the kingship of the King o f the universe, and to make use o f the Crown, and to pronounce his name, and glorify his renown, to sing his praise, standing in his service, in a voice o f gende stillness: 1. YY YY YY, God, glorious, burning, holy, high and exalted: 2. Be magnified and sanctified, King o f kings who dwells in the chambers o f the Hekhal o f flames o f fire and hail; Tour name is enveloped in fire, flames o f fire and hail, 3. and Your throne o f Glory presents before You song, and hymn, singing, praise, and laudation, and says before You every day: 4. W ho is like You, King o f the Universe, like Your name? (§ 553) Rabbi Ishmael said: 1. YY YY, God, gracious and merciful (Ex. 34:6), God o f Israel, 2. over the Ofanim, over the Creatures, and over the Wheels o f the Merkavah, and over the Seraphim, who stand, all in one council (raz), in one voice, in one consultation and the Ofanim, and the Holy Creatures, and the Ofanim o f beauty, and

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the Seraphim o f flame, and the Wheels o f the Merkavah, and they say, in a great voice, in a great roaring voice, 3. glorious and strong, in a great voice, they say : 4. Blessed be the Glory of YY from the place o f His Shekhinah. (§ 554) Rabbi Akiba said: W ho can contemplate the seven Hekhalot, and gaze at the highest heavens, and see the inner chambers, and say, “I have seen the chambers {ofYH}?0 In the first Hekhal there stand four thousand myriads o f M erkavot o f fire, and forty thousand myriads o f flames o f fire go in among them. In the second Hekhal there stand one hundred thousand myriads o f M erkavot o f fire, and forty thousand myriads o f flames of fire go in among them. In the third Hekhal there stand {two hundred thousand myriads o f M erkavot o f fire, and one hundred thousand myriads of flames of fire go in among them.} In the fourth Hekhal there stand one thousand o f thousands o f thousands o f myriads o î M erkavot o f fire, and two thousand myriads o f flames o f fire go in among them. In the fifth Hekhal there stand four thousands o f thousands o f myriads o f M erkavot o f fire, and two thousand myriads o f flames o f fire go in among them. In the sixth Hekhal there stand a thousand thousands o f thousands o f myriads o f M erkavot o f fire, {and two thousand thousands myriads o f flames o f fire go in among them.} In the seventh Hekhal there stand one hundred thousands o f thousands myriads o f Merkavot of fire, and two thousand thousands of myriads o f flames of fire go in among them. (§555): In the first Hekhal, Merkavot of fire say, “Holy, holy holy {is Y H W H o f Hosts, the whole earth is full of His Glory;0} and their flames spread out and gather together to the second Hekhal, and say, “Holy, holy holy {is YH W H of Hosts, the whole earth is full o f His Glory.0} In the second Hekhal, M erkavot of fire say, “Holy, holy, holy;0 and their flames also gather together and spread out into the third Hekhal and say, Holy, holy, holy.0 In the third Hekhal, Merkavot of fire say, “blessed is the name o f His Majesty’s Glory for­ ever and ever from the place o f His Shekhinah;0 and their flames gather together and spread out to the fourth Hekhal and say, “blessed is the name of His Majesty’s Glory forever and ever.0 In the fourth Hekhal, M erkavot o f fire say, “blessed is YY, living and enduring forever and ever, magnificent over all the Merkavah;0 and their flames gather together and spread out to the fifth Hekhal and say, “blessed is Y H W H , living and enduring forever and ever.0 In the fifth Hekhal, M erkavot of fire say, “blessed is the Holiness o f His Majesty from the place of His shekhinah;0 and their flames gather together and spread out to the sixth Hekhal and say, “blessed is the Holiness o f His Majesty from the place o f His shekhinah.0 In the sixth Hekhal, M erkavot of fire say, “blessed is Y H W H , Lord of all power, W ho creates power, and Ruler over all the Merkavah;0 and their flames gather together and spread out to the seventh Hekhal and say, “blessed is Y H W H , Lord o f all might, {and Ruler over all the Merkavah.0} In the seventh Hekhal, M erkavot o f fire say: a.

Blessed be the King o f Kings, YY, Lord of all power.

J ewish Mysticism

b. W ho is like God, great and enduring? His praise is in the heavens' heaven, the holiness o f His Majesty is in the highest heaven, His might is in the inner chambers. c. From this one, “holy” and from that one “holy,” and they present song perpetually and pronounce the name o f G H W RY ’L YWY, God of Israel, and say: d. “Blessed be the name o f His Majesty’s Glory forever and ever from the place o f His Shekhinah.” (§ 556): Rabbi Ishmael said: when Rabbi Nehuniah my teacher told me the secret of the chambers o f the Hekhal and the Hekhal of the Merkavah, I saw the King of the universe sitting on a throne high and exalted, and all the chambers of the holiness of His name and His power were sanctifying His name in His praise, as it is said: “They called one to another and said, Holy, Holy, Holy is Y H W H o f Hosts, the whole earth is full of His Glory” (Isa. 6:3). (§557): Rabbi Akiba said: Happy is the man who stands with all his strength and pre­ sents song before BRWKYY YWY God o f Israel, and gazes at the Merkavah and sees {all that is done before the Throne o f Glory, on which BRWKYY Y H W H God o f Israel, is seated}, and sees to the commandment, and to power, to the laws and good decrees, that stem decrees may be cancelled from the world, and that no one may spurn his fellow; in {the name of} S N Y T N TRW GG YWY God o f Israel, whose name is like His power, and His power is like His name. He is His strength, and His strength is He, and His name is like His name, ’SBWGG LSRS SSGG G D Z H G G D Z H W N N W R’ R‘D H W YW H D BH YY YY One, ’H H H YHW, is His name. (§558): Rabbi Ishmael said: I asked Rabbi Akiba: W hat is the distance from one bridge to another? Rabbi Akiba said to me: [There must be] righteousness and piety in your heart, and you will know the measurement[s] in heaven. He said to me: W hen I was in the first Hekhal, I was pious; In the second Hekhal, I was pure; In the third Hekhal, I was righteous; In the fourth Hekhal, I was perfect; In the fifth Hekhal, I presented a qedushah before the King o f Kings, blessed be He. In the sixth Hekhal, I recited the qedushah before the One who spoke and formed, and He commanded all the creatures that the Ministering Angels should not kill me. In the sev­ enth Hekhal, I stood before [Him] with all my strength and shook and trembled in all my limbs, and said: a. Living and Enduring God, who formed heaven and earth: b. Besides You there is no rock, The Troops o f above shall glorify Your remembrance forever, The work o f Your hands in Your inhabited world. Great God, Maker o f all,

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Magnificent in greatness, beloved in might, the Mighty Ones of strength render thanks before You, who stand before You in truth and justice. c. Do justice in Your world and in the justice of Your name, save me; and 1 will magnify the blessing o f Your glory forever. d. Blessed are You, magnificent in the chambers of greatness. (§559): Rabbi Ishmael said: I asked Rabbi Akiba: W hat is the distance between one bridge and another? He said to me: Between one bridge and the other [the distance] is twelve myriad parsangs: At their ascent twelve myriad parsangs and at their descent twelve myriad parsangs. Between the rivers of fire and the rivers o f awe there are twenty-two myriad parsangs. Between the rivers of awe and the rivers of fear there are twenty-two myriad parsangs. Between the rivers of hail and the rivers of darkness there are thirty-six myriad parsangs. Between the chambers of thunder and the clouds o f consolation there are forty-two myriad parsangs. Between the clouds of consolation and the Merkavah there are eighty-four myriad parsangs. Between the Merkavah and the Cherubim there are one hundred sixty-eight myriad parsangs. Between the Cherubim and the Ofanim there are twenty-four myriad parsangs. Between the Ofanim and the Chambers o f Chambers there are twenty-four myriad parsangs. Between the Chambers o f Chambers and the Holy Creatures there are four thousand myriad parsangs. Between one wing and another there are twelve myriad parsangs, and such is their width. Between the Holy Camps and the Throne of Glory there are three myriad parsangs. And from the foot o f the Throne of Glory to the place where the Holy, high and exalted King, ‘NPR’ YY God o f Israel, is seated upon it there are forty thousand myriad parsangs, and His great name is sanctified there. Section I I (§560): Rabbi Ishmael said: I was thirteen years old and my mind was occupied every day I was engaged in fasting. W hen Rabbi Nehuniah ben Ha-Qannah revealed to me the Prince of the Torah, Suriel, the Prince of the Presence, was revealed {to me}. He said to me: The name of the Prince o f the Torah is Yofiel, and every one who seeks him {it has been revealed about him that he} must sit for forty days in fast, eat his bread with salt, and must not eat any kind o f defilement; he must perform twenty-four immersions, and not look at any kind o f colored garments; his eyes must be cast to the ground. And he must pray with all his strength, direct his heart to his prayer, and seal himself with his own seal, and pronounce twelve utterances.

J ew ish Mysticism

(§561): “You are the living God in heaven,** engraved as a SPYSTWS NW M STW S ‘NQYPWS ‘NBY BG*H W ‘PPP* wisdom o f PDW F SRT PRTT* ’N G N Y T Y N T W N H D R T ZW P W*H SRKY W N Y N §B1S DYNYN SBYM; he must pronounce: DYMPS* BH B* W H BDYR* SW T PNY *WT PYW *TWN YZZ KWKY HDRYH, {Prince} of Wisdom; then seventy angels will descend to him, and with them SQDHW ZYY Angel o f the Presence. And he must pronounce [these] letters so that he will not be harmed: ZYYP PHP ZRS SMP TYRGB BB PYM PYH: B. (§ 562) 1. You are living God in heaven and earth who has given permission to the Troops of Your Glory to be at the service o f human beings. 2. In purity I pronounce Your name, [You] W ho are One over all creatures: 3. SBR DR*Y *DYR DRY*S DRY*S W HPS DRSYN, A seal for his body; Q R YHY BDP BR*Y ZH , Blessed forever, ‘P M'WPP* YHW, holy and blessed be His name; a seal above my head; secrets, secret above all secrets; HGGBWB YH YHW, may You be blessed; in Your name: may evil demons be silent [in fear of] the majesty o f Your Dignity; let there be a seal on my limbs. In Your name: SR SRWGG SRPYW Z H TY*G YH Y H W Y H W YHW. 4. W ho is like You, God great and awesome, W ho formed the universe? You formed Magnificent Ones o f wisdom, who have permission (to bring down} the secrets of wisdom by the authority o f Your name; for You are king o f the universe. 5. Therefore, I pronounce before You {the name of} §Q D H W ZY H Your servant: QW ZS DRYZW*L $KBS D H BW Y X SRGN B H R G W W T *RTMS TXYMYPTWN *DWS DYWBY*L ‘RTRYM NQBYM H QRDW S *L ZRZRY*L ZBWDY*L §KB$ HGRS *RDS NHGYW*L YY GR TDWW*L YH W H *L YH *LYM HYYL* YH W H , Whose name is exalted because o f the name o f his Creator. 6. I have pronounced the name o f SQ D H W ZY H Your servant so that there may be miracles, wonders, many marvels, signs and many great and wondrous portents for me, in the chambers o f wisdom and the orders o f understanding. 7. And I shall sing before you as it is said: “W ho is like You among the *EUm, Y H W H ? W ho is like You? (Ex. 15:11) 8. Blessed are You, YY, great and exalted, Lord o f miracles and wonders,

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who listens to the prayers o f those who sanctify His name, and who assents to the requests of those who know His name. v *

He must raise his eyes to heaven so that he does not die; he must stand and recite a name and give praise so that [the name] be engraved on all his limbs and wisdom and the search for understanding be in his heart; and he should call upon His name, and he should pray in His name (bishem o). He should make a circle for himself and stand in it, so that the demons will not come and liken him to the angels and kill him. * (§ 563): Rabbi Ishmael said: ‘RPDS the Angel o f the Presence said to me: Anyone who wishes to use this great mystery must pray it w ith all his strength, so that nothing o f it be forgotten; all his limbs are [in danger of] being destroyed. He must call those three names and I will descend: SDYR TYNRY ’Y YBY* BYHW SWWS D W P RWP DHM. (§564): Rabbi Ishmael said: I asked Rabbi Nehuniah ben ha-Q annah: H ow is the wisdom o f the Prince o f the Torah [obtained]? He said to me: W hen you pray, p ro ­ nounce the three names that the Angels o f Glory pronounce: ZS TYS ZRZSY ’L T Y T TW PYLTY RBT YP’ ’R H R ZY‘ *YZWZ, in power. And when you pray, pronounce at the end [of your prayer] the three letters that the Creatures pronounce when they gaze at and see ’RKS YWY G od o f Israel: GLY ‘YY ‘RD R Y H ’L ZK BBYB’. A nd when you say another prayer, pronounce the three letters that the wheels o f the Merkavah p ro ­ nounce when they recite song before the Throne o f Glory: HS PZ YP* H P Y 'W GHW* §BYB*. This is the acquisition o f wisdom; everyone who pronounces them acquires wisdom forever. And can anyone endure it? Moses wrote three letters for Joshua and he drank. If you cannot endure it, engrave them as a mark and do not worry yourself with the words o f the “heroes:" Z P Q Q N Y D R H W W W ' HB* §BW N Q N SBW H $ H R Y J H R D W H D R H W Z H §BWN; and do not forget: ’Z Q M P ’W PW PY Y D D R ’W R N W D , awesome Father; for fortification o f wisdom and for glorification o f understanding. (§ 565): Rabbi Ishmael said: I sat twelve days in fasting. W hen I saw that I could not {endure} I employed the forty-two letter name, and PRQRM, the Angel o f the Presence de­ scended in anger. He said to me: “Son of a stinking drop! I will not give it to you until you sit for forty days.” Immediately I trembled and pronounced the three letters, and he ascended: {Y}H B’R‘ *BYH Greatness T Y T BYH. Then I sat for forty days and said three prayers in the morning, three prayers at noon, and three prayers in the evening. And I pronounced twelve utterances at every one. O n the last day I prayed three [times] and pronounced twelve utterances, and PDQRM , the Angel of the Presence, descended, and with him angels o f mercy, and they caused understanding to {dwell} in the heart o f Rabbi Ishmael. W ho can stand at his prayer? W ho can gaze at PNQRS, the angel o f the Presence, once this mystery exists? PRQRS YWY God o f Israel said to me: “Go down and see; if another man like you did not descend with the permission o f PNKRS YWY God o f Israel, he killed him." (§ 566); Rabbi Ishamel said: I sealed myself with seven seals when PRQRS, the Angel o f the Presence, descended:

Jew ish Mysticism

1. Blessed are You, YY, who created heaven and earth with Your wisdom and discernment. Your name is forever. 2. H Y ’W P SYSY PYY’W LW SM BY KYY TNYY: the name o f Your servant. 3. {By the seven seals that Rabbi Ishmael sealed on his heart:} ’WRYS SSTYY on my feet; * ’BG BGG on my heart; ’RYM TYP* on my right arm; ’WRYS TSY Y’H on my left arm; ’BYT TL BG ’R YYW DY W ’L on my neck; ’W P ’K Q Y TR SS *HD YDYD YH, for the protection of my life, and above them all, ’P P T Y H W H Y W YW Z H W Y H W TYTS: a seal above my head. 4. RYR, GWG, great, H P YP HP, pure, H H YYW H H Y H H H H , perpetual recitation. 5. Be praised. Lord o f wisdom, for all power is Yours. 6. Blessed are You, YY, Lord o f Might, high and exalted, great in dominion. (§567): 1. You are the King o f Kings, blessed be He. Be praised alone, for You alone are One. 2. H W K Y H is your name ’W Z W ’Z W H W W ’H is your name RM KY YD ‘ZY is your name ’BYS Y H W is your name ZY H ’ YH TY D ’Y is your name G H W P is your name ‘W T T Y ’H is your name HKB WYH* is your name Flame, Might, exalted; this is the radiance o f the Lord o f all the Merkavah, 3. Be sanctified forever, O Holy King; Your Holiness is in heaven and earth. 4. Blessed are You YY, the Holy God. III. 1.

(§ 568): You are the King o f Glory.

Your way is glory and Your word is holy. Your name is glory, great and holy, forever and ever.

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2. RM YH W ‘ZW Z Living, Mighty, DRKYY ’HDYS RYW* LK BRW’H ZHRY Y H ’ H W BYHW X PB DRYRM YR’H H B F H H W Y’ HS TS Y T T H P P* G H Y H W YHW. 3. Be praised, King o f the universe, who has given permission for the recitation o f Your name while standing and sitting, and for all other great wisdom. 4. YP $T T ’D YH SBY TP ’R’H YWP YH H PW P YW P’D BYP* NBTS H Y H Z W W ’RM 5. May the King o f praise be praised forever, for Your name is great in praise, and Your name is high and exalted. 6. Blessed are You YY, great, living in might. Then I pronounced three names so that angels and demons would not touch me: RD N W Y H ’ SHRY Y W ’Y ’KBKY ’STKY K W ZW ’ ’H X HB, and I shall break the demons, D ‘ KB BYNYYN ’RYM MDRS Q D W M A X P 'YS YH* YZH YW H MBY’ ’W P H P YH YD Y H H W , Great Seal. (§ 569): Rabbi Ishmael said: Rabbi N ehuniah ben ha-Q annah said to me: W h o ­ ever wants to use this great mystery must pronounce [the names o f] the angels that stand behind the Holy Creatures: M QLS *SGD NW SS, and say a prayer so th at they do not destroy him; for they are the fiercest o f all the heavenly hosts. A nd w hat is the prayer? 1. Blessed are You YY, my God and Creator, great and awesome, living forever, magnificent over all the Merkavah. W ho is like You, magnificent on high? 2. Let me succeed in all my limbs, 3. and may I discourse in the gates o f wisdom, and may 1 examine the ways of understanding, and may I gaze into the chambers of Torah, and may I discourse in the storehouses of blessing, and may they be stored for me. For wisdom is before You. 4. Save me from all fierce [creatures] standing; may I be beloved of them before You, 5. and I will know that Your holiness is forever, and I will bless the holiness of Your name forever, and I will sanctify Your great and holy name, and may the Great Seal be on my limbs. 6. As it is written, “Holy, holy, holy is YWY o f Hosts, the whole earth is full o f His glory” (Is. 6:3) 7. Blessed are You, YY, who lives forever.

J ewish Mysticism

(§ 570): I said again to Rabbi Nehuniah ben ha-Qannah: W hen [one] recites twelve things, how can one gaze at the radiance of the Shekhinah? He said to me: He says a prayer with all his strength and he is beloved ofthc Shekhinah. Section I I I (§ 579): Rabbi Ishmael said: Rabbi Nehuniah ben Ha-Qannah said to me: My teacher, son o f nobles, when I gazed at the Merkavah, I saw glorious beauty, inner chambers, fearfiil Mag­ nificent Ones, awesome Brilliant Ones, burning and shimmering their burning burned and their shimmering shimmered. (§ 580): Rabbi Ishmael said: W hen I heard this utterance from Rabbi Nehuniah ben Ha-Qannah, my teacher, I stood on my feet and asked o f him all the names of the Princes o f Wisdom, and from the question I asked, I saw a light in my heart like the waters o f heaven. (§581): Rabbi Ishmael said: W hen I stood on my feet and saw my face shining from my wisdom, I began to elaborate [the name of] every angel in every Hekhal: In the first Hekhal {stand} W H W PY ’L, ‘ZPY’L, GHW RYX, and RSSY’L, and STPP’L, B Z T L , ‘W Z PY ’L, a n d 4WZBZBYX. At the gate o f the second Hekhal stand Gabriel, Qaspiel, RHBY’L, SBZRYX STQYX, and HRBY’L, and QSR’L, 4B M Y X ,4WRPYX. At the gate of the third Hekhal stand HDRYX, ZBDYX, ZRWRYX, SRNX, 4M T Y ’L, 4M M 1 , and ‘MTLY’L, NW DRYX, and RWDY’L. At the gate o f the fourth Hekhal stand SGSGX. 4SRL, HYLWPY, and HW LW PTY 4LMWM, GLM W N, Holy, H Q M G D R 4GBS BSWS «BRMWS PSWY MDW R, Gabriel, z t m z x t w r t w r d *. At the gate o f the fifth Hekhal stand D H R H Y X , 4YDR’L, D RGYTX GHSYSH* YSWSY’L, RYPYWN, HGY ZYWWY PSQ KYS’L RBDWDYX, GX 4PKYX, YYGD YYQD. At the gate o f the sixth Hekhal stand 4BGBG 4SHSH 4SPSP His {F}ootstool, RZW ZYX , T W P Y X , G RG W T SBSX HDW RYX, S’N DYRX 4Z*YX, Z’ZX, SZY”L, Q D Q D Q L , R’D X , SWRX, PSSYX, G H W ’L BYPYX. At the gate o f the seventh Hekhal stands 4SMKYS Q M N M N ‘M YLPTW N SMYNYX L PT W N 4LT Q RTY W N 4BRYX G D W DYX SRPSYWN HLLBYX 4PPY flame, trem­ bling, SLHBYTH, SBWBYX PH D Y X H W Q Y X RW T PSYSYX ‘SPSYSYX G’G* KY 4W R YQ RTH HHPYLY MW PLYX YSWLDYX, the Prince of the Presence, who sees the image o f Zohariel YY, God o f Israel. (§ 582): And above them all sits the King of the world, sitting on a throne high and exalted, and the angels o f Glory praise in songs; and those who shout in exultation and speak of His Power stand at His right and at His left. And these are their names: 4GYWN, 4DYX, 4PPX, SBWSYX, 4BWRYX, 4$KNYZKX, GRWSKSWPX, PKWKYX, ‘GKGDYX, 4DRYX, and SS WPPY N G D GHYRX GHW DRY ZRZDYX, H D RW TY X assist, and 4DRGHY W D ’Y YWPY PSYBGD G HW RX GHWRYY ZRZYX, the Angel of the Presence, encircles, and Sandalfon ties tefillin on the head of the Rock of eternity, YWY God of Israel. Blessed be Your name, the great, mighty, awesome, magnificent, heroic, valiant, strong God; the lauded, wondrous, exalted God, who sits at the uppermost heights, who does His will in His world, and there is no other.

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(§ 583): Rabbi Ishmael said: Zevudiel the Angel o f the Presence said to me: “Son o f nobles, what merit do your father and mother have that you havevdeserved to endure this mystery?”—which [no one in] the whole world has deserved, and that I and Rabbi Akiba deserved to make use of. (§ 584): Rabbi Ishmael said: SQDHW ZYH, Angel o f the Presence said to me: “Son o f nobles, do not presume to exalt yourself over all your fellows, and do not say, ‘only I was privi­ leged among all others;* for it is not because of your strength and power, but because o f the strength and power of your Father in Heaven. But happy are you in this workî, and it will be good for you forever and ever, and for all human beings who possess it and recite [it] every morning in prayer, like you.” (§ 585): Rabbi Ishmael said: W hen I heard [this] from $Q D H W ZY H the Angel o f the Presence, I stood with all my strength and fortified myself and stood, and offered the qedushah before the King of the universe, and I said: 1. YWY my God, be sanctified forever. 2. Be exalted above the Creatures, and above the Merkavot of Your strength. Be glorified and blessed, for there is none like You. Be sanctified, for there are none like Your works. 3. The highest heavens tell your justness; Wonders bespeak your glory; Seraphim above and below bow before You. 4. For You are great and awesome, and there is no wrongdoing and forgetting before Your Throne o f Glory. 5. Blessed are You, YWY, creator o f all creatures in truth. (§586): Rabbi Ishmael said: W hen Rabbi Nehuniah ben H a-Qannah my teacher heard that I stood facing heaven and elaborated [the name of] every angel in every Hekhal, he said to me: “Why did you elaborate the angels that stand at the gates o f the Hekhalot?” I said to him: “N ot for my own glorification did I do it, but for the praise o f the King o f the world.” Rabbi Ishmael said: Rabbi Nehuniah ben Ha-Qannah my teacher said to me: “The Torah o f truth that Aaron the Priest acquired was waiting for you, and you would not have had to trouble yourselfwith this mystery ! But if you wish to employ this mystery, strengthen yourself with the five prayers that I say.” Then Rabbi Nehuniah ben Ha-Q annah arranged prayers before me, and every single prayer [included] twelve letters from the name o f the living and enduring God, God who is glorified and blessed, who sits at the uppermost heights. Rabbi Ishmael said: W hen Rabbi Nehuniah ben ha-Qannah arranged before me these prayers, I would recite every one with its names, at descent and ascent, and there was safety for all my limbs: (§ 587): The first prayer, that Ze‘ufiel, the Prince of Gehinnom would pray when he saw the righteous and YHDYY YY God o f Israel with them -m y teacher said that he would pray that Your people be saved from the judgment o f Gehinnom: {And this is the prayer:}

J ew ish Mysticism

1. Be blessed, God, great and mighty, and strong, King, exalted in beauty, magnificent in glory. 2. In glory you spoke and the world came into being; W ith the breath o f Your lips You established the firmament. 3. and Your great name is pure and exalted over all those above, and all those below. The merit o f earth is Your name, the merit o f heaven is Your name, and angels stand in heaven,

4. 5.

6.

7.

8.

and the righteous are sure in their remembrance of You, and Your name hovers over them all. Your renown is magnified over all the living. Blessed be Your name alone, blessed be Your name alone. Fire burning, a lighted flame, Z‘N ’PSP’ fire consuming fire, fire {of fierce fury}, fear, Sera­ phim, ZYS Z‘W PH , fear, Seraphim, Z‘ SWR KSP SPSPS. You hold the dominion of Ofanim; burning rage, burning rage. [A] word is engraved BHQYH ABS *BS BBS; blessed be You alone, Him alone, furious and crushing, YPS ‘PS, shining, LZD§ ZYW H Y W N DS ZBWD BB’ ZBDYYH Y H W YH YH of Hosts. Be sanctified, [You] who formed heaven and earth; The troops o f above will glorify Your renown, and the work o f your hands in Your inhabited world. O ur God, creator o f all, magnificent in greatness, beloved in might, the Mighty Ones o f strength render thanks, who stand before You in truth and justice. Blessed are You, YY, Beauty of eternity, and Lord of dominion.

(§588) {Second Prayer} 1. Be sanctified, G od o f Heaven and Earth. 2. Lord o f lords, magnificent o f the magnificent, God o f the Cherubim, Rider o f the Cherubim; 3. God o f Hosts, Whose dominion is over the Hosts, God o f the Servants, whose name is sanctified over His servants; 4. He is His name, and His name is He; He is in Him, and His name is in His name; Song is His name and His name is Song; 5. Z‘W PH Z ‘P ZW ‘Y ZY‘ ’HSY H W H SYN RMYY Y H H H W ’ trembling, lightning, T G ’H H W ’ HYL’H ’H Y 'H H W ’ H W ’B DRY ‘YL RHY RS ‘L DRW puissant, Y$ WY$, 6. Eye in Eye, Strength in Strength, Power in Power, greatness, Storm in Storm, S‘R BS‘R R§ BR§, Shadow in the “Shadow o f Shaddai he shall abide.” (Ps. 91:1)

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7. Be sanctified, King of the Universe, for all is suspended on Your arm, and all give praise to Your name, for You are the Lord of the worlds, and there is none like You in all of the worlds. 8. Blessed are You, YY, the Holy One in the Merkavah, Rider of the Cherubim. (§589): {Third Prayer:} 1. Blessed is Your name, holy is Your name, 2. Strong King, magnificent over the secrets of above and below. Lord of miracles, Lord o f mighty things, Lord of wonders, Lord o f the extraordinary. W ho gives wisdom to the wise, and knowledge to those who possess understanding. God of gods and Lord of lords. Great, mighty, and awesome God, God Most High, “seated in the shadow of the Most High” (Ps. 91:1), W ho performs miracles and mighty deeds, and many wonders, magnificent, strong, awesome, and elaborated, God, great and mighty over all His wonders and mighty deeds. 3. One, YY [who] engraved His One name; YH HSP BHYL H Q H D R Y B R W T Y H MGRS ’PTLYWN RQD NSY* Z H Z H H P H P RB MS YH M PW M ’DPM KY NW ’H *YH ’PWPY ’PPY, HY Y H W H , God o f the universe. 4. You are One and Your name is One. Lord of all, magnificent over all the world. W ho is like You, HY Y H W H , my King and Creator, who is like Your Glory? 5. Living and enduring God, Your Glory is filled with majesty and beauty, Your Holiness with purity and kindness Çanevah). 6. Therefore the Mighty Ones of heaven praise You, and the magnificent ones o f the earth glorify You, for there is none like You in heaven or earth. 7. Blessed are You, YY, Lord of every living being. (§590) {Fourth Prayer} 1. Your name is magnificent in all the earth. You have established Your throne {in heaven,} You have placed Your dwelling in the lofty heights; You have placed Your Merkavah in Your celestial reaches, in the bright skies. 2. The troops of fire glorify Your renown, the Seraphim of fire sing Your praise;

J ew ish Mysticism

the Ofanim, the Holy Creatures, the Ofanim o f majesty, the Seraphim o f flame, and the wheels o f the Merkavah stand before You; with a great voice, trembling and quaking, 3. and pronounce the name of TTRWSYYY one hundred and eleven times. 4. And they say: T JR S Y TTRSYP T T R SY ‘ TTRGYS TTRM W PB t y t r k s y t t r y g TRY ’KTRY GHS GYQQ* ’G H YH TYPËYH B‘YRTRKSY TRYS ’ZBD STYTYY ’D W H ’ ’BYBH ’H Y H H *Z H N YHP T H N T Y V Y YTY TRSY YH TRPSS TYRSYW TY TRPW S RHPYN RDS *GY*S GHS *RSS YH PYHP YH H H H YPYPP Y Q DQ D ’ YHSS RWSS R H PRH P RH W P RHS, DHSB HSB ’S H Q B H Q ’BG BZG B Q Q YBQK RK Y H G Z TT R SW P HPSS YHGS YPWP H PP *RKY HPSY MNWSY T Y ^ W P ‘W PYNP ZBYR SBB SBH YRGH N W R GRYR DLSPSYM YH SM$ H S Q W Q ZYW RB ‘§BB Y H ? YHP Y H Q QYR HWPKLPS *G GBG BWG ’GYD DYGR ’SQNYS PSPY’ TTRYSG YY TTRYSG HGG* HYGYG* HY H W Y H W H W D W ’D BH HGG* MHGY* H TLTY H KWNS *N?GYS Z H NBWS M Q TL H PQ T PQ Y NDW S BTL BRK YPP RG$T DBB BPTL* *BZQ P D Q H Q Q M R Q Q *KSWP ’HSR ’H G H ’HYG’ ’HYGBN* ‘BTYYH TBTYB TW B TBY Y H W Q H L YH H P Y H G G MRSY‘ YY €YYW‘Y HYGY W M HG Y H W H GLY YH GR SBRH §LT GYD §BY BRWP ‘YP‘YPmYP‘YP ’BY H G ’ YH QRQ K H W H W TTRSYHYY. 5. Your name is holy in the highest heavens; high and exalted over all of the Cherubim. Let Your name be sanctified in Your holiness, let it be magnified in Your greatness, let it be strengthened in might, and Your dominion to the end o f all generations. For Your might is forever and ever. 6. Blessed are You, YY, magnificent in strength, great in power. (§ 591): {Fifth Prayer} 1. YY, my God, You are very great; You are clothed in majesty and beauty.66 2. W ho is like You, magnificent on high? Happy are those who trust in You. They bless praise, glorify, acclaim, {and} adore Your great, holy, and awesome name. 3. They present before You blessing, song and hymn, acclaim, thanks, psalm, merit and faithfulness, justice, holiness, purity, cleanness, immaculacy, shouting, rejoicing, {amity,} honesty, kingship, gendeness, greatness, might, magnificence, potency, joy and gladness, {happiness}, majesty and beauty, glory, and adornment,

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4. to You, holy God, High and exalted King, glorious King, magnificent King, beautiful King, uplifted King, *' 5. ZRDY’L T W PG R TTRSYP ZBWDY'L BRWNY’ T ‘Z$ ’SRWWLWN TW RTBY’L HDRYRWM ’DRYRWM: 6. May Your name be blessed forever and ever and Your kingdom for eternity. Your dwelling-place is forever and Your Throne is for all generations. Your eminence is in heaven and earth and Your dominion is over those above and below. 7. And all present song, praise, and hymn. 8. YY, Your name is more righteous than any; You are67 the Rock of Eternity. {Rabbi Ishmael said: Rabbi Nehuniah ben Ha-Qannah said to me: Anyone who says this prayer with all his strength can gaze at the radiance o f the Shekhinah,}68 and he will be beloved of the Shekhinah. Section I V (§ 592):69 Rabbi Ishmael said: Rabbi Akiba said to me: I said a prayer and I gazed at the Shekhinah and saw all that is done before the Throne {of Glory}. And what is the prayer? 1. Blessed are You, YY, God: 2. Your name is great in Might, YY, Your name is One and there is none but You. In the heights o f heaven You have established Your throne forever in wisdom. Your are magnificent in mercy, You are magnificent in wisdom and understanding and with intelligence You created Your world. In Your magnificence {You have created}70 Troops; 3. {Silent} Gende Creatures71 stand before Your throne of Glory. You determined the earth [in] loftiness and pride, and You established in glory hymn, song, laudadon, and glorification, and all the Troops and Seraphim who stand before You sing hymns and glorify Your name and the Wheels of the Merkavah sing songs before You. And You have established at Your throne of Glory, hymn, and worthiness. 4. And the ministering angels who stand {before You} sanctify Your holiness and magnify Your Power, and say: “Living YY of Hosts, Shaddai YHW, Your Kingdom is forever, from one end of the world to the other.” And to Your name they recount all that You have created in Your world. 5. W ho is like You? Your name is great in the world, Your holiness is forever, Your Might over all the Merkavah,

J ew ish Mysticism

Your magnificence oyer Holy Creatures. For You are living and enduring; All Your world is forever. 6. You are pure, and Your mercy is magnified over the leaders of the Holy Creatures forever and ever. You are beloved and unique; Your love radiates in all the world. v Your name is truth and justice; 7. Your throne is majesty, beauty, glory, splendor, holiness, and purity; they raise up before You, cleanness, immaculacy, splendor, and victory. 8. (§ 593): Be magnified and sanctified forever, King, holy God, high and exalted. For there is none like You in heaven and earth, in the sea and in the depths. 9. In the upper heavens Tour throne o f Glory sings And the ‘A ravot o f the firmament in which You established Your throne are filled with magnificence and power the Ofanim o f majesty lift up rejoicing and happiness and the holy Cherubim sing hymn. The Clouds o f Consolation and the Holy Creatures utter melody. Their mouths are hail, their wings are water, 10. and they present reflected light to Your name, Rock o f eternity: Holy, Holy, Holy, Y W W N YHWYYH YH Y H W YH Y H Y SlYM YN YH H W Y H W H W Y H YH, 11. Your name is holy; Your servants are holy; YY, One, God high and exalted; Rejoicing and awe fill Your Throne o f Glory. 12. (§ 594): Be blessed, praised, glorified, exalted, uplifted, magnified, acclaimed, sanctified, adorned, beloved; 13. For You established at Your throne, singing, melody, song, praise, and hymnody, psalm, adornment, and victory. And You know the mysteries o f above and below; they are revealed before You. And who can tell the praise o f Your Merkavah? 14. Be blessed forever, by all the heavenly host; Be beautified by the Ofanim o f beauty; Be sanctified by the Cherubim o f holiness; Be beautified from the chambers o f chambers; Be adorned by the Troops of fire; Be glorified by the Holy Creatures;

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Be praised from Your Throne of Glory, [all of whom] stand before You and sing before You every day and present acclamation to Your great, mighty, and awesome name 15.

For there is none like You in heaven or earth. Blessed are You, YY, the holy God.

(§ 595): Rabbi Ishmael said: I said to Rabbi Akiba: How can one see above the Sera­ phim that stand above the head of RWZYY YWY, God o f Israel? H e said to me: W hen I ascended to the first Hekhal, I said a prayer and I saw from the Hekhal o f the first firmament to the seventh Hekhal. And when I ascended to the seventh Hekhal, I pronounced [the names of] two angels and I gazed above the Seraphim; and they are these: SRYD and HGLYN. W hen I mentioned them, they came and seized me. They said to me: “Human being, do not fear! He is a holy King, who is on the throne, high and exalted, and unique forever, and magnificent over the Merkavah.” Then I saw above the Seraphim that stand above the head of RWZYY YWY God of Israel. (§ 596): And which is the prayer?: 1. Blessed are You, YY, one God who creates His world with His one name who forms everything with one speech. 2. In the heights of heaven You have established Your throne You have placed Your dwelling in Your lofty heights; You have placed Your Merkavah in the upper levels; You have planted Your heaven among the ’Ofanim o f beauty. 3. The Troops o f fire glorify Your renown; The Seraphim of fire sing Your praises; All bear a gentle silence, they say praise as they go. They go in awe, they are faint with fear. They are laden with grandeur, to glorify the Creator. They have eyes all over them, their appearance is like the appearance of lightning; their radiance is befitting, their speech {is sweet}. 4. One facing the other, they bear and utter - the pure, bearing Creatures “Holy, Holy, Holy,” the ministering angels say before You. 5. [Like] the globe of the sun is the character o f their faces; Their radiance flashes like the lights o f the firmament Their wings are spread, their hands are stretched out; Like the sound o f great waters is the sound o f their wings; touches of fire burst forth and go out from their eyeballs. 6. W ith a sound of great commotion they sing song before You

J ew ish Mysticism

They are filled with radiance, they give off splendor, their radiance is befitting. In their going out they are joyful, in their coming they are happy; their splendor is fitting before the Throne of Glory. In awe and fear they do Your bidding They present praise to Your great, holy, and awesome name, they declare the beauty and glory o f the renown o f Your Majesty, shouting and singing. 7. For there is none like You, and none like Your priests and none like Your pious, and none like Your great name forever and for all ages: [You] rage at the sea and dry it, [You] look at the earth and it quakes, the whole world quakes from Your power; [You] revive the dead and raise them up from their dust. 8. Your name is great forever; Your name is magnificent forever; Your name is holy forever. O ne God, Öne YY, YH YH H W Y H W YH HY, forever, H W YH W is Your name. YY, Your name is forever; YY, Your renown is from generation to generation. SRTS Z‘N Z ‘PY YH M Q M ’ NQS N N Q W N Y‘RDD *BG BG HW Y HGGHGHW YW Your power is forever, Your holiness is forever, Your majesty is forever in heaven and earth. 10. Therefore, we will call Your name, we will bless Your might, we will lift up and present acclamation before Your Throne {of Glory}. For there is none like You in heaven and earth. 11. Blessed are You, YY, Rock o f Eternity.

Selection 1(b): In the World Above 1. Said R. Ishmael: W hat song should be sung by one who desires to contemplate the mys­ teries o f the chariot, to enter upon it in peace and return in peace? 2. The greatest o f his rewards is that it brings him into the celestial chambers and places him before the divine throne and he becomes knowledgeable o f all future events in the world: who will be thrust down and who will be raised up, who will be weakened and who will be strengthened, who will be impoverished and who will be made affluent, on whom will be decreed death and on whom life, from whom will be taken away an inheritance and to whom will be given an inheritance, who will be endowed with Torah and who with wisdom.

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3.

Greater than this is that he becomes knowledgeable o f human behavior. If a person

commits adultery he knows it; if a person commits murder he krçôws it; if he is suspected of having relations with a woman during her menstrual period, he knows it. Greater than these is the fact that he becomes a savant in the ans o f magic. Greater than this is that whoever should raise his fist at him and hit him would be cov­ ered with leprosy. Greater than this is the fact that whoever should slander him would be smitten with wounds and growths which produce festering boils on the skin. Greater than this is that he becomes distinguished among all other people in his behav­ ior and is honored among higher and lower beings. Whoever should inadvertendy injure him will suffer injury, and misfortunes will descend on him by heavenly decree, and whoever should raise his hand against him will suffer retribution from the heavenly tribunal.

Selection 2: Knowledge of Human Power and the Divine Reality One o f the key early texts o f the medieval kabbalistic tradition is the Book o f Bahir. Com­ posed by an unknown author in the late twelfth or thirteenth century, it deals with specula­ tions regarding the nature o f the Divine and how the actions o f men and women can affect God. It is one of the essential sources of the mystical symbolism and mystical metaphysics that define nearly all future Jewish mystical thought. Though written in the medieval period, its authorship is (erroneously) attributed to Rabbi Nehunya ben ha-Qanah, a second-century sage credited with especially profound mystical knowledge in the mystical texts o f the rab­ binic era.

Selection 2 Text and Commentary SECTIO N 1241 And what is the reason for the raising o f the hands and blessing them with a benediction? This is because there are ten fingers on the hands, a hint to the ten sefirof- by which the sky and the earth were sealed.3And those ten correspond to the ten commandments, and within these ten all 613 m itzvot are included.4 If you count the number o f letters o f the ten com­ mandments you will find that there are 613 letters, comprising all 22 letters o f the alphabet, except for the letter tet, which is absent. W hat is the reason for that? To teach you that the tet represents the beTen (stomach, abdomen), and not the sefirot?

Notes 1. This section continues the homily in the previous section on the verse in Leviticus 9:22, concerning the priest s benediction: And Aaron raised his hand and blessed the people." This verse is connected with Numbers 6:24-26, which constitute the actual text of the benediction, part of the daily liturgy. 2. The sefirot here refer to the listing of the ten dimensions of the cosmos found in the Sefer Yesirah (Book of Cre­ ation), a mystical-cosmological work of the Talmudic period. These dimensions, or directions, are: up, down, east, west, north, south, beginning, end, good, and evil

Jewish Mysticism The term sealed is used both in Sefer Yesirah and in ancient Jewish mystical literature to denote Gods actions in the universe using His holy name or attributes. 4. In the Hebrew text o f the Decalogue there are 613 letters. The number 613 ( TaRYaG in numerology) is the classic representation o f the sum total o f Jewish commandments, composed of 248 negative and 365 positive commandments. 5. The ninth letter, tet, is absent from the text of the Decalogue. The reason given by the Bahir is unclear. Is it be­ cause it denotes an unclean part o f the body? And compare the Bahir section 84.

SEC TIO N 125 A nd why arc they called sefirot} Because it is written: “The heavens declare (mesaprem) the Glory (Ravod) o f God"1 (Psalm 19.2)2

Notes 1. Another version o f the Bahir quotes a different verse: “The heavens are my throne and the earth my footstool” (Isaiah 61:1). The verse from the Psalms is probably the correct version. 2. The mystical homilist uses the threefold connection, based on the Sefer Yesirah, between sefirot and misparim (numbers), to which he now adds “declare” {mesaprim), to express the new idea that the heavens express the Glory of God by the ten sefirot.

SEC TIO N 126 And what are they [i.e., the sefirot] ? They are three,1 and they include three armies and three realms.2The first realm is light, and the living light of water. The second realm is the holy beasts and the ofiinim and the wheels of the chariot.3 And all the hosts o f God bless and praise and glorify and magnify and sanctify the King who is extolled in sanctity and praised in the inner­ most great sanctity, a terrible and terrifying King, and they crown him with “three holy’s.”4

Notes 1. The mystic author presents an intentional paradox: The ten sefirot are indeed three, and they represent three celes­ tial forces. Thus he moves from the framework of ten, which governed the previous sections, to the number three, which is the basis o f the revelations to come. 2. Only two realms are explained here. The first is most obscure, probably based on the system of the emanation of û iesfiro t’m the Sefer Yesirah. The first is ruahElohim hayyim (Spirit of the living God), which is hinted here by the substitution of “light” for “spirit,” and the third there is the water, which comes from the spirit. 3. The second realm is that o f the divine chariot described by Ezekiel in the first chapter of his book. The description here follows the terminology current in hekhalot mysticism. 4. The transition to the number three is emphasized by the conclusion, which relates the homily to Isaiah 6:3 (when the homily began with the three elements o f the priest s benediction). The Trisagion is the subject of the next sec­ tions, which are actually a mystical homily on the third benediction of the daily *amidah (standing) prayer, the

qeeiushah (Sanctification).

SEC TIO N 127 And why arc there “three holys” and not four? This is because celestial sanctity is always ex­ pressed in threes,1as it is written: “God is King, God was King, God will be King forever and ever.”2 And it is written: “God will bless y o u ...H e will give you lig h t...H e will raise His face” (Numbers 6:24-26)? And it is written: “God, God” (Exodus 34:6) and the rest o f the m iddot. And the third is which? It is “God is a merciful God”—the thirteen m iddot?

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Notes »

1. The homilist dedicates this section to the explanation of why “holy* appears three times in the Trisagion. It is be­ cause this is the number that governs all celestial powers, and he goes on to give three examples. 2. The first example is a nonexistent verse, but a formula that was accepted into the prayers: Gods kingdom in the past, present, and future. This formula was used to explain the meaning of the vocalization o f the name YHVH in the Bible, understood to mean “God will be, He is, and He will be.” 3. The second example is the priest’s benediction itself, which is comprised o f three elements in three subsequent verses. * 4. The third example is the names o f God in the verse in Exodus, which was understood in rabbinic tradition to denote the thirteen divine attributes of mercy. This verse includes God s name three times.

SEC TIO N 128 And what arc HOLY, HOLY, HOLY and then “the Lord o f hosts whose Glory fills the earth” (Isaiah 6:3) ?! They are HOLY—the Supreme Crown;2 HOLY—the root o f the tree;3 HOLY—united and special in all of them:4 T H E G O D OF HOSTS W H O SE GLORY FILLS T H E EARTH.

Notes 1. In this section the full force of the mystical symbolism of the Bahir is revealed, when the divine world is divided into the three categories corresponding to the triad of “holy s” in the qedushah. 2. The highest part is the Supreme Crown, which in subsequent Kabbalah was regarded as the first and highest o f the divine emanations. This is an original Bahiric symbol (as far as we know) and in the list of the ten divine powers in the Bahir, section 141, it also appears as first. 3. The second is based on the Bahiric symbolism (probably based on Gnostic sources) that pictures the divine powers as an enormous divine tree, whose roots come from above and whose branches reach downwards. The root, there­ fore, is the highest pan of this divine tree. 4 The third, which is die most important one for the interpretation of die qedushah, is described by two conflicting terms (see below, section 133). It is both united with the others and separate from them. The terminology is derived from Abraham Ibn Ezras 12th century commentary on Exodus 33, and from the medieval German Ashkenazi Hasidic symbol of the “special cherub,” the divine power revealed to the prophets that sits on the Throne of Glory.

S E C T IO N 129 And what is that HOLY which is united and special?1This can be explained by a parable: A king had sons, and to his sons—grandsons. W hen the grandsons fulfill his wishes he enters among them and makes everything exist and provides them with food and pours goodness upon them, so that both the fathers and the sons will be satisfied. But when the grandsons do not fulfill his wishes he provides for no more than the needs o f the fathers.2

Notes 1. This section is intended to explain the paradox of “united” and “special” (meaning here: separated). How can He be both simultaneously? 2. The parable, based on the theurgic element in Bahiric mysticism, explains that when the people o f Israel (the “grandsons”) fulfill Gods wishes, the celestial powers and the people on earth are amply provided for by God and He is “united” with them. But if they do not, God gives the celestial powers (the “sons”) the minimum they need, and the earthly people are punished by Gods being “special,” remote and separated.

J ew ish Mysticism

S E C T IO N 130 And what is T H E W H O L E EARTH IS FULL OF HIS GLORY? It is all that land which was created in the first day, which is above, corresponding to the Land o f Israel, full o f the divine Glory.1And what is it? Wisdom, as it is written: “H onor (kavod. Glory) o f the wise will inherit” (Proverbs 3:35),2 and it is said: “Blessed be the Glory o f God from Its place” (Ezekiel 3:12).3

Notes 1. The author interprets the verse in Genesis 1:1 as referring to a previous, celestial creation of the heavenly Land of Israel. 2. According to the verse from Proverbs, the “Glory” is the lot of the wise (using the double meaning of the Hebrew kavodx both honor and Glory), therefore the essence of the Glory is wisdom, and it fills up the celestial Land of Israel. 3. The author introduces here the verse from Ezekiel, which is part of the qedushah, probably to denote that the remote place o f the Glory (“from Its place”) is the celestial Land of Israel The same verse is the subject of the next sections.

S E C T IO N 131 And what is this divine Glory? This can be explained by a parable: A king had a great lady in his room.1She was loved by all his knights, and she had sons.2 They all came every day to see the face o f the king, and they blessed him. They asked him: “Our mother, where is she?” He said to them: “You cannot see her now.” They said: “Blessed is she wherever she is.”3

Notes 1. The matranita\ “great lady,” is the divine Glory. It is doubtful whether this parable can be understood to hint at the feminine nature of the kavod. The description of a lady is part of the parable, and does not necessarily reflect ac­ curate symbolism. 2. The distinction between knights and sons refers to the belief that the qedushah is said both by angels (as attested by Isaiah) and by the praying Jews. The first are the knights, while the sons are the people praying in the synagogue. 3. This parable explains the traditional interpretation of the verse from Ezekiel (found also in BT Hagigah 14b). The angels and the people do not know the place of the Glory, and they praise it wherever it is. The next section, how­ ever, gives a completely different meaning to this verse.

S E C T IO N 132 W hat is the meaning o f that which is written FROM ITS PLACE?1Because no one knows Its place. This is like a king s daughter who came from afar, and nobody knew where she came from. W hen they saw that she was a fine lady, beautiftd and just in all that she did,2 they said: “She undoubtedly was taken from the side o f the light, for her deeds give light to the world.”3 They then asked her: “Where are you from?” She answered: “From my place.” They said: “If so, the people o f your place must be great! Blessed are you and blessed is your place!”

Notes 1. The meaning o f “from Its place” in this parable is exactly the opposite of that in the previous one (131). Here the Glory itself is known and the present among the people (unlike the hiding matronita 'm 131), only her place of

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origin is hidden. They bless the princess in her presence, and they refer to her origin by “wherever she comes from.” v 2. While the feminine description of the kavod in the previous section does not necessarily denote a specific symbol, here it seems that the use of a princess instead of a prince (especially as she is not described as a mother) seems to convey a notion of the feminine nature of the kavod/shekhinah. 3. The Gnostic character of the Bahiric symbolism is apparent here more than in almost all other sections of the book. The picture of the “daughter of light,” in exile in the material world, representing her hidden, unknowable place of origin “on the side of the light” is a stark Gnostic one.

S E C T IO N 133 But is not this divine Glory one o f Gods hosts? Why is it the subject o f a special blessing?1 This can be explained by a parable: A man had a beautiful garden, and outside the garden but very near to it there was a beautiful piece of land, a field. He planted a garden there. W hen he watered his garden, the water flowed over the whole garden but did not reach that piece o f land, which is not united, even though it is all one.2 Therefore he opened a place for it, and watered it separately.3

Notes 1. The question here is: Why do we include in the prayers Ezekiels verse, and thus give a separate blessing to, the Glory? Is the Glory not united with God, and does not the blessing to God (of Isaiah 6:3) include the Glory as well? After the question the text includes two words (Io’gara, “nothing is missing”), which is not dear and was therefore left out of the translation. 2. The parable seems to return to the terminology of “united and special” in 128-129. The garden is the fullness of the divine powers, symbolized by the Supreme Crown and the root of the Tree, while the third pan is united, but outside, this framework, and therefore needs the separate blessing of Ezekid 3:12. 3. The term “from Its place” receives here its third explanation: From the special place God opened to provide for the Glory independendy from the other powers in the garden.

S E C T IO N 134 Rabbi Rehumai said: "Glory and H eart are one,1 but the Glory is called by a name cor­ responding to a celestial action, while heart is called by a name corresponding to a lower one. But they are one and the same—the Glory of God is the same as the heart o f heaven.2

Notes 1. The numerical value of the Hebrew letters by which these two words, kavod (K-B-V-D) and lev (L-B; “heart”), are written is the same: 32. This denotes that they must represent the same secret. 2. The Glory is, therefore, the edestial counterpart of the “heart” in the lower realms of creation. It seems that the author refers to the opening paragraph of the Sefer Yesirah, which describes the creation by 32 “paths,” often called lev.

S E C T IO N 135 Rabbi Yohanan said: “W hat is the meaning of that which is written: ‘W hen Moses lifted his hand Israel was victorious, and when he dropped it Amalek became more powerful’ (Exodus 17:11)?1This is to teach that the world exists because o f the lifting o f the hands in prayer, in the priest s benediction. Why? Because ofthat power which was given to our patriarch Jacob, whose name is Israel.”2

J ewish Mysticism

Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were given powers, one to each one o f them, and it was given to each o f them according to the character o f his ways. Abraham performed acts o f Loving­ kindness to the whole world, for he used to invite all the people o f the world and all the passers-by on the roads, provide them with food and run to welcome them, as is written: “And he ran toward them” (Genesis 18:2), and it is written: “and he bowed down to the earth” (ibid.). This was a perfect act o f Lovingkindness, and God bestowed upon him accord­ ing to his measure and gave him the measure o f Lovingkindness, as it is written: “You shall give Truth to Jacob and Lovingkindness to Abraham which you swore to our forefathers in ancient days” (Micah 7:20). W hat is the meaning o f IN A N C IEN T DAYS? This is to teach that if Abraham had not performed acts o f Lovingkindness and not merited the measure (;middah)3 o f Loving­ kindness, Jacob would not have merited the measure o f Truth,4 for it is because Abraham was worthy o f the measure o f Lovingkindness that Isaac merited the measure of Fear, as it is writ­ ten: “And Jacob swore in the fear o f his father Isaac” (Genesis 31:53).5Is there a man who will swear in this way in the faith o f his fathers fear? But at that point Jacob did not yet receive his own power, so he swore by the power which was given to his father, as it is said: AND HE SWORE IN T H E FEAR OF HIS FATHER ISAAC. And what is [Isaac s fear] ? This is the tohu6 from which the evil which confuses {ham athe) people proceeds. And what is it? It is that about which is written: “And fire fell and burnt the sacrifice and the wood and the stones and the earth and the water which were in the canal it touched” (1 Kings 18:38), and it is written: “For your God is a consuming fire, a jealous God” (Deuteronomy 4:24).7

Notes 1. The homilist returns here, after dedicating a detailed discussion to the qedushah, to his original theme—the priests benediction, and deals with the historical episode in whichc the power of prayer and the raising of hands were most clearly demonstrated. 2. The term “Israel” here is clearly symbolical, referring to a divine force that was awarded to Jacob when his name was changed. 3. The author uses here the term middah, which has many meanings. It is an ethical characteristic, but it is also a measurement, and also a divine attribute. In Kabbalisdc literature the term is sometimes used for the divine emana­ tions more often than the term sefirot. 4. The author emphasizes the correspondence between what Abraham did and what he received. Abraham, like Issac and Jacob, is treated here as both the ancient father with his specific personal characteristics, and as a mani­ festation of divine attributes that were given to him and that he comes to represent, following the Bahir, throughout Jewish mystical literature. Abraham, Issac, and Jacob are consistenly described in Kabbalisdc litera­ ture as the symbols o f the three divine emanations, the fourth—Loving kindness; the fifth—Justice or Fear; and the sixth—Truth or Mercy. 5. According to the author, Abraham did not only win the middah for himself, but because of his righteous deeds Issac and Jacob became worthy to receive theirs. 6. The term tohu is explained in the Bahir consistendy as the material realm from which evil emerges. In section 11 it is evil, the opposite of peace, and it is repeated in section 12. In section 2 it is described as that which is nothing, probably referring to the Aristotelian description of the relationship between form and matter, when matter does not exist by its own right, only in combination with specific form. It is probable that the Bahir derived this homiletical interpretation of Genesis 1:2 from Rabbi Abraham Bar Hiyya, a twelfth-century philosopher and scientist in Spain. 7. The verses quoted explain “fear” as “fire,” which is both the essence of God and the terrifying tool He uses to bum his enemies in the world.

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S E C T IO N 136 And what is Lovingkindness? It is the Torah, as it is written: “AITwho are thirsty go to the water” (Isaiah 55:l).1And to him who does not have money, it is money, as it is written: “Go and take and eat, go and take it without money and without price, wine and milk” (ibid.). He will feed you and teach you Torah for you already have become worthy o f it because o f the merit of Abraham who used to do charitable deeds, and used to feed without pay and give drinks o f wine and m ilk free of charge.2

Notes 1. After explaining the essence of Isaac s fear, the mystical homilist identifies Abrahams charity with the 'Iorah. 2. In this section it may seem that the subject is actual food, but the next section explains the symbolic meaning of the terms used here.

S E C T IO N 137 W hat are wine and milk? And what is the connection between them? This is to teach us that the wine is Fear, and the milk is Lovingkindness. Why did he mention wine first? Because it is nearer to us.1Do you really think they are wine and milk? But it is the image o f wine and milk. And because o f the worthiness o f Abraham who won the measure o f Lovingkindness, Isaac won the measure o f Fear. And because Isaac was worthy o f the measure o f Fear, Jacob won the measure of Truth, which is the measure o f Peace.2 And God gave Jacob a measure which is his own measure, as it is written (Genesis 25:27), “And Jacob was innocent and dwelt in tents.” “Innocent” means Peace, as it is written (Deuteronomy 18:13): “You should be innocent with your God.” This verse is translated as: “You should be in Peace.” “Innocent” means the Torah, as it is written (Malachi 2:6): ‘Torah o f Truth was in his mouth.” And what is written after that ? “In peace and justice he went with me,” and “justice” is really peace, as it is written: “Innocence and Justice” (Psalms 28:21). This is why: “W hen Moses raised his hand Israel was victorious.” It teaches us that the measure called Israel includes in it the Torah o f Truth?

Notes 1. In the usual order of the divine emanations in the Kabbalah, Lovingkindness, which is the fourth emanation, comes before Fear, which is the fifth. Since the order is reversed in the verse the homilist comments on, he has to explain the changing of the order. 2. The interrelationship between the patriarchs is presented here, symbolically, as the process of emanation from the fourth down to the sixth divine manifestation. The symbols of Torah, Truth, Peace, and Justice are the basic ones in the Bahir and in later Kabbalah for the sixth and central divine power (called tiferet, “Beauty,” by the Kabbalists in Provence and Spain). Jacob and Israel are its biblical names in this tradition. 3. In the conclusion of this section the author joins together the homily on the patriarchs with the central theme of this part of the Bahir—the power of the priests benediction and the raising o f hands. The connection is that “Israel” is understood to represent the divine power, which, when addressed by Moses* raising of his hands (when Moses represents the Torah), is strengthened and causes victory.

S E C T IO N 138 And what is the Torah o f Truth?1This is that power which represents the truth o f the worlds, and He operates by Thought.2 And He gives existence to ten Utterances by which the world

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exists, and He is one o f them.3And He created in man ten fingers on the hands to correspond to the ten Utterances, and when Moses raised his hands with the minimum4 o f his heart s intention to that measure which is called Israel in which there is the true Torah, and points out to Him his ten fingers to signify that he makes the ten exist, and if He will not assist the people o f Israel the ten Utterances will not exist every day—this is why Israel was victorious. And when Moses let his hand down Amalek would win. Did Moses cause Amalek to win, as it is written “W hen he let his hands down Amalek would be victorious” (Exodus 13:11)? But it is forbidden for a person to stay for three hours with his hands turned toward heaven.5

Notes 1. This section concludes the homily and combines its central elements, especially those of the three (elements of prayers, patriarchs) and those o f ten (fingers, utterances). 2. The true Torah, probably still referring to the sixth sefirab, is in the center of existence and governs all the divine powers, using the force o f Thought, which is the supreme divine emanation. 3. The theme of the ten Utterances was originally presented in Rabbinic literature as the ten occurrences in Genesis 1:1 in which God created by speech (“Let there be light”, etc.), and by these ten the whole world was created. See Mishnah Pirqey Avot 5:1. In the Bahir, as in later Kabbalah, these Utterances were identified with the ten divine emanations. 4. The word m i’u t (minimum) is difficult in this context. 5. The source of this dictum o f the Bahir, which forbids prayer with outstretched hands for more than three hours, is unclear.

Selection 3: The Sefirot—The Divine Emanations This text by the famous mid-thirteenth-century Spanish kabbalist, Rabbi Azriel of Gerona, deals with the central kabbalistic issue o f the divine sefirot, the ten transcendental emanations o f God. In this text, as is customary in medieval kabbalistic texts, God as He is in Himself, outside o f the process of emanation, is called Eyn to /’([the One who is] “W ithout End”). Speculation on the nature and function of the sefirot is one of the fundamental themes of kabbalistic thought for all reality above and below is related to these divine emanations. R. Azriels explication combines mystical aspects o f early medieval kabbalistic thought with elements o f Neoplatonism. The work had a lasting and deep impact on mystical speculation throughout the later medieval era.

Selection 3 Explanation o f the Ten Sefirot 1. If a questioner asks: W ho can compel me to believe that the world has a Ruler? Answer: Just as it is inconceivable that a ship be w ithout a captain, so too is it impos­ sible that the world be w ithout a ruler. This Ruler is infinite {eyn sof) in both His Glory and Word, as in the matter that is written: “I have seen an end to every purpose, but Your commandment is exceedingly immense” (Psalms 119:96), and it is written: “For God shall bring every act into judgment—every hidden thing whether good or bad” (Ecclesiastes 12:14). That which is hidden is without end and limit; it is unfathomable and nothing exists outside it.

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The philosophers admit to this fact that the Cause o f all causes and the Origin o f ori­ gins is infinite, unfathomable, and without limit. According to the way o f the Ruler we see that the end of every act is hidden from the probing o f an investigator, as in the matter that is written: “So that no man can find out the work which God has made from the beginning to the end” (ibid. 3:11). And it is further recorded: “Should the wise man say that he knows, even he will not be able to find it” (ibid. 8:17).... 2. If a questioner asks: W ho can compel me to believe in Eyn-Sof ? Answer. Know that everything visible and perceivable to human contemplation is lim­ ited, and that everything that is limited is finite, and that everything that is finite is insignifi­ cant. Conversely, that which is not limited is called Eyn-Sof and is absolutely undifferentiated in a complete and changeless unity. And if He is [truly] without limit, then nothing exists outside Him. And since He is both exalted and hidden, He is the essence o f all that is con­ cealed and revealed. But since He is hidden, He is both the root o f faith and the root o f rebel­ liousness. Regarding this it is written: “In his faith a righteous man shall live” (Habakkuk 2:4). Furthermore, the philosophers are in agreement with these statements that our percep­ tion o f Him cannot be except by way o f negative attribution.1And that which radiates forth from Eyn-Sof are the ten sefirot. [And this is sufficient for the enlightened.] 3. If the questioner persists: By what necessity do you arrive at the assertion that the sefirot exist? I rather say that they do not exist and that there is only Eyn-Sof ! Answer. Eyn-Sof is perfection without any imperfection. If you propose that He has unlim­ ited power and does not have finite power, then you ascribe imperfection to His perfection. And if you claim that the first limited being that is brought into existence from Him is this world— lacking in perfection—then you ascribe imperfection to the force which stems from Him. Since we should never ascribe imperfection to His perfection, we are compelled to say that He has a finite power which is unlimited. The limitation first emanated from Him is the sefirot, for they are both a perfect power and an imperfect power. W hen they partake o f the abundant Row stemming from His perfection they are perfected power, and when the abun­ dant flow is withdrawn they possess imperfect power. Thus, they are able to function in both perfection and imperfection, and perfection and imperfection differentiate one thing from another. Now if you were to claim that He alone willed the creation o f the world without [re­ course to] the sefirot, the response to this [assertion] is that the intention indicates an imper­ fection in the intender. Alternatively, if you claim He did not intend His creation—if such were the case, then creation was a random accident. All things which are the outcome o f a random accident have no order. Yet we witness that creation is ordered, with the sun during the day and the moon and stars at night. They exist by an order and by order they are gener­ ated and pass away. This order by which they exist and pass away is called the sefirot, for they are the force behind every existent being in the realm o f plurality. Since the existence o f cre­ ated beings is brought about by means o f the sefirot, each one differs one from the other: some are elevated, some are lowly, while others are intermediate. This is the case despite the fact that they are all derived from one principle. Every being is from Eyn-Sof, and nothing exists outside o f Him.

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4. If the questioner persists and asks: Agreed, you have demonstrated the necessity of sefirot; but by what [argument] do you establish that they are ten and yet one power? Answer. I have already informed you that the sefirot are the beginning and commence­ ment o f all that is subject to limitation. Everything subject to limitation is bounded by sub­ stance and place, for there is no substance without place and there is no place except by means o f substance. There is at least a third force in substance, and this third force is manifest in length, width, and depth: Thus there are nine. Since substance cannot exist without place and since there is no space except by means o f substance, the number is not complete regard­ ing substance and place with anything less than ten. Thus it states: “ten and not nine."2 And since we cannot complete the number without taking into account substance—itselfbounded by substance and place—it states: “ten and not eleven."3Just as the three produce nine; the fourth—which is place—when added to the three, produces sixteen. But it is sufficient for us to use ten in order to hint to the fact that place is derived from substance, and substance is but one power. 5. If the inquirer continues to ask: How can you say that the sefirot are emanated? I say they were created like all the other created beings! Answer: I have already informed you that Eyn-Sof is perfect without any imperfection, and that the agent which initially is brought forth from Him must also be perfect. Thus, the dynamic o f emanation is fittingly the beginning o f all creation, for the potency o f emana­ tion is the essence o f the creation o f all things. Had there been no emanative potency ex­ tracted from Eyn-Sof—lacking in nothing—how would we recognize the abundant perfection stemming from Eyn-Sof? How would the dynamic o f the sefirot properly receive and subsequendy circulate [the abundant flow] to all the needy beings without being di­ minished? For, when one draws from something in creation it is decreased and diminished. Since the sefirot are the first act emanated from Eyn-Sof, it is appropriate that He be their dynamic, perfect without imperfection. Yet they are the ones who flow upon the impover­ ished, receiving from Eyn-Sof. 6. About this the inquirer persists: How can we possibly say that He is One and the multiplicity o f ten unites within Him? By this we may preserve the truth in our hearts but certainly not in our statements. Answer. I have already informed you that the One is the foundation o f the many and that in the many no power is innovated—only in Him. He is more than them and each of them is superior to its antecedent, and the potency of one is in the other. Nevertheless, the first is the dynamic o f all the others. Though this first is the dynamic o f the other, it is not so specifically but only generally. The metaphor for this is the fire, the flame, the sparks, and the aura: They are all o f one essence even though they are different one from the other and divis­ ible into separate components. 7. If the inquirer persists after you have established that there are sefirot and that they are ten and they were emanated and not created and their multiplicity is derived from unity and asks: Now answer me, why should I [not] ascribe to them measure, limit, and corporeality?

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Answer. I have already informed you that Eyn-Sof is perfection without imperfection, and that He has a finite power which is unlimited and that the limitation emanating from Him which delimits all existent beings is the sefirot, having the power to act in perfection and imperfection. Had He not established for them limits, we would be unable to recognize that He has the power to bring forth limitation. As a testimony to the fact that nothing exists outside of Him, He brought into existence limitation, so that the confined beings could rec­ ognize their own boundaries. And though there are no limits above, the musings stemming from Eyn-Sof suggest that He is above and beyond extension in boundaries. All that is limited, whether apprehended by the pondering o f the heart or hinted at in thought extending below, can be found in speech and vision. Further, anything subject to limitation has magnitude and corporeality, because anything existent that is grasped by con­ templation of the heart is called “body," not only spiritual things but even the sefirot. For they are [part of] the rule o f all limited entities: They are the root o f limitation. This limitation which is unlimited is emanated, and thus it states: “Their measure is ten without end.”4 Fi­ nally, the philosophers stated that man’s intellect is finite, and that from the way o f the Ruler we see that everything has limitation, magnitude, and measure.

8. If the inquirer continues: Now you must answer me—these sefirot, when did the come into existence ? If you now answer me that they were almost contemporaneous with the creation of the world, then it may be countered: W hy did He intend their emanation at that precise moment and not at some earlier point—would this not be a change o f mind in Per­ fection? And if you answer that they are His eternality, then they would subsist in His undifferentiatedness; and if such were the case, what would be the difference between God and the sefirot* Answer. Some o f the sefirot existed in potentia within Eyn-Sof before they became actualized, like the first sefirah which is equal to all the others. There were some that were intelligible that were then emanated, like the second sefirah from which the preexistent Torah came forth. There were some that were perceived and some that were innate, such as those sefirot which were needed for this world and which were emanated almost contemporane­ ously with the creation of the world. And since in the emanation of the first two sefirot the hidden and intelligible powers [of the two] were totally intermingled, their reality nourished the other \sefirot\. As the Sages, may their memories be blessed, said, “Could not [the world] have been created with one statement?”5 As to your other question, “that they would subsist in His undifferentiatedness”— Answer: Even though we should avoid coining metaphors regarding Eyn-Sof in order to help you understand let us compare the matter to a candle. The candle lights a myriad o f other candles. Each lit candle shines more, yet they are all equal in comparison to the first candle and they all derive from one principle. But one must not liken the latter to the former. Their phylogenesis should not be compared to His ontogenesis, for He is greater than them and their energy is brought forth from Him, because o f His supra-preeminence. Further­ more, no change takes place in Him. Rather, the dynamic o f emanation becomes revealed through the division of their existence. Thus, one cannot say that there was a change o f mind in Him, even though nothing exists outside of Him.

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9. If the questioner continues: W hat is the nature o f [the sefirot] ? Answer. The nature o f sefirah is the synthesis o f everything and its opposite. For, if they did not possess the power of synthesis, there would be no energy in anything. For that which is light is not-darkness and that which is darkness is not-light. Therefore, we should liken their nature to the will o f the soul, for it is the synthesis o f all the desires and thoughts stemming from it. Even though they be multifarious, their source is one, either in thesis or antithesis. This is the case with every function o f the soul: intellect, esthetics, love, and mercy—eveiFthough they are all [created] ex nihilo, their exis­ tence is not absolute. But, by embellishing substance with imagination, we can liken the first power to the concealed light. The second power [can be likened] to the light which contains every color. This light is like tekhelet,6 the essence (takhlit) of all colors in which there is no known hue. The third power [can be compared] to green light. The fourth power can be likened to white light. The fifth power can be likened to red light. The sixth power is composed o f whiteness and scarlet. The seventh power is the power o f scarlet tending toward whiteness. The eighth power is the power of whiteness tending toward scarlet. The ninth power is composed o f whiteness and scarlet and scarlet tending toward whiteness and whiteness tending toward scarlet. The tenth power is composed o f every color. 10. If the inquirer persists and asks: W hat are their names, their order, and their rank? Answer. The name o f the first power is Elevated Height (rom maalab), for it is ele­ vated above the probing o f an investigator. The second is called Wisdom (hokmah), for it is the beginning o f conceptualization. The third is called Understanding (binah). Up to this point is the world o f intelligence (olam ha-sekhel). The fourth is called Lovingkindness (hesed). The fifth is called Fear (pahad). The sixth is called Beauty ( tif’eret). Up to this point is the world o f the soul (olam ha-nefesh). The seventh is called Victory (nesab). The eighth is called Majesty (hod). The ninth is called the Righteous One, Foundation o f the world (saddiqyesod olam). The tenth is called Justice (sedeq). Up to this point is the world o f the body (olam ha-guf). Following is the order o f their activity. The first is the divine power. The second is for angelic power. The third is for prophetic power. The fourth extends lovingkindness to the heights. The fifth passes judgment with the fear o f His strength. The sixth has compassion in fear upon the lower worlds. The seventh nurtures and strengthens the vegetative soul. The eighth weakens and infirms it. The ninth draws together all their powers, sometimes for one purpose, sometimes for another. The tenth is the lower attribute of severity. It is composed o f the power o f all the others in order to judge the lower worlds. The energy o f the human soul is drawn from them and their powers in the following way: Elevated Height exists as the power o f that soul which is called “only one” (yehidah); Wisdom exists in the soul as the animative soul; Understanding exists in the power o f spirit; Fear in the power called “animus” (neshamah); Beauty in the power o f blood; Victory in the power o f bone; Majesty in the flower o f flesh; Foundation o f the World in the power o f the sinew; and Justice in the power o f the skin. And their placement above is as follows:

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Elevated Height encompasses and encircles Wisdom .and Understanding, which in turn surround all that is beneath them. Lovingkindness is drawn to Eternity, which is on the right side. Fear is drawn to Majesty, which are in the middle, and Justice is opposite them. 11. Should the questioner persist: You have now informed me as to their names, ran and order. You have further informed me as to the position o f Justice, which receives from all their power. Now tell me whether there is bestowing and receiving in each one. Answer. Know that no emanation is radiated forth except to proclaim the unity within Eyn-Sof. If the receptor did not unite with the bestower into one power, then it would not be possible to recognize that the two are really one. In their unity one knows that power of union. Upon seeing the uniting force made manifest, how much more so one should not ruminate upon it in secret. Thus, everything is both receptor and bestower.. .. 7

Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

See Maimonides, The Guide o f the Perplexed, 1:58. Sefer Yesirah 1:4. Ibid. Ibid., 1:5. Mishnah Pirqey Avot 5:1. The word “statement” (maamar) also signifies sefirah. Traditionally a very dark blue associated with sky-blue. The twelfth and final question seeks to establish biblical and rabbinic proof texts for the positions taken in the answers to the first eleven questions. Much of what presently constitutes the published answer to the twelfth question was added to Rabbi Azriels original composition.

Selection 4: Revelation and the Giving of the Torah The Zohar ( The Book o f Radiance) is the most important classic o f Jewish mystical literature. It was composed in the last decades o f the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries by a small group of Castilian kabbalists, the most prominent of whom was Rabbi Moses de Leon. How­ ever, in order to increase its prestige and authority it is traditionally attributed to Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai, the great mystical sage of the second century C.E. Structured as a mystical commentary on the Five Books o f the Torah, it seeks to understand G ods inner life and the intimate relationship that exists between the Divine and Israel as this relationship is mediated by the Torah and m itzvot (commandments). In its totality, it sees the Torah as a book o f se­ crets, the understanding and possession of which can bring personal mystical elevation, great theoretical understanding, and practical influence in the world below and the world above. This selection of zoharic material deals with the essential issue o f divine revelation and, more specifically, with the mystical nature o f the revelation o f the Torah at M ount Sinai.

Selection 4 All o f Israel Saw the Letters Anokbi A secret of secrets for those who know wisdom: The moment these letters came forth,

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secretly circling as one, a spark flashed out to engrave. A flowing measure extended ten cubits on this side, and out shot comets inside comets, seventy-one. Sparks burst into flashes, up high and down below, then quieted down and rose up high, beyond, beyond. The flow measured out ten cubits on the other side, and comets shot out m colors like before. And so on every side. The spark expanded, whirling round and round. Sparks burst into flashes and rose high above. The heavens blazed with all their powers; everything flashed and sparkled as one. Then the spark turned from the side o f the South and outlined a curve from there to the East and from the East to the N orth until it had circled back to the South, as before. Then the spark swirled, disappearing; comets and flashes dimmed. Now they came forth, these carved, flaming letters flashing like gold when it dazzles. Like a craftsman smelting silver and gold: when he takes them out o f the blazing fire all is bright and pure; so the letters came forth, pure and bright from the flowing measure of the spark. Therefore it is written: “The word o f Y H V H is refined” (Psalms 18:31), as silver and gold are refined. W hen these letters came forth, they were all refined, carved precisely, sparkling, flashing. All o f Israel saw the letters flying through space in every direction, engraving themselves on the tablets of stone.

Selection 5: Language and Meaning For the kabbalists the most important mystical language is the text o f the Torah. Because the Torah is the revealed word o f God it is both intelligible and inexhaustible in its meaning. Indeed, for Jewish mystics the Torah functions as a mystical lexicon in which each word, each

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letter of each word, reveals some esoteric secret to those who know how to decipher and comprehend the language o f the revealed text. Moreover, because it is Gods wisdom it can, as the Zohar teaches, be simultaneously read and understood on many different levels, each o f which is true and none of which cancels the truth o f any other. The most famous descrip­ tion of this multilayered approach is known by the acronym Pardes, “the Orchard.” Pardes is a word formed from the first letters of four Hebrew words that refer to different strata o f textual meaning: (1) Peshat—the literal or plain meaning; (2) Remez—the allegorical meaning; (3) Derash—the homiletical and ethical meaning; and (4) Sod—the mystical meaning.

Selection 5 For the Torah resembles a beautiful and stately damsel, who is hidden in a secluded chamber o f her palace and who has a secret lover, unknown to all others. For love o f her he keeps pass­ ing the gate of her house, looking this way and that in search of her. She knows that her lover haunts the gate of her house. W hat does she do? She opens the door o f her hidden chamber ever so litde, and for a moment reveals her face to her lover, but hides it again forthwith. Were anyone with her lover, he would see nothing and perceive nothing. He alone sees it and he is drawn to her with his heart and soul and his whole being, and he knows that for love o f him she disclosed herself to him for one moment, aflame with love for him. So is it with the word o f the Torah, which reveals herself only to those who love her. The Torah knows that the mystic [hakbim libba, literally, “the wise of heart”] haunts the gate o f her house. W hat does she do? From within her hidden palace she discloses her face and beckons to him and returns forthwith to her place and hides. Those who are there see nothing and know nothing, only he alone, and he is drawn to her with his heart and soul and his whole being. Thus the Torah reveals herself and hides, and goes out in love of her lover and arouses love in him. Come and see: this is the way o f the Torah. At first, when she wishes to reveal herself to a man, she gives him a momentary sign. If he understands, well and good; if not, she sends to him and calls him a simpleton. To the messenger she sends to him the Torah and says: tell the simpleton to come here that I may speak to him. As it is written (Prov 9:16): “Whoso is simple, let him turn in hither, she saith to him that wanteth understanding.” W hen he comes to her, she begins from behind a curtain to speak words in keeping with his understanding, until very slowly insight comes to him, and this is called derashah. Then through a light veil she speaks allegorical words {mtllin de~hidah) and that is what is meant by haggadah. Only then, when he has become familiar with her, does she reveal herself to him face to face and speak to him o f all her hidden secrets and all her hidden ways, which have been in her heart from the beginning. Such a man is then termed perfect, a “master,” that is to say, a “bride­ groom o f the Torah” in the strictest sense, the master of the house, to whom she discloses all her secrets, concealing nothing. {Zohar 2:99a-b)

Selection 6: The Many Meanings of the Torah O ur third selection from the Zohar again deals with the four strata o f meaning that the text o f the Torah is said to contain. These four levels are, to repeat, the literal or plain level, the homiletical level, the allegorical level, and the mystical level. Here the O ld Man

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reveals this multilayered character o f the revealed Torah text to his listeners and compan­ ions. It is im portant to emphasize that for the mystics the literal, homiletical, and alle­ gorical levels are all true, and their truth is not canceled out by the still deeper understanding revealed at the mystical level o f meaning. Thus, the obligation to keep the m itzvot (commandments) and other aspects o f the literal level o f textual meaning remain significant and binding.

Selection 6 The Old Man and the Beautiful Maiden Rabbi Hiyya and Rabbi Yose met one night at the Tower o f Tyre. They stayed, there as guests, delighting in each other. Rabbi Yose said, “I am so glad to see the face of Shekhinah. For just now, the whole way here, I was pestered by an old man, a donkey driver, who kept asking me riddles the whole way: ‘W hat is a serpent that flies in the air and wanders alone, while an ant lies peacefully between its teeth? Beginning in union, it ends in separation. W hat is an eagle that nests in a tree that never was? Its young who have been plundered, who are not created creatures, lie somewhere uncreated. W hen they go up, they come down; coming down, they go up. Two who are one, and one who is three. W hat is a beautiful maiden who has no eyes and a body concealed and revealed? She comes out in the morning and is hidden all day. She adorns herself with adornments that are not.* All this he asked on the way; I was annoyed. Now I can relax! If we had been together, we would have engaged in words of Torah instead o f strange words of chaos.” Rabbi Hiyya said, “That old man, the donkey driver, do you know anything about him?” He answered, “I know that there is nothing in his words. If he knew anything, he should have opened with Torah;

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then the way would not have been empty!” Rabbi Hiyya said, “That donkey driver, is he here ? For sometimes in those empty fools, you discover bells o f gold!” He said to him, “Here he is! Fixing up his donkey with food.” They called to him; he came before them. He said to them, “Now two are three, and three are like one!” Rabbi Yose said “Didn 1 1 tell you that all his words are empty nonsense?” He sat before them and said “Rabbis, I turned into a donkey driver only a short time ago. Before, I wasn't one. But I have a small son, and I put him in school; 1 want him to engage Torah. W hen I find one of the rabbis traveling on the road I guide his donkey from behind. Today I thought that I would hear new words o f Torah. But I haven t heard anything!” Rabbi Yose said, “O f all the words I heard you say, there was one that really amazed me. Either you said it out of folly, or they are empty words.” The Old Man said, “And which one is that?” He said, “The one about the beautifiil maiden.” The Old Man opened and said “ ‘Y H V H is on my side; I have no fear. W hat can any human do to me ? Y H V H is by my side, helping me.... It is good to take refuge in Y H V H ...’ (Psalms 118:6-8). How good and pleasant and precious and high are words o f Torah! But how can I say them in front of rabbis from whose mouths, until now, I haven’t heard a single word? But I should say them because there is no shame at all in saying words o f Torah in front of everyone!”

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The Old Man covered himself.... The Old Man opened and said “‘Moses went inside the cloud and ascended the mountain.. .* (Exodus 24:18). W hat is this cloud? The one o f which it is written: T have placed My bow in the cloud’ (Genesis 9:13). We have learned that the Rainbow took off Her garments and gave them to Moses. Wearing that garment, Moses went up the mountain; from inside it he saw what he saw, delighting in the All, up to that place.” The Comrades approached and threw themselves down in front o f the Old Man. They cried, and said, “If we have come into the world only to hear these words from your mouth, it is enough for us!” The Old Man said “Friends, Comrades, not for this alone did I begin the word. An old man like me doesn’t rattle with just a single word. Human beings are so confused in their minds! They do not see the way o f truth in Torah. Torah calls out to them every day, in love, but they do not want to turn their heads. Even though I have said that Torah removes a word from her sheath, is seen for a moment, then quickly hides away— that is certainly true— but when she reveals herself from her sheath and hides herself right away, she does so only for those who know her intimately. A parable. To what can this be compared? To a lovely princess, beautiful in every way and hidden deep within her palace. She has one lover, unknown to anyone; he is hidden too. O ut o f his love for her, this lover passes by her gate constandy, lifting his eyes to every side. She knows that her lover is hovering about her gate constandy. W hat does she do? She opens a litde window in her hidden palace

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and reveals her face to her lover, then swiftly withdraws, concealing herself. No one near the lover sees or reflects, only the lover, and his heart and his soul and everything within him flow out to her. And he knows that out o f love for him she revealed herself for that one moment to awaken love in him. So it is with a word o f Torah: She reveals herself to no one but her lover. Torah knows that he who is wise o f heart hovers about her gate every day. W hat does she do? She reveals her face to him from the palace and beckons him with a hint, then swiftly withdraws to her hiding place. No one who is there knows or reflects; he alone does, and his heart and his soul and everything within him flows out to her. That is why Torah reveals and conceals herself. W ith love she approaches her lover to arouse love with him. Come and see! This is the way o f Torah: At first, when she begins to reveal herself to a human she beckons him with a hint. If he knows, good; if not, she sends him a message, calling him a fool. Torah says to her messenger: 'Tell that fool to come closer, so I can talk with him!’ as it is written: 'W ho is the fool without a heart? Have him turn in here!’ (Proverbs 9:4). He approaches. She begins to speak with him from behind a curtain she has drawn, words he can follow, until he reflects a litde at a time. This is derasha. Then she converses with him through a veil,

Jewish Mysticism

words riddled with allegory. This is haggadah. Once he has grown accustomed to her, she reveals herself face to face and tells him all her hidden secrets, all the hidden ways, since primordial days secreted^n her heart. Now he is a perfect human being, husband o f Torah, master o f the house. All her secrets she has revealed to him, withholding nothing, concealing nothing. She says to him, ‘Do you see that word, that hint with which I beckoned you at first ? So many secrets there! This one and that one!’ Now he sees that nothing should be added to those words and nothing taken away. Now the peshat o f the verse, just like it is! N ot even a single letter should be added or deleted. Human beings must become aware! They must pursue Torah to become her lovers !...” He was silent for a moment. The Comrades were amazed; they did not know if it was day or night, if they were really there or n o t.... “Enough, Comrades! From now on, you know that the Evil Side has no power over you. I, Yeiva Sava, have stood before you to awaken your awareness o f these words.” They rose like one who is awakened from his sleep and threw themselves down in front o f him, unable to utter a word. After a while they began to cry. Rabbi Hiyya opened and said “‘Set me as a seal upon your heart, as a seal upon your arm’ (Song o f Songs 8:6)....

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Love and sparks from the flame o f our heart will escort you! May it be the Will that our image be engraved in your heart as your image is engraved in ours!” He kissed them and blessed them, and they left. W hen they rejoined Rabbi Shimon and told him everything that happened, he was delighted and amazed. He said, “You are so fortunate to have attained all this! Here you were with a heavenly lion, a powerful hero compared with whom many heroes are nothing, and you did not know how to recognize him right away! I am amazed that you escaped his punishment! The Blessed Holy One must have wanted to save you!” He called out these verses for them: “The path of the righteous is like the light o f dawn, growing brighter and brighter until the day is full. W hen you walk, your stride will be free; if you run, you will not stumble. Your people, all of them righteous, will inherit the land forever; a sprout of My planting, the work o f My hands, making Me glorious!”

Selection 7: The Mystical Sabbath In this selection the Sabbath is understood as the Shechinah, the female aspect o f the Divine. O n Sabbath, the Shechinah, now seen as the Sabbath Queen, returns from her present week­ day exile (seen as representative of the larger pattern of alienation and exile in which the entire cosmic order finds itself at the present time) to her divine male partner, the Sefirah Tiferet, in the world above. Thus, each Sabbath is the metaphysical equivalent o f a divine wedding that provides joy and blessing to all beings and all things.

Selection 7 The Secret o f Sabbath The Secret o f Sabbath: She is Sabbath! United in the secret of One to draw down upon Her the secret o f One.

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The prayer for the entrance o f Sabbath: The holy Throne o f Glory is united in the secret o f One, prepared for the High Holy King to rest upon Her. W hen Sabbath enters She is alone, separated from the O ther Side, all judgments removed from Her. Basking in the oneness of holy light. She is crowned over and over to face the Holy King. All powers o f wrath and masters of judgment flee from Her. There is no power in all the worlds aside from Her. Her face shines with a light from beyond; She is crowned below by the holy people, and all o f them are crowned with new souls. Then the beginning o f prayer to bless Her with joy and beaming faces: Barekhu E T Y H V H ba-Mevorakh, “Bless E T YH VH \ the Blessed One,” E T YH VH , blessing Her first.

Selection 8: The End of Exile and the Future Redemption O ur final selection o f zoharic material deals with the fundamental thought that, though the Jewish People are in exile, Gods presence, in the form o f the Shechinah, is still with them. Despite Israels oppression God has not forsaken them, nor is the exile meant to last forever. At some future date God will redeem Israel and together with Israel and the exiled Shechinah will re-create the original, intended harmony of the cosmic order.

Selection 8 God, Israel, and Shekbinah *I f youfollow M y decrees and observe M y commands and carry them o u t... I w illplace M y mishkan [tabemacle/dwelling] in your midst and M y soul w ill not abhoryou. I w ill move about in your midst: I w ill beyour God, and you w ill be M y people.... B u t i f y ou spurn M y decrees, and i f your soul abhors M yjudgments, so thatyou do not carry out M y commands, so that you break M y covenant... I w ill set M yface againstyou: you w ill be routed by your enemies

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and yourfoes w ill dominate you. You willflee though nonepursues. A nd if, fo r a ll that, you do not obey Me, I w ill disciplineyou more, sevenfo r your sins... I w ill disciplineyou Myself, sevenforyour sins... and I w ill scatteryou among the nations.... Yet even a t this point, when they are in the land o f their enemies, I w ill not spurn them or abhor them so as to destroy them, breaking M y covenant with them, fo r I am YHVH, their God.” (Leviticus 26, passim) “I will place My mishkan in your m idst.. My mishkan is Shekhinah, My mishkan is My mashkon. My dwelling is My pledge, who has been seized on account of Israels sins. “I will place My m ishkan' My mashkon, literally Mine! A parable: One person loved another, and said “My love for you is so high I want to live with you!” The other said, “How can I be sure that you will stay with me ?” So he took all his most precious belongings and brought them to the other, saying “Here is a pledge to you that I will never part from you.” So, the Blessed Holy One desired to dwell with Israel. W hat did He do? He took His most precious possession and brought it down to them, saying “Israel, now you have My pledge; so I will never part from you.” Even though the Blessed Holy One has removed Himself from us, He has left a pledge in our hands, and we guard that treasure o f His. If He wants His pledge, let Him come and dwell among us! So “I will place My mishkan in your midst” means “I will deposit a mashkon in your hands to ensure that I will dwell with you.” Even though Israel is now in exile,

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the pledge of the Blessed Holy One is with them, and they have never forsaken it. “And My soul will not abhor you.” A parable: One person loved hi$ friend and wanted to live together. W hat did he do? He took his bed and brough&it to his friends house. He said, “My bed is now in your house, so I will not go far from you or your bed or your things.” So, the Blessed Holy One said “I will place My Dwelling in your midst and My soul will not abhor you. Here, My Bed is in your house! Since My Bed is with you, you know I will not leave you: My soul will not abhor you.” “I will move about in your midst: I will be your God.” Since My Dwelling is with you, you can be certain that I will go with you, as it is written: “For Y H V H your God moves about in your camp to deliver you and deliver your enemies to you: let your camp be holy” (Deuteronomy 23:15). One night. Rabbi Isaac and Rabbi Judah were staying in a village near the Sea o f Tiberias. They rose at midnight. Rabbi Isaac said to Rabbi Judah, “Let us converse in words of Torah, for even though we are in this place, we must not separate ourselves from the Tree of Life.” Rabbi Judah opened and said “‘Moses took the Tent and pitched it outside the camp...’ (Exodus 33:7). Why? Moses said to himself, ‘Since Israel has dealt falsely with the Blessed Holy One and exchanged His Glory, let His pledge be placed in the hands of a trustee until we see with whom it remains/

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So he said to Joshua, ‘You will be the trustee between the Blessed Holy O n e and Israel. «

The pledge will remain in your trust and we will see with whom it remains.’ W hat is written? ‘A nd he [Moses] returned to the camp, but his attendant, Joshua the son of Nun, a youth, did not stir Out of the Tent’ (Exodus 33:11). W hy Joshua? Because he was to Moses as the moon is to the sun. He was worthy to guard the pledge; so he ‘did not stir out o f the Tent.*

The Blessed Holy One said to Moses, ‘Moses, this is not right! I have given My pledge to them! Even though they have sinned against Me, the pledge must remain with them so that I will not leave them. Do you want Me to depart from Israel and never return? Return My pledge to them, and for its sake I will not abandon them, wherever they are.*

Even though Israel has sinned against God, they have not abandoned this pledge o f His, and the Blessed Holy One has not taken it from them. So wherever Israel goes in exile, Shekhinah is with them. Therefore it is written: T will place My mishkan in your midst.* This has been established.** Rabbi Isaac opened and said “‘My beloved is like a gazelle, like a young deer. There he stands behind our wall, gazing through the windows, peering through the holes* (Song of Songs 2:9). Happy are Israel! They are privileged to hold this pledge o f the Supreme King! For even though they are in exile, every new moon and Sabbath and festival the Blessed Holy One comes to watch over them and to gaze at His pledge which is with them, His treasure.

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A parable: There was a king whose queen offended him. H e expelled her from the palace. W hat did she do? She took his son, his precious beloved. Since the king was fond o f her, he let him go with her. W hen the king began to yearn for the queen and her son he climbed up on roofs, ran down stairs, scaled walls; he peered through the holes in the walls just to see them! W hen he caught a glimpse o f them he started to cry from behind the wall. Then he went away. So, with Israel: Even though they have left the palace of the King, they have not abandoned that pledge. And since the King loves them. He has left it with them. W hen the Holy King begins to yearn for the Queen and for Israel He climbs up on roofs, runs down stairs, scales walls; He peers through the holes in the walls just to see them! W hen He catches a glimpse o f them, He starts to cry. As it is written: ‘My beloved is like a gazelle, like a young deer,* jumping from wall to roof, from roof to wall. ‘There he stands behind our wall* in the synagogues and houses o f study. ‘Gazing through the windows,* for indeed, a synagogue must have windows. ‘Peering through the holes* to look at them, to look after them. Therefore Israel should rejoice on that day, for they know this, and they say: ‘This is the day YH V H has made— let us rejoice and be happy!* (Psalms 118:24).** “But if you spurn My decrees.. .** Rabbi Yose opened “‘My son, do not spurn the discipline of YH V H , do not dread His correction* (Proverbs 3:11). How beloved are Israel to the Blessed Holy One!

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He wants to correct them and guide them in a straight path like a father who loves his son: * because o f his love for him, there is always a rod in his hand to guide him in a straight path so that he will not stray to the right or the left; as it is written: ‘Y H V H corrects the one whom He loves; as a father, the son he delights in’ (Proverbs 3:12). One who is not loved by the Blessed Holy One, one who is hated by Him— the correction is removed from him, the rod is removed. It is written: ‘I have loved you, says Y H V H . ..’ (Malachi 1:2). Because of His love, there is always a rod in His hand to guide him. 'But Esau I hated’ (Malachi 1:3); so I removed the rod from him, removed the correction, so as not to share Myself with him. He is far from My soul, but as for you, ‘I have loved you!* Therefore, ‘My son, do not spurn the discipline of YH V H t do not dread His correction.* W hat does this mean: ‘do not dread’? Do not brisde from it, like one who flees from thorns, for those things are like thorns in the flesh. Come and see: W hen Justice is aroused with Her powers flashing forces arise on the right and on the left. Many shafts fly forth from them: shafts of fire, shafts of coal, shafts o f flame! They materialize to strike at human beings. Under them are other deputies, sparklers charged with forty-minus-one. They hover and swoop down, strike and dart up. Empowered, they enter the Hollow o f the Great Abyss. Here their sparks are dyed red; a blazing fire is fused to them. Embers explode,

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flying, falling, befalling human beings! Just as it is written: ‘I will discipline you more!*' I will give something more to the Masters of Judgment over and above their claim! Whereas after the Flood, God said: ‘I shall not doom the world any more because of humankind' (Genesis 8:21). W hat does this mean: ‘any more’? I will not give more to the Masters of Judgment lest they destroy the world, but only as much as the world can endure. So ‘I will discipline you more' means ‘I will give them more.' W hy more? To discipline you seven for your sins.' Seven? But if the Blessed Holy One collected His due, the world could not endure for even a moment, as it is written: ‘If you kept account o f sins, Y H YH V H , who would survive ?' (Psalms 130:3). How can you say: ‘seven for your sins'? Rather, what does seven' mean? Seven is confronting you! W ho is She? Release, who is seven, and called Seven, as it is said: ‘A t the end o f seven years enact a release’ (Deuteronomy 15:1). Therefore ‘Seven for your sins'... .** Rabbi Abba said “T will discipline you Myself, seven for your sins.' I disciplined you through other deputies, as has been established. ‘Myself' Now I will confront you! Seven will be aroused against you! Come and see the pure love o f the Blessed Holy One for Israel. A parable: There was a king who had a single son who kept misbehaving. One day he offended the king.

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The king said, *1have punished you so many times and you have not received. Now look, what should I do with you? If I banish you from the land and expel you from the kingdom, perhaps wild beasts or wolves or robbers will attack you and you will be no more. W hat can I do? The only solution is that I and you together leave the land!’ So, ‘Myself*: I and you together will leave the land! The Blessed Holy One said as follows: ‘Israel, what should I do with you? I have already punished you, and you have not heeded Me. I have brought fearsome warriors and flaming forces to strike at you and you have not obeyed. If I expel you from the land alone, I fear that packs of wolves and bears will attack you and you will be no more. But what can I do with you? The only solution is that I and you together leave the land and both of us go into exile. As it is written: “I will discipline you,” forcing you into exile; but if you think that I will abandon you— “Myself” too, along with you!* ‘Seven for your sins’ This means Seven, who will be banished along with you. Why? ‘For your sins,* as it is written: ‘For your crimes, your Mother was sent away* (Isaiah 50:1). The Blessed Holy One said ‘You have made Me homeless as well as yourselves, for the Queen has left the palace along with you. Everything is ruined, My palace and yours! For a palace is worthless to a king unless he can enter with his queen. A king is only happy when he enters the queen’s palace and finds her with her son; they all rejoice as one. Now neither the son nor the queen is present; the palace is totally desolate.

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W hat can I do? I Myself will be with you!* So now, even though Israel is in exile, the Blessed Holy One is with them and has not abandoned them. And when Israel comes out o f exile the Blessed Holy One will return with them, as it is written: 9 ‘Y H V H your God will return* (Deuteronomy 30:3), He Himself will return! This has already been said.** Rabbi Hiyya and Rabbi Yose were walking on the road. They happened upon a certain cave in a field.... Rabbi Hiyya said “I have heard a new word said by Rabbi El*azar: ‘“I will not spurn them or abhor them so as to destroy them.** The verse should read: “I will not strike them or kill them so as to destroy them.** But instead we find: "I will not spurn them or abhor them.** Usually, one who is hated by another is repulsive and utterly abhorrent to him; but here, “I will not spurn them or abhor them.** Why? Because My souls beloved is among them and because o f Her, all o f them are beloved to Me, as it is written: le-khallotam, spelled: Le-khalltam, without the o. Because o f Her, “I will not spurn them or abhor them,** because She is the love o f My life. A parable: A man loved a woman. She lived in the tanners’ market. If she were not there, he would never enter the place. Since she is there, it appears to him as a market o f spice-peddlers with all the world’s finest aromas in the air. Here too: “Yet even at this point, when they are in the land o f their enemies,** which is a tanners’ market.

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“I will not spurn them or abhor them.” Why? Le-khallatam, “Because o f their bride,” for I love Her! She is the beloved o f My soul dwelling there! It seems filled with all the finest aromas o f the world because of the bride in their midst.*” Rabbi Yose said “If I have come here only to hear this word, it is enough for me!”

Selection 9: Divine Emanation and the Names of God This selection is chosen from R. Joseph Gikatillas famous late-thirteenth-century work titled Shaarei 'Orah, the “Gates o f Light.” Gikatilla was concerned to provide a clear, intel­ ligible understanding of Kabbalah that would make its meaning and significance available to a wide audience. In comparison to the difficult symbolic style o f the Zohar, the Shaarei ‘Orah seeks to provide an understanding o f the sefirot that is based on the exegesis o f the biblical text. In the present section of the work with which the book begins, the argument is made that the ten sefirot can best be understood as an explication o f the four-lettered name o f God known as the Tetragrammaton—Y H W H —and other Divine Names found in the Torah.

Selection 9 Introduction You, my brother and soul mate, have asked me to show you the pathway to the Names o f the Ever-Blessed God so you may derive what you will from them and reach the place that you desire. Even though your enthusiasm is far greater than your question, I still feel compelled to divulge to you the way the light is disseminated and how God wants us to reach it. W hen you have learned this, then God will answer when you call. You will be one o f those who are truly close to Him and you will love Him with all your heart. Yes, you will delight in YH V H , and He will grant you all that you ask. Surely you must be aware - even if you haven’t heard - o f the Divine Beings in the world of the YH V H , the Y H V H o f the universe, for whom the upper and lower worlds trem­ ble and from whose dread the earth shudders. Before His fury who can stand, who will rise when He is angry? (Nahum 1:6) W ho puts no trust in Holy Ones; [and] the heavens are not guiltless in His sight. W hat then of one loathsome and foul (as a mortal) man who drinks wrongdoing like water? (Job 15:15-16)

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How could a mortal conceive o f using His Holy Names as an axe is used for hewing wood? W ho would connive to cast his hand on the crown of the kingdom and then dare to use it profanely? Wasn’t it our Sages who said, “Anyone who utters the name of God as rendered by its letters has no portion in the world to come"? It was none other than the exalted saint Rabbi Hanina Ben Tradyon who, even though he transgressed this prohibition, did not do sff for any profane or facile purpose. He wanted only to glorify Him and learn His blessed ways, yet still he was punished. How much truer it is for us who are so poor and ill-equipped. Look at what God Himself has written in His Torah: “You shall not swear falsely by the name o f the YH V H your God.” Even though the primary prohibition is against making false oaths, the verse also carries a secondary meaning which teaches us not to use His Name in vain. The verse could have taught us the primary prohibition by saying simply, “You shall not swear false oaths in Gods name” instead o f stating, “You shall not swear falsely by the name o f the Y H V H your God.” Both meanings are implied. Moses, our teacher, peace be with him, learned the secret utter­ ance o f Gods name from the ministering angels when he went up on High. [Yet he needed to] caution Israel, stating, “For the name o f God I proclaim; [... they may only] give glory to God.” If angels on High are admonished not to mention the name o f the Blessed God, how much truer for mere mortals who will some day rot in graves. How much more offensive would it be for one who had been tempted [for his own designs] to use profanely the Crown o f their Creator, especially in these days when no one is expert in mentioning the Holy Names and the practical uses o f their application. Such people will bring upon themselves only their own ruin. As our Sages have stated, Anyone who does not tend to the glorification o f his Creator would be better off not having been created. Heed my voice, my son, and lend your ears to my counsel. My son, if sinners entice you, do not yield. (Proverbs 1:10) If they say, “Come along and we will give you the Names and incantations which can be practi­ cally employed,” my son, do riot go along with them. Keep your feet from following their path, for those Names and their application are really a trawl for catching souls that will only be led to ruin. O ur Sages truly did possess the Holy Names as received from the Prophets, like the seventy-two letter Name, the forty-two letter Name and the twelve letter Name as well as the many other sacred Names. They could have produced signs and wonders, yet they made use of them only during times of oppression and for the sanctification of God s Name. Rabbi Meir, for example, saved his sister-in-law from being confined to a brothel by telling the gentile guard, [“If you help me then] every time you find yourself in trouble say, ‘The Y H V H o f Rabbi Meir answer

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me* and you will be saved” Even though he had given this formula to the gentile (to save his sister), when Rabbi Meir himself was in need he refrained from utteririg the Holy Name and opted to run away instead. Thus we have it recounted in the first chapter o f Abodah Zarah, Similarly, the story o f H oni HaMaagel, or the matter o f Rava and King Sabor as told in the tractate o f Taanit, or in the case o f David when he dug the foundations o f the Temple and the deep waters rose and threatened to flood the world, as is recorded in Sanhedrin ( Yerushalmi 38a). It is within the parameters of our historical covenant, however that those who want their needs fulfilled by employing the Holy Names should try with all their strength to com­ prehend the meaning of each Name of God as they are recorded in the Torah, names such as EH YE, YH, YH VH , ADoNaY, E L, ELO H , ELoH IM , SHaDaY, TZVAOT. One should be aware that all the names mentioned in the Torah are the keys for anything a person needs in the world. W hen one contemplates these Names one will understand that all o f the Torah and the Commandments are dependent upon them. Then when he knows the purpose o f every Name he will realize the greatness o f “He who spoke and thus the world came into being” He will be fearful before Him and he will yearn to cleave to Him through His blessed Names. Then he will be close to God and his petitions will be accepted, as it is written: “I will keep him safe, for he knows My Name. W hen he calls on Me I will answer him.” The verse does not promise safety by merely mentioning His Name but by knowing His Name. It is the knowing that is most significant. Only after the knowledge does the verse present the petition, .. when he calls on me I will answer.” This means that when the time comes he should know the Name that is intrinsically tied to what he needs, then when he calls, “I will answer”. You can see this when Jacob in time o f trouble calls out to E L SHaDaY saying, “And may EX SH aD aY dispose the man to mercy toward you.” (Genesis 43:14) Daniel [invoked a different name] when he prayed for the Temple, saying, .. Show your favour for the desolate sanctuary for the sake o f ADoNaY? Even though our Talmudic Sages have understood this passage to refer to “.. .Abraham who called you Adori? the verse nevertheless requires further understanding. [One must understand why the Name AD oNaY was specifically invoked.] Furthermore, when Hannah prayed that God should send her seed [I Samuel 11] [a different Name is invoked, as] it is written, “O h Y ’Y TZVAO T’ if you will look upon the suffering o f your maidservant.” Even though our Sages have interpreted it a different way in the Talmudic tractate Brachot, the ultimate interpretation o f the verse lies in a more esoteric understanding [which sees the significance of choosing the Names Y ’Y TZVAO T\. And I have not come to regale you with variant interpretations but rather to give the ultimate meaning. Since this is our purpose, we are obliged to fortify you with a foundation o f roots and a solid trunk to lean on.

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Know that all the Holy Names in the Torah are intrinsically tied to the Tetragrammaton, which is YH VH . If you would contend, however, that the Name E H YE is the ultimate source, realize that the Tetragrammaton is like the trunk of a tree [from which the branches grow] and the NameEZ/YE is like the root from which grow the other roots. It is the trunk o f the tree that nurtures the branches which are the other Names of God, and each one o f these branches bears a different fruit. Know too that all the words in the Torah are connected to one o f the unerasable Divine Names just as the other cognomens [for the different Names of God] are intrinsi­ cally tied to a specific Name. For instance, Cognomens for the ineffable Tetragrammaton are N O R A (awesome), N O SEH AVoN (remover of sin) and OVeRAL PeSHA (ignorer o f sin). The Cognomens for E L are GaDOL (great), RaCH U M (merciful) and CH aN uN (pardoning). The Cognomens for E LoH IM aicA D IR (mighty), SHoFeT (judge), DaYYaN (judge). Just as E L, E LoH IM and the Tetragrammaton have Cognomens, their Cognomens also have Cogno­ mens until one finds that all the words o f the Torah are intrinsically woven into the tapestry o f Gods Cognomens which are tied to Gods Names which, in turn, are tied to the ineffable Tet­ ragrammaton, YH VH , to which all the Torah s words are inextricably linked. Thus, all the Torah is woven with [the strands of] Y H V H and it is for this reason it is stated, The Torah o f Y H V H is complete. (Psalm 19:8) The verse teaches that when one understands the rationale for all the Holy Names and those related to them and one grasps the Cognomens for each of them, then one can see that all is connected to His great blessed Name and he will yearn to cleave to it and fear it. It is only then one can understand the verse, Then will you understand the fear of YH V H and attain knowledge of God. (Proverbs 2:5) - for only then can he be among those about whom it is written, “I will keep him safe, for he knows my Name” (Psalm 91:14). Then you will understand the terrible punishment for those who utter the Name o f Heaven in vain, not to speak o f those who pronounce the sound of the Name by its letters or those who deign to use it for magical application. Before I introduce the purpose of this piece, I must preface my remarks with these words. First rule: know that the true essence of the blessed Creator cannot be discerned by any other than Him; none o f the Celestial Beings even knows His place, much less His true es­ sence. See what the angels on high say: Blessed is the presence o f the Y H V H in His place. (Ezekiel 3:12) - wherever His place may be. If it is thus with the higher beings, how much truer for the lower world. So, if all that has been said is true, then what are the words we read in the Torah [that seem to describe God as physical] such as “hand”, Teg”, “ear”, “eye” etc.? Realize and believe that even though these terms testify to His truth and His greatness, no creature can begin to understand the meaning o f those entities called “hand”, Teg”, or “ear”. Just because we were created in His own image and likeness, d o n t think that the eye which is written in the Torah is really a human eye, or that the hand is truly a human hand. These terms [when written in the Torah] reflect the deepest essence o f the blessed Creator. They are the sources o f that which emanates to all those under the dominion o f His blessed Name. Yet, the “hand” o f the Torah is not the normative hand, nor are they structured in any way similar, as it is written,

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... To whom can I be compared? (Isaiah 40:25) Be well aware that there is no structural or essential similarity betwten us mortals and those terms in the Torah. The reason for the usage of human form is to create signposts for memory; these exalted incomprehensible concepts can be known by name only, like the words “Reuben the son of Jacob”. These letters do not contain the form and essence o f Reuben the son o f Jacob. Instead, they merely signify that this is Reuben the son o f Jacob. W hat is written is merely a sign which refers to the physical essence of Reuben the son o f Jacob. ^ Since God wanted to favour us He created the human body with revealed and con­ cealed organs which reflect the constellation o f Divine emanation. If a person succeeds in purifying one of his limbs or organs, that same limb or organ will become a throne for that celestial entity which bears the same name, whether it be an eye, a hand or any other limb. For example, if a person is careful never to look at anything o f a licentious nature, or anything else which is spiritually repulsive, but rather looks only at Gods Holiness and for ways to serve Him, then his eye becomes a throne for that celestial entity which is also known as “eye”. So it is with ones hand, ones foot and all the other limbs. Our Sages were referring to this when they wrote, “The Forefathers are the constellation”. They could have written that our forefa­ thers were each separate constellations, but instead they wrote, “The Forefathers...”. For in­ stance, Father Abraham took the right side in purity and he inherited the celestial right side which is the quality o f CHeSeD (lovingkindness), as it is written, Then Abram journeyed by stages to the Negev} (Genesis 12:9) Isaac received the left side of fear in purity, as it is written, And Jacob swore by the fear of his father Isaac. (Genesis 31:53) Jacob, however, took the middle path, as it is written, ... And Jacob was a mild man who dwelled in tents [between the tents o f Abraham and Isaac]. (Genesis 25:27) From this we see that the three Forefathers serve as a throne for the Divine Constellation, which allows for the whole to be perfected and formed on this foundation. Now, we must enlighten you on a subject that is related to the one we have just dis­ cussed. Be aware that all activity is intrinsically tied to your limbs and organs. For example, the eye is connected to sight, the ear to hearing, the hand to touch, and the leg to walking. Since our Sages have referred to God in human terms of activity, one must consider this lan­ guage to be metaphorical as we have with the references to His ear, hand or foot. Even though we will be using these terms throughout this composition, be careful not to infer from these terms that God can be measured or that He is limited in any way. Just as His eye or ear has no likeness in this world, thus it is with the way He acts. O ur Sages referred to the Names o f God as m idot (attributes), as it is recounted in the talmudic tractate of Rosh Hashanah: Rabbi Yehuda said, “A covenant has been made that the thirteen attributes o f God [when mentioned in prayer] will not return untended. As it is written, T hereby make a covenant* (Exodus 34:10).”

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The thirteen attributes enumerated above are “YH VH , YH VH , E L C H aN uN V ’R aC H U M ...” (“The Lord, The Lord, a God compassionate and gracious, slow to anger, abounding in kindness and faithfulness, extending kindness to the thousandth generation, forgiving iniquity, transgression and sin"). (Exodus 34:6) * Yet, you must believe that aside from the words themselves there is no other similarity be­ tween the attributes o f God and our behaviour. As our Sages have written throughout the Talmud, “See how the attributes o f God are not like the attributes o f flesh and blood.” So, after we have given over the keys contained in this introduction to you, we must now go forth and explain each o f the Holy Names as they are written in the Torah. We must en­ lighten your eyes concerning every place where they may be found, so that you will understand and be aware o f the well o f living waters which flows from all His blessed Names. And when you grasp this message then you will succeed in your ways and you will be enlightened.

Note 1. South is always considered the right side.

Selection 10: The Essential Quality of God Is Mercy This second selection from Shaarei €Orah by R. Joseph Gikatilla is concerned with the high­ est sefirah, known as Keter (the Royal “Crown”). According to Gikatillas exposition o f the nature o f this highest divine attribute, its essential characteristic is mercy: Gods highest qual­ ity is to be mercifrd and forgiving.

Selection 10 This Sphere is called KeDeM. Let me explain. Know that prior to the Creation o f the world, no creature had the power to investigate and understand because the separating curtain, the PaRGODy was locked before him and it was as if he had no concern for his Creator. They already said in the chapter o f Ayn Dorshin (Tractate Chagiga lib ), “‘...ever since the day E LoH IM created man on the earth...’ (Deuteronomy 4:32)-one might ask, was Adam created before the world was? The Torah teaches that from the day he was created onward, you are permitted to ask about, but not before that.” Because the Sphere KeTeRywhich is called E H YE t preceded everything, and all the Spheres were contained in it before the world was created, and when it ascended in thought to create the world the mysteries o f the Spheres were revealed from the hidden dimension o f KeTeRy therefore it was called KeDeM, which precedes everything, for it is the Sphere from which all the mysteries of the other Spheres are revealed. Let me explain. And Y H V H E L oH IM planted a garden E D eN from KeDeM. (Genesis 2:8) The essence o f what was planted in the garden was planned in E D eN and planted in the garden. This means that: The plantings are planted in the garden and the garden is planted in

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ED eN which is the essence of the true and complete unity. From where are the plantings, the garden and E D eN revealed? From KeDeM, from the highest KeTeK. And Y H V H E L oH IM planted a garden in ED eN”-from where did he plant? From KeDeM. And all is now ex­ plained. Thus it is intimated: One whose origin is from KeDeM, from the days o f the world. (Micah 5:1) His origins are most certainly from KeDeM, for it is from KeDeM that the emanation o f thought and the essence of the revealing o f the Spheres came forth. W hile the Sphere KeDeM shines its countenance and is revealed then all the Spheres are pleased, tranquil and joyful and all the realms are filled with RaTZO N . Know that the generations of division were originally unified, as it is written: They had one language, and their words were one. (Genesis 11:1) Thus it was intimated: Their setdements extended from Mesha as far as Sephar, the mountains o f KeDeM. (Genesis 10:30) And when they wanted to plunder that which had been planted, it is written: And as they (the builders o f the Tower o f Babel) travelled away from KeDeM, they came upon a B iK A H (a valley, also a breach) in the land o f SH iN AR. (Genesis 11:2) That same valley, a place where it is easy to stumble, lies in wait with evil designs, and it was fitting for it to be the cause of rebellion against the Unique One in the world. For if they had not been dispersed and divided, they could have plundered that which was planted in the garden EDeN. Even though the thoughts of the Generation o f Division did not end with that valley, after a while their evil was revealed. They said: “It [the Tower of Babel] will make a Name for us....” (Genesis 11:4) Then [later] Nebuchadnezzar came after he had destroyed lands, uprooted kingdoms and cast his hand upon the Temple. He saw that he was able to do this and then returned to acti­ vate the evil thought that the Generation o f Division had connived to assert. This is the es­ sence of the statement: King Nebuchadnezzar made a statue of gold sixty cubits high and six cubits broad. He set it up in the B iK A H of Dura in the province of Babylon. (Daniel 3:1) This is the same BiKAH . They came upon a B iK A H (a valley, also a breach) in the land o f SH iN A R and thus they gave it the name Babylon. (Genesis 11:9) This same wicked man wanted to complete the thought o f the Generation o f Division which could not do it. W hat did he do? He commanded all the nations to gather and bow down to that same idol, for he wished to fulfil their wish to a. .. make for us a name”. It was on that day he gathered the nations together to dedicate the statue (Daniel 3:3-4). And he placed the

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vessels from the Temple into its mouth which had the Name engraved in it, so that he would complete the designs o f the Generation o f Division. And it was proclaimed from the heavens: And I will make a deal with Bel in Babylon and make him disgorge what he has swallowed, and nations will no longer gaze on him with joy. (Jeremiah 51:44) And Daniel came and decreed that what the idol had stuffed down his throat should be re­ moved and then the idol fell and was shattered: Thus they called its name Babylon for it was there that Y H V H confused the earth and Y H V H dispersed them. (Genesis 11:9) The one who understands this will understand the essence of all that is said in the chapters that deal with the Generation o f Division and the idol of Nebuchadnezzar, and will realize how identical these situations are and he will realize how far the wicked ones designs reached with that idol, and he will know what the Sages meant when they said in the last chapter o f [the Tractate] Sanhedrin on the verse, “We tried to cure Babylon, but she was incurable” (Jeremiah 51:9): it is because all the nations have the ability to latch on to the Constellation through the essence o f “the righteous gentiles” except for “this wicked one” (Tractate Sanhedrin 96b). All o f this is alluded to in the rendering o f the Generation of Division s story when it says: “When they travelled frdm KeDeM and they found the BiKAHZ And it was said o f Lot: Lot travelled from KeDeM. (Genesis 13:11) W hat verse follows ? And man was separated from his brother. (Genesis 13:11) Everything is implicit in these verses. Just as you will find in the verse: “From Aram has Balak brought me, Moab s king from the hills o f KeDeM? They are the hills that hide the direct path to KeDeM. Just as the Prophet has said, O House o f Jacob, for they are full from KeDeM and they divine like the Philistines. (Isaiah 2:6) The Prophet is castigating Israel by saying: “W hy has the House o f Jacob abandoned YH V H Y It is because he alone exalted and chose Israel to be His unique nation, and filled them with His great light which emanates from the Sphere KeDeM, and He gave Israel Prophets filled with the Holy Spirit which was from the source o f the highest emanation, and he said to them: “Those nations that you are about to dispossess do indeed resort to augurs and soothsayers; to you, however, Y H V H your God has not assigned the like. Y H V H your G od has given you a Prophet in your midst like myself.” (Deuteronomy 18:14) This is the meaning o f the verse “... they are full from KeDeM 9 - for they did not want the everflow o f Torah and prophecy which came to them from the Sphere o f KeDeM. Instead they became “soothsayers like the Philistines”. All this is self-explanatory.

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After we have explained this, know that the realm o f mercy is called KeDeM because it makes the faces of all the Spheres shine, and then all the worlds are full and are within the realm of RaTZO N , about which it is said: W ith what shall AKaD eM (I come before) Y H V H . .. shall I AKaD eM eNU (literally, bring before, Kabbalistically it means bringing the Sphere KeDeM forth) with sacrifices? (Micah 6:6) Let us NeKaD M aH (advance) before His face with thanksgiving. (Psalm 95:2) Is there anyone who precedes YH V H , may He be Blessed? Is it not written: “W ho H iK D iM aN I (has ever tried to precede me) who would not be requited?” (Job 41:3) The verse must mean, “W ith what shall I find favour ?W ith the Sphere KeDeM Y W ith which prayer, supplication or good deed shall I perform so that the face o f mercy called KeDeM will be revealed to the other Spheres ? For that is the meaning o f “W ith what shall AKaD eM (come before) YH V H ?” The one who knows that this is what is primary will understand many issues and mysteries which are expressed in the Torah through inference and allusion. Renew our days as in KeDeM. (Lamentations 5:21) The God of KeDeM is a refuge, a support are the arms everlasting. (Deuteronomy 33:27) Beneath the three Spheres which are connected as one with the Sphere KeDeM is the definition of “the arms everlasting”; all o f this is implied. Now, contemplate how we have explained these deep issues to you and open your eyes. Maybe you can contemplate the wonders o f E L in matters that not all are able to perceive. This Sphere is also called KeTeR. The reason is that just as KeTeR, a crown, encircles the head, so does this Sphere surround all the Spheres, for this is the realm o f mercy which encom­ passes alL W ith Gods help you will understand the many mysteries of this Sphere and the hidden nature of its wisdom. Know that KeTeR encompasses, draws and is full of many realms, with dif­ ferent kinds of mercy and compassion. It is in this realm of KeTeR that the ministers o f the Con­ stellation want to place the crown, but they do not know its place. They only gather a vast array of praises and song and send them through the great and Holy Name, and some o f them will ascend and cleave to KeTeR. Know that on the days when there is a supplementary service added to the prayers, one must mention in the prayer which acknowledges Gods Holiness the prayer for KeTeR; thus we say in the prayer: “KeTeR YH V H our God will give you the heavenly multi­ tudes with the earthly ones.” This same KeTeR gathers the prayers and praises that were gathered in the prayers of YoTZeR, and all the “heavenly and earthly multitudes” unite with KeTeR as their emissary to the depth of the primordial reality. They await each other so that all should unite and the prayers will ascend as one to the realm of RaTZO N , so that the sustenance for all the worlds would be drawn from the most profound reality. For the multitudes await in expectation the time when the portion of KeTeR that will sustain them will come. Thus it is encoded:

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The eyes of all look to you expectantly.... (Psalm 145:15) Let me intimate from the following verse: You open Your hand and satisfy every living thing with R aTZO N (Psalm 145:16) Know that it is through the realm o f R aTZ O N that all living things will get what they need from KeTeR. If God wills, we will arrange a composition so that you will understand the issues o f the realm o f KeTeR and its origins, and we will bring what we have grasped, for these ideas are ancient. This Sphere is called the RoASH H aLaVaN (the W hite Head). The reason is that this Sphere is the essence o f the realm o f great mercy, of R aTZ O N and desire, and she bleaches the sins o f Israel by revealing the face o f R aTZ O N and mercy. Let me intimate. The beginning o f all visions is LoVeN (whiteness) and the purpose o f all visions is black­ ness. This Sphere is essentially white, and there is one place outside the camp which is black in essence. This is encoded (in the service where one separates from the Sabbath): “He who distinguishes between the sacred and secular, and light and darkness...” All is intimated: Until old age [i.e. a white head] A N Y (I) am the one and until I grow a white head A N Y will endure. (Isaiah 56:4) Arise before the old one, and glorify the face of the elder. (Leviticus 19:32) Know that LaVaN (Laban, also white) the Aramean swindled creatures and entrapped them in the chambers o f darkness: A road may seem right to a man, but in the end it is a road to death. (Proverbs 14:12) Her mouth is smoother than oil; but in the end she is as bitter as wormwood. (Proverbs 5:4) This verse is referring to LaVaN the Aramean who wished to confront Jacob and uproot every­ thing from root to branch, for this is what happened to anyone who encountered him except for the God of Abraham and PaCHaD Isaac. Jacob had the heavenly power within him by which he salvaged all the wealth of LaVaN (Laban) the Aramean, with the power o f the rods which split through the penetrable place of whiteness that was on the rods.1Therefore: If your sins are like crimson they will be white as snow; if they are as dyed wool they will become like fleece. (Isaiah 1:18) If you will contemplate these principles you will understand the essence of: The trees o f Y H V H drink their fill, the cedars o f Lebanon, His own planting. (Psalm 104:16)

Note 1. For Jacob represents the Middle Line which ascends to the whiteness of KeTeR and defeats the whiteness of Laban.

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Selection 11: The Mystery of Sexuality This reading is taken from the late-thirteenth-century Castilian booklet titled The Holy Letter, traditionally attributed to R. Moses ben Nahman—known as Nahmanides (1194-1270)—one of the major Jewish intellectual figures o f the Middle Ages. Its subject is the ethical and mystical significance o f human sexuality. Chapter 6, which is repro­ duced here, concerns the conditions required for the perfect performance o f intercourse as a sacramentum. Sexuality engaged in under the proper conditions a n d ib r the correct religious reasons is, for the Jewish mystics, the most im portant human form o f unity and unification, representative o f the larger effort to reunify the presently fragmented cosmic order. Human activity is central to the accomplishment o f this metaphysical goal.

Selection 11 Chapter VI: The Fifth Way The Q u a lity o f The A ct I have already acquainted you in these chapters about many matters which can be included in this chapter. “Set me as a seal upon your heart” (Song of Songs 8:6). I begin and tell you that it is well known that a pious and modest person will speak softly, gendy, and calmly. He will never talk arrogandy. W hen he walks, he will do so with head bowed and eyes cast down­ ward. So will his character express itself in other modes o f conduct. The wicked man is just the opposite. Now if you are intelligent you will understand that there are things that are not in themselves disgraceful but become disgraceful among men through deeds. Therefore when you and your wife are engaged in sexual union, do not behave lightheartedly and regard this act as vain, idle, and improper. Certainly, be not lightheaded in the presence o f your wife. Do not speak o f empty things with her, for you know already what our sages have said in the talmudic Tractate Pesahim (correct reading Hagigah 8b). Even for a simple conversation be­ tween man and wife during intercourse, a man must give reckoning in time to come. There­ fore, when engaging in the sex act, you must begin by speaking to her in a manner that will draw her heart to you, calm her spirits, and make her happy. Thus your minds will be bound upon one another as one, and your intention will unite with hers. Speak to her so that your words will provoke desire, love, will, and passion, as well as words leading to reverence for God, piety, and modesty. Tell her how pious and modest women are blessed with upright, honorable, and worthy children, students of Torah, God-fearing, and people o f accomplish­ ment and purity, worthy of the highest crown, masters of the Torah, and having the fear o f God, great and holy men, as was Kimhit (Talmud Yerushalmi Megillah 1:12), who merited having seven sons who served as high priests. And when they asked her, “How is it that you merited this ?” she said to them. “Never did the beams o f my house see my hair.” Ail this story emphasizes all of her virtue, modesty, and purity of deed. Therefore, a husband should speak with his wife with the appropriate words, some o f erotic passion, some words o f fear of the Lord. He must speak with her in the middle o f the night, and close to the last third of the night, as our sages have said in the Tractate Berakot (3a). In the third watch, a woman talks with her husband and the child sucks from the breast

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o f his mother. A man should never force himself upon his wife and never overpower her, for the Divine Spirit never rests upon one whose conjugal relations occur in the absence o f desire, love, and free will. The Shekinah does npt rest there. One should never argue with his wife, and certainly never strike her on account o f sexual matters. The Talmud in Yoma (correcdy, Pesahim 49b) tells us that just as a lion tears at his prey and eats it shamelessly, so does an ig­ norant man shamelessly strike and sleep with his wife. Rather act so that you will warm her heart by speaking to her charming and seductive words. Also speak o f matters that are ap­ propriate and worthy, so that both your intention and hers will be for the sake o f heaven. A man should not have intercourse with his wife while she is asleep, for then they cannot both agree to the act. It is far better, as we have said, to arouse her with words that will placate her and inspire desire in her. To conclude, when you are ready for sexual union, see that your wifes intentions com­ bine with yours. D o no t hurry to arouse her until she is receptive. Be calm, and as you enter the path o f love and will, let her insemination come first, so that her seed be the substance and your seed like the design, as in the verse where it is said, “When a woman has an emission and giveth birth to a male child” (Leviticus 12:2). “And you already know concerning that saint (who uncovered a handbreath and covers a handbreath) whose wife said of him it was as though he were compelled by a demon” (Tractate Nedarim 20b). (Editors note: The terms "lüin and m ix refer respectively to Aristodes notions of matter and forai; for in fertilization the male seed endows the form and the female seed serves as matter [Aristode, On Generation, 11:4].) That is to say that he did not intend solely for the pleasure o f intercourse alone, but he was in his eyes like one who is preoccupied with an avocadon. There was a responsibility put upon him to complete the duty in time. It was a duty imposed upon him to fulfill by virtue o f the commandment concerning “her conjugal rights” (Exodus 21:10). Thus we see how this saindy one intended the highest resolve, and his action was for the sake o f heaven and for the fulfillment o f the commandment. If this is so, o f the matters that I have told you in the prior chapters and in this chapter, you should make analogies from matters which we have not remembered and learn them from matters which we have remembered, and bring all these things together and you will understand how a man should conduct himself in sexual matters with even greater modesty than in such things as eating, drinking, and other matters o f everyday life. For according to the thoughts you have in intercourse, so will the form come upon the seed. This is the secret of, “these are the generations o f Isaac, Abraham s son. Abraham begot Isaac” (Genesis 25:19). After the Lord, blessed be He, informed him that Sarah, his wife, would give birth, “and I will establish my covenant with him for an everlasting covenant for his seed after him” (ibid. 17:19), Abraham concentrated his thought at the time o f union, and his thoughts cleaved to the upper thoughts. Therefore he merited having a son worthy of what was promised to him by God, and this is the meaning o f “Abraham begot Isaac.” And this is “And these are the generations o f Isaac, the son o f Abraham.” And the sages said—a righteous son o f a righteous father— (midrash Genesis Rabbah 63a). And his righteousness reached the place where the Holy One, blessed be He, was able to testify that there was no inner or outer blemish, and therefore, his was a perfect burnt offering. This is the secret of “and offer him there for a burnt

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offering” (Genesis 22:2). And you already know that a defective offering cannot be brought to the altar. Understand this great wonder, that a burnt offering is like the Holy o f Holies. And it needs to be offered for sinful meditations o f the heart (midrash Leviticus Rabbah 7:3) and conscious sins. Therefore, the burnt offering needs skinning, and cutting up, and complete burning by fire (.Zebahim). Isaac was called a perfect burnt offering (midrash Genesis Rabbah 64:3). All this was caused by Abraham of blessed memory, the pure and holy, who at the time of union concentrated on the highest thoughts and brought his attention and con­ ceptions together for the highest. So this matter was practiced by all the othéfr saints, men o f good heart, since their intention was for the fulfillment o f the commandment, and when their thoughts cleaved to upper things in the act o f intercourse, then they gave birth to sons worthy of holiness and purity of diligence. Therefore, the scroll o f Ruth says at the end, “Now these are the generations of Perez: Perez begot Hezron” (Ruth 4:18). And so, until David, all were righteous, all of their thoughts were pure and holy, and not for nought was David se­ lected by the Lord as His servant, but there was a chain o f totally righteous men, one after the other, each one higher than the other, in the image of the ten orders o f the world, in the mys­ tery of the measure of God, in the secret of the ten in which all is embraced and hinted to the tenth sephira which is called kingship. David o f blessed memory merited it and bequeathed it to his son Solomon that which was said, “then Solomon sat on the throne of the Lord” (I Chronicles 29:23), for he ruled celestial and terrestrial beings and lower spheres, and there­ fore, he is called David (Tractate Sanhedrin 20b) for his qualities thus incorporated. For from Perez to David, there were ten levels of a righteous son o f a righteous father. Therefore, exam­ ine the secret that is incorporated in these chapters, and when you practice what I have taught you, I will pledge that you will merit a righteous and saintly son who hallows God s name. May God in His mercy open our eyes to the light o f His Torah, and enable us to per­ ceive the secrets of His Torah, and to bring into the world sons prepared to revere Him and serve Him. Amen. Amen.

Selection 12: Meditation and Other Mystical Techniques Over the centuries Jewish mystics, like their counterparts in other mystical traditions, have employed a variety o f mystical techniques in order to encourage and induce mystical states o f consciousness. Among the techniques they have utilized are: meditation, crying, the repetition o f divine names, the permutation o f Hebrew letters and numbers, and the visualization of colors. Below are eleven selections indicating this fascinating variety o f techniques. The selections are drawn from: (a) R. Hai Gaon, eleventh century; (b) Abraham Abulafia, thirteenth century; (c) R. Alexander Susskind of Grodno, eighteenth century; (d) Abraham Abulafia, thirteenth century; (e) Abraham Abulafia, thirteenth century; (f ) Abraham Abulafia, thirteenth century; (g) Abraham Abulafia, thirteenth century; (h) Midrash, Eccle­ siastes Rabbah\ (i) Anonymous, Perakim be-Halachah, sometimes attributed to R. Moses ben Maimon [Maimonides], late twelfth/early thirteenth centuries; (j) R. Abraham ha-Levi, six­ teenth century; and (k) R. Moses Cordovero, sixteenth century.

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Selection 12(a): Meditation M editation Many scholars thought that one who is distinguished by many qualities described in the books, when he seeks to behold the Merkavah and the palaces of the angels on high, he must follow a certain procedure. He must fast a number o f days and place his head between his knees and whisper many hymns and songs whose texts are known from tradition. Then he perceives within himself and in the chambers [of his heart] as if he saw the seven palaces with his own eyes, and it is as though he entered one palace after another and saw what is there. And there are two mishnayot [texts of the mishnah] which the tannaim [teachers of the mishnah, i.e. upto circa 200 CE.] taught regarding this topic, called the Greater Heikkalot and the Lesser Heikhalot, and this matter is well known and widespread. Regarding these contemplations, the tanna taught: “Four entered Pardes”—those palaces were alluded to by the term Pardes, and they were designated by this name.. . . For G o d .. . shows to the righ­ teous, in their interior, the visions o f his palaces and the position o f his angels.

Selection 12(b): Preparing for Mystical Experience Preparing for Mystical Experience Make yourself ready to meet your God, O Israel. Get ready to turn your heart to God alone, cleanse your body, and choose a special place where none will hear you, and remain alto­ gether by yourself in isolation. Sit in one place in a room, or in the attic, but do not disclose your secret to anybody. If you can do this in the day time in your own home, do [it] even if only a little. But it is best to do it at night. Be careful to withdraw your thoughts from all the vanities o f the world when you are preparing yourself to speak to your Creator, and you want Him to reveal to you His mighty deeds. Robe yourself in your tallit [prayer shawl] and put the tefillin [phylacteries] on your head and hand so that you may feel awed before the shekhinah that is with you at that time, cleanse your garments. If you can, let your garments all be white, for this is a very great aid to experiencing the fear and love for God. If you are doing this at night kindle many lights so that your eyes will see brighdy. Then take in hand pen and ink and a writing board, and this will be your witness that you have come to serve your God in joy and with gladness of heart. Begin to combine letters, a few or many, reverse them and roll them around rapidly until your heart feels warm. Take note of the permutations, and of what emerges in the process. When your heart feels very warm at this process o f combinations and you have understood many new subjects that you had not known through tradition or through your own reason, when you are receptive to the divine influence, and the divine influence has touched you and stirred you to perceptions one after another, get your purified thoughts ready to envision God, praised be He, and His supreme angels. Envision them in your heart as though they were people standing or sitting about you, and you are among them like a messenger whom the king and his ministers wish to send on a mission and he is ready to hear about his mission from the king or his ministers.

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After envisioning all this, prepare your mind and heart to understand mentally the many subjects that the letters conjured up in you, concentrate on ^11 o f them, in all their aspects, like a person who is told a parable or a riddle or a dream or as one who ponders a book of wisdom in a subject so profound as to elude his comprehension which will make you receptive to seek any plausible interpretation possible. All this will happen to you after you will have dropped the writing tablet from your hand and the quill from your finger or they will have fallen away by themselves, because o f the intensity o f your thoughts. And be aware that the stronger the intellectual influx will become in you, your outer and inner organs will weaken and your whole body will be agitated with a mighty agitation to a point where you will think you are going to die at that time, for your soul will separate from your body out o f great joy in having compre­ hended what you have comprehended. You will choose death over life, knowing that this death is for the body alone, and that as a result of it your soul will enjoy eternal life. Then you will know that you have attained the distinction o f being a recipient o f the divine influx, and if you will then wish to honor the glorious Name, to serve H im with the life of body and soul, cover your face and be afraid to look at God, as Moses was told at the burning bush (Ex. 3:5): “Do not draw near, remove the shoes from your feet, for the ground on which you stand is holy.” Then return to your bodily needs, leave that place, eat and drink a litde, breathe in fra­ grant odors, and restore your spirit until another time and be happy with your lot. And know that your God who imparts knowledge to man has bestowed His love on you. When you will become adept in choosing this kind of life, and you will repeat it several times until you will be successftd in it, strengthen yourself, and you will choose another path even higher than this.

Selection 12(c): Meditations on the Morning Service Meditations on the Morning Service My brothers and friends, it is obvious that no urging is required for a man to have proper concentration and burning enthusiasm (hitlahavut) so far as the psalms and praises are con­ cerned. For anyone who understands their meaning the words themselves set his heart on fire. Yet since one only urges devotion on those who are already devout I set myself the task now of hinting at the right kind of intention a man should have when reciting the praises. The wise man will know himself how to apply it to all the rest. A Psalm, A Song at the Dedication of the House of David. According to the Ari [R. Isaac Luria, 16th century] of blessed memory a great tikkun [unification] is performed when this Psalm is recited before [the prayer] Barukh she~Amar. During the recital o f this Psalm a man should have proper intention. For example, when a man has suffered some pain or has been sick, God save us, or when, God forbid, such has happened to a member of his family and, with Gods help, he has been healed, then, when he recites the verse: “I cried unto Thee, and Thou didst heal me,” he should give thanks and offer praise, with full concentration, to the Creator, blessed be He, who has sent him or his family healing from that pain or illness. Take this as a general rule. Whenever a verse speaks o f prayer in the first person singu­ lar, a man, when reciting it, should not have in mind his own self alone but the whole o f Israel. W hen reciting the verse: “O Lord my God, I will give thanks unto Thee for ever” he

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should take it upon himself with the truest resolve and with great joy to offer praises and thanks to the Creator, blessed be He, and that his sons, too, will do likewise since he resolves to train them so to do all their days. . Then he should recite the great hymn o f praise, Barukh she-Amar. A man should set his heart on fire to recite it with full concentration and exceedingly powerful joy, for this great hymn o f praise was composed by the Men of the Great synagogue on the basis o f a missive that fell from heaven, as the Turei Zahav states in Section Fifty One. The holy Zohar describes the great tikkun [unification] this hymn performs in the worlds on high, Zohar section Va-Yakhel, page 215b: “Prayer puts right {tikkun) many things. There are four tikkunim .... The first o f these is the tikkun o f man himself by means of the precepts o f z iz it [fringes on garments] and tefillin [phylacteries], and by reciting the passages dealing with the sacrifices and burnt offerings. The second tikkun is on behalf o f this world in con­ nection w ith the works o f creation. This is performed by praising the Holy One, blessed be He, for each act o f creation separately. For this reason, in the hymn Barukh she-Amar, the word Barukh (“Blessed be H e”) is repeated again and again so as to apply to all creatures. The third tikkun is on behalf o f the world on high with all its hosts and it is performed through the Hallelujah hymns__ The fourth tikkun is provided by the tefillah [the prayer itself], the tikkun o f the mystery o f the holy Name.” Thus far the Zohar in brief. Consequendy, it is proper for every discerning man to recite this great hymn of praise with great deliberation and without haste. As he recites each particular praise beginning with the word Barukh, he should reflect on God s marvelous wisdom and power and give thanks and praise in his thought to the Creator, blessed be He, as the holy Zohar remarks: “So as to apply to all creatures.” He should rejoice exceedingly on His greatness as it is exhibited in the works o f creation, on His great compassion for His creatures, and on the majesty of His divinity for all eternity. This he should have in mind when he recites: “Blessed be He who spoke, and the world came into existence.” W hen he recites: “Blessed be He who made the world at the beginning,” and when he recites: “Blessed be He who speaks and performs,” he should rejoice exceedingly at the greatness of His divinity in which He created the whole of creation merely by His word, as our holy Torah tells us: “And God said”, “And He said”, “And He said”. When he recites: “Blessed be He who hath mercy upon His creatures” a man should also have himself in mind, that God, in His great mercy, bears his sins and is longsuffering to him and he should give thanks in his thought to God for this, for showing mercy to him because o f His great compassion and not because o f his merits. W hen he recites: “Blessed be He who lives for ever, and endures to all eternity” he should rejoice exceedingly at His divinity, enduring for all eternity. He should set his heart on fire with great joy at the greatness of His divinity who endures for ever and so should he continue until he finishes this great hymn of praise. This note is sufficient.

Selection 12(d): The Combination o f Letters The Combination o f Letters And begin by combining this name, namely, YH W H , at the beginning alone, and examine all its combinations and move it and turn it about like a wheel returning around, front and back, like a scroll, and do not let it rest, but when you see its matter strengthened because of

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the great motion, because o f the fear o f confusion o f your imagination and the rolling about o f your thoughts, and when you let it rest, return to it and ask [it] yhtil there shall come to your hand a word of wisdom from it, do not abandon it. Afterwards go on to the second one from it, [the name] Adonay, and ask of it its foundation \yesodo] and it will reveal to you its secret [sodo]. And then you will apprehend its matter in the truth o f its language. Then join and combine the two of them [ Y H W H and Adonay], and study them and ask them, and they will reveal to you the secrets o f wisdom, and afterwards combine this which is, namely, ElSadday, which is tantamount to the Name [ElSadday = 345 = ha-$em], and it will also come in your portion. Afterwards combine [the name] Elohim , and it will also grant you wisdom, and then combine the four of them, and find the miracles o f the Perfect One [i.e., God], which are miracles of wisdom.

Selection 12(e): Breathing Exercises Breathing Exercises One must take each one of the letters [of the Tetragrammaton] and wave it with the move­ ments of his long breath (!) so that one does not breathe between two letters, but rather one long breath, for however long he can stand it, and afterwards rest for the length o f one breath. He shall do the same with each and every letter, until there will be two breaths in each letter: one for pausing when he enunciates the vowel of each letter, and one for resting between each letter. It is known to all that every single breath of ones nostrils is composed o f taking in o f the air from outside, that is, m i-bar le-ga'w [from outside to inside], whose secrets allude to the attribute of Gevurah [strength/power] and its nature, by which a man is known as gibbor [mighty]—that is, the word go!tv b a r [a rearrangement o f the consonants o f the word gibbor]—for his strength by which he conquers his Urge. As in the secret o f abgytz qrstn; with ygl pzq Iqw zyt> composed of the emission of breath from within to outside, and this second composition is from g w to b'r.

Selection 12(f): Breathing Exercises and Hebrew Letters Breathing Exercises & Hebrew Letters W hen he begins to pronounce one letter with a given vocalization, one should remember that it alludes to the secret of the unity, so do not extend it more than the length o f one breath and do not interrupt it during that breath at all until you complete its expression. And extend that [particular] breath in accordance with the strength o f the length o f one breath, as much as you are able to extend it. Do not separate between one breath and the breath o f the letter, but cling to it, whether one long breath or a short one.... But between the letter o f the Name and the Aleph, in the direct ones, or between the Aleph and the letter o f the Name, in the inverted ones, you may take two breaths—no more—without pronouncing anything. At the end o f each column, you may take five breaths, and no more, but you may also breathe less than five breaths.

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Selection 12(g): Shaking o f One s Head Shaking of One’s Head After you begin to pronounce the letter, begin to move your heart and head: your heart by your intellection, because it is an inner [organ], and your head itself, because it is external And move your head in the form of the vowel [-point] of the letter which you are pronouncing. This is the manner o f the form o f the motion: know that the vocalization which is above is called Holam, and that alone is marked above the letter, but the other four vowel sounds are below the letter. And that [vowel] which is above the letter Aleph> which you pronounce with the letter K a f or Qofi do not in the beginning incline your head either to the right or the left, nor below or above at all, but let your head be set evenly, as if it were in a scale [i.e., balanced], in the manner in which you would speak with another person of the same height as yourself, face to face. Thus, when you extend the vowel of the letter in its pronunciation, move your head up towards the heavens, and close your eyes and open your mouth and let your words shine, and dear your throat o f all spitde so that it not interfere with the pronunciation of the letter in your mouth, and in accord with the length o f your breath shall be the upper movement, until you interrupt the breathing together with the movement of your head. And if after uttering [the letter] there is a moment left to com­ plete the breath, do not lower your head until you complete everything.

Selection 12(h): Weeping Weeping One o f the students o f R. Simeon bar Yohai had forgotten what he learned. In tears he went to the cemetery. Because of his great weeping, he [R. Simeon] came to him in a dream and told him: “W hen you wail, throw three bundles, and I shall come.” The student went to a dream interpreter and told him what had happened. The latter said to him: “Repeat your chapter [that is, whatever you learn] three times, and it will come back to you.” The student did so and so indeed it happened.

Selection 12(i): Crying to God Crying to God The one praying shall turn to God, blessed be he, standing on his feet and delighting in his heart and lips [!]. His hands shall be stretched and his vocal organs shall murmur and speak [while] the other limbs tremble and shake; he shall not cease singing sweet melodies, humbling himself, imploring, bowing and prostrating himself [and] weeping, since he is in the presence o f the Great and Majestic King, and [then] he will experience an ecstatic ex­ perience and stupefaction, insofar as he will find his soul in the world of the intellects.

Selection 12(j): Prayers and Tears Prayers and Tears The second condition: in all your prayers, and in every hour of study, in a place which one finds difficult, in which you cannot understand and comprehend the propaedeutic sciences

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or some secret, stir yourself to bitter weeping until your eyes shed tears, and the more you can weep —Jo so. And increase your weeping, as the gates of tears were not closed and the super­ nal gates will be opened to you.

Selection 12(k): Meditation and Colors M editation & Colors It is good and fitting if he wishes to visualize these havvayot [that is, the different vocaliza­ tions o f the Tetragrammaton] according to their color, as then his prayer will be very effec­ tive, on the condition that his [mystical] intention is that there is no other possible way to represent the activity o f a certain attribute [but] the certain [corresponding] color. And as the colors in the gate of colors are many, we shall not discuss here the colors. But when he is interested to direct [his prayer], behold that gate which is before [the eyes] o f the disciple.

Selection 13: Clinging to God— D evekut In medieval and later Kabbalah the ultimate ecstatic moments are o f two different types. The first, and far more common, is called devekut, meaning “clinging” or “cleaving” to God. The term is an ancient one already found in the Bible and rabbinic literature. How­ ever, in the medieval era it took on a particular mystical meaning signifying extreme inti­ macy with or adhesion to the Divine. However, because o f the profound belief in G ods ultimate transcendence and uniqueness, kabbalists, in the main, resisted the still more radical notion of a complete loss o f sense and a full merger with God in a state o f unio mystico, total mystical union. As we shall see in selection 15, there were some kabbalists who did adopt this more dramatic understanding o f the ultimate mystical state, but the majority of Jewish mystics resisted this step. Reproduced here are eight sources that describe the state o f devekut as well as some of its functions and contexts. They are drawn from the following authors: (a) R. Ezra o f Gerona, thirteenth century; (b) R. Menachem Recanati, thirteenth century; (c) R. Menachem Recanati; (d) R. Azriel of Gerona, thirteenth century; (e) Anonymous, The Holy Letter, tradition­ ally attributed to R. Moses ben Nahman [Nahmanides], thirteenth century; (f) R. Meir ibn Gabbay, sixteenth century; (g) R. David ibn Zimra, sixteenth century; and (h) R. Chaim Vital, sixteenth century.

Selection 13(a): Clinging to God Clinging to God The righteous causes his unblemished and pure soul to ascend [until she reaches] the supernal holy soul [and] she [that is, the human soul] unites w ith her [the supernal soul] and knows future things. And this is the manner [in which] the prophet acted, as the evil inclination did not have any dominion over him, to separate him from the supernal soul. Thus, the soul o f the prophet is united w ith the supernal soul in a complete union.

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Selection 13(b) : A Linking o f Souls A Linking o f Souls W hen the pious and the men o f deeds [engaged in a state o f mental] concentration, and were involved in supernal mysteries, they imagined, by the power o f their thought, as if these things were engraved before them, and when they linked their soul to the supernal soul, these things increased and expanded and revealed themselves.... as when he cleaved his soul to the supernal soul, these awesome things were engraved in his heart.

Selection 13(c): Cleaving to the Shechinah Cleaving to the Shechinah Know that, just as the ripe fruit falls from the tree, it no longer needing its connection [to the tree], so is the link between the soul and the body. W hen the soul has attained whatever she is able to attain, she cleaves to the supernal soul, and will remove its raiment o f dust and sever [itself] from its place [that is, the body] and will cleave to the Shekhinah\ and this is [the meaning of] death by the kiss.

Selection 13(d): D evek u t and the Performance o f M itz v o t Devekut and the Performance of M itzvot W hen the priest offers the sacrifice, he attaches his soul to the altar, and his [higher] soul mounts above__ therefore, by the cleaving of the soul above, first the spirit o f man mounts [above]... and returns to its source, whence it was taken... and afterwards it mounts even higher to the place o f its source... like the water which mounts until the level from which it came. And this is the priesdy blessing.... they [the priests] attach their souls above and bless the people [of Israel].

Selection 13(e): D eveku t and Sexual Union Devekut and Sexual Union It is well known to the masters o f Kabbalah that human thought stems from the intellectual soul, which descends from above. And human thought has the ability to strip itself [of alien things] and to ascend and arrive at the place o f its source. Then it unites with the supernal entity, whence it comes and it [the thought] and it [its source] become one entity.... O ur ancient sages stated that when the husband copulates with his wife, and his thought unites with the supernal entities, that very thought draws the supernal light downward, and it [the light] dwells upon that very drop [of semen] upon which he directs his intention and thinks u p o n ... that this very drop is permanendy linked with the brilliant light... as the thought on it [the drop] was linked to the supernal entities, and it draws the brilliant light downward.

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Selection 13 (f): D eveku t and Worship Devekut and Worship The quintessence of the worship of the Kabbalists and those who contemplate his name is “and to him shall you cleave”... and the intent o f [the verse] “and those who contemplate his name,” is to hint to the appropriate [mystical] intention o f the worship, and it [the intention] is that the worshiper ought to contemplate and intend during his worship to unify the great name and join it by its letters and include in it all the [supernal] degrees and u n if y them in his thought, up to lEyin Sof. And the reason that it is said: “and to him shall you cleave” is to hint to thought, which must be free and pure of everything and subdued, cleaving above in an everlasting and forceful cleaving, in order to unify the branches to [their] root without any separation. And thereby will the person who unifies cleave to the great name.

Selection 13(g): Loving Relation with God Loving Relation with God When a person unifies [the Sefirot] with a whole heart and wholehearted intention, then his soul is linked with and made to cleave to the love of God, as it is written, “I have set the Lord before me always, surely he is at my right hand ” Just as I do not forget my right hand, so I do not forget his love, as he is always before me. Know that whoever loves God with a whole­ hearted love causes love above, and the [divine] attributes [turn] their faces to each other with great passion and love.

Selection 13(h): D eveku t and Torah Study Devekut and Torah Study Concerning the study of Torah... all his intention must be to link his soul and bind her to her supernal source by the means of Torah. And his intention must be to achieve thereby the restoration of the supernal antbropos, which is the ultimate intention o f the creation o f man and the goal of the commandment to study Torah.... As when studying Torah man must intend to link his soul and to unite her and make her cleave to her source above... and he must intend thereby to perfect the supernal tree [of Sefirot] and holy antbropos.

Selection 14: Mystical Experience The present selection is taken from an anonymous late-thirteenth-century text. Its special importance lies in the fact that, unusual for kabbalists, it is autobiographical in form. The author appears to have been a student of the great ecstatic Spanish kabbalist, Abraham Abulafia (1240-d. after 1291). Under Abulafias guidance the young student is initiated into wondrous mystical experiences.

Selection 14 I, so and so, one of the lowliest, have probed my heart for ways o f grace to bring about spiritual expansion and I have found three ways o f progress to spiritualization: the vulgar,

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the philosophic, and the Kabbalistic way. The vulgar way is that which, so I learned, is practiced by Moslem ascetics. They employ all manner o f devices to shut out from their souls all ‘natural forms’, every image o f the familiar, natural world. Then, they say, when a spiritual form, an image from the spiritual world, enters their soul, it is isolated in their imagination and intensifies the imagination to such a degree that they can determine be­ forehand that which is to happen to us. Upon inquiry, I learned that they summon the Name, a l l a h , as it is in the language o f Ishmael. I investigated further and I found that, when they pronounce these letters, they direct their thought completely away from every possible ‘natural form’, and the very letters a l l a h and their diverse powers work upon them. They are carried off into a trance w ithout realizing how, since no Kabbalah has been transm itted to them. This removal o f all natural forms and images from the soul is called with them Effacement. “The second way is the philosophic, and the student will experience extreme difficulty in attempting to drive it from his soul because of the great sweetness it holds for the human reason and the completeness with which that reason knows to embrace it. It consists in this: That the student forms a notion o f some science, mathematics for instance, and then pro­ ceeds by analogy to some natural science and then goes on to theology. He then continues further to circle round this centre o f his, because o f the sweetness of that which arises in him as he progresses in these studies. The sweetness o f this so delights him that he finds neither gate nor d o o rto enable him to pass beyond the notions which have already been established in him. At best, he can perhaps enjoy a [contemplative] spinning out o f his thoughts and to this he will abandon himself, retiring into seclusion in order that no one may disturb his thought until it proceed a little beyond the purely philosophic and turn as the flaming sword which turned every way. The true cause o f all this is also to be found in his contemplation of the letters through which, as intermediaries, he ascertains things. The subject which im­ pressed itself on his human reason dominates him and his power seems to him great in all the sciences, seeing that this is natural to him [i.e. thus to ascertain them]. He contends that given things are revealed to him by way o f prophecy, although he does not realize the true cause, but rather thinks that this occurred to him merely because o f the extension and en­ largement o f his human reason... But in reality it is the letters ascertained through thought and imagination, which influence him through their motion and which concentrate his thought on difficult themes, although he is not aware o f this. “But if you put the difficult question to me: ‘Why do we nowadays pronounce letters and move them and try to produce effects with them without however noticing any effect being produced by them?*—the answer lies, as I am going to demonstrate with the help o f Shaddai, in the third way o f inducing spiritualization. And I, the humble so and so, am going to tell you what I experienced in this matter. “Know, friends, that from the beginning I felt a desire to study Torah and learned a litde o f it and o f the rest o f Scripture. But I found no one to guide me in the study of the Talmud, not so much because of the lack of teachers, but rather because o f my longing for my home, and my love for father and mother. At last, however, God gave me strength to search for the Torah, I went out and sought and found, and for several years I stayed abroad studying Talmud. But the flame o f the Torah kept glowing within me, though without my realizing it.

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“I returned to my native land and God brought me together with a Jewish philosopher with whom I studied some of Maimonides* “Guide of the Perplexed^ and this only added to my desire. I acquired a litde of the science of logic and a litde o f natural science, and this was very sweet to me for, as you know, nature attracts nature/ And God is my witness: If I had not previously acquired strength of faith by what litde I had learned o f the Torah and the Talmud, the impulse to keep many o f the religious commands would have left me although the fire o f pure intention was ablaze in my heart. But what this teacher communicated to me in the way o f philosophy [on the meaning o f the commandments], did not suffice me, until the Lord had me meet a godly man, a Kabbalist who taught me the general oudines o f the Kabbalah. Nevertheless, in consequence of my smattering of natural science, the way o f Kabbalah seemed all but impossible to me. It was then that my teacher said to me: ‘My son, why do you deny something you have not tried? Much rather would it befit you to make a trial o f it. If you then should find that it is nothing to you—and if you are not perfect enough to find the fault with yourself—then you may say that there is nothing to it/ But, in order to make things sweet to me until my reason might accept them and I might penetrate into them with eager­ ness, he used always to make me grasp in a natural way everything in which he instructed me. I reasoned thus within myself: There can only be gain here and no loss. I shall see; if I find something in all of this, that is sheer gain; and if not, that which I have already had will still be mine. So I gave in and he taught me the method of the permutations and combinations o f letters and the mysticism of numbers and the other ‘Paths o f the book Yetsirahl In each path he had me wander for two weeks until each form had been engraven in my heart, and so he led me on for four months or so and then ordered me to ‘efface* everything. “He used to tell me: ‘My son, it is not the intention that you come to a stop with some finite or given form, even though it be of the highest order. Much rather is this the “Path o f the Names”: The less understandable they are, the higher their order, until you arrive at the activity of a force which is no longer in your control, but rather your reason and your thought is in its control. I replied: ‘If that be so [that all mental and sense images must be effaced], why then do you, Sir, compose books in which the methods of the natural scientists are cou­ pled with instruction in the holy Names ?* He answered: ‘For you and the likes o f you among the followers of philosophy, to allure your human intellect through natural means, so that perhaps this attraction may cause you to arrive at the knowledge o f the Holy Name/ And he produced books for me made up of [combinations of] letters and names and mystic numbers \Gematrioth\y of which nobody will ever be able to understand anything for they are not composed in a way meant to be understood. He said to me: ‘This is the [undefiled] Path o f the Names/ And indeed, I would see none o f it as my reason did not accept it. He said: ‘It was very stupid of me to have shown them to you/ “In short, after two months had elapsed and my thought had disengaged itself [from everything material] and I had become aware of strange phenomena occurring within me, I set myself the task at night of combining letters with one another and o f pondering over them in philosophical meditation, a little different from the way I do now, and so I continued for three nights without telling him. The third night, after midnight, I nodded off a little, quill in hand and paper on my knees. Then I noticed that the candle was about to go out. I rose to put it right, as oftentimes happens to a person awake. Then I saw that the light continued. I was

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greatly astonished, as though, after close examination, I saw that it issued from myself. I said: *1do not believe it/1 walked to and fro all through the house and, behold, the light is with me; I lay on a couch and covered myself up, and behold, the light is with me all the while. I said: ‘This is truly a great sign and a new phenomenon which I have perceived/ “The next morning I communicated it to my teacher and I brought him the sheets which I had covered with combinations o f letters. He congratulated me and said: ‘My son, if you would devote yourself to combining holy Names, still greater things would happen to you. And now, my son, admit that yoitare unable to bear not combining. Give half to this and half to that, that is, do combinations half of the night, and permutations half o f the night/1 practiced this method for about a week. During the second week the power o f medi­ tation became so strong in me that I could not manage to write down the combinations of letters [which automatically spurted out o f my pen], and if there had been ten people present they would not have been able to write down so many combinations as came to me during the influx. W hen I came to the night in which this power was conferred on me, and midnight— when this power especially expands and gains strength whereas the body weakens—had passed, I set out to take up the Great Name of God, consisting o f seventy-two names, permut­ ing and combining it. But when 1 had done this for a little while, behold, the letters took on in my eyes the shape o f great mountains, strong trembling seized me and I could summon no strength, my hair stood on end, and it was as if I were not in this world. At once I fell down, for I no longer felt the least strength in any o f my limbs. And behold, something resembling speech emerged from my heart and came to my lips and forced them to move. I thought— perhaps this is, God forbid, a spirit o f madness that has entered into me ? But behold, I saw it uttering wisdom. I said: ‘This is indeed the spirit o f wisdom/ After a little while my natural strength returned to me, 1 rose very much impaired and I still did not believe myself. Once more I took up the Name to do with it as before and, behold, it had exacdy the same effect on me. Nevertheless I did not believe until I had tried it four or five times. “W hen I got up in the morning I told my teacher about it. He said to me: ‘And who was it that allowed you to touch the Name ? Did I not tell you to permute only letters ?*He spoke on: ‘W hat happened to you, represents indeed a high stage among the prophetic degrees/ He wanted to free me o f it for he saw that my face had changed. But I said to him: ‘In heavens name, can you perhaps impart to me some power to enable me to bear this force emerging from my heart and to receive influx from it ?’ For I wanted to draw this force towards me and receive influx from it, for it much resembles a spring filling a great basin with water. If a man [not being properly prepared for it] should open the dam, he would be drowned in its waters and his soul would desert him. He said to me: ‘My son, it is the Lord who must bestow such power upon you for such power is not within man s control.” “That Sabbath night also the power was active in me in the same way. When, after two sleepless nights, I had passed day and night in meditating on the permutations or on the principles essential to a recognition of this true reality and to the annihilation o f all extrane­ ous thought—then I had two signs by which I knew that I was in the right receptive mood. The one sign was the intensification o f natural thought on very profound objects o f knowl­ edge, a debility o f the body and strengthening of the soul until I sat there, my self all soul. The second sign was that imagination grew strong within me and it seemed as though my forehead

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were going to burst. Then I knew that I was ready to receive the Name. I also that Sabbath night ventured at the great ineffable Name o f God [the name JH W H ]. $ u t immediately that I touched it, it weakened me and a voice issued from me saying: ‘Thou shalt surely die and not live! W ho brought thee to touch the Great Name ?*And behold, immediately I fell prone and implored the Lord God saying: ‘Lord of the universe! I entered into this place only for the sake o f Heaven, as Thy glory knoweth. W hat is my sin and what my transgression? I en­ tered only to know Thee, for has not David already commanded Solomon: Know the God o f thy father and serve Him; and has not our master Moses, peace be upon him, revealed this to us in the Torah saying: Show me now Thy way, that I may know Thee, that I may there find grace in Thy sight?* And behold, I was still speaking and oil like the oil o f the anointment anointed me from head to foot and very great joy seized me which for its spirituality and the sweetness of its rapture I cannot describe. “All this happened to your servant in his beginnings. And I do not, God forbid, relate this account from boastfulness in order to be thought great in the eyes o f the mob, for I know frill well that greatness with the mob is deficiency and inferiority with those searching for the true rank which differs from it in genus and in species as light from darkness. “Now, if some of our own philosophizers, sons o f our people who feel themselves at­ tracted towards the naturalistic way of knowledge and whose intellectual power in regard to the mysteries of the Torah is very weak, read this, they will laugh at me and say: See how he tries to attract our reason with windy talk and tales, with fanciful imaginations which have muddled his mind and which he takes at their face value because o f his weak mental hold on natural science. Should however Kabbalists see this, such as have some grasp o f this subject or even better such as have had things divulged to them in experiences o f their own, they will rejoice and my words will win their favor. But their difficulty will be that I have disclosed all of this in detail. Nevertheless, God is my witness that my intention is in majorem deigloriam and I would wish that every single one o f our holy nation were even more excellent herein and purer than I. Perhaps it would then be possible to reveal things o f which I do not as yet know .. .As for me, I cannot bear not to give generously to others what God has bestowed upon me. But since for this science there is no naturalistic evidence, its premises being as spiritual as are its inferences, I was forced to tell this story o f the experience that befell me. Indeed, there is no proof in this science except experience itself... That is why I say, to the man who contests this padi, that I can give him an experimental proof, namely, my own evi­ dence of the spiritual results of my own experiences in the science o f letters according to the book Yetsirah. I did not, to be sure, experience the corporeal [magic] effects [of such prac­ tices] ; and even granting the possibility of such a form o f experience, I for my part want none of it, for it is an inferior form, especially when measured by the perfection which the soul can attain spiritually. Indeed, it seems to me that he who attempts to secure these [magic] effects desecrates God*s name, and it is this that our teachers hint at when they say: Since license prevailed, the name of God has been taught only to the most reticent priests. “The third is the Kabbalistic way. It consists o f an amalgamation in the soul o f man o f the principles of mathematical and of natural science, after he has first studied the literal meanings of the Torah and of the faith, in order thus through keen dialectics to train his mind and not in the manner of a simpleton to believe in everything. O f all this he stands in

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need only because he is held captive by the world of nature. For it is not seemly that a rational being held captive in prison should not search out every means, a hole or a small fissure, of escape. If today we had a prophet who showed us a mechanism for sharpening the natural reason and for discovering there subtle forms by which to divest ourselves o f corporeality, we should not need all these natural sciences in addition to our Kabbalah which is derived from the basic principles or heads o f chapters of the book Yetsirah concerning the letters [and their combinations]... For the prophet would impart to us the secrets of the combination o f con­ sonants and o f the combination o f voxels between them, the paths by which the secret and active powers emanate, and the reason that this emanation is sometimes hindered from above... All this he would convey to us direedy whereas now we are forced to take circuitous routes and to move about restrainedly and go out and come in on the change that God may confront us. For as a matter of fact every attainment in this science o f Kabbalah looked at from its point of view is only a chance, even though, for us, it be the very essence o f our being. “This Kabbalistic way, or method, consists, first o f all, in the cleansing o f the body itself, for the bodily is symbolic of the spiritual. Next in the order of ascent is the cleansing of your bodily disposition and your spiritual propensities, especially that of anger, or your concern for anything whatsoever except the Name itself, be it even the care for your only beloved son; and this is the secret o f the Scripture that ‘God tried Abraham.’ A further step in the order of ascent is the cleansing o f ones soul from all other sciences which one has studied. The reason for this is that being naturalistic and limited, they contaminate the soul, and obstruct the passage through it o f the divine forms. These forms are extremely subde; and though even a minor form is something innately great in comparison with the naturalistic and the rational, it is nevertheless an unclean, thick veil in comparison with the subdety o f the spirit. O n this account seclusion in a separate house is prescribed, and if this be a house in which no [out­ side] noise can be heard, the better. At the beginning it is advisable to decorate the house with fresh greens in order to cheer the vegetable soul which a man possesses side by side with his animal soul. Next, one should pray and sing psalms in a pleasant melodious voice, and [read] the Torah with fervor, in order to cheer the animal soul which a man possesses side by side with his rational soul. Next, one directs his imagination to intelligible things and to un­ derstanding how one thing proceeds from another. Next, one proceeds to the moving o f let­ ters which [in their combinations] are unintelligible, thus to detach the soul [from the senses] and to cleanse it o f all the forms formerly within it. In the same way one proceeds with the improvement o f his [bodily] matter by meat and drink, and improves it [the body] by de­ grees. As to the moving o f letters we shall deal with some methods in the chapter ‘Letters.’ Next, one reaches the stage o f skipping’ as Scripture says, ‘and his banner over me was love.* It consists o f one’s meditating, after all operations with the letters are over, on the essence of one’s thought, and o f abstracting from it every word, be it connected with a notion or not. In the performance o f this skipping’ one must put the consonants which one is combining into a swift motion. This motion heats the thinking and so increases joy and desire, that craving for food and sleep or anything else is annihilated. In abstracting words from thought during contemplation, you force yourself so that you pass beyond the control of your natural mind and if you desire not to think, you cannot carry out your desire. You then guide your thinking

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step by step, first by means of script and language and then"by means o f imagination. When, however, you pass beyond the control o f your thinking, another exercise becomes necessary which consists in drawing thought gradually forth—during contemplation—from its source until through sheer force that stage is reached where you do not speak nor can you speak. And if sufficient strength remains to force oneself even further and draw it out still farther, then that which is within will manifest itself without, and through the power o f sheer imagi­ nation will take on the form of a polished mirror. And this is ‘the flame o f the circling sword, the rear revolving and becoming the fore. Whereupon one sees that his inmost being is some­ thing outside of himself. Such was the way of the Urim and Tummim, the priests oracle o f the Torah, in which, too, at first the letters shine from inside and the message they convey is not an immediate one nor arranged in order, but results only from the right combination of the letters. For a form, detached from its essence, is defective until it clothe itself in a form which can be conceived by imagination, and in this imaginable form the letters enter into a complete, orderly and understandable combination. And it seems to me that it is this form which the Kabbalists call clothing*, malbush.**

Selection 15: Mystical Union The ultimate state of mystical ascent in many mystical traditions is known as the mystical union (unio mystico). This represents the merging of the mystical adept into the Divine or Ultimate and is usually understood as involving a total loss o f self-identity. In kabbalistic tradition there is a great deal of resistance to the idea because it seems to threaten God’s ab­ solute transcendence and uniqueness. However, some Jewish mystics—Abraham Abulafia (thirteenth century) among medieval figures and R. Schneur Zalman o f Liadi (late eigh­ teenth to early nineteenth century) among modern adepts foremost among them—did em­ brace this idea and saw it as the ultimate mystical state. Included here are five selections from various authors and periods that hold to this idea as representing the ultimate mystical experience. These include material taken from: (a) Abraham Abulafia, thirteenth century; (b) R. Isaac of Acre, late thirteenth century to early fourteenth century); (c) R. Levi Yitzchak of Berditchev, eighteenth century; (d) R. Schneur Zalman of Liadi, late eighteenth to early nineteenth century; and (e) R. Nachman o f Bratzlav, nineteenth century.

Selection 15(a): Intellectual Mystical Union Intellectual Mystical Union This science [of mystical combination] is an instrument which leads nearer to prophecy than any other discipline of learning. A man who gains his understanding of the essentials of reality from books is called Hakham, a scholar. If he obtains it from the Kabbalah, that is to say from one who has himself obtained it from the contemplation o f the divine names or from another Kabbalist, then he is called M evin, that is, one who has insight, but if his understanding is de­ rived from his own heart, from reflecting upon what he knows o f reality, then he is called Daatan, that is, a gnostic. He whose understanding is such as to combine all three, to wit, scholarly erudition, insight obtained from a genuine Kabbalist, and wisdom from reflecting

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deeply upon things, o f him I am not indeed going to say that he deserves to be called a prophet, especially if he has not yet been touched by the pure intellect, or if touched [that is to say, in ecstasy] does not yet know by whom. If, however, he has felt the divine touch and perceived its nature, it seems right and proper to me and to every perfected man that he should be called master*, because his name is like the Name of his Master, be it only in one, or in many, or in all o f His Names. For now he is no longer separated from his Master, and behold he is his Master and his Master is he; for he is so intimately adhering to Him [it is here that the term Devekuth is used], that he cannot by any means be separated from Him, for he is H e ___ And just as his Master, who is detached from all matter, is called Sekhel, M askil and Muskal, that is the knowl­ edge, the knower and the known, all at the same time, since all three are one in Him, so also he, the exalted man, the master of the exalted name, is called intellect, while he is actually know­ ing; then he is also the known, like his Master; and then there is no difference between them, except that his Master has His supreme rank by His own right and not derived from other creatures, while he is elevated to his rank by the intermediary of creatures.”

Selection 15 (b) : Loss o f Self Loss o f Self [Thus, for example, we learn from R. Isaac of Acre that the mystical significance of the bibli­ cal phrase describing God as “a devouring fire” is the “eating”, referring to] that thing which is swallowed by another. “And he cleaves to his wife [and they become] one flesh.” W hen the pious mystic causes his soul to ascend [in order] to cleave in an appropriate cleaving to the divine mystery to which she [the soul] cleaves, [the Divinity] swallows her. And this is the secret meaning of [the verse], “but they shall not come to see when the holy things are covered [literally, swallowed] lest they die.”

Selection 15 (c) : The Annihilation o f Selfhood The Annihilation o f Selfhood W hen the Zaddik cleaves to the nought, and is [then] annihilated, then [alone] he worships the Creator from the aspect of all the Zaddikim , since no division of the attributes is discern­ ible there at a ll.... There is a Zaddik who cleaves to the nought and nevertheless returns af­ terward to his essence. But Moses our master, blessed be his memory, was annihilated all the time since he was constandy contemplating the grandeur of the Creator, blessed be he, and did not return to his essence at all, as it is well known, since Moses our master, blessed be his memory, was constandy cleaving to the nought, and from this aspect he was annihi­ lated. ... Since when he contemplates the Creator, blessed be he, then there is no essence in him, since he is annihilated... he contemplated the nought and was annihilated.... and Moses was constandy cleaving to the nought.

Selection 15(d): Reunification o f the Self and God Reunification o f the Self and God To elucidate still further, it is necessary to clarify the meaning o f the verse, “The candle of God is the soul (neshamah) o f man.” W hat it means is that the souls o f Jews, who are called

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“man,” are, by way o f illustration, like the flame o f the candle, whose nature it is always to scintillate upwards, for the flame o f the fire intrinsically seeks to be parted from the wick in order to unite with its source above, in the universal element of fire which is in the sublunar sphere, as is explained in E tz Chayim. And although it would thereby be extinguished and emit no light at all below, and even above, in its source, its light would be nullified, neverthe­ less this is what it seeks in accordance with its nature. In like manner does the neshamah of man, including the quality o f mach and nefesh, naturally desire and yearn to separate itself and depart from the body in order io unite with its origin and source in God, the fountain-head of all life, blessed be He, though thereby it would become null and void, completely losing its entity therein, with nothing remaining of its former essence and being. Nevertheless, this is its will and desire by its nature.

Selection 15 (e) : Unto M ystico , Torah, and Mitzvot Unto MysticoyTorah, and Mitzvot. The main purpose of the creation of the world was for the sake o f Israel, [namely] so that they will perform His will and will return and cleave to their root, namely, so that they will return and integrate in Him, blessed be He, who is the Necessary Being. And for this everything was created. Consequendy, inasmuch as Israel are performing the will o f the High and are integrated in their ro o t. . . thereby the entire world is integrated___ However, in order to merit to be integrated in the root, namely, to return and be integrated in the unity o f God, blessed be He, who is the Necessary Being, you do not merit it save by the annihilation by which someone completely annihilates himself until he becomes integrated in His unity, blessed be He. And it is impossible to attain annihilation but by the means o f seclusion.

Selection 16: Mystical Actions That Create Mystical Experience R. Yehudah Albotini s Sefer Sullam ha-Aliyah was composed in Jerusalem in the sixteenth century. It is one of the most important summaries of ecstatic Kabbalah, bringing together in one work themes and passages from a variety of earlier mystical texts. Like most ecstatic kabbalistic sources it emphasizes the achievement o f personal mystical experience through the performance of specific mystical actions, particularly the combination and permutation o f Hebrew letters and Divine Names.

Selection 16 Pronouncing the Divine Names and Meeting God When one finally is integrated in Eyn S o f his Torah is the Torah o f God Himself, and his prayer is the Prayer of God Himself.... We thus find that there exists a Torah o f God and a prayer o f God. W hen a person merits to be integrated in Eyn S o f his Torah and prayer are those of God Himself... Thus for the secret of the permutation o f this Name, know that the four general “mentionings” [hazkarot] which I have written down are joindy [compounded] o f the aforemen-

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tioned Ineffable Name and the letter ALEPH which, as mentioned earlier, is not part o f the Name [itself] but points to the secret o f [true] unity. I did not write out the abovementioned permutation with the halves o f the very Name itself [which would be] with YH and finally with VH, although it would be proper to transmute and permute it in this manner, so that the secret not be revealed to the masses in sensible form. Rather, I have left the matter hinted at to the enlightened ones. They will become radiant and will understand that, as I drew out the four forms from the four letters of the Name ADONAY, permuted above forwards and backwards, two Utters by two, just so is the form, also from the very same vowel-sounds, for each half of the Ineffable Name, forwards and backwards thus: YH, H Y and VH, HV. There is another thing which remains concerning which I might inform you to com­ plete the secret o f the “intention” o f the aforementioned “mentioning” as follows: W hen you want to “mention” the first, revered Name ADONAY, or to “mention” the Ineffable Name o f Four Letters either with the permutation of [the added] ALEPH as illustrated above or with half o f the Tetragrammaton as I hinted at above, according to the above-mentioned se­ quence o f vowel-sounds, it is fitting that, first, you dress yourself decoratively and that you isolate yourself in a special place where no one can hear your voice. Then, purify your heart, soul, and thought from all thoughts of this world and think that now your soul is going to separate itself from your body, that you will die to this world and be alive in the supernal world, which is the source o f life and [which is] the simple, spiritual Intelligence o f which all stand in awe—an awe of height and glory, and an awe of love. W hen your knowledge and intellect come to adhere to His knowledge (which, in turn, gives you your knowledge and intellect), your knowledge must remove from within it the yoke of all other knowledge o f all other subjects. [Your knowledge must preserve] only that knowledge which is common to you and to Him according to His revered and awesome Name. W hen you wish to begin “mentioning” [this Name], set your face toward the East, for from there light goes forth to the world. Put on clean, washed, white clothing; wrap yourself in your prayer-shawl; and put phylacteries on your head and arm. Then begin to “mention” the Name, enunciating it in this manner: W hen you “mention” the letter ALEPH with whatever vocalization, it being a pointer toward the secret of unity, do not prolong [the pronunciation of the vowel-sound] more than for the length o f one breath, without allowing any-size stop at all, until you complete its pro­ nunciation. And prolong that particular breath as long as you are able to prolong one breath. Raise your voice a litde in melody with a sweet tone and pleasing pronunciation, when you “mention” the aforementioned letter [i.e., ALEPH] or any o f the other letters o f the Name which you are “mentioning,” with joy o f soul and a good heart. Move your head with it [i.e., the vowel-sound], the form of the “movement” being the shape of the vowel-sound o f the letter, as I have instructed you, such that you complete the movement o f the head o f the above-mentioned vowel-sound together with the completion o f the recitation o f the pronun­ ciation o f the letter, as I explained above. Know that you are permitted to stop and to take, between the completion o f the recita­ tion o f the ALEPH and the letter after it and similarly, between any [two] letters, only one short or long breath which you breathe between them. Then you must immediately return to

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“mention” the second letter which is adjacent to it and comès aftej: it. But between each name o f the aforementioned two letters [i.e., after each two-syllable unit], whether it be in the forward or backward [arrangement], for example between ’D and *D or between D* and D* o f the Name ’DNY or between ’Y and *Y or between Y* and Y’ o f the aforementioned [ex­ panded form of the] Tetragrammaton, you may take only two breaths, no more, and you may not speak or think of anything. Do not let your attention be distracted from the matter you are occupied with. At the completion of each row o f names [i.e., after five two-syllable units] as formed above, you may take five breaths only, no more, although you may take less. If you make a mistake in the “mentioning” o f one o f these rows, go back to the beginning o f that row until you say it properly and in order. Furthermore, between the block of [*]Y and that o f [*]H or between the block o f [’]H and that of [*]V or between that o f [*]V and that o f the final [*]H of the [“transformed”] Tetragrammaton [i.e., after each block o f fifty names], you may take twenty-five breaths, no more than this, on the condition that you not break [the breathing and concentration] with speech or thought as I have warned you. If you wish to take less than twenty-five breaths, you may. You can see from that which I have written that the letter is something like matter, while the vowel-sound is something like form and spirit, which give motion to matter. And the comprehension of the moving [agent] and of that which is moved, as mentioned above, is the [Agent] Intelligence. It is called “Agent” because it “works” [“causes to act”] in the above-mentioned form and matter. Furthermore, the pleasure that he who comprehends re­ ceives in that which he comprehends is called the final [cause]. These, then, are the four causes: the material, the formal, the active [agent], and the final. The least o f them is the ma­ terial; the greatest and most elevated of them is the final; the active is close to the final, and the formal is close to the material. Now that we have come this far, it is proper for us to write a warning which has been issued by the greatest of the scholars and Kabbalists concerning the “mentioning” o f Names, to wit: that it is proper and [indeed] obligatory upon every being bom o f woman not to make use of the crown of His kingdom. Similarly, the Sages, may their memory be a blessing, have warned us, “He who pronounces the [Ineffable] Name according to its letters [has no share] in the World-to-Come,” and, a fortiori, if sanctification o f the Supernal Name [is in­ tended]. Similarly, they warned us [that] Rabbi Hananiah ben Teradyon used to pronounce the Name in holiness and purity [in order] to learn, to teach, and to understand His ways, may He be praised, and not in order to use it, and nevertheless he was punished. W hat, then, can we who are poor, impoverished, and lacking in heart and knowledge do? Do you not know that the Sages, may their memory be a blessing, possessed a true tradition from the prophets concerning the holy Names, for example [concerning] the Name of Seventy-Two [letters] and the Name o f Forty-Two [letters], as it is said in [the Talmud] Kiddushin, [and yet] they transmitted it only very rarely [and only] to a worthy and fitting person? Similarly, they were expert in the knowledge o f the other Names, [for example] the Name of Twelve [letters, and they knew] the permutation o f the Name o f Four [letters] which is the source and fountain for all the other Names and tides [and which is the source] of the entire Torah. So much so that they had the power to innovate signs and wonders with them [i.e., the Names], and with them they could create a new heaven and a

Jewish Mysticism

new earth, as [indeed] they, may their memories be a blessing, testified o f Bezalel that he knew how to permute letters by which the heavens and the earth were created. Yet they never used them [i.e., the Names] for their own needs, only for an exceptional and great need, for example to sanctify God, may He be praised, in public and to save all Israel from severe decrees, as Moses, peace be upon him, stepped into the gap before Him to turn His anger from destruction. I mean to say that Moses, our Rabbi, saw the place o f the gap and [saw] the destruction that was to come to destroy Israel, as it is written [Ps. 106:23], “And H e had said H e would destroy theip, had it not been for Moses, His chosen one, who stepped into the gap,” and [who], with the power o f the Names o f the Holy One, blessed be He, which he “mentioned” in his prayer, “turned His anger and wrath back to their place,” lest they go forth to swallow, to destroy, and to annihilate the people o f Israel. And even this, one is not permitted to do until after one knows (first) that the will o f the Holy One, blessed be He, is such. Know that the Ten Martyrs could have saved themselves, and that they did not want [to die] until they [had] asked God. They [i.e„ the angels] replied from behind the [heavenly] curtain to Rabbi Yishmael, the High Priest, that they [i.e., the Ten Martyrs] were trapped in this, and then they martyred themselves. And who was greater than the craftsmen and smiths who went into exile with Jehoiachim, the King o f Judah, during First Temple [times], and how many great teachers were there at the destruction o f the Second Temple who could have saved Israel,-Jerusalem, and the Temple from the hands of Nebuchadnezzar and Titus by their knowledge of, and “mentioning” of, the revered and awesome Name? Yet when they saw that it was the will o f God, may He be praised, that the respective destructions [take place] in order to collect the debt of those who had rebelled against Him and His Torah, and who had rejected and refused to walk in the way o f His statutes and judgments, they kept silent and responded no more. It is now clear to you that even for so great a thing as the saving o f Israel, Jerusalem, and the Temple, [even] to keep the Shekhina from going into Exile, those righteous and pious men did not wish to use the Names o f the Praised One, for they knew that it was not His Will, may He be praised, that it be so. For otherwise He, may He be praised, would never collect the debt o f the wicked. This is hinted at in the verse, “I adjure you, daughters of Jerusalem, not to awaken or to arouse the love...” [Song o f Songs 3:5] that even [concerning] the arousal o f the coming o f the Messiah, which is also a great, excep­ tional, and necessary matter for all the worlds, He has adjured the Sages and the righteous who know the secret o f the Names o f the Holy One, blessed be He, not to arouse this matter until they know that the will and desire o f God, may He be praised, is that it be so. It is, therefore, fitting for anyone who draws near to this “Holy Work,” after he has done all the fitting preparations that will be explained in the next chapter, and after he has attained the degree o f “isolatedness” in the supernal [world], that he ask—and he will be answered yes when that is the answer, and no when that is the answer—concerning that which is true, modest, and just. Then he must ask [further], examine, and try to comprehend by means of a question—whether in a dream [state] or awake—whether he is permitted by heaven to “men­ tion” the holy Names o f the Holy One, blessed be He. And when he knows that it is His will, may He be praised, that it be so, then he may enter the Paradise o f the “mentioning” o f the aforementioned holy Names, after he has attained knowledge and understanding o f the

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matter of the [true] existence of each Name, of the [true] intent o f the essence o f each Name, and of that to which it points, for this is that which will bring him tak n o w and to recognize the grandeur of Him W ho spoke and the world came into being. He will then be terrified, overawed before Him, and he will yearn, long, and passionately desire to adhere to Him, may He be praised, from within the knowledge o f His Names. He will then be near to God, may He be praised. His prayer will be accepted, and o f him one can recite the verse, “I exalt him because he has known My Name” [Ps. 91:14]. The verse does not say “because he mentions’ My Name” but “because he has ‘known* [My Name].” Learn from this that “knowing” the Names—their [true] existence, their essence, and their intent—is the principal matter. For after knowing this, with a litde intellectual reflection upon them in thought only, without “mentioning” them, then, when he needs to do any “work” with the will o f God, may He be praised, for His service or to sanctify His Name, then they will answer him immediately from heaven, as it is said, “He calls upon Me and I answer him” [Ps. 91:15], and it is written, “Before they call, I shall answer” [Isa. 65:24]. I mean to say that they will answer him even because of the thought he thinks and the concentration he has on the Name without his having “mentioned” it. And if he still must “mention” it, then the principles and matters we have written in this short work will be o f help to him. And it is fitting that he know this, for this is a great principle and root in this matter. Know it. T H E T E N T H CH A PTER on the explanation o f the Ways o f seclusion {hitbodedut) and adhesion ( and forbearance (tasabbur), which is the last station o f novices. Then come patience (sabr), satisfaction (ridd), total sincerity (ikhlds), trust in God (tawakkul)— 50. The states (ahwdl) and their definition. Junayd defined W a s a form o f inspiration which comes down to the heart but does not stay in it permanendy. A list of the states: attentive

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observation (muräqabd), nearness (qurb), love (imahabba), hope (raja), fear (khaw f), diffi­ dence (baya). The last four are considered to result from the state o f nearness, because, while in the latter state, some people are overcome by fear and diffidence and others by love and hope. Then come yearning (shawq), intimacy (uns), serenity (tum am na), certainty (yaqin), and the experience o f vision (mushahada), which is the last o f the states. Then come various forms o f divine inspiration: signs (faw âtih ),19appearances o f light, and graces, all o f which are ineffable. 51. The ways vary, but the goal is one. The ways vary because o f the variation in the states and stations of those who follow them. Various possible ways are listed: worship, selfdiscipline, solitude and retirement, wandering and being remote from ones home, service to the brethren, self-mortification, and engagement in rhcahwdl, forfeiture o f ones social stand­ ing, [recognizing ones] weakness and failure, learning and inquiry. In any one o f these ways one should have an instructor and guide in order to be protected from perplexity and temptation. 54. Sufi ethics in conversation (muhdwara).20 Their purpose in conversation should be to offer advice and guidance and whatever can benefit other people. The Sufi should speak to people according to their intellectual capacity. (A saying o f the Prophet on the latter point.) The novice should not speak on any question unless he is asked about it, and his answer should be suited to [the understanding of] the interrogator. (A saying o f Junayd on this subject.) 55. The novice should ask only questions pertaining to his station. 57. The merit o f speech and silence on different occasions. Junayd and Ruwaym dis­ agreed on the question o f preaching Sufism before the uninitiated (,al-am ma); Junayd as­ serted that it was worthwhile whereas Ruwaym argued that it was o f no avaiL Junayd rebuked Shibli for pronouncing the word alldh on a certain occasion, and another time he rebuked him for asking a question. As for the ecstatic utterances (shathiyydt) quoted from Abü Yazld [al-Bistâmï] and others, these were uttered under the compulsion of hdl and the power o f intoxication, and so they should be neither accepted nor rejected. 61. The rules concerning the stage of beginning. The first thing that the m urid should do after awakening from the state of carelessness (ghafla) is to go to a Sufi shaykh who will guide him to the Sufi way and teach him his rights and obligations. 62. The most appropriate thing for the m urid is to choose only pure food, drink, and clothes, for thus he will enhance his inner state. 63. The next thing is to fulfil the religious duties which he has neglected, and to cor­ rect wrongs which he did to people. (A saying o f the Prophet on the above point.) For physical injury [which he caused in the past] he should be punished by retaliation, and for verbal abuses he should ask forgiveness from those whom he wronged. H e should then recognize the lower soul (nafs) and discipline it by exercises, hardship, fasting, prayers, and vigils. 64. O n repentance (tawba). He will then be one of the repenters who merit the love of Allah (Quran 2:222 quoted). A saying o f the Prophet: “The repenter is the beloved o f God.” The repenter is one o f those whose evil acts God will change into good ones.21

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65. He should then adhere to moral scrupulosity (ward) in all circumstances and he should know that God takes everything into account. 66. W hen the m urid properly achieves the stations o f repentance and scrupulosity and begins the station o f renunciation (zubd), then comes the time for him to wear the patched frock (muraqqaa) if he aspires to it. He should observe all necessary observances attached to the wearing o f the muraqqaa. Wearing the muraqqaa should not be taken lighdy. The wearer o f muraqqaa should have disciplined his soul by the rules and have tamed it, and he should have passed the stations. Whoever is not thus qualified should not aspire to the rank o f shaykh or murid, 67. O n self-examination. The m urid should recognize his own faults and know how to remove them. He should control his soul by exertions and by examination o f conscience. He should reveal his inner state to his shaykh and constandy ask for his instruedon and advice. 68. The m urid should follow the stations (maqâmât) according to their order, and he should not move from one stadon to another before he has properly accomplished its rules (âdâb), for example, he should occupy himself with the station of zuhd only when he has completed that o f warn. He should follow this course until the acdons reach into the heart. One o f the Sufis said, “It is nobler to engage in the movements o f the heart than to perform outward acts [of worship].” 69. The novice should be heedful o f each moment. He should be constandy occupied outwardly with supererogatory devodons and inwardly by aspiration, until inspiradon de­ scends upon him. 70. To redder service to his brethren is more valuable for the novice than to be engaged in supererogatory prayers. 71. The m urid should not leave his shaykh before the eye o f his heart opens. The distinc­ tive mark o f the m urid is “to listen and obey.” Distinctive symptoms are suggested so as to recognize falseness on the part o f m uridt mutawassit, and arif, Junayd said: “But for the dis­ tinctive marks, everyone would have claimed to be pursuing the Sufi way.” 72. He should know that maqamt hdl, or any act of worship can be accomplished only by sincerity, namely by keeping it pure from any ostentation (a saying o f the Prophet on this).22 However, if his acts of worship and ahwdl become publicly known without any osten­ tatious intention on his part, then this should give no cause for blame. Sincerity can be achieved only by recognizing the worthlessness of mankind. 73. The m urid should strive to watch his lower soul (nafs) attentively and recognize its qualities because it is the nafs that commands evil. The Prophet used to seek refuge in God from the nafs, 74. Nafs (the lower soul) is an opposite to God. Nafs makes the same demands o f obe­ dience and admiration on man as does God. It is a “delicate matter” lodged within this mold [of the body]. The soul is the substratum of blameworthy qualities. The spirit (rüh) is the mine o f good and the soul is the mine o f evil. The intellect is the army o f the spirit, and success which is granted by Allah is its reinforcement. Capricious desire is the army o f the soul, and failure is its reinforcement.23 76. The ethics (ädäb) o f companionship (,suhba). It is better to sit alone than with an evil companion, and it is better to sit with a worthy companion than to sit alone. Abü Hafs

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al-Nïsâbüri on the rules o f companionship among the Sufis: to respect the shaykhs, to have intimate friendship with their peers, to give advice to younger people, not to associate with people who are not o f their kind, to act with altruism (ïthâr)> 'not to accumulate property, and to extend their help to others. ' ' 77. The Sufi should associate with people of his kind and those from whom he can benefit. “The man most worthy o f your company is he who agrees with your religious beliefe and before whom you are ashamed [for your faults].” He should not associate with people who are opposed to his religious affiliation even if they are related to him. He should associate with those in whom he has confidence as regards their religion and trustworthiness. 78. The Sufi should undertake to serve his brethren and companions (khidm at alikhwân)1Aand help them in obtaining their sustenance. He should endure their offense and should not rebuke them unless they transgress the law. He should recognize the value o f every man. Sufyân b. ‘Uyayna said: “Whoever is ignorant o f the value o f other people is more ignorant o f his own value.” He also said: “Only he who has no value whatsoever belittles the value of other people.” He should correct the faults o f his companion and try to guide him to the right way. The Prophet said: “One believer is the mirror of the other.” ‘Umar said: “Blessed be the man who would indicate my faults to me.” 79. His association with each person should be according to his state and what is ap­ propriate for him: with shaykhs and seniors—with respect and service; with ones peers— with cheerfulness, informality, agreement, kindness, and spontaneity. 80. He should not flatter his fellows in what is contrary to the religious requirements. He should acquiesce in the truth; an example cited: ‘Umar accepted the criticism o f al-’A bbas b. ‘A bd al-Muttalib. 81. Companionship with the young—with compassion, guidance, and instruction. He should warn them when necessary. God reproved the Rabbis for not warning their people (Quran 5:63 quoted). 82. Companionship with the master (ustädh) is by obedience, so it is not really com­ panionship but service. Complete obedience and respect toward the master are required. The master in the midst o f his followers is like the prophet in the midst o f his community. Junayd once answered a question o f one o f his disciples and the latter expressed objection to the answer; Junayd then said, “If you do not believe in my words, dissociate yourselves from me.”25 He should behave toward the shaykh like the Companions with the Prophet in follow­ ing the ethics o f the Quran. (Quran 49:1,49:2, and 24:63 quoted.) 86. Companionship with ones wife and children should be with compassion. One should instruct them in right conduct. Commentary o f Quran 66:6, “Instruct them and teach them and thereby protect them from Hell.” In particular, one should behave with his wife according to the rule o f God (Quran 2:229 quoted). One should spend upon his family from his lawful earnings. 87. Companionship with young men is reprehensible because o f the harms involved in it. Whoever is tried by this experience should safeguard his heart and body from them and should prompt them to undertake exercises o f self-discipline (iriyâdàt) and ethical training,

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and he should avoid informal behavior with them.26The desire o f the young to associate with the old is praiseworthy, but the desire of the old for the company o f the young is a sign o f weakness and stupidity. 88. Companionship with brothers involves agreement in everything, except what is unlawful, and avoiding malice and envy. 89. Association with the ruler (sultan): one must obey him except in disobedience to God or violation of traditional law (Quran 4:59 quoted). One should pray for the ruler and avoid slandering him. It is meritorious to visit a just ruler; but one should stay away from an unjust ruler except in case o f necessity or in order to reprove him. He who has to visit them should pray for them and exhort them and reprove them according to his capacity. Some eminent Sufis used to approach the rulers for the welfare o f the people. Ibn ‘A ta said: “It is more meritorious to be ostentatious [with regard to ones piety] in order to gain social esteem and thereby be able to assist another Muslim than to act in total sincerity27 for the sake o f ones own salvation.” 91. Every limb has its own special ethics (Quran 17:36 quoted). Good ethics with regard to God is that none o f your limbs should move for any purpose save for the pleasure o f God. 92. The ethics o f the tongue. The tongue should always be busy in reciting Gods names (dhikr) and in saying good things o f the brethren, praying for them, and giving them counsel. H e should not say to them things which they dislike. One should not slander nor talk about things which do not concern him. The tongue was created as an interpreter for the heart. Silence is praiseworthy because it is “a cover for the ignorant and adornment for the intelligent.” 93. The ethics o f hearing. One should not listen to indecencies and slander. One should listen to things which are religiously beneficial. One should listen attentively to the speaker. 94. The ethics o f sight. One should lower ones eyes in order not to see forbidden things; one should also avoid looking at the faults o f other people and ones brethren (Quran 40:19 quoted). Immodest glances bring about severe retribution (three sayings). Sight should be used to achieve understanding o f Gods omnipotence, and it should not be tainted by the desires o f the soul. An-immodest glance at any person violates the rights o f God, because all creatures are His slaves. 95. The ethics o f the heart are to observe the exalted states (ahwdl) and to reject base thoughts and to think about Gods favors (Quran 3:191 quoted). Hadith: “Meditation for one hour is better than ritual worship for a whole year.” It is o f the ethics o f the heart to think well o f God and o f all Muslims and to purify the heart o f rancor, deceitfulness, disloyalty, envy, and wrong religious beliefs. The Prophet said: “There is a piece o f meat in the body; if it is good, the whole body is good, and if it is corrupt, the whole body is corrupt; that is the heart.” 96. The ethics o f the hands: to give charity and serve the brethren and not use them in acts o f disobedience. 97. The ethics o f the legs: not to walk in arrogance and not to use them in acts of disobedience.

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98. The first stage o f companionship (suhba) is acquaintance, then friendship, then familiarity, then intimacy, then companionship, then brotherhood. Suhba is realized only by inward agreement (Quran 59:14 quoted). Suhba is the loftiest ö f all modes. The companions of the Prophet were therefore designated by the attribute o f companionship rather than by other attributes such as Him orfiqh> which they also deserved. 99. O f the ethics o f the Sufis: there should not occur in their speech “that is mine and that is yours” nor “if this had been so, that would not have happened” nor “perhaps” nor “why did you do this?”, for these are the manners o f the common people (‘awâmm). There should not be among them borrowing, lending, competition, rivalry, and slandering; rather, each o f them should be like son to the older, brother to the equal, father to the youngér, and slave to the master. 100. O f their rules of conduct: when they assemble they give priority to one o f them (chosen for his excellence in various respects) so that they can rely on his authority. Priority should be given first according to learning and then according to seniority (Hadith). The Prophet accorded priority to the people o f Badr (Hadith). Priority is also deserved by those who have met eminent shaykhs. The most excellent member in the company o f Sufis should serve his brethren. Khidma (service) is the rank which is next to the rank o f shaykh,28 as the Prophet said: “The chief o f a people is their servant.”

Notes 1. Muhyï ’d-Dïn Ibn al-‘Arabï (1164-1240 A.D.), was bom in Murcia in the south o f Spain, travelled as a $ûfî teacher all over the Islamic world of his day, and was buried in a private sepulchre at Damascus. The tractate translated here is one entided Risdlaf t Kunhi mâ là budda minhu Ï -Murid, which Muhyï ’d-Din al-Kurdi printed as a supplement to his edition of al-Ghazzâli’s ar-Risâla al-Uduniya (Cairo, 1328 A.H.), where it occupies pp. 39-60. 2. Postulant (murid ) is the technical word used for a youth being prepared for initiation into one of the Dervish Orders. It corresponds roughly with our word "catechumen.” M urid means literally "he who desires,” i.e., he who is a candidate or novice desiring full initiation into the company of the Sûfis. 3. This "aloofness” means on the one hand the absence of any imperfection in Him, and on the other His being far removed from likeness in any way to created things. 4. Each §ûfï Order is known as a tariqa or "way,” because it has its own particular spiritual discipline which its members follow. The “words” and “signs” mentioned have reference to the fact that the Postulant as he associ­ ates with the older members o f his Order may often see and hear things which surpass his understanding, but these things he must submissively accept even though he does not yet understand them. 5. Many o f the Dervish Orders have certain members who live the life o f wandering mendicants, and such a man is called afaqir, "poor man,” because he has forsaken all earthly possessions. 6. In the prayer services prescribed for each day there are three parts: ( 1) the preface; (2) the body of the prayer; (3) the conclusion. The second part consists of stated prayers and genuflections, and when they have been gone through one rak'a has been completed. The worshipper then goes back and performs this section over again, and then again, to complete the number of rak'zs prescribed for that particular prayer service. W hen the required number of rak'as has been completed the worshipper goes on with the third part which con­ cludes the prayer.

Su f i s m 7. A w itr is a prayer service which has an odd number of rak'as, e.g. 3,5, or 7. 8. A wird is a section or selections from the Qur’an for private recitation. 9. Part of the instruction o f the young in Q ur’an recitation is concerned with the places where it is proper to utter various pious ejaculations. The marking o f Selah in the Psalter is perhaps due to a similar custom. 10. The reason for these prohibitions is that Muslims may avoid any semblance o f being sun-worshippers. 11. In Sûra LI, 58 Allah is so called. 12. Le. haya means “prudency," “bashfulness,” a sense of honest shame and a shrinking due to a sense of unworthi­ ness. Sometimes it is used as synonymous with “repentance.” 13. In eschatological tractates it is not uncommon to find the use o f this image of the mountains melting away at the fierceness of the punishments with which Allah will visit wickedness. It is probably based on such Q uranic passages as XX, 105; LXXIII, 14; LVI, 5 and 6. 14. Karämät are the special acts o f grace of which saints are the recepients. The wondrous experiences and seem­ ingly miraculous events which make up such a large part of the popular Lives o f the Saints in Islam are their karämät. 15. I.e. it belongs to accidents not to essences, and so is but a temporal thing. 16. Viz., this world and the future world. 17. This is supposed to be a passage from the original Torah given to Moses. 18. In translating the word zuhd, one should distinguish between zuhd as a general term, signifying the oudook and practice of early Muslim ascetics, and zuhd as one particular station in the system of maqämät. In the former sense it is translated as “asceticism,” in the latter as “renunciation”. 19. O n the meaning of this term see Meier, Die Fawaih al-Gamdl, p. 50. 20. Under the heading of this term. Suhrawardi deals with matters concerning the teaching and discussion of Sufi doctrine. 21. This idea and the following H adlth are in reference to Quran 25:70. 22. Ostentation is considered here as tantamount to polytheism, because when a man performs an act of worship wishing to demonstrate it, he is not doing it exclusively for the sake of God; rather he is associating others with God. 23. By contrast with success, which is granted by God, failure is conceived as a state of abandonment, that is, failure to gain God s aid. 24. On the emphasis on the value o f khidma in Sufi ethics, see sections 51 and 70 above. 25. This is a quotation from Quran 44:21. 26. See section 79 above, where informality is recommended among peers. 27. On the question o f sincerity versus ostentation, see section 72 above. 28. Here khidma signifies the position of the khädim (steward), the person who is in charge of managing the material aspects o f a Sufi congregation.

Selection 2: Mystical Techniques Selection 2(a): S am d’ (Listening to Poetry and Music, Dance Rituals) Al-Hujwîrîs work is a landmark manual o f the spiritual life that has had enormous influence on Islamic mysticism. This excerpt discusses one o f the most important yet controversial of Sufi rituals, samâ\ listening to poetry and music and expressing ones spiritual state through dance. Some religious writers reject these practices outright, others embrace them fully. Al-Hujwîrî argues a middle position, namely, that sama is acceptable only within a con­ trolled context in which mature Sufis participate.

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Chapter on the Audition o f Poetry» etc. It is permissible to hear poetry. The Apostle heard it, and the Companions not only heard it but also spoke it. The Aposde said, “Some poetry is wisdom"; and he said, “Wisdom is the believer s lost she-camel: wherever he finds her, he has the best righpto h er"... Many such stories are told o f the Apostle and the Companions. Erroneous views are prevalent on this subject. Some declare that it is unlawful to listen to any poetry whatever, and pass their lives in defaming their brother Moslems. Some, on the contrary, hold that all poetry is lawful, and spend their time in listening to love-songs and descriptions o f the face and hair and mole o f the beloved. I do not intend to discuss the arguments which both par­ ties in this controversy bring forward against each other. The Sufi Shaykhs follow the example o f the Apostle, who, on being asked about poetry, said: “W hat is good thereof is good and what is bad thereof is bad,” i.e., whatever is unlawful, like backbiting and calumny and foul abuse and blame of any person and utterance of infidelity, is equally unlawfid whether it be expressed in prose or in verse; and whatever is lawful in prose, like morality and exhortations and inferences drawn from the signs of God and contemplation o f the evidences o f the Truth, is no less lawfiil in verse. In fine, just as it is unlawful and forbidden to look at or touch a beautiful object which is a source o f evil, so it is unlawful and forbidden to listen to that object or, similarly, to hear the description of it__ Foolish aspirants to Sufiism, seeing the adepts absorbed in ecstasy during audition (sam a), imagined that they were acting from a sensual impulse and said, “It is lawful, else they would not have done so,” and imitated them, taking up the form but neglecting the spirit, until they perished themselves and led others into perdition. This is one of the great evils of our time. I will set it forth completely in the proper place.

Chapter on the Principles o f Audition You must know that the principles of audition vary with the variety o f temperaments, just as there are different desires in various hearts, and it is tyranny to lay down one law for all. Audi­ tors (;mustamian) may be divided into two classes: (1) those who hear the spiritual meaning, (2) those who hear the material sound. There are good and evil results in each case. Listening to sweet sounds produces an effervescence (ghalayân) of the substance molded in Man: true [haqq) if the substance be true, false [bâtit) if the substance be false. W hen the stuff o f a mans temperament is evil, that which he hears will be evil too. The whole of this topic is illustrated by the story of David, whom God made His vicegerent and gave him a sweet voice and caused his throat to be a melodious pipe, so that wild beasts and birds came from mountain and plain to hear him, and the water ceased to flow and the birds fell from the air. It is related that during a months space the people who were gathered round him in the desert ate no food, and the children neither wept nor asked for milk; and whenever the folk departed it was found that many had died of the rapture that seized them as they listened to his voice: one time, it is said, the tale of the dead amounted to seven hundred maidens and twelve thousand old men. Then God, wishing to separate those who listened to the voice and followed their temperament from the followers of the truth [ahl-i haqq) who listened to the spiritual reality, permitted Iblfs to work his will and display his wiles. Iblfs fashioned a mandoline and a flute and took up

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a station opposite to the place where David was singing. David s audience became divided into two parties: the blest and the damned. Those who were destined to damnation lent ear to the music o f Iblis, while those who were destined to felicity remained listening to the voice of David. The spiritualists (ahl-i m ani) were conscious of nothing except David s voice, for they saw God alone; if they heard the Devils music, they regarded it as a temptation proceeding from God, and if they heard David s voice, they recognized it as being a direction from God; wherefore they abandoned all things that are merely subsidiary and saw both right and wrong as they really are. W hen a man has audition of this kind, whatever he hears is lawful to him. Some impostors, however, say that their audition is contrary to the reality. This is absurd, for the perfection of saintship consists in seeing everything as it really is, that the vision may be right; if you see otherwise, the vision is wrong.

Chapter on the Various Opinions Respecting Audition The Shaykhs and spiritualists hold different views as to audition. Some say that it is a faculty appertaining to absence, for in contemplation (of God) audition is impossible, inasmuch as the lover who is united with his Beloved fixes his gaze on Him and does not need to listen to him; therefore, audition is a faculty of beginners which they employ, when distracted by forgetfulness, in order to obtain concentration; but one who is already concentrated will in­ evitably be distracted thereby. Others, again, say that audition is a faculty appertaining to presence (with God), because love demands all; until the whole o f the lover is absorbed in the whole o f the Beloved, he is deficient in love: therefore, as in union the heart (dil) has love and the soul (sirr) lias contemplation and the spirit has union and the body has service, so the ear also must have such a pleasure as the eye derives from seeing.... And they say that audition appertains to presence with God, because he who is absent from God is a disbeliever (m unkir), and those who disbelieve are not worthy to enjoy audi­ tion. Accordingly, there are two kinds o f audition: mediate and immediate. Audition of which a reciter (qdri) is the source is a faculty of absence, but audition o f which the Beloved (ydri ) is the source is a faculty of presence. It was on this account that a well-known spiritual director said: “I will not put any created beings, except the chosen men o f God, in a place where I can hear their talk or converse with them.”

Chapter Concerning Their Different Grades in the Reality o f Audition You must know that each Sufi has a particular grade in audition and that the feelings which he gains therefrom are proportionate to his grade. Thus, whatever is heard by penitents aug­ ments their contrition and remorse; whatever is heard by longing lovers increases their long­ ing for vision; whatever is heard by those who have certain faith confirms their certainty; whatever is heard by novices verifies their elucidation (of matters which perplex them); what­ ever is heard by lovers impels them to cut off all worldly connexions; and whatever is heard by the spiritually poor forms a foundation for hopelessness. Audition is like the sun, which shines on all things but affects them differendy according to their degree: it burns or illu­ mines or dissolves or nurtures. All the classes that I have mentioned are included in the three following grades: beginners (mubtadiydn), middlemen (;mutawassitdn), and adepts (kdm ildn).

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Chapter on Dancing, etc. You must know that dancing (raqs) has no foundation either in the religious law (of Islam) or in the path (of Sufiism), because all reasonable men agree that it is a diversion when it is in earnest, and an impropriety {laghwt) when it is in jest. None o f the Shaykhs has commended it or exceeded due bounds therein, and all the traditions cited in its favor by anthropomorphists {ahl-i hashw) are worthless. But since ecstatic movements and the practices o f those who endeavour to induce ecstasy {ahl-i tawdjuct) resemble it, some frivolous imitators have indulged in it immoderately and have made it a religion. I have met with a number o f common people who adopted Sufism in the belief that it is this (dancing) and nothing more. Others have condemned it altogether. In short, all foot-play (pay-bdzi) is bad in law and reason, by whomsoever it is practiced and the best of mankind cannot possibly practice it; but when the heart throbs with exhilaration and rapture becomes intense and the agitation o f ecstasy is manifested and conventional forms are gone, that agitation {idtirdb) is neither dancing nor foot-play nor bodily indulgence, but a dissolution of the soul. Those who call it “dancing” are utterly wrong. It is a state that cannot be explained in words: “without experience no knowledge.”

Looking at youths (ahddth). Looking at youths and associating with them are forbidden practices, and anyone who declares this to be allowable is an unbeliever. The traditions brought forward in this matter are vain and foolish. I have seen ignorant persons who sus­ pected the Sufis of the crime in question and regarded them with abhorrence, and I observed that some have made it a religious rule {madhhabf). All the Sufi Shaykhs, however, have rec­ ognized the wickedness o f such practices, which the adherents o f incarnation ( hulüliydn)— may God curse them!—have left as a stigma on the saints o f God and the aspirants to Sufiism. But God knows best what is the truth.

Chapter on the Rending o f Garments (fi T-kharq) It is a custom of the Sufis to rend their garments, and they have commonly done this in great assemblies where eminent Shaykhs were present. I have met with some theologians who ob­ jected to this practice and said that it is not right to tear an intact garment to pieces, and that this is an evil. I reply that an evil o f which the purpose is good must itself be good. Anyone may cut an intact garment to pieces and sew it together again, e.g. detach the sleeves and body {tana) and gusset {tiriz) and collar from one another, and then restore the garment to its original condition; and there is no difference between tearing a garment into five pieces and tearing it into a hundred pieces. Besides, every piece gladdens the heart o f a believer, when he sews it on his patched frock, and brings about the satisfaction o f his desire. Although the rending of garments has no foundation in Sufiism and certainly ought not to be practiced in audition by anyone whose senses are perfectly controlled—for, in that case, it is mere ex­ travagance—nevertheless, if the auditor be so overpowered that his sense o f discrimination is lost and he becomes unconscious, then he may be excused (for tearing his garment to pieces); and it is allowable that all the persons present should rend their garments in sympathy with him. There are three circumstances in which Sufis rend their garments: firstly, when a dervish tears his own garment to pieces through rapture caused by audition; secondly, when a number

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o f his friends tear his garment to pieces at the command of a spiritual director on the occa­ sion o f asking God to pardon an offense; and thirdly, when they do the same in the intoxica­ tion o f ecstasy. The most difficult case is that o f the garment thrown off or tom in audition. It may be injured or intact. If it be injured, it should either be sewed together and given back to its owner or bestowed on another dervish or torn to pieces, for the sàke o f gaining a bless­ ing, and divided among the members of the party. If it be intact, we have to consider what was the intention o f the dervish who cast it off. If he meant it for the singer, let the singer take it; and if he meant it for the members of the party, let them have it; and if he threw it off without any intention, the spiritual director must determine whether it shall be given to those present and divided among them; or be conferred on one of them, or handed to the singer. If the dervish meant it for the singer, his companions need not throw off their gar­ ments in sympathy, because the cast-off garment will not go to his fellows and he will have given it voluntarily or involuntarily without their participation. But if the garment was thrown off with the intention that it should fall to the members o f the party, or without any intention, they should all throw off their garments in sympathy; and when they have done this, the spiritual director ought not to bestow the garment on the singer, but it is allowable that any lover o f God among them should sacrifice something that belongs to him and return the garment to the dervishes, in order that it may be tom to pieces and distributed. If a gar­ ment drops off while its owner is in a state of rapture, the Shaykhs hold various opinions as to what ought to be done, but the majority say that it should be given to the singer, in accor­ dance with the Apostolic tradition: “The spoils belong to the slayer”; and that not to give it to the singer is to violate the obligations imposed by Süfiism. Others contend—and I prefer this view—that, just as some theologians are o f opinion that the dress o f a slain man should not be given to his slayer except by permission of the Imam, so, here, this garment should not be given to the singer except by command of the spiritual director. But if its owner should not wish the spiritual director to bestow it, let no one be angry with him.

Chapter on the Rules o f Audition The rules o f audition prescribe that it should not be practiced until it comes (of its own accord), and that you must not make a habit o f it, but practice it seldom, in order that you may not cease to hold it in reverence. It is necessary that a spiritual director should be pres­ ent during the performance, and that the place should be cleared o f common people, and that the singer should be a respectable person, and that the heart should be emptied o f worldly thoughts, and that the disposition should not be inclined to amusement, and that every artificial effort (ta ka llu f ) should be put aside. You must not exceed the proper bounds until audition manifests its power, and when it has become powerful you must not repel it but must follow it as it requires: if it agitates, you must be agitated, and if it calms, you must be calm; and you must be able to distinguish a strong natural impulse from the ardor o f ec­ stasy (iwajd). The auditor must have enough perception to be capable o f receiving the Divine influence and o f doing justice to it. W hen its might is manifested on his heart he must not endeavor to repel it, and when its force is broken he must not endeavor to attract it. W hile he is in a state o f emotion, he must neither expect anyone to help him nor refuse anyones

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help if it be offered. And he must not disturb anyone who is engaged in audition or inter­ fere with him, or ponder what he means by the verse (to^which he is listening),1 because such behaviour is very distressing and disappointing to the person who is trying (to hear). He must not say to the singer, “You chant sweetly”; and if he d\ant's unmelodiously or distresses his hearer by reciting poetry unmetrically, he must not say to him, “C hant better!” or bear malice towards him, but he must be unconscious o f the singer s presence and commit him to God, who hears correctly. And if he have no part in the audition which is being enjoyed by others, it is not proper that he should look soberly on their intoxication, but he must keep quiet with his own “time” ( waqt) and establish its dom in­ ion, that the blessings thereof may come to him. I, A ii b. ‘Uthmàn al-Jullabi, think it more desirable that beginners should not be allowed to attend musical concerts (samd'hd), lest their natures become depraved. These concerts are extremely dangerous and corrupt­ ing, because women on the roofs or elsewhere look at the dervishes who are engaged in audition; and in consequence o f this the auditors have great obstacles to encounter. O r it may happen that a young reprobate is one o f the party, since some ignorant Sufis have made a religion (madhhab) o f all this and have flung truth to the winds. I ask pardon o f God for my sins o f this kind in the past, and I implore His help, that H e may preserve me both outwardly and inwardly from contamination, and I enjoin the readers o f this book to hold it in due regard and to pray that the author may believe to the end and be vouch­ safed the vision o f God (in Paradise).

Selection 2(b): Mystical Music Majd al-Dîn al-Ghazâlî is a brother of one of the most influential medieval philosophers, theologians, and mystics, Abû Hâmid al-Ghazâll (cL 1111 C.E.). In this passage Majd al-Din analyzes with subtlety and sophistication the relationship between the physical elements o f the samd' ritual and the spiritual experiences of mystics. Majd al-Dîn, an ardent defender of samd\ argues that understanding the meaning of the various aspects o f samd* reveals its cen­ tral role and transforming power. And similarly the saints o f Allah (Exalted is He!) apply the forms to the realities

(maânï) on account o f their abandoning the ranks o f the forms and their moving in the ranks o f the branches o f gnosis. So among them the tambourine is a reference to the cycle o f existing things (da ira al-akwän)\ the skin which is fitted on to it is a reference to general existence (al-wujüd al-mutlaq), the striking which takes place on the tambourine is a refer­ ence to the descent o f the divine visitations ( wäridät) from the innermost arcana ( bdtin al-butùn) upon general existence to bring forth the things pertaining to the essence from the interior to the exterior, the five small bells (jaldjil) are a reference to the prophetical ranks, the saintly ranks, the apostolic ranks, the khalifate ranks, and the imämate ranks, and their combined sound is a reference to the appearance o f the divine revelations and unrestricted knowledge by means o f these realities in the hearts o f the saints and the people o f perfection. And the soul o f the reality is the form o f the rank o f the Truth (Exalted and holy is He!), since it is He who sets the things in motion, brings them into existence, and enriches them. And the voice o f the singer is a reference to the divine (rabbânïya) life

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which comes down from the innermost arcana to the levels (marâtib) o f the spirits, the hearts, and the consciences (asrdr). The flute (qasab) is a reference to the human essence, and the nine holes are a reference to the openings in the outer frame (zdhir), which are nine, viz. the ears, the nostrils, the eyes, the mouth, and the private parts (al-qubl w a ldubr). Nine other holes are inverted from the exterior to the interior, viz. the armpits, the inner part o f the elbows, under the knees, the inner part o f the wrists and the navel. And there are nine ranks inside [the body] viz. the heart, the mind, the spirit, the soul, the con­ science, the human essence, the memory, the interior o f the heart (fu d d ), and the pericar­ dium (skaghdf). A nd the breath which penetrates the flute is a reference to the light o f Allah (Exalted is He!) penetrating the^reed o f mans essence. And their being moved in audition is a reference to the bird o f human reality in the station o f the eternal2 address, “Am I not your Lord?"3 and to the excitement o f the spirit on account o f the cage o f the body being broken and its return to the true home, since he said, “Love o f home pertains to faith," i.e. the home o f the spirits in which the spirit was brought into existence, since He said, “A nd I breathed into him o f my spirit,”4 And the dancing is a reference to the circling o f the spirit round the cycle o f existing things on account o f receiving the effects o f the unveilings and revelations; and this is the state o f the gnostic. The whirling is a reference to the spirit s standing with Allah in its inner nature (sirr) and being (w ujüd), the circling o f its look and thought, and its penetrating the ranks o f existing things; and this is the state o f the assured one. A nd his leaping up is a reference to his being drawn from the human station to the unitive station and to existing things acquiring from him spiritual effects and illuminative helps.5 Then when his spirit goes forth from the veil and reaches the ranks o f what is right, his head is uncovered. Then when he is detached from what is other than Allah and reaches Allah (Exalted is He!), he takes off his clothing; and if the singer is the possessor o f a state (hdl)6 and a station (maqdm), he throws his clothing to him; but if he is not such, throwing it to him is a wrong, because the garment o f the possessor o f a state is the form o f his state, and only he who is o f his rank deserves to receive his state.7 Then if he rises to a higher station and the singer is speaking in a lower station, he suggests to him a verse suitable for his state.8 But if something about which he sang becomes dubious to him and his state comes to a stop, he takes someone else and circles with him that their states may be united and his bond may be loosed.9 Then when he becomes thirsty and asks for a drink o f water, it indicates that he is overpowered, because the station o f the spirit is the station o f serenity and dryness from the lights; so when he becomes thirsty it indicates that he has returned to the station o f the body, since the station of the spirit is [that of] getting nourishment from the unseen, so that it does not require the seen; while the station o f the body is [that of] getting nourishment from the form. So when he returns from the unseen to the seen, he asks for water, and that indicates defect. As for the signification understood by the intellect which indicates the nobility o f audi­ tion, its nature is contrast from various points o f view.I. I. One is that the states which are connected with a thing are o f two kinds, movement and quiescence. Movement is a characteristic o f spirits and inner natures, and quiescence is a characteristic o f bodies and crass forms. And heat and rendering delicate are among the

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requisites o f movement, while solidification and deterioration are among the requisites o f quiescence. O n this account, should water remain in its jar^even though it were a large quan­ tity, it would deteriorate with the passage of time; while if it ii flowing, a litde, it does not deteriorate. So when a measured sound affects the inner being, it moves the spirit to seek ascent, and the body is moved by the movement of the spirit. Then heat arises within it and the superfluities of its nature are loosed, and marks which are seen appear in its heart; and that is by the agency of audition. II. The second is that sensual nourishment strengthens the body, which results from coming in contact with food, while spiritual nourishment strengthens the heart and the inner nature. That arises from coming in contact with the instruments o f bringing down spirit, light, and life from the unseen world. And it is the stirring o f the spirit by listening to wonderful realities in delicate poems and the abandonment o f the attachments o f created things, and being drawn to the spiritual stages (m anâzil). Now the instrument o f obtaining these lights is the association o f the brethren and the seeking o f help from Allah, the Merciful. III. The third is that audition detaches one from external things and inclines one to accept the hidden lights and secrets. Then as often as ones ecstasy (wajd) increases in audi­ tion, ones travelling and flying in the world o f spirits increases. And when ones increase is abundant, the heart is made fine, and one receives some o f the marks o f the outpouring and revelations of Allah (Exalted is He!): then one attains the station o f union (wusûl) without a new religious exercise (riyäda). IV. The fourth is that the sound H uwd10is penetration from the exterior to the interior and is joined to the heart; then the heart and the spirit are joyful by means o f the variation o f measured notes and by the number of the realities which come down upon the spirit in the ranks of existing things. So when the spirit follows the body in movement and the body fol­ lows the spirit in presence, light, and joy it is detached from suppositions and imaginations, and the realities which are combined in the spirit penetrate the bodily powers. Then when the body is drawn to the station o f the spirit the veil is removed, and it sees those realities and truths all at once. This is the station o f the perfection of actual vision which does not arise by many religious exercises. V. The fifth is that audition is quiescence in the internal and movement in the external; and other acts o f worship, except fasting, are a movement in the external, and the movement in the external corresponds to abundance. So as often as the movement is abundant in audi­ tion and quiescence becomes strong in the heart, it is detached from everything but Allah (Exalted is He!), ecstasy appears in it, and it is drawn to the Unique Presence. Then by the sight of the inner nature it sees the divine worlds and comprehends the divine (irabbânïya) secrets which intellects and understandings cannot grasp. And as for the three pillars,11 like prayer, pilgrimage, and the two testimonies, even if they are a movement in the external and the internal, yet sometimes a spiritual and facial quiescence which leads its possessor to an­ nihilation (fana) and immortality (baqa1)11appears between two movements. As for fasting, it is a quiescence in the external and the internal, and sometimes a movement from Allah, in Allah, to Allah comes forth between two periods of quiescence, and that is the complete

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liberation and the universal law.13 So the inner nature (sirr) o f audition in its various ranks (mardtib) comprises the verities o f the five pillars; for prayer, pilgrimage, and the two testimonies pertain to external ranks, and fasting and almsgiving to internal ranks; and some­ times a man gets from audition perfections such as are not obtained from persistence in many acts o f devotion. VI. The sixth is that audition comprises the perfect states which are the limits o f the stations. Its sin and m im 14indicate samm (poison), meaning that the inner nature o f audition is like poison which causes one to die to the attachments of things which are other than Allah and causes one to reach the unseen stations. Its ain and m im indicate maa (with), meaning that audition causes one to reach the E&ential, divine co-existence (maîya). He (Peace be upon him !)15 said, “I have a time with Allah in which no angel who is brought near [Allah’s presence] or prophet who is sent on a mission is enough for me.*16Its sin, m tm , and / ^ i n d i ­ cate sama (heaven) to make known that audition causes one to become supernal and heav­ enly, and one comes forth from the lower ranks. And its alifand m tm indicate umm (mother) to tell that he who engages in audition is the mother o f everything else, gets support from the unseen by his spiritual nature, and pours forth on everything else life and knowledge which the word ma (water) indicates. Its ain and m im indicate amm (inclusive), i.e. he who en­ gages in audition includes in his spiritual nature supernal things, in the life o f his heart human things, and in the light o f his pure soul bodily things and other states. So he who engages in audition rises to the high stations and the divine favors which one cannot attain to by a thou­ sand efforts and the most perfect religious exercises. And the benefits o f audition reach a hundred benefits and a hundred thousand states which he who has taste,17 ecstasy, and in­ sight discovers. Only he disapproves o f audition who is blind of heart, lacking in light, thickly veiled, neglectful o f Allah (Exalted is He!), and inclining to the appetite and passion. Allah (Exalted is He!) said, “And when they hear what has been sent down to the aposde, you see their eyes pouring with tears from what they know of the truth. They say, ‘O ur Lord, we be­ lieve, so write us down among the testifiers. And why should we not believe in Allah and the truth which has come to us, and desire that our Lord should cause us to enter along with the upright people ?’”18

Notes 1. The text o f this clause is uncertain. I have followed B.Vreading, û murdd-i ûrd baddn bayl-i à bi-na-sanjad, but I am not sure that it will bear the translation given above. L. has baddn niyyal-i «, and J. baddn nisbat-i ü. 2. A zali; which is a very difficult word to translate. It is an adjective formed from azal, which means eternity from the point of view o f its having no beginning. Abad means eternity from the point of view of its having no end. 3. Qur.vii, 171.S eep .6 9 ,n. 1. 4. Qur. xv, 29; xxxviii, 72. 5. Cf. Kashfal-mahjüb, 416, “In short, all foot-play is bad in law and reason, by whomsoever it is practised, and the best of mankind cannot possibly practise it; but when the heart throbs with exhilaration and rapture becomes intense and the agitation of ecstasy is manifested and conventional forms are gone, that agitation is neither dancing nor foot-play nor bodily indulgence, but a dissolution of the soul.”

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Su f i s m 6. The distinction between a “state" and a “station” is that the “state” is a divine gift, whereas the “station” is at­ tained by human effort. Cf. Al-Qushairi, Risàla, 38; Kashf al-ma. The distinction between a “state” and a “station” is that the “state” is a divine gift, whereas the “station” is sfetained by human effort. Cf. Al-Qushairi, Risâla, 38; K ashfal-mahjüb, 181f. 7. For the practice of throwing off garments (and also o f tearing them), cf. K ashf al-mahjüb, 417 f.; JRAS. (1902), 9ff. 8. C i.JRAS. (1901), 744. 9. Cf. JRAS. (1902), 1If., where it says that those who perform the dance together should experience the same “state.” O n the problem of people in one state not understanding people in another cf. Al-Kalâbâdhl, Ta’arruf (Arberry), 77. 10. The repetition of the word huwâ (He) with lengthening of the second vowel, is a mystic practice. 11. In Islam there are five pillars of practical religion: (1 ) The testimony that Allah is the only God and Muham­ mad is His prophet; (2) prayer; (3) almsgiving; (4) fasting; (5) pilgrimage. 12. These are technical mystical terms referring to the death o f the self and life in God. Cf. Al-Qushairi, Risâla, 43f.; K ashfal-mahjüb, 242ff; Nicholson, Studies, 55,2l4f., 218,261; Smith, Early Mysticism, 215,242,252; Al-Kaläbädhi, Ta’arruf (Arberry), 120ff. 13. Al-Sarraj says that the audition of those who have attained to the verities is in Allah, to Allah, from Allah, and unto Allah. Al-Lum d\ 279. 14. The author makes up words from the letters of sama (audition), and tries to draw teachings from them re­ garding audition. 15. This is given in the MSS. instead of the usual invocation of blessing on Muhammad. 16. Al-Sarrâj quotes, on the authority of Al-Hussri, a similar saying: “I have a time with Allah in which nothing other than Allah (great and glorious is He!) is enough for me along with Him.” Doubt is thrown on its genu­ ineness. Al-Lum d\ 115. 17. C f.p .7 1 ,n . 6. 18. Qur.v, 86f.

Selection 3: The Interpretation of Mystical Texts by Mystics Selection 3(a): The Esoteric Meaning o f the Qur’ân In these selections Ibn ‘A rabi expresses a widely held conviction among Sufis, namely, that the Q ur’ân has layers of meaning, not one interpretation. These esoteric insights into the text are revealed by the spiritual eye of the seeker, not by study alone. The Q ur’ân is a dynamic, living, reality, a “Thou” whom the believer engages in an ongoing process o f growth in spiritual intimacy. Plunge into the ocean of the Q ur’ân if your breath is sufHciendy powerful. And if not, limit yourself to the study o f the commentaries on its apparent sense; but in this case do not plunge, for you will perish. The ocean of the Q ur’ân is deep, and if he who plunges into it did not limit himself to those places which are closest to the shore, he would never come back toward the creatures. The prophets and the guardian-inheritors [al-waratha al-hafaza] take these roles as their goal out o f pity for the universe. As for those who remain back [al-wâqîfùn], who have reached the goal but have remained there without ever returning, no one profits from them and they profit from no one: they have aimed at the center o f the ocean—or rather it has aimed at them—and they have plunged for eternity.

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(The Q ur’ân) is perpetually new for any of those who recite it.... But no reciter is conscious o f his descent \nuzûl\, because his mind is occupied with its natural condition. Then the Q ur’ân descends upon him hidden behind the veil o f nature and produces no rejoicing in him. It is to this case that the Prophet alludes when he speaks o f reciters who read the Q ur’ân without it going any farther than their throats. That is the Q ur’ân that descends upon tongues and not upon hearts. God said the contrary about him who tastes [this descent]: The faithful spirit descended with it [the Q ur’ân] upon your heart [Qur. 26:193]. Such a man is he in whom this descent causes an immeasurable sweetness that surpasses all joy. W hen he experiences it, he is [truly] the person upon whom the ever new Q ur’ân has descended. The difference between these two kinds o f descent is that if the Q ur’ân descends upon the heart, it brings comprehension with it: the being in question understands that which is being recited even if he does not understand the language o f Revelation; he knows the significance o f that which is being recited even if the meaning that the words have outside o f the Q ur’ân are unknown because they do not exist in his own language; he knows what these words mean in his recitation, and at the very moment that they are being recited. The station of the Q ur’ân and its state being what we say, it happens that each one finds in himself that to which he aspires. It is for this reason that shaykh Abû Madyan said: the aspirant [al-murid\ is really an aspirant only when he finds in the Q ur’ân all to which he aspires. And word not endowed with this plenitude is not really Q ur’ân. W hen the Q ur’ân, which is a divine attribute—and the attribute is inseparable from that which it qualifies—, descends upon the heart, it is then He Whose Word the Q ur’ân is that descends with it. God said that the heart of his believing servant contains Him: it is of this descent o f the Q ur’ân upon the heart of the believer that the divine descent in the heart consists. It behooves you to distinguish between understanding the Word and understanding him who is speaking. It is the latter form o f comprehension that must be researched: it is obtained only when the Q ur’ân descends upon the heart, while the former belongs to the community o f the faithful. Those gnostics who receive their understanding from him who speaks understand the Word. Those who understand only the Word do not understand clearly, either wholly or in part, what he W ho spoke m eant.... The servant whose inner sight [al-bastra] is enlightened—he who is guided by a lig h tfrom his Lord [Qur’ân 39:22]—obtains with each recitation o f a verse a new understanding, distinct from that which he had during the preceding recitation and that that he will obtain during the succeeding recitation. God has answered the request that has been addressed to him with the words Oh Lord, increase my knowledge! [Qur’ân 20:114]. He whose understanding is identical in two successive recitations is losing. He whose understanding is new in each recitation is winning. As for him who recites without understanding anything, may God have mercy on him. It is I [God], he says, who recite my Book for him with his tongue while he lis­ tens to me. And that is my nocturnal conversation with him. That servant savors my

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W ord But if he binds himself to his own meanings, he leaves me by his reflection and his meditation. W hat he must do is only lean toward^me and leave his ears receptive to my Word until I am present in his recitation. And just as it is I who recite and I who make him hear, it is also I who then explain my Word to him'and interpret its meanings. That is my nocturnal conversation with him. He takes knowledge from me, not from his reason and his reflection; he no longer cares to think o f paradise, o f hell, of accounting for his actions, o f the Last Judgement, o f this world or o f that which is to come, for he no longer considers these things with his intellect, he no longer scruti­ nizes each verse with his reflection: he is content to lend an ear to that which I tell him. And he is at that moment a witness, present with me; and it is I whcftake charge of his instruction.

Selection 3(b): Ecstatic Utterances One o f the most contentious issues debated among early Sufis was the nature o f ecstatic utterances, especially those that appeared to claim the obliteration o f the self in mystical union with the Beloved. Was this heresy or legitimate religious expression? Abû Yazîd al-Bistâmî (d. ca. 875 C.E.), known also as Bayezid al-Bistâmî, is an early Sufi o f enor­ mous influence whose ecstatic sayings are renowned in the tradition. The purported interpretation o f al-Bistâmî s words by another pivotal figure o f the early period, Abû T-Qâsim al-Junayd (d. 910 C.E.), became the jum ping-off point for al-Sarrâj s spirited defense o f al-Bistâmî. Even more than al-Junayd, al-Sarrâj argues that an accurate under­ standing o f al-Bistâmî s mysticism places him squarely w ithin the mainstream, not among those Sufis whose words and/or deeds challenge fundamental precepts o f tradi­ tional Islam.

Chapter 123 o f The Book o f Flashes*. The Shathiyät That Have Been Passed Down from Abu Yazid (of W hich Junayd Has Explicated a Part) 1. The Shaykh [i.e., Sarraj], may Allah grant him compassion, said that Junayd had explicated some small part o f the shathiyät of Abu Yazid; a sage can infer from the small to the greater. However, I have not been able to find a formal written commentary of Junayd (God grant him compassion) for the words of Abu Yazid, so I will leave that aside and speak o f other re­ sponses that I have from Junayd. 2. Junayd said: The accounts passed down from Abu Yazid are various and the racon­ teurs differ in what they heard. That might be—God knows best—because o f the difference in the moments (awqât) that had come upon him and the difference in stationings (mawdtin) alternating in what was bestowed specially upon him. Each person recounts o f Abu Yazid the words that he is able to verify of him and the particular stationing o f him that he has heard about. 3. Junayd said: The speech of Abu Yazid, because of his power, depth, and the semantic reach, forms a ladle for the sea that he alone inhabited, that was given to him only.

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4. Junayd said: Then I saw that the furthest limit of his condition (hâl)—that is, Abu Yazid’s—is a condition few can understand from him and few can express upon hearing. No one can bear it except one who knows its inner meanings and plumbs its well. Whoever lacks such a constitution will, upon hearing it, reject it entirely. 5. Junayd said: I saw that in their-depiction of him, the accounts o f Abu Yazid suggested that he had drowned in the rapture he found and that he disappeared from the reality of the real never to return to it. He was drowned at times in the inner meanings, each one different from the other. 6. Junayd said: As for what he described o f the beginnings o f his condition, it is solid, precise, and complete. The points he made in affirmation of unity (tawhid) are sound, but they are only beginnings in regard to what is being sought. 7. These words I wish to recall are not the kind that are written down in bound vol­ umes, because they are not of the sciences disseminated among the ulama. However, I saw that people were delving more and more into their inner meanings. One was making Abu Yazid a pretext for his own falsehood, another believed that anyone who could have said these things must be an infidel, and all were in error in the conclusions they were drawing. Allah alone guarantees success in truth.

Chapter 124: The Chapter on the Recalling o f W hat Was Passed Down from Abu Yazid (God Most High Grant Him Compassion) Someone else said: He said to me when I reached him All this I have known. Were he to weep the rest of his life tears o f blood I would not forgive him. He means that intimate conversations [of the secret o f the heart] and the like are frequent in poetry and elsewhere. 5. As for his saying, “Adorn me with your unity, clothe me with your subjectivity, and take me up to your oneness”—he means by that the increase and the transposition from his condition to the future condition o f those who have realized the detachment of tawhid and those who are singled out for Allah with the reality of singularity (tafrid). It has been related o f the Envoy o f God that he said: “Those who single themselves out (al-mufarridün) have precedence.” It has been recalled that someone asked: “O Rasul Allah—and who are ‘those who single themselves out ?' ” He said. “Those who praise Allah in good times and bad.” 6. As for his saying “Adorn me with your unity, clothe me with your subjectivity, and take me up to your oneness, until when your creation sees me they say ‘we have seen you and

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you will be that, and I will not be there”—this and the like describe his passing away, his pass­ ing away from passing away, and the taking over of his self by the real in unity—with no creature before it and no created being. %

This all derives from the saying of the Most High: “My servant continues to draw near to me through free acts of devotion until I love him. When I love him, I am the eye with which he sees, the hearing with which he hears, the tongue with which he speaks, the hand with which he grasps”—as it has come down in the hadith. Someone has described his experience with his lover—a reference to his experience with a creature like himself—to the point of claiming: I am my beloved, my beloved is I If you see me, you see us both, two spirits in one flesh, clothed by Allah in a single body.

7. Now if a creature can experience in this way a fellow creature, what would you mak o f something beyond that? A report has reached me of a certain sage who said: “Two lovers have not attained the reality of love until one says to the other: “I.” It would prolong our discussion for me to give an in-depth explanation of that issue. W hat I have already recalled is enough. In Allah alone is success.

Chapter 12$: Another Chapter on the Interpretation o f an Account That Has Been Passed On Concerning Abu Yazid May Allah Have Compassion on Him 1. The Shaykh said: I said—and it has been reported o f him—that Abu Yazid said: As soon as I arrived at his oneness, I became a bird whose body was o f unity and whose wings were of everlastingness. So I continued to fly through the ether o f howness (kayfiyya) for ten years until I came to the air of something like that one thousand thou­ sand times. I did not cease flying until I came to the field o f pre-eternity and saw there the tree of unity. Then he described its roots, trunk, boughs, branches, and fruits. Then he said, “Then I looked and knew that it was all a cheat.” 6. Now as for the meaning o f his saying “ten years” and “one thousand thousand times” and “the field o f pre-eternity” and the “ether o f howness {kayfiyya)? Junayd (God grant him compassion) said that he described a part o f the path. Junayd s state­ ment is sufficient and needs no further discussion or repetition from us on the same subject.

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As for his saying, “I looked and knew that it was all a cheat,” its meaning—and God knows best—is that the turning to and preoccupation with creation and dominion is a cheat next to the existence o f the realities o f ta fiid and the purity of tawhid. Therefore Junayd (God grant him compassion) said, “I do not see that Abu Yazid, despite the grandeur of his allusions, has gone beyond the beginning and middle. I have not heard from him any pronouncement that would point to a meaning that would show the end.” This applies to his mention o f the body, the wings, the air, and the field. He said, “I knew that it was all a cheat” because among the people o f the end, the turning to anything other than God is a cheat. Lest anyone should deny that, the Master o f the First and the Last, Gods blessings and peace upon him, said “The truest word spoken by the Arabs is the saying of Labid: Everything other than God how true it is, is vanity.”

Chapter 126: Another Chapter on the Explanation o f Words Related from Abu Yazid May Allah, the Exalted, Have Compassion on Him 1. The Shaykh said: It has also been recalled from Abu Yazid that he said: I came upon the domain o f nothingness (laysiyya). For ten years I continued flying in it until I arrived from nothing in nothing through nothing. Then I came upon perdition, which is the domain o f tawhid. I continued to fly through nothing in perdition until I was lost in the loss o f being lost. I was lost to the extent that I was lost from perdition in nothing, nothing in the loss o f perdition. Then I came upon tawhid in the vanishing of creatures from the knower and the vanishing o f the knower from creatures. 2. Junayd said: All this and what is like it is of the science of signs in the vanishing of the searching for the sign. Here there are meanings of passing away {fa n a ) in the vanishing of passing away from passing away. His [Abu Yazids] saying “I came upon the domain o f noth­ ingness until I arrived from nothing in nothing through nothing” signifies the first descent into the reality of passing away and the disappearance {dhihâh) of everything seen and unseen. In the first occurrence of passing away is the obliteration of the vestiges {âthâr) of all things. His saying “nothing through nothing” indicates the disappearance o f all other than him, and his own disappearance from disappearance. “Nothing in nothing” means that nothing is per­ ceived or found to exist. The traces have been effaced, the names have been cut off, the beholdings have vanished, and things have been swallowed up from view. Nothing can be found to exist, nothing is perceived as lacking, there is no name by which anything can be known. All that has disappeared along with the disappearance from it. This is what some Sufis {qawm) call passing away {fa n a ). Then passing away vanishes from passing away and is lost in its passing away, and this is the perdition which was in noth­ ing through it and through it in nothing. This is the reality of the nonexistence {faqd) of everything and the nonexistence of the self after that, and the nonexistence of nonexistence in nonexistence, and the becoming dust in obliteration, and the disappearance from disap­ pearance. This is something that has no duration nor any ascertainable moment.

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3. Junayd said: His mention of ten years refers to his moment and is without meaning. In such a condition, moments vanish and if the moment has vanished from someone along with its content, then ten years or a hundred or more are all one in meaning. Junayd said: As it came down to me, Abu Yazid said: “I cafrie upon taw hïd in the vanishing o f creatures from the knower and in the vanishing o f the knower from creatures.” He continued: “W hen I came upon tawhïd, there was realized in me the vanishing o f all creatures from Allah Most High and the aloneness o f Allah in his majesty from his creation.” Then Junayd said: These expressions o f Abu Yazid are known for the couching o f the intended meaning within the vehicle of meaning. 4. This is what has come down to me from Junayd (Gods compassion upon him) o f the interpretation o f these words o f Abu Yazid. Junayd s interpretation is obscure for the uniniti­ ated. That interpretation and others like it are obscure only for those who have not delved into the deep o f knowledge, who have not looked at the traditions and description o f the greatness and majesty of Allah Most High preserved in the books o f the ulama. From that one can then infer to what is not preserved in the books o f what has been uniquely bestowed upon the hearts o f his friends, his chosen, his select. O n the other hand, the more discerning o f the ulama in Allah know this: that everyone who witnesses his increase—in the particular condition that he has chosen from among the conditions o f those devoted to Allah Most High—is increasing in his condition with Allah Most High and Transcendent in every breath and in every blink o f an eye. In every breath the condition to which he is bound increases. In every breath he is transformed from condition to condition, without end, until his position o f homeland rests in its proper and desired site. Thus every condition to which he is transformed causes him to pass away from the previous condition. This is the meaning of his saying “passing away” and “passing away from passing away,” and “disappearance” and “disappearance from disappearance,” and “I was lost,” and “I was lost in the loss o f being lost.” Though the expressions are diverse, the meanings are in accord and harmonious with one another. 5. An elucidation of this matter can be found in what has been handed down from Abdullah ibn Abbas concerning the word o f God (41:11): “Then he established himself in the heaven, and it was smoke. So he said to it and to the earth: ‘Come! willingly or unwill­ ingly.’ They said: ‘Willingly have we come!’” Ibn Abbâs said: The angels asked, “O lord, if they had not come to you, what were you going to do with them?” He answered: “I was going to unleash upon them one o f my beasts to devour them in a single mouthful.” They said: “Lord, where is that beast?” He answered: “In one o f my meadows.” They said: “Lord, where is that meadow?” He said: “In the hidden depth o f my knowledge.” Do you not see that in the beast and the mouthful is the disappearance o f the heavens and the earth, and in the meadow is the disappearance o f disappearance, and in the disap-

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pearance is a warning for the hearts of the knowers? W hen one witnesses that in his heart, how is he to witness his self, and dominion, and everything created by Allah Most High? It is said in some books that Allah announced to Jahannam: “If you do not carry out what I command, I will burn you up in a great bolt of fire!” One o f the knowers was asked: W hat is the meaning of his saying “I will burn you up in a great bolt o f fire”? He answered, “He would disclose to its foot a mote of his love, in comparison to which Jahannam would be like a mere bakers oven or even less.” 6. His saying “Nothing in nothing through nothing” points to the nothingness o f what is experienced, since all things in their essences and their existences are phantoms compared to what Allah Most High has. Even though they are marked in their inner realities for being brought into existence, nevertheless they are marked for privation and obliteration. The people o f the realities are of various ranks in their witness (2:245): “Allah constricts and Allah unfolds and to him you will be returned.”

Chapter 127 : Another Chapter on the Explanation o f Expressions That Have Been Related from Abu Yazid (God Grant Him Compassion) and That Prompted Ibn Salim to Accuse Him o f Heresy, Along with a Remembrance o f the Controversy between Ihn Salim and Myself Concerning That

2. And I have also heard Ibn Salim reporting in his assembly that Abu Yazid said: “I pitched my tent in the environs of the throne ( arsh) or at the throne.” He went on to say that such words were infidelity and that only the unfaithful would say such a thing. He also said that one time Abu Yazid (God grant him compassion) passed by a Jewish cemetery and said “for­ given!” and passed by a Muslim cemetery and said “deluded.” And despite his stature, Ibn Salim would go too far in his attack on Abu Yazid (God grant him compassion) and would even accuse him of infidelity in saying these things. I said to him “God forgive you!” The learned of our regions take blessings (yatabarraküna) at the tomb o f Abu Yazid (Gods compassion upon him) down to the present day. And they report about the earlier shaykhs that they used to pay visit to him (yazürünahu) and take blessings from his devotions {duayahu). They considered him one o f the most exalted of worshipers and renouncers and people of wisdom (m arifa ) in Allah. They recall that he sur­ passed the people o f his age in conscientiousness and striving {ijtihäd) and the uninterrupted remembrance of Allah Most High. Some people have even related that they saw him engaged in remembrance (dhikr) of Allah Most High until he urinated blood from awe of the Most High and from the continu­ ance o f his exalting of Allah Most High and Transcendent. So how are we to believe him guilty o f infidelity because o f some report about him, when we did not know what he in­ tended in what he said and we have not ascertained his state (bâlihi) in the moment (waqt) in which he spoke? Then can we judge him concerning what has reached us about him except

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after experiencing a state like his state and a moment like his moment and an ecstatic experi­ ence (wajd) like his wajdt v Did not Allah Most High say (49:12) “O you who believe, avoid too much opinion— some opinion is sin.” Those are the words that occurred with Ibn Sajim in his assembly con­ cerning the reports he related about Abu Yazid, God grant him compassion, or words o f the

same meaning or near to that meaning. 3. Now as for his saying, “I pitched my tent in the environs o f the throne or at th throne”—if it is true that he said that—it is a known fact that all o f humankind, creation itself, and each and every thing that Allah has created are under the throne and in front o f the throne. His saying “I pitched my tent in front of the throne” means “I faced my tent toward the lord of the throne.” There is not a single footspace in the entire world that is not in front o f the throne, so there is no inroad in that for the faultfinder to launch his attack. 4a. But as for his saying as he passed a Jewish cemetery “forgiven!”—that is, “as if they were forgiven”—it is as if he had gazed into the unhappiness and the Judaism Allah had ordained for them without any deed on their part having been com mitted in pre­ eternity, and saw that Allah ordained resentment against them as part o f their lot. So how could they have been made agents o f any deed other than the deed o f the people who are resented? Therefore he spoke as if they were forgiven, but they are not forgiven in respect to what the pen has set down, what the book has pronounced, and the words Allah has attributed to them: (9:30) “Ezra is the son o f God” and (5:18) “We are G ods sons and favorites.” Allah Most High is just in all that he has decreed, judicious in all that he has traced; (21:23) “He will not be asked to account for what he is doing; rather it is they who will be asked.” 4b. And as for his saying, as he passed by a Muslim cemetery, “deluded!”—if it is true that he said that—it is as if he had observed the habits of the majority o f Muslims who look to their deeds and who desire to gain salvation through their own interpretive endeavor (ijtihàd). Few are they who can free themselves from that! Therefore he called them deluded because all the acts o f humankind—if placed alongside a single grace bestowed by Allah upon humankind, through which he guided them to him and adorned their hearts with faith and with the m arifa o f his unity ( wahdàniyya) —would be exposed as futile and would dwindle away. In all o f creation there is not a single movement and not a single breath that does not originate from Allah Most High and end in Allah Most High and Transcendent. Whoever thinks anyone is saved other than through the favor o f Allah and the profusion o f his compassion is deluded, lost. Do you not know that the lord o f the prophets and the Imam o f the godfearing said: “There is among us no one who will be saved by his own deed,” and when asked, “N ot even you?” responded, “N ot even I, unless the compassion o f Allah envelops me.”

Selection 4: The Nature of the Spiritual Master or Shaykh The epistolary genre has a distinguished history in classical Sufism. N ot only was it a common method for Sufis to communicate among themselves, but it was also a particularly accessible

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format through which to discuss wide-ranging topics on the nature o f mysticism and spiri­ tual training. The M aktûbât-i sadî of the South Asian Sufi, Sharafuddin Maneri, is a particu­ larly fine example o f this genre. In these selections Maneri counsels the initiate on the way to choose a spiritual guide and oudines the qualifications that distinguish reliable masters from charlatans. Maneri makes clear how essential a reputable spiritual master is for anyone wish­ ing to make serious progress along the path.

Selection 4 Letter 5 : Searching for a Spiritual Guide In the nam e o f God, the M erciful, the Compassionate! My brother Shamsuddin, may God honor you in both worlds! You should know that ac­ cording to the unanimous opinion of famous saints o f the Way, a novice, after undergoing genuine repentance, should seek a spiritual guide. He should be perfect, well versed in the vicissitudes o f the Way, and firmly established in his high state. In short, he should be a man who has experienced both the horror of G ods majesty and the delight o f His beauty. “The learned are the descendants o f the prophets.” W ith regard to the spiritual guide, all these qualities should have been realized in his person. He should be a physician skilled in the knowledge o f medicines and the types o f treatment to be applied to the defects and ailments for which the novice is seeking a cure. God Himself has said: “Associate with the righteous” (Q?:119), that is, associate with the prophets. After them come the great sheikhs, who are the successors to the prophets, since “the learned are the descendants o f the prophets.” It is a Tradition o f explaining the process o f succession. “My learned ones are like the prophets o f the People o f Israel” is a related Tradition as is the declaration that “a sheikh in his community is like a prophet in his.” This is especially true if the people have no means o f acquiring instruction in the path of religion from a prophet. [Three illustra­ tive quotes follow.]... Remember, too, that an ordinary road is infested with thieves and robbers, so that one cannot travel along it without an escort. As for the mystic Way, the world, ones ego, devils, men, and jinn all infest this Way, thus making it impossible to travel along it without an ex­ perienced, holy man as ones escort. Remember, further, that there are many slippery places where it is easy to fall. And one can be plagued with misfortune and dangers from behind! Many philosophers and worldly minded people, as well as others lacking faith, piety, or any semblance o f morality—have become followers o f their own base desires. They have gone without a perfect sheikh or leader who has reached his goal on this Way, and have instead trusted in their own intellectual powers. They entered the wilderness where they fell and perished, losing even their faith. You are an ant; the Way is like the long tresses of beauty. Beware, O man, o f merely guessing or blindly following others. If the sheikh is possessed o f supernatural powers, he will be able to protect the novice from either falling or languishing during his struggles. The explanations and subtle

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hints o f the sheikh can also guide the novice to the proper way o f acting. Otherwise, the novice will fall into dissipation or formalism and wjll lose whatever he has labored to g ain !... The pilgrim treading this Path will have to pass through several spiritual stages. W hen his soul is stripped bare of its outer garment, a ray o f the divine light will illumine it, and the soul might even, in this state, perform a miracle as an agent o f God. In the experience o f divine union, such as was expressed in the “I am the Truth” o f al-Hallaj, and the “Praise be to me” of Bistami, it is possible to become proud o f being blissfully united to ones Goal. It becomes apparent that, although endowed with intellect, knowledge, and understanding, such a person is nevertheless unable to exercise true perception. If, in this condition, a sheikh who is well versed in spiritual matters does not guide him, there would be great fear that he might lose his faith and fall into the wilderness of imagining himself as God incarnate or as one identical with God! In the course o f his pilgrimage, he should expect to be assailed by spiritual crises. Also, various types o f mystical experiences might occur; some might be S a­ tanic, others might be produced by his own ego, still others could come from the Merciful One Himself. This is all entirely new to the novice and he cannot discern the source o f these spiritual experiences. He needs the assistance o f one well versed in discerning these various spirits, in the same way as cocks alone understand the crowing o f their peers. In the words o f a poet: How can you comprehend the language of cocks, Since you have never met a Solomon? At this stage the novice can by no means make progress unless he has a God-assisted sheikh to help him, a teacher who is widely experienced in the understanding o f spiritual matters.... In order to help novices, the sheikhs draw conclusions from first principles and, accord­ ing to these conclusions, issue instructions to guide them. The first instruction applies to the moment when God Almighty opens the eyes o f someone to his deeds so that he can judge the good as good and the evil as evil. There then wells up within him the intention of expunging the latter, but he does not know how to set about doing so. W hat must he do? He should visit some holy person who lives in a religious sanctuary and bind himself to him with the determination of changing his way o f life. He hopes that one of Gods cherished ones will accept him, fallen and lost as he is, and release him from the vice of ungodly selfishness that grips him. Second, if any blemish or defect comes to light, the guide should, in a gentle and compassionate manner, induce the novice to abstain from such things. Third, the guide should keep him away from bad acquaintances and unsuitable companions, and should also forbid him to listen to their conversation. All that it would take the novice a year to accomplish by himself can be finished off in an hour with the proper guide! The same holds true in other matters. It is only possible for the novice to reach an advanced stage with a spiritual guide through whose assistance he obtains his desire. The novice might have to associate with

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two, three, four, or even more guides in order to reach his Goal. Each guide and each as­ sociation would become for him the revelation o f a stage, but it would be better if he made no slur about the guide s own stage o f spiritual growth. N or should he point out that the guide has only attained to some particular stage. He should say: “It was allotted to me to get this far from my association with-him. He must have gone higher than this!” This is a more polite way o f talking. The really mature ones o f the Way o f the Lord Most High do not preoccupy themselves with stages and states. If you are associated with a guide, you should not depart from that place without his permission nor, on your own initiative, dis­ sociate yourself from him. This condition should be kept in mind. If the novice goes to another guide, or sets out on a fruitless search w ithout the permission o f his own guide, he will not achieve what he desires! Everyone who acts in such a manner becomes a renegade o f the Way. According to the understanding o f the sheikhs, such a person has really aban­ doned the Way. W hen a novice begins to associate with a spiritual guide, he will have to spend three years in three types of training. If he stands firm in obeying these orders, he can then don the real garb o f the seeker, and not merely the conventional one. Unless this procedure is fol­ lowed, experienced guides insist that the novice cannot be accepted into the Way. The three requirements are: one years service on behalf of other people, one year devoted to God, and another year spent in watching over ones own heart. A novices hands should be wide open in prayer and his tongue moving in supplication, for the prayers of those who weep and moan find favor in Gods eyes. At such times, the veil of modesty is lifted, and what one desires should be asked for importunately. Ask for whatever you wish, and do not get caught up with trifles! D o not leave the divine threshold or cut yourself off from Him! You should know that He has lavished everything freely upon men. Faith, as well as the forgiveness o f sins, has been freely bestowed. He is the One who can bestow the whole world if He wants to. “Is there anyone who begs to be heard? Is there anyone who seeks? Is there anyone who implores forgiveness?” Something within stirred me up: “Ask Me, for my generosity knows no bounds! I command you to ask! If you do not, I shall press you for being lax. I give even what has not been asked for.”

Letter 6: The Qualifications o f a Sheikh In the nam e o f God, the M erciful, the Compassionate! Dear brother Shamsuddin, may G od honor you in both worlds! It should be noted that the foundation o f the qualifications and claims to rank o f a sheikh or religious leader rests, in brief, on five supports. These have been extracted from the following Quranic verse: “They [Moses and a companion] found a servant [Khizr] from among O ur servants to whom We had shown mercy and blessed by granting him whom we had taught knowledge” (Q18:65). From ourselves when God sent Moses to Khwaja Khizr for his initiation and instruction, Khizr taught Moses the five stages to becoming a sheikh, a religious leader, and a teacher! The first is the submission o f servanthood common to our servants; the second is an aptitude to receive truths directly from God w ithout any intermediary; the third is a

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submission distinguishable from the first submission by a very special grace; the fourth is the honor o f receiving divine knowledge o f G od w ithout ^uiy intermediary; and the fifth is the riches o f receiving infused knowledge. These five stages, taken together, comprise all that is meant by perfection in its various levels, explanations, anc^details, even though it cannot be set forth in a single letter like this. The sheikh should be experienced in these specialized affairs. He becomes well quali­ fied in them by having passed through them all himself. Generally speaking, each stage has its own goodness and is well supported by various traditions. Much material is available for the first stage, and is readily accessible to the sheikh. Until he is freed from servitude to all that is not God, he cannot become a servant o f God. The second stage—the capability of receiving truths direedy from God w ithout any intermediary—is impossible until you emerge completely from the natural man with all his disordered inclinations. This is also the precondition for experiencing G ods special mercy. But the special favor o f closeness to God that constitutes the third stage is not granted to those who simply imitate what other people do. More is required before the luster o f divinity can shine on a persons head and enable him to attain this high post o f intimacy with God. At the fourth stage one acquires knowledge o f God without any intermediary. So long as the tablet o f the heart is not wiped clean o f knowledge obtained by the intellect, or by hearing, or by sense perception, it re­ mains impure and cannot receive knowledge without an intermediary. The special aspect o f the fifth stage is that it conveys infused knowledge inclusive of not only the essence and actions o f God but also the divine essence. The Prophet has said: “I recognized my Lord by means o f my Lord.” Jesus the Prophet also said: "A man cannot be reckoned among the host o f angels in heaven and on earth, that is, those who have attained divine illumination, unless he be born again!” This stage is not obtained simply by the act o f being born from a human mother; a once-born person sees only this world, but everyone who is born again from himself, that is, one who emerges from bondage to his human inclinations, will see the other world. Both this world and the world to come are evident—that is what it means to be born again. It has also been said that the hierarchy o f stages and the various ranks o f religious leadership are not contained within limits and numbers. Being a sheikh is not a question o f personal appearance, that is, the contour of ones face or beard, by which people may discern that such-and-such is a sheikh. To be a sheikh is to experience great intimacy with God. As has been said, “The saints dwell under My domes. Except for Me, no one can rec­ ognize them.” ... Another question arises: Is there any sign to distinguish a pretender from a genuine teacher, or one who is capable from one who is incompetent? The answer given is that there are many signs, but it is difficult to interpret them; there is no sign that subsumes all the others, nor is there a single one to which we could point and say, “This certainly shows he is a sheikh!” or, if it is not present, that he is not a sheikh. In short, it has been said about some­ one who has been previously favored, “God has favored his servants before the creation o f earth and water!” Those people who struggle on O ur behalf (Q29:69) and place their feet on

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the path o f seeking due to the irresistible attraction of the divine favor should turn their hearts away from their all-too-familiar sloth and the sinfiil delights o f their soul, as has been divinely decreed from the beginning o f time. The beauty of the sheikh who has attained his end and become perfected is mirrored in his heart. The seeker desires that the sheikh be a pilgrim himself, not an ecstatic, since, such people do not make suitable sheikhs, although they, too, may experience ecstasies. But the ecstasy of sheikhs is of a different order. It hallows them, enables them to teach and guide others, and is quite different from unrestrained ec­ stasy. W hen a righteous novice perceives, in his own heart, the beauty o f a sheikh, he becomes enamored o f the beauty of his saintliness, draws peace and contentment from him, and begins his search. The origin o f all goodness is C ertain uneasiness; this is how a lover is bom. Until the novice falls completely in love with the beauty and saindiness o f the sheikh, he will not come under the full influence of his guidance. The novice should follow the wishes o f the sheikh, not his own! In this respect it has been said: “Discipleship is the abandonment o f all ones own desires.” It is said that there is no nook or cranny where a saindy teacher cannot be found. Even if such a place were to exist, it would still be under the protection o f the shadow o f His bounty and there will remain no distinction between his will and the will o f God, and he will breathe the divine inspiration in every breath, to such an extent that he comes to exemplify the tradition “Whoever is for God, God is for him.” There is only one caliph and sultan for an age, but ordinary teachers, like vegetable sellers, are found in every town. [An expression o f the intercessory power o f the saints follows.] O brother, know for certain that this work has been going on since long before you or I appeared! Each person has arrived at his resting place and the stage he has attained has been made clear. There is no one who has begun a completely new work. That which was ordained has now become manifest in its entirety. Do you think that any o f the 124,000 prophets who entered this world brought a new revelation with him? N ot at all! O n the contrary, they have stirred up what was in your heart and turned your attention to what God has ordained. The purpose of books and prophets and intermediaries is merely to propel you forward to the established goal. [A saying of Abul Hasan Kharaqani is quoted.] Peace!

Selection 5: On Language Selection 5(a): The Language o f Love Sufi theorists excelled at the careful and nuanced analysis o f key concepts and terms in mysti­ cism. In this selection o f the Kashfal-mahjûb Al-Hujwîrî delves into the multifaceted mean­ ings o f love: desire, passion, grace, praise, excessive love, and so forth. A common way Sufi masters used to highlight different understandings of a particular issue and to enhance the authority o f their own opinions was to include in their analyses relevant sayings o f major Sufis, both contemporaries and those from an earlier period. Here al-Hujwîrî provides a broad spectrum o f opinion on the true nature of love from Sufis o f recognized spiritual authority.

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Section You must know that the term “love” (mahabbat) is used by theologians in three significations. Firstly, as meaning restless desire for the object of love, and inclination and passion, in which sense it refers only to created beings and their mutual affection tq^vards one another, but cannot be applied to God, who is exalted far above anything o f this sort. Secondly, as mean­ ing God s beneficence and His conferment o f special privileges on those whom He chooses and causes to attain the perfection o f saintship and peculiarly distinguishes by diverse kinds o f His miraculous grace. Thirdly, as meaning praise which God bestows on a man for a good action {thanâ-yijam ît)} Some scholastic philosophers say that Gods love, which He has made known to us, belongs to those traditional attributes, like His face and His hand and His setding Himself firmly on His throne (istiwa), of which the existence from the standpoint o f reason would appear to be impossible if they had not been proclaimed as Divine attributes in the Koran and the Sunna. Therefore we affirm them and believe in them, but suspend our own judg­ ment concerning them. These scholastics mean to deny that the term “love” can be applied to God in all the senses which I have mentioned. I will now explain to you the truth o f this matter. G ods love o f Man is His good will towards him and His having mercy on him. Love is one o f the names o f His will (iradat), like “satisfaction,” “anger,” “mercy,” etc., and His will is an eternal attribute whereby He wills His actions. In short, G ods love to ­ wards Man consists in showing much favor to him, and giving him a recompense in this world and the next, and making him secure from punishm ent and keeping him safe from sin, and bestowing on him lofty “states” and exalted “stations” and causing him to turn his thoughts away from all that is other than God. W hen G od peculiarly distinguishes anyone in this way, that specialization o f His will is called love. This is the doctrine o f H drith Muhâsibi and Junayd and a large number o f the Sufi Shaykhs as well as o f the lawyers belonging to both the sects; and most o f the Sunni scholastics hold the same opinion. As regards their assertion that Divine love is “praise given to a man for a good action” {thanâ-yi ja m il bar banda), G ods praise is His word (,kaldm ), which is uncre­ ated; and as regards their assertion that Divine love means “beneficence,” His benefi­ cence consists in His actions. Hence the different views are substantially in close relation to each other. Man s love towards God is a quality which manifests itself in the heart o f the pious believer, in the form of veneration and magnification, so that he seeks to satisfy his Beloved and becomes impatient and restless in his desire for vision o f Him, and cannot rest with anyone except Him, and grows familiar with the remembrance {dhikr) o f Him, and abjures the remembrance of everything besides. Repose becomes unlawful to him and rest flees from him. He is cut off from all habits and associations, and renounces sensual passion and turns towards the court o f love and submits to the law o f love and knows God by His at­ tributes o f perfection. It is impossible that Man s love o f God should be similar in kind to the love o f His creatures towards one another, for the former is desire to comprehend and

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attain the beloved object, while the latter is a property of bodies. The lovers o f God are those who devote themselves to death in nearness to Him, not those who seek His nature (kayfiyyat), because the seeker stands by himself, but he who devotes himself to death {mustahlik) stands by his Beloved; and the truest lovers are they who would fain die thus, and are overpowered, because a phenomenal being has no means o f approaching the Eter­ nal save through the omnipotence o f the Eternal. He who knows what is real love feels no more difficulties, and all his doubts depart. Love, then, is o f two kinds— (1) the love o f like towards like, which is a desire instigated by the lower soul and which seeks the essence (dhdt) o f the beloved object by means o f sexual intercourse; (2) the love o f one who is unlike the object o f his love and who seeks to become intimately attached to an attribute o f that object, e.g. hearing w ithout speech or seeing without eye. And believers who love G od are o f two kinds— (1) those who regard the favour and beneficence o f God towards them, and are led by that regard to love the Benefactor; (2) those who are so enraptured by love that they reckon all favours as a veil (between themselves and God) and by regarding the Benefactor are led to (consciousness of) His favours. The latter way is the more exalted o f the two.

Section Concerning excessive love {'ishq) there is much controversy among the Shaykhs. Some $ufis hold that excessive love towards God is allowable, but that it does not proceed from God. Such love, they say, is the attribute of one who is debarred from his beloved, and Man is de­ barred from God, but God is not debarred from Man: therefore Man may love God exces­ sively, but the term is not applicable to God. Others, again, take the view that God cannot be the object o f Man s excessive love, because such love involves a passing beyond limits, whereas God is not limited. The moderns assert that excessive love, in this world and the next, is prop­ erly applied only to the desire o f attaining the essence, and inasmuch as the essence o f God is not attainable, the term {*ishq) is not righdy used in reference to Mans love towards God, although the terms “love” {mahabbat) and “pure love” {safivat) are correct. They say, more­ over, that while love {mahabbat) may be produced by hearing, excessive love Çishq) cannot possibly arise without actual vision: therefore it cannot be felt towards God, who is not seen in this world. The essence o f God is not attainable or perceptible, that Man should be able to feel excessive love towards Him; but Man feels love {mahabbat) towards God, because God, through His attributes and actions, is a gracious benefactor to His friends. Since Jacob was absorbed in love {mahabbat) for Joseph, from whom he was separated, his eyes became bright and clear as soon as he smelt Josephs shirt; but since Zulaykhd was ready to die on account o f her excessive love {‘ishq) for Joseph, her eyes were not opened until she was united with him. It has also been said that excessive love is applicable to God, on the ground that neither God nor excessive love has any opposite.

Section I will now mention a few o f the innumerable indications which the Sufi Shaykhs have given as to the true nature o f love. Master Abu 1-Qasim Qushayri says: “Love is the effacement of the

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lover s attributes and the establishment of the Beloveds essence,” i.e. since the Beloved is sub­ sistent (baq{) and the lover is annihilated {fànt) the jealojisy o f love requires that the lover should make the subsistence of the Beloved absolute by negating himself, and he cannot negate his own attributes except by affirming the essence o f the Beloved. No lover can stand by his own attributes, for in that case he would not need the Beloveds beauty; but when he knows that his life depends on the Beloved s beauty, he necessarily seeks to annihilate his own attri­ butes, which veil him from his Beloved; and thus in love for his Friend he becomes an enemy to himself. It is well known that the last words ofHusayn b. Mansur (al-Hallaj) on the scaffold were Hash al-wajid ijrad al-wahid, “It is enough for the lover that he should make the One single,” i.e. that his existence should be cleared away from the path o f love and thât the domin­ ion of his lower soul should be utterly destroyed. Abu Yazid Bistdmf says: “Love consists in regarding your own much as litde and your Beloved s litde as much.” This is how God Himself deals with His servants, for He calls “litde” that which He has given to them in this world (Kor. iv. 79), but calls their praise of Him “much”—“the men and women whopraise God much” (Kor. xxxiii, 35)—in order that all His creatures may know that He is the real Beloved, because nothing is litde that God bestows on Man, and all is litde that Man offers to God. Sahl b. Abdalldh al-Tustari says: “Love consists in embracing acts o f obedience {mu anaqat aU tadi) and in avoiding acts of disobedience,” because a man performs the command o f his beloved more easily in proportion to the strength of love in his heart. This is a refutation o f those her­ etics who declare that a man may attain to such a degree o f love that obedience is no longer required of him, a doctrine which is sheer heresy. It is impossible that any person, while his understanding is sound, should be relieved of his religious obligations, because the law o f Mu­ hammad will never be abrogated, and if one such person may be thus relieved why not all ? The case of persons overcome with rapture {maghlûb) and idiots {ma ‘tuh) is different. It is possi­ ble, however, that God in His love should bring a man to such a degree that it costs him no trouble to perform his religious duties, because the more one loves Him who gives the com­ mand the less trouble will he have in executing it. W hen the Aposde abandoned himself en­ tirely to devotion both by day and night, so that his blessed feet became swollen, God said: “We have not sent down the Koran to thee in order that thoushouldst be miserable (Kor. xx, 1). And it is also possible that one should be relieved of the consciousness o f performing the Divine command, as the Aposde said: “Verily, a veil is drawn over my heart, and I ask forgive­ ness of God seventy times daily,” i.e. he asked to be forgiven for his actions, because he was not regarding himself and his actions, that he should be pleased with his obedience, but was paying regard to the majesty of Gods command and was thinking that his actions were not worthy o f Gods acceptance. Sumnun Muhibb says: “The lovers of God have borne away the glory o f this world and the next, for the Prophet said, A man is with the object o f his love/” Therefore they are with God in both worlds, and those who are with God can do no wrong. The glory o f this world is Gods being with them, and the glory of the next world is their being with God. Yahyd b. Mu adh al-Rizi says: “Real love is neither diminished by unkindness nor increased by kindness and bounty,” because in love both kindness and unkindness are causes, and the cause o f a thing is reduced to nothing when the thing itself actually exists. A lover delights in the

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affliction that his beloved makes him suffer, and having love he regards kindness and unkind' ness with the same indifference. The story is well known how Shiblf was supposed to be insane and was confined in a madhouse. Some persons came to visit him. “W ho are you?” he asked. They answered: “Thy friends,” whereupon he pelted them with stones and put them to flight. Then he said: “Had you been my friends, you would not have fled from my affliction.”

Selection 5(b): The Nature o f Words Rûmî is perhaps the best known o f the Sufi poets of the medieval period. His literary output was enormous. Rûmî’s poetry was written in Persian while some o f his prose is in Arabic. In this brief section from his monumental Persian treatise of Sufism, the M atbnawî, Rûmî makes clear that no matter how many words one produces, the goal o f the spiritual quest is the dissolution of all categories of distinction. As he describes in another poem, when one reaches the goal, there is no distinction among the soul who calls out to the Beloved, the object o f the call, and the call.

Dig a Hole in this Book Maybe you can’t drink the entire Oxus River but don’t deny you’re thirsty! You want a spirit-drenching? Dig a hole in this book, the M athnawi, this island. Make holes, so the ocean can flow up through. Dig and make it porous until it’s all seawater. W ind moves word-leaves off the surface, showing one-color, clearness. Beneath you, coral branches, and ocean-peaches! W hen the M athnawi sinks, with your digging, it loses its words. Speaker, listener, language. Bread-giver, bread-taker, bread. The categories dissolve into One Water. (M athnawi, VI, 66-73)

Selection 5(c): Words and Text T he tradition o f storytelling has a long history in the Islamic world. Didactive fables were used by preachers and Sufis to communicate in more accessible fashion what might

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otherwise appear abstract and disconnected from everyday life. Rûmî is a master o f the concrete, often couching his spiritual teaching in images o f nature, food, domestic life, sensuality and sexuality, and the animal kingdom. T he story1o f the mouse and the frog is a particularly fine example o f the genre. In the first p a rt o f the fable, mouse and frog, as different as animals can be, find in com panionship a nurturing bond. In the second part, the frog is identified by Rûmî w ith spirit, which escapes from mouse-materiality to swim free, unencumbered by physicality. For Rûmî, the material world is n ot evil, although it can ensnare the ignorant. Seekers are counseled to immerse themselves in the created Now, for it is in and through the created world that they will encounter spirit. The moral o f the story is that the frog needs the mouse, as much is the mouse needs the frog.

A Mouse and a Frog A mouse and a frog meet every morning on the riverbank. They sit in a nook of the ground and talk. Fach morning, the second they see each other, they open easily, telling stories and dreams and secrets, empty of any fear or suspicious holding-back. To watch and listen to those two is to understand how, as its written, sometimes when two beings come together, Christ becomes visible. The mouse starts laughing out a story he hasn't thought o f in five years, and the telling might take five years! There's no blocking the speechflow-river-runningall-carrying momentum that true intimacy is. Bitterness doesn't have a chance with those two. The God-Messenger, Khidr, touches a roasted fish. It leaps off the grill back into the water. Friend sits by Friend, and the tablets appear. They read the mysteries offeach other's foreheads. But one day the mouse complains, “There are times when I want sohbet,1 and you're out in the water, jumping around where you can’t hear me.

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We meet at this appointed time, but the text says, Lovers pray constantly. Once a day, once a week, five times an hour, is not enough. Fish like we are need the ocean around us!” Do camel-bells say, L et’s meet back here Thursday night? Ridiculous. They jingle together continuously, talking while the camel walks. Do you pay regular visits to yourself*. D o n t argue or answer rationally. Let us die, and dying, reply. (M athnawi, VI, 2632,2665-2669,2681-2684)

The Long String The Mouse asks the Beloved Frog, Do you know whatyou are to me? D uring the day, you’re my energyfo r working. A t night, you’re my deepest sleep. B ut could we be together outside o f Time as well as inside? Physically, we meet only a t breakfast. Yotir absence during the rest o f the day enters a ll my cravings! I drink five hundred times too much. I eat like a bulemic trying to die. Help me!I I know I ’m not worth it, butyour generosity is so vast! L et your sunlight shine on this piece o f dung, and dry it out, so I can be usedfo r fu el to warm and light up a bath-house.

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Look on the terrible and stupid things I've done, and cause herbs and eglantine to grow otit o f them. The sun does this with the ground. Think what glories God can make from the fertilizer o f sinning! The Mouse continues to beg, M y Friend, I know I'm ugly to you. I'm ugly to me! I'm perfectly ugly! B ut look, you'll be sad when I die, won'tyou! You'll sit by my grave and weep a little ! A ll I'm asking is, be with me that little bit o f time while I'm still alive! Now. I wantyou N O W ! A certain rich man was accustomed to honor a Sufi by giving him pieces o f silver. “Would you like one piece o f silver now, O Lord of my Spirit, or three at breakfast tomorrow morning?” The Sufi answered, “I love the half a coin that I have already in my hand from yesterday more than the promise o f a whole one today, or the promise o f a hundred tomorrow. A Sufi is the child of this moment.” Back to the Mouse, who says, The slap o f Now has cash in its hand. Give me slaps, on the neck, anywhere! Soul o f my Soul of the Soul o f a hundred universes, be water in this Now-river. So jasmine flowers will lift on the brim, and someone far off can notice the flower-colors and know there s water here. “The sign is in the face.” You can look at an orchard and tell if it rained last night. That freshness is the sign.

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Again, the Mouse, Friend, Vm madefrom the ground* andfor the ground. Youre ofthe water. Im always standing on the hank calling to you. Have mercy. I cantfollow you into the water. Isn t there some way we can be in touch ? A messengerÏ Some reminder? The two Friends decided that the answer was a long, a longing, string, with one end tied to the Mouse s foot and the other to the Frog’s, so that by pulling on it their secret connection might be remembered and the two could meet, as the Soul does with the Body. The Frog-like Soul often escapes from the Body and soars in the happy water. Then the Mouse-body pulls on the string, and the Soul thinks, Damn. I have to go back on the riverbank and talk with that scatterbrained Mouse! You 11hear more about this when you really wake up, on Resurrection Day! So the Mouse and the Frog tied the string, even though the Frog had a hunch some tangling was to come. Never ignore those intuitions. W hen you feel some slight repugnance about doing something, listen to it. These premonitions come from God. Remember the story o f the military elephant who would not move toward the Kaaba.3 Paralyzed in that direction, yet swift if pointed toward Yemen. It had some In-knowing from the Unseen. So the Prophet Jacob, when his other sons wanted to take Joseph out in the country for two days, had a heart-sickness about their going, and it was true, though Divine Destiny prevailed, despite his foreboding, as It will. Its not always a blind man who falls in a pit. Sometimes its one who can see. A Holy One does sometimes fall, but by that tribulation, he or she ascends.

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escapes many illusions, escapes conventional religion, escapes being so bound to phenomena. Think of how PHEN O M ENA come trooping out o f the Desert of Non-existence into this materiality. Morning and night, they arrive in a long line and take over from each other, “Its my turn now. Get out!” A son comes o f age, and the father packs up. This place o f phenomena is a wide exchange o f highways, with everything going all sorts of different ways. We seem to be sitting still, but were actually moving, and the Fantasies of Phenomena are sliding through us like ideas through curtains. They go to the well o f deep love inside each o f us. They fill their jars there, and they leave. There is a Source they come from, and a fountain inside here. Be generous. Be gratefrd. Confess when you’re not. We can’t know what the Divine Intelligence has in mind! W ho am I, standing in the midst o f this thought-traffic? (Mathnawiy VI, 2686-2786)

Notes 1. Cf. Qushayri (Cairo, 1315 A.H.), 170,14 sqq. 2. Spiritual conversation. 3. The sacred black stone in Mecca.

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Selection 6: On Prayer, Charity, and Morality Selection 6(a): Prayer and Morality ‘Abdullâh Ansârî is a follower o f the arch-conservative Hanbali school o f theology and law, known more for its reliance on literalist interpretations of text than on human reason. Con­ sequently Ansârî finds himself regularly confronting intellectual paradoxes, like the tension between freedom and predestination in the Quran. Rather than explain away paradox, Ansârî celebrates it. Images of intoxication proclaim that true spiritual progress occurs only when one abandons reason. So too when Ansârî ridicules four o f the five pillars o f Islam— prayer, fasting, almsgiving, pilgrimage-^he is forcing the initiate to question the relative value o f ritual in contrast to that o f love. But is Ansârî an antinomian? Far from it. He ques­ tions the validity o f ritual but is fully committed to rigorous observance. As a Sufi conserva­ tive, Ansârî discovers that paradox is at the core of his spiritual life.

Khwaja "Abdullah Ansari O G od, You commanded us to obey you and then prevented us from doing so. You forbade us to disobey you and then made us disobedient. You who are slow to anger and swift to make amends, ’ You have raised the banner o f imperfection over our heads. O God, You summon us down a path in which are pitfalls. If I fall into a pit, what fault is it of my companions? O G od, W hat is it to have mercy on the obedient? W hat is the value of mercy when it extends to everyone? O God, If Satan taught man evil, who provided him with the wheat?1 O G od, You are ever-present. Why then should I search? You are ever-mindful. W hat then should I say? O G od, You see and know: You are able to bring everything to fruition.

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O God, You do whatever you wish. W hat then do you desire o f this poor wretch? Yesterday I came and accomplished nothing*. Today no market was brisk because o f me. Tomorrow I shall go, unaware o f mysteries. Had I not come, much better would it have been! O G od, Everyone fears you, But Abdullah fears himself, for all that comes o f you is good. But what comes o f Abdullah, bad. O God, If all the world be caught in a whirlwind, let the lamp o f good fortune be not extinguished. If all the world be flooded, let the scar o f ill fortune be not washed away. Open to us a door to your acceptance that be not shut again. O G od, The rich pride themselves on gold and silver, while the poor make do with what you have allotted. O God, Others are intoxicated by wine: I am intoxicated by the cupbearer.2 Their intoxication is ephemeral but mine abides forever. O G od, W hether I am drunk or whether I am mad, I am among those who reside at this threshold. Give me knowledge o f myself, for I am a stranger to all existent things. I am intoxicated by you. I am free from the draught and goblet. I am your bird. I am free o f the grain and the snare.3 You are what I seek in the Kaaba and the idol-temple.4 Otherwise, I am free o f both these states. O G od, In the stream of that which you will flows water. W hat remedy is there for that which you will not ?

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O God, You cast pearls of purity into Adam s lap. You smeared the dust of rebellion on Satan s brow. These two natures you mingled together. We humbly confess that we have done wrong. Blame us not! It was you who stirred up the dust of temptation! O God, For a long time I sought you and found myself. Now I seek myself and find you. You were stealthily apparent, and 1 unaware. You were hidden in my breast, and I unaware. To the exclusion of all the world I sought you openly. You were the whole world, and I was unaware. O God, I am aware of my own inability. I bear witness to my own helplessness. All will is yours. W hat can I will? I want not eternal life from you, I want not the good things of this life, I want not my heart s desire or my souls repose. W hat I desire o f you is whatever is your pleasure.

The Song o f the Dervish O God, the qibla5 o f those who know is the sun o f your face. The mihrab6 o f all souls is the arch of your brow. The Masjid al-Aqsa7 o f all hearts is the sanctuary of your lane. Glance in our direction, for our gazes are upon you. The world is an abode of affliction and trial, not a place o f rest and repose. Where is there room here for joy and gladness ? To be mindful o f God in every condition is then the key to salvation. Vexed is the seeker after this world. Rewarded is the seeker after the next world. Glad is the seeker after the Lord. He who desires the world is mad. He who desires Heaven labors under a pretext: The goal is the Lord of the House. Some have ambition o f attaining Heaven: Some desire the Beloved.

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Happy is he whose banner reads “ALL IS H E ”! O Paradise,

s

I am not concerned with you: D o n t be so long-winded! O Hell, I am not afraid o f you: D o n t tell me about yourself! W hat is happiness ? To be concerned with loving God and to rid oneself o f love for Creation. Do you know who the traveler on the true road is ? He is one who knows what poverty is. To be a dervish means to be a lump o f sifted earth with a little water sprinkled on top. It means to be something that neither harms the soles o f the feet nor leaves a trail o f dust behind. W hat is poverty ? An unhypocritical exterior and a peaceful interior. The poor has neither name nor shame. He knows neither peace nor war. The poor has water in the well and bread in the unseen realm. He has neither a concern in his head nor gold in his pocket. This rank is not attained by putting on a cloak and cap. This felicity is attained by the striving o f an enlightened heart. If one abandons the rigor of knowledge for the delights o f the black-eyed houris, the purity o f his knowledge is shattered. If a dervish seeks anything other than God Himself from God, the door to His response is closed. W hat a happy abode is nothingness! If you walk on water, you are wet. If you fly in the air, you are a fly. Fall in love in order to be somebody! Fasting to endurance is a way to save on food. Vigil and prayer is a labor for old women. The pilgrimage is an occasion for tourism. To distribute bread in alms is something for philanthropists: Fall in love:

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That is doing something! Knowledge is a shoreless ocean in which the knowers soul is a signpost. Hallaj8 said, “I anrGod" and crowned the gallows. Abdullah said, “God” and was crowned. W hat Hallaj said I too have said. He said it aloud. I, silently. He who knows three things is saved from three things: W ho knows that the Creator made no mistakes at Creation is saved from caviling. W ho knows that He made no favoritism in allotting fortune is saved from jealousy, W ho knows o f what he is created is saved from pride. Look to what you do, for that is what you are worth. True labor means neither fasting nor prayer: True labor means defeat and needfulness. W hat grief does the humble have for his daily bread? He who conceals his affair is given no less; He who seeks openly is given no more. That which God has allotted neither increases one iota nor occurs one instant sooner. Beginners have speech on their tongues. The advanced have neither the power to speak nor the means to express. If I am silent they will say I am mad. If I speak they will say I am a stranger to reason. God s favor comes unexpectedly, but only to an alert heart. Put not your hope in people, for you will be wounded. Put your hope in God that you may be delivered. Strive to become a man and one who knows pain. O God, what have you given one

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to whom you have not given reason? W hat have you not given ope to whom you have given reason ? Be intoxicated but do not cry out ! Be frdsome but do not Eliminate! Be humble and silent: A sound jug is passed from hand to hand, but a broken one from shoulder to shoulder. If you want salvation, become afflicted! Seek the remaining after annihilation. If you have, rejoice! If you have not, seek!

Selection 6(b): Prayer and Actions In these few lines Rûmî argues that the efficacy o f prayer is demonstrated through actions not words. To pray and act immorally is to reduce prayer to an empty ritual.

On Resurrection Day O n Resurrection Day your body testifies against you. Your hand says, “I stole money.” Your lips, “I said meanness.” Your feet, “I went where I shouldn't.” Your genitals, “Me too.” They will make your praying sound hypocritical. Let the body's doings speak openly now, without your saying a word, as a student's walking behind a teacher says, “This one knows more clearly than I the way.”

(Mathnawiy V, 2211-2220)

Notes 1. In the Islamic version of the temptation o f Adam and Eve, the “apple” familiar from the King James Bible is a sheath of wheat or grain, which accords well with the notion here of providing sustenance, or “daily bread.” 2. In Persian mystical poetry, “wine” is that which intoxicates or deprives the yearning lover o f his senses and rationality. The “cupbearer” (saqi) is the manifestation of the divine Beauty. 3. “Grain” and “snare” are often found in Persian poetry in connection with birds, which are lured into the snare by a trail of grain. Here Ansari expresses his voluntaristic love for God by saying that he has no need of “draught and goblet” to be intoxicated by divine Beauty. He is as faithful to God as a tame bird and has no need o f “grain and snare” to be trapped.

Su f i s m 4. The Kaaba in Mecca is the central cult edifice of Islam. It is in the direction of the Kaaba, also known simply as “The House," that Muslims turn in prayer. In mystical poetry the Kaaba often represents adherence to the externals o f Islam, while the idol-temple (butkhana) represents the obverse, where the true devotee, or “idolator,” goes to worship his beloved idol, divine Beauty. 5. The qibla is the direction toward the Kaaba in Mecca. 6. The mihrab is the arched niche in a mosque that indicates the qibla. 7. The Masjid al-Aqsa, which stands next to the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, is the second most holy spot in Islam, after the Kaaba in Mecca. It was to al-Aqsa that the Prophet was transported during his Nocturnal Journey prior to his m i 'raj, or ascent into Heaven. 8. Hallaj, the famous martyr-mystic who, because in ecstatic union with God he claimed ana ‘l-haqq (“I am the Divine Truth"), was put to death in Baghdad in 922.

Selection 7: Mystical Union and Ineffability ‘A ttârs M antiqu ’l-tayr is a brilliantly constructed fable that delves into the most subde as­ pects o f the mystical Path. The conceit he uses is the journey o f a group o f birds to find their leader, the Simurgh. After much spiritual travail thirty birds (sî-murgh in Persian) finally pass through seven valleys and encounter the Simurgh/Beloved. In this seventh and final valley the self experiences annihilation in the One. Yet how is one to describe annihilation and union? Only the moth lost in the flame o f love knows and speaks no words. All we can hope is that one day we will attain the same ineffable experience.

Selection 7 Hie Valley o f Poverty [Faqr] and Nothingness [Fan&’] Next comes that valley words cannot express, The Vale o f Poverty and Nothingness: Here you are lame and deaf, the mind has gone; You enter an obscure oblivion. W hen sunlight penetrates the atmosphere A hundred thousand shadows disappear. And when the sea arises what can save The patterns on the surface o f each wave? The two worlds are those patterns, and in vain Men tell themselves what passes will remain. Whoever sinks within this sea is blest And in self-loss obtains eternal rest; The heart that would be lost in this wide sea Disperses in profound tranquillity, And if it should emerge again it knows The secret ways in which the world arose. The pilgrim who has grown wise in the Quest, The sufi who has weathered every test, Are lost when they approach this painful place,

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And ocher men leave not a single trace; Because all disappear, you might believe That all are equal (just as you perceive That twigs and incense offered to a flame , Both turn to powdered ash and look the same). But though they seem to share a common state, Their inward essences are separate, And evil souls sunk in this mighty sea Retain unchanged their base identity; But if a pure soul sinks the waves surround His fading form, in beauty he is drowned— He is not, yet he is; what could this mean? It is a state the mind has never seen. One night that sea o f secrets, that loved seer O f Tous, said to a pupil standing near: “W hen you are worn out by love s fierce despair And in your weakness tremble like a hair. You will become that hair and take your place In curls that cluster round the loved ones face— Whoever wastes away for love is made A hair concealed within those tresses’ shade— But if you will not waste away, your soul Has made the seven gates of hell its goal.” A frenzied lover wept; a passer-by Inquired the cause, and this was his reply: “They say that when at last the Lord appears, He will receive, for forty thousand years, The men who are deserving in this place; Then from that summit o f celestial grace They will return and know themselves once more Bereft o f light, the poorest of the poor. I will be shown myself—I weep to think That from such heights to such depths I must sink; I have no need of my identity— I long for death; what use is T to me ? I live with evil while my Self is here; W ith God both Self and evil disappear. W hen I escape the Self I will arise And be as God; the yearning pilgrim flies From this dark province o f mortality

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To Nothingness and to Eternity. And though, my heart, you bid the world farewell To cross the bridge that arches over hell, Do not despair—think o f the oil-lamps glow That sends up smoke as black as any crow; Its oil is changed and what was there before The shining flame flared up exists no more. So you, my quaking heart, when you endure These threatening flames, will rise up rare and pure.” First put aside the Self, and then prepare To mount Boraq1and journey through the air; Drink down the cup o f Nothingness; put on The cloak that signifies oblivion— Your stirrup is the void; absence must be The horse that bears you into vacancy. Destroy the body and adorn your sight W ith kohl o f insubstantial, darkest night. First lose yourself, then lose this loss and then W ithdraw from all that you have lost again— Go peacefully, and stage by stage progress Until you gain the realms o f Nothingness; But if you cling to any worldly trace, No news will reach you from that promised place.

The Moths and the Flame Moths gathered in a fluttering throng one night To learn the truth about the candle s light, And they decided one o f them should go To gather news o f the elusive glow. One flew till in the distance he discerned A palace window where a candle burned— And went no nearer; back again he flew To tell the others what he thought he knew. The mentor o f the moths dismissed his claim, Remarking: “He knows nothing of the flame.” A moth more eager than the one before Set out and passed beyond the palace door. He hovered in the aura of the fire, A trembling blur of timorous desire. Then headed back to say how far he’d been, And how much he had undergone and seen.

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The mentor said: “You do not bear the signs O f one who’s fathomed how the candle shines.” Another moth flew out—his dizzy flight Turned to an ardent wooing of the light; , He dipped and soared, and in his frenzied trance Both Self and fire were mingled by his dance— The flame engulfed his wing-tips, body, head; His being glowed a fierce translucent red; And when the mentor saw that sudden blaze, The moth’s form lost within the glowing rays, He said: “He knows, he knows the truth we seek, That hidden truth of which we cannot speak.” To go beyond all knowledge is to find That comprehension which eludes the mind, And you can never gain the longed-for goal Until you first outsoar both flesh and soul; But should one part remain, a single hair Will drag you back and plunge you in despair— No creature’s Self can be admitted here, Where all identity must disappear.

The sufi who thought he had left the world A sufi once, with nothing on his mind. Was—without warning—struck at from behind. He turned and murmured, choking back the tears: “The man you hit’s been dead for thirty years; He’s left this world!” The man who’d struck him said: “You talk a lot for someone who is dead! But talk’s not action—while you boast, you stray Further and further from the secret Way, And while a hair o f you remains, your heart And Truth are still a hundred worlds apart.” Burn all you have, all that you thought and knew (Even your shroud must go; let that burn too), Then leap into the flames, and as you burn Your pride will falter, you’ll begin to learn. But keep one needle back and you will meet A hundred thieves who force you to retreat (Think of that tiny needle which became The negligible cause of Jesus* shame2). As you approach this stage’s final veil, Kingdoms and wealth, substance and water fail; Withdraw into yourself, and one by one

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Give up the things you own—when this is done» Be still in selflessness and pass beyond All thoughts o f good and evil; break this bond» And as it shatters you are worthy of Oblivion, the Nothingness o f love.

Notes 1. The fabulous beast the Prophet mounted on the night of his ascent to heaven. 2. Jesus had a needle with him when he entered heaven, breaking Gods prohibition on earthly possessions.

Selection 8: The Understanding of God In this section o f the K ashf al-mahjûb al-Hujwîrî critiques the various interpretations of gnosis in Islamic philosophy, theology, and mysticism. He criticizes the extreme rationalist position that argues that gnosis is primarily intellectual and experienced only by an individ­ ual using his reasoning powers. He faults as well those Sufis who claim that gnosis is intuitive. Ultimately, al-Hujwîrî concludes, gnosis is a gift from God, not the product o f human intu­ ition or ratiocination.

Selection 8 Chapter XV The Uncovering o f the F irst Veil: Concerning the Gnosis o f God (m a rifa t A llah). The Apostle said: "If ye knew God as He ought to be known, ye would walk on the seas, and the mountains would move at your call.” Gnosis of God is o f two kinds: cognitional ( ïlm î) and emotional ( hält). Cognitional gnosis is the foundation o f all blessings in this world and in the next, for the most important thing for a man at all times and in all circumstances is knowledge o f God, as God hath said: *7 only created the genii and m ankind that they m ight serve Me* (Kor. li, 56), i.e. that they might know Me. But the greater part o f men neglect this duty, except those whom God hath chosen and whose hearts He hath vivified with Himself. Gnosis is the life o f the heart through God, and the turning away o f one’s inmost thoughts from all that is not God. The worth o f everyone is in proportion to gnosis, and he who is without gnosis is worth nothing. Theologians, lawyers, and other classes o f men give the name o f gnosis (m a n fa t) to right cognition {Him) o f God, but the Sufi Shaykhs call right feeling ( hat) towards God by that name. Hence they have said that gnosis {m anfat) is more excellent than cognition ( Him), for right feeling (hdl) is the result o f right cognition, but right cognition is not the same thing as right feeling, i.e. one who has not cognition of God is not a gnostic ( ‘d rift, but one may have cognition of God without being a gnostic. Those o f either class who were ignorant o f this distinction engaged in useless controversy, and the one party disbelieved in the other party. Now I will explain the matter in order that both may be instructed.

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Section You must know that there is a great difference of opinion touching the gnosis and right cog­ nition of God. The Mu tazilites assert that gnosis is intellectual and that only a reasonable person ( (d qil) can possibly have it. This doctrine is disproved by the fact that madmen, within Islam, are deemed to have gnosis, and that children, who are not reasonable, are deemed to have faith. Were the criterion o f gnosis an intellectual one, such persons must be without gnosis, while unbelievers could not be charged with infidelity, provided only that they were reasonable beings. If reason were the cause o f gnosis, it would follow that, every reasonable person must know God, and that all who lack reason must be ignorant o f Him; which is manifestly absurd. Others pretend that demonstration (istidlât) is the cause o f knowledge o f God, and that such knowledge is not gained except by those who deduce it in this manner. The futility of this doctrine is exemplified by Iblfs, for he saw many evidences, such as Para­ dise, Hell, and the Throne of God, yet they did not cause him to have gnosis. God hath said that knowledge o f Him depends on His will (Kor. vi, 111). According to the view o f ortho­ dox Moslems, soundness o f reason and regard to evidences are a means [sabab) to gnosis but not the cause pillât) thereof: the sole cause is Gods will and favor for without His favor (‘indyat) reason is blind. Reason does not even know itself: how, then, can it know another? Heretics of all sorts use the demonstrative method, but the majority o f them do not know God. O n the other hand, whenever one enjoys the favor o f God, all his actions are so many tokens o f gnosis; his demonstration is search (talab), and his neglect o f demonstration is resignation to Gods will [taslim)\ but, in reference to perfect gnosis, resignation is no better than search, for search is a principle that cannot be neglected, while resignation is a principle that excludes the possibility o f agitation (idtirdb), and these two principles do not essen­ tially involve gnosis. In reality Mans only guide and enlightener is God. Reason and the proofs adduced by reason are unable to direct anyone into the right way. If the infidels were to return from the place o f Judgment to this world, they would bring their infidelity back with them (cf. Kor. vi, 28). W hen the Commander o f the Faithful, All, was asked concern­ ing gnosis, he said: “I know God by God, and I know that which is not God by the light of God.” God created the body and committed its life to the spirit (jdn), and He created the soul [dit) and committed its life to Himself. Hence, inasmuch as reason and human faculties and evidences have no power to make the body live, they cannot make the soul live, as God hath said: “Shall he who was dead and whom We have restored to life and to whom We have given a light whereby he may walk among m en...?” (Kor. vi, 122), i.e. “I am the Creator o f the light in which believers are illumined.” It is God that opens and seals the hearts o f men (Kor. xxxix, 23; ii, 6): therefore He alone is able to guide them. Everything except Him is a cause or a means, and causes and means cannot possibly indicate the right way without the favor o f the Causer. He it is that imposes the obligation o f piety, which is essentially gnosis; and those on whom that obligation is laid, so long as they are in the state o f obligation, neither bring it upon themselves nor put it away from themselves by their own choice: therefore Man s share in gnosis, unless God makes him know, is mere helplessness. Abu T-Hasan Nüri says: “There is none to point out the way to God except God Himself: knowledge is sought only for due performance o f His worship.” N o created being is capable o f leading anyone to God. Those who rely on demonstration are not more reasonable than was Abu Tdlib, and no

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guide is greater than was Muhammad; yet, since Abu Tdlib was preordained to misery, the guidance o f Muhammad did not avail him. The first step o f demonstration is a turning away from God, because demonstration involves the consideration of some other thing, whereas gnosis is a turning away from all that is not God. Ordinary objects o f search are found by means o f demonstration, but knowledge o f God is extraordinary. Therefore, knowledge o f H im is attained only by unceasing bewilderment o f the reason, and His favor is not pro­ cured by any act o f human acquisition, but is miraculously revealed to mens hearts. W hat is not God is phenomenal (muhdath) and although a phenomenal being may reach another like himself he cannot reach his Creator and acquire Him while he exists, for in every act o f acquisition he who makes the acquisitidh is predominant and the thing acquired is under his power. Accordingly, the miracle is not that reason should be led by the act to affirm the existence o f the Agent, but that a saint should be led by the light o f the Truth to deny his own existence. The knowledge gained is in the one case a matter o f logic, in the other it be­ comes an inward experience. Let those who deem reason, to be the cause o f gnosis consider what reason affirms in their minds concerning the substance o f gnosis, for gnosis involves the negation o f whatever is affirmed by reason, i.e. whatever notion o f God can be formed by reason, G od is in reality something different. How, then, is there any room for reason to arrive at gnosis by means o f demonstration? Reason and imagination are homogeneous, and where genus is affirmed gnosis is denied. To infer the existence o f God from intellectual proofs is assimilation (tashblh), and to deny it on the same grounds is nullification (ta til). Reason cannot pass beyond these two principles, which in regard to gnosis are agnosticism since neither o f the parties professing them is Unitarian (muwahhid). Therefore, when reason is gone as far as possible, and the souls o f His lovers must needs search for Him, they rest helplessly without their faculties, and while they so rest they grow resdess and stretch their hands in supplication and seek a relief for their souls; and when they have exhausted every manner o f search in their power, the power of God becomes theirs, i.e. they find the way from Him to Him, and are eased of the anguish o f absence and set foot in the garden o f intimacy and win to rest. And reason, when it sees that the souls have attained their desire, tries to exert its control, but fails; and when it fails it becomes distraught; and when it becomes distraught it abdicates. Then God clothes it in the garment o f service (khidm at) and says to it: “W hile thou wert independent thou wert veiled by thy faculties and their exercise, and when these were annihilated thou didst fail, and having foiled thou didst attain.” Thus it is the allotted portion o f the soul to be near unto God, and that o f the reason is to do His service. God causes Man to know Him through Himself with a knowledge that is not linked to any faculty, a knowledge in which the existence o f Man is merely metaphorical Hence to the gnostic egoism is utter perfidy; his remembrance of God is without forgetftdness, and his gnosis is not empty words but actual feeling. Others, again, declare that gnosis is the result o f inspiration (ilhdm). This also is impos­ sible, because gnosis supplies a criterion for distinguishing truth from falsehood, whereas the inspired have no such criterion. If one says, “I know by inspiration that God is in space,” and another says, “I know by inspiration that He is not in space,” one o f these contradictory state­ ments must be true, but a proof is necessary in order to decide where the truth lies. Consequendy, this view which is held by the Brahmans and the inspirationists (ilhâmiyârï), fells to

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the ground. In the present age I have met a number o f persons who carried it to an extreme and who connected their own position with the doctrine of religious men, but they are alto­ gether in error, and their assertion is repugnant to all reasonable Moslem? and unbelievers. If it be said that whatever conflicts with the sacred law is not inspiration, I reply that this argu­ ment is fundamentally unsound, because, if inspiration is to be judged and verified by the standard of the sacred law, then gnosis does not depend on inspiration, but on law and proph­ ecy and Divine guidance. Others assert that knowledge o f God is intuitive (darûrî). This also is impossible. Ev­ erything that is known in this way must be known in common by all reasonable men, and inasmuch as we see that some reasonable men deny the existence o f God and hold the doc­ trines of assimilation {tashbih) and nullification {ta til), it is proved that knowledge o f God is not intuitive. Moreover, if it were so, the principle o f religious obligation (,taktiß would be destroyed, for that principle cannot possibly be applied to objects o f intuitive knowledge, such as ones self, the heaven and the earth, day and night, pleasure and pain, etc., concerning the existence of which no reasonable man can have any doubt, and which he must know even against his will. But some aspirants to Sufiism, considering the absolute certainty (yaqin) which they feel, say: “We know God intuitively,” giving the name o f intuition to this cer­ tainty. Substantially they are right, but their expression is erroneous, because intuitive knowl­ edge cannot be exclusively restricted to those who are perfect; on the contrary, it belongs to all reasonable men. Furthermore, it appears in the minds o f living creatures without any means or evidence, whereas the knowledge o f God is a means {sababi). But Master Abu Ali Daqqdq and Shaykh Abu Sahl Suluki1and his father, who was a leading religious authority at Nishdpur, maintain that the beginning o f gnosis is demonstrative and that its end is intui­ tive, just as technical knowledge is first acquired and finally becomes instinctive. “Do not you perceive,” they say, “that in Paradise knowledge o f God becomes intuitive ? W hy should it not become intuitive in this world too? And the Aposdes, when they heard the word o f God, either immediately or from the mouth of an angel or by revelation, knew Him intuitively,” I reply that the inhabitants of Paradise know God intuitively in Paradise, because in Paradise no religious obligation is imposed, and the Aposdes have no fear o f being separated from God at the last, but enjoy the same security as those who know Him intuitively. The excel­ lence of gnosis and faith lies in their being hidden; when they are made visible, faith becomes compulsory (jabr), and there is no longer any free will in regard to its visible substance {‘ayn), and the foundations o f the religious law are shaken, and the principle o f apostasy is annulled, so that Balam2 and Iblis and Barsisd3 cannot properly be described as infidels, for it is gener­ ally allowed that they had knowledge o f God. The gnostic, while he remains a gnostic, has no fear o f being separated from God; separation is produced by the loss o f gnosis, but intuitive knowledge cannot conceivably be lost. This doctrine is full o f danger to the vulgar. In order that you may avoid its evil consequences you must know that Man's knowledge and his gnosis o f God depend entirely on the information and eternal guidance o f the Truth. Mans cer­ tainty in gnosis may be now greater and now less, but the principle o f gnosis is neither in­ creased nor diminished, since in either case it would be impaired. You must not let blind conformity enter into your knowledge o f God, and you must know H im through His attri­ butes of perfection. This can be attained only through the providence and favour o f God,

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who has absolute control of our minds. If He so will, He makes one o f His actions a guide that shows us the way to Himself, and if He will otherwise, He makes that same action an obstacle that prevents us from reaching Him. Thus Jesus was to some a guide that led them to gnosis, but to others he was an obstacle that hindered them from gnosis; the former party said, “This is the servant of God,” and the latter said, “This is the son o f God.” Similarly, some were led to God by idols and by the sun and moon, while others were led astray. Such guides are a means o f gnosis, but not the immediate cause o f it, and one means is no better than another in relation to Him who is the author of them all. The gnostic s affirmation o f a means is a sign o f dualism (zunndr), and regard to anything except the object o f knowledge is poly­ theism {shirk). W hen a man is doomed to perdition in the Preserved Tablet, nay, in the will and knowledge o f God, how can any proof and demonstration lead him aright? The most high God, as He pleases and by whatever means He pleases, shows His servant the way to Himself and opens to him the door of gnosis, so that he attains to a degree where the very essence o f gnosis appears alien (ghayr) and its attributes become noxious to him, and he is veiled by his gnosis from the object known and realizes that his gnosis is a pretension {dawâ). D hu T-Nun the Egyptian says: “Beware lest thou make pretensions to gnosis,” and it has been said in verse— “ The gnostics pretend to knowledge, B u t I avow ignorance: that is my knowledge.” Therefore do not claim gnosis, lest thou perish in thy pretension, but cleave to the reality thereof, that thou mayest be saved. W hen anyone is honoured by the revelation o f the Divine majesty, his existence becomes a plague to him and all his attributes a source o f corruption. He who belongs to God and to whom God belongs is not connected with anything in the universe. The real gist o f gnosis is to recognize that to God is the kingdom. W hen a man knows that all possessions are in the absolute control of God, what further business has he with mankind, that he should be veiled from God by them or by himself? All such veils are the result o f ignorance. As soon as ignorance is annihilated, they vanish, and this life is made equal in rank to the life hereafter.

Notes 1. See Nafahât, No. 373. 2. See Baydawi on Kor, vii, 174. 3. See Goldziher & Landberg, Dis Legende vom Mönch Barsisä (1896), and M. Hartmann, Der heilige Barsisä

in Der Islamische Orient (1905), i, 23-8.

Selected Bibliography for Further Reading Many of the text translations included in the chapter on Sufism were selected well over a decade ago before the con­ siderable growth in the number of translations of Sufi texts and monographs dealing with critical topics in Islamic mysticism. The brief bibliography below provides an overview of the wealth of available materials for the student of Sufism. The majority o f the editions were selected because of their quality and ready availability in paperback.

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Su f i s m Abbas, Shemeem Burney. The Female Voice in Sufi Ritual: Devotional Practices in Pakistan and India. Austin: Uni­ versity of Texas Press, 2010. An important contribution highlighting the role o f women in South Asian Sufism. v Abdel-Kader, Dr. Ali Hassan. The Life, Personality and Writings ofAl-Junayd. New Gibb Memorial Series 22. London: Luzac & Co., 1962; reprint ed., 1976. The only English translation of works of one o f the most influ­ ential of the early Sufis. This is a a very important work for anyone interested in early Sufism. Abrahamov, Binyamin. Divine Love in Islamic Mysticism: The Teachings o f Al-GhazJUandAl-Dabbâgh. Routledge Sufi Series. Reprint ed. London: Roudedge, 2011. An informative analysis of the philosophical and theological underpinnings of two different theories of divine love in Sufism. Abû Madyan. The Way ofAbû Madyan: Doctrinal and Poetic Works ofAbû Madyan Shuayb ihn al-Husayn al-Ansârî. Edited Arabic text and English translation by Vincent J. Cornell. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1996. Abû Madyan is a critical figure in the history of Sufism in Spain and North Africa. Abu’l Kheyr, Abu Sa’id. The Poems o f Abu SaidAbulKheyr. Translated by Reza Ordoubadian. Classics of Persian Literature. Washington, DC: Ibex Publishers, 2010. The poetry of an influential early Sufi master. Abun-Nasr, Jamil. Muslim Communities o f Grace: The Sufi Brotherhoods in Islamic Religious Life. New York: C o­ lumbia University Press, 2007. The book ranges from the medieval to the modem periods and explores the changing roles of Sufi Orders (often called Brotherhoods or Fraternities) in the religious life of Muslims. Al-Alawî, Shaykh Ahmad, and Fâtima al-Yashrutiyya. Two Who Attained: Twentieth Century Sufi Saints, Fatima al-Yashrutiyya & Shaykh Ahmad al-Alawi. Translated by Leslie Cadavid. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2005. The works o f two important modem Sufis, one from Palestine and the other from Algeria. Anawati, G. C., and Louis Gardet. Mystique musulmane: aspects et tendances, expériences et techniques. Paris: J. Vrin, 1961. A classic introduction to Sufism, with an illuminating discussion of Sufi ritual practice. Ansârî, ’A bdallâh. M anâzilas-sâ’irîn. Edited and translated by Serge de Laugier de Beaurecueil. Cairo: Institut Français d’A rchéologie Orientale, 1962. A translation o f Ansâri s description o f the stages and states o f the Sufi path. ---------. Munâjât. Translated by Wheeler M. Thackston. In Ibn Ata’Ulah, The Book o f Wisdom; Kwaja Abdullah Ansari, Intimate Conversations. Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press (New York-RamseyToronto, 1978). Short, exquisite poetic prayers. This remains a cherished text in the Persian speaking world. ---------. Stations ofthe Sufi Path: The One Hundred Fields (Sad Madyan) o f Abdullah Ansari o f Herat. Translated by Nahid Angha. London: Archetype, 2011. A very important analysis o f the various stages or stations of the Sufi Path. Attâr, Farid al-Dîn. Muslim Saints and Mystics (Tadhkirat al- awliya). Excerpted and translated by A. J. Arberry. London: Roudedge and Kegan Paul, 1966. Reprint, London: Arkana, 1990. Selections from ’A ttâr’s lengthy biographical dictionary o f famous Sufis. ---------. The Ilâhî-nâma or Book o f God. Translated by John Andrew Boyle. Manchester, UK: Manchester Univer­ sity Press, 1976. An analysis in dramatic form of the ascetic phase of the Sufi Path. ---------. Le livre de Vépreuve (Musibatnama). Translated by Isabelle de Gastines. Paris: Fayard, 1981. Another at­ tempt by ’A ttâr to lead the reader through the difficult phases of the Sufi Path. --------- . The Conference o f the Birds. Translated by Afkham Darbandi and Dick Davis. London and New York: Penguin Classics, 1984. A sophisticated poetic fable analyzing in detail the Sufi Path and the search for mystical union. --------- . Le livre des secrets (Asrâr-Nâma). Translated by Christiane Tortel Paris: Les Deux Océans, 1985. A subde analysis of annihilation {fand) in the Beloved and the enduring state of mystical transformation (baqà). --------- . Farid ad-Din Attars Memorial o f Gods Friends: Lives and Sayings ofSufis. Translated by Paul Losensky andTh. Emil Homerin. Classics of Western Spirituality. New York-Ramsey-Toronto: Paulist Press, 2009. Selec­ tions from ‘A ttâr’s lengthy biographical compendium of the lives and sayings o f prominent Sufis. ’Avery, Kenneth. A Psychology o f Early Sufi samd; Listening and Altered States. Roudedge Sufi Series. London: Roudedge, 2004). Reprint ed., 2011. A fine discussion o f the role of music and ritual dance in Sufi ritual practice. Awliyâ’, Nizâm ad-Dîn. Morals For The Heart (Fawâ'id al-fuâd). Translated and annotated by Bruce B. Lawrence. Classics of Western Spirituality. New York-Ramsey-Toronto, Paulist Press, 1992. An important manual of the spiritual life by a very well known and influential South Asian Sufi. Awn, Peter J. Satans Tragedy and Redemption: IbUs in Sufi Psychology. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1983. A study o f the devil in Islamic mysticism. Iblis is transformed by some Sufis into a model of piety.

Su f i s m Baldick, Julian. Mystical Islam. London: I. B. Tauris, 1989. A general introduction to Sufism and its development that attempts to identify influences on early Sufism from Christianity and Buddhism. al-Baqlî, Ruzbihân. The Unveiling o f Secrets: Diary o f a Sufi Master. Translated by Carl W. Ernst. Chapel Hill: Parvardigar Press, 1997. An important new translation of the spiritual biography of a renowned and influential medieval Sufi. Beaurecueil, Serge de Laugier de. Khwâdja ‘Abdullah Ansârî: Mystique Hanbalite. Beirut: Imprimerie Catholique, 1965. The life o f Ansârî with translations of selections from his most important works. Bhatnagar, R. S. Mystical Vision and Thought in Medieval Sufism. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2005. This is a philosophical study o f medieval Islamic mysticism based on a close reading of the original sources. Böwering, Gerhard. The Mystical Vision o f Existence in Classical Islam: The Qurânic Hermeneutics ofthe Sûfi Sahl at-Tustari. Studien Zur Sprache, Geschichte Und Kultur Des Islamischen Orients, Nf. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1980. Sufi exegetes developed sophisticated methods of Q ur’in interpretation. This is one of the best analyses o f early Sufi hermeneutics. Chittick, William. Sufism: A Beginner's Guide. Oxford: One W>rld, 2007. A superb introduction to Sufism writ­ ten by one o f the leading American scholars o f the Sufi mystical tradition. Chittick, William C., trans. The Sufi Path o f Love: The Spiritual Teachings ofRumi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983. A comprehensive introduction to the mysticism of Rûmî, using translations from his major works. --------- .The Sufi Path o f Knowledge: Ibn ‘A rabis Metaphysics o fImagination. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989. A very helpful introduction to the complex mystical philosophy of Ibn Arabîi. --------- . Faith and Practice o f Islam: Three Thirteenth-Century Sufi Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. These three texts ground Sufism firmly in traditional Islamic faith and ritual practice. Chodkiewicz, M ichel An Ocean Without Shore: Ibn ‘Arabs, The Book and the Law. Translated from the French by David Streight. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. This book demonstrates clearly Ibn ‘A rabis close connection to mainstream Islamic thought, especially relating to Q ur’in and Islamic Law (shariah). Dressier, Markus, Ron Geaves, and Gritt Klinkhammer, eds. Sufis in Western Society: GlobalNetworking and Local­ ity. Routledge Sufi Series. London: Routledge, 2009. An important exploration of the various forms of Sufism that have emerged outside the Islamic world. Emst, Carl W. Ruzbihan Baqli: Mysticism and the Rhetoric o f Sainthood in Persian Sufism. Routledge Sufi Series. London: Roudedge, 1996. The only serious analysis in English of the work of this renowned medieval Sufi. --------- . Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center. SUNY Series in Muslim Spirituality in South Asia. New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. This is a valuable, detailed study o f the Chishti Sufi order of India. It concentrates on the teachings of the great fourteenth-century master, Shaykh Burhan al-Din Gharib. It reminds us of an important chapter of the history of Islamic mysticism in South Asia. ----------. Sufism: An Introduction to the Mystical Tradition o f Islam. Reprint ed., Boston: Shambhala, 2011. A fine introduction to Sufism by one o f the leading American scholars in the field of Islamic mysticism. van Ess, Joseph. Die Gedankenwelt des Hârit al-Muhâsibi. Selvstverlag des Orientalischen Seminars der Universität Bonn. Bonn» 1961. An insightful analysis of al-Muhdsibi, his work, and the religious milieu in which he flourished. Fahd, Toufic. La divination arabe. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1966. This is the classic study on magic and divination in clas­ sical Arab culture by a scholar o f prodigious abilities. Farhadi, A. G. Ravan. ‘A bdullah Ansari o f Herat. Roudedge Sufi Series. London: RoutledgeCurzon Press, 1996. A well-received recent study o f the life and works of Ansârî. Al-Ghazâlî, Majd al-Dîn. Bawâriq al-ilmâ '. Translated by James Robson in Tracts on Listening to Music, 63-118. London: Royal Asiaric Society, 1938. An introduction through the medium of translated texts to the complex Sufi debate on the permissibility and efficacy of music and dance rituals. Graham, William. Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam. The Hague: Mouton, 1977. A superb study of orality in early Islam, and o f the unique place o f hadith qudsi in the codified collections o f traditions. Grämlich, Richard. Schlaglichter über das Sufitum: Abû Nasr as-Sarrâjs Kitâb al-Luma. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1990. A thorough study o f as-Sarrâjs, encyclopedic compendium of and commentary on the writings and sayings o f Sufis from the classical period. Homerin, Emil. From Arab Poet to Muslim Saint: Ibn al-Fârid, His Verse, and His Shrine. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994. An astute study of perhaps the greatest Sufi poet who wrote in Arabic.

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Su f i s m al-Hujwirî, Alî ibn ’Uthmân al-Jullâbî. The KashfAl Mahjub: The Oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson. London: Luzac & Co., 1911. Reprint ed., under the tide Revelation o f the Mystery, with a foreword by Carl W. Ernst. New York: Pir Press, 1999. A translatioh of one o f the most important o f the early Sufi manuals. Ibn ’A bbâd o f Rhonda. Letters on the Sufi Path (al-Rasd’il al-sughrd). Translated by John Renard. Classics o f West­ ern Spirituality. New York-Ramsey-Toronto: Paulist Press, 1986. A classic example o f the epistolary genre o f spiritual direction written by an Andalusian Sufi. Ibn Abî T-Dunyâ. Dhamm al-maldhi. Translated byJames Robson. In Tracts on Listening to Music, 19-40. London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1938. An important summary of the Sufi debate on the role o f music and dance in Sufi ritual practice. Ibn al-Fârid, ‘Umar. Sufi Verse, Saintly Life. Translated with an introduction by Th. Emil Homerin. Classics of Western Spirituality. New York-Ramsey-Toronto: Paulist Press, 2001. Professor Homerin i^an authority on Ibn al-Fârid and his poetry. The translations are excellent and very accessible. Ibn ’Arab!, Muhyi *’d-Dîn. A Tractate on Those Things a Postulant Needs Must Possess (Risdlahft kunhi md Id budda minhu li T-murid). Translated by Arthur Jeffery. In Reader on Islam, 640-55. The Hague: Mouton, 1962. Re­ print ed.. New York: Amo, 1980. A dear and comprehensive letter of spiritual direction by one o f the great philosopher mystics of the tradition.

---------. Al-Durrat alfdkhirahf t dhikr man intafdtu bihif t tariq al-dkhirah (The Precious Pearl concerned with the Mention o f Thosefrom Whom I Have Derived Benf i t in the Way ofthe Hereafter). Translated by R. W. J. Austin. In Sufis o f Andalusia. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1971. Reprint ed., Berkeley, University o f California Press, 1977. A brief biographical dictionary of important Andalusian Sufis.

--------- . R&h al-qudsfi mundsahat al-nafs (The Spirit ofHoliness in the Counseling o f the Soul). Translated by R. W. J. Austin. In Sufis o f Andalusia. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1971. Reprint ed., Berkdey: Uni­ versity o f California Press, 1977. A brief biographical dictionary o f im portant Andalusian Sufis. --------- . The Meccan Revelations (Al-Futûhdt al-Makkiyya). Sdected Texts, vol. 1, edited by M ichd Chodkiewicz. Translated by William C. Chittick and James W. Morris. New York: Pir Press, 2002. Translations from Ibn ‘Arabls most difficult and monumental work. Textes choisis/Selected Texts présentés et traduits de l’arabe en français ou en anglais sous la direction de M ichd Chodkiewicz, avec la collaboration de William C. Chittick, Cyrille Chodkiewicz, Denis Gril et James W Morris. Paris: Sindbad, 1988. --------- . The Meccan Revelations (Al-Futûhât al-Makiyya). Sdected Texts, vol 2. Edited by M ichd Chodkiewicz. Translated by Denis Gril and David Streight. New York: Pir Press, 2004. Translations from Ibn ‘A rabîs most difficult and monumental work. ----------. Les Illuminations de La Mecque/Ihe Meccan Illuminations Ibn ‘Arabî, Muhyi ‘d-Din. The Four Pillars o f Spiritual Transformation: TheAdornment o f the Spiritually Transformed. Ibn ‘Arabî s Hilyat al-abddi Translated by Stephen Hirtenstein. Oxford: Anqa, 2008. This is an enlightening treatise on Sufi ritual practice. Ibn ‘Ata'llah, and Kwaja Abdullah Ansari. Ibn Ata’lUah/Book o f Wisdom and Kwaja Abdullah Ansari/Intimate Conversations. Translated by Victor Danner and Wheeler M. lhackston. New York: Paulist Press, 1978. Ibn al-Munawwar, Muhammad. The Secrets o f Gods Mystical Oneness or The Spiritual Stations o f Shaikh Abu Sa'id (Asrdr al-tawhidft maqdmdt al-Shaykh Abi Said). Translated with notes and introduction by John O ’Kane. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers in association with Bibliotheca Persica, 1992. The spiritual biography of Shaykh Abû Sa id and its importance for an understanding of mystical union. Jeffery, Arthur, ed. and trans. A Reader on Islam. The Hague: Mouton, 1962. Reprint ed., New York: Amo, 1980. A fine collection of translations of primary sources on religious topics. Al-Kalâbâdhî, Muhammed ibn Ibràhim, and Muhammad Abû Baler. The Doctrine o f the Sufis (Kitdb al-taarrufli madhhab ahlal-tasawwuf). Translated by A. J. Arberry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1935. Reprint ed., Kitab Bhavan (2000). One of the most well known of the early Sufi manuals. Karamustafa, Ahmet. God’s Unruly Friends: Dervish Groups in the Islamic Later Middle Period, 1200-1550. Oxford: Oneworld, 2006. A discussion of Sufi or Dervish orders or groups leading up to the early modem period. Kharrâz, Abû Bakr. Kitdb as-Sidq: TheBook ofTruthfidness. Edited and translated by A. J. Arberry. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1937. An early Sufi manual. Knysh, Alexander D. Islamic Mysticism: A Short History. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000. This is a useful historical survey o f the Islamic mystical tradition from its origins to the twentieth century. Among its strengths is its deep knowl­ edge o f modem scholarship. It is a good place to begin one’s study o f Sufism.

Su f i s m Kugle, Scott Alan. Sufis and Saints*Bodies: Mysticism, Corporeality, and Sacred Power in Islam. Islamic Civilization and Muslim Networks. Ckapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007. This interesting work deals with the conception o f the body in Islamic mystical works from the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries. It argues that Sufis saw the bodies o f their great mystics as sites of sacred power. Lewis, Franklin. Rumi: Past and Present, East and West. The Life, Teaching and Poetry o f Jalal Al-Din Rumi. Re­ print ed., Oxford: Oneworld: 2007. This is without doubt the best single overview of Rûmî s life and work. The historical research is impeccable and the translations superb. Lewisohn, Leonard, and Christopher Shackle, eds. Attar and the Persian Sufi Tradition: The A rt ofSpiritual Flight. London: Institute o f Ismaili Studies, 2007. A very worthwhile monograph on ‘A ttir and his work. Maneri, Sharafuddin. Sharafuddin Maneri: The Hundred Letters. Translated with introduction and notes by Paul Jackson. Classics o f Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 1980. An extensive discussion o f all aspects of mystical training and theory in epistolary form by a renowned South Asian Sufi. --------- . In Quest o f God: M anens Second Collection o f ISO Letters. Translated by Paul Jackson. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2006. Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane. Paris: J. Vrin, 1954. A classic discussion o f the origins of Sufi technical terminology. --------- . Hallaj: Mystic and Martyr (Abridged). Translated by Herbert Mason. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer­ sity Press, 1994. An abridged version of Massignon s monumental, multivolume work on Al-Hallâj first pub­ lished in French in 1922. Meier, Fritz. Abu Sa’td-i Abû l-Khay: Wirklichkeit undLeqende. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976. A study of Abû Sa’îd ibn Abû 1-Khayr and an analysis of the historical and legendary material about him. Milson, Menahem, ed. and trans. A Sufi Rulefor Novices. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977. Molé, Marijan. Les mystiques musulmans. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1965. A foundational study of the history o f Sufism. Morris, James Winston. Ihe Reflective Heart: Discovering Spiritual Intelligence in Ibn Arabis Meccan Illuminations. Berkeley: Fons Vitae, 2005. Professor Morris is one o f the leading scholars in the field. In this text, he presents highly complex ^nd abstract materials in a way that is accessible to both the general reader and the specialist. al-Muhâsibi Hârith, Une vision humaine desfins demieres: Le kitâb al-tawahhum d'al Muhâsibî, translated and annotated by André Roman. Paris: Librairie Klincksieck, 1978. Al-Muhâsibî is one of the most influential early analysts o f mysticism. This translation deals with Islamic eschatology and mysticism. al-Niffari, Muhammad Ibn ’A bd al-Jabbâr. Kitâb al-mawaqif wa kitâb al-mukhâtabât. Edited and translated by A. J. Arberry. London: Luzac & Co., 1935. Al-Niffari s analysis of key aspects of the Path and of mystical union. Nwyia, Paul. Exégèse coranique et langage mystique. Beirut: Dar El-Machreq, 1970. An extremely important explo­ ration of the link between Q ur’ânic exegesis and the evolution of mystical theory. Al-Qushayri, Abû T-Qâsim ’A bd al-Karîm. Das Sendschreiben al-Qushayrîs über das Sufitum. Translated by Rich­ ard Grämlich. Stuttgart: F. Steiner Verlag, 1989. This lengthy letter o f Al-Qushayri is one of the most frequendy quoted of the early manuals of spiritual direction. This translation is the best of the few that exist. Qushayri, Abû ' 1-Qâsim. Al-Qushayri^ Epistle on Sufism (Al-Risala al-qushayriyya fi ' ilm al-tasawwuf ). Translated by Alexander D. Knysh. Ithaca, NY: Garnet, 2007. One of the most important early works on theories of Sufi mysticism and the training o f Sufis entering on the Path. Râzî, Najm ad-Din. The Path o f Gods* Bondsmen: From Origin to Return (Mersâd al-ebâd men al-mabdâ’ elâ’lmaâd). Translated by Hamid Algar. Reprint ed., Islamic Publications International, 2003. An excellent analysis of the theoretical foundations o f classical Islamic mysticism. Reinert, Benedikt. Die Lehre vom tawakkul in der alteren Sufik. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1968. A study of Tawakkul, spiritual quietism or complete reliance on God and its place in early Sufism. Renard, John. Seven Doors to Islam: Spirituality and the Religious Life o f Muslims. Berkeley: University of Califor­ nia Press, 1996. A very readable and sensitive treatment of spirituality in Islam. --------- . Knowledge ofGodin ClassicalSufism: Foundations o f Islamic Mystical Theology. Classics of Western Spiri­ tuality. New York: Paulist Press, 2004. This text contains many valuable analyses and translations of the writings o f major Sufis from the classical period. Ritter, Helmut. Das Meer der Seele: Gott, Welt und Mensch in den Geschichten des Fariduddin Attärs. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1955. Reprint ed., 1978. An early yet still important study of the mystical theory o f Farid al-Dîn ’Attâr.

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SUPISM Rûmî, Jalâl al-Dîn. Rûmî: Selected Poemsfrom the Dîvâni Shamsi Tabrizi. Edited and translated by Reynold A. Nicholson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1898. Reprint eds. with original Persian text in 1977; Ibex, 2001. One o f Nicholsons earlier efforts at translating brief excerpts of Rûmîs work. --------- . The MathnawL Edited with critical notes, text, translation, and commentary by Reynold A. Nicholson. 8 vols. London: Luzac & Co., 1925-1940. Nicholsons translation was reprinted in 3 volumes by the Gibb Memorial Trust (2001) under the tide The Mathnawi ofJalMuddin Rûmî. Nicholsons is the only complete translation in English of Rûmîs monumental mystical epic. --------- . Rûmî: Poet and Mystic. Edited by Reynold A. Nicholson. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1950. Re­ print ed., 1968. Brief selections from Nicholsons more comprehensive translations of Rûmî. --------- .MysticalPoems o f Rûmî. Translated by A. J. Arberry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968. Reprint eds., 1974 and 2009. Translations o f selected poems. It is a useful exercise to compare A rbenÿs translations to those of Nicholson and Barks. ». --------- . The Ruins o f the Heart. Selected lyric poetry translated by Edmund Helminski. Putney, VT: Threshold, 1981. Additional translations of selected poetry. --------- . Unseen Rain:Quatrains ofRumi. Translated by John Moyne and Coleman Barks. Putney, VT: Threshold, 1986. Translation of selected quatrains. --------- . We Are Three. Translated by Coleman Barks. Athens, G A: Maypop, 1987. Selected poems from Rûmîs corpus. ---------. This Longing: Poetry', Teaching Stories, and Letters ofRumi. Translated by Coleman Barks. Putney, VT: Threshold, 1988. Additional translations from the Dîwân and the MathnawL --------- . Like This: Rumi, 43 Odes. Translated by Coleman Barks. Putney, VT: Threshold, 1990. A translation of selected poems. --------- . Delicious Laughter: Rambunctious Teaching Storiesfrom the Mathnawi. Translated by Coleman Barks. Putney, VT: Threshold, 1991. Rûmî has been criticized for including ribald humor in his mystical works. This brief compilation o f sections from the Mathnawi will introduce the reader to this genre o f Sufi literature and allow him or her to explore the role o f sensuality and humor in mysticism. --------- . Feeling the Shoulder o f the Lion: Poetry and Teaching Stories o f Rumi. Translated by Coleman Barks. Putney, V T : Threshold, 1991. A translation of selected sections from the Dîvân and the MathnawL --------- . Say I Am You, Poetry Interspersed with Stories ofRumi and Shams. Translated by John Moyne and Cole­ man Barks. Athens, GA: Maypop, 1994. Translations from Rûmî s Dîvân and the MathnawL --------- . Signs o f the Unseen: The Discourses ofjalaluddin Rumi. Translated by W. M. Thackston Jr. Putney, VT: Threshold, 1994. Reprint ed., Boston: Shambhala, 1999. This translation of the collection of Rûmîs discourses is the best translation in English of these important texts. --------- . Rending the Veil: Literal and Poetic Translations ofRumi. Translated by Shahram T. Shiva. Prescott, AZ: Hohm Press, 1995. Translations of selected lyrics and quatrains by a scholar who considers many recent transla­ tions of Rûmî to be reflections of New Age religion rather than the original texts. --------- . The Essential Rumi, New Expanded Edition. Translated by Coleman Barks and John Moyne. New York: Harper One, 2004; Kindle edition, 2010. Coleman Barks is a prolific and widely read translator o f Rûmîs poetry. The translations are adapted to modem sensibilities and read very well. Scholars o f Persian literature, however, argue that his translations sometimes stray too far from the original. His work, nevertheless, is well worth exploring. --------- . The Masnavi, Book One. Translated byjawid Mojaddedi. London and New York: Oxford, 2004. A new and very readable translation o f the Mathnawi, pronounced Masnavi in Persian. --------- . The Masnavi, Book Two. Translated byjawid Mojaddedi. London and New York: Oxford, 2007. A new and very readable translation of the Mathnawi, pronounced Masnavi in Persian. Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions o f Islam. 35th anniversary ed., with a foreword by Carl W. Ernst. Re­ print eds., Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975; 2011. Perhaps the most widely read introduc­ tion to Sufism. --------- . I Am Wind, You Are Fire: The Life and Work ofRumi. Boston: Shambhala, 1992. A very readable biogra­ phy o f Rûmî and analysis of his work. --------- . Rumi’s World: The Life and Works o f the Greatest Sufi Poet. First published in 1992 under the tide I Am Wind, You Are Fire: The Life and Work ofRumi. Reprint ed., Boston: Shambhala, 2001. This is a sensitively written and informative overview of Rûmî s life and writings. Sells, Michael A., trans. Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Quran, Mirâj: Poetic and Theological Writings. Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 1996. A superb collection o f early Sufi texts, translated by Profes-

Su f i s m sor Sells, a leader in the field o f Islamic mysticism. This is an essential text for anyone interested in the develop­ ment of mysticism in Islam. Shihadeh, Ayman, ed. Sufism and Theology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007. A worthwhile new col­ lection o f essays dealing with the complex relationship between many aspects of Islamic theology, e.g., herme­ neutics, metaphysics, and divine attributes, and Sufism since the twelfth century. Al-Shustari, Abû Al-Hasan. Abû al-Hasan al-Shustari: Songs o f Love and Devotion. Translated by Lourdes Maria Alvarez. Classics of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 2009. Exceptionally evocative and sensual poetry by the thirteenth-century Andalusian Sufi, al-Shustarl. Smith, Margaret. Rdbid the Mystic and Her Fellow Saints in Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1928. Reprint eds., 1984; 2010. The only serious attempt at a comprehensive analysis of this early female Sufi whose influence on the tradition is enormous.

--------- . An Early Mystic o fBaghdad: A Study o ftjje Life and Teaching o f Hârith B. Asad Al-Muhâsibî A.D. 781 A D . 857. London: Sheldon Press, 1935. Reprint ed., London: AMS, 1973. Somewhat out of date, but still worth reading. al-Suhrawardî, Abû ’l-Najîb. A Sufi Rulefor Novices (Kitâb âdâb al-murîdîn). Edited and translated by Menahem Milson. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977. An extremely interesting collection of Sufi rules for initiates that clearly resonates with the tradition of rules in the Christian and Buddhist monastic traditions. As-Sulamî, Abû Abd ar-Rahmân as-Sulamî. Early Sufi Women: Dhikr an-niswa al-mutaabbiddt assûfiyyât. Edited and translated by Rkiä Elaroui Cornell. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 1999. A critical early text that highlights the lives and influence of eighty Sufi women during the formative period of Islamic mysticism.

--------- . The Subtleties o f the Ascension: Early MysticalSaying on Muhammad’s HeavenlyJourney (Latâ’ijal-M ïrâj.) Translated by Frederick S. Colby. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2006. The Prophets Night Journey and Ascension are pivotal moments in Muhammad s religious biography and spiritual evolution. The event lends itself naturally to a mystical interpretation. At-Tabrîzî, Shams. Me and Rumi: The Autobiography o f Shams-i Tabrizi. Translated by William C. Chittick. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2004. Shams was the catalyst for Rûmîs spiritual transformation. His autobiography provides insight into Shams s quest for union with God and his relationship with Rûmî. Toussulin, Yannis. Sufism and the Way o f Blame: Hidden Sources o f Sacred Psychology. Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, 2011. This is a serious exploration o f the origins and function of a particularly provocative Sufi tradition that entails deliberately incurring moral condemnation in order to pursue the ascetic goal of detachment from all aspects o f worldly existence. Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Orders in Islam. London: Oxford University Press, 1971. Reprint ed., 1973. The most important overall study o f the origin and development of Sufi orders (known also as brotherhoods or fraternities).

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HINDUISM

Hinduism A rvind Sharma , M c G ill U niversity

An Introduction Mysticism is obviously not a Hindu category but neither is “Hinduism.” This does not mean, however, that one category cannot be applied to the other. Both mysticism and Hinduism are, nevertheless, contested categories, and it may therefore be helpful to indicate, in a broad way, how those terms are being employed here. I shall use the term Hinduism to mean what it has come to mean in academic circles, as comprising the phenomenon that one finds cov­ ered by that term in any standard work on the world s religions, such as The Encyclopedia o f Religion (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1987). Similarly, I shall use the term mysti­ cism to mean what it means according to Websters Third International Dictionary (p. 1497): “The doctrine or belief that direct knowledge of God, of spiritual truth, o f ultimate reality, or comparable matters is attainable through immediate intuition insight or illumination and in a way differing from ordinary sense perception or ratiocination.” As one embarks on a brief survey of Hindu mysticism it might be useful to do so under three rubrics: (1) the vocabulary of Hindu mysticism, (2) the history o f Hindu mysticism, and (3) the typology of H indu mysticism.

The Vocabulary o f H indu Mysticism It is important to gain familiarity with three words as a prelude to a proper understanding of H indu mysticism. These three words are (1 ) Atm an; (2) Brahman; and (3) Yoga. The word Atman> derived from a verbal root which means to breathe, may have once stood for the breath of life, but then it came to refer to the self—the true self—in the context o f mysticism. The way this self is understood crucially affects the nature of mysticism in­ volved. For instance, one might claim that although we seem to possess a “self” or “ego,” fur­ ther philosophical inquiry reveals no reality which corresponds to it. The mystical experience such a disclosure gives rise to is that of early Buddhism—which rests on the doctrine of the denial o f the Atm an. At the other extreme stand schools of mysticism for whom the realization of the true A tm an by itself constitutes salvation or liberation {kaivalya). The Hindu philosophical schools o f Sânkhya and Yoga—in their classical version—testify to this form of mysticism, which is also non-theistic as well as non-absolutistic, and may therefore be called Atm ic, in contrast to the early Buddhistic. Early Buddhistic mysticism is not only non-theistic and non-absolutistic but also non-Atmic. The mysticism of Sânkhya and Yoga, in its classical for­ mulation, also bears close affinities to Jaina mysticism.

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A word o f caution is in order here. This form o f mysticism bears some resemblance to the body-soul mysticism o f the West—a resemblance which is helpful in some ways and mis­ leading in others. It is helpful to the extent that it posits a dichotomy between material and spiritual entities, and posits salvation as the outcome of identifying'ones true self with the spiritual element. It is, however, potentially misleading in three ways. (1) The mind some­ times takes on the features of a soul in Western thought. Such a conflation is studiously avoided in the form of mysticism we are dealing with, wherein even the mind is ultimately considered a refined form of matter. (2) The soul, in Western thought, both survives death and achieves salvation. In Hinduism, the soul corresponds to the “subde body" (lingaiarira), which survives death, but it is the realization o f the Atm an which leads to salvationfrom re­ births, Hindu mysticism, here and elsewhere, clearly distinguishes between post-mortem sur­ vival and liberation from metempsychosis. (3) The soul is closely associated with God in Western thought. Hindu mysticism entertains this possibility but also reserves other desti­ nies for it. Early Buddhist mysticism, then, turns on the denial o f the Atm an, and Hindu mysticism o f the Sänkhya-Yoga variety on its affirmation and realization. Most other forms o f Hindu mys­ ticism accept ûvc Atm an as real, but, unlike Sahkhya-Yoga, insist that the ultimate mystical ex­ perience does not consist merely of realizing the Atm an but also o f bringing it in proper relationship to Brahman, This, in fact, is a dominant concern in much o f Hindu mysticism. Focused as it is on Atm an as the ultimate reality, Sahkhya-Yoga has litde use o f Brahman, But this position is not typical of Hindu mysticism in general, in which Brahman is a central con­ cern. Perhaps one way of developing this point would be to posit a bifurcation of the mystical search, within Hindu mysticism, along two allied but distinct routes: ( 1) a search for the nature o f the reality underlying the individual and (2) a search for the nature o f the reality underlying the universe. The pursuit o f these two paths—particularly in Hindu Vedantic mysticism—led to the identification o f the Atm an as the reality underlying the individual, and o f Brahman as the reality underlying the universe. One may then go on to say that just as Vedantic mysticism developed the distinction between Atm an and Brahman, it also developed a distinction re­ garding the nature of Brahman itself, which turned on the answer to the following question: is the ultimate reality underlying the universe more like an impersonal principle (above human interaction like the Absolute of pure philosophy), or is it more like a person rather than a principle (more like God in the common acceptation o f the term). Vedantic mystical lore in general accepts the position that the ultimate reality possesses both these dimensions; it, however, evolved a pattern of disagreement over the question o f which o f the two repre­ sented the ultimate reality's ultimate orientation. This, in a nutshell, is the controversy in H indu mysticism in terms of the debate whether Brahman is Saguna (with distinguishing attributes) or Nirguna (without distinguishing attributes). Once the duality, at some level, o f Atm an and Brahman was accepted, the question o f how this Atm an may stand in salvific relation to Brahman (whether Saguna or Nirguna) was bound to arise. This became an issue which no form of H indu Vedantic mysticism could afford to ignore. Two basic patterns of relationship were identified which, with various modi­ fications, have persisted down through the ages. One of these posited a fundamental identity

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between A tm an and Nirguna Brahman and the other a radical difference between Atm an and Saguna Brahman. Despite this difference, however, the question o f the actual spiritual realization o f the true relationship between the two—whether in identity or difference— remained a key issue in common in both the systems, which accounts for the tremendous overlap in spiritual mystical practices among virtually all the mystical systems o f India. These mystical techniques take the embodied A tm an—or the Atm an as present in you and me—who are living beings or fivas, as the starting point o f the mystical path. This path then, very broadly, consists o f enabling the Jiva, or the living being, to develop an apprecia­ tion o f his or her proper relationship to the Atm an and o f the Atm an to Brahman. Techniques which accomplish thes£ goals are generally described by the term Yoga, a word with many different but connected meanings. The word is etymologically connected to the English word yoke, and hence may be used to refer to any technique which unites the spiritual seeker with his or her spiritual goal. W ithin this very broad meaning, it is important to distinguish between the Yoga as a special term and Yoga as a specific term. As especial term it refers to a system of moral and mystical practices contained in a special text called the Yogasütra, now available in many English translations. This special form of Yoga is also called Râjayoga and may overlap with but should be carefully distinguished from the specific sense o f Yoga-when the word is used to specify one of the following four forms o f yoga-Jn â n a Yoga or the Yoga o f knowledge; Bhakti-Yoga or the Yoga of devotion; Karma-Yoga or the Yoga o f action; and Hatha-Yoga or the Yoga of physical postures. Three further points may be noted here to avoid confusion: (1) the word Mârga (“way”) is sometimes substituted for Yoga; (2) the Yogas are sometimes referred to as only three. In such usage the first three are meant—which roughly correspond to the three psychic functions o f knowing, feeling, and willing, so characteristic o f the human personality. In that case the words Raja-Yoga and Hatha-Yoga are used, by way of contrast, to allude to the mind/body distinction in general.

The History o f Hindu Mysticism The origins o f Hinduism are lost in the mists of antiquity but the religious tradition which bears that name surfaces in a somewhat recognizable way around the third millennium B.C.E. in and around the Indus valley. The Indus script, however, awaits decipherment and any account o f the religious life in that age can only be very preliminary. It has, however, been sug­ gested that its archaeological finds are consistent with the practice of Yoga—a hallmark of later Hinduism. More can be said about Hindu mysticism in the second millennium B.C.E., the period to which the RgVeda, a foundational text of Hinduism, is regularly assigned. The RgVeda al­ ready testifies to the coexistence o f both the absolutistic and the theistic form o f mysticism, destined to characterize Hinduism down to the present day. The Vedic religion spans a period extending roughly from 1500 B.C.E. to 400 B.C.E. and undergoes various phases covering (1) worship of deified natural forces, (2) the evolu­ tion o f such worship into ritualism, and then a move away from ritualism towards (3) spiri­ tual introspection, culminating in the (4) search for the reality underlying the universe, as well as the individual person, and o f the true relationship between them. One must forego the discussion o f mystical elements present in all of these phases in order to focus on the last—which

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represents a watershed in the history of Hinduism. All previous Hinduism, as it were, flows into it; all later Hinduism flows out of it. The same holds good for H indu mysticism. During this phase, the ultimate reality of the universe was identified as Brahman, of the individual as Atm an and the nature of the true—and liberative—relationship between the two remained a subject of constant discussion in the texts called the Upanisads, which are the lasting scrip­ tural legacy of this period. The period from 400 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E. is usually referred to as the classical period in the history o f Hinduism. The most influential scholiasts o f Hinduism flourished towards the end of this period, providing the philosophical foundations o f the non-dualistic (or absolutistic) and theistic mysticisms, which ultimately eclipsed the non-theistic and nonabsolutistic mysticisms of Sänkhya and Yoga schools. Three such scholiasts—Sankara (eighth); Ramanuja (eleventh), and Madhva (thirteenth century)—deserve special men­ tion, out of whom Sankara has long been associated with absolutistic mysticism, and Râmânuja and Madhva with theistic mysticisms. The period from 1000 to 1800 witnessed a marked shift towards devotional mysticism— directed toward both Visnu and Siva; and both to Rama and Krsna as the two main incarna­ tions of Visnu; and to Sakti either as the spouse of Siva or a Goddess in her own right. The growing popularity of the worship of Visnu, Siva, and Sakti was already in evidence during the earlier period but now came to occupy the commanding heights o f the tradition. The exact implications of the presence of Islam in India, as a foil to the H indu tradition during this period, are still unclear, but the simultaneous growth o f H indu and Islamic mysti­ cism (in the form of Sufism) can hardly be a mere coincidence. The modem period of Hinduism—extending from 1800 to 1947, when India became independent of British rule—witnessed some changes in the mystical profile. Ethical mysti­ cism of the kind of which Gandhi is the supreme example become more prominent under the influence of modernizing tendencies; and forms of mysticism other than the devotional— such as those oriented towards knowledge (Jnâna) or action (Karmayoga)—gained more prominence. One feature o f this period deserves special mention from the point o f view o f the study of Hindu mysticism. This period provides a rich harvest o f first-hand accounts o f mystical experiences of all kinds. During the classical period, the literature focused more on mystical techniques. Personal accounts of practices were rare, and communicated indirecdy and impersonally in and through commentarial exegesis rather than directly and personally. The medieval period is more forthcoming in this respect but only under cover o f hagiography. In the modern period, however, one finds an abundance o f explicit autobiographical mystical accounts, a fact reflected in the proportion of selections drawn from this period. This trend has continued into the post-independence period. The mystical strand in H in­ duism continues to flourish, though recent new political developments within Hinduism have begun to siphon off some of the psychic resources of its adherents. Mystical nationalism— already a significant element in the modern period—is beginning to gain ground.

The Typology o f H indu Mysticism There is no dearth of proposed typologies of H indu mysticism. For our purposes a simple trichotomy of (1) non-theistic, (2) theistic, and (3) trans-theistic mysticism, already hinted at

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earlier, would suffice. The first involves direct illumination without involving God or God­ head in the picture. The mysticism of Sänkhya-Yoga as such (that is, both as philosophy and religion) is a classical expression o f it. Theistic mysticism, however, is far more prominent and popular, while, in intellectual circles, trans-theistic mysticism of the Advaita (or non-dualistic) type is much in vogue. A somewhat different typology may be evolved in the context o f the means, which culminate in the achievement o f these goals o f H indu mysticism. Yoga as mystical technique is regularly classified as threefold: the technique leading to gnostic intuition {Jnânayoga), the technique involving devotional practices (.Bhaktiyoga), and the technique o f liberative action in the world (Karmayoga). Theie is a rough correspondence between the twofold classification o f Brahman as Nirguna and Saguna and the threefold classification o f Yoga as Jnâna, Bhakti, and Karma. The path o fJnâna leads to the realization o f Nirguna Brahman and that o f B hakti to that o f a Saguna Brahman. The path of Karma could culminate in either. A seminal text in which all these three forms o f Yoga, and some would say virtually all other forms o f Yoga, are discussed with remarkable insight is the Bhagavadgitâ (second cen­ tury B.C.E.). H indu mysticism could therefore be classified in terms o f its goal: (1) in terms o f whether it is oriented only to one’s self or A tm an (without reference to Brahman, Nirguna, or Saguna) or (2) in terms o f its orientation towards Nirguna Brahman or absolutism and (3) in terms o f an orientation towards Saguna Brahman or theism. Similarly, it could also be classified as threefold in terms o f the Yoga involving (1) Jnânayoga, (2) Bhaktiyoga, or (3) Karmayoga. Finally, at a tertiary level, one could evolve patterns o f classifications aris­ ing from the relationships between these two levels hinted at above. Here then we have a rough map o f H indu mysticism. Two caveats must however be attached to this description. The first is the cliché that map, or cartography, is not territory. The second is perhaps less clichéd: that the classifications aim not so much at exclusiveness as at comprehensiveness. Thus while our first classification distinguishes A tm an from Brahman, in absolutism the distinction between the two disappears! Moreover, in the debate between Saguna and Nirguna Brahm an—the existence o f the other form o f Brahman is rarely denied: the ques­ tion hinges on the assignment o f superiority, with sometimes the debate itself being ques­ tioned as sterile, since it involves an attempt to conceptualize what lies outside the realm o f concepts. Similarly, the distinction among the Yogas does not imply their mutual exclusion, much less elimination. It is possible to follow all the Yogas in combination, or to “graduate” from one to the other.

Selection 1: The Issue of Ineffability Ineffability became an issue within Hindu mysticism beginning with the earliest traces o f it, although different explanations were subsequently offered from within different streams o f the tradition. This section begins with quotations from a well-known Upanisad, which are often cited in the context o f the ineffability o f the ultimate reality or its experience. These are followed by two explanations o f the concept—one by the theistic thinker Madhva and the other by the absolutistic thinker Sankara.

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Selection 1(a): The Inexpressible Nature o f Brahman A well-known account of the ineffability of the ultimate reality (.Brahman)—and the reasons thereof—is contained in the following verses of the Kena Upanisad (1.3-9: II. 1-3). They are cited below in a translation by S. Radhakrishnan.

Selection 1(a) The All-Conditioning Yet Inscrutable Brahman Is the Agent 3. There the eye goes not, speech goes not, nor the mind; we know not, we understand not how one can teach this. 4. Other, indeed, is it that the known; and also it is above the unknown. Thus have we heard from the ancients who have explained it to us. 5. That which is not expressed through speech, but that by which speech is expressed; that, verily, know thou, is Brahman, not what (people) here adore. 6. That which is not thought by the mind but by which they say, the mind is thought (thinks); that, verily, know thou, is Brahman, not what (people) here adore. 7. That which is not seen by the eye but by which the eyes are seen (see); that verily, know thou, is Brahman and not what (people) here adore. 8. That which is not heard by the ear but by which the ears are heard (hear); that, verily, know thou, is Brahman, and not what (people) adore. 9. That which is not breathed by life, but by which life breathes; that, verily, know thou, is Brahman and not what (people) here adore.

The Paradox o f the Inscrutability o f Brahman 1. If you think that you have understood Brahman well, you know it but slightly, whether it refers to you (the individual self) or to the gods. So then is it to be investigated by you (the pupil) (even though) I think it is known. 2 . 1 do not think that I know it well; nor do I think that I do not know it. He who among us knows it, knows it and he, too, does not know that he does not know. 3. To whomsoever it is not known, to him it is known: to whomsoever it is known, he does not know. It is not understood by those who understand it; it is understood by those who do not understand it.

Selection 1(b): Madhva on the Inexpressible Nature o f Brahman Madhva celebrates the ineffability of God in the course of his commentary on the first chap­ ter of Kena Upanisad.

Selection 1(b) Salutation to Thee, O Nârâyana! who, owning to possessing infinite qualities, art not fully known even by the wise (suras) and who givest all wished for objects to the Devas. He, who is the controller and regulator of Prana and o f all senses like the eye, etc., is not fully comprehensible even by all the Devas, because He is all-full, He is the leader o f the

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Breath (Prana) and the rest, He knows everything in all time. He is the best of all, he is pres­ ent everywhere, He is Visnu, know Him as such.

Selection 1(c): Sankara on the Inexpressible Nature o f Brahman Sankara explains the inefFability o f the non-dual Brahman on the basis o f the same text, through his gloss on verse 1.3-4 as follows:

Selection 1(c) There the eye cannot reach, nor can thither go the speech, nor manas ? We do not understand how may one teach It. Different It is evtfn from the manifest and from the non-manifest far above. Thus have we heard from the ancients who explained It to us.

£aAkara’s Gloss Because, Brahman is the ear o f the ear & c., hence “na tatra” means “not there,” i.e,yin that Brahman: “chaksurgachchhati”—eye does not go; because it is impossible for a thing to enter into its own self. Similarly the speech does not go there. W hen by speech, sound uttered expresses its object, then it is said that the speech goes to its object. O f that sound and o f its instrument by which sound is produced, Brahman is the source (âtm an)ythere­ fore it is said that “speech does not go there.” As the fire being the burner, as also the il­ luminer (of others), does not illumine or burn itself, so also the mind being the doubter and determ inator o f other objects, cannot doubt or determine the self, for Brahman is the self o f that mind also. The knowledge o f a thing takes place through the senses and the mind, Brahman being not cognisable by these two, we do know it, that is, we cannot say, “Brahman is o f this sort.” Hence we do not understand how and in what way, that Brah­ man may be taught; in what way instructions about It may be given to the pupil. That which is cognisable by the senses can be taught to another by explaining its genus, attri­ butes, action and specific qualities. But Brahman is beyond all qualifications, such as genus, &c. Therefore, it is hard to demonstrate it to a pupil by mere instructions. The phrases “we do not know” &c., show that great care should be taken in giving instruction and in comprehending its purport. Lest it may be thought that the phrases “we do not know ” &c. indicate an absolute negation regarding the instruction about Brahman and the mode o f such instruction, the Sruti [Vedic Revelation] gives the exception in the fol­ lowing verse. True, the Absolute cannot be demonstrated by the ordinary arguments o f perception (analogy and inference) but it can certainly be demonstrated by the authority o f revelation. To teach this fact, the revelation says “Anyadeva tad viditâd atho avidtâd adhi.”—it is different from the known, It is also above the unknown: “anyadeva”—sepa­ rate from “Tad” i.e.y the subject m atter o f the treatise, “the ear o f the ear, &c.’ and which is not the object o f perception o f these, ear &c.: That (Brahman) is different from the known. That thing is called “known” or “vidita” which is completely reached by the verb “to know,” which may be known at some time, somewhat, and by some one. That which can be fully analysed is called “vidita” or known; Brahman not being capable o f such analysis is, therefore, said to be different from “the known.” If it is not known, then it fol-

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lows, that it is unknown. To this the Sruti says “(no, it is not unknown), it is also above the unknown.”— “Atho aviditadadhi”—that which is opposed to “viditd* is “aviditadadht* namely, the Unmanifest, the avidyâ being the seed o f the Manifest. The word “adhi” means literally “above” and it has the sense here o f “different from ” Because it is wellknown that that which is above another is separate from that other. That which is known is limited, is transient and full o f sorrow, and consequently fit to be abandoned or despi­ cable. Therefore by saying “Brahman is different from the known,” it is meant that Brah­ man is n o t uh e y or a thing to be despised, and by saying “It is above the unknown” it is meant that Brahman is not capable o f being taken or accepted, />., it is uaheyan and Uanupadeya” (not to be shunned or longed for). An object separate from ones self is chosen by another in order to accomplish an effect. But of the knower (Brahman) there is not a dif­ ferent object to be selected for the purpose o f another. Therefore the sentence “Brahman is also different from the known and the unknown” prohibits selection and rejection with regard to Brahman, and thereby answers the questions o f the pupil regarding Brahman by showing that it is not different from his own self. The sense o f the whole sentence is, that the self is Brahman, because o f no other object than ones own self, it is possible to say that it is different from the known and the unknown.— “This Self is Brahman” (Bri. Upa. II.v.19), “the Self which is free from sin” (ChâncL Upa. VIII.7.1), “the Brahman which is visible and not invisible, the self which is within all” (Bri. Upa. III.4.1), and the texts like these which are to be found in other Gratis demonstrate Brahman to be the self o f all, devoid o f all specifications and the mere light o f consciousness. The teacher now shows the traditional handing down of the above-mentioned knowledge by saying “thus we have heard from those o f old who taught us this.” And this also shows that Brahman is only to be understood by instruction handed down by tradition from teacher to pupil, and not by argumentation, nor by vedic knowledge, nor by understanding, nor by much learning, nor by austerities, nor by sacrifices. Thus we have heard (iuiruma) the doc­ trine o f ancient sages—those sages and teachers who taught (vyâcbacbaksire) us (nah) that (tad) Brahman, i.e.ywho explained to us and clearly told us about Brahman.1

Note 1. Radhakrishnan summarizes the gloss as follows (op. cit., 582): “Knowledge of a thing arises through the senses or the mind and since Brahman is not reached by either of these, we do not know of what nature it is. We are therefore unable to understand how anyone can explain that Brahman to a disciple. Whatever is perceived by the senses, that it is possible to indicate to others, by genus, quality, function or relationship, jä ti-guna-kriyä-vUesanaih. Brahman does not possess any of these differentiating characters. Hence the difficulty in explaining its nature to disciples.”

Selection

2 Mystical Training

These next two selections—one from the Brhadâranyaka Upanisad and the other from the Chândogya Upanisad—address four mystical dimensions: 1. The nature o f self in mystical

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experience (including a sense of bewilderment at its loss in the selection from the Brhadâranyaka Upanisad [ii.4.13-14]); 2. the nature o f the mystical Master (in these selec­ tions ones husband in one case and father in the other); 3. a description o f mystical tech­ niques, whose dialogical directness is worth noting here, in contrast to their esoteric and almost bewildering elaboration in the material pertaining to medieval Hinduism; and 4. as shedding light on the nature of the religious community in which trial by ordeal possessed a metaphysical foundation at the time, although it went out of vogue in due course.

Selection 2(a): The Mystical Self

The M ystical S elf 1. ‘Maitreyi! said Yâjnavalkya, ‘lo, verily, I am about to go forth from this state. Behold! let me make a final setdement for you and that Kâtyâyanl.’ 2. Then said Maitreyi: ‘If now, sir, this whole earth filled with wealth were mine, would I be immortal thereby?* ‘No,’ said Yâjnavalkya. ‘As the life of the rich, even so would your life be. O f immor­ tality, however, there is no hope through wealth.* 3. Then said Maitreyi: ‘W hat should I do with that through which I may not be immortal? W hat you know, sir—that, indeed, tell me!* 4. Then said Yâjnavalkya: ‘A h (bata)\ Lo (are), dear (priyd) as you are to us dear is what you say! Come, sit down. I will explain to you. But while I am expounding, do you seek to ponder thereon.* 5. Then said he: ‘Lo, verily, not for love o f the husband is a husband dear, but for love o f the Soul (Atm an) a husband is dear. Lo, verily, not for love of the wife is a wife dear, but for love o f the Soul a wife is dear. Lo, verily, not for love o f the sons are sons dear, but for love o f the Soul sons are dear. Lo, verily, not for love of the wealth is wealth dear, but for love of the Soul wealth is dear. Lo, verily, not for love of Brahmanhood (brahma) is Brahmanhood dear, but for love o f the Soul Brahmanhood is dear. Lo, verily, not for love o f Kshatrahood (ksatra) is Kshatrahood dear, but for love of the Soul Kshatrahood is dear. Lo, verily, not for love of the worlds are the worlds dear, but for love of the Soul the worlds are dear. Lo verily, not for love of the gods are the gods dear, but for love of the Soul the gods are dean Lo, verily, not for love of the beings (bhüta) are beings dear but for love o f the Soul beings are dear. Lo, verily, not for love o f all is all dear, but for love of the Soul all is dear. Lo, verily, it is the Soul (Atm an) that should be seen, that should be hearkened to, that should be thought on, that should be pondered on, O Maitreyi, Lo, verily, with the seeing of, with the hearkening to, with the thinking of, and with the understanding o f the Soul, this world—all is known. 6. Brahmanhood has deserted him who knows Brahmanhood in aught else than the Soul. Kshatrahood has deserted him who knows Kshatrahood in aught else than the Soul.

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The worlds have deserted him who knows the worlds in aught else than the Soul. The gods have deserted him who knows the gods in aught else than the Soul. Beings have deserved him who knows beings in àught, else than the Soul. Everything has deserted him who knows everything in aught .else than the Soul. This Brahmanhood, this Kshatrahood, these worlds, these gods, these beings, everything here is what this Soul is. 7. It is—as, when a drum is being beaten, one would not be able to grasp the external sounds, but by grasping the drum or the beater o f the drum the sound is grasped. 8. It is—as, when a conch-shell is being blown, one would not be able to grasp the external sounds, but by grasping the conch-shell or the blower of the conch-shell the sound is grasped 9. It is—as, when a lute is being played, one would not be able to grasp the external sounds, but by grasping the lute or the player of the lute the sound is grasped. 10. It is—as, from a fire laid with damp fuel, clouds o f smoke separately issue forth, so, lo, verily, from this great Being (bhüta) has been breathed forth that which is Rig-Veda, YajurVeda, Sima-Veda, [Hymns] o f the Atharvans and Angirases, Legend (