Collective Efficacy : Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership 9781781906811, 9781781906804

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COLLECTIVE EFFICACY: INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL LEADERSHIP

ADVANCES IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION Series Editor: Anthony H. Normore Recent Volumes: Volume 11:

Global Perspectives on Educational Leadership Reform: The Development and Preparation of Leadership Learning and Learners of Leadership Edited by Anthony H. Normore

Volume 12:

Leadership in Education, Corrections and Law Enforcement: A Commitment to Ethics, Equity and Excellence Edited by Anthony H. Normore and Brian D. Fitch

Volume 13:

Discretionary Behavior and Performance in Educational Organizations: The Missing Link in Educational Leadership and Management Edited by Ibrahim Duyar and Anthony H. Normore

Volume 14:

Global Leadership for Social Justice: Taking it from the Field to Practice Edited by Christa Boske and Sarah Diem

Volume 15:

The Management and Leadership of Educational Marketing: Research, practice and applications Edited by Izhar Oplatka and Jane Hemsley-Brown

Volume 16:

Transforming Learning Environments: Strategies to Shape the Next Generation Edited by Fayneese S. Miller

Volume 17:

Successful School Leadership Preparation and Development Edited by Karen Sanzo, Steve Myran and Anthony H. Normore

Volume 18:

Identifying leaders for urban charter, autonomous and independent schools: Above and beyond the standards Edited by Kimberly B. Hughes and Sara A. M. Silva

Volume 19:

Understanding the Principalship: An International Guide to Principal Preparation Edited by Charles L. Slater and Sarah W. Nelson

ADVANCES IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION VOLUME 20

COLLECTIVE EFFICACY: INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL LEADERSHIP EDITED BY

ANTHONY H. NORMORE

California State University Dominguez Hills, USA

NANCY ERBE

California State University Dominguez Hills, USA

United Kingdom North America India Malaysia China

Japan

Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2013 Copyright r 2013 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-78190-680-4 ISSN: 1479-3660 (Series)

ISOQAR certified Management System, awarded to Emerald for adherence to Environmental standard ISO 14001:2004. Certificate Number 1985 ISO 14001

CONTENTS LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

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FOREWORD

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INTRODUCTION Anthony H. Normore and Nancy Erbe

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PART I: TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP THE MANY FACES OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURIAL LEADERSHIP Ricardo Castro-Salazar

3

DEVELOPING SOCIALLY JUST LEADERS: INTEGRATIVE ANTIRACIST APPROACHES IN A TRANSFORMATIONAL PARADIGM Denise E. Armstrong and Brenda J. McMahon

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CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION’S TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT Nancy Erbe and Rebecca Korinek

41

PART II: SERVANT LEADERSHIP SERVANT LEADERSHIP: HISTORY, A CONCEPTUAL MODEL, MULTICULTURAL FIT, AND THE SERVANT LEADERSHIP SOLUTION FOR CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT Bill Flint, Jr. and Megan Grayce

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ECHOES OF A NOT SO DISTANT SUMMER: SCHOLAR-SERVANT AS HUMBLE LEADERS Shewanee Howard-Baptiste and Moise R. Baptiste

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INSPIRATIONAL SERVANT LEADERSHIP: NURTURING YOUTH LEADERSHIP FOR SUSTAINABLE PEACE IN AFRICA Daniel N. Karanja

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PART III: SERVICE LEARNING FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TEACHING FOR SERVICE LEARNING AND COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Marilyn R. Davis and Aysha Abdulla Hassan Ali Hassan

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UNIVERSITIES AS LEADERS IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA Lynn Ilon and M’zizi Samson Kantini

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LEADERSHIP’S ROLE IN REDUCING JAIL VIOLENCE AND RECIDIVISM Brantley R. Choate Sr. and Anthony H. Normore

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PART IV: LEADERS OF THE NEW MILLENNIUM LEADERSHIP AND THE EMERGENCE OF AFRICA Ndi Richard Tanto

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SCHOOL LEADERSHIP IN THE PHILIPPINES: HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND POLICY DYNAMICS Ian E. Sutherland and Jeffrey S. Brooks

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A VISION OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP: AN ITALIAN PERSPECTIVE Alberto Mascia, Martina Sartori and Luca Dal Pubel

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PART V: REQUISITE CONSCIOUSNESS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE THE SOCIOLOGY OF LEADERSHIP COACHING Molly George

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TRAITS AND BEHAVIOR: PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP Richard J. Hughbank and Leland C. Horn

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WHEN LEADERS BURN OUT: THE CAUSES, COSTS AND PREVENTION OF BURNOUT AMONG LEADERS Steve Bagi 261 PART VI: CHALLENGES FOR FUTURE COLLECTIVE EFFICACY AN EXPLORATION OF THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN RESTORATIVE POLICING IN ENGLAND AND WALES Kerry Clamp and Craig Paterson 293 DEVELOPING FROM ASSISTANT TO FULL PRINCIPAL IN A CONTEXT OF SOCIAL UNREST: THE CASE OF SOUTHERN THAILAND Ekkarin Sungtong and Melanie C. Brooks 309 MISCONDUCT IN PROSECUTORIAL LEADERSHIP AND DECISION MAKING Robert J. Meadows 325 ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND EDITORS

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AUTHOR INDEX

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SUBJECT INDEX

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Denise E. Armstrong

Faculty of Education, Brock University, St Catharines, ON, Canada

Steve Bagi

Actuate Leadership, Gold Coast, Qld, Australia

Moise R. Baptiste

Haitian American Caucus, Chattanooga, TN, USA

Jeffrey S. Brooks

Department of Leadership & Counseling, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA

Melanie C. Brooks

Departments of Curriculum and Instruction and Leadership and Counseling, University of Idaho, Boise, ID, USA

Ricardo Castro-Salazar

Center for Latin American Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

Brantley R. Choate, Sr.

Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Kerry Clamp

Department of Social Sciences and Psychology, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Marilyn R. Davis

University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

Nancy Erbe

Department of Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peace Building Program (NCRP), California State University, Dominguez Hills, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Bill Flint, Jr.

Flint Strategic Partners, Goshen, IN, USA

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Molly George

Department of Criminal Justice and Sociology, California Lutheran University, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA

Megan Grayce

GSL Servant Leadership Consulting, Apex, NC, USA

Aysha Abdulla Hassan Ali Hassan

Zayed University, UAE

Leland C. Horn

Colorado Technical University, Colorado Springs, CO, USA; The Boeing Company, Dallas, TX, USA

Shewanee HowardBaptiste

Department of Health and Human Performance, The University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, TN, USA

Richard J. Hughbank

Center for Strategic Leadership’s Homeland Defense and Security Issues Group, US Army War College, Carlisle, PA, USA; Northwestern State University of Louisiana, St Natchitoches, LA, USA

Lynn Ilon

College of Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea

M’zizi Samson Kantini

College of Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea

Daniel N. Karanja

Department of Conflict Analysis, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL, USA

Rebecca Korinek

Loyola Law School, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Alberto Mascia

Lawyer at Mascia Law Firm, Italy; Mediator, Legal, Business and Management Consultant

Brenda J. McMahon

The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA

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List of Contributors

Robert J. Meadows

Department Criminal Justice and Legal Studies at California Lutheran University, Thousand Oaks, CA, USA

Anthony H. (Tony) Normore

College of Education, Graduate and Teacher Education Divisions, California State University Dominguez Hills, CarsonLos Angeles, CA, USA

Craig Paterson

Department of Law, Criminology and Community Justice, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK

Luca Dal Pubel

Training Institute, National Conflict Resolution Center, San Diego, CA, USA

Martina Sartori

Avvocato Martina Sartori, Italy; Alumni of California State University Dominguez Hills, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Swaranjit Singh

California State Education Vendor, CA, USA

Ekkarin Sungtong

Faculty of Education, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus, Thailand

Ian E. Sutherland

Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA

Ndi Richard Tanto

Ecumenical Service for Peace (SeP), Yaounde, Cameroon

FOREWORD In this life, more often than not, we observe that humans find themselves in situations/positions for which they have no prior experience and skills. As we look into history we find numerous examples where people even found themselves (often suddenly) thrown into leadership roles. Many have been entrusted because of political/religious/ethnic affiliations, family hierarchy, the compromise-candidate factor, being at the right place at the right time, sheer luck, and other factors which have no or little relevance to important leadership qualities. We can discuss various types of leaderships: military or monarchy; political, autocratic, democratic, religious, and even tyrannical. Here I will briefly comment on political leadership at the national and international levels involving nation-building and peace-building diplomacy leading to peace, happiness and progress of the human race while staying in balance with nature. The political leader of one nation often seeks to align with other national leaders’ policies merely to keep the best of that nation’s status quo and self-serving friendship; even refusing to sign treaties that would advance wider global interests. Lack of wisdom and foresight is blatant. For example, consider the recent scenario where the American presidents and policymakers supported Egypt and its military ruler since the early 1980s and were suddenly faced with Arab Spring in 2011. Until then they had never communicated or interacted with the Muslim Brotherhood because they did not want to offend Mubarak and because of suspected and actual jihadist/terrorist related activities. Until President Obama, no one thought about keeping the lines of communication open. After the 2011 Egyptian revolution, the United States announced that it would open formal diplomatic channels with the group. It is quite obvious that no one had the vision to see this new awakening coming. The United States and other western leaders now face a situation where they have no option but to communicate with members of the Brotherhood as they rule the country. They now find themselves in a very awkward situation of abruptly starting this discourse. The United States and its leadership, which proclaims to spread democracy and human rights throughout the world, lacked in con-

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viction as it wholeheartedly supported a dictator in Egypt much against its own propagated principles of democracy. It is important that leaders, including those of nations, lead by personal example by living their talk. It looks so inappropriate when the United States violates its own principles of democracy and freedom while at the same time trying to impose them on less democratic nations. Political/national leaders should avoid making very tall statements like, “We shall never talk with the terrorist(s)” as no one for sure knows the future in this ever changing fluid world with advanced technology. Keeping the lines of communication open with one’s adversary does not mean one has given up on political integrity, rationale, and logic. Political leaders can keep interactions open without agreeing or giving in. Ignoring this wisdom, the United States, though a vibrant example of democracy granting its citizens human rights, has had many political pitfalls like Egypt as we observe history. President Bush said we will never talk to Al-Qaeda/ Taliban/terrorists after 9/11/2001 attacks on the World Trade Center. The United States then went to war in Afghanistan to destroy Al-Qaeda and remove Taliban from power. Now President Obama’s desperate efforts to get out of this bloody mess have resulted in establishing a setup in Qatar to start dialogue with Taliban. We talk to our adversary after 12 years of painful, prolonged, and bleeding war. We needed confirmation of 3,300 plus US/allied soldiers dead, about 23,000 soldiers wounded/disabled, and thousands of Afghan casualties to start the dialogue process. It is very hard to comprehend and justify why this could not have been done earlier. Lack of humility, vision, and basic common sense is found in many world leaders. Sometimes we even see collective action which can rarely stand the basic test of common sense, integrity, and logic. In the last decade or so, cell phone and social media communication technology has taken a quantum leap. This has diminished the authority of state control, power and maintenance of secrecy. The modern IT savvy generation is bound to react to adverse/unfavorable situations, organize within minutes to oppose such policies/dictates, and freely share information. Only about a year back Bank of America’s levying of fees on ATM withdrawal led to a sudden social media response and the bank had to reverse its decision. This displays the power, the reach, and the spontaneity of the modern generation with tools exhibiting and exercising its collective will, freedom, aspirations, and disagreement in an organized way. The recent cases of the Occupy Movement and Edward Snowden (whistleblower on National Security Agency’s intelligence program PRISM which

Foreword

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collects phone/e-mail data on US and world citizens) are examples of the modern generation feeling disenchanted with their leadership and policies which lack transparency. Leaders at all levels have to keep pace with this technology savvy generation by staying in touch through constant communication and dialogue. This generation is defining our leaders for future challenges through loudly communicating their desired leadership qualities. These qualities hinge around democracy, human rights, and freedom, with more emphasis on fairness, equality, equal opportunities, provision of fair environments, especially fair justice systems, and transparency. In short, they are demanding responsive and dynamic leadership. We all are aware that nations and their leaders conduct leadership and diplomacy with the aim to benefit themselves (as individuals or as a nation) in each and every situation. Each nation is doing that, yet each nation is also projecting itself as more ethical than the other and at times even projecting itself as an innocent victim. Internet technology has connected the world population in such a rock-hard way that nations find it extremely difficult to control and regulate this new instant communication phenomenon. This harsh reality of ordinary people having power with information, real-time exchange of ideas, and communication has to be accepted by governments/leaderships. We will see more instances where self-interested projections will be speedily exposed, challenged and suitably addressed. If we observe the India Pakistan situation, each nation’s leadership is out to paint the other as an extreme bitter adversary whereas if both nations meet at the people to people level, there is not much conflict. On the contrary, there is friendship and good communication. Often in such conflicts, however, it is in the ruling leadership’s interest to keep the conflict alive to stay in power and control the state by generating fear with constant war-mongering rhetoric. In coming times, finding even a remote level of acceptance for such belligerent demeanors will be exceedingly difficult. Sooner or later we will have to move to a leadership level where we as individual nations are less important and relevant vis-a`-vis the group of nations of the whole planet. We have lived and seen all types of leadership resulting in more personal gain, greed, and lack of trust in others. This has degraded the human faith in human nature affecting its current direction of evolution. We have to adopt a leadership style which works as a team with the aim to benefit most (if not all) at all levels. As several nations try to get hold of all the military power and resources; thus aiming to dominate over other nations, we create and escalate a gloomy situation which may

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eventually lead to total destruction. This puts a big question mark on the future, the very existence of the human race and the Earth we depend on for sustenance. Future leaders have to take a quantum leap and move to a level where all nations conduct business as equal partners ensuring overall well-being of all and securing our planet for our future generations. Leaders have to function as seeing all nations and their population as connected, interdependent, and as one unit. Future leaders have to focus on provision of good governance while keeping away from religion. They should put more emphasis on the spiritual aspects of human nature where love for all fellow beings and all life is more important than following divisive organized religion(s). These aspects should be introduced as a mandatory subject in elementary to high school level education curriculum. This will produce future leaders with constructive mind-set and help us move away from the destructive route which mainly focuses on material gain and growth. I express my heartfelt thanks to Dr. Nancy Erbe and Dr. Anthony H. Normore who offered me this opportunity to write a foreword for this book. Both are well known published authors and experts in their respective fields. I also strongly commend all the esteemed contributing authors of this book who with their expertise have expressed valuable and relevant perspectives on leadership from varied standpoints. They have contributed immensely in their chosen subjects and I have no doubts in my mind that readers all over the world will immensely enjoy reading this book and thus benefit in many ways from its interdisciplinary contents on leadership at all levels. As I review the chapters of the book on transformational leadership, servant leaders and service-learning for community development, I see that Gandhi’s example fits so flawlessly in all the above-mentioned leadership roles. Community service was of great significance to Gandhi. He continued serving with all his heart till his end. He never accepted government or political positions of power, wealth, or prestige and his transformative ability continues to inspire. I wholeheartedly wish the book a grand success. The timing of this book, Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership could not be more fitting as I see the conflict-ridden world along with an ever present real threat to the very existence of our planet. However hard we try, we will eventually lose our national identities and character. It is almost written on the wall. No one can avoid reading it, as it is loud and bold. As we lose these identities, we will create new identities

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and leaders in consonance with oneness, modernity, and technology. This new identity will move toward being borderless in tangibility and free flowing in thought, dialogue, and expression. This new identity and leadership will be a blessing as it unbinds the human spirit towards synergy of humane expression and action. At its best it will create the ideal trinity in balance comprising humans, nature, and life itself as one connected entity. Swaranjit Singh Retired Army Lieutenant Colonel, Long Beach, CA, USA, June 30, 2013

INTRODUCTION COLLECTIVE EFFICACY: INTERDISCIPLINARY PERSPECTIVES ON INTERNATIONAL LEADERSHIP Seemingly overnight, within the authors’ professional life times, the world has started to evidence truly global communities with the need to develop genuinely international leaders in several different realms: education, organizational, political, legal … to name a few of the arenas discussed in this collection. Yet, at the same time, the world is far from coalesced, or unified, and perhaps that is the way it should be, or for the best. We finally are being forced to find ways to embrace, include, and benefit from our rich diversity, not only from our transcontinental lens but also from our various professional disciplines. Until the last several years, international was most often used in its historic, technical, and political definition of inter-nation, or between nation states. After the Balkans war, with the rise of international law and institution(s), it began to describe a more global phenomenon, but except for the human rights and women empowerment movements, rarely has international described a highly diverse, inclusive community of influence and connection. Now, in the age of technology where the internet continues to connect so many, and the US economy dipped into recession while the economies of countries like Brazil, China, and India simultaneously soared, the world is seeing a more diverse group of global leaders. This collection of chapters aspires to present this important emerging voice and presence. Our authors have attempted to write about leadership and leadership development from their professional experiences and disciplines to a richly varied global audience. Several decades ago, internationally renowned Stanford University psychologist, Albert Bandura, coined the term “self-efficacy” and later used a variance of the term known as “collective-efficacy”. Bandura stated “A group’s attainments are the product not only of shared knowledge and skills of the different members, but also of the interactive, coordinative, and synergistic dynamics of their transactions” (2000, pp. 75 76). With this in mind, the authors in this book represent an interdisciplinary and international group of collaborative and well-respected scholars who xix

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demonstrate the positive impact of collective efficacy on an international scale. Although our disciplines are closely interconnected, there is often a tendency to work in academic silos and isolation. The authors here demonstrate the opposite. Their interaction, coordination, and synergy exemplify the significant benefits of collective efficacy, and bridging disciplines, professions, experiences, and scholarship. As a result of this collection many of our authors have already engaged in future collaborative transcontinental projects within and across their disciplines. We share much that might benefit us and others when explored and discovered. In relation to this book series, Advances in Educational Administration, we contend that leaders in the field of educational leadership and administration might consider taking a step backward in order to take several forward. That is, educational leadership researchers might reexamine leadership, both in terms of social and individual dynamics and as disciplinary-specific, multidisciplinary, and interdisciplinary phenomenon. By adopting this approach, these leaders can connect and extend longestablished lines of conceptual and empirical inquiry and thereby gain insights that may otherwise be overlooked or assumed. This holds great promise for generating, refining, and testing various theories in educational leadership and will help strengthen already vibrant lines of inquiry. That is, rather than citing a single, or a few, works out of their disciplinary context it might be more fruitful to situate educational leadership not only in their respective traditions but also in the way that leadership may be conceptualized and practiced across our continents. This could be carried out by extending extant lines of inquiry in educational leadership research and then incorporating lessons gleaned from this work into innovative practice. The authors in Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership represent the global stage including India, Kenya, Italy, United Arab Emirates, the United States, Haiti, Mexico, Canada, Australia, Korea, Zambia, the United Kingdom, Thailand, Cameroon, and the Philippines. The authors bring a wealth of knowledge, skills, and experience from diverse cultures and disciplines: education, peace-building and conflict transformation, theology, law enforcement and criminal justice, military, organizational studies and business, and the social sciences including public policy, sociology, and psychology. No one, whether working in a highly prosperous country or one that has been recently challenged by horrendous natural disaster, is immune from challenge. Every author is facing and describing at least one challenge and often several. The need for leadership development to effectively guide tough problem solving in the face of challenge is one of the universal commonalities where we meet.

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As a result, most of our authors are not working alone. For years many have worked together, crossing cultural and national boundaries, in the interests of serving communities in need around the world. They are exemplifying some of the most important approaches to international leadership development: actively traveling and working in other countries other than the one claimed as home or nation-state, working in partnership with those from other cultures and learning by doing actively immersing oneself in service and community development along with reflective practice or applied evaluation. This is increasingly happening in professional disciplines. Educators are gathering together from several countries to share successes and trouble shoot challenges. Approximately 12,000 educational leaders are gathering in Philadelphia in 2014 to discuss the power of educational research in innovation for policy and practice while others gather in New South Wales to present work on promoting leaders’ well-being and positive workplace cultures. The World Council of Comparative Education societies recently gathered in Buenos Aires to support and promote new voices for new times on issues, trends, and policies through comparative, cross-cultural, and international perspectives. Social workers are attending conferences to evaluate progress in serving communities. Mediators are gathering in Istanbul, Turkey to this end. The International Association of Chiefs of Police is gathering in Philadelphia to address law enforcement’s critical issues, advance their knowledge, and equip their operations for the future. Meanwhile, The Press Secretary of the White House Office just released the June 29, 2013 remarks by President Barack Obama at Young African Leaders Initiative Town Hall at University of Johannesburg-Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa (please see President Obama’s remarks on the next page). This collection focuses on ways in which leaders engage in leadership roles in communities locally, nationally, and globally. The contributors bring a variety of rich perspectives to the leadership phenomenon from the lens of empirical, historical, narrative, and conceptual designs. The book begins with a “Foreword,” followed by 18 chapters organized into 6 thematic parts. In Part I, Transformational Leadership, authors working in Mexico, Canada, the United States, and around the world describe the emerging and fast growing global models of social entrepreneurship and conflict collaboration, along with the West’s long time struggle in eradicating racism and promoting multicultural justice. Servant Leadership is the natural next step and the focus of Part II. Here servant leadership shows its global appeal, bridging the Caribbean with African vision, and transnational corporate effectiveness with scholar and future generational leaders.

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Part III, Service Learning for Community Development, continues this focus on global service but shifts from leaders to learning for community development. Service learning with women in the United Arab Emirates synergistically loops back to transformation, describing potent and inspirational empowerment. Surprising synergy, or collective efficacy, is found again in a dramatically different part of the world where North American authors describe how prison inmates are transforming their behavior into positive leadership roles while incarcerated; even creating promising futures, through service learning. At the same time, authors acknowledge that universities around the world are falling short and could do much more for their communities. Part IV, Leaders of the New Millennium, continues and expands this theme, providing essential critique and pragmatic ideas for political, school, and legal leadership development in three distinct parts of the world including Africa, Europe, and Asia. Requisite Consciousness and Emotional Intelligence cannot be assumed. Part V introduces how leadership coaching can help raise leaders’ awareness and build their social capacity along with the discipline of psychology. Defining and understanding the variances between failure and success within an organization is critical. The most conscious and emotionally gifted of leaders, however, still risk burn out, or psychic exhaustion. No one posits that global leadership in contemporary times is or will be easy. Part VI, Challenges for Future Collective Efficacy, presents several intimate case studies of challenge, again from quite distinct parts of the world, in the interest of stimulating and nurturing the collective efficacy we all need for our future. A book is a monumental and at times frustrating project, one that requires much assistance and support if it’s ever to reach completion. We would be remiss not to acknowledge the many people involved with this project. First and foremost, our sincere gratitude goes to each of our authors who relentlessly wrote to meet deadlines. This book would not have been possible without their commitment to the project, motivation to strengthen their work, understanding and endless patience, and intrinsic desire to share their message of hope and inspiration with the world. Our hope is that their leadership work will serve as catalysts for important interdisciplinary and international dialogue throughout the world and throughout the professions. We are equally indebted to Retired Lieutenant Colonel with the Indian Army, Swaranjit Singh, who was gracious with his time and efforts to provide a poignant and powerful message about the importance of interdisciplinary international leadership in the “Foreword.” To many of our local, national, and international friends and colleagues, we extend our heartfelt thanks for their invaluable suggestions. Finally, to

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Sharon Parkinson and her editorial team at Emerald we offer our sincere gratitude for their ongoing diligence and support throughout the publication process. Anthony H. Normore Nancy Erbe Editors

REFERENCE Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(3), 75 78.

PRESIDENT OBAMA’S REMARKS The White House Office of the Press Secretary For Immediate Release June 29, 2013 Remarks by President Obama at Young African Leaders Initiative Town Hall University of Johannesburg-Soweto Johannesburg, South Africa 3:48 P.M. SAST

MS. MABUSE: You guys are an amazing crowd. Good afternoon, and welcome to the University of Johannesburg’s Soweto campus. My name is Nkepile Mabuse and I will be the moderator this afternoon. I really do hope that the strong significance and symbolism of what is happening here in Soweto today does not escape you. There really are no two occasions in recent time that have had a more profound impact on the African people than when Nelson Mandela walked out of prison a free man in 1990, and of course, the election of Barack Obama in 2008. Now, these two men are politicians and their legacies will be judged by history. But there’s absolutely no doubt that these two developments in history have had a profound impact on the African continent. They have brought hope in Africa, and also began the process of restoring pride and dignity in the African people. Now, as I speak to you and as you all know, President Nelson Mandela is lying in hospital, critically ill. The euphoria that engulfed this continent when President Obama was elected is fading, but in this room look around you is Africa’s brand new hope. These young people are doing amazing things in their communities. They have already been identified as leaders, and leaders who are committed to serving others and not themselves. xxiv

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Exactly 37 years ago this month, young school children here in Soweto braved Apartheid bullets, fighting for freedom. It’s no coincidence that a new generation of young people is here today. And like the ’76 generation, they refuse to conform, but are inspired to transform their world. When President Obama launched the Young African Leaders Initiative in 2010, he described them as the Africa that is overlooked. Well, at this moment the world can see and hear you. President Obama will come here, address you and then engage you. We will take a question here in South Africa before we cross to Kenya, Uganda and then Lagos, Nigeria. When the President selects you, please, be proud. Introduce yourselves and ask a short, sharp, smart question. (Laughter.) As a fellow African, I really want to thank you from the bottom of my heart for keeping hope alive in Africa. Please join me in welcoming onstage the 44th President of the United States of America Barack Obama. (Applause.) PRESIDENT OBAMA: Hello, everybody! (Applause.) Yebo Mzansi! (Applause.) Oh, it is wonderful to be back in South Africa. Everybody have a seat, everybody have a seat. Relax. Yes, I’m excited, too. (Applause.) It is wonderful to be here with all these extraordinary young people young people from across this magnificent country, but also from all across the continent. And I want to give special thanks and special welcome to those who are watching from Nigeria and Uganda and Kenya, a country obviously very close to my heart. When I travel around the world, this is one of my favorite things to do meeting and talking with young men and women like you. And our format today, this town hall is a longstanding tradition in America, and I get asked all sorts of things. I remember one event, a person asked a question that’s often on a lot of people’s minds when I show up: Where’s Michelle? (Laughter.) Sometimes people ask me, you seem to have gotten so old since you were elected (laughter) what happened? So this format can be a little humbling, but it energizes me because it gives me a chance to hear from you directly what you’re thinking, what you care about, what your vision is. And I’m making this trip to Africa because I believe this is a region on the move. Even as this continent faces great challenges and they are great, and we can’t paper over them or pretend that those challenges don’t exist even as too many Africans still endure tremendous hardship and great injustice, there is, as the song

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says a “new Africa” more prosperous, more confident, taking its place on the world stage. And one of the reasons is because of your generation. And it’s fitting that we’ve gathered here, in Jo’burg, in Soweto, because here we learned that history is in our hands. Not far from here, in Orlando West, two young men came of age who would transform this nation and inspire the world Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu. And President Mandela once said that during all those years in that cell, it was his home here in Soweto that small red-brick house that was what he called the “center point of my world.” And obviously he’s on our minds today, and we join the people of the world in sending our prayers to Madiba and his family because he still inspires us all. Now, not far from here, on a June morning, young students gathered in peaceful protest for the right to be taught in their own language, for the right to be treated like human beings. And after all the police bullets, after the smoke cleared, the world was shocked by that image protesters holding the body of a young boy, Hector Pieterson. And what a powerful tribute it is to Hector’s sacrifice, and to all who struggled, that we can gather here today in a free South Africa at a university that serves all South Africans. And I know the story of Soweto inspires you in your lives, but keep in mind it inspired me, too. The uprising here helped open my mind to a broader world and to our responsibilities to choose between fairness and injustice, between right and wrong. And as a Senator, during my first visit to South Africa, I was able to go to Hector Pieterson’s memorial and pay tribute to an African boy who moved the world. And humbled by the sacrifices of all who have gone before us so that we can stand here as free men and women, I am honored to return to Soweto now as President of the United States of America. (Applause.) Now, tomorrow I’ll be down in Cape Town at the University of Cape Town, and I’ll speak about the future that we can build together Africans and Americans. And that’s where Robert Kennedy delivered his eloquent address to another generation of young people. The challenges of our world, he said, demand “the qualities of youth; not a time in life, but a state of mind, a temper of the will, a quality of the imagination, a predominance of courage over timidity, of the appetite for adventure over the love of ease.” That’s what young people are. That’s the spirit of youth, and it’s still true. That’s why three years ago, I launched a new effort to make sure we’re tapping those qualities of youth the imagination, the courage, the “yes,

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we can” attitude of young Africans like you. It’s our Young African Leaders Initiative, and I kicked it off by welcoming young men and women from across Africa to the White House, and we had a town hall similar to this one. I think some of you were there, in fact. And since then, we’ve helped empower young people across this continent with new skills and entrepreneurship and leadership, and new partnerships in education and health and technology. Michelle came here to Soweto for a forum with some inspiring young women, and she’s here today in Jozi meeting with students who (laughter) did I say that wrong? (applause) meeting with students who, like you, are going to determine the future of your countries. So today, I’m proud to announce a significant expansion of this initiative. We’re launching a new program that’s going to give thousands of promising young Africans like you the opportunity to come to the United States and develop your skills at some of our best colleges and universities. (Applause.) It’s called the Washington Fellowship for Young African Leaders, and I hope all of you apply because we’re joining with our top schools public and private. We’ll focus on civic leadership and public administration and business and entrepreneurship, the skills you need to serve your communities and start and grow businesses and run effective ministries. And you’ll interact with Americans from all walks of life, because our citizens especially our young people can learn from you, too. You’ll meet with leaders in business and nonprofits and government, including me. And I look forward to welcoming you at a summit that I’ll host in Washington, because I want to hear directly from you your hopes, your dreams, what we can achieve together. And your time in America will be just the beginning. When you come back home, new grants will help you turn your ideas into new businesses and new non-profits. And we’re going to partner with American companies here in Africa to provide internships and mentoring and job opportunities to help you grow into the next generation of business leaders. We’re going to partner with your governments and regional organizations here in Africa and foundations and civil society to amplify your voices as you stand up for democracy and equality. And with the connections you make as a Washington Fellow, you’ll have something else for the rest of your life, and that is a network of Africans and Americans ready to collaborate on the future that you want to build. So this won’t be the most expensive program that we have, but I actually believe this is going to end up being one of the most important. And it’s

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important to me personally, because it’s a great way for me to show my faith and confidence in all of you. I believe in you, and I intend to make this a lasting part of our engagement with Africa beyond my presidency, for years to come. We want to empower entrepreneurs like Fred Swaniker. Where’s Fred? He’s from Ghana. (Applause.) Where is he? There he is. So Fred has got a fan club over here. (Laughter and applause.) Fred helped to start a biotech company, and now uses his expertise to help other young Africans develop their leadership skills so that they can come back and put those skills to use serving their communities, starting businesses, creating jobs. So thank you, Fred, for the great work that you’re doing. (Applause.) We want to empower citizens like Khadija Patel. Where’s Khadija? Khadija? (Applause.) So Khadija is a fearless journalist here in South Africa. She’s reported on Sudan, and Mali, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. (Applause.) She’s exposed the roots of conflict, she’s challenged leaders as a voice for peace and justice. So we’re very proud of the work that you do, Khadija. Thank you. (Applause.) We want to empower advocates like Jacob Jabari. Where’s Jacob? Right here. (Applause.) So here in South Africa, Jacob decided he was not going to hide the fact that he was HIV positive; he embraced it, he became a counselor. He helps guide others, because he says the key to saving lives and slowing the spread of AIDS is an honest approach, and that takes great courage. Thank you, Jacob. (Applause.) And we want to empower women like Lebo Bogapane. Lebo? (Applause.) Growing up, Lebo endured domestic abuse and violence, which led to homelessness and hunger. Over many years, she didn’t simply rebuild her own life, she built a crisis center here in South Africa that’s helped thousands of women and children escape abuse as well. What a great legacy. Thank you, Lebo. (Applause.) So building the future that you seek, realizing the vision that you have, not just for your own countries but for the world it will not be easy. It will not be easy. But as you go forward, I want you to think of the man who’s in our prayers today. Think about 27 years in prison. Think about the hardships and the struggles and being away from family and friends. Reflecting on his years in prison, Nelson Mandela wrote that there were dark moments that tested his faith in humanity, but he refused to give up. And he said, “I am fundamentally an optimist. Whether that comes from nature or nurture, I cannot say. Part of being optimistic is keeping one’s head pointed towards the sun, one’s feet moving forward.”

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So in your lives, there will be time to test your faith. But no matter how old you grow, I say to all of you today, don’t lose those qualities of youth your imagination, your optimism, your idealism. Because the future of this continent is in your hands, and if you keep your head pointed towards the sun and you keep your feet moving forward, I promise you will have no better friend and partner than the United States of America. (Applause.) Thank you very much, everybody. Thank you.

REFERENCE The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. (2013). Remarks by President Obama at Young African Leaders Initiative Town Hall. Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/thepressoffice/2013/06/29/remarks-president-obama-young-african-leaders-initiative-town-hall. Accessed on June 30, 2013.

PART I TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

THE MANY FACES OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURIAL LEADERSHIP Ricardo Castro-Salazar ABSTRACT Social entrepreneurs are leaders who aspire to build more just societies through the mechanisms of the market. The concept of social enterprise has grown increasingly popular, but it continues to be a nebulous notion. This chapter explores the meaning of social enterprise and the attributes and characteristics of social entrepreneurial leaders whose enterprises have become the vehicles of social, economic, and even political transformations. The transformative potential of social entrepreneurial leaders is illustrated with brief, but prominent, examples that are aimed to inspire further research. It is shown that social entrepreneurship is not confined to an exclusive arena, but actually flourishes in diverse sectors. It is also posited that educational institutions and organizations can promote greater interest and investment in social entrepreneurship as a progressive model for a positive social change.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 3 21 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020001

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RICARDO CASTRO-SALAZAR We need to expand the idea of business. Rather than just making money, we need businesses that solve problems. We have enough technology, enough ability, and enough innovative capacity to make that happen. Mohammad Yunus, Nobel Peace laureate (Kopp & Yunus, 2012) Maybe greed is good, but generosity is better. Nipun Mehta, Social entrepreneur (Mehta, 2013)

WHERE DO SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURS COME FROM? The concept of social enterprise is not new. It emerged in the 1980s and it has become increasingly praised since the 1990s, but it is not yet wellunderstood by many people (Dees, 2007). Commonly, such enterprises are understood as organizations that address social or ecological problems. At a basic level, a social enterprise can be defined as a sustainable organization with a social mission that may involve commercial ventures, non-for-profit activities, or a combination of objectives (Light, 2006). Profit is not the main priority of enterprises with social goals, but financial sustainability is essential to them (Weerawardena & Sullivan-Mort, 2001). Theoreticians and practitioners are not necessarily in agreement about the parameters that define the actions of a social entrepreneur. Successful entrepreneurs of any kind share similar traits, but social entrepreneurs also have a conviction to serve others and they perceive themselves as the agents of change. In reality, social entrepreneurship can occur in many different contexts and economic spheres, including the public sector, businesses, and nonprofits. Therefore, as proposed by Light (2006), we need to define the social entrepreneur in more ample terms: A social entrepreneur is an individual, group, network, organization, or alliance of organizations that seeks sustainable, large-scale change through pattern-breaking ideas in what or how governments, nonprofits, and businesses do to address significant social problems. (p. 50)

It is clear that the role of social enterprises is increasingly important in human development and well-being. In the 21st century, Nobel Peace prizes have been granted to social entrepreneurs Wangari Maatai (2004) and Muhammad Yunus (2006). Currently, top-ranked universities dedicate considerable resources to the study and promotion of social entrepreneurship.

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Some of them have been in successful operation for many years. In 1993, Harvard Business School launched the Social Enterprise Initiative that “applies innovative business practices and managerial disciplines to drive sustained, high-impact social change” (Mission and Impact, n.d.). In 1999, Stanford University Graduate School of Business instituted the Center for Social Innovation with the mission to “cultivate leaders who can solve the world’s toughest social and environmental problems” (About CSI, n.d.). In 2002, Duke University School of Business established the Center for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship (CASE), which “promotes the entrepreneurial pursuit of social impact through the thoughtful adaptation of business expertise” (Center for the Advancement, n.d.). These are just a few of the numerous examples and it appears that an increasing number of social entrepreneurs are starting businesses that generate social value. For Yunus (2008), any “innovative initiative to help people may be described as social entrepreneurship. The initiative may be economic or noneconomic, for-profit or not-for-profit” (p. 32). Thus, the parameters of social entrepreneurship can become confusing. After all, assisting with certain community needs and social problems is also contemplated in the strategic plans of some corporations as part of their marketing plan and the maintenance of their public image. Socially responsible businesses (SRBs) are structured as for-profit organizations and do not directly address social problems, but they have a positive social impact indirectly through socially responsible practices that benefit their employees, the environment, or their communities. A universe of companies including Ben & Jerry’s, Chevron, Gas De France (GDF) Suez, General Electric (GE), Starbucks, Walt Disney, and many others claim the SRB label and some have specifically developed “social mission statements.” Social entrepreneurship is different however, because it is not driven by the need to maximize profits, but to achieve public good and expand its social impact (Harding, 2004). As opposed to the maximization of profits for shareholders, the main goal of social entrepreneurs is “progressive social transformation” (Hartigan, 2006, p. 45). Many nonprofit organizations also have social missions, but having a social mission does not necessarily mean that an organization is a successful social enterprise or a sustainable endeavor. Commonly nonprofits and community groups tend to neglect the measurement of performance and results, especially when the majority or all their members are volunteers. Efficiency and results are essential for their survival but, at the same time, very difficult to assess and control (Drucker, 1990). Generally, the revenues of charitable and nonprofit organizations are not linked to performance,

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but obviously they cannot obtain revenues simply from their good deeds. Many never grow significantly or have an extensive social impact, but they may be considered successful if they have a strong presence in the community. Their effectiveness depends largely on grants, fundraising and community support, as is the case with local Sister Cities committees and some advocacy community organizations in the United States. In contrast, social enterprises are sustainable businesses that address a social problem. They have humanitarian missions, but are results-oriented and have the proactive leadership of entrepreneurs as chief social strategists. Having established these differences, the truth is that social entrepreneurship can also emerge as “intrapreneurship” within established organizations in the business, nonprofit, or government sectors (Kistruck & Beamish, 2010; Lumpkin & Katz, 2011; Mair & Schoen, 2007). Social intrapreneurs have been referred to as “disruptive innovators on the inside” (Samuelson, 2013). They develop new strategies to modify existing nonprofit and forprofit organizations, establishing new internal structures or creating external partnerships and alliances (Kistruck & Beamish, 2010). In the for-profit sector, these entrepreneurial leaders find ways to align business goals and public needs as they develop new products, services, and practices that are financially, socially, and environmentally sustainable (Samuelson, 2013). Such is the case of Vodafone’s M-Pesa, a mobile banking service in Kenya, developed from an employee-driven model that now has more than 17 million customers (PR Newswire, 2012). In the nonprofit arena, entrepreneurial leaders develop products and services that benefit society and allow their organizations to grow and impact more people. Social entrepreneurship also emerges in nonprofits from the need to have sustainable operations and to meet objectives more efficiently through a stable revenue source (Morris, 2011). Such is the case of the Georgia Justice project (GJP: www.gjp.org), a nonprofit that provides support to indigent people in the criminal justice system. An incredible partnership of social workers, lawyers, and a landscape company called New Horizons allow GJP to hire individuals who have been in jail, providing them with skills, while producing revenue for its operations (see also Shockley, Frank, & Stough, 2008). This chapter explores some of the many expressions of social entrepreneurship and the leaders who create or transform enterprises that impact society. They flourish in nonprofit organizations, socially responsible businesses, purely social enterprises, and organizations with mixed objectives. They arise in industrialized and developing nations and make connections across political, cultural, and economic boundaries. In fact, it appears that no arena is unknown to the social entrepreneur.

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UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURIAL LEADER Social entrepreneurs serve as the agents of change (Dees, 2001), but in essence all human beings possess the potential to transform their social environment. A social entrepreneur can be a very sophisticated and multifaceted person who is, first and above all, a leader. This type of leader is someone who is not happy with the status quo and feels an urgency to do something about it. The vehicle that she or he uses to generate the desired change is her or his social enterprise, which embodies her or his transformative willpower. The main motivation of a social entrepreneur is not the profitable potential of the venture, but the creation of social value and new solutions to social problems (Martin & Osberg, 2007). Hence, a social entrepreneur is a creator and an innovator. As defined by Stanford University Center for Social Innovation, a social innovation is a novel solution to a social problem that is more effective, efficient, sustainable, or just than present solutions, and for which the value created accrues primarily to society as a whole rather than private individuals. (Social Innovation, n.d.)

As explained above, social innovation is entirely possible within an established for-profit organization. However, many social entrepreneurs start entirely new ventures by intelligently utilizing an advantage that most for-profit enterprises do not have: the great human need for meaning and transcendence. As a result of these noble human aspirations that surpass the parameters of the market economy, Blake Mycoskie founded TOMS Shoes (www.toms.com), a successful enterprise that donates one pair of shoes for each pair it sells. With a different perspective, but with a passionate aim to resolve the social problem, Hispanic leaders created the Latino Credit Union, or Cooperativa Comunitaria Latina De Cre´dito (www.latinoccu.org), in North Carolina. Their financial institution was born as a response to the needs of the growing Latino population and their lack of access to good-quality financial services, hence their motto: “Progress with Dignity.” With similar transformative and innovative determination, Gillian Caldwell created Witness (www.witness.org), an organization that uses film and telecommunications as tools for the defense of human rights. What are the attributes and characteristics of such leaders capable of generating these visionary social enterprises? Leadership and business literature highlight innumerable characteristics of leaders and entrepreneurs. Similar qualities can be found in social entrepreneurs who, in addition, want to benefit humanity and the planet (Barendsen & Gardener, 2004;

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Greenberg, McKone-Sweet, & Wilson, 2011; Vasakarla, 2008). The list of social entrepreneurial attributes is extensive and no single individual could possess all, for example: confidence, practical compassion, commitment, determination, discernment, empathy, enthusiasm, honesty, humility, initiative, integrity, risk-taking, optimism, proactivity, wisdom, sensitivity, and sincerity, among others. Although such high expectations might seem to suggest the entrepreneurial incarnation of Gandhi or Mother Teresa, the truth is that social entrepreneurs, like many other leaders, center themselves and their organizations around their convictions and their unwavering belief in the causes behind their actions. It could be assumed that these leaders are the product of extensive experience and the good sense acquired through many years of action. However, Blake Mycoskie was only 35 when he founded TOMS, and William Foote was only 31 when he started Root Capital (www.rootcapital.org), one of the most successful social enterprises providing microcredit for development in rural areas. Similarly, model and activist Lauren Bush was only 22 when she started FEED (www.feedprojects.com), a project to benefit the United Nations World Food Programme’s (WFP) School Feeding program. FEED’s mission is to create products that help feed people suffering from hunger around the world by building a donation into the cost of each product. In reality, young and old leaders appear to share similar characteristics. In a study that analyzed the characteristics of two groups of entrepreneurs, one with participants younger than 40 and the other where they were older than 70, it was concluded that both have comparable attributes and traits (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). Furthermore, among these leaders, attributes that are generally associated with young age were clearly identified in the older leaders. Irrespective of their age, entrepreneurial leaders share characteristics like curiosity, positive impatience, energy, audacity, enthusiasm, willingness to take risks, and an avid desire to learn. Similarly, it appears that the characteristics of successful social entrepreneurial leaders are not very different from successful entrepreneurs without a social mission (Bornstein & Davis, 2010; Light, 2008). Another quality of great entrepreneurs, irrespective of their motivations, is their search for and acceptance of change as something desirable and beneficial (Drucker, 1985). Even some CEOs who see their organizations as competitive entities in a context of economic Darwinism (the process of natural selection as applied to business) have discovered that “natural selection” among business species does not always favor the strongest or the most astute, but those who are most adaptable to change (Marks, 2002). Social entrepreneurs are champions of change, since many of their

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efforts and endeavors involve new paradigms and the search for transformation. Furthermore, they appear to find hope and happiness in the adverse situations and challenging circumstances (social, political, economic) that defeat others (Colby & Damon, 1992). Following is a summary of the ideal attributes of social entrepreneurs compiled by this author from different sources and personal observation as director and board member of several community organizations with social aims in Mexico and the United States. The characteristics listed below include very brief, but salient, examples and references for those readers who would like to do further research and analysis.

Ideal Characteristics of the Social Entrepreneur • A genuine sense of community and social awareness combined with the ability to identify opportunities for resolving human problems and addressing social needs. Muhammad Yunus, founder of Grameen Bank (www.grameen.com) and now considered the father of microcredit, has helped millions of people by making small loans accessible to the poor. Mr. Yunus identified an opportunity to address a social need through the mechanisms of the market and, in the process, he has improved the lives and the economies of countless people around the world (Yunus, 2008). Moreover, through his highly visible and successful enterprise, Mr. Yunus has achieved great recognition for the field of social entrepreneurship and its immense possibilities (Miller, Grimes, McMullen, & Vogus, 2012). • A permanent and passionate desire to learn and evolve (Bennis & Thomas, 2002). As pointed out by Ron Schultz (2013), social entrepreneurs learn to change before bringing change in society. Changing and learning are permanent processes embraced by the social entrepreneur. Fazle Hasan Abed, founder of Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC: www.brac.net), embodies the passion for learning and the evolution that results from it. What started as a modest grassroots organization known as BRAC has evolved into a major global actor in the war against poverty. Since its creation in 1972, BRAC has constantly evolved as a learning organization that empowers the poor through microfinance, education, healthcare, legal services, entrepreneurial training, and other strategies (more below).

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• Mission-driven, with a clear aim to transform the status quo with a profound commitment and strength of mind. BRAC is also an extraordinary example of how one person’s clear purpose and commitment have materialized as a development success story. Fazle Hasan Abed, who in his youth worked as a senior executive at Shell Oil, changed his life vision and founded BRAC as an effort to empower the poor. From a modest beginning in rural Bangladesh, BRAC has become the largest development organization in the world, implementing solutions to poverty and community development in 11 nations in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean (Smillie, 2009). BRAC’s far-reaching transformational potential can be clearly seen in Uganda, where it has become the country’s largest nongovernmental organization. By 2011, BRAC Uganda had 105 branches, 1,830 employees, and over 100,000 borrowers (Schultz, 2013). • Questions the establishment and sees opportunities where others only see problems. The creation of Cafe´direct (www.cafedirect.co.uk) in the United Kingdom illustrates how the establishment can be changed and how social entrepreneurship can emerge, as asserted by Light (2006), from the alliance of social entrepreneurial groups or networks. Cafe´direct was born in response to the coffee market crisis of 1989, when three coffee-growing communities in Costa Rica, Mexico, and Peru shipped a container of coffee to the United Kingdom entirely loaned on trust. The coffee was originally sold through charity shops, church halls, and at local events. Today Cafe´direct is a force in the creation of growing niche markets for coffee sold at premium prices that guarantees more than just remuneration for small produces in developing nations (Martin & Osberg, 2007). • Collaborative, participatory, and inclusive, with the ability to influence others (Bennis, 1989). She or he has the capacity to activate collective energy in order to solve complex problems. There is no more effective way to influence others and achieve collaborative solutions than through the power of education. With this in mind, Gilda Henrı´ quez Darlas created the Center for Research in Ethical Development in Latin America (CIDEL: www.cidelatinoamerica.org), an organization with a mission to develop ethical values in children and youth. CIDEL started in Guatemala and has expanded to China, Honduras, India, England, and Mexico. Its educational model is based on the premise that all children can develop empathy, compassion, and wisdom as the basis

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from which ethical behavior can be cultivated. The model, known as “Universal Education for Ethical Development,” is implemented in primary schools for free of cost. CIDEL produces revenues from the training it delivers to the business and government sectors. In 2010, Ashoka and Swiss bank UBS in Mexico gave the Visionaries Award to Ms. Enrı´ quez Darlas as the most distinguished social entrepreneur of the year (CIDEL is known in Mexico as the Fundacio´n de Investigacio´n y Desarrollo Educativo). In 2011 Gilda received the Globalizer award in Stockholm for her global impact. • Creative, flexible, and innovative. She or he is not afraid of exploring and combining diverse disciplines for problem solving, creating a sort of social alchemy (Bornstein, 2007). Social entrepreneurs fearlessly explore new models that combine or hybridize ideas as in the case of the RugMark campaign created by Kailash Satyrathi in India with German support. An innovative combination of activism and entrepreneurship created the RugMark certification and public relations campaign with the purpose to educate consumers about child slavery in the rug-weaving trade. Today, carpets from India, Pakistan, or Nepal displaying the RugMark label assure the buyers in industrialized nations that no child labor was employed and wage requirements were met in their production (Martin & Osberg, 2007). • A visionary with a long-term perspective. She or he believes in a better future and the viability of achieving that vision through her or his actions (Barna, 1992). The Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA: www.sewa.org) was started in India in 1972 by Elaben Bhatt as a trade union of self-employed women in the informal sector. SEWA is a remarkable example of visionary entrepreneurship at the grassroots level that has evolved into both an organization and a social movement enacting a long-term vision for social, cultural, and political change. Today SEWA incarnates the convergence of three movements: the labor movement, the cooperative movement, and the women’s movement (Ahmed, 2005). Furthermore, SEWA empowers women as leaders and supports them in developing their own economic organizations (Charantimath, 2009). This extraordinary women’s organization working for the unorganized poor is gradually achieving social justice and political change that have an impact on gender and race relations (see also Hanson, 2009).

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• Possesses an enormous internal motivation that is not inspired by profit. He or she does not give up and constantly wants to excel and surpass expectations. Pharmacist Victoria Hale is internationally recognized as a senior social entrepreneur by Ashoka, the Schwab Foundation, and the Skoll Foundation (Medicines360, 2011). She transformed one of the most lucrative global industries into a nonprofit humanitarian organization, the Institute for One World Health (www.oneworldhealth.org), the first nonprofit pharmaceutical company in the United States, founded in 2000. In just one decade, Dr. Hale’s organization gained unprecedented success in providing safe and efficient medicines to the neediest communities in the world. She achieved this by utilizing existing research that was abandoned due to its lack of profit potential. One World Health has become a great social enterprise with a global impact, saving many thousands of lives around the world. In 2009, Dr. Hale expanded her tenacious efforts to help humanity and founded Medicines360 (www.medicines360.org), a new nonprofit pharmaceutical enterprise dedicated to providing medicines to women and children. This global health social entrepreneur conceived an altruistic idea that had not been imagined before and now has received grants for more than $100 million (Stuart, Sarasvathy, Dew, Wiltbank, & Ohlsson, 2011). • Willingness to take risks, learn from mistakes, and persist. She or he understands that failure plays a strategic role in the overall success of an enterprise (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Successful social entrepreneurs learn from failures and relentlessly continue on their quest for social change. Their vision and unwavering perseverance allows them to identify “the jujitsu points that allow them to tip the whole society into the new path and then persist and persist until the job is done” (Drayton, 2002, p. 123). Failures provide successful entrepreneurs with the critical learning that allows them to develop new and improved initiatives. Such is the case of Fa´brica Social (Social Factory: www.fabricasocial.org), founded in Mexico in 2006 by designers Emilienne Limo´n and Dulce Martı´ nez with the objective of supporting female artisan groups in different regions of the county. Despite very difficult social and economic environments and after experiencing the challenges of purely nonprofit models, the organization has become a hybrid social enterprise that utilizes for-profit strategies. Fa´brica Social provides indigenous artisans with access to markets and technical training that were previously out of their reach. They work under Fair Trade

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standards, and 100% of the company’s profits are invested back into the organization’s social efforts (Ashoka, 2013). • An ability for critical observation and macro-analysis, which support her/his persistent focus on the search for opportunities to help the world. Critical observation and focus require profound knowledge of the problem and real commitment to its solution. This is clear in the case of conservationist Willie Smits, who has found numerous opportunities to help nature conservation efforts. Smits was born in the Netherlands, but has become a citizen of Indonesia, where he founded the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation (www.orangutanprotectionfoundation.org), now the largest primate rescue and rehabilitation organization in the world. As a social entrepreneur he also founded the Masarang Foundation (www.masarang. nl/en), an enterprise that uses thermal energy to convert sugar palm juice into sugar and ethanol. The Foundation provides jobs to the community while preserving the local forests, promoting sustainable agriculture methods, and empowering local people to be a force for change. In 1994, the president of Indonesia honored Smits with the title “Hero for the Development of Indonesia” (see also Little, 2008). • Can make difficult decisions without the advantages of vast financial support. In 1999, Nipun Mehta walked away from a successful career in high-tech and founded CharityFocus, now ServiceSpace (www.servicespace.org), an organization that has provided millions of dollars of web-related services to nonprofit organizations for free. Fully run by volunteers, CharityFocus delivered millions of dollars in services with an annual budget of a few thousand dollars. Mr. Mehta has created a platform to make it easier for people to practice selfless service and giving. ServiceSpace has a membership of more than 400,000 and sends over 50 million e-mails every year. At the same time, the organization continues to operate under the principles of “no staff, no fundraising, and no strings attached” (Grant, 2013, p. 266). • Is moved by practical compassion and empathy, but is result-oriented and able to produce measurable returns. Mr. Devendra Raj Mehta represents an outstanding example of how compassion and empathy can motivate social entrepreneurship (Miller et al., 2012). With less than $10,000, he founded the Jaipur Foot Factory (www. jaipurfoot.org), an enterprise that provides low-cost prosthetic feet for the disabled in India. This modern prosthetic device costs the equivalent of

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$45, while a comparable limb costs $12,000 in the United States. In addition, the Jaipur foot only takes one hour to fit while others can take up to three months. Jaipur Foot Factory also produces a knee replacement that was named one of the 50 best inventions in the world by Time Magazine. The knee was developed in collaboration with Stanford University and cost only $20. Mr. Metha’s Factory is also a good example of the hybridization of social entrepreneurship, funding 60% of its operations with donations, 30% with government support, and 10% with earned income. The Foot Factory is not only at the vanguard of prosthetic science, but is a model for fiscal management with impressively low overhead costs of 4% (Jaipur Foot, 2011). • Finds strength and meaning in adversity. Some leaders confront adversity straight on as a challenge to conquer and from which they may learn. For many social entrepreneurial leaders who have experienced adversity and suffering, working to relieve the suffering of others becomes their social mission. This is often the case with people with disabilities, or who have children with disabilities, or who have become leaders in the disability movement. Devendra Raj Mehta himself started his Foot Factory after an accident where he broke several bones and became aware of the suffering of others who had lost limbs and mobility. Another remarkable example is Candice Lightner, whose teenage daughter was killed by a drunk driver. In response, Mrs. Lightner founded Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD: www.madd.org) (Bornstein & Davis, 2010). In 2011 alone, MADD provided victim services to more than 63,000 victims and survivors at no charge. MADD has hundreds of donors and sponsors and is partially funded from the Crime Victims Fund instituted by the Victims of Crime Act (VOCA), enacted by the US Congress in 1984. • Strategizes for economic, social, and environmental sustainability. Social entrepreneurs are constantly immersed in the struggle to maintain sustainability. They utilize businesslike solutions to develop financial sustainability while “remaining in harmony with the cultural and social context” (Praszkier & Nowak, 2012, p. 183). They understand that social change and innovation cannot be achieved in a vacuum, disconnected from their economic and environmental reality. In the mid-1970s, Ibrahim Abouleish founded the development initiative SEKEM (www.sekem.com). He devised an ambitious plan to improve the environment and the lives of Egyptian farmers through biodynamic farms, schools and vocational

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training centers, a medical center, and trading company. In the process, Dr. Abouleish has developed Egypt’s first private pharmaceuticals company and has implemented new chemical-free methods to process cotton. SEKEM has been so successful that its sustainable development models are being exported to South Africa, India, Palestine, Senegal, and Turkey. The commercialization of SEKEM’s organic teas, produce, herbal remedies, and cotton help to sustain its social nonprofit mission. In 2012, SEKEM opened the Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development (www.hu. edu.eg) with programs in Pharmacy, Engineering, and Economics and Business. The vision, knowledge, and leadership of these social entrepreneurs have allowed them to take advantage of market mechanisms to improve social welfare, generate growth, and achieve financial viability. They may possess many innate qualities and formal education, but they also cultivate the attributes and skills that are conducive to the achievement of their transformative objectives. At one level, they are strategic thinkers that challenge the status quo (Schoemaker, Krupp, & Howland, 2013); at another level, they function as “more tribal than scientific, more weaving of relationships, than amassing of information” (Depree, 2004, p. 3). These leaders nurture the heart and the mind in order to achieve the “delicate balance between sustainable business practices and passion for social impact” (Plaskoff, 2012, p. 432).

LABORATORIES OF SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION A social enterprise represents a deliberate attempt to produce positive social transformations and public benefits (Hartigan, 2006). At the heart of its existence is the desire to change society, which always implies great challenges. Nevertheless, the abovementioned examples demonstrate that this is not just an idealistic aspiration or a mere illusion. The transformative power of social enterprises is growing even in developing nations, where they confront many challenges and lack financial support, demonstrating that vision and leadership can navigate in the stormiest waters. In a larger context, social entrepreneurship might be a vehicle for a transition to a higher form of capitalism (Driver, 2012). Another example from Mexico, a nation with profound socioeconomic inequalities, is the case of E´chale a tu casa (www.echale.com.mx), a company that helps very poor families build their own houses. The company

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has helped families build tens of thousands of sustainable homes, while creating 130,000 jobs and the equivalent of 65 million dollars in income for those involved in the process. Social entrepreneurial initiatives like E´chale, and others mentioned in this chapter, have positively transformed entire communities and exemplify constructive changes in traditional models of competitive capitalism. That is why David Gergen, former advisor to four US presidents, has referred to social entrepreneurs as the “new engines of reform” (cited in Dees, 2007). The question that stands before us now is how can we nurture this positive reform? If we recognize that social enterprises are catalysts for positive social transformation, social entrepreneurship must be actively and intensely promoted, as prominent business scholar Michael Porter proposes (Driver, 2012). Educators, mentors, advisers, and consultants have the responsibility to encourage the rethinking of current business and development models toward sustainable change. This was the basic idea behind the Social Entrepreneurship Collaboratory, or SE Lab, launched at Harvard’s Kennedy School of Government in Spring 2005. The SE Lab is comprised of students from diverse degree programs from Harvard and other Universities looking for interdisciplinary approaches to global problem solving (Bloom, 2006). Such approaches may involve innovative ways to work together across borders, as in the cases of Cafe´direct or in the creative initiative of RugMark, discussed above. After all, “Social entrepreneurial efforts are all about creating partnerships and collaboration” (Schultz, 2013, p. 78). Educational institutions also have the unique ability to question the very systems that have created them as they develop new social innovators. It is not uncommon that such innovators move faster than the academic programs and institutions that provide them with global awareness, leadership, and social entrepreneurship principles. It is all part of a virtuous learning process that sometimes advances faster than the imagination of those who champion it. Thus, social entrepreneurs have even rescued unfinished projects and ideas and transformed them into viable new ventures with a multiplying social value, as Dr. Victoria Hale did by converting abandoned research into viable social applications. Some prominent social enterprises were created by national socioeconomic-intellectual elites who were able to work with the most vulnerable communities in their societies. Such are the cases of BRAC, SEWA, and Grameen Bank. But the knowledge and innovative processes behind successful social enterprises is now accessible to increasing numbers of people through educational institutions and innovative pedagogical models. An

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example in the United States is the Highlander Research and Education Center (HREC: http://highlandercenter.org), founded in 1932 to fight poverty and facilitate grassroots organizing in Appalachia and the South. The HREC’s mission reads: Through popular education, participatory research, and cultural work, we help create spaces where people gain knowledge, hope, and courage, expanding their ideas of what is possible. We develop leadership and help create and support strong, democratic organizations that work for justice, equality, and sustainability in their own communities.

The HREC utilizes adult education to help individuals and groups to find their own solutions to local problems. The Center also supports community organizations and develops innovative programs to empower leaders of individual movements (Alvord, Brown, & Letts, 2004). It is this type of educational institution, a social enterprise critical in the formation of citizens, that has the potential to generate the curriculum, the ideas, and the ideals that trigger the imagination of new social entrepreneurs. As the demand for social entrepreneurship education has grown significantly (Miller, Wesley, & Williams, 2012), it is appropriate to reflect on the role of education for social transformations toward a more sustainable world. Some of the social entrepreneurial leadership examples in this chapter are clearly the work of highly educated individuals. Nevertheless, Mook, Quarter, and Ryan (2012) argue that the capitalist values inculcated by traditional educational systems in industrialized western nations should become more democratic and socially oriented. These researchers contend that there is a “relationship between educational policy and practice and the social economy that defines the character of the nation state” (p. 247). And yet, moving against the current, social transformation is also achieved by entrepreneurial educational leaders in unexpected dimensions, like Gilda Henrı´ quez Darlas and her Center for Research in Ethical Development. If social enterprises are the laboratories of social transformation, education can be the catalyst for their multiplication.

FINAL THOUGHTS AND CONCLUSIONS Social entrepreneurship is growing into a global movement and it is not confined to one particular sector. In some regions of the world, the creation of social enterprises outpaces traditional businesses (Kistruck & Beamish, 2010). Successful social entrepreneurial leaders and traditional entrepreneurs share similar traits, but the salient difference between the

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two lies in their overall objectives and the social entrepreneur’s focus on social impact (Bornstein & Davis, 2010). Social entrepreneurs are strong leaders that create social value through the mechanisms of the market economy. They are visionary innovators with a keen ability to identify social needs and find ways to attend to them. They are risk-takers who invest their limited resources in enterprises that benefit humanity. They are unhappy with the status quo and find ways to induce change (Martin & Osberg, 2007). As Nicholls (2008) puts it, “They are not managers of the status quo, but creators of the new” (p. 179). It is important to recognize that social entrepreneurial leaders can emerge from within or across the nonprofit, government, or business sectors. Furthermore, many social entrepreneurial enterprises are not “pure,” but complex hybrids that may utilize combinations of social activism, multiorganization support, and entrepreneurial activity to achieve their social goals. Thus there may be a confounding overlap between the fields of SRBs, intrapreneurship, nonprofit activities, and social entrepreneurship. Consequently, social entrepreneurship is best understood as a dynamic phenomenon that moves and intersects among private, public, and social dimensions of human activity (Nicholls, 2008). Depending on where they arise, social entrepreneurs have been referred to as disruptive innovators, civic innovators, creators of the future, institutional entrepreneurs (another term for intrapreneurs), inventors of new possibilities, and “philanthrocapitalists.” Irrespective of the term one prefers, the multiplication of social enterprises could represent the seeds of new models of socially responsible capitalism and social market economies where human development is a central element. Judging by our planetary challenges, human existence might depend on such new paradigms. The great human capacity to learn and evolve is our best hope and educational endeavors should be part of the leadership equation. Paraphrasing Mexican writer Octavio Paz when he referred to democracy, sustainability (like democracy) is in many ways a culture, that is, it is something that must be learned.

Recommended Websites Acumen Fund: www.acumenfund.org Ashoka: www.ashoka.org Community Wealth Ventures: http://community-wealth.org Draper Richards Foundation: www.draperrichards.org

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Duke University Center for the Advance of Social Entrepreneurship (CASE): http://www.caseatduke.org Echoing Green: www.echoinggreen.org Global Giving: www.globalgiving.org Harvard Business School’s Social Enterprise Initiative: http://www.hbs. edu/socialenterprise Kauffman Foundation: www.kauffman.org Lex Mundi Pro Bono Foundation: www.lexmundiprobono.org Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship: www.schwabfound.org Social Enterprise Alliance: www.se-alliance.org Stanford Center for Social Innovation: http://csi.gsb.stanford.edu Skoll Foundation: www.skollfoundation.org

REFERENCES About CSI: Center for Social Innovation (CSI). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://csi.gsb.stanford. edu/about-csi. Accessed on April 17, 2013. Ahmed, S. (2005). Flowing upstream: Empowering women through water management initiatives in India. New Delhi: Foundation Books Pvt. Ltd. Ashoka. (2013). The trend setters: Social entrepreneurs creating looks and livelihoods in Latin America. Forbes, May 9. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/ashoka/2013/05/ 09/the-trend-setters-social-entrepreneurs-creating-looks-and-livelihoods-in-latin-america/. Accessed on June 1, 2013. Alvord, S. H., Brown, L. D., & Letts, C. W. (2004). Social entrepreneurship and social transformation: An exploratory study. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 40, 260 282. Barendsen, L., & Gardener, H. (2004). Is the social entrepreneur a new type of leader? Leader to Leader, 34, 43 50. Barna, G. (1992). The power of vision. Ventura, CA: Regal. Bennis, W. G. (1989). On becoming a leader. Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley. Bennis, W. G., & Thomas, R. J. (2002). Geeks and geezers. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School. Bloom, G. (2006). The Social Entrepreneurship Collaboratory (SE Lab): A University Incubator for a Rising Generation of Social Entrepreneurs. In A. Nicholls (Ed.), Social entrepreneurship: New models of sustainable social change (pp. 271 306): Oxford University Press. Bornstein, D. (2007). How to change the world: Social entrepreneurs and the power of new ideas. USA: Oxford University Press. Bornstein, D., & Davis, S. (2010). Social entrepreneurship. What everybody needs to know. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Center for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship (CASE). (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// www.caseatduke.org/about/impact. Accessed on April 14, 2013. Charantimath, P. M. (2009). Entrepreneurship development and small business enterprise. India: Dorling Kindersley.

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Colby, A., & Damon, W. (1992). Some do care: Contemporary lives of moral commitment. New York, NY: Free Press. Dees, J. G. (2001). The meaning of “social entrepreneurship.” Retrieved from http://www. caseatduke.org/documents/dees_sedef.pdf. Accessed on April 20, 2013. Dees, J. G. (2007). Taking social entrepreneurship seriously. Society, 44(3), 24. Depree, M. (2004). Leadership is an art. USA: DOUBLEDAY. Driver, M. (2012). An interview with Michael Porter: Social entrepreneurship and the transformation of capitalism. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 11(3), 421 431. Drucker, P. F. (1985). Innovation and entrepreneurship: Practice and principles. New York, NY: Harper and Row. Grant, A. M. (2013). Give and take: A revolutionary approach to success. New York, NY: Penguin Group. Greenberg, D., McKone-Sweet, K., & Wilson, H. J. (2011). The new entrepreneurial leader: Developing leaders who shape social and economic opportunity. San Francisco, CA: Babson College, Berret-Koehler Publishers. Hanson, S. (2009). Changing places through women’s entrepreneurship. Economic Geography, 85(3), 245 267. Harding, R. (2004). Social enterprise: The new economic engine? Business and Strategy Review, 15(4), 39 43. Hartigan, P. (2006). It’s about people, not profits. Business Strategy Review, 17(4), 42 45. Jaipur Foot: Partnering Technology and Social Entrepreneurship | World Bank Institute (WBI). (2011, Aug 16). Retrieved from http://wbi.worldbank.org/wbi/stories/jaipur-footpartnering-technology-and-social-entrepreneurship. Accessed on April 26, 2013. Kistruck, G. M., & Beamish, P. W. (2010). The interplay of form, structure, and embeddedness in social intrapreneurship. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 34(4), 735 761. Kopp, W., & Yunus, M. (2012). Muhammad Yunus, Wendy Kopp: We must put problem-solving above money-making in business. The Huffington Post, January 29. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/wendy-kopp/problem-solving-business_b_1235220.html Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Light, P. C. (2006). Reshaping social entrepreneurship. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 4 (3), 46 51. Light, P. C. (2008). The search for social entrepreneurship. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution. Little, J. (2008). Regrowing Borneo, tree by tree. Scientific American Special Edition, 18(5), 64 71. Lumpkin, G. T., & Katz, J. A. (2011). Social and sustainable entrepreneurship. UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Mair, J., & Schoen, O. (2007). Successful social entrepreneurial business models in the context of developing economies. International Journal of Emerging Markets, 2, 54 68. Marks, E. A. (2002). Business Darwinism: Evolve or dissolve. New York, NY: Wiley. Martin, R. L., & Osberg, S. (2007). Social entrepreneurship: The case for definition. Stanford Social Innovation Review, 5(2), 28 39. Medicines360. (2011). Dr. Victoria Hale, CEO Medicines360, Social entrepreneur and pharmaceutical scientist, shares vision for future of innovation at The Economist’s 10th Anniversary Innovation Summit Winners’ Panel. Business Wire, October 20, p. 10. San Francisco, CA: Points of View Reference Center.

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Mehta, N. (2013). Miserable & magical: A graduation speech for paradoxical times. Daily Good News that Inspire, May 27. Retrieved from http://www.dailygood.org/story/439/ miserable-and-magical-a-graduation-speech-for-paradoxical-times-nipun-mehta/. Accessed on June 1, 2013. Miller, T. L., Grimes, M. G., McMullen, J. S., & Vogus, T. J. (2012). Venturing for others with heart and head: How compassion encourages social entrepreneurship. Academy of management review, 37(4), 616 640. Miller, T. L., Wesley, C. L., & Williams, D. E. (2012). Educating the minds of caring hearts: Comparing the views of practitioners and educators on the importance of social entrepreneurship competencies. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 11(3), 349 370. Mission & Impact Social Enterprise Harvard Business School. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.hbs.edu/socialenterprise/mission-and-impact/. Accessed on June 14, 2013. Mook, L., Quarter, J., & Ryan, S. (2012). Businesses with a difference: Balancing the social and the economic. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Morris, M. J. (2011). Understanding the manifestation of entrepreneurial orientation in the nonprofit context. Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice, 35(5), 947. Nicholls, A. (Ed). (2008). Social entrepreneurship: New models of sustainable social change. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Plaskoff, J. (2012). Building the heart and the mind: An interview with leading social entrepreneur Sarah Harris. Academy Of Management Learning & Education, 11(3), 432 441. Praszkier, R., & Nowak, A. (2012). Social entrepreneurship: Theory and practice. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. PR Newswire. (2012). Ashoka changemakers launch global competition for social intrapreneurship. PR Newswire US, September 26. Samuelson, J. (2013, April 7). Social intrapreneurs: Disruptive innovators on the inside | Skoll World Forum. Skoll World Forum. Retrieved from http://skollworldforum.org/2013/04/07/ social-intrapreneurs-disruptive-innovators-on-the-inside/. Accessed on June 2, 2013. Schoemaker, P. H., Krupp, S., & Howland, S. (2013). Strategic leadership: The essential skills. Harvard Business Review, 91(1), 131 134. Schultz, R. (2013). Creating good work: The world’s leading social entrepreneurs show how to build a healthy economy. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan. Shockley, G. E., Frank, P. M. & Stough, R. R. (Eds.). (2008). Non-market entrepreneurship: Interdisciplinary approaches. Great Britain: MPG Books. Smillie, I. (2009). Freedom from want: The remarkable success story of BRAC, the global grassroots organization that’s winning the fight against poverty. USA: Kumarian Press. Stanford Graduate School of Business Center for Social Innovation (CSI). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://csi.gsb.stanford.edu/social-innovation. Accessed on June 16, 2013. Stuart, R., Sarasvathy, S., Dew, N., Wiltbank, R., & Ohlsson, A. V. (2011). Effectual entrepreneurship. New York, NY: Routledge. Vasakarla, V. (2008). A study on social entrepreneurship and the characteristics of social entrepreneurs. ICFAI Journal of Management Research, 7(4), 32 40. Weerawardena, J., & Sullivan-Mort, G. (2001). Learning, innovation and competitive advantage in not-for-profit aged care marketing: A conceptual model and research propositions. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 9(3), 53 73. Yunus, M. (2008). Creating a world without poverty: Social business and the future of capitalism. New York, NY: Public Affairs Books.

DEVELOPING SOCIALLY JUST LEADERS: INTEGRATIVE ANTIRACIST APPROACHES IN A TRANSFORMATIONAL PARADIGM Denise E. Armstrong and Brenda J. McMahon ABSTRACT This chapter examines the tensions inherent in conceptions of social justice as they relate to educational administrator preparation programs. In order to determine how social justice is conceptualized in K-12 administrator preparation in Ontario, Canada, we conduct a document analysis of publicly available information related to provincial leadership preparation programs. We identify an ideological bias toward managerial and transformational leadership paradigms which favor externally mandated outcomes that unintentionally reinstate hierarchical management paradigms and democratic forms of racism (Henry, Tator, Mattis, & Rees, 2000). Drawing on critical democratic and antiracist literature and our own research and practice, we propose an approach to leadership preparation that can support diversity and transformative praxis while working within a mandated transformational paradigm.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 23 39 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020002

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INTRODUCTION Educational leadership preparation programs have been under the microscope in Canada and other countries such as Australia (Blackmore, 2010), England (Gillborn, 2008), and the United States (Furman, 2012; Rusch, 2004) for the past few decades. While guided by the overarching belief that principal leadership can improve student achievement and school success (Leithwood, 2012) and close intractable achievement gaps, this increased scrutiny is also motivated by local and global concerns related to market competitiveness and external accountability drives to regulate, control, and standardize administrative efficiencies (Armstrong, Tuters, & Carrier, 2012; Solomon, 2002). For the most part, criticisms of educational administrator preparation programs have pointed to gaps in leadership preparation program curricula (Blackmore, 2010; Shields, 2004) and have questioned their ability to provide administrators with the foundational competencies and capacities to respond to the complex challenges inherent in 21st-century schooling (Furman, 2012). Related to this, persistent concerns about the ever-increasing chasm between dominant and racialized groups have provoked questions regarding the role of leadership development programs in helping aspiring administrators develop the competencies and capacities required to create effective, equitable, and excellent schools (CambronMcCabe & McCarthy, 2005; Shields, 2004). In many countries, social justice has been identified by conservatives and liberals alike as a means of creating equitable educational and societal outcomes (Blackmore, 2010; Lund & Carr, 2010; Lopez, 2003). However, conflicting notions of what social justice means and how it should be achieved exist (Armstrong et al., 2012) and it is often used to “rationalize similar as well as polar opposite strategies” (Cambron-McCabe & McCarthy, 2005, p. 202). These competing ideologies and practices are also reflected in approaches to preparing leaders for social justice (Diem & Carpenter, 2012; Furman, 2012; Gooden, 2012). This chapter advocates a vision of socially just leadership that foregrounds race. Race is significant to the way we see ourselves and the way others experience us and is, “second only to gender in terms of salient identities used in interpersonal relating” (Hill & Thomas, 2000). Even though it is a socially constructed and changing phenomenon, racial group membership has very real ramifications for individuals and groups, and meanings assigned to any particular race are relational, defined in opposition to and conjunction with other races. Even though the effects of racial location are most immediately and overtly experienced by members of visible minority groups, the advantages incumbent in being White are more subtle and

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pervasive. At its most basic level, Whiteness may appear to be simply a physical descriptor that includes Western European’s physical features and limited pigmentation of the skin. At another level, however, privilege is bestowed on persons who possess these physical traits. Furthermore, constructions of race do more than coexist; they “impose differential identities and images based on social status, power, and the cultural, physical, and intellectual attributes assigned to racial or ethnic groups” (Evans, 2007, p. 164). The existence of privilege and its incumbent power are embedded in yet a deeper ideological layer of Whiteness and the often unarticulated policies, practices, beliefs that reinforce hegemonic structures (Dei, 2007; Lund & Carr, 2010; McMahon, 2009). In educational institutions, Whiteness operates at individual, organizational, and systemic levels to the extent that “normative cultural practices of Whiteness are pervasive throughout levels of schooling, from administration to textbooks to all manner of interpersonal actions” (Schick & St. Denis, 2005, p. 300). The entrenchment of Whiteness in social institutions, including schools, enables it to become invisible to those it serves to benefit unless intentional action is taken to deconstruct and redress its impact. We position ourselves as racialized Black and White female faculty members. One currently teaches at a Canadian university while the other teaches at a university in the United States. We are former school administrators who have taught in Canada and the Caribbean and whose research and teaching scholarship is grounded in leadership preparation and development. We identify a growing trend toward transformational and managerial paradigms that ignore the racialized nature of educational theory, policy, and practice in Canada and we underscore the importance of including social justice curricula in order to ensure equitable administrative praxis and socially just environments. The following sections articulate the perspective of social justice and integrative antiracism that guides our work, provides a description of the Ontario, Canada, context, an analysis of the Principals’ Preparation Programs, and offers recommendations for practice.

FOREGROUNDING RACE IN THE EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE DISCOURSE One of the challenges of defining social justice lies in the fact that social justice is often used as “an umbrella term” (Furman, 2012, p. 193) that encompasses multiple ideologies and practices (Armstrong et al., 2012;

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Hytten & Bettez, 2011). These competing discourses are reflected in the literature and in educational administrator preparation programs (Gooden, 2012; Rusch, 2004). However, recent reviews identify a number of converging themes in the leadership for social justice literature. For example, Furman (2012) found it is “action-oriented and transformative, committed and persistent, inclusive and democratic, relational and caring, reflective, and oriented toward socially just pedagogy (p. 195). Cambron-McCabe and McCarthy (2005) also note that “scholars emphasize moral values, justice, respect, care, and equity; always in the forefront is a consciousness about the impact of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and disability on schools and students’ learning” (p. 202). Even though race is often included as part of the broader social justice discourse, few leadership development frameworks highlight it explicitly (Blackmore, 2010; Diem & Carpenter, 2012; Gooden, 2012), in spite of the racialized nature of schooling and its connection to educational outcomes. Policy makers and Western mainstream theorists rarely identify the importance of race in preparing educational administrators and its connection to the development of administrative praxis (Davis & Armstrong, 2012; McMahon, 2009; Shields, 2004). In addition, issues of race and racism are seldom included in educational leadership preparation curricula in these countries (Blackmore, 2010; Diem & Carpenter, 2012). This attempt to “neutralize” race is consistent with shifting discourses, and post-race claims that support color-blind ideologies (Gooden, 2012; Lopez, 2003). These “pathologizing silences” (Shields, 2004) are evident in Canada where race is a taboo subject, shunned in polite company in general, and in educational contexts in particular (Davis & Armstrong, 2012; Lund & Carr, 2010; McMahon & Armstrong, 2010). This chapter uses integrative antiracism as a “discursive lens” (Dei, 2007) to examine leadership preparation programs in Ontario. This perspective of antiracism is consistent with social justice leadership that has been variously defined as moral, critical, democratic, inclusive, reflective, and transformative (Cambron-McCabe & McCarthy, 2005; Furman, 2012; Shields, 2004). An integrative antiracist perspective recognizes that race is a salient aspect of our identity and the racialization of groups and communities intersects with culture, class, gender, language, sexuality, etc., to create “differential and unequal treatment” (Dei, 2007, p. 2). In other words, race is deeply embedded in Western macro and micro systems, structures, and processes (Gooden, 2012; Lopez, 2003). Like other forms of social justice, integrative antiracism recognizes equity as “a process and a collective undertaking” (Dei, 2007, p. 2). The recognition that power imbalances exist

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in our social, political, and economic institutions (McMahon & Armstrong, 2010) and that “oppression involves both systematic disadvantage and advantage” (Goodman, 2001, p. 20) requires social justice and antiracist leaders to go beneath the surface to interrogate, deconstruct, and challenge normalized structures such as policies and procedures which reinforcing and reproducing systemic inequities. It calls for all educators to take personal responsibility, to interrogate asymmetrical power relations, and to move beyond talk to informed radical action that overcomes and redresses systemic inequities (Dei, 2007; Henry, Tator, Mattis, & Rees, 2000; McMahon & Armstrong, 2010). Individual actions alone are not enough. Societal institutions play a critical role in the realization of social injustice; they can contribute to just outcomes. As demonstrated later in this chapter, by working with individuals and through social systems, antiracist and social justice leaders have the potential and power to challenge and change unjust institutional structures, policies, practices, and power relations, while establishing a more equitable distribution of opportunity and resources (Goodman, 2001).

BACKGROUND TO THE CANADIAN CONTEXT In 1971, with the passage of the Multiculturalism Policy, Canada became the first country to enshrine multicultural rights in federal policy, thus legally guaranteeing equality of opportunity to all Canadians (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2012). Although this policy has been in effect for over 40 years, researchers (e.g., Henry et al., 2000; Lund & Carr, 2010; Ryan, 2003) have consistently uncovered interlocking individual, systemic, and organizational factors which confirm the existence of racism in Canadian schools as well as persistent denials of its existence. Dei (2007) observes that what this form of “uncritical multiculturalism has done is to silence race in the dominant discursive imaginings and interpretations, at the same time masking the power of White racial privilege” (p. 7). Consistent with dominant discourses in Australia, England, and the United States that deny the salience of race and entrenched racism (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012; Gillborn, 2008; Gooden, 2012; Lopez, 2003), in Canada there exists a “reluctance to acknowledge structural and individual forms of racism which contradict our image as fair people” (McMahon & Armstrong, 2003, p. 256). Ongoing tensions between Canadian notions of equality and existing racial dynamics are captured in Henry et al.’s (2000)

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description of democratic racism, that is, an ideological stance which mitigates the dissonance which occurs when “commitments to democratic principles such as justice, equality, and fairness conflict but coexist with attitudes and behaviors that include negative feelings about minority groups, differential treatment, and discrimination against them” (p. 23). Democratic racism is demonstrated in collective and individual beliefs and actions, as well as institutional policies and structures that espouse equality and social justice, while at the same time excluding visible minorities. In a country where Aboriginal peoples were moved from their lands to reservations, democratic racism manifested in national figures shows that Canadian graduation rates for Aboriginal students living off-reserve are 50% and 40% for Aboriginal students living on reserves (Richards, 2008). In addition to a 60% high school graduation rate for Black students (McMahon, 2009), Anisef, Brown, Phythian, Sweet, and Walters (2010) also found that only 39% of Black Caribbean students, regardless of whether they were born in Canada or elsewhere, were enrolled in academic classes. Concurrent with the underrepresentation of Black and Aboriginal students in academic programs is an overrepresentation of these same groups in federal and community prisons. For example, Sapers (2012) reported that while Aboriginals and Blacks represent approximately 4% and 2.5% of the Canadian population respectively, they comprise 21.4% and 9% of the federal incarcerated inmates. In the last 10 years, the number of federally incarcerated Black Canadians has increased by over 40%, with most of this increase occurring in the last five years. This school-toprison pipeline has been connected to a number of factors which include: a disproportionate numbers of White educators relative to the student population, punitive zero tolerance policies that reinforce social injustice, and a lack of preparation and training for social justice and equity work (Solomon & Palmer, 2006).

ANALYZING THE DISCOURSE OF LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN ONTARIO Language serves as “a key that gives access to conceptual systems” (Stelmach, 2011, p. 24). In our experience, the terminology that is used in institutional policies not only illuminates their content, but also their intent. Consequently, as part of our literature review, we conducted an environmental scan of key documents related to the leadership preparation

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and development in Ontario and textual analyses of the public documents related to leadership preparation and development in Ontario. Our key purpose was to determine the overarching leadership ideologies that guided policy and practice, and to identify spaces to integrate, and transform policy requirements into socially just and antiracist practices. Our review of the Ontario Ministry of Education’s (OME), Institute for Educational Leadership (IEL), and Ontario College of Teachers (OCT) websites showed that leadership preparation in Ontario is shaped by the Ontario Leadership Strategy (OLS) which was introduced in 2008. According to the website “The strategy has two goals: (1) Attract the right people to the principalship; (2) Help principals and vice-principals develop into the best possible instructional leaders” (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2012). In spite of a lack of explanation about what is meant by “the right people” and “the best possible instructional leaders” during the subsequent three years the OLS instituted a number of system wide initiatives to achieve these objectives. Among these is the Ontario Leadership Framework (OLF) which “describes a set of core leadership competencies and effective practices for principals, vice-principals, and supervisory officers.” Ministry documents position the OLF as “central” to the training and development of new and practicing administrators. This framework shapes the Board Leadership Development Strategy (BLDS) that is mandated by the Ministry of Education and undergirds the three formalized leadership preparation, development, and assessment processes in the province, namely, the Principals’ Qualification Program (PQP), the Principals’ Development Course (PDC), and the Principal and Vice-Principal Performance Appraisal (PPA). Although not explicitly presented as such, the OLF in theory and practice may be construed as an accountability framework which is premised on hierarchical and managerial ideologies cloaked in the language of transformational leadership. Additionally, the difference between leadership and management is configured as one of tasks rather than of ideologies. A task can be symbolic of either management which serves to reinforce the status quo and maintain inequities or social justice leadership which works to disrupt the status quo and produce more equitable outcomes. Managerial approaches are often associated with school administrators rather than school leaders. For example, identifying tasks such as the creation of a master schedule as a managerial duty ignores ideological issues regarding how teaching assignments, student placements, student groupings, and course availability may serve to create a more just or unjust school community. By ignoring this important distinction the OLF continues to be fundamentally a managerial framework.

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Our analysis of the OLF and related materials found strong evidence that it is undergirded by the ideologies of transformational and managerial leadership. Keyword searches found references to “transformational” leadership (7 references), “leadership practice/s” (181 references), and “effective/effectiveness” (66 references). Conversely, we found no references to “transformative” leadership or “leadership praxis.” A companion document to the OLF 2012 asserts that it provides a comprehensive vision of leadership and that it has moved beyond earlier versions of instructional or transformational notions (Leithwood, 2012). However, the statement that the OLF “aims to capture the relatively direct efforts of successful leaders to improve the quality of teaching and learning in their schools (the primary focus of instructional leadership models), as well as their efforts to create organizational conditions which enable and support those improvement efforts (the primary focus of transformational leadership models)” (Leithwood, 2012, p. 7) confirms that the framework has not shifted to include the kinds of democratic or transformative forms of leadership needed to support diverse populations. Furthermore, the majority of studies cited are primarily informed by the effective schools research on school improvement and transformational notions of leadership. Although the term school leader could be applied to a multitude of teacher, parent, student, staff, and community members, in describing individuals in titular leadership roles, Cambron-McCabe and McCarthy (2005) point out that “from a social justice perspective, the greatest challenge for the educational administration field may be to shift its mental model of what it means to be a school leader rather than a school administrator” (p. 209). The OLF is comprised of five domains: Setting Directions, Building Relationships and Developing People, Developing the Organization to Support Desired Practices, Improving the Instructional Program, and Securing Accountability, which outline the core competencies and capacities required for effective leadership. Supporting documents on the OME website indicate that these are “leader competencies and practices that have been shown to be effective in improving student achievement.” The language of competencies and capacities is suggestive of a restatement of the five clusters of business management behavioral competencies from the 1980s, which Bolden and Gosling (2006) identified as “goal and action management, leadership, human resource management, focus on others and directing subordinates” (p. 148). The capacities and practices that appear throughout the framework are consistent with transformational leadership theory which articulates qualitative differences between leaders and followers (Ryan, 2003; Shields, 2004). Emphasizing the individual

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hierarchical leader rather than the relational processes of leadership contradicts democratic and socially just forms of leadership. Our textual analysis of the OLF found no references to “race,” “ethnicity,” or related words, though “diversity” was used 4 times, “culturally diverse” 1 time, and “antiracism/racist” 3 times. In contrast “accountability” appeared 7 times, “accountable” 2 times, and “standards” 42 times. The omission of race and cultural and linguistic diversity in this framework and the focus on accountability is consistent with much of the policy documents and school effectiveness literature throughout the Western world (Blackmore, 2010; Gillborn 2008; Lopez, 2003). By adopting a race-neutral stance, the power dynamics involved in difference and identity in schools as well as the racialized access, experience, and outcomes at all levels of schooling, including principal preparation, are constructed as separate from school and district leadership preparation. Notwithstanding these concerns, we are encouraged by the fact that the latest version of the OLF has included an increased focus on equity and inclusion (Leithwood, 2012). The existence of the term “equity” 7 times in the PQP documents creates opportunities to adopt an integrative antiracist ideology, to include social justice research, and to disrupt hegemonic leadership practices and organizational structures. Three of the five OLF domains: Setting Directions, Building Relationships and Developing People, and Leading the Instructional Program provide principal preparation faculty the freedom to overtly implement antiracist perspectives. Each domain creates opportunities for aspiring and new school leaders to “develop the critical dialogical skills necessary to facilitate antiracist conversations … [examine] issues/concepts pertaining to color-blind ideology, misconceptions of human difference, merit-based achievement, critical selfreflection, and the interrogation of race-related silences (Diem & Carpenter, 2012, p. 100). These domains, along with their program expectations and content, are where the language of equity, antiracism, and social justice appear and space exists to reverse trends of “incremental reforms that simply add more layers to existing structures … [and instead to] reconstruct roles and relationships at the school level around a vibrant core purpose focused on social justice and directed at improving student learning” (Cambron-McCabe & McCarthy, 2005, p. 215). For example, the Setting Directions domain focuses on the principal’s role in building a shared vision, fostering the acceptance of group goals, and setting and communicating high expectations. Included in the content is the use of “strategic planning and processes that engage the diversity, values, and experiences of the school community” (OCT, 2009, p. 4) as well as the

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expectation that participants practice self-reflection and the ability to know themselves. The leadership domain, Building Relationships and Developing People, includes the program expectation that administrators “build and sustain learning communities that support diversity and promote excellence, accountability, antiracism, equity, partnerships and innovation, liaise with educational stakeholders, and exercise ethical leadership” (OCT, 2009, p. 5). The content areas in this domain which align with inclusive antiracist leadership are: fostering an equitable culture through antidiscriminatory and antiracist practices and principles; understanding the dynamics and influences of power and privilege upon school culture; promoting connections and collaboration in order to engage teachers, parents, and students; and implementing inclusive education practices (OCT, 2009, p. 5). The Leading the Instructional Program domain, which focuses primarily on alignment and implementation of ministry and board initiatives, with the inclusion of “holistic and inclusive education practices that examine diversity, access, equity, and advocacy” (OCT, 2009, p. 7), enables program providers opportunities to move beyond the “school effectiveness research” (OCT, 2009, p. 7), named in the document to integrate antiracist perspectives.

INTEGRATING ANTIRACISM IN PQP PROGRAMS As a provincially mandated program, the PQP plays a critical role in the development of subsequent administrative practice and the future direction district leadership (Armstrong, 2009). However, Solomon’s (2002) research finds that Canadian administrators often lack training, knowledge, or skills to challenge racist practices or to deal with educator resistance. Instead, by emphasizing harmonious working relationships, they assume the role of “social pacifiers [instead of] political change agents” (Solomon, 2002, p. 189) which serves to maintain social inequities and the achievement gaps identified earlier in this chapter. As an administrator preparation program, the PQP provides space to incorporate important strategies that are needed for the development of the discursive knowledge and skills necessary for integrative antiracist approaches. For the purposes of this chapter, we will focus on three interwoven strategies which we have used in leadership courses. These include: self-reflection and dialogue across differences; critical theory, research, and ethnographies; and school improvement plans based on equity audits that foreground antiracist policies and practices as well as student, parent, educator, and community involvement.

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Critical Reflection and Dialogue across Difference Critical self-reflection and reflective judgment have been consistently identified as germane to the attainment of transformative learning experiences and critically oriented discourses (Diem & Carpenter, 2012; Furman, 2012; Shields, 2004). Self-reflection that is consistent with an integrative antiracist approach centers on identity locatedness and the impact that race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, sex, and age have on individuals’ interactions with and in the world. Since the majority of educators in Ontario are White and consequently recipients of individual, organizational, and systemic privileges that are attached to Whiteness, self-reflection needs to focus on what it means to be White, as well as other intersecting identities that generate unearned disadvantage and privilege, for example, class, sexual orientation, gender, etc. Administrators who are comfortable with their own racial identities are more likely to be genuinely involved in antiracist initiatives (McMahon, 2009). We have found that working with prospective school leaders to uncover how their identities have garnered unearned rewards and/or disadvantages for them is often met with denial, resistance, and anger which must be processed in order to move forward. This is consistent with Rusch’s (2004) observation that, “Equity is not an easy subject. Talk about equity demands debate about emotional and value-laden issues such as privilege, meritocracy, affirmative action, gender, race, ethnicity, and sexuality” (p. 41). Critical self-examination and awareness of how their background and “beliefs help or hinder their ability to create inclusive schools, can help educators determine effective steps to evaluate their role in the process, and engage themselves and others in developing more equitable schools” (Davis & Armstrong, 2012, p. 34). Higher education faculty and PQP providers play an important role in creating curricular opportunities and safe spaces that support critical work. Unfortunately, our experience mirrors Rusch’s (2004) contention that higher education faculty and “scholars are not always conscious of how discourse can empower, create fault lines, or sustain privilege within educational administration classrooms” (p. 20). In order to ensure growth, faculty members need to consistently and consciously model and engage in critically reflection with self and others. Implicit in these dialogues are visions of social justice that connect to the “purposes of education in a democratic society” (Hytten & Bettez, 2011, p. 19). In our classrooms, we have found that reflecting critically on our identities “helps us to get greater clarity about our assumptions, terms, and visions” (Hytten & Bettez, 2011, p. 12). When combined with integrative antiracist and transformative kinds

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of research, critical self-reflection provides a climate for ongoing dialogue between and across differences which respects insider and outsider knowledges and diverse communities.

Critical Research and Ethnographies Educators who are familiar with research that focuses on the “factors that impact cultural and racial difference are better equipped to enact strategies and promote racial equity” (Davis & Armstrong, 2012, p. 29). Hytten and Bettez (2011) also highlight the importance of incorporating literature in preparation programs and developing connections among three existing paradigms of: philosophy, practice, and narrative/ethnography. From a philosophical perspective candidates would examine theories of how social justice or injustice results from the: allocation of resources and rewards, valuing of identities, opportunities for achievement, and distribution of outcomes. Practical perspectives would include research addressing the following aspects of social justice leadership in schools: the potential for creating equitable schools; the challenges inherent in doing this work in standardized environments; and strategies for developing collaborative cultures with educators, families, and communities (Davis & Armstrong, 2012; Hytten & Bettez, 2011). Ethnographic and narrative literature can enrich minoritized and White educators’ understandings of justice and injustice. Hytten and Bettez (2011) contend that personal narratives are generally evocative and passionate and therefore they “move readers differently than the seemingly more abstract theories and arguments about justice. They call for connection on a personal level, for readers to see injustices and their consequences through the eyes of real people” (p. 16). Personal experience literature that is directly connected to Canadian contexts also serves to deepen critical dialogues and to inform the candidates’ equity audits and school improvement plans.

Equity Audits and School Improvement Plans As part of a comprehensive institutional analysis, conducting equity audits that examine curricular, cocurricular, and extracurricular facets of a school to determine how and the extent to which all students are included, and developing school improvement plans that are informed by integrative antiracist research and qualitative and quantitative approaches can provide

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opportunities for administrative candidates to apply and extend the knowledge and skills developed through critical self-reflection and dialogues to their school sites. Our environmental scan revealed that the OME and some Ontario school boards have developed resources that can assist educators in evaluating their schools. Qualitative approaches would examine curricular and cocurricular activities, as well as pedagogic, assessment, and evaluation practices through an integrative antiracist lens. PQP candidates can also examine “areas such as decision-making, financial resources, organizational culture, and partnerships to determine how racial equity can be achieved” (Davis & Armstrong, 2012, p. 34). Quantitative statistics related to graduation and suspension rates, placement in academic and nonacademic classes, enrollment in magnet programs, and student involvement in leadership initiatives can provide valuable information. When disaggregated by race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomics, this data can illuminate promising practices and identify troubling patterns that need to be addressed. However, Cambron-McCabe and McCarthy (2005) caution that simply disaggregating data is not enough, since a focus on student failure may actually increase the achievement gap. We have found that equity audits can assist administrative candidates to shift from an individual to an institutional focus. This perspective is essential because “[s]chool leaders oftentimes fail to recognize how race has been institutionalized within the education system, allowing the dominant race (Whites) to maintain their privileges in society” (Diem & Carpenter, 2012, p. 104). In addition, using results of the equity audits to create new school improvement plans that are based on antiracist policies and practices and include student, parent, educator, and community involvement provides administrative candidates with a forum to apply transformative leadership practices that include diverse communities. This can serve as a model for the leadership practices that the aspiring administrators develop as they complete their practicum components, transition into administrative positions in schools, and continue to be involved in province and district level leadership development programs.

CONCLUSION Educational ideologies that conceptualize schooling as a means of increasing global competiveness and that rely on standards-driven effective schools theory maintain a central position in Ontario, Canada, and internationally.

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In order to address the inequities that these paradigms replicate, the onus is on integrative antiracist educators to counter the dominant discourses inherent in reform efforts that reinforce discriminatory structures and practices. Educational leadership faculty “can help shape radically new roles and expectations for school leaders; inequitable practices and conditions demand fundamental changes in the ways we think about school reform and leadership” (Cambron-McCabe & McCarthy, 2005, p. 205). What we have presented is in no way an exhaustive list of approaches and strategies that are needed to create more equitable schools. The methods we propose, however, can be adopted in the PQP, as a provincially mandated requirement for school administrators in Canada. They can be easily built on through other professional development as well as venues across a myriad of disciplines and throughout the world. While we ultimately advocate for an integrative antiracist approach to leadership development, it is important to note that the central context for our work focusses on educational leadership and administration in Ontario, Canada. We argue, however, that it has powerful potential to benefit and transform national and international agencies and organizations. One of the benefits of our approach is that it has potential to work in multiple arenas: from sociology, to psychology, to business, to educational leadership, to law enforcement and other public services. Normalizing Whiteness fails to challenge “the structures, cultures, and mythologies constituting dominant institutional and populist notions of leadership” (Blackmore, 2010, p. 50) which serve to reinforce White power and privilege. While not solely responsible, faculty members and professional development providers play a foundational role in shaping ideologies and practices of aspiring and new school administrators. Therefore, they need to use their moral agency to transform the frameworks they are given and change how school leaders are prepared. This is complex and challenging work, beginning with (a) a shift in configuring the racialized nature of schooling; (b) a move from notions of Others as raced and from conceptions of difference as deficit to; (c) an understanding that we are all raced (Dei, 2007; Lopez, 2003; McMahon & Armstrong, 2010; Shields, 2004). Facilitating each component of this integrative antiracist approach is emotionally taxing and rewarding. Combining critical reflections with dialogue across differences challenges participants to engage in racial dialogue. These interactions increase the psychological dimension of educational leadership preparation and are enriched by the use of ethnographic research that readers relate to “differently from the seemingly more abstract theories

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and arguments about justice … connection[s] on a personal level, for readers to see injustices and their consequences through the eyes of real people” (Hytten & Bettez, 2011, p. 16). Reflections, conversations, and research when translated into equity audits and school improvement plans can assist administrative candidates in assessing their schools and developing real world approaches to increase their skills, knowledge, and practice as antiracist social justice leaders.

REFERENCES Anisef, P., Brown, R., Phythian, K., Sweet, R., & Walters, D. (2010). Early school leaving among immigrants in Toronto secondary schools. Canadian Review of Sociology, 47(2), 103 128. Armstrong, D. (2009). Administrative passages: Navigating the transition from teacher to assistant principal. New York, NY: Springer. Armstrong, D., Tuters, S., & Carrier, N. (2012). The micropolitical process of social justice leadership: When educators’ perspectives and actions conflict. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 13 17, Vancouver, British Columbia. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2012). Indigenous statistics for schools. Retrieved from http:// www.abs.gov.au Blackmore, J. (2010). ‘The other within’: Race/gender disruptions to the professional learning of white educational leaders. International Journal of Leadership in Education: Theory and Practice, 13(1), 45 61. Bolden, R., & Gosling, J. (2006). Leadership competencies: Time to change the tune? Leadership, 2(2), 147 163. Cambron-McCabe, N., & McCarthy, M. (2005). Educating school leaders for social justice. Educational Policy, 19(1), 201 222. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2012). Canadian multiculturalism: An inclusive citizenship. Government of Canada. Retrieved from http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/multiculturalism/ citizenship.asp. Accessed on February 17, 2013. Davis, K., & Armstrong, D. (2012). Engaging difference and racial equity: What school leaders need to know and do. Teaching and Learning, 7(2), 28 40. Dei, G. (2007). Keynote address at the symposium on multiculturalism with(out) guarantees: The integrative anti-racism alternative. Vancouver: University of British Columbia. Diem, S., & Carpenter, B. (2012). Social justice and leadership preparation: Developing a transformative curriculum. Planning and Changing, 43(1/2), 96 112. Evans, A. (2007). School leaders and their sensemaking about race and demographic change. Educational Administration Quarterly, 43(2), 159 188. Furman, G. (2012). Social justice leadership as praxis: Developing capacities through preparation programs. Educational Administration Quarterly, 48(2), 191 229. Gillborn, D. (2008). Coincidence or conspiracy: Whiteness, policy and the persistence of the Black/White achievement gap. Educational Review, 60(3), 229 248.

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Gooden, M. (2012). What does racism have to do with leadership? Countering the idea of color-blind leadership: A reflection on race and the growing pressures of the urban principalship. Educational Foundations, 26(1 2), 67 84. Goodman, D. (2001). Promoting diversity and social justice: Educating people from privileged groups. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Henry, F., Tator, C., Mattis, W., & Rees, T. (2000). The colour of democracy: Racism in Canadian society (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harcourt Canada. Hill, M., & Thomas, V. (2000). Strategies for racial identity development: Narratives of Black and White women in interracial partner relationships. Family Relations, 49(2), 193 201. Hytten, K., & Bettez, S. (2011). Understanding education for social justice. Educational Foundations, 25(1 2), 7 24. Leithwood, K. (2012). The Ontario leadership framework. Toronto: Ontario Ministry of Education. Lopez, G. (2003). The (racially neutral) politics of education: A critical race theory perspective. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(1), 68 94. Lund, D., & Carr, P. (2010). Exposing privilege and racism in The Great White North: Tackling whiteness and identity issues in Canadian education. Multicultural Perspectives, 12 (4), 229 234. McMahon, B. (2009). White educational administrators’ understandings of race in a multicultural context. Journal of Educational Administration and Foundations, 20(2), 17 36. McMahon, B., & Armstrong, D. (2003). Racism, resistance and resilience: The 3 R’s of educating students of Caribbean origin in Canadian schools. In T. Bastick & A. Ezenne (Eds.), Teaching Caribbean students: Research on social issues in the Caribbean and abroad (pp. 249 284). Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies. McMahon, B., & Armstrong, D. (2010). Unraveling the knots and strengthening the ties: Countering democratic racism. International Journal of Urban Educational Leadership, 4(1), 160 172. Ontario College of Teachers. (2009). Principal’s qualification program guideline. Retrieved from http://www.oct.ca/∼/media/PDF/PrincipalsQualificationProgram2009/Guide/principals_ qualification_program_e.ashx. Accessed on March 3, 2012. Ontario Ministry of Education. (2012). Leadership development: Ontario leadership strategy. Retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/leadership/actionPlan.html. Accessed on April 6, 2012. Richards, J. (2008). Closing the aboriginal/non-aboriginal education gaps. Toronto, ON: C.D. Howe Institute. Retrieved from http://www.indianz.com/News/2008/011705.asp. Accessed on March 19, 2009. Rusch, E. (2004). Gender and race in leadership preparation: A constrained discourse. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(1), 14 46. doi: doi: 10.1177/0013161X03259110. Ryan, J. (2003). Principals and inclusive leadership for diverse schools: Vol. 2. Studies in Educational Leadership. Hingham, MA: Kluwer. Schick, C., & St. Denis, V. (2005). Troubling national discourses in anti-racist curricular planning. Canadian Journal of Education, 28(3), 295 317. Shields, C. (2004). Dialogic leadership for social justice: Overcoming pathologies of silence. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(1), 109 132. Solomon, R. P. (2002). School leaders and antiracism: Overcoming pedagogical and political obstacles. Journal of School Leadership, 12, 174 197.

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Solomon, R. P., & Palmer, H. (2006). Black boys through the school prison pipeline: When “racial profiling” and “zero tolerance” collide. In D. Armstrong & B. McMahon (Eds.), Inclusion in urban educational environments: Addressing issues of diversity, equity, and social justice (pp. 191 212). Charlotte, NC: Information Age. Sapers, H. (2012). Annual report of the office of the Correctional Investigator 2011 2012. Corrections Canada. Retrieved from http://www.oci-bec.gc.ca/rpt/annrpt20112012-eng. aspx. Accessed on March 1, 2013. Stelmach, B. (2011). Metaphor as an insight into parents’ conceptualizations of their role in school improvement. In C. Hands & L. Hubbard (Eds.), Including families and communities in urban education (pp. 17 40). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION’S TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT Nancy Erbe and Rebecca Korinek ABSTRACT This chapter introduces how the teaching of leadership, within negotiation, conflict transformation, and peace building uses adult education strategies. In turn, adult education effectively prepares learners, especially those concerned about poverty, and injustice, to be active agents working on behalf of community development. Optimally, the pedagogy of conflict transformation and peace building incorporates the best of both adult and leadership education. The chapter begins with a case study where the ecumenical Services for Peace (SEP) inspired an agricultural cooperative and other response to community need between conflicted communities in Cameroon. SEP did so through using adult education in mediation and peace building strategy that prioritized reflective practice (assessment, monitoring, and evaluation). The chapter then shows how these same and other adult learning activities are used in the authors’ classroom to teach conflict transformation so that students master collaborative skills. As a result, they are potently equipped to act as effective leaders on behalf of social justice concerns.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 41 55 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020003

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In our contemporary global community many disciplines must transform themselves, or radically shift fundamental premises and paradigms. It is not enough to simply present new expert knowledge or case studies of collaboration and new global projects/efforts. The practitioners from these disciplines must learn to act in new ways: to lead the most inclusive collaborative global teams and partnerships possible with internal social justice. This is not simply required for equity, but because such teams are the most effective. They generate incredible opportunity. Such opportunity must be created and embraced to respond to dire shared local and global challenges. From the earliest age possible, global citizens need to be taught collaborative skills and inclusive consideration. Global practitioners must further learn to think in radically different ways. Social workers, as one instance, can no longer simply think of themselves as service providers and at best, public policy advocates. They must see themselves as catalysts for critically needed change around the world. They must aspire to educate every global citizen in social literacy in addition to language literacy, particularly in the youngest countries like India.

BEST TEACHING MODELS INCLUSIVE ENGAGEMENT A global evaluation of optimal multicultural teaching stresses the importance of engaging students through interactive instruction (Erbe, 2004). The best teachers are described as interesting, energetic, and dynamic, as they facilitate active dialogue and learning. In contrast, those who do not use experiential and active learning fail to fulfill the potential of diverse classrooms (Astin, 1993). This research parallels Ken Bain’s description of the best college teachers (Bain, 2004). He found that the best teachers passionately engage students in authentic tasks, small group work, inquiry of “big questions,” and reflective practices. Their learning goals go far beyond cognitive learning; often bridging out-of-class with in-class learning. The best faculty in Erbe’s global evaluation is further described as modeling openminded and equivalent inclusion of all students. In Bain’s 2004 work, faculty exemplified similar practices: concern for their students, sensitivity to how they use and share power with students, and consistent fair decisions through equally applying policies to all. Through demonstrating exceptional democratic leadership, they inspire and motivate student learning. Curriculum in negotiation, conflict transformation, and peace building teaches students to do the same, or follow their teacher’s example, through providing several skills that are proving instrumental to facilitating

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multicultural collaborative learning. Examples include skillful listening, suspension of judgment, active validation, assertive rather than aggressive communication, reframing, identification of common ground, and regular reflective practice. Students laud being taught these skills. Students specifically mention learning how to listen actively, ask open-ended questions, understand others’ perspectives, and identify underlying interests and common ground (Erbe, 2004). In yet another study, multicultural collaborative learning itself is lauded as the means to teach essential leadership skills: perspective-taking, acceptance of differences, a willingness and capacity to find commonalities among differences, acceptance of conflict as normal, participation in democracy, and interest in the wider social world (Gurin, 1999). Such teaching and learning shape global citizens and professionals prepared to exercise wise new initiative with risks (rather than wait for directive or simply conform to traditional practice). This occurs in collaboration bridging difference that goes beyond civility to be capable of embracing both tough complex problem solving and open-minded creative decision-making. Helping learners master these outcomes and prepare to be effective global leaders requires complex active teaching, or sustained in-depth learning, with multiple methods (Erbe, 2011).

REFLECTIVE PRACTICE CENTRAL TO LEARNING SKILL IMPACT AND MASTERY Students must also be schooled in responsibility and reflection regarding real world impact. Just like the teacher in an adult education classroom tests and evaluates their teaching and learning strategies to create the best for a particular student and classroom, effective conflict education requires constant reflection and analysis, feedback from recipients (participants), and observation, or monitoring, over time to assess what strategies are working, or helping communities of learners, which strategies might need to be changed, and how strategies might be improved (Erbe, 2011). Students of conflict transformation are asked to develop a habit of observing, evaluating, and altering their behavior to encourage optimal collaboration from classmates, while simultaneously learning how to powerfully express their own perspectives (Davis, 2001). Students are asked to do this working collectively in learning community, seeking feedback, and otherwise honestly evaluating their collaborative skills. This is exactly what Services for Peace (SEP) did for six years in Cameroon to build a sustainable peace through community development.

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CASE STUDY EXAMPLES OF EMPOWERING LEARNERS WITH CONFLICT SKILLS SEP began its work collecting and analyzing data to craft its strategy: adult education that included space for dialogue and gave the community learners conflict concepts and skills. These learners, in turn, passed on their skills and knowledge through acting as teachers for adult education in their communities. At the same time, they developed their conflict skills through practice and service within their communities. Community members were so inspired by seeing and participating in conflict process that they asked to attend adult education workshops so they, too, could learn and practice conflict skills. SEP monitored the entire process in every community and helped with challenges once again, like a teacher steps in to help with the challenges of adult learners, recognizing that discussing and problem solving challenge presents rich opportunity for learning. Similar to SEP’s experience in Cameroon, a two-year study of undergraduate and graduate students studying Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding (NCRP) at California State University Dominguez Hills (Dominguez Hills) revealed that their adult education in conflict concepts and skills resulted in a more positive and empowered attitude toward working on behalf of community development challenges. In fact, the vast majority sought their NCRP education to fuel their advocacy for justice. One of these students defined social justice as, the prevalence of empowerment and equality of people within communities, societies, nations, and international communities. Social justice implies a situation where individual human needs are met and [those involved] have the ability to strive for higher needs such as self-actualization. Social justice is a dynamic condition where conflict is resolved with highest attention to common interest, human relationships, and the objectives of parties to conflict … Social justice truly takes hold when we see communities as …. “organisms” to be sustained, healed, and restored using conflict as a catalyst [for] healing and restoration.

THE ROLE OF AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Both the students from the communities in Cameroon and those from Dominguez Hills are asked to apply conflict concepts and tools to their own life challenges authentic assessment. In their Alternative Dispute Resolution class, as one example, NCRP students must assess every dispute

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process studied to determine what is best suited to a particular situation. Author Erbe published a workbook with four real world case studies representing complex injustice within the United States specifically with the purpose of providing students with regular opportunity to apply concepts and techniques to real world challenges (Erbe, 2003). About 100 learning activities require students to analyze ethical dilemmas and otherwise actively engage in applying course material. NCRP is the only field that teaches equitable power sharing on a micro, or process, level. Students are not simply introduced to practical approaches for balancing power imbalances. They are asked to create, discuss, and analyze their own ideas for balancing power. Similarly, in Cameroon’s conflict and peace education, learners were asked to analyze the costs of continuing their conflicted status quo, envision ideal futures, and otherwise actively apply what they were learning to the complexities of their own experience. Asking adults to apply learning to real world challenges, including their own, may not be easy when they are accustomed to child rather than adult education. They may have experienced being passive recipients of lectures and information and expect their professors to tell them what to think rather than think critically for themselves. Despite the challenge, however, adult education is essential to the empowerment and reflection that effectively prepares students for addressing community development problems. Author Erbe’s experience is shared by faculty of international social work and human rights. When this social work faculty first asked students to apply academic concepts to the students’ own experience, students expressed difficulty and reluctance. Students did not want to risk sharing their own opinions and possibly be judged wrong. All students need to feel is that they can express their opinions, concerns, and experience without fear of judgment or attack. Some social work faculty even recommends intensive long weekend classes to help dissolve early classroom barriers, build requisite trust and safety, and otherwise facilitate participatory learning climate. This faculty, like author Erbe, had to design curriculum and assessment activities requiring application to personal experience. Otherwise, the students were not able to connect their learning with real world experience and challenge. Experiential classroom learning involving case studies, ethical dilemmas, and class dialogue empowered and transformed social work students, teaching them to be engaged and confident problem solvers exercising leadership initiative rather than passive recipients. This faculty of international social work shared with author Erbe that other barriers to adult education include uncertainty and confusion about how to do so. Faculty is looking for curriculum ideas and guidance. They

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need help with facilitating dialogue within their classrooms; specifically, learning how to create a safe space that encourages student disclosure and discussion regarding the tough issues invoked with social justice. They, like their students and the students in Cameroon who went on to be adult educators, need education in the core conflict/collaborative skills described throughout this chapter.

TEACHING COLLABORATIVE SKILLS IN THE DIVERSE CLASSROOM Collaborative group work itself, at its best, builds a humanistic classroom environment that can actually reduce conflict. Muzafer Sherif’s (1966) classic experiment in reducing conflict between groups through cross ties (commonalities) shows that involving different groups in tasks that require their joint cooperation can reduce conflict between them (Johnson & Johnson, 2012). A tried and true first step toward trust building through open disclosure and information sharing in a classroom full of diverse strangers is selfintroduction of the teacher. Trust can be further enhanced by building commonality into the exercise through stimulating introductions with an open-ended question, such as, what are your reasons for enrolling in this class? All answers to this question will support the classroom commonality: interest in the class. Another easy collaborative exercise is “think, pair, and share” (Davis, 2001). First, the professor introduces a concept, then pairs students up to collaboratively use (e.g., discuss, apply) the concept, and finally asks the pairs to share their discussion, analysis, and questions with the rest of the class. This exercise promotes collaboration between the paired up students and continues to build commonality as everyone has participated and shared in a similar exercise

IMAGINING AN ACTUAL STUDENT EXPERIENCE IN AN NCRP CLASSROOM It is your first day of class in NCRP at Dominguez Hills. You are excited and nervous. You wonder: what does it mean to study peace building? Conflict transformation? Then you walk into your first class. The professor introduces herself and her plan to ask each student to introduce themselves

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and their interests in peace education before the end of the first class. She gives you a few minutes to reflect and write. She next asks you to turn to a classmate and introduce yourself. After about 10 minutes, your professor asks everyone to move their desks into one large circle. She explains that the circle represents widespread cultural practice symbolizing restorative justice, reconciliation, and unity. The professor sits in the circle as well and asks for a volunteer first introduction to the class as a whole. The semester proceeds with participatory experiential skill education. The skills taught are foundational to collaborative learning. Some are the ones introduced early in this chapter: listening, suspending judgment, validation, reframing, and identifying common ground. Others include empathy and research-based negotiation tactics like “generous tit for tat.” As introduced earlier, it is important if possible that faculty consistently and congruently models best practice in all of these relationship-building skills. If faculty is not able to model all skills, sometimes popular films substitute. As one example, in NCRP, the lead actress in the Hollywood movie Erin Brockovich exemplifies the power of empathetic listening and excellent indepth information gathering. The HBO documentary Boycott, regarding Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s early leadership in the civil rights movement, shows students astute negotiation skills with a hostile close-minded enemy as well as nonviolent resistance.

NCRP GROUP WORK In NCRP classrooms, group work and reflective practice, through case study analysis and role-plays of true-to-life case study challenges, are the primary teaching methods that have been found effective in engaging learning and facilitating collaborative skill mastery. Studies show that group work typically results in higher test scores (Brewer & Klein, 2006; Jones & George, 1998). NCRP classrooms integrate group work throughout the curriculum. The interdisciplinary field of NCRP, which incorporates practices from the disciplines of communications, social work, counseling, and education, provides frequent and natural opportunities to teach students requisite group work skills. Many overlap with those mentioned earlier: listening for deep and accurate understanding, suspending judgment and extending unconditional regard, validation of positive (rather than negative) behavior, considerate and responsible expression through assertive rather than

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aggressive communication, or the use of “I statements,” reframing, and identifying common ground. Group skills encompass reflective practice and cultural competence so that all concerned become aware of bias, actual and perceived. Naturally, negotiation curriculum teaches tactics and skills that can be used to constructively respond to conflict arising during group activities: not reacting with reciprocity to perceived criticism and misunderstanding, and creative problem solving with tools including brainstorming and option evaluation. All builds important foundation for success with extended group work (Erbe, 2011). For long term collaboration, author Korinek found that encouraging students to begin group work by establishing common connection with one another as people and fellow students enhanced task performance (Davis, 2001). The more quickly she learned to turn a stranger into someone she knew, the easier collaborative work became. The time to develop such relationships is before negotiations begin (Fisher & Ury, 1991). For example, sharing self-introductions and personal experiences with group work can build an environment of commonality, understanding, and mutual support, which will help later when the natural disagreements of group work arise. When group members trust one another and feel comfortable, the resultant collaborative work environment can decrease defensive or adversarial tendencies; thus, improving communication as the students listen to one another and feel heard by one another. Author Korinek believes this foundation helped her experience less difficulty understanding group members’ perspectives and develop trust in group members’ commitment. In another class, a student was asked to participate in group work as her primary assignment. Her experience demonstrates in detail how negotiation and conflict resolution skills prepare students for optimal collaborative learning. Her group began with a bit of intragroup tension because some members in the group, including herself, had already had courses together and had experience working together. This contributed to some students feeling left out. Once the feeling was expressed, the students addressed it by taking some time to introduce themselves and their prior experiences with group work to help build commonality and identification with one another. They each talked about past experience with group work, which not only built commonality, but also unveiled interests and concerns. For example, many people in the group experienced concern regarding fair division of work and unreliable partners. There were common interests in dividing work equally and following through dependably. Based on their conflict resolution training, students negotiated collectively acceptable multicultural group process parameters (Erbe, 2003). Author Korinek recommends using

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collaborative conflict tools like agenda setting that encourage students to start with something general or easy. To get everyone involved, each member might share his or her best three ideas without judgment and then the group can go back and discuss and edit the best one(s). The above short exercises in collaborative conflict resolution made a big difference in the rest of the project introduced on the preceding page because they helped everyone feel more comfortable in the group and ultimately contributed to positive communication and understanding. When the group began critiquing each other’s ideas, the student mentioned earlier was particularly glad that they had built a sense of trust within the group. She personally understood how criticisms can trigger self-conscious and defensive emotions, but through considerate communication, continual acknowledgment and appreciation of each person’s contribution, and trust within the group, everyone seemed to contribute ideas and accept critiques almost without ego.

NCRP REFLECTIVE PRACTICE ACTIVITIES As also introduced earlier, students are engaged through questions and exercises asking them to apply course concepts to real world case studies, including challenges faced in their own daily lives. These teaching and learning activities guide them in reflective practice and prepare them to write weekly journals detailing application and observation of course material in the students’ day-to-day lives. Because the student is drawing from his or her own life experience, the student can humanize, personalize, and even internalize the material. Students are encouraged once again to work collectively in learning community, sharing and discussing their journal analysis with each other. When this journal assignment is ongoing, for many weeks, students start to form a habit of reinforcing course concepts as they continually examine their world looking for their next journal. Dempster’s “spacing effect” (1988) shows that students retain information better when their rehearsal of that information is distributed over time. When students learn new concepts and vocabulary from assigned readings and the lectures, rehearsing, or applying and analyzing information incrementally through repeated real world application in journals, facilitates retention. Activities of collaboration (cooperation) between students help create support networks and a social learning environment in which students

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continue to connect through shared experiences. NCRP journals are often exchanged between students so that students learn and reinforce their understandings of course material from others’ experiences. This exchange can also create a supportive social environment as students find commonality and understanding as they share their experiences. Another step can be taken with the journal activity when students write responses to others’ experience. Students not only learn from one another, but may also support one another as they show empathy and understanding. This activity sets a foundation for intellectual dialogue inspired by personal experience.

NCRP SIMULATIONS Role-plays are one more great way to turn theory into practice and catalyze reflective practice in a relatively risk-free environment. It is one thing to read about a concept. It is quite another to put it into action. Role-plays simulate the human experience through applying concepts in a controlled environment mimicking and enacting a real world scenario. One of the most famous role-plays is Philip Zimbardo’s (1972) prison guard and prisoner role-play experiment, showing how realistic role-plays can be. NCRP students develop advocacy and negotiation skills through participating in weekly simulated negotiations and advocacy hearings; mediation skills through participating in weekly simulated mediations. After participation they are again asked to do reflective practice, critique their own strengths and weaknesses, as well as seek and receive honest constructive feedback from those who have observed their participation. One exercise that one NCRP student had a very difficult time with was a nasty negotiation tactics role-play. Yet, in embracing the simulation’s challenges, she reported strong reflective practice. She was partnered with an older gentleman in the class and was asked to try, for a few minutes, responding to his nasty tactics toward her with nasty tactics of her own. Instead she froze up. After the exercise, the student reflected on her experience and realized her social conditioning discouraged disrespect toward an elder.

IDEAS FOR INCREASING STUDENT COMFORT The overall process of learning in a diverse classroom with collaborative learning can be emotional and stressful. Students may feel nervous,

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anxious, worried, angry, frustrated, challenged, rewarded, inspired, encouraged, discouraged, embarrassed …. a range of emotions. An understanding, supportive, and “human” instructor can help students work through the natural emotions that arise when learning challenging material. Teachers may say something like, “You can only bring each other up; not down,” as author Erbe told her students in one class. Some students might have a more successful learning experience if they feel comfortable expressing how the learning process is affecting them. Other students might feel more comfortable dealing with their emotions without the support of the instructor. An instructor can make his or herself seem more approachable and human by posting a comment to the class saying something like, “This chapter has been a challenge for many of my students in the past. In fact, I remember when I started reading this material for the first time. It was a struggle for me too. If you start feeling frustrated or discouraged, feel free to contact me so that I can help.” A statement such as this normalizes issues, offers help in dealing with difficulties, and provides hope for those having trouble. Students who evaluated optimal multicultural classroom environment, in the global survey mentioned earlier, listed an open mind and tolerance as the most important traits exhibited by their teachers (Erbe, 2004). In contrast, the worst of teachers in multicultural classrooms did not listen carefully, lacked deep understanding, and were judgmental. Some were even described as disrespectful or indifferent toward their students, emphasizing negative material and exhibiting prejudice and ill temper.

MODELING IMPARTIAL UNDERSTANDING ACROSS DIFFERENCE Several years ago author Erbe interviewed Minu Hemmati, who had just published Multistakeholder Processes for Governance and Sustainability: Beyond Conflict and Deadlock. Minu spoke about her frustration with global professionals’ frequent inability to hear and understand those in other professions as well as that of a cultural disconnect. In her experience, engineers, scientists, and other outside experts were particularly unprepared to work collaboratively with others, including communities served. They were prepared instead to “work solo.” Others also struggled with cross-cultural communication and understanding. Business’s focus on profit clashed with government top-down mandate. Activists focused on vilifying and blaming

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partially out of fear of being seen as co-opted if cooperating. Politicians viewed collaboration as foolhardy. Lobbyists aggressively advocated, believing a win lose was superior to win win. Thus, many groups worked at cross purposes. Law professor Roht-Azziza has said something similar. In her words, Integrating post-conflict reconstruction and collective reparations seems … promising. Attempts to do so will, however, encounter difficulties based on differences in vocabulary, professional biases, restrictive mandates, and ease of goals. Neither UNDP nor the World Bank frames issues in terms of … justice … but rather in terms of repair … and … growth. In part, this may be due to the predominance of lawyers in framing reparations … and the predominance of economists and engineers … in … development … Post-conflict work …. involves merging … the perspectives of conflict prevention, humanitarian assistance, human rights monitoring, and traditional development cultures, each with its own “turf,” time frame, and policy prescriptions. Development involves shorter term and more measurable goals than moral and social reconstruction. It’s easier to build roads and bridges.

In the same global evaluation mentioned above, open, honest disclosure, dialogue, and information sharing were some of the top practices identified, along with exploring diverse gender and ethnic experience (Erbe, 2004). Top recommendations were to encourage active participation and include all voices. Engaged multicultural discussion enhances motivation, as well as quality of critical analysis (Gurin, 1999). Thus, students are learning to change the destructive dynamics described by Hemmati and Roht-Azziza. Conflict transformation is a discipline where students are taught the ethical principle and practice of impartiality, or multipartiality: treating all concerned equally without favoritism or bias. Arguably, it is a nontraditional interdisciplinary field that incorporates social justice as a fundamental premise. Conflict curriculum introduces students to theories explaining the most atrocious and egregious injustice, including in-out group dynamics, scapegoating and projection, ethnocentrism, and groupthink. It further offers techniques for analyzing system change like force field and conflict analysis, and techniques for catalyzing justice such as the nonviolent resistance and building of power alliances exemplified by inspirations like Desmond Tutu. At its best, like social work education, students receive consciousness raising education, or curriculum designed to help them become aware of their own implicit biases and assumptions. Thus they are able to actually practice impartiality rather than simply articulate rhetoric (while unconsciously contradicting their language with bias and favoritism toward their own preferred group).

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A fair mediation, or negotiation, facilitated and assisted by an impartial third party, requires power balancing that includes empowerment of less powerful parties through the skills stressed throughout this chapter: careful listening, identification of common ground, and other conflict techniques (Erbe, 2004). Skillful perspective-taking, or “walking in another’s shoes,” not only empowers, but also introduces the role that empathy plays in negotiating conflict transformation and justice. The ability to listen with empathy may be the most important attribute of intervenors who succeed in gaining the trust and cooperation of parties to intractable conflicts and other conflicts with high emotional content. Empathic listening enables the skilled listener to receive and accurately interpret the speaker’s message. [It] (1) builds trust and respect, (2) enables disputants to release their emotions, (3) reduces tensions, (4) encourages the surfacing of information, and (5) creates a safe environment that is conducive to collaborative problem solving. (Erbe, 2003)

Nelson Mandala goes further in lauding empathy’s role with social justice. He describes a respected colleague in the fight against apartheid. He developed a capacity for putting himself in the shoes of the enemy and thinking through a situation from the perspective of the enemy … [H]e taught the underground that it must respect rather than simply hate the enemy. It you hated the enemy, you dismissed him, depersonalized him, and as a result, you would always underestimate his ability to destroy you. On the other hand, if you respected your enemy, you never forgot how formidable he was ….Hatred would destroy you; not the enemy. (O’Malley, 2007)

While the success with community development and peace building in Cameroon is not described with reference to empathy, impartiality through inclusive power balancing and equal empowerment of all important parties is stressed. Likewise, in NCRP, many students define social justice around the concepts of equity or equality such as a climate where equanimity exists between groups (gender, race, ethnicity, class, ….) Power is shared and prejudice is minimized. Several speak of collective striving for shared wellness (basic needs) for all except a few who embrace destructive lifestyles. A few

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simply envision respect for all or awareness of self and others. Related is the importance of being heard. Others define social justice as freedom to express or pursue any goal as long as it does no harm to the environment or others and as a vehicle for self-actualization. Still others describe social justice with a legal framework, stressing fair treatment and due process along with equal access and opportunity. They prioritize equal civil, constitutional, and international human rights along with fair enforcement. Protection from domination, repression, exploitation, tyranny, and abuse is important to many. Fortunately for Cameroon and other communities unable to rely on such law, studies show that even without such law, the trust referenced in this chapter can also lead to cooperative behavior (Jones, 1998).

CONCLUDING COMMENTS Facing a classroom can be daunting, particularly when a discipline requires discussion of potentially difficult subjects and aspires to educate community leaders prepared to tackle the toughest and most important of challenges. Teaching negotiation and conflict transformation in a campus community that regularly includes students from several different countries and cultures provides an opportunity to evaluate which teaching methods and activities are most effective for international leadership development. The NCRP program at Dominguez Hills is discovering that dynamic teaching strategy engaging learners, or exemplary adult education, is essential, particularly within the multicultural classroom. Fortunately, NCRP curriculum naturally provides requisite skill and attitude development for optimal multicultural collaboration requiring that every student act as a leader multiple times. When combined with a humane and democratic learning environment, it catalyzes education to its best. SEP’s effective community development and peace building in the face of previously violent conflict goes even further. Adult education for community members in conflict strategy and skills empowered sustainable peace.

REFERENCES Astin, A. W. (1993). Diversity and multiculturalism on campus: How are students affected? Change, 25(2), 44 49.

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Bain, K. (2004). What the best college teachers do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Brewer, S., & Klein, J. (2006). Type of positive interdependence and affiliation motive in an asynchronous, collaborative learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(4), 331 354. Davis, B. (2001). Tools for teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Dempster, F. N. (1988). The spacing effect: Case study in the failure to apply the results of psychological research. American Psychologist, 43, 627 634. Erbe, N. (2003). Holding these truths: Empowerment and recognition in action (an interactive case study curriculum in multicultural dispute resolution). Berkeley, CA: Public Policy Press. Erbe, N. (2004). The global popularity and promise of facilitative ADR. Temple International & Comparative Law Journal, 18(2), 343 389. Erbe, N. (2011). Negotiation alchemy: Global skills transforming and inspiring diverging worlds. Berkeley, CA: Public Policy Press. Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1991). Getting to yes. New York, NY: Penguin Books. Gurin, P. (1999). Expert report of Patricia Gurin. In The compelling need for diversity in higher education, Gratz et. al. v. Bollinger et. al. No. 97-75231 (E. D. Mich.) and Grutter et. al. v. Bollinger et. al. No. 97-75928 (E. D. Mich.) Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan. Johnson, C. (2001). Boycott. [HBO documentary]. United States: HBO. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2012). Joining together: Group theory and group skills. London: Pearson. Jones, G., & George, J. (1998). The experience and evolution of trust: Implications for cooperation and teamwork. Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 531 546. Sherif, M. (1966). In common predicament: Social psychology of intergroup conflict and cooperation. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Soderbergh, S. (2000). Erin Brockovich. [Motion picture]. United States: Columbia. Ury, W. (1991). Getting past no. New York, NY: Bantam Books. Zimbardo, P. G. (1972). Pathology of imprisonment. Transaction/Society, 9(6), 4 8.

PART II SERVANT LEADERSHIP

SERVANT LEADERSHIP: HISTORY, A CONCEPTUAL MODEL, MULTICULTURAL FIT, AND THE SERVANT LEADERSHIP SOLUTION FOR CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT Bill Flint, Jr. and Megan Grayce ABSTRACT This chapter presents the origin of the theoretical framework of servant leadership proposed by Robert Greenleaf. This brief history is followed up by an examination of empirical studies on the key elements of a servant leader and a conceptual model of servant leadership. In addition, this chapter explores the effectiveness of servant leadership in various international contexts based on the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Programs (GLOBE) humane construct. Finally, the authors use continuous improvements programs as a process to analyze how servant leadership may help the successful implementation of continuous change.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 59 72 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020004

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BILL FLINT AND MEGAN GRAYCE … The great leader is seen as servant first … Robert K. Greenleaf

THE ORIGIN OF SERVANT LEADERSHIP In 1970, Robert Greenleaf wrote his seminal essay on servant leadership, The Servant as Leader (Greenleaf, 1991). Servant leadership, as proposed by Greenleaf, was only a theoretical framework in need of scholarly empirical research (Smith, 2005). Since then, servant leadership has caught the eye of scholars and practitioners alike. It can be successfully argued that the conceptual framework of servant leadership is closely related to the ethical and virtuous models of leadership. Patterson (2003) identified the virtuous component in her doctoral thesis. Virtues are a component of a person’s character which aspire leaders to excellence. Virtue is “conformity to a standard of right … a particular moral excellence … a beneficial quality … courage” (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed., 2008). Virtuousness is doing the right thing at the right moment in light of opposition. “One of the reasons … [for the delay of] servant leadership is that the very notion of ‘servant as leader’ is an oxymoron” (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002, p. 57). Humility is lacking in the major leadership theories that practitioners generally use and it is difficult for these other types of leaders to demonstrate humility. Humility is an unassuming nature, modesty, but not self-deprecating. “The strength of the servant leadership movement and its many links to encouraging follower learning, growth, and autonomy … [has played] a [major] role in the future leadership of learning organizations” (Bass, 2000, p. 33). This has been proven by the number of peer-reviewed scholarly research on servant leadership and numerous wildly successful practitioners such as Southwest Airlines, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Chick-Fil-A, Fedex, Marriott, and others. Wong and Davey (2007) asserted that the key to reasons why servant leadership is gaining international acceptance is that servant leadership is “… humanistic and spiritual rather than rational and mechanistic; it puts workers first rather than shareholders at the center … and it motivates workers primarily through creating a caring and supportive workplace rather than through individual incentive systems” (p. 3). For example, incentive systems can cause unjust distribution of resources, short-term strategies at the expense of organizational effectiveness and

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increased turnover. “If given the opportunity, individuals would choose to work in firms with similar values … [as their own]. … Actually, when mismatches occur, the parties would be dissatisfied with the relationship, and the employee will likely leave or become (sic) terminated. Researchers have long claimed that salespeople hold high ethical values and want to behave ethically but sometimes fail to do some because of competitive pressures …” brought on by myopic monetary incentive systems (Jaramillo, Grisaffe, Chonko, & Roberts, 2009, p. 354).

THE RIGHT TIME FOR SERVANT LEADERSHIP The moral failings of businesses are not unique to the United States. Other countries have experienced similar corporate failings such as the Union Carbide India Limited explosion disaster, the failure of the South Australia State Bank, and the arrest of key executives at Kaupthing Bank, an international Icelandic bank. In the United States the response to these immoral business failures was to enact the burdensome Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002. Compliance with Sarbanes Oxley is extremely costly in terms of real dollars and human resources. It was and remains a short-term solution to the moral failings of businesses. The act holds chief executives and board members personally liable for misbehaviors and can result in large monetary fines and imprisonment. Sarbanes Oxley has executives running scared and does not encourage them to implement real, long-lasting change. Proponents of servant leadership believe that embracing, implementing, and practicing servant leadership in any organization can significantly reduce the ethical failings of businesses, ensure a level playing ground, and restore businesses reputations. Yesterday’s autocratic, command and control leadership, even the fashionable transformational leadership theory which is leader centric rather than employee centric, needs to be replaced in order to reduce the moral failures of numerous organizations. However, servant leadership can be most effective if it is practiced in the entire organization. Reidenbach and Oliva (1981) examined organizational communication through the general living systems theory which states that there is exchange of information that comes into the organization, within the organization, and out of the organization to customers and society. Effective servant leaders view their organization as a living system. Servant leadership uses the information into, within, and out of the organization to accomplish positive individual organizational outcomes. Communication

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and management of information is one of the most important components of any successful organizational endeavor, especially the implementation of servant leadership. A servant leader begins and ends with a desire to serve others. van Dierendonck (2011) identifies this as a key individual quality necessary to become a servant leader. Servant leaders desire to serve others congruent with their leadership skills. The key here is that the servant leader desires to serve others in a way that helps others grow personally and become autonomous and self-motivated. Servant leadership does not imply weakness. Individual characteristics necessary to be a servant leader are the cognitive complexity for selfreflection, self-correction, intuitiveness, observant, and mindfulness. The individual’s moral code must be fully developed and solid. The servant leader’s moral code does not vacillate to suit the needs of others or the organization. Leadership is the ability to influence others. Leaders can use many forms of power to influence others. There are two categories of power: formal and personal. Formal power is determined by the employee’s placement on the organizational chart. This can include reward power which has the potential for creating an unjust culture, favoritism, or reward power that does not serve the organization’s stakeholders in the long term. Personal power refers to the value of unique characteristics of individuals. For example, employees with expertise in a field may have more influence in an organization than an employee with no expertise in a field. Reverent power, another type of personal power, is the likeability and respect one has on another. A servant leader may possess all of those powers. The key is in how they choose to use those powers for the good of others. For example, reward power is not inherently bad, but it must be administered in a way that values people, increases job satisfaction, is administered justly, and does not elevate negative organizational politics. Servant leaders are honest with themselves; they look in the mirror before blaming others. Self-awareness is a key strength of servant leaders and should be constantly practiced and developed. Servant leaders assess how their imperfections and actions impact employees. This constant reevaluation of self helps servant leaders be honest with themselves as to who they are and what do they need to do differently to grow their people. van Dierendonck (2011) has set forth a comprehensive model of servant leadership within an organization. He identifies antecedent variables, moderating variables to servant leadership which can affect organizational

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outcomes. The model attempts to identify all variables that create a servant leader, moderating organizational variables, and organizational outcomes. The model provides a basis for further research on servant leadership. However, it is useful in the discussion of understanding how servant leadership may work in organizations and the organizational outcomes of servant leadership. The entire servant leadership model is conceptualized by asserting positive correlations with the mediating variables: the leader follower relationship and the psychological climate of the organization. van Dierendonck (2011) then asserts a positive correlation to employee and organizational behavior and organizational performance. “The reciprocal test for servant leadership is that the followers become servant leaders themselves” (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1239). Simply put, in business, servant leadership helps companies and leaders move away from the “boss” model which is about self and barking orders, to the servant model of helping people accomplish things. Servant leaders help their people feel a part of something bigger than themselves and accomplish more than they ever thought possible. Real servant leaders build an environment of trust and respect between leadership and employees. Servant leadership has the potential to create a relationship between leadership and employees of long-term commitment which can be a significant competitive advantage.

ESSENTIAL INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SERVANT LEADERS Numerous scholars have identified the key characteristics of servant leaders: Spears (1995), Laub (1999), Russell and Stone (2002), and Patterson (2003). van Dierendonck (2011) explains how each researcher arrived at their own list of servant leadership characteristics. “Although there are clear overlaps between the 44 (!) characteristics in the different conceptual models, there still remains quite a number of different servant-leader attributes … [however] one can distinguish six key characteristics of servant leader[s] …” as presented in the conceptual model (p. 1232). These six characteristics are: “… [e]mpowering and developing people …, humility …, authenticity …, interpersonal acceptance …, providing direction …, [and] stewardship” (pp. 1232 1234). Researchers and practitioners do not yet have a consensus as to the elements a servant leader should possess.

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However, one can safely say that van Dierendonck’s (2011) list of characteristics is necessary for effective servant leadership. Empowerment is helping your people use their personalities, skills, passion, and abilities. Servant leaders identify employees’ diversity of skills, personalities, and talents as a major strength to be developed and nurtured. “The servant-leader’s belief in the intrinsic value of each individual is the central issue; it is all about recognition, acknowledgement, and the realization of each person’s abilities and what the person can still learn” (Greenleaf, 1998). Humility is often interpreted as meekness. This is not the case of a servant leader. Humility is one of the most difficult characteristics to develop. “Humility shows the extent to which a leader puts the interest of others first, facilitates their performance, and provides them with essential support” (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1233). The humility dimension is often referred to as Agapao love which “… is the Greek term for moral love, which means doing the right thing at the right time and for the right reasons” (p. 1244). Authenticity is reverence, a moral code, outer consistency with inner thoughts (supra, 2011, p. 1233). Simply put, a servant leader walks the talk. They are strong and yet vulnerable at the same time; doing what they have promised; without concern for their own ambitions. Interpersonal acceptance is a positive psychological concept. The servant leadership theory is a positive psychological theory of leadership. “Interpersonal acceptance includes the perspective-taking element of empathy that focuses on being able to cognitively adopt psychological perspectives of other people and experience feelings of warmth, compassion, and forgiveness in terms of concern for others even when confronted with offences, arguments, and mistakes” (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1234). Providing direction is being a responsible captain of the ship. Most leaders today are interested in personal gain, short-term strategies for quick monetary gains that may generate large bonuses, and command and control leadership. A servant leader thinks long term. A servant leader has a vision that is beneficial to stakeholders and the organization and effectively communicates the vision and provides the necessary direction to implement the vision. The aphorism a rising tide lifts all boats, commonly attributed to John F. Kennedy in his 1963 speech is applicable to servant leader qualities. The sixth characteristic of a servant leader is stewardship. This includes setting an example and leading others to act with a common interest versus selfish desires. “Stewardship is closely related to social responsibility,

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loyalty, and team work” (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1234). Too often, leaders do not hold themselves accountable. It is easier to blame others for some lack of skill or personality trait and have no real expectations or accountability for growing her people. Most leaders are promoted because of their seniority without any real thought about how good they will be in leading their people. This is a classic example of the Peter Principle, coined by Dr. Lawrence J. Peter, in which incompetence rises to the top. Servant leaders develop servant leaders and hold themselves accountable. A high quality leader follower relationship is a key outcome of servant leadership. The nature of the leaders follower relationship correlates to organizational outcomes (van Dierendonck, 2011). For example, if there was something lacking in the servant leader in terms of necessary qualities, this may negatively correlate to the leader follower relationship and thus could correlate to negative individual and organizational performance. “At the core of the relationship … [is the] leader’s belief in the intrinsic value of each individual” (Greenleaf, 1998). At the heart of a positive leader follower relationship is mutual trust and respect (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1246). van Dierendonck (2011) has identified climate as a moderating variable to organizational outcomes of servant leadership organizations. Climate, unlike culture, has to do with perceptions of a safe environment. “Feelings of trust and fairness are seen as essential elements to a safe psychological climate to handle challenging times” (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1247). Fairness impacts perceptions of justice, trust, and organizational politics. Harris, Andrews, and Kacmar (2007) looked at whether injustice, procedural or distributive, weakened perception of politics and thus led to lower levels of job satisfaction and higher levels of turnover intentions (p. 137). “Distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of the outcomes received by employees, whereas procedural justice refers to the perceived fairness of the process used to determine outcomes received” (p. 137). These researchers confirmed that when there is a perception of justice within the organization, employees perceive politics less negatively (p. 140). Whereas organizational climate is more about perceptions, organizational culture is more about a set of conditions (Denison, 1996, p. 623). In this case van Dierendonck (2011) focuses on the elements of humane orientation and power distance as key aspects of organizational because these elements differ from country to country. In addition, van Dierendonck’s (2011) reason for focusing on these two dimensions is based partly on the lack of consensus of what makes up organizational culture, and because

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these two elements have a significant correlation to the efficacy of servant leadership theory. It is essential that practitioners and researchers alike examine leadership theories through multicultural lenses. Humane orientation is the degree to which cultures emphasize helping others, charity, and peoples’ wider social obligations. “… [T] human orientation construct of the GLOBE1 research program is closely related to servant leadership, with its focus on care, concern, and benevolence towards others” (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1246). It follows that countries with a high humane orientation would be more receptive to the servant leadership model. Servant leadership is a Western construct and is often refuted by non-Western organizations because of this very fact. Winston and Ryan (2008) examine the effects of the humane orientation on the efficacy of servant leadership in different cultures. Winston and Ryan (2008) assert that human orientation is compatible with African, Asian, and Mediterranean regions (p. 212). Based on the GLOBE research, “… the countries with the highest human orientation … [are] Nigeria, Finland, Singapore, and Austria … [ as well as] … Zambia, Philippines, Ireland, Malaysia, Thailand, and Egypt”2 (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1246). Power distance is an element of culture that measures the degree to which less powerful members of organizations and institutions accept the fact that power is not distributed equally (injustice). “Low power distance especially facilitates leadership that is less focused on self-protection” (van Dierendonck, 2011, p. 1246). Hannay (2009) points out that “[i]n order to be effective, the servant-leader requires significant participation and interaction with employees” (p. 5). Servant leaders must view their employees as important contributors to the overall performance of the organization. Employee 360 degree feedback is essential to successful servant leadership. Servant leaders, by definition, serve others. Servant leaders develop other servant leaders. Their mission is to serve others first which is congruent with a low power distance; thus making servant leadership a more acceptable theory than one would think in Western countries, where high power distance is normative. The theory of servant leadership helps organizations by fostering teamwork and communication which are critical to sustainable change management. Servant leader organizations are socially responsible. Unfortunately, corporate social responsibility is direly lacking in most organizations. Increasing corporate social responsibility creates an ethical and moral playing field which is beneficial to all stakeholders.

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CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT For several decades now, the continuous improvement process has helped businesses around the world improve their productivity and efficiency by eliminating waste in their organizations. Elimination of waste goes beyond picking the low level apples such as layoffs, salary cuts, elimination of bonuses, and more. Examples of continuous improvement programs are “Lean Manufacturing,” “Six Sigma,” “Toyota Production System,” and “TQM.” Without continuous improvement initiatives, many companies fail to remain competitive or survive during a poor economic climate. Implemented correctly, continuous improvement is a process that helps employees become more involved in the planning and decisions of the business, especially when it comes to finding new ways to perform their work and reduce the overall cost of doing business. Continuous improvement is designed to obtain competitive advantage. In simple terms, the continuous improvement process and philosophy is about identifying and eliminating waste in all areas of the business. American businesses have the philosophies that if you want to improve the quality of its products, throw more money at the problem. This practice is oxymoronic to continuous improvement programs, short term and ineffective. It became obvious in the 1950s to Drs. W. Edwards Deming and Joseph Juran that this conventional wisdom must be challenged (Maguad & Krone, 2009).

COMMON OBSTACLES TO IMPLEMENT CONTINUOUS CHANGE PROCESSES Many companies have achieved competitive advantage with the continuous improvement process without servant leadership. However, businesses today are finding it harder and harder to keep up the momentum and energy needed to keep their continuous improvement efforts moving forward. The low-lying fruit has already been cut, reinforcing bad feelings by employees toward the company. Executive leadership is under tremendous pressure for the quick profit again short-term thinking, which is the death nail of continuous improvement programs which require long-term strategic thought and action. Servant leadership practices may be the best way for companies to implement, follow-through, and successfully monitor continuous change programs.

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“In a survey of over 3000 executives … two-thirds of respondents indicated that their companies had failed to achieve a true ‘stop change’ in performance after implementing organizational changes” (Rafferty, Jimmieson, & Armenakis, 2012). Academics have similar pessimistic views of the success of continuous improvement success. The key factors that cause the failures are change readiness and negative employee attitudes (p. 111). Change readiness is often not multilevel. In other words there is no consensus about the need for change at all levels of the organization (p. 113). Lack of supportive behaviors of change management is another obstacle to successful change management. Supportive behavior is active participation by employees to involve themselves in the process (Rafferty et al., 2012, p. 113). Many employees in the company wait for their managers and leaders to identify and fix problems. Employees stood around watching leaders for direction a costly waste of resources. Those who were doing the work often were aware of the problems before management were, but leaders didn’t ask for their employees’ help or train them on how to problem solve or fix the problems on their own. Often, employees feared suggesting solutions (thus came the anonymous suggestion box) because the corporate culture did not support this behavior. Critical problem solving was either nonexistent or unilateral. These leaders and companies are stuck in the old leadership styles, such as command and control, and McGregor’s Theory X which destroys positive employee attitudes, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. According to McGregor’s Theory X, managers believe that employees dislike work and must be directed or coerced to work. Transactional leadership, another destructive leadership style, focuses on deviations from rules and regulations, intervention if standards are not met, and provides rewards based on satisfactory performance through coherency with the standards. Transformational leadership, another theory often compared with servant leadership, is fundamentally different from servant leadership theory, in that it lacks the desire to serve others. It is meant to inspire others but for the sole purpose of the organization. It is leader centric and the leader is often relying on her charisma to influence others. Executives who have a short-term view and take the easy and obvious way to cut costs, such as trimming low-lying fruit impacts without any real continuous change which negatively affects job satisfaction, employee attitudes, and organizational commitment. Job dissatisfaction is negatively related to overall job performance. Zelenski, Murphy, and Jenkins (2008) found a low rate of worker productivity with dissatisfied employees. Happy

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people are more productive (p. 529). Seibert, Silver, and Randolph (2004) concluded that culture of empowerment, which can be characterized as positive perceptions of organizational politics, has a positive correlation to work-unit performance. At the individual level, psychological empowerment, which is associated with a positive perception of organizational politics or organizational justice, has a positive correlation to job satisfaction and individual performance (p. 33). “However, the most frequently cited reason for the failure of any quality initiative is the lack of viable commitment from management” (Maguad, 2002). Often leaders use the influence of their position on the organizational chart to move employees into action but fail to understand the real motivators for long-lasting change. They fail to understand that leaders must lead by example and change management starts with their commitment to continuous improvement. In summary, the reasons for failure of continuous change initiatives are: short-term viewpoint or the inability to sustain a long-term viewpoint; lack of perceived need for change at all levels; low job satisfaction and poor performance as a result of low job satisfaction; lack of employee empowerment to make decisions for improvements; low levels of organizational commitment; and executives have poor communications skills and lack commitment. All too often leaders gravitate toward a particular leadership style/theory but do not possess all the skills to implement the strategy. They do a few things that they understand and hope the rest will fall into place. This is the classic case of we know what we want to achieve, but we don’t carry out all the necessary strategies to implement servant leadership. They hope some elements will solve certain problems and hope for the best. Hope is not a strategy!

IMPLEMENTING SUCCESSFUL CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS THROUGH SERVANT LEADERSHIP The servant leader model is the prescribed medicine for long-term continuous change. There must be a strong executive leader at the helm who is a servant leader. “Leadership styles that recognize the importance of the human factor are especially beneficial to the firm because they help create a

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positive job environment with lower levels of stress, high job satisfaction and increased organizational commitment” (Jaramillo et al., 2009, p. 358). Servant leaders have excellent communications skills, endurance, and good leader follower relationships. Servant leaders develop other servant leaders. Jaramillo et al. (2009) confirm that employees will “… reciprocate their leaders’ actions, servant leaders’ values of honesty, integrity, warmth, caring and concern for others …” (p. 359). Melchar and Bosco (2010) demonstrate that key servant leadership characteristics of stewardship, wisdom, altruistic calling, all have a positive correlation to increased organizational performance (p. 82). Servant leaders seek to empower their people at every level of the organization. “Elevating the importance of … [employees] can lead to positive job attitudes and lower intention to quit” (Jaramillo et al., 2009, p. 359). Employees who are in it for the long term because they have high satisfaction are key contributors to the long-term commitment necessary for continuous improvement. Melchar and Bosco (2010) also show that mid and low-level managers that exhibit servant leadership characteristics contribute to organizational performance (pp. 83, 84). “In demanding, high-performance industry, employees seek leadership that will engender organizational success. Employees’ personal achievements are related to those of the company; therefore, if a leader can positively influence them to perform at higher levels, they, in turn, will benefit from the organization’s success” (p. 84).

CONCLUSION AND FINAL THOUGHTS van Dierendonck’s (2011) conceptual model of servant leadership is an attempt to combine prior research models of servant leadership. His model is more comprehensive because it includes how cultural differences may positively or negatively correlate with the application of servant leadership in international settings. The authors of this chapter believe that servant leadership is the answer to many business, societal, and individual problems. Anyone with a committed heart can become a servant leader with the right training, feedback, and willingness to improve. Servant leadership can solve many individual, organizational, and social ills. William Pollard, Chairman of Service Master “contends that the real leader is not the person with the most distinguished title, the highest pay, or the longest tenure … but the role model, the risk taker, the servant; not

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the person who promotes himself or herself, but the promoter of others” (Pollard, 1997, pp. 49, 50). Do nothing out of selfish ambition or vain conceit, but in humility consider others better than yourselves. Philippians 2:3 (New International Version)

NOTES 1. Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Program (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). 2. The humane score in Egypt may have changed dramatically in light of recent political events associated with the Arab Spring.

REFERENCES Bodla, M. A., & Danish, R. Q. (2009). Politics and workplace: An empirical examination of the relationship between perceived organizational politics and work performance. South Asian Journal of Management, 16(1), 44 62. Bass, B. M. (2000). The future of leadership in learning organizations. Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(3), 18 40. Denison, D. R. (1996). What is the difference between organizational culture and climate? A native’s point of view on a decade of paradigm wars. The Academy of Management Review, 21(3), 619 654. Greenleaf, R. K. (1991). The servant as leader. Indianapolis, IN: The Robert K. Greenleaf Center. [Originally published in 1970, by Robert K. Greenleaf]. Greenleaf, R. K. (1998). The power of servant leadership. San Francisco, CA: Berret-Koehler. Hannay, M., (2009). The cross-cultural leader: The application of servant leadership theory in the international context. Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies, 1, 1 12. Retrieved from http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/08108.pdf Harris, K. J., Andrews, M. C., & Kacmar, K. M. (2007). The moderating effects of justice on the relationship between organizational politics and workplace attitudes. Journal of Business and Psychology, 22(2), 135–144. House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Jaramillo, F., Grisaffe, D. B., Chonko, L. B., & Roberts, J. A. (2009). Examining the impact of servant leadership on salesperson’s turnover intention. Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management, (4), 351 365. Maguad, B. A. (2002). Managing for quality: Challenges and opportunities. Presentation at the American Society of Business & Behavioral Sciences, 9th Annual Meeting, Las Vegas, Nevada. Maguad, B. A., & Krone, R. M. (2009). Ethics and moral leadership: Quality linkages. Total Quality Management, 20(2), 209 222.

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Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed. (2008). Springfield, MA: MerriamWebster. Melchar, D. E., & Bosco, S. M. (2010). Achieving high organization performance through servant leadership. The Journal of Business Inquiry, 9(1), 74 88. Laub, J. A. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the organizational leadership assessment (OLA) model. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60(2), 308A. (UMI No. 9921922). Patterson, K. A. (2003). Servant leadership: A theoretical model. Doctoral dissertation, Regent University. ATT No. 3082719. Pollard, C. W. (1997). The leader who serves. Strategy and Leadership, (September/October), 49 51. Rafferty, A. E., Jimmieson, N. L., & Armenakis, A. A. (2012). Change readiness: A multilevel review. Journal of Management, 39(1), 110 135. Reidenbach, E. W., & Oliva, T. A. (1981). General living systems theory and marketing: A framework for analysis. Journal of Marketing, 45, 30–37. Russell, R. F., & Stone, A. G. (2002). A review of servant leadership attributes: Developing a practical model. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 23, 145–157. Seibert, S. E., Silver, S. R., & Randolph, W. (2004). Taking empowerment to the next level: A multiple-level model of empowerment performance. Academy of Management Journal, 47(3), 332 349. Sendjaya, S., & Sarros, J. C. (2002). Servant leadership: Its origin, development, and application in organizations. Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies, 9(2), 57 64. Smith, C. (2005). Servant leadership: The leadership theory of Robert K. Greenleaf. Retrieved from http://www.carolsmith.us/downloads/640greeleaf.pdf Spears, L. C. (1995). Reflections on leadership: How Robert K. Greenleaf’s theory of servantleadership influenced today’s top management thinkers. New York, NY: John Wiley. van Dierendonck, D. (2011). Servant leadership: A review and synthesis. Journal of Management, 37(4), 1228 1261. Winston, B. E., & Ryan, B. (2008). Servant leadership as a human orientation: Using the GLOBE study construct of human orientation to show that servant leadership is more global than western. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(2), 212 222. Wong, P. T., & Davey, D. (2007, July). Best practices in servant leadership. Servant Leadership Research Roundtable. Retrieved from http://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/ sl_proceedings/2007/wong-dayey.pdf Zelenski, J., Murphy, S., & Jenkins, D. (2008). The happy-productive worker thesis revisited. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(4), 521 537.

ECHOES OF A NOT SO DISTANT SUMMER: SCHOLAR-SERVANT AS HUMBLE LEADERS Shewanee Howard-Baptiste and Moise R. Baptiste ABSTRACT According to Gardner (1990), leadership is defined as “the process of persuasion or examples by which an individual (or leadership team) induces a group to pursue objectives held by the leader or shared by the leader and his or her followers” (p. 1). Though this definition of leadership is popular, this analysis is laced with assumptions. It fails to acknowledge the intentional and often covert hierarchical nature of leadership, which negatively affects marginalized groups, that is, the “socalled” followers. The assumption in traditional notions is that everyone is striving toward the same goals and all receive the same benefits. Under this model, no individual is forced or compelled to acknowledge his/her own privilege, biases, or recognize the potential role each person has in perpetuating oppression. By demystifying these assumptions, the authors provide alternative ways to think about leadership.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 73 87 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020005

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Through a trip to Croix-des-Bouquet, Haiti in summer 2012, the authors describe their lived experiences and discuss lessons learned as scholar-servants. While working in various capacities at the Haitian American Caucus 2nd Annual Teacher Summer Institute, the authors individually and collectively argue that a cyclical reflection is needed in order to have personal and professional change. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a framework that highlights concepts that all scholar-servants should consider when doing this type of critical work. As scholar-servants, critical work requires scholars and others to move beyond traditional ways of knowing and create a movement of humility. Historically, July 16 has been a memorable date for multiple reasons in various times and locations all over the world. On July 16, 1782, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart first performed his opera Die Entfu¨hrung aus dem Serail. On July 16, 1935, the world’s first parking meter was installed in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. On July 16, 1941, Joe DiMaggio safely hit for his 56th consecutive game, a streak that still stands as a Major League Baseball record. This date has been historic for a number of reasons. In the summer of 2011, as my husband and I got dressed, we anxiously awaited with excitement as we prepared for our wedding day. The temperature in upstate New York was perfect that day. The sun was out and it was just warm enough that we did not need air conditioning. As our family and friends gathered in Ithaca on July 16, we made a lifetime commitment to one another that afternoon. My turquoise shoes and his neon striped lucky socks were the perfect touch to a perfect day. July 16 is also a very sacred and historic day for many Haitian citizens. Some see it as a lucky day and some see it as a holy day. Although it falls on the same time as the Catholic church holiday honoring Our Lady of Carmel, the annual pilgrimage to Ville-Bonheur, Haiti combines both Christian and Voodoo beliefs. In 1849, a young local villager name Fortune Morose was near the beautiful waterfalls located in the Central Plateau called Saut d’Eau (pronounced sodo) and heard a ruffling sound of leaves in a tree when it is believed that the spirit of the Virgin Mary appeared to him (Rey, 2005). Word spread throughout the community and the country about the Saut d’Eau miracle. The waterfalls have since become a holy place where people from all over the country, Christians and voodoo practitioners alike, rich and poor come to pay homage to the Virgin Mary and for spiritual healing (Laguerre, 1981). As college professors committed to service, we are constantly looking for ways that connect us with historically marginalized people. We both serve on numerous boards and volunteer in our local communities that

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positively impact the lives of families and children. As educators, we constantly reflect on how to be more creative and critical in the classroom and outside of the classroom. We have both traveled abroad, but one trip in particular became the work of our life’s mission. In 2012, Haiti was still in a state of devastation from the 2010 earthquake that claimed over 200,000 lives and left over 1.5 million people homeless. In July of 2012, my husband who is Haitian American went to Haiti to help coordinate the second annual Haitian American Caucus Teacher Summer Institute in Croix-desBouquet. This two weeklong seminar was created for local teachers and American teachers to have a space for the exchanging of ideas on contemporary and applicable education practices. I was fortunate enough to visit Haiti for the first time and join him as a presenter. Initially, I was prepared to present information on my area of expertise (Health Education and basic First-Aid) but more importantly, we realized that the people of Haiti were the true experts. It was during this trip that my husband and I began to think a lot about the intersections between being a scholar and one who wants to be of service. This chapter is focused on our trip to Croix-des-bouquet, Haiti, in summer 2012. In narrative format, we will describe our lived experiences and discuss lessons learned as what we call scholar-servants. While working in various capacities at the Haitian American Caucus 2nd Annual Teacher Summer Institute, we as individuals and collectively argue that a cyclical reflection is needed in order to have personal and professional change. This chapter also provides a framework that highlights concepts that all scholar-servants should consider when doing this type of critical work. As scholar-servants, critical work requires scholars and others to move beyond traditional ways of knowing and create a movement of humility.

TRADITIONAL NOTIONS OF LEADERSHIP In order to move beyond traditional notions of leadership, it is important to address the major tenants of the types of leadership that has dominated the discourse. Gardner’s (1990) concepts on leadership, one of the most prevalent in shaping contemporary discourses, defines leadership as “the process of persuasion or examples by which an individual (or leadership team) induces a group to pursue objectives held by the leader or shared by the leader and his or her followers” (p. 1). He acknowledges, but minimizes, certain systemic characteristics in organizations such as elements of

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physical and psychological coercion. Furthermore, he believes that in the Western canon, popular understanding of leadership distinguishes itself from coercion and places those forms involving the least coercion higher on the scale of leadership. Gardner provides more conceptualized support to justify his position on the dichotomous relationship between a leader and a follower and/or constituents. He says “all that we know about the interaction between leaders and constituents of followers tells us that communication and influence flow both directions; and in that two-way communication, non-rational, nonverbal, and unconscious elements play their part” (p. 1). Interestingly enough, Gardner attempts to make a distinction between the definition of followers and constituents. He affirms that the association of the word follower suggests too much passivity and reliance to make it a fit term for all who are at the other end of the dialogue with leaders and that the term constituent provides more justice to the relationship between the two (Gardner, 1990). Gardner (1990) makes it a point to address the leader’s role in preserving the idea of community. In fact, he says that what we may think of as a breakdown of leadership on the contemporary scene may be an observable breakdown in the sense of community. He continues by suggesting the disintegration of communities and the loss of a sense of community are clearly detrimental to the accomplishment of group purpose. It is in communities that values are generated and regenerated. With the disintegration of communities comes disintegration of shared values and leadership of the sort we seek and respect is made very much more difficult. (p. 113)

Furthermore, he declares that if leaders cannot find in their followers any foundation of shared values, principle-based leadership becomes nearly impracticable. Finally, Gardner contends that another reason that leaders benefit from social coherence is because leaders “expect its constituents or followers or lower-level leaders a great deal of participation and sharing of leadership tasks … . Social disintegration diminishes the possibility of participation” (p. 113). In other words, Gardner is fundamentally suggesting that leadership and community can coexist.

SERVANT LEADERSHIP A considerable amount of literature has been published to critique traditional notions of leadership and management (e.g., scientific management,

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“Great Man” Theory, and Situational Leadership theories). These autocratic models have been exercised and promoted in westernized organizations and has dominated the discourse. However, in recent years, there has been a shift to newer models which are referred to as Emerging Leadership Theories. These theories attempt to critique and break away from the traditionalist paradigm and establish progressive thinking and practices as we move forward in a new millennium. One of the most influential pioneers of this emerging leadership theory movement is Robert Greenleaf (2003) with his notion of servant leadership. Greenleaf suggests that the problem is serve and lead are overused words with negative connotations such as obsequious, self-righteous, patronize, dominate, manipulate, and exploit. Greenleaf insists that serving requires that the concerned individual accept the problems he or she sees in the world as his or her own personal task, as a means of achieving his or her own integrity. He adds he or she sees the external manifestation of this internal achievement as beginning with caring for individual persons, in ways that require dedication and skill and that help them grow and become healthier, stronger and more autonomous. The servant will move from this to larger spheres of influence, leading and showing the way to larger groups, institutions, perhaps vast culture-shaping institutions. (p. 37)

CRITIQUE OF SERVANT LEADERSHIP The use of language, both in the title and definition, makes servant leadership a bit difficult to critique. The word servant suggests one whose sole purpose is to serve others. How could one find fault in someone who wants to be of service to others? Where this approach to leadership falls short is when Greenleaf suggests the problems of the world can be tackled by individual leaders who are trusted and who shape others’ destinies by going out ahead to show the way. This premise once reinforces the dichotomous leader/follower model and reinforces the notion that this is the only way to practice and define leadership. In other words, Greenleaf contends that the individual that has the knowledge drives and takes the initiative to convince others (the alleged subordinates) that they need to be lead. This approach does not acknowledge that followers can also be leaders, or even as a contributor to change. We contend that leadership should be seen as something intricate and evolutionary because we believe leaders are birth in specific complex and dynamic contexts. Unfortunately, too many traditional leadership models

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fail to historicize their constructs of leadership. Too many of them assume an ahistorical position based on the artificial basis that the characteristics of leadership accrue to those who oversee organizations rather than inhabit them (Baptiste, 2010). Traditional leadership theories such as scientific management, “Great Man” Theory, reflect and support the agenda of the status quo. Too many of them such as Scientific Management, “Great Man” Theory, and Contingency theories assume an ahistorical position based on the artificial basis that the characteristics of leadership accrue to those who oversee organizations rather than inhabit them (Baptiste, 2010). Emerging theories such as Servant Leadership were supposed to be an alternative to the biased traditional discourses, but they often just resemble traditional leadership theories more than they differ. Even critical leadership theorists within the educational discourse such as William Foster and Robert Heifetz locate human relationships in structural variables, particularly those of class and power. They often still operate under the guise that leaders are those who hold bureaucratic titles. While theoretically critical concepts recognize that leadership arises anywhere in an organization in practice, there has been very little exploration of how popular leadership tenets can possess unintentional and covert oppressive ingredients that marginalize those furthest from the center.

ASSUMPTIONS SCHOLARS MAKE TRAVELING OUTSIDE OF THE UNITED STATES Whether scholars travel to a developing country because of a natural disaster or to address sociocultural and political needs in the name of social justice, mistakes are made by people in the spirit of “good intentions.” A terminal degree in any area of study does not make an individual an expert in all areas of study. Many scholars may be invited to speak and share their expertise outside of the United States. Yet, we argue that having a desire to “help” people is not a one-sided experience. Those who travel to “serve” or “help” often bring with them assumptions about people they believe are in need of their services. There are assumptions or thought patterns made by scholars traveling outside the United States. “I’m going to go down there to make a difference in those peoples’ lives”; “I’m going down there to give those people a voice”; and lastly “I’ve been there several times so I know the culture and its people.” Though we acknowledge that scholars travel with the intention to lend a hand and give back, having “good intentions”

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can actually be more damaging than helpful in many cases. This common mistake that Westerns make is not a new phenomenon. This point is captured in a speech given by Monsignor Ivan Illich at the Conference on InterAmerican Student Projects (CIASP) in Cuernavaca, Mexico, on April 20, 1968. In a sarcastic and sometimes condescending tone, his speech quite critically addresses what he calls paternalism that he believes is inherent in any voluntary service activity, but especially in international service “mission” (http://www.swaraj.org/illich_hell.htm). The following section of this chapter will highlight a few of the assumptions that Westerns scholars/researchers and humanitarians make on these trips. I’m going to go down there to make a difference in those peoples’ lives. This sentiment is often expressed by scholars because they seem to believe their terminal degree and research about a country and its inhabitants is the basis for which to “help.” This level of “understanding” is a very narrow and limited way to think about helping people in developing countries. Reading about developing countries does not guarantee access to the people that live, work, and survive in these spaces on a daily basis. We have heard people make these types of statements with the belief that they are really doing something powerful and good to aid in the relief of poor people. Scholars believe that because they have studied a group of people by researching that community and reading books about Haiti for example, they believe they are a valuable resource and added commodity to those communities. Years of schooling and studying a singular “culture” does not make scholars experts. Mastering information is not an indicator of knowledge. I’m going down there to give those people a voice. Scholars believe that their presence, acquired knowledge, and conversations about Haiti with Haitians give them the right to speak and write about the Haitian experience with authority. Intellectuals think that they can empower them, and “lift” up the less fortunate and underprivileged because they have the power to do so. They believe that their terminal degree, schooling experiences, and trips to that specified country grants them special access and understanding to the ways in which that community sees the world. Having a voice is a gift to every individual. It is not given or bestowed from intellectuals to impoverished people. Scholars do not own the voices of the poor nor can they become the “voice for the voiceless.” The assumption made is that people who lack financial resources also lack power, agency, and the ability to speak on their own behalf. No one can express how someone feels better than the individual experiencing the feelings. Haitians have always taken initiative to make their own free choices. The Haitian

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Revolution is a prime example of what happens when you combine agency, a will for freedom, and the intellectual capacity to make choices that would positively impact a nation. I’ve been there several times so I know the culture and its people. Scholars make the mistake of assuming that the more times they visit a country the more they become attuned to the everyday lives of the people. Scholars believe that because they have studied a language, culture, rituals, traditions, and its people they believe that they have the skills, resources, and know-how to become an accepted part of the community they study. Having an authentic Haitian meal of diri (rice), sauce pois (bean sauce), banann (plantains), and griot (fried pork) and having a conversation with natives does not make scholars “one of the people” or a native. Outsiders coming in believe that because they have traveled to that country several times they have a critical understanding of a people. What they often ignore is how their own biases and assumptions shape their perceptions and experiences. For example, a scholar may travel to Haiti and believe that he/she are always welcomed back. The locals may tolerate their presence out of kindness, not necessarily because they share the same belief system or respect their ideas. Berry (2011) reiterates this point by stating that … we likely can recall moments in which we, or folks we have known, have been reluctant to move and/or rearrange the spatial design of their homes. I would suggest that the same is true for ethnography. We can and often do alter our sensibilities, but my sense is that our being “thrown” (Heidegger, 1953/1996) into its practices via lived experience makes transitions within or beyond particular comfortable spaces challenging or at the very least, quite complex. (p. 173)

Feeling welcomed is an earned right, not something that is promised or guaranteed by virtue of speaking the language or eating the food. Scholars rarely acknowledge their own privilege and how their privilege can negatively impact the lives of others.

SERVANT LEADERSHIP VERSUS SCHOLARSERVANTS As stated earlier, servant leadership seems provocative and progressive on the surface because it is believed to be a call or response to traditional leadership theories. Rather, we would argue that with further analysis, servant leadership reinforces the very marginalization it sought to oppose. There

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are many critics of servant leadership and Greenleaf himself acknowledges that the critique is justified. For example, he posits that the terms “servant,” “lead” have negative associations associated with them and attempts to reconceptualize those terms but falls short. Hunter (2004) expressed that after meeting with some leaders in the business world, many see servant leadership as weak and feel-good fluff that will not produce effective results. In other words, instead of redefining these terms and providing a more critical take on leadership, servant leadership is disguised in rhetorical language that appeals to the emotions of readers. The limitations of traditional and emerging notions of leadership have led us to formulate an alternative conceptualization of what it means to be a scholar and one who serves others. For this reason, we have created a substitute concept we call Scholar-Servanthood which we believe better reflects who we are as scholars/intellectuals and individuals committed to helping others. First and foremost, our theory of scholar-servanthood does not use emblematic language for the sake of appealing to those who claim to want to help others. We believe that as scholars, we are not only producers of knowledge but interpreters of social phenomena. Some may ask “don’t all scholars produce knowledge; interpret social phenomena, and legitimize information?” If we were to critically analyze what we do as scholars, we could conclude that we believe we are the producers of knowledge but by doing so we promote the idea that only scholars can produce knowledge. What we scholars tend to do is fail to acknowledge that individuals without terminal degrees or any degree have a right to claim, interpret, and creative new and dynamic ways of thinking as well. What we scholars need to do instead is acknowledge that our interpretation of the world is only one perspective based on our own lived experiences. This idea goes against Western perceptions of intellectualism. We agree that one can be a leader in the traditional sense and be of service but leaders can also be led by those who do not possess an official title (Baptiste, 2010). “Anderson’s homeostatic model (1994) … indicates that cultural adaptability is more than a superficial accommodation to the situation at hand; the individual’s perspective and behavior actually have to change for them to be able to adapt to the new context” (Mobley & Dorfman, 2003, p. 170). Cultural adaptation is more than time spent living with others unlike you or thinking about how marginalized people make sense of the world. Just as cultural adaptation requires change, so too does scholar-servanthood. Scholar-servanthood is a complex and arduous journey that requires lifetime commitment and dedication. The scholar-servant understands that bureaucratic and formal titles and advance degrees does not mean that one

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can dictate the fortune of others by taking the lead and guiding to the final destination. The foundation of scholar-servanthood is a theoretical framework based on Dantley’s (2005) notion of critical self-reflection. According to Dantley, Critical self-reflection takes place as leaders engaged what has been termed their scared selves or their genuine personhood. This entails leaders’ grappling with issues such as their personal predispositions and belief systems on matters of race, class, and gender and their individual sources of motivation and purpose, as well as their coming to grips with the social construction of their individual identities. Critical self-reflection does not occur until leaders have forthrightly embraced the totality of themselves. (2005, pp. 503 504)

What this means is that scholar-servants understand that critical self-reflection is the lifelong process in which one explores their relationship with the rest of the world. To further describe this point, we have developed four tenets that capture the spirit of scholar-servanthood and the importance of critical self-reflection. Scholars need to first acknowledge their own privilege. The first tenet in the scholar-servant framework is scholars need to first acknowledge their own privilege. Privilege is more than stating you have access and availability of resources. Acknowledging your privilege is openly stating that because of social and structural variables, you have greater protections and material advantages. More importantly, one understands that privilege is relational and that in order for one to be privileged someone else cannot be privileged. For example, being from or living in the United States affords its citizens certain concessions that the majority of the rest do not have. Americans have an abundance of resources because of U.S. imperialism and domination. The United States also puts pressure on the rest of the world in order for us to maintain our standard of living. To travel abroad and help the less fortunate is a privilege. As Americans we can pull out and opt out of uncomfortable situations whenever we feel like it and return to our places of comfort in the United States while leaving behind the people we say we wanted to help. My husband has traveled four times to Haiti since the 2010 earthquake and he consistently expresses that the most important lesson he learns on every trip is how the Haitian people in their own way reminds him of his American privilege. He sees himself as a fellow Haitian comrade in the struggle but they do not share his sentiments. In Haiti, non-Haitians are called blanc or white. Haitians do not necessarily associate being white with race or skin color. Whiteness is a signifier of foreigner, outsider, or the non-Haitian privileged. For my presentation I addressed the importance of health education and basic first-aid but I soon

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realized that my makeshift first-aid kits that I brought with me from the United States would be limited. During my presentation, the Haitian teachers shared with me the many types of plants and herbs used to make tea for different types of illness. Scholars need to clearly understanding that they are not always the expert. The second tenet in the scholar-servant framework is scholars need to clearly understanding that they are not always the expert. A doctoral degree and research experience in the Western sense does not mean that scholars are proficient or all-knowing about a country and/or a group of people. The Doctorate of Philosophy means that we have been trained in a very specific field and in a very precise way. This training is subjective and has its limits. Though it is the highest formal training one can receive within the context of schooling, the title of doctor does not mean “allknowing” or signify ultimate expertise or mastery. As scholars, we are always learning and in pursuit of knowledge but our ability to know has limits. Researchers think about the different levels of a research idea or project, and may even consider the marginalized population in another country. Scholars typically think of those they measure, but few scholars question their own subjectivity. Researchers must not only consider their subjects, they must acknowledge their own objectivity or lack thereof. Ladson-Billings (2003) contends, “Scholars must be challenged to ask not only about whom is the research for, but also for whom is the research. The question of for whom is not merely about advocacy, but rather about who is capable to act and demonstrate agency. This agency is enacted through both epistemological and discursive forms” (p. 415). Acknowledging and acting differently must be intentional from the standpoint of scholars before he/she travels or even consider working with a group. As scholar-servants, we understand that the people that we want to help are the experts. For example, while in Haiti, all of the American presenters had formal degrees and specialized in various fields of student but we realized that the K-12 teachers, students, Teacher Summer Institute staff, chefs, maintenance engineers, the Croix-des-Bouquet community, and the Haitian people as a whole were the true experts. One of the most common mistakes made by American presenters during the conference was their presentations on topics that were not culturally relevant to Haiti. This mistake is the byproduct of not thinking critically and taking the time to do preliminary investigation on the country of Haiti and its cultures, languages, religions, and histories. Scholars realize and accept that in order for real change to occur, scholars must be comfortable with feeling uncomfortable. The third tenet in the

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scholar-servant framework requires that scholars realize and accept that in order for real change to occur, scholars must be comfortable with feeling uncomfortable. Uncomfortability is a necessary component to critical selfreflection because it is that uncomfortable space that provides context in which to be critical of one’s self in the first place. In general, we are always amazed by Americans and their attitudes when traveling abroad, keeping in mind that all Americans do not hold the same worldview. We have heard stories and have witnessed Americans abroad confronting locals in other countries for not speaking English. It is this narcissistic mind-set that causes more damage than good when working in unfamiliar spaces. This sentiment is best captured by Illich when he says: I do have deep faith in the enormous good will of the U.S. volunteer. However, his good faith can usually be explained only by an abysmal lack of intuitive delicacy. By definition, you cannot help being ultimately vacationing salesmen for the middle-class “American Way of Life,” since that is really the only life you know. A group like this could not have developed unless a mood in the United States had supported it the belief that any true American must share God’s blessings with his poorer fellow men. The idea that every American has something to give, and at all times may, can and should give it, explains why it occurred to students that they could help Mexican peasants “develop” by spending a few months in their villages. Next to money and guns, the third largest North American export is the U.S. idealist, who turns up in every theater of the world: the teacher, the volunteer, the missionary, the community organizer, the economic developer, and the vacationing do-gooders. Ideally, these people define their role as service. Actually, they frequently wind up alleviating the damage done by money and weapons, or “seducing” the “underdeveloped” to the benefits of the world of affluence and achievement. (Illich, 1968, http://www.swaraj.org/illich_hell.htm)

We know that many of our colleagues will be upset or uncomfortable with this quote but we “do-gooders” need to accept that this is how we are perceived around the world. By no means are we suggesting that people of privilege cannot help the less fortunate. Yet, we have to get past this notion that good intentions are good enough. We are less likely to cause more damage when we marinate in the feeling of uncomfortability. Scholars realizing that scholars must relinquish control. The fourth tenet in the scholar-servant framework is scholars realizing that scholars must relinquish control. Most people like the feeling of being in control because it allows us to control our environment and emotions in ways that benefit us first. The premise of this tenant is based on the combination of the first three. As scholars, because of our privilege we truly believe that no matter what we are doing and where we are, we are in control. When conducting research we create “a control group” which gives us this sense of power and the ability to manipulate outcomes. It is this academic socialization that gives us this very dangerous sense of invincibility. This perceived sense

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of control is why we have internalized this idea that we are experts. Finally, our privilege which shapes our self-representation of foremost expert has created this imaged sense of comfortability. All three of these tenants together drive our need to want to control any and everything. Serving, helping, or assisting others, regardless of geographic region, requires that scholars critically understand that service is not one directional. Scholars must realize the difference between giving versus doing. Giving requires having no expectation of receiving any benefit in any form or fashion. Giving requires that scholars acknowledge their own privilege for which they are not experts. When scholars are uncomfortable and willingly relinquish control, the art of giving can be felt. Doing is the mind-set many scholars have when providing service to others. When intellectuals make statements like “I’m going to do this work in Haiti,” it assumes that scholars will experience some benefit from their own presence. In other words, going to do “work in Haiti” also implies that scholars fulfill a selfserving benefit for their participation. This mind-set of doing work enables scholars to complete service as though it were a “to do” item on a checklist. Doing requires no commitment to change, social justice, people, or communities. Giving allows a reciprocal relationship to develop; doing only requires that scholars complete a task. For many scholar-servants, teaching is informed by scholarship, scholarship is informed by teaching, and service is informed by both. In this sense teaching, scholarship, and service create a symbiotic relationship whose foundation is predicated upon social justice. Scholar-servants pedagogy share tenets with critical pedagogy. For example, “Critical pedagogy … insists that one of the fundamental tasks of educators is to make sure that the future points the way to a more socially just world, a world in which critique and possibility in conjunction with the values of reason, freedom, and equality function to alter the grounds upon which life is lived” (Giroux, 2010, p. 3). Like this concept, scholar-servants also share a similar idea that people must work collaboratively with all people to live in a socially just world.

FINAL REFLECTIONS: HUMILITY AS A PROCESS OF CHANGE The assumptions scholars make about “helping” others is problematic. A counter-narrative to the servant-leader theory is understanding the ways in which scholar-servant framework provides a space for critical self-

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reflection. In addition to scholars acknowledging their privilege, realizing they are not the expert, feeling uncomfortable, and relinquishing control, scholars must also embrace an action of humility. Humility is more than recognizing that another community, culture, or people are valuable and worth knowing. According to Tervalon and Murray-Garcia (1998), cultural humility is the process that requires humility as individuals continually engage in self-reflection and self-critique as lifelong learners and reflective practitioners. It is a process that requires humility in how physicians bring into check the power imbalances that exist in the dynamics of physician-patient communication by using patient-focused interviewing and care. It is a process that requires humility to develop and maintain mutually respectful and dynamic partnerships with communities. (p. 118)

In this context, the authors discuss how physicians must constantly reflect on their own actions and behaviors. The same can be said of intellectuals. The process of humility is more than acknowledging that another culture is equal to your own. It requires that scholars actively participate in a lifelong journey. Humility is something you do, not something you think about. Humility requires scholars to take one step outside of their comfort zone. Change cannot occur until one is comfortable with feeling uncomfortable. Comfort zones keep up bound to the things that are most familiar and have control over. Oftentimes scholars experience the most uneasiness when traveling to developing countries. Flexibility is another expectation of scholars when practicing humility. Scholars must embrace the food, living conditions, time, sleep, order, routines, and habits in the developing country. Scholars must let go of traditional ways of being comfortable in the United States and be open to a new way of living. In addition to adjusting to the physical and structural differences when serving, scholars must also learn the art of listening. Active listening requires intellectuals to listen without anticipating a response. Listening does not always follow up with speaking. Humility is an intentional action. This is a process which scholars must learn about themselves before helping others. Social justice work is not a part-time job. Social justice work is a lifetime commitment that requires humility and critical self-reflection. Scholars have the ability to positively impact the lives of others. In order for this change to take place, scholars must first acknowledge that their presence is not always powerful. In feeling vulnerable, stepping back, and listening, scholars can become the agents of change they write about.

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REFERENCES Baptiste, M. R. (2010). Teyori Lide`chip ki soti non Majinalizasyon or Leadership from the margins theory: Re-exploring leadership through the lens of the Haitian revolution. Retrieved from http://etd.ohiolink.edu/send-pdf.cgi/Baptiste%20Moise%20R.pdf?miami1271947791 Berry, K. (2011). The ethnographic choice: Why ethnographers do ethnography. Cultural Studies/Critical Methodologies, 11(2), 165 177. doi: 10.1177/1532708611401335 Dantley, M. (2005). The power of critical spirituality to act and reform. Journal of School Leadership, 15(5), 500 518. Gardner, J. W. (1990). On leadership. New York, NY: Free Press. Giroux, H. A. (2010). Lessons from Paulo Freire. Chronicle of Higher Education, 57(9), B15 B16. Greenleaf, R. K. (2003). The servant-leader within: A transformative path. New York, NY: Paulist Press. Hunter, J. C. (2004). The world’s most powerful leadership principle: Servant leader. New York, NY: Crown Publishing. Illich, I. (1968). To hell with your good intentions. Retrieved from http://www.swaraj.org/illich_ hell.htm Ladson-Billings, G. (2003). Racialized discourses and ethnic epistemologies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The landscape of qualitative research: Theories and issues (pp. 398 432). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Laguerre, M. (1981). Voodoo and politics in Haiti. New York, NY: St. Martin’s. Mobley, W., & Dorfman, P. (Eds.). (2003). Advances in Global Leadership (Vol. 3). Bradford, West Yorkshire, GBR: Emerald Group Publishing Ltd. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary. com/lib/ithaca/Doc?id=10367677&ppg=170 Rey, T. (2005). Toward an ethnohistory of Haitian pilgrimage. Journal de la Societe des Americanistes, 91(1), 161 183. Tervalon, M., & Murray-Garcia, J. (1998). Cultural humility versus cultural competence: A critical distinction in defining physician training outcomes in multicultural education. Journal of Health Care Poor for the Underserved, 9(2), 117 125.

INSPIRATIONAL SERVANT LEADERSHIP: NURTURING YOUTH LEADERSHIP FOR SUSTAINABLE PEACE IN AFRICA Daniel N. Karanja ABSTRACT A youthful sub-Saharan Africa presents fertile grounds to nurture a new breed of inspirational and resilient leadership that could transform the continent for decades to come. Population statistics indicate that 44% of sub-Saharan Africa’s population is less than 15 years old. The timing is ripe to infuse transformational leadership skills targeting the youth to build sustainable peace. The most potent force of change in Africa today is her youthful, progressive, and courageous population. A renewed sense of patriotism, nationalism, and a brighter Africa abound with hope and prosperity is in the hands of the youth. The United States President Barack Obama recently said, “… You have the power to hold your leaders accountable, and to build institutions that serve the people. You can serve in your communities, and harness your energy and education to create new wealth and build new connections to the world. But these

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things can only be done if all of you take responsibility for your future” (Remarks by President Obama to the Ghanaian Parliament, July 11, 2009). This chapter incorporates the principles and power of appreciative inquiry, moral imagination, and moral leadership to offer the African Youth inspiration for fresh leadership. The overall outcome will be a discourse toward an African Youth Theory of Inspirational Servant Leadership.

INTRODUCTION A youthful sub-Saharan Africa presents fertile grounds to nurture a new breed of inspirational and resilient leadership that could transform the continent for decades to come. Population statistics indicate that 44% of subSaharan Africa’s population is less than 15 years old. The timing is ripe to infuse transformational leadership skills targeting the youth to build sustainable economic and political stabilization, prelude to sustainable peace. The most potent force of change in Africa today is her youthful, progressive, and courageous population. A renewed sense of patriotism, nationalism, and a brighter Africa abound with hope and prosperity is in the hands of the youth. The United States President Barack Obama while visiting Ghana in 2009 said, … And I am particularly speaking to the young people all across Africa and right here in Ghana. In places like Ghana, young people make up over half of the population. And here is what you must know: The world will be what you make of it. You have the power to hold your leaders accountable, and to build institutions that serve the people. You can serve in your communities, and harness your energy and education to create new wealth and build new connections to the world. You can conquer disease, and end conflicts, and make change from the bottom up. You can do that. Yes you can (applause) because in this moment, history is on the move. But these things can only be done if all of you take responsibility for your future. And it won’t be easy. It will take time and effort. (Remarks by President Obama to the Ghanaian Parliament, para. 41, July 11, 2009)

This chapter explores how Africa has been negatively framed by the west, authentic native leadership built on appreciative inquiry, moral imagination, and inspirational and resilient moral leadership. The overall outcome will be a discourse in African Youth’s opportunity for inspirational servant leadership.

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CHANGING LENSES FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE AFFIRMATION In 2006, the Commander of the United States European Command, General Bantz Craddock, stated that, “Africa posed the greatest security stability challenge for the United States” (Ploch, 2010, p. 2). The former Director of the Department of Homeland Security, Michael Chertoff concurred with General Craddock by stating that “the terrorism threat to the United States over the next five years (2008 2013) will be driven by instability in the Middle East and Africa” (Associated Press and USA Today, 2008). According to the 2009 RAND report, “the most serious threats to the United States and U.S. allies and interests in East Africa are al-Qaeda activities in the region and increasing levels of radicalization among sectors of the East African Muslim population” (Radical Islam in East Africa, RAND Project Air Force, 2009, p. 13). The United States Director of National Intelligence, Dennis C. Blair, warned in his 2009 annual threat assessment that, “Terrorist threat to US interests in East Africa, primarily from al-Qa’ida and al-Qa’ida-affiliated Islamic extremists in Somalia and Kenya, will increase in the next year as al-Qa’ida’s East Africa network continues to plot operations against US, Western, and local targets and the influence of the Somalia-based terrorist group al-Shabaab grows” (Blair, 2009, p. 7). The four reports above clearly demonstrate how often western negative framing and characterization of Africa and terrorism is narrated on the world stage. While some of the assessments about al-Qaida activities for example in Somalia, Yemen, and Mali could be substantiated, negative generalizations are to a certain extent unfair. While Africa has suffered from postcolonial inertia, the western powers have concluded that more harm than good is made in Africa and hence the result of what I consider to be “immoral imagination” of Africa by westerners. If the tables were turned and every incident of gun violence in North America was broadcasted with intensity worldwide, other nations could view the violent states in North America as battlefields of some sort and characterize Americans as extremely violent people, a generalization that would not be accurate as well. Examples include the school massacres in the 1999 Columbine High School Colorado and 2013 Sandy Hook Elementary School in Connecticut. Why is it that violence in North America is explainable, rationalized, and tolerated despite the high death toll and other human costs? Similarly, why

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is it that the same violence in Africa is characterized as inhuman and primitive? Africa’s youth empowered and motivated by the desire to change this negative narrative has a place at the table and given the opportunity could change this negative narrative and invest in moral responsible leadership that does not demonize others but rather seeks the good in everyone. Following decades of international aid and western projects tied to various self-interests, the continental scan of the 2008 failed states index revealed known trends of which the following 12 are proposed indicators that could result in a failed state: • Mounting demographic pressures rural to urban migrations • Massive movement of refugees or internally displaced persons creating complex humanitarian emergencies • Legacy of vengeance-seeking group grievance or group paranoia • Chronic and sustained human flight • Uneven economic development along group lines • Sharp and/or severe economic decline • Criminalization and/or delegitimization of the state • Progressive deterioration of public services • Suspension or arbitrary application of the rule of law and widespread violation of human rights • Security apparatus operates as a “state within a state” • Rise of factionalized elites • Intervention of other states or external political actors (Failed States Index 12 Indicators of State Vulnerability, 2008, p. 8) These indicators should not be a surprise to western actors since international aid appears to be a booming thrift industry with questionable results potentially weaved with hidden self-interests. In 2008, over 30 bilateral and over 20 multilateral international aid agencies were known to be on the ground in Africa. Easterly and Pfutze (2008) offer that donor funds sometimes ended in the hands of corrupt political leaders, broken funds distribution systems without accountability, and exaggerated overhead costs. For example, donor funds in the early 1990s from the United Kingdom were used to sustain the dictatorship and oppressive dictatorial government of Daniel Moi, the then president of Kenya (Branch, 2011). While western style democracy has been popularized in Africa as a model that could remedy the failing states trend, only Ghana and South Africa have experienced genuine democratic transitions in recent years. For example, in Ghana, peaceful political transitions have been credited to a highly improved management of the electoral process by empowered

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independent electoral commissions protected by constitutional mandates outside the political parties reach (Boafo-Arthur, 2008). Bold civil society and public political education efforts have reinforced the power of the people to demand and support good governance from those seeking political offices. A close observation of previous leaders elected into higher office in Ghana indicates that a transition from an ethnic-centric voting pattern to a nationalistic one is slowly coming into formation. Monga (2009) observes that the western democratic theory may not be necessarily the right fit for Africa based on traditional and cultural organizational structures, ethnic politics, and the aftermath of colonialism. The negligence of the continent by her former colonial masters to affirm Africans and empower them to take ownership of their nations for decades exposes the hypocrisy of the same powers turning around to create a new narrative of failed states. According to Nkiwane (2001), the starting point ought to be building able native leadership built on deep respect of the other, transparency and accountability with a sense of self-determination, and a vision for a new destiny without the yoke of postcolonial elitism. For example, almost 50 years after her independence, Kenya promulgated the first authentic constitution that was vetted through the most diverse public process where the youthful population played a great role in community grassroots organization and the voting process. It took that long to get rid of the old colonial-based constitution that has by and large influenced the political and economic trajectory for good or ill. Africa is endowed with population’s hopeful resilient youth invested in the process of appreciative inquiry and hungering for leadership infused with fresh moral imagination for a brighter tomorrow. I will define appreciative inquiry, moral imagination and explore the theme of moral leadership below.

APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY Appreciative inquiry is a process that rejects negative framing, past deficiencies, and instead recognizes and values the potential endowed in people. It is a positive focus that encourages processes that produce change instead of focusing on failure (Whitney, Trosten-Bloom, & Cooperrider, 2010). Appreciative inquiry rejects deficiencies and lifts up new strengths not previously used. These new discoveries give life, health, vitality to new possibilities tapping into boundless shared energy plugged into new realities.

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Whitney et al. (2010) offer four stages in the appreciative inquiry process: First, is discovery, where individuals and groups share stories about what motivates them in life and what renews their energy to continue with life despite day to day challenges. After discoveries have been shared, the second step is dream where time is invested in sharing dreams about how a better tomorrow might look like. The third step is design where a painting of how a group might be able to translate the dream into a reality. The collaborative work of connecting the dots could be compared with an artist who patiently employs her skill to translate a mental design to a beautiful painting with great detail that will educate and satisfy many onlookers. The fourth step in the process is destiny where the group finally is able to vision together how the future will hopefully look like after discovering, dreaming, designing, and now arriving together to a better place reaching their goals, creating what will be as their desired outcomes. Africa is richly abundant with examples of appreciative inquiry based process with local, regional, and international results. The late Wangari Maathai of Kenya could be rightfully regarded as the Matriarch of transformational leadership in Africa. Her employment of appreciative inquiry outlined above offers a shining beam of hope for young leaders in Africa. Her published works (2003, 2007, 2010a, 2010b) clearly articulate her power to discover, dream, design, and lead the stakeholders to a fulfilled destiny. Wangari Maathai tracks her genesis from a humble village life from which she moved on to establish the internationally renowned Green Belt Movement that started as a vehicle for empowering women while preserving the environment an example of optimal appreciative inquiry. Wangari endured brutal persecution by the dictatorship of Moi, the then president of Kenya including jail time and physical abuse but filled with faith, moral courage, and unbreakable spirit she went on to earn a doctorate degree in Biology and later the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004. Her capacity to weave together environmental protection, political and community organization agitating for the rights of women and all people, demonstrates her holistic capacity of authentic native transformational leadership in Kenya and the rest of Africa. Wangari chose not to apportion blame on colonial legacies of the past. Demonstrating the essence of discovery and dreaming, she chartered a new path of empowerment and selfdetermination, calling all leaders to new levels of accountability and public service. Restoring the eroded African cultural heritage, she cautioned on fast adoption of foreign practices that seemed to disempower native cultures (Maathai, 2010a). She brilliantly called upon the women to arms, not for violent conflict but armed with motivation and desire to plant more

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trees to save the environment. However, these “tree planting” sessions also became the seedbed for community organization, strategy sessions, and grassroots empowerment that resulted into fresh calls for political accountability as well as demands for good governance and civic education on political processes that birthed an informed electorate, whose benefits are still being experienced in Kenya today (Maathai, 2010b). A second African Matriarch who exemplifies principles of appreciative inquiry that inspires African youthful population is Winnie Madikizela Mandela, long held the title, “mother of the nation,” and formerly married to Nelson Mandela, the first black president of South Africa. For close to three decades of the detention and imprisonment of her husband, she consistently forged ahead with the struggle to abolish apartheid and violent discrimination against the black population. Despite her own multiple imprisonments including one detention to a remote village in what was then known as the Orange Free State, the arson of their home, kidnapping of a grandchild, Winnie’s spirit remained unbroken (Mandela, 1985). She never ceased to discover new means of building pressure against the apartheid regime to create change, dream of new collaborative steps to maintain momentum and motivation for the apartheid resistance movement, design with creativity resilient capacities in the midst of great personal and family risks. The destiny and outcomes of these struggles is in part the reason why we have an apartheid-free South African state. As a single mother during Mandela’s imprisonment and a high prominent leader within the African National Congress (ANC), her contributions to bringing down apartheid is overshadowed by her husband’s role and unfortunately the western media’s obsession with Mandela while ignoring the critical role his former wife played during the height of brutal violence. The fact that their marriage ended will never delete her selfless sacrifice and personal suffering for the sake of South Africa’s freedom. There is redemption and Winnie Mandela’s place in the history of Africa is permanently reserved. Despite the flaws that she might have encountered along the path of life, she instructively summed up her sense of self as follows: “… I am the product of the masses of my country and the product of my enemy …” (Preez-Bezdrob, 2005, p. 273). For those who might rush into value judgment, reflecting on this statement might widen your lenses through which those evaluations are made. Winnie Mandela redefined the meaning of selfdetermination and the ideals of feminist leadership (Preez-Bezdrob, 2005). The appreciative inquiry process is inseparable from moral imagination especially with the shared positive outlook that affirms strength and the

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human capacity for hope even in what might seem to be desperate and hopeless circumstances. Appreciative inquiry and moral imagination have no limits expressing limitless growth to maximum potential.

MORAL IMAGINATION Moral imagination could be defined as the capacity to be dissatisfied with the achievements of past success while agitating for a better tomorrow deeply rooted in the ability to creatively imagine and act in order to produce tangible results (Lederach, 2010). Moral imagination demands a clear understanding and identification with positive human attributes and a desire not to overidentify with or elevate weakness (Lederach, 2010). Accepting risk and acknowledging challenges, but moving on to generate solutions presents the best possibilities for Africa’s leaders. This is best exemplified by several Africans, first, Kofi Annan (former UN Secretary General) and a native of Ghana. On September 11, 2001, following the terrorist attacks in New York, Washington DC, and Pennsylvania, he demonstrated moral courage as well as candor citing the unbreakable cords of humanity even when faced by catastrophic tragedy (Annan, 2012). Following an extremely complicated relationship with the administration of George W. Bush after he had opposed the invasion of Iraq, his tenure in office was marked with great UN US relationship difficulty. He stood his ground and refused to be silenced by the US administration. Paying the price of a degraded personal health, his moral imagination that there was still a better way to resolve conflict becomes a model of reference for young aspiring African youth (Meisler, 2008). His naturally soft temperament suggested to the unsuspecting contender across tough negotiations an innocence and deference weaved with respect that enabled the conversation to proceed despite wide differences and at times controversy. The New York Times book review of Kofi Annan’s recent publication singled out his “… moral prestige … entrepreneur of moral standards” (The New York Times, May 2012, paras. 6 and 21), as one of his portent weapons he wielded at the global stage. The heart and soul of young African leaders could open new vistas of inspiration and opportunity described by Lederach (2010) as moral imagination. It is that inner ability to imagine and dream of that which is not visible to the physical sight demonstrated multiple times by Wangari

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Maathai, Winnie Mandela, and Kofi Annan discussed above. It is the inner drive that propels women and men in leadership positions to craft new paths of building peace while turning away from the violent failed destructive ways of the past. A new approach to leadership rooted in moral courage and selflessness while placing the needs of others before their own could ignite loyal followership with outstanding outcomes. Mobilizing communities of moral imagination could unleash new levels of economic resources such as micro financing programs that encourage innovation and industrious selfsufficiency where disparities are genuinely addressed and balance restored across the multiethnic divide. Moral imagination in multiethnic environments offers new alternatives to cyclic conflicts attributed to failed leadership. Moral imaginative leadership anticipates and welcomes resistance as a key to new creative dialogue of difference. Avoiding a risk-averse response to leadership challenges is risky work demanding a high degree of moral courage that rejects failed leadership usually identified with the lack of tangible results to improve the plight of the people. Archbishop Rowan Williams recently retired from his post as the head of the 70 million Anglican Communion faith group. Reflecting on the schism and chasm that expanded based on positions taken by the North American Episcopal Church on human sexuality under his leadership, he said, “I think I could have done more to prevent the split over homosexuality” (Williams, 2012, para. 3). An early admission by leaders that all is not well could probably be welcomed by those in followership positions. Hindsight reflections like Bishop Williams are obviously too little and too late to do any good. The pain of regret could be more devastating than the pain of stretching one’s own imagination beyond the boundaries of personal comfort while seeking the best outcome even in what might seem to be an intractable conflict. Moral imagination demands leader attributes of character, intellect, and faith of which some of these could be taught (Bohlin, 2005). These qualities were demonstrated by President Nelson Mandela’s while imprisoned for decades in Robin Island in South Africa. Archbishop Desmond Tutu’s boldness to speak truth to power while risking his very own life is a model for ultimate moral courage and selflessness. Impoverished leadership is marked by the lack of character, moral grounding, and moral authority to lead. Africa has suffered at the hands of visionless, unmotivated self-centered dictators like Idi Amin who ruled Uganda from 1971 to 1979 (Melady, 1977) with total dictatorship and bloodshed or Robert Mugabe the tyrant who has ruled Zimbabwe since 1987 to the present day (Meredith, 2007).

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A youthful sub-Saharan Africa presents fertile grounds to nurture a new breed of inspirational and resilient leadership that could transform the continent for decades to come resulting to sustainable peace. Population statistics indicate that 44% of sub-Saharan Africa’s population is less than 15 years old (Williams, 2011). The timing is ripe to infuse transformational leadership skills targeting the youth to build sustainable peace. The most potent force of change in Africa today is her youthful, progressive, and courageous population if armed with moral imagination and not weapons or ethnicized rhetoric that amplifies otherness leading to violent conflict. For the Kenyan context, ethnic identity is unfortunately the permanent dividing line between the “in-group” and “out-group.” The youth holds the most promise of breaking out of ethnic choke hold into a fresh era of inclusion instead of exclusion and delete the old narratives of hatred and division along ethnic lines. A renewed sense of patriotism, nationalism, and a brighter Africa abound with hope and prosperity could be in the hands of the youth infusing enthusiasm and new hope in places that have never known hope and peace.

MORAL LEADERSHIP An easy definition is not possible, however, as a starting point, moral leadership can be defined as the ability to apply ethical assessment on personal and group accountability that embraces doing the right thing deeply rooted in consistent character traits and one’s consciousness that cannot be influenced by opposing views (Rhodes & Bennis, 2006). I submit that for moral leadership to truly become grounded one requires the principles of appreciative inquiry; discovery, dream, design, and destiny tightly weaved into an enduring pattern of moral imagination that results into moral courage to rise up against popular but immoral leadership practices. Even at the face of moral dilemmas, optimal moral leadership demands risk of fame, position, and prestige. The choice between compromise and rationalizing of unethical leadership practices and the moral courage to stand up for the truth at a high personal and community cost. Two models are offered to demonstrate the power of moral leadership. First, is the late Kenyan Anglican Bishop Alexander Kipsang Muge who was mysteriously killed in a vehicle accident on August 14, 1990 following death threats by the Moi government in Kenya. Bishop Muge had become

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a vocal critic of the repressive regime and without fear for his own life advocated for social justice, democratic reforms, and rule of the law. The climax of his agitation for justice was a public call upon president Moi to step down and call for fresh general elections. Just two days before his death, a senior government minister had warned him not to travel to Busia district otherwise he might not return home alive. Moral courage propelled him to respond, “… let Okondo know that my innocent blood will haunt him forever and he not be at peace for God does not approve murder” (Anglican Ink, March 8, 2012, para. 6). On that fateful day, Bishop Muge at the age of 42 was killed by a head-on collision suspected to have been planned by the government (Kihuria, 2013). I personally travelled to Bishop Muge’s home, visited the local police station to bear witness to the wreckage of the vehicle that he was travelling in, and later participated in a moving memorial service held at the All Saints Cathedral in Nairobi. In a recently published Kenya’s Truth and Justice Commission of 2013, a former undercover special branch police inspector testified on March 5, 2012 that the August 14, 1990 road accident had been planned by government agents to silence Bishop Muge (Anglican Ink, 2012). Second, is a renowned African theologian and scholar, the Rev. Dr. Timothy Murere Njoya (1987), a PhD holder in political science from Princeton University, New Jersey. After suffering many violent attacks by the Moi regime in Kenya, he demonstrated the power of moral imagination where regular church services became his vehicle for agitation and platform to enlist the support of the public to call for the release of over 60 political detainees. Gathering the mothers of the political prisoners for community prayers became the primary means of enlisting their opposition to the oppressive political regime. He brilliantly used ritual as a means of community organization at a time public gatherings had been banned by the government. In order to dramatize the inhuman face of the state agents when they attacked the mothers of political prisoners, they stripped in public in the presence of the police and state agents who were ready to violent attack them. The act of stripping in public among the Gikuyu people is ritual that calls upon a curse upon the aggressor. On witnessing this ritual of “public stripping” the police officers took to their heels and left the area in haste (Press, 2006). The actions of these two men are partially credited for the present day multiparty democratic system in Kenya climaxed by the promulgation of a new constitution in 2012. Their life stories affirm Cole’s (2001) claim that all it takes is one woman or man to make a difference.

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OPERATIONALIZING LEADERSHIP Definitions of leadership are abundant; however, for the purpose of this chapter leadership is defined as the ability to help people in whatever context they are in to fully understand it and creatively determine the best next step to get to a better place (Williams, 2005). This definition is in agreement with the principles of appreciative inquiry and moral imagination discussed above. Since the early days of postapartheid South Africa and postcolonial Kenya there has never been a time when the youth formed the bulk of a large population like today. The youthful population is ready for empowerment in order to take ownership and create tangible positive changes from the grassroots up to the highest levels of political leadership. Theirs is a narrative of hope and resiliency despite the negative characterization cited above. Following the successful general elections in Kenya in 2013, the refusal by the citizenry to be manipulated along the fault lines of ethnicity and imbalanced distribution of resources is a testament to this narrative of hope and self-determination despite high levels of unemployment and impoverishment. Too often, South Africa and Kenya and many other African nations have been victims of defective and bankrupt leadership created around personality cults and ethnic identity without an ideological foundation. The outcome of defective leaders has been intractable negative ethnicity, tension, and violent conflict. For example, in 1992, 2002, and 2007, Kenya suffered from postelection violence without a solution in sight even when the symptoms and warning signs of this cyclic violence were clearly known in advance by state security agents. After several decades of Black South African’s in political power following President Mandela’s historic election, majority of Black South African’s still live in slums wallowing in impoverishment, disease, and ever rising violent crimes. However, even while surrounded with what seems like a desperate environment, the South African youth are still propelled forward with resilient hope captured in artful musical expression with themes of religious faith, hope, political protest, and self-empowerment (Lucia, 2005). Leadership has failed to systematically address the economic disparities among other things to make basic living standards better for their people. The ruling African elite appears separated and divorced from the ocean of poverty and crime which the majority of youth seems to be drowning in despair. South Africa’s unemployment rate stood at 29.8% in 2011 (South Africa, 2011), while Kenya’s unemployment rate stood at 40% in 2011 representing about 75% of youthful population (Kenya Unemployment Rate, 2011). With these statistics, the youth populations in Africa are invested stakeholders ready for transformational political and economic

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leadership. Africa is endowed with powerful innovative young leaders who could tap into the sage wisdom of wise ancestors from whom proverbs and wise sayings only offer a tip of the iceberg of Africa’s promise in this area of transformative leadership. A cry for fresh leadership rooted in a distinct moral imagination platform continues with every generation seeking to do better than the previous one. Understanding and meeting the needs of the people, young African leaders could slowly turn the current tide of failed leadership through appreciative inquiry, moral imagination, and moral selfless leadership. Leaders who are deeply compassionate about the plight of their people, emotionally connected with the daily struggles of average citizens inspire and exhibit a hopeful dimension of leadership, followership, and talent identification (Roth, 2007). Expanding the space for emerging leaders could reignite hope even among the poorest of the poor. Fanny Crosby is probably the greatest hymn writer in the history of Christianity. She became blind at an early age due to a medical accident. To illustrate the power of appreciative inquiry and moral imagination, she said, “Blindness cannot keep the sunlight of hope from the trusting soul” (Osbeck, 2010, p. 340). It is that deep desire to open the eyes of the soul and allow the rays of the sunlight of hope to shine into the darkness of impoverishment, unemployment, fear, and violence in order to create new possibilities of economic self-sustainment and self-determination. Kotter (1995) offers eight steps that could lead to transformational leadership: (1) establishing a great enough sense of urgency, (2) forming a powerful guiding coalition, (3) creating a vision, (4) communicating the vision, (5) empowering others to act on the vision, (6) planning for and creating short-term wins, (7) consolidating improvements and producing still more change, and (8) institutionalizing new approaches (Kotter, 1995, p. 61). All these eight steps can be easily accomplished through appreciative inquiry, moral imagination, and moral leadership as clearly demonstrated in the lives of African Matriarchs Wangari Maathai and Winnie Mandela. They are dotted all over in the moral leadership exemplified by Nelson Mandela, Bishop Tutu, Bishop Muge, and Dr. Njoya whose narratives have been cited above.

CONCLUSION In this chapter, I have appealed for a fresh approach to encouraging and nurturing youthful African leaders by first of all changing lenses and

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viewing African youth for who they are; full of potential and leadership ready to take on the continent to the next higher heights of prosperity and growth. Far too often, the west has allowed itself to view Africa through the lenses of the media. The negative framing of Africa by the political, economic, and media elite paints a continent full of violence, hopelessness, and impoverishment which is inaccurate to be embraced as truth. Using the principles of appreciative inquiry, this is an unprecedented time for all who care about Africa to join in the work of inspiring this new generation with their desire for discovery, dream, design, and a better destiny for generations to come. The narratives of past failed leadership could be replaced through the power of moral imagination. Adopting inspiring narratives highlighting model African leadership could help reframe the beauty of Africa as a continent where leaders take full responsibility and responsible stewardship of a continent endowed with beauty and wonder. Appreciative inquiry and moral imagination will result to a new and lasting trajectory of moral leadership where ethical standards and accountability measures produce enduring positive change. Moral leadership releases maximum creativity, empowerment, and self-determination with a deep sense of ownership and destination of a hopeful future for generations to come.

REFERENCES Anglican Ink. (2012). Police murder Kenyan bishop, commission learns. Retrieved from http:// anglicanink.com/article/police-murder-kenyan-bishop-commission-learns Annan, K. (2012). Interventions: A life in war and peace. New York, NY: Penguin Press. Associated Press and USA Today. (2008, December 26). Homeland Security forecasts 5 year threat picture. Retrieved from http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/washington/2008-1226-homeland-threat_N.html Blair, C. D. (2009). Select annual threat assessment of the intelligence community for the senate select committee on intelligence. Retrieved form http://www.dni.gov/testimonies/20090212_ testimony.pdf. Boafo-Arthur, K. (2008). Democracy and stability in West Africa: The Ghanaian experience. Department of Peace and Conflict Research. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University and Nordic Africa Institute. Bohlin, K. (2005). Teaching character education through literature: Awakening the moral imagination in secondary classrooms. New York, NY: Routledge. Branch, D. (2011). Kenya: Between hope and despair, 1963 2011. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Chertoff, M. (2008). Homeland Security threat assessment, 2008 2013. Retrieved from http:// cbs13.com/national/homeland.security.director.2.895097.html Coles, R. (2001). Lives of moral leadership: Men and women who have made a difference. New York, NY: Random House.

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Craddock, B. (2006). Advance questions for General Bantz J. Craddock, USA, Nominee for United States European Command and Supreme Allied Commander, Europe, in his confirmation hearing before the Senate Armed Services Committee on September 19, 2006. Retrieved from http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL33110.pdf Easterly, W., & Pfutze, T. (2008). Where does the money go? Best and worst practices in foreign aid. Brookings Global Economy and Development. Retrieved from http://dspace.cigilibrary.org/jspui/bitstream/123456789/25557/1/Where%20Does%20the%20Money%20Go% 20%20Best%20and%20Worst%20Practices%20in%20Foreign%20Aid.pdf? Failed States Index. (2008). Retrieved from http://www.redir.org/new/images/archives/failed_ states_2008.pdf Gladstone, R. (2012). Colin Powell was more skeptical about Iraq than previously thought, Annan says. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/30/ world/middleeast/kofi-annan-memoir-iraq-war-united-nations.html?_r=0. Accessed on August 25, 2013. Kenya Unemployment Rate. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.tradingeconomics.com/ Kenya/unemployment-rate Kihuria, N. (2013). Remembering bishop muge: A crusader for justice. The Star Online Newspaper Retrieved from http://www.the-star.c:%20.ke/news/article-131988/rememberingbishop-muge-crusader-justice. Accessed on August 2013. Kotter, P. J. (1995). Leading change: Why transformation efforts fail. Harvard Business Review, March–April 1995. Retrieved from http://89.248.0.102/upload/Topplederprogrammet/ Internsider/Kull9/Litteratur/2.1%20Leading%20Change%20-%20Why%20Transformation %20Efforts%20Fail%20by%20JP%20Kotter.pdf. Accessed on August 3, 2013. Lederach, J. P. (2010). The moral imagination. The art and soul of building peace. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Lucia, C. (2005). The world of South African music. A reader. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Maathai, W. (2003). The green belt movement: Sharing the approach. Newcastle, UK: Lantern Books. Maathai, W. (2007). Unbound: A memoir. New York, NY: Anchor. Maathai, W. (2010a). The challenge for Africa. London, UK: Arrow Books. Maathai, W. (2010b). Replenishing the earth: Spiritual values for healing ourselves and the world. London, UK: Doubleday Religion. Mandela, W. (1985). Part of my soul went with him. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company. Meisler (2008). Kofi Annan: A man of peace in a world of war. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Melady, P. T. (1977). Idi Amin: Hitler in Africa. Kansas City, MO: Sheed Andrews and McMeel Publishers. Meredith, M. (2007). Mugabe: Power, plunder, and the struggle for Zimbabwe’s future. New York, NY: Public Affairs Press. Monga, C. (2009). Linda Fleck. The anthropology of anger: Civil society and democracy in Africa. How Africa fits into the democratic theory. Retrieved from http://www.ciaonet.org/ book/monga/index.html Njoya, T. M. (1987). Out of silence: A collection of sermons. Nairobi: Beyond Magazine Publishers. Nkiwane, T. C. (2001). Africa and international relations: Regional lessons for a global discourse. International Political Science Review/Revue Internationale de Science Politique, 22(3), 279 290.

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Osbeck, K. (2010). Amazing grace: 366 Inspiring hymn stories for daily devotions. Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications. Preez-Bezdrob, A. M. (2005). Winnie Mandela: A life. Cape town, South Africa: Struik Publishers. Ploch, L. (2010, April 3). Africa command: U.S. strategic interests and the role of the U.S Military in Africa. Congressional Research Service Report for Congress. The Navy Department Library. Retrieved from http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/africa command.htm Press, R. M. (2006). Peaceful resistance: Advancing human rights and civil liberties. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. RAND Project Air Force Report. (2009). Radical Islam in East Africa. Retrieved from http:// www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2009/RAND_MG782.pdf Rhodes, D., & Bennis, W. (2006). Moral leadership: The theory and practice of power, judgment and policy. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Roth, T. (2007). Strengths finder. New York, NY: Gallup Press. South Africa Unemployment Rate in 2011. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/#output= search&sclient=psyab&q=unemployment + rate + in + south + africa&oq=unemployment + rate + in + south + africa&gs_l=hp.3..0l4.1825.10124.0.10764.39.26.1.8.8.3.561.8301.3-5j12j2. 19.0...0.0...1c.1.17.psy-ab.vapzlvvthE&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_qf.&bvm=bv.47883778,d. Yms&fp=3e006f7dca4e4726&biw=1366&bih=587&safe=active The White House. (2009, July 11). Office of the Press Secretary. Remarks by the President to the Ghanaian Parliament. Accra International Conference Center, Accra, Ghana. Whitney, D., Trosten-Bloom, A., & Cooperrider, D. (2010). The power of appreciative inquiry: A practical guide to positive change. San Francisco, CA: Berret-Koehler Publishers. Williams, D. (2005). Real leadership: Helping people and organizations face their toughest challenges. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Williams, W. A. (2011). Building the youth leadership paradigm. Retrieved from http://leadership africausa.org/blog/?p=10. Accessed on August 5, 2013. Williams, R. (2012). Archbishop of Canterbury: ‘I could have done more’. BBC News, September 8. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19528436. Accessed on June 2013.

PART III SERVICE LEARNING FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

TEACHING FOR SERVICE LEARNING AND COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP IN THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Marilyn R. Davis and Aysha Abdulla Hassan Ali Hassan ABSTRACT This chapter reports on one faculty member’s experience introducing a service learning component into a sequence of required courses in a College of education at a University in the United Arab Emirates. This study identifies local issues associated with introducing service learning into the curriculum and examines students’ perceptions of self, attitudes toward service to others, and service as leadership and outcomes. Relatively little evidence exists in the Middle East of the actual processes involved in developing and implementing service learning programs and the relevant connections that can be made to Islamic principles for community advocacy and leadership.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 107 135 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020007

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MARILYN R. DAVIS AND AYSHA ABDULLA HASSAN ALI HASSAN I think that what will build this country is not only the oil alone, but the effort of its people. Sheikh Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahayan

INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT This chapter focuses on how various service learning implementation strategies contributed to deepening the understanding of civic engagement and leadership for first generation female College students of parents who are not indifferent to traditional beliefs and cultural norms. The study is situated in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Highlighted are students’ participation and reflection in the instructional processes, their perceptions of self-efficacy relative to gender roles and norms, the rethinking of “Emirati” community beyond the boundaries of their traditional families, and the implications for assuming a leadership role in a homogenous, somewhat closed society. For expatriate educators and education leaders like me, it serves to provide the foundational groundwork for implementing community engagement pedagogy and service learning with indigenous populations. The UAE is located along the southeastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula in the Arabian Gulf region. It was formerly known as the Trucial States, but after the British left the region in 1970, a federation was formed between the states and in 1971 the UAE was established as a sovereign nation. There are seven states comprising the UAE: Abu Dhabi (the capital), Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Qaiwain, Ras al-Khaimah, and Fujairah. It is the world’s fifth-largest oil producer and has nearly 10% of the world’s proven oil reserves and the world’s fifth-largest natural gas reserves. Females comprise more than 60% of the Emirati population. The majority of the female students attending the federal University in Dubai where I taught are first generation University students born after 1986 with approximately 10% of the population now attending University as second generation students. Emirati women have historically contributed to the social, economic, and political history of the UAE. According to Sayed (2002), prior to the discovery of oil, the average woman was an active and vital member of Emirati society. This was not an easy task in the desert’s harsh landscape and Emirati men had to leave the family for months at a

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time to sell the yields from pearl diving and animal herding. When the men of what is now the UAE left for up to four months to work in the pearling and fishing industries, women managed all of the household affairs and took responsibility for the family’s spiritual and physical well-being. Women also played a major role in the running of tribal affairs albeit behind the scenes. Females were respected both for their ability to work the land, and because the Holy Quran requires it (Krause, 2008). It is important to remember that the time between the discovery of oil in the early 1960s and the ability of the country to develop a widely accessible higher education infrastructure took many years. Oil revenues provided the necessary finances to improve the education system. This was a high priority for Sheikh Zayed, who declared: “Youth is the real wealth of the nation.” His aim was to use the revenues to develop academically and technically qualified citizens men and women able to serve their country in its future progress. Schools were started for both boys and girls separately, in accordance with Islamic law. Curriculum was adopted from other Islamic nations such as Egypt and teachers were employed including Middle East expatriates from surrounding countries (Gulf News Archives). The formal UAE educational system was established in the early 1970s and provides a comprehensive education system for boys and girls, with free education for nationals in government schools, colleges, and universities. Today, the UAE has about 750 public and 460 private schools governed by a Ministry of Education (MoE) and 10 education zones, somewhat similar to but more powerful than a western school district in terms of educational decision making. Emirati children can also attend American, English, French, German, Indian, or international curriculum schools. The UAE continues to make adjustments to its curriculum in its efforts to reform its education system (Zayed University College of Education, Institutional Report, 2010). The UAE is truly a multicultural and global nation with national Emiratis making up only 20% of the population and 20% of the workforce. Emirati people are quite aware that they are in the minority in their own country. The population increased from 180,000 in 1970 to about 4.1 million in 2005. This increase is due to an influx of foreign workers as a result of oil discoveries. Residents from South Asia are the largest percentage of expatriates (50%) and Arabic is the official language but Persian, English, Hindi, and Urdu are commonly spoken (United Arab Emirates Yearbook, 2006). Emirati mothers tend to have a lower level of education than their husbands, due to limited access and this may very well be the reason that my

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students’ mothers insist upon more than a basic education for their daughters now that it is available. Women are slowly becoming an important part of the workplace in the UAE. They comprise 28% of civil servants in 24 Federal Ministries, while they account for 57% of Nationals (Emiratis) working in the banking and financial sectors. Placing nationals into employment is the policy of the nation, called “Emiratization.” This initiative mandates the employment of qualified nationals into vacant positions that were once held by expatriates (United Arab Emirates Yearbook, 2006). The 2020 Vision for Education in the UAE links the acquisition of a postsecondary education to productive work and contributing to society. This Vision also supports UAE youth in acquiring a world class education that prepares them to take their place in contributing to a productive society. Emiratization positions Emirati postsecondary graduates for limitless opportunities to work in their area of interests from teaching in federal schools, to business, finance, communications and journalism, and computer technology related fields in the UAE (Nelson, 2004; Rahman, 2004). When asked, my students shared their reasons for attending University as a personal desire for upward social and economic mobility for themselves, for their families, and for their country. They also shared that their mothers believe that higher education for their daughters is important as a means of ensuring a better life inherent with a multiplicity of roles for females. The inherent multiplicity of roles as addressed in the UAE constitution states “… laws shall be preserved and formulated in accordance to women’s nature and capabilities as mothers and wives and as workers.” The belief that women are entitled to take their place in society is grounded in the UAE Constitution which states that the principles of social justice should apply to all. Under the Constitution, women enjoy the same legal status, claim to titles, access to education, and the right to practice in professions as men do (UAE Ministry of Labor and Culture, 2003). In a country that is a little over 40 years old, transitioning to progressive perspectives such as the Vision 2020 plan, for how women contribute in society is a governmentdriven initiative. Since its launch in 2006, Dubai Women Establishment has fulfilled the active role in nurturing the next generation of Emirati women leaders as College graduates. The Supreme Council of ruling Sheikhs has been committed to improving women’s lives since the beginning of the Federation in 1971. Two women currently serve on the federal cabinet as ministers, and many national women are now principals in schools. The goal is to enable young women to continue the efforts of their predecessors

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in assuming leadership roles while simultaneously serving as role models to young women in the wider society. Emirati girls remain committed to traditional roles and values that preserve cultural norms amidst an evolving western influence in the development of a young nation. Personal aspirations play a secondary role to religion, family integrity, and traditional cultural norms. Abdulla (2007) provides a context for understanding the traditional role of Emirati women as follows: The main reason for the family’s insistence that young women remain at home is closely related to the notion of “honor,” which is a paternalistic notion that is largely determined by one’s own personal behavior and by the behavior of one’s kin. Women’s behavior in daily life, particularly in interactions with men beyond her immediate family, bears heavily on her own personal honor and that of her family. The main reason for segregation of the sexes and the inability of your Arab women to leave home prior to marriage is the preservation of the chastity of women and hence family honor. (p. 97)

Marriage is very important in the Middle East and most girls include marriage and having a family in their future plans. Not unlike girls attending College in the United States attending the University is perceived by some girls as a waiting station until marriage and as a way to increase the possibility of obtaining a suitable husband depending on one’s socioeconomic status. While many students plan on working and even pursuing advanced degrees it is not uncommon for others to pursue education for the purpose of nurturing their future family (Abdulla, 2007). Choosing a major is also closely connected to the beliefs and values of students’ families. Given the importance of virtue and honor in girls’ lives, choosing the teaching profession is common because girls would never have to work with men. Public grade school is segregated by gender for students and teachers through grade twelve. In higher education, female and male students are segregated by gender but in terms of staffing, both male and female faculty members are employed to advise, teach, and interact with both male and female students. On our campus girls moderate their Islamic values regarding interactions with men by accompanying each other to visit a male professor’s office. In this way they gain experience interacting one-on-one with males and their character is less likely to be called into question. The majority of the expatriate educators, like me, are from Australia, England, and the United States. Educators from China and the Middle East/North Africa region have recently accepted faculty teaching opportunities in the UAE as well.

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The UAE is currently giving much attention to enhancing the quality of learning in education offered in institutions of higher learning. There are 14 initiatives for improving schools and enhancing teaching and learning. The Ministry of Education joins the developed regions of the world in placing more and more of an emphasis on accountability and assessment of students’ subject matter content knowledge and students’ ability to contextualize content knowledge. My College’s approach to this initiative was to explore ways that practical application of content knowledge could be applied within the context of experiential learning as an integrated component of graded student coursework. Yet, unlike practicum and internships, the experiential activity would not necessarily be skill-based within the context of professional education but students would be able to draw upon their knowledge base to contribute and participate in various tasks (Zlotkowski, 1999). Together, faculty colleagues and I chose to identify this experience as “service learning.” Service learning has gained recognition and integration into higher education as a strategy for preparing students for their roles as professionals and citizens. Gelmon, Holland, and Shinnamon (1998) propose service learning as: a form of experiential education that is developed, implemented, and evaluated in collaboration with the community; responds to community-identified concerns; attempts to balance the service that is provided and the learning that takes place; extends learning beyond the classroom; students apply what they have learned to real-world situations and provides students with opportunities for critical reflection.

Likewise, in this education method community service is combined with explicit academic learning objectives, preparation for community work, and deliberate reflection (Gelmon, Holland, Driscoll, Spring, & Kerrigan, 2001). In this chapter, service learning is connected to coursework and not necessarily to a measureable skill set. Recognizing that our students have no previous access to real-world opportunities or experiences to connect theory with practice prior to their last semester before graduation in “Internship,” a new credit-bearing course was developed entitled “Partnerships with Families and Communities.” The course is guided by the research of Bringle and Hatcher (1996) around the following articulation of service learning as: a course-based, credit-bearing educational experience in which students participate in an “… organized service activity that meets identified community needs and reflects on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility.” (p. 112)

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We also felt that this model would facilitate the girls’ ability to connect their education with a future role in Emirati society based on the notion of developmental leadership. Preskill and Brookfield (2009) in their work “Learning as a Way of Leading,” define the implications of developmental leadership as “quietly and self-effacingly developing the leadership potential in others.” Developmental leadership is a process suitable for those individuals and groups who are silenced or overlooked to find their voice and to take a more active role in shaping their individual and collective destinies (p. 8). Important to this service learning initiative is the collaboration with community organizations to agree that students would be placed in situations where they had the freedom to take responsibility for specific organizational outcomes under minimal supervision. The criteria for service activities stipulated that the service must provide a benefit to the community stakeholders and be aligned with the College’s Children Youth and Families program agenda (Zlotkowski, 1999). As a member of the curriculum development team for the Children Youth and Families Program and as the Instructor of record for several of the core courses required in the Teacher Education Program, I volunteered to implement the service learning initiative in our College. The program began with 12 students the first semester and grew to a consistent 40 students each semester thereafter. This past year, participation culminated in a waiting list of students outside of the major in Communications and Journalism, Business Administration, and Fine Arts seeking to take the course as an elective.

Dispelling Cultural Assumptions I felt well prepared to develop and implement an experiential learning curriculum having arrived in Dubai with more than 20 years of work in US urban teacher education programs implementing community engagement experiences. My work would also be informed by years of participation and affinity group association with the Netter Center for Community Partnerships at Pennsylvania State University, the University Assisted Community Schools Partnership at the University of Oklahoma-Tulsa, and the Bonner Foundation at Princeton University. As the Interim Director of the Institute for Professional Development in the College of Education at the University of New Mexico, I had dialogued at the national level on the importance of empowering teachers to become community change agents. This dialogue continued in my work with Project Unite (a Holmes Group

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Partnership initiative) and the National Network for Education Renewal (a John Goodlad initiative), both organizations are committed to social agency in the community as part of best practices in teacher preparation. What made these programs successful was the common educational foundation and socio-political ideology of what it means to live in a democratic society where citizens are responsible for addressing matters of equity, social justice, and poverty. Activation of this ideology is evidenced in students’ ability to take their theoretical learning into real-world settings for observation, critical thinking, reasoning, decision making, and reflection upon outcomes. Acting on previous successes using community engagement models in higher education, I had no doubts that my work in this field would be transferrable to higher education programs to the UAE. In my experience, community partners are identified and the students and I freely meet off-campus, at community sites to discuss mutually beneficial service activities that align with various courses in the general education curriculum across the Arts and Sciences. Together we would discuss the opportunities for applying classroom learning in a subject matter area in service to a community and along with the community we agreed upon the logistics of projected start and end dates, the work to be done, and projected outcomes. In Dubai I did not anticipate the University’s hesitation in allowing students to be off-campus, unescorted by a professor, and assigned to multiple sites during the school day since service learning would be a structured course. In addition, community social agencies had to be educated about service learning and how it differed from the culminating experience of an “Internship.” Another pressing matter was how to persuade parents to allow their daughters to participate in such a program early in their academic career, off-campus, and possibly in the presence of male coworkers, and unescorted. My past doctoral research and work experiences had prepared me to engage the students in making connections between classroom learning and practice. Academic service learning combines institutional resources (e.g., knowledge and expertise of students and faculty) to address and solve challenges facing communities through collaboration with these communities for course credit (Gelmon et al., 2001). Westerners like me, tend to assume that common words such as “community” and “service” are translational across boundaries and that western paradigms for teaching for citizenry and service are applicable across cultures. This notion was quickly dispelled when I announced the community engagement paradigm and began inclass instruction mindful of students’ upcoming off-campus service learning requirements.

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I began the dialogue of “service” using the content in the California State University Higher Education Civic Engagement Survey (often used to collect community engagement data in higher education in the United States). It seemed to be a perfect medium for igniting classroom discourse and inquiry into the notion of experiential learning in the community. I opened the floor to conversation by asking students to share their personal experiences with volunteering in their neighborhood, community centers, or places of worship. Silence and polite, blank stares filled the room. Finally, one student courageously shared, “I volunteer to play with my sister’s children sometimes.” Another raised her hand and responded, “Well, what do you mean by community? Our families?” In response another student commented, “We spend every weekend with our family, sometimes we go to our farm, sometimes we stay in the city but everyone in our family is there, brothers, sisters, children, aunts, uncles, cousins and grandparents, everybody is together. We are all responsible for each other. Is that what you mean by community?” I responded to the girls by showing what my community and neighborhood looked like on “Google maps,” and to explain how people in my historic neighborhood give some of their time to helping others in the community. I now had the students’ undivided attention, as I projected a slide of the Santa Barbara-Martineztown community in Albuquerque, New Mexico onto the Smart Board. They saw a historic community that is more than 100 years old, where adobe wall murals had paintings of elderly people tending to their gardens, homes that have been in families for generations, and children playing in front of a local one room school house converted into a community center by people in the neighborhood. We talked about the messages in the mural painting as a dialogical means of conveying pride in one’s neighborhood as a communal space. Juxtaposed to the first slide, a second slide showed Santa Barbara-Martineztown, flooded in the 1950s and again in 2007. It also showed undergraduate students at the local University participating in service learning take on leadership roles to help organize the neighborhood members to articulate and present the need for new underground infrastructure to the New Mexico Legislature. My class expressed how sorry they felt that people were living under such terrible conditions in the United States. The Dubai students were bewildered that such challenges existed in the United States and quickly responded that the “government” is responsible for such matters and students should not have had to get involved. I now had a teachable moment to work with. It also was cause for reflection on my part about westernized notions of the purposes of service learning and community

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engagement as an ideology and practice for addressing social injustice in the United States. While the goal of service learning in the United States is to have students make connections between theory and practice by mastering coursework enough to provide the services needed in a community (National Commission on Service Learning, 2002), in the United States such student activities also serve to sustain democracy as a political ideology with historical roots in civic responsibility to address race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic inequities (Harkevy, 2007). During my tenure in Dubai, I have witnessed several start-ups of community engagement initiatives that did not succeed due to the inability of some westerners to look beyond the boundaries of democratic ideologies to the less obvious needs of the local, national community population. Referencing one student’s comment about familial relationships in the UAE we revisited Bronfenbrenner’s (1986) family systems model from a previous course the students had taken with me to discuss the local family ways of functioning in their daily lives in the UAE. This ecological model explains how family interactions map onto internal and external social infrastructures in the community to influence family and child development. The model ascends from internal parent and child interactions within the family unit, to the introduction of how external influences such as schooling, health services, and life events such as births, mothers entering the workforce, divorce, and death impact children’s physical, intellectual, emotional, and social development. Our discussion led me to understand that community means something very different for these girls. Their culture is family oriented and their lives almost exclusively revolve around interaction and support for their immediate and extended Emirati family circles. I asked the girls how working in the community as a student experience might help them to define their personal strengths, weaknesses, values, and future goals. They responded that such questions were irrelevant to their lives. As females, they assumed that such experiences were impossible for them outside of the family unit. They saw their academic world as limited to the University, where in addition to education, they had opportunities to socialize and interact with their peers before returning home at the end of classes. In response to asking about the federal Vision 2020, goals for women, the majority of the girls insisted that their parents held traditional values sacred and would not let them work or interact outside of campus regardless of what the government wanted. The idea of interacting with the expatriate community, volunteering, or serving in social services agencies could not be envisioned by the

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students. Shaikha commented, “I am telling you that it will never happen, our families will never give us permission for such a thing. Our parents will never let us work outside of school.” Expanding notions of community assistance to include extended family members and nonfamily members is a private family matter to be addressed by the family behind closed doors and in accordance with the spirit of historic and traditional Islamic values that promote brotherhood. The traditional concept of community assistance may best be captured in Sarayrah’s (2004) translation and articulation of the tribal Arab proverb, “Sagheer alcum khadimha, wa kabir alcum khadimha” translated to mean: “The youngest is the servant and the one who rules is likewise the servant.” This phrase describes the two people most responsible for receiving guests hospitably, the young boy, who brings tea and coffee to guests and makes them feel comfortable; and the Shaykh, who is always there to help and is accessible at all times. A visitor has the right to stay as a guest for three days without declaring his reason for coming. As a guest he is provided with all the comforts of home and thus treated royally. After three days if he has not declared his intentions, the Shaykh can ask him about the nature of his visit. The Shaykh assures him of assistance irrespective of the position of the petitioner. (p. 71)

Students felt that anyone in need of assistance (outside of the Emirati community) would surely be an expatriate “worker” and not their responsibility but that of the government for bringing them into the country. Notwithstanding the fact that the familiar western stereotypes of the “other” as related to tribe, race, ethnicity, and class, were expressed by the students’ values and needed to be addressed, I chose to turn the notions of service learning and community leadership and their relationship to course content inward. I asked students to reflect upon the dynamics in their own families as a way to discover how to become service agents of change. Fortunately for me, previous students had sanctioned the fact that I could be “trusted” with personal information which paved the way for looking at the notion of community from the unspoken needs and challenges within the students’ own families. Through sharing in class, we gradually extended our definition of community to include the local urban and rural Emirati population as a whole.

PURPOSE AND GOALS OF THE PROGRAM There is an interrelationship between the federal University’s and the College’s vision, mission, and goals operationalized as learning objectives.

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This interrelationship serves to ensure that students develop into skilled, effective and knowledgeable teachers, school social workers, educational leaders, and community and human services leaders. University faculty are repeatedly reminded that the UAE’s education vision for the year 2020 is that postsecondary education has successfully prepared its citizens for productive work and the next generation of Emirati women as the future leaders (United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education, 2000). Graduates are expected to impact the lives of other people in agencies (e.g., Emirati children, youth and families, and institutions) in which they work. Students are prepared with the skills, dispositions, and knowledge that enable them to work in an ever-changing global and national context and to lead successful lives in the 21st century. Broadly, the dispositions address: Care advocating for children and families in a socially responsible manner; Respect candidates demonstrate understanding of global awareness, cultures, diversity, languages, and individual differences through mutual respect for the individual and for groups. Candidates are expected to be able to create a climate that affirms the dignity and worth of all children, respects cultural patterns and expectations within a community context, and speak and behave in a manner that is sensitive to linguistic and cultural differences; Reflection makes references from theory to practice connections about children’s and family’s needs; Flexible accepts the challenges of adapting to other cultures in work environments, appreciates and infuses knowledge that others bring as part of the changing needs of a global society; Service and Collaboration Candidates demonstrate service to their program, the University, the community, and the nation through their leadership and outreach. Students are expected to be able to develop partnerships with families and communities to meet the needs of clients and foster positive relationships. They should also know how to confidently interact and communicate effectively with children, families, and the larger community. The core curriculum for undergraduate programs is grounded in the study of learning child and adolescent development, curriculum, and assessment, all supported by subject matter pedagogy and closely supervised school and community experiences (National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education, Zayed University, College of Education, Precondition, 2010). Introducing the service learning component into the undergraduate education program increased the opportunity for students to learn academically (from theory to reality) while giving service that addressed real community needs. Many of the students expressed apprehension, fear, and a lack of self-confidence about the possibility of working outside of

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government agencies in spaces that place them side-by-side with expatriates. Some girls perceived themselves as less than intellectually and lacking enough practice in interpersonal skills to work with expatriates and males. Inasmuch as the majority of young Emirati nationals rarely, if ever, interact with expatriates outside of postsecondary school settings, it was certain that service learning would make a difference in students’ perceptions of the lived lives of the vast multicultural community of non-Islamic expatriates living in the UAE.

Conceptual Framework of the College of Education Faculty, staff, and students come together to educate, learn, and lead through: (1) gaining a professional knowledge base; (2) professionalism, (3) cultural responsiveness, and (4) global awareness. Our work in the College is guided by Fullan’s consideration of education’s moral imperative of bettering the lives of students and helping all students learn (1993). This is achieved by helping students to develop their capacity to actively and continually master the knowledge and skills related to professions working with child development and family development, as well as by encouraging and supporting their ability to work collaboratively with others. All students attending University take required courses in “global awareness” and “environmental awareness” as a perquisite to entering the major. Students are taught about the ideas, values, and cultures of others from a global perspective to be able to recognize individual differences and to make appropriate adjustments in delivering assistance and teaching strategies. The majority of students are very caring toward others and very nurturing toward each other. Exposure to high levels of interaction with a global faculty and staff on campus who come from diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic demographics serves as a useful resource for enhancing students’ awareness of social inequities outside of their culture. Students are very aware of how living after the discovery of oil in their nation has enriched their lives in ways that people from other countries will never experience. It is not unusual for students to organize fundraisers and charity events for the various workers on campus when they hear of someone or a group of workers in need. A core component of our College philosophy is that since our candidates will be working in a global society, they must have knowledge of, and experiences with, other cultures and be prepared to work with diverse children and families (Gay, 2000; Nieto, 2000).

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Before the girls are able to reach this level of ability they must first address their self-identity and self-efficacy.

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CHILDREN YOUTH AND FAMILIES PROGRAM Developing a Service Identity This program has three key courses that support the development of a service identity and developmental leadership: Parents as Educators, Adolescent Development, and Partnerships with Families and Community. Textbooks for the above courses are primarily purchased from US and UK publishing companies and distributors. Publications, research, and the availability of local literature written by Emiratis remains extremely limited. Teaching materials and methods for teaching students from one context are assumed to be equally effective and applicable for teaching students from other contexts by the administration (Canagarajah, 1999, pp. 12 13). In the case of teaching in Dubai, it is my responsibility as a faculty member to contextualize the education materials for my students. Accomplishing this task was made easier by using every day examples from local newspapers, the television, and news programs. There are three key course goals for Parents as Educators. First an overview/review of human development over the lifespan is critical. This review references Brazelton (2004) which includes a look at the essential things that every child needs to have for a successful start in life (play, music, reading, touch, care, self-esteem, safety, interaction, communication, and relationships) and helps students reflect upon their own siblings’, nieces’, and nephews’ needs in early childhood. Second, a focus is placed on how the parent child relationship is integrated and configured into family systems. As previously mentioned, the ecological family systems model used in class is that of Bronfenbrenner (1986) wherein human development experiences move from a nucleus or microsystem comprised of the child and its parents through to four additional external systems that represent naturally occurring and related processes and events that influence human development over the lifespan (p. 723) Third is for students to understand the responsibilities and challenges of parenting a child who may have special mental and physical needs with respect to the UAE (United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education Special Education School for All, 2010).

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Due to a shortage of published research by Emiratis in this area and in keeping with making connections to the norms of the local community, Emirati guest speakers from the Community Development Authority and the Knowledge and Human Development Authority were regularly invited to class as guest Lecturers. Former College graduates who work in agencies such as the Dubai Women’s Foundation and female Emirati medical personnel are also valued resources especially when discussing value-laden issues related to marriage, childbirth, and parenting. A decision was made to move from external expectations of service and community to an internal/reflective notion of service within the Emirati family unit. The following assignment facilitated students’ ability to think broadly and deeply about their semester long service experience and emergent leadership opportunities. All students received a weekly thematic writing assignment in Blackboard related to the work of Brazelton (2004). Students were instructed to find peer-reviewed journal articles to read and reference and to use the following reflective questions as a guide: (1) What is the problem that the author is conveying? (2) What information is being shared for why this is a problem? (3) What assumptions does the author make about why the problem(s) exist? (4) What is the author’s perspective for resolving the problem? and (5) What are the implications and consequences, if any based on the theories and ways of reasoning that the author uses? Reflection is a meaning making process and I wanted the students to see how other people make meaning to get their points across. In service learning, the ability to think on your feet using critical thinking can make the difference in how one responds to diverse situations out in the community (Eyler & Giles, 1999). Family interview questions were left to the students to develop but focused on parents’ perceptions of their knowledge and ability to spend time helping their children to develop physically, intellectually, emotionally, and socially using Brazelton (2004) themes. The following is an example from one student’s summation of findings after a parent interview: The results of my reading articles, writing the essay and interviewing parents about CARE, is that parents need more information on how to choose a daycare facility for their children. Sumaya and her husband have two toddlers. I asked them if they knew what type of CARE they wanted for their children at a daycare center. For toddlers it is very important for parents to choose the right daycare center because it is the child’s first interaction outside of the home environment without their parents. Both parents stated that they did know what to look for in choosing a center. One of the criteria that parents can focus on and observe at a center is whether all children are receiving

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enough CARE in the room. According to Brazelton (2004) there should be one assistant in the room for each four toddlers and newborns.

In semester long groups of five to seven students, class time was used for group leader facilitated sharing and discussion of peer essays. This structured interaction and collaboration among peers created cooperative learning opportunities where less skilled students learned with help from their skilled peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Each week groups decided which well-written essay in their group best captured the weekly theme related to areas reported by Brazelton (2004) for example: play, music and language, and literacy and movement among others. The peer elected group leader then shared the selected written piece with the entire class. Guided by in-class complementary lecture, dialogue, and group work, the girls discovered that the family interview responses directly related to themes under study and that Emirati families could benefit from having printed information about child development and family engagement. Girls began discussions in their groups about how they could be respected as knowledgeable young women who can make a difference in the lives of young children in their families and in community service organizations. They decided together that their service learning would be a monthly, themed newsletter for “Emiratis” only entitled Eyalna “Our Children.” As the Instructor, it was a privilege to observe emerging notions of leadership in the students’ willingness to assume responsibility for educating others in their community (Preskill & Brookfield, 2009). Using previously established group norms for working together the students agreed upon the criteria for article inclusion in the newsletter: it had to be informative and immediately useful in parenting young children, and written in both English and Emirati Arabic Dialect, use simple language and include references for credibility. Group leaders committed their team members to two different themes from Brazelton (2004) for the entire semester and to writing three print ready articles. Funding came from student solicited advertising donations from children’s stores at Dubai Mall. Students called upon influential family members to solicit distribution space at the local food Cooperatives throughout the northern region of the UAE. Copies of the newsletter were also strategically placed at campus entrances. The inside cover message written by the students read: Eyalna “Our Children” is dedicated to Emirati Parents and Children as an opportunity to explore the potential and opportunities for parents to take responsibility and action on behalf of their children now as the nation builders of 2020, “Children of the UAE.”

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The Reflective Process Reflective thinking as reviewing one’s learning and being able to articulate how to apply that learning in real-life situations and practice is critical to students’ ability to check for understanding (Dunlap, 2000). This practice is also well documented as being a key component of service learning pedagogy (Eyler, Giles, & Schmiede, 1996). For National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) accreditation purposes in this same course I subsequently assessed students’ ability to articulate knowledge and practices of Parents as Educators using Family Engagement in ways that might influence public policy. The writing commitments for “Eyalna,” turned out to be excellent practice for the final NAEYC assessments. For example, one student from the theme group “Safety” focused her writing on why it was important for the federal government to produce public service announcements demonstrating the importance and proper use of child car safety seats. She argued that her research into the matter showed that although a law existed mandating that children not be seated in the front seat of a moving vehicle, no mention had been made of proper seating in the back of automotive vehicles where children are seated. This student recommended that the federal government create public service announcements demonstrating the use of child car safety seats. Using the theoretical work of Kolb and Fry (1975) on the basic phases of the learning process (experience, observation, analysis, new understanding, and application) embedded in a score sheet, I was able to assess their work and verbally describe levels of student ability on the assigned task. Students’ essays related to their initial service learning experiences resulted in education essay topics such as: “Qasusas The Importance of Story Time,” “Interacting with Your Child at School,” “Communicate with Your Miracle!,” and “House Maids are Here to Help Not To Raise Our Children.” The NAEYC assessment found all of the students functioning as emerging family engagement educators. I like to think of the students as emerging community leaders and family advocates. This is important because “Parents as Educators,” is a gateway course to teacher education and children youth and families programs in the College.

Service and Community Leadership The second course in the program sequence entitled “Adolescent Development,” places an emphasis on comprehending theories related to middle

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and adolescent development physically, intellectually, emotionally, and socially. Students in the majors and electives arrived in class ready to learn and eager to engage in a service learning project. During the fall semester the Emirati community in Dubai experienced a surge in teen-on-teen violence among males. Evidence of students’ emerging knowledge and growing confidence in speaking out permeated the classroom during the first two weeks of class. Students arrived in class anxious, upset, and concerned about the lack of out-of-school time opportunities for adolescents, especially for males. The course rapidly moved from theoretical foundations of adolescent development to the principles of positive psychology and on to asset mapping local communities for resources available to adolescents. A sole focus in class became reducing teenage violence in the Emirati community. Students’ research found that there is a lack of federally funded outof-school time programming for adolescent youth in the local community. According to positive psychologist, Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) in general, people want to lead meaningful and fulfilling lives to cultivate what is best within themselves. Positive psychology aligns well with traditional Arab cultural norms where it is believed that praying five times each day leads one to a meaningful and fulfilling life. (Al-Qarni, 2005). I decided that service learning would be met in this course through the development of out-of-school time programs for adolescents. The value-added benefit of this experience would be that socially aware business opportunities could potentially lead to funding and ownership of nonprofit organizations that the girls could manage themselves given their major in Children Youth and Families. Criteria for program development indicated that the program provide a way for adolescents “to cultivate that which is best within themselves” (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Not unlike my students’ learning for identity and self-efficacy (the ability to see oneself achieving personal goals) each program design had to support adolescent development and adolescent self-efficacy from a physical, intellectual, emotional, and social lens (Bandura, 1982). Once students grasped the foundations of positive psychology, they were charged to create and articulate in detail youth development programs for presentation to federal, government officials in various social agencies. Bourdieu’s (1996) theory that “… social capital accrues based on the influences and outcomes of relationships that take place outside of one’s normal interactions through connectedness to intangible assets and networks,” best describes the outcomes of this course (p. 251). For example, the students assumed that because they attended a prestigious University that funding would be awarded for their projects from foundations and

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government agencies. Social capital accrued for students through interaction with Banking officers, Directors of the Ladies’ and Women’s Clubs in various Emirates, the girl’s learned the norms of grant and proposal writing, the importance of making appointments, and arriving on time for appointments with busy professionals. In conversations with potential funders and supporters they also learned the importance of paying attention to the small details and that every component of their project would cost either time or money that needed to be projected for within their proposals. Similarly, it was the social capital afforded to one group of girls by Falcon City LLC that provided the students with 48,000 AED ($12,000 US) and access to an accountant, “live” media coverage on radio and television for their summer camp initiative, and open access to and guidance from the corporation’s administrators on how to account for expenditures. These are just a few examples of the types of intangible assets Bourdieu (1996) suggests accrue based upon relationship building. This service learning assignment contributed to the girls establishing institutionalized networks and relationships external to the University. The students learned that the community took their learning and will to serve seriously. They were able to realize their potential as professionals in the fields of K-12 education and Children Youth and Families in keeping with the goals for women in the document, Vision 2020. This service learning experience served three purposes: first the girls experienced their first academic reason to be outside of their family compounds and out in the community to assess local resources; second it presented an opportunity for the girls to become visionary and critical thinkers by applying theory to real-world problems in their community; and third the exercise provided me the names and locations of community organizations across the five northern emirates in preparation for potential off-campus placements in their third course “Partnerships with Families and Communities.”

Teaching for Service Learning and Community Leadership The aforementioned courses prepared students for the course “Partnerships with Families and Communities.” It is at this point that the students and I engage in a constructivist, student-centered approach to learning. Fosnot (1996) provides a description of the characteristics of constructivism as “… the point where the focus is on how students develop an understanding

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of what they have learned. It is the belief that each individual creates knowledge through interactive, collaborative, and applied learning experiences” (Preskill & Brookfield, 2009; Vygotsky, 1978). It is also where theories become an integrated and interconnected series of components that mutually support one another. Students are expected to connect child cognitive development theories of Piaget with Erickson’s 8 stages of young adult development as it relates to human development as determined by the interaction of the body (genetic biological programming), mind (psychological), and cultural (ethos) influences that extend from birth to death (Santrock, 2009). By now, students understand child and adolescent development well enough to apply the knowledge base to relevant practice and leadership in their local communities. At this point in our journey students are also aware of the composition of the course and come to the class with some idea of where they would like to do their service learning. During the first 3 weeks of this 16-week course we discuss the notion of leadership and the significance of preparing women as service agents of change. Using Yasin Khalaf Sarayrah’s (2004) article “Servant Leadership in the Bedouin Arab Culture,” as one of our text we engaged in Islamic-centered dialogue on the culture and characteristics of leadership using familiar Arabic terms, the Holy Quran, and stories of the leadership qualities of Bedouin leaders found in the article. For example emphasizing the principle of equity and justice according to one Hadith (a saying of the Prophet) “all Muslims are equal, they are like the organs of the body, if one of them aches, the whole body aches” (The Qur’an: al-Nisa Surah, 4:59). The book, “Women’s Ways of Leading” by Lambert and Gardner (2009) set the tone for emotional discussions about the authentic experiences of women who chose to take on leadership positions in their own neighborhoods and having to learn how to lead while creating community service organizations in the United States and Canada. The girls were able to relate to Lambert and Gardner (2009) because they too were learning about community, service, and leadership as new concepts while simultaneously moving through new experiences out in the community. From the readings the students developed a group of beliefs that they felt were relevant to their learning as Muslims living in the UAE. Briefly, we concluded that ideally girls and women who choose to lead in the UAE have deep-seated values and beliefs with a foundation in Islamic culture and the Muslim faith. They strive to be aware of who they are at all times as females and as Muslims and that it is okay for Muslim women to express passion for their work and service and to be courageous, imaginative, and to not be afraid to implement new ideas when

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opportunities arise. Ideally, the primary goal and purpose of the service learning experience out in the community, was to gain strength, courage, and confidence from every experience and to be able to say, “I have lived and learned through this experience and I am ready to take on the next challenge that comes along as a community leader.” Lastly, we agreed that Muslim women leaders in the UAE have an obligation to mentor the next generation whenever possible as aligned with Vision 2020. Students maintained journals documenting their daily activities on a weekly basis by responding to the following prompts: (1) Describe your first thoughts upon entering your service location today? (2) What type of interactions did you have with your peers and coworkers at the service site? (3) What was most memorable to you about your service experience today and why? Many students provided a portfolio of artifacts to describe their service organization (floor plans, and even seating arrangements). They wrote about how it felt to be a part of decision-making processes with males and what it felt like to be asked for their opinion by Arab males. One student shared her heartbreaking experience of documenting counseling cases related to adolescent Emirati offenders who broke the law (“… Miss it was just too much for me, I cried every day for a week. I just couldn’t believe such things were happening among Emirati people.”). Embedding service learning into the curriculum requires a great deal of negotiating course times with colleagues and also navigating security concerns and accountability for the girls. The University accepts responsibility for the girls upon entering the campus gates. As previously mentioned, in traditional Emirati culture a female’s virtue must never be positioned to be called into question. Students are not permitted to leave the campus grounds during their scheduled courses without authenticated permission from a parent or guardian and/or a family escort (usually an older brother). Such challenges led to service occurring in blocks of time between 8 a.m. and 11 a.m. twice each week before the girls arrived on campus. What is interesting is that parent cooperation and support saw fathers escorting their daughters to service sites daily to give permission for their daughters to be on site without a family member present and mothers drove their daughters to and from community sites to preserve female cultural norms. Not all girls received permission from parents to serve off-campus. Equipped with past experiences in the courses, “Parents as Educators and in Adolescent Development,” those girls created service opportunities for themselves on campus. The largest group collaborated with the “Dubai

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Foundation for Women and Children,” in organizing an on-campus forum entitled the “Child Abuse Awareness Campaign” for Emirati parents only. It was necessary for several students in the group of 13 to take on leadership roles and to learn how to provide a visionary outcome for the group and to give directives to peers. This initiative focused on how to screen and hire in home child-care givers; how to detect possible physical abuse by child-care givers; and the importance of providing a chaperone when children are sent to school using a driver. Another group of students researched and developed an intensive “Emirati centered” parental engagement program for the University. The girls proposed a “Parents Day,” to University administrators where prior to the start of the academic year students would accompany their parents to meet the various course instructors. Parents would then have an opportunity to become familiar with the academic and administrative entities on campus and also inquire about course content to become familiar with University expectations for their daughters’ and sons’ academic success. Since the proposal, an office for Parental Engagement has opened on campus.

Student Reflections Dunlap (2000) describes reflection as a key component for learning in community service. There are multiple methods of achieving reflection, for instance, group discussion permits the processing of the service experience and an opportunity to compare and contrast the experience to learn from the experiences of others. My students preferred journaling as a reflective process because their service learning and learning to lead became a very personal experience for releasing emotions and clarifying personal assumptions, thoughts, and ideas. A part of their journaling process was to explain the connections that they made from course content to actual community settings (pp. 8 11). A review of the journals shared highly emotional personal experiences for most girls wherein they discovered the courage and ability to rise to the challenge of being out in the community for the first time. Students reported their experiences as “life changing events.” For most, this was their first experience coming face-to-face with some of the adolescent behavioral challenges facing the Emirati community that we had discussed in class. On a positive theme, as first generation bilingual students (Arabic and English) their language abilities became an unforeseen asset in the service learning workplace. The generation that came before

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them did not have the benefit of learning to read, write, and speak English and it is that generation that dominates the workplace at this time. Service partners included: the Red Crescent, the Community Development Authority, the Ministry of Social Affairs, the Ministry of Education, the Dubai Foundation for Women and Children, Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Schools, Children’s City, Childcare Centers, the Center for Children and Adults with Special Needs (a place where children and adults with physical and mental learning challenges attend school), and the Sharia Courts. Ms. Aysha Abdulla shares her service learning and learning to lead experience as follows: It was my second semester in the major of Children, Youth and Families, in spring semester of 2012, when I was first exposed to the notion of community service as an academic requirement. The professor explained the meaning of community service as a reciprocal interaction between the serving student and the community that gives knowledge and experience back to the student. Accordingly, development occurs in two dimensions, one is positive contribution to the society by the student. At the same time, students express their potential and gain experience. The first thing that came to my mind at that time is “how could I experience an atmosphere other than the university’s ritualized routines?,” “What about the transportation?,” “Am I going to work with men?” At the same time, however, I felt that I was proud of myself being part of this, my family also encouraged me, and my mother was so proud of me experiencing workplace environment. After introducing us to the program, all the students were given opportunity to choose where they prefer to work for their community service. The students also were given the freedom to either serve inside the university campus or outside campus. I immediately planned to do my community service outside the university, because it provides opportunities to acquire higher level of experience, by communicating with different people and different working environments. Firstly, I aimed to work with families regarding family issues and how to deal with them. However, I did not want to do it in the court since it deals with huge issues which would be painful and hard to tolerate. Thus, I decided to work with special needs, my main goal was to learn patience in dealing with children even the normal ones. So, it would be helpful to start with tough part by engaging with children with special needs. In addition, I have always had fear of people with special need, because of that I decided to do my service learning in a special needs center, in order to challenge myself and overcome this fear. I was placed in a primary class. There were 11 children in the class with different disabilities. My role was to provide assistance to the teacher during in-class activities. I worked on motivating children in the class by rewards that are especially given to students who behaved appropriately. The strategy that I used to encourage the children is to announce the gift or the reward in the morning, and the good ones can get it at the end of the day. The outcomes of this experience are life-long developments in my personality. I learned from people with special needs persistence to accomplish success. Stories of success that people of special needs achieved send a message to the whole world that impossible is nothing with persistence, training and learning.

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More importantly, “I have found my voice.” I learned “myself” more than learning anything else. The actual and physical benefit on the people I served diminished by the time I left the center and I got busy with my studies. But what stayed is my self-confidence and self-esteem which increased my self-efficacy to go through new experiences and accept challenges because I got the internal belief that I am capable to do it as I could do it previously in the community service experience.

The following journal comments reveal how the service experiences impacted several other students’ sense of themselves, their abilities, and their future plans as emerging leaders: I liked working in community service. I could identify my abilities and my weakest points and improve myself after writing my thoughts each day. My personality was changed, in the past I felt more shy to communicate with people, but now I feel shy but not like the past. I have a voice and I know how to use it now after serving in my primary school. My major was business but it was not interesting for me, so I changed my major to Education. After I went and observed a classroom, after choosing Education I felt somehow devoted to women’s and children’s rights especially for children. I participated at General Directorate of Residency and Foreign Affairs-Dubai and I learnt that I have self-confidence to deal with other people, even if they are males and that it really is an issue for some female students because of our culture. In our culture decision making is shared with our family members who play a role in making our decisions based on Islamic beliefs. These decision and beliefs limit our choices and interactions. For example, there are limited opportunities for males and females to interact. I would like to go and do service in a Labor Camp on “Health Day,” but I cannot because I am a female. Miss, I saved a woman’s life today. I couldn’t believe it, she had an epilepsy attack while waiting in line for assistance and I just got down on the floor and saved her, I didn’t know that I knew what to do. After that experience, I believe that I can do anything.

A reader might say that there is very little above that indicates that the girls understood the need to serve, learn, and lead in the community. Before the students could serve others it was necessary for them to acquire an awareness of self in addition to being a daughter, a student, and a devout Muslim. These comments represent an expanded sense of selfawareness. What the reader does not read above are the innovations of an exemplary student who served at a federal daycare center and observed that no one actually documented when parents dropped their children off or picked them up from the center. Hedaya developed a computerized card swipe security system for the daycare center to automatically track when parents delivered and picked-up their children.

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Maitha recognized that there was no system in place for follow-up visits to the homes of Emirati children who were adopted after losing their biological parents. She proposed and developed a monitoring system for periodic visits to homes of adopted children. The social agency no longer assumes that all is well in the home of the Emirati adopting parents’ household. Today, social aides visit homes to assess the well-being of adopted children (Maitha is now employed in the Sharia Children’s Courts). Miriam designed a logo for a social services agency and the logo has since been patented by the agency in the student’s name. Two students served at a prestigious private boarding school and worked with both expatriate children and Emirati children. For the expatriate children it was their first time ever interacting with Emirati locals and for the Emirati children they remarked, “We have never had a teacher who ‘looked like our sisters’.” Most of the students have since graduated and are now working. Positions range from but are not limited to working on food security initiatives related to regional conflict in the Middle East for the local office of the United Nations, coordinating a wellness program for female employees at the Department of Electricity and Water Authority, and program coordinator of volunteers at the Dubai Red Crescent. Students report that they are working in various positions at the Dubai Foundation for Women and Children including interning with the lead Psychologist and Social Worker. Three students have accepted positions in the same organization in the departments of communications, research, evaluation, marketing, and program planning. Others are excited to report that their skills are utilized at the Youth Development Authority and the Knowledge and Human Development Authority to develop education materials focusing on the heritage of the UAE. The girls who initially experienced service learning in the Parents as Educators course recently received University funding for their own peer-reviewed, undergraduate journal entitled “Taghreedat Qalam” (the Pen Tweet) community advocacy journal. The editor of the journal did her service learning at the Red Crescent with the support of her father.

LESSONS LEARNED Challenges Given the high number of expatriate workers in the UAE, the “locals” expect and look forward to formal visits of introduction to establish norms

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for working together. It is important to invest time in developing intimate, trusting relationships with local nationals to learn and understand as much as possible about cultural norms and communities of practice. In addition, there is an educative component to be delivered out in the social services and nonprofit community about the attributes of service learning and the realities in terms of expectations of students’ abilities. Ideally, a faculty member would have enough lead time to invite potential community partners to campus to learn about the program, establish partnering relationships, and to discuss potential placements. Securing administrative releases for students to leave campus is tedious and time consuming. It is much easier to integrate the off-campus experiences into an existing course schedule by offering two courses sequentially on, for example, Monday and Wednesday mornings between 8 30 a.m. and 11 30 a.m. In this way scheduled class time is used for the off-campus experiences (students enrolled in the courses reported directly to their service sites at 8 a.m. as opposed to coming to campus) and there is now time to observe students in their service environment on a rotating basis. Differences of opinion, diverse perceptions, and unanticipated challenges are bound to arise but they are immediately resolved in mutually caring and supportive ways once a trusting relationship is established. For example, one federal agency where students were placed started out by having the students respond to the needs of the entire staff. This resulted in the girls doing the clerical work of those employed at the agency. A visit with the director to discuss how the University students’ knowledge and educational background might better serve the community resulted in the service learning students preparing 20 minute presentations on the importance of reading to young children. The students presented their work at regularly scheduled public events in Dubai and at the Emirati Ladies Clubs in Dubai, Sharjah, and Ajman. Recruiting community partners’ and educating them about the College’s initiative is a good start, but the culture of the UAE is all about building relationships. To build community relationships I arranged my teaching schedule so that my Tuesday and Thursday mornings were free. This time was used to personally visit with Emirati directors and supervisors to explain the service learning program to partnering organizations. This time can also be useful for meeting with parents who needed more information about the program. All parents received a letter of introduction to the service program, in Arabic, that requested their signature to agree to provide support and assistance in negotiating their daughters’ time in an off-campus activity for an entire semester.

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Leadership Implications Referencing the National Research Council (NRC) synthesis of research on How People Learn (Brown & Cocking, 2000) my goal was to provide students with a deep foundation of factual knowledge and concepts to develop a deep understanding of the content knowledge they would need in the human services professions. Service learning provided the opportunity for students to transform these facts and concepts into useable knowledge in real-world settings. By introducing service learning and community leadership into the curriculum the girls were able to build their self-confidence, strengthen their self-esteem, and develop a service and community leadership identity. This newly learned sense of self as service agent and leader finds Emirati girls motivated to pursue leadership opportunities beyond the boundaries of their own communities and the UAE. Aysha, one of the first service learning students in the program recently returned from living in South Korea and in the United States. She is literate in Arabic and English and volunteered to form a community organization in her South Korean neighborhood where local Korean students could come together to practice reading and writing in English. Two students are completing a year of study in Washington, DC majoring in psychology and in fall of 2013, two additional students have decided to attend George Washington University for a year to complete their studies. Their peers say that the two students wrote their application essays on the importance of seeking out new experiences and how the opportunity to participate in service learning and community leadership changed their lives.

International Impact In closing, in a very short period of time, I was able to provide service learning and leadership experiences for my students. Many of the girls who had an opportunity to work out in the community have inquired about the possibility of a graduate program in Leadership Studies program as opposed to Educational Leadership which is a program designed for teaching professionals. It is possible that not unlike those students who aspire to be doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, etc. many students feel the call to lead in their own communities. At this writing none of the private or public postsecondary institutions offer such opportunities for learning. As the UAE continues to grow and develop I can see a need for professionals who are willing to commit to

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addressing emerging social issues in the Emirati community holistically. Leadership Studies is not discipline specific and it assigns no technical skill set to market from a socioeconomic perspective. Such a program would no doubt be highly controversial and challenging in terms of course content. For now, those Emiratis who have a calling for community leadership will have to acquire their skill set from the ground up by learning as social issues demand that someone take the lead (Preskill & Brookfield, 2009).

REFERENCES Abdulla, F. (2007). Emirati women: Conceptions of education and employment. In R. Mabokela (Ed.), Soaring beyond boundaries. Rotterdam, NL: Sense Publishers. Al-Qarni, A. (2005). You can be the happiest woman in the world: A treasure chest of reminders. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Islamic International Publishing. Bandura, A. (1982). Social learning theory. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122 147. Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (1996). Implementing service learning in higher education. Journal of Higher Education, 67, 221–239. Bourdieu, P. (1996). The forms of capital. In J. F. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory of research for the sociology of education (pp. 241 258). Westport, CT: Greenwood. Brazelton, T. (Actor), WTTW Chicago (2004). Ten things every child needs for the best start in life [DVD]. Chicago, IL: Robert R. McCormick Tribune Foundation. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development. Developmental Psychology, 22(6), 723 742. Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn. In J. D. Bransford (Ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Canagarajah, A. S. (1999). Resisting linguistic imperialism in English teaching. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Dunlap, M. (2000). Reaching out to children and families: Students model effective community service. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Eyler, J., Giles, D., & Schmiede, A. (1996). A practitioner’s guide to reflection in service- learning: Student voices and reflections. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University. Eyler, J., & Giles Jr., D. E. (1999). Where’s the learning in service-learning? San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Fosnot, C. (1996). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Fullan, M. (1993). Change forces: Probing the depths of educational reform. Bristol, PA: Falmer. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory research and practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Gelmon, S. B., Holland, B. A., Driscoll, A., Spring, A., & Kerrigan, S. (2001 Assessing service learning and civic engagement: Principles and techniques. Providence, RI: Campus Compact. Gelmon, S. B., Holland, B. A., & Shinnamon, A. F. (1998). Health profession schools in service to the nation, 1996–1998 final evaluation report .Portland, OR: Portland State University. Harkevy, I. (2007). Dewey’s dream: Universities and democracies in an age of education reform, civil society, public schools, and democratic citizenship. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

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Kolb, D., & Fry, R. (1975). Toward an applied theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of group processes. New York, NY: Wiley. Krause, W. (2008). Women in civil society: The state, Islam, and networks in the UAE. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan. Lambert, L., & Gardner, M. (2009). Women’s ways of leading. Indianapolis, IN: Dog Ear. National Commission on Service Learning. (2002). The power of service learning. Newton, MA: Author. National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (2010). Zayed University College of Education, Precondition_4. Dubai, UAE: Zayed University. Nelson, C. (2004). UAE national women at work in the private sector: Conditions and constraints. Center for Market Research and Information. Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Nieto, S. (2000). Affirming the diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Longman. Preskill, S., & Brookfield, S. (2009). Learning as a way of leading: Lessons from the struggle for social justice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rahman, L. A. (2004). Working woman add stability to family. Retrieved from http://arabwomenconnect.org. Accessed on October 23, 2012. Santrock, J. W. (2009). Life-span development. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Sarayrah, Y. (2004). Servant leadership in the Bedouin-Arab culture. Global Virtue Ethics Review, 5(3), 58 79. Sayed, S. (2002). Women, politics and development in the United Arab Emirates. Emirates Collection, Zayed University Library. Seligman, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55(1), 5 14. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5 United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education (2000). Vision 2020: Executive Summary. Abu Dhabi, UAE: United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education. United Arab Emirates Ministry of Information and Culture (2003). United Arab Emirates Yearbook (2002/2003). Abu Dhabi, UAE: United Arab Emirates Ministry of Information and Culture. United Arab Emirates Ministry of Information and Culture (2006). United Arab Emirates Yearbook (2006). Abu Dhabi, UAE: United Arab Emirates Ministry of Information and Culture. United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education Special Education (2010). School for all. Dubai, UAE: United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education Special Education. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Zlotkowski, E. (1999). Pedagogy and engagement. In R. G. Bringle, R. Games, & E. A. Malloy (Eds.), Colleges and universities as citizen (pp. 96–120). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

UNIVERSITIES AS LEADERS IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA Lynn Ilon and M’zizi Samson Kantini ABSTRACT For generations, higher education in much of Sub-Saharan Africa has been disengaged from the problems of local communities largely due to the design of colonial education and the later thinking of industrial models of education where knowledge was received from experts at the top of the knowledge ladder. But new knowledge economics, the possibility of building collective learning frameworks and the need to solve globally linked problems that involve local communities is changing this thinking. Globally linked problems such as disease, environment, social and political stability and globalisation manifest locally and create challenges locally in various ways. This chapter explores the leadership of Zambia’s flagship university in serving the needs of local communities’ sustainable development with research and service resources of its graduate education system and its network. Understanding that knowledge is now formed both by collectives of people at the community level that is linked

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through major networks, it is particularly important that universities take a leadership role in building linkages to local communities. Specifically, leadership in the following community linkage areas are examined: community service schemes, consultancy services, research and project partnerships, community field tours and capacity development.

INTRODUCTION This chapter is based on a study that was conducted in Zambia from 2011 to 2012 to establish whether or not the University of Zambia’s (UNZA) graduate education system was seen by Zambian academics, that is UNZA lecturers and students, and local community members in Lusaka Province to be responsive to the educational and sustainable development needs of local communities in Zambia. Using a ‘case study design’, the research involved 60 respondents constituting of lecturers, graduate students at and from UNZA and community members in Lusaka Province from various walks of life. Eight of the respondents were not Zambian nationals. Among community members, two were Indians, one South African and one was Dutch. One student was Malawian while two lecturers were Indians and one was British. It is now widely accepted that in a knowledge and global economy, graduate education is the primary driver of social and political progress (Mundy, 2000; Teferra & Altbach, 2003).1 This is opposed to the view which emerged after the Second World War that emphasised primary level education, that is 9 10 years of schooling (Romer, 1986). Higher education was paid almost no attention. For instance, the world-wide spending on higher education by the World Bank reduced from 17 per cent between 1985 and 1989 to 7 per cent starting 1995 1999 (Bloom, Canning, & Chan, 2006). Although generally, there is still limited progress in higher education in many poor countries particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa compared to other parts of the world, higher education is receiving its due attention as evidenced in the adjustments in development assistant strategies of organisations such as the World Bank and major donor governments to try and reach out to the higher education sector in poor countries. The reason for the adjustments is the realisation that old views that could not prove societal importance of higher education were wrong. The World Bank in its

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2000 report, Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise, categorically shared this realization saying: Narrow and in our [World Bank] view, misleading economic analysis has contributed to the view that public investment in universities and colleges brings meager returns compared to investment in primary and secondary schools and that higher education magnifies income inequality. As a result, higher education systems in developing countries are under great strain. They are chronically underfunded, but face escalating demand approximately half of today’s higher education students live in the developing world. (World Bank, 2000)

The above statement evidences the evolving worldview on the role of higher education in the socio-economic and political progress of any country in a global and knowledge-based economy (Collins & Rhoads, 2008).2 Nonetheless, there were no known studies that had taken interest in establishing whether or not the UNZA graduate education system as the height of higher education was effectively and efficiently fulfilling any leadership role in sustainable development of Zambian local communities. The graduate education system at UNZA was established to feed into the design and delivery of its curriculum through research and dissemination of new knowledge to remain both up to date and relevant to the local needs of Zambia’s economic, social and technological development. Much literature had been written on higher education in Zambia (Sanyal, Case, Dow, & Mary, 1976; Tamilenthi & Emmie, 2011). No known studies however had focused on graduate education and specifically tackled the leadership of the graduate education system through linkages between UNZA and the social, economical and political progress of Zambia. Graduate education continued to be written on in isolation from the socio-economic progress and community wellbeing of the country. Literature on development in Zambia had hardly connected the lack of socio-economic progress and political malaise to linkage areas of graduate education with local communities’ sustainable development (Abdi, Shizha, & Ellis, 2010; Sanyal et al., 1976). Besides, graduate education was written on as an appendage to literature dealing with undergraduate education or higher education in general (Bloom et al., 2006; Lulat, 2003). This chapter specifically explores the leadership of Zambia’s flagship university, through its graduate education system, in serving the sustainable development needs of local communities. The leadership role is explored through the following university community linkage areas: Community Service Schemes, Consultancy Services, Research and Project Partnerships, Community Field Tours and Capacity Development.

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Firstly, the chapter gives the background on the subject of graduate education as a research and learning system that gives universities a leadership role in community sustainable development. Secondly, it presents the methodology that was used in the study. Thirdly, the chapter presents the key findings and discussions of the leadership linkage areas of UNZA graduate education in meeting the sustainable development needs of local communities in Zambia. The chapter concludes with a short discussion summary of each linkage area in line with the leadership role of universities in community development.

BACKGROUND The 21st century has witnessed a growth of literature on the leadership role of universities’ education in development (Bloom et al., 2006; Collins & Rhoads, 2008; Forest & Altbach, 2006; Mundy, 2000; Teferra & Altbach, 2003; World Bank, 2000). It is noted that university education is answerable to both governments and communities and thus its leadership includes addressing global and local pressures such as digital divides and gender disparity, assurance of continuity for people with basic education, widening access and promoting equity in other levels of education, working with communities to create, mobilise and apply knowledge as well as manage and initiate sustainable community development initiatives (Mundy, 2000; Teferra, 2000). It is also seen as a public good which improves lives, raises wages and productivity and enhances cultural and political participation. A number of studies are calling upon the transformation of universities to strengthen their role in the global economy arguing that university contributions to nation building extend far beyond simply advancing scientific and technological knowledge; universities also play key roles in social development, especially in terms of supporting important elements of a society’s culture as well as its social and cultural institutions upon which to base the advancement of science and technology (Bloom et al., 2006; Collins & Rhoads, 2008; Forest & Altbach, 2006; Mundy, 2000; Teferra & Altbach, 2003; World Bank, 2000). This is opposed to arguments on education and development that dominated much of the 20th century. Mundy (2000) show that at the end of the Second World War, an economic theory emerged which linked development and education. The theory was called Human Capital Theory (Schultz, 1961). Although this theory is now widely being replaced by a new theory of how knowledge economics link the global community and emphasises the role of innovation, local

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capability and ideas,3 it shaped the classical thought about education and development. Education was presented as a means of increasing the productivity of individuals, communities and nations (Collins & Rhoads, 2008). While this became the case, Bloom et al. (2006) show that it was hypothesised that not all education was obligatory for this purpose especially in developing countries which desperately needed, and still do, economic growth. The hypothesis established that basic level education was the necessary precondition for development, high and above tertiary education third level education or learning occurring at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries and institutes. Tertiary education was labelled as a recipe for ‘social chaos and political instability’ because no evidence showed that higher education yielded ‘social benefits’ to society over and above the benefits that accrue to individual students themselves (Friedman & Friedman, 1980). Nonetheless, this hypothesis has since been challenged by a number of studies including those by Bloom, Hartley and Rosovsky published in 2006 (Forest & Altbach, 2006). Until the 1990s, only primary education was advocated for as a prerequisite for social welfare and poverty eradication. For example, during the 1990 Jomtien Conference and the 2000 Dakar Summit on ‘Education for All’, the overshadowing theme was universal primary education. Both the international development community and governments adopted declarations on universal primary education and directed development aid, and government funding, to education largely towards basic education. This tide changed in the mid of the first decade of the 2000s. Higher education started to take the central role and the emphasis on higher education started to mount (Teferra & Altbach, 2003). Two main reasons explain this change. Firstly, the ‘Education for All’ agenda did not deliver (Dei, 2004; Hoppers, 2008). The 1990 conference in Jomtein, Thailand, that launched Education for All as a global initiative designed to bring literacy to the world’s population and raise education levels had, after only a decade begun to falter (Muller, 2000; UNESCO, 2011). Literacy was not achieved. Equity goals were not realised. Hoppers (2008) noted that in fact, education for all collapsed into ‘schooling for all’ with the blind leading the blind for most of the decade since 1990. Very little fundamental redesigning especially of Africa’s education systems ever occurred with the exception of South Africa. Institutional structures remained fossilised and unresponsive, the realities in and values of local communities were still not taken seriously. The link between education and the wider developmental efforts remained unclear (Hoppers, 2008; Mundy, 2000). Bloom et al. (2006) and Hoppers (2002) further argued that this lack of progress showed that a systematic dialogue on models of education and

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economics was not fostered well by both governments responsible and the international donor community that influence policy in developing countries. This situation challenged the hypothesis that primary and secondary schooling rather than higher education are the primary drivers of socioeconomic development. Secondly, the shift of emphasis from primary to higher education was ushered in by the globalising world economy changing the nature of production and the emerging economic theories emphasising knowledge as the engine of much of industry and key linkage between education and socioeconomics. The technological changes that created the means to easily communicate across barriers of space in place, culture and time were also having tremendous influence on this growing emphasis on higher education (Forest & Altbach, 2006; Mamaghani, 2010; Yusuf et al., 2009). To this score, Teferra and Altbach (2003) and Collins and Rhoads (2008) argued that in a knowledge and technologically linked society, higher education needs to be a major focus rather than primary because through research and learning it reveals, creates and greatly contributes to the dissemination of new knowledge and ideas. In the older industrial economy and universities coming out of the 1950s development theories, ideas came from ‘expertise’ whereas in the new thinking emerging from the World Bank (Romer, 1986), ideas come from diverse sources. Sawyerr (2004) and Lundvall, Joseph, Chaminade, and Vang (2011) emphasise the important role of local context and innovation in this notion of economic development rather than an older view of ideas coming only from global experts. This refocusing of the role of higher education in development and economic growth is very evident in the education sector in Zambia. The education system of Zambia is a three-tier, 7-5-4 design. It has seven years of primary or elementary education, five years of secondary school intermediate between elementary school and college, grades 8 to 12 and four years of university to first degree level. In this formal structure, graduate education which generally takes 18 24 months for a master’s degree and 48 months for doctorate studies is placed outside the three-tier design. This design means that studies beyond undergraduate are not fully supported like other levels of education. This may be attributed to the country’s historical reluctance to support graduate education which, in turn, is reflected in the lack of budgetary support for higher education from the donor community such as the World Bank and bilateral agencies such as France, Britain and Sweden (Teferra & Altbach, 2003). In the recent years particularly in its 2011 2015 Sixth National Development Plan (SNDP), the Government of the Republic of Zambia

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(GRZ) has shown a strong will to increase access, participation and equity in the provision of quality university education (GRZ, 2011). Nevertheless, this shift in emphasis from basic education to higher education particularly graduate education was not reflected in studies undertaken in Zambia (Busia, 1968; Bloom et al., 2006; Collins & Rhoads, 2008; SARUA, 2009). There remained a gap in literature on universities as leaders through graduate education in community sustainable development in Zambia. The accounts by Busia (1968), Collins and Rhoads (2008), Bloom et al. (2006) and SARUA (2009) impressively located the status and role of higher education in community development of countries like Zambia. Nonetheless, they focused on higher education in general terms rather than in specific, known instances.

METHODOLOGY Design The study involved Zambian academics at UNZA and community members in Lusaka, Kafue and Chongwe districts from various walks of life in the public, particularly government ministries of education and community development and social services, and private (business) sectors. Zambian academics represented a community of students, scholars and researchers who were actively engaged in research, teaching and learning at graduate level having attained or in the process of attaining advanced degrees and were known for such academic achievement and engagement. Thus, this involved academic administrators such as Directors and Deans, academic faculty and students drawn across different schools: education, mining and agriculture engineering, humanities and social sciences. Two factors explained this selection. Firstly, the focus of the study was graduate education at UNZA. Accordingly, the interest was to get views from individuals who were directly involved in graduate education at UNZA and in the surrounding local communities by way of collaboration in research, education development projects and consultancy. Secondly, UNZA is the biggest university in the country offering graduate programmes and ranked as the top in Zambia based on the 2011 University Ranking by Academic Performance (URAP, 2011). In this study, both random and purposive sampling were used to pick 60 respondents and classified them into three categories of 20 respondents

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each community members, graduate students and lecturers or professors. This sample was picked from across selected communities in Lusaka, Kafue and Chongwe districts. This selection of respondents helped provide contrasting views amongst students, community members and university lecturers with regard to graduate education at UNZA and community sustainable development. It also provided insights into whether or not the level of study and status being student or lecturer affects the understanding and perception about graduate education and community sustainable development. Data Collection and Analysis The field research used interview guides (see the appendix) and documents such as journals, newspapers and websites with relevant information to the study. The interview guides were used to gather views from Zambian academics and community members on the current graduate education at UNZA as a leader in local community sustainable development. The interview guides had both open ended and closed questions. The observation method was used to observe some lessons being delivered to graduate students. This was meant to see how concepts of local community sustainable development were incorporated and applied in the curricula at UNZA. Also, an inquiry was made into any kind of collaborative research projects between UNZA and local communities. Field notes were also made during this process. Focus group discussion, that is interactive questioning and response with a group of people about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards a given phenomenon (MacNealy, 1999; Maxwell, 1997) and in this case, postgraduate education and sustainable community development, was conducted with two groups. The first group involved students. The second group involved lecturers. Over a period of 10 weeks, six persons were interviewed on a weekly basis.

FINDINGS OF LINKAGES WITH UNZA GRADUATE EDUCATION Definition of Sustainable Development Viewing education through the lens of a knowledge society means that higher education must play a central role in building a sustainable society.

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Education becomes a means towards an overall strategy of development defined not so much by ‘growth’ as by a ‘highly effective approach to human all-round development’ as articulated by a recent new conceptualisation emerging from UNESCO (Yanming, 2011). Thus, the first important issue that the study had to establish was the definition of sustainable development according to the understanding of the respondents. Based on the views from the respondents, the following definition was established: ‘durable social progress of individuals collectively engaged and learning with a high sense of ownership for continuous transformation of their environment without endangering the quality of life for future generations’ (Kantini, 2013). This definition was underlined by the following terms: transformation, durability, ownership, collective engagement, collective learning and environment. Table 1 shows how the principles of sustainable development were used for purposes of this study.

Table 1.

Definitions Used in This Study Using Principles of Sustainable Development.

Transformation

Should be both a quantitative and qualitative change in the wellbeing of the individuals and the collective. Durability Should be a continuous and long lasting progressive process where foregoing generations see their development activities as a foundation on which succeeding generations can erect their own healthy and productive civilisation in harmony with nature. Ownership Inspiration to do something should always be sought from both internal and external ideas, the process should not be borrowed or imposed from outside. People should mobilise themselves to act upon their circumstances if sustainability is to be secured. Social progress should be incited from within and the parties involved should be empowered, have personal fulfilment and take possession of the process. Collective Engagement Development efforts should to be concerted from local to global levels. National and international interests have to be harmonised or balanced to ensure that tension in terms of interpretation and implementation of sustainable development is reduced. Collective Learning Should be continuous individual and collective evaluation of present human activities and quality of life for future generations. The evaluation should produce a collective intelligence that discards old habits unhealthy to nature and peace and progress of humankind. Environment Implies that human development should have environment practices that value and sustain biodiversity and life-supporting ecological processes.

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Sustainable Development of Local Communities Once sustainability could be defined from the respondents, then the central question was whether respondents felt that UNZA postgraduate education built linkages that made it a leader in sustainable development of local communities. From this critical central question, all other questions stemmed. There were three rather distinct views on this central question: 1. The first view was asserting that the system had leadership linkages with and in the development of local communities. 2. The second view was opposite to the first one. It considered the UNZA postgraduate education as a learning system that is no longer a leader aiding local communities in their sustainable development. 3. The third view was midway of the two contrasting views. This means that the respondents were not sure whether or not UNZA postgraduate education was linked with local communities’ progress and the role it could play in the same. While 15 of the 20 interviewed lecturers belonged to the first viewpoint, only 3 of the 20 community members were in agreement, 11 community members disagreed and 6 were not sure. Eight students held the first view while nine held the second view and three were not sure. Suffice to say that five of the lecturers felt that the system had no linkages and only one was not sure. Thus there were more lecturers who felt that the postgraduate system at UNZA was fulfilling its leadership role followed by students and then community members. This is shown in Fig. 1. The distribution of the sample on the overall three views showed that there was less dialogue, interaction and engagement between UNZA graduate education system and local communities. This was based on the finding that while 15 lecturers viewed UNZA graduate education as a system that is linked with local communities’ sustainable development, only 3 community members out of the 20 were in agreement with this view. Further, among the three categories, lecturers, students and community members, more community members were not sure whether or not UNZA graduate education was meeting community sustainable development needs. Implicitly, there was less understanding among community members of what graduate education is and this could account for their failing to understand how UNZA could have been fulfilling its leadership role in local communities.

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Students

6

Community Members

4 2 0 Yes

Not Sure

No

Fig. 1. Response to Question of Whether UNZA Graduate Education Is Fulfilling its Leadership Role in Sustainable Development Needs of Local Communities: Number of Respondents by Group.

COMMUNITY INVOLVED EXAMINED Clearly, while professors and lecturers (generically termed ‘lecturers’ in Zambia) felt that they were linking with the community and providing leadership, students and communities did not have the same view. In fact, communities had a substantially different view of whether or not UNZA graduate schools were providing leadership in the sustainability development needs of the local communities. As Wals and Jickling comment in their essay entitled ‘Sustainability in Higher Education’, the notion of sustainability in higher education may not be an easy concept to define, but its very broadness is its strength. It challenges the institution to rethink its mission across all its constituencies and concert with them (Wals & Jickling, 2002). Qiang (2003) talks about the particular importance of integrating communities into higher education as a step towards the internationalisation of modern higher educational institutions. In his view, higher educational institutions can no longer stand as isolated institutions which are delinked from their communities or the rest of the world. In reviewing the literature on the new internationalisation of higher education, he mentions several key components of community linkages including community-based partnerships, international development assistance projects, customised training programmes, teaching and research, community service and intercultural project work.

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We looked at several of these to try to understand why communities felt that the leadership of UNZA was so weak in helping to address sustainable development needs of the local communities. We examined specific services, partnerships and projects that universities normally link with communities and interviewed community members and Zambian academics on these particular aspects of community linkages. These were (1) community service and consultancy schemes, (2) research and project partnerships and (3) capacity development.

Community Service and Consultancy Schemes The concept of university community service and consultancy was working as a leadership link between UNZA and local communities. Community service scheme aimed at building bridges between the UNZA community and the diverse local and global communities. Such bridges were meant to provide opportunities for students, faculty and staff to become engaged in a range of community issues as active and responsible community members, serve as vehicles for personal growth and leadership, broaden the scope of the educational experience through service and excellence in a meaningful and mutually beneficial way that cultivated and sustained partnerships with individuals and organisations that worked to achieve concrete, collective problem solving strategies in local communities (Kantini, 2013). The community service schemes that were found included public access to university library facilities and the provision of the teaching hospital services a hospital affiliated with UNZA medical school in which medical students receive practical training. There was also occasional free consultancy. It is noteworthy that the consultancy services however were largely money generating opportunities for the university. Both non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments sought advice and clarification from the University departments on various issues of interest. This is the usual type of advice sought from most universities seeking a particular fact such as how many graduates there might be in a given year or some type of historical fact or seeking an expert to work on a particular research study or consult for a company. One lecturer clarified this very well when he noted that ‘we sometimes offer free medical advice to community people but still this is not free because our employer or some philanthropic organisation pays for this in a way’. The community service and consultancy leadership linkage had several areas that needed improvement. The public access to university library

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facilities remained underutilised by community people. This may be a result of lack of awareness about this service among the locals, irrelevance of the stocked material or the library system not being user friendly for community people. Two graduate students who once worked with the library under a work-study programme noted the following on this score … our library is hardly frequented by community people though there is a provision for them. I would be happy to meet a local Chief [tribal royal leader] in the special collection doing some reading. But the research we carry out in communities is not packaged in a way that community people can appreciate. It is technical, academic and bookish if not irrelevant. So while the public can access the library, they hardly do so and that important link is broken.

The consultancy services had no tracking system to document practical evidence to show how the rendered advice was impacting the communities. One lecturer noted that we take it that whatever we offer is relevant. To see its practical relevance, whether or not it works, it requires someone to do a tracer study to find out what happens. For now, we don’t know.

This was partly because much consultancy remained under the jurisdiction of individual lecturers and departments. Some scholars have noted that this is a prevalent weakness of the link between consultancy services and universities in many poor countries. Nonetheless, there are some examples where the link can be strong (Busia, 1968; Hountondji, 1997; Teferra & Altbach, 2003; United Nations Development Programme, 2009). Uganda’s Makerere University for example has a long history of good research which is linked to funding from outside consultancies, but is conducted by university’s researchers, is published concurrently within the university and has direct relevance for local community development (see Makerere University, n.d.).

Research and Project Partnerships The findings of the study showed that there was a lot of research taking place at UNZA’s graduate education level. Each research project linked the system with communities. This was because such research was done in the communities. With some research projects such as those relating to Human Immune Virus (HIV) and malaria response, the University collaborated with NGOs, government departments and communities.

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Research projects were also part of extending classroom learning experiences to field experiences in form of community tours and field trips. One lecturer argued that tours and field trips during the course of study stir reality in … students, it [they] inspire the communities … and … invoke a collective unconscious that is crucial for our society to move forward … . it [tours and field trips] is an unmatched visual aid in the learning process and development itself. In fact it inspires real-time and problem solving research papers not mere ticket papers for graduating. (Kantini, 2013)

This finding showed that the physical interaction of students with communities in the learning process had a central role to play in a given community’s learning and development process. The Neganega Literacy Programme for example in Mazabuka district of the southern province of Zambia, a project that offers education to the adults in order for them to adapt to their respective environments with various adaptive income generating skills, civic education and other critical issues within their own environment by making use of the available resources was cited by Mkandawire (2012) as greatly contributing to the improvement of lives of local community inhabitants and a rich data source for a wide array of local and global scholars and researchers who have visited and participated in this project.4 This is because it provided a learning environment that potentially develop the capacity of local communities and give an opportunity to students and faculty to collaboratively respond to significant needs of local communities by practicing, re-examining and deepening their classroom learning through joint initiatives in a non-profit setting where their work benefits communities as well as their own intellectual development. The only weakness that was found in this leadership linkage was that the research was largely driven by interests of the forces outside of the communities. Communities remained mere objects of academic research and subjects of donor organisation’s development project experiments (De Mesquita & Smith, 2009; Maizels & Nissanke, 1984). For example, the student in pursuit of her or his programme of study embarked on a research for her or his dissertation in partial fulfilment for the requirements of the award of a masters or doctoral degree. The goal was to earn the degree not the progress of the community. The results of the study were not shared with the community, neither were they used to change or mitigate community practices nor used to form larger partners of social behaviours that could link to broader public health or public policy changes. Rather, the student’s study was viewed as a discrete piece of research, done for the purpose of graduating and, once completed, had no outlet for benefiting the

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community or larger society. One community civic leader explained that ‘we have some interactions … both students and lecturers from UNZA do come to our communities to research but as soon as they are done we never see or hear from them’. A first step in solving this problem would be to design a study by asking the community what problem they are facing and then design a study around that problem. In so doing, naturally, the community would be interested in the outcome of the study, and might likely be influenced by its findings. Yet all the graduate students that were surveyed by this study in the fields of education, engineering, mining, humanities, medicine and veterinary medicine none had collaborated with a community or organisation in identifying a problem in a community that needed researching.

Capacity Development Capacity Development (CD) is an important higher education community linkage. CD includes the individual’s knowledge, skill, motivation, ability and their practical applications, that is frameworks for continuous development into the future (Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2004; Littlejohns & Thompson, 2001; UNDP, 2009). Thus, CD also covers the organisation’s administrative and management systems and work culture. It involves the enabling environment and conditions that society as a whole creates through policy frameworks, legal systems, political institutions, and market economies for the manifestation of capacities of individuals and organisations (JICA, 2004; Sawyerr, 2004; UNDP, 2009). Capacity development was observed to be an existing and important leadership linkage between the UNZA graduate education and local community sustainable development. UNZA was carrying out both academic and professional training programmes that enhance skill development, knowledge transfer and experience sharing among individuals and institutions. This was being carried out through its traditional programmes in various schools and annual participation in trade fairs. Suffice to say that issues of policy advocacy and legal frameworks were not found to be very pronounced. Besides, the systems of trainings mentioned earlier were still a one way relationship, and had its own inadequacies, as below. In the narrower view of transfer of skills and knowledge, students enrol to receive their training for certification at the end. The assumption was that trained students go back to serve their communities with the

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knowledge accumulated during their training. This was evidenced by one lecturer who said that students are the people who are going to teach in the community … . So I think if we have a greater number of people from the society coming to do these programmes … we are going to have a multiplier effect where those that are taught are going to teach others. And others will become enlightened … can identify certain trends captured by the book, in that regard, help to contribute to the development of society.

The paradox in this student training assumption as a way of developing community capacities was the finding that graduate programmes had very low enrolments, as low as three students both for master’s and doctoral level of a given programme. Besides, many programmes had their own predetermined kind of ideal student, but ideal has not changed with time as evidenced by one lecturer who said that … the students we teach … basically … we assume that whatever we teach them and what they research on is and will be of relevance to whatever they aspire to do later, that is all … . You see, we have our own ideal kind of student. So our programmes are not based on the interests of students or where they come from per se but what we as professionals are convinced to be right for our society.

Further results of the assumption in the above quote are that programmes are not necessarily tailored and updated based on the needs of local communities. Rather, the programmes reflect what the faculty experts think communities need. It is noteworthy that in the beginning these programmes were not designed as such. In the beginning, the programmes were designed with local needs in mind. Our research revealed that the problems stem from the lack of continuous redesign and re-evaluation as evidenced by the following argument of a senior administrator and lecturer in the directorate of graduate studies: I feel that our postgraduate system need[s] to be changed at this time … . What I would love to see is this university collaborating with other universities to design and re-tailor programmes and grant graduate degrees together … .

This view was furthered by another lecturer who noted that ‘… there is an urgent need to relook at the entire postgraduate system of our institution including the very people to relook at it’. He gave his reasons for this argument noting that there is no working leadership linkage I currently see because very few students come back to pursue their master’s or PhD degree here [University of Zambia]. I can’t say it is because the tuition is high. The reason for poor enrolment may be explained by more specific issues beyond money such as the learning environment, package of courses and

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programmes, and of course the relevance which you are calling leadership linkages of the programmes offered to local communities, industries and companies locally and around the world.

The UNZA graduate education system also took leadership role capacity development of communities through the participation of some lecturers engaged as experts in community capacity building projects carried out by NGOs. Six lecturers gave an example of themselves as experts who had taken part in local community NGO projects including those in civic education focusing on girl’s education, gender-based violence and HIV and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) testing and counselling initiatives. This form of capacity development, however, has continuously been challenged since the 1990s (UNDP, 2009). This is because it prioritises technical training and the introduction of models and systems of development in the communities. This is not sustainable as contrasted below (Le´le´, 1991). A globally renowned alternative model to the above development approach is the Grameen Bank which was started by a professor in a university in Bangladesh. Grameen Bank project is a good example of how global networks and local knowledge combine to build more effective and sustainable development models as opposed to those conceived under the old development models influenced by the human capital theory. By providing small loans to highly impoverished people while tapping into their indigenous industrial activities, thousands of the poor have emerged from poverty.5 This can be contrasted with traditionally modelled projects such as HIV reduction initiatives. Without understanding local community social, political and economic structures, the projects often fail or are highly inefficient (Ashwell & Barclay, 2010). The success of the Grameen Bank model and the often failure of HIV community interventions highlight the necessity of combining university expertise with local ideas and existing knowledge. The older approach, based on the human capital notion of ‘expertise’ driven production, is that an external ‘technical expert’ goes into a community for a short period of time to provide skills and knowledge. This is followed by donor aid or government subsidies. Little attention is paid to the indigenous skills and knowledge development and sustainability of the same. There is now extensive evidence including studies by Busia, (1968), Bauer (1972), Hountondji (1997), Platteau (2004), Gilchrist (2008) and Moyo (2009) that such stand-alone training activities considered to be capacity building projects are inadequate. External support is not the ultimate way

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of providing community capacity building (UNDP, 2009). Interventionist approach of external help tends to merely postpone and worsen problems. This is because it undermines ownership and indigenously rooted capacity of local communities. It should thus be acknowledged that capacity development is a longterm process that needs to be integrated in wider transformation efforts that are owned and driven by communities involved. Such local community transformation efforts are context-specific. They are as much about transforming values and mind sets through indigenous incentives, as they are about acquiring new skills and creating new knowledge for appropriate responses to new challenges in a changing environment. Sen’s Nobel prize winning work sets the stage for this alternative to the human capital approach to development (1995). His idea is that societies need to collectively create their own knowledge internally and, in so doing, empower individuals to build new capabilities (Pressman & Summerfield, 2000). A further example is the establishment of the Ethiopian Commodity Exchange which used recent technology, cell phones and a local expertise of social, political and economic structures to link local farmers to global markets. An Ethiopian Cornell graduate discovered that local coffee farmers were not able to command good prices for their coffee because they had no access to market information and the ability to interact with it. She built a commodity exchange that linked local farmers (via cell phones) with middle men who competed to buy coffee beans from local farmers. These middle men, in turn were linked to real-time prices of coffee on the global market. Farmers found that they could substantially increase their income from growing coffee and many now find themselves off the shelf of poverty (Kherallah, Delgado, Gabre-Madhin, Minot, & Johnson, 2002). Another example is the innovative use of cell phones in local communities. In Kenya, substantial amount of transfer to funds from one person to another is now done through cell phones (Corbett, 2008).

CONCLUSION The ability of a graduate education system to strengthen its leadership linkages with local communities is important both for any university and society. The reasons are well established graduate education systems produce individuals who possess the necessary context-specific and universally relevant capabilities such as facilitate the building up of collective problem

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solving strategies in their local communities as communities continue to develop in an interlinked global context. The Grameen Bank and Ethiopian Commodity Exchange are examples of graduates who initiated them having had a demonstrated understanding of both the global context and local situation (Yusuf et al., 2009). The leadership role the graduate education system at UNZA plays in local communities evidently showed that there is a lot that needs to be done to strengthen and extend it. This was particularly made clear by the way the system engaged local communities. The participation and contribution of people with graduate education in community-based development projects and other programmes was found to be very poor in Zambia. A deficit of intellectual leadership in and for local communities was established. Firstly, lecturers themselves as providers of the education and the community members as the end beneficiaries of the service saw the need for graduate programmes to be repackaged to respond to new community challenges. By implication, graduates of the time were seemingly being uprooted from their communities into a world circumscribed by the university and divorced from realities and values of their local communities. Secondly, there was very poor enrolment rate at graduate level. By implication, there were few graduates being deployed into the community networks. Thirdly, the participation of scholars and researchers in the communities was not only low but based on the old expert model founded on human capital theory that has since failed to work. These implications and questions, call for further research as they cannot be extensively answered by one study. What is clear however is that universities have a critical leadership role to play especially now than ever before given the change in global economics and technological advancements. This study has just contributed to the clarification of what that role looks like, its importance and challenges as well as how to counter those challenges.

NOTES 1. After decades of emphasis on primary school level education, the World Bank and other donor agencies began to turn their attention to the importance of higher education in development (World Bank, 2000). See Caulder and Clugston (2003) for an early list of examples and an outline of the thinking behind this change of focus. 2. The report calls for a revitalisation of higher education in Africa with a recognition that higher education is viewed as central to development. ‘The revitalisation

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of higher education for regional socio-economic development means more than a game of catch-up; it requires an accelerated, transformative leap’ (Southern African Regional Universities Association, 2009, p. 5). The report goes on to give an overview of the status of higher education in many countries and their prospects. 3. See Romer (1986), human capital theory was the dominant theory of that time. Human capital theory was linked to thinking of industrial production (rather than the value of knowledge) and stressed that investing in human beings is the right path to economic recovery, social harmony and political stability. 4. See Mkandawire’s (2012) evaluation of the Neganega Literacy Programme in Mazabuka district of the southern province of Zambia, a master’s thesis, University of Zambia. 5. The professor and founder of Grameen Bank has now written about the more general approach. See Yunus, Moingeon, and Lehmann-Ortega (2010) for an overview.

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Mundy, K. (2000). Retrospect and prospect: Education in a reforming World Bank. International Journal of Education Development, 22, 483 50. Platteau, J. (2004). Monitoring elite capture in community-driven development. Development and Change, 35(2), 223 246. Pressman, S., & Summerfield, G. (2000). The economic contributions of Amartya Sen. Review of Political Economy, 12(1), 89 113. Qiang, Z. (2003). Internationalization of higher education: Towards a conceptual framework. Policy Futures in Education, 1(2), 248 270. Romer, P. (1993). Two strategies for economic development: Using ideas and producing ideas. In Proceedings of the World Bank annual conference on development economics 1992, World Bank, Washington, DC (pp. 63 92). Retrieved from http://documents.worldbank.org/ curated/en/1993/03/699081/proceedings-world-bank-annual-conference-developmenteconomics-1992 Romer, P. M. (1986). Increasing returns and long-run growth. Journal of Political Economy, 94(5), 1002 1037. Sanyal, B. C., Case, J. H., Dow, P. S., & Mary, J. E. (1976). Higher education and the labour market in Zambia: Expectations and performance. Paris: UNESCO Press. Sawyerr, A. (2004). African universities and the challenge of research capacity development. Journal for Higher Education in Africa, 2(1), 214 32. Schultz, T. (1961). Investment in human capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1), 1 17. Sen, A. (1995). Rationality and social choice. American Economic Review, 85(1), 1 24. Southern African Regional Universities Association (2009). Towards a common future: Higher Education in the SADC Region. Johannesburg: SARUA. Tamilenthi, S., & Emmie, J. L. (2011). The barriers of higher education in the African countries of Zambia and Tanzania. Archives of Applied Science Research, 3(4), 169 178. Teferra, D. (2000). Revisiting the doctrine of human capital mobility in the information age. Paper presented at the regional conference on Brain Drain and Capacity Building in Africa, Addis Ababa. Teferra, D., & Altbach, P. G. (Eds.) (2003). African higher education: An international reference Book. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. United Nations Development Programme (2009). Capacity development: The UNDP approach to supporting capacity development. Paris: Capacity Development Group, Bureau for Development Policy. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. (2011). Summary of progress towards education for all (ED-11/HLG-EFA/1). Jomtien, Thailand: UNESCO. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/ University Ranking by Academic Performance. (2011). Rank by country: Zambia. Retrieved from http://www.urapcenter.org/ Wals, A. E. J., & Jickling, B. (2002). “Sustainability” in higher education: From doublethink and newspeak to critical thinking and meaningful learning. International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 3(3), 221 232. World Bank (2000). Higher education in developing countries: Peril and promise. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Yanming, H. (2011). Reflections on the value of higher education in lifelong learning. In Conceptual evolution and policy developments in lifelong learning (pp. 199 206). Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved from http://literacyportal.net/

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APPENDIX: INTERVIEW GUIDE Section one: linkages Generally, what linkages do you see between the current University of Zambia Postgraduate Education as a Learning System and Community Sustainable Development in Zambia? Students 1. What linkages do you think are there between your programme of study and development in your local area? 2. In your programme of study, do you have any kind of learning to help build capacity of local communities to solve their own problems? If you have, give two or three examples of such learning. 3. Do local communities work with you during your course of study? Can you name two or three communities that have worked with you? What kind of work did you do with the local communities you named above? Lecturers 1. What linkages do you think are there between what you teach and the local environment of your students? 2. Do you teach your students how the programme or courses you offer can help them implement and promote sustainable development in the local communities? If you do, give two or three ways on how you teach this? 3. Do you at any point work with local community(ies) on what, where, when and how you teach? If local community (ies) give any input in what you teach, give two or three examples of such input and those communities who made it. 4. In your duty as lecturer, have you ever worked with any local community in finding solutions to challenges faced by such a community? If you have, what is the name of the community? Where is it located? What was the challenge (s)? What was the solution(s)? Section two: local global knowledge interface Generally, how do think is the gap between local knowledge and global expertise bridged in the current University of Zambia Postgraduate Learning System?

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Students 1. Is your local student community an active entity on new and social media (on the internet)? 2. Are you as an individual connected to any international student networks online or offline? If so, what is the connection about? 3. Do you know of any international students connected to your local student community? If any, how are they connected? What is the connection based on? 4. Does your programme expose you to any global platforms and on-going developments in your field of study? If so, how does your programme expose you to and help you participate in global forums taking place in your area of study? Can you name some of the global platforms you have participated in? 5. Have you done any collaborative work with an international student or lecturer in your area of study? 6. Have you done any attachment with an international organisation working with local communities in Zambia?

Lecturers 1. Do you have any international students interested in the programme you teach? If you do, how do you meet their interest? 2. Do you have international students interested in having a Zambian experience through the programme of study you teach or your department/school? If you do, how do you help them have such an experience? 3. Are there international faculty or experts you know of interested in participating in the programmes you teach or research you are doing? If there is, how do your programme, department or school meet such interest? 4. Is your local faculty community an active entity on new and social media (on the internet)? 5. Are you connected to any international faculty networks online or offline? If so, what is the connection about? 6. Do you know of any international faculty actively connected to the programme you teach in or the department you belong to? If any, what is the connection based on? 7. Does your programme expose you to any global platforms and on-going developments in your field of specialty? If so, how are you exposed and helped to participate in global forums taking place in your area of

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specialisation? Can you name some of the global platforms you have participated in? 8. Have you done any collaborative work with an international student or lecturer in your area of specialty? 9. Have you done any attachment, consultation or research work with an international organisation working with local communities in Zambia? .

LEADERSHIP’S ROLE IN REDUCING JAIL VIOLENCE AND RECIDIVISM Brantley R. Choate, Sr. and Anthony H. Normore ABSTRACT In May 2012, Los Angeles County Sheriff Leroy D. Baca took a bold step in leadership and created the Education-Based Incarceration (EBI) Bureau. The Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department (LASD) essentially established a school district inside “… the nation’s largest jail system” (Baca, 2010, p. 58). With approximately 20,000 inmates, nearly 8,000 men and women now receive some form of rehabilitative education across seven county jail facilities. The new EBI Bureau, led by a captain, was established to fulfill Sheriff Baca’s vision to provide education to all incarcerated men and women in Los Angeles County. EBI is a system that “is focused on deterring and mitigating crime by investing in its offenders through education and rehabilitation. … By providing substantive and intellectual education in jails, and being supportive rather than punitive in efforts to reduce crime-related behavior, the likelihood to recidivate will be lowered while success and stability in the community occurs” (Baca, 2010, p. 54). The implementation of this new system has not come without resistance. Using a system’s thinking conceptual framework, this chapter examines the leadership impact of Sheriff executive

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staff, the custody staff, and the inmate, as it pertains to the blending of two distinct systems jail and school. Furthermore, the chapter explains the roles of leadership in reducing jail violence and recidivism.

“Keep your hands in your pockets, walk in a straight line, don’t talk, and tuck in that shirt.” County jail inmates hear these words every day during their period of incarceration. The function of the Sheriff staff working inside the jail system is to maintain a safe environment for themselves as well as the inmates. When surrounded by drug addicts, thieves, prostitutes, murderers, gang leaders, and the mentally ill, maintaining order is prudent. The skill of the Sheriff staff coupled with provisions of education and a supportive environment creates a safe atmosphere whereby inmates can transform their negative behaviors (Baca, 2010). From a system’s thinking approach, blending the system of education with the system of incarceration creates a unique, yet difficult, opportunity for leadership transformation for both the staff and the inmate. This chapter is written from the perspective of two civilians. Having worked directly with inmates inside the Los Angeles County jail system, we will provide details from our ethnographic experiences as we discover the role of leadership as it pertains to the reduction of jail violence and reduced recidivism. Dr. Anthony H. Normore, a former teacher and school administrator in Canadian school districts, is currently the director of the doctoral program and department chair of educational leadership at California Lutheran University. He offers time to work as the lead facilitator of teaching and learning within the jail, training and developing several groups of inmates in the art of improving presentation and facilitation skills and value-based leadership development. These inmates were selected from a group of 1,400 to be life skill facilitators for general population inmates just arriving to jail. Dr. Brantley R. Choate serves as the director of educational programs for the Los Angeles County Jail System. Dr. Choate holds a California multiple-subject teaching credential and a California administrative services credential, and serves as adjunct faculty for the University of Phoenix. He works directly with inmates, their teachers, school administrators, Sheriff’s custody staff, and upper management. His educational policy decisions impact program availability, quality, and sustainability. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the roles of various levels of leadership in reducing jail violence and recidivism. A contextual framework of systems’ thinking will provide the structure to discover how social attitudes,

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training, and life styles work together to create a system that fosters multiple layers of leadership (Senge, 2000). Jail systems in Los Angeles County are multi-faceted where isolated systems of law enforcement, medical services, food services, mental health services, religious volunteers, and educational services somehow work together. The blending of organizational cultures and attitudes to establish a supportive rather than punitive environment is a daunting task. This chapter will show how isolated systems of individuals’ visions come together to “build the future the organization seeks to create” (Bui & Baruch, 2010, para. 37). Furthermore, it will demonstrate how the leadership of the Sheriff, his executives, the staff, and the inmates “influences other group members toward the attainment of group or organizational goals” (Shackleton, 1995, p. 2). We specifically examine the background of the key converging cultures and the role of leadership in the transformation of organizational culture, and present interview data regarding the reduction of jail violence, use of force, and recidivism. It is imperative to note that while we ultimately advocate for the authentic program (meaningful integration of issues, imperatives, and concepts) approach to leadership development, it is important to note that the central context for this work is the United States. We understand that while we likely identify some issues and trends that may be relevant to scholars and educators in other national contexts, we do not pretend that this work is universally applicable. Instead, we offer a context-bound analysis from the perspective of a US education-based incarceration (EBI) program and issue an invitation to an interdisciplinary and multinational dialogue rather than propose a definitive statement about program leadership development in a greater or more prominent magnitude.

BACKGROUND OF CONVERGING CULTURES The Los Angeles County Sherriff’s Department (LASD) is the nation’s “largest sheriff’s department, second largest policing agency, and in addition to dozens of patrol stations and the country’s largest court security responsibilities, operates the nation’s largest jail system” (Baca, 2010, p. 58). In May 2012, Los Angeles County Sheriff Leroy D. Baca created the EBI Bureau. EBI focuses on providing inmates the skills necessary to live productive, crime-free lives outside of custody. Since the inception of the new bureau, nearly 8,000 men and women receive some form of daily rehabilitative education across seven county jail facilities. EBI is not only a

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bureau, but also a system that “provid[es] substantive and intellectual education in jails, and [is] supportive rather than punitive in efforts to reduce crime related behavior …” (Baca, 2010, p. 54). The goal of EBI programs (also known as correctional education) is to reduce recidivism rates and aid offenders in adapting to society and becoming productive citizens (Hendricks, Hendricks, & Kauffman, 2001). While there is much debate as to the true definition of “recidivism,” for the purposes of this chapter, we define recidivism as returning to jail after being released from custody for re-committing the same crime. According to Mentor and Wilkinson (2005), “research consistently demonstrate[d] that quality education is one of the most effective forms of crime prevention” (p. 1). Educational skills and knowledge help to deter people from committing criminal acts. As a result, education programs decrease the likelihood that people would return to crime and prison. The current nationwide recidivism rate of nearly 70% provides strong evidence that the contemporary approaches being used by most correctional agencies throughout the nation are woefully ineffective (Camp, 2007; Welsh & Farrington, 2007). Leadership development is a key component for the holistic approach to preparing inmates for their re-entry back into communities and into the larger society (Camp, 2007; Fitch & Normore, 2012; Hendricks et al., 2001). The LA County Sheriff’s department has provided law enforcement services since 1850 with the election of the first Sheriff George T. Burrill (www.laalmanac.com/crime/cr68.htm). During the past 150 years, the department has moved from chain gang systems to honor ranches to maximum-security facilities. Much of this change is due to the nature of the crimes committed, the change in population demographics, and the proliferation of gangs. A criminal street gang is defined as “any organization, association or group of three or more persons, whether formal or informal, which (1) has continuity of purpose, (2) seeks a group identity, and (3) has members who individually or collectively engage in or have engaged in a pattern of criminal activity” (Reference section 186.22(f) of the California Penal Code). Even though correctional education programs have existed since the inception of California’s San Quentin in 1852, the blending of the systems of law enforcement and education has always been challenging (Coley & Barton, 2006; Mackenzie, 2006). Therefore, the establishment of the EBI system does not come without resistance. Sheriff staff enter the profession with perceptions possibly learned from television shows, family members in law enforcement, and personal experiences. Once in the academy, his or her perceptions are honed when experiencing rigorous physical fitness and firearm training and when taught how to protect the citizenry and serve the public. The vision of the staff is well

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established by the time he or she enters the field. Bui and Baruch (2010) stated, “during the pursuance of personal mastery, people bring along their personal visions. Personal visions are pictures or images that people carry in their minds” (para 37). For example, when a new recruit attends the academy to become a Sheriff deputy, training focuses more on public safety techniques not necessarily training them to be a social worker or a teacher. In Los Angeles County, once graduating from the Sheriff’s training academy, the new deputy is required to work in the jail setting for several years prior to going to community patrol duty. The excitement of becoming a police officer and working patrol is often dampened by the realization the new recruit will now be a “social worker” inside the jails. Ironically, this form of “social worker” training inside the jails may perhaps be the best training to become an effective police officer in the community. Moreover, due to years of experience patrolling the streets, some of the veteran staff understandably develop distaste for incarcerated individuals. Since the veteran has the power to informally lead the rookie and influence his or her opinion, personal visions can become even more ingrained. Based on the author’s experience, providing a supportive environment through educational programs is not always part of the vision or psyche of the rookie or veteran Sheriff staff. To a certain degree, it is not “cool” to participate in the deliverance of supportive programs such as education inside the jails. Christensen and Crime and Justice Institute (2008) asserts that “professionals within criminal justice systems seldom find agreement on correctional strategy and therefore often oppose one another in deed as well as perspective. … As such, our system of criminal justice tends to be a system in name rather than practice” (p. 1). Hence, while the United States attempts substantial integration in certain areas (e.g., mid-western United States), oftentimes the two systems of education and law enforcement inherently struggle to co-exist (Normore, & Fitch, 2011). Furthermore, “The biggest challenge in adopting better interventions is not identifying the interventions with the best evidence so much as it is changing our existing systems to appropriately support the new innovations” (Crime and Justice Institute at Community Resources for Justice, 2009, p. 1).

IMPACT ON LEADERSHIP Sample of Inmate Learning Context The classroom setting for some inmates is often their dormitory. Immediately inside the entrance of the dorm is the space where they learn

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about values systems, spirituality, and leadership development to name a few concepts. The larger space of the dorm facility serves as their living quarters where inmates routinely live, sleep, read, tend to personal hygiene, and engage in learning. Bunk beds line the walls and are surrounded by reading materials including books about spirituality, moral development, leadership, and philosophy. Hanging from the ceiling beams are painted banners of cliche´s, proverbs, and adages that were created by the inmates, and reflective of how men want to live their lives while incarcerated, and how they want to lead their lives on their re-entry into their communities. Among the cliche´s are the following: Integrity needs no rules There is life in doing what is right To know the road ahead ask those coming back Well done is better than well said Man enters each stage of life as a novice Human improvement is from within outward Nothing is difficult to those who have the will Pride ends in a fall while humility brings honor Poor eyes limit your sight; poor vision limits your deeds We cannot reach the top unless we start climbing Better to be late than never Crises refines life; in them you discover who you are

Executive Leadership The Sheriff of Los Angeles County is clear about his mission when it comes to the incarcerated. He wants to educate all incarcerated men and women, that is, approximately 19,000. According to Sheriff Baca (2010), “The uneducated mind will predictably live in a threatened and limited way” (p. 54), “Lead the fight to prevent crime and injustice. … Enforce the law fairly and defend the rights of all, including the incarcerated. … Partner with the people we serve to secure and promote safety in our communities” (http://www.lasdhq.org/divisions/leadership-training-div/bureaus/dli/assets/ missionstatement.pdf). Baca (2010) created a set of guiding principles intended to provide a framework on which Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department education programs are based: • Assess and evaluate both the educational and trade skills of all offenders.

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• Develop a system of educating Los Angeles County prisoners who inevitably will serve time in the state prison system that begins and ends in the Los Angeles County Jail. • The development and implementation of an automated case management information system. • Strengthen and systemize the partnership with the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (CDCR). • Develop curriculum that puts into action learning programs that are both structured and unstructured. • Transform the LASD Custody Operations Division and State Correction’s Cultural Thinking to support and embrace the principles of EBI (pp. 54 58). As supported in previous research findings (e.g., Andrews, & Bonta, 2003; Camp, 2007), Baca’s mandates have created positive tension and conflict within employee’s value systems. Ciulla (1998) reiterates that “A leader’s role is to exploit tension and conflict within people’s value systems and play the role of raising people’s consciousness” (p. 15). Creative tension then has taken a once rational system and placed it in a state of disequilibrium. Fullan (1999) presented an argument that “too much structure creates gridlock, while too little structure creates chaos … the key to effective change is to stay on the edge of chaos” (p. 5). During the past 12 months, the authors have witnessed how the shared vision among the Sheriff’s executive staff has allowed change to occur. The chief of the custody division is an avid supporter of programs. Through his leadership and example, many other executive managers have joined forces to change the system. Initially, key early adopters from all levels of the organization were selected to participate in the new bureau (Andrews & Bonta, 2003). Perhaps the most important adopters were the Sheriff deputies and custody assistants (guards) due to their roles and responsibilities. The deputy and custody assistant work directly with the inmate population and are responsible for monitoring the inmate’s daily activities. The authors have observed that the deputy’s ability to professionally interact with the inmate increases the likelihood for educational programming success. Inmates fearful of verbal abuse by Sheriff staff often lose trust in “the system” and shy away from programs created by “the system.” Staff Leadership Fullan (1999) stated that “Top-down mandates and bottom-up energies need each other” (p. 19). The most successful education programs in the

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jail are found where the staff buy in the process and take ownership of their educational area. In fact, they have a greater impact on reducing jail violence through positive interactions with inmates. Research on treatment in general has indicated that the working relationship between staff and the [inmate] accounts for almost 1/3 of the change that occurs (Lambert, 1992). Officers are most successful when they: “strike a balance between an enforcement and intervention role; clarify their role with the client; model prosocial behaviors, show empathy without diminishing accountability; and focus interactions on problem solving and addressing criminogenic needs” (Crime and Justice Institute at Community Resources for Justice, 2009, p. ix). Criminogenic refers to “producing or leading to crime or criminality” (www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/criminogenic). Therefore, staff participation in teaching drug education, parenting, and relationship classes helps the inmate trust the system. In fact, a correctional officer who demonstrates the inclination and ability to address offender responsivity (ability to respond to programs) through nonjudgmental communication may well be the impetus for an offender to contemplate behavioral change (Christensen & Crime and Justice Institute, 2008, p. 17). Unfortunately, not all staff believes in providing educational programs. Christensen and Crime and Justice Institute (2008) conducted research with the US National Institute of Corrections to determine whether jails play a role in improving offender outcomes. Findings indicated that those who act in a “manner contrary to effective treatment will counter the effects of otherwise sound correctional treatment” (p. 7).

Inmate Leadership A key component of jail education in Los Angeles County is leadership. One of the premier education programs found within seven LASD jail facilities is M.E.R.I.T. (Maximizing Education Reaching Individual Transformation). The program is an integral part of LASD’s educationbased incarceration Bureau a new bureau in the Sheriff’s department under the command of a captain. To date, over 8,000 men and women have graduated from the 12-week M.E.R.I.T. life-skills training program that teaches students to make good decisions while obtaining life and work skills. Students attend classes for 30 hours per week until they are released or they graduate with their 12-week certificate (see Choate, Normore, & Bates, 2012). Through the M.E.R.I.T. life-skills program, beginning students are offered incentives to progress through a series of courses,

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ultimately leading to becoming a leader/facilitator of other inmates. In addition to life-skills programs, the bureau also offers programs in GED® (General Educational Development Test or high school equivalency), high school diploma, career technical education (CTE), on-the-job training, leadership, computers, music, art, access to community college classes, and physical education. In M.E.R.I.T. students begin as “general population” and move toward the more elite M.E.R.I.T. Masters. As students move through the progression, they are awarded more privileges such as separate living quarters, computer access in their dormitory, and greater mobility within the jail compound. An unusual component of the M.E.R.I.T. program is the teachers. Qualified inmates, deputies, and professional facilitators teach M.E. R.I.T. life-skills classes. The strength of the M.E.R.I.T. program lies in “its ability to bring all participants to the point where they recognize the importance of a personal commitment to reaching their goals, accepting responsibility for their actions, and being accountable for their life choices” (Baca, 2010, p. 31). In a recent volume of Law Enforcement Today, Choate et al. (2012) describe each element of the program in the following subsections. M.E.R.I.T. Beginnings M.E.R.I.T. Beginnings is a program facilitated by M.E.R.I.T graduates (inmates who are still incarcerated), as well as interested deputies. These facilitators are given a series of 45 different lessons to use for facilitation. M.E.R.I.T. students who graduate from the M.E.R.I.T. Beginnings course are given the opportunity to participate in this 12-week program. Parenting, anger management, drug education, relationships, and spiritual growth are the major components of the program. While spiritual growth is a component, only students who volunteer for this portion attend the classes. The M.E.R.I.T. program has a unique partnership with the department’s Religious and Volunteer Services (RVS) division, whereby a religious group can participate with M.E.R.I.T. M.E.R.I.T. Graduates After 12 weeks or approximately 360 hours of instruction, students are transitioned to a new class and in some case a new dormitory. This program is designed to cover the primary areas of one’s life such as drug addiction recovery, employment, finances, legal needs, medical care, family, and recreation. This program helps students create and organize goals and objectives they will need to address in the first few months following their

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release from custody. To qualify for this program, students must be graduates of a 12-week M.E.R.I.T. program. M.E.R.I.T. Masters Students who complete the 12-week (360 hours) M.E.R.I.T. course may qualify to become a M.E.R.I.T. Master. Students are chosen for this program on the basis of: desire to teach, enforcement of rules, and leadership capabilities. M.E.R.I.T. Master’s are divided into teams of two, one senior and one junior, based on experience. Each group of two teaches approximately 30 general population inmates. Prior to teaching and throughout the process, the inmate teachers are trained in adult learning theory, facilitation, basic lesson planning, basic curriculum design, and general principles or habits of leadership. (See Covey’s (1989) principles: be proactive, begin with the end in mind, think win-win, seek first to understand and then be understood, synergize, etc.) M.E.R.I.T. Masters also provide case management services throughout the jail, whereby each Master works with four other inmates to determine community transition needs. M.E.R.I.T. Continuum The M.E.R.I.T. Continuum is a support group that provides an opportunity for all M.E.R.I.T. students who have been released from custody to return to a designated meeting place for continued support. Family members are also encouraged to attend. These support groups meet on weekday evenings and are strategically placed throughout Los Angeles County for travel convenience.

Reduction of Jail Violence, Use of Force, and Recidivism Research indicate that “97% of the 1.3 million inmates now in US prisons will eventually be released and return to the community” (Serin & Crime and Justice Institute, 2005, p. 3). Serin and Crime and Justice Institute (2005) further explains that “Correctional programming is not a “getting soft” approach to crime rather it is holding inmates accountable for their criminal behavior and providing ways for them to become pro-social” (p. 4). Correctional programming “reduces recidivism by rates of 20 40% but it must adhere to strict criteria in order to be effective” (Serin & Crime and Justice Institute, 2005, p. 15). For example, offenders who participate in certain types of institutional or community-based treatment programs are less likely to be repeat offenders than the nonparticipants (DiIulio,

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1991). If we were to learn from our past, it seems that we would embrace a practice of offender habilitation designed to teach new cognitive skills methods that provide alternative courses to steer offenders away from poor decisions that have resulted in their repeat offending (Christensen & Crime and Justice Institute, 2008, p. 5). Jail violence and “use of force” have also been impacted by providing educational programs. In fact, inmate versus staff assaults was reduced from 171 in 2011 to 57 in 2012 (Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department, 2013). Since staff force is normally used in response to inmate violence, staff force has also declined.

RESEARCH PROCESS In conducting this research, we examined jail violence, recidivism, and leadership from the perspective of the inmate leader. Two focus groups of M. E.R.I.T. Master inmates were interviewed to gain a deeper understanding of the social phenomenon of the role of leadership in jail transformation. Moreover, this study was conducted from the constructivist point of view using the assumption that individuals seek understanding of the world they live in (Creswell, 2003). A purposeful sampling technique was used “… based on the assumption that the investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned” (Merriam, 1998, p. 61). Two male inmate focus group interviews were conducted, scribed, and coded. Each group contained six M.E.R.I.T. Master inmates. Each interview lasted approximately 60 minutes. Three key themes that emerged from the interview data include: inmate transformation, leadership characteristics, and staff leadership. Each theme will be addressed in the subsequent sections. Pseudonyms are used to protect the anonymity and privacy of the inmate leader. Inmate Transformation Most of the M.E.R.I.T. Master inmates were leaders in their own communities prior to coming to jail; however, their energies were focused on leading crime. Juan states, “This program gives men who were negative leaders in other aspects of their life a chance to channel leadership into something positive.” However, these inmates did not start the EBI programs with any intention to be a leader. Since the common emotion of new inmates is fear, survival is their foremost concern. “Before this program, I was always

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looking over my shoulder,” stated Jaime. Hence, the environment of the jail plays an important role in the success of the program. What is unsafe about a jail? In most county jail systems, inmate political systems and internal leadership structures dictate who can participate in programs. Going against the jail leaders or “shot callers” can lead to acts of violence. By replacing the negative leaders with positive leaders, jail violence and use of staff force have almost been eliminated. Areas of the jail where educational programs exist even show a lower incidence of violence. Matthew, who has been in and out of jail for 20 years, sees a big difference. “When a fight happens, everybody doesn’t jump in. In a regular jail, there would be a riot. … EBI stopped jail violence”. “Now they [the inmate] don’t have to be violent, they can let their guard down and be more successful with their learning,” states Miguel. Upon arrival to jail, the new inmate immediately senses a difference of environment. The dormitories are interracially mixed. Inmates from different races eat together, play chess together, and even study together. Calvin stated, “there is no racial tension in this program it is a sanctuary from violence.” Robert stated, “I don’t see him [Hispanic Inmate] as the enemy anymore.” Matt discovered “If someone new comes to the dormitory, someone from another race helps them with their mat [bedding].” As the environment allows the inmate to freely participate in the program, they see the need to change and begin to improve their self-worth. Steven stated, “I had to come to jail to have someone believe in me.” Along with self-worth, spiritual growth is another common trait among the M.E.R.I.T. Masters. The majority of them have volunteered to participate in formal religious studies, apart from their regular academic and life-skills classes. Learning how they relate to a higher power gives them a greater sense of purpose and understanding of their life. “I never had a spiritual connection. The only time I prayed was when I went to court and that didn’t always work out too well,” stated Miguel. Key to religious studies is personal transformation. Perhaps Rodney states it the best by saying, “I can’t quote a lot of scripture, but I know how to apply it in my life.” In summary, providing a safe environment where inmates can open up and learn about themselves creates an avenue for learning and more immediate transformation. The opportunity to be a leader often follows such transformation.

Leadership Characteristics The M.E.R.I.T. Master leader desires to give back. Carlos stated, “I wanted to give back what I learned in class. Giving back helps me inside.

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Being of service was something I didn’t get to do in the streets.” This desire to give back is not limited to inside the jail. Most inmates commonly expressed the interest to give back to their community upon release. When asked about recidivism, giving back to the community was a common antidote for returning to jail. Bob appropriately expressed the sentiment of the group by stating, “I want to be a leader in my community and not a follower. When I get out, I’m going to be a person of influence in my community.” As stated by an LASD senior deputy, “If you’re not giving back, you’re coming back.” Another important aspect of leadership is humility. The changed inmate humbles himself and begins to think of others. Roy states, “Before, I was so selfish it was all about me.” While the inmates identified service and humility as the most important characteristics of their leadership experience, they also pointed out important leadership characteristics of the staff.

Staff and Staff Leadership Like the inmates, leadership for the Sheriff staff is grown organically through time and experience. As stated earlier, most deputies did not sign up to be social workers and schoolmasters, yet somehow change has occurred in many areas of the jail system. Was it because of the direction from the Sheriff, or was it more of a personal awakening based on program participation? Clearly, the leadership of the Sheriff and the department’s upper management play an important role and provide an excellent example. This study also shows it was not just the example of the upper management that created change. During the interview, interesting phenomena occurred. The inmates thanked the jail leadership for replacing the custody staff with “nicer” people. Since the custody staff was the same rank and file as usual, we wondered why they thought the staff was different and even replaced. It was not the jail leadership that changed the custody staff, but the inmate themselves who changed the “heart” of the custody staff, thus changing the staff’s attitudes and behaviors. This change of heart and attitude could only take place through experiencing the success of the program over a period of time. Yes, most of the staff that started out as non-believers in EBI are now participating and making a difference in the lives of the inmates. Without knowing it, they are following the Sheriff’s vision to fight crime through education. Perhaps the staff was changing their “… moral purpose …” and providing “… empathy and relationships across diverse groups, …” (Fullan, 1999, p. 2). Common characteristics of leadership found among the staff were trust and genuine concern. Thomas Aquinas stated, “One who is trusted cannot

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sustain a reciprocal relationship with others. Without reciprocity of purpose, leadership itself will not exist” (Zoller, Normore, & Harrison, 2013, p. 3). The greatest trust and unconditional love were found with those staff members who sacrificed their personal time to help the inmate. Some quotes from the inmates were as follows: “What about the guy who hobbles in with a cane at 7:30 Sunday mornings to teach us?” “Officer D. changed his work schedule just to be able to help us.” “Officer A. comes in on his Saturdays so we can see our kids.” “Chaplain J. has cancer and he still comes in to help us.” “Our teacher’s son was in the hospital and he still came to work.” “Ms. C’s brother was missing and she showed up to help us.” “Officer M. cried in front of me and said she prays for us.” “Officers say goodnight to us.” One can surmise from the above statements that custody leadership is more about showing care through actions. The building of trust is critical as it pertains to how the inmate interacts with custody. This not only impacts the inmate’s ability to progress in their education, but also reduces unnecessary use of force incidents. Another LASD deputy provides a perfect example. He states, “Use of force has never been an issue with me because I talk to the people”.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS In the EBI programs for Los Angeles County Sheriff’s department leadership development is aimed at helping incarcerated populations to self-rehabilitate. These inmates are repeat offenders who made poor decisions around issues such as substance abuse, neglectful parenting, and robbery to name a few of their crimes that landed them in the county jail. The more hardened end up in the state prison system as opposed to the county jail system. Recognition that the role of leaders in any organization is at least in part to advocate on behalf of traditionally marginalized and poorly served citizens carries a corollary contention that leaders must increase their awareness of various explicit and implicit forms of oppression, develop an intent to subvert the dominant paradigm, and finally act as a committed advocate for educational change that makes a meaningful and positive change in the education and lives of traditionally marginalized and oppressed populations. Research indicates that EBI and correctional education take a penetrating look at the needs and challenges of society’s

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disenfranchised the denizens of our streets, the emotionally and physically incarcerated, our children in juvenile hall, and in unsettled homes. We believe it is incumbent to encourage public awareness of the causes that underlie the destructive cycles plaguing these populations, including the abuse and neglect that cycle through generations (Fitch & Normore, 2012). It, therefore, stands to reason that when effectively addressed through education the economic burden on society is lightened and an advocacy to increase understanding engenders a humane response. The M.E.R.I.T. program is a positive response that focuses on providing inmates the skills necessary to live productive, crime-free lives outside of custody. As a result of this research we offer the following two broad recommendations discussed in the following subsections.

Comparative Studies on Education-Based Incarceration Our research is US context-bound. There is a need to conduct comparative studies of EBI programs in diverse countries outside the United States. While the knowledge based on the impact of jail programs on the rate of recidivism and jail violence in North America continues to grow, we know much less about these issues in other countries. However, there are a few studies on corrections, education, and recidivism in other countries that have garnered some attention. For example, Jehle (2009) reported findings from EBI programs in Switzerland, Germany, Italy, and Spain and found that pretrial detainees are difficult, particularly, to provide meaningful education and training opportunities because of the short time presented. Further, a meta-analysis covering cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) programs in five member nations of the European Union found that CBT programs produce on average a 12% reduction in recidivism over nontreated inmate groups (Illescas, Meca, & Genoves, 2001). Still, very little attention has been paid to the impact of leadership. The importance of transcending cultural norms over national and international boundaries is equally significant. In order to fully capture the impact of EBI programs, research must involve a greater number of organizations at extreme ends of the value dimensions for measuring leadership and program effectiveness. Further, we need to investigate the contexts, processes, leadership experiences, behaviors, and attitudes with particular reference to similarities and differences between countries that experience modernization and industrialization and poor countries. Such comparative studies may generate cross-fertilization of ideas and experiences that will provide

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insight into program and leadership orientation that, thus far, have not been illuminated in what Oplatka (2006) refers to as “current AngloAmerican literature” (p. 620).

Interdisciplinary Leadership Development and Learning The literature related to leadership and leadership development has suffered by not connecting to extant lines of related inquiry in the social sciences and in other related disciplines. Much can be shared and learned about leadership and education programs within and across myriad disciplines such as education, sociology, religious studies, psychology, law enforcement, criminal justice, peace studies, and business that may well catapult into a whole new theory of leadership development. In support of the scope of this book it is indeed time to join the conversation on leadership development and to take seriously the call to work in support of leadership success and to combat leadership failure for all leaders in leadership training and development programs across the continents.

REFERENCES Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2003). The psychology of criminal conduct. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing. Baca, L. D. (2010, March April). Education-based incarceration: A re-entry plan - changing the way we incarcerate. Sheriff’s Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.lasdhq.org/ divisions/correctional/ebi/assets/ebi-6principles-sheriffmag-mar-apr2010.pdf. Accessed on October 5, 2012. Bui, H., & Baruch, Y. (2010). Creating learning organizations: A systems perspective. The Learning Organization, 17(3), 208 227. Camp, S. (2007). An explanatory mixed-methods content analysis of two state level correctional institutions’ pre-release handbook curriculum designs, looking through the lenses of two philosophical orientations of education. Unpublished dissertation, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL. Choate, B., Normore, A. H., & Bates, D. (2012). Maximizing Education Reaching Individual Transformation (M.E.R.I.T.): A groundbreaking leadership development program for inmates in Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department. Law Enforcement Today. Retrieved from http://lawenforcementtoday.com Christensen, G. E., & Crime and Justice Insitute. (2008). Our system of corrections: Do jails play a role in improving offender outcomes? Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections. Retrieved from http://nicic.org/Downloads/PDF/ Library/023357.pdf

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Ciulla, J. (1998). Ethics, the heart of leadership. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Coley, R. J., & Barton, P. E. (2006). Locked up and locked out: An educational perspective on the U.S. prison population. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Covey, S. R. (1989). The 7 habits of highly effective people. Philadelphia, PA: Running Press Book Publishers. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Crime and Justice Institute at Community Resources for Justice. (2009). Implementing evidence-based policy and practice in community corrections (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections. DiIulio, J. J. Jr. (1991). No escape: The future of American corrections. New York, NY: Basic Books. Fitch, B. D., & Normore, A. H. (2012). Education-based incarceration and recidivism: The ultimate social justice crime fighting tool. Chapel Hill, NC: Information Age Publishers. Fullan, M. (1999). Change forces the sequel (2nd ed.). Bridgeport, CT: George H. Buchanan. Hendricks, C., Hendricks, J. E., & Kauffman, S. (2001). Literacy, criminal activity, and recidivism. Retrieved from http://www.americanreadingforum.org/01_yearbook/html/12_ Hendricks.htm. Accessed on August 30, 2010. Illescas, S. R., Meca, J. S., & Genoves, V. G. (2001). Treatment of offenders an drecidivism: Assessment of the effectiveness of programs applied in Europe. Psychology in Spain, 5(1), 47 62. Jehle, J. (2009). Strafrechtspflege in Deutschland, fakten und zahlen (5th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.bjm.bund.de Lambert, M. J. (1992). Psychotherapy outcome research: Implications for integrative and eclectical therapists. In J. C. Norcross & M. R. Goldfried (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy integration (pp. 94 129). New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc. Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department. (2013, February). Education based incarceration: Creating a life worth living (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Custody Division, Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department. MacKenzie, D. L. (2006). What works in corrections: Reducing criminal activities of offenders and delinquents. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mentor, K., & Wilkinson, M. (2005). Literacy. In M. Bosworth (Ed.), Encyclopedia of prisons & correctional facilities (pp. 555 558). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. doi: 10.4135/9781412 952514.n206 Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education (Rev. ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Normore, A. H., & Fitch, B. D. (2011). Leadership in education, corrections, and law enforcement: A commitment to ethics, equity, and excellence. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Oplatka, I. (2006). Women in educational administration within developing countries: Towards a new international research agenda. Journal of Educational Administration, 44(6), 604 624. Senge, P. M. (2000). Systems change in education. Reflections, 1(3), 486 514. Serin, R., & Crime and Justice Institute. (2005). Evidence-based practice: Principles for enhancing correctional results in prisons. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections. Shackleton, V. (1995). Business leadership. London: Routledge.

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Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. E. (2007). Preventing crime: What works for children, offenders, victims, and places. New York, NY: Springer. Zoller, K., Normore, A., & Harrison, B. (2013). Leadership thinking: A discipline of the mind for the effective law enforcement supervisor. Journal of Authentic Leadership in Education, 2 (4), 1 10.

PART IV LEADERS OF THE NEW MILLENNIUM

LEADERSHIP AND THE EMERGENCE OF AFRICA Ndi Richard Tanto ABSTRTACT Political leadership is decisive in the development of people and their communities. Bad leadership ushers in general stagnation and underdevelopment, while good leadership has the potential to transform people and their communities positively. African leadership is to be blamed for Africa’s underdevelopment. Concern was more regarding postcolonial leadership in Africa with having and keeping (consolidating) political power than using such power to develop the continent’s abundant natural resources. For Africa to come off its development quack mire and face the future with hope, there is need for a clean break from the past generation of political leaders. This is critical because the leaders of old generation are trying to position their stooges to take over power as the case in Gabon, Togo, DRC, Cameroon, etc. Africa has 60% youthful population and needs a youthful leadership abreast with the challenges of globalization and translation of such challenges into opportunities within the African context. At present, the responsibility of Africa’s future lies with its youthful civil society. Through its role of monitoring governance and promoting and protecting rights, it has developed a rich experience across Africa. The Arab spring brings along with it the hope of

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leadership change on the continent. Firstly, it is a clean break from the gerontocracy. Secondly, it is motivation by the need to improve on the socioeconomic livelihood of the people. Lastly, it is supported by the African academia and diaspora. The failure of this emerging leadership class to usher in strong and transparent institutions to carry Africa forward would be suicidal.

INTRODUCTION Africa is poor and underdeveloped primarily because it has failed to respond effectively and timely to changes, challenges and opportunities in the domestic and global marketplaces. Africa has failed because it has lacked the requisite capabilities, the political will, or both, to effectively respond to the changes, challenges and opportunities that have confronted the continent in the course of its modern history. (Mohiddin, 1998, p. 10)

The quotation above captures the situation of Africa and the interest in writing this chapter. As can be observed from the quote, the problem of Africa’s development lies at the feet of its leaders. Leadership is an important variable for shaping development and governance outcomes. While we agree with proponents of the fact that leadership most be examined from a context, we nevertheless strongly hold Africa’s poor development and governance outcomes to the kind of leaders that have ruled Africa (Ado-Kurawa, n.d., p. 1). The key role of leadership to Africa’s development has been highlighted by the United Nations and the World Bank (VonDoepp, 2009, p. 3). Africans are seeking relief from coups, misgovernment, and economic collapse (Elliott, n.d.). Across Africa, the search for development has been marked by the history of colossal failure of effective leadership (Bonnie, 2006, p. 1). The continent’s resources are personalized at the expense of the people; abject poverty, inadequate health facilities, and housing problems pervade the land and these emerge out of the failure on the part of leadership. In a speech to African leaders to signal the end of the 38-year-old Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the beginning of a year-long transition into the African Union, Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General at the time, was categorical that African leadership “must reject the ways of the past, and commit itself to building a future of democratic governance subject to the rule of law” (ANAN, http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/sg_ oau_2001.htm). All over the world, leadership is the most important factor that determines whether a nation can develop or not. Leadership that is free,

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intelligent, brave, patriotic, people-oriented, and destination-bound, and that understands psychology of leading and applies it to development of the people must be at the affairs of men (ANAN, 2001). The history of nations has more or less been a history of personalities that have made enduring impact in socioeconomic advancement and shaped the future of the people. In fact, the promotion of human civilization has been the propelling force of leadership. This has been so because the leader has a central role to play in any development. A leader in simple terms is someone who leads, plans, organizes, controls, communicates, delegates, and accepts the responsibility to reach the societal goals (Ogunbameru, 2004). In other words, a leader is an individual appointed to a job or elected to a position with authority, to accomplish the goals and objectives of the society. Thus, a leader must be astute with both man and material. A leader must possess the ability to develop enthusiasm/motivation in the followers to put in every necessary effort to deliver on set goals. Thus, the ability not only to conceive but also to communicate a vision or idea is an attribute of leadership. Simply put, leadership is the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of the group’s mission. A leader, according to Stacey, must give directives on organizational goals and tasks of the work group, monitor performance of the group in terms of goal achievement, ensure that a cohesive team is built and motivated to perform the task, supply any skills or efforts that are missing in the team, and articulate purpose and reduce uncertainty that team members face (Stacey, 1996). In fact Ajayi argues that leadership is a core ingredient in organizing, mobilizing, and inspiring societal resources for the attainment of goals (April 2004). In the words of John Kufor, former president of Ghana, what Africa needs is leadership. Good leadership. Not just any kind of leadership but leadership that has been well nurtured; to direct socioeconomic development, has vision and is imbued with a missionary zeal to tackle the myriad of problems that face the continent in prioritized order.

On the basis of the current situation, it is germane to argue that a majority of the first generation of African leaders failed and are still not able to perform the functions of leadership within their respective countries. In many African countries like Cameroon, Mali, Togo, Nigeria, the leaders have organized or attempted to put aside the constitutions or modify it against the wishes of their people to push ahead their selfish ambitions to stay in power. In Cameroon for example, there is no limitation to the

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mandate of the president of the Republic, parliamentarians and councilors. Elected officials consequently spend more time strategizing on how to stay in power at all costs than meeting the needs of the electorate. The effect has been that all over Africa, there is a crisis of leadership. The consequence of this bad leadership on Africa has been devastation: A pervasive and debilitating malnutrition problem, a backward and fragmented agriculture, the weakest industrial base in the Third World, environmental degradation reflected in a losing war against desertification, withering features of the modern society to which Africans have been introduced, a debilitating debt problem, intervention by international financial institutions and their expert advisers who are assuming control over the management of African economies, a pervasive atmosphere of domestic unrest, tensions and conflicts, which have oftentimes resulted in civil wars, interstate conflicts resulting from border problems or the activities of dissidents or rebel groups across the colonial boundaries, a chronic state of instability resulting from these internal and regional tensions and conflicts, an increasingly marginalized position in the geo-political dynamics of the global scene. (African Leadership Forum, 1988, p. 5)

REASONS FOR POOR PERFORMANCE OF AFRICAN LEADERS IN THE PAST 50 YEARS To understand the failure of this first generation of African leaders, it would be important to understand the context within which they worked. Before colonial rule and even during the colonial period, strong monarchies existed in most African colonies. Monarchies existed in all tropical African countries. However, these monarchs were completely pushed aside at independence by the new political elite who introduced western-style system of governance. Independence, therefore, brought about a struggle between the western-style modern democratic governance and feudal power of traditional chiefs/monarchs that existed before independence. This was demonstrated in Ghana. When the Asante chief realized that he had been sidelined by the new political arrangements, he started asking for substantial measure of local autonomy (Martin, 2005, p. 25). In Cameroon, Nigeria, and Uganda, these feudal lords still exist and have enormous powers. The cohabitation of a western-style democracy and feudal power of traditional chiefs in Africa has not been easy to manage. In Cameroon, the traditional leaders are referred to as auxiliaries of the administration. Today, the Lamido of Rey Bouba is the vice president of the senate and a host of these traditional rulers are members of the senate. Since they have power over their subjects, they are coerced into ruling parties in order to

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influence the votes of their subject in support of these parties. By so doing, they tamper with the freedom of individuals to choose their leaders within a democratic dispensation. When we examine the circumstances that led to the emergence of colonial leaders, two important facts can be established. First, we can observe that there were leaders created and supported by the colonial authorities and those who emerged among the people and led the struggle against colonial rule and for independence. The latter came to be generally known as “African nationalists” and the former as “colonial collaborators or stooges.” The majority of leaders who came up at independence were colonial stooges, while those who emerged from among the people were branded as communist by the colonial powers and repressed. Nationalists in Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, were branded as communists and heavily repressed. Rubert Um Nyobe and Ernest Ounji of the UPC (Cameroon), Patrice Lumumba (Democratic Republic of Congo), Nelson Mandela (South Africa), and many others across the continent were branded as communists and repressed. The stooges or colonial collaborators worked to guarantee the goals of their colonial masters in their respective countries. Some of the stooges were Amadou Ahidjo of Cameroon, Mobutu Seseseko of Zaire, etc. The dichotomy between the stooges and nationalists made leadership difficult. Tensions between these two factions made acquisition and maintenance of power the primary objective of political leaders. Energy was wasted in fighting against political opponents rather than introducing social and economic reforms for the people under their rule. These first-generation postcolonial leaders were afraid of the indigenous intellectuals and scholars and took measures to alienate, isolate, and even harass them. Most of the intellectuals were repressed and killed while many escaped to the west in search of freedom. The main strategies of these firstgeneration postcolonial leaders were intrigues, manipulation, threats, and coercion in order to maintain power. And the leadership required to be, particularly in the single party, which then dominated the political scene, authoritarian, dictatorial, and cynical (Ahmed, 1998, p. 5). Another argument that has been advanced to justify the failure of this first generation of Africa leaders is what Easterly and Levine refer to as ethnic and linguistic division. According to their argument, “ethnic diversity leads to social and political divisions that divert attention from sound policy making. Greater ethnic diversity therefore harms growth since it leads to poorer policy choices” (Easterly & Levine, 1997). Most of the firstgeneration leaders built their political base in their ethnic groups and ethnic

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group rivalry for political leadership became a common feature in the political landscape of the period. Most post-colonial African leaders wanted a clean break from past systems of governance in precolonial Africa. They opted for the political cultures of their metro poles: the Westminster model, and the Belgian and French presidential and premier systems. These men ignored that the governmental processes they cherished had evolved in economically, industrially, politically, and socially complex state systems. The African nationalists even ignored their own counter-racist philosophies such as “negritude” and the “African Personality.” They occasionally paid lip service to traditional political cultures, but firmly rejected compromise with African traditional politicians for the fear of derailing the drive for independence (Chazan, Mortimer, Ravenhill, & Rothchild, 1992, p. 7). These leaders ignored the loyalty of the masses to their traditional rulers. Lloyd, Coleman, and Rosberg Jr. (1970) advised politicians to recognize the loyalty of the people to their traditional leaders and to involve the latter in the governance of the country. He urged them not to use traditional leaders only for symbolic purposes, thereby running the risk of destroying the prestige of the rulers just as did too close an association with the colonial administration in past decades. The modern forms of democracy emphasized individual liberties, whereas Africans believed in collective liberty. Increasingly, African scholars insist that whereas western ideas about democracy are specifically rooted in the notion of political and social rights for individuals, the reality of Africa is still one in which “collectivities,” or “ethnic” groups, rather than individuals are demanding social justice. In this context, what matters is respect for African cultures and languages, and ethnic concerns in the distribution of their countries’ or world resources. These views are now being linked to the conviction that African traditional leaders should join elite politicians in governing African societies. C.S. Whitaker, a researcher of African traditional leadership, has suggested that the emerging political culture of African countries would do well to take traditional elements into account (1970). These issues that were ignored by the first-generation leaders caused them to fail in their attempts to govern their people on foreign models. The first generation of postcolonial African leaders because of the challenges discussed earlier missed the opportunity to position Africa among nations. This opportunity provided by the transition from colonial rule to independence was vividly captured by Juluis Nyerere of Tanzania who summarized it as, “the choice is not between change and no change; the choice for Africa is between changing or being changed changing our lives under our own direction or being changed by the impact of forces

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outside our control” (Nyerere, 1966). Africa thus missed the opportunity to change under its own direction and thus was subjected to change under external direction. When African countries acquired independence, western economists essentially from the colonial powers advocated that the state should act as the paramount of development and dismissed the role of markets. The state was thus made the hub of the economic development of the people at the detriment of the private sector. However, in the 1980s (the lost decade), these western economists regarded the state as the principal cause of development failure and called for market-oriented development strategies in place of government intervention. The overall goal was to shift from consumption budgeting favoured by the elite to investment budgeting, which would be of interest to the majority (Martin, 2005, pp. 369 370). To many African leaders, this was contradictory and difficult to accept as it constituted a complete turnaround from normal practice. The state controlled economy gave the political elite enormous powers and control of resources and people. The clamor for market economy in the 1980s was seen as a strategy to reduce dependence of the masses on the state for survival. According to Douglas Rimmer, resistance to the proposals for restructuring introduced in the 1980s could be understood because African leaders did not give priority to economic growth. Their primary concerns were the maintenance of political power and the distribution of wealth to themselves and their supporters (Douglas, 1991). Economic control of the state had given the elite access to resource and attempts to restrict such access through the introduction of the market-oriented model for economic development was hotly contested. The issues raised above contributed to the failure of African leadership in the past 50 years. Leadership was personalized and transformed into a means of acquiring personal wealth and power, thus those in power and position of leadership did all they could to keep others out. As such, leadership succession in post-Independence Africa has tended to be a product of crude political manipulations, rebellions, or military coups rather than the peaceful application of the constitutional process.

THE NEED FOR A NEW LEADERSHIP FOR AFRICA There is an urgent need in Africa for new categories of leadership (not ruling class or power elite!) with the courage and skills to reinvent and build the continent in these times of complex, dynamic and unpredictable economic, social, political, technological, and national change. (DrAN, September 8, 2012).

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There has never been a time in the African history when the issue of leaders and quality of leadership have been so important. The need for an African leadership that has the competence to comprehend the threats, challenges and opportunities of globalization, the imperatives of democratization and good governance, the vision of a preferred future, and the capacity and commitment to realize it is clearly crucial. To acquire the capabilities to respond to the challenges and opportunities within the global context of the 21st century, Africa must mobilize its resources by facilitating the release of the energies, talents, skills, enterprise, and entrepreneurship of its peoples especially its youth. Only competent, honest, visionary, and committed leaders are likely to create the enabling environment within which such liberalizing process could take place (p. 12). In this light, universities and leadership training institutions are very important as nurseries for the new leaders. In light of the endemic problems facing Africa, the first-generation African leaders have been subjected to severe criticism (Ahmed, 1998, p. 2). They failed to create the conditions conducive to the evolution of a young generation of leaders with the capacity, integrity, vision, and commitment to take Africa into the 21st Century. The colonial state was authoritarian, unresponsive, unaccountable, lacking in transparency, and in most cases repressive. Today, the political context has not really changed as the old guard is still in place or is being replaced by their stooges and/or children. While colonial authorities surrendered power to their African stooges, the first-generation African leaders are gradually and grudgingly surrendering power to its own stooges. This is happening in Gabon, Mali, Kenya, Democratic Republic of Congo, Libya, Cameroon, etc. There is therefore little or no possibility for piecemeal change from the old guard to a new generation. The situation of Africa needs new-generation leaders ready to stand to the challenges highlighted earlier and break from the past for the good of the future. That leadership needs to build on the experiences of Africa. An African leadership without an African focus is an Africa heading for the rocks again (Ogochukwu, 2010). It is the job of the new generation of African leaders to ensure that the millions of young people who are willing to put in the work to improve their future have every opportunity to experiment, learn, adapt, and eventually succeed (Fred, 2012). Such a leadership should have the following agenda: Commitment to development, national welfare, and a fair distribution of resources, the promotion of peace and security, releasing the energies of the people for construction

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work, the protection and promotion of human dignity, the development of an educational system whose context and objectives reflect African realities and aspirations, the fight against corruption at all levels, especially within the ranks of the leaders, planning on the basis of knowledge, information and proposals generated from within Africa and not from outside sources. (African Leadership Forum, 1988, p. 10)

A glance at the leadership performance of African Countries today points to timid efforts at democratization. While the examples of Ghana and Liberia give reasons to hope for a better leadership across the continent, the tensions associated with leadership transition in Central African Republic, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Libya, etc. still tell the story of the challenge that lies ahead for democratic leadership in Africa.

THE ARAB SPRING AND THE EMERGENCE OF A NEW LEADERSHIP FOR AFRICA The present revolution in North Africa brings a rejection of the “aged state” into the open, a state whose institutions are dominated by aged. At present the average age of African heads of states and governments is approximately 61 with more than 15 leaders over the age of 70. This “aged state” cuts across the board in Africa and exists not only at the level of the states’ leadership, but also in ideological movements, political parties, and trade unions (Rawia & Tawfik, 2011). Today, Africa is regarded as the world’s youngest continent, with 70% of the population under the age of 30 (Youth in Africa, 2010). In short, the African continent presents a case of aged states and young societies. This is an unacceptable contradiction. The aged have remained loyal to old-aged thought and value systems, which are unable to address the concerns of a rapidly evolving generation of young people. Put in simple terms, the aged are unable to meet the challenges of the age of globalization. Africa needs a new generation of young leaders to meet the challenges of its youthful population and the complexities of a global community. The Arab spring has brought to light a new development in political leadership, that is, collective leadership with a strong commitment to studying and using nonviolent strategies. Unlike in the past when revolutions were carried by vanguards, the Arab spring has had no outstanding leaders. In the absence of a single inspiring political platform or leader, the activists have mobilized masses capitalizing on common grievances and shared

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aspirations for a better future (Rawia & Tawfik, 2011). This is similar to what happened in Cameroon in February 2008 when the population, essentially youthful, jammed the streets of major cities to call government’s attention to the high cost of living and youth unemployment. The population was united on the issues of high cost of living and unemployment. No political party or opinion leader took responsibility for the uprising as it was a spontaneous movement. They were brutally repressed and their hopes dashed. These two cases point to one fact. The youth are tired of the policies of old colonial leaders, which do not give them space for expression. They are tired of slogans like, “the future belongs to the youth.” It points to consciousness among the youthful population of Africa about the need for a clean break from the past. It points to the eagerness by youths to put their knowledge to use at the service of their countries and Africa at large. The African youth is abreast with the realities of globalization, the information communication technology (ICT), and the challenges of a fast evolving world.

CHALLENGES TO AN EMERGING YOUNG AFRICAN LEADERSHIP Resisting Cooptation by the Old Guard The Arab spring has opened new avenues of engagement for young leaders in the public space not only in North Africa, but in the African continent as a whole. This is necessary to develop a new generation of leaders who are people friendly rather than power friendly. This is a clean break from the old order in which leaders were power friendly rather than people friendly. The first challenge to this emerging new African leadership is from incumbent regimes. The new leadership has to face attempts at cooptation from the aged leadership. The old guard is ready to use its political power to coerce the young leaders to join them with the argument that they can bring change from within. If the old guard would succeed, the momentum gathered by these revolutionary youths would be sapped and misdirected. The challenge for the emerging young leadership is to connect state institutions with the grassroots population. A political system that guarantees these two key roles for the emerging youthful leadership holds the future to Africa’s development.

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Resisting International Influence Another very crucial issue that the new leadership of Africa would likely face is managing the relationship with western leaders. As the new leadership is emerging, western leaders are on the alert, looking for possibilities of engaging with these young leaders. While western leaders want to engage these leaders politically, the Chinese are more subtle through economic engagement. Reaching out to the external, especially nongovernmental forces, to share experiences and mobilize support for the revolution while rejecting any attempts to shape the agenda of the revolutionaries is the second big challenge of the North African revolutions (Rawia & Tawfik, 2011).

OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE GROWTH OF THE NEW AFRICAN LEADERSHIP The Arab spring is occurring when the civil society in Africa has come of age. The process of democratization in Africa has induced the explosive growth of civil society groups who have emerged to promote and defend various interests. In countries like Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya, Ghana, etc., the civil society is vibrant and checking the abuse of power. The old leadership has grudgingly accepted the emergence of this class. To an extent, the civil society is encouraged by government to function independently and has been contributing effectively to the promotion of accountability and transparency in government (Amoako, 2004). The civil society because of its connections and appeal to grassroots support has empowered the masses on their rights and the need to mobilize around those rights. The population, therefore, considers the civil society more relevant to them than political parties and their leaders who have wrecked them for over 50 years. During a sensitization campaign for Cameroonians to register and vote in elections, the population requested for Ecumenical Service for Peace (civil society) to stand for elections because they were tired of political parties and their intrigues. The fact that the civil society has to hold government accountable for its actions has thus helped the civil society to enjoy the support of the masses. The new generation of African leaders would evidently emerge from the civil society. This is because it tries to mobilize the masses not to support political parties and personalities but political programs that will bring about the development of African people. The connection of the civil society with leadership is to hold it accountable while its connectedness to

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masses is to assess their needs as well as give feedback on its connection to leadership. The civil society is therefore trying to connect the state to the people. The social media has provided a medium for the experiences of the Arab spring to be shared throughout Africa. Users of the social media are essentially the youthful population. Through social media, revolutionaries in Egypt have benefited from strategies used by their counterparts in Tunisia. The social media, therefore, presents an endless opportunity to fine tune ideas and share experiences of mass mobilization and resistance to the old order. The greatest support to the emergence of a new leadership for Africa has come from African scholars. Hundreds of African scholars and activists participating in the World Social Forum in Dakar expressed their support for, and solidarity with, the people of Tunisia and Egypt. Support from the civil society and African scholars is critical to the emergence of a youthful and dynamic political leadership for Africa. While the civil society is in touch with the realities of African development by virtue of its grassroots appeal, African scholars are in touch with global challenges. Many of these scholars are among the finest brains in the west due to repressive political systems in Africa which did not give them opportunities to express their talent at home. In 2012, the government of Cameroon organized a strategic meeting with over 200 Cameroonian economic operators based in Europe and America on how to establish branches of their businesses in Cameroon. A blend of these classes has the potential to produce the kind of leadership that Africa needs to meet the global challenge. For Africa to emerge and be globally competitive, it is important to pass the leadership baton from the older statesmen, many of whom are out of touch with the current situations within their countries, to promising meritocratic youth leaders, who can learn from the experiences and mistakes of the elders (Martin, 2013). These are to be found within the civil society and the African scholars, the greatest proponents of accountable leadership in Africa. Many African scholars have gained global exposure in their studies and businesses abroad and can add value and new ideas that can improve Africa’s political performance, including the first step in creating the new Africa of which we are dreaming.

Attributes of the New African leadership Africa needs leaders who believe in democracy not simply as an electoral mechanism of gaining power, but as a means by which legitimate power is

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achieved and responsibly and accountably exercised on behalf of the people. Elections are held in all African countries and those elected claim to represent the will of the people, and yet in their daily exercise of power African leaders tend to be oblivious of the needs, fears, and aspirations of the people who elected them. Africa needs leaders who respect and are respected, trust and are trusted, by those who elected them, and are thus secure and confident in their leadership. Africa needs to strengthen the key institutions supportive of democracy and good governance such as parliament, political parties, civil society, NGOs, press and media; and the think-tanks. Africa equally needs to promote the major principles supportive of the key institutions such as freedom, human rights, democracy; good governance; open society; pluralism; multiparty politics; accountability and transparency; and constitutionalism. Accountability and transparency are integral parts of democracy and good governance. Accountability and transparency cannot prevail without democracy. There cannot be good governance without accountability and transparency. Yet, democracy itself cannot exist without accountability and transparency. There is thus an interdependent and mutually supportive relationship between accountability, transparency, democracy, and good governance. What promote and sustain this relationship are the principles of constitutionalism. These include the rule of law, separation of powers, and human rights. Constitutions need to be rewritten to ensure that power is checked and rights and liberties protected. The constitution legitimizes and authorizes actions taken by governments; it also empowers the people to question and sanction actions of their leaders. And it is precisely for these reasons that people are now demanding revisiting and rewriting their constitutions, to ensure that the powers of governments are effectively checked and balanced by those of the people. Today, there is a resurgence in some Africa countries toward traditional African institutions. In Cameroon, there has been a clamour for the creation of the House of Chiefs. Powerful traditional leaders play central roles in the administration. This resurgence appears to be the product of several other trends that have characterized this period, including democratization, economic crisis, and globalization. This resurgence calls for the integration of African traditional systems into the postcolonial state as a means to improve governance, stability, and development (Englebert, 2002, pp. 17 18). While Sklar (1999, pp. 165 178) has argued that traditional systems can provide a dose of stability to African polities, Dia (1996) and Wunsch

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(2000, pp. 487 509) have contended that increased reliance on traditional systems for public governance will reduce transaction costs and facilitate collective action among indigenous groups instead of within heterogeneous postcolonial societies.

CONCLUSION Africa is at a critical point in its history. It has the potential in its youthful population to carry its aspiration ahead. Yet, this energy can only be channeled by a competent leadership conversant with the realities of globalization and gifted in the art of translating these realities into local African realities. The civil society by virtue of its strategic role of ensuring transparency and accountable leadership at all levels stands a better chance of leading Africa into the future. It is connected to the outside world, abreast with the challenges of globalization, and connected to present leadership and the population. The civil society is open and dedicated to improving the conditions of the population. Leadership has guided the human kind from the lowest levels of economic and social existence to affluence and sophisticated civilizations. Good leadership enables human beings to find solutions to their conflicts and the best mutually acceptable means by which they could earn their living, protect lives, and property and improve their standards of living. The civil society in Africa is poised to lead Africa into the future.

REFERENCES Ado-Kurawa, I. (n.d.). Leadership and poverty in northern Nigeria. Kano: ICR. African Leadership Forum. (1988). The challenges of leadership on African development, recommendations by working group, economic and social issues, political and strategic issues. Ota, Nigeria: Inaugural Program of African Leadership Forum. Ahmed, M. (1998). Africa leadership the succeeding generation challenges and opportunities. Retrieved from http://mercury.ethz.ch/serviceengine/Files/ISN/102026/ichaptersection_singledocument/748d3593-9259-4835-93e1-a3fae9773e71/en/Chapter + 5.pdf Ajayi, K. (2004). Leadership, motivation, teamwork and information management for organisational efficiency. The Nigerian Journal of the Social Sciences, 3. Ekiti: University of Ado Ekiti. Amoako, K. Y. (2004). Governance and development in Africa: The critical nexus. The fifth Andrew Young lecture of the Africa society of the National Summit on Africa. Presentation at the Fifth Andrew Young Lecture of the Africa Society of the National Summit on Africa, February 18, Washington, DC.

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ANAN, K. (2001). Secretary-General’s address to the Summit of the OAU. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/News/dh/latest/sg_oau_2001.htm Bonnie, A. (2006, February 15). Leadership crisis and Africa’s development dilemma: The case of Nigeria. Ekiti: University of Ado Ekiti. Chazan, N., Mortimer, R., Ravenhill, J., & Rothchild, D. (Eds.). (1992). Politics and society in contemporary Africa (2nd ed.), Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. Dia, M. (1996). Africa’s management in the 1990s and beyond: Reconciling Indigenous and transplanted institutions. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Douglas, R. (Ed.). (1991). Africa 30 years on: The Africas of 1961 and 1991. London: Currey. DrAN. (2012, September 8). Leadership in Africa: The missing link. Retrieved from http:// www.nkoyock.net Easterly, W., & Levine, R. (1997). Africa’s growth tragedy: A retrospective 1960 1989. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(4), 1203 1250. Elliott, P. S. (n.d.). African political cultures and the problems of government. African Studies Quarterly: The Online Journal for African Studies. Retrieved from http://web.africa.ufl.edu/ asq/v2/v2i3a3.htm Englebert, P. (2002). Patterns and theories of traditional resurgence in tropical Africa. Claremont, CA: Department of Politics, College Avenue. Fred, S. (2012, August 13). Lifting Africa up by empowering its youth. Retrieved from http:// voices.mckinseyonsociety.com/empowering-youth-in-africa/ Lloyd, P. C., Coleman, J. S., & Rosberg Jr., C. G. (Eds.). (1970). Political parties and national integration in tropical Africa. Nigeria: Background to nationalism. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Martin, G. (2013). New African leadership demands blending of young and old. Retrieved from http://nehandaradio.com/2013/03/08/new-african-leadership-demands-blending-of-youngand-old/ Martin, M. (2005). The state of Africa, a history of fifty years of independence. London: Freev Press. Mohiddin, A. (1998). African leadership: The succeeding generation’s challenges and opportunities. In Africa and the successor generations: Summary report and papers presented at the 10th anniversary meeting of the African leadership forum, Cotonou. pp. 127–156. Nyerere, J. (1966). Freedom and Unity: Uhuru Na Umoja. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ogochukwu, N. (2010, April 24). The failure of African leadership. Retrieved from http:// talkafricagh.wordpress.com/2010/04/24/the-failure-of-african-leadership/ Ogunbameru, O. (2004). Organisational dynamics. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Rawia, M., & Tawfik, A. (2011, September 23). African leadership for a new generation: Reflections on the North African revolutions. Retrieved from http//www.opendemocrace.net Sklar, R. L. (1999). African polities: The next generation. In R. Joseph (Ed.), State, conflict, and democracy in Africa (pp. 165 178). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Stacey, R. (1996). Strategic management and organisational dynamics. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. VonDoepp, P. (2009). The leadership variable in Africa,situating structure and agency in governance trajectories. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont. Whitaker, C. S. (1970). The politics of tradition and continuity in northern Nigeria. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Wunsch, J. S. (2000). Refounding the African state and local self-governance: The neglected foundation. Journal of Modern African Studies, 38, 487 509. Youth in Africa. (2010). Regional overview: Youth in Africa. Retrieved from http://social.un. org/youthyear/docs/Regional%20Overview%20Youth%20in%20Africa.pdf

SCHOOL LEADERSHIP IN THE PHILIPPINES: HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND POLICY DYNAMICS Ian E. Sutherland and Jeffrey S. Brooks ABSTRACT The development and practice of school leadership in the Philippines is influenced by a rich history that has helped to shape policy and education in a diverse cultural landscape. Periods of Spanish and American colonization have challenged core Filipino values of community and kinship and shaped the way contemporary school leadership preparation and development occur in the Philippines. The role of school leaders in the Philippines is further framed by kinship dynamics, which have been consistently integral to the Filipino concept of self and to the way individuals interact with others. Kinship is the nucleus of the Filipino social organization, from indigenous groups to colonial aristocratic ethnic and social groups. The Filipino concept of leadership is derived from a value set that rests on both biological and ritual forms of kinship, which in turn drives leadership practice in communities and schools.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 199 213 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020011

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INTRODUCTION The preparation and development of school leaders in the Philippines is influenced by historical, cultural, and policy dynamics. These are manifest both in the path educators’ take to become principals and in the way they develop and practice their skills once they are on the job (de Guzman & Guillermo, 2007). In order to present a holistic perspective on school leadership in the Philippines, we have organized the chapter into three sections. First, we briefly discuss four important eras of Philippine history and consider how they contributed to the evolution of school leadership in the country. Second, we examine the policy environment and investigate the various ways that policy both constrains and facilitates the practice of school leadership in the Philippines. We then review research on Filipino cultural dynamics and explore how these dynamics influence (and are influenced by) school leaders. The chapter concludes with summary points intended to offer insight that might inform scholars and practitioners as they seek to understand the complexity of school leadership in the Philippines.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE EDUCATION: THE LEGACY OF FOUR ERAS FOR PRINCIPALS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY The history of Philippine education can be conceived as taking place in four distinct eras, each of which has made a contribution to the way that principals are prepared and developed in the twenty-first century. Each era will be presented briefly including: (a) precolonial, (b) Spanish colonization, (c) U.S. colonization, and (d) independence and the Republic of the Philippines (Arcilla, 1999; Shukla, 1996).

Precolonial Philippine Education Precolonial Filipinos lived in complex cultures that produced unique language, music, art, written literature, spoken literature, and belief systems, which were passed on through generations (David, 2011). There was no national identity or overall kingdom or territory such as was the case with the Cambodian Angkor or the Chinese empire (Bernad, 1971). The society

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was fragmented, consisting of a conglomeration of small independent social units of various complexities, very much like that of pre-Malaysain Borneo. The educational unit and educational experiences were based on the social unit in which one lived. Social units varied in complexity, including the family unit, family clusters, and villages (Jocano, 1998). The complexity of the social unit determined who was involved in leading and educating. This social organization contributed to core Filipino values related to deference to authority, and created a basic hierarchical social structure. Typically, at the top of the hierarchy was the chieftain or village leader, also called datu or raja (David, 2011; Jocano, 1998). Along with the assistance of a council of elders and advisors, the chieftain was a source of political authority, knowledge, and wisdom. There was no election or appointment to the role or position of chieftain. The community acknowledged the person’s ability to solve problems, settle disputes, and make decisions. The chieftain was recognized and naturally assumed the role by demonstrating effectiveness. The chieftain was usually male, though women were known to assume the role in the absence of male prospects. In fact, in the social hierarchy, women were regarded as equals and held positions of influence within community hierarchies (David, 2011). Both boys and girls were educated. As there were no formal schools at the time, education was the responsibility of families and villages, and the educational leadership modeled after the community elders, advisors, and the chieftain.

Spanish Colonization The Spanish colonization, 1565 1898, was a major factor in shaping Philippine education (David, 2011; Schwartz, 1971). Given that the first people in the Philippines, or the indigenous people, have a strong connect to the ethnic Malay, the only earlier influence to Filipino people and culture was a rapid infusion of Islamic social and religious influence in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Bernad, 1971; Counts, 1925). Although Islam and Islamic institutions have continued to thrive in the Philippines since the fourteenth century (Counts, 1925; Majul, 1999), the Spanish colonization succeeded in making Catholicism the dominant religion and in establishing hierarchies of power and knowledge (Milligan, 2003). Despite the secularization of public education, the influence of Spanish Catholicism in society has remained a part of Philippine public education policy and practice until today. Although there is to be no favor given to any specific

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religious group, the 1987 Philippine Constitution and current Department of Education policy requires religious instruction during school hours as a part of Philippine education (Philippine Department of Education, 2002; Republic of the Philippines, 1987). The Spanish colonial education had two tracks (Schwartz, 1971). Catholic catechism schools were designed to convert and indoctrinate national Filipinos, as well as to provide basic education. The Spanish schools provided a duplication of the Spanish education system for resident Spaniards and privileged Filipino children whose parents held status or connections that gave them access (Counts, 1925; Fox, 1965; Schwartz, 1971). The Spanish colonial education did little in and of itself to provide an actual educational value to Filipinos, but it introduced policy and leadership influence that lead to the inception of secular private education, a formal curriculum, and free public education (Fox, 1965). The progression of Spanish educational development would later lead to to the establishment of universities, colleges, and vocational schools (Fox, 1965; Schwartz, 1971) Catholic priests served religious, communal, and educational leaders, and for the first time introduced an entirely new social structure and flow of authority in Filipino communities. The influence on Filipinos included the development of a sense of “colonial debt” (David, 2011, p. 41), which means the people accepted maltreatment given by colonial leaders as a cost of progress toward civilization. In many cases Catholic priests worked hand in hand with the military and government, and were quite powerful in their local communities. However, as the number of schools increased headmasters became increasingly common. These secular school leaders held responsibilities that generally revolved around establishing and instilling order among teachers and students, providing instruction and procuring resources for the school.

U.S. Colonization The U.S. colonization, 1898 1946, saw the institutionalization of a highly centralized and bureaucratic national education system (Bernardo, 2004; de Guzman, 2007; King & Guerra, 2005). This era also saw a great boom in the number of schools in the Philippines, and many were built in remote areas to serve the population as a whole. The language of instruction shifted from Spanish to English and a new emphasis on efficiency emerged (Bernardo, 2004; Counts, 1925). This approach to efficiency was embodied

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in the principal, whose chief concern during this time was ensuring that the curriculum was faithfully implemented and that hierarchies of decisionmaking were strictly observed.

Independence and the Republic of the Philippines The Philippines became an independent Republic in 1947, which brought about a shift away from the extreme centralization the country experienced during U.S. occupation. Though the government established a national curriculum and a regional system of education that created school divisions, the period is characterized by increasing decentralization. This decentralization was accelerated in the last decade of the twentieth century, as shown by research (de Guzman, 2007; King & Guerra, 2005) that school leaders increasingly took on responsibilities that had previously been centralized above their positions at the district, division, or national levels: instruction time, designing programs of study, defining course content, choosing textbooks, teaching methods, mode of grouping students, support activities for students, creation/abolition of grades, setting qualifying exams, methods for assessing students’ regular work, hiring teachers, fixing teacher salaries, and use in school for capital expenditures. Given these shifts in education over time as an historical backdrop, it is important to also consider how the contemporary position of the school principal is shaped by contemporary educational policy.

EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND THE PRINCIPALSHIP IN THE PHILIPPINES In the early 1990s, the Philippine school system became one of the world’s largest school systems, and it continues to provide instruction to a great number of students. According to de Guzman (2006), The Congressional Commission on Education Study … disclosed that enrolment at all levels was 16.5 million as of 1991. Recent statistics from the Department of Education (DepEd) alone reveals that as of Curriculum Year 2003 2004, the combined enrolment size in the basic education is 19,252,557 (DepEd Fact Sheet, 2005) implying a dramatic increase in and demand for education in the country. (p. 56)

Until 2011 the structure of Philippine public education was six years of elementary school followed by four years of high school. Schools are

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organized into 17 school divisions, each of which comprises several school districts. This organizational scheme provides a clear chain of authority and regulation of approximately 42,000 public elementary and secondary schools (DepEd Fact Sheet, 2005). Recently, the government has approved adding grades increasing the public education by two years or grade levels to a K-12 system (Republic of the Philippines, 2012), further taxing a system with limited educational and human resources in relation to the growing demand. In the Philippines, federal educational policy provides guidance for the way people become principals, and it also frames the basic functions of the position in the overall context of Philippine education. The most important contemporary policy document that frames the principalship is Republic Act 9155, titled, “An Act Instituting a Frame Work of Governance For Basic Education, Establishing Authority And Accountability, Renaming The Department Of Education, Culture, and Sports As The Department Of Education, And For Other Purposes” (Republic of the Philippines, 2011, Title section, para 3). de Guzman and Guillermo (2007) paraphrase Republic Act 9155 (RA 9155) in explaining the basic role and functions of school principals (and school superintendents) in the Philippines: Schools are either state-run or privately owned stock or non-stock institutions. In the case of public elementary and secondary schools, the following provisions govern the selection of a school principal, to wit: The school shall be the focal point and center of formal education. The class is where the teaching learning process shall take place and should be managed efficiently and effectively. For the purpose, the schools division superintendent shall appoint a school principal for every complete public elementary and public high school or a cluster thereof, in accordance with existing Civil Service rules and regulations. The school principal shall function both as an instructional leader and as an administrative manager to ensure that goals for quality education are met and shall be assisted by an office staff for administrative and fiscal services. (p. 217)

de Guzman and Guillermo (2007) see RA 9155 as an alignment of federal law to some current global trends related to the principalship in that it suggests a leadership role rather than one solely focused on administration or management. That said, they also note that the policy frames the work of the school principal in a distinctly Anglo-Western perspective. This is problematic for many cultural and logistical reasons. In the Philippine context, some of the idealized notions upon which policies rest are not the way education is practiced in developing countries, where principals do not often follow a clear path to the position (de Guzman & Guillermo, 2007). As de Guzman and Guillermo (2007) note, many principals “have never been in a classroom, and their appointment is the result of political intervention” (p. 217).

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Yet as de Guzman and Guillermo (2007) note, despite a lack of required, formal preparation demands on the position have increased in recent years: The role of a principal has evolved from managerial to leadership functions. Today, the principal is viewed as a leader charged with the function of initiating change by raising the level of expectations for both teachers and students (Tschannen-Moran & Gareis, 2004); developing a caring community in the school (Sergiovanni, 1999); exercising effective instructional leadership (Gurr, Drysdale, & Mulford, 2006; Schutte & Hackmann, 2006), site-based decision-making (Whitaker, 2003); and spending more time with parents and community (Kochan, Spencer, & Matthews, 2000), among others. These roles have situated the principal in a context where his capability and cope-ability skills are tested. (p. 216)

Accordingly, the governance scheme provides a certain amount of professional development at the school division level, usually offered in the form of regularly offered management communication (MANCOM) meetings. These meetings vary with respect to the content and quality of professional development on offer. At times, they emphasize relevant skills related to the evolving principal role in the conceptual, human, and technical domains (Northouse, 2001). Interestingly, the Filipino context places special importance on developing skills as a listener and skills related to relationship building with internal and external school community members. “Listening is a skill that principals need to nurture. This skill makes the principal’s decisions needsbased. As a skill to be practiced by principals, listening is a two-way endeavor that makes a school a caring community” (de Guzman & Guillermo, 2007, p. 221). Further, the authors noted that listening must be active and include the ability to understand that the school and what is said in the school does not exist in a social or political vacuum. This basic realization challenges traditional family-unit perspective of Filipino social institutions. Yet, scholars note that this boundary-spanning orientation is critical given the complexity of the ways schools interact with other social institutions such as local government units (LGU), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), and city- or regional-level political agencies. For example, it is extremely important that Filipino school leaders develop strong relationships with their local Barangays, a neighborhood political unit that is often very powerful in the local context. In particular, the relationship between a principal and a Barangay captain can go a long way toward determining the success or failure of the programs and projects the principal undertakes. Likewise, the ubiquitous nature of NGO involvement and city or regionallevel government involvement in education means that a principal must develop skills to communicate effectively with multiple constituents

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simultaneously (de Guzman, 2006, 2007; de Guzman & Guillermo, 2007). Without an understanding of the cultural dynamics that provide both a pretext and a context for leadership practice, educational policies and planned professional development cannot positively influence the lives of students and the work environment of educators.

CULTURAL DYNAMICS Dimmock and Walker (2005) argued for the importance of understanding the contexts and cultures in which leadership is nested. One must understand not only the culture of the organization(s) in which leadership happens but also the norms, values, and institutions of the people beyond the schoolhouse. As educational leadership is an applied field, the dual aim of cultural analysis in education is to help deepen understanding to make inquiry relevant to practice. The connections, interactions, and reciprocal influence that exist between leadership and culture can lead to an improvement in the development and practice of leaders (Dimmock & Walker, 2005). Recognizing that culture is complex and ever changing, we do not attempt here to present a holistic perspective of school leadership as it occurs in Filipino culture, but rather a selective perspective based on particular dynamics related to kinship. Cultures are defined by the shared values and social structures that distinguish one group of people from another, but there is also great variety among subcultures in the larger group (Brooks & Normore, 2010; Dimmock & Walker, 2005). Some value more formal bureaucratic structures to exert influence to get things done, while others prioritize relationships. Philippine culture is identified as collectivist (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010), and the Filipino workplace has been described as familial (Restubog & Bordia, 2006). One’s relationship to other individuals and groups and a commitment to serving group needs take precedence over one’s self (Walker & Dimmock, 2002). Maintaining smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR) (Lynch, 1962) is a priority (Restubog & Bordia, 2006; Vasquez, Keltner, Ebenbach, & Banasyzynski, 2001). Lynch (1962) describes it as an “interpersonal tranquility” (p. 85), where people may agree to disagree in the presence of others. For example, in monochromic cultures, time is viewed as a commodity that can be lost, gained, valued, or wasted (Martin & Nakayama, 2007). In contrast, the Philippines is considered a polychromic culture where time is viewed as less important than

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relationships. Showing up late is not an offense, as maintaining good relationships is paramount. If leadership is defined as the art and science of influencing a group toward the attainment of shared goals (Theoharis & Brooks, 2012; Winston & Patterson, 2006), then it follows that effective school leaders understand and utilize the structures through which power and influence are distributed and activated in a specific culture. The Philippines is described as a large power-distance culture, where the relationship between subordinates and superiors is emotional in nature. Power and influence are held by a few, not widely distributed (Hofstede et al., 2010). Thus, the familial relationship systems, or kinship systems, are the culturally specific structures through which power and influence are activated (Restubog & Bordia, 2006). In the subsequent section we turn our attention toward how the relationship and power dynamics interact in the Filipino concept of kinship, and what that looks like for a school principal.

Leadership and Filipino Kinship Although kinship systems in the Philippines can vary depending on region (Eggen, 1941; Jocano, 1968), kinship is the nucleus of the Filipino social organization and is integral to the Filipino concept of self and the way individuals interact with others (Jocano, 2001). The core Filipino value, kapwa, means the “unity or oneness of a person with other people” (David, 2011, p. 130). Kapwa establishes the way one relates to another (pakikikapwa), and the norms for maintaining good relationships (pakikisama) (Jocano, 2001; Vasquez et al., 2001). The manner in which people exercise pakikikapwa and pakikisama through kinship can be biological, ritual, or fictive. Biological kinship is established by the Filipino concept of dugo, or blood. Nasa dugo, meaning “in the blood” (Jocano, 2001, p. 68), refers to inherited characteristics and relational bonds of biological kinship. The biological form of kinship is the strongest basis for leveraging influence, especially in community and political leadership. Filipinos believe that blood is thicker than anything. The moment a man runs for public office, his relatives will compaign [sic] and vote for him. The qualifications and the personality of the man are disregarded. What is important is that he is a relative. (Andres, 1989, p. 43)

Ritual kinship in the Philippines includes the popular culture in Catholic-imposed Campradrazgo system (Hofstede et al., 2010; Jocano,

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1968), which identifies kin in godparents in the Catholic tradition, and even blood-brother rituals in the indigenous context. Fictive kinship often revolves around the barkada, or “gang of friends” people who develop a strong bond, much like that of a second family, though they are not related by blood. The barkada is the group with whom one does business and generally looks out for. As Hofstede and colleagues (2010) state, “Collectivist societies usually have ways of creating family-like ties with persons who are not biological relatives but who are socially integrated into one’s in-group” (p. 111). Thus, the Filipino organization, such as the school, takes on familial dynamics (Restubog & Bordia, 2006). Schools and the communities in which they operate are dependent on fictive kinship systems with the principal serving as a patriarch or matriarch. The principal has control of elements of schooling like enrollment, the release of records and report cards, and influence over teacher job placement and promotion. Through these and other areas of control, the principal’s influence reaches into the community where the school is situated. For example, a principal may use the parent teacher association (PTA) to raise funds from the parent community. The PTA leadership may enjoy a close connection to the principal and an increased capacity for influencing practice. In turn, out of expected loyalty, the PTA works hard to use their community connections to motivate parents to contribute to the principal’s fund-raising efforts. Another example is that in order to secure a job or a promotion a teacher may need to give their first month’s salary to the principal (Chua, 1999). That act both buys favor and establishes a relationship between the principal and the teacher. This kind of transactional approach to educational decision-making is properly characterized as corruption, though it is often justified by the principal in terms of traditional Filipino values, wherein one is expressing their gratitude to one in apposition of greater authority (Chua, 1999). Ritual and fictive kinship depend on actors establishing patron client relationships (Wong, 2010). The patron client relationships allow actors to construct meaning, provide access to power and influence, and create opportunity for both the patron and the client. This power and relationship structure in Filipino culture is called the padrino system. Padrino is the Spanish equivalent to the Filipino words ninong/ninang (godfather/godmother) and kumpadre/kumadre (co-father/mother), and refers to the patron who may be a family, school, or community leader. In order to build influence and authority, Filipino leaders must develop and nurture loyalty in a network of ritual or social relations. The patron client relationships often form through acts of favor, which result in the clients owing

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debts of gratitude, called utang na loob, to the patron. Debts of gratitude lead to loyalty and social capital, which can be leveraged for political, material, and social opportunities. The benefit to the client depends on how close the client is to the patron in the kinship network. The stronger the relationship, the closer the client is to the patron, the greater the opportunity the client has to leverage the patron’s influence (Wong, 2010). In schools, parents and teachers work hard to establish patron client relationships with principals to gain opportunity and favor. The strength of the symbiotic relationships within the kinship structures determines how much power and influence leaders have. However, the relational prioritization does not always lead to ethical leadership. We now explore how the prioritization of relationship in kinship systems can be used in positive and negative ways in schools and communities.

Prioritizing Relationships Filipino kinship systems can exploit power and influence in both constructive and destructive ways depending on how leaders use relationships to exert influence. Positive expressions of influence within Filipino kinship include the kapwa norm pakikiramay, “to empathize with others in time of crisis” (Jocano, p.91). The empathy can be expressed thorugh bayanihan, meaning working together. Bayanihan represents Filipino camaraderie, helping those in need, and the positive sense of community. Etymologically speaking, bayanihan comes from the Tagalog word bayani, which means “hero.” For Filipinos, bayanihan is a multifacted concept that means unity of objective, brotherhood, development of everyone, devoted and wholehearted work, recognizing the strong ones and strengthening the weak ones, and love and loyalty .… manifested symbolically in community participation when one member moves his nipa and bamboo house from one place to another. It describes the willingness of every Filipino to offer a shoulder to help ease the load or burden of kababayan or fellow Filipino under any circumstance. (Andres, 1989, p. 116)

The power dynamics of Filipino kinship can also be destructive. Corruption is a fact of life in the public and private sectors in the Philippines, even reaching the top leadership in the country. Two recent presidents of the Philippines, President Estrada (Gonzales, 2000; Republic of the Philippines, 2001) and President Arroyo (Republic of the Philippines, 2008), have been tried for corruption. Recently, the chief justice of the Supreme Court has been impeached on grounds of corruption (Republic of the Philippines, 2012).

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Corruption is also rampant in Philippine public education. The Department of Education is considered as one of the most corrupt branches of government (Chua, 1999). Procurement contracts are given to friends and syndicates to which educational leaders are connected. For most teachers, securing a job, transfer, or promotion, it was “who they knew and who recommended them that mattered” (p. 80). Often much less qualified teachers see career advancement due to connections, leaving other qualified teachers powerless. Chua (1999) argues that corruption is a result of Filipino values that are distorted and used as an excuse, and that corruption is a “leadership problem” (p. 8) that reaches back to the Spanish colonial period. If corruption flourishes at DECS, it is also partly due to the culture of subservience so pervasive among its employees, especially teachers. Since the Spanish times, the maestras have been conditioned to be meek and obedient. They are also tyrannized by the fear that their superiors can make life difficult for them, as indeed some have. (pp. 8 9)

Despite the potential for corruption, we see that Filipino kinship systems have operated as a cultural mainstay for the development and effective practice of school and community leaders. The spirit of bayanihan calls on kinship to transform communities.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION In the Philippines, the principal works in a complicated and interconnected historical, political, and cultural milieu. Leadership in the Philippines originated in the context of the village community, and continues to operate with community and familial dynamics as leaders, administrators, and managers conduct their work in formal educational organizations. The country has experienced historical periods of precolonial, colonial, and postcolonial influence that initially created highly centralized policy frameworks and leadership models but have more recently given way to more decentralized practices that are in-keeping with worldwide leadership trends. Yet, while the Philippines has adopted some more modern ways of thinking about the principalship, there is a tension in that in order to be culturally relevant, these ideas must be interpreted in relation to how leadership actually occurs in Filipino culture. Leadership operates most effectively in Filipino culture through relationships and kinship networks, which often work to the benefit of those in their immediate network. Effective school leaders utilize kinship dynamics and networks to leverage

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influence in the schools and communities where they work. The relationship prioritization of leadership can result in positive community building or corruption, both of which are tolerated for the sake of smooth interpersonal relations. The preparation and professional development of principals in the Philippines continues to evolve. As we consider the complicated context in which Filipino principals work, we identify three dynamics that influence the development and practice of effective school and community leaders. First, the development and practice of school leaders in the Philippines includes a deep understanding of historical and cultural influences on Filipino leadership in practice. This means a meaningful and respectful integration of local traditions and indigenous ways of knowing with Western ideas and innovations. Rather than accepting concepts from the West, the Philippines will best be served by developing indigenous forms of educational leadership that are informed by external ideas but rooted in Filipino values. Second, the practice and development of school leaders in the Philippines engages unique gaps between theory, policy, and practice. Unfortunately, there is little research that examines the principalship from a critical perspective or that looks at the complicated intersections of these dynamic aspects of their practice. Finally, the development of school leaders and practice of leadership in the Philippines is shaped by strong values but it must ought to have a strong emphasis on ethical leadership. This is critical as leaders are to stand up to cultural dynamics manifest as corruption and nepotism. Ultimately, though, we recognize that there is much good work happening in the Philippines and in order for substantive change to take place, it should be led and developed by Filipino leaders and with a sensitivity to the unique challenges and opportunities that face school principals in the Philippines.

REFERENCES Andres, T. D. (1989). Positive Filipino values. Quezon City: New Day Publishers. Arcilla, J. S. (1999). An introduction to Philippine history. Manila: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Bernad, M. A. (1971). Philippine culture and the Filipino identity. Philippine Studies, 19(4), 573 592. Bernardo, A. B. I. (2004). McKinley’s questionable bequest: Over 100 years of English in Philippine education. World Englishes, 23(1), 17 31. Brooks, J. S., & Normore, A. H. (2010). Educational leadership and globalization: Literacy for a glocal perspective. Educational Policy: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Policy and Practice, 24(1), 52–82.

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Counts, G. S. (1925). Education in the Philippines. The Elementary School Journal, 26(2), 94 106. David, E. J. R. (2011). Filipino-American postcolonial psychology. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. Department of Education. (n.d.). Fact sheet: Basic education statistics. Retrieved from http:// www.deped.gov.ph/. Accessed on August 19, 2005. de Guzman, A. B. (2006). Reforms in Philippine basic education viewed from key elements of successful School-Based Management (SBM) schools. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 5, 55 71. de Guzman, A. B. (2007). The serendipity of principalship: Meaning making of a Filipino secondary school principal. Asia Pacific Education Review, 8(2), 216 223. de Guzman, A. B., & Guillermo, M. L. T. L. (2007). The serendipity of principalship: Meaning-making of a Filipino secondary school principal. Asia Pacific Education Review, 8(2), 216 223. Dimmock, C., & Walker, A. (2005). Educational leadership: Culture and diversity. London: Sage. English, F. W. (1994). Theory in educational administration. New York, NY: Harper Collins. English, F. W. (2002). The point of scientificity, the fall of the epistemological dominos, and the end of the field of educational administration. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 21 (2), 109 136. Fox, H. F. (1965). Primary education in the Philippines: 1565 1863. Philippine Studies, 13(2), 207 231. Gurr, D., Drysdale, L., & Mulford, B. (2006). Models of successful principal leadership. School Leadership and Management, 26(4), 371 395. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd ed.), New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Jocano, F. L. (1968). Sulod society. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. Jocano, F. L. (1998). Filipino indigenous ethnic communities: Patters, variations, and typologies. Quezon City, Philippines: Punlad. Jocano, F. L. (2001). Filipino Worldview: Ethnography of Local Knowledge. Quezon City: Punlad Research House, Inc. King, E. M., & Guerra, S. C. (2005). Education reforms in East Asia: Policy, process, and impact. In D. Subbarao & R. White (Eds.), East Asia decentralizes: Making local government work, (pp. 179 209). Washington, DC: World Bank. Kochan, F., Spenser, W., & Matthews, J. (2000). Gender-based perceptions of the challenges, changes, and essential skills of the principals. Journal of School Leadership, 10(4), 290 310. Lynch, F. (1962). Philippine values II: Social acceptance. Philippine Studies, 10(1), 82–99. Majul, C. A. (1999). Muslims in the Philippines. Manila: University of the Philippines Press. Martin, J. N., & Nakayama, T. K. (2007). Intercultural communication in contexts (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Milligan, J. A. (2003). Islamic identity, postcoloniality, and educational policy: Schooling and ethno-religious conflict in the southern Philippines. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Northouse, P. G. (2001). Leadership theory and practice (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Philippine Department of Education. (2002). Order no. 26, s. 2002: Enjoining compliance to DECS order no. 120, s. 1999. Retrieved from http://www.depedcebuprovince.ph/memo/ memo296_2005.pdf

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Republic of the Philippines. (1987). 1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines. Retrieved from http://www.lawphil.net/consti/cons1987.html Republic of the Philippines. (2011). Republic act number 9155: An act instituting a frame work of governance for basic education, establishing authority and accountability, renaming the department of education, culture, and sports as the department of education, and for other purposes. Retrieved from http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2001/ra_9155_2001.html Republic of the Philippines. (2012). Republic act number 10533: An act enhancing the Philippine basic education system by strengthening its curriculum and increasing the number of years for basic education, appropriating funds therefor and for other purposes. Retrieved from http:// www.gov.ph/2013/05/15/republic-act-no-10533/ Restubog, S. L. D., & Bordia, P. (2006). Workplace familialism and psychological contract breach in the Philippines. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 55(4), 563–585. Schwartz, K. (1971). Filipino education and Spanish colonialism: Toward and autonomous perspective. Comparative Education Review, 15(2), 202 218. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1999). Refocusing leadership to build community. The High School Magazine, 7(1), 11 15. Shukla, S. (1996). From pre-colonial to post-colonial: Educational transitions in Southern Asia. Economic and Political Weekly, 31(22), 1344 1349. Theoharis, G., & Brooks, J. S. (Eds.). (2012). What every principal needs to know to create equitable and excellent schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Gareis, C. R. (2004). Principals’ sense of efficacy: Assessing a promising construct. Journal of Educational Administration, 42(5), 573 585. Vasquez, K., Keltner, D., Ebenbach, D. H., & Banasyzynski, T. L. (2001). Cultural variation and similarity in moral rhetorics: Voices from the Philippines and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(1), 93–120. Walker, A., & Dimmock, C. (2002). Moving school leadership beyond its narrow boundaries: Developing a cross-cultural approach. In K. Leithwood & P. Hallinger (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational leadership and administration (pp. 167–202). Netherlands: Springer. Whitaker, K. S. (2003). Principal role changes and influence on principal recruitment and selection: An international perspective. Journal of Educational Administration, 41(1), 37 54. Winston, B. E., & Patterson, K. (2006) An integrative definition of leadership. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 1(2). Retrieved from http://www.regent.edu/acad/global/ publications/ijls/new/vol1iss2/winston_patterson.doc/winston_patterson.htm

A VISION OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP: AN ITALIAN PERSPECTIVE Alberto Mascia, Martina Sartori and Luca Dal Pubel ABSTRACT In times of crisis, the demand for responsible leadership is urgent. It is necessary to transform this urgency into a reality when there is a lack of future prospects for young people, community, and business institutions and organizations. This can be attributed to the absence of a hierarchical structure for important values which need to be recognized, received, and shared. It is an important challenge that the international community is called to face in every field of human, commercial, and political relations. This chapter discusses the essential elements of effective leadership and identifies practices to avoid transformation to a negative leadership model. Furthermore, this chapter aims to steer a course for leadership practices that will result in excellence.

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Over the decades, many definitions of leadership have been provided by dictionaries, authors, and studies. A consensus has not been reached on the formal definition due to the various cultural perspectives of attributing scholars. Indeed, as Schein (2004) stated, culture and leadership are “two sides of the same coin; neither can be really understood by itself … cultural norms define how a given nation or organizations will define leadership” (p. 11). Also Ciulla (2004a) agreed that “slight variations in its meaning tell us about the values, practices, and paradigms of leadership in a certain place and at a certain time” (p. 305). For the purpose of this chapter, it may be worthwhile to illustrate the etymology of the word leadership.

DEFINING LEADERSHIP The etymology of a word traces its existence throughout history and usually through multiple languages. In English, “leadership” derives from the verb “to lead,” that means to show the way, guide, or direct (MerriamWebster Online Dictionary and Thesaurus, 2013). This English word is commonly used in spoken and written Italian and it has been included in the dictionary of the Italian language (Zanichelli, 2013). However, originally in Italian the verb “to lead” was used to translate the Latin verb ˇ “ducere,” to conduct, a verb that historically had been related to the fascist leader Benito Mussolini, better known as the “Duce.” Moreover, the Latin verb “educere,” to educate in English, is the combination of the words “ex” ˇ and “ducere,” and it means to bring outside. In this sense, a leader is also the one who is able to bring out the best that is inside of the others. He is the one who guides, shows the way, pulls, and draws. Furthermore, leadership and excellence will be seen as proceeding toward a common direction. Both are characterized by habits, behaviors, lifestyles, and existential paths full of human and relational significance. On one hand, according to the business writer Collins (2007), “good is the enemy of great. And that is one of the reasons we have so little that becomes great” (p. 5). Indeed, we may have good institutions, companies, and good people, but only few of them become great. Only a few dare to excel. On the other hand, however, Kouzes and Posner (2002) pointed out that “leadership is an identifiable set of skills and practices that are available to all of us, not just a few charismatic men and women” (p. 20). Moreover, the aforementioned authors stated that “leadership is a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those who choose to follow”

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(p. 20). Thereby, a leader is the sum of multiple components simultaneously present in all thoughts, intentions, and actions of those who aspire and practice to become one. In any context, leadership expresses specific values that can give strong signals about that leader and how the particular person thinks and acts as a leader. Such signals can be seen through a leader’s diplomatic meetings, daily communications, decision-making, and managerial skills, and in different fields, from politics to economics, from entrepreneurial to military. Those signals may indicate that the leader has a predisposition for sacrifice, will and tenacity in pursuing goals, enthusiasm, vision, and creativity of all traits. They may also show humbleness and intellectual honesty. Moreover, it is important to note that the leadership is generally described with reference to positions of influence and situations that generate wealth and success, the meaning of which varies from context to context. As stated by Schwartz (2007), “success means personal prosperity” (p. 9) and financial security. Furthermore, it means being admired by people and being seen as a leader in any social or business context. Success means freedom and self-respect, and the ability to pursue a happy and satisfactory life. In conclusion, there are many possible ways to define leadership. Indeed, as Bass pointed out, Leadership has been conceived as the focus of group processes, as a personality attribute, as the art of inducing compliance, as an exercise of influence, as a particular kind of activity, as a form of persuasion, as a power relation, as an instrument in the attainment of goals, as an effect of interaction, as a differentiated role, and as the initiation of structure. (2008, p. 26)

In addition, the definition of leadership depends on the purposes to be served. In conclusion, this chapter will offer the reader an overview from an Italian cultural perspective of what means to be effective leaders of the future.

LEADERSHIP AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE Every manager, politician, teacher, and salesperson is interested in acquiring skills, knowledge, and experience that can influence people. They all aim to learn the strategies of persuasion in order to adopt effective management decisions and achieve significant results. Gardner (2007), who studied the themes of persuasion and mental changes, assumed that ideas are not easily changeable, but many relational situations of life are intended for the

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precise purpose of convincing and influencing others. Regardless of the field in which they operate, leaders are people who influence a significant mental change. Moreover, any discussion related to the ability to lead and influence others is necessarily linked to the ability to adopt a new system of habits of thought, through which individuals improve their life and bring out the qualities that belong to each person. As elaborated by Dyer (2010), people’s behaviors are supported by their patterns of thoughts, so that their thoughts actually create or destroy their lives. A few thoughts operate on a conscious level and are easy to recognize, but others are deeply embedded in the subconscious. Dyer (2010) referred to a catalog of the more frequent excuses used by people, as if they were a shield, not to change a habit with a new one, pointing out that we can and should look at ourselves and our own life through a new lens, wearing a new mindset and becoming more aware, willing and enthusiastic for change. Moreover, Cialdini (2005) identified six universal principles of social influence: (a) reciprocation (we feel the obligation to return favors, presents, invitations, and so on), (b) authority (we need experts to show us the way), (c) commitment or consistency (we want to act consistently with our commitments and values), (d) scarcity (the less available the resource, the more we want it), (e) liking (the more we like people, the more we want to say yes to them), and (f) social proof or imitation (we look to what others do to guide our behavior). Each of these principles represents a very important motivational factor and a basic element of individual and social behavior in every sphere of coexistence and action. In addition, Goldstein, Martin, and Cialdini (2007) offered several practical, ethical, and action-oriented advice about the art of persuasion and its risks in the social context. They maintained that persuasion is a science. It has been referred to as an art, but that is an error. Although talented artists can certainly be taught skills to harness their natural abilities, the truly remarkable artist depends upon talent and creativity that no instructor can instill in another person. Fortunately, this isn’t the case with persuasion. Even people who consider themselves persuasion lightweights people who feel they could not coax a child to play with toys can learn to become persuasion heavyweights by understanding the psychology of persuasion and by using the strategies that have been scientifically proved to be effective. In conclusion, the application of these principles allows us to see the great leaders, who must be guided by a deep respect for ethics, a predisposition to significantly influence others, changing their habits, thoughts, and behaviors, and an aspiration to score good results for their organizations or institutions.

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THE DANGERS OF LEADERSHIP A thorough framework for leadership requires more than a superficial look at some features. Indeed, it demands a deeper analysis of how leadership is applied, both on a positive and negative light. In particular, as pointed out by some researchers (De Vries, 1995; Kellerman, 2005), offering just a positive vision of leadership carries the risk of neglecting consideration of the dark sides of leadership. Those dark sides reflect the hidden aspects of human nature that can tell us much about why leadership has followers. From this knowledge, we can learn and analyze the degeneration of leadership that occurred throughout history. Furthermore, this analysis will open ourselves up to a study of leadership free from constraints and preconceptions. Therefore, leadership can be seen as a complex and detailed process (Bogardus, 1934; Ciulla, 1995; Hollander, 1992) marked by lights and shadows. Its positive or negative connotations are an essential element of wealth, as they do not stop at the surface of things, but go into detail and examine the specificity of each concrete situation in which leadership operates, both in a positive and negative way. According to Bass (1981), “there are as many different versions of leadership as there are people who have attempted to define the concept” (p. 7). Following this interpretation, the examination of the lights and shadows of leadership allows us to have a complete understanding of a phenomenon much more difficult and problematic than a mere enumeration of features, principles, and values to follow. We can assert that being good or bad leaders is not just a matter of setting goals (right or wrong), or making choices (for good or for evil), but it is also, and above all, a matter of emphasizing the path of personal and professional growth, improving and contributing to the improvement, leaving a footprint, and leading others to leave their own. Being a good or a bad leader is also a matter of giving form and substance to the relationship of interdependence between leaders and followers that exists and characterizes that leadership. It is not possible to fully understand the dynamics of leaders’ actions without investigating their connection with their followers. In this regard, several authors (Ciulla, 2005; De Vries, 1995; Hollander, 1992; Kellerman, 2005; Meyer, 1982) examined the interdependence between leaders and followers and recognized its importance in relation to leadership. In particular, De Vries (1995) examined the dynamics of the relationship between leaders and followers and noticed that this relationship is characterized by multiple factors such as power, authority, reverence,

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adulation, ambition, and demand for attention. Within this relationship, dangerous distortions can be created, since the followers may look at their leaders as a realization of their fantasies and desires, and create an image of leaders that often does not reflect the reality. Leaders are called to respond to this possible distortion with maturity, sense of proportion, acceptance of other people’s judgments, and self-criticism. More specifically, we will analyze how, in order to avoid the onset of dangers that may negatively affect the exercise of leadership, leaders should find a balance between the exercise of power and a system of control, self-monitoring, and prevention of all those forms of degeneration that can lead to excess or abuse of power. Moreover, we will point out how well-known examples of Italian leadership failed to do so and what the consequences might be for the future. First, the choice of whether to do something memorable or fall in the excess of power draws the line between good and bad leadership. Indeed, power plays a predominant role in leadership. As pointed out by De Vries (1995), power connects both the desire to use it and the ability to know how to use it. According to the aforementioned author, power requires that leaders possess a real consciousness of it. More specifically, being aware of power influence means to fully understand its nature and potential. Power may produce positive and negative consequences, and when the negatives overtake the positives, leadership degenerates in an excess of power. In this regard, many examples of Italian leadership, in particular in the entrepreneurial field, well explain how the excess of power can lead to dangerous outcomes. Indeed, the typical small and medium enterprise that represents Italy in the fashion, textile, handicraft areas usually starts from the great idea and hard work of one person, who becomes the obvious leader of such enterprise. However, once the business reaches its success, the leader tends to centralize his authority and rely on legitimate and coercive power to make important business decisions and manage subordinates. A lack of empowerment of the rest of the people who work in such enterprise, and a lack of true generational shift from the old to the young management, it’s a natural consequence of that kind of leadership. In our opinion, this is one of the main reasons that may prevent Italian leadership from excelling. As the successful founder and CEO of Diesel Clothing Co. Renzo Rosso recently said in an interview (Tomasino, 2013), it is important to commend people no matter what their role is in the company. Everyone is equally important for the business’ growth, because there is no leader without followers. Second, from a behavioral perspective, De Vries (1995) pointed out that some behaviors may affect the exercise of effective leadership. For example,

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he examined the narcissistic leaders who present a real need for power, prestige, fame, and greatness. That behavior taken in small doses can create cohesion and sharing, but, if badly handled, can also lead to personalism, arrogance, haughtiness, and insensitivity. According to the aforementioned author, to counter this behavior is necessary a sense of proportion to restore a right approach to things, avoid excesses, and dangerous derailments. Also, as observed by other researchers (De Vries, 1995; Duncan, 1982; Hodgson, Levinson, & Zaleznik, 1965; Roy, 1960), a humorous approach can act as a balance, cohesion, and kindness in dealing with the narcissistic leader. Moreover, according to De Vries (1995), another important behavior that can affect the effective exercise of leadership is the emotional distance from everything, the inability to experience feelings, generated by a lack of self-awareness and empathy. Therefore, some authors (Krystal, 1979; Nemiah, 1978; Nemiah & Sifneos, 1970; Von Rad, 1983) talked about “alexithymia,” intended as a communication disorder, detachment, indifference, impoverishment of the imagination, monotony of ideas, lack of quality human, or negation and denial of the existence of feelings. In those situations, as observed by De Vries (1995), in order to overcome that lack of emotional interaction, leaders are supposed to assert their authenticity and emotions, stimulate discussion and imagination, and activate, both in themselves and in others, the capacity of self-examination. With respect to this matter, it is worth mentioning that lack of empathy in Italian leadership affects the way leaders manage their team. Indeed, most of Italian manufacturing businesses are owned by families where their leaders, who are member of such families, often exploit their employees instead of leading them as a group of individuals with skills and abilities who may contribute to the success of the company. On the contrary, Adriano Olivetti, the Italian founder of the nationwide known Olivetti, a computers manufacture, was one of the first to understand that a leader is also the one who is able to improve his employees’ living conditions. Moreover, a good leader must be self-confident, but at the same time willing to change his opinion, be open minded, and able to learn from others. Thirdly, according to De Vries (1995), one of the most significant dangers of leadership is the abuse of power. Several are the examples in history in which the abuse of power had lead to aggressive behaviors, violence, and repression of human rights, from the extermination of the Nazi concentration camps to the impositions of totalitarian regimes in the Soviet block. As detected by De Vries (1995), the work of the leader must be first and foremost an “energy management.” This means that the leader should be

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able to convert the negative energy into positive energy. The leader should prevent and discourage negative phenomena within the group and between leaders and followers through empathy, communication skills, creative selfanalysis, psychological balance, helpfulness, respect, impartiality, credibility, competence, and consistency.

THE ROLE OF FOLLOWERS Taking into account what has been previously discussed, we can affirm that the leader follower interdependence can generate and create possible situations of negativity or positivity with different outcomes. Kellerman (2005) raised the question of whether it is possible to establish a connection between bad leaders and bad followers. In this context, in particular, the aforementioned author recalled how followers, just like any other human being, act in consideration of their individual and collective needs, such as security (self-preservation), certainty (Maslow, 1954), cohesion, order, and identity. In an attempt to frame negative leadership from a conceptual point of view, Kellerman (2005) identified the negative behaviors engaged by leaders which influence the followers who, in turn, are co-responsible for a dysfunctional leadership, and he proposed two categories of those bad behaviors, the ineffective leadership and the unethical leadership. On one hand, ineffective leaders are not able to produce the expected and desired changes because of the lack of essential personality features, incompetence, and poorly designed strategies and tactics. Also, an ineffective leadership often implies an ineffective followership. As stated by Kelley (1992), an effective follower is a strong and independent partner who respects that leader and is able to integrate and collaborate with colleagues, but at the same time is capable of self-management. Instead, an ineffective follower is someone weak, who depends on the leader and is not able to make a significant contribution to the group. On the other hand, unethical leadership refers to all those situations in which it is not possible to distinguish between good and evil. According to Ciulla (2001), a leader who is unable to take care of the interests of the followers is not just ineffective, but also unethical. Furthermore, Kellerman (2005) identified different types of unethical leadership, such as (a) the insensitive (the action is guided by rudeness and cynicism), (b) the corrupt (the action is conducted with lies and deception), (c) the island (there is a lack of interest in the health and well-being of those who are “other” than

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leaders and followers), and (d) the evil (the action is conducted with atrocities). Like their leaders, also followers can be ineffective and/or unethical. In conclusion, in order to have positive leaderships, we should shift our attention to the interdependence and connection between effective and ethical leaders and their followers. That connection is marked by a level of maturity and responsibility that allows leaders and followers to understand what is good and what is bad, what is right and what is wrong, and act accordingly. In this way, followers could provide their own response to the stimulus given by the behaviors and choices of leaders, without idealization, reflections, and absence of critical and constructive judgment. In essence, exemplary followers must show a “courageous conscience” (Kelley, 1992, p. 168), which would allow them to participate in the decision-making process and be great followers of great leaders.

LEADERSHIP AND ETHICS In light of the above-mentioned interdependence between leader and followers, a leader should be a combination of heart and mind, humility and dedication, discipline and flexible approach, conviction and enthusiasm, and finally desire to learn, discover, and share. In order to ensure that the combination of these elements becomes an effective ability to think and act as a leader, the leader should follow a few ethical principles. Indeed, since leadership is a particular kind of human relationship and ethics a set of moral principles, it is important to notice that leadership requires a specific conduct with moral duties and obligations. Furthermore, as Ciulla (2004a) stated, ethics “is about what we should do and what we should be like as human beings, as members of a group or society, and in the different roles that we play in life. It is about right and wrong and good and evil” (p. 302). Moreover, according to Langlois (2011), ethics “enlists the process of reflection in order to distance the subject from what is happening. This stepping back allows us to identify, among other things, norms, values, and conclusions by anticipating the possible consequences of a decision” (p. 32). Such choices are those of the individuals who, through a process of deep reflection, are conscious of their actions and their consequences. Moreover, the responsible person is able to take charge of those choices. As a consequence, the responsible leaders should be able to make good choices. And in order to make good choices, leaders should know not only

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the right decision, but also how to make the right decision. Furthermore, making a good decision requires reflection. Indeed, as Waggoner (2010) stated, “doing the right thing is not good enough because without reflection a person does not understand why the right decision was made and he or she is less likely to make correct decisions in the future” (p. 11). Unfortunately, nowadays leaders are called to answer the needs of society in such a short time that the process of reflection is too often forgotten. Furthermore, in a world increasingly governed by the logic of economic power, every day farther from a policy of good governance, and almost detached from the more urgent demands of society, the challenge of leadership cannot ignore the rediscovery of the value of respect. Also, leaders are call to humanize and enhance relationships and professional synergies. Indeed, as Gardner (1990) pointed out, one of the task of our leaders is to “keep alive values that are not so easy to embed in laws our caring for others, about honor and integrity, about tolerance and mutual respect, and about human fulfillment within a framework of values” (p. 77). Moreover, leaders should be the bearers of ethics for the entire society and have a strong moral consistency. As Ciulla (2004b) stated, “when leaders’ actions do not match their espoused values, they lose the trust they need to be effective with various stake-holders” (p. 118). Leaders need to be more accurate than ordinary people, because their moral inconsistencies are public and their credibility is based on some level of consistency. That being stated, it is important to remember that people wrongly think that leaders “should be held to a higher moral standard” (Ciulla, 2004a, p. 313). Requiring leaders to have a morality close to perfection implies that “we become more disillusioned with our leaders for failing to reach them. We might also end up with a shortage of competent people who are willing to take on leadership positions” (Ciulla, 2004b, p. 117). In conclusion, leaders should be held to the same moral standards as ordinary people, but they should present a higher rate of success at living up to those standards than the average person.

LEADERSHIP AND EXCELLENCE OR A PATH TOWARD EXCELLENCE Not everyone is capable of acquiring leadership positions, and normally it is difficult to choose a single formula to follow for achieving a significant step toward excellence. Far from being able to fully analyze every single

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aspect of leadership, an important starting point to highlight regards the link between leaders and people who excel. To achieve a positive leadership is necessary to follow a new path that leads to excellence and that is marked by important, relevant and significant steps toward change. If we start our analysis by focusing on the term excellence (from the Latin ex-cellere, to excel, to emerge), it is quite natural to draw the reader’s attention to a number of important elements of the leadership process. The search for excellence may include a mix of qualities such as an ethical approach, a strong sense of responsibility, the ability to make difficult choices, a great motivation, and finally a combination of vision and sense of reality. A number of noted leadership authors (Bass, 1985; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Burns, 1978; Kotter, 1982; Leavitt, 1986; Zaleznik, 1989) have considered many of these qualities essential for a leader. Aristotle (1984) focused on excellence and pointed out that excellence should belong to one of these three classes that are related to the soul: passions, faculties, or states. In describing those states , Aristotle stressed out that “every excellence both brings into good condition the thing of which it is the excellence and makes the work of that thing be done well,” and concluding that the excellence of a man is also “the state which makes a man good and which makes him do his own work well” (p. 24). In other words, in order for people to produce positive outcomes, they must be in environments that foster results. Although leadership can cover multiple areas, it may be necessary to examine individual situations in order to fully understand its dynamics. Also, it may be interesting to note that the essential characteristics that facilitate a path toward excellence, are similar in all spheres, from political to social, and from professional to corporate. In order to verify the existence of a leadership excellence, Collins (2007) analyzed 11 different American companies of the industrial sector (the framework was provided by the Fortune 500 between 1965 and 1995) that had a leading role in a significant leap from good to excellent results. The author collected data of at least 15 years of professional activities, results and performance, and examined a number of essential factors that had characterized this move toward excellence. This analysis was interesting since it helped to identify, in the passage from a good state to a great state, some of the characteristics inherent to the exercise of leadership and excellence. These characteristics were in contrast with those of many high-profile executives and highly visible and often acclaimed celebrities. Indeed, Collins (2007) noted that the leaders of the surveyed companies, who had accomplished a significant and lasting transition from a good to an

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excellent state, were quiet, reserved, timid, with a very strong mix of personal humility and professional will, with no fear and a rigorous culture of discipline. Also, no personal ambition was present in such leaders, but instead a strong ambition directed toward the good of the group of which they were leaders. Such companies were excellent as they acted and made significant strides in terms of excellence, not on the basis of individual transformations, miraculous programs, or strokes of luck, but on the basis of a well-planned, constant, long lasting process of growth, and on a great vision and sense of realism of leaders supported by impressive results. In this survey, Collins (2007) identified five levels of leadership, graduated according to the effectiveness and scope of leaders, paying particular attention to the last level, level 5, which identifies and proposes an executive who realizes excellence with the characteristics identified before. The important element is the attitude that distinguishes the excellent leader (also called leader GTG that’s “Good to Great”), rather than the division of levels. Leadership and excellence seem to be united by a common destiny. The complexity and heterogeneity of the situations in which it is necessary the use of leadership encourages us to think more carefully about the importance for leaders to adapt their leadership style. In conclusion, it is possible to make an overall assessment of leadership and excellence. A combination requires a targeted approach which aims to combine discipline and flexibility, vision, values, emotional approach, and respect for oneself and others. This approach could be a viable component of the entire process of building leadership toward excellence and change.

CONCLUSIONS Whether in a debate on issues that occur within their own country or those involving issues of international concern, leaders have to face numerous difficult situations that may challenge their leadership. They need to make decisions, deal with difficult moments of political or economic crisis, negotiate, and finally communicate openness and firmness. The foundation of leadership is based on the ability of a leader to make decisions and choices with self-confidence, a deep sense of responsibility, and a predisposition to think forward. The active and ethically responsible leaders should behave with awareness, cunning, and dynamism. This behavior could lead to significant results for their group, community, and country, and could prevent or avoid any forms of failure or dangerous conditioning.

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Skilled leaders should base their leadership on courage, vision, humility, patience, determination, responsibility, and integrity. They should desire to improve and share their improvements, without assessments of pure convenience, and without ever losing sight of the centrality of their figure.

REFERENCES Aristotle. (1984). Nichomachean ethics. In J. Barnes (Ed.), The complete works of Aristotle (Book I). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Bass, B. M. (1981). Stogdill’s handbook of leadership: A survey of theory and research. New York, NY: Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press. Bass, B. M. (2008). The Bass handbook of leadership (4th ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: Strategies for taking charge. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Bogardus, E. S. (1934). Leaders and leadership. New York, NY: Appelton-Century. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Cialdini, R. B. (2005). Le armi della persuasione. Come e perche` si finisce di dire di si (3rd ed.). Milano, Italy: Giunti. Ciulla, J. B. (1995). Leadership ethics: Mapping the territory. Business Ethics Quarterly, 5(1), 6 28. Ciulla, J. B. (2001). Carving leaders from the warped wood of humanity. Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l’Administration, 18(4), 313 319. Ciulla, J. B. (2004a). Ethics and leadership effectiveness. The nature of leadership, 302 327. Ciulla, J. B. (2004b). What is good leadership? Center for Public Leadership Working Paper Series, 7, 115 122. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/55929 Ciulla, J. B. (2005). The state of leadership ethics and the work that lies before us. Business Ethics: A European Review, 14(4), 323 335. Collins, J. (2007). O meglio o niente. Come si vince la mediocrita` e si raggiunge l’eccellenza. Milano: Oscar Mondadori Ed. De Vries, M. F. R. (1995). Leader, giullari e impostori. Sulla psicologia della leadership. Milano: Raffaello Cortina. Duncan, W. J. (1982). Humor in management: Prospects for administrative practice and research. Academy of Management Review, 7(1), 136 142. Dyer, W. W. (2010). Niente scuse. Il nuovo modo di pensare (3rd ed.). Milano: Corbaccio. Gardner, H. (1990). On leadership. New York, NY: Free Press. Gardner, H. (2007). Cambiare idee. L’arte e la scienza della persuasione (1st ed.). Milano: Feltrinelli. Goldstein, N. J., Martin, S. J., & Cialdini, R. B. (2007). 50 secrets from the science of persuasion. London: Profile Books Ltd. Hodgson, R., Levinson, D. J., & Zaleznik, A. (1965). The executive role constellation. Division of research. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School. Hollander, E. P. (1992). The essential interdependence of leadership and followership. Current Directions. Psychological Science, 1, 71 75.

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Kellerman, B. (2005). Cattiva leadership. Quando il lato oscuro della natura umana prende il comando. Milano, Italy: Etas. Kelley, R. E. (1992). The power of followership: How to create leaders people want to follow and followers who lead themselves. New York, NY: Doubleday. Kotter, J. P. (1982). The general managers. New York, NY: Free Press. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2002). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Krystal, H. (1979). Alexithymia and psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 33, 77 90. Langlois, L. (2011). The anatomy of ethical leadership. Edmonton, AB: AU Press. Leavitt, H. J. (1986). Corporate pathfinders. Homewood, IL: Dow Jones-Irwin. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper and Brothers. Nemiah, J. C. (1978). Alexithymia and psychosomatics illness. Journal of Continuing Education in Psychiatry, 39, 25 27. Nemiah, J. C., & Sifneos, P. E. (1970). Affect and fantasy in patients with psychosomatics disorders. In O. W. Hill (Ed.), Modern trends in psychosomatic medicine (Vol. II, pp. 26 34). London: Butterworths. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary and Thesaurus. (2013). Definition of ‘to lead’. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/lead Meyer, H. H. (1982). Whither leadership and supervision?. Professional Psychology, 13, 930 941. Roy, D. F. (1960). Banana time: job satisfaction and informal interaction. Human Organization, 18, 158 168. Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Schwartz, D. J. (2007). The magic of thinking BIG.. New York, NY: Fireside. Tomasino, B. (2013). Intervista a Renzo Rosso: Marchionne sta facendo un lavoro serio, la Cgil deve modernizzarsi. The Huffington post, June 19. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.it/2013/01/11/intervista-a-renzo-rosso_n_2455800.html Von Rad, M. (1983). Alexithymia, empirische untersuchen zur diagnostik und therapie psycosomatische kranker. Berlin: Springer Verlag. Waggoner, J. (2010). Ethics and leadership: How personal ethics produce effective leaders. CMC Senior thesis. Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, CA. Zaleznik, A. (1989). The managerial mystique. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Zanichelli. (2013). Definition of leadership. Retrieved from http://www.zanichelli.it/home/

PART V REQUISITE CONSCIOUSNESS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

THE SOCIOLOGY OF LEADERSHIP COACHING Molly George ABSTRACT This chapter explores the international field of leadership coaching from a sociological perspective. The fundamental features of the leadership coaching industry are outlined using primary data collected from indepth interviews with leadership coaches, ethnographic observation of coach-training workshops, and secondary data analysis of global coaching surveys. Leadership coaching is defined and contextualized within the field of leadership studies as well as within the broader international coaching industry. The issue of certification is examined along with an overview of the global demographics of who is involved in leadership coaching as practitioners and clients. The goal is to explicate how and why leadership coaching has emerged as a professional field and to offer insight into how leaders around the world are being trained and developed for various leadership roles in their communities.

One relatively recent, yet burgeoning development in the field of leadership is the dramatic rise of leadership coaching. It has become a truly global phenomenon. Alternatively known as executive coaching, leadership

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coaching is a broad coaching specialty that consists of a formal relationship between a practitioner and client with the purpose of facilitating the client’s work effectiveness and maximizing his or her leadership potential (Douglas & McCauley, 1999; Douglas & Morley, 2000; Kilburg, 1996; Witherspoon & White, 1997). Once an obscure and little-known field, the past few decades have ushered in a veritable explosion in leadership coaching programs and institutes around the world, such as the Academy of Executive Coaching Ltd. in the United Kingdom, Georgetown University’s Certificate in Leadership Coaching in the United States, as well as the Coaching Psychology Unit at the University of Sydney, Australia. The growing popularity of leadership coaching raises many important questions about the exact nature and effectiveness of the field. For example, an article in the Harvard Business Review (HBR) observed, “Like the Wild West of yesteryear, the frontier [of leadership/executive coaching] is chaotic, largely unexplored, and fraught with risk, yet immensely promising” (Sherman & Freas, 2004, pp. 82 83). Despite the ubiquity of leadership coaching, few empirical studies exist that examine the dimensions of this field (Bobo, Purvanva, Towler, & Peterson, 2009), and within this scant body of literature, only three disciplines are represented: management, psychology, and training (KampaKokesch & Anderson, 2001). Thus, to date, the majority of published information comes from the practitioner community rather than among academics (Joo, 2005). This chapter directly addresses this gap in the literature by offering an overview of leadership coaching from a sociological perspective. This perspective entails investigating how social actors and social organizations shape the conditions under which leadership coaching has emerged as an academic area of inquiry and a professional industry. The key focus is on how knowledge about leaders and leadership is being defined, mobilized, and sold as a distinct field in the coaching industry as well as examining the conditions under which this has become possible. The major goals of this chapter are multifold: (1) to define leadership coaching and outline the development of this subfield within leadership studies and the larger coaching industry, (2)to address the fraught issue of coaching certification, (3) to explore the global demographics of leadership coaching, and (4) to assess the future of leadership coaching. I accomplish these tasks by drawing on my previous work (George, 2013) and in-depth interviews with 25 coaches, ethnographic observation of two coach-training workshops, which catered to international participants that was offered in Southern California, and secondary data analysis of leadership coaching information collected from a range of sources, including the International

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Coaching Federation (ICF), the European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC), The Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), and the HBR.

DEFINING LEADERSHIP COACHING A fundamental question that first needs to be answered is: what is leadership? The study of leadership as a concept can be dated to antiquity (Burns, 2005), but the emergence of leadership studies, grounded in intellectual theory and research, is a relatively modern phenomenon. The multi and interdisciplinary field of leadership draws on theories and methodologies from a variety of disciplines, including humanities (i.e., history, literature, and philosophy), social sciences (i.e., psychology, sociology, and communication), as well as from applied or professional fields of study (organizational development, management, and education). Contemporary leadership scholars and researchers have sought to professionalize their area of study by organizing the theoretical and empirical content of leadership, by creating academic departments and schools to train others in the field of study, by developing academic journals, and by designing distinct academic and professional associations (Ely et al., 2010; Feldman & Lankau, 2005). Leadership coaching is just one outgrowth of this larger field of leadership studies and is also a subfield within the broader international coaching industry. Coaching has origins in career counseling or guidance, mentoring, cognitive-behavioral therapy, as well as the self-help and human potential movements (Grezemkovsky, 2005; Spence, 2007). Career counseling or career guidance consists of professional services that support individuals’ vocational endeavors and challenges. The self-help and human potential movements grew out of the humanistic psychology tradition and became popular in the 1960s and 70s, particularly in the United States. The ICF (2012, para. 3), the largest global coaching organization, defines coaching as “partnering with clients in a thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximize their personal and professional potential.” Coaches typically work with clients one-on-one, and the work can be done in person, over the phone, or online. An overwhelming variety of different coaching types are subsumed in the coaching industry, including personal coaching, life coaching, relationship coaching, as well as business, professional, corporate, executive and

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leadership coaching. The theories and methods, as well as type of practitioner, vary widely across and within these coaching subfields. The primary distinction that makes leadership coaching unique is the substantive focus on improving the client’s potential as a leader in a particular role or context. The 1990s ushered in the era of leadership coaching as an intervention designed specifically to improve the performance of middle- and seniorlevel managers through assessment. The “360-feedback” review became popular, which is a development tool where an individual receives confidential and anonymous evaluation from everyone with whom he or she works (including colleagues, subordinates, and superiors) in the form of surveys or interviews in order to evaluate that person’s strengths and weaknesses (Feldman & Lankau, 2005). Individual clients or organizations may seek the services of leadership coaches for a variety of reasons, including the desire to gain insight, manage people more effectively, increase self-awareness, or to focus on specific strategies that will enhance job performance or organizational outcomes (Blackman, 2006; Schlosser, Steinbrenner, Kumata, & Hunt, 2006). The coaching process itself takes a variety of forms, but typically consists of multiple phases and may include various assessment techniques (e.g., 360-degree assessments, having the client journal or create a work biography, interviews, or ethnographic observation) and feedback formats (Ely et al., 2010). Currently, there is no unified, universally agreed upon definition of leadership coaching. One characterization, offered by the CCL, defines leadership coaching as a formal relationship, “in which the coachee and coach collaborate to assess and understand the coachee and his or her leadership developmental tasks, to challenge current constraints while exploring new possibilities, and to ensure accountability and support for reaching goals and sustaining development” (Ting & Hart, 2004, p. 116). When asked to describe his work as an executive coach, one of my interview respondents, Don,1 who is a former lawyer and an ICF master-certified coach based in California who works primarily with baby boomers, replied: Well I left the practice of law in 1998 and moved into coaching full-time. I really felt it was my calling to help other people become the best leaders they can be. I do this by focusing first on the clients, assessing their goals, and developing an action plan that allows them to reach their full potential as executives or managers. I don’t create the change, I simply facilitate it by listening to clients and letting them discover their ultimate potential.

Ideally, leadership coaches are familiar with their clients’ industry or occupation (Ely et al., 2010). They emphasize the use of nondirective

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questioning and listening to allow clients to analyze and solve their own challenges, rather than diagnosing problems or offering specific advice. With nondirective questioning and listening, a practitioner refrains from inserting his or her own opinion to provide clients with the opportunity to discover answers to their own questions or problems. Leadership coaches are adamant about distinguishing their services from those of a therapist, psychologist, consultant, mentor or personal confidante. For example, when interviewing Julia, an African-American woman in her forties who is based in California and works with clients all over the world, told me: My specialty is with entrepreneurial, start-up business coaching … I’m not interested in someone’s divorce, or family problems. My expertise is in business. I don’t have an expertise in helping people through a divorce. I’m really, quite frankly, not interested in someone’s personal life. I don’t have that expertise. I’m not in the therapy field. I train leaders.

Therapy was the most common occupation to which my interview respondents compared and contrasted their work. This profession was continually evoked by coaches to point out that like therapists, their work involves an intense one-on-one relationship, but that instead of focusing on the past or the root causes of emotional distress, coaches are goal and future-oriented and do not treat or diagnose clients (Feldman & Lankau, 2005). Therapy, however, is a familiar occupation to the general public in most Western, industrialized countries, while the average citizen in these locations would likely be hard pressed to define leadership coaching. This is slowly changing as more and more corporations have implemented the skills of leadership or executive coaches as an alternative to conventional executive training (Filipczak, 1998; Kilburg, 1996). One testament to the growing legitimacy of leadership coaching is the establishment of accreditation bodies and professional certification programs, even though some practitioners remain resistant to the standardization of their training and practice.

LEADERSHIP COACHES’ AMBIVALENCE TOWARD CERTIFICATION Surprisingly, given the global rise of coaching and the predominance of leadership coaching as a subspecialty, no unified accreditation program or

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state-controlled licensing exists for coaches. There are no set requirements for someone to self-identify and practice as a “leadership coach.” Interestingly, the United Kingdom and Australia are leading the charge in delivering university postgraduate qualifications in coaching (EMCC, 2011). Some leadership coaches seek official certification and others do not; many leadership coaches have extensive work experience in a professional or business industry and parlay their experiential knowledge into a coaching business either apart from or in addition to knowledge gained through formal training in leadership coaching. Leadership coaches, therefore, lack the same type of occupational security as classic professionals, such as doctors, lawyers, or accountants, whose status have been secured through a monopoly of a particular area of expertise through legally enforced educational requirements and extensive gatekeeping mechanisms (Brint, 1994; Halliday, 1987; Larson, 1977). The lack of standardization and mandatory accreditation in leadership coaching, as well as the coaching industry more broadly, is a major obstacle for leadership coaches. To address this gap, four self-appointed coaching accreditation bodies have emerged including the International Coaching Council (ICC), the International Association of Coaching (IAC), the European Coaching Institute (ECI), and the most well known, the ICF. These organizations operate in various parts of the world, but their primary clientele are coaches located in North America, Western Europe, and Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), with a smaller but growing number of participants hailing from Latin America and the Caribbean, Eastern Europe, the Middle East and Africa, as well as Asia. Although accreditation is a crucial element of the professionalization of coaching, the plethora of various certifications for coaching itself has diminished the value of credentials more generally, as there are no independent and objective standards that allow for differentiation between programs or service providers. The ICF is spearheading efforts to standardize the industry and offers an accreditation process that includes an ethical code, core competencies, and three levels of coach credentials. Fundamentally, the ICF is attempting to rationalize the knowledge associated with coaching and to develop external rules, values, and norms for worker training and for the provision of service. Surveys of coaches worldwide and the coaches whom I interviewed expressed ambivalent attitudes toward this move toward universal certification. Some coaches saw certification as a necessary and inevitable trend as coaching professionalized. Audrey, a leadership coach and the CEO of an executive coach-training school in California who has trained clients in the United States, Canada, Brazil, and the Netherlands, felt as though

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consumers would drive standardization and that without it, coaching would risk becoming obsolete: Standardization has to happen. Consumers are very smart and they deserve protection. I mean that’s just absolutely essential. And if we have people out there doing what they term coaching that is not well-grounded in theories and concepts and best practices, then this emerging field will not be around for long. So I think that it’s absolutely imperative that we be doing research, that we be doing writing, that we as coaching schools or training organizations are doing our best to keep the standards very high … Unbridled industries ultimately fail.

Other leadership coaches were less convinced about the importance of certification. Claire, who is originally from England but has settled in the United States and founded her own leadership coaching and consulting practice, expressed the belief that coach-specific credentials were unnecessary if a worker had other academic or professional training: No one has ever asked me if I had a coaching credential. Nobody. I have an MBA, so I don’t think it’s really necessary. I think for some people if they get a certificate, it makes people seem better. I don’t think it’s necessary. I’d like to think that an MBA from an Ivy League school makes a little bit of difference. And I’ve brought a lot of business experience to my work.

These conflicting sentiments are echoed throughout the coaching industry internationally. For example, the 2012 ICF Global Survey of Coaches (the results of which are discussed in more detail below) included a number of questions regarding coaches’ opinions on certification and regulation, and the answers were uniformly mixed. When asked if they felt as though clients expected coaches to be certified/credentials, 40% of respondents “somewhat agreed” with the statement; when asked whether coaching should be regulated, respondents were split, with just 53% of respondents agreeing; and when asked what they believed to be the biggest obstacle for coaching in the near future, the leading answer at 42.8% was “untrained individuals who call themselves coaches” (ICF, 2012). Given the fragmented and unstandardized nature of the coaching industry, reliable estimates for the scope and structure of the coaching industry worldwide are difficult to obtain, but we can trace the rough outlines using the most current data available.

THE GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHICS OF LEADERSHIP COACHING The ICF (2012) Global Coaching study, conducted independently by PricewaterhouseCoopers, is the most up-to-date, comprehensive source of

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demographic data currently available on the coaching industry. The largescale survey was distributed to both ICF-accredited and nonaccredited coaches in over 117 countries (including the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Denmark, and Switzerland to name a few), resulting in 12,133 valid responses. According to the data, the estimated global number of active coaches is 47,500 and the total revenue generated among active coaches worldwide is a purported $2 billion US dollars, with $707 million produced in North America alone. ICF found that professional coaches are not evenly distributed across the globe; rather, they are concentrated in the high-income regions of North America, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Among the coaches surveyed, the largest proportion (22.8%) indicated that their main area of coaching was “leadership coaching.” This category was followed by “business/organizations” (15.3%) and “executive coaching” (15.2%). A few other highlights from the survey include the number of active clients per coach was 10, coaches charged an average fee of US $259 per onehour session and there was a relatively equal split between the proportion of clients who paid for coaching themselves (49%) compared to the proportion of clients who had a third party (likely an employer) pay for coaching (51%). Another important source of data on the coaching industry came from the HBR, which released a research report based on survey information from 140 coaches (Coutu & Kauffman, 2009). Among the respondents, there were an equal number of men and women and the respondents were primarily from the United States (71%) and the United Kingdom (18%). Findings from the survey showed that the top reasons why coaches were hired were to “develop high potentials or facilitate transitions” (48%), to “act as a sounding board” (26%), or to “address derailing behavior” (12%). The coaching respondents in this survey were also divided in terms of their opinions on the importance of certification, with 29.2% of coaches saying it was “Very important” and on the other end of the spectrum another 28.5% of coaches said certification was “Not at all important.” Above all other factors, coaches felt as though the most important thing clients should look for when hiring a coach is that the person had experience coaching in similar setting. The typical duration of a coaching relationship was between 7 and 12 months. Respondents reported that the party who initiates the coaching relationship is quite varied, with corporate administration/human resources initiating 29.5%, the coachee initiating 28.8%, manager initiating 23%, and other at 18.7% of the time. Overall, the survey results and analysis suggest that the coaching industry is still in

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flux, fraught with conflicts of interest among coaches and coaching institutes, and lacking in mechanisms to monitor the effectiveness of coaching engagement (Coutu & Kauffman, 2009, p. 92). The sample of coaches I interviewed was remarkably similar to the samples of the ICF and HBR studies in many respects and representative of demographic trends of coaches internationally. My sample consisted of 18 women and 7 men, who were currently living in the United States, and ranged in age from 35 to 68 (with a mean age of 51 and standard deviation of 8). All but two (92%) of the coaches were certified from national coaching organizations. In terms of coaches’ educational backgrounds, three people (12%) had completed some college, eight people (32%) held a bachelor’s degree, and fourteen people (56%) had advanced degrees in psychology, counseling, business, or social work. Out of the 25 respondents, ten had experience practicing internationally (typically via the phone or internet with clients based primarily in Western Europe), but all of coaches I interviewed lived and worked in California. Many of my respondents had used their occupational histories and experience in business or various industries as a springboard for their coaching practices. For example, Catherine, who grew up in the Caribbean and used to be in charge of a major bank’s foreign exchange trading rooms and foreign currency department, explained, I looked back at my career in finance and thought, “What is my greatest strength?” I realized that I was a great manager and motivator. So I decided to teach other people how to sharpen their leadership skills. My experience with ins and outs of the business world absolutely helps. It makes me better equipped to facilitate others becoming the best leaders they can be.

The gender composition of the coaching industry is interesting; across the globe the ICF (2012) reports that women make up 67.5% of all coaches, but within certain coaching subspecialties, men are proportionally overrepresented. Men tend to be concentrated in the areas of business and leadership, whereas women more commonly specialized in personal development and relationships. Sociologists have shown how the gender typing of occupations is ultimately consequential; occupations that are male dominated or considered “masculine” have been more successful in gaining professional legitimacy (Britton, 2000; Witz, 1992). Don, the respondent who transitioned from law into coaching, predicted this would happen with leadership coaching, This is not crass, but realistic, as compensation for coaching rises, more men will be attracted to it. And somewhat paradoxically, as it becomes not so much a female ghetto of a field, oddly enough the dollars follow … I think it’s a realistic prediction.

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The demographic data on coaching currently available paints a dynamic and evolving picture of who is involved in the international coaching industry.

THE FUTURE OF LEADERSHIP COACHING Leadership coaches, like individuals throughout the labor market, face an uncertain future. The data indicate that leadership coaching has continued to grow even in the midst of difficult economic times, with coaches reporting that their average number of clients, sessions, and fees had increased within the past year (IFC, 2012). It no longer appears as though leadership coaching is a “fad” that will disappear anytime soon. An increasing number of organizations and individuals are continuing to look toward coaches as resources for improving their ability to lead, in whatever context or position that may be. One certain trend in leadership coaching is that change is inevitable. The shifting landscape of the international labor market will continue to have reverberating effects on how leadership coaching is practiced and perceived. Leadership coaches will be required to adapt to the challenges faced by their clients given the high unemployment rate in many countries, the steady erosion of the middle-class, corporate downsizing, and outsourcing (Barley & Kunda, 2004; Osterman, 2001). My findings predict that the corporate or organizational clients of yesteryear who hired leadership coaches to reign in a difficult manager will give way to individual workers who hire leadership coaches in order to get a leg up in an increasingly competitive and capricious labor market. In countries with struggling economies, these clients will include middle- and upper-class workers who face downward mobility as well as recent college graduates who have little hope of being hired into the once-secure model of lifetime employment with one corporation. In many ways, leadership coaches are likely to be at the forefront of the “transition industry,” particularly in the United States, that is catering to members of the shrinking middle class (Ehrenreich, 2005). Other countries with prospering economies, such as China and India, are likely to experience a growth in their leadership coaching market as it correlates to workers’ and corporations’ abilities to seek out and pay for leadership coaching services. Leadership coaches are not insulated from the labor market forces that are affecting their clients. Further, coaches lack the security and broad

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cultural authority of white-collar workers, meaning workers in established, self-regulating professions such as medicine and law (Starr, 1982). Therefore in order to be leaders in their own field, coaches will need to stay on the cutting edge of their field, invest in their credentials and training, as well as sharpen their entrepreneurial and marketing strategies in order to generate and sustain a client base.

IMPLICATIONS First and foremost, practitioners as well as clients would benefit from the creation of a universal definition of leadership coaching. This definition need not be proscriptive to the extent that it hinders the creativity of coaches’ services, but a common framework is necessary for the field to move forward as a profession. The second ingredient necessary for leadership coaches to secure occupational legitimacy is to collectively standardize their training, accreditation, and standards of practice. Third, leadership coaches must identify shared criteria to evaluate their services (Ely et al., 2010). This is perhaps the biggest weakness of leadership coaches as a whole. Although coaches consistently point to the success of the coaching services, very few, if any, metrics or are used to substantiate these claims to their existing or potential clients. For example, in the HBR survey, fewer than one-fourth of the respondents said they provide any kind of quantitative data on business outcomes of the coaching (Coutu & Kauffman, 2009). Leadership coaches’ professional credibility is diminished by their unwillingness or inability to articulate the identifiable outcomes of their service. One of the traditional hallmarks of professional work is the ability for consumers to charge practitioners with malpractice; the inverse is that nonprofessionals are exempt from such claims because there is no standard of practice to enforce (Starr, 1982). Of course leadership coaching would be wary to invite such risk, but clarifying both the content and deliverable goals of their services is paramount. These changes are necessary to move leadership coaching from an ambiguous semiprofessional rife with tremendous variation between coaches in terms of competency, to a full-fledged profession. Workers will be able to maintain exclusive access to an officially sanctioned area of expertise, achieve self-regulation, and restrict unqualified practitioners from practicing under the label of leadership coaching. Such tasks will require tremendous coordination among self-employed practitioners who work

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independently. Like any professionalization project, the success of this endeavor is contingent upon leadership coaches’ ability to collaborate with one another, place service to consumers above self-interest and competition, and to value academic inquiry into their work. As Feldman and Lankau (2005, p. 845) point out, “there is something of a ‘black box’ feel about much of the current coaching literature; we know it can work but often do not know why it works or how it could work even better. Without a stronger theoretical foundation and empirical research, coaching runs the risk of falling into a passing trend that has no advocates because it has no evidence.” Through this sociological consideration, we have seen how social actors and social organizations shape both the content and structure of knowledge in the field of leadership coaching. Highlighting key facets of the current international landscape sheds much-needed light on the professionalization of leadership, the coaching industry, and offers important lessons for understanding how leaders around the globe are being trained to take on leadership roles in their communities.

NOTE 1. All names used in this chapter are pseudonyms in order to protect the identity of the respondents.

REFERENCES Barley, S. R., & Kunda, G. (2004). Gurus, hired guns and warm bodies: Itinerant experts in a knowledge economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Blackman, A. (2006). Factors that contribute to the effectiveness of business coaching: The coachees’ perspective. The Business Review, 5, 98 104. Bobo, J., Purvanva, R., Towler, A., & Peterson, D. B. (2009). Survey of executive coach practices. Personnel Psychology, 62, 361 404. Brint, S. (1994). In an age of experts: The changing role of professionals in politics and public life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Britton, D. M. (2000). The epistemology of the gendered organization. Gender and Society, 14, 418 434. Burns, J. M. (2005). Leadership. Leadership, 1(1), 11 12. Coutu, D., & Kauffman, C. (2009). HBR research report: What can coaches do for you? Harvard Business Review, January(1), 91 97. Douglas, C. A., & McCauley, C. D. (1999). Formal developmental relationships: A survey of organizational practices. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10, 203 220.

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Douglas, C. A., & Morley, W. H. (2000). Executive coaching: An annotated bibliography. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership. Ehrenreich, B. (2005). Bait and switch: The (futile) pursuit of the American dream. New York, NY: Metropolitan Books. Ely, K., Boyce, L. A., Nelson, J. K., Zaccaro, S. J., Hernez-Broome, G., & Whyman, W. (2010). Evaluating leadership coaching: A review and integrated framework. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 585 599. European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC). (2011). Strategic plan. Retrieved from http://www.emccouncil.org/eu/en/about Feldman, D. C., & Lankau, M. J. (2005). Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 31, 829 848. Filipczak, R. (1998). The executive coach: Helper or healer? Training (35, 30 36). George, M. (2013). Seeking legitimacy: The professionalization of life coaching. Sociological Inquiry, 83(2), 179 208. Grezemkovsky, U. (2005). Happiness is the cure: Self-improvement and authenticity in contemporary American life. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, CA. Halliday, T. C. (1987). Beyond monopoly. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. International Coach Federation. (2012). ICF International coaching study. Retrieved from http://coachfederation.org/coachingstudy2012/. Accessed on August 21, 2012. Joo, B. K. (2005). Executive coaching: A conceptual framework from an integrative review of practice and research. Human Resource Development Review, 4, 462 488. Kampa-Kokesch, S., & Anderson, M. Z. (2001). Executive coaching: A comprehensive review of the literature. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53(4), 205 228. Kilburg, R. R. (1996). Toward a conceptual understanding and definition of executive coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 48, 134 144. Larson, M. S. (1977). The rise of professionalism: A sociological analysis. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Osterman, P. (2001). Working in America: A blueprint for the new labor market. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Schlosser, B., Steinbrenner, D., Kumata, E., & Hunt, J. (2006). The coaching impact study: measuring the value of executive coaching. International Journal of Coaching in Organizations, 4(3), 8 26. Spence, G. (2007). Further development of evidence-based coaching: Lessons from the rise and fall of the human potential movement. Australian Psychologist, 42, 255 65. Sherman, S., & Freas A. (2004). The wild west of executive coaching. The Harvard Business Review. November 1. Starr, P. (1982). The social transformation of American medicine: The rise of a sovereign profession and the making of a vast industry. New York, NY: Basic Books. Ting, S., & Hart, E. W. (2004). Formal coaching. In C. D. McCauley & E. Van Velsor (Eds.), The center for creative leadership handbook of leadership development (pp. 116 150). San Francisco, CA: Wiley. Witherspoon, R., & White, R. P. (1997). Four essential ways that coaching can help executives. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership. Witz, A. (1992). Professions and Patriarchy. London: Routledge.

TRAITS AND BEHAVIOR: PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP Richard J. Hughbank and Leland C. Horn ABSTRACT The concept of leadership is an oft-discussed issue among practitioners and scholars alike without regard to culture, background, or organizational affiliation. Based on our international experiences, leadership is an art that is traditionally taught as a science which is impacted via various psychological concepts. It is both a natural phenomenon and a learned attribute that is planted, nurtured, developed, and tested over time. Certain leadership approaches are formal, only succeeding in formal settings and environments while others are dependent upon conditioning of the leader. Regardless of one’s leadership style and characteristics, it is critical that both leaders and followers define and understand the variances between failure and success within an organization. This chapter addresses international leadership styles and the psychological theories that support differing approaches assisting the reader to more clearly understand and identify the subtle differences in the development of a successful leader and organization from global perspectives.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 245 260 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020014

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The task of the leader is to get his people from where they are to where they have not been. Henry A. Kissinger, Former Secretary of State

INTRODUCTION There are several theories on leadership that identify varying conceptual approaches toward organizational success (e.g., Epitropake & Martin, 2004; House, Javidan, Hanges, & Dorfman, 2002; Winston & Patterson, 2006; Yukl, 1999). For decades, people have attempted to identify and define the components of a quality leader and leadership style. Leadership exists at every level of an organization: strategic (long term), operational, and tactical (daily functions). Leadership is a global concept and basic in application regardless of the organization size, function, field of expertise or operation, and takes shape in both positive and negative connotations. One of the critical considerations for leadership success is that of environmental uncertainty which refers to a leader’s lack of knowledge pertaining to the external environment that presents a level of unpredictability (Agle, Nagarajan, Sonnenfeld, & Srinivasan, 2006; Waldman, Ramirez, House, & Puranam, 2001). Another such influential attribute is charisma and other similar personal values such as ethics (Judge, Woolf, Hurst, & Livingston, 2006; Sosik, 2005; Turner & Muller, 2005; Yukl, 1999). Our experiences have identified that leaders who exhibit effective attributes have a firm grasp of their individual abilities as well as the abilities of their collective subordinates. This level of confidence and success is gained through extensive leadership experience (e.g., task-relevant experiences, content-based experiences, and skill development) and an understanding of the psychosocial factors contributing to leader development and organizational culture (Latta, 2009; Lewthwaite, 2006). The emotional functions (e.g., influencing, motivating, and self-validating) of a leader (Turner & Muller, 2005) also fit under the descriptive umbrella of influential attributes and assist leaders in making quality organizational decisions. A leader’s display of emotions may play a key role in the establishment of organizational climate. Regardless of the psychological and behavioral factors (Combs, Popham, & Hosford, 1977) contributing to organizational climate and culture, leaders must display an ability to develop successful and functional subordinate relationships. They must also prove capable of identifying attitudes of the in-groups and out-groups

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(Brewer, 1979; Walduz & Mummendey, 2002; Watrous & Wheeler, 1981) within the organization in addition to individual and collective nuances. Establishing a proper leadership mindset will assist in creating the necessary awareness (Rock, 2010) when working in dyadic relationships (e.g., leader subordinate). Positive organizational behavior (POB) has a direct correlation with “higher-than-average” performance within an organization (Avolio & Luthans, 2006; Sutcliffe & Vogus, 2003). From a perspective of individual relationship exchanges between leaders and followers, POB focuses on the micro level working relationships (Luthans & Youssef, 2007). If further facilitated through a high quality exchange with all subordinates, POB can prove a viable platform for increased organizational performance. Additionally, the creation of networks throughout an organization will benefit both organizational goals and the leader’s personal career progression (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1991). This chapter addresses various leadership styles from a hierarchal perspective and the psychological theories that support differing approaches assisting the reader to more clearly understand and identify the subtle differences in the development of a successful leader and organization. First, we introduce the psychological perspective of leadership such as dominance and performance factors. This is followed by various theoretical approaches to leadership psychology. Next, a synopsis of differing leadership styles is provided, followed by conclusions and final thoughts.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE For this discussion, the authors define leadership as the action of convincing others to do something in a certain context that leads to a positive and successful organizational outcome. While there is delight in this simple construct, by thinking globally, one can easily identify a practical application across cultural, geopolitical, and geoeconomic boundary lines. The psychological perspective of such a simplistic approach could surpass communication barriers throughout the hierarchy often encountered at such boundaries. From a psychological approach, leadership addresses dominance and performance factors between human beings. We have found that leadership denotes a hierarchy among individuals involving various types of leader follower relationships ranging from the Boy Scouts to Fortune 500

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companies. The dynamic relationships between leaders and followers require a certain psychological perspective where leaders apply their dominance, and followers, whom are voluntary in nature, have the option to follow a particular leader (Vugt, 2006). However, organizational hierarchies are more often developed based on prestige rather than dominance (Henrich & Gil-White, 2001). Vugt (2006) claimed, “Highly placed individuals are able to exercise control over group activities, because they are not dependent upon others to achieve their goals. They eat when they are hungry, rest when they are tired, and threaten anyone who annoys them” (p. 358). Accordingly, the relative position of persons within a hierarchy dictates dominance within a given organization. Additionally, hierarchies are the product of competition among organizational members based on scarce resources (Vugt, 2006). Vugt (2006) further noted that “… a low ranked individual has no other option but to follow whatever dominant individuals in the group decide to do” (p. 358). Self-awareness becomes a pivotal psychological aspect within organizational hierarchies as it espouses a leader’s credibility. Genuine and credible leadership promotes authenticity in followers leading to an acute self-awareness of core values and beliefs leading to confidence (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Ilies, Morgeson, & Nahrgang, 2005) and is considered “… a root concept for positive leadership approaches such as charismatic, transformational and ethical leadership” (Ilies et al., 2005, p. 374). Additionally, authentic leaders disclose a greater moral ability to identify and evaluate organizational dilemmas from approaches demonstrating the capacity for consideration of the needs of their followers and stakeholders (May, Hodges, Chan, & Avolio, 2003). It is the consideration of others through dyadic relationships that transfer leaders’ attention to the positive attributes and strengths of their subordinates (Gardner & Schermerhorn, 2004) leading to the cultivation of organizational commitment, better attitudes, positive organizational behavior, less employee turnover, and increased organizational performance. There are many psychological perspectives to consider when applied to leadership. Leadership varies within each person and is based on several variables such as individualism, experience, and culture. As Vugt (2006) noted, leadership executed through the lens of the dominance theory is an approach used by leaders based on their relative position within the organizational hierarchy. In a differing leadership approach, Gardner and Schermerhorn (2004) discussed the effectiveness of leaders’ attributes and strengths when applied through dyadic relationships. Regardless of which perspective used by a leader, flexibility becomes the critical component as

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the ability to change leadership styles could prove the difference between individual and organizational success and failure.

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP PSYCHOLOGY Behaviorism Leadership is determined by a series of genetic and environmental factors which fuel the long-standing debate of whether leaders are born (nature) or created (nurture) over time. Through an objective analysis of quantifiable behavioral events, behaviorism can assist in the explanation of psychological variables regarding individual leadership styles (Johnson, Vernon, McCarthy, Molson, Harris, & Jang, 1996). Accordingly, behaviorism (placing increased importance on the characteristics and abilities of a leader) could quantifiably identify relevant leadership attributes and styles throughout an organization’s hierarchy. Effective leadership is a critical element in developing formal organizational structures. These structures are established based on “… complex networks of technical relations and boundary-spanning exchanges” (Meyers & Rowan, 1977, p. 340). The behavior of a leader is developed through education, professional development, and practical experience. All three of these developmental factors lend toward the theoretical argument that leaders are created and viable leadership attributes are established through repetition. Leadership is primarily taught as a science; however, behaviorism offers an alternative approach to analyzing human problems (Combs et al., 1977). Accordingly, leadership is also learned as an art. As leaders gain more experience through interaction, the observance of others’ actions becomes an art. Behavioral learning is a byproduct of trial and error based on a leader’s ability to effectively implement differing leadership styles in a fluid and dynamic environment. Regardless of one’s involuntary response (classical conditioning) or reinforced stimuli (operant conditioning), leaders cognitively identify with effective leadership techniques. Once these techniques are identified as successful within a given situation, they become repetitive by nature, ensuring continued success. As variables are introduced (e.g., different followers or a change in organizational culture), the art of leadership affords the opportunity for a leader to adjust based on experience and learned behavior.

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According to Combs et al. (1977), “Behavioral approaches alone are simply inadequate to deal effectively with the broader humanistic objectives required to live effectively in a complex modern society” (p. 56). While behaviorism is but one theoretical psychological approach to leadership throughout an organizational hierarchy, it has been challenged over time as to its relevance in the macro picture when focusing on the humanistic approach in its entirety. Essentially, behaviorism is but a single psychological theory used to assist in defining how leaders are initially developed and evolved over time based on education and practical experience.

Classical Conditioning Originally, Pavlov (1927) developed his theoretical approach toward classical conditioning in an effort to explain how people cultivate involuntary responses to a certain stimuli. Classical conditioning is best elucidated through the example of Pavlov’s dog experiment. During this experiment, Pavlov developed a stimulus in the dog that associated the ringing of a bell with food. Over time, the ringing of the bell created salivation in the dog. As a result, Pavlov had established an association between the two stimuli. The association between the two stimuli with the dog was based on a biological and natural response. As noted by Genc (2010), in classical conditioning, One associates a neutral stimulus (that does not induce a biological response in the person) with a stimulus that stimulates a natural response in the person. After successive associations of the latter stimulus with a neutral one, the person starts to give a similar natural response to the neutral stimulus in the absence of the natural stimulus. (p. 37)

This is a relevant theory when applied toward people and leadership as it identifies a clear argument for the debate of natural leadership and its correlating relationship with the nurturing of a leader. The identification of triggers that reliably stimulate (Littleton, Toates, & Braisby, 2002) a person and behavior through the observance of subordinates is a powerful psychological tool for leaders. Organizations are complex structures with varying personalities which require continuous flexibility and oversight by leaders.

Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning “… occurs when a response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus” (Cheng & Yeh, 2009, p. 598). Conditioning a person to

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become a leader lends toward the concept that leaders are created based on the necessary reinforcement stimuli identified in Cheng and Yeh’s (2009) comments. Successive associations with varying leadership styles will create muscle memory throughout the operant conditioning process. The reinforcing stimulus will become innate over time allowing an effective leader to successfully respond to an organizational issue with the final outcomes serving as the necessary reinforcement. For example, if a leader selects a transactional leadership approach and rewards an employee based on good work causing other employees to strive for a reward via their hard work, the leader will continue to reward his subordinates in an effort to achieve continued productivity. Just as classical conditioning is an association between a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that stimulates a natural response (Genc, 2010), operant conditioning establishes an association between a given behavior and a consequence (Allen, 2007). Once leaders develop the necessary skills to identify and solve organizational issues through a strategic thinking process, they are provided the required feedback via the final outcome affording them an opportunity to process their decisions (or behavior) with a consequence. Additionally, this conditioning theory has an important impact on followers as they are conditioned by the same processes as leaders which will either lead to a stronger psychological belief structure through success or a loss in their acceptance of a leader’s capability to perform under certain conditions. As a result, trust becomes the aftereffect of a leader’s ability to adapt and change through the process of operant conditioning.

Cognitive Development Hunt (1996) suggested two reasons for introducing cognitive complexity in the leadership model: (1) “… its potential usefulness for tapping modes of thinking involved in information processing at different organizational levels … [and (2) it] may be useful in revealing developmental inclinations of leaders to construct the kinds of complex thinking modes required at higher organizational levels” (p. 30). An organizational chart can identify the needs versus the personality of a certain type of cognitive leadership style. Through the leadership personality identification process, the teambuilding component at every level of an organization can be developed via a cognitive approach that will identify developmental inclinations of the leader.

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This is indicative of a project leader developing his leadership style based on the small number of people assigned to the group compared to the chief of operations (COO) of a major corporation developing his leadership personality as it applies to hundreds, if not thousands, of people throughout the entire organization. In both leadership positions, the leadership personality identification process would vary as team-building approaches differ based on the varying organizational levels of leadership. This process is necessary at every organizational level as decision-making processes become more complex in nature at the direct leadership, organizational leadership, and systems leadership levels. In studying cognitive development, Ashkanasy, Hartel, and Daus (2002) recognized that subordinates make a cognitive decision for gratification based on a utilitarian attitude toward their job situation. This satisfaction will contribute to the overall enhancement of organizational performance for the individual and collective group leading to the facilitation of the successful creation and subsequent growth of subgroup networks. Through self-awareness of these subgroups, POB will afford enhanced relationship exchanges (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Phillips & Bedeian, 1994). The cognitive development of dyadic relationships between leaders and followers are the focal point of the leader member exchange theory which provides leaders an equitable approach to their subordinates and positive organizational performance.

DIFFERING LEADERSHIP STYLES While leadership concepts are often discussed and analyzed, transactional versus transformational leadership styles lead the list of concepts. Classic definitions of transactional and transformational styles are used in this chapter. Transactional leadership involves a style approach using an exchange system of rewards between the leader and follower to complete an assigned purpose. Transformational leadership involves a leader with a vision on how to accomplish the assigned purpose and inspires followers to efficiently and effectively complete that purpose in a timely manner. The authors maintain from their experience that, from a more practical and globally reaching standpoint, situational and sustainable leadership could also be applied by those successful organizations performing in the global market. Situational leadership, in its simplest application, is applying different conceptual approaches to leading followers based upon the

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immediate situation, environment, needs, and purpose of the leader follower interaction. Sustainable leadership, also simplified, is an emerging alternative concept where leaders recognize their relationship extends far beyond the simple leader follower dyadic relationship. These sustainable actions affect their organization, its stakeholders, and the entire system to which their organization belongs. Effective leadership will reach employees and followers, emotionally connecting with them and improving the work environment into one of positive performance where creativity and excellence flourishes and becomes the standard. This empowerment will psychologically nurture employees, and those who aspire to become leaders in the organization will find innovative and influencing supervisors interested in helping them grow and improve. While the last two decades brought increased attention, research, and debate on transactional and transformational leadership styles and the psychological impact they have on leader follower relationships, personal performance, and growth from a global perspective, sustainable leadership may emerge as the more successful concept (e.g., Casserley & Critchley, 2010; Spreitzer, De Janasz, & Quinn, 1999).

Formal Leadership Spreitzer et al. (1999) examined the leadership and psychological empowerment relationship in a United States Fortune 500 organization seeking to confirm that mid-level supervisors reporting high levels of empowerment are indeed viewed by their followers to be innovative, upwardly influencing, and more inspirational. This study by Spreitzer and team continues their efforts to improve understanding of the effects of empowerment when properly exercised by leaders and leadership teams. Through careful analysis of their collected data, it was identified that subordinates supported the view of supervisor success when those leaders adopted a more encouraging stance toward their employees (Spreitzer et al., 1999). Those subordinates also viewed supervisors as more caring and interested in their subordinates. In another study conducted in a Singapore public hospital, researchers empirically examined the impact of empowerment on transformational leadership effects (Avolio, Zhu, Koh, & Bhatia, 2004) by evaluating follower organizational commitment. Avolio et al. (2004) examined over 500 staff nurses working in a transformational (encouraging influence to think critically using creative, or novel, approaches to problems and issues) leadership environment and measuring levels of organizational commitment

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defined as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization” (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982, as cited in Avolio et al., 2004, p. 952). Interestingly, this team discovered that direct (immediate supervision) and indirect (distant supervision relationship) leadership attributes positively affected organizational commitment through the application of transformational leadership. In a similar study by Walumbwa, Peterson, Avolio, and Hartnell (2010), research was conducted in a large (the United States) southwestern metropolitan police force consisting of more than 300 police leaders and followers (approximately a 3-to-1 follower-to-leader ratio) in an effort of better understanding the relationship between work climate and job performance. Based on the earlier studies and diverse supporting literature, this team confirmed a positive relationship between psychologically empowered employees and a positive work environment that encouraged creativity. This study, conducted outside the classic business management and leadership realm and involving police officers performing duties in highly stressful and threatening environments, remarkably provided results similar to those expected from classic business research results (Walumbwa, et al., 2010).

Transactional Leadership Transactional leadership is a leadership style in which leaders offer rewards or benefits in exchange for fidelity and faithfulness in their followers (Bass, 1997). Thus, an effort to establish a greater performance climate is established based on the personal need of self-achievement. The final desired outcome of transactional leadership is a positive impact on productivity throughout the organizational hierarchy. In a contradictory position, Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) have identified transactional leaders as “… less effective than transformational leaders” (p. 198). Furthermore, Bass (1997) identified that the leader follower relationship must transcend the transactional “reward-punishment” exchange relationship. A study conducted in a large Chinese multinational company evaluated 101 work teams measuring transactional leadership, psychological empowerment (where the employee moves forward with confidence based on a self-generated feeling of being able to make decisions), and the employee creative performance climate (Wei, Yuan, & Di, 2010). This team measured four areas, transactional leadership, empowerment climate, psychological empowerment, and creative performance, across 900 distributed

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questionnaires. Wei et al. (2010) determined that psychological empowerment has a positive impact on creativity as influenced by the created climate even though transactional leadership is based upon contingent rewards and closer supervision oversight and also clarified the negative effects of transactional leadership on creative performance in the large Chinese company. This finding seemingly contradicts the theoretical positions of Sivanathan and Fekken (2002) and Bass (1997) that transactional leadership is often less successful at fostering employee creativity through empowerment. Perhaps the explanation for this “contradiction” lies in the culturally rich-based sustainable leadership approach. In discussing leadership style changes and approaches, Pauliene (2012) believed leadership styles to be both culturally driven and regionally based; particularly in non-western regions, even though 98 percent of study evidence is influenced by North American study and research (House & Aditya, 1997, as cited in Pauliene, 2012, p. 105). Along with this body of evidence, Pauliene believed the majority of leadership models are strongly influenced by the North American leadership styles and beliefs. Pauliene reported that researchers have found that employees who were originally from collectivist cultures worked more effectively with transformational leadership applications (2012, p. 98). During this small-scale, nonempirical study of cultural leadership style applications, Pauliene found that in collectivist societies and cultures, transactional leadership styles are more closely associated with leadership success while individualistic cultures (e.g., Australia, China (Hong Kong), Taiwan, and Turkey) are more supportive of transformational styles. Pauliene (2012) found that Africa and Malaysia, as well as the United Arab Emirates (UAE), exhibit more transactional leadership styles and approaches based upon the culture specific society where managers are often perceived as a father figure in an organizational structure compared to a family structure where the father leads and is responsible for the wellbeing of the employees (who mentally role-play in the organization as family members). Pauliene (2012) made a strong case for more non-western leadership research, particularly when examined from a psychological perspective involving cultural or worldview applications.

Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership involves the motivation of subordinates via mutual supporting techniques involving morality and motivation creating

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“… conditions that enable staffs to find their own directions” (Leithwood & Poplin, 1992, p. 8). According to Modassir and Singh (2008), “Transformational leaders exhibit charismatic behaviors, arouse admiration, inspire, motivate, provide intellectual stimulation, and treat their followers with individualized consideration” (p. 4). The introduction of methods designed to inspire and motivate followers may involve the suppression of leaders’ personal interests for the greater good of the group and the collective whole. The transformational leadership model includes the introduction of basic emotions (e.g., fear, surprise, sadness) as well as the inclusion of ideals and moral values (e.g., justice and liberty) (Hunt, 1996). Tichy (2002) explained transformational leadership as “… leaders are energized not just by the goals of the team or the organization, but by transforming and coaching individuals to the leaders themselves” (p. 297, emphasis added). Transformational leaders develop the ability to share their vision and create meaning for their subordinates. This vision supports the construct of a culture where the concept of self and individual identity is strengthened, thereby increasing the overall organizational strength and identity (Modassir & Singh, 2008). Providing support for the argument of shifting the way leaders are developed and leadership styles are applied, Casserley and Critchley (2010) suggested that as the global recession recedes, a new global order is emerging that provides alternative approaches to developing leaders. They postulate that to provide the type of leadership necessary to support successful long-term organizational health and performance around the world, key leaders must realize their personal physical and psychological health determines their individual performance (Casserley & Critchley, 2010). The leader’s performance is directly linked to organizational performance (employees following the leader), and the organization is not a stand-alone, cylinder of excellence (stovepipe), but exists and functions as part of a networked entity of globally functioning organizations. Whether transactional or transformative leadership applications are used, followers who understand their leaders’ extension of psychological empowerment to the lowest levels will prove innovative under stress. Additionally, they may begin to “think outside the box,” become creative and adaptive to rapidly changing and unexpected situations, creatively lead their own subordinate team members, or actively support their senior leadership within the hierarchy.

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Sustainable Leadership Sustainable leadership (Casserley & Critchley, 2010) may indeed be the next generation of leadership development, just as we witnessed the evolution of transactional leadership development in the last 50 years to more of a transformational developmental approach. The psychological intelligence required of globally successful leaders is high as they must firmly grasp a clear sense of personal worth (value added to their organization and teams), motivation, and purpose. Of these characteristics, a strong sense of purpose is critical to vertical leadership (often referred to as a “chain-ofcommand” relationship) and subsequent organizational success. A newly emerging model, sustainable leadership, is applied on several levels. The first two, personal (physical and psychological health of the specific leader) and organizational (environment and climate in which the organization lives and functions), are generally well understood and widely discussed in literature. The second set adds sociological (leaders acting in a responsible role in the broader community) and ecological (environmental sustainability) levels of leader development and effort. These last two levels play critical roles in the suggested paradigm shift from transactional and transformational styles to the sustainable leadership style (and leader development) applications (Casserley & Critchley, 2010).

CONCLUSION AND FINAL REFLECTIONS Leadership denotes a hierarchy among individuals involving various types of leader follower relationships. The psychology of leadership focuses on dominance and performance factors between human beings and the assessment and assimilation of those working in a dynamic environment. There are multiple and differing leadership styles designed to emotionally connect leaders with their followers in an effort to improve the overall work environment an environment based on positive performance facilitating creativity and excellence. This empowerment could eventually become the standard within a given organization. The theoretical approaches to leadership psychology allow us to gain an understanding of human behavior in leaders and followers. Through this understanding, leaders can more readily identify and nurture their own style(s) of leadership leading to a well-defined approach that is conducive

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to developing other leaders and gaining the trust of their subordinates. Classical and operant conditioning identify the nature and nurture aspects of leadership while cognitive development provides pivotal insights into attitude and performance. Pauliene (2012) recommended that the leadership development paradigm (in a worldwide context) be freshly evaluated to increase the non-western influence on concept development and improvement. More importantly, as organizations expand across borders and face new challenges rooted in cultural differences and personal values, openness, understanding and acceptance of culturally linked leadership styles must be incorporated into any leader development models (e.g., the Pauliene (2012, p. 103) leadership conceptual transformation model). As one thinks about sustaining strong leadership for the future, particularly on a global level and in a global economic environment, leader development from a psychological approach gains a new and more urgent focus.

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WHEN LEADERS BURN OUT: THE CAUSES, COSTS AND PREVENTION OF BURNOUT AMONG LEADERS Steve Bagi ABSTRACT What happens when leaders are unable to keep leading? Leaders are often expected to be enthusiastic, innovative and help lead their organization forward. However, sometimes they can find themselves so emotionally and physically depleted that they are unable to function, even at the most basic level. Years of stress, heavy responsibilities, personal issues and unhealthy work hours can take a toll in the form of ‘burnout’. The battery is flat and the car cannot start. There are many contributing factors to burnout. It comes at a high cost to the leader, his family and his organization. This chapter will look at the nature of burnout and examine how the leader’s personality, work role, leadership style and life experiences can all contribute to the development of this condition. The impact of burnout, pathways to recovery and some preventative measures will also be examined combining current research findings with the author’s own experience of burnout. This chapter aims to highlight the need for leaders to look after themselves and for organizations to help support their leaders in an effective way. Although recovery from

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burnout may be a difficult and long journey, leaders can regain their strength and motivation and return to the role stronger and with more effective coping strategies.

Effective leaders can often take on a superhero-like status. We see them bounding around the organization: rescuing, solving problems, creating vision for the future and inspiring those around them with a seemingly unlimited supply of energy and unwavering commitment. It is easy to forget that they are not superheroes, that they do not possess unlimited energy and that sometimes the weight of responsibility, expectations, excessive workload and their own personal struggles can drain them physically and emotionally to the extent that they find it difficult to continue. Sometimes leaders burn out. Six years ago, I found myself in the painful dark forest of burnout. In one way it was not a surprise to find myself there. I had sensed its approach for a couple of years but had continued to soldier on out of my strong sense of responsibility to the organization that I worked for. The surprise came when I found out just how unpleasant, debilitating and costly burnout actually was. The purpose of this chapter is to paint a picture of what burnout is like; its causes, costs and what can be done to prevent leaders from burning out. I will be drawing on my own experience of burnout, the journeys of others I have counselled who were suffering from burnout and some of the current research and writing on this topic. Although burnout is a term that is widely used around the world, I feel that it is often poorly understood, except by those who are in the midst of it. It is important in a book on international leadership to deal with this subject to help leaders from around the world to appreciate that they are not invincible and the very actions and attitudes that they aspire to, and are being rewarded for, may actually contribute to their undoing. It is also vital for organizations to see that they may be contributing to burnout in their leaders through their expectations, cultures and leadership styles. From both a moral and business sense, it is important to know how to respond to burnout.

WHAT IS BURNOUT? From my experience, being burnt out is like being lost in a dark forest. It is a dark place full of total exhaustion and intense emotional suffering.

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Although the leader may have been in the process of burning out for some time, when they arrive at full-scale burnout they often find themselves unable to continue to work or, at times, even fulfil the basic responsibilities of life. Although the term ‘burnout’ is used in a variety of contexts, and refers to varying degrees of intensity, technically it refers to a point at which the person’s ability to function is severely impaired (Casserley & Megginson, 2009; Van der Klink & Van Dijk, 2003). Burnout is generally regarded as being a multifaceted psychological condition which is work-related and involves intense physical, mental and emotional exhaustion which is accompanied by a range of negative emotions and attitudes towards self and the workplace (Awa, Plaumann, & Walter, 2010; Carod-Artal & Vazquez-Cabrera, 2013; Ekstedt & Fagerberg, 2005; Hudson, 2005; Karl & Fischer, 2013). It is truly a debilitating and unpleasant condition which has real consequences for the person, his family and the organization for which he or she works. Much of the early research into the nature and diagnosis of burnout was carried out in North America and was focused on health services workers. Seminal research carried out by Maslach and Jackson (1981) with a cross section of healthcare workers identified three significant aspects of burnout. This three-dimensional framework for understanding burnout and the diagnostic tool, the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), has been used extensively as research into burnout has expanded to include many other work roles in many countries around the world (Maslach, 2003; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Schaufeli, Leiter, & Maslach, 2009). The three core aspects of burnout highlighted by this research are exhaustion, depersonalization and inefficacy.

Exhaustion Burnout is most commonly identified with a deep and persistent experience of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion (Helkavaara, Saastanoinen, & Lahelma, 2011; Maslach et al., 2001; Nuallaong, 2013). Long work hours, workplace stress and ongoing conflict can, over time, severely deplete the leader’s energy and motivation levels. This intense fatigue is something that is long-lasting and very different from normal tiredness which can be shaken off with sleep and rest (Ekstedt & Fagerberg, 2005). It is a deep gnawing tiredness that doesn’t go away. At the time of my burnout, I remember commenting to my wife on a road sign which said ‘Don’t drive while tired’. I remarked that that would mean I should never drive as tiredness had become my constant experience. I had grown tired of

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being tired. In burnout, the leader’s energy tank is empty. The car cannot start.

Depersonalization and Cynicism Burnout also involves a range of negative attitudes towards the workplace, self and others. Leaders who were once totally committed to, and enthusiastic about, the organization develop a more cynical and disillusioned perspective (Casserley & Megginson, 2009; Hudson, 2005; Maslach et al., 2001). Depersonalization represents a coping mechanism in which there is a growing detachment from others in the workplace, particularly to those who are causing emotional stress (Lernihan & Sweeney, 2010). Often this is accompanied by increasing cynicism (Simbula & Guglielmi, 2010). Both depersonalization and cynicism represent a process of a gradual emotional ‘clocking off’ from the workplace. Aspects of work and the organization’s goals, which once inspired and brought fulfilment, start to become very distant memories as the leader goes deeper into the dark forest.

Inefficacy The third characteristic of burnout outlined by Maslach et al. (2001) is growing feelings of inefficacy which represent a perception of lowered work capacity. Here, the cynicism and negativity are directed inwardly as she increasingly questions her own abilities to fulfil her work responsibilities, a heightened awareness of her shortcomings and a growing sense of failure (Ekstedt & Fagerberg, 2005). It makes sense that leaders begin to doubt their own abilities to cope with the pressures of their job when they see increasing signs that they aren’t coping. It is also associated with an increasing doubt of the value and worth of their contribution. Although work performance is always affected in burnout, the selfperception of it may not be as clear as first thought. Research undertaken with a number of transnational companies looking at burnout in high-achieving staff, Casserley and Megginson (2009) found that, although work performance had decreased as people were progressively more burnt out, they did not always have an accurate perception of this. High performers may feel that their work levels have not changed as a self-protective mechanism. For those leaders who have been known for their energy, commitment to the organization and fantastic abilities to deliver, this triple whammy of

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exhaustion, depersonalization/cynicism and self-doubt is a potent mix with possible long-term consequences.

Other Psychological Symptoms Burnout also manifests itself in a range of other unhealthy feelings and attitudes. There are psychological symptoms such as depression, ongoing anxiety, anger, irritability, frustration, disillusionment, feelings of helplessness and a sense of hopelessness (Ahola et al., 2005; Bagi, 2009; Marian, Borza, Filimon, & Marginean, 2011). As the leader’s emotional resilience is weakened he or she may find himself or herself breaking down even with seemingly trivial issues (Casserley & Megginson, 2009). In burnout, he or she may experience a rollercoaster ride of these unpleasant feelings in almost a random way as emotions and unhelpful thoughts come and go (Bagi, 2009). The leader who was once seemingly invincible now becomes very vulnerable as he or she cannot hide his or her feelings any longer. Any one of these could seriously ruin even the best of days and yet when they present altogether it really is a recipe for misery. Other symptoms of burnout may include an increasing avoidance of social contact, problems with concentration, risk taking, irrational thinking and suicidal thoughts (Casserley & Megginson, 2009; Karl & Fischer, 2013; MacDougall, 2000; Peterson et al., 2008). It is also not uncommon to see addictive behaviours present in those who are burnt out (Casserley & Megginson, 2009; Pranjic, Nuhbegovic, Brekalo-Lazarevic, & Kurtic, 2012). These addictive patterns and increasing use of substances like alcohol and nicotine reflect the person’s attempt to cope and find some escape from the plethora of unpleasant thoughts and feelings (Casserley & Megginson, 2009).

Physiological Symptoms There is also a physiological side to burnout. If we exceed the acceptable usage on any appliance or engine, there is a risk that it will break down. The human body is the same. Although some leaders may feel invincible, years of overwork and unhealthy living will take a physical toll. There is usually an array of physiological symptoms that accompany burnout such as headaches, changes in sleep patterns, gastrointestinal complaints, sexual problems, high blood pressure and possibly the development

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of more serious physical conditions like cardiovascular disease (MacDougall, 2000; Stanley, 2004; Vladut & Kallay, 2010; Weber & JaekelReinhard, 2000).

Burnout Is a Global Problem Burnout is a problem that affects leaders all around the world. This has led to research into burnout spreading to all continents, although the terminology and descriptions for burnout may vary across cultures (Schaufeli et al., 2009). Casserley and Megginson (2009) report on some cultural variations regarding the manifestation of various symptoms of burnout. For example, compared to other cultures it was found that the expression of aggression was more acceptable in Russian and Greek high-performing staff members than in other countries and that scepticism about employers was higher in the United Kingdom and Northern Europe than in North America. Research carried out by Pines (2004) compared burnout rates between a sample of nurses, teachers and managers from the United States and Israel to find that the burnout rate among Israelis was significantly lower than that of their counterparts in the United States even though life in Israel is generally regarded as being more stressful. Pines (2004) postulates that this difference is primarily due to a higher degree of existential significance felt by Israelis which emanates from the historical and current struggles of the nation. It is difficult to assess the incidence of burnout globally as there are cross-cultural differences in the definition and assessment of burnout. Also much of the research into burnout is profession-specific with many studies focusing on doctors, nurses and teachers. As such, the results of these studies may not accurately reflect trends in the general community and, specifically, with those in leadership positions. For example, Markwell and Wainer (2009) report on research carried out by the Australian Medical Association regarding junior doctors from Australia and New Zealand which found that 69% were displaying symptoms of burnout. Research involving hospital medical consultants in New Zealand found that 20% reported experiencing significant burnout (Surgenor et al., 2009). The other factor which makes an assessment of overall incidence difficult is that the symptoms of burnout are also similar to those of general depression and anxiety disorders. Overall, the incidence of burnout does appear to be higher in North American than in many European countries (Maslach et al., 2001). Shirom

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(2005) reported on various European research projects which showed ranges of between 4% and 10% of the workforce being affected by burnout. Research by Ahola et al. (2005) reported a rate of 2.4% of workers surveyed were suffering from severe burnout and 25.2% were suffering from a milder form of burnout. Research in the United Kingdom showed that 52% of Britain’s employees reported experiencing a couple of the symptoms of burnout in the 6 months preceding the research and that 4% believed that they were either already burnt out or very close to it (Hudson, 2005). Studies looking at the general workforce in Northern Sweden found the burnout rate to be 13% (Norlund et al., 2010). Looking specifically with high-performing staff in transnational companies, Casserley and Megginson (2009) found that burnout could affect as high as 20% of the emerging high-potential talent pool across the world. There is now a global interest in the study of burnout. In developing countries the incidence of burnout can also be exacerbated by the extra stress caused by poor living conditions, limited resources and gender inequalities (Houtman, Jettinghoff, & Cedillo, 2007). Kulkarni (2006) estimates that burnout could be affecting between 23% and 30% of the workforce in India. In terms of other demographical differences, the research evidence suggests that burnout is more prevalent among people aged 30 40 (Casserley & Megginson, 2009). Although many have purported that females are more likely to suffer from burnout, the research overall has not clearly supported this (Maslach et al., 2001). Initially linked to those who are in people-helping positions, such as doctors, nurses, psychologists, pastors and teachers, it is now clear that the problem of burnout reaches indiscriminately into most sectors of the workforce globally.

MAJOR CAUSES OF BURNOUT Burnout is caused by a combination of individual and work issues. It is clear that personality and individual factors contribute to the development of burnout as not all people who work under the same conditions develop burnout (Gustafsson, Persson, Erikson, Norberg, & Standberg, 2009). The nature, intensity, amount of work and the culture of the organization also play a significant role in the development of burnout (Casserley & Megginson, 2009; Milczarek, Schneider, Gonzalez, & European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2009).

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Identity and Personality Issues One of the underlying contributors to the development of burnout is an unhealthy sense of identity. Burnout can develop if leaders have a blurry line between their work and personal self-identity (Casserley & Megginson, 2009). When a person’s identity becomes too enmeshed in his or her work life, he or she often has poor time boundaries at work and will accept excessive workloads more amiably. Recently, I was speaking with a highly successful senior leader in the education sector who, when I asked about the impact of the huge number of hours he was working, replied, ‘that’s my identity’. Although this passion and commitment have many endearing qualities, it can also lead to a very hard fall and identity fracture if, in the future, they are disillusioned by the role or cannot continue for various reasons. I had been guilty of this as a leader. In many ways my identity was too bound up in the role. When I could not continue and had no role, I was left with a huge gap in my life and was left wondering who I was and what my role was in the world. There are numerous other personality factors that can influence the development of burnout. Some of these are self-esteem issues, neuroticism, poor stress management skills and high self-expectations (Bolat, Bolat, & Yuksel, 2011; Bruce, 2009; Bui, Hodge, Shackelford, & Acsell, 2011; Vladut & Kallay, 2010). Those with an external locus of control will also be less likely to cope well with stresses in the workplace while those with an internal locus of control see themselves more as the ones who must respond and deal proactively with workplace issues and be responsible for their own goals (Aydemir & Icelli, 2013; Portnoy, 2011). Similarly, those with what is popularly called a ‘Type A’ personality, which is extrinsically motivated and very competitive, urgent, impatient and often highly successful, are also opening the door to possible burnout (Hallberg, Johansson, & Schaufeli, 2007) . In a study with over 600 managers in Finland, Kivimaki, Kalimo, and Julkunen (1996) found that the impatience/irritability component associated with Type A personalities did increase the experiences of stress. There are certain personal characteristics that help people to become successful leaders. However, it is exactly some of these characteristics that can contribute to the development of burnout. These underlying personality issues may become more apparent as the person becomes increasingly worn out. Although there can be a lot of angst and blame directed at the workplace, as the old phrase goes, ‘it takes two to tango’, with burnout being a complicated interplay between the person and the job.

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Emotionally Demanding Work Burnout is primarily a work-related condition (Awa et al., 2010). The nature of the person’s profession has an influence on the types of pressures that will be faced. The study of burnout originated, and has been largely focused on, the people-helping professions (Schaufeli & Greenglass, 2001). Portnoy (2011) suggests that burnout is very similar to ‘Compassion Fatigue’, a term used in reference to healthcare workers who become emotionally fatigued from continued caring for people who are suffering. Dealing with people’s struggles and suffering can be very emotionally exhausting and caregivers are not always the best at caring for themselves. As more research has been carried out, it has become clear that there are many other job-related issues which influence burnout, leading to it being a problem experienced across the board (Schaufeli et al., 2009).

Workplace Stressors There are many contributing factors to the development of burnout which stem from the pressures, expectations, stress and the work culture in which the leader works. Many people find themselves in stressful work contexts in which there are excessive demands, limited resources, job insecurities and limitations to personal control over workloads and workplace decision making (Casserley & Megginson, 2009; D’Souza, Strazdins, Lim, Broom, & Rodgers, 2003; Milczarek et al., 2009; Tennant, 2001). In research with university professors in Chile (Otero-Lopez, Marino, and Bolano, 2008) it was found that the lack of support from co-workers was also a major contributing factor to the development of burnout. Workplace issues such as injustice and bullying also contribute to much emotional stress and suffering (Helkavaara, 2013). Ongoing workplace conflict can also contribute to the development of burnout as so much emotional energy is consumed by it (Bui et al., 2011; Gill, Flaschner, & Shachar, 2006). Although healthy conflict is a normal part of team functioning, unresolved conflict in the workplace can come at a great personal, organizational and financial cost (Lencioni, 2012; Oudeh & Oudeh, 2011). If conflict simmers in a workplace, a tense atmosphere may develop in which team members are not at ease with each other, avoid contact with each other and work less effectively as a team. As conflict escalates, in many cultures it is often expressed in heated exchanges which can seriously damage relationships and decrease work effectiveness.

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Then there are also time and emotional costs for the leader who tries to mediate and help resolve workplace conflict. In some workplaces this tense mood continues for years and can leave an unpleasant legacy in the form of broken relationships and even legal actions.

Excessive Work Hours Why are so many leaders working such long hours? I remember a couple of decades ago we were led to believe that work hours would be decreasing over time. In my work as a consulting psychologist based in Australia, I have not found this to be the case at all, and particularly not for leaders of organizations. I meet far too many leaders in the corporate and educational sectors who are working very long hours and who are well on the path to burnout. Research that I am currently conducting with school principals in their first years in the role confirms findings by others who have indicated that work hours of up to 80 hours a week are not unusual among principals (Walker, 2009). It is difficult to put a numerical value on what is meant by ‘excessive work hours’ as it is influenced by personality and cultural factors. Often the hours that are worked by leaders in Western cultures that are deemed as excessive are the norm for others in different parts of the world. The term excessive is also based on the leader’s perception of what others in their culture are actually doing and also a reflection on personal work capacities. As I see leaders burning the candle at both ends, I cannot help but ask ‘Why?’. Part of the reason for someone putting in excessive hours at his or her workplace comes from the personal issues that we have already briefly touched on. However, many times the workplace and culture are primary contributors. This contribution may be in the form of understaffing or under-resourcing in which too much is asked of too few (Casserley & Megginson, 2009; Schaufeli et al., 2009). There is no doubt that the global financial crisis has placed a lot more strain on many organizations and their leaders. For many leaders it has been difficult to navigate the organization through the uncertainties of the financial climate, care for their staff and keep their stakeholders happy. The financial pressures have also led to government and business sectors having to downsize which can be extremely difficult for the ones who have been made redundant and for those who are left to do the work with less staffing and resources.

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Some workplaces develop a culture in which working extra-long hours is always expected. In these workplaces there is a fear of being seen as ‘slacking off’ if people just take time out for lunch and maintain healthy work hours (Cannon, 2011). New staff members quickly learn, and feel pressured, to conform to the prevailing work expectations and may feel that it is unacceptable to refuse to take on excessive demands placed on them by their leaders (Casserley & Megginson, 2009). Although, in my experiences as a consulting psychologist, I have seen that some people can cope with excessive work hours for many years, and may even seem to thrive on it, this does take a huge toll on most people. In working long hours the leader is unable to invest time in other important aspects of life such as family relationships, recreation and time to do exercise and relax.

Demands of Being in a Leadership Role There are responsibilities that come with the leadership role which can bring additional emotional burdens. One of these challenges is dealing with underperforming staff members (Stanley, 2004). Stress can also result from ambiguities in the leader’s role (Bolat et al., 2011), perceived unfairness in workplace decisions and rewards (Maslach et al., 2001; Vladut & Kallay, 2010) and disparities between the workplace’s stated and actual values (Schaufeli et al., 2009). Where ambiguities and perceived inequities exist it is easy to see how the cynicism aspect of burnout develops and how it leads to a progressive disengagement with the workplace. Leaders cannot escape stress in the workplace but, again, a lot depends on the leader’s personality and ability to process stressful events. The stress experienced at work can also be compounded if the leader is experiencing significantly stressful events in his or her life outside of work (Dyrbye et al., 2010). The expression ‘it’s lonely at the top’ is only too real for many senior leaders. Sometimes the isolation felt by a senior leader can add to his or her stress and exhaustion as he or she might not be surrounded by people with whom he or she can share and should share his or her concerns and struggles with (Atkinson, 2005). In research relating to school principals, it is clear that in taking on this senior organizational leadership role, principals can experience a degree of emotional distance from others. Although they are surrounded by people and engage in numerous interactions during the course of each day, the nature of these relationships do change for those in senior leadership positions leading them to often feel isolated and alone (Skelly, 1996).

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Impact of Various Leadership Styles An individual’s leadership style can also add stress to his or her own life and to his or her team members. Leaders who show a more ‘laissez-faire’ passive/avoidance style of leadership may create more stress for themselves and others by their lack of involvement and decision making in workplace issues (Zopiatis & Constanti, 2010). In my experience, I have seen that workplace issues often escalate if unattended or ignored by leaders. I have also observed over the years that leaders who have a more autocratic style may also have increased stress as they can often interpret disagreement by team members as a threat to their leadership position. The leadership style of those above us in the organization can also cause stress, frustrations, disappointments and hurt. I have sat with many people over the years who have been denigrated, disempowered and discouraged by their leaders. Managers who constantly overload staff and focus on the staff shortcomings can create a toxic work environment (Kennedy, 2001). It is sad to see the negative effects of those who are meant to be inspiring and empowering others. Furthermore, it is always helpful for leaders to examine how their own leadership style is impacting their stress levels and the well-being of those whom they lead.

Pace of Modern Life In our discussion of the causes of burnout we cannot overlook the impact of technology and the fast-paced lifestyle that many leaders live. Bruce (2009) suggests that our constant accessibility to others in the workplace through cell phones and emails means that we can be contacted at hours and on days that can encroach on our family time and general personal time off. While new avenues of communication have created many wonderful opportunities, they have also created an overwhelming amount of email correspondence that a leader may feel the need to urgently respond to. This means that a leader’s work is not just confined to the actual hours that he is physically present in his office as sometimes he might feel that he is expected to be working all day (Alverson, 1999). I once joked with a leader who had sent me an email after midnight, asking what they were doing sending emails at that time to which they replied, ‘What are you doing reading emails at that time?’ Touche´! The pace of modern life in cultures which are reliant on the latest technologies is also a contributor to increased stress. I look back fondly on the 1970s and my youth as I remember it to be a time where life seemed

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simpler, slower paced and more relaxed. When calling someone on the phone it didn’t seem to worry us to have to dial the number slowly and, if the person was not at home, then we would just stoically resolve ourselves to trying again later. We waited for people to communicate with us through letters in the mail or through telegrams if it was urgent. The current pace of technology can leave us feeling frustrated and impatient, even with a micro-second of delay and the inability to instantly connect with others. This pace in the workplace can add extra stress, as the leader feels that he or she constantly needs to be accessible and quick to respond to requests made of him or her. This increase in the pace of life particularly at work was cited as being one of the most important factors in the development of burnout (Hudson, 2005).

COSTS OF BURNOUT Burnout often comes at a very high psychological, physical and financial cost to the individual, his or her family and the organization he or she works for. It is a condition that immobilizes the person and puts considerable pressure on those around him or her. Although I had previously read books and articles on burnout, it was not until I was in the midst of the dark forest that I could fully appreciate the extent of the pain and suffering. Burnout costs at all levels. Personal Costs People who are burnt out are often unable to continue in their work roles because of the extreme exhaustion and anxiety which they experience in the workplace. Instead of the normal pattern of life, the leader can find himself having to take extended time off from work. For outsiders, seeing someone take extended time off may seem like a lucky break or a holiday, but for those in the midst of intense exhaustion and a plethora of unpleasant emotions that seem to come and go with an eerie unpredictability, they know that it is certainly not either. The person who is burnt out is not only in this dark forest, but he or she has lost his or her ability to navigate effectively and can seem unable to work through the unpleasant psychological and physiological symptoms (Ekstedt & Fagerberg, 2005). As I work with leaders in Australia from a variety of professions who have burnt out, that scared, lost and confused look is almost always there. Questions like ‘How did I get here?’ and ‘Will

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I ever be able to find my way out?’ reflect some of the confusion that comes with being burnt out. There is a lingering fear that he or she won’t be able to ever find his or her way out of the dark forest. Burnout can completely derail a leader’s career (Casserley & Megginson, 2009). It impacts his career progression as it brings into questions his own ability to fulfil the requirements of the role and is accompanied by a sense of disengagement from the work. He or she may even have to, or want to, start again in a new profession. All of this time off work, and then possibly retraining for a new career, can have devastating consequences, financially. Even in countries which have income insurance payments or sick leave, there are often feelings of panic for future finances. How much more for those in countries where these resources are not available.

Costs to Interpersonal Relationships Burnout impacts not only the person, but also those around him or her. This being the case, there is no way to adequately assess the psychological costs of such a derailment. It is certainly not an easy thing for a family to see a loved one lost and suffering. As recovery can take many months, and even years, the stress and challenges that family and friends face can take its toll on relationships and, eventually, on their own well-being. I remember when our psychologist explained to my wife how my burnout was impacting her. While I was out of action, as well as her usual family and work responsibilities, it was like she had to hold a large ball representing extra responsibilities and the complicated task of caring and supporting me. Over time, although I was growing stronger, the weight of holding this ball was beginning to wear her out and causing her to experience similar problems. A huge strain can be placed on marriages and other personal relationships. Sadly, for some, burnout also leads to marriage dysfunctions and breakdown (Balch, Freischlag, & Shanafelt, 2009). I was very fortunate to have a loving and supportive family who gently accepted me while I was in the forest and never made me feel guilty that I had ended up there.

Costs to Organizations The costs of burnout extend well into the workplace. Although the person’s workplace may have contributed to the problem, they too have to

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pay a price for their own, often high-performing staff, burning out. Highperforming leaders burning out put a huge strain on the leadership succession plans and the future availability of quality leaders and can affect the organization’s image and profitability (Casserley & Megginson, 2009; Hudson, 2005). As a person moves towards burnout, he or she often becomes cynical and increasingly disengaged from his or her workplace. These negative attitudes do little to build the work team’s unity and positive outlook. Lost productivity and the effect of increasing absenteeism and presenteeism, which reflect unwell people who are at work although underperforming, also can put a strain on the organization (Bruce, 2009; Middaugh, 2007; Ruez, 2004; Walter, Plaumann, & Krugmann, 2013). Once a leader has had to take an extended time off, there is also a great deal of uncertainty about whether she will return to her role and be able to continue with the same level of output. This can lead to the organization’s managers demonstrating a decreased motivation to prepare for the leader’s return to work (Karlson et al., 2010). This places more strain on the organization as it has to make workplace decisions which balance care for the burnt out person with the best interests of the organization itself. There are huge costs to organizations in terms of money spent, productivity lost and a drain on the talent pool.

Costs to Society The financial costs of burnout can also be seen at a societal level. There are significant healthcare costs to governments responding to the mental health issues of those in the workforce and to the economy through lowered productivity (Borritz, Rugulies, Christensen, Villadsen, & Kristensen, 2006; Lernihan & Sweeney, 2010). It is difficult to assess the exact costs of burnout. Often it is classed with general mental health issues like stress and depression. In 2002, in the 15 countries that were in the European Union at that time, it was estimated that work-related stress represented an annual cost of 20 billion Euros (Milczarek et al., 2009). In the United States it was estimated that serious mental illness represented 193.2 billion dollars in reduced earnings alone (Kessler et al., 2008). It is clear that issues of mental health in the workplace cost economies huge amounts worldwide.

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RECOVERY FROM BURNOUT The journey out of the dark forest of burnout is long and arduous. There are no quick fixes, shortcuts or miracle elixirs. Just as it took the person many years to get into this state, it can also take quite a lot of time to recover. Recovery from burnout can take months, or even years (Bernier, 1998; Karlson et al., 2010). For some, the effects of burnout can remain for many years and can lead to permanent work disability (Ahola et al., 2009; Toppinen-Tanner, 2011). Although each person’s journey is different, Bernier (1998) suggested the following stages of the burnout journey: admitting the problem, distancing from work, restoring health, questioning values, exploring work possibilities and making a change. In my own experience of burnout, and in my support of leaders who are burnt out, I have found the following three components to be the most important in the path to recovery.

Extended Time Off Work Extended time off from work responsibilities is a crucial aspect of recovery (Toppinen-Tanner, 2011). As the exhaustion experienced is all-encompassing, it will not disappear with a 2 week break. Ideally, the person who is burnt out needs months of being away from the work environment and having significantly less responsibilities, time to rest, sleep and think (Bernier, 1998). This time allows for wholistic healing in the body, mind and spirit. For those who are unable to take this time off, recovery will be significantly more difficult. Through my consulting work I have seen people fall into the trap of returning to work too soon. Even if the person is feeling better, if their return is too soon it won’t take long for any progress to be undone and for them to be feeling the same as when they left. Although needed, extended time off is quite difficult to cope with for previously busy, hardworking and productive leaders. However, there are no shortcuts to recovery. Just as our phones need to be on their chargers for a certain period of time, so do those who are burnt out.

Personal and Professional Support Recovery is aided by support received from family, friends and healthcare professionals. Although many in burnout want to isolate themselves from

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others, it is very helpful to have the support of family and friends during this difficult period (Baruch-Feldman, Brondolo, Ben-Dayan, & Schwartz, 2002). Many who are experiencing burnout are helped by their medical practitioners through the prescription of medications such as antidepressants and anti-anxiety medications (Ahola et al., 2007; Hemmerter, 2013; Rada & Johnson-Leong, 2004). Medication in itself does not solve the underlying problems, but it does help the person improve their general state of well-being. This improvement can help them to feel strong enough to start working on the major issues that they are facing. Counselling can also play a vital role in aiding recovery. If accessible, counselling can provide much needed support and helps the person to understand and work through burnout and develop new coping skills and healthier patterns of thinking and behaviour (Bernier, 1998; Korczak, Wastian, & Schneider, 2012; Ro, Gude, Tyssen, & Aasland, 2008). For the person struggling with burnout it is also comforting to know that many others have trod this path before and that there is hope for recovery. In many ways it is the restoration of hope that is pivotal in navigating out of the forest.

Rediscovery and Renewal in the Leader’s Life Recovery is also brought about through personal renewal. Changes in identity, lifestyle and coping strategies are often necessary components to recovery. Although being in the dark forest is destabilizing and scary, it also pushes the person to reinvent himself or herself. It is possible to emerge from the forest as a stronger person with more effective coping strategies, a more balanced perspective on life, a greater sense of personal limitations and a healthier sense of identity (Bernier, 1998; Casserley & Megginson, 2009). Renewal may also mean an increased awareness and growth in spirituality which can aid in the recovery from mental health issues (Fallot, 2007; Golden, Piedmont, Ciarrocchi, & Rodgerson, 2004; Tepper, Rogers, Coleman, & Maloney, 2001). Recovery is also aided by the development of a healthier lifestyle in which a necessary component is exercise. Regular exercise helps to burn off the adrenalin that is produced from stress and helps to create a more selfdisciplined lifestyle which can, in turn, help to boost self-confidence (Rada & Johnson-Leong, 2004). Renewal also means the rediscovery of the experience of having fun and pursuing areas of personal interest (Bernier, 1998). Having fun may seem to the burnt out person like a distant memory,

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as his or her life has become so weighed down that the simple pleasures and interests have dried up. I believe that it is essential to healthy living for a person to have activities to engage in and look forward to that will bring enjoyment and satisfaction. With the passage of time, support from others and personal renewal, it is possible to recover from burnout, potentially with some positive outcomes that can come from having been in the forest. Miller and Smith (1993, as cited in Nuallaong, 2013) call this possible last phase of burnout the Phoenix phenomenon, as the person has come out of burnout with healthier views of themselves and work. Burnout forces the person to take stock of his or her life, values, and more importantly his or her identity. People can also develop a greater awareness of the warning signs which indicate that their stress levels are building and are often very committed to not revisiting the forest. Burnout is a life changing event.

WHAT CAN BE DONE TO HELP PREVENT LEADERS FROM BURNING OUT? The good news is that burnout can be prevented through a combination of attitudes, skills and behaviours on the part of leaders and the organizations that they work for. Prevention starts by leaders taking responsibility for their own physical, psychological and social well-being.

What Leaders Can Do for Themselves? Develop a Greater Sense of Self-Awareness and a Healthy Identity There are a number of things a leader can put into practice that will help her to cope with stress and lessen the likelihood of burnout developing. A helpful frame of reference is to look at the general characteristics and behaviours exhibited by people who do not tend to burnout. Research reported by Casserley and Megginson (2009) identified a number of these characteristics in terms of reflexivity, an internally referenced identity and having a sense of perspective. Reflexivity is the leader’s ability to be self-aware and recognize issues of concern and stress at both an intellectual and emotional level. It represents more than reflection as it also embodies the human ability to choose how we respond to external stimuli and limit our emotional involvement. This

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self-conversation can help leaders to process and respond to stress in a healthier manner. Another important characteristic that was found in those who did not burn out was an identity that was internally referenced. A leader is on dangerous ground when his identity is externally work-referenced as he or she becomes too enmeshed in his or her work and he or she gains his or her sense of identity from work successes. A healthy identity is built on a healthy self-confidence which enables the person to not base his self-evaluation too heavily on what happens in his or her workplace. This internal reference can help the leader to maintain his or her footing, even in the midst of intense workplace pressures. Perspective is also vital in preventing burnout. Workplace issues, stresses, conflicts and deadlines should be kept in a bigger, overall perspective. When working with leaders, I continually encourage them to take a step back and realistically look at the stresses they are facing and real consequences that could ensue. Self-awareness also means an ability to spot the warning signs of stress and burnout. Strong leaders know their strengths but are also aware of areas in which they are susceptible and leaving themselves open to the development of burnout (Kennedy, 2001). If denial of developing symptoms was a factor present in those who become burnt out (Putnik, de Jong, & Verdonk, 2011), then it follows that a healthy acceptance and reaction to psychological and physiological symptoms are a preventative measure. Develop Greater Emotional Resilience As workplace stress will always be a part of the leader’s life, it is in her best interest to become more emotionally resilient. Garrosa and MorenoJimenez (2013) suggest that emotional resilience is a reflection of an individual’s ability to anticipate, reflect and respond to challenges and is characterized by three traits: hardiness, optimism and emotional competence. The first trait, hardiness, encompasses an individual’s commitment to herself, a sense of control over circumstance and the ability to see challenges as opportunities and thus helping him or her to deal more effectively with stress (Eschleman, Bowling, & Alarcon, 2010). The second trait of optimism helps people to deal with stress as they have a positive outlook on the future and to the successful resolution of workplace issues. In a similar vein, much research has been carried out which has shown the benefits of positive emotions in overall health, life satisfaction and dealing with stress (Cohn, Brown, Fredrickson, Mikels, & Conway, 2009; Davis, 2009; Tugade, Fredrickson, & Barrett, 2004).

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The third trait, emotional competence, reflects an individual’s ability to understand and predict emotional responses from themselves and others. This term is similar to a commonly used term ‘emotional intelligence’, which has been shown to reduce the rate of burnout (Weng et al., 2011). In research among Spanish nurses, those who demonstrated a healthy combination of the traits of hardiness, optimism and emotional competence experienced a much lower rate of burnout (Garrosa, Moreno-Jime, Rodrıguez-Munoz, & Rodrıguez-Carvajal, 2011). Practice Self-Care The leader who is serious about preventing burnout will also incorporate and maintain basic components of overall well-being and health into his or her lifestyle. These include the following: • Having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet, exercise and recharging rest through adequate sleep (Bruce, 2009; Ekstedt, Soderstrom, & Akerstedt, 2009; Karl & Fischer, 2013; Rada & Johnson-Leong, 2004) • Being able to ‘switch off’ when not at work, enjoying weekends and having refreshing holidays (Fritz & Sonnentag, 2005; Sonnentag & Bayer, 2005; Westman & Etzion, 2001) • Accepting support from others. It is important for leaders to have people in their lives with whom they can speak honestly, openly and share their concerns (Miller & McGowan, 2010) • Having interests outside of work and maintaining a healthy work/life balance (Kennedy, 2001; Weber & Jaekel-Reinhard, 2000) • Learning stress management techniques (Van der Klink & Van Dijk, 2003; Weber & Jaekel-Reinhard, 2000) • Encouraging spiritual awareness and growth as spirituality and religious beliefs can have a very positive affect on general well-being and mental health (Brown, Carney, Parrish, & Klem, 2013; Miller & Thoreson, 2003; Seeman, Dubin, & Seeman, 2003) Create Healthier Workplace Practices There are some steps that leaders can take to reduce the stress that they experience at work. Some of these include taking more control over work, being careful not to take on too much or non-priority work, identifying the main workplace stressors, planning better ways to cope with these stresses, effectively delegating to others, building stronger teams, taking adequate lunch breaks, taking time to de-stress and seeking the support of co-workers

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(Kaplan, 2006; Miller & McGowan, 2010; Weber & Jaekel-Reinhard, 2000). In many countries it is also possible for leaders to take out income protection insurance which can also bring a sense of comfort as it will provide some financial security in the event of burnout or other issues that can knock the leader out of the workforce. My recovery from burnout would have been considerably more difficult had I not received some assistance from such a policy as it allowed me to have adequate time off before returning to the workforce. Overall, the most important consideration is for the leader to balance the load that he or she is required to bear with the resources he or she has to bear it (Van der Klink & Van Dijk, 2003).

Increase Work Engagement by Working to Strengths As burnout represents a process of disengagement from work, it is vital for the leaders to look at how they can be more engaged and energized by their work. In many ways, burnout is the opposite of work engagement as engagement encompasses high levels of energy, enjoyment, enthusiasm, dedication, commitment and a positive sense of being absorbed in work (Gonzalez-Roma, Schaufeli, Bakker, & Lloret, 2006; Schaufeli et al., 2009). Extensive global research projects by the Gallup Organization have shown that the top indicator of work engagement occurs when a person is ‘playing to their strengths’ each day (Buckingham & Clifton, 2005). When a leader is working in the area of his or her strengths, he or she is likely to be more energized by, and fulfilled in, his or her work. This, in turn, contributes to a greater sense of psychological well-being (Cannon, 2011). It follows that when leaders are not able to use their strengths regularly they start to be drained and disengaged in their work. In my consulting work I focus on helping leaders to be aware of, and utilize, their strengths. This not only helps them to be more effective but also helps them to be more satisfied, engaged and energized in their work. As I work with leaders, I utilize the online Clifton Strengthsfinderr which was developed to help individuals understand their top strengths (Rath, 2007). In my own work I use this instrument extensively and have seen some great results in helping leaders to discover their strengths, in turn becoming more effective and understanding how to deal with the aspects of work that will cause leaders the most stress. In my own experience, this understanding of my strengths has helped me to understand more fully why I burnt out and how I can now use my strengths to stay engaged and healthy.

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What Can Organizations Do for their Leaders? In my experience working with leaders in corporate, government and community organizations in Australia, I have found that many organizations often do not respond to burnout or its prevention very effectively. In many cases this seems to be caused by a denial of the problem. This is partly due to attitudes and inadequate information. Casserley and Megginson (2009) suggest some of the denial may also come from an organization wanting to avoid taking responsibility for these types of problems as this would necessitate change in structure, procedures and culture. Organizations may also respond poorly as they do not know how to address issues of mental health in a constructive and supportive way. They are more used to encouraging and rewarding leaders for hard work and effectiveness and can become awkward around a leader who has lost his way. To help prevent burnout in their staff, organizations must first accept some responsibility for their part in the problem and look at ways that they can create healthier, more balanced workplaces and offer support to those who are struggling. Some suggestions for organizations to consider are to: • Ensure that there is a balance between work demands and resources (Jourdain & Chenevert, 2010). • Create a caring and authentic work culture in which people can share their concerns, struggles and feel valued (Waite, 2012). • Develop leaders within the organization who are supportive, encouraging, can model a healthy working life and can respond in a caring way to the needs of their team members (Garrosa & Moreno-Jimenez, 2013; Stebbins, Lees, Ham, & Karabitsios, 2010; Weber & Jaekel-Reinhard, 2000). • Help to match staff to the right roles so that they work to their strengths (Ghorpade, Lackritz, & Singh, 2007). Organizations that are committed to the development of the strengths of their staff and other ways of boosting staff engagement will, themselves, benefit through increased productivity, customer satisfaction and higher staff retention rates brought about by engaged staff (Cannon, 2011; Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Rath & Conchie, 2008). • Run seminars and training programmes looking at topics like time and stress management, conflict resolution, decision making and emotional resilience (Awa et al., 2010; Garrosa & Moreno-Jimenez, 2013) . It is also important to train managers to pick up on early warning signs in their team (Lernihan & Sweeney, 2010).

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• Offer extra support through coaching, mentoring and access to counselling (Kirk & Brown, 2003; Van Emmerik, 2004). There is a lot that organizations can do to help prevent their leaders from burning out. It makes sense from a moral and financial standpoint to make these investments and to create healthy and sustainable work environments.

CLOSING THOUGHTS With the pressures of leadership it is easy to slip into unhelpful attitudes and patterns of behaviour which can take the leader towards the dark forest of burnout. Burnout is a serious, ongoing and debilitating condition which Rada and Johnson-Leong (2004, p. 790) aptly describe ‘as a gradual erosion of the person’. As someone who has been through burn out and has sat with many leaders who are in the midst of the dark forest, I would strongly encourage all leaders to take burnout seriously and take steps to prevent themselves from ending up there. If you have related to the signs of burnout mentioned in this chapter, I would strongly encourage you to take responsibility for yourself, make changes and see a healthcare professional. Please do not think that your problems will just improve with time. They will not. Also, do not wait for someone to ride in on a white horse to rescue you. The chances are they will not. The choice is yours to make. For those readers who have found themselves in the midst of burnout, be encouraged; there is hope for recovery. I am now working in a role that I love and feel energized by. Although burnout was a painful and costly experience for me, I am now on a much healthier and productive part of my journey. To be an effective leader you need to be in the game, playing to your strengths and looking after the people on your team. What are some steps that you can take this week to become a healthier and stronger leader?

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D’Souza, R. M., Strazdins, L., Lim, L. L., Broom, D. H., & Rodgers, B. (2003). Work and health in a contemporary society: Demands, control, and insecurity. The Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57(11), 849 854. Davis, M. C. (2009). Building emotional resilience to promote health. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 3(1), 60S 63S. Dyrbye, L. N., Power, D. V., Massies, F. S., Eacker, A., Harper, W., Thomas, M. R., … Shanafelt, T. (2010). Factors associated with resilience to and recovery from burnout: A prospective, multi-institutional study of US medical students. Medical Education, 44(10), 1016 1026. Ekstedt, M., & Fagerberg, I. (2005). Lived experiences of the time preceding burnout. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 49(1), 59 67. Ekstedt, M., Soderstrom, M., & Akerstedt, T. (2009). Sleep physiology in recovery from burnout. Biological Psychology, 82(3), 267 273. Eschleman, K. J., Bowling, N. A., & Alarcon, G. M. (2010). A meta-analytic examination of hardiness. International Journal of Stress Management, 17(4), 277 307. Fallot, R. D. (2007). Spirituality and religion in recovery: Some current issues. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 30(4), 261 270. Fritz, C., & Sonnentag, S. (2005). Recovery, health, and job performance: Effects of weekend experiences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10(3), 187 199. Garrosa, E., Moreno-Jime, B., Rodrıguez-Munoz, A., & Rodrıguez-Carvajal, R. (2011). Role stress and personal resources in nursing: A cross-sectional study of burnout and engagement. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 48(4), 479 489. Garrosa, E., & Moreno-Jimenez, B. (2013). Burnout and active coping with emotional resilience. In S. Bahrer-Kohler (Ed.), Burnout for experts: Prevention in the context of living and working (pp. 206 226). New York, NY: Springer. Ghorpade, J., Lackritz, J., & Singh, G. (2007). Burnout and personality: Evidence from academia. Journal of Career Assessment, 15(2), 240 256. Gill, A. S., Flaschner, A. B., & Shachar, M. (2006). Mitigating stress and burnout by implementing transformational-leadership. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(6), 469 481. Golden, J., Piedmont, R. L., Ciarrocchi, J. W., & Rodgerson, T. (2004). Spirituality and burnout: An incremental validity study. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 32(2), 115 125. Gonzalez-Roma, V., Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Lloret, S. (2006). Burnout and work engagement: Independent factors or opposite poles?. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(1), 165 174. Gustafsson, G., Persson, B., Erikson, S., Norberg, A., & Standberg, G. (2009). Personality traits among burnt out and non-burnt out health-care personnel at the same workplaces: A pilot study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 18(5), 336 348. Hallberg, U. E., Johansson, G., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2007). Type A behavior and work situation: Associations with burnout and work engagement. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48(2), 135 142. Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 268 279. Helkavaara, M. (2013). Emotional exhaustion and psychosocial work factors. In S. BahrerKohler (Ed.), Burnout for experts: Prevention in the context of living and working (pp. 165 174). New York, NY: Springer.

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Helkavaara, M., Saastanoinen, P., & Lahelma, E. (2011). Psychosocial work environment and emotional exhaustion among middle-aged employees. BMC Research Notes, 4(101), 1 8. Hemmerter, U. (2013). Treatment of burnout: Overlap of diagnosis. In S. Bahrer-Kohler (Ed.), Burnout for experts: Prevention in the context of living and working (pp. 15 35, 82 96). New York, NY: Springer. Houtman, I., Jettinghoff, K., & Cedillo, L. (2007). Raising Awareness of Sress at Work in Developing Countries: A Modern Hazard in a Traditional Working Environment: Advice to Employers and Worker Representatives. Protecting Worker’s Health Series (Vol. 6), World Health Organization, Geneva. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/occupational_health/ publications/raisingawarenessofstress.pdf. Accessed on 24 May 2013. Hudson. (2005). Burnout Britain: Raising the alarm for employers. Retrieved from http://uk. hudson.com/Portals/UK/documents/Research/research-burnout-britain.pdf. Jourdain, G., & Chenevert, D. (2010). Job demands resources, burnout and intention to leave the nursing profession: A questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(6), 709 722. Kaplan, R. M. (2006). Avoiding burnout. PM Network, 20(2), 26 27. Karl, D., & Fischer, M. (2013). Prevention and communication: A most effective tailored treatment. In S. Bahrer-Kohler (Ed.), Burnout for experts: Prevention in the context of living and working (Vol. 190 205), New York, NY: Springer. Karlson, B., Jo¨nsson, P., Pa˚lsson, B., A˚bjo¨rnsson, G., Malmberg, B., Larsson, B., & O¨sterberg, K. (2010). Return to work after a workplace-oriented intervention for patients on sick-leave for burnout a prospective controlled study. BMC Public Health, 10(1), 301 311. Kennedy, T. (2001). The path on the road to burnout. Journal of Hospital Librarianship, 1(4), 93 98. Kessler, R. C., Heeringa, S., Lakoma, M. D., Petukhova, M., Rupp, A. E., Schoenbaum, M., … Zaslavsky, A. M. (2008). Individual and societal effects of mental disorders on earnings in the United States. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(6), 703 711. Kirk, A. K., & Brown, D. F. (2003). Employee assistance programs: A review of the management of stress and wellbeing through workplace counselling and consulting. Australian Psychologist, 38(2), 138 143. Kivimaki, M., Kalimo, R., & Julkunen, J. (1996). Components of Type A behavior pattern and occupational stressor-strain relationship: Testing different models in a sample of industrial managers. Behavioral medicine, 22(2), 67 76. Korczak, D., Wastian, M., & Schneider, M. (2012). Therapy of the burnout syndrome. GMS Health Technology Assessment, 8, Doc05. Kulkarni, G. (2006). Burnout. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 10(1), 3 4. Lencioni, P. (2012). The advantage. Why organizational health trumps everything else in business. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Lernihan, E., & Sweeney, J. (2010). Measuring levels of burnout among care workers. Learning Disability Practice, 13(8), 27 33. MacDougall, M. (2000). Meltdown: Avoiding executive burnout. Executive Excellence, 17(1), 14. Marian, M., Borza, A., Filimon, L., & Marginean, M. (2011). Psychosocial determinants of burnout syndrome: Metaanalitic study. Journal of Psychological and Educational Research, 19(1), 78 93.

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Markwell, A. L., & Wainer, Z. (2009). The health and wellbeing of junior doctors: Insights from a national survey. Medical Journal of Australia, 191(8), 441 444. Maslach, C. (2003). Job burnout: New directions in research and intervention. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(4), 189 192. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 2(2), 99 113. Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397 422. Middaugh, D. J. (2007). Presenteeism: Sick and tired at work. Dermatology Nursing, 19(2), 172 174. Milczarek, M., Schneider, E., Gonzalez, E. R., & European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. (2009). OSH in figures: Stress at work facts and figures. Luxembourg: European Communities Retrieved from https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/reports/TE-81-08-478EN-C_OSH_in_figures_stress_at_work/view Miller, L. H., & Smith, A. D. (1993). The stress solution: An action plan to manage the stress in your life. New York, NY: Pocket Books. Miller, M. N., & McGowan, R. (2010). Strategies to avoid burnout in professional practice: Some practical suggestions. The Psychiatric Times, 27(2), 25, 30, 31. Miller, W. R., & Thoreson, C. E. (2003). Spirituality, religion, and health. American Psychologist, 58(1), 24 35. Norlund, S., Reuterwall, C., Ho¨o¨g, J., Lindahl, B., Janlert, U., & Birgander, L. S. (2010). Working conditions and gender results from the northern Sweden MONICA Study. BMC Public Health, 10(1), 326 335. Nuallaong, W. (2013). Burnout symptoms and cycles of burnout: The comparison with psychiatric disorders and aspects of approaches. In S. Bahrer-Kohler (Ed.), Burnout for experts: Prevention in the context of living and working (pp. 56 81). New York, NY: Springer. Otero-Lopez, J. M., Marino, M. J. S., & Bolano, C. C. (2008). An integrating approach to the study of burnout in university professors. Psicothema, 20(4), 766 772. Oudeh, N., & Oudeh, G. (2011). Putting a price tag on workplace conflict. Canadian HR Reporter, 24(13), 15, 20. Peterson, U., Demerouti, E., Bergstrom, G., Samuelson, M., Asberg, M., & Nygren, A. (2008). Burnout and physical and mental health among Swedish healthcare workers. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62(1), 84 95. Pines, A. M. (2004). Why are Israelis less burned out?. European Psychologist, 9(2), 69 77. Portnoy, D. (2011). Burnout and compassion fatigue watch for the signs. Health Progress, July August, 47 50. Pranjic, N., Nuhbegovic, S., Brekalo-Lazarevic, S., & Kurtic, A. (2012). Is adrenal exhaustion synonym of syndrome burnout at workplace? Collegium Antropologicum, 36(3), 911 919. Putnik, K., de Jong, A., & Verdonk, P. (2011). Road to help-seeking among (dedicated) human service professionals with burnout. Patient Education and Counseling, 83(1), 49 54. Rada, R. E., & Johnson-Leong, C. (2004). Stress, burnout, anxiety and depression among dentists. JADA Journal of the American Dental Association, 135(6), 788 793. Rath, T. (2007). Strengths Finder 2.0. New York, NY: Gallup Press. Rath, T., & Conchie, B. (2008). Strengths based leadership. New York, NY: Gallup Press. Ro, K. E. I., Gude, T., Tyssen, R., & Aasland, O. G. (2008). Counselling for burnout in Norwegian doctors: One year cohort study. British Medical Journal, 337(7679), a2004.

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PART VI CHALLENGES FOR FUTURE COLLECTIVE EFFICACY

AN EXPLORATION OF THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN RESTORATIVE POLICING IN ENGLAND AND WALES Kerry Clamp and Craig Paterson ABSTRACT This chapter explores the role of leadership in restorative policing in England and Wales and the impact of the external criminal justice policy environment on attempts to embed restorative approaches into police practice. It is clear that certain aspects of restorative justice chime with long-standing values in police culture, not least the emphasis on commonsense decision-making and the removal of unnecessary bureaucracy advocated by a focus on informal resolution. Yet, we argue that restorative policing cannot work where these ideas are placed solely in individual programmes. Instead, a clear vision needs to be articulated by police leaders with subsequent programmes being built around this overarching philosophy of ‘restorative policing’ that encourages leadership to ‘bubble up’ from below.

Collective Efficacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Leadership Advances in Educational Administration, Volume 20, 293 307 Copyright r 2013 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3660/doi:10.1108/S1479-3660(2013)0000020016

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INTRODUCTION This chapter considers the role of leadership in the effective implementation of restorative policing as well as the risks posed by an often unpredictable external policy environment in England and Wales. It begins by unpacking what we mean by the term ‘restorative justice’ and then traces the development of restorative policing around the globe, drawing particular attention to the important transformative role of police leaders in developing restorative policing projects. While it is clear that strong leadership is required for the successful implementation of restorative justice within policing, we highlight how the sustainability of local experiments is challenged by the predominantly punitive approach to managing crime and disorder in the Western world. The operational preference for reactive and zero tolerance policing suggests that a more systemic adoption of restorative policing is required at a national level in order for restorative justice principles to become embedded into police practice at the local level (Bazemore & Griffiths, 2003; Paterson & Clamp, 2012). Indeed, as we show, this approach is being embraced in England and Wales with the addition of a restorative justice lead within the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO). This role enables a national figurehead to promote restorative practice within an operational policing environment and to act as a single point of contact for forces who are seeking to develop their portfolio in this regard. The current ACPO lead for restorative justice is Assistant Chief Constable Garry Shewan who is based at Greater Manchester Police (GMP). We therefore focus on the current restorative justice processes that are used within this force to illustrate how a more systematic adoption of restorative justice might look. It should be acknowledged, however, that the successful adoption of restorative policing requires a significant shift in the socio-cultural meaning of police work that not only highlights the benefits of restorative policing for street-level police officers but also how this might alter their role within the communities that they serve. Restorative forms of policing require officers to act as community leaders in addressing the harm caused by offending behaviour; to use their discretion in such a way that prioritises problem-solving over crime control; and to see the community as partners in responding to and managing conflict within the community. This transformation crucially needs to take place through a process that provides police officers with the necessary skills (such as communication,

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problem-solving, leadership and relationship-building) to adapt to such a dramatic change in their role. Thus, we end the chapter by engaging in a broader discussion about organisational culture and police leadership and how these may be developed to further embed restorative justice at all levels of policing.

Defining Restorative Justice Contemporary criminal justice systems focus on crime as a law violation which requires a retributive response (i.e. one that emphasises proportionate punishment) to rebalance the moral order (Benomar, 1993). The conflict is therefore ‘owned’ by the state (Christie, 1977) and any response to offending is undertaken by criminal justice agencies. As such, victims of crime are often marginalised and have no legal standing in proceedings. Furthermore, offenders are ‘processed’ through the system without any opportunity to participate meaningfully in the sanctions that are imposed, and even less incentive to acknowledge and respond to the harm that they may have caused to others through their actions. Restorative justice offers a very different view of understanding and responding to crime that departs from the traditional adversarial model outlined above. The principal aim of restorative processes is to repair the harm that has been caused by the incident through the active involvement of all stakeholders victims, offenders and their supporters or community representatives (where they want this) in discussing what happened and deciding on the appropriate outcomes to deal with the causes and consequences of the incident (Braithwaite, 1999; Morris, 2002; Van Ness & Strong, 2010). Such an approach has two transformative consequences for the role of criminal justice practitioners, namely a rethinking or reconsideration of the role of the state and the broader community in responding to crime and a need to see crime problems in their social context with a forward-looking (or preventative) problem-solving orientation (Marshall, 1999). Given the range of due process concerns that arise from such interaction, most restorative justice schemes that are used within the criminal justice setting require the offender to first admit responsibility for the offence and for both the victim and the offender to consent to their participation in the process. However, the conditions for referring a case to a restorative process, the types of offences that are eligible and the stage of the criminal

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justice process at which restorative processes are used vary considerably between criminal justice agencies (police, prosecutors and courts) and countries around the world. Indeed, as we will show, experimentation with restorative policing has perhaps stretched the application of restorative models the most as it relies on professionals the police rather than external and independent agencies in facilitating the process. Nevertheless, the adoption of restorative justice within policing seems to represent a natural progression from attempts to implement a more community-focused and problem-oriented style of policing (Bazemore & Griffiths, 2003). The use of restorative justice within a policing environment adopts a number of guises that range from conferencing and mediation sessions facilitated by police officers themselves to referrals of suitable cases to specialist policing teams that are trained in restorative practice, or some other specialist agencies outside of the Police Service or statutory criminal justice system altogether (Paterson & Clamp, 2012). It is thought that through such a process stakeholders will subsequently have a deeper understanding of the circumstances and consequences of the offence; that all participants will have agreed and contributed to the drafting of a behavioural or task-oriented contract to which the offender has to adhere; and that all participants will experience a sense of procedural justice that they will be satisfied that they have been dealt with in a fair and equitable manner. It should be noted that all police work takes place prior to the prosecution of offences and therefore the use of restorative justice processes within this context takes place as a diversionary option, or in other words, an informal resolution of the case without prosecution once an offender has admitted responsibility. The following section highlights the evolution of restorative policing (as opposed to other forms of restorative practice) since its inception in Australia to its current form in England and Wales.

A Brief History of Restorative Policing Experimentation with restorative processes by police officers first began in Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia in 1992 (see Moore & Forsythe, 1995) and later in the Reintegrative Shaming Experiments (RISE) project in Canberra (see Sherman et al., 1998). Traditional responses to youth offending were seen to perpetuate a criminal cycle due to the stigmatising and often humiliating nature of the process, and therefore alternative approaches were explored to respond to the ‘revolving

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door’ of youth crime blighting the community. Drawing on the New Zealand model of family group conferencing,1 Sergeant Terry O’Connell brought together offenders, victims and their supporters (such as family members) in a scripted conference process. The ‘Wagga model’, as it became popularly known, differed from family group conferencing in that the process was facilitated by police officers (as opposed to non-state actors) and a script was used to determine the structure that the process followed. Furthermore, the process drew heavily on Jonathan Braithwaite’s theory of reintegrative shaming (Daly & Hayes, 2001; McCold, 1998) whereby the actions of the offender are denounced, but not the offender. Here, the offender is encouraged to acknowledge wrongdoing and make amends for his or her actions, ‘thus demonstrating that he or she remains part of the law-abiding community and recognises its norms of acceptable behaviour’ (Roche, 2003, p. 29). Braithwaite (1989) outlines three essential features for this to occur: (1) mutual respect, (2) mutual commitment and (3) intolerance for the behaviour combined with understanding. Reintegration places a requirement not only on the offender, but also on his or her family and other agencies in supporting the offender to overcome the underlying causes of the offending, which may stem from a variety of practical, emotional and/or psychological needs (see Clamp, 2014). While the Wagga model was ultimately not broadly adopted across Australia,2 it was subsequently exported to the United States and Canada.3 The first mention of ‘restorative policing’ emerged out of the Bethlehem family group conferencing project in Pennsylvania which involved randomly assigning young, first-time offenders to proceed through the formal criminal justice process or divert them to a restorative policing conference (McCold & Wachtel, 1998). Shortly after, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police adopted restorative justice ‘as part of a diversionary and community devolution strategy’ which emphasised communication, localised problemsolving, and community partnerships (Shaw & Jane´, 1998). These projects are still in operation to varying degrees today. Towards the end of the 1990s, the model was spearheaded by Sir Charles Pollard, the Chief Constable at Thames Valley Police in England. In stark contrast to previous experiments, a headquarters-based ‘Restorative Justice Consultancy’ was established to oversee the training of police officers across the force to ensure consistent practice by police officers in a more transparent and accountable manner against specific aims and standards. As such, only those officers who received specialist training in restorative justice were allowed to facilitate restorative processes. By

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31 September 1999, a total of 5,460 restorative cautions and conferences had been conducted and there was hope that the new developments in youth justice would entrench this practice at a national level and on a more systematic basis (Pollard, 2001). However, by 2001, Hoyle, Young, and Hill (2002) reported that while 5,499 restorative processes were convened, not all were carried out in line with restorative principles the victim’s participation was not secured or their views not sought, or there was no direct victim and the process was dealt with in a perfunctory non-scripted manner.4 In fact there were indications that ‘instant’ versions of the process were being administered without using the required script and by officers who had only received basic awareness training in restorative justice. As such, it appeared that the restorative dimension of the process was beginning to diminish. Charles Pollard, the original champion of restorative justice within a policing environment, had left the force in 2001 and shortly after the government began putting significant pressure on Thames Valley to improve their performance figures for detections (whereby an offender is prosecuted for an offence). Without strong leadership and support for restorative justice from within it is perhaps not surprising that restorative disposals began to decline. As such, the Thames Valley project failed to take root largely due to a broader performance management culture that took hold over the criminal justice landscape in England and Wales at the turn of the millennium (Shewan, 2010). The approach of the subsequent decade centralised police performance measurement in an attempt to make it more accountable via national objectives, the publication of performance data and codes of practice. While target-setting can be good for clarity, motivation and accountability, it can also produce inflexibilities and reduce the scope for innovation (Taylor, 2001). For example, the ‘Offences Brought to Justice’ target incentivised officers to pursue easy to achieve low-level detections (such as graffiti, vandalism and shoplifting) rather than focusing on more serious offences (Home Office, 2010). Targets thus became the dominant external factor that informed the socio-cultural context of policing and this led to risk-averse modes of thinking that decreased street-level innovation and leadership in an operational environment. Nevertheless, Pollard had successfully introduced the concept of restorative justice to the police institution and the importance of this historical legacy can be found in the more recent resurgence of restorative discourse within policing and criminal justice in England and Wales. The shift away from the constraints of target-driven policing that took place with the change of government in 2010 has, once again, created space for more

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innovative police leaders. In a manner reminiscent of the enigmatic Pollard, Assistant Chief Constable Garry Shewan has acted as an advocate for the enhanced use of restorative justice within policing both as an institutionally popular means of rebuilding police leadership and discretion from below and, more radically, as a potential vehicle for long-standing transformative cultural change that addresses the enduring problem of oppressive and discriminatory policing. The following section outlines in further detail the change, at both a political and institutional level, which has created the space for a more concerted effort to embed restorative practice within policing in England and Wales and how this differs from the models outlined above.

Contemporary Restorative Policing Practice in England and Wales At the heart of the new Coalition Government reforms is a desire to invest in schemes that use restorative justice techniques to prevent minor offending (for adults and juveniles) escalating into more serious and long-term problematic behaviour (Ministry of Justice, 2012). Nick Herbert (2011), the former minister of State for Policing, describe this policy shift as a reconceptualisation of justice provision: Offending must always have consequences and those consequences should not just be punitive, but also about making good, about repairing, about paying back to the victim and to society. That is what it seems to me restorative justice can deliver and that is why it should be part of the whole system. This is about rethinking justice and it’s about ensuring that we have a criminal justice service, not a system, a service that never stops thinking about the interests of victims.

Thus, the more recent resurgence of restorative policing has been underpinned by a desire to re-empower officers to use their discretion to secure better outcomes for victims and offenders than the normal adversarial process usually yields (Ministry of Justice, 2010; Shewan, 2010). Restorative policing is now supported by ACPO and this has led to sustained interest in its development as a ‘low-bureaucratic disposal for low-level offending and as a critical tool within Neighbourhood Policing to assist in problemsolving and meeting community expectations’ (Shewan, 2010, p. 2). Three main policy developments have emerged which indicate more widespread use of restorative practice by police officers at a number of levels throughout the criminal justice process. This is in contrast to the historical use of restorative justice as a disposal exclusively used for first-time

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low-level offenders, although this does continue to feature. Level One restorative disposals are aimed at minor problems or offences5 that may be dealt with quickly ‘on the street’ with perhaps only the offender and victim being brought together to resolve an issue. Where necessary, an agreement may be made for the offender to repair the harm through some form of symbolic or material reparation (or gesture) to the victim. Level Two uses the same approach as Level One but is aimed at longer term issues which have a greater effect on the well-being of the community. At this level, the conference tends to be more involved and time-consuming to organise with more emphasis placed on ensuring that affected members of the community are given a voice and are able to influence the outcomes of the conference for the benefit of the community. Suitable offences could include noise or other disputes between neighbours and ongoing anti-social behaviour. Given that response officers have considerably less time to be involved in longer term issues, the predominant focus for training has been with Neighbourhood Police Officers and Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs). Level Three is aimed at persistent and prolific offenders (predominantly adults, but may include juveniles) and is primarily used at the post-conviction stage by Integrated Offender Management (IOM) teams. Partners include Prisons, Probation, the Restorative Justice Development Manager, Divisional IOM teams, Victim Support and the Youth Offending Service. While the same approach and skills employed at Levels One and Two apply and the process includes victims, a greater emphasis is placed upon the rehabilitation of the offender by enabling them to face up to the consequences of their actions and to improve their prospects of being able to reintegrate into society by increasing their self-awareness of triggers for their offending behaviour. No offences are excluded from eligibility, although the offender and the victim must consent to the process. Despite this ascendency of restorative practice, there remain a number of potential threats to the longevity of such disposals. Restorative justice alters the roles and responsibilities of individuals within the process, which makes it inherently more difficult to implement (Johnstone, 2002). For example, the further extension of the public voice in restorative policing will sometimes require officers to act as facilitators and silent stakeholders rather than as decision-makers, a process which requires police officers to interpret and undertake their role in innovative ways (Paterson & Clamp, 2012). Indeed, not all forces in England and Wales engage in restorative practice. A recent survey indicated that 33 out of 44 police forces around England and Wales were using restorative sanctions at various stages of

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the criminal justice process as outlined above (see Shewan, 2010). This suggests that an external policy environment conducive to restorative justice within policing alone cannot ensure successful implementation, nor can charismatic figure-heads. The section ‘Organisational Culture and Leadership from “Below” suggests that a twin-track approach is needed where leadership from above is informed by restorative principles that not only allows, but also actively encourages transformative leadership by frontline officers while acknowledging a number of potential pitfalls.

Organisational Culture and Leadership from ‘Below’ The historical roots of the Police Service within the blue-collar traditions of working class communities and the hierarchical organisational model of the military generated a conservative occupational subculture that embraced discipline, authority and hierarchy ahead of innovation, leadership and diversity. Thus, restorative policing, with its emphasis upon bottom-up leadership, inverts the traditional police hierarchy and re-situates street-level police officers and communities as key sources of organisational learning, leadership and decision-making. We therefore argue that leadership needs to be present at all levels of the policing structure for effective policy implementation, particularly when adopting a restorative model that dramatically changes the modus operandi of policing. Evolving Police Leadership and Organisational Learning In order for restorative thinking to become a central part of the policing response, steps need to be taken to re-invigorate innovation and leadership at all levels of the police hierarchy. The dual enhancement of accountability at both the individual and organisational levels of the Police Service via performance management and legislative oversight has resulted in police decision-making processes at all levels becoming increasingly constrained (Flanagan, 2008). Although new oversight mechanisms were initially developed in response to concerns about police effectiveness and abuses of power, the organisational constraints generated by this emphasis upon hierarchical control and administered through a quasi-militaristic structure stifled officer discretion, street-level leadership and inadvertently encouraged risk-averse behaviour. We therefore argue that restorative policing can only work if the myriad of cultures, values and practices that it exhibits secures some extent of

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appreciation from both the police and public. This requires transformational leadership from senior police officers who use their positions to reflect on the way the Police Service meets its mission and purpose (Burns, 1978). This means that the underpinning philosophy of restorative policing needs to extend beyond individual programmes. A clear vision of local police leadership needs to be articulated and consistently practised by ACPO and police leaders via participative and open management styles that engage police officers (Alarid & Montemayor, 2011). Restorative justice, at its core, is a participatory process and it may gain further purchase where its values inform senior police management styles. This process would benefit from continued ministerial support alongside clear ACPO standards, guidance and nationally recognised measurable outcomes to embed restorative thinking in ‘police-speak’. The creation of a national decision-making model that attempts to incorporate organisational values into professional judgements is being used by the Police Service as a potential vehicle for the generation of a common understanding of the more subtle aspects of restorative policing (ACPO, 2011). The historical failure to garner support for restorative policing has been evidenced by low rates of victim participation in restorative projects in England and Wales (Hoyle & Young, 2003) and resistance towards restorative justice initiatives from the police and a punitive national psyche, as evidence indicated in the NJP evaluation in Sheffield (Meadows et al., 2010). While police involvement in restorative justice initiatives has received support in England and Wales, there remains public mistrust of diversionary measures that are perceived to exist outside the recognised lexicon of formal criminal justice sanctions. Thus, there is a need to lead, educate and resource restorative initiatives both within and beyond the organisational sphere of policing. This developmental approach recognises the value of organisational learning as a process through which officers throughout the police hierarchy challenge ‘old ways of thinking, overcome defensive routines, and engage in incremental change’ (Alarid & Montemayor, 2011, p. 458). Subsequent developments in restorative policing need to be embedded at the street-level via police officers with relevant skills sets to integrate restorative practice into day-to-day policing. Schein’s (1996) work on organisational culture points to the importance of recruiting police officers who have the critical thinking skills to challenge managers and traditional modes of thinking as outlined in the literature on police culture. Evidence from studies of police training in North America and Europe demonstrates that giving priority to an educational focus on critical thinking over an

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emphasis on control can aid the development of more flexible value systems suited to the demands of restorative policing (Paterson, 2011). Generating Street-Level Leadership In order to encourage police officers in England and Wales to take ownership of their decision-making the Police Service has encouraged a greater focus on reasons and judgements rather than purely legal rules (via, e.g., informal community resolutions) in order to push forward a shift away from risk-averse behaviour. This desire to rebuild police leadership from the street-level emerged from Flanagan’s (2008) ‘Review of Policing in England and Wales’ which encouraged the development of a more flexible, open-minded value system among police officers that would challenge enduring issues related to gender and minority ethnic discrimination. Added to this, the roll-out of neighbourhood policing in 2008 enhanced the need for community-oriented police officers with the communication and conflict resolution skills that would supplement the traditional focus upon knowledge of relevant legislation. The emergence of restorative policing can thus be understood as a component of these broader shifts in thinking about the role of street-level police leadership. Police officers are subsequently encouraged to question traditional thinking about victim-offender dichotomies and the role of the formal criminal justice process and to seek resolutions to problems from within active communities. This process requires police officers who actively engage with diverse communities and possess the leadership skills to challenge the potentially negative impact of police culture such as discriminatory practice and abuses of power. In England and Wales, models of transformational leadership are most commonly directed towards the roles of senior police leaders but Vinzant and Crothers (1994) argue that these models can be stretched further and be applied to the role of a police officer undertaking restorative work. Restorative policing requires officers to act as street-level leaders, and to build legitimacy for their role from goals that have been set by both the Police Service and local communities. Yet, the history of police reform is littered with the recurring chronological themes of innovation, cynicism and institutional memory loss (Holland, 2004). New ideas emerge and are rapidly consumed, digested and adapted by strong local occupational cultures. This process of police resistance and adaptation is a cultural response to new initiatives that are not perceived to fit in with the ‘socio-political context of police work and various dimensions of police organisational knowledge’ (Chan, 1996, p. 110). Because of this, any significant reform or change to police practice has to

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be cognisant of cultural reactions to that change, particularly where the reform involves a significant shift in policing philosophy. For example, the development of community policing in England and Wales remains, over 20 years after its introduction, challenged by long-standing culturally entrenched views that this sort of policing is ‘nice, but not essential’ (Foster, 2010, p. 395). Furthermore, it is important to be cognisant of failings from previous community-oriented endeavours. The delivery of restorative policing programmes in the United Kingdom has been characterised by several important elements: a degree of drift from restorative principles over time; the potential to enhance oppressive and discriminative practice; and challenges in engaging both police and the public in new mentalities of policing (Clamp & Paterson, 2011; Hoyle et al., 2002; O’Mahony & Doak, 2004). These findings raise questions about the potential of restorative justice and transformational leadership to enhance police officer discretion from the street-level upwards in a fair and equitable way and reassert the importance of holistic community ownership and bottom-up policy development in successful implementation strategies. Otherwise, the community leadership qualities demanded from police officers for restorative programmes may emerge alongside the more punitive and authoritarian values that are embedded in both the policing environment and local communities in England and Wales (Clamp & Paterson, 2011).

CONCLUSION AND FINAL THOUGHTS The current impetus for the adoption of restorative practice within the policing sector in England and Wales is largely based upon a renewed emphasis on the enhancement of police professionalism in order to encourage streetlevel ownership of police officer decision-making (Paterson & Clamp, 2012). While many welcome a move away from the micro-management that characterised the target culture of the 1990s and early 2000s, it should be acknowledged that collaborative bottom-up leadership from street-level police officers and active communities runs contrary to the historical culture of a quasi-militarised structure of order, regulation and discipline. This hierarchical structure has been further perpetuated by the predominance of a performance culture which has generated a risk-averse environment that demands that targets are met and greater detections achieved (Lofty, 2002).

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The late modern emphasis on community values, engagement and interaction remains a challenge for a police institution founded on modernity’s conception of an all-powerful state that provides security and order across society. This raises two conceptual questions for the promulgation of street-level leadership and restorative policing. Can the hierarchical structure of the Police Service find ways to encourage and support the creative thinking and leadership skills that restorative policing demands from police officers? Furthermore, are there transformative strategies available to build public confidence in restorative policing as a more effective response to crime problems, particularly where young people are involved? While we have not had the space to interrogate these questions here, we have attempted to broadly outline and unpack these issues and to provide tentative suggestions as to how they may be tackled.

NOTES 1. Family group conferencing was developed from elements of Maori traditional practices, which involved not only the victim and offender, but also their ‘communities of care’ and representatives from the formal criminal justice system (see McCold, 2000; Daly, 2002). 2. In Australian jurisdictions the Wagga model has largely been rejected in favour of the New Zealand model of non-police-run conferences with the ‘scripted’ model being atypical (see Daly, 2001 and Daly & Hayes, 2001 for a detailed discussion of these models). 3. McCold (1998) indicates that development may have been the direct result of Terry O’Connell visiting Canada and the United States in 1994 on a Churchill Fellowship. 4. By 2007, Hoyle (2009) highlights that a total of 1,640 final warnings and 3,122 reprimands were delivered, the majority of which followed a more traditional approach. 5. Commonly used for minor thefts such as shoplifting, criminal damages and minor assaults where there are no community impact factors to consider.

REFERENCES ACPO. (2011). National decision model. Retrieved from http://www.acpo.police.uk/documents/ president/201201PBANDM.pdf Alarid, L., & Montemayor, C. (2011). Implementing restorative justice in police departments. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 13(5), 450 463. Bazemore, G., & Griffiths, C. (2003). Police reform, restorative justice and restorative policing. Police Practice and Research, 4(4), 335 346.

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Benomar, J. (1993). Justice after transitions. Journal of Democracy, 4(1), 3 14. Braithwaite, J. (1989). Crime, shame and reintegration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Braithwaite, J. (1999). Restorative justice: Assessing optimistic and pessimistic accounts. Crime and Justice, 25, 1 127. Burns, J. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper&Row. Chan, J. (1996). Changing police culture. British Journal of Criminology, 36(1), 109 134. Christie, N. (1977). Conflicts as property. British Journal of Criminology, 17(1), 1 15. Clamp, K. (2014). Restorative justice in transition. London: Routledge. Clamp, K., & Paterson, C. (2011). Rebalancing criminal justice: Potentials and pitfalls for community neighbourhood panels. British Journal of Community Justice, 9(2), 21 35. Daly, K. (2001). Conferencing in Australia and New Zealand: Variations, research findings, and prospects. In A. Morris & G. Maxwell (Eds.), Restoring justice for juveniles: Conferencing, mediation and circles. Oxford: Hart. Daly, K. (2002). Restorative justice the real story. Punishment and Society, 4, 55 79. Daly, K., & Hayes, H. (2001). Restorative justice and conferencing. In A. Graycar & P. Grabosky (Eds.), Handbook of Australian criminology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Flanagan, R. (2008). The review of policing: Final report. London: Home Office. Foster, J. (2010). Nice to do and essential: Improving neighbourhood policing in an English police force. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 4(4), 395 402. Herbert, N. (2011). Restorative justice, policing and the big society. Retrieved from http://www. homeoffice.gov.uk/media-centre/speeches/Herbert-Restorative-Justice Holland, B. (2004). View from within: The realities of promoting race and diversity inside the Police Service. In M. Rowe (Ed.), Policing beyond MacPherson. Cullompton: Willan. Home Office (2010). New approach to fighting crime. London: HMSO. Hoyle, C. (2009). Restorative justice policing in Thames Valley. In T. Peters, P. Ponsaers, J. Shapland, & B. Van Stokkom (Eds.), Restorative policing. The Netherlands: Maklu. Hoyle, C., & Young, R. (2003). Restorative justice, victims and the police. In T. Newburn (Ed.), Handbook of policing. Cullompton: Willan. Hoyle, C., Young, R., & Hill, R. (2002 Proceed with caution: An evaluation of the Thames Valley police initiative in restorative cautioning. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. Johnstone, G. (2002). Restorative justice: Ideas, values, debates. Cullompton: Willan. Lofty, M. (2002). Restorative policing. Paper presented at ‘Dreaming of a New Reality’, the Third International Conference on Conferencing, Circles and other Restorative Practices, 8 10 August, Minneapolis, MN. McCold, P. (2000). Toward a holistic vision of restorative juvenile justice: A reply to the maximalist model. Contemporary Justice Review, 3, 357 372. McCold, P. (1998). Police-facilitated restorative conferencing: What the data show. Paper presented to the Second Annual International Conference on Restorative Justice for Juveniles, Florida Atlantic University, and the International Network for Research on Restorative Justice for Juveniles, Fort Lauderdale, FL, 7 9 November. Retrieved from http://fp.enter. net/restorativepractices/policeconferencing.pdf McCold, P., & Wachtel, B. (1998). Restorative policing experiment: The Bethlehem Pennsylvania Police Family group conferencing project. Pipersville, PA: Community Service Foundation. Marshall, T. (1999). Restorative justice: An overview. London: Home Office.

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Meadows, L., Clamp, K., Culshaw, A., Cadet, N., Wilkinson, K., & Davidson, J. (2010). Evaluation of Sheffield City Council’s community justice panels project. Hallam Centre for Community Justice. Retrieved from http://www.cjp.org.uk/publications/ngo/hccjevalutation-of-sheffieldcity-councils-community-justice-panels-project/ Ministry of Justice (2010). Breaking the cycle: Effective punishment, rehabilitation and sentencing of offenders. London: HMSO. Ministry of Justice. (2012). Swift and sure: The government’s plans for reform of the criminal justice system. Cm 8388. London: HMSO. Moore, D., & Forsythe, L. (1995). A new approach to juvenile justice: An evaluation of family conferencing in Wagga Wagga. A Report to the Criminology Research Council. Wagga Wagga, Australia: Centre for Rural Social Research, Charles Sturt University-Riverina. Morris, A. (2002). Critiquing the critics: A brief response to critics of restorative justice. British Journal of Criminology, 42, 596 615. O’Mahony, D., & Doak, J. (2004). Restorative justice is more better? The experience of police-led restorative cautioning pilots in Northern Ireland. The Howard Journal, 43(5), 484 505. Paterson, C. (2011). Adding value? A review of the international literature on the role of higher education in police training and education. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 12(4), 286 297. Paterson, C., & Clamp, K. (2012). Exploring recent developments in restorative policing in England and Wales. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 12(5), 593 611. Pollard, C. (2001). If your only tool is a hammer, all your problems will look like nails. In H. Strang & J. Braithwaite (Eds.), Restorative justice and civil society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Roche, D. (2003). Accountability in restorative justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Schein, E. (1996). Culture: The missing concept in organization studies. Administrative Science Quarterly, 41(2), 229 240. Shaw, M., & Jane´, F. (1998). Restorative justice and policing in Canada: Bringing the community into focus. Ottawa: Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Retrieved from http://www.rcmpgrc.gc.ca/pubs/ccaps-spcca/restor-repara-poli-eng.htm Sherman, L., Strang, H., Barnes, G., Braithwaite, J., Inkpen, N., & Teh, M. (1998). Experiments in restorative policing: A progress report on the Canberra Reintegrative Shaming Experiments. Canberra: Australian National University. Shewan, G. (2010). A business case for restorative justice. Retrieved from http://www. restorativejustice.org.uk/resource/the_business_case_for_restorative_justice_and_policing/ Taylor, M. (2001). Too early to say? New labour’s first term. The Political Quarterly, 72(1), 5 18. Van Ness, D., & Strong, K. (2010). Restoring justice: An introduction to restorative justice. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing. Vinzant, J., & Crothers, L. (1994). Street-level leadership: The role of patrol officers in community policing. Criminal Justice Review, 19(2), 189 211.

DEVELOPING FROM ASSISTANT TO FULL PRINCIPAL IN A CONTEXT OF SOCIAL UNREST: THE CASE OF SOUTHERN THAILAND Ekkarin Sungtong and Melanie C. Brooks ABSTRACT This chapter reports findings from a qualitative case study of principals and assistant school principals in southern Thailand who work in areas targeted by Muslim separatist groups. Principals and assistant school principals discussed the pressures they experienced working in an area of conflict and the requirements placed upon them by the Thai Ministry of Education (MoE). This study emphasizes the importance of social context to school leadership and career development. Findings suggested that the MoE’s centralized practice of policy implementation has particular consequences on the development of principals in the three border provinces because it fails to take into account the unstable social context. Consequently, many teachers working to become principals and

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principals wanting to become senior principals find themselves unable to meet the requirements and resort to unethical practices to achieve promotion.

For over a century, Islamic separatist groups have fought to establish an independent state in the three southernmost border provinces of Thailand. The unrest is linked to historical grievances, ethnicity, and religion fueled by socioeconomic disparities, poor governance, and politics (Storey, 2007). Separatists attack symbols of the government, including teachers, school principals, and school buildings as a means to provoke a response from the Buddhist-majority Thai state. In 2007 over 1,000 schools closed in the region because of violence. Upon reopening, the Thai government stationed armed military security patrols in and around government schools to provide increased security. Yet, the presence of soldiers did not mitigate tensions. Schools, teachers, and principals continued to be targets for separatist bombs, grenades, and drive-by shootings (Human Rights Watch, 2010). Deep South Watch (2013) found that between the years 2004 and 2012, 12,377 violent events occurred resulting in 14,890 casualties, with 5,377 individuals dead and 9,513 injured. Additionally, the violence claimed the lives of 157 teachers (Bangkok Post, 2013a). Currently, the situation in the region is tense with attacks occurring daily (Bangkok Post, 2013b). Irrespective of the social unrest, the Thai Ministry of Education (MoE) expects schools in the region to adhere to national standards, policies, and regulations and increase student outcomes. Moreover, the MoE mandated additional teacher trainings and principal development requirements for educators working in the three southernmost provinces: Yala, Narathiwat, and Pattani. We first became aware of this issue while collecting data for a research study on principal work in areas of violent conflict in Pattani, Thailand. During the interviews, principals and pre-principal graduate students discussed the pressures they experienced working in an area of conflict and the requirements placed upon them by the MoE, specifically additional hours of professional development and the successful completion of an action research project. Consequently, since no one that we could identify is studying these issues, we decided to focus a portion of the larger study on the challenges principals face in regards to their career development in the volatile three southern border provinces.

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In order to frame this inquiry, we first discuss the Educational Reform Act of 1999. This reform outlines the education system for Thailand. Within this act are additional requirements for those working in the southern border provinces. We present this and move into a discussion of the importance of social context to school leadership and career development. Data was collected through 12 semi-structured interviews in keeping with qualitative case study design (Creswell, 2007; Merriam, 2009). The findings suggested that the MoE’s centralized practice of policy implementation has particular consequences on the development of principals in the three border provinces because it fails to take into account the unstable social context. Consequently, many teachers working to become principals and principals wanting to become senior principals find themselves unable to meet requirements and resort to unethical practices to achieve promotion.

EDUCATIONAL REFORM ACT The National Act of 1999 and its revision in 2002 paved the way for educational management in the country and included reforms of teachers and school administrators. Thai education is a highly centralized system and the Educational Reform Act serves as the framework for education in Thailand. It addresses issues of administration, management, quality assurance, standards, personnel, and resource allocation. Its revision in 2002 addressed teacher and principal professional development, especially the system of development, professional standards, licensing, salaries, and benefits. Further additions to principal qualifications were added in the Teacher’s Educational Act of 2003, requiring principals to be highly knowledgeable, capable, and skilled in practicing the profession, and comply with a professional code of ethics. In 2004, the Government Teacher and Education Personnel Act addressed school administrator promotion, rotation, transfer, and termination. It also outlined personnel categories whereby the administrative positions in government schools were deemed equal to faculty ranks at the university level. Specifically, school principals begin at the rank of teacher (equal to university lecturer) and then they are promoted to senior administrator (assistant professor), specialist administrator (associate professor), and lastly senior specialist administrator (professor). The purpose behind designating principal rankings equal to that of university ranks was to increase the social position and prestige of principals (Office of Teachers and Educational

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Personnel Committee, 2012). However, the bureaucratic and complex system makes promotion difficult for many principals in the southern border provinces. State laws outlining the expectations and processes are intertwined with specific educational laws and requirements. Complicating the process are criteria and appointment processes that vary and depend on held positions. The Criteria and Academic Rank Promotion Procedures for Government Teachers and Educational Personnel of 2009, shortly known as V17/2009, provides different criteria and procedures on academic rank appointment processes and the type of research needed for school principal promotion. For example, assistant principals who aim to earn full principalship have to submit to the school administrator a certificate and passing scores on a standardized test developed by the MoE. They also undergo a personal background check and need to attend administrator training before beginning their appointments. For principals who wish to obtain the academic rank of specialist administrators and senior specialist administrators, they are required to complete research projects. For those interested in becoming a specialist administrator, the requirement is one research project approved by three faculty members at a university or other educational institutions. For those interested in senior specialist appointments, two research projects are required, which also must be approved by three faculty members at a university or specialists from other educational institutions. The most recent criterion of school administrator career path was announced in March 2012 through the policy: Criteria and Recruitment Procedures and Appointments (CRPA) for Teachers, School Administrators and Personnel in the Three Southern Border Provinces and Four Districts in Songkla Provinces, V10/2012. This policy outlines the different paths for promotion for teachers and principals. Teachers who want to become school administrators begin by serving as assistant principals. Based on this criterion prospective school administrators are divided in two groups: (1) general group and (2) experienced group. Candidates in the first group have earned a bachelor degree in education and worked for at least four years as a teacher, two of which they must have held a master’s degree in education. Also, their salary status and academic rank (teacher rank 2, salary level 6) must meet the Act on Salary and Remuneration for Status and Academic Rank of Teachers and Education Personnel. In addition, they must hold an administrator license issued by the Teacher Council of Thailand (TCT). Candidates in the second group must have taught for four years after earning a bachelor’s degree. For those who hold a master’s degree, they must have taught for two years and worked as a senior teacher in the third year. After they meet these criteria, they also must earn a

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school administrator license, which lasts for only five years after the issued date (The Secretary General of the Education Council, 2011). Additionally, they must pass a standardized test and interview provided by the MoE. Once these criteria are met, teachers can work as assistant principals. Assistant principals who want to become full principals and started in the general group must have served as assistant principals not less than one year or served as supervisor for not less than two years. A supervisor can be a position of assistant principal, but could also be other types of supervisory activities, such as a dean or a coach. They must also work as a senior teacher and obtain school administrator license. Assistant principals from the experienced group need to work as assistant principals for no less than five years along with having worked as senior administrators or as an educational service area officer not less than two years. They also must have worked as a senior administrator and have an administrator license. Unlike V17/2009, the career paths of assistant principals and full principal under the new law or V10/2012 are not related to research projects, but they must show one outstanding best practice or innovation. This includes the progress of students’ learning achievement such as the increase in national standardized test scores or recognized local or national awards that schools receive. In the border provinces of southern Thailand, working as a principal during unpredictable violent conflict makes achieving promotion more difficult. In response to the unique context, the government allows for an alternative option for those who lack research skills. The new official announcement, V10/2012, discussed criteria and recruitment procedures and appointments for teachers, school administrators, and personnel in the three southern border provinces and four districts in Songkla Provinces (Office of Teachers and Educational Personnel Committee, 2012). The three main criteria used for promotion in this region include: (1) discipline, integrity, and ethical conduct; (2) knowledge and competence in educational management, planning, and educational innovation; and (3) job performance, which emphasizes proven successes working with students, parents, and the community. Based on these new criteria, the career paths of assistant principals and full principals are not related to research projects like the V17/2009, but they must show an outstanding best practice or an innovation that they’ve completed. Unlike the former criteria, three evaluators appointed by the regional educational service area play significant roles in judging the principals’ paperwork and performance. Principals must pass 65% for the three main criteria from each evaluator. In the case that a principal’s performance does not meet the criteria and the evaluators

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suggest that their performance can be further developed, principals can resubmit their profiles for consideration, but not more than twice. In sum, since the law on principals’ professional development changes often and the V10/2012 is new, the career path of assistant principals becomes varied. MoE allows assistant principals to choose either the V17/2009 track or the V10/2012 track; however, it is difficult to say which criteria are better. The interesting point is that assistant principals have to decide which path to take. If they have a good background in conducting research they could choose V17/2009. If they feel that they can develop an innovation or raise student achievement in spite of the conflict, they can choose V10/2012. Regardless of which path they choose, these bureaucratic system and criteria are difficult to navigate and bring challenges to principals working in this context of unrest.

ORGANIZATIONAL CAREER MOBILITY We present some of organizational career mobility (OCM) frameworks that connect to principal preparation. School principals play a significant role in the functioning of schools (Johnsrud & Rosser, 2000; Mulford, 2003) and are influential in the success of policies, school improvement initiatives, and innovation (Fullan, 2001; Hallinger, 2004; Hallinger & Heck, 2003). School administrators’ leadership and their professional advancement affect the tenor and climate of the entire institution (Matthews & Crow, 2003). Therefore, it is important to explore how principal career trajectories typically occur. OCM literature states that individuals join organizations at different entry points and leave organizations through different or various exit points. Vardi (1980) explained that during their employment in an organization, some members “Drop out from the initial point, others move to related jobs in different directions. Some members leave through various exit ports, others establish themselves in a terminal job until retirement, and a selected few climb the ladder to the top” (p. 346). Horizontal and vertical career changes are aspects of OCM. Martin and Strauss (1956) stated that all job movements should consider career mobility because although movement may not always result in increased remuneration, individuals may gain political or positional rewards from the move. For teachers becoming school principals, Ortiz (1982) stressed the assumption that once a teacher becomes an assistant principal, he or she leaves

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classroom teaching. Ortiz (1982), Glass (2000), and Shakeshaft (1989) presented slightly different pathways of administrative career movement. For example, Glass (2000) outlined a typical career path starting with teacher, then coach, assistant principal, or department chair in a high school, to central office administrator, and ending as a superintendent. According to Kim and Brunner’s (2009) study of U.S. school administrators, individuals make career moves because they seek better opportunities and increased power, yet how they ascend to positions of higher authority is determined by their gender with fewer women able to achieve school superintendency positions. Similarly, Sperandio and Kagoda (2010) identified factors that contributed to the low numbers of female teachers entering administration in Uganda and cited gender expectations, norms, and corruption as reasons for few female teachers advancing to school principal positions. Crow (1992) noted, “except for attention to the preparation and entry of principals, little consideration has been given to the principal’s career” (p. 80). Consequently, Crow (1992) recommended, “examining and identifying the sequence, direction, and timing of principals’ movement among schools with different characteristics and examining individual’s perceptions of career rewards in these schools” (pp. 84 85). Creissen and Ellison (1998) stressed the importance of UK headteachers (principals) receiving post-appointment training to improve their site-based management skills and learn effective leadership aptitudes. Notman (2012) emphasized the importance of recognizing the intrapersonal dimensions of school leadership and how this influenced New Zealand’s principal career success over time. Stevenson (2006) emphasized the importance of inquiring into the structural factors’ influence on career trajectories of school administrators and the role individual agency may or may not play in determining one’s career path. To this end, this study sought to add to prior research on career development by exploring how government policies influence principal career development in areas challenged by conflict.

CASE STUDY DESIGN The focus of this qualitative case study was to examine the challenges and issues school administrators faced in developing their careers in southern Thailand, an area affected by separatist violence. Qualitative

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methods were used because they are the best way to obtain the “lived experiences” (Clandinin & Connelly, 2004) of school principals and to better understand their unique perspectives on the complexities of their career trajectory during conflict (Merriam, 2009). Twelve school assistant principals and school principals working in the three southern border provinces of Thailand were interviewed, which comprised the case for this inquiry (Creswell, 2007). We ensured the confidentiality of participants by removing all “potentially compromising information that could identify the respondents,” even if such omissions weakened the findings (Schnabel, 2005). Data collection took place over four weeks and empirical, or firsthand, data were collected through semi-structured interviews (Silverman, 2006) of school administrators living in southern Thailand, namely the provinces of Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat. Thai education laws such as the National Act of 1999 and corresponding amendments to the law were also analyzed, namely: Second National Act of 2002; the Teachers and Educational Act of 2003; The Government Teacher and Education Personnel Act of 2004; and the Criteria, Recruitment and Appointment Procedures, for Teachers and Education Personnel in the Three Southern Border Provinces of 2012. Additionally, related official news and public reports were used in the analysis (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006; Schwandt, 2001). Researchers ensured the trustworthiness of the study using member checks and peer debriefing (Merriam, 2007). The presentation of the findings is organized around the challenges and problems southern Thai principals face in their career trajectory.

FINDINGS The Challenge of Selecting Right Criteria Teachers begin their path toward the principalship by selecting their baseline for promotion. Since they can select between the V17/2009 and V10/2012, they must be sure that they are qualified based on the requirements as specified in the act. Choosing the correct path is essential to their success. An assistant principal from Yala explained, “I decided to select V17/2009 for my career path because I thought that I had research skills and I also had a good research supervisor who could help me.” Others preferred the newest criteria, V10/2012, because they thought it was easier. An assistant principal from a large school located centrally in a city stated,

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“I preferred not to do a research because it is difficult and risky.” Other assistant principals from Yala and Narathiwat told that they relied on the recognition of their best practices and successful work, such as increasing students’ learning achievement or regional or national rewards, to merit their promotion. However, an assistant principal from a rural area in Pattani remarked, “We must discuss what evidence we want to use because sometimes other assistant principals or other principals want to use the same evidence.” Thus, due to limited outstanding work or earned rewards, principals and assistant principals had to effectively negotiate and choose the right criteria for promotion.

The Challenge of Empirical Evidence Working during conflict with the newly imposed expectations challenged assistant principals. Those who selected the V10/2012 as a baseline for their promotion faced the requirement to collect empirical evidence of their effectiveness. This evidence included items that showed their participation in professional development, rewards earned, photos of community outreach programs, evidence of innovative programs, certificates earned, and other proof of their work. However, assistant principals reported mental and physical stress from the unrest and the difficulty of not only collecting the documentation but implementing innovative programming, participating in community activities, and attending professional development trainings. A principal from Yala province decided to select the V10/2012 for his promotion. He stated that the unrest upset him and hindered his work: “I was discouraged because my school was deliberately burnt down. I don’t want to think about school development. How can I do an outstanding job during this turbulent time?” Teachers and principals are targets of insurgent violence, further complicating and risking the effectiveness of their work. Many Buddhist principals choose to relocate to northern provinces after promotion because of risks to their safety. One principal discussed his plans to shift north with his wife to avoid the unrest. Another assistant principal from a small school in Pattani told that creating and recording empirical data of his success was especially difficult because teacher and student performance was weak in the area. He further explained, “many Thai Muslim students were still illiterate and had poor learning achievement.” Leading school in the weakest provinces made collecting empirical evidence of school success

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difficult. However, coupled with violence in the region, principals reported plans to leave the area because of their safety. All principals interviewed felt discouraged. Although assistant principals struggled with collecting documents of innovation and success, they reported feeling overloaded with paperwork requiring substantial demands on their time. The centralized bureaucratic education system required school leaders to collect specific documentation without concern for their unique social context of insurgency. Consequently, Thai principals discussed the importance of managing their work schedule. Since the law sets a specific timeline for career path requirements, assistant principals must be prepared so that they are ready to meet their application deadlines and successfully pass the tests. For example, assistant principals from Yala and Narathiwat expressed that they did not have time to prepare for the tests. Common complaints were the lack of time to read and study. Others mentioned the need to find an equilibrium between work and home life. One assistant principal from Pattani said, “I need to balance my time, especially for my family.” A principal from Yala told of his experience, “I gather a group of assistant principals to work together.” He further explained with confidence that “Some [people] may think that it’s easy to work on paper work, but actually it’s not. I think I can do very well because my group invited a scholar from Bangkok to train us on preparing and writing paper work.” We were surprised when he noted that he spent 100,000 Baht ($3,448) for the consultant. Thus, principals in the three border provinces are required to meet the same requirements as all principals throughout the country. Yet, principals are hindered in their work because of schools burning down, teachers leaving, and students’ weak academic performance.

The Challenge of Respect Coupled with paperwork requirements, assistant principals were also challenged by their abilities to develop and sustain respect with their colleagues. Assistant principals began their career paths early and without ample experience in school administration. This weakness in training and preparation challenged new assistant principals. They reported difficulties in developing respectful relationships with senior teachers. An assistant principal from Narathiwat said, “I feel a lot of pressure. It challenges me because I know that I am still young and it’s not easy to tell others

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[teachers] to do what I want.” She further mentioned, “New assistant principals must walk slowly. I walk very slowly otherwise I may fall down on my step.” Another new assistant principal from a large school located in Pattani faced the same challenges. She shared, “I not only face high expectations from my principal, but also from the community and parents.” Assistant principals were worried about not being well regarded in their workplaces. Many had to work with culturally different colleagues, which caused another layer of difficulty and stress. Thai Muslims and Thai Buddhists, who are on opposite sides of the conflict, struggled to develop trust and consequently, many leaders were hesitant to openly direct teachers, make decisions, or metaphorically speaking, to “walk too loudly.”

Problems with Policy Reform and Implementation We found that frequent policy changes were a problem for assistant principals in the three southernmost provinces. One assistant principal from Pattani said that it was difficult to understand the policies because they would change without notice, “the former criteria (V17/2009) were used for four years and now we need to follow the new one (V10/2012).” The new policy was difficult for assistant principals because they misunderstood or did not understand the details. Additionally, policy implementers interpreted the details of the policy differently. One assistant principal commented, “The policies change often. I understand that it may change again in the near future. I wish the government would use one policy for a while so that we understand it clearly.” This assistant principal added that it seemed to her that government officials were likewise confused, “A regional educational service area officer recently talked to teachers about doing a research project for promotion. Actually, we don’t need to do a research if we select the new criteria. I don’t think they understand the law.” Additionally, assistant principals expressed frustration by the centralized process of policy implementation and oversight. MoE evaluators travel to the south and no local oversight is allowed. An assistant principal explained, “I know that evaluators feel scared when they come to Narathiwat to evaluate our work.” An assistant principal from Yala mentioned, “I had to purchase the committee’s airplane tickets because they did not want to travel south.” Assistant principals agreed that local evaluators would be more effective because they would know the context and understand the pressures of work in the area.

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Problems with Cheating and Fraud We found that no matter what criteria the assistant principals selected for their promotion, they incorporated unethical behaviors in their reporting of their work. For example, some assistant principals choosing research as a part of their promotion openly cheated by hiring a scholar called a “gun man” to do their research. “I heard that school administrators sometimes made up data for their research study,” said an assistant principal from Narathiwat province. When asked the average cost for a “gun man,” the assistant principal from Yala said, “It depends. I think it costs around 150,000 baht ($ 5,172).” It costs additional money if their research reports required revision. Two assistant principals from Yala and Pattani provinces confirmed this dishonest behavior, but did not admit their participation. One stated, “I heard that some school administrators really cheated on their work. They did not do research by themselves.” The cheating process was also evident for those who selected the newest criteria, V10/2012. Since the V10/2012 criteria allow school administrators to use students’ learning or national test progress as empirical data for promotion, student test scores were often compromised. Two principals from Pattani explained, “Teachers read the test to the students because many students are illiterate.” Other principals interviewed confirmed teacher manipulation of testing to improve student test scores. Although assistant principals earned their master’s degree in educational administration, they were unprepared to complete a research study. Additionally those working in lower performing schools allowed teachers to bend the testing rules to improve student scores. Essentially, cheating and fraud was an easy, yet costly, way for school leaders to achieve promotion.

DISCUSSION Assistant principals in southernmost Thailand face challenges and problems working for promotion largely because the centralized policy environment does not recognize the problems the insurgency causes school leaders. School leaders, whether Thai Buddhist or Thai Muslim, risk their lives working in this area simply because they are viewed as representing the Thai government. Government schools are often bombed and burned. Soldiers guard schools and where soldiers are absent, community

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volunteers protect schools from harm. For all school personnel, working in the border provinces is stressful, challenging, and risky. As a centralized system, all Thai school leaders must meet the same qualifications for promotion no matter the social context. Additionally individuals must choose the correct option for promotion from the beginning of their career, as there is no possibility of switching between the two paths once started. Moreover, V17/2009 and V10/2012 require aspiring school leaders to focus exclusively on outcome performance and productivity (Barrett, 1992, cited in Bell & Stevenson, 2006). This emphasis on outcomes redirects school leaders’ time away from the development of social cohesion in school communities, such as building a culture of acceptance or fostering trust with community, much needed in contexts of violence and unrest (Matthews & Crow, 2003). Due to the unrest and difficult work environment, school administrators in southern Thailand frequently request transfers to other schools for their safety (Mahakanjana, 2006). Wisalaporn (2009) and Wattananarong (2012) noted that the centralized policy implementation process confused those charged with implementing policies locally. This further complicated the work of principals and added barriers to the principal promotion process. Not attending to policy discrepancies can become problematic for policy implementers (Boy, 1999). This study expounded on the challenges and problems principals face in both balancing their work and seeking promotion in an area of violent conflict. Due to the unrest, principals’ abilities to build interpersonal relationships and foster respect with peers, parents, and communities are essential to their success and safety. Matthews and Crow (2003) discussed the importance of building a school culture of collaboration and trust. In regards to our findings, the ability of Thai Buddhist principals to build supportive relationships is limited because of the unrest. Often, principals lead schools where they are the minority and they are fearful for their safety. Consequently, this position as “other” limits their willingness, and sometimes their ability, to lead or make difficult decisions. Lastly, assistant principals who are willing to engage in cheating and fraud are detrimental to Thai education in the southern border provinces. The MoE’s centralized expectations placed on career mobility hinder principal development in the south. Consequently, some Thai educational leaders resort to cheating and fraud because of lack of skill or time. Satto (2001) reported that primary school administrators discussed problems in conducting and completing research for promotion, leading to cheating and fraud. This dishonesty reduces the respect of the profession. The MoE

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(2013) did respond by monetarily fining one teacher in February 2012 who was guilty of plagiarism. It is common for principals to concern themselves with achieving a higher academic rank and obtaining promotion rather than working on raising student learning and achievement (Bangkok Post, 2013c). This challenges the responsibility of institutions in charge of school leader training and development to reinforce the importance of ethics in education (Government Gazette, 2003).

CONCLUSION In summary, Lashway (2006) expressed that entry into a university preparation program typically marks formal socialization processes in which assistant principals are expected to learn and acquire knowledge. Yet, our work in southern Thailand suggests that principal career development is equally important and should be considered in relation to the local context. Although the Thai MoE addresses principal career development from a point of view that provides equal requirements, it may be beneficial to focus on equitable processes of development that can be tailored to an unstable social context, which has different needs. Additionally, southern Thai principals could benefit from peer coaching and support, identified by Glass (2000) as critical for principal development and effectiveness (Glass, 2000). In our assessment, the Thai MoE may benefit from re-evaluating their processes of principal promotion.

REFERENCES Bangkok Post. (2013a). Teachers in deep South vow to stay on regardless. Retrieved from http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/331133/teachers-in-deep-south-vow-to-stay-on Bangkok Post. (2013b). 16 Die in attack on Thai marine base. Retrieved from http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/335706/16-die-in-attack-on-thai-marine-base Bangkok Post. (2013c). Study shows ethical standards to be lacking. Retrieved from http:// www.bangkokpost.com/news/local/339551/study-shows-ethical-standards-to-be-lacking. Accessed on March 11, 2013. Bell, L., & Stevenson, H. (2006). Education policy: Process, themes and impact. London: Routledge. Boy, W. L. (1999). Paradox of educational policy and productivity. Educational Policy, 13(2), 227 250. Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, M. (2004). Knowledge, narrative and self-study. In J. J. Loughran, M. L. Hamilton, V. K. LaBoskey, & T. L. Russell (Eds.), International handbook

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of self-study of teaching and teacher education practices (pp. 575 600). Netherlands: Springer. Creissen, T., & Ellison, L. (1998). Reinventing school leadership-back to the future in the UK? International Journal of Educational Management, 12(1), 28 38. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Crow, G. M. (1992). The principalship as a career: In need of a theory. Educational Management and Administration, 20(2), 80 87. Deep South Watch. (2013). 9 Months into the 9th year: Amidst the enigmatic violence, the Pa (t)tani peace process still keeps on moving. Retrieved from http://www.deepsouthwatch.org/ en/node/3803 Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. W. (2006). How to design and evaluate research in education. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Glass, T. (2000). Where are all the women superintendents? School Administrator, 57(6), 28 32. Government Gazette. (2003). Teachers and educational personnel act B.E. 2546. Vol. 120, Part 52A. Hallinger, P. (2004). Meeting the challenges of cultural leadership: The changing role of principals in Thailand. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 25(1), 61 73. Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. (2003). Understanding the principal’s contribution to school improvement. In M. Wallace & L. Poulson (Eds.), Learning to read critically in educational leadership and management (pp. 215 235). London: Sage. Human Rights Watch. (2010). Targets of both sides: Violence against students, teachers, and schools in Thailand’s southern border provinces. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. Johnsrud, L. K., & Rosser, V. J. (2000). Understanding the work and career paths of midlevel administrators. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Kim, Y., & Brunner, C. C. (2009). School administrators’ career mobility to the superintendency: Gender differences in career development. Journal of Educational Administration, 47 (1), 75 107. Lashway, L. (2006). Developing school leaders. In S. C.Smith & P. K.Piele (Eds.), School leadership (4th ed., pp. 119 128). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Mahakanjana, A. (2006). Decentralization, local government, and socio-political conflict in Southern Thailand. Washington, DC: East-West Center. Martin, N. H., & Strauss, A. L. (1956). Patterns of mobility within industrial organizations. The Journal of Business, 29(2), 101 110. Matthews, L. J., & Crow, G. M. (2003). Being and becoming a principal: Role conceptions for contemporary principals and assistant principals. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Merriam, S. B. (2007). Non-western perspectives on learning and knowing: Perspectives from around the world. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing. Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Ministry of Education. (2013). Station of Commission of Teachers and Educational Personnel (CTEP): Punishment of educational plagiarism. Retrieved from http://www.moe.go.th/moe/ th/news/detail.php?NewsID=31516&Key=hotnews Mulford, B. (2003). School leaders: Changing roles and impact on teacher and school effectiveness. Education and Training Policy Division, OECD. Retrieved from http://78.41.128.130/ dataoecd/61/61/2635399.pdf

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MISCONDUCT IN PROSECUTORIAL LEADERSHIP AND DECISION MAKING Robert J. Meadows ABSTRACT Prosecutors are politically elected officials entrusted with the sensitive responsibilities of prosecuting law violators. The strength and admissibility of evidence is tantamount to a successful prosecution, not politics, personal views, or other outside influences. And, the Supreme Court has ruled that prosecutors must ensure justice is achieved for crime victims and criminal defendants alike. However, outside influences, personal views, and other factors may influence a prosecutor’s leadership and decision making in some criminal cases. Since the office of prosecution is an elected position, their success is based on convictions whether achieved through plea bargaining or a guilty verdict at trial. This chapter examines criminal cases in which prosecutorial leadership strategies and decisions have circumvented justice in the name of politics or political correctness. The lack of evidence or withholding of evidence in these cases suggests that some prosecutors are more interested in personal or political interests rather than justice.

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The U.S. criminal justice system comprises the police, the courts, and correctional professionals who exercise leadership at various levels of the system. The process begins after a police arrest, which is based on probable cause or the belief that a person committed a crime. A prosecutor who is assigned to the case decides if the evidence presented by the police is sufficient to pursue the case in court. If the evidence is weak or questionable, the person is released and charges are dropped. However, upon the introduction of an additional evidence the case may be reopened. The prosecutor is a major decision maker who exercises a great deal of discretion in the justice system. It is expected that prosecutors will execute their decisions in an ethical manner consistent with due process and law. In the United States there are two levels of prosecutors including justice procedures (law enforcement, courts, etc.) consistent with federal and state laws. On the federal level, the criminal justice system consists of a separate set of laws and procedures. For example, federal prosecutors are known as U.S. attorneys, appointed by the president and confirmed by congress. They serve a term of 4 years but can be reappointed. When a new president is elected many prosecutors appointed by the previous president resign so that the new president can appoint those favorable to the new president’s party. On the state level however, prosecutors, also known as district attorneys, county’s attorneys, or state attorneys are elected officials in all but a few states. They serve a term of 4 years or more depending upon the state. State and federal prosecutors often use their office as a springboard for higher political office, for example, judgeships or other political positions. By contrast, prosecutors in other countries such as Germany and Austria are not politically elected. They are appointed to the office. Additionally, prosecutors in these countries do not have as much power in the justice process. In Germany and other European countries, for example, court proceedings are dominated by the presiding judge. It is the presiding judge who assumes a major role in determining the facts (Euro Justice, 2013). The purpose of comparing the two systems (federal and state) is to raise questions about political influence in justice decision making. States tend to be more political due to the election process. As described later, some state prosecutions or cases may be more politically based due to public opinion or sentiment toward a case. Reelection is often linked to likability and public perception. At the federal-level public opinion the dynamics of election are removed. At the federal and state levels, a prosecutor is duty bound to “seek justice,” while preserving due process or fairness in the justice process. Due process is a fundamental part of the U.S. constitution. Due process means affording every citizen the fundamental rights under

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the constitution. Such rights include protection against unlawful search and seizure, right to a fair and impartial trial, and a right to a jury trial if requested by the defendant. A jury comprises citizens selected from the jurisdiction where the crime occurred. A jury decision must be unanimous in convicting or acquitting the accused. A criminal defendant is assumed innocent until proven guilty by a court of law. Based on the U.S. predominant view of justice among lawyers and judges, decisions on prosecution follow the rule of law, due process, which refers to observing the constitutional rights of defendants, and adhering organizational policy. Recent research by the Vera Institute of Justice, a nonprofit organization that works closely with government to improve the services that people rely on for safety and justice, has found that while prosecutorial decision making considers ideas of fairness and justice, a variety of contextual factors affect prosecution decision making. While the strength of the evidence is the primary factor in whether a case can be proved or not, other factors affect how a prosecutor pursues a case. Factors such as office culture, available resources, and relationships with other criminal justice agencies such as law enforcement can be decisive in whether a prosecutor pursues a case (Chasan, 2013).The question raised is to what extent these extra-legal demands such as laws and practices influence so-called contextual factor in prosecutorial decision making. As mentioned, prosecutors at the state level are elected officials and their tenure is based on their performance in trying cases. Unlike some other nations, the political element is always present. In this framework, American prosecutors exercise a great deal of discretion in performing their leadership roles, but unfortunately some decisions and tactics lead to misconduct. There are several types of prosecutorial misconduct leading to false criminal charges and convictions (Boies, 2011; Lynch & McNally, 2003). The misconduct may be due to overzealous tactics such as badgering or harassing a witness to win a conviction. Some prosecutors may use this tactic unless an objection is raised by opposing defense council and ruled on by the judge. In a criminal trial the judge rules on motions and assures that order and procedure are followed during the trial. Thus, prosecutors do not have free reign to do as they please, because judges can admonish the prosecution and defense for unruly tactics. There are more blatant forms of misconduct such as using perjured testimony, often termed subordination of perjury, and withholding exculpatory or crucial evidence from the defense. Perjured testimony is offering a statement of fact known to be false by the prosecution. In other words, the pursuit of a conviction has led prosecutions to knowingly violate or circumvent due process by presenting false testimony (see Devore, 2011).

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According to the Innocence Project web site (2013), there have been more than 300 post-conviction DNA exonerations in the U.S. history from 1984 through 2010. The common themes that run through these cases are poverty and racial issues in criminal justice issues, which include eyewitness misidentification, and overzealous police and prosecutors. Some startling facts revealed by the Innocence project are: • Eighteen people had been sentenced to death before DNA proved their innocence. • The average sentence served by DNA exonerees has been 13.6 years. • About 70 percent of those exonerated by DNA testing are people of color. Another form of misconduct leading to injustice is withholding exculpatory evidence favorable to the accused. In the landmark case of Brady v. Maryland (1963), also known as the Brady rule, the Supreme Court declared that, “regardless of the good faith or bad faith of the prosecution, the suppression of evidence favorable to the accused violates due process where the evidence is material or crucial of ones guilt or innocence.” In the 40 years since the decision, the scope of its mandate has been found to include both direct evidence and other evidence favorable to the defendant. The disclosure is not limited to evidence in the actual possession of the prosecutor, but includes evidence in the possession of the entire prosecution team including law enforcement. Withholding evidence favorable to the accused is addressed in other countries. In Germany, the Staatsanwalt (literally “state attorney”) not only has the “professional responsibility not to withhold exculpatory information, but is also required by law to actively determine such circumstances and to make them available to the defendant and the defense attorney. If the prosecutor is not convinced of the defendant’s guilt, the state attorney is required to plead in favor of the defendant” (Herrmann, 1974). There are many forms of prosecutorial misconduct but violation of the Brady rule is considered one of the most common forms (West, 2010). The number of exonerations for wrongful conviction highlights a major flaw in the system, which is prosecutorial misconduct resulting from policing misjudgments and the lack of prosecutorial oversight particularly against underrepresented groups and minorities. The performance or electability of a state prosecutors is based on their success (or the success of their office) on gaining convictions whether achieved through a negotiated settlement termed plea bargaining (which is the most popular method of gaining a conviction) or a guilty verdict at

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trial. Most criminal cases are tried on circumstantial or indirect evidence. Examples of circumstantial evidence include blood evidence found at the crime scene, fingerprints, and other evidence suggesting that a particular person may be responsible for the crime. Unfortunately, such evidence can be imperfect and subject to manipulation by mistakes in DNA handling, errors testing, and other laboratory analysis. This chapter addresses how some prosecutorial decisions can be based at least in part on extra-legal demands. These demands include personal prosecutorial goals such as reelection, career advancement, or public opinion fueled by the media. This is not to suggest that all prosecutors practice misconduct, or succumb to external demands, but we need to be reminded that overzealousness and misconduct in some prosecutions may be influenced by other factors. To make this point, four legal cases are presented exemplifying this form of injustice.

CASES The following cases are examples of questionable if not egregious prosecutorial misconduct and tactical errors in seeking justice. They all involve political and/or personal motives combined with aggressive prosecutorial tactics. The Ted Stevens Case In August 2008, U.S. senator Ted Stevens from Alaska was indicted on seven counts of false statement charges for allegedly trying to conceal information on his Senate financial disclosure forms related to a renovation project of his home in Alaska, and other gifts he reportedly received from a charity event. After a trial filled with legal mistakes and questionable prosecution maneuvers, information emerged alleging that prosecutors withheld evidence from the defense, resulting in Stevens being wrongfully convicted by a federal jury in October 2008. The conviction occurred days before he faced election for his Senate seat. Concerns were raised about the timing of the Stevens case, with the indictment coming just months before Stevens was up for reelection in his home state. The jury verdict against Stevens came eight days before election day. Subsequently, he lost to Democrat Mark Begich in an extraordinarily close contest, the effects of which benefit the Democrats (Persky, 2009).

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Shortly after the Stevens trial concluded, a key government witness came forward and acknowledged that he provided false testimony and that the prosecutors allowed billing records from Anderson to be introduced into evidence although they knew they were inaccurate. The case against Stevens included the introduction of false business records to increase the value of the Senator’s Alaska home. The prosecution also hid from the defense the evidence needed to show that the value was much less than the government claimed, a fact established by a key witness (Ryan, 2012). The case against Stevens was ultimately dismissed raising questions about the “motives of federal prosecutors in the case” (Ryan, 2012).

The Duke Lacrosse Scandal In a well-written case of prosecutorial injustice occurring in 2006, several members of the Duke University men’s lacrosse team hired two women to dance at a private party (see Taylor & Johnson, 2007). One of the women, who was black, alleged she was raped at the party by three members of the team. She was hired by the players to perform stripping duties at a party. All the Lacrosse players were white. Subsequently, the three players were indicted on charges of rape, sexual assault, and kidnaping by the district attorney. When the accusations became public there was outrage in the community and the university. As portrayed by the media, the stage was set for a case of three affluent and privileged white college athletes victimizing low-income black women. The case seemed to have all the elements of racism and sexual violence. Even before all the facts were uncovered, the University administration suspended the players, canceled the entire lacrosse season, and forced the coach to resign despite facts indicating only three players were alleged to have committed the offense at an off-campus location. Despite evidence to the contrary, the Durham County District attorney Mike Nifong pursued the case with overzealous vigor. Was the prosecutor pursuing the case for political reasons or displaying politically correctness at the expense of others? In the months subsequent to the charges, several pieces of evidence were undermining the prosecution’s case but the prosecution forged ahead. First, it was revealed that the police photo identification lineup given to the victim included only members of the lacrosse team. This suggests bias and procedure violations in lineup procedures. Second, Nifong gave a series of pretrial media interviews, including one describing the accused as “hooligans,” which even the bar association at the time referred to as “improper

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pretrial public statements” (Taylor & Johnson, 2007). In any case where prejudicial statements by the prosecution are made (especially by an elected official sworn to uphold justice for all), impaneling a fair-minded impartial jury of citizens becomes a challenge. Third, the case came to be viewed as justice guided by political correctness or appealing to the perceived sensibilities of a particular group or organization, and the political ambitions of Nifong. When the accusations against the players arose, Nifong was in a close political campaign seeking election against a better-known opponent. Nifong referred to the case at some campaign appearances and won a crucial primary election and most of the black vote (Wilson & Barstow, 2007). A fourth and egregious injustice by Nifong was concealing DNA evidence favorable to the accused for six months while contending he did not know of any new evidence favorable to the defense. This withholding of evidence is a clear violation of the Brady rule discussed earlier. The accuser kept changing her story several times as to what occurred at the party. The prosecution failed to consider these inconsistencies and kept pursuing a conviction despite facts to the contrary. It was revealed that the defense costs for the accused Duke players exceeded 3 million dollars. In the end, justice was finally served for the players. The state declared the young men innocent by dropping all charges against the students and labeled Nifong a rogue prosecutor due to his failed ethical leadership. The state bar eventually disbarred or removed Nifong from practicing law. The city of Durham and Duke University paid these young men and their families millions of dollars for Nifong’s conduct. The Duke lacrosse and Stevens cases remind us that if the justice system can systematically victimize us with absolutely no evidence whatsoever, what can happen to defendants with less resources? Prosecutorial overzealousness or misconduct can victimize anyone. Cases like this suggest that the presumption of innocence is secondary to extra-legal pressures or selfish prosecutorial pursuits, which exemplify flawed leadership and decision making.

Case of Casey Anthony In 2011, a Florida jury acquitted Casey Anthony of murdering her 2-yearold daughter, Caylee. Much to the surprise and anger of the public, Casey Anthony avoided a murder conviction and possible death penalty. The jury had to decide if the circumstantial evidence was sufficient to convict her of the murder charge. As mentioned, most criminal cases are tried on

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circumstantial evidence which is evidence suggesting guilt such as fingerprints found at the scene, but without actual eye witnesses. In this case, there were no direct eye witnesses to the murder nor was there any other direct evidence tying Anthony to the murder. There were a number of circumstantial facts such as Anthony’s behavior after her daughter was reported missing (which was reported to the police nearly 30 days later), hair from Caylee found in Anthony’s vehicle, and duct tape found at the site where Caylee’s remains were found. There were other pieces of circumstantial evidence offered in the case, but none were conclusive (see Bonn, 2011). The case had all the trappings of brutal murder of a child committed by a parent. The public and prosecution wanted a conviction. Unlike other countries such as Germany and Austria, where the burden of proof rests with the defense, the burden in American jurisprudence is on the prosecution to convince a trial jury beyond a reasonable doubt of a person’s guilt. A defendant’s innocence is assumed unless proven otherwise. In cases of murder, especially where a conviction could result in death, the burden becomes especially challenging. The prosecutor employed an extremely high-risk strategy decision by charging Anthony with first-degree murder and asking for death penalty. This decision meant that all of the jurors had to agree beyond a reasonable doubt that Anthony was guilty of the premeditated murder of her daughter. Voting to convict is a difficult decision for a jury even in cases when there is direct evidence such as fingerprints, DNA, and eyewitnesses. In the Anthony trial, the prosecution made an overzealous decision for the death penalty based on the circumstantial evidence against Anthony. None of the evidence suggested a direct link of Anthony with the death of her daughter. Juries rarely convict or invoke the death penalty in firstdegree murder trials when all of the evidence is circumstantial (Bonn, 2011). The most convincing pieces of circumstantial evidence in this case were the presence of Caylee’s hair in the trunk of Anthony’s car that showed postmortem growth (i.e., occurring after death). Although powerful, it was still circumstantial evidence (Bonn, 2011). There was no evidence presented in the trial that Anthony was abusive toward Caylee, and it was revealed that Anthony had no prior criminal record. In short, the evidence presented by the prosecution did not convince the jury that Anthony was guilty of murder or capable of the crime. The Anthony case is about a decision by the prosecution to charge for the most serious offense (or overcharge), which may have been the result of public pressure, media scrutiny, or other extra-legal factors. The evidence

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should be sufficient to support a conviction. If not, and an acquittal is returned by the jury, the case is over even if later evidence is revealed indicating guilt. This is provided by the Fifth Amendment protection against double jeopardy, which literally means a defendant cannot be tried twice for the same crime once acquitted. By comparison, the prosecution in other countries such as Germany may appeal an acquittal. The prosecution would have had a better chance of going for a lessor form of murder such as manslaughter or even second-degree murder, both of which do not require the stringent proof of deliberation or premeditation as in firstdegree murder. Many cases are tried on circumstantial evidence, but each is different and so are juries. The strategy in the Anthony case was flawed resulting in the unpopular acquittal of a mother who many believed had something to do with the death of her daughter, but could not be proved with the evidence presented. This strategy is another example of decisionmaking errors by the prosecution team.

Case of George Zimmerman A more recent example of questionable prosecution tactics is the Florida case against George Zimmerman accused of fatally wounding Trayvon Martin in 2011. While the facts of the case are still unraveling, what is known is that a black teenager was shot and killed by a Hispanic neighborhood watch officer, George Zimmerman, who believed Martin posed a threat to him. Martin was reportedly returning from a friend’s home in the gated Florida community where the officer worked as an unpaid neighborhood watchman or volunteer guard. The neighborhood watch officer observed Martin acting suspiciously by walking around behind buildings. The officer called the police, but was advised by a police dispatcher to not approach Martin. The neighborhood volunteer ignored the dispatcher’s advice and continued to pursue Martin who began running from Zimmerman. The facts are unclear as to what occurred later (there were no witnesses) but there was a confrontation between the two with Zimmerman fatally shooting Martin at close range. Did Martin attack Zimmerman, or did Zimmerman force a confrontation with Martin? As a side note, there is a law in Florida known as the “stand-your ground law,” which means that a person may use deadly force if attacked by another. The prosecution charged Zimmerman with second-degree murder. The implications of the shooting reached national proportions. Thousands of demonstrators marched in many U.S. cities expressing outrage

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over the attack. There were media reports that stated threats were directed at Zimmerman and his family. Despite all the media uproar, there are problems with the prosecution of Zimmerman. After his arrest the police took photos of him. However, in the arrest affidavit, there was no mention of the photograph, or the bleeding, gashes, and bruises on Zimmerman’s head. Media reports indicate that the police had “a full face picture” of Zimmerman before paramedics treated him that showed a bloodied nose and other injuries to his head. The prosecutor in the case had photographic evidence of bruises to the back of his head. Famed constitutional lawyer and Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz stated upon release of the arrest affidavit that it was weak and could not result in a second-degree conviction. The evidence to date suggests that affidavit is completely consistent with a defense of self-defense (Derschowitz, 2012). A question arises as to the motivations of the prosecutor in this case, and whether the prosecution was a reaction to media outrage and public pressure and extra-legal demand. Dershowitz eloquently argues that if the prosecutors did have the photo and did not mention it in the affidavit, that would constitute a “grave ethical violation,” since affidavits are supposed to contain “all relevant information.” An affidavit is a sworn statement indicating the facts necessary to support an arrest or search warrant in a criminal case. An affidavit that willfully mis-states or excludes evidence known to the prosecution is unethical and may even be considered perjury because an affiant swears to tell not only the truth, but the whole truth. Is this a case of failed leadership by overcharging to appease a community or a case of politically correct prosecution? In likely event of an acquittal, what will be the repercussions? Who is to blame? The Martin case exemplifies or suggests at the very least an exercise in prosecution decision making in the form of political correctness. This is not to suggest that no crime was committed, but the timing and seriousness of the charge is what is in question. The pressure to prosecute Zimmerman has been widespread and forceful as was the case initially in the Duke Lacrosse scandal. Both alleged victims in the two cases were viewed as underprivileged minorities victimized by someone of power, of authority, or of higher social status. This type of prosecution is particularly troubling given the lack of evidence in the case. Zimmerman was acquitted of second degree murder in 2013. If political correctness is at work in the Zimmerman case how can such a posture facilitate constructive and engaged relationships within the community or justice system? In such environments, some may be blamed or judged for being insensitive. According to Ely, Meyerson, and Davidson (2006), “In political correct environments there is worry

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about how others view them as representatives of their social identity groups. … People draw private conclusions …. Resentments build, relationships fray, and performance suffers” (p. 77). By analogy, some prosecutors may base their decisions on how others (the community, etc.) perceive them or how they should administer justice even before all the facts are revealed.

RECOMMENDATIONS What can be done about prosecutorial misconduct? There is a dearth of penalties facing prosecutors in the event of unethical behavior. An appellate court can punish a prosecutor by admonishing him or her or by reversing a conviction; such sanctions do not hold the prosecutor personally accountable. However, for egregious conduct, disbarment and the loss of the right to practice law may be imposed as in the Duke Lacrosse case. If there is evidence of collusion between the police prosecutor to falsify evidence or intentionally subvert justice to get a conviction then criminal charges of obstructing justice could be filed, as well as resulting in a new trial for the accused. During the course of a trial, the prosecutor is absolutely immune from any civil liability that might arise due to his or her official conduct. In a U.S. Supreme Court case, the court significantly curtailed the use of civil suits as redress for prosecutorial misconduct, granting prosecutors absolute immunity in initiating a prosecution (Imbler v. Pachtman, 1976). Perhaps this decision needs revisiting in cases of egregious misconduct. In some cases, a court of appeals can affirm a conviction despite the presence of serious prosecutorial misconduct by merely invoking the harmless error doctrine. Under this doctrine, an appellate court determines that errors were of such a minor or trivial nature that they did not harm the defendant’s rights. As in some European nations (i.e., Germany) a possible recommendation is to have the trial judge take a more active role in assuring that justice is served during trial. Some legal scholars have recommended that offices of prosecution need more transparency about a prosecutor’s discretionary authority. Also needed are more ethical obligations for the prosecution function and judicial oversight, such as appointing special prosecutors removed from local jurisdictions to review cases. These approaches could improve prosecutorial leadership and accountability (Dennis, 2007).

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CONCLUSIONS The cases addressed in this chapter had a common theme. All involved judgment or due process errors or misconduct in prosecutorial decision making. The reasons or motives vary but raise questions about judgments. There are costs for egregious misconduct by prosecutions. In the Ted Stevens debacle it is estimated that taxpayers paid over 1.8 million in legal fees to defend the misconduct of the federal prosecutors (Stout, 2012). As of June 2012, the estimated costs for prosecuting George Zimmerman in the Trayvon Martin shooting was approximately $400,000 and the case still has not gone to trial. In the Casey Anthony case, media reports indicated that the Sheriff’s Office spent nearly $300,000 investigating the case, with the total investigative and prosecution costs to the taxpayer estimated over $800,000. The Duke Lacrosse case costs millions including law suits against the University. Prosecutorial misconduct can have deliberate motives or the result of inadvertent mistakes, but the outcome is the same injustice for someone. The decision to prosecute, whether by federal or state prosecutors, should be based on available and credible facts with probable cause, or reasonable belief that the suspect committed the crimes charged. If a case ends up going to trial, the prosecutor needs to prove the case beyond a reasonable doubt. If there is evidence known to the prosecutor that may benefit the accused, such evidence needs to be revealed to the defense as a matter of law. As seen in the cases presented, a prosecution without strong evidence is risky and can result in an acquittal that is an injustice to the victim and society. Of course, there are cases with strong evidence and were properly admitted but resulted in an acquittal. These things happen and jury decisions are unpredictable as in the case of O.J. Simpson acquitted of double murder in 1996. Decision to prosecute must be based on case facts, not political pressures from interests groups or the media. The correct and ethical leadership approach by prosecutors is to assure that case facts are consistent with the charges filed, and decisions are made with transparency and increased judicial oversight.

REFERENCES Boies, K. (2011). Misuse of DNA evidence is not always harmless error: DNA evidence, prosecutorial misconduct and wrongful conviction. Texas Wesleyan Law Review, 17, 403.

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Bonn, S. (2011). Casey Anthony trial was a case of overzealous prosecution: Death penalty was a bar too high. New York Daily News, July 7. Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com/ opinion/casey-anthony-trial-case-overzealous-prosecution-death-penalty-bar-high-article-1. 160804 Brady v. Maryland. (1963). 373 U.S. 83. Chasan, A. (2013). Cracking the case on how prosecutors think. New York, NY: VERA Institute of Justice, 19(3). Dennis, A. (2007). Reining in the Minister of Justice: Prosecutorial oversight and the superseder of power. Duke Law Journal Duke University School of Law, 57, 131. Derschowitz, A. (2012). Drop George Zimmerman’s murder charge: New evidence suggests Trayvon Martin’s killer acted in self-defense. New York Daily News, May 18. Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com/opinion/drop-george-zimmerman-murder-charge-article1.1080161 Devore, C. (2011). A lie is a lie: An argument for strict protection against a prosecutors knowing use of perjured testimony. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 101, 667. Ely, R., Meyerson, D. E., & Davidson, M. N. (2006). Innocence project. New York, NY. Retrieved from http://www.innocenceproject.org/about/ Euro Justice. (2013). The role of the public prosecutor in court. Retrieved from http://www. euro-justice.com/ Herrmann, J. (1973 1974). Rule of compulsory prosecution and the scope of prosecutorial discretion in Germany, 41, University of Chicago Law Review, pp. 468. Imbler v. Pachtman. (1976). 424 U.S.409. Lynch, M., & McNally, R. (2003). “Science, common sense,” and DNA evidence: A legal controversy about the public understanding of science. Understanding Science, 83, 87 88 Persky, A. (2009). A cautionary tale: The Ted Stevens prosecution. Alaska Bar Association The Alaska Bar Rag, 33(1), 286 287. Ryan, J. (2012). Sen. Ted Stevens prosecutors hid evidence, report concludes. ABC News. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2012/03/sen-ted-stevens-prosecutorshid-evidence-report-concludes/ Stout, D. (2012). Blotched Stevens case costs taxpayers 1.8 million in legal fees. Main Justice: Politics, Policy and the Law. Retrieved from http://www.mainjustice.com/2012/02/03/ botched-stevens-case-costs-taxpayers-1-8-million-in-legal-fees/ Taylor, J. S., & Johnson, K. C. (2007). Until proven innocent: Political correctness & the shameful injustices of the Duke lacrosse rape case. New York, NY: St. Martin’s. Taylor, S., Jr., & Johnson, K. J. (2007). Until proven innocent: Political correctness and the shameful injustices of the Duke Lacrosse rape case. New York, NY: Thomas Dunne Books. West, E. (2010). Court findings of prosecutorial misconduct claims in post-conviction appeals and civil suits among the First 255 DNA exoneration cases (pp. 1 8). New York, NY: Innocence Project. Wilson, D., & Barstow, D. (2007). All charges dropped in Duke case, The New York Times, April.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND EDITORS Denise E. Armstrong is an assistant professor, in administration and leadership, in the Faculty of Education at Brock University. She has worked in K-20 institutions in Canada and the Caribbean and her research and writing focus on change and transitions, ethical leadership, urban schooling, student success, and antiracist pedagogy. She is the author of Administrative Passages: Navigating the Transition from Teacher to Assistant Principal (Springer, 2010) and coauthor of Inclusion in Urban Educational Environments: Addressing Issues of Diversity, Equity and Social Justice (Information Age Publishing, 2006). Steve Bagi is a consulting psychologist and speaker who specializes in leadership and team development in the corporate and education sectors using a strengths-based approach. He has completed a postgraduate degree in psychology from the University of Queensland and also gained theological training from the Baptist Theological College of Queensland. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate at Griffith University where his doctoral research examines the challenges faced by new principals of Independent Schools. He is the author of Burnt Out! How to Survive Pastoral Overload (Ark House Publishers, 2009). He experienced burnout six years ago and since then has been able to help leaders understand and recover from burnout through his counseling, writing, and seminars. He lives on the Gold Coast in Australia and has a Hungarian background which led him to work in Hungary in the 1990s. His consultancy work brings him into contact with leaders from around the world. Moise R. Baptiste is the director of Global Educational Affairs for the Haitian American Caucus. Haitian American, he is originally from Miami, FL but currently lives in Chattanooga, TN. His research agenda explores how traditional leadership and organizational theories have been conceptualized and the intricate ways they are used to maintain systems of dominations. He has constructed a leadership theory that he has coined “Leadership from the Margins Theory” that assumes social conflict theory rather than systems theory, and he has identified characteristics that make up these marginalized leaders. He is active in the Haiti rebuilding process. 339

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Jeffrey S. Brooks is a professor and chair of the Department of Leadership & Counseling at the University of Idaho. He is a J. William Fulbright senior scholar alumnus who has conducted studies in the United States and the Philippines. His research focuses broadly on educational leadership, and he examines the way leaders influence (and are influenced by) dynamics such as racism, globalization, social justice, and school reform. He is author of The Dark Side of School Reform: Teaching in the Space between Reality and Utopia (Rowman & Littlefield, 2006) and Black School, White School: Racism and Educational (Mis)leadership (Teachers College Press, 2012). He is also coeditor of the volumes What Every Principal Needs to Know to Create Equitable and Excellent Schools (Teachers College Press, 2012), Confronting Racism in Higher Education: Problems and Possibilities for Fighting Ignorance, Bigotry and Isolation (IAP, 2012), and Anti-Racist School Leadership: Toward Equity in Education for America’s Students (IAP, 2012). He is a series editor for the Educational Leadership for Social Justice Book series (Information Age Publishing). Melanie C. Brooks is an assistant professor in the Departments of Curriculum and Instruction and Leadership and Counseling at the University of Idaho. She was a Peace Corps volunteer in Thailand and holds a Ph.D. in sociocultural international development education studies from Florida State University. She began her career as a high school teacher and a librarian. She also has experience coordinating international education programs for students and teachers. She has conducted research in Egypt, Thailand, the Philippines, and the United States using sociological theories as a way to understand issues related to religion and conflict in education. Her work is published in Educational Policy, Etc: A Review of General Semantics, International Journal of Urban Educational Leadership, and has forthcoming articles in Religion & Education, Teachers College Record, Planning and Changing, and Educational Management Administration & Leadership. Ricardo Castro-Salazar is external advisor to the Mexican Government through the Institute for Mexicans Abroad (IME) of the Ministry of Foreign Relations and member of IME’s National Executive Board. He is a history and political science professor at Pima Community College District, where he has been an international business studies faculty member, business department chair, executive assistant to the chancellor, and dean. He is also an associate researcher at the University of Arizona Center for Latin American Studies. He has lived, worked, and studied in different countries, including Mexico, Holland, Brazil, China, and the United Kingdom. He holds graduate degrees from universities in the United

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States, the Netherlands, Mexico, and England with specialties in Latin American studies, international relations, educative innovations, and intercultural studies respectively. He has been a fellow of the National Community College Hispanic Council (NCCHC) and the American Association of Community Colleges (AACC). He is president of Grupo Sonora Foundation, vice president of Fundacio´n Me´xico, former president of the TucsonMexico Sister Cities Association, and sits on the boards of several other community organizations. He is the author varied international publications in English and Spanish. Brantley R. Choate, Sr. is the director of Inmate Education Programs for the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department. He also serves as adjunct faculty for the University of Phoenix where he teaches courses in business research, statistics, and critical thinking. His work has been published in The Chronicle of Higher Education and Law Enforcement Today. His dissertation work is focused on academic persistence of Mexican adults in English as a Second Language Programs. He is also a public speaker, serving as a seminar presenter, as well as keynote speaker in the areas of adult education, school budget, school marketing, student assessment, and the use of social media in the classroom. Kerry Clamp is a lecturer in criminology in the Department of Social Sciences and Psychology at the University of Western Sydney. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Leeds in 2010 and also holds degrees from the University of Sheffield and the University of South Africa. Her research agenda focuses on restorative justice and transitional justice. Her research appears in a number of journals including the British Journal of Community Justice (2011), Nottingham Law Journal (2012), International Criminal Law Review (2012), Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly (2012), and Criminology and Criminal Justice (2012). She recently had a monograph published entitled Restorative Justice in Transition (Routledge, 2014) which explores how restorative justice is used and what its potential benefits are in situations where the state has been either explicitly or implicitly involved in human rights abuses. She is also the chair of the editorial board for the European Forum for Restorative Justice, a role that she has held since January 2011. The editorial board produces three newsletters per annum which promotes research, policy developments, and events on restorative justice across Europe. Marilyn R. Davis is a former professor at Zayed University, United Arab Emirates, and currently completing her doctorate in language literacy and

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sociocultural studies and educational psychology at the University of New Mexico. She has worked and lived in the United Arab Emirates and Equatorial Guinea. A consultant to education agencies in the Middle East and the United States, she is a member of Sociologist for Women in Society, the Society for the Study of Human Development, the National Council for Family Relations, the American Educational Research Association, and numerous other professional organizations. Nancy Erbe holds a Juris doctorate and is a professor in the Department of Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peace Building Program (NCRP) at California State University, Dominguez Hills in the Los Angeles region. She is a Fulbright scholar and spent time conducting research in Nicosia, Cyprus. She has taught negotiation, ethics, conflict skills, and multicultural process to students from about eighty different countries and several professions (e.g., international studies and development, communications, social work, human resources, ombuds, law, nonprofit …) for 18 years; 15 within peace studies; 5 years within international studies at the University of California Berkeley. She has also worked with development and conflict process in communities including the Balkans (during war), Cameroon, Cyprus, India, and Nepal as examples. Her most recent book is Negotiation Alchemy: Global Skills Inspiring and Transforming Diverging Worlds (Berkeley Public Policy Press, 2010). She has published with Sage as a contributor to its Encyclopedia of Governance. In 2012 she presented at the annual meetings of the Association for Conflict Resolution and Council for Social Work Education before being asked to be the plenary speaker at one of Rotary International’s peace conferences. In prior years she presented with the International Ombudsman Association and has developed several curricula including a national nonviolence middle school curriculum funded by the US Department of Justice. Bill Flint, Jr. is the president of Flint Strategic Partners a consulting firm dedicated to helping organizations develop servant leaders. He started his consulting firm in 2010 after spending 38 years manufacturing industrial and consumer products. During his career he held the positions of sales & marketing manager, VP of sales & marketing, VP of operations, and president of two companies including one with ten manufacturing facilities and 1000 employees located around the world. He is also the author of the best-selling book, The Journey To Competitive Advantage Through Servant Leadership (2011, WestBow Press) that is currently ranked in the top ten in the servant leadership category on Amazon in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Brazil, and China.

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Molly George is an assistant professor in the Departments of Criminal Justice and Sociology at California Lutheran University. Her research areas are varied; she has conducted studies on the sociology of work and occupations, gender, the sociology of sport, as well as immigration detention and enforcement. Her dissertation at the University of California, Santa Barbara, focused specifically on the life coaching and personal training industries from a sociological perspective. Her work has been published in the Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, Sociological Inquiry, Teaching Sociology, as well as The Sociology of Work: An Encyclopedia and the edited collection Sport, Power, and Society: Institutions and Practices. Megan Grayce has a MBA, a Juris doctorate degree, and is currently working on her Ph.D. in organization and management. She is devoted to lifelong learning and teaching others. She has over 25 years of experience in business, law, and education. She is an experienced researcher and writer on servant leadership. She strongly believes that future research will support the fact that servant leadership has the potential to solve not only failures in leadership and failing companies, but pervasive societal ills. She volunteers for the National Alliance of Mental Health (NAMI) North Carolina. She is a strong advocate for sufferers of mental illness and currently involved in setting up a mental health court in Wake County, North Carolina, with other relevant professionals. Aysha Abdulla Hassan Ali Hassan attends Zayed University in United Arab Emirates where she is an honor student in the College of Education, Children Youth & Families Program. She is a founding member of Zayed University’s first undergraduate, peer-reviewed student journal entitled Taghreedat Qalam (the Pen Tweet), an interdisciplinary journal dedicated to community service and leadership in the United Arab Emirates. Her plans include attending graduate school to major in psychology and human development upon graduation from Zayed University in the spring of 2014. Leland C. Horn is a senior project engineer and trained program manager with The Boeing Company in Dallas, Texas. He is responsible for leading complex and diverse engineering teams in engineering contracts supporting selected intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance platforms. Prior to relocating to Dallas, he was responsible for supporting the ground-based satellite Control Segment equipment for the United States Air Force Global Positioning System (GPS). He is a retired military officer and received his doctorate in management from Colorado Technical University,

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with an MBA from Golden Gate University, and a BS in chemistry from the Virginia Military Institute. Shewanee Howard-Baptiste is an assistant professor in the Department of Health and Human Performance at The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. She teaches courses in the areas of health promotion. She has also taught and studied abroad in Denmark, Switzerland, France, and the Dominican Republic. She has been teaching at the secondary and collegiate level for over 12 years. She publishes in the area of Black feminism and researches the experiences of Black female faculty in higher education. Her service is centered around health education in Haiti and empowering young girls and women. Richard J. Hughbank is a retired Major in the US Army, a decorated combat veteran in the War on Terror, and author of multiple articles, book chapters, and books in homeland security, terrorism, security management, leadership, psychology, and other related topics. He received his doctorate in homeland security from Colorado Technical University. He has held three commands and was assigned to the US Military Academy and US Air Force Academy where he taught leadership, ethics, and military studies while serving in the Army. He is currently a visiting professor at the US Army War College teaching in the Center for Strategic Leadership’s Homeland Defense and Security Issues Group and a full-time assistant professor at Northwestern State University of Louisiana where he teaches graduate homeland security courses and undergraduate criminal justice and emergency management courses. Lynn Ilon is a professor in the College of Education, Seoul National University in South Korea. She specializes in global knowledge economics and global learning systems and applies this specialization, generally, to poor countries. As such, her scholarly work centers of how to bring together the disparate worlds of rich and poor, global and local, applied and theoretical. She has worked in the parallel worlds of academia and field world for decades having lived in the Pacific Islands (Micronesia, 3 years), the Middle East (Jordan, 1 year), Africa (Zimbabwe, 2 years; Zambia, 2 years), her native North America and now South Korea (over 3 years). In addition, she has done field and other professional work in dozens of other countries spanning several regions of the world. Her work involves work for multilateral, bilateral, regional, and World Banks and global and local NGOs. She is currently working on an innovative knowledge-economic design for an alternatively higher education institution in

About the Authors and Editors

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Southern Africa with a local NGO. She holds degrees in anthropology (BA), educational research (MS), economics, (MS), and international development education (Ph.D.). M’zizi Samson Kantini is a doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) candidate in the College of Education, Seoul National University (SNU) in the Republic of Korea. He specializes in the political and development economy of higher education and applies this specialty in least developed countries. His scholarly work thus centers on how knowledge flows of indigenous and global lifelong learning networks bridges the divide between the worlds of rich and poor, global and local, practical and theoretical through political webs and higher education systems. He has done academic, research, training, translation, monitoring, and evaluation work for local and international institutions as an educationist, researcher, teacher, poet, translator, and culture advocate within Zambia and the Commonwealth. He holds degrees in arts with education (BA.Ed) and education and development (MEd). Daniel N. Karanja is a native of Murang’a County, Gatanga, Micuni village, Central Kenya. He migrated to the United States in 1991 and later became a naturalized citizen. He first graduated in 1989 from the East Africa School of Theology, Nairobi, Kenya. He earned a master of divinity from Boston University, a doctor of ministry from Andover Newton Theological School, a master of arts in negotiation conflict resolution and peace-building from California State University, a master of operational art and science from Air University, Montgomery, Alabama, a master of sacred theology in leadership and conflict transformation from Boston University, and certificates in negotiation and conflict transformation from the University of Notre Dame, Indiana. As an ordained Anglican Church Priest, he has served as chaplain at Tufts University and University of Massachusetts. Currently, he is serving a tour of duty with the US Air Forces in the Pacific assigned to a Base in Northern Japan. As a conflict analysis and peace scholar, his interests include the greater East African region. Specific subject of high interest include postconflict stabilization using indigenous leadership, restorative justice practices, mediation, and negotiation practices to build enduring peace. Rebecca Korinek is a family mediator, wife, and small business owner. Based in Long Beach, California, she’s devoted to helping families transition toward functional, peaceful relationships. She has a special interest in divorce and separation dynamics. She holds a bachelor’s degree in English, a master’s degree in negotiation, conflict resolution and peace building,

346

ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND EDITORS

and currently attends Loyola Law School with candidacy for her Juris doctorate in December, 2014. As a family mediator and collaborative family lawyer, she will provide alternative dispute resolution services to circumvent litigation and its inherent financial and emotional costs. Alberto Mascia is owner, partner, business consultant, and attorney at Mascia Law Firm. He has worked as mediator, conciliator, and negotiator in different Italian companies and institutions with particular reference to civil and commercial mediation, family mediation, mediation in consumer affairs since the early 2000s, both as teacher in several training courses and as expert in conflict management. He has a Laurea in Law (Juris doctor) from the University LUISS in Rome and several postgraduate specialization courses in the field of human rights. He has worked for many Italian companies creating projects and laboratories of innovation, leadership development, and management for internationalization. He has collaborated with many prestigious Italian publishing houses, and he has published monographs on issues related to family law, family mediation, rights of personality, justice, conciliation, mediation, and arbitration. Brenda J. McMahon is an associate professor of educational leadership at The University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Her research focuses on educational leadership, student engagement, democracy in education, and the roles that race assumes in urban and rural high schools. She is coeditor of Inclusion in Urban Educational environments: Addressing Issues of Diversity, Equity, and Social Justice (Information Age Publishers, 2006). Robert J. Meadows, Ph.D., is a professor and chair of Department Criminal Justice and Legal Studies at California Lutheran University, Thousand Oaks, California. His research interests are in violence, victimization, and legal issues in justice. His most recent book, Understanding Violence and Victimization (Prentice Hall, 2013) is now in its 6th edition. Anthony H. (Tony) Normore is a professor of educational leadership in Graduate Education Division, and Department Chair for Special Education in Teacher Education Division at California State University Dominguez Hills, Carson-Los Angeles. He has published numerous books and journal articles in the area of leadership development, social justice, ethics, and global learning. He has published with Routledge/Taylor & Francis, Sage, Palgrave Macmillan, Teachers College Record, Springer, Sense Publishing, and Jossey-Bass. In summer 2013 he was a professor of ethics, law and educational leadership for the Summer Leadership Academy at Teachers College-Columbia University (New York). Fluent in

About the Authors and Editors

347

both English and French, he brings 30 + years of educational experiences which has taken him throughout North America, South Central Asia, Eastern Asia, the United Kingdom, Continental Europe, and South Pacific. He is coeditor of a book Leadership in Education, Corrections, and law Enforcement: A Commitment To Ethics, Equity, And Excellence (Emerald Group Publishing, 2011) and was lead instructor of values-based leadership seminars to male inmates with the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s department. In relation to this work, he has written and published with law enforcement personnel on publications such as Education-Based Incarceration and Recidivism: The Ultimate Social Justice Crime Fighting Tool (Information Age Publishing, 2012); Leadership in Education, Corrections, and Law Enforcement: A Commitment To Ethics, Equity, and Excellence (Emerald Group Publishing), Maximizing Education Reaching Individual Transformation (M.E.R.I.T.): A Groundbreaking Leadership Development Program for Inmates in Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department (Law Enforcement Today); and Leadership Thinking: A Discipline of the Mind for the Effective Law Enforcement Supervisor (Journal of Authentic Leadership). He serves on numerous steering committees including Center for Ethics and Educational Leadership (Penn State); Center for Values and Leadership (CLU); Leadership and Ethics Institute for Criminal Justice & Training/Police Academy (Golden West College); served on Education Based Incarceration (LA Sheriff’s Department); and numerous professional editorial boards. Craig Paterson is a principal lecturer in the Department of Law, Criminology and Community Justice at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. He received his Ph.D. from Brunel University in 2006 and also holds degrees from Keele University and Portsmouth University. Hiss current research agenda focuses on restorative policing, police education, and the role of surveillance technologies within criminal justice. His research appears in numerous journals including the British Journal of Community Justice (2011) and Criminology and Criminal Justice (2012). He is also the author of Understanding the Electronic Monitoring of Offenders (VDM Verlag, 2009) and Policing and Criminology (with Ed Pollock, Sage, 2011). Luca Dal Pubel has worked as a mediator, conciliator and trainer with the National Conflict Resolution Center in San Diego since 2003. He has been proactive in developing mediation and conflict resolution programs throughout Italy, Europe and the United States of America. Also, he has participated in different projects sponsored by the European Union to promote the use of mediation in cross border disputes. Mr. Dal Pubel has a Laurea in Law (Juris Doctor) from the University of Bologna and a

348

ABOUT THE AUTHORS AND EDITORS

Master’s Degree in Negotiation and Conflict Resolution from CSU Dominguez Hills. He teaches a module on Negotiation and ADR at San Diego State University and Conflict Resolution and Mediation at the Lorenzo de´ Medici Institute Marist College Campus in Florence, Italy. Additionally, he is an accredited mediator for Resolutia through the Ministry of Justice in Italy. Mr. Dal Pubel research agenda focuses on International Mediation, Mediation in Cross Border Disputes, and Global Leadership. Martina Sartori is a DRPA certificated family mediator and she is volunteering as a mediator at the Santa Ana Superior Court. She has worked as a family attorney in Torino, Italy. She has been a member of the Italian Bar Association since 2001. She has been a junior partner of the Family Law Firm Studio Facchini & Associati in Torino, Italy, from 2003 to 2007, when she moved to the United States. She has lectured for the Torino Bar Association in various family law matters. She has a Laurea in Law (Juris doctor) from the University of Padova, Italy, and a master’s degree in negotiation and conflict resolution from CSU Dominguez Hills, California. She has defended a portfolio on the advantages and risks of involving children in divorce mediation. Swaranjit Singh was born in a village in Punjab, a northern state in India. He graduated from King George’s School, a residential school in Shimla Hills in the Himalayas. After his high school he was selected on merit through a competitive process to join the prestigious National Defense Academy (NDA) at Khadakwasla in Maharashtra. NDA is a premier triservice military training institution which imparts military training along with bachelors level education to the cadets. Cadets from the Army, Air Force, and Navy train together for three years and then go to their respective services for one year of specialized training before they become commissioned officers. He graduated from NDA in 1980 and joined the Indian Military Academy at Dehradun where he was commissioned as Second Lieutenant into the esteemed Mechanized Infantry Regiment in December 1981. During his army career he served as an editor and publisher for the Army while posted at the Army Training Command, responsible for publishing military training manuals. He had the rare distinction of serving in the insurgency infested states of Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, and Assam, India. He also commanded the historic Zojila Pass in Jammu & Kashmir while conducting counter insurgency operations in that state. He took early retirement from the Indian Army as Lieutenant Colonel in December 2002 after 21 years of commissioned

About the Authors and Editors

349

service. He immigrated to the United States in January 2005. He has presented at international conferences on conflict resolution, Gandhi and nonviolent protest movements. Most recently in January 2013, he spoke on Hind Swaraj (Indian Home Rule), a book by Gandhi written in 1909 while he was travelling by ship from London to South Africa. Currently he is living in Long Beach, California and managing his education business as a California State Education Vendor. He has published a book each on education and spirituality. While leading a semi-retired life, he also teaches breath yoga and meditation on a select basis. Ekkarin Sungtong is an assistant professor and chair of doctoral program in educational administration, Faculty of Education, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus Thailand. A native of Thailand, he received a BA in education from Prince of Songkla University in 1993, an MA in English language instruction from Kasetsart University in Bangkok in 1998, and a Ph.D. in educational administration from the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis from the University of Missouri in 2007. His interests include educational leadership, education reform, and conflict management. His work is published in Educational Management, Administration & Leadership, and the International Journal of Urban Education Leadership. Ian E. Sutherland is an assistant professor of educational foundations and leadership at Old Dominion University. His research interests include effective leadership, trust, and the social and cultural dynamics of leadership. He has lived in the Philippines where he worked as a principal in highly diverse international schools as well as with nongovernment aid organizations. He has extensive experience using education and community development as interventions in conditions of poverty in indigenous, rural, and urban contexts. Ndi Richard Tanto is the country director of Ecumenical Service for Peace (SeP) a civil society organization playing a leading role in enhancing the practice of good governance, nonviolent social transformation, and the role of law in Cameroon. He is a Ph.D student at the University of Yaounde and has complete research on his thesis pending defense. He has published a number of scientific articles in international journals on conflict management in Cameroon. He is a renowned trainer and trains in election observation, conflict transformation, political participation, and advocacy and has 15 years’ experience as a civil society activist in Cameroon.

AUTHOR INDEX Aromaa, A. 265, 267, 276 277 Asberg, M. 265 Ashkanasy, N. M. 252 Ashoka, 13 Ashwell, H. 153 Astin, A. W. 42 Atkinson, W. 271 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 27 Avolio, B. J. 247 248, 253 254 Awa, W. L. 263, 269, 283 Aydemir, O. 268

Aasland, O. G. 277 Abdi, A. A. 139 Abdulla, F. 111 112 About CSI, 5 Acsell, J. 268 269 Ado-Kurawa, I. 184 African Leadership Forum, 186, 191 Agle, B. R. 246 Ahmed, M. 187, 190 Ahmed, S. 11 Ahola, K. 265, 267, 276 277 Ajayi, K. 185 Akerstedt, T. 280 Alarcon, G. M. 279 Alarid, L. 302 Allen, S. J. 251 Al-Qarni, A. 124 Altbach, P. G. 138, 140 142, 149 Alverson, M. 272 Alvord, S. H. 17 Amoako, K. Y. 193 ANAN, K. 185 Anderson, M. Z. 232 Andres, T. D. 207 Andrews, D. A. 169 Andrews, M. C. 65 Anglican Ink, 99 Anisef, P. 28 Annan, K. 96 Arcilla, J. S. 200 Aristotle, 225 Armenakis, A. A. 68 Armstrong, D. 24 27, 32 36

Baca, L. D. 164 166, 168 169 Bagi, S. 265 Bain, K. 42 Bakker, A. B. 281 Balch, C. M. 274 Banasyzynski, T. L. 206 207 Bandura, A. 19, 24, 124 Bangkok Post, 310, 322 Baptiste, M. R. 78, 81 Barclay, L. 153 Barendsen, L. 7 Barley, S. R. 240 Barna, G. 11 Barnes, G. 296 Barrett, L. F. 280 Barstow, D. 331 Barton, P. E. 166 Baruch-Feldman, C. 277 Bass, B. M. 60, 217, 219, 225, 254 255 Bates, D. 171 Bauer, P. T. 154 351

352

Bayer, U. 280 Bazemore, G. 294, 296 Beamish, P. W. 6, 17 Beautrais, A. L. 266 Bedeian, A. G. 252 Bell, L. 321 Ben-Dayan, D. 277 Bennis, W. G. 8 10, 98, 225 Benomar, J. 295 Bergstrom, G. 265 Bernad, M. A. 200 201 Bernardo, A. B. I. 202 Bernier, D. 276 278 Bettez, S. 25, 33 34, 37 Bhatia, P. 253 254 Birgander, L. S. 267 A˚bjo¨rnsson, G. 275 276 Blackman, A. 234 Blackmore, J. 24, 26, 31, 36 Blair, C. D. 91 Bloom, D. 138 141, 143 Bloom, G. 16 Boafo-Arthur, K. 93 Bobo, J. 232 Bogardus, E. S. 219 Bohlin, K. 97 Boies, K. 327 Bolano, C. C. 269 Bolat, O. I. 268, 271 Bolat, T. 268, 271 Bolden, R. 30 Bonnie, A. 184 Bonta, J. 169 Bordia, P. 206 Bornstein, D. 8, 11, 14, 18 Borritz, M. 275 Borza, A. 265 Bosco, S. M. 70 Bourdieu, P. 124 125 Bowling, N. A. 279

AUTHOR INDEX

Boy, W. L. 321 Boyce, L. A. 233 234, 241 Brady v. Maryland, 328 Braisby, N. 250 Braithwaite, J. 295 297 Branch, D. 92 Brazelton, T. 120 122 Brekalo-Lazarevic, S. 265 Brewer, M. B. 247 Brewer, S. 47 Bringle, R. G. 112 Brint, S. 236 Britton, D. M. 239 Brondolo, E. 277 Bronfenbrenner, U. 116, 120 Brookfield, S. 113, 122, 126, 134 Brooks, J. S. 207 Broom, D. H. 269 Brown, A. L. 133 Brown, D. F. 283 Brown, D. R. 280 Brown, L. D. 17 Brown, R. 28 Brown, S. L. 280 Bruce, S. P. 268, 272, 275, 280 Brunner, C. C. 315 Buckingham, M. 281 Bui, J. 268 269 Burns, J. M. 225, 233, 302 Busia, K. A. 143, 149, 154 Cadet, N. 302 Cambron-McCabe, N. 24, 26, 30 31, 35 36 Camp, S. 166, 169 Canagarajah, A. S. 120 Canning, D. 138 141, 143 Cannon, M. 271, 281 282 Carney, J. S. 280 Carod-Artal, F. J. 263

353

Author Index

Carpenter, B. 24, 26, 31, 33, 35 Carr, P. 24 26 Carrier, N. 24 25 Case, J. H. 139 Casserley, T. 253, 256 257, 263 271, 274 275, 277 278, 282 Caulder, W. 156 Cedillo, L. 267 Center for the Advancement of Social Entrepreneurship (CASE), 5 Chaminade, C. 142 Chan, A. Y. L. 248 Chan, J. 303 Chan, K. 138 141, 143 Chang, C. C. 280 Charantimath, P. M. 11 Chazan, N. 188 Chen, P. 266 Chenevert, D. 282 Cheng, Y. J. 250 251, 280 Chertoff, M. 91 Choate, B. 171 Chonko, L. B. 61, 70 Christensen, K. B. 275 Christie, N. 295 Cialdini, R. B. 218 Ciarrocchi, J. W. 277 Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 27 Ciulla, J. B. 169, 219, 222 Clamp, K. 294, 296 297, 300, 302, 304 Clandinin, D. J. 316 Clifton, D.O. 281 Clugston, R. 156 Cocking, R. R. 133 Cohn, M. A. 280 Colby, A. 9

Coleman, E. M. 277 Coley, R. J. 99, 166 Collins, C. S. 139 143 Collins, J. 216, 225 226 Combs, A. W. 246, 249 250 Conchie, B. 282 Connelly, M. 316 Constanti, P. 272 Conway, A. M. 280 Cooperrider, D. 93 Corbett, S. 155 Counts, G. S. 201 202 Coutu, D. 238 239, 241 Covey, S. R. 172 Craddock, B. 91 Creissen, T. 315 Creswell, J. W. 173, 311, 316 Crime and Justice Institute at Community Resources for Justice, 167, 170 Critchley, B. 253, 256 257 Crothers, L. 303 Crow, G. M. 315, 321 Csikszentmihalyi, M. 124 Culshaw, A. 302 Daly, K. 297, 305 Damon, W. 9 Dantley, M. 82 Daus, C. S. 252 Davey, D. 60 David, E. J. R. 200 202, 207 Davidson, J. 302 Davidson, M. N. 334 Davis, B. 43, 46, 48 Davis, K. 26, 33 35 Davis, M. C. 280 Davis, S. 8, 14, 18 de Guzman, A. B. 202 206 De Janasz, S. C. 253

354

de Jong, A. 279 De Mesquita, B. B. 151 De Vries, M. F. R. 219 221 Deep South Watch, 310 Dees, J. G. 4, 7, 16 Dei, G. J. S. 25 27, 36, 141 Delgado, C. L. 154 Demerouti, E. 265 Dempster, F. N. 49 Denison, D. R. 65 Dennis, A. 335 Department of Education, 203 Depree, M. 15 Derschowitz, A. 334 Devore, C. 327 Dew, N. 12 Di, Y. 254 255 Diem, S. 24, 26, 31, 33, 35 DiIulio, J. J. Jr. 173 Dimmock, C. 206 Doak, J. 304 Dorfman, P. 71, 81, 246 Douglas, C. A. 232 Douglas, R. 189 Dow, P. S. 139 DrAN, 189 Driscoll, A. 112 Driver, M. 15 16 Drucker, P. F. 8 Drysdale, L. 205 D’Souza, R. M. 269 Dubin, L. F. 280 Duncan, W. J. 221 Dunlap, M. 123 Dyer, W. W. 218 Dyrbye, L. N. 271 Eacker, A. 271 Easterly, W. 92, 187 Ebenbach, D. H. 206 207

AUTHOR INDEX

Ehrenreich, B. 240 Ekstedt, M. 263 264, 273, 280 Elliott, P. S. 184 Ellis, L. 139 Ellison, L. 315 Ely, K. 233 234, 241 Ely, R. 334 Emmie, J. L. 139 Englebert, P. 195 Epitropake, O. 246 Erbe, N. 42 43, 45, 48, 51 53 Erikson, S. 267 Eschleman, K. J. 279 Etzion, D. 280 Euro Justice, 326 European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 267, 269, 275 European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC) 236 Evans, A. 25 Eyler, J. 121, 123 Fagerberg, I. 263 264, 273 Failed States Index, 92 Fallot, R. D. 277 Farrington, D. E. 166 Fekken, G. C. 254 255 Feldman, D. C. 233 235, 242 Filimon, L. 265 Filipczak, R. 235 Fischer, M. 263, 265, 280 Fisher, R. 48 Fitch, B. D. 167 Flanagan, R. 301, 303 Flaschner, A. B. 269 Forest, J. F. 140 Forsythe, L. 296 Fosnot, C. 126 Foster, J. 304 Fox, H. F. 202

355

Author Index

Fraenkel, J. R. 316 Frank, P. M. 6 Freas, A. 232 Fred, S. 190 Fredrickson, B. L. 280 Freischlag, J. A. 274 Friedman, M. 141 Friedman, R. 141 Fritz, C. 280 Fry, R. 123 Fullan, M. 119, 169 170, 176, 314 Furman, G. 24 26, 33 Gabre-Madhin, E. Z. 154 Games, R. 112 Gardener, H. 7 Gardner, H. 217, 224 Gardner, J. W. 75 76 Gardner, M. 126 Gardner, W. I. 248 Gardner, W. L. 248 Gareis, C. R. 205 Garrosa, E. 279 280, 282 283 Gay, G. 119 Gelmon, S. B. 112 Genc, R. 250 251 Genoves, V. G. 178 George, J. 47 George, M. 232 Ghorpade, J. 282 Gilchrist, A. 154 Giles, D. 123 Giles, Jr., D. E. 121 Gill, A. S. 269 Gillborn, D. 24, 27, 31 Gil-White, F. 248 Giroux, H. A. 85 Glass, T. 315, 322 Golden, J. 277 Goldstein, N. J. 218

Gonzalez, E. R. 267, 269, 275 Gonzalez-Roma, V. 281 Gooden, M. 24, 26 27 Goodman, D. 27 Gosling, J. 30 Gould, R. 276 Government Gazette, 322 Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ), 143 Graen, G. B. 247, 252 Grant, A. M. 13 Greenberg, D. 7 Greenglass, E. R. 269 Greenleaf, R. K. 60, 64 65 Grezemkovsky, U. 233 Griffiths, C. 294, 296 Grimes, M. G. 9, 13 Grisaffe, D. B. 61, 70 Gude, T. 277 Guerra, S. C. 202 203 Guglielmi, D. 264 Guillermo, M. L. T. L. 204 206 Gupta, V. 71 Gurin, P. 43, 52 Gurr, D. 205 Gustafsson, G. 267 Hallberg, U. E. 268 Halliday, T. C. 236 Hallinger, P. 314 Ham, D. 282 Hands, C. 28 Hanges, P. J. 71, 246 Hannay, M. 66 Hanson, S. 11 Harding, R. 5 Harkevy, I. 116 Harper, W. 271 Harris, J. A. 249 Harris, K. J. 65

356

Harrison, B. 176 Hart, E. W. 234 Hartel, C. E. J. 252 Harter, J. K. 282 Hartigan, P. 5, 15 Hartnell, C. A. 254 Hayes, H. 297, 305 Hayes, T. L. 282 Heck, R. 314 Heeringa, S. 276 Helkavaara, M. 263, 269 Hemmerter, U. 277 Hendricks, C. 166 Hendricks, J. E. 166 Henrich, J. 248 Henry, F. 27 Herbert, N. 299 Hernez-Broome, G. 233 234, 241 Herrmann, J. 328 Ho¨o¨g, J. 267 Hill, M. 24 Hill, R. 298, 304 Hodge, A. 268 269 Hodges, T. D. 248 Hodgson, R. 221 Hofstede, G. J. 206 Holland, B. A. 112, 303 Hollander, E. P. 219 Home Office, 298 Honkonen, T. 265, 267, 276 277 Hoppers, O. C. A. 141 Horn, J. 266 Hosford, P. L. 246, 249 250 Hountondji, P. J. 149, 154 House, R. J. 71, 246 Houtman, I. 267 Howland, S. 15 Hoyle, C. 298, 302, 304 305 Huang, C. K. 280 Hubbard, L. 28

AUTHOR INDEX

Hudson, 263 264, 267, 273, 275 Human Rights Watch, 310 Hung, C. M. 280 Hunt, J. G. 234, 251, 256 Hunter, J. C. 81 Hurst, C. 246 Hytten, K. 25, 33 34, 37 Icelli, I. 268 Ilies, R. 248 Illescas, S. R. 178 Illich, I. 84 Imbler v. Pachtman, 335 Inkpen, N. 296 International Coach Federation, 232 Isometsa, E. 265, 267, 277 Jackson, S. E. 263 Jaekel-Reinhard, A. 266, 280 282 Jaipur Foot, 14 Jang, K. L. 249 Janlert, U. 267 Japan International Cooperation Agency, 151 Jaramillo, F. 61, 70 Javidan, M. 71, 246 Jehle, J. 177 Jenkins, D. 68 Jettinghoff, K. 267 Jickling, B. 148 Jimmieson, N. L. 68 Jo¨nsson, P. 275 276 Jocano, F. L. 201, 207 Johansson, G. 268 Johnson, A. M. 249 Johnson, C. 47 Johnson, D. W. 46 Johnson, F. P. 46

357

Author Index

Johnson, K. C. 330 331 Johnson, M. 154 Johnson-Leong, C. 277 278, 280, 283 Johnsrud, L. K. 314 Johnstone, G. 300 Jones, G. 47 Joo, B. K. 232 Joseph, K. J. 142 Jourdain, G. 282 Judge, T. A. 246 Julkunen, J. 268 Kacmar, K. M. 65 Kagoda, A. M. 315 Kalimo, R. 265, 267 268 Kallay, E. 266, 268, 271 Kampa-Kokesch, S. 232 Kantini, S. 146, 148, 150 Kaplan, R. M. 281 Karabitsios, J. 282 Karl, D. 263, 265, 280 Karlson, B. 275 276 Katz, J. A. 6 Kauffman, C. 238 239, 241 Kauffman, S. 166 Kellerman, B. 219, 222 Kelley, R. E. 222 223 Keltner, D. 206 207 Kennedy, T. 272, 279 280 Kenya Unemployment Rate, 100 Kerrigan, S. 112 Kessler, R. C. 276 Kherallah, M. 154 Kihuria, N. 99, 101 Kilburg, R. R. 232, 235 Kim, Y. 315 King, E. M. 202 203 Kirk, A. K. 283 Kistruck, G. M. 6, 17

Kivima, M. 277 Kivimaki, M. 268 Klein, J. 47 Klem, J. L. 280 Kochan, F. 205 Koh, W. 253 254 Kolb, D. 123 Kopp, W. 4 Korczak, D. 277 Kotter, J. P. 225 Kouzes, J. M. 12, 216 Krause, W. 109 Kristensen, T. S. 275 Krone, R. M. 67 Krugmann, C. 275 Krupp, S. 15 Krystal, H. 221 Kulkarni, G. 267 Kumata, E. 234 Kunda, G. 240 Kurtic, A. 265 Lackritz, J. 282 Ladson-Billings, G. 83 Laguerre, M. 74 Lahelma, E. 263 Lakoma, M. D. 276 Lambert, L. 126 Lambert, M. J. 170 Langlois, L. 223 Lankau, M. J. 233 235, 242 Larson, M. S. 236 Larsson, B. 275 276 Lashway, L. 322 Latta, G. F. 246 Laub, J. A. 63 Leavitt, H. J. 225 Lederach, J. P. 96 Lees, D. 282 Lehmann-Ortega, L. 156

358

Leiter, M. P. 263 264, 266 267, 269 271, 281 Leithwood, K. 24, 30 31, 256 Lencioni, P. 269 Lernihan, E. 264, 275, 283 Letts, C. W. 17 Levine, R. 187 Levinson, D. J. 221 Lewthwaite, B. 246 Light, P. C. 4, 8, 10 Lim, L. L. 269 Lindahl, B. 267 Little, J. 13 Littlejohns, L. B. 151 Littleton, K. 250 Liu, Y. T. 280 Livingston, B. 246 Le´le´, S. M. 153 Lloret, S. 281 Lofty, M. 304 Lonnqvist, J. 265, 267, 276 277 Lopez, G. 24, 26 27, 31, 36 Los Angeles County Sheriff ’s Department, 173 Lucia, C. 100 Lulat, Y. G. 139 Lumpkin, G. T. 6 Lund, D. 24 26 Lundvall, B. A. 142 Luthans, F. 247 Lynch, F. 206 Lynch, M. 327 Maathai, W. 94 MacDougall, M. 265 266 MacKenzie, D. L. 166 MacNealy, M. S. 144 Maguad, B. A. 67, 69 Mahakanjana, A. 321 Mair, J. 6

AUTHOR INDEX

Maizels, A. 151 Majul, C. A. 201 Makerere University, 150 Malloy, E. A. 112 Malmberg, B. 275 276 Maloney, H. N. 277 Mamaghani, F. 142 Mandela, W. 95 Marginean, M. 265 Marian, M. 265 Marino, M. J. S. 269 Marks, E. A. 8 Markwell, A. L. 266 Marshall, T. 295 Martin, G. 194 Martin, M. 186, 189 Martin, N. H. 314 Martin, R. L. 7, 10 11, 18, 246 Martin, S. J. 218 Mary, J. E. 139 Maslach, C. 263 264, 266 267, 269 271, 281 Maslow, A. 222 Massies, F. S. 271 Matthews, J. 205 Matthews, L. J. 321 Mattis, W. 27 Maxwell, J. 144 May, D. R. 248 McCarthy, J. M. 249 McCarthy, M. 24, 26, 30 31, 35 36 McCauley, C. D. 232 McCold, P. 297, 305 McGowan, R. 280 281 McKone-Sweet, K. 7 McMahon, B. 25 28, 33, 36 McMullen, J. S. 9, 13 McNally, R. 327 Meadows, L. 302

359

Author Index

Meca, J. S. 178 Medicines, 12 Megginson, D. 263 271, 274 275, 277 278, 282 Mehta, N. 4 Meisler, 96 Melady, P. T. 97 Melchar, D. E. 70 Meredith, M. 97 Merriam, S. B. 173, 311, 316 Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary and Thesaurus, 216 Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed, 60 Meyer, H. H. 219 Meyers, J. W. 249 Meyerson, D. E. 334 Middaugh, D. J. 275 Mikels, J. A. 280 Milczarek, M. 267, 269, 275 Miller, L. H. 278 Miller, M. N. 280 281 Miller, T. L. 9, 13, 17 Miller, W. R. 280 Milligan, J. A. 201 Ministry of Education (2013), 321 Ministry of Justice, 299 Minkov, M. 206 Minot, N. 154 Mission & Impact Social Enterprise Harvard Business School, 5 Mkandawire, B. 150, 156 Mobley, W. 81 Modassir, A. 256 Mohiddin, A. 184 Moingeon, B. 156 Molson, M. 249 Monga, C. 93 Montemayor, C. 302

Mook, L. 17 Moore, D. 296 Moreno-Jime, B. 280 Moreno-Jimenez, B. 279, 282 283 Morgeson, F. P. 248 Morley, W. H. 232 Morris, A. 295 Morris, M. J. 6 Mortimer, R. 188 Moyo, D. 154 Mulder, R. T. 266 Mulford, B. 205, 314 Muller, J. 141 Muller, R. 246 Mummendey, A. 247 Mundy, K. 138, 140 141 Murphy, S. 68 Murray-Garcia, J. 86 Nabeshima, K. 142, 155 Nagarajan, N. J. 246 Nahrgang, J. D. 248 Nanus, B. 225 National Commission on Service Learning, 116 National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education, 118 Nelson, J. K. 233 234, 241 Nemiah, J. C. 221 Nicholls, A. 18 Nieto, S. 119 Nissanke, M. K. 151 Nkiwane, T. C. 93 Norberg, A. 267 Norlund, S. 267 Normore, A. H. 167, 171, 176 Notman, R. 315 Nowak, A. 14 Nuallaong, W. 263

360

Nuhbegovic, S. 265 Nyerere, J. 189 Nygren, A. 265 Nykyri, E. 265, 267 Office of Teachers and Educational Personnel Committee, 311, 313 Ogochukwu, N. 190 Ogunbameru, O. 185 Ohlsson, A. V. 12 Oliva, T. A. 61 O’Mahony, D. 304 Ontario College of Teachers, 31 32 Ontario Ministry of Education, 29 Oplatka, I. 178 Ortiz, F. I. 314 315 Osbeck, K. 101 Osberg, S. 7, 10 11, 18 O¨sterberg, K. 275 276 Osterman, P. 240 Otero-Lopez, J. M. 269 Oudeh, G. 269 Oudeh, N. 269 Palmer, H. 28 Parrish, M. S. 280 Paterson, C. 294, 296, 300, 303 304 Patterson, K. A. 60, 63, 207, 246 Pauliene, R. 255, 258 Pavlov, I. P. 250 Persky, A. 329 Persson, B. 267 Peterson, D. B. 232 Peterson, S. J. 254 Peterson, U. 265 Petukhova, M. 276 Pfutze, T. 92 Philippine Department of Education, 202

AUTHOR INDEX

Phillips, A. S. 252 Phythian, K. 28 Piedmont, R. L. 277 Pines, A. M. 266 Plaskoff, J. 15 Platteau, J. 154 Plaumann, M. 263, 269, 275, 283 Ploch, L. 91 Pa˚lsson, B. 275 276 Pollard, C. W. 71, 298 Popham, W. J. 246, 249 250 Poplin, M. S. 256 Portnoy, D. 268 269 Posner, B. Z. 12, 216 Power, D. V. 271 PR Newswire, 6 Pranjic, N. 265 Praszkier, R. 14 Preez-Bezdrob, A. M. 95 Preskill, S. 113, 122, 126, 134 Press, R. M. 99 Pressman, S. 154 Puranam, P. 246 Purvanva, R. 232 Putnik, K. 279 Qiang, Z. 148 Quarter, J. 17 Quinn, R. E. 253 Rada, R. E. 277 278, 280, 283 Rafferty, A. E. 68 Rahman, L. A. 110 Ramirez, G. G. 246 RAND Project Air Force Report, 91 Randolph, W. 69 Rath, T. 281 282 Ravenhill, J. 188 Rawia, M. 191 193

361

Author Index

Rees, T. 27 Reidenbach, E. W. 61 Republic of the Philippines, 202, 204, 209 Restubog, S. L. D. 206 Reuterwall, C. 267 Rey, T. 74 Rhoads, R. A. 139 143 Rhodes, D. 98 Richards, J. 28 Ro, K. E. I. 277 Roberts, J. A. 61, 70 Roche, D. 297 Rock, D. 247 Rodgers, B. 269 Rodgerson, T. 277 Rodrıguez-Carvajal, R. 280 Rodrıguez-Munoz, A. 280 Rogers, S. A. 277 Romer, P. M. 138, 142, 156 Rosser, V. J. 314 Roth, T. 101 Rothchild, D. 188 Rowan, B. 249 Roy, D. F. 221 Ruez, P. 275 Rugulies, R. 275 Rupp, A. E. 276 Rusch, E. 24, 26, 33 Russell, R. F. 63 Ryan, B. 66 Ryan, J. 27, 30, 330 Ryan, S. 17 Saastanoinen, P. 263 Saint, W. 142, 155 Samuelson, J. 6 Samuelson, M. 265 Santrock, J. W. 126 Sanyal, B. C. 139

Sapers, H. 28 Sarasvathy, S. 12 Sarayrah, Y. 117, 126 Sarros, J. C. 60 Satto, S. 321 Sawyerr, A. 142, 151 Sayed, S. 108 Schaufeli, W. B. 263 264, 266 271, 281 Schein, E. 302 Schein, E. H. 216 Schermerhorn, J. R. 248 Schick, C. 25 Schlosser, B. 234 Schmidt, F. L. 282 Schmiede, A. 123 Schnabel, A. 316 Schneider, E. 267, 269, 275 Schneider, M. 277 Schoemaker, P. H. 15 Schoen, O. 6 Schoenbaum, M. 276 Schultz, R. 9 10, 16 Schultz, T. 140 Schwandt, T. A. 316 Schwartz, D. J. 217 Schwartz, J. 277 Schwartz, K. 201 202 Seeman, M. 280 Seeman, T. E. 280 Seibert, S. E. 69 Seligman, M. 124 Sen, A. 154 Sendjaya, S. 60 Senge, P. M. 165 Sergiovanni, T. J. 205 Shachar, M. 269 Shackelford, A. 268 269 Shackleton, V. 165 Shakeshaft, C. 315

362

Shanafelt, T. D. 271, 274 Sherif, M. 46 Sherman, L. 296 Sherman, S. 232 Shewan, G. 298 299, 301 Shields, C. 24, 26, 30, 33, 36 Shinnamon, A. F. 112 Shirom, A. 266 Shizha, E. 139 Shockley, G. E. 6 Shukla, S. 200 Sifneos, P. E. 221 Silver, S. R. 69 Silverman, S. J. 316 Simbula, S. 264 Singh, G. 282 Singh, T. 256 Sivanathan, N. 254 255 Skelly, K. 271 Smillie, I. 10 Smith, A. D. 151, 278 Smith, C. 60 Social Innovation (n.d.), 7 Soderbergh, S. 47 Soderstrom, M. 280 Solomon, R. P. 24, 28, 32 Sonnenfeld, J. A. 246 Sonnentag, S. 280 Sosik, J. J. 246 South Africa, 100 Southern African Regional Universities Association, 143, 156 Spearing, R. L. 266 Spears, L. C. 63 Spence, G. 233 Spenser, W. 205 Sperandio, J. 315 Spreitzer, G. M. 253 Spring, A. 112

AUTHOR INDEX

Srinivasan, D. 246 St. Denis, V. 25 Stacey, R. 185 Standberg, G. 267 Stanley, T. L. 266, 271 Starr, P. 241 Stebbins, P. 282 Steinbrenner, D. 234 Stevenson, H. 315, 321 Stone, A. G. 63 Storey, I. 310 Stough, R. R. 6 Stout, D. 336 Strang, H. 296 Strauss, A. L. 314 Strazdins, L. 269 Strong, K. 295 Stuart, R. 12 Sullivan-Mort, G. 4 Summerfield, G. 154 Surgenor, L. J. 266 Sutcliffe, K. M. 247 Sweeney, J. 264, 275, 283 Sweet, R. 28 Tamilenthi, S. 139 Tator, C. 27 Tawfik, A. 191 193 Taylor, J. S. 330 331 Taylor, M. 298 Teferra, D. 138, 140 142, 149 Teh, M. 296 Tennant, C. 269 Tepper, L. 277 Tervalon, M. 86 The Secretary General of the Education Council, 313 The White House, 90 Theoharis, G. 207 Thomas, M. R. 271

363

Author Index

Thomas, R. J. 8 9 Thomas, V. 24 Thompson, D. 151 Thoreson, C. E. 280 Tichy, N. M. 256 Ting, S. 234 Toates, F. 250 Tomasino, B. 220 Toppinen-Tanner, S. 276 Towler, A. 232 Trosten-Bloom, A. 93 Tschannen-Moran, M. 205 Tugade, M. M. 280 Turner, J. R. 246 Tuters, S. 24 25 Tyssen, R. 277

Vang, J. 142 Vardi, Y. 314 Vasakarla, V. 8 Vasquez, K. 206 207 Vazquez-Cabrera, C. 263 Verdonk, P. 279 Vernon, P. A. 249 Villadsen, E. 275 Vinzant, J. 303 Virtanen, M. 276 277 Vladut, C. I. 266, 268, 271 Vogus, T. J. 9, 13, 247 Von Rad, M. 221 VonDoepp, P. 184 Vugt, M. V. 248 Vygotsky, L. 122, 126

Uhl-Bien, M. 247, 252 United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education, 118 United Arab Emirates Ministry of Education Special Education, 121 United Arab Emirates Ministry of Information and Culture, 109 110 United Nations Development Programme, 149, 151, 153 154 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, 141 University Ranking by Academic Performance, 143 Ury, W. 48

Wachtel, B. 297 Waggoner, J. 224 Wainer, Z. 266 Waite, A. 282 Waldman, D. A. 246 Walduz, S. 247 Walker, A. 206 Walker, J. 270 Wallen, N. W. 316 Wals, A. E. J. 148 Walter, U. 263, 269, 275, 283 Walters, D. 28 Walumbwa, F. O. 254 Wastian, M. 277 Watrous, L. E. 247 Weber, A. 266, 280 282 Weerawardena, J. 4 Wei, F. 254 255 Welsh, B. C. 166 Weng, H. C. 280 Wesley, C. L. 17 West, E. 328 Westman, M. 280

Van der Klink, J. J. 263, 280 281 Van Dijk, F. J. 263, 280 281 Van Emmerik, H. 283 Van Ness, D. 295

364

Wheeler, Q. D. 247 Whitaker, C. S. 188 Whitaker, K. S. 205 White, R. P. 232 Whitney, D. 93 Whyman, W. 233 234, 241 Wilkinson, K. 302 Williams, D. E. 17, 100 Williams, R. 97 Wilson, D. 331 Wilson, H. J. 7 Wiltbank, R. 12 Winston, B. E. 66, 207, 246 Wisalaporn, S. 321 Witherspoon, R. 232 Witz, A. 239 Wong, P. T. 60 Woolf, E. F. 246 World Bank, 139 140, 156

AUTHOR INDEX

Yanming, H. 145 Yeh, H. 250 251 Yen, C. Y. 280 Young, R. 298, 302, 304 Youssef, C. M. 247 Youth in Africa, 191 Yuan, X. 254 255 Yukl, G. 246 Yuksel, M. 268, 271 Yunus, M. 4 5, 9, 156 Yusuf, S. 142, 155 Zaccaro, S. J. 233 234, 241 Zaslavsky, A. M. 276 Zaleznik, A. 221, 225 Zanichelli, 216 Zelenski, J. 68 Zhu, W. 253 254 Zimbardo, P. G. 50 Zoller, K. 176 Zopiatis, A. 272

SUBJECT INDEX Bridging Difference, 43 Burnout, 261 283

Abuse of power, 193, 220 221 Accountability, 24, 29 32, 65, 92 95, 98, 102, 112, 127, 170, 193, 195, 204, 234, 298, 301, 335 Accountable leadership, 194, 196 Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 153 Active learning, 42 Active listening, 86 Advocacy, 6, 32, 44, 50, 83, 107, 131, 151, 177 African National Congress, 95 African vision, xxi Agricultural cooperative, 41 Alexithymia, 221 Alternative dispute resolution, 44 Antiracist, 23 37 Appreciative inquiry, 90, 93 96, 98, 100 102 Arab spring, 71, 183, 191 194 Aristotle, 225 Assertive communication, 43 Assessment, 29, 35, 41, 44 45, 91, 98, 112, 118, 123, 226, 234, 257, 266, 322 Attitude, 44, 54, 175, 226, 252, 258 Authentic assessment, 44 Authentic leadership, 64

Cameroon, 41, 43 46, 53 54, 183, 185 187, 190, 192, 194 195 Canada, 23 28, 35 36, 126, 236, 238, 297, 305 Capacity development, 138 139, 148, 151, 153 154 Career mobility, 314, 321 Caribbean, 10, 25, 28, 236, 239 Case study design, 138, 311, 315 Catalyst, 17, 44 Center for Creative Leadership, 233 Center for Research in Ethical Development in Latin America, 10 Challenges, 12, 15, 18, 24 25, 34, 36, 42, 44 45, 47, 49 50, 54, 94, 96 97, 114 115, 117 118, 120, 127 132, 137, 147, 154 155, 176, 183 184, 188, 190 192, 194, 196, 205, 211, 233, 235, 240, 258, 271, 274, 279, 304, 310, 314 316, 318 322 Change process, 67 Circumstantial evidence, 329, 331 333 Classical conditioning, 249 251 Coaching, 231 242, 256, 283, 322 Cognitive development, 126, 251 252, 258 Collaboration, 14, 16, 32, 42 43, 46, 48 49, 52, 54, 112 114, 118, 122, 143, 321

Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee, 9 Behaviorism, 249 250 Bias, 23, 48, 52, 330 365

366

Collaborative learning, 43, 47 48, 50 Collaborative skills, 41 43, 46 Collaborative teamwork, 46 Collective efficacy, 3, 23, 41, 59, 73, 89, 107, 137, 163, 183, 199, 215, 231, 245, 261, 293, 309, 325 Collective engagement, 145 Collective learning, 137, 145 Colonization, 199 202 Common ground, 43, 47 48, 53 Commonality, 46, 48, 50 Communications, 47, 69 70, 110, 113, 131, 217 Community development, 10, 41, 43 45, 53 54, 121, 129, 137, 140, 143 144, 149 Community engagement, 108, 113 116 Community leadership, 107, 109, 111, 113, 115, 117, 119, 121, 123, 125, 127, 129, 131, 133 134, 304 Community service, 112, 122, 126, 128 130, 138 139, 147 148 Competence, 48, 190, 222, 279 280, 313 Complex problem solving, 43 Concern, 42, 48, 64, 66, 70, 173, 175, 183, 203, 226, 278, 318, 322 Confidence building, 248 Conflict education, 43 Conflict mediation, 53 Conflict skills, 44 Conflict transformation, 41 43, 46, 52 54 Conflict, 28, 41 46, 48 49, 51 54, 94, 96 98, 100, 131, 169, 263, 269 270, 282, 294 295, 303, 309 310, 313 317, 319, 321

SUBJECT INDEX

Congressional Commission on Education Study, 203 Congruence, 47, 62, 66 Consistency, 64, 218, 222, 224 Constructive response, 48 Content-based experiences, 246 Continuous improvement, 59, 67 70 Converging cultures, 165 Cooperation, 46, 49, 53, 127, 151 Cost analysis, 273 275 Creative problem solving, 48 Criminal justice, 6, 167, 178, 293, 295 299, 301 303, 305, 326 328 Criminogenic, 170 Criminology, 341 Critical reflection, 33, 36, 112 Critical research, 34 Critical thinking, 114, 121, 302 Criticism, 48, 190, 220 Cultural assumptions, 113 Cultural dynamics, 200, 206, 211 Cultural norms, 108, 111, 124, 127, 132, 177, 216 Cultural responsiveness, 119 Culture, 18, 26, 32, 35, 62, 65 66, 68 69, 77 80, 86, 110, 116, 119, 126 127, 130, 132, 140, 142, 151, 165, 188, 201, 204, 206 208, 210, 216, 226, 245 246, 248 249, 255 256, 267, 269 271, 282, 293, 295, 298, 301 304, 321, 327 Decision-making, 35, 43, 127, 205, 208, 217, 252, 293, 301 304 Democracy, 18, 43, 92, 116, 186, 188, 194 195

Subject Index

Democratic, 17, 23, 26, 28, 30 31, 33, 42, 54, 92 93, 99, 114, 116, 184, 186 187, 190 191 Depersonalization, 263 265 Desmond Tutu, 52, 97 Dialogue, 32 34, 36, 42, 44 46, 50, 52, 76, 97, 113, 115, 122, 126, 141, 146, 165 Direct leadership, 252 Disability, 14, 26, 276 Dissolving barriers, 45 Diversity, 23, 31 32, 64, 118, 187, 301 Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., 47 Dubai, 108, 110, 113 116, 120 122, 124, 127, 129 132 Ecology, 4, 116 Economic progress, 139 Economy, 7, 17 18, 138 140, 142, 189, 275 Ecumenical Services for Peace, 41 Educational leadership, 24 26, 29, 36, 133, 164, 201, 206, 211 Educational policy, 17, 164, 203 204 Educational Reform Act, 311 Education-based incarceration, 163, 165, 177 Effectiveness, 6, 30 32, 59 60, 71, 177, 201, 226, 232, 239, 248, 269, 282, 301, 317, 322 Emotional intelligence, 280 Emotional resilience, 265, 279, 282 Empathy, 8, 10, 13, 47, 50, 53, 64, 170, 175, 209, 221 222 Empowerment, 44 45, 53, 64, 69, 94 95, 100, 102, 220, 253 257

367

Encouragement, 16, 46, 49, 51, 52, 61, 93, 97, 193, 226, 254, 279, 283, 297, 301, 303 305 Engaged learning, 126 Engagement, 42, 108, 113 116, 122 123, 128, 143, 145 146, 192 193, 239, 281 282, 305 England, 10, 24, 27, 111, 237, 293 294, 296 300, 302 304 Environmental stability, 14 Environmental uncertainty, 246 Equity, 26, 28, 31 35, 37, 42, 53, 114, 126, 140 141, 143 Ethical dilemmas, 45 Ethical leadership, 32, 98, 209, 211, 222, 248, 331, 336 Ethics, 218, 223 224, 246, 311, 322 Ethiopian Commodity Exchange, 154 155 Ethnicity, 31, 33, 35, 53, 100, 116 117, 310 Ethnography, 34, 80 European Mentoring and Coaching Council, 233 Evaluation, 35, 41 42, 48, 52, 131, 145, 152, 156, 234, 279, 302 Evolving police leadership, 301 Executive leadership, 67, 168 Experiential learning, 112 113, 115 Exploring diverse experience, 11 Fairness, 28, 65, 326 327 Filipino kinship, 207, 209 210 Followers, 30, 63, 73, 75 77, 185, 219 220, 222 223, 245, 247 249, 251 254, 256 257 Formal leadership, 253

368

Gender, 11, 24, 26, 33, 35, 52 53, 82, 108, 111, 116, 140, 153, 239, 267, 303, 315 Gender-based violence, 153 Generous tit for tat, 47 Gerontocracy, 184 Ghana, 90, 92 93, 96, 185 186, 191, 193 Global demographics, 231 232, 237 Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Programs, 59 Global, 9, 11 12, 16 17, 19, 24, 35, 42 43, 51 52, 59, 71, 96, 109, 118 119, 138 142, 145, 148, 150, 153 155, 184, 186, 190 191, 194, 204, 231 233, 235, 237 238, 245 246, 252 253, 256, 258, 266 267, 270, 281 Government of the Republic of Zambia, 142 Group work, 42, 46, 47, 48, 122 Haiti, 74 75, 79 80, 82 83, 85 Haitian American Caucus, 74 75 Hierarchical structures, 215, 304, 305 Highlander Research and Education Center, 17 Holistic, 32, 94, 166, 200, 206, 304 Holmes Group Partnership, 113 Human Capital Theory, 140, 153, 155 156 Human rights, 7, 45, 52, 54, 92, 195, 221, 310 Humanistic psychology, 233

SUBJECT INDEX

Humility, 8, 60, 63 64, 71, 74 75, 85 86, 168, 175, 223, 226 227 Identity, 26, 31, 33, 98, 100, 120, 124, 133, 166, 200, 222, 242, 256, 268, 277 279, 335 Ideology, 31, 114, 116 Inclusive consideration, 42 Inclusive engagement, 42 Inclusive facilitation, 10 Indigenous, 12, 108, 153 154, 187, 196, 199, 201, 208, 211 Information gathering, 47 Initiative, 5, 8, 14, 16, 19, 43, 45, 69, 77, 79, 110, 112 114, 125, 128, 132, 141 Inmate learning, 167 Inmate transformation, 173 Innocence Project, 328 Inquiry, 42, 90, 93 96, 98, 100 102, 115, 144, 178, 206, 232, 242, 311, 316 Inspiration, 90, 96, 145 Institute for One World Health, 12 Institutional memory loss, 303 Instruction, 42, 114, 171, 202 203 Interactive teaching, 42, 126 Interdisciplinary leadership, 178 Interest identification, 253 Internal social justice, 42 International Coaching Federation, 233 234 International influence, 193 International social work, 45 International, 3, 23, 36, 41, 44 45, 54, 59 61, 70 71, 73, 79, 89, 92, 94, 107, 109, 133, 137, 141 142, 145, 147, 151, 163, 177, 183, 186, 193, 199, 215,

Subject Index

226, 231 233, 236, 240, 242, 245, 261 262, 293, 309, 325 Interpersonal acceptance, 63 64 Intragroup tension, 48 intrapreneurship, 6, 18 Islam, 91, 201 Italy, 177, 220 Jails, 163, 166 167, 170 Ken Bain, 42 Kenya, 6, 91 95, 98 100, 154, 190, 193 Knowledge-based economy, 139 Korea, 133 Law enforcement, 36, 165 167, 171, 178, 326 328 Leadership behaviors, 54 Leadership characteristics, 63, 70, 173 175 Leadership coaching, 231 242 Leadership development, 24, 26, 28 29, 35 36, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53 54, 164 166, 168, 176, 178, 234, 257 258 Leadership praxis, 30 Leadership psychology, 247, 249, 257 Leadership styles, 68 69, 245, 247, 249, 251 253, 255 258, 262, 272 Leadership traits, 245 258 Leadership, 3, 5 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 18, 23 26, 28 32, 34 36, 41 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53 54, 59 71, 73, 75 78, 80 81, 89 95, 97 102, 107 109, 111, 113, 115, 117 123, 125 129, 131, 133 134, 137 140,

369

146 148, 150 155, 163 178, 183 196, 199 211, 215 217, 219 227, 231 242, 245 258, 261 262, 266, 271 272, 275, 283, 293 295, 297 299, 301 305, 309, 311, 314 315, 325 327, 329, 331, 333 336 Learned attribute, 245 Learning activities, 41, 45, 49 Listening, 43, 47, 53, 86, 205, 234 235 Literacy, 42, 122, 141, 150, 156 Los Angeles County Sheriff ’s Department, 163, 168, 173, 176 M.E.R.I.T (Maximizing Education Reaching Individual Transformation), 170 Management Communication, 205 Management, 14, 23, 29 30, 62, 66, 68 69, 76, 78, 92, 151, 164, 169, 171 172, 175, 186, 204 205, 217, 220 222, 232 233, 254, 268, 280, 282, 298, 300 302, 304, 311, 313, 315 Mental health, 165, 275, 277, 280, 282 Middle East, 91, 107, 109, 111, 131, 236 Modeling, 42, 51 Monitoring, 41, 43, 52, 131, 169, 183, 220 Moral development, 168 Moral imagination, 90 91, 93, 95 102 Moral leadership, 90, 93, 98, 101 102 Motivation, 7, 12, 52, 82, 94 95, 151, 184 185, 225, 255, 257, 262 263, 275, 298

370

Multicultural justice, xxi Multiculturalism, 27 Multilateral international aid agencies, 92 Multipartiality, 52 Muslim, 91, 126 127, 130, 309, 317, 320 Muzafer Sherif, 46 Narrative, 34, 75, 85, 92 93, 100 National Association for the Education of Young Children, 123 National Network for Education Renewal, 114 National Research Council, 133 Negotiation tactics, 47, 50 Neighborhood policing, 115, 333 New leadership, 189, 191 194 Ontario College of Teachers, 29 Open disclosure, 46 Open mindedness, 43, 221, 303 Operant conditioning, 249 251, 258 Opinion sharing, 235 Opportunity, 9, 27, 42, 44 45, 54, 61, 90, 92, 96, 118, 122, 125, 128 129, 133, 150, 164, 171 172, 174, 188 190, 194, 208 209, 235, 249, 251, 295 Option generation, 48 Organisational learning, 301 302 Organization, 4 5, 7, 9 13, 30, 61 66, 68, 70, 78, 93 95, 99, 127, 131, 133, 165 166, 169, 176, 184, 199, 201, 206 208, 233, 245 249, 251 257, 261 264, 267, 270, 272 273, 275, 281 282, 314, 327, 331

SUBJECT INDEX

Organizational behavior, 59, 63, 71, 247 248 Organizational climate, 65, 246 Organizational communication, 61 Organizational culture, 35, 65, 165, 246, 249 Participatory learning, 45 Partnerships, 6, 16, 32, 35, 42, 86, 112 113, 118, 120, 125, 138 139, 147 149, 297 Pauliene Leadership Conceptual Transformation Model, 255 Peace studies, 178 Pedagogy, 26, 41, 85, 108, 118, 123 Personality, 65, 100, 129 130, 188, 207, 217, 222, 251 252, 261, 267 268, 270 271 Perspective-taking, 43, 53, 64 Philippines, 66, 199 207, 209 211 Policy dynamics, 199 200 Policy reform, 319 Political correctness, 325, 331, 334 Political progress, 138 139 Politics, 62, 65, 69, 93, 195, 217, 310, 325 Positive affirmation, 91 Positive organizational behavior, 247 248 Positive psychology, 124 Power balancing, 53 Power influence, 220 Power sharing, 45 Principal, 24, 29, 31, 189, 203 205, 207 208, 210, 295, 309 322 Principal’s Qualifications Program, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36 Prisons, 28, 172, 300

371

Subject Index

Privilege, 25, 27, 32 33, 36, 73, 80, 82, 84 86, 122 Probation, 300 Process observation, 144 Process parameters, 48 Prosecutorial leadership, 325, 327, 329, 331, 333, 335 Psychological empowerment, 69, 253 256 Psychological theories, 245, 247 Public confidence, 305 Race, 11, 24 27, 31, 33, 35, 53, 82, 116 117, 174 Racism, 23, 26 28, 330 Radically new thinking, 36 Recidivism, 163 167, 169, 171 173, 175, 177 Reciprocity, 48, 176 Recovery, 156, 171, 261, 274, 276 277, 281, 283 Reflective practice, 41 43, 47 50 Reform, 16, 36, 109, 303 304, 311, 319 Reframing, 43, 47 48 Relationship building, 125, 205 Religious studies, 174, 178 Research and Project Partnerships, 138 139, 148 149 Respect, 26, 53 54, 62 63, 65, 76, 80, 93, 96, 118, 120, 188, 195, 205, 217 218, 221 222, 224, 226, 297, 318, 321 Respect, 26, 53 54, 62 63, 65, 76, 80, 93, 96, 118, 120, 188, 195, 205, 217 218, 221 222, 224, 226, 297, 318, 321 Responsible leadership, 92, 215 Restorative justice, 47, 293 302, 304

Restorative policing, 293 297, 299 305 Risk taking, 265 Risk-averse behaviour, 301, 303 Safe climate, 45, 65 Scholar-servant, 73 75, 77, 79, 81 85 School reform, 36 Self-awareness, 62, 221, 234, 248, 252, 278 279, 300 Self-efficacy, 108, 120, 124, 130 Self-Employed Women’s Association, 11 Sensitivity, 8, 42, 211 Servant leadership, 59 70, 76 78, 80 81, 89 90, 126 Service identity, 120 Service learning, 107 109, 111 119, 121 129, 131 133 Skill education, 47 Skill mastery, 47 Skillful listening, 43 Social entrepreneurial leadership, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17 Social Entrepreneurship Collaboratory, 16 Social influence, 217 218 Social justice, 11, 23 31, 33 34, 37, 41 42, 44, 46, 52 54, 78, 85 86, 99, 110, 114, 188 Social literacy, 42 Social progress, 145 Social proof, 218 Social structure, 201 202, 206 Social transformation, 5, 15 17 Social unrest, 309 310 Social value, 5, 7, 16, 18 Socio-economics, 139

372

Sociology, 36, 178, 231, 233, 235, 237, 239, 241 Spirituality, 168, 277, 280 Status quo analysis, 7, 10, 15, 18, 29, 45, 78 Stewardship, 63 64, 70, 102 Strategy, 29, 41, 44, 54, 69, 95, 112, 129, 145, 167, 189, 297, 332 333 Street-level leadership, 301, 303, 305 Strength inventory, 14 Stress management, 268, 280, 282 Sub-Saharan Africa, 89 90, 98, 137 138 Supreme Court, 209, 325, 328, 335 Suspending judgment, 47 Sustainability, 4, 14, 17 18, 51, 145 147, 153, 164, 257, 294 Sustainable development, 15, 137 140, 143 148, 151, 153 Sustainable leadership, 252 253, 255, 257 Sustainable peace, 43, 54, 89 91, 93, 95, 97 99, 101 Synergy, xx, xxii Systems leadership, 252 Task-relevant experiences, 246 Teacher Council of Thailand, 312 Teaching Methods, 47, 54, 203 Thailand, 66, 141, 309 313, 315 316, 320 322 Thames Valley, 297 298 Theology, xx Theory X, 68 Threat assessment, 91 Training the trainers, 83 Transactional leadership, 68, 251 252, 254 255, 257

SUBJECT INDEX

Transcending cultural norms, 177 Transformation, 5, 9, 15 17, 41 43, 46, 52 54, 140, 145, 154, 164 165, 170, 173 174, 215, 258, 294 Transformational leadership, 23, 29 30, 61, 68, 89 90, 94, 98, 101, 252 256, 302 304 Transformative leadership, 35, 101, 256, 301 Trust building, 46 Unconditional regard, 47 Understanding, 7, 32, 36, 47 51, 63, 76, 79 80, 83, 85, 96, 101, 108, 111 112, 118, 123, 125, 133, 137, 144 146, 153, 155, 173 174, 177, 206, 211, 218 219, 242, 246, 253 254, 257 258, 263, 281, 295 297, 302 Unethical leadership, 98, 222 United Arab Emirates, 107 110, 118, 120, 255 United Nations, 8, 131, 149, 184 United States, 6, 9, 12, 14, 17, 24 25, 27, 45, 61, 78, 82 84, 86, 89 91, 111, 115 116, 126, 133, 165, 167, 177, 232 233, 236 240, 253 254, 266, 275, 297, 305, 326 Universal Education for Ethical Development, 11 University leadership, 139 US National Institute of Corrections, 170 Validation, 43, 47 Value system, 169, 191, 303

373

Subject Index

Values-based leadership, 17, 65 Vera Institute of Justice, 327 Vertical leadership, 257 Victim Support and the Youth Offending Service, 300 Violence, 91 92, 95, 100 102, 124, 153, 163 165, 167, 169 175, 177, 221, 310, 315, 317 318, 321, 330 Visioning, 215 227

Wales, 293 294, 296, 298 300, 302 304 Workplace stressors, 269, 280 Youth leadership, 89, 91, 93, 95, 97, 99, 101 Zambia, 66, 137 143, 145, 147, 149 153, 155 156 Zero tolerance, 28, 294