Collected Works of C.G. Jung. Volume 18 Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volume 18: The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings [Course Book ed.] 9781400851010

Table of contents :
EDITORIAL NOTE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. THE TAVISTOCK LECTURES. On the Theory and Practice of Analytical Psychology
II. SYMBOLS AND THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS
III. THE SYMBOLIC LIFE
IV. ON OCCULTISM
V. THE PSYCHOGENESIS OF MENTAL DISEASE
VI. FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYSIS
VII. ON SYMBOLISM
VIII. TWO ESSAYS ON ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY
IX. THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE
X. TH E ARCHETYPES AND TH E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS
XI. CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION
XII. PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION
XIII. ALCHEMICAL STUDIES
XIV. THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE
XIV. THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE
XVI THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
ADDENDA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX OF TITLES
INDEX

Citation preview

B O L L I N G E N

THE

S E R I E S

COLLECTED

X X

WORKS

OF

C.

G.

JUNG

VOLUME

IS

EDITORS T SIR H E R B E R T MICHAEL

FORDHAM, GERHARD

WILLIAM

READ

F.R.C.PSYCH., ADLER,

MCGUIRE,

HON.

F.B.PS.S.

PH.D.

executive

editor

THE SYMBOLIC LIFE MISCELLANEOUS W RITINGS

C. G. J U N G

T R A N S L A T E D BY R. F. C. H U LL

B O L L I N G E N

PRINCETON

S E R I E S

UNIVERSITY

X X

PRESS

c o p y rig h t

1950,

1953, c o p y r ig h t

©

1955,

19 5 8 ,

ig 59,

1963,

1968

1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 0 , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 6 BY P R IN C E T O N U N IV E R S IT Y P R E S S , P R IN C E T O N , N . J . SECOND P R IN T IN G , W IT H C O R R E C T IO N S , 1 9 8 0 T H I S E D IT IO N IS B E IN G P U B L IS H E D IN T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S O F A M ERICA FO R B O L L IN G E N F O U N D A T IO N PRESS

BY

P R IN C E T O N

U N IV E R S IT Y

AND IN E N G L A N D B Y R O U TL ED G E Sc

K E G A N P A U L , L T D . IN T H E A M E R IC A N ED I­ T IO N , A L L T H E V O L U M E S C O M P R IS IN G T H E C O L L EC T ED XX

IN

W ORKS

B O L L IN G E N

C O N S T IT U T E S E R IE S .

THE

NUM BER PRESENT

V O L U M E IS N U M B E R 1 8 O F T H E C O L L EC T ED W ORKS

AND

IS

THE

E IG H T E E N T H

TO

A PPEAR.

F o r th e follow ing, copyright in th e U .S .A . has b een assigned to P rin ceto n U niversity Press: Forew ord to F ierz-D avid, T h e D rea m of Poliphilo1 co p y rig h t 1950 by B ollingen F o u n d a tio n In c. F o rew o rd to P erry, T h e S e lf in Psychotic Process, copyright, 1953, by th e R eg en ts of th e U niversity of C alifornia. F o re­ w ord to A begg, Ostasien d e n k t anders, co p y rig h t 1953 by th e A n alytical Psy­ chology C lub of N ew Y ork. F o rew o rd to N eu m an n , Origins a n d History of Consciousness, co p y rig h t 1954 by B ollingen F o u n d a tio n In c . F orew ord to H a rd in g , W o m a n ’s Mysteries, co p y rig h t © 1955 by D r. E sth e r H ard in g . “H u m a n N a tu re D oes N o t Y ield E asily to Id ea listic A dvice,” copyright © t 955 by N e w R epublic. F orew ord to de Laszlo, Psyche and S y m b o l, copyright © 1958 by B ollingen F o u n d a tio n , Inc. F orew ord to B ertine, H u m a n R ela tion ­ ships, copyright 1958 by E le a n o r B ertine. F orew ord to Jaco b i, C o m p l e x /A r c h e ­ ty p e / S y m b o l, co py rig h t © 1959 by B ollingen F o u n d a tio n , In c . “T h e F u tu re of P arapsychology,” co p y rig h t © 1963 by Inte rn ation al J ournal o f Parapsychology. “T h e T avistock L ectu res,” c o p y rig h t © 1968 by th e H eirs of C. G. Ju n g . “ Answers to Q uestions on F re u d ,” c o p y rig h t © 1968 by th e A naly tical Psy­ chology C lub of N ew Y ork. F orew ord to N e u m an n , D e p th Psychology and a N e w E th ic, copyrig h t © 1969 by th e C. G. Ju n g F o u n d a tio n fo r A nalytical Psychology, In c., N ew York. “D e p th Psychology a n d Self K now ledge,” copy­ rig h t © 1969, a n d “ A d a p ta tio n , In d iv id u a tio n , C ollectivity,” co p y rig h t © 1970, by th e A nalytical Psychology C lub of N ew Y oik. F o rew o rd to H ard in g , T h e W a y of AU W o m e n , co p y rig h t © 1970 by th e C. G. J u n g F o u n d atio n fo r A nalytical Psychology, In c ., N ew Y ork. F o rew o rd to Jaco b i, T h e Psychology of C. G. Jun g, cop y rig h t © 1973 by J o la n d e Jaco b i. T h e follow ing w ere copy­ rig h t in the U .S .A .: F orew ord to C u stan ce, W isdom , M ad ness and Folly, copyright 1952 by Jo h n C ustance. F orew ord to Jaffe, A p pa ritions a n d Precogni­ tio n, copyright © 1963 by U n iv ersity Books In c. F o rew o rd to a catalogue on alchem y, co p y rig h t © 1968 by Y ale U niv ersity L ib rary . D u e acknow ledgem ents a re m ade. “S igm und F re u d : ‘O n D ream s’,” , “ M a rg in a l N o te on W itte ls: D ie Sexuelle N o t,” “ A C o m m en t on T a u sk ’s C riticism of N elk en ,” a n d “R eligion and Psychology: R ep ly to B uber,” co p y rig h t © 1973 b y P rin ceto n U niversity Press. LIBRARY O F C O N G R E S S

CATALOGUE CARD N U M B E R :

IS B N O - 6 9 I - O 9 8 9 2 - I M A N U FA CTU RED IN T H E

U . S . A.

7 5 - 156

IN MEMORIAM

Herbert Read

(1893-1968) R. F. C. Hull ( 19 I 3- I 974)

E D IT O R IA L N O T E

W hen these Collected W orks were planned, during the late 1940¾, in consultation w ith Professor Jung, the Editors set aside a brief final volume for “reviews, short articles, etc., of the psychoanalytic period, later introductions, etc., Bibliography of Ju n g ’s W ritings, and G eneral Index of the Collected W orks.” Now arriving at publi­ cation soon after Ju n g ’s centenary year, this collection of miscellany has become the most ample volume in the edition— and no longer includes the Bibliography and General Index, which have been assigned to volumes 19 and 20 respectively. Volum e 18 now contains m ore th an one hundred and thirty items, ranging in tim e from 1901, when Ju n g a t 26 had just accepted his first professional appointm ent as an assistant at the Burgholzli, to 1961, shortly before his death. T he collection, touch­ ing upon virtually every aspect of Ju n g ’s professional and intellec­ tual interest during a long life devoted to the exegesis of the symbol, justifies its title, taken from a characteristic work of Ju n g ’s middle years, the sem inar given to the G uild of Pastoral Psychology in London, 1939. T his profusion of m aterial is the consequence of three factors. A fter J u n g retired from his active m edical practice, in the early 1950’s, until his death in Ju n e 1961, he devoted most of his tim e to w riting: not only the longer works for which a place was m ade in the original scheme of the edition, b u t an unexpectedly large num ber of forewords to books by pupils and colleagues, replies to journalistic questionnaires, encyclopaedia articles, occasional ad­ dresses, and letters (some of which, because of their technical char­ acter, or because they were published elsewhere, are included in Volum e 18 rath er than in the Letters volum es). O f works in this class, Ju n g wrote some fifty after 1950. Secondly, research for the later volumes of the Collected Works,

for the Letters (including T he Freud/ Jung Letters), and for the General Bibliography has brought to light many reviews, short articles, reports, etc., from the earlier years of Jung’s career. A considerable run of psychiatric reviews from the years 1906-1910 was discovered by Professor Henri F. Ellenberger and turned over to the Editors, who wish to record their gratitude to him. Finally, the Ju n g archives at Kusnacht have yielded several manuscripts in a finished or virtually finished state, the earliest being a 1901 report on Freud’s On Dreams. A related category of material embraces abstracts of lectures, evidently unwritten, the transcripts of which were not read and approved by Jung. T he abstracts them­ selves have been deemed worthy of inclusion in this volume. “The Tavistock Lectures” and “T he Symbolic Life” are ex­ amples of oral material to whose transcription Jung had given his approval. T he former work has become well known as Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice, under which title the present version was published in 1968. Around i960, the Editors conceived the idea of adding to Vol­ ume 15, T he Spirit in M an, Art, and Literature, some of the fore­ words that Jung had written for books by other persons, on the ground that these statements were an expression of the archetype of the spirit. Jung was invited to make the choice, and his list comprised fifteen forewords, to books by the following authors: Lily Abegg, John Custance, Linda Fierz-David, Michael Fordham, M. Esther H arding (two books), Aniela Jaff e, Olga von KoenigFachsenfeld, .Rose Mehlich, Fanny Moser, John W eir Perry, Carl Ludwig Schleich, Gustav Schmaltz, Hans Schmid-Guisan, and Oscar A. H. Schmitz. Subsequently, as the plan for a comprehensive volume of miscellany took form, these forewords were retained in Volume 18. T he contents of the present volume— following after the three longer and more general works in Parts I, II, and I I I — are arranged as Parts IV through X V I, in the sequence of the volumes of the Collected Works to which they are related by subject, and chrono­ logically within each Part. T he result is sometimes arbitrary, as certain items could be assigned to more than one volume. Some miscellanea were published in later editions or printings of the pre­ vious volumes, e.g., “T he Realities of Practical Psychotherapy,” now an appendix in Volume 16, 2nd edition; the prefatory note to the English edition of Psychology and Alchemy, now in the 2nd edition of Volume 12; and the author’s note to the first Atyieri-

can/E nglish edition of Psychology of the Unconscious (1 9 1 6 ), now in Volum e 5, 2nd edition, 1974 printing. T he death of the translator, R .F .C . H ull, in Decem ber 1974, after a prolonged illness, was a heavy loss to the entire enterprise. H e had, however, translated by far most of the contents of Volume 18. T he contributions of other translators are indicated by their initials in a footnote at the beginning of the translated ite m : A.S.B. Glover, R u th Horine, H ildegard Nagel, Jan e D. P ratt, Lisa Ress, and W olfgang Sauerlander. T o them the Editors are deeply grateful. M r. Glover, up until his death in 1966, also played an im portant p a rt in the compilation and editing of the papers. Special acknowl­ edgem ent must be m ade to two co-workers at the source, as it were, who contributed greatly by searching out m aterial and helping to identify and annotate the texts: M arianne N iehus-Jung (d. 1965), who was a co-editor of the Swiss edition of her father’s collected works, and Aniela Jaffe, who had been J u n g ’s secretary and colla­ borator w ith him in the w riting of his memoirs. Acknowledgement is m ade also to the following, who gave valued assistance with research and advice with various editorial problem s: M rs. Doris Albrecht, D r. E. A. Bennet, Professor Ernst Benz, Jo n a th a n Dodd, Dr. M artin Ebon, Mrs. A ntoinette Fierz, C .H .A . Fleurent ( British Medical Journal) Dr. M .-L. von Franz, D r. W . H . Gillespie, M ichael H am burger, J. H avet (Unesco), Dr. Joseph H enderson, Mrs. Aniela Jaffe, Mrs. Ernest Jones, Mrs. Jean Jones (A m erican Psychiatric Association), M r. and Mrs. Franz Jung, Dr. Jam es Kirsch, Pam ela Long, Professor Dr. C. A. M eier, Professor W . G. M oulton, Professor H enry A. M urray, Mrs. Julie N eum ann, Jacob R abi (A l Hamishmar'), Lisa Ress, Professor Paul Roazen, Professor D. W . Robertson, Jr., W olfgang Sauer­ lander, G. Spencer-Brown, Gerald Sykes, Professor K u rt W einberg, and M rs. Shirley W hite (B B C ).

TABLE

OF C O N T E N T S

E D ITO RIA L N O T E

Vli

I THE TAVISTOCK LECTURES (1935) L ecture I Discussion

5 25

L ecture I I Discussion

36 57

L ecture I I I Discussion

70 94

L ecture IV Discussion

102 124

L ecture V Discussion

135 167

II SYMBOLS AND THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS ( 196 1 )

T h e Significance of Dream s

185

T h e Functions of the Unconscious

196

T h e Language of D ream s

203 xi

The Problem of Types in Dream Interpretation

216

The Archetype in Dream Symbolism

227

The Function of Religious Symbols

244

Healing the Split

253

III T H E S Y M B O L IC L IF E (1939) The Symbolic Life

267

Discussion

281 IV O N O C C U L T ISM (C.W., vol. 1)*

O n Spiritualistic Phenomena (1905)

293

Foreword to Jung: Phenomenes occultes (1938)

309

Psychology and Spiritualism (1948)

312

Foreword to Moser: Spuk: Irrglaube oder Wahrglaube? (1950) Jung’s Contribution

317 320

Foreword to Ja ffe : Apparitions and Precognition (1957)

327

V T H E P S Y C H O G E N E S IS O F M E N T A L D ISEA SE (C .W ., vol. 3) The Present Status of Applied Psychology (1908)

333

O n Dementia Praecox (1908)

335

Review of Sadger: Konrad Ferdinand M eyer (1909)

336

Review of W aldstein: Das unbewusste Ich ( 1909)

339

Crime and the Soul (1932)

343

* T he contents of each p a rt are related to volumes of the Collected Works as indicated. D ates are of first publication or, when known, of writing.

xii

CONTENTS

T h e Q u e s t i o n of M e d i c a l Intervention (1950) F o r e w o r d to C u s t a n c e :

Wisdom,

Madness

and Folly

F o r e w o r d to P e r r y : The Self in Psychotic F o r e w o r d to S c h m a l t z : Komplexe korperliches Symptom (1955)

347

Process

Psychologie

(1951)

(1953)

349 353

und 357

VI FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYSIS S i g m u n d F r e u d : On Dreams

( C . W . , vol. 4)

(1901)

R e v i e w o f H e l l p a c h : Grundlinien der Hysterie ( 1 9 0 5 )

361

einer

Psychologie 369

R e v i e w s of Psychiatric L i t e r a t u r e ( 1 9 0 6 - 1 0 )

374

T h e S i g n i f i c a n c e of Freud's T h e o r y for Neurology

and Psychiatry (1907) R e v i e w of S t e k e l : Nervose ihre

Behandlung

388 Angstzustande

und

(1908)

390

Editorial P r e f a c e to the Jahrbuch

(1909)

M a r g i n a l N o t e s o n W i t t e l s : Die sexuelle R e v i e w of W u l f f e n : Der

Not

Sexualverbrecher

392 (1910) (1910)

393 397

A b s t r a c t s of the Psychological W o r k s of Swiss A u t h o r s ( 1 9 1 0 )

398

R e v i e w of H i t s c h m a n n : Freuds

422

Neurosenlehre

(1911)

A n n u a l R e p o r t by the President of the International Psychoanalytic Association (1911)

423

T w o L e t t e r s o n Psychoanalysis ( 1 9 1 2 )

427

O n the Psychoanalytic T r e a t m e n t of N e r v o u s Disorders ( 1 9 1 2 )

430

A C o m m e n t on T a u s k ' s Criticism of N e l k e n ( 1 9 1 3 )

433

A n s w e r s to Questions o n F r e u d ( 1 9 5 3 )

43 8

VII ON SYMBOLISM

( C . W . , vol. 5)

T h e C o n c e p t of A m b i v a l e n c e ( 1 9 1 0 )

443

C o n t r i b u t i o n s to Symbolism

44^

(1911) xiii

CONTENTS

VIII TWO

ESSAYS

ON

ANALYTICAL ( C . W . , vol.

PSYCHOLOGY

7)

Adaptation, Individuation, Collectivity (1916) F o r e w o r d to the H u n g a r i a n edition of J u n g : On Psychology of the Unconscious (1944)

449 the 455

IX THE

STRUCTURE

AND

DYNAMICS

OF

THE

PSYCHE

(C.W., vol. 8) F o r e w o r d s to J u n g : Vber psychische'Energetik der Traiime

und das

Wesen

(1928, 1947)

459

O n Hallucination (1933)

461

F o r e w o r d to S c h l e i c h : Die F o r e w o r d to J a c o b i : The

Wunder

der Seele

Psychology

(1934)

of C. G. Jung

462 (1939)

F o r e w o r d to the S p a n i s h edition ( 1 9 4 7 ) F o r e w o r d to H a r d i n g : Psychic

Energy

467 468

(1947)

469

A d d r e s s o n the O c c a s i o n of the F o u n d i n g of the C . G . J u n g Institute, Z u r i c h , 24 A p r i l 1948

471

D e p t h Psychology (1948)

477

F o r e w o r d to t h e First V o l u m e of S t u d i e s f r o m the C . G . J u n g Institute ( 1 9 4 8 )

487

F o r e w o r d to F r i e d a F o r d h a m : Introduction

to Jung's

Psychology

(1952)

489

F o r e w o r d to M i c h a e l F o r d h a m : New Developments Analytical Psychology (1957) A n Astrological Experiment (1958)

in 491 494

Letters on Synchronicity T o M a r k u s Fierz (1950, 1954)

502

T o Michael Fordham

508

(1955)

T h e F u t u r e of P a r a p s y c h o l o g y ( i 9 6 0 )

xiv

510

CONTENTS

X THE ARCHETYPES AND THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS (C.W., vol. 9) The Hypothesis of the Collective V nconsclOUs (1932)

515

Foreword to Adler: Entdeckung der Seele (1933)

5I 7

Foreword to Harding: Woman>s Mysteries (1948)

SI8

Foreword to Neumann: The Origins and History of Consciousness (1949)

521

Foreword to Adler: Studies in Analytical Psychology (1949)

523

Foreword to Jung: Gestaltungen des Unbewussten (1949)

525

Foreword to Wickes: Von deT inneren Welt des M enschen (1953)

52 7

Foreword to Jung: Von den Wurzeln des Bewusstseins (1953)

529

Foreword to van Helsdingen: Beelden uit het onbewuste (1954)

530

Foreword to Jacobi: Complex/Archetype/Symbol (1956)

532

Foreword to Bertine: Human Relationships (1956 )

534-

Preface to de Laszlo: Psyche and Symbol (1957)

537

Foreword to Brunner: Die Anima als Schicksalsproblem des Mannes (1959)

543

XI

CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION (C.W., vol. 10) Report on America (1910)

55 I

On the Psychology of the Negro (19 I 2)

55 2

A Radio Talk in Munich (193 0 )

553

Forewords to Jung: Seelenprobleme der Gegenwart (1930, 1932, 1959)

558

Foreword to Aldrich: The Primitive Mind and Modern Civilization (193 I)

5 6I

xv

CONTENTS

Press C o m m u n i q u e o n V i s i t i n g the U n i t e d States ( 1 9 3 6 )

564

Psychology and National Problems (1936)

566

R e t u r n to the S i m p l e L i f e ( 1 9 4 1 )

582

E p i l o g u e to J u n g : L'Homme

a la decouverte

de son

ame

(1944)

589

M a r g i n a l i a on Contemporary Events A n s w e r s to Mishmar

(1945)

591

on Adolf Hitler (1945)

603

T e c h n i q u e s of A t t i t u d e C h a n g e C o n d u c i v e to W o r l d P e a c e ( M e m o r a n d u m to U N E S C O ) ( 1 9 4 8 )

606

T h e E f f e c t of T e c h n o l o g y o n the H u m a n Psyche ( 1 9 4 9 )

614

F o r e w o r d to N e u m a n n : Depth

Psychology

and a New

Ethic

(1949)

616

F o r e w o r d to B a y n e s : Analytical Mind

Psychology

and the

English

(1950)

623

T h e R u l e s of L i f e ( 1 9 5 4 )

625

O n Flying Saucers (1954)

626

S t a t e m e n t to t h e U n i t e d Press I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( 1 9 5 8 )

631

L e t t e r to K e y h o e ( 1 9 5 8 )

632

H u m a n N a t u r e D o e s N o t Y i e l d Easily to Idealistic A d v i c e (i955)

634

O n the H u n g a r i a n U p r i s i n g ( 1 9 5 6 )

636

O n Psychodiagnostics ( 1 9 5 8 )

637

If C h r i s t W a l k e d the E a r t h T o d a y ( 1 9 5 8 )

638

F o r e w o r d to Hugh

Crichton-Miller

i8jj-ig$g

(i960)

639

XII PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION (C.W., vol. 1 1 ) Why I Am Not a Catholic (1944)

645

T h e D e f i n i t i o n of D e m o n i s m

(1945)

648

F o r e w o r d to J u n g : Symbolik

des Geistes

xvi

(1947)

649

CONTENTS

F o r e w o r d to Q u i s p e l : Tragic

Christianity

F o r e w o r d to A b e g g : Ostasien

denkt anders (1949)

F o r e w o r d to A l l e n b y : A Psychological

of Monotheism

(1949)

651 654

Study of the

Origins

(1950)

656

T h e M i r a c u l o u s Fast of Brother K l a u s ( 1 9 5 1 )

660

C o n c e r n i n g Answer

662

to Job ( 1 9 5 2 )

R e l i g i o n a n d P s y c h o l o g y : A R e p l y to M a r t i n Buber ( 1 9 5 2 )

663

A d d r e s s a t the Presentation of the J u n g C o d e x ( 1 9 5 3 )

671

L e t t e r to Pere B r u n o ( 1 9 5 3 )

' 673

L e t t e r to Pere L a c h a t ( 1 9 5 4 )

679

O n Resurrection (1954)

692

O n the Discourses of the B u d d h a ( 1 9 5 5 ? )

697

F o r e w o r d to F r o b o e s e - T h i e l e : Traume—eine religidser

Erfahrung?

Quelle

700

(1957)

J u n g a n d R e l i g i o u s Belief ( 1 9 5 6 - 5 7 )

702

XIII ALCHEMICAL ( C . W . , vols.

STUDIES

12,

13,

14)

F o r e w o r d to a C a t a l o g u e on A l c h e m y ( 1 9 4 6 )

747

Faust and Alchemy (1949)

748

A l c h e m y a n d Psychology (1950)

75r XIV

THE

SPIRIT

IN

MAN,

ART,

( C . W . , vol.

AND

LITERATURE

15)

Memorial to J. S. (1927)

757

F o r e w o r d to S c h m i d - G u i s a n : Tag und Nacht Hans Schmid-Guisan: In Memoriam (1932) O n the T a l e of the O t t e r

(193O

759 7&> 762

xvii

CONTENTS

I s T h e r e a F r e u d i a n T y p e of P o e t r y ? ( 1 9 3 2 ) F o r e w o r d to G i l b e r t : The F o r e w o r d to J u n g :

Curse

of Intellect

Wirklichkeit

ihre Beziehung

(1934)

der Seele

F o r e w o r d to M e h l i c h : / . H. Fichtes zur Gegenwart

765 767

(1933)

Seelenlehre

768

und

(1935)

77°

F o r e w o r d to v o n K o e n i g - F a c h s e n f e l d : Wandlungen des Traumproblems von der Romantik bis zur Gegenwart (1935)

773

F o r e w o r d to G i l l i : Der dunkle

776

Bruder

(1938)

Gerard de Nerval (1945)

779

F o r e w o r d to F i e r z - D a v i d : The Dream

of Poliphilo

F o r e w o r d to C r o t t e t : Mondwald

(1949)

F o r e w o r d to J a c o b i : Paracelsus:

Selected

780 782

Writings

F o r e w o r d to K a n k e l e i t : Das Unbewusste

Schopferischen

(1946)

(1949)

als Keimstatte

784

des

(1959)

786

Jung's Contribution

786

F o r e w o r d to S e r r a n o : The

Visits of the Queen

of Sheba

(i960)

Is T h e r e a T r u e B i l i n g u a l i s m ? ( 1 9 6 1 )

788 7^9

XV THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY (C.W., vol. 16) R e v i e w of H e y e r : Der Organismus R e v i e w of H e y e r : Praktische O n the Rosarium

der Seele

(1933)

Seelenheilkunde

Philosophorum

793

(1936)

794

(1937)

797

P r e f a c e to a n I n d i a n J o u r n a l of P s y c h o t h e r a p y ( 1 9 5 5 )

801

O n Pictures in Psychiatric D i a g n o s i s ( 1 9 5 9 )

802

XVI THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY ( C . W . , vol. 17) F o r e w o r d to E v a n s : The

Problem

F o r e w o r d to H a r d i n g : The

of the Nervous

Way of All

xviii

Women

Child (1932)

(1919)

805 807

CONTENTS

D e p t h Psychology a n d S e l f - K n o w l e d g e (1943)

811

F o r e w o r d to S p i e r : The

820

Hands

of Children

(1944)

F o r e w o r d to the H e b r e w edition of J u n g : Psychology

and Education

ADDENDA

F o r e w o r d to Psychologische Volume I (1914)

(1955)

822

Abhandlungen,

825

A d d r e s s a t the Presentation of the J u n g C o d e x [longer version] ( 1 9 5 3 )

826

BIBLIOGRAPHY

831

INDEX OF TITLES

855

INDEX

857

xix

I THE TAVISTOCK LECTURES On the Theory and Practice of Analytical Psychology

E D IT O R IA L N O T E C. G. Ju n g was invited by the Institute of Medical Psychology (Tavistock Clinic), M alet Place, London, at the instigation of Dr. J. A. Hadfield, to give a series of five lectures, which he delivered Septem ber 30 to October 4, 1935. According to the 1935 rep o rt of the Institute, the Lectures when announced were not titled. T h e audience, of some two hundred, consisted chiefly of members of the m edical profession. A stenographic record was taken of the lectures and the subsequent discussions; the transcript was edited by Mary B arker and M argaret Game, passed by Professor Jung, and printed by m im eograph for private distribution by the Analytical Psychol­ ogy C lub of London, in 1936, under the title “Fundam ental Psy­ chological Conceptions: A R eport of Five Lectures by C. G. Ju n g . .” T h e work has become widely known as “T h e Tavistock Lec­ tures” or “T h e London Seminars.” Passages from the Lectures were published in a French transla­ tio n by Dr. R oland Cahen in his edition of J u n g ’s L ’H om m e ά la decouverte de son dme (Geneva, i 944> infra. pars. 1357!!.), where the editor inserted them in a transcript of a series of seminars th at Ju n g gave to the Societe de Psychologie of Basel in 1934. Ju n g in­ cluded m uch of the same m aterial in both the London and Basel series as well as in lectures given in 1934 anc^ L935 at the Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule, Zurich. T h e present text underw ent stylistic revision by R.F.C. H ull, un­ der the supervision of the Editors of the Collected Works, and the footnotes inserted by the original editors were augm ented (in square brackets). T h e text was published in 1968 under the title A nalytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice; T h e Tavistock Lectures (New York: Pantheon Books, and London: R outledge Sc Kegan Paul), w ith the addition of a foreword, by E. A. Bennet, and an appendix giving biographical details of the participants in the discussion (both now omitted). G rateful acknowledgment is m ade to Mrs. Barker and Mrs. Game, for their co-operation; to those living among the participants in the discussions who gave permission to reproduce their remarks; to Dr. R o land Cahen; and to Mr. Sidney Gray, present secretary of

the Tavistock In stitu te of M edical Psychology, for his assistance. For advice in the p rep aratio n of the notes, the Editors are obliged to Joseph Cam pbell, J. Desm ond Clark, E tienne Gilson, N orbert G uterm an, Mrs. Lilly Jung, E. Dale Saunders, and Mrs. R u th Spiegel. PREFATORY NOTE TO THE ORIGINAL EDITION T h is rep o rt of Professor J u n g ’s Lectures to the In stitu te of M edical Psychology is edited u n d er the auspices of the A nalytical Psychology Club, London. O n the whole the re p o rt is verbatim , though it has been consid­ ered advisable to alter the construction of certain sentences w ith a view to avoiding any am biguity of m eaning. T h e editors can only hope th a t in m aking these m inor changes they have not destroyed the very individual flavour of the Lectures. In a few cases it was found impossible to ascertain the names of those taking p a rt in the discussions, n o r was it practicable to subm it proofs of their questions to each of the speakers. For this deficiency and for any possible errors in the rep o rtin g of questions we offer o u r apology. T h e stencils of the charts, diagrams, and draw ings have been cut w ith Professor J u n g ’s perm ission from the originals in his posses­ sion.1 O ur thanks are due to the In stitu te of M edical Psychology not only for giving the A nalytical Psychology C lub perm ission to rep o rt the Lectures b u t also for facilitating the work in every way. T o Miss T o n i W olff we w ould express our special g ratitude for helping us w ith o u r task. Finally, and above all, we wish to thank Professor Ju n g for answ ering questions about difficult points a n d for passing the re p o rt in its final form. M ary B arker M argaret G a m e

London, October 1935 1 [The charts and diagrams have been re-executed, and photographs o f the drawings (actually water-colours) have kindly been furnished by Dr. E. A. Bennet.]

LECTURE I The Chairman (Dr. H . Crichton-Miller): Ladies and Gentlemen, I am here to express your welcome to Professor lung, and it gives me great pleasure to do so. We have looked forward, Professor Jung, to your coming for several months with happy anticipation. Many of us no doubt have looked forward to these seminars hoping for new light. Most of us, I trust, are looking forward to them hoping for new light upon ourselves. Many have come here because they look upon you as the man who has saved modern psychology from a dangerous isolation in the range of human knowledge and science into which it was drifting. Some of us have come here because we respect and admire that breadth of vision with which you have boldly made the alliance between philosophy and psychology which has been so condemned in certain other quarters. You have restored for us the idea of value, the concept of human freedom in psychological thought; you have given us certain new ideas that to many of us have been very precious, and above all things you have not relinquished the study of the human psyche at the point where all science ends. For this and many other benefits which are known to each of us independently and individually we are grateful to you, and we antiCipate with the highest expectations these meetings. Professor lung: 2

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Ladies and Gentlemen: First of all I should like to point out that my mother tongue is not English; thus if my English is not too good I must ask your forgiveness for any error I may commit. As you know, my purpose is to give you a short outline of certain fundamental conceptions of psychology. If my demonstration is chiefly concerned with my own principles or my own 5

p o in t of view, it is n o t th a t I overlook th e value of the great co n trib u tio n s of o th er w orkers in this field. I do n o t w ant to push myself u n d u ly in to the foreground, b u t I can surely expect m y audience to be as m uch aw are of F re u d ’s an d A d ler’s m erits as I am. 4 N ow as to o u r procedure, I should like to give you first a short idea of my program m e. W e have two m ain topics to deal w ith, nam ely, on the one side th e concepts concerning the struc­ ture of the unconscious m ind an d its contents; on th e other, the methods used in the investigation of contents o rig in atin g in the unconscious psychic processes. T h e second topic falls into three parts, first, th e w ord-association m ethod; second, the m ethod of dream -analysis; an d th ird , th e m eth o d of active im agination. 5 I know, of course, th a t I am u n ab le to give you a full account of all there is to say ab o u t such difficult topics as, fo r instance, th e philosophical, religious, ehical, an d social problem s peculiar to the collective consciousness of o u r tim e, o r the processes of the collective unconscious an d the com parative m ythological an d historical researches necessary for th e ir elucidation. T h ese to p ­ ics, although ap p aren tly rem ote, are yet th e m ost p o te n t factors in m aking, reg ulating, an d d istu rb in g th e personal m ental con­ d itio n , an d they also form th e ro o t of disagreem ent in the field of psychological theories. A lth o u g h I am a m edical m an an d therefore chiefly concerned w ith psychopathology, I am never­ theless convinced th a t this p a rticu la r b ran ch of psychology can only be benefited by a considerably deepened a n d m ore ex ten ­ sive know ledge of the n o rm al psyche in general. T h e doctor es­ pecially should never lose sight of th e fact th a t diseases are dis­ tu rb e d n orm al processes an d n o t entia per se w ith a psychology exclusively th e ir own. Similia similibus curantur is a rem arkable tru th of th e old m edicine, an d as a great tru th it is also liable to becom e great nonsense. M edical psychology, therefore, should be careful n o t to becom e m o rb id itself. One-sidedness and re ­ striction of horizon are w ell-know n n eu ro tic peculiarities. 6 W h atev er I m ay be able to tell you w ill u n d o u b te d ly rem ain a reg rettab ly unfinished torso. U n fo rtu n ate ly I take little stock of new theories, as m y em pirical tem p eram en t is m ore eager for new facts th a n for w h at one m ig h t speculate ab o u t them , al­ though this is, I m u st adm it, an enjoyable in tellectu al pastime. Each new case is alm ost a new theory to me, an d I am n o t q u ite 6

convinced that this standpoint is a thoroughly bad one, particu­ larly when one considers the extreme youth of modern psychol­ ogy, which to my mind has not yet left its cradle. I know, there­ fore, that the time for general theories is not yet ripe. It even looks to me sometimes as if psychology had not yet understood either the gigantic size of its task, or the perplexingly and dis­ tressingly complicated nature of its subject-matter: the psyche itself. It seems as if we were just waking up to this fact, and that the dawn is still too dim for us to realize in full what it means that the psyche, being the object of scientific observation and judgm ent, is at the same time its subject, the means by which you make such observations. T h e menace of so formidably vi­ cious a circle has driven me to an extreme of caution and relativ­ ism which has often been thoroughly misunderstood. 7 I do not want to disturb our dealings by bringing up disqui­ eting critical arguments. I only mention them as a sort of antici­ patory excuse for seemingly unnecessary complications. I am not troubled by theories, but a great deal by facts; and I beg you therefore to keep in m ind that the shortness of time at my dis­ posal does not allow me to produce all the circumstantial evi­ dence which would substantiate my conclusions. I especially refer here to the intricacies of dream-analysis and to the compar­ ative m ethod of investigating the unconscious processes. In short, I have to depend a great deal upon your goodwill, b u t I realize naturally it is my own task in the first place to make things as plain as possible. 8 Psychology is a science of consciousness, in the very first place. In the second place, it is the science of the products of what we call the unconscious psyche. We cannot directly explore the unconscious psyche because the unconscious is just uncon­ scious, and we have therefore no relation to it. We can only deal w ith the conscious products which we suppose have originated in the field called the unconscious, that field of “dim representa­ tions” which the philosopher Kant in his Anthropology1 speaks of as being half a world. Whatever we have to say about the unconscious is what the conscious m ind says about it. Always the unconscious psyche, which is entirely of an unknown nature, is expressed by consciousness and in terms of consciousness, and I [A nthropologie in pragm atischer H insicht (1798), P t. I, Bk. I, sec. 5.]

9

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that is the only thing we can do. W e cannot go beyond that, and we should always keep it in m ind as an ultim ate critique of our judgm ent. Consciousness is a peculiar thing. It is an interm ittent phe­ nom enon. One-fifth, or one-third, or perhaps even one-half of our hum an life is spent in an unconscious condition. O ur early childhood is unconscious. Every night we sink into the u n ­ conscious, and only in phases between waking and sleeping have we a more or less cleat consciousness. T o a certain extent it is even questionable how clear that consciousness is. For instance, we assume that a boy or girl ten years of age would be conscious, b u t one could easily prove that it is a very peculiar kind of con­ sciousness, for it m ight be a consciousness w ithout any con­ sciousness of the ego. I know a num ber of cases of children eleven, twelve, and fourteen years of age, or even older, sud­ denly realizing “I am .” For the first tim e in their lives they know that they themselves are experiencing, that they are look­ ing back over a past in which they can rem em ber things happen­ ing b u t cannot rem em ber that they were in them. W e m ust adm it that when we say “I ” we have no absolute criterion w hether we have a full experience of “I ” or not. It might be that our realization of the ego is still fragmentary and that in some future time people will know very much more about what the ego means to m an than we do. As a m atter of fact, we cannot see where that process m ight ultim ately end. Consciousness is like a surface or a skin upon a vast uncon­ scious area of unknow n extent. W e do not know how far the unconscious rules because we simply know nothing of it. You cannot say anything about a thing of which you know nothing. W hen we say “the unconscious” we often mean to convey some­ thing by the term, but as a m atter of fact we simply convey that we do not know what the unconscious is. W e have only indirect proofs that there is a m ental sphere which is subliminal. W e have some scientific justification for our conclusion that it exists. From the products which that unconscious m ind produces we can draw certain conclusions as to its possible nature. But we must be careful not to be too anthropom orphic in o u r conclu­ sions, because things m ight in reality be very different from what our consciousness makes them. If, for instance, you look at our physical world and if you 8

compare what our consciousness makes of this same world, you find all sorts of mental pictures which do not exist as objective facts. For instance, we see colour and hear sound, but in reality they are oscillations. As a matter of fact, we need a laboratory with very complicated apparatus in order to establish a picture of that world apart from our senses and apart from our psyche; and I suppose it is very much the same with our unconscious— we ought to have a laboratory in which we could establish by objective methods how things really are when in an unconscious condition. So any conclusion or any statement I make in the course of my lectures about the unconscious should be taken with that critique in mind. It is always as if, and you should never forget that restriction. T h e conscious mind moreover is characterized by a certain narrowness. It can hold only a few simultaneous contents at a given moment. AU the rest is unconscious at the time, and we only get a sort of continuation or a general understanding or awareness of a conscious world through the succession of con­ scious moments. W e can never hold an image of totality because our consciousness is too narrow; we can only see flashes of exist­ ence. It is always as if we were observing through a slit so that we only see a particular moment; all the rest is dark and we are not aware of it at that moment. T he area of the unconscious is enor­ mous and always continuous, while the area of consciousness is a restricted field of momentary vision. l4 Consciousness is very much the product of perception and orientation in the external world. It is probably localized in the cerebrum, which is of ectodermic origin and was probably a sense organ of the skin at the time of our remote ancestors. T he consciousness derived from that localization in the brain there­ fore probably retains these qualities of sensation and orientation. Peculiarly enough, the French and English psychologists of the early seventeenth and eighteenth centuries tried to derive con­ sciousness from the senses as if it consisted solely of sense data. T hat is expressed by the famous formula N ih il est in intellectu quod non fuerit in sensur You can observe something similar in 2 [“T h e r e is n o th in g in the m ind that was n ot in the senses." Cf. Leibniz, N ou v eau x Essais su r V E n ten dem en t h u m ain , Bk. II, ch. i, sec. 2, in response to Locke. T h e form u la was scholastic in origin; cf. D u n s Scotus, S u per u n iversa lib u s P or-

p h y r ii, q u . 3.]

m odern psychological theories. Freud, for instance, does no t de­ rive the conscious from sense data, b u t he derives the uncon­ scious from the conscious, which is along the same rational line. >5 I would put it the reverse way: I would say the thing that comes first is obviously the unconscious and that consciousness really arises from an unconscious condition. In early childhood we are unconscious; the most im portant functions of an instinc­ tive nature are unconscious, and consciousness is rather the prod­ uct of the unconscious. It is a condition which demands a violent effort. You get tired from being conscious. You get ex­ hausted by consciousness. It is an almost un n atu ral effort. W hen you observe primitives, for instance, you will see that on the slightest provocation or with no provocation whatever they doze off, they disappear. T hey sit for hours on end, and when you ask them, “W hat are you doing? W hat are you thinking?’’ they are offended, because they say, “Only a man that is crazy thinks— he has thoughts in his head. W e do not th in k .” If they think at all, it is rath er in the belly or in the heart. C ertain Negro tribes assure you that thoughts are in the belly because they only real­ ize those thoughts which actually disturb the liver, intestines, or stomach. In other words, they are conscious only of emotional thoughts. Emotions and affects are always accompanied by ob­ vious physiological innervations. 16 T h e Pueblo Indians told me that all Americans are crazy, and of course I was somewhat astonished and asked them why. T hey said, “W ell, they say they think in their heads. N o sound m an thinks in the head. W e think in the heart.” T hey are just about in the H om eric age, when the diaphragm (phren — mind, soul) was the seat of psychic activity. T h a t means a psychic local­ ization of a different nature. Our concept of consciousness sup­ poses thought to be in our most dignified head. B ut the Pueblo Indians derive consciousness from the intensity of feeling. Ab­ stract thought does not exist for them. As the Pueblo Indians are sun-worshippers, I tried the argum ent of St. Augustine on them. I told them that God is not the sun b u t the one who made the sun.3 T hey could not accept this because they cannot go beyond the perceptions of their senses and their feelings. There[In Johannis Evang., X X X IV , a. Cf. Sym bols o f T ra n sfo rm a tio n (C.W., vol. 5) , p a r. 16a an d n . 69.]

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fore consciousness an d th o u g h t to them are localized in the heart. T o us, on the o th er hand, psychic activities are nothing. W e hold th a t dream s and fantasies are localized “dow n below ,” therefore there are people who speak of the sub-conscious m ind, of the things th a t are below consciousness. »7 T hese peculiar localizations play a great role in so-called prim itive psychology, w hich is by no means prim itive. For in ­ stance if you study T a n tric Yoga a n d H in d u psychology you w ill find the most elaborate system of psychic layers, of localizations of consciousness u p from the region of the p erin eu m to the top of the head. These “centres” are the so-called chakras,4 an d you n o t only find them in the teachings of yoga b u t can discover the same idea in old G erm an alchem ical books,5 which surely do n o t derive from a knowledge of yoga. 18 T h e im p o rtan t fact ab o u t consciousness is th at n o th in g can be conscious w ith o u t an ego to which it refers. If som ething is n o t related to th e ego then it is n o t conscious. T h ere fo re you can define consciousness as a relation of psychic facts to the ego. W h at is th a t ego? T h e ego is a com plex d atu m w hich is consti­ tu ted first of all by a general awareness of y our body, of your existence, an d secondly by your m em ory data; you have a certain idea of having been, a long series of memories. T h o se two are the m ain constituents of w hat we call the ego. T h erefo re you can call the ego a com plex of psychic facts. T h is com plex has a great pow er of attraction, like a m agnet; it attracts contents from th e unconscious, from th a t dark realm of w hich we know nothing; it also attracts im pressions from the outside, and w hen they en ter in to association w ith the ego they are conscious. If they do not, they are n o t conscious. >9 My idea of the ego is th at it is a sort of com plex. O f course, the nearest an d dearest com plex w hich we cherish is o u r ego. It is always in the centre of o u r atten tio n an d of o u r desires, an d it is the absolutely indispensable centre of consciousness. If the ego becomes split up, as in schizophrenia, all sense of values is gone, and also things becom e inaccessible for voluntary rep ro d u ctio n 4 [C f. " T h e R e a litie s o f P r a c tic a l P sy c h o th e r a p y ” (C .W ., v o l. 16, 2 n d e d n .), p ars.

558ff.J 8 [W h a t J u n g m a y h a v e h a d in m in d a re t h e m e lo th e s ia e , e x p la in e d in “ P sy c h o l­ o g y a n d R e lig io n ” (C .W ., v o l. t i ) , p ar. 113, n . 5; cf. P s y c h o lo g y a n d A lc h e m y , S g . 156.]

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because the centre has split and certain parts of the psyche refer to one fragm ent of the ego and certain other contents to another fragm ent of the ego. Therefore, w ith a schizophrenic, you often see a rapid change from one personality into another. You can distinguish a num ber of functions in consciousness. T hey enable consciousness to become "oriented in the field of ectopsychic facts and endopsychic facts. W hat I understand by the ectopsyche is a system of relationship between the contents of consciousness and facts and data coming in from the environ­ ment. It is a system of orientation which concerns my dealing with the external facts given to me by the function of my senses. T h e endopsyche, on the other hand, is a system of relationship between the contents of consciousness and postulated processes in the unconscious. In the first place we will speak of the ectopsychic functions. First of all we have sensation,6 our sense function. By sensation I understand what the French psychologists call “la fonction du reel,” which is the sum-total of my awareness of external facts given to me through the function of my senses. So I think that the French term “la fonction du r£el” explains it in the most comprehensive way. Sensation tells me that something is: it does not tell me what it is and it does not tell me other things about that something; it only tells me that something is. T h e next function that is distinguishable is thinking.7 T hinking, if you ask a philosopher, is something very difficult, so never ask a philosopher about it because he is the only man who does not know what thinking is. Everybody else knows what thinking is. W hen you say to a man, “Now think properly,” he knows exactly what you mean, b u t a philosopher never knows. T h in k in g in its simplest form tells you what a thing is. It gives a nam e to the thing. It adds a concept because thinking is percep­ tion and judgm ent. (German psychology calls it appercep­ tion.)8 T h e th ird function you can distinguish and for which ordi­ nary language has a term is feeling.9 H ere minds become very confused and people get angry when I speak about feeling, be6 [Psychological Types (C.W., vol. 6), D efinition 47.] I [Ibid., D el. 53.] 8 [Ibid., Def. 5.] 9 [Ibid., Def. S i.]

cause according to their view I say something very dreadful about it. Feeling informs you through its feeling-tones of the values of things. Feeling tells you for instance whether a thing is acceptable or agreeable or not. It tells you what a thing is worth to you. On account of that phenomenon, you cannot perceive and you cannot apperceive w ithout having a certain feeling re­ action. You always have a certain feeling-tone, which you can even demonstrate by experiment. We will talk of these things later on. Now the “dreadful” thing about feeling is that it is, like thinking, a rational10 function. AU men who think are abso­ lutely convinced that feeling is never a rational function but, on the contrary, most irrational. Now I say: Just be patient for a while and realize that man cannot be perfect in every respect. If a man is perfect in his thinking he is surely never perfect in his feeling, because you cannot do the two things at the same time; they hinder each other. Therefore when you want to think in a dispassionate way, really scientifically or philosophically, you must get away from all feeling-values. You cannot be bothered with feeling-values at the same time, otherwise you begin to feel that it is far more im portant to think about the freedom of the will than, for instance, about the classification of lice. A nd cer­ tainly if you approach from the point of view of feeling the two objects are not only different as to facts b u t also as to value. Val­ ues are no anchors for the intellect, but they exist, and giving value is an im portant psychological function. If you want to have a complete picture of the world you must necessarily con­ sider values. If you do not, you will get into trouble. T o many people feeling appears to be most irrational, because you feel all sorts of things in foolish moods; therefore everybody is con­ vinced, in this country particularly, that you should control your feelings. I quite adm it that this is a good habit and wholly adm ire the English for that faculty. Yet there are such things as feelings, and I have seen people who control their feelings mar­ vellously well and yet are terribly bothered by them. 24 Now the fourth function. Sensation tells us that a thing is. T hinking tells us what that thing is, feeling tells us what it is worth to us. Now what else could there be? One would assume one has a complete picture of the world when one knows there is i o [ I b i d . , D e f . 4 4 .]

so m e th in g , w h a t it is, a n d w h a t it is wor th. B u t th e re is a n o th e r categ o ry , a n d th a t is tim e. T h in g s h av e a past a n d th e y h av e a f u tu r e . T h e y co m e fro m so m ew h ere, th e y go to so m ew h ere, a n d y ou c a n n o t see w h e re th e y cam e fro m a n d y o u c a n n o t k n o w w h e re th e y go to, b u t you g e t w h a t th e A m eric an s call a h u n c h . F o r in sta n c e , if y o u a re a d e a le r in a r t o r in o ld f u r n it u r e y o u get a h u n c h th a t a c e rta in o b je c t is b y a very good m a ste r o f 1720, y ou g et a h u n c h th a t it is g o o d w o rk . O r y o u do n o t k n o w w h a t shares w ill d o a f te r a w h ile, b u t y o u g e t th e h u n c h th a t th e y w ill rise. T h a t is w h a t is c a lle d i n t u i t i o n ,11 a s o rt of d iv in a tio n , a so rt o f m ira c u lo u s facu lty . F o r in sta n ce, you d o n o t k n o w th a t y o u r p a tie n t has s o m e th in g o n h is m in d of a v ery p a in fu l k in d , b u t y o u “ g et a n id e a ,” you “h av e a c e rta in fe e lin g ,” as w e say, b e ­ cause o r d in a ry la n g u a g e is n o t y et d e v e lo p e d e n o u g h fo r o n e to h av e s u ita b ly d e fin e d te rm s. T h e w o rd in tu itio n b eco m es m o re a n d m o re a p a r t o f th e E n g lish la n g u ag e, a n d y o u a re very f o r tu n a te b ecau se in o th e r la n g u ag es th a t w o rd does n o t exist. T h e G e rm a n s c a n n o t ev en m a k e a lin g u is tic d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n s e n s a tio n a n d feelin g . I t is d iffe re n t in F re n c h ; if y o u speak F re n c h y ou c a n n o t p o ssib ly say th a t y o u h av e a c e rta in “s e n ti­ m e n t d a n s l ’e sto m ac,” y o u w ill say “s e n s a tio n ” ; in E n g lish y o u also h av e y o u r d is tin c tiv e w o rd s fo r s e n sa tio n a n d feelin g . B u t y o u c a n m ix u p feeling a n d i n tu i ti o n easily. T h e r e f o r e it is a n a l­ m o st a rtific ia l d is tin c tio n I m a k e h e re , th o u g h fo r p ra c tic a l r e a ­ sons it is m o st im p o r ta n t th a t w e m a k e su ch a d iffe re n tia tio n in scien tific la n g u ag e. W e m u s t d efin e w h a t w e m e a n w h e n w e use c e rta in te rm s, o th e rw ise w e ta lk a n u n in te llig ib le la n g u a g e , a n d in psychology th is is alw ays a m is fo rtu n e . I n o rd in a ry co n v ersa­ tio n , w h e n a m a n says feelin g , h e m e a n s p ossibly s o m e th in g e n ­ tire ly d iffe re n t fro m a n o th e r fello w w h o also talks a b o u t feelin g . T h e r e a re a n y n u m b e r o f psychologists w h o use th e w o rd feel­ ing, a n d th e y d efin e i t as a so rt o f c r ip p le d th o u g h t. “ F e e lin g is n o th in g b u t a n u n fin is h e d th o u g h t”— th a t is th e d e fin itio n o f a w ell-k n o w n psy ch o lo g ist. B u t fe e lin g is s o m e th in g g e n u in e , it is s o m e th in g real, it is a fu n c tio n , a n d th e re fo re we h a v e a w o rd fo r it. T h e in s tin c tiv e n a tu r a l m in d alw ays finds th e w o rd s th a t d es­ ig n a te th in g s w h ic h re a lly h av e ex isten ce. O n ly psychologists in ­ v e n t w o rd s fo r th in g s th a t d o n o t exist. 11 [Ibid., Def.

35

.]

25

T h e last-defined function, in tu itio n , seems to be very myste­ rious, and you know I am “very m ystical,” as people say. T h is then is one of my pieces of mysticism! In tu itio n is a fu n ctio n by w hich you see ro u n d corners, which you really can n o t do; yet the fellow will do it for you an d you trust him . It is a fu n ctio n w hich norm ally you do n o t use if you live a reg u lar life w ith in fo u r walls an d do reg u lar ro u tin e work. B ut if you are on the Stock Exchange or in C entral Africa, you w ill use your hunches like anything. You cannot, for instance, calculate w hether when you tu rn ro u n d a corner in the bush you w ill m eet a rhinoceros or a tiger— b u t you get a hunch, an d it w ill perhaps save your life. So you see th at people who live exposed to n a tu ra l condi­ tions use in tu itio n a great deal, an d people who risk som ething in an u nknow n field, who are pioneers of some sort, w ill use in tu itio n . Inventors w ill use it and judges w ill use it. W henever you have to deal w ith strange conditions w here you have no es­ tablished values or established concepts, you w ill d ep en d u p o n th a t faculty of in tu itio n . 26 I have tried to describe th a t functio n as well as I can, b u t perhaps it is n o t very good. I say th a t in tu itio n is a sort of p er­ ception which does not go exactly by the senses, b u t it goes via the unconscious, an d at th at I leave it an d say “I d o n ’t know how it works.” I do n o t know w hat is h ap p en in g w hen a m an knows som ething he definitely should not know. I do n o t know how he has come by it, b u t he has it all rig h t and he can act on it. For instance, anticipatory dream s, telepathic phenom ena, an d all th a t k in d of th in g are intuitions. I have seen plenty of them , and I am convinced th a t they do exist. You can see these things also w ith prim itives. You can see them everywhere if you pay a tte n ­ tio n to these perceptions th a t somehow w ork th ro u g h the sub­ lim inal data, such as sense-perceptions so feeble th a t o u r con­ sciousness sim ply cannot take them in. Sometimes, for instance, in cryptom nesia, som ething creeps up in to consciousness; you catch a word which gives you a suggestion, b u t it is always some­ th in g th at is unconscious u n til the m o m en t it appears, and so presents itself as if it had fallen from heaven. T h e G erm ans call this an Einfall, w hich m eans a th in g w hich falls in to your head from now here. Sometimes it is like a revelation. A ctually, in tu i­ tio n is a very n atu ral function, a perfectly n orm al thing, an d it is necessary, too, because it makes u p for w hat you can n o t perceive

or th in k o r feel because it lacks reality. You see, th e past is no t real any m ore and th e fu tu re is n o t as real as we think. T h e re fo re we m ust be very grateful to heaven th a t we have such a fu n ctio n w hich gives us a certain lig h t on those things which are ro u n d the corners. D octors, of course, b ein g often presen ted w ith the m ost unheard-of situations, need in tu itio n a great deal. M any a good diagnosis comes from this “very m ysterious” function. 27 Psychological functions are usually co n tro lled by th e w ill, or we hope they are, because we are afraid of everything th a t moves by itself. W h en th e functions are co n tro lled they can be ex­ cluded from use, they can be suppressed, they can be selected, they can be increased in intensity, they can be d irected by w ill­ pow er, by w hat we call in te n tio n . B u t they also can fu n ctio n in an in v o lu n ta ry way, th a t is, they th in k fo r you, they feel for you — very often they do this an d you can n o t even stop them . O r they fu n ctio n unconsciously so th a t you do n o t know w hat they have done, th o u g h you m ig h t be presented, for instance, w ith the resu lt of a feeling process w hich has h ap p en ed in the u n c o n ­ scious. A fterw ards som ebody w ill p ro b ab ly say, “ O h, you were very angry, or you w ere offended, an d therefore you reacted in such an d such a way.” Perhaps you are q u ite unconscious th at you have felt in th a t way, nevertheless it is m ost p ro b ab le th a t you have. Psychological functions, like the sense functions, have th e ir specific energy. You cannot dispose of feeling, o r of th in k ­ ing, o r of any of the fo u r functions. N o one can say, “ I w ill n o t th in k ”— he w ill th in k inevitably. People can n o t say, “ I w ill n o t feel”— they w ill feel because the specific energy invested in each fu n ctio n expresses itself an d can n o t be exchanged for another. 28 O f course, one has preferences. People w ho have a good m in d p refer to th in k a b o u t things a n d to ad ap t by th in k in g . O th e r people who have a good feeling fu n ctio n are good social m ixers, they have a great sense of values; they are real artists in creatin g feeling situations an d living by feeling situations. O r a m an w ith a keen sense of objective observation w ill use his sen­ sation chiefly, an d so on. T h e d o m in a tin g fu n ctio n gives each in d iv id u al his p a rtic u la r k in d of psychology. F o r exam ple, w hen a m an uses chiefly his intellect, he w ill be of an u n m istak ab le type, a n d you can deduce from th a t fact th e co n d itio n of his feeling. W h en th in k in g is the d o m in a n t or su p erio r function, 16

feeling is necessarily in an in ferio r c o n d itio n .12 T h e same ru le applies to the o th e r three functions. B u t I w ill show you th a t w ith a diagram w hich w ill m ake it clear. 29 You can m ake the so-called cross of the functions (Figure 1).

r

s

F

F ig. 1. T h e Functions

In the centre is the ego (E) , w hich has a certain am o u n t of en ­ ergy a t its disposal, an d that energy is the will-power. In th e case of the th in k in g type, th a t w ill-power can be directed to th in k in g (T ). T h e n we m ust p u t feeling (F) dow n below, because it is, in this case, the inferior fu n c tio n .13 T h a t comes from the fact th a t w hen you th in k you m ust exclude feeling, just as w hen you feel you m ust exclude thinking. If you are th in k in g , leave feel­ ing an d feeling-values alone, because feeling is m ost u p settin g to your thoughts. O n the o th er h a n d people w ho go by feelingvalues leave th in k in g well alone, an d they are rig h t to do so, because these two different functions co n trad ict each other. Peo­ ple have som etim es assured m e th a t th e ir th in k in g was ju st as differentiated as th e ir feeling, b u t I could n o t believe it, because an indiv id u al can n o t have the two opposites in the same degree of perfection at the same tim e. 3° T h e same is the case w ith sensation (S) a n d in tu itio n (I) . H ow do they affect each other? W h en you are observing physical 12 [Ibid., D ef. go.] 13 [Ibid.]

facts you can n o t see ro u n d corners at th e same time. W h en you observe a m an w ho is w orking by his sense fu n ctio n you w ill see, if you look at h im attentively, th a t the axes of his eyes have a tendency to converge a n d to com e tog eth er at one p o in t. W h en you study the expression or the eyes of in tu itiv e people, you w ill see th a t they only glance at things— they do n o t look, they ra d i­ ate at things because they take in th e ir fulness, an d am ong the m any things they perceive they get one p o in t on th e p erip h ery of th e ir field of vision an d th a t is the hunch. O ften you can tell from the eyes w h eth er people are in tu itiv e o r not. W h e n you have an in tu itiv e a ttitu d e you usually do n o t as a ru le observe the details. Y ou try always to take in th e w hole of a situ atio n , a n d then suddenly som ething crops u p o u t of this wholeness. W h en you are a sensation type you w ill observe facts as they are, b u t th e n you have no in tu itio n , sim ply because th e tw o things can n o t be done at th e same tim e. I t is too difficult, because the p rinciple of the one fu n ctio n excludes th e principle of th e o th e r fu n ctio n . T h a t is w hy I p u t th e m here as opposites. 31 Now, from this sim ple diagram you can arrive a t q u ite a lot of very im p o rta n t conclusions as to the stru c tu re of a given con­ sciousness. F or instance, if you find th a t th in k in g is highly differentiated, th e n feeling is u n d ifferen tiated . W h at does th a t m ean? Does it m ean these people have n o feelings? N o, on th e contrary. T h e y say, “ I have very strong feelings. I am fu ll of em otion an d te m p e ram en t.” T h ese people are u n d e r the sway of th e ir em otions, they are cau g h t by th e ir em otions, they are over­ com e by th e ir em otions at tim es. If, fo r instance, you study the p rivate life of professors it is a very in terestin g study. If you w ant to be fully inform ed as to how th e in tellectu al behaves at hom e, ask his wife a n d she w ill be able to tell you a story! 32 T h e reverse is tru e of the feelin g type. T h e feeling type, if he is n a tu ra l, never allows him self to be d istu rb e d by th in k in g ; b u t w hen he gets sophisticated an d som ew hat n eu ro tic h e is dis­ tu rb e d by thoughts. T h e n th in k in g appears in a com pulsory way, he can n o t get away from certain thoughts. H e is a very nice chap, b u t he has ex trao rd in ary convictions an d ideas, a n d his th in k in g is of an in fe rio r kin d . H e is cau g h t by this th in k in g , en tan g led in c ertain thoughts; he c an n o t disentangle because he c an n o t reason, his th o ughts are n o t m ovable. O n th e o th e r h and, a n in tellectual, w hen cau g h t by his feelings, says, “ I feel 18

ju st like th a t,” and th ere is no argum en t against it. O nly w hen he is thoroughly boiled in his em otion w ill he come o u t o£ it again. H e cannot be reasoned o u t of his feeling, an d he w o u ld be a very incom plete m an if he could. 33 T h e same happens w ith the sensation type an d the in tu itiv e type. T h e in tu itiv e is always b o th ered by the reality of things; he fails from the stan d p o in t of realities; he is always o u t for the possibilities of life. H e is the m an w ho plants a field an d before the crop is rip e is off again to a new field. H e has p lo ughed fields b e h in d h im an d new hopes ahead all th e tim e, an d n o th in g comes off. B u t the sensation type rem ains w ith things. H e re ­ m ains in a given reality. T o him a th in g is tru e w hen it is real. C onsider w hat it m eans to an in tu itiv e w hen som ething is real. I t is ju st the w rong thing; it should n o t be, som ething else should be. B u t w hen a sensation type does n o t have a given real­ ity— fo u r walls in w hich to be— he is sick. Give th e in tu itiv e type fo u r walls in w hich to be, an d th e only th in g is how to get o u t of it, because to him a given situ atio n is a prison w hich m ust be u n d o n e in th e shortest tim e so th a t h e can be off to new possi­ bilities. 34 T hese differences play a very great role in practical psychol­ ogy. Do n o t th in k I am p u ttin g people in to this box or th a t and saying, “ H e is an in tu itiv e ,” o r “ H e is a th in k in g type.” Peo­ ple often ask me, “Now, is So-and-So n o t a th in k in g type?” I say, “I never th o u g h t a b o u t it,” an d I d id n o t. It is no use a t all p u ttin g people in to draw ers w ith different labels. B ut w hen you have a large em pirical m aterial, you need critical principles of o rd er to help you to classify it. I hope I do n o t exaggerate, b u t to m e it is very im p o rta n t to be able to create a k in d of o rd er in my em pirical m aterial, particu larly w hen people are tro u b led and confused or w hen you have to explain them to som ebody else. For instance, if you have to explain a wife to a h u sb an d or a hus­ b an d to a wife, it is often very h elp fu l to have these objective criteria, otherw ise the whole th in g rem ains “ H e said”— “She said.” 35 As a ru le, the in fe rio r fu n ctio n does n o t possess th e qualities of a conscious differentiated function. T h e conscious differenti­ ated fu n ctio n can as a ru le be han d led by in te n tio n an d by the will. If you are a real th in k er, you can d irect your th in k in g by your will, you can control your thoughts. You are n o t the slave

of your thoughts, you can th in k of som ething else. You can say, “I can th in k som ething q u ite different, I can th in k the con­ tra ry .” B ut the feeling type can never do th a t because he cannot get rid of his thought. T h e th o u g h t possesses him , or ra th e r he is possessed by th o u g h t. T h o u g h t has a fascination for him , th e re ­ fore he is afraid o f it. T h e in tellectu al type is afraid of beingcaught by feeling because his feeling has an archaic q u ality , an d th e re he is like an archaic m an— he is th e helpless victim of his em otions. It is for this reason th a t p rim itiv e m an is e x tra o rd in a r­ ily polite, he is very careful n o t to d istu rb th e feelings o f his fellows because it is dangerous to do so. M any of o u r custom s are ex p lain ed by th a t archaic politeness. F o r instance, it is n o t the custom to shake hands w ith som ebody a n d keep y o u r left h an d in y our pocket, or b e h in d your back, because it m u st be visible th a t you do n o t carry a w eapon in th a t h an d . T h e O rie n ta l g reetin g of bow ing w ith hands ex ten d ed palm s u p w a rd m eans “I have n o th in g in my h an d s.” If you kow tow you d ip y o u r head to th e feet of the o th e r m an so th a t h e sees you are absolutely defenceless an d th a t you tru st him com pletely. Y ou can still study the sym bolism of m anners w ith prim itives, an d you can also see w hy they are afraid of th e o th e r fellow. In a sim ilar way, we are afraid of o u r in fe rio r functions. If you take a typical in ­ tellectual w ho is te rrib ly a fra id of fallin g in love, you w ill th in k his fear very foolish. B u t he is m ost p ro b ab ly rig h t, because he w ill very likely m ake foolish nonsense w hen h e falls in love. H e w ill be caught m ost certainly, because his feeling only reacts to an archaic o r to a dangerous type of w om an. T h is is w hy m any intellectuals are in clin ed to m arry b e n ea th them . T h e y are c aught by th e landlady perhaps, o r by the cook, because they are u n aw are of th e ir archaic feeling th ro u g h w hich they get caught. B u t they are rig h t to be afraid, because th e ir u n d o in g w ill be in th e ir feeling. N obody can attack them in th e ir intellect. T h e re they are strong an d can stand alone, b u t in th e ir feelings they can be influenced, they can be caught, they can be cheated, and they know it. T h e re fo re never force a m an in to his feeling w hen he is an in tellectual. H e controls it w ith a n iro n h a n d because it is very dangerous. 36 T h e sam e law applies to each fu n ctio n . T h e in fe rio r fu n c­ tio n is always associated w ith an archaic personality in ourselves; in th e in ferio r fu n ctio n we are all prim itives. In o u r differenti20

37

ated functions we are civilized an d we are supposed to have free w ill; b u t there is no such th in g as free w ill w hen it comes to th e in ferio r function. T h e re we have an open w ound, or at least an open door th ro u g h w hich anything m ig h t enter. Now I am com ing to the endopsychic junctions of conscious­ ness. T h e functions of w hich I have ju st spoken ru le or help o u r conscious o rie n ta tio n in o u r relations w ith the environm ent; b u t they do n o t apply to the relatio n of things th a t are as it were below the ego. T h e ego is only a b it of consciousness w hich floats u p o n the ocean of the dark things. T h e dark things are th e in n e r things. O n th a t in n e r side there is a layer of psychic events th at forms a sort of fringe of consciousness ro u n d th e ego. I w ill illus­ tra te it by a diagram :

B

F ig . 2. T h e E g o

38

If you suppose A A ' to be the thresh o ld of consciousness, th en you w ould have in D an area of consciousness re fe rrin g to the ectopsychic w orld B, the w orld ru le d by those functions of w hich we w ere ju st speaking. B u t on the o th e r side, in C, is the shadow-world. T h e re the ego is som ew hat dark, we do n o t see into it, we are an enigm a to ourselves. W e only know th e ego in D, we do n o t know it in C. T h e re fo re we are always discovering som ething new a b o u t ourselves. A lm ost every year som ething new tu rn s u p w hich we d id n o t know before. W e always th in k we are now a t the en d of o u r discoveries. W e never are. W e go on discovering th a t we are this, th at, a n d o th e r things, an d some21

tim es we have astoun d in g experiences. T h a t shows there is al­ ways a part o f ou r personality w hich is still unconscious, w hich is still becom ing; we are unfinished; we are grow in g and changing. Yet that future personality w hich w e are to be in a year’s tim e is already here, o n ly it is still in the shadow. T h e ego is lik e a m ov­ ing frame on a film. T h e fu ture personality is n ot yet visible, b u t w e are m ovin g along, and presently we com e to v iew the future being. T h ese p o ten tia lities naturally b elon g to the dark side of the ego. W e are w ell aware o f w hat w e have been, b u t w e are n ot aware of w hat w e are g oin g to be. 39 T h erefore the first fu n ctio n on that endopsychic side is m e m o ry. T h e fu n ctio n o f m em ory, or rep roduction, links us u p w ith things that have faded o u t of consciousness, things that be­ cam e su b lim in al or were cast away or repressed. W h at we call m em ory is this faculty to reproduce unconscious contents, and it is the first fu n ctio n w e can clearly d istin gu ish in its relationship betw een our consciousness and the contents that are actually n ot in view . 4° T h e second endopsychic fu n ctio n is a m ore difficult prob­ lem . W e are now g ettin g in to deep waters because here we are com in g in to darkness. I w ill give you the nam e first: the su bjec­ tive co m p o n e n ts of conscious functions. I h op e I can m ake it clear. For instance, w hen you m eet a m an you have n o t seen before, naturally you think so m eth in g ab ou t him . Y ou do not always think things you w ou ld be ready to tell h im im m ediately; perhaps you think things that are untrue, that do n o t really apply. Clearly, they are subjective reactions. T h e sam e reactions take place w ith things and w ith situations. Every ap p lication of a conscious fu n ction , w hatever the object m igh t be, is always accom panied by subjective reactions w hich are m ore or less in ­ adm issible or u n just or inaccurate. Y ou are p ain fu lly aware that these things happen in you, b u t n ob od y likes to adm it that he is subject to such phenom ena. H e prefers to leave them in the shadow, because that helps h im to assum e that he is perfectly in n ocen t and very n ice and honest and straightforw ard and “on ly too w illin g ,” etc.,— you know all these phrases. As a m at­ ter o f fact, on e is n ot. O n e has any am ou n t o f su bjective reac­ tions, b u t it is n o t q u ite b eco m in g to ad m it these things. T h ese reactions I call the subjective com ponents. T h e y are a very im22

portant part of our relations to our ow n inner side. T h ere things get d efin itely painful. T h a t is why we dislike en terin g this shadow-world o f the ego. W e do n ot like to look at the shadowside of ourselves; therefore there are m any p eop le in our civi­ lized society w ho have lost their shadow altogether, they have got rid of it. T h ey are only tw o-dim ensional; they have lost the third dim ension, and w ith it they have usually lost the body. T h e body is a most d o u b tfu l friend because it produces things w e do n o t like; there are too m any things about the body w hich cannot be m entioned. T h e body is very often the personification of this shadow of the ego. Som etim es it forms the skeleton in the cupboard, and everybody naturally wants to get rid o f such a thing. I think this makes sufficiently clear w hat I m ean by subjective com ponents. T h e y are usually a sort of disposition to react in a certain way, and usually the disposition is n o t alto­ gether favourable. 41 T h ere is on e exception to this definition: a person w ho is not, as we suppose we all are, livin g on the positive side, p u tting the right foot forward and n ot the w rong one, etc. T h ere are cer­ tain individuals w hom w e call in our Swiss dialect “pitch-birds” [.Pechvogel]; they are always g ettin g in to messes, they p u t their foot in it and always cause trouble, because they live their ow n shadow, they live their ow n negation. T h ey are the sort o f p eo­ p le w ho com e late to a concert or a lecture, and because they are very m odest and do n ot w ant to disturb other peop le, they sneak in at the end and then stum ble over a chair and m ake a hideous racket so that everybody has to look at them . T h o se are the “pitch-birds.” 42 N o w w e com e to the th ird endopsychic com ponent— I can­ n ot say function. In the case o f m em ory you can speak o f a func­ tion , b u t even your m em ory is on ly to a certain exten t a v o lu n ­ tary or controlled function. V ery often it is exceedingly tricky; it is lik e a bad horse that cannot be m astered. It often refuses in the m ost em barrassing way. A ll the m ore is this the case w ith the subjective com ponents and reactions. A nd now things b eg in to get worse, for this is w here the em otion s and affects com e in. T h ey are clearly not functions any m ore, they are just events, because in an em otion, as the word denotes, you are m oved away, you are cast ou t, your d ecen t ego is put aside, and som eth in g else

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takes your place. W e say, “H e is beside him self,” or “T h e devil is riding him ,’’ or “W hat has gotten into him today,” because he is like a man who is possessed. T h e prim itive does not say he got angry beyond measure; he says a spirit got into him and changed him completely. Som ething like that happens with emotions; you are simply possessed, you are no longer yourself, and your control is decreased practically to zero. T h at is a condition in which the inner side of a man takes hold of him, he cannot pre­ vent it. H e can clench his fists, he can keep quiet, but it has him nevertheless. T h e fourth important endopsychic factor is what I call inva­ sion. Here the shadow-side, the unconscious side, has full control so that it can break into the conscious condition. T h en the con­ scious control is at its lowest. T hose are the moments in a human life which you do not necessarily call pathological; they are pathological only in the old sense of the word when pathol­ ogy meant the science of the passions. In that sense you can call them pathological, but it is really an extraordinary condition in which a man is seized upon by his unconscious and when any­ thing may come out of him. One can lose one’s m ind in a more or less normal way. For instance, we cannot assume that the cases our ancestors knew very well are abnormal, because they are perfectly normal phenom ena am ong primitives. T h ey speak of the devil or an incubus or a spirit going into a man, or of his soul leaving him , one of his separate souls— they often have as many as six. W hen his soul leaves him , he is in an altered condi­ tion because he is suddenly deprived of himself; he suffers a loss of self. T hat is a thing you can often observe in neurotic pa­ tients. O n certain days, or from tim e to time, they suddenly lose their energy, they lose themselves, and they come under a strange influence. T hese phenom ena are not in themselves path­ ological; they belong to the ordinary phenom enology of man, but if they become habitual we rightly speak of a neurosis. T hese are the things that lead to neurosis; but they are also exceptional conditions among normal people. T o have over­ w helm ing em otions is not in itself pathological, it is merely undesirable. W e need not invent such a word as pathological for an undesirable thing, because there are other undesirable things in the world which are not pathological, for instance, tax-collec­ tors.

D iscussion Dr. J. A. Hadfield: In w hat sense do you use the w ord “em o tio n ” ? You used the w ord “feeling” ra th e r in the sense in w hich m any people here use the w ord “e m o tio n .” D o you give the term “em o tio n ” a spe­ cial significance or not? Professor Jung: 45 I am glad you have p u t th a t question, because th ere are usu­ ally great m istakes an d m isunderstandings concerning the use of the w ord em otion. N aturally everybody is free to use words as he likes, b u t in scientific language you are b o u n d to cling to certain distinctions so th a t everyone knows w hat you are talk in g about. You w ill rem em b er I explained “feeling” as a fu n ctio n of valu­ ing, a n d I do n o t attach any p a rtic u la r significance to feeling. I h o ld th a t feeling is a ratio n al fu n ctio n if it is differentiated. W h en it is n o t differentiated it ju st happens, an d th e n it has all the archaic qualities w hich can be sum m ed u p by th e w ord “u n ­ reasonable.” B ut conscious feeling is a ratio n al fu n ctio n of dis­ c rim in atin g values. Φ If you study em otions you w ill invariably find th a t you apply the w ord “em o tio n al” w hen it concerns a co n d itio n th a t is ch ar­ acterized by physiological innervations. T h erefo re you can m easure em otions to a certain extent, n o t th e ir psychic p a rt b u t the physiological part. You know the Jam es-Lange theory of affect.14 I take em otion as affect, it is the same as “som ething affects you.” I t does som ething to you— it interferes w ith you. E m otion is the th in g th a t carries you away. You are th ro w n o u t of yourself; you are beside yourself as if an explosion h ad m oved you o u t of yourself an d p u t you beside yourself. T h e re is a q u ite tangible physiological con d itio n w hich can be observed at the same tim e. So the difference w ould be this: feeling has no physi­ cal o r tangible physiological m anifestations, w hile em otion is characterized by an altered physiological condition. You know th a t the Jam es-Lange theory of affect says th a t you only get really em otional w hen you are aw are of the physiological altera44

[T h e theory was in d ep en d en tly advanced by W illia m Jam es and by th e D anish physiologist C, G. L ange, an d is com m only referred to by b o th th eir names.]

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tion o f your general co n d itio n . You can observe this w hen you are in a situ ation w here you w o u ld m ost probably be angry. You know you are g o in g to be angry, and then you feel the b lood ru sh in g up in to your head, and then you are really angry, b u t n ot before. Before, you o n ly know you are goin g to b e angry, b u t w hen the b lo o d rushes u p in to your head you are caught by your ow n anger, im m ed iately the body is affected, and because you realize that you are g ettin g excited, you are tw ice as angry as you ou gh t to be. T h e n you are in a real em otion. B u t w hen you have feelin g you have control. Y ou are on top of the situation, and you can say, “I have a very n ice feelin g or a very bad feelin g ab ou t it.” E verything is q u iet and n o th in g happens. Y ou can q u ietly inform som ebody, “I h ate y o u ,” very nicely. B ut w hen you say it sp itefu lly you have an em otion . T o say it q u ietly w ill n ot cause an em otion , eith er in yourself or in the other person. E m otion s are m ost contagious, they are the real carriers of m en ­ tal con tagion. For instance, if you are in a crowd that is in an em otion al con d itio n , you cannot h elp yourself, you are in it too, you are caught by that em otion . B ut the feelings o f other p eop le do n ot concern you in the least, and for this reason you w ill observe that the differentiated feelin g type usually has a co o lin g effect upon you, w h ile the em o tio n a l person heats you up be­ cause the fire is rad iating o u t of h im all the tim e. Y ou see the flame o f that em o tio n in his face. By sym pathy your sym pathetic system gets disturbed, and you w ill show very m u ch the same signs after a w hile. T h a t is n o t so w ith feelings. D o I m ake m y­ self clear? D r. H e n r y V. D icks: 47 M ay I ask, in co n tin u a tio n o f that question, w hat is the rela­ tio n in your view b etw een affects and feelings? 48

Professor Jung: It is a q u estion o f degree. If you have a value w h ich is over­ w h elm in gly strong for you it w ill becom e an em o tio n at a cer­ tain p oin t, nam ely, w hen it reaches such an in ten sity as to cause a p h ysiological inn ervation. AU our m en tal processes probably cause sligh t p hysiological disturbances w hich are so sm all that we have n ot the m eans to dem onstrate them . B u t w e have a pretty sensitive m eth od by w hich to m easure em otion s, or the physiological part o f them , and that is the psychogalvanic 26

effect .15 It is based on the fact th a t the electrical resistance of th e skin decreases u n d e r the influence of em otion. I t does n o t de­ crease u n d e r the influence of feeling. 49 I w ill give you an exam ple. I m ade the follow ing ex p erim en t w ith my form er Professor at the C linic. H e fu n ctio n ed as m y test partn er, an d I h ad him in the laboratory u n d e r th e ap p aratu s for m easuring the psychogalvanic effect. I to ld him to im agine som ething w hich was intensely disagreeable to him b u t of w hich he knew I was n o t aware, som ething unknow n to m e yet know n to him an d exceedingly painful. So he did. H e was well ac­ q u a in te d w ith such experim ents an d gifted w ith great pow er of concentration, so he co n cen trated on som ething, an d th ere was alm ost no visible d isturbance of the electrical resistance of the skin; the c u rre n t d id n o t increase at all. T h e n I th o u g h t I h ad a hunch. T h a t very m o rn in g I had observed certain signs of some­ th in g going on an d I guessed it m ust be hellishly disagreeable to my chief. So I th o u g h t, “ I am going to try som ething.” I sim ply said to him , “W as n o t th a t the case of So-and-So?”— m en tio n in g the nam e. Instantly there was a deluge of em otion. T h a t was the em o tio n ; th e form er reaction was the feeling. 5° It is a curious fact th a t hysterical p ain does n o t cause con­ tra c tio n of the pupils, it is n o t accom panied by physiological in n erv atio n , an d yet it is an intense pain. B ut physical pain causes contraction of the pupils. You can have an intense feeling an d no physiological alteration; b u t as soon as you have physio­ logical a lteratio n you are possessed, you are dissociated, throw n o u t of y our ow n house, an d the house is th e n free for the devils. D r. E ric Graham H o w e: 51 C o uld we eq u ate em otion an d feeling w ith conation and cognition respectively? W hereas feeling corresponds to cogni­ tion, em otion is conative. Professor Jung: 52 Yes, one could say th at in philosophical term inology. I have no objection. 15 [ J u n g a n d P e te r s o n , “ P s y c h o p h y s ic a l I n v e s t ig a t io n s w it h t h e G a lv a n o m e t e r a n d P n e u m o g r a p h i n N o r m a l a n d I n s a n e I n d i v i d u a l s ” (1 9 0 7 ); J u n g a n d R ic k s h e r , “ F u r th e r I n v e s t ig a t io n s o n t h e G a lv a n ic P h e n o m e n o n a n d R e s p ir a t io n in N o r m a l a n d I n s a n e I n d i v i d u a l s ” (1 9 0 7 ) ; in C .W ., v o l. 2.]

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Dr. H o w e: M ay I have a n o th e r shot? Y our classification in to fo u r fu n c­ tions, nam ely those of sensation, th in k in g , feeling, an d in tu i­ tio n , seems to m e to correspond w ith th e one-, two-, three-, and four-dim ensional classification. You yourself used th e w ord “ th ree-dim ensional” re fe rrin g to the h u m an body, an d you also said th a t in tu itio n differed from th e o th e r th ree in th a t it was th e fu n c tio n w hich in clu d ed T im e. Perhaps, therefore, it corre­ sponds to a fo u rth dim ension? In th a t case, I suggest th a t “sensa­ tio n ” corresponds w ith one-dim ensional, “p ercep tu al cogni­ tio n ” w ith tw o-dim ensional, “conceptual co gnition” (which w ould correspond perhaps w ith your “feeling”) w ith threedim ensional, a n d “ in tu itio n ” w ith four-dim ensional on this sys­ tem of classification. Professor Jung: 54 You can p u t it like that. Since in tu itio n som etim es seems to fu n ctio n as if th e re w ere n o space, an d som etim es as if th ere were no tim e, you m ig h t say th a t I ad d a sort of fo u rth d im e n ­ sion. B u t one should n o t go too far. T h e concept of the fo u rth dim ension does n o t produce facts. In tu itio n is so m eth in g like H . G. W ells’s T im e M achine. You re m e m b er the tim e m achine, th a t p e cu liar m otor, w hich w hen you sit o n it moves off w ith you in to tim e instead of in to space. It consists of four colum ns, th ree of w hich are always visible, b u t the fo u rth is visible only in d is­ tin ctly because it represents the tim e elem ent. I am sorry b u t th e aw kw ard fact is th a t in tu itio n is som eth in g like this fo u rth col­ u m n . T h e re is such a th in g as unconscious percep tio n , o r p e r­ ception by ways w hich are unconscious to us. W e have th e em ­ p irical m aterial to prove the existence of this fu n ctio n . I am sorry th a t th ere are such things. M y in te lle ct w o u ld wish for a clear-cut universe w ith no d im corners, b u t th ere are these cob­ webs in th e cosmos. N evertheless I do n o t th in k th ere is any­ th in g m ystical a b o u t in tu itio n . C an you explain beyond any possibility of d o u b t why, for instance, som e birds travel e n o r­ m ous distances, o r the doings of caterpillars, butterflies, ants, or term ites? T h e re you have to deal w ith q u ite a n u m b e r of ques­ tions. O r take the fact of w ater having th e greatest density a t 4° C entigrade. W hy such a thing? W hy has energy a lim ita tio n to q u an tu m ? W ell, it has, an d th a t is aw kw ard; it is n o t rig h t th a t 28

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such th in g s sh o u ld be, b u t th ey are. I t is ex actly lik e th e o ld q u estio n , “W h y has G o d m a d e flies?”— H e ju s t has. Dr. W ilfred R . Bion: 55 I n y o u r e x p e rim e n t w hy d id you ask th e P rofessor to th in k of a n ex p e rie n c e w h ich was p a in fu l to h im self a n d u n k n o w n to you? D o you th in k th e re is an y significance in th e fact th a t he knew you knew of th e u n p le a sa n t ex p erien ce in th e second ex ­ p e rim e n t a n d th a t th is h a d som e b e a rin g o n th e differen ce of e m o tio n a l re a c tio n w h ich h e show ed in th e tw o ex am p les you gave? Professor Jung: 56 Yes, abso lu tely . M y id e a was b ased o n th e fact th a t w h e n I k n o w th a t m y p a r tn e r does n o t know , it is far m o re ag reeab le to m e; b u t w h en I k n o w th a t h e know s too, it is a very d iffere n t th in g a n d is very disag reeab le. I n any d o c to r’s life th e re a re cases w hich are m o re o r less p a in fu l w h en a colleag u e know s a b o u t th em , a n d I k n ew alm o st fo r a c e rta in ty th a t if I gave h im a h in t th a t I knew , h e w o u ld ju m p lik e a m in e , a n d h e d id . T h a t was m y reason. Dr. Eric B. Strauss: 57 W o u ld D r. J u n g m ak e cle a re r w h at h e m ean s w h en h e says th a t feelin g is a ra tio n a l fu n ctio n ? F u rth e r, I do n o t q u ite u n d e r ­ sta n d w h at D r. J u n g m eans by feeling. M ost o f us w h en w e em ­ ploy th e te rm feelin g u n d e rs ta n d p o la rities su ch as p leasu re, pain , ten sio n , a n d re la x a tio n . F u rth e r, D r. J u n g claim s th a t th e d is tin c tio n b etw ee n feelings a n d em o tio n s is on ly o n e o f degree. If th e d is tin c tio n is on ly o n e of degree, h ow is it th a t h e p u ts th e m o n d iffe re n t sides of th e fro n tie r, so to speak? S till fu rth e r, D r. J u n g claim s th a t o n e of th e c rite ria o r th e ch ief c rite rio n w o u ld b e th a t feelings a re u n a c c o m p a n ie d by physiological change, w hereas em o tio n s are acc o m p an ied by su ch changes. E x ­ p e rim e n ts c o n d u c te d by P rofessor F re u d lic h e r16 in B erlin have, I th in k , show n clearly th a t sim p le feelings, in th e sense o f pleas­ ure, p a in , ten sio n , a n d re la x a tio n , a re as a m a tte r of fact accom ­ p a n ie d b y physiological changes, such as changes in th e b lo o d pressure, w h ich can n o w b e re c o rd e d b y very a cc u rate ap p a ra tu s. 16 [Possibly a stenographic slip for Jakob F reundlich, w h o conducted electro­ cardiogram experim ents; see his article in D eu tsch es A rc h iv fiir klin isch e M ed izin (Berlin), 1 7 7 : 4 ( 1 9 3 4 ), 449“57·]

Professor Jung: It is tru e th a t feelings, if they have an em otional character, are accom panied by physiological effects; b u t th ere are defi­ n itely feelings w hich do n o t change th e physiological co n d itio n . T h ese feelings are very m ental, they are n o t of an em otional n a tu re . T h a t is th e d istin ctio n I m ake. Inasm uch as feeling is a fu n c tio n of values, you w ill readily u n d e rstan d th a t this is n o t a physiological co ndition. I t can be som eth in g as ab stract as a b ­ stract th in k in g . Y ou w ould n o t expect abstract th in k in g to be a physiological co n dition. A bstract th in k in g is w hat th e te rm d e­ notes. D ifferentiated th in k in g is ra tio n a l; an d so feeling can be ra tio n a l in spite of th e fact th a t m any people m ix u p th e te rm i­ nology. 59 W e m ust have a w ord for th e giving of values. W e m u st des­ ignate th a t p a rtic u la r function, as a p art from others, an d feeling is an a p t term . O f course, you can choose any o th e r w ord you like, only you m ust say so. I have absolutely no o b jectio n if the m ajo rity of th in k in g people com e to the conclusion th a t feeling is a very b ad w ord for it. If you say, “W e p refer to use a n o th e r te rm ,” th e n you m ust choose a n o th e r term to designate th e fu n ctio n of valuing, because the fact of values rem ains a n d we m u st have a nam e for it. U sually th e sense of values is expressed by th e term “ feeling.” B u t I do n o t clin g to the term a t all. I am absolutely lib e ra l as to term s, only I give th e d efin itio n of term s so th a t I can say w hat I m ean w hen I use such and such a term . If anybody says th a t feeling is an em o tio n o r th a t feeling is a th in g th a t causes h e ig h ten ed blo o d pressure, I have n o objection. I only say th a t I do n o t use th e w ord in th at sense. If people should agree th a t it o u g h t to be fo rb id d en to use th e w ord feel­ in g in such a way as I do, I have no objection. T h e G erm ans have the w ords E m p fin d u n g a n d GefiihL W h en you read G oethe o r Schiller you find th a t even the poets m ix u p th e tw o func­ tions. G erm an psychologists have already recom m ended th e sup­ pression of th e w ord E m p fin d u n g for feeling, an d propose th a t o ne should use th e w ord G efiihl (feeling) for values, w hile the w ord E m p fin d u n g should be used for sensation. N o psychologist now adays w o uld say, “T h e feelings of m y eyes o r of my ears or of m y skin.” P eople of course say th a t they have feelings in th e ir b ig toe o r ear, b u t n o scientific language of th a t k in d is possible any m ore. T a k in g those two words as identical, one co u ld ex-

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press the m ost exalted m oods by the word E m p fin d u n g j b u t it is exactly as if a Frenchm an spoke of “les sensations Ies plus n obles de l ’am our.” P eop le w ou ld laugh, you know. It w ou ld b e abso­ lu tely im possible, shocking] Dr. E. A . B e n n e t: D o you consider that the superior fu n ction in the case o f a person suffering from m anic-depression rem ains conscious dur­ in g the period of depression? Professor Jung: I w ou ld n o t say that. If you consider the case of m anic-depres­ sive insanity you occasionally find that in the m anic phase one fu n ction prevails and in the depressive phase another fu n ction prevails. For instance, peop le w ho are lively, sanguine, nice and kind in the m anic phase, and do n ot think very m uch, suddenly becom e very thou ghtfu l w hen the depression com es on, and then they have obsessive thoughts, and vice versa. I know several cases of in tellectu als w ho have a m anic-depressive disposition. In the m anic phase they think freely, they are productive and very clear and very abstract. T h en the depressive phase com es on, and they have obsessive feelings; they are obsessed by terrible m oods, just m oods, not thoughts. T h ose are, of course, psycho­ logical details. You see these things m ost clearly in cases of m en of forty and a little b it m ore w ho have led a particular type of life, an in tellectu al life or a life o f values, and suddenly that th in g goes under and up com es just the contrary. T h ere are very interesting cases lik e that. W e have the famous literary illustra­ tions, N ietzsche for instance. H e is a m ost im pressive exam ple of a change o f psychology in to its opposite at m id d le age. In younger years he was the aphorist in the French style; in later years, at 38, in T h u s Spake Zarathustra, he burst ou t in a D io n y ­ sian m ood w hich was absolutely the contrary of everything he had w ritten before. Dr. B en n et: Is m elancholia n ot extraverted? Professor Jung: You cannot say that, because it is an incom m ensurable con­ sideration. M elancholia in itself cou ld be term ed an introverted con d ition but it is n ot an attitu d e of preference. W h en you call som ebody an introvert, you m ean that he prefers an introverted Si

h a b it, b u t he has his ex trav erted side too. W e all have b o th sides, otherw ise we could n o t ad ap t at all, we w o u ld have n o influence, we w ould be beside ourselves. D epression is always an in tro ­ v erted co n d itio n . M elancholics sink dow n into a sort of em bry­ onic co n d itio n , th erefo re you find th a t accu m u latio n of p ecu liar physical symptoms. Dr. M ary C. L u ff: 64 As Professor J u n g has e x p lain ed em otion as a n obsessive th in g w hich possesses the in d iv id u al, I am n o t clear how he differentiates w hat he calls “invasions” from “affects.” Professor Ju n g : 65 You experience som etim es w hat you call “p ath o lo g ical” em otions, an d th ere you observe m ost peculiar contents com ing th ro u g h as em otion: th o ughts you have never th o u g h t before, som etim es te rrib le th o ughts a n d fantasies. For instance, some people w hen they are very angry, instead of having th e o rd in ary feelings of revenge an d so on, have the m ost terrific fantasies of co m m ittin g m u rd e r, c u ttin g off the arm s an d legs of th e enemy, a n d such things. T h o se are in v ad in g fragm ents of th e u n c o n ­ scious, an d if you take a fully developed pathological em o tio n it is really a state of eclipse of consciousness w hen p eople are rav ­ ing m ad for a w hile an d do perfectly crazy things. T h a t is an invasion. T h a t w ould be a pathological case, b u t fantasies of this k in d can also occur w ith in the lim its of norm al. I have heard in n o c en t people say, “ I could cu t him lim b from lim b ,” an d they actually do have these bloody fantasies; they w ould “smash th e b ra in s” of people, they im agine do in g w hat in cold blo o d is m erely said as a m etaphor. W h e n these fantasies get vivid and people are afraid of them selves, you speak of invasion. D r. L u ff: 66 Is th a t w hat you call confusional psychosis? Professor J u n g : 67 I t does n o t need to be a psychosis at all. It does n o t n eed to be pathological; you can observe such things in n o rm al people w hen they are u n d e r the sway of a p a rtic u la r em otion. I once w ent th ro u g h a very strong earth q u ak e. I t was the first tim e in m y life I experienced an earth q u ak e. I was sim ply overcom e by the idea th a t the earth was n o t solid an d th a t it was th e skin of a huge anim al th a t h ad shaken itself as a horse does. I was sim ply

caught by that idea for a w hile. T h e n I cam e o u t of the fantasy rem em bering that that is exactly what the Japanese say about earthquakes: that the b ig salam ander has turned over or changed its position, the salam ander that is carrying the earth.17 T h en I was satisfied that it was an archaic idea w hich had jum ped in to my consciousness. I thought it was remarkable; I did not q u ite think it was pathological. D r. B. D . H e n d y : 68 W ou ld Professor Ju n g say that affect, as he defined it, is caused by a characteristic physiological con d ition , or w ou ld he say that this physiological alteration is the result of, let us say, invasion? 69

Professor Jung: T h e relation betw een body and m in d is a very difficult ques­ tion. You know that the Jam es-Lange theory says that affect is the result of physiological alteration. T h e q u estion w hether the body or the m in d is the predom inating factor w ill always be an­ swered according to tem peram ental differences. T h o se w ho by tem peram ent prefer the theory of the suprem acy of the body w ill say that m ental processes are ep ip henom ena of physiological chem istry. T h o se w ho b elieve m ore in the spirit w ill say the con ­ trary, to them the body is just the ap p en dix of the m in d and causation lies w ith the spirit. It is really a philosophical ques­ tion, and since I am n ot a philosopher I cannot claim to m ake a decision. A ll we can know em pirically is that processes of the body and processes of the m in d happen together in som e way w hich is m ysterious to us. It is due to our m ost lam entable m ind that w e cannot think o f body and m in d as one and the same thing; probably they are one thing, b u t w e are unable to think it. M odern physics is subject to the same difficulty; look at the regrettable things w hich happen w ith lightt L igh t behaves as if it were oscillations, and it also behaves as if it were “corpuscles.” It n eed ed a very com plicated m athem atical form ula by M. de B roglie to h elp the hum an m in d to conceive the p ossibility that oscillations and corpuscles are two phenom ena, observed under Ir [According to a Japanese legend, the nam azu, a kind o£ catfish of monstrous size, carries on its back most of Japan, and when annoyed it moves its head or tail, thus provoking earthquakes. T he legend is often depicted in Japanese art.]

different conditions, of one an d the sam e u ltim a te reality.18 You c an n o t th in k this, b u t you are forced to a d m it it as a postulate. 7° In th e same way, th e so-called psychophysical parallelism is a n in soluble problem . T a k e for instance the case of typhoid fever w ith psychological concom itants. If th e psychic factor were m istaken for a causation, you w o uld reach preposterous conclu­ sions. A ll we can say is th a t th ere are certain physiological condi­ tions w hich are clearly caused by m en tal disorder, a n d certain o thers w hich are n o t caused b u t m erely accom panied by psychic processes. Body a n d m in d are th e two aspects of th e living being, a n d th a t is all we know . T h e re fo re I p refer to say th a t th e two things h a p p en tog eth er in a m iraculou s way, an d we h ad b etter leave it a t th at, because we c an n o t th in k of them together. For m y ow n use I have coined a term to illu stra te this b ein g to­ g ether; I say th ere is a peculiar p rin cip le of synchronicity19 active in th e w orld so th a t things h ap p en to g eth er som ehow an d b e ­ have as if they w ere th e same, an d yet fo r us they are n o t. P er­ haps we shall some day discover a new k in d of m athem atical m e th o d by w hich we can prove th a t it m u st be like th at. B u t for th e tim e b ein g I am absolutely u n a b le to tell you w h eth er it is the body o r th e m in d th a t prevails, or w h eth er they ju st coexist. Dr. L . J. B e n d it: 71 I am n o t q u ite clear w hen invasion becom es pathological. Y ou suggested in the first p a rt of y our talk this evening th a t in ­ vasion becam e pathological w henever it becam e h a b itu a l. W hat is the difference betw een a pathological invasion a n d a n artistic in sp ira tio n a n d creation of ideas? Professor Ju ng : 78 B etw een an artistic in sp ira tio n a n d a n invasion th ere is abso­ lutely n o difference. It is exactly th e sam e, th erefo re I avoid the w ord “pathological.” I w ould never say th a t artistic in sp iratio n is pathological, a n d therefore I m ake th a t exception fo r invasions too, because I consider th a t an in sp iratio n is a perfectly norm al fact. T h e re is n o th in g b a d in it. It is n o th in g o u t of th e ordinary. H a p p ily enough it belongs to the o rd e r of h u m a n beings that 1 8 [ L o u i s V i c t o r d e B r o g l i e , F r e n c h p h y s i c i s t , r e c i p i e n t o f N o b e l P r i z e f o r p h y s ic s (1 9 2 9 ), d is c o v e r e d t h e w a v e c h a r a c te r o f e le c tr o n s . I n

th e p r e c e d in g se n te n c e o f

t h e t e x t , in s te a d o f “ o s c illa t io n s ” a n d “ c o r p u s c le s ” t h e m o r e u s u a l te r m s w o u ld b e “ w a v e s ” a n d " p a r t i c l e s . ”] 19 [C f. " S y n c h r o n i c i t y : A n A c a u s a l C o n n e c t i n g P r i n c i p l e ” ( C .W ., v o l . 8 ).]

inspiration takes place occasionally— very rarely, b u t it does. B ut it is q u ite certain that pathological things com e in pretty m uch the same way, so we have to draw the lin e som ew here. If you are all alienists and I present to you a certain case, then you m igh t say that that m an is insane. I w ould say that that m an is n ot insane for this reason, that as lo n g as he can exp lain h im self to m e in such a way that I feel I have a contact w ith h im that m an is n ot crazy. T o be crazy is a very relative con cep tion . For instance, w hen a N egro behaves in a certain way we say, “O h w ell, h e’s on ly a N eg ro ,” b u t if a w hite m an behaves in the same way we say, “T h a t m an is crazy,” because a w h ite m an cannot behave like that. A N egro is expected to do such things b u t a w h ite m an does not do them . T o be “crazy” is a social concept; w e use social restrictions and definitions in order to distinguish m ental disturbances. You can say that a m an is peculiar, that he behaves in an u n exp ected way and has fu n n y ideas, and if he happens to live in a little tow n in France or Switzerland you w ou ld say, “H e is an original fellow , one o f the m ost original inhabitants of that little place” ; b u t if you b rin g that m an in to the m idst of H arley Street, w ell, he is plu m b crazy. Or if a cer­ tain in d ivid u al is a painter, you think he is a very original artist, bu t let that m an be the cashier o f a b ig bank and the bank w ill exp erience som ething. T h e n they w ill say that fellow is surely crazy. B ut these are sim ply social considerations. W e see the same th in g in lu n atic asylums. It is n ot an absolute increase in insanity that makes our asylum s swell lik e m onsters, it is the fact that w e cannot stand abnorm al p eop le any m ore, so there are apparently very m any m ore crazy peop le than form erly. I re­ m em ber in m y youth w e had p eop le w hom I recognized later on as b ein g schizophrenic, and we thought, “W ell, U n cle So-and-So is a very original m an .” In my native tow n w e had som e im b e­ ciles, b u t one d id n o t say, “H e is a terrible ass,” or som ething like that, but “H e is very n ice.” In the same way on e called cer­ tain idiots “cretins,” w hich com es from the saying “il est bon ch retien .” You cou ld n o t say anything else of them , b u t at least they were good Christians. T he Chairman: 73 Ladies and G entlem en , I th in k w e m ust let Professor J u n g off any further activity for tonight, and w e thank him very m uch indeed.

L E C T U R E II

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T h e Chairman (Dr. J . A. Hadfield): Ladies and G entlem en, you have already been introduced to Dr. Jung and that in the most eulogistic language, but I think all who were here last night w ill recognize that even such a great eulogy was in no sense exaggerated. Dr. Jung last night was re­ ferring to a num ber of the functions of the human m ind, such as feeling, thinking, intuition, and sensation, and I could not help feeling that in him all these functions, contrary to what he told us, seemed to be very w ell differentiated. I also had a hunch that in him they were bound together in the centre by a sense of humour. N othing convinces m e so m uch of the truth o f any con­ ception as when its creator is able to see it as a subject of hu­ mour, and that is what Dr. Jung did last night. Over-seriousness in regard to any subject very often displays the fact that the in­ dividual is dubious and anxious about the truth of what he is trying to convey. Professor Jung: Ladies and G entlem en, yesterday we dealt with the func­ tions of consciousness. Today I want to finish the problem of the structure of the mind. A discussion of the human m ind would not be com plete if we did not include the existence of uncon­ scious processes. Let m e repeat shortly the reflections which I made last night. W e cannot deal w ith unconscious processes directly because they are not reachable. T h ey are not directly apprehended; they appear only in their products, and we postulate from the pecul­ iar quality of those products that there must be som ething be­ hind them from which they originate. W e call that dark sphere the unconscious psyche. T h e ectopsychic contents of consciousness derive in the first place from the environm ent, through the data of the senses.

T h e n the contents also come from o th er sources, such as m em ­ ory an d processes of judgm ent. T hese belong to th e endopsychic sphere. A th ird source for conscious contents is the d ark sphere of the m ind, the unconscious. W e approach it th ro u g h the p e­ culiarities of the endopsychic functions, those functions w hich are n o t u n d e r the control of the will. T h e y are the vehicle by w hich unconscious contents reach the surface of consciousness. 78 T h e unconscious processes, then, are n o t directly observable, b u t those of its products th a t cross the threshold of consciousness can be divided in to two classes. T h e first class contains recogniz­ able m aterial of a definitely personal origin; these contents are indiv id u al acquisitions or products of instinctive processes th at m ake u p the personality as a whole. F u rth erm o re, there are forgotten or repressed contents, and creative contents. T h e re is n o th in g specially p eculiar a b o u t them . In o th e r people such things may be conscious. Some people are conscious of things of which o th er people are not. I call th a t class of contents th e sub­ conscious m in d or the personal unconscious, because, as far as we can judge, it is entirely m ade up of personal elem ents, ele­ m ents th a t constitute the h u m an personality as a whole. 79 T h e n th ere is an o th er class of contents of definitely u n ­ know n origin, or at all events of an origin w hich can n o t be as­ cribed to indiv id u al acquisition. T h ese contents have one o u t­ standing peculiarity, an d th a t is th e ir m ythological character. It is as if they belong to a p a tte rn n o t peculiar to any p articu lar m in d or person, b u t ra th e r to a p a tte rn peculiar to m a n k in d in general. W h en I first came across such contents I w ondered very m uch w hether they m ight n o t be due to heredity, an d I th o u g h t they m ig h t be explained by racial inheritance. In ord er to settle th a t question I w en t to the U n ite d States an d studied the dream s of pure-blooded Negroes, an d I was able to satisfy myself th a t these images have n o th in g to do w ith so-called blood or racial inheritance, n o r are they personally acq u ired by the individual. T h e y belong to m an k in d in general, an d therefore they are of a collective n atu re. 80 T hese collective pattern s I have called archetypes, using an expression of St. A u gustine’s.1 A n archetype m eans a typos [im ­ p rint], a definite g ro uping of archaic character containing, in I [Cf. T h e A rch ety p e s a n d th e C o llective U nconscious (C.W ., vol. g, i), par. 5.]

fo rm as w ell as in m eaning, m ythological motifs. M ythological m otifs a p p ea r in p u re form in fairytales, m yths, legends, and folklore. Som e of th e w ell-know n m otifs are: th e figures of the H e ro , th e R ed eem er, th e D ragon (always co n n ected w ith the H ero , w ho has to overcom e him ) , the W h ale or th e M o n ster w ho swallows th e H e ro .2 A n o th e r v a ria tio n of th e m o tif of th e H e ro a n d th e D ragon is th e K atabasis, th e D escent in to th e Cave, the N ekyia. Y ou re m e m b e r in the Odyssey w here Ulysses descends ad inferos to co n su lt T iresias, th e seer. T h is m o tif of th e N ekyia is fo u n d everyw here in a n tiq u ity a n d practically all over the w orld. I t expresses th e psychological m echanism of in tro v ersio n o f th e conscious m in d in to th e d e ep e r layers of th e unconscious psyche. F ro m these layers derive th e co n ten ts o f a n im personal, m ythological character, in o th e r w ords, th e archetypes, a n d I call th e m th erefo re th e im personal o r collective unconscious. I am perfectly w ell aw are th a t I can give you only th e barest o u tlin e of this p a rtic u la r q u e stio n of th e collective unconscious. B u t I w ill give you a n exam ple of its sym bolism a n d of how I p ro ceed in o rd e r to d iscrim in a te i t from th e p erso n al u n co n ­ scious. W h e n I w en t to A m erica to investigate th e unconscious o f N egroes I h a d in m in d this p a rtic u la r p ro b lem : are these col­ lective p a tte rn s racially in h e rite d , o r a re they “a p rio ri catego­ ries o f im a g in a tio n ,” as tw o F ren ch m en , H u b e rt a n d M auss,8 q u ite in d e p e n d e n tly of m y ow n w ork, have called them . A N eg ro to ld m e a d re a m in w hich o ccu rred th e figure of a m an crucified on a w h eel.4 I w ill n o t m e n tio n th e w h o le d ream b e ­ cause it does n o t m a tte r. I t c o n tain ed of course its personal m e a n in g as w ell as allusions to im p erso n al ideas, b u t I picked o u t o nly th a t one m o tif. H e was a very u n e d u c a te d N eg ro from th e S o u th a n d n o t p a rtic u la rly in te llig e n t. I t w o u ld have been m ost p ro b a b le , given th e w ell-know n relig io u s ch aracter of the N egroes, th a t he sh o u ld d re a m of a m an crucified o n a cross. T h e cross w o uld have b e en a perso n al a cq u isitio n . B u t it is ra th e r im p ro b a b le th a t he sh ould d re a m of th e m an crucified o n a wheel. T h a t is a very u n c o m m o n im age. O f course I c a n n o t prove to you th a t by som e cu rio u s chance th e N egro h a d n o t seen a 2 See P sych o lo g y o f th e U n con sciou s [or S y m b o ls o f T ra n sfo rm a tio n (C.W ., vol. 5), in d ex , s.v.]. 3 [H en ri H u b ert and M arcel M auss, M ela n g es d ’h isto ire des re lig io n s, p . x x ix .] 4 [Cf. S ym b o ls o f T ra n sfo rm a tio n , par. 154.]

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p ic tu re or h eard som ething of the sort and th en d ream t a b o u t it; b u t if he h ad n o t had any m odel for this idea it w o u ld be an archetypal image, because the crucifixion on the wheel is a mythological motif. I t is the an cien t sun-wheel, an d th e crucifix­ ion is the sacrifice to the sun-god in o rd e r to p ro p itiate him , just as h u m an a n d anim al sacrifices form erly w ere offered for th e fer­ tility of the earth. T h e sun-wheel is an exceedingly archaic idea, perhaps the oldest religious idea there is. W e can trace it to the M esolithic an d P aleolithic ages, as the sculptures of R hodesia prove. Now there w ere real wheels only in the Bronze Age; in th e P aleolithic Age the wheel was n o t yet invented. T h e R h o d e­ sian sun-w heel seems to be contem porary w ith very n atu ralistic anim al-pictures, like the fam ous rh in o w ith the tick-birds, a m asterpiece of observation. T h e R hodesian sun-w heel is th ere­ fore an original vision, presum ably an archetypal sun-im age.5 B u t this im age is n o t a natu ralistic one, for it is always divided in to fo u r o r eight p artitions (Figure 3). T h is image, a sort of

Fic. 3. Sun-wheel

divided circle, is a symbol w hich you find th ro u g h o u t the w hole history of m a n k in d as well as in the dream s of m o d ern in d iv id u ­ als. W e m ig h t assume th a t the in v en tio n of th e actu al w heel started from this vision. M any of o u r inventions cam e from m ythological anticipations an d p rim o rd ia l images. F or instance, 5 [Cf. “Psychology and Literature’’ (C.W., vol. 15), par. 150; “Psychology and R e­ ligion” (C.W., vol. 11), par. too, and “Brother Klaus" (ibid.), par. 484. Documenta­ tion of the Rhodesian “sun-wheels” has not been possible, though such rockcarved forms are noted in Angola and South Africa: cf. W illcox, T he Rock A rt of South Africa, Sg. 23 and pis. xvii-xx. T heir dating is in doubt. T h e “rhino w ith tick-birds” is from the Transvaal and is in a museum in Pretoria. It was dis­ covered in 1928 and widely publicized.]

the a rt of alchem y is the m o th e r of m o d e rn chem istry. O u r con­ scious scientific m in d started in the m a trix of the unconscious m ind. 82 I n th e d ream of th e N egro, the m an on th e w heel is a re p e ti­ tio n of th e G reek m ythological m o tif of Ix io n , who, o n account of his offence against m en an d gods, was fastened by Zeus u p o n an incessantly tu rn in g w heel. I give you this exam ple of a m y th ­ ological m o tif in a dream m erely in o rd e r to convey to you an idea of th e collective unconscious. O n e single exam ple is of course n o conclusive proof. B u t one c an n o t very well assume th a t this N egro h a d stu d ie d G reek m ythology, an d it is im p ro b a­ ble th a t he h a d seen any re p re se n ta tio n of G reek m ythological figures. F u rth erm o re , figures of Ix io n are p re tty rare. 83 I co u ld give you conclusive proof of a very elaborate k in d of the existence of these m ythological pattern s in the unconscious m in d . B u t in o rd e r to p resen t m y m a terial I should n e ed to lec­ tu re fo r a fo rtn ig h t. I w o uld have first to ex p lain to you the m ean in g of dream s a n d dream -series a n d th e n give you all the historical parallels an d explain fully th e ir im portance, because the sym bolism of these images a n d ideas is n o t taught in p u b lic schools or universities, an d even specialists very rarely know of it. I h ad to study it for years a n d to find th e m aterial myself, and I cannot expect even a highly educated audience to be au courant w ith such abstruse m atters. W h en we com e to th e tech n iq u e of dream -analysis I shall be forced to e n te r into some of the m ythological m a terial a n d you w ill get a glim pse of w hat this w ork of finding parallels to unconscious products is really like. F o r th e m o m en t I have to c o n te n t myself w ith th e m ere state­ m e n t th a t th e re are m ythological p attern s in th a t layer of the unconscious, th a t it produces contents w hich can n o t be ascribed to th e in d iv id u a l an d w hich m ay even be in strict co n trad ictio n to the personal psychology of th e dream er. F o r instance, you are sim ply asto u n d ed w hen you observe a com pletely u n ed u cated person p ro d u c in g a d ream w hich really should n o t occur w ith such a person because it contains th e m ost am azing things. A nd c h ild re n ’s dream s often m ake you th in k to such a degree th at you m ust take a holiday afterw ards in o rd e r to recover from the shock, because these symbols are so trem endously p ro fo u n d and you th in k : H ow on earth is it possible th a t a child should have such a dream ?

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I t is really q u ite sim ple to explain. O u r m in d has its history, ju s t as o u r body has its history. You m ig h t be ju st as astonished th a t m an has an appendix, for instance. Does h e know he ou g h t to have an appendix? H e is ju st b o rn w ith it. M illions of people do n o t know they have a thym us, b u t they have it. T h e y do n o t know th a t in certain parts of th e ir anatom y they b elong to the species of the fishes, an d yet it is so. O u r unconscious m in d , like o u r body, is a storehouse of relics an d m em ories of the past. A study of the stru c tu re of the unconscious collective m in d w ould reveal the same discoveries as you m ake in com parative a n a t­ omy. W e do n o t need to th in k th a t th ere is an y th in g mystical a b o u t it. B ut because I speak of a collective unconscious, I have been accused of obscurantism . T h e re is n o th in g m ystical ab o u t the collective unconscious. It is ju st a new b ranch of science, an d it is really com m on sense to ad m it the existence of unconscious collective processes. For, though a child is n o t b o rn conscious, his m in d is n o t a tabula rasa. T h e child is b o rn w ith a definite brain , an d th e b ra in of an English ch ild w ill w ork n o t like th a t of an A ustralian blackfellow b u t in the way of a m o d ern English person. T h e b ra in is b o rn w ith a finished stru ctu re, it w ill w ork in a m odern way, b u t this b ra in has its history. It has been b u ilt u p in the course of m illions of years an d represents a history of w hich it is the result. N atu rally it carries w ith it th e traces of th a t history, exactly like the body, an d if you grope dow n into the basic stru ctu re of the m in d you n atu rally find traces of the archaic m ind. T h e idea of the collective unconscious is really very simple. If it were n o t so, then one could speak of a m iracle, an d I am n o t a m iracle-m onger at all. I sim ply go by experience. If I could tell you th e experiences you w ould draw the same conclusions ab o u t these archaic motifs. By chance, I stu m b led somehow in to m y­ thology an d have read m ore books perhaps th a n you. I have n o t always been a stu d en t of mythology. O ne day, w hen I was still at the clinic, I saw a p a tie n t w ith schizophrenia w ho h ad a peculiar vision, an d h e told m e a b o u t it. H e w an ted m e to see it and, b eing very dull, I could n o t see it. I th o u g h t, “T h is m an is crazy an d I am n o rm al an d his vision should n o t b o th e r m e.” B u t it did. I asked myself: W h at does it m ean? I was n o t satisfied th a t it was ju st crazy, a n d later I cam e on a book by a G erm an scholar,

D ieterich ,6 w ho had p ublished part of a m agic papyrus. I studied it w ith great interest, and on page 7 I found the vision of my lu n atic “w ord for w ord.” T h a t gave m e a shock. I said: “H o w on earth is it possible that this fello w cam e in to possession o f that vision?” It was n o t just on e im age, b u t a series of im ages and a literal rep etitio n of them . I do n ot w ant to go in to it now b e­ cause it w o u ld lead us too far. It is a h igh ly interesting case; as a m atter o f fact, I p u b lish ed it.7 86 T h is astonishing parallelism set m e going. Y ou probably have n o t com e across the book o f the learned professor D ieterich, b u t if you had read the sam e books and observed such cases you w ou ld have discovered the idea of the co llective u n ­ conscious. 87 T h e deepest w e can reach in ou r exploration o f the u n co n ­ scious m in d is the layer w here m an is n o longer a d istin ct in d i­ vidual, b u t w here his m in d w idens o u t and m erges in to the m in d o f m ankind— n o t the conscious m in d , but the unconscious m in d o f m ankind, w here w e are all the same. As the body has its anatom ical conform ity in its tw o eyes and tw o ears and on e heart and so on, w ith on ly sligh t in d ivid u al differences, so has the m ind its basic conform ity. O n this collective level w e are n o longer separate individuals, w e are all one. Y ou can understand this w hen you study the psychology of prim itives. T h e outstanding fact about the p rim itive m en tality is this lack o f distinctiveness b etw een in d ividu als, this oneness of the subject w ith the object, this p a rtic ip a tio n m y stiq u e, as L evy-B ruhl8 terms it. Prim itive m en tality expresses the basic structure o f the m in d , that psycho­ logical layer w hich w ith us is the collective u n conscious, that u n d erlyin g level w hich is the sam e in all. Because the basic structure o f the m in d is the sam e in everybody, w e can n ot make d istin ction s w hen w e exp erien ce on that level. T h ere w e do not k n ow if s o m eth in g has h ap pened to you o r to m e. In th e under­ lyin g collective level there is a w holeness w hich cannot be dis­ sected. If you b egin to th in k about participation as a fact w hich m eans that fu n d am en tally w e are id en tical with everybody and 6 [A lbrecht D ieterich , E in e M ith ra slitu rg ie.] t [Sym bols o f T ra n sfo rm a tio n , pars. 151ff.; T h e A rch etyp es a n d th e C ollective U nconscious, par. 105; T h e S tru c tu re a n d D yn a m ic s of the P sych e (C.W . vol. 8), pars. 228 an d 318f.] 8 H o w N a tiv e s T h in k , trans. by L ilia n A . Clare.

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everything, you are led to very peculiar theoretical conclu­ sions. You should n o t go fu rth e r th an those conclusions b e­ cause these things get dangerous. B ut some of th e conclusions you should explore, because they can explain a lot of p ecu liar things th a t happen to m an. I w ant to sum up: I have b ro u g h t a diagram (Figure 4). It looks very com plicated b u t as a m atter of fact it is very sim ple. Suppose o u r m ental sphere to look like a lighted globe. T h e su r­ face from w hich th e lig h t em anates is th e fu n ctio n by w hich you chiefly adapt. If you are a person who adapts chiefly by thinking, your surface is the surface of a th in k in g m an. You w ill tackle things w ith your thinking, an d w hat you w ill show to people w ill be your thinking. I t w ill be an o th er fu n ctio n if you are of a n o th e r type.9 In the diagram , sensation is given as th e p erip h eral function. By it m an gets info rm atio n from the w orld of ex tern al objects. In th e second circle, th in k in g , he gets w hat his senses have told him ; he w ill give things a nam e. T h e n he w ill have a feelin g a b o u t them ; a feeling-tone w ill accom pany his observation. A nd in the en d he w ill get some consciousness of w here a th in g comes from , w here it m ay go, a n d w hat it may do. T h a t is in tu itio n , by w hich you see ro u n d corners. T hese fo u r functions form the ectopsychic system. T h e n ex t circle in the diagram represents the conscious egocom plex to w hich the functions refer. Inside the endopsyche you first notice m em ory, w hich is still a fu n ctio n th a t can be con­ trolled by the w ill; it is u n d e r the control of your ego-complex. T h e n we m eet the subjective com ponents of the functions. T h ey cannot be exactly directed by th e w ill b u t they still can be sup­ pressed, excluded, o r increased in intensity by will-power. T hese com ponents are no longer as controllab le as m em ory, th ough even m em ory is a b it tricky as you know. T h e n we come to the affects an d invasions, w hich are only controllable by sheer force. You can suppress them , an d th a t is all you can do. You have to clench your fists in o rd er n o t to explode, because they are a p t to be stronger th a n your ego-complex. T h is psychic system cannot really be expressed by such a cru d e diagram . T h e diagram is ra th e r a scale of values show ing 9 For general description o f types and functions, see Psychological T y p e s, C hap. X .

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ECTOPSYCHIC SPHERE

PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS

ENDOPSYCHIC SPHERE

COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS F ig . 4 . T h e P syche

44

how the energy or intensity of the ego-complex w hich m anifests itself in w ill-power gradually decreases as you approach the darkness th a t is u ltim ately at the b otto m of the w hole stru ctu re — th e unconscious. First we have the personal subconscious m ind. T h e personal unconscious is th a t p a rt of th e psyche w hich contains all the things th a t could ju st as well b e conscious. You know th a t m any things are term ed unconscious, b u t th a t is only a relative statem ent. T h e re is n o th in g in this p a rticu lar sphere th a t is necessarily unconscious in everybody. T h e re are people who are conscious of alm ost anything of w hich m an can be con­ scious. O f course we have an extraordinary am o u n t of u n co n ­ sciousness in o u r civilization, b u t if you go to o th er races, to In d ia o r to C hina, for exam ple, you discover th a t these people are conscious of things for w hich the psychoanalyst in o u r coun­ tries has to dig for m onths. M oreover, sim ple people in n a tu ra l conditions often have an extraordinary consciousness of things of w hich people in towns have n o know ledge an d of w hich tow nspeople begin to dream only u n d e r the influence of psycho­ analysis. I noticed this at school. I h ad lived in the co u n try am ong peasants an d w ith anim als, an d I was fully conscious of a n u m b e r of things of w hich o th er boys h ad no idea. I h ad the chance an d I was n o t prejudiced. W h en you analyse dream s or symptoms or fantasies of n eu ro tic or n orm al people, you begin to pen etrate the unconscious m ind, an d you can abolish its a rti­ ficial threshold. T h e personal unconscious is really som ething very relative, an d its circle can be restricted an d becom e so m uch narrow er th a t it touches zero. It is q u ite th in k ab le th a t a m an can develop his consciousness to such a n ex ten t th a t he can say: N ih il h u m a n u m a m e alienum p u to .10 92 Finally we come to the u ltim a te kernel w hich can n o t be m ade conscious at all— the sphere of th e archetypal m ind. Its p resum able contents appear in the form of images w hich can be understood only by com paring them w ith historical parallels. If you do n o t recognize certain m aterial as historical, an d if you do n o t possess the parallels, you can n o t in teg rate these contents in to consciousness an d they rem ain projected. T h e contents of the collective unconscious are n o t subject to any arb itrary inten10 [Cf. T erence, H e a u to n T im o ru m en o s, 1 . 1 .2 5 : “H om o sum; h u m an i n il a m e a lien um p u to ” (I am a man; I cou n t n o th in g h u m an alien to me).]

tion and are not controllable by the w ill. T h ey actually behave as if they did not exist in yourself— you see them in your neigh­ bours but not in yourself. W hen the contents of the collective unconscious become activated, we become aware of certain things in our fellow men. For instance, we begin to discover that the bad Abyssinians are attacking Italy. You know the famous story by Anatole France. T w o peasants were always fighting each other, and there was somebody who wanted to go into the reasons for it, and he asked one man, “W hy do you hate your neighbour and fight him like this?” H e replied, “Mais il est de l ’autre c6te de la riviere!” T hat is like France and Germany. We Swiss people, you know, had a very good chance during the Great War to read newspapers and to study that particular mechanism which behaved like a great gun firing on. one side of the R hine and in exactly the same way on the other side, and it was very clear that people saw in their neighbours the thing they did not recognize in themselves. 93 As a rule, when the collective unconscious becomes really constellated in larger social groups, the result is a public craze, a mental epidem ic that may lead to revolution or war or some­ thing of the sort. T hese movements are exceedingly contagious — almost overwhelm ingly contagious because, when the collec­ tive unconscious is activated, you are no longer the same person. You are not only in the m ovem ent— you are it. If you lived in Germany or were there for a while, you would defend yourself in vain. It gets under your skin. You are human, and wherever you are in the world you can defend yourself only by restricting your consciousness and making yourself as empty, as soulless, as possible. T h en you lose your soul, because you are only a speck of consciousness floating on a sea of life in which you do not participate. But if you remain yourself you w ill notice that the collective atmosphere gets under your skin. You cannot live in Africa or any such country w ithout having that country under your skin. If you live with the yellow man you get yellow under the skin. You cannot prevent it, because somewhere you are the same as the Negro or the Chinese or whoever you live with, you are all just human beings. In the collective unconscious you are the same as a man of another race, you have the same archetypes, just as you have, like him , eyes, a heart, a liver, and so on. It does not matter that his skin is black. It matters to a certain extent, 46

sure enough— he has probably a w hole historical layer less th an you. T h e different strata of th e m in d correspond to the history of the races. 94 If you study races as I have done you can m ake very in terest­ ing discoveries. You can m ake them , for instance, if you analyse N o rth A m ericans. T h e A m erican, on account of the fact th a t he lives on virgin soil, has the R e d In d ia n in him . T h e R ed m an, even if he has never seen one, a n d the N egro, th o u g h he may be cast o u t an d the tram -cars reserved for w hite m en only, have got into the A m erican a n d you w ill realize th a t he belongs to a partly coloured n a tio n .11 T h ese things are w holly unconscious, and you can only talk to very en lighten ed people ab o u t them . It is ju st as difficult to talk to F renchm en or G erm ans w hen you have to tell them w hy they are so m uch against each other. 95 A little w hile ago I had a nice evening in Paris. Some very cultivated m en h ad in v ited me, an d we had a pleasant conversa­ tion. T h e y asked m e a b o u t n a tio n al differences, an d I th o u g h t I w ould p u t my foot in it, so I said: “W h a t you value is la clarte Iatinej la clarte de Vesprit latin. T h a t is because your th in k in g is inferior. T h e L a tin th in k e r is in ferio r in com parison to the G erm an th in k e r.” T h e y cocked th e ir ears, an d I said: “ B u t your feeling is unsurpassable, it is absolutely differen tiated .” T h e y said: “ H ow is that?” I replied: “ Go to a cafe o r a vaudeville o r a place w here you h e ar songs an d stage-plays an d you w ill n otice a very peculiar phenom enon. T h e re are any n u m b e r of very gro­ tesque a n d cynical things a n d th e n suddenly som ething sen ti­ m ental happens. A m o th e r loses h e r child, th ere is a lost love, or som ething m arvellously patriotic, an d you m u st weep. F o r you, the salt an d the sugar have to go together. B u t a G erm an can stand a whole evening of sugar only. T h e F ren ch m an m u st have some salt in it. You m eet a m an an d say: E nchante de faire votre connaissance. You are n o t enchante de faire sa connaissance at all; you are really feeling: O h go to th e devil.’ B u t you are n o t disturbed, n o r is he. B u t do n o t say to a G erm an: E n ­ chante de faire votre connaissance, because he w ill believe it. A G erm an w ill sell you a p a ir of sock-suspenders an d n o t only ex­ pect, as is n a tu ra l, to be p aid for it. H e also expects to be loved for it.” 11 [Civilization in T ran sition (C.W ., vol. io), pars. g4ff. and 946!!.]

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T h e G erm an n a tio n is characterized by the fact th a t its feel­ in g fu n ctio n is inferior, it is n o t differentiated. If you say th at to a G erm an he is offended. I should be offended too. H e is very attached to w hat he calls " G e m iX tlic h k e itA ro o m fu ll of smoke in w hich everybody loves everybody— th a t is g em u tlich and th at m ust n o t be d istu rb ed . I t has to be absolutely clear, just one n ote an d no m ore. T h a t is la clarte germ a n iq u e d u sen tim en t, a n d it is inferior. O n th e o th e r hand, it is a gross offence to a Frenchm an to say som ething paradoxical, because it is n o t clear. A n English philosopher has said, “A su p erio r m in d is never q u ite clear.” T h a t is true, an d also su p erio r feeling is never q u ite clear. You w ill only enjoy a feeling th a t is above board w hen it is slightly d o u b tfu l, an d a th o u g h t th a t does n o t have a slight contrad iction in it is n o t convincing. O u r p a rtic u la r pro b lem from now on w ill be: H ow can we approach the d ark sphere of m an? As I have to ld you, this is done by three m ethods of analysis: th e word-association test, dream -analysis, an d the m eth o d of active im agination. F irst of all I w ant to say som ething a b o u t word-association tests.12 T o m any of you perhaps these seem old-fashioned, b u t since they are still being used I have to re fe r to them . I use this test now n o t w ith patien ts b u t w ith crim inal cases. T h e ex p erim en t is m ade— I am re p e atin g w ell-know n things — w ith a list of say a h u n d re d words. You in stru c t the test person to react w ith the first w ord th a t comes in to his m in d as quickly as possible after having h eard an d u n d ersto o d th e stim ulus w ord. W h e n you have m ade sure th a t th e test person has u n d e r­ stood w hat you m ean you start the ex p erim en t. You m ark the tim e of each reaction w ith a stop-watch. W h en you have finished th e h u n d re d w ords you do a n o th er ex p erim en t. You rep eat the stim ulus words an d the test person has to rep ro d u ce his form er answers. In certain places his m em ory fails an d re p ro d u c tio n b e ­ comes u n c ertain or faulty. T h ese m istakes are im p o rtan t. O rig in ally the e x p erim en t was n o t m ean t for its present a p ­ p licatio n a t all; it was in te n d e d to be used for th e study of m en ­ tal association. T h a t was of course a m ost U to p ia n idea. O ne can study n o th in g of the sort by such p rim itiv e m eans. B u t you can 12 Studies in W ord Association, trans. by E der. [Also in E xp erim en ta l Researches (C.W., vol. 2) .]

study som ething else w hen th e experim en t fails, w hen people m ake mistakes. You ask a sim ple w ord that a child can answer, and a highly in te llig e n t person canno t reply. W hy? T h a t w ord has h it on w hat I call a com plex, a conglom eration of psychic contents characterized by a p ecu liar o r perhaps p ain fu l feelingtone, som ething th a t is usually h id d e n from sight. I t is as th o u g h a projectile struck th ro u g h the thick layer of the persona13 into the dark layer. For instance, som ebody w ith a m oney com plex will be h it w hen you say: “T o b u y ,” “ to pay,” or “m oney.” T h a t is a disturbance of reaction. 100 W e have a b o u t tw elve o r m ore categories of d istu rb an ce an d I w ill m en tio n a few of them so th a t you w ill get an idea of th e ir practical value. T h e prolongation of the reactio n tim e is of th e greatest practical im portance. You decide w h eth er th e reactio n tim e is too long by tak in g the average m ean of the reactio n tim es of the test person. O th e r characteristic disturbances are: reac­ tion w ith m ore th an one w ord, against th e instructions; m istakes in re p ro d u ctio n of the w ord; reaction expressed by facial expres­ sion, laughing, m ovem ent of the hands o r feet o r body, cough­ ing, stam m ering, an d such things; insufficient reactions like “yes” or “n o ” ; n o t reactin g to the real m ean in g of the stim ulus word; h a b itu a l use of the same words; use of foreign languages — of w hich there is n o t a great danger in E ngland, th o u g h w ith us it is a great nuisance; defective rep ro d u ctio n , w hen m em ory begins to fail in the re p ro d u c tio n ex perim en t; to tal lack of reac­ tion. 101 AU these reactions are beyond the co n tro l of the will. If you subm it to the e x p erim en t you are done for, an d if you do n o t subm it to it you are done for too, because one knows w hy you are unw illin g to do so. If you p u t it to a crim in al he can refuse, an d th at is fatal because one knows why h e refuses. If he gives in he hangs him self. In Z urich I am called in by the C o u rt w hen they have a difficult case; I am the last straw. i°a rP h e results of th e association test can be illu strated very neatly by a diagram (F igure 5). T h e h eig h t of th e colum ns re p ­ resents the actual reactio n tim e of the test person. T h e d o tte d horizontal lin e represents the average m ean of reactio n tim es. T h e unshaded colum ns are those reactions w hich show n o signs 13 Tw o Essays on A nalytical Psychology (C.W., vol. 7) , pars. 245L, 304!.

I. T H E TAVISTOCK LECTURES

of d isturbance. T h e shaded colum ns show d istu rb e d reactions. In reactions 7, 8, 9, 10, you observe for instance a w hole series of disturbances: th e stim ulus w ord at 7 was a critical one, an d w ith o u t the test person n o ticin g it at all th ree subsequent reac­ tio n tim es are overlong on account of th e perseveration of th e

Average reaction time

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3 '-4

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10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Stim ulus words 7 knife 13 lance ( = spear) 16 to beat 18 pointed 19 bottle F ig . 5. A ssociation T est

reactio n to th e stim ulus w ord. T h e test person was q u ite u n co n ­ scious of the fact th a t h e h a d an em otion. R eactio n 13 shows an isolated disturbance, an d in 16-20 the resu lt is again a whole series of disturbances. T h e strongest disturbances are in reac­ tions 18 an d 19. In this p a rtic u la r case we have to do w ith a socalled intensification of sensitiveness th ro u g h th e sensitizing δ»

effect of an unconscious em otion: w hen a critical stim ulus w ord has aroused a perseverating em otional reaction, a n d w hen th e n ext critical stim ulus w ord happens to occur w ith in the range of th a t perseveration, th en it is ap t to produce a g reater effect th an it w ould have been expected to produce if it had occurred in a series of in d ifferen t associations. T h is is called the sensitizing effect of a perseverating em otion. In dealing w ith crim in al cases we can m ake use of th e sensi­ tizing effect, an d th en we arrange the critical stim ulus w ords in such a way th a t they occur m ore or less w ith in th e p resum able range of perseveration. T h is can be done in o rd e r to increase th e effect of critical stim ulus words. W ith a suspected c u lp rit as a test person, th e critical stim ulus words are words w hich have a direct bearing u p o n the crim e. T h e test person for Figure 5 was a m an ab o u t 35, a d ecent individual, one of m y norm al test persons. I had of course to ex­ perim ent w ith a great n u m b e r of norm al people before I could draw conclusions from pathological m aterial. If you w an t to know w hat it was th a t d istu rb e d this m an, you sim ply have to re a d th e words th a t caused th e disturbances an d fit them together. T h e n you get a nice story. I w ill tell you exactly w hat it was. T o begin w ith, it was th e w ord kn ife th a t caused fo u r dis­ tu rb e d reactions. T h e n ex t disturbance was lance (or spear) and then to beat, then th e w ord p o in te d an d th en bottle. T h a t was in a short series of fifty stim ulus words, w hich was enough for me to tell the m an point-blank w hat the m a tte r was. So I said: “ I did n o t know you h a d h a d such a disagreeable ex­ perience.” H e stared at m e and said: “I do n o t know w hat you are talking a b o u t.” I said: ‘‘You know you were d ru n k and h ad a disagreeable affair w ith sticking your knife in to som ebody.” H e said: “ H ow do you know ?” T h e n he confessed the whole thing. H e came of a respectable family, sim ple b u t q u ite nice people. H e h ad been abroad an d one day got in to a d ru n k en qu arrel, drew a knife an d stuck it in to somebody, an d got a year in prison. T h a t is a great secret w hich he does n o t m ention because it w ould cast a shadow on his life. N obody in his tow n o r surroundings knows an y th in g a b o u t it an d I am th e only one w ho by chance stum bled u p o n it. In m y sem inar in Zurich I also m ake these experim ents. T h o se w ho w ant to con­ fess are of course welcome to. H ow ever, I always ask them to

b rin g some m aterial of a person they know an d I do n o t know , a n d I show them how to re a d th e story of th a t in d iv id u al. I t is q u ite in te re stin g w ork; som etim es one m akes rem ark ab le dis­ coveries. 106 I w ill give you o th e r instances. M any years ago, w hen I was q u ite a young doctor, an o ld professor of crim inology asked me a b o u t the e x p erim en t an d said he d id n o t believe in it. I said: “ N o, Professor? You can try it w henever you lik e.” H e in v ited m e to his house an d I began. A fter ten w ords he got tired and said: “W h at can you m ake of it? N o th in g has com e of it.” I told h im h e could n o t expect a resu lt w ith ten o r tw elve words; he ought to have a h u n d re d an d th e n we co u ld see som ething. H e said: “ C an you do som ething w ith these words?” I said: “ L ittle enough, b u t I can tell you som ething. Q u ite recently you have had w orries a b o u t m oney, you have too little of it. Y ou are afraid of dying of h e art disease. You m u st have stu d ied in France, w here you had a love affair, an d it has com e back to your m in d , as often, w hen one has thoughts of dying, old sweet m em ­ ories come back from th e w om b of tim e.” H e said: “ H ow do you know ?” A ny child could have seen it! H e was a m an of 72 an d he h a d associated heart w ith pain— fear th a t he w ould die of h eart failure. H e associated death w ith to die— a n a tu ra l reactio n — a n d w ith m oney he associated too little, a very usual reaction. T h e n things becam e ra th e r startlin g to me. T o pay, after a long reaction tim e, he said L a Semeuse, th o u g h o u r conversation was in G erm an. T h a t is the fam ous figure on th e F ren ch coin. Now w hy on e arth should this o ld m an say L a Sem euse? W h e n he cam e to th e w ord kiss there was a long reactio n tim e an d there was a lig h t in his eyes a n d he said: B eautiful. T h e n of course I h a d the story. H e w ould never have used F ren ch if it h a d n o t b een associated w ith a p a rtic u la r feeling, an d so we m ust th in k w hy he used it. H a d he h ad losses w ith th e French franc? T h e re was n o talk of inflation an d d ev alu atio n in those days. T h a t could n o t be th e clue. I was in d o u b t w h eth er it was m oney or love, b u t w hen he cam e to kiss/ beautiful I knew it was love. H e was n o t th e k in d of m an to go to F rance in la te r life, b u t he h a d been a stu d en t in Paris, a lawyer, p ro b ab ly at the Sorbonne. I t was relatively sim ple to stitch tog eth er th e w hole story. B u t occasionally you come u p o n a real tragedy. Figure 6 is the case of a w om an of a b o u t th irty years of age. She was in the

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dear

J

47 46 45 44 43 42

stupid 41

money

40 39I 38 36 35 34 33 32 31 30

rich 29

28 27 26 25 24 23

22

evil

21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13

obstinate

12

angel

Q

F ig. 6. Association T e st

37

clinic, an d the diagnosis was schizophrenia of a depr6SSiVe ch ar­ acter. T h e prognosis was correspondingly bad. I h a d this wom an in my w ard, an d I h ad a p eculiar feeling a b o u t her. I felt I could n o t q u ite agree w ith the bad prognosis, because already schizo­ p h re n ia was a relative idea w ith me. I th o u g h t th a t -we are all relatively crazy, b u t this w om an was peculiar, an d I co u ld no t accept th e diagnosis as the last w ord. In those days one knew precious little. O f course I m ade an anam nesis, b u t n o th in g was discovered th a t threw any light on h e r illness. T h e re fo re I p u t h e r to the association test an d finally m ade a very p ecu liar dis­ covery. T h e first d isturbance was caused by the w ord angel, and a com plete lack of reactio n by the w ord obstinate. T h e n there w ere evil, rich, m oney, stu p id , dear, a n d to marry. N ow this w om an was the w ife of a well-to-do m an in a very fine position a n d a p p aren tly happy. I had q u estio n ed h e r h u sb an d , an d the only th in g he could tell me, as she also did, was th a t the depres­ sion cam e on a b o u t two m onths after h e r eldest ch ild had died— a little g irl fo u r years old. N o th in g else co u ld b e fo u n d o u t a b o u t the aetiology of the case. T h e association test co nfronted m e w ith a m ost baffling series of reactions w hich I could n o t p u t together. You w ill often be in such a situ atio n , p articu larly if you have no ro u tin e w ith th a t k in d of diagnosis. T h e n you first ask th e test person a b o u t the words w hich are n o t going directly to the kernel. If you asked directly a b o u t the strongest d istu rb ­ ances you w ould get w rong answers, so you b eg in w ith relatively harm less w ords a n d you are likely to get an honest reply. I said: “W h at a b o u t angel? Does th a t w ord m ean som ething to you?” She rep lied : “O f course, th a t is m y child w hom I have lost.” A nd th e n cam e a great flood of tears. W h en the storm h ad blow n over I asked: “W h a t does obstinate m ean to you?” She said: “ It m eans n o th in g to m e.” B u t I said: “T h e re was a big d istu rb an ce w ith th e w ord a n d it m eans th ere is som ething connected w ith it.” I could n o t p e n etrate it. I cam e to th e w ord evil an d could get n o th in g o u t of her. T h e re was a severely negative reaction w hich show ed th a t she refused to answer. I w en t on to blue, and she said: “T h o se are the eyes of the ch ild I have lost.” I said: “D id they m ake a p a rtic u la r im pression o n you?” She said: “ Of course. T h e y w ere so w onderfully b lu e w hen th e ch ild was b o rn .” I n o ticed the expression on h e r face, and I said: “W hy are you upset?” a n d she rep lied : “W ell, she d id n o t have th e eyes

of my h u sb an d .” F inally it came o u t th a t the ch ild h ad h ad th e eyes of a form er lover of hers. I said: “W h at is u p settin g you w ith regard to th a t m an?” A nd I was able to w orm th e story o u t of her. 108 In the little tow n in which she grew u p th ere was a rich young m an. She was of a well-to-do fam ily b u t n o th in g grand. T h e m an was of the m oneyed aristocracy an d the hero of th e little tow n, and every girl dream ed of him . She was a p re tty girl and th o u g h t she m ig h t have a chance. T h e n she discovered she had no chance w ith him , and h er fam ily said: “W hy th in k of him ? H e is a rich m an an d does n o t th in k of you. H ere is M r. Soand-So, a nice m an. W hy n o t m arry him ?” She m arried h im an d was perfectly happy ever after u n til the fifth year of h e r m a r­ riage, w hen a form er friend from her native tow n cam e to visit her. W h en h er husb an d left the room he said to her: “You have caused p ain to a certain gentlem an” (m eaning th e hero). She said: “W hat? I caused pain?” T h e frien d replied: “D id n ’t you know he was in love w ith you a n d was disap p o in ted w hen you m arried a n o th er m an?” T h a t set fire to the roof. B ut she re ­ pressed it. A fo rtn ig h t later she was b a th in g h er boy, two years, and h er girl, fo u r years old. T h e w ater in the tow n— it was n o t in Sw itzerland— was n o t above suspicion, in fact it was infected w ith typhoid fever. She noticed th at the little girl was sucking a sponge. B u t she d id n o t interfere, an d w hen the little boy said, “I w ant to d rin k some w ater,” she gave h im th e possibly infected w ater. T h e little girl got typhoid fever an d died, the little boy was saved. T h e n she had w hat she w anted— or w hat the devil in her w anted— the denial of her m arriage in o rd er to m arry th e o th er m an. T o this end she had com m itted m u rd er. She d id n o t know it; she only to ld me the facts a n d d id n o t draw the conclu­ sion th a t she was responsible for the d eath of the ch ild since she knew the w ater was infected an d there was danger. I was faced w ith the question w hether I should tell h e r she h ad com m itted m urder, o r w hether I should keep q u iet. (It was only a question of tellin g her} there was no th reat of a crim in al case.) I th o u g h t th a t if I told her it m ig h t m ake h er co n d itio n m uch worse, b u t there was a bad prognosis anyhow , whereas, if she could realize w hat she had done, th e chance was th a t she m ig h t get well. So I m ade u p my m in d to tell h er point-blank: “You k illed y o u r child.” She w ent u p in the a ir in an em otional state, b u t th en

she came down to the facts. In three weeks we were able to dis­ charge her, and she never came back. I traced her for fifteen years, and there was no relapse. T h a t depression fitted her case psychologically: she was a murderess and under other circum ­ stances would have deserved capital punishm ent. Instead of go­ ing to jail she was sent to the lunatic asylum. I practically saved her from the punishm ent of insanity by p u ttin g an enormous bu rden on her conscience. For if one can accept one’s sin one can live with it. If one cannot accept it, one has to suffer the inevitable consequences.

Discussion 109

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Question: I want to refer to last night. Tow ards the end of his lecture Dr. Ju n g spoke of higher and lower functions and said the thinking type would use his feeling function archaically, I would like to know: is the reverse true? Does the feeling type, when he tries to think, think archaically? In other words, are thinking and in tu itio n to be regarded always as higher functions than feeling and sensation? I ask this because . . . I gathered from lectures elsewhere that sensation was the lowest of con­ scious functions and thinking a higher one. It is certainly the case th at in everyday life thinking seems to be the top-notch. T h e professor— not this Professor— thinking in his study re­ gards himself and is regarded as the highest type, higher than the countrym an who says: “Sometimes I sits and thinks and sometimes I just sits.” Professor Jung: I hope I did not give you the impression that I was giving a preference to any of the functions. T h e dom inating function in a given individual is always the most differentiated, and that can be any function. W e have absolutely no criterion by which we can say this or that function in itself is the best. W e can only say that the differentiated function in the individual is the best for adapting, and that the one that is most excluded by the superior function is inferior on account of being neglected. T here are some m odern people who say that in tu itio n is the highest func-

tion. Fastidious individuals prefer in tu itio n , it is classy! T h e sensation type always thinks th a t o th er people are very in ferio r because they are n o t so real as he is. H e is the real fellow and everybody else is fantastic an d unreal. Everybody thinks his su­ perior function is the top of the w orld. In th at respect we are liable to the m ost aw ful blunders. T o realize the actual o rd e r of functions in o u r consciousness, severe psychological criticism is needed. T h e re are m any people who believe th a t w orld p ro b ­ lems are settled by thinking. B u t no tru th can be established w ith o u t all fo u r functions. W h en you have th o u g h t th e w orld you have done one-fourth of it; the rem ain in g three-fourths may be against you. in

Dr. Eric B. Strauss: Professor Ju n g said the word-association test was a m eans by which one could study the contents of the personal unconscious. In the exam ples he gave surely the m atters revealed w ere m a t­ ters in the p a tie n t’s conscious m in d an d n o t in his unconscious. Surely if one w anted to seek for unconscious m aterial one w ould have to go a step fu rth e r and get the p a tie n t to associate freely on the anom alous reactions. I am th in k in g of the association w ith the w ord “knife,” w hen Professor J u n g so cleverly assum ed the story of the u n fo rtu n a te incident. T h a t surely was in the p a tie n t’s conscious m ind, whereas, if the w ord “k n ife” had u n ­ conscious associations we m ight, if we were Freudian-m inded, have assum ed it was associated w ith an unconscious castration com plex o r som ething of th a t kind. I am n o t saying it is so, b u t I do n o t u n d erstan d w hat Professor J u n g m eans w hen he says the association test is to reach to the p a tie n t’s unconscious. Surely in the instance given to n ig h t it is used to reach the conscious, or w hat F reu d w ould perhaps call the preconscious.

Professor Jung: I should like very m uch if you w ould pay m ore a tte n tio n to w hat I say. I told you th a t unconscious things are very relative. W hen I am unconscious of a certain th in g I am only relatively unconscious of it; in some o th er respects I m ay know it. T h e contents of the personal unconscious are perfectly conscious in certain respects, b u t you do n o t know them u n d e r a particular aspect or at a particular tim e. u3 H ow can you establish w hether the th in g is conscious or un-

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conscious? You sim ply ask people. W e have n o o th e r criterio n to establish w hether som ething is conscious or unconscious. You ask: “D o you know w h eth er you have had certain hesitations?” T h e y say: “N o, I h ad no hesitation; to my know ledge I had the same reaction tim e.” “A re you conscious th a t som ething dis­ tu rb e d you?” “ No, I am n o t.” “ H ave you no recollection of w hat you answ ered to the w ord ‘knife’?” “N one at all.” T h is unaw areness of facts is a very com m on thing. W h en I am asked if I know a certain m an I m ay say no, because I have n o recollec­ tion of h im an d so I am n o t conscious of know ing him ; b u t w hen I am to ld th a t I m et him tw o years ago, th a t he is Mr. Soand-So who has done such an d such a thing, I reply: “C ertainly I know h im .” I know him an d I do n o t know him . A ll th e con­ tents of the personal unconscious are relatively unconscious, even the castration com plex and the incest com plex. T h e y are perfectly know n u n d e r certain aspects, th ough they are u n con­ scious u n d e r others. T h is relativity of b ein g conscious of some-, th in g becomes q u ite p lain in hysterical cases. Q u ite often you find th a t things which seem unconscious are unconscious only to th e doctor b u t n o t perhaps to the nurse or th e relatives. n4 I had to see an in terestin g case once in a fam ous clinic in B erlin, a case of m u ltip le sarcomatosis of th e spinal cord, and because it was a very fam ous neurologist w ho had m ade the d i­ agnosis I alm ost trem bled, b u t I asked for th e anam nesis and had a very nice one w orked out. I asked w hen th e sym ptom s began, a n d fo u n d it was the evening of the day w hen th e only son of the w om an had left h er a n d m arried. She was a widow, q u ite obvi­ ously in love w ith h e r son, an d I said: “T h is is n o sarcomatosis b u t an ord in ary hysteria, w hich we can prove presently.” T h e professor was horrified at m y lack of in telligence o r tact or I d o n ’t know w hat, an d I h ad to w alk out. B u t som ebody ra n after m e in the street. I t was th e nurse, w ho said: “D octor, I w ant to th an k you for saying th a t it was hysteria. I always th o u g h t so.” n5

Dr. E ric G raham H ow e: May I re tu rn to w hat D r. Strauss said? Last n ig h t Professor J u n g rep ro v ed m e for m erely using words, b u t I th in k it is im ­ p o rta n t to get these words clearly understood. I w onder if you have ever asked for the association ex p erim en t to be applied to th e words “m ystic” o r “fo u rth d im ensio n ” ? I believe you w ould

get a perio d of great delay an d concentrated fury every tim e they were m entioned. I propose to re tu rn to the fourth-dim ensional, because I believe it is a lin k badly needed to help o u r u n d e r­ standing. D r. Strauss uses the w ord “ unconscious,” b u t I u n d e r­ stand from Professor J u n g th a t there is no such thing, th ere is only a relative unconsciousness w hich depends on a relativ e d e­ gree of consciousness. A ccording to Freudians, th ere is a place, a thing, an en tity called the unconscious. A ccording to Professor Jung, as I u n d e rstan d him , there is no such thing. H e is m oving in a fluid m edium of relatio n sh ip and F reu d in a static m ed iu m of u n related entities. T o get it clear F reu d is three-dimensional and J u n g is, in all his psychology, four-dimensional. F o r this rea­ son, I w ould criticize if I m ay the whole diagram m atic system of Ju n g because he is giving you a three-dim ensional p resen tatio n of a four-dim ensional system, a static p resen tatio n of som ething that is functionally m oving, an d unless it is ex p lain ed you get it confused w ith the F reu d ian term inology an d you cannot u n d e r­ stand it. I shall insist th a t there m ust be some clarification of words. Professor Jung: I could wish D r. G raham H ow e w ere n o t so indiscreet. You are right, b u t you should n o t say such things. As I explained, I tried to begin w ith the m ildest propositions. You p u t y o u r foot rig h t in to it an d speak of fo u r dim ensions an d of th e w ord "m ys­ tic,” and you tell m e th a t all of us w ould have a long reaction tim e to such stim ulus words. You are q u ite rig h t, everybody w ould be stu ng because we are ju st beginners in o u r field. I agree w ith you th a t it is very difficult to let psychology be a liv­ ing th in g an d n o t to dissolve it in to static entities. N atu ra lly you m ust express yourself in term s of the fo u rth d im en sio n w hen you b rin g the tim e factor in to a three-dim ensional system. W hen you speak of dynam ics an d processes you n eed th e tim e factor, and th en you have all the preju d ice of the w orld against you because you have used the w ord “four-dim ensional.” I t is a taboo w ord th a t should n o t be m entio n ed . I t has a history, an d we should be exceedingly tactful w ith such words. T h e m ore you advance in the u n d e rstan d in g of th e psyche th e m ore care­ ful you w ill have to be w ith term inology, because it is h isto ri­ cally coined an d prejudiced. T h e m ore you p e n etrate th e basic

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problem s of psychology the m ore you approach ideas w hich are philosophically, religiously, an d m orally prejudiced. T h erefo re certain things should be h a n d led w ith the u tm o st care. Dr. H o w e: T h is audience w ould like you to be provocative. I am going to say a rash thing. You an d I do n o t reg ard th e shape of th e ego as a straig h t line. W e w ould be p rep ared to regard the sphere as a tru e shape of the self in fo u r dim ensions, of which one is the three-dim ensional o u tlin e. If so, w ill you answ er a question: “W h at is the scope of th a t self w hich in fo u r dim ensions is a m oving sphere?” I suggest the answ er is: “T h e universe itself, w hich includes your concept of the collective racial un co n ­ scious.” Professor Jung: I should be m u ch obliged if you w ould rep eat th a t question. Dr. H ow e: H ow big is this sphere, w hich is the four-dim ensional self? I could n o t help giving th e answ er an d saying th at it is th e same bigness as the universe. Professor Jung: T h is is really a philosophical question, an d to answ er it re­ quires a great deal of theory of cognition. T h e w orld is o u r pic­ tu re. O nly childish people im agine th a t the w orld is w hat we th in k it is. T h e im age of the w orld is a p ro jectio n of the w orld of the self, as the la tte r is an in tro jec tio n of th e world. B u t only the special m in d of a philosopher w ill step beyond the o rd in ary pic­ tu re of the w orld in w hich th ere are static a n d isolated things. If you stepped beyond th a t p ic tu re you w ould cause an earthquake in th e o rd in ary m in d , the w hole cosmos w ould be shaken, the m ost sacred convictions an d hopes w ould be upset, a n d I do not see w hy one should wish to d isq u iet things. I t is n o t good for patients, n o r for doctors; it is perhaps good, for philosophers. Dr. Ia n S u ttie : I should like to go back to Dr. Strauss’s question. I can u n ­ d erstan d w hat D r. Strauss m eans an d I th in k I can u n d erstan d w hat Professor J u n g means. As far as I can see, Professor Ju n g fails to m ake any lin k betw een his statem en t and D r. Strauss’s. D r. Strauss w anted to know how the word-association test can 60

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show the F reu d ian unconscious, the m aterial th at is actually pushed o u t of m ind. As far as I understan d Professor Ju n g , he m eans w hat F reud m eans by the “Id .” I t seems to m e th a t we should define o u r ideas well enough to com pare them and n o t m erely use them , each in o u r own school. Professor Jung: I m ust rep eat again th at my m ethods do no t discover theo­ ries, they discover facts, an d I tell you w hat facts I discover w ith these m ethods. I cannot discover a castration com plex or a re ­ pressed incest o r som ething like th at— I find only psychological facts, n o t theories. I am afraid you m ix u p too m uch theory w ith fact and you are perhaps disappointed th a t th e experim ents do n o t reveal a castration com plex and such things, b u t a castration com plex is a theory. W h at you find in the association m ethod are definite facts which we did n o t know before a n d w hich the test person also d id n o t know in this particu lar light. I do n o t say he d id n o t know it u n d e r an o th er light. You know m any things w hen you are in your business th a t you do n o t know at hom e, and at hom e you know m any things th at you do n o t know in your official position. T h in g s are know n in one place a n d some­ where else they are n o t know n. T h a t is w hat we call u n co n ­ scious. I m ust repeat th a t we cannot p en etrate the unconscious empirically and then discover, for instance, th e F reu d ian theory of the castration com plex. T h e castration com plex is a m ytho­ logical idea, b u t it is n o t found as such. W h at we actually find are certain facts grouped in a specific way, and we nam e them according to m ythological or historical parallels. You cannot find a m ythological m otif, you can only find a personal m otif, and th a t never appears in the form of a theory b u t as a living fact of h u m an life. You can abstract a theory from it, F reu d ian or A dlerian or any other. You can th in k w hat you please ab o u t the facts of the w orld, an d there w ill be as m any theories in the end as heads th a t th in k a b o u t it. Dr. Suttie: I protest! I am n o t interested in this or th at theory o r w hat facts are found or not, b u t I am interested in having a m eans of com m unication by w hich each can know w hat th e others are th in k in g and for th at end I hold th a t o u r conceptions m ust be defined. W e m ust know w hat the oth er person m eans by a cer61

tain th in g like the unconscious of Freud. As for the w ord “u n ­ conscious,” it is becom ing m ore or less know n to everybody. It has therefore a certain social o r illustrativ e value, b u t J u n g re ­ fuses to recognize the w ord “unconscious” in th e m ean in g F reu d gives to it a n d uses “unconscious” in a way th a t we have com e to consider as w hat F re u d calls th e “Id .” Professor Jung: 124 T h e w ord “unconscious” is n o t F reu d 's in v en tio n . I t was know n in G erm an philosophy long before, by K an t an d L eibniz a n d others, a n d each of th em gives his d efin itio n of th a t term . I am perfectly well aw are th a t th e re are m any different concep­ tions of the unconscious, an d w hat I was try in g h u m b ly to do was to say w hat I th in k a b o u t it. I t is n o t th a t I u n d erv alu e the m erits of L eibniz, K ant, von H a rtm a n n , or any o th e r great m an, in c lu d in g F reu d an d A d ler an d so on. I was only ex p lain in g w hat I m ean by the unconscious, an d I presuppose th a t you are all aw are of w hat F reu d m eans by it. I d id n o t th in k it was my task to explain things in such a way th a t som ebody who is con­ vinced of F re u d ’s theory an d prefers th a t p o in t of view w ould be upset in his belief. I have no tendency to destroy your convic­ tions o r points of view. I sim ply e x h ib it m y ow n p o in t of view, a n d if anybody should be te m p ted to th in k th a t this also is rea­ sonable, th a t is all I w ant. I t is perfectly in d ifferen t to m e w hat o ne thinks a b o u t the unconscious in general, otherw ise I should begin a long dissertation on the concept of th e unconscious as u n d ersto o d by L eibniz, K ant, a n d von H a rtm a n n . D r. S u ttie: 1^s D r. Strauss asked a b o u t the relatio n sh ip of th e unconscious as conceived by you an d by F reu d . Is it possible to b rin g them in to precise an d definite relationship? ia6

Professor Ju n g : D r- G raham H ow e has answ ered th e question. F reu d is see­ in g the m e n tal processes as static, w hile I speak in term s of dy­ nam ics a n d relatio n sh ip . T o m e all is relative. T h e re is n o th in g definitely unconscious; it is only n o t p resen t to th e conscious m in d u n d e r a certain lig h t. You can have very different ideas of w hy a th in g is know n u n d e r one aspect a n d n o t know n u n d e r a n o th e r aspect. T h e only exception I m ake is th e m ythological 62

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p attern , w hich is profoundly unconscious, as I can prove by the facts. D r. Strauss: Surely there is a difference betw een using your association test as a crim e detector and for finding, let us say, unconscious guilt. Y our crim inal is conscious of his g u ilt a n d he is conscious th a t he is afraid of its being discovered. Y our n eu ro tic is u n ­ aware of his g u ilt and unaw are th a t he is afraid of his guilt. C an the same k in d of technique be used in these two very different kinds of cases? T h e Chairman: T h is w om an was n o t conscious of h er g u ilt though she had allow ed th e child to suck th e sponge. Professor Jung: I w ill show you the difference experim entally. In F ig u re 7 you have a short illu stratio n of resp iratio n d u rin g th e associ­ atio n test. You see four series of seven respirations registered after the stim ulus words. T h e diagram s are condensations of respirations after indifferent an d critical stim ulus words in a g reater n u m b e r of test persons. “A ” gives respirations after indifferent stim ulus words. T h e first inspirations after the stim ulus words are restricted, w hile the follow ing inspirations are of norm al size. In “B” w here the stim ulus w ord was a critical one the vol­ um e of b reath in g is definitely restricted, som etim es by m ore th a n half th e norm al size. In “C ” we have the behaviour of b re a th in g after a stim ulus w ord relatin g to a com plex th a t was conscious to the test p e r­ sons. T h e first in sp iratio n is alm ost norm al, an d only later you find a certain restriction. In “D ” th e respiration is a fte r a stim ulus w ord th a t was re ­ lated to a com plex of w hich the test persons were unconscious. In this case the first in spiration is rem arkably sm all a n d the fol­ low ing are ra th e r below norm al. T h ese diagram s illu strate very clearly th e difference of reac­ tion betw een conscious and unconscious complexes. In “C ,” for instance, th e com plex is conscious. T h e stim ulus w ord h its th e test person, and there is a deep inspiratio n . B u t w hen the stim u ­ lus w ord hits an unconscious com plex, the volum e of b re a th in g

I. T H E TAVISTOCK

A. Respiration after indifferent stimuli

LECTURES

B. Respiration after complex stimuli

C. Respiration after conscious complex stimuli

D. Respiration after unconscious complex stimuli

FIG. 7. Association T e s t : R e s p i r a t i o n

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is restricted, as shown in “D ” I. T h e re is a spasm in th e thorax, so th a t alm ost no b re a th in g takes place. In th a t way one has em ­ pirical proof of the physiological difference betw een conscious an d unconscious re a ctio n .14 D r . W ilfred R . Bion: 135 You gave an analogy betw een archaic form s o f th e body an d archaic form s of th e m ind. Is it p u rely an analogy or is th ere in fact a closer relationship? Last n ig h t you said som ething w hich suggested th a t you consider there is a connection betw een the m in d an d the brain, an d th ere has lately been p u b lish ed in the British M edical Journal a diagnosis of yours from a d ream of a physical d iso rd er.15 If th a t case was correctly re p o rte d it m akes a very im p o rtan t suggestion, an d I w ondered w h eth er you consid­ ered th ere was some closer connection betw een th e two form s of archaic survival. Professor J u n g : 136 You touch again on the controversial p ro b lem of psycho­ physical parallelism for w hich I know of no answer, because it is beyond the reach of m a n ’s cognition. As I tried to ex p lain yes­ terday, the tw o things— th e psychic fact a n d th e physiological fact— come together in a pecu liar way. T h e y h ap p en to g eth er and are, so I assume, sim ply two different aspects to o u r m ind , b u t n o t in reality. W e see them as two on account of th e u tte r incapacity of o u r m in d to th in k them together. Because of th a t possible u n ity of the two things, we m ust expect to find dream s which are m ore on th e physiological side th an on the psycho­ logical, as we have o th e r dream s th a t are m ore on th e psycholog[Cf. supra, par. 48, n. 15.] IB [Cf. T . M. Davie, “Comments upon a Case of ‘Periventricular Epilepsy,’ ’’ B rit­ ish M edical Journal, no. 3893 (Aug. 17, 1935), 293-297. T he dream is reported by a patient of Davie as follows: “Someone beside me kept on asking m e som ething about oiling some machinery. Milk was suggested as the best lubricant. A p­ parently I thought that oozy slime was preferable. T h en a pond was drained, and amid the slime there were two extinct animals. One was a m inute mastodon. I forgot what the other one was.” Davie’s comment: “I thought it would be of interest to submit this dream to Jung to ask what his interpretation would be. H e had no hesitation in saying that it indicated some organic disturbance, and that the illness was not primarily a psychological one, although there were numerous psychological derivatives in the dream. T h e drainage of the pond he interpreted as the damming-up o f the cere­ brospinal fluid circulation.’’] 14

ical th an on the physical side. T h e dream to w hich you refer was very clearly a re p resen tatio n of an organic disorder. T h ese “organic rep resen tatio n s” are well know n in an cien t literatu re. T h e doctors of a n tiq u ity an d of the M iddle Ages used dream s for th e ir diagnosis. I d id n o t co n d u ct a physical e x am in atio n on the m an you re fe r to. I only h eard his history a n d was told the dream , an d I gave my o p in io n on it. I have h a d o th e r cases, for instance a very d o u b tfu l case of progressive m u scu lar atrophy in a young girl. I asked a b o u t dream s an d she h ad two dream s w hich w ere very colourful. A colleague, a m an w ho knew some­ th in g of psychology, th o u g h t it m ig h t be a case of hysteria. T h e re w ere in d eed hysterical symptoms, an d it was still d o u b t­ ful if it was progressive m uscular atrophy o r not; b u t on account of the dream s I cam e to the conclusion th a t it m u st be an o r­ ganic disease, an d the en d proved my diagnosis. I t was an o r­ ganic disturbance, an d the dream s were definitely re fe rrin g to the organic co n d itio n .16 A ccording to m y idea of the com m u­ n ity of the psyche an d the living body it should be like that, and it w ould be m arvellous if it w ere n o t so. D r. Bion: l 37 W ill you be talk in g of th a t la te r w hen you speak o n dreams? Professor Jung: 1S8 I am afraid th a t I can n o t go in to such d etail; it is too special. I t is really a m a tte r of special experience, an d its p resentation w ould be a very difficult job. I t w ould n o t be possible to describe to you briefly th e c riteria by w hich I ju d g e such dream s. T h e d ream you m en tio n ed , you m ay rem em b er, was a d ream of the little m astodon. T o explain w hat th a t m astodon really m eans in an organic respect a n d why I m ust take th a t d ream as a n organic sym ptom w ould start such an a rg u m en t th a t you w ould accuse m e of th e m ost te rrib le obscurantism . T h ese things really are obscure. I h a d to speak in term s of th e basic m ind, w hich thinks in archetypal patterns. W h en I speak of archetypal patterns those w ho are aw are of these things u n d erstan d , b u t if you are n o t aw are you th in k , “T h is fellow is absolutely crazy because he talks of m astodons an d th e ir difference from snakes an d horses.” I should have to give you a course of a b o u t fo u r semesters ab o u t sym bology first so th a t you could appreciate w hat I said. ie [The Practice of Psychotherapy (C.W., vol. l 6), pars. 344f.]

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T h a t is the great tro u b le: there is such a gap betw een w hat is usually know n of these things an d w hat I have w orked on all these years. If I w ere to speak of this even before a m edical a u d i­ ence I should have to talk of the peculiarities of the n iveau m e n ­ tal , to q u o te Jan e t, an d I m ig h t as well talk Chinese. F or in ­ stance, I w ould say th a t the abaissem ent du niveau m ental sank in a certain case to the level of the m anipura chakra,17 th a t is, to the level of th e navel. W e E uropeans are n o t the only people o n the earth. W e are ju st a peninsula of Asia, an d on th a t c o n tin e n t there are old civilizations w here people have tra in e d th e ir m inds in introspective psychology for thousands of years, w hereas we began w ith o u r psychology n o t even yesterday b u t only this m orning. T h ese people have an insight th a t is sim ply fabulous, and I had to study E astern things to u n d erstan d certain facts of the unconscious. I h ad to go back to u n d erstan d O rie n ta l sym­ bolism. I am a b o u t to pu b lish a little book on one sym bolic m otif only,18 an d you w ill find it hair-raising. I had to study n o t only C hinese a n d H in d u b u t Sanskrit lite ra tu re a n d m edieval L atin m anuscripts w hich are n o t even know n to specialists, so th a t one m ust go to th e B ritish M useum to find th e references. O nly w hen you possess th a t apparatus of parallelism can you b e­ gin to m ake diagnoses a n d say th a t this dream is organic an d th a t one is not. U n til people have acq u ired th a t know ledge I am ju st a sorcerer. T h e y say it is u n to u r de passe-passe. T h e y said it in the M iddle Ages. T h e y said, “ H ow can you see th a t J u p ite r has satellites?” If you reply th a t you have a telescope, w hat is a tele­ scope to a m edieval audience? Ho I do n o t m ean to boast a b o u t this. I am always p erplexed w hen m y colleagues ask: “ H ow do you establish such a diagnosis or come to this conclusion?” I reply: “ I w ill ex p lain if you w ill allow m e to explain w hat you ou g h t to know to be able to u n derstand it.” I experienced this m yself w hen th e fam ous E in ­ stein was Professor a t Z urich. I often saw him , an d it was w hen

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[Cf. supra, par. 17, n. 4.] 18 [The mandala motif, in a lecture, “Traumsymbole des Individuationsprozesses,” that Jung delivered a few weeks previously at the Eranos Tagung. It was pub­ lished the next year in Eranos-Jahrbuch 1935; in translation, as “Dream Symbols of the Process of Individuation,” Th- Integration of the Personality, 1939; revised as Part II of Psychologie und Alchemie, 1944 ( = C.W., vol. 12). See also infra, par. 406, n. 15.]

he was beginning to work on his theory of relativity. H e was often in my house, and I pum ped him about his relativity the­ ory. I am n o t gifted in m athem atics and you should have seen all the trouble the poor m an had to explain relativity to me. H e did n o t know how to do it. I w ent fourteen feet deep into the floor an d felt quite small when I saw how he was troubled. B ut one day he asked m e som ething about psychology. T h e n I had my revenge. !41 Special knowledge is a terrible disadvantage. It leads you in a way too far, so th at you cannot explain any more. You must allow m e to talk to you about seemingly elem entary things, but if you will accept them I thin k you will understand why I draw such and such conclusions. I am sorry th at we do n o t have more tim e an d th at I cannot tell you everything. W hen I come to dreams I have to give myself away and to risk your thinking me a perfect fool, because I am not able to p u t before you all the historical evidence which led to my conclusions. I should have to quote bit after b it from Chinese an d H in d u literature, medieval texts and all the things which you do n o t know. How could you? I am w orking w ith specialists in other fields of knowledge and they help me. T h ere was my late friend Professor W ilhelm , the sinologist; I w orked w ith him . H e had translated a T aoist text, and he asked me to com m ent on it, which I d id from the psycho­ logical side.19 I am a terrible novelty to a sinologist, b u t what he has to tell us is a novelty to us. T h e Chinese philosophers were no fools. W e th in k the old people were fools, b u t they were as intelligent as we are. T h ey were frightfully intelligent people, an d psychology can learn no end from old civilizations, particu­ larly from In d ia and China. A form er President of the British A nthropological Society asked me: “Can you understand that such a highly intelligent people as the Chinese have no science?’’ I replied: “T h ey have a science, b u t you do n o t understand it. It is n o t based on the principle of causality. T h e principle of caus­ ality is not the only principle; it is only relative.” »42 People may say: W hat a fool to say causality is only relative! B ut look at m odern physics! T h e East bases its thinking and its evaluation of facts on another principle. W e have not even a 19 The Secret of the Golden Flower. [The Chinese text was translated by Richard Wilhelm. T he commentary by Jung is contained in Alchemical Studies (C.W., vol. 13 )·]

w ord for th a t p rin cip le. T h e East n atu rally has a w ord for it, b u t we do n o t u n d e rsta n d it. T h e Eastern w ord is Tao. My frien d M cD ougall20 has a C hinese student, and he asked him : “W h at exactly do you m ean by T a o ? ” T ypically W estern! T h e C hinese explained w hat T a o is an d he replied: “I do n o t u n d e rstan d yet.” T h e C hinese w ent o u t to the balcony and said: “W h at do you see?” “ I see a street an d houses and people w alking an d tram cars passing.” “W h a t m ore?” “T h e re is a h ill.” “W h at m ore?” “T re e s.” “W h a t m ore?” “T h e w ind is blow ing.” T h e Chinese th rew u p his arm s an d said: “ T h a t is T a o .” 143 T h e re you are. T a o can be anything. I use a n o th er w ord to designate it, b u t it is poor enough. I call it synchronicity. T h e Eastern m ind, w hen it looks a t an ensem ble of facts, accepts th a t ensem ble as it is, b u t the W estern m in d divides it in to entities, small q u an tities. You look, for instance, at this present g ath erin g of people, an d you say: “W h ere do they come from? W hy should they com e together?” T h e E astern m in d is n o t a t all in ­ terested in th at. It says: “W h a t does it mean th a t these people are together?” T h a t is n o t a p ro b lem fo r th e W estern m in d . You are in terested in w hat you com e here for an d w h at you are do in g here. N o t so th e E astern m in d ; it is interested in b ein g together. !44 It is like this: you are standing on th e sea-shore a n d th e waves wash u p an old hat, an old box, a shoe, a dead fish, an d there they lie on the shore. You say: “C hance, nonsense!” T h e Chinese m in d asks: “W h at does it m ean th a t these things are together?” T h e C hinese m in d experim ents w ith th a t being to­ gether an d com ing together at the right m o m e n t, an d it has an ex perim ental m eth o d w hich is n o t know n in th e W est, b u t which plays a large role in the philosophy of th e East. It is a m ethod of forecasting possibilities, a n d it is still used by th e J a p ­ anese G o vernm ent a b o u t political situations; it was used, for in ­ stance, in th e G reat W ar. T h is m eth o d was fo rm u lated in 1143 B .C .21 20 [W illia m M c D o u g a ll (1 8 7 1 -1 9 3 8 ), A m e ric a n p sy ch ia tr ist. C f. J u n g ’s “ O n th e P sych ogen esis o f S c h iz o p h r e n ia ” (C .W ., v o l. 3), p ar. 504, a n d “ T h e T h e r a p e u tic V a lu e o f A b r e a c tio n ” (C .W ., v o l. 16), p ar. 355.] 21 [C f. T h e I C h in g , o r B o o k o f C h a n g es, trans. b y W ilh e lm /B a y n e s , 3rd e d n ., in tr o d u c tio n , p. Iiii.]

L E C T U R E III

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The Chairman {Dr. Maurice B . Wright): Ladies and G entlem en, it is my privilege to be the Chairman at Professor Jun g’s lecture at this evening’s m eeting. It was my privilege twenty-one years ago to m eet Professor Jung when he came over to London to give a series of addresses,1 but there was then a very small group of psychologically m inded physicians. I rem em ber very well how after the m eetings we used to go to a little restaurant in Soho and talk until we were turned out. N at­ urally we were trying to pum p Professor Jung as hard as we could. W hen I said goodbye to Professor Jung he said to me—-he did not say it very seriously— “I think you are an extravert who has becom e an introvert.” Frankly, I have been brooding about that ever since! N ow , ladies and gentlem en, just a word about last night. I think Professor Jung gave us a very good illustration of his views and of his work w hen he talked about the value of the telescope. A man w ith a telescope naturally can see a good deal more than anybody w ith unaided sight. T h at is exactly Professor Jung’s po­ sition. W ith his particular spectacles, w ith his very specialized research, he has acquired a knowledge, a vision of the depth of the hum an psyche, w hich for many of us is very difficult to grasp. O f course, it w ill be im possible for him in the space of a few lectures to give us m ore than a very short outline of the vision he has gained. Therefore, in my opinion anything w hich m ight seem blurred or dark is not a question of obscurantism, it is a question of spectacles. My own difficulty is that, w ith my muscles of accommodation already hardening, it m ight be im possible for m e ever to see that vision clearly, even if for the m om ent Profes­ sor Jung could lend m e his spectacles. But however this may be, I [Cf. “ O n th e Im p o rtan c e of th e U nconscious in P sychopathology,” an d “O n Psychological U n d erstan d in g ,” b o th delivered in 1914 (C.W., vol. 3).]

I know that we are all thrilled w ith everything he can tell us, and we know how stim ulating it is to o u r own thinking, espe­ cially in a dom ain where speculation is so easy and where proof is so difficult. Professor Jung:

Ladies and G entlem en, I ought to have finished my lecture on the association tests yesterday, b u t I would have had to over­ step my time. So you m ust pardon me for coming back to the same thing once more. It is n ot that I am particularly in love w ith the association tests. I use them only when I m ust, b u t they are really the foundation of certain conceptions. I told you last tim e about the characteristic disturbances, and I think it would be a good thing, perhaps, if I were briefly to sum u p all there is to say about the results of the experim ent, namely about the complexes. A complex is an agglom eration of associations—a sort of pic­ ture of a m ore or less com plicated psychological nature— some­ times of traum atic character, sometimes simply of a painful and highly toned character. Everything that is highly toned is rath er difficult to handle. If, for instance, som ething is very im portant to me, I begin to hesitate when I attem pt to do it, and you have probably observed th at when you ask me difficult questions I cannot answer them im m ediately because the subject is im por­ tan t and I have a long reaction time. I begin to stammer, and my memory does not supply the necessary m aterial. Such disturb­ ances are complex disturbances— even if what I say does not come from a personal complex of m ine. It is simply an im por­ tant affair, and whatever has an intense feeling-tone is difficult to handle because such contents are somehow associated with physiological reactions, with the processes of the heart, the tonus of the blood vessels, the condition of the intestines, the breath­ ing, and the innervation of the skin. W henever there is a high tonus it is just as if that particular com plex had a body of its own, as if it were localized in my body to a certain extent, and that makes it unwieldy, because something that irritates my body cannot be easily pushed away because it has its roots in my body and begins to pull at my nerves. Som ething that has little tonus and little em otional value can be easily brushed aside be­ cause it has no roots. It is not adherent or adhesive.

L a d ie s a n d G e n tle m e n , t h a t lea d s m e to s o m e th in g very im ­ p o r t a n t — th e fa c t t h a t a c o m p le x w ith its g iv e n te n s io n or e n e rg y h a s th e te n d e n c y to fo rm a l it tl e p e r s o n a lity o f itse lf. It h a s a s o rt o f b o d y , a c e r ta in a m o u n t o f its o w n p h y sio lo g y . I t can u p s e t th e s to m a c h . I t u p s e ts th e b r e a th in g , i t d is tu r b s th e h e a rt — i n s h o rt, i t b e h a v e s lik e a p a r t i a l p e rs o n a lity . F o r in sta n c e, w h e n y o u w a n t to say o r d o s o m e th in g a n d u n f o r t u n a te ly a c o m ­ p le x in te r f e r e s w ith th is i n te n ti o n , t h e n y o u say o r d o s o m e th in g d if f e r e n t f ro m w h a t y o u in te n d e d . Y o u a re s im p ly i n te r r u p te d , a n d y o u r b e s t i n te n ti o n g e ts u p s e t b y th e c o m p le x , e x a c tly as if y o u h a d b e e n i n te r f e r e d w ith b y a h u m a n b e in g o r b y c ir c u m ­ sta n c e s f ro m o u ts id e . U n d e r th o s e c o n d itio n s w e re a lly a re fo rc e d to s p e a k o f th e te n d e n c ie s o f c o m p le x e s to a c t as if th ey w e re c h a ra c te r iz e d b y a c e r ta in a m o u n t o f w ill-p o w e r. W h e n y o u s p e a k o f w ill-p o w e r y o u n a tu r a ll y a sk a b o u t th e ego. W h e re th e n is th e eg o t h a t b e lo n g s to th e w ill-p o w e r o f th e co m p lex es? W e k n o w o u r o w n e g o -c o m p le x , w h ic h is s u p p o s e d to b e i n fu ll p o ssessio n o f th e b o d y . I t is n o t, b u t le t u s a s su m e t h a t it is a c e n tr e i n f u ll p o ssessio n o f th e b o d y , t h a t t h e r e is a fo cu s w h ic h w e c a ll th e ego, a n d t h a t th e e g o h a s a w ill a n d c a n d o s o m e th in g w ith its c o m p o n e n ts . T h e e g o a lso is a n a g g lo m e r a tio n of h ig h ly t o n e d c o n te n ts , so t h a t in p r in c i p le t h e r e is n o d iffe re n c e b e ­ tw e e n th e e g o -c o m p le x a n d a n y o t h e r c o m p le x . *5° B e c a u se c o m p le x e s h a v e a c e r ta in w ill-p o w e r, a s o rt o f ego, w e f in d t h a t in a s c h iz o p h r e n ic c o n d it io n th e y e m a n c ip a te th e m ­ selves f ro m c o n s c io u s c o n tr o l to s u c h a n e x te n t t h a t th e y b e c o m e v is ib le a n d a u d ib le . T h e y a p p e a r as v isio n s, th e y s p e a k in voices w h ic h a r e lik e th e voices o f d e f in ite p e o p le . T h i s p e rs o n ific a tio n o f c o m p le x e s is n o t i n its e lf n e c e s s a rily a p a th o lo g ic a l c o n d itio n . I n d re a m s , f o r in s ta n c e , o u r c o m p le x e s o f te n a p p e a r in a p e rs o n ­ ifie d fo rm . A n d o n e c a n t r a i n o n e s e lf to s u c h a n e x te n t t h a t th e y b e c o m e v is ib le o r a u d ib le a lso in a w a k in g c o n d itio n . I t is p a r t o f a c e r t a i n y o g a t r a i n i n g to s p lit u p c o n sc io u sn e ss i n t o its c o m ­ p o n e n ts , e a c h o f w h ic h a p p e a r s as a specific p e rs o n a lity . I n th e p s y c h o lo g y o f o u r u n c o n s c io u s t h e r e a r e ty p ic a l fig u re s t h a t h a v e a d e f in ite life o f t h e i r o w n .2 !5 1 A ll th is is e x p la in e d b y th e fa c t t h a t th e so -c a lle d u n i ty of c o n sc io u sn e ss is a n illu s io n . I t is r e a lly a w is h -d re a m . W e lik e to »49

2 For exam ple, the figures of anim a and anim us. [See T w o Essays on A nalytical Psychology (C.W., vol. η), pars. 2g6ff.]

th in k th a t we are one; b u t we are not, m ost decidedly not. W e are n o t really m asters in o u r house. W e like to believe in o u r w ill-pow er an d in o u r energy an d in w hat we can do; b u t w hen it comes to a real show-down we find th a t we can do it only to a certain extent, because we are h am pered by those little devils th e com plexes. Com plexes are autonom ous groups of associ­ ations th a t have a tendency to move by themselves, to live th e ir own life a p art from o u r intentions. I h o ld th a t o u r personal u n ­ conscious, as well as the collective unconscious, consists of an indefinite, because unknow n, n u m b e r of com plexes o r fragm en­ tary personalities. 152 T h is idea explains a lot. I t explains, for instance, the sim ple fact th a t a p oet has th e capacity to dram atize an d personify his m en tal contents. W h en he creates a character on the stage, o r in his poem or dram a o r novel, he thinks it is m erely a p ro d u c t of his im agination; b u t th a t character in a certain secret way has m ade itself. A ny novelist o r w riter w ill deny th a t these charac­ ters have a psychological m eaning, b u t as a m a tte r of fact you know as well as I do th a t they have one. T h erefo re you can read a w rite r’s m in d w hen you study the characters he creates. 153 T h e com plexes, then, are p artial or fragm entary p erso n ali­ ties. W h en we speak of the ego-complex, we n a tu ra lly assume th a t it has a consciousness, because th e relatio n sh ip of th e vari­ ous contents to the centre, in o th e r w ords to th e ego, is called consciousness. B u t we also have a g ro u p in g of contents a b o u t a centre, a sort of nucleus, in o th er com plexes. So we m ay ask the question: D o com plexes have a consciousness of th e ir own? If you study spiritualism , you m u st ad m it th a t the so-called spirits m anifested in au to m atic w ritin g or th ro u g h th e voice of a m edium do indeed have a sort of consciousness of th e ir own. T h e re fo re u n p re ju d ic e d people are in clin ed to believe th a t the spirits are th e ghosts of a deceased a u n t or g ran d fath er o r some­ th in g of the kind, ju st on account of the m ore or less d istin ct personality w hich can be traced in these m anifestations. O f course, w hen we are d ealing w ith a case of insanity we are less in clin ed to assum e th a t we have to do w ith ghosts. W e call it pathological then. *54 So m uch a b o u t the com plexes. I insist on th a t p a rtic u la r p o in t of consciousness w ith in com plexes only because com plexes play a large role in dream-analysis. You rem em b er my diagram

(F igure 4) show ing th e different spheres of th e m in d an d the d ark cen tre of the unconscious in the m iddle. T h e closer you ap ­ p roach th a t centre, th e m ore you experience w h at J a n e t calls an abaissem ent du nivea u m e n ta l: your conscious au to n o m y begins to disappear, a n d you get m ore an d m ore u n d e r th e fascination of unconscious contents. C onscious au to n o m y loses its tension an d its energy, a n d th a t energy reappears in th e increased activ­ ity of unconscious contents. Y ou can observe this process in an ex trem e form w h en you carefully study a case of insanity. T h e fascination of unconscious contents g rad u ally grows stronger a n d conscious co n tro l vanishes in p ro p o rtio n u n til finally th e p a­ tie n t sinks in to th e unconscious a lto g eth er a n d becom es com ­ pletely victim ized by it. H e is the victim of a new autonom ous activity th a t does n o t start from his ego b u t starts from the d ark sphere. In o rd e r to deal w ith the association test th oroughly, I m u st m e n tio n a n en tire ly different ex p erim en t. Y ou w ill forgive m e if for th e sake of econom izing tim e I do n o t go in to th e details of the researches, b u t these diagram s (Figs. 8, 9, 10, 11) illu strate th e results of very volum inous researches in to fam ilies.3 T h ey re p re se n t th e q u a lity of associations. F o r instance, th e little sum ­ m it in F igure 8 designated as n u m b e r X I is a special class o r cate­ gory of association. T h e p rinciple of classification is logical and linguistic. I am n o t going in to this, a n d you w ill sim ply have to accept the fact th a t I have m ade fifteen categories in to w hich I divide associations. W e m ade tests w ith a g reat n u m b e r of fam ­ ilies, all for certain reasons u n e d u ca te d people, an d we fo u n d th a t th e type of association an d reactio n is p ecu liarly parallel am o n g c ertain m em bers of th e fam ily; fo r instance, fa th e r and m o th e r, o r tw o b ro th ers, o r m o th e r a n d ch ild are alm ost id e n ti­ cal in th e ir type of reaction. l5& I shall ex p lain this by F ig u re 8. T h e d o tte d lin e ( ) re p ­ resents th e m o th er, th e b ro k e n lin e (......... ) h e r.sixteen-year-old d au g h ter, a n d th e u n b ro k e n lin e (-------- ) th e father. T h is was a very u n fo rtu n a te m arriage. T h e fa th e r was an alcoholic an d the m o th e r was a very p ecu liar type. You see th a t th e sixteenyear-old d a u g h te r follows h e r m o th e r’s type closely. As m uch »55

3 “T h e

F a m ilia l

C o n s t e l la t io n s ”

(C .W ., v o l.

2)

and

“T h e

S ig n if ic a n c e

F a t h e r i n t h e D e s t i n y o f t h e I n d i v i d u a l ” (C .W ., v o l. 4 ) , p a r s . 6 9 8 - 7 0 2 .

of

th e

as th irty p e r cent of all associations are identical words. T h is is a strik in g case of particip atio n , of m ental contagion. If you th in k a b o u t this case you can draw certain conclusions. T h e m o th er was forty-five years old, m a rrie d to an alcoholic. H e r life

F a th e r _______

M o th e r ..................

D au ghter

F ig . 8. A ssociation T e st o f a F am ily

was therefore a failure. N ow the d au g h ter has exactly th e same reactions as the m other. If such a girl comes o u t in to th e w o rld as though she w ere forty-five years old an d m a rrie d to a n alco­ holic, th in k w hat a mess she will get into! T h is p a rtic ip a tio n ex­ plains w hy the d a u g h ter of an alcoholic w ho has h a d a hell of a 75

I.

Father

THE

TAVISTOCK

Daughter I

i

E

LECTURES

Daughter H

i

a

i

H f f l s m i

Husband

i

i

n

E

i

H

H

M

Unmarried sister FIGS. 9 - 1 1 .

I

i Wife

i

H H B n s E n :

Married sister Association Tests of Families

76

E j n m D m a i

y o u t h w i l l s e e k a m a n w h o is a n a l c o h o l i c a n d m a r r y h i m ; a n d i f b y c h a n c e h e s h o u ld n o t b e o n e , sh e w ill m a k e h im in to o n e o n a c c o u n t o f t h a t p e c u lia r id e n tity w ith o n e m e m b e r o f th e fa m ily . 157

F ig u re

9

is a v e r y s t r i k i n g c a s e , t o o . T h e f a t h e r , w h o w a s a

w id o w e r , h a d tw o d a u g h te r s w h o liv e d w ith h im

in c o m p le te

i d e n t i t y . O f c o u r s e , t h a t a l s o is m o s t u n n a t u r a l , b e c a u s e e i t h e r h e r e a c ts lik e a g ir l o r th e tw o g irls r e a c t lik e a m a n , e v e n in th e w a y t h e y s p e a k . T h e w h o l e m e n t a l m a k e - u p is p o i s o n e d t h r o u g h t h e a d m i x t u r e o f a n a l i e n e l e m e n t , b e c a u s e a y o u n g d a u g h t e r is n o t in a c tu a l fa c t h e r fa th e r. 158

F i g u r e 1 0 is t h e c a s e o f a h u s b a n d a n d w i f e . T h i s d i a g r a m g iv e s a n o p t i m i s t i c to n e t o m y v e r y p e s s im is tic d e m o n s tr a ti o n s . Y o u s e e t h e r e is p e r f e c t h a r m o n y h e r e ; b u t d o n o t m a k e t h e m i s ­ t a k e o f t h i n k i n g t h a t t h i s h a r m o n y is a p a r a d i s e , f o r t h e s e p e o p l e w ill k ic k a g a in s t e a c h o th e r a f te r a w h ile b e c a u s e th e y a r e ju s t to o h a r m o n io u s . A v e ry g o o d h a r m o n y in a fa m ily b a s e d o n p a r ­ t i c i p a t i o n s o o n le a d s to f r a n tic a t te m p ts o n th e p a r t o f th e s p o u s e s t o k ic k lo o s e f r o m e a c h o th e r , to l i b e r a t e th e m s e lv e s , a n d th e n th e y in v e n t i r r i t a t i n g to p ic s o f d is c u s s io n in o r d e r to h a v e a re a s o n fo r f e e lin g m is u n d e rs to o d . I f y o u s tu d y th e o r d i­ n a r y p s y c h o lo g y o f m a r r ia g e , y o u d is c o v e r t h a t m o s t o f th e t r o u ­ b le s c o n s is t in th is c u n n i n g in v e n tio n o f i r r i t a t i n g to p ic s w h ic h h a v e a b s o lu te ly n o fo u n d a tio n . F i g u r e 11 is a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e s e t w o w o m e n a r e s i s t e r s l i v ­

!59

i n g t o g e t h e r ; o n e is s i n g l e a n d t h e o t h e r m a r r i e d . T h e i r s u m m i t is f o u n d a t n u m b e r V . T h e w i f e i n F i g u r e 1 0 is t h e s i s t e r o f t h e s e tw o w o m e n i n F i g u r e 11, a n d w h i l e m o s t p r o b a b l y th e y w e r e a l l o f t h e s a m e ty p e o r ig in a lly , s h e m a r r i e d a m a n o f a n o t h e r ty p e . T h e i r s u m m i t is a t n u m b e r I I I i n F i g u r e 1 0. T h e c o n d i t i o n o f i d e n t i t y o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n w h i c h is d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e a s s o c i a ­ t io n te s t c a n b e s u b s ta n tia te d b y e n tir e ly d if f e r e n t e x p e rie n c e s , f o r in s t a n c e , b y g r a p h o lo g y . T h e h a n d w r i t i n g o f m a n y w iv e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y y o u n g w iv e s , o f te n r e s e m b le s t h a t o f t h e h u s b a n d .

I

d o n o t k n o w w h e t h e r i t is s o i n t h e s e d a y s , b u t I a s s u m e t h a t h u m a n n a t u r e r e m a i n s v e r y m u c h t h e s a m e . O c c a s i o n a l l y i t is th e

o th e r w ay ro u n d

b e c a u s e t h e s o - c a l l e d f e e b l e s e x h a s it s

s tr e n g th s o m e tim e s . 160

L a d ie s a n d G e n tle m e n , w e a r e n o w g o in g to s te p o v e r th e b o r d e r i n t o d r e a m s . I d o n o t w a n t to g iv e y o u a n y p a r t i c u l a r in -

troduction to dream-analysis.4 I thin k the best way is just to show you how I proceed w ith a dream , and then it does not need much explanation of a theoretical kind, because you can see w hat are my underlying ideas. Of course, I make great use of dreams, be­ cause dreams are an objective source of inform ation in psycho­ therapeutic treatm ent. W hen a doctor has a case, he can hardly refrain from having ideas about it. B ut the m ore one knows about cases, the m ore one should m ake an heroic effort not to know in order to give the patien t a fair chance. I always try not to know and n ot to see. It is m uch b etter to say you are stupid, or play w hat is apparently a stupid role, in order to give the patient a chance to come o ut w ith his own m aterial. T h a t does not mean th at you should hide altogether. T h is is a case of a m an forty years old, a m arried m an who has n o t been ill before. H e looks q u ite all right; he is the direc­ tor of a great public school, a very intelligent fellow who has studied an old-fashioned kind of psychology, W u n d t psychol­ ogy,5 that has n o th in g to do with details of hum an life but moves in the stratosphere of abstract ideas. Recently he had been badly tro u b led by neurotic symptoms. H e suffered from a peculiar kind of vertigo th at seized u pon him from tim e to time, palpitation, nausea, and peculiar attacks of feebleness and a sort of exhaustion. T h is syndrome presents the picture of a sickness which is well know n in Switzerland. It is m ountain sickness, a m alady to which people who are n o t used to great heights are easily subject when clim bing. So I asked, “Is it not m ountain sickness you are suffering from?” H e said, “Yes, you are right. It feels exactly like m ountain sickness.” I asked him if he had dreams, and he said that recently he had had three dreams. I do n o t like to analyse one dream alone, because a single dream can be in terp reted arbitrarily. You can speculate any­ th in g ab o u t an isolated dream ; b u t if you compare a series of, say, tw enty or a h u n d red dreams, then you can see interesting things. You see the process that is going on in the unconscious from n ig h t to night, and the continuity of the unconscious psyche extending through day and night. Presum ably we are dream ing all the time, although we are n o t aware of it by day 4 “ O n t h e P r a c t i c a l U s e o f D r e a m A n a l y s i s ” ( C .W ., v o l. 16). [A ls o " G e n e r a l A s p e c ts o f D r e a m P s y c h o l o g y ” a n d “ O n t h e N a t u r e o f D r e a m s ” ( C .W ., v o l. 8).] 5 [ T h e r e f e r e n c e is t o W i l h e l m W u n d t , o f L e i p z i g ( 1 8 3 2 -1 9 2 0 ) .]

78

because consciousness is m u c h too clear. B u t a t n ig h t, w h en th e re is th a t a b a issem en t d u n iv e a u m e n ta l, th e d ream s can b re a k th ro u g h a n d beco m e visible. 163 I n th e first d re a m th e p a tie n t fin d s h im s e lf in a sm a ll villa g e in S w itzerla n d . H e is a very so lem n black fig u re in a lo n g coat; u n d e r his a rm he carries several th ic k books. T h e r e is a g ro u p o f y o u n g boys w h o m h e recognizes as h a vin g been his classm ates. T h e y are lo o k in g at h im a n d they say: ”T h a t fe llo w does n o t o fte n m a k e his appearance here.’’ 164 I n o rd e r to u n d e rs ta n d th is d re a m you have to re m e m b e r th a t th e p a tie n t is in a very fine p o sitio n a n d has h a d a v ery g o o d scientific e d u c a tio n . B u t h e s ta rte d really fro m th e b o tto m a n d is a self-m ade m a n . H is p a re n ts w ere very p o o r peasants, a n d he w o rk e d his w ay u p to his p re s e n t p o sitio n . H e is very a m b itio u s a n d is filled w ith th e h o p e th a t h e w ill rise still h ig h e r. H e is lik e a m a n w h o has c lim b e d in o n e d ay fro m sea-level to a level of 6,000 feet, a n d th e re h e sees peaks 12,000 feet h ig h to w e rin g above h im . H e finds h im se lf in th e place fro m w h ich o n e clim b s these h ig h e r m o u n ta in s , a n d because o f this h e forgets all a b o u t th e fact th a t h e has alre ad y c lim b e d 6,000 feet a n d im m e d ia te ly h e starts to a tta c k th e h ig h e r peaks. B u t as a m a tte r of fact th o u g h h e does n o t realize it h e is tir e d fro m his c lim b in g a n d q u ite in c a p a b le of g o in g an y f u r th e r a t th is tim e. T h is lack of re a liz a tio n is th e reaso n fo r his sym ptom s o f m o u n ta in sickness. T h e d re a m b rin g s h o m e to h im th e a c tu a l psychological s itu a ­ tio n . T h e c o n tra st o f h im se lf as th e so lem n fig u re in th e lo n g black co at w ith th ic k books u n d e r his a rm a p p e a rin g in h is n a ­ tive village, a n d o f th e v illag e boys re m a rk in g th a t h e does n o t o fte n a p p e a r th e re , m eans th a t h e does n o t o fte n re m e m b e r w h ere h e cam e fro m . O n th e c o n tra ry h e th in k s o f his fu tu r e c a re e r a n d h op es to g et a c h a ir as p rofessor. T h e r e f o re th e d re a m p u ts h im b ack in to h is early s u rro u n d in g s. H e o u g h t to realize how m u c h h e has ach iev ed c o n sid e rin g w h o h e was o rig in a lly a n d th a t th e re a re n a tu ra l lim ita tio n s to h u m a n effort. 165 T h e b e g in n in g o f th e second d re a m is a ty p ical in sta n ce of th e k in d of d re a m th a t occurs w h e n th e conscious a ttitu d e is lik e his. H e kn o w s th a t he o u g h t to go to an im p o r ta n t co n fer­ ence, a nd he is ta k in g his p o rtfo lio . B u t h e n o tices th a t th e h o u r is ra th e r adva n ced a n d th a t th e tra in w ill leave so o n , a n d so he gets in to th a t w e ll-k n o w n sta te o f haste a n d o f fe a r o f b ein g too

late. H e tries to get his clothes together, his hat is nowhere, his coat is mislaid, and he runs about in search of them and shouts up and down the house, “W here are m y things?" Finally he gels everything together, and runs out of the house only to find that he has forgotten his portfolio. H e rushes back for it, and looking at his watch finds how late it is getting; then he runs to the sta­ tion, but the road is quite soft so that it is like w alking on a bog and his feet can hardly m ove any more. Pantingly he arrives at the station only to see that the train is fust leaving. His atten­ tion is called to the railway track, and it looks like this:

F ig .

12. Dream of the Train

H e is at A , the tail-end of the train is already at B and the engine is at C. H e watches the train, a long one, w inding round the curve, and he thinks, “I f only the engine-driver, w hen he reaches p o in t D, has sufficient intelligence not to rush full steam ahead; for if he does, the long train behind him which w ill still be rounding the curve w ill be derailed." N ow the engine-driver arrives at D and he opens the steam throttle fully, the engine begins to pull, and the train rushes ahead. T h e dreamer sees 80

the c a ta stroph e c o m in g , the train goes off the rails, and he shouts, a n d th en he wakes u p w ith the fear characteristic of n ig h tm a re . W h e n e v e r o n e h a s th is k in d o f d r e a m o f b e in g Ia te 3 o f a h u n ­

167

d r e d o b s t a c l e s i n t e r f e r i n g , i t is e x a c t l y t h e s a m e a s w h e n o n e i s i n such

a s itu a tio n

in

re a lity , w h e n

o n e is n e r v o u s a b o u t s o m e ­

t h i n g . O n e is n e r v o u s b e c a u s e t h e r e is a n u n c o n s c i o u s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e c o n s c i o u s i n t e n t i o n . T h e m o s t i r r i t a t i n g t h i n g is t h a t c o n ­ s c i o u s l y y o u w a n t s o m e t h i n g v e r y m u c h , a n d a n u n s e e n d e v i l is a lw a y s w o r k i n g a g a in s t it , a n d o f c o u r s e y o u a r e t h a t d e v il to o . Y o u a r e w o r k in g a g a in s t th is d e v il a n d d o it in a n e rv o u s w a y a n d w ith n e r v o u s h a s te . I n th e case o f th is d re a m e r, th a t r u s h in g a h e a d is a l s o a g a i n s t h i s w i l l . H e d o e s n o t w a n t t o l e a v e h o m e , y e t h e w a n ts i t v e ry m u c h , a n d a ll th e re s is ta n c e a n d d iffic u ltie s in

h is w a y

a re

h is o w n

d o in g . H e

is t h a t e n g i n e - d r i v e r w h o

th in k s , " N o w w e a re o u t o f o u r tr o u b le ; w e h a v e a s tr a ig h t lin e a h e a d , a n d n o w w e c a n r u s h a lo n g lik e a n y th in g .” T h e s tr a ig h t l i n e b e y o n d t h e c u r v e w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e p e a k s 1 2 ,0 0 0 f e e t h ig h , a n d h e th i n k s th e s e p e a k s a r e a c c e s s ib le to h im . 168

N a tu ra lly , n o b o d y s e e in g s u c h a c h a n c e a h e a d w o u ld r e f r a in fro m

m a k in g

th e u tm o s t u s e o f it, so h is r e a s o n says to

h im ,

“ W h y n o t g o o n , y o u h a v e e v e ry c h a n c e in th e w o r ld .” H e d o e s n o t see w h y s o m e th in g in h im d re a m

g iv e s h i m

s h o u ld w o r k a g a in s t it. B u t th is

a w a rn in g th a t h e s h o u ld n o t b e as s tu p id as

th is e n g in e - d r iv e r w h o g o e s f u ll s te a m a h e a d w h e n th e ta il- e n d o f t h e t r a i n i s n o t y e t o u t o f t h e c u r v e . T h a t is w h a t w e a l w a y s f o r g e t ; w e a l w a y s f o r g e t t h a t o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s is o n l y a s u r f a c e , o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s is t h e a v a n t - g a r d e o f o u r p s y c h o l o g ic a l e x i s t ­ e n c e . O u r h e a d is o n l y o n e e n d , b u t b e h i n d o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a lo n g h is to r ic a l “ ta il” o f h e s ita tio n s a n d w e a k n e sse s a n d c o m ­ p le x e s a n d p r e j u d ic e s a n d in h e r ita n c e s , a n d w e a lw a y s m a k e o u r re c k o n in g

w ith o u t

th e m .

W e

a lw a y s

th in k

we

can

m ake

a

s tr a ig h t lin e in s p ite o f o u r s h o r tc o m in g s , b u t th e y w ill w e ig h v e ry h e a v ily a n d

o fte n

w e d e ra il b e fo re w e h a v e re a c h e d o u r

g o a l b e c a u s e w e h a v e n e g le c te d o u r ta il- e n d s . ,e 9

I a l w a y s s a y t h a t o u r p s y c h o l o g y h a s a l o n g s a u r i a n ’s t a i l b e ­ h i n d it, n a m e ly th e w h o le h is to r y o f o u r fa m ily , o f o u r n a ti o n , o f E u r o p e , a n d o f t h e w o r l d i n g e n e r a l . W e a r e a lw a y s h u m a n , a n d w e s h o u ld n e v e r fo r g e t th a t w e c a rry th e w h o le b u r d e n o f b e in g o n ly h u m a n . I f w e w e re h e a d s o n ly w e s h o u ld b e lik e little a n 81

gels that have heads and wings, and of course they can do what they please because they are not hindered by a body that can walk only on the earth. I must not om it to point out, not neces­ sarily to the patient but to myself, that this peculiar movement of the train is like a snake. Presently we shall see why. >7° T h e next dream is the crucial dream, and I shall have to give certain explanations. In this dream we have to do with a pecul­ iar animal which is half lizard and half crab. Before we go into the details of the dream, I want to make a few remarks about the method of working out the meaning of a dream. You know that there are many views and many misunderstandings as to the way in which you get at dreams. !71 You know, for instance, what is understood by free associa­ tion. T his m ethod is a very doubtful one as far as my experience goes. Free association means that you open yourself to any amount and kind of associations and they naturally lead to your complexes. But then, you see, I do not want to know the com­ plexes of my patients. T hat is uninteresting to me. I want to know what the dreams have to say about complexes, not what the complexes are. I want to know what a man’s unconscious is doing with his complexes, I want to know what he is preparing himself for. That is what I read out of the dreams. If I wanted to apply the method of free association I would not need dreams. I could put up a signboard, for instance “Footpath to So-and-So,” and simply let people meditate on that and add free associations, and they would invariably arrive at their complexes. If you are riding in a Hungarian or Russian train and look at the strange signs in the strange language, you can associate all your com­ plexes. You have only to let yourself go and you naturally drift into your complexes. !72 I do not apply the method of free association because my goal is not to know the complexes; I want to know what the dream is. Therefore I handle the dream as if it were a text which I do not understand properly, say a Latin or a Greek or a Sanskrit text, where certain words are unknown to me or the text is fragmen­ tary, and I merely apply the ordinary method any philologist would apply in reading such a text. My idea is that the dream does not conceal; we simply do not understand its language. For instance, if I quote to you a Latin or a Greek passage some of you w ill not understand it, but that is not because the text dis8¾

s im u la te s o r co n ceals; it is b e c a u se y o u d o n o t k n o w G re e k o r L a tin . L ik e w ise , w h e n a p a tie n t seem s c o n fu se d , it does n o t n e c ­ essarily m e a n th a t h e is c o n fu se d , b u t t h a t th e d o c to r d o es n o t u n d e r s ta n d h is m a te ria l. T h e a s s u m p tio n th a t th e d r e a m w a n ts to co n c ea l is a m e r e a n th r o p o m o r p h ic id e a . N o p h ilo lo g is t w o u ld e v e r t h i n k t h a t a d iffic u lt S a n s k rit o r c u n e if o rm in s c r ip ­ tio n co n ceals. T h e r e is a v e ry w ise w o rd o f th e T a l m u d w h ic h says th a t th e d r e a m is its o w n in te r p r e ta tio n . T h e d r e a m is th e w h o le th in g , a n d if y o u t h in k th e re is s o m e th in g b e h in d it, o r th a t th e d r e a m h as c o n c e a le d s o m e th in g , th e r e is n o q u e s tio n b u t th a t y o u sim p ly d o n o t u n d e r s ta n d it. 173 T h e r e f o r e , first o f all, w h e n y o u h a n d le a d re a m y o u say, “ I d o n o t u n d e r s ta n d a w o rd of th a t d r e a m .” I alw ays w e lc o m e th a t fe e lin g of in c o m p e te n c e b e c a u se th e n I k n o w I sh a ll p u t som e g o o d w o rk in to m y a tte m p t to u n d e r s ta n d th e d re a m . W h a t I d o is th is. I a d o p t th e m e th o d of th e p h ilo lo g is t, w h ic h is f a r fro m b e in g fre e a sso c ia tio n , a n d a p p ly a lo g ic a l p r in c ip le w h ic h is c a lle d amplification. I t is sim p ly th a t of se e k in g th e p a ra lle ls. F o r in sta n c e , in th e case o f a v e ry r a r e w o rd w h ic h y o u h a v e n e v e r co m e across b e fo re , y o u try to fin d p a ra lle l te x t passages, p a ra lle l a p p lic a tio n s p e rh a p s , w h e re th a t w o rd also o ccu rs, a n d th e n y o u try to p u t th e f o rm u la y o u h a v e e s ta b lis h e d fro m th e k n o w le d g e of o th e r tex ts in to th e n e w te x t. I f y o u m a k e th e n e w te x t a r e a d a b le w h o le , y o u say, ‘‘N o w w e c a n r e a d it.” T h a t is h o w w e le a r n e d to r e a d h ie ro g ly p h ic s a n d c u n e if o rm in s c rip ­ tio n s a n d t h a t is h o w w e c a n r e a d d rea m s. J74 N o w , h o w d o I fin d th e c o n te x t? H e r e I sim p ly fo llo w th e p r in c ip le o f th e a sso c ia tio n e x p e rim e n t. L e t us assu m e a m a n d re a m s a b o u t a s im p le s o rt o f p e a s a n t’s h o u se . N o w , d o I k n o w w h a t a s im p le p e a s a n t’s h o u s e conveys to th a t m a n ’s m in d ? O f c o u rse n o t; h o w c o u ld I? D o I k n o w w h a t a s im p le p e a s a n t’s h o u se m e a n s to h im in g e n e ra l? O f c o u rse n o t. So I s im p ly ask, “ H o w does th a t th in g a p p e a r to y o u ? ”— in o th e r w o rd s, w h a t is y o u r c o n te x t, w h a t is th e m e n ta l tissu e in w h ic h t h a t te r m “ sim ­ p le p e a s a n t’s h o u s e ” is e m b e d d e d ? H e w ill te ll y o u s o m e th in g q u ite a s to n is h in g . F o r in sta n c e , so m e b o d y says “w a te r.” D o I k n o w w h a t h e m e a n s b y “ w a te r ” ? N o t a t a ll. W h e n I p u t t h a t test w o rd o r a s im ila r w o rd to so m e b o d y , h e w ill say “ g r e e n .” A n o th e r o n e w ill say “ H 20 , ” w h ic h is s o m e th in g q u i te d iffe r­ e n t. A n o th e r o n e w ill say “ q u ic k s ilv e r,” o r “ s u ic id e .” I n e a c h

case I know w hat tissue th a t w ord or image is em bedded in. T h a t is am plification. I t is a w ell-know n logical procedure w hich we apply here an d w hich form ulates exactly the tech­ n iq u e of finding the context. W5 O f course, I ought to m ention here the m erit of Freud, who b ro u g h t u p the w hole question of dream s and who has enabled us to approach the p ro b lem of dream s at all. You know his idea is th a t a dream is a distorted rep resen tatio n of a secret incom pat­ ible wish w hich does n o t agree w ith the conscious a ttitu d e and therefore is censored, th a t is, distorted, in o rd er to becom e u n ­ recognizable to the conscious an d yet in a way to show itself and live. F reu d logically says then: L et us redress th a t whole distor­ tion; now be n atu ral, give u p your d isto rted tendencies an d let your associations flow freely, then we w ill com e to yoyr natural facts, nam ely, your complexes. T h is is an en tirely different p o in t of view from m ine. F reu d is seeking the complexes, I am not. T h a t is ju st the difference. I am looking fo r w hat the un con­ scious is doing w ith the complexes, because th a t interests me very m uch m ore th an the fact th a t people have com plexes. W e all have complexes; it is a highly banal and u n in te re stin g fact. Even the incest com plex w hich you can find anyw here if you look for it is terrib ly banal and therefore unin terestin g . I t is only in te r­ esting to know w hat people do w ith th e ir complexes; th a t is the practical question w hich m atters. F reu d applies th e m ethod of free association an d makes use of an en tirely different logical principle, a p rin cip le w hich in logic is called reductio in p rim am figuram , red u ctio n to the first figure. T h e reductio in prim am figuram is a so-called syllogism, a com plicated sequence of logical conclusions, whose characteristic is th a t you start from a perfectly reasonable statem ent, and, th ro u g h su rrep titio u s as­ sum ptions a n d insinuations, you gradually change the reasona­ ble n a tu re of your first sim ple o r prim e figure u n til you reach a com plete d istortion w hich is u tte rly unreasonable. T h a t com­ plete distortion, in F reu d ’s idea, characterizes the dream ; the dream is a clever disto rtio n th a t disguises th e original figure, a n d you have only to u n d o the web in ord er to re tu rn to the first reasonable statem ent, w hich m ay be “I wish to com m it this or that; I have such an d such an incom patible w ish.” W e start, for instance, w ith a perfectly reasonable assum ption, such as “No unreasonable being is free”— in o th e r words, has free will. T h is 84

is an exam ple w hich is used in logic. It is a fairly reasonable statem ent. Now we come to the first fallacy, “T herefore, no free being is unreasonable.” You cannot q u ite agree because there is already a trick. T h e n you continue, “All h um an beings are free” — they all have free will. Now you triu m p h an tly finish up, “T h erefo re no h u m an being is unreasonable.” T h a t is com plete nonsense. 176 L et us assume th a t the dream is such an u tte rly nonsensical statem ent. T h is is perfectly plausible because obviously the dream is som ething like a nonsensical statem ent; otherw ise you could u n d erstan d it. As a ru le you cannot u n d erstan d it; you hardly ever come across dream s which are clear from b eg in n in g to end. T h e ordinary dream seems absolute nonsense an d th ere­ fore one depreciates it. Even prim itives, who m ake a great fuss ab o u t dream s, say th a t ordinary dream s m ean nothing. B u t there are “big” dream s; m edicine m en and chiefs have big dreams, b u t ordinary m en have no dreams. T h e y talk exactly like people in E urope. Now you are confronted w ith th a t dream-nonsense, and you say, “T h is nonsense m ust be an in sin u ­ ating distortion or fallacy which derives from an originally rea­ sonable statem en t.” You undo the whole th in g and you apply the reductio in prim a m figuram and then you come to the in i­ tial u n d istu rb e d statem ent. So you see th a t the procedure of F reu d ’s dream -interpretation is perfectly logical, if you assume that the statem ent of the dream is really nonsensical. !77 B ut do n o t forget w hen you m ake the statem ent th a t a th in g is unreasonable th at perhaps you do n o t u n d erstan d because you are n o t G od; on the contrary, you are a fallible h u m an b ein g w ith a very lim ited m ind. W hen an insane p a tien t tells m e som ething, I m ay thin k : “W h at th a t fellow is talking a b o u t is all nonsense.” As a m atter of fact, if I am scientific, I say “ I do n o t und erstan d ,” b u t if I am unscientific, I say “T h a t fellow is ju st crazy and I am in tellig en t.” T h is arg u m en tatio n is the reason why m en w ith som ewhat unbalanced m inds often like to be­ come alienists. I t is h u m anly understandable because it gives you a trem endous satisfaction, w hen you are n o t q u ite sure of yourself, to be able to say “O h, the others are m uch worse.” *7® B ut the question rem ains: C an we safely say th at a dream is nonsense? A re we q u ite sure th a t we know? A re we sure th a t the dream is a distortion? A re you absolutely certain w hen you dis-

cover som ething q u ite against your expectation th a t it is a m ere distortion? N a tu re com m its no errors. R ig h t an d w rong are h um an categories. T h e n a tu ra l process is ju st w hat it is and n o th in g else— it is n o t nonsense an d it is n o t unreasonable. W e do n o t understand: th a t is the fact. Since I am n o t G od an d since I am a m an of very lim ited in tellectu al capacities, I had b etter assume th a t I do n o t u n d erstan d dream s. W ith th a t assum ption I reject the preju d iced view th a t the dream is a distortion, and I say th a t if I do n o t u n d erstan d a dream , it is m y m in d w hich is distorted, I am n o t taking the rig h t view of it. W9 So I adopted the m eth o d w hich philologists apply to difficult texts, an d I h an d le dream s in the same way. It is, of course, a b it m ore circum stantial an d m ore difficult; b u t I can assure you th at the results are far m ore in teresting w hen you arrive at things th a t are h u m an th an w hen you apply a m ost d read fu l m o n o to ­ nous in te rp re ta tio n . I hate to be bored. Above all we should avoid speculations a n d theories w hen we have to deal w ith such m ysterious processes as dream s. W e should never forget th a t for thousands of years very in tellig en t m en of great know ledge and vast experience h eld very different views a b o u t them . I t is only q u ite recently th a t we invented the theory th a t a d ream is n o th ­ ing. A ll o th er civilizations have had very different ideas ab o u t dream s. 180 N ow I w ill tell you the big dream of my p atien t: tcI am in the country, in a sim ple peasant’s house, w ith an elderly, m o th ­ erly peasant w om an. I talk to her about a great journey I am planning: I am going to walk fro m Sw itzerland to L eipzig. She is enorm ously im pressed, at w hich I am very pleased. A t this m o m en t I look through the w indow at a m eadow where there are peasants gathering hay. T h e n the scene changes. I n the back­ ground appears a m onstrously big crab-lizard. I t m oves first to the left and then to the right so that I fin d m yself standing in the angle betw een them as if in an open pair o f scissors. T h e n I have a little rod or a w and in m y hand, and I lightly touch the m o n ­ ster’s head w ith the rod and k ill it. T h e n fo r a long tim e I stand there contem plating that m onster.” 181 B efore I go in to such a dream I always try to establish a se­ quence, because this dream has a history before a n d w ill have a history afterw ards. It is p a rt of the psychic tissue th a t is c o n tin u ­ ous, for we have no reason to assume th a t there is n o co n tin u ity 86

in the psychological processes, ju st as we have no reason to think that there is any gap in the processes of nature. N atu re is a con­ tinuum , and so o u r psyche is very probably a continuum . T h is dream is ju st one flash or one observation of psychic continuity that becam e visible for a m om ent. As a continuity it is con­ nected w ith the preceding dreams. In the previous dream we have already seen th a t peculiar snake-like m ovem ent of th e train. T h is com parison is m erely a hypothesis, b u t I have to es­ tablish such connections. 182 A fter the train-dream the dream er is back in the su rro u n d ­ ings of his early childhood; he is w ith a m otherly peasant wom an — a slight allusion to the m other, as you notice. In the very first dream , he impresses the village boys by his m agnificent appear­ ance in the long coat of the H e rr Professor. In this present dream too he impresses the harmless woman w ith his greatness and the greatness of his am bitious plan to walk to Leipzig— an allusion to his hope of getting a chair there. T h e m onster crablizard is outside o u r em pirical experience; it is obviously a crea­ tion of the unconscious. So m uch we can see w ith o u t any partic­ ular effort. 183 Now we come to the actual context. I ask him , “W h at are your associations to ‘sim ple peasant’s house’?” and to m y enor­ mous astonishm ent he says, “It is the lazar-house of St. Jacob near Basel.” T h is house was a very old leprosery, and the b u ild ­ ing still exists. T h e place is also famous for a big b attle fought there in 1444 by the Swiss against the troops of the D uke of B ur­ gundy. H is arm y tried to break into Switzerland b u t was beaten back by the avant-garde of the Swiss army, a body of 1,300 m en who fought the B urgundian arm y consisting of 30,000 m en at the lazar-house of St. Jacob. T h e 1,300 Swiss fell to the very last man, b u t by th eir sacrifice they stopped the fu rth er advance of the enemy. T h e heroic death of these 1,300 men is a notable incident in Swiss history, an d no Swiss is able to talk of it w ith­ out patriotic feeling. 184 W henever the dream er brings such a piece of inform ation, you have to p u t it in to the context of the dream . In this case it means that the dream er is in a leprosery. T h e lazar-house is called “Siechenhaus,” sick-house, in G erm an, the “sick” m ean­ ing the lepers. So he has, as it were, a revolting contagious dis­ ease; he is an outcast from hum an society, he is in the sick-house. 87

A n d th a t sick-house is ch aracterized , m o reo v er, by th a t desperate fight w h ich was a ca ta stro p h e fo r th e 1,300 m e n a n d w hich was b ro u g h t a b o u t by th e fact th a t th ey d id n o t o b ey orders. T h e av an t-g ard e h a d s tric t in stru c tio n s n o t to a ttack b u t to w ait u n til th e w h o le of th e Swiss arm y h a d jo in e d u p w ith th em . B u t as soon as th ey saw th e en em y they co u ld n o t h o ld back and, ag ain st th e co m m an d s of th e ir leaders, m ad e a h ead lo n g ru sh a n d attack ed , a n d of co u rse th ey w ere all k ille d . H e re again we com e to th e id ea of th is ru s h in g ah ea d w ith o u t estab lish in g a c o n n e c tio n w ith th e b u lk of th e tail-en d , a n d ag ain th e actio n is fatal. T h is gave m e a r a th e r u n c a n n y feeling, a n d I th o u g h t, “ N o w w h a t is th e fello w after, w h a t d a n g e r is h e co m in g to?” T h e d a n g e r is n o t ju s t his a m b itio n , o r th a t h e w ishes to be w ith th e m o th e r a n d co m m it incest, o r so m e th in g of th e k in d . Y ou re m e m b e r, th e e n g in e-d riv er is a foolish fello w too; h e ru n s a h e a d in sp ite of th e fact th a t the. ta il-en d of th e tr a in is n o t yet o u t of th e curve; h e does n o t w ait fo r it, b u t ru sh es a lo n g w ith ­ o u t th in k in g o f th e w hole. T h a t m ean s th a t th e d re a m e r has th e te n d e n c y to ru s h ah ead , n o t th in k in g of his ta il; he behaves as if h e w ere his h e a d only, ju s t as th e av an t-g ard e b eh av e d as if it w ere th e w hole arm y, fo rg e ttin g th a t it h a d to w ait; a n d because i t d id n o t w ait, every m a n was k illed . T h is a ttitu d e of th e p a­ tie n t is th e reaso n fo r his sym ptom s of m o u n ta in sickness. H e w e n t too h ig h , h e is n o t p re p a re d fo r th e a ltitu d e , h e forgets w h ere h e s ta rte d fro m . l8 5 Y o u k n o w p e rh a p s th e no v el by P a u l B o u rg et, L ’£.tape. Its m o tif is th e p ro b le m th a t a m a n ’s low o rig in always clings to h im , a n d th e re fo re th e re a re v ery d efin ite lim ita tio n s to his c lim b in g th e social la d d er. T h a t is w h a t th e d re a m tries to r e ­ m in d th e p a tie n t of. T h a t h o u se a n d th a t eld erly p easan t w om an b rin g h im back to h is ch ild h o o d . I t looks, th e n , as if th e w om an m ig h t re fe r to th e m o th e r. B u t o n e m u st b e care fu l w ith as­ su m p tio n s. H is an sw er to m y q u e s tio n a b o u t th e w o m an was “ T h a t is m y la n d la d y .” H is la n d lad y is a n eld erly w idow , u n e d ­ u c a te d a n d old -fash io n ed , liv in g n a tu ra lly in a m ilie u in fe rio r to his. H e is too h ig h u p , a n d h e forgets th a t th e n e x t p a r t of his in v isib le self is th e fam ily in him self. B ecause h e is a very in te l­ le c tu a l m an , feelin g is his in fe rio r fu n c tio n . H is feelin g is n o t at a ll d iffe re n tia te d , a n d th e re fo re it is still in th e fo rm o f th e land88

lady, and in trying to im pose u p o n th at landlady he tries to im ­ pose u p o n him self w ith his enorm ous plan to walk to Leipzig. 186 Now w hat does he say about the trip to Leipzig? H e says, “Oh, th at is my am bition. I w ant to go far, I wish to get a C hair.” H ere is th e headlong rush, here is the foolish attem pt, here is the m o u n tain sickness; he wants to clim b too high. T h is dream was before the war, and at th at tim e to be a professor in Leipzig was som ething m arvellous. H is feeling was deeply re ­ pressed; therefore it does n o t have rig h t values and is m uch too naive. It is still the peasant w om an; it is still identical w ith his own m other. T h e re are m any capable and intelligent m en who have no differentiation of feeling, and therefore th eir feeling is still contam inated w ith the m other, is still in the m other, iden­ tical w ith the m other, an d they have m others’ feelings; they have w onderful feelings for babies, for the interiors of houses and nice room s an d for a very orderly home. It sometimes happens that these individuals, w hen they have tu rn ed forty, discover a masculine feeling and th en there is trouble. 187 T h e feelings of a m an are so to speak a w om an’s an d appear as such in dream s. I designate this figure by the term anim a, be­ cause she is the personification of the inferior functions which relate a m an to the collective unconscious. T h e collective u n ­ conscious as a w hole presents itself to a m an in fem inine form. T o a w om an it appears in m asculine form , and th en I call it the animus. I chose the term anim a because it has always been used for th at very same psychological fact. T h e anim a as a personifica­ tion of the collective unconscious occurs in dream s over and over again.® I have m ade long statistics ab o u t the anim a figure in dreams. In this way one establishes these figures em pirically. 188 W hen I ask m y dream er w hat he m eans w hen he says th a t the peasant w om an is im pressed by his plan, he answers, “ Oh, well, that refers to my boasting. I like to boast before an in ferio r p er­ son to show who I am ; w hen I am talking to u neducated people I like to p u t myself very m uch in the foreground. U nfortunately I have always to live in an inferior m ilieu .” W hen a m an resents the inferio rity of his m ilieu an d feels th at he is too good for his surroundings, it is because the inferiority of the m ilieu in h im ­ self is projected in to the o u te r m ilieu and therefore he begins to ®Psychological Types, Def. 48. See also Two Essays, pars. 2g6ff. [Also Aion (C.WH vol. 9, ii), ch. 3.]

m in d those things w hich he should m in d in him self. W h en he says, “ I m in d my in fe rio r m ilieu ,” he ou g h t to say, “ I m in d the fact th at my ow n in n e r m ilieu is below the m ark .” H e has no rig h t values, he is in fe rio r in his feeling-life. T h a t is his p ro b ­ lem. l89 At this m om ent he looks o u t of the w indow an d sees the peasants g athering hay. T h a t, of course, again is a vision of som ething he has done in the past. It brings back to h im m em o­ ries of sim ilar pictures an d situations; it was in sum m er and it was pretty h a rd w ork to get u p early in th e m o rn in g to tu rn the hay d u rin g the day and gath er it in th e evening. O f course, it is th e sim ple honest w ork of such folk. H e forgets th a t only the decent sim ple work gets him som ew here an d n o t a big m outh. H e also asserts, w hich I m ust m ention, th a t in his present hom e he has a p ictu re on the wall of peasants g ath erin g hay, and he says, “ O h, th a t is the origin of the pictu re in my d ream .” It is as though he said, “T h e dream is n o th in g b u t a p ic tu re on the wall, it has no im portance, I w ill pay no a tte n tio n to it.” A t that m om ent the scene changes. W h en the scene changes you can al­ ways safely conclude th a t a rep resen tatio n of an unconscious tho u g h t has come to a clim ax, an d it becomes im possible to con­ tin u e th a t m otif. !9° N ow in the n ex t p a rt of the dream things are g ettin g dark; the crab-1 izard appears, apparently an enorm ous thing. I asked, “W h at a b o u t the crab, how on earth do you com e to th at?” H e said, “T h a t is a m ythological m onster w hich walks backwards. T h e crab walks backwards. I do n o t u n d erstan d how I get to this th in g — probably th ro u g h some fairytale o r som ething of th at sort.” W h at he had m en tio n ed before were all things w hich you could m eet w ith in real life, things w hich do actually exist. B ut th e crab is n o t a personal experience, it is an archetype. W h en a n analyst has to deal w ith an archetype he m ay begin to think. In dealing w ith the personal unconscious you are n o t allow ed to th in k too m uch an d to add an ything to th e associations of the p atient. C an you add som ething to the personality of somebody else? You are a personality yourself. T h e o th e r in d iv id u al has a life of his ow n an d a m in d of his own inasm uch as he is a person. B u t inasm uch as he is n o t a person, inasm uch as he is also myself, he has the same basic stru ctu re of m ind, an d th ere I can begin to th in k , I can associate for him . I can even provide h im w ith the

necessary context because he will have none, he does n o t know where th a t crab-lizard comes from and has no idea w hat it means, b u t I know an d can provide the m aterial for him . 191 I p o in t o u t to h im th a t the hero m otif appears th ro u g h o u t the dreams. H e has a hero fantasy abou t him self which comes to the surface in the last dream . H e is the hero as the great m a n with the long coat an d w ith the great plan; he is the hero who dies on the field of h o n o u r at St. Jacob; he is going to show the w orld w ho he is; an d he is q u ite obviously the hero who over­ comes the m onster. T h e hero m otif is invariably accom panied by the dragon m otif; the dragon and the hero who fights him are two figures of the same m yth. 192 T h e dragon appears in his dream as the crab-lizard. T h is statem ent does not, of course, explain w hat the dragon re p re ­ sents as an im age of his psychological situation. So the n ex t asso­ ciations are directed ro u n d the m onster. W h en it moves first to the left and then to the rig h t the dream er has the feeling th a t he is standing in an angle w hich could shut on h im like open scis­ sors. T h a t w ould be fatal. H e has read F reud, and accordingly he interprets the situ atio n as an incest wish, the m onster being the m other, the angle of the open scissors the legs of th e m other, and he himself, standing in betw een, being ju st born o r ju st going back in to the m other. •93 Strangely enough, in m ythology, the dragon is the m other. You m eet th a t m o tif all over the w orld, an d the m onster is called the m other dragon.7 T h e m o th er dragon eats the child again, she sucks h im in after having given b irth to him . T h e “terrib le m other,” as she is also called, is w aiting w ith wide-open m o u th on the W estern Seas, an d w hen a m an approaches th a t m o u th it closes on him and he is finished. T h a t m onstrous figure is the m other sarcophaga, the flesh-eater; it is, in an o th er form , Matuta, the m o th er of the dead. It is the goddess of death. J94 B ut these parallels still do n o t explain why the dream chooses the p articu lar im age of the crab. I hold— and w hen I say I hold I have certain reasons for saying so— th a t representations of psy­ chic facts in images like the snake or th e lizard or th e crab or the m astodon o r analogous anim als also represent organic facts. For instance, th e serpent very often represents th e cerebro-spinal 7 [E.g.. Symbols of TransfOrm ation1 Part II, ch. V , especially par. 395.]

system , esp ecially th e lo w e r c e n tres of th e b ra in , a n d p a rtic u la rly th e m e d u lla o b lo n g a ta a n d sp in a l c o rd . T h e c ra b , o n th e o th e r h a n d , h a v in g a sy m p a th e tic system only, re p re s e n ts chiefly th e sy m p a th ic u s a n d p a ra -sy m p a th ic u s of th e a b d o m e n ; it is an a b ­ d o m in a l th in g . So if y o u tra n s la te th e te x t of th e d re a m i t w o u ld re a d : if you go o n lik e th is y o u r c e re b ro -sp in al system a n d y our s y m p a th e tic system w ill c o m e u p a g a in st y o u a n d sn a p y o u u p . T h a t is in fa c t w h a t is h a p p e n in g . T h e sy m p to m s o f h is n e u ro sis ex p ress th e re b e llio n of th e sy m p a th e tic fu n c tio n s a n d of th e c e re b ro -sp in a l system a g a in st his conscious a ttitu d e . l95 T h e c ra b -liz a rd b rin g s u p th e a rc h e ty p a l id e a of th e h e ro a n d th e d ra g o n as d e a d ly e n e m ies. B u t in c e rta in m y th s y o u fin d th e in te r e s tin g fact t h a t th e h e ro is n o t c o n n e c te d w ith th e d ra g o n o n ly by h is fight. T h e r e a re , o n th e c o n tra ry , in d ic a tio n s th a t th e h e ro is h im s e lf th e d ra g o n . I n S c a n d in a v ia n m y th o lo g y th e h e ro is re c o g n iz e d by th e fact th a t h e has sn a k e ’s eyes. H e has sn a k e ’s eyes b e c au se h e is a sn ak e. T h e r e a re m a n y o th e r m y th s a n d leg ­ e n d s w h ic h c o n ta in th e sam e id ea. C ecrops, th e fo u n d e r o f A th ­ ens, was a m a n a b o v e a n d a s e rp e n t below . T h e souls o f heroes o fte n a p p e a r a fte r d e a th in th e fo rm of se rp e n ts. *96 N o w in o u r d re a m th e m o n stro u s c ra b -liz a rd m oves first to th e left, a n d I ask h im a b o u t th is le ft side. H e says, “ T h e crab a p p a re n tly does n o t k n o w th e way. L e ft is th e u n fa v o u ra b le side, le ft is s in is te r.” S in iste r does in d e e d m e a n le ft a n d u n fa v o u ra b le . B u t th e r ig h t sid e is also n o t g o o d fo r th e m o n ste r, b e c au se w h e n it goes to th e r ig h t it is to u c h e d by th e w a n d a n d is k ille d . N ow w e co m e to h is s ta n d in g in b e tw e e n th e a n g le o f th e m o n s te r’s m o v e m e n t, a s itu a tio n w h ic h a t first g lan c e h e in te r p r e te d as in ­ cest. H e says, “ As a m a tte r o f fact, I fe lt s u rr o u n d e d o n e ith e r sid e lik e a h e ro w h o is g o in g to fig h t a d r a g o n .” So h e h im se lf realizes th e h e ro m o tif. >97 B u t u n lik e th e m y th ic a l h e ro h e does n o t fig h t th e d ra g o n w ith a w e a p o n , b u t w ith a w a n d . H e says, “ F ro m its effect o n th e m o n s te r i t seem s t h a t i t is a m ag ical w a n d .” H e c e rta in ly does disp o se of th e c ra b in a m ag ical way. T h e w a n d is a n o th e r m y th ­ olo g ical sym bol. I t o fte n c o n ta in s a se x u al a llu s io n , a n d sexual m ag ic is a m ea n s o f p ro te c tio n a g a in s t d a n g e r. Y ou m ay re m e m ­ b e r, too, h o w d u r in g th e e a rth q u a k e a t M essin a8 n a tu r e pro8 [The reference is to the disaster of 1908, when 90 per cent of the Sicilian city was destroyed, w ith a loss of 60,000 lives.]

duced certain instinctive reactions against the overw helm ing destruction. 198 T h e w and is an in stru m en t, an d instrum ents in dream s mean w hat they actually are, the devices of m an to concretize his will. For instance, a knife is my will to cut; w hen I use a spear I prolong my arm , w ith a rifle I can project my action an d my influence to a great distance; w ith a telescope I do the same as regards my sight. A n in stru m en t is a m echanism which re p re ­ sents my w ill, m y intelligence, my capability, and my cunning. Instrum ents in dream s symbolize an analogous psychological m echanism. N ow this dream er’s in stru m en t is a magic w and. H e uses a m arvellous th in g by which he can spirit away the m onster, that is, his low er nervous system. H e can dispose of such n o n ­ sense in no tim e, an d w ith no effort at all. 199 W h at does this actually mean? It means th at he simply thinks that the danger does n o t exist. T h a t is w hat is usually done. You simply th in k th a t a th in g is n o t an d then it is no more. T h a t is how people behave w ho consist of the head only. T h e y use th eir intellect in o rd er to th in k things away; they reason them away. T hey say, “T h is is nonsense, therefore it cannot be an d th ere­ fore it is n o t.” T h a t is w hat he also does. H e simply reasons the m onster away. H e says, “T h e re is no such th in g as a crab-lizard, there is no such th in g as an opposing will; I get rid of it, I sim ply think it away. I th in k it is the m other w ith whom I w ant to com m it incest, an d th a t settles the whole thing, for I shall n o t do it.” I said, “You have killed the anim al— w hat do you th in k is the reason why you contem plate the anim al for such a long time?” H e said, “O h, well, yes, n aturally it is m arvellous how you can dispose of such a creature w ith such ease.” I said, “Yes, indeed it is very m arvellous!” 800 T h e n I to ld him w hat I th o u g h t of the situation. I said, "Look here, the best way to deal w ith a dream is to th in k of yourself as a sort of ig n o ran t child or ignorant youth, and to come to a two-m illion-year-old m an or to th e old m o th er of days and ask, 'Now, w hat do you th in k of me?’ She w ould say to you, ‘You have an am bitious plan, and th at is foolish, because you ru n u p against your own instincts. Y our own restricted capabili­ ties block the way. You w ant to abolish the obstacle by the magic of your thinking. You believe you can th in k it away by the a rti­ fices of your intellect, b u t it will be, believe me, m atter for some

2°1

afterth o u g h t.’ ” A nd I also told him this: “Your dream s contain a warning. You behave exactly like the engine-driver or like the Swiss who were foolhardy enough to ru n u p against th e enemy w ithout any support b ehind them , and if you behave in the same way you w ill m eet w ith a catastrophe.” H e was sure th a t such a point of view was m uch too serious. H e was convinced th a t it is m uch m ore probable th at dreams come from incom patible wishes and th at he really had an unreal­ ized incestuous wish w hich was at the bottom of this dream ; that he was conscious now of this incestuous wish and had got rid of it and now could go to Leipzig. I said, “W ell then, bon voyage.” H e d id n o t retu rn , he w ent on w ith his plans, and it took him ju st about three m onths to lose his position and go to the dogs. T h a t was the end of him . H e ran u p against the fatal danger of th a t crab-lizard an d w ould n o t understand the w arning. B ut I do n o t w ant to m ake you too pessimistic. Sometimes there are peo­ ple who really understand their dream s an d draw conclusions which lead to a m ore favourable solution of th eir problems.

Discussion 2°2

203

Dr. Charles Brunton: I do n o t know w hether it is fair to ask ab o u t the dreams of someone who is n o t here, b u t I have a small daughter five and a half years old who has recently had two dream s w hich awakened h er at night. T h e first dream occurred in the m iddle of August, an d she told me this: “I see a wheel, and it is rolling down a road and it burns m e.” T h a t was all I could get ou t of her. I w anted h er to draw a picture of it the next day, b u t she did no t w ant to be bothered, so I left it. T h e other dream was ab o u t a week ago, and this tim e it was “ a beetle th at was pinching m e.” T h a t was all I could get a b o u t it. I do n o t know w hether you w ould like to com m ent on them . T h e only thing I w ould like to add is that she knows the difference betw een a beetle and a crab. She is very fond of animals. Professor Jung: You have to consider th at it is very difficult and no t quite fair to com m ent on dreams of someone one does n o t know; b u t I w ill tell you as m uch as one can see from the symbolism. T h e

beetle w ould, according to my idea, have to do w ith the sympa­ thetic system. T h e re fo re I should conclude from that dream that there are certain peculiar psychological processes going on in the child, w hich touch u p o n h er sym pathetic system, and this m ight arouse some in testin al or other abdom inal disorder. T h e m ost cautious statem ent one could m ake w ould be to say th at there is a certain accum ulation of energy in the sym pathetic system which causes slight disturbances. T h is is also borne o u t by the symbol of the fiery wheel. T h e wheel in h er dream seems to be a sun-symbol, an d in T a n tric philosophy fire corresponds to th e socalled m anipura chakra, w hich is localized in the abdom en. In the prodrom al symptoms of epilepsy you sometimes find the idea of a wheel revolving inside. T his too expresses a m anifesta­ tion of a sym pathetic n atu re. T h e image of the revolving wheel rem inds us of th e wheel upon which Ixion was crucified. T h e dream of the little girl is an archetypal dream , one of those strange archetypal dream s children occasionally have. 804 I explain these archetypal dream s of children by the fact th at when consciousness begins to dawn, w hen the child begins to feel th a t he is, he is still close to the original psychological w orld from w hich he has ju st em erged: a condition of deep u n con­ sciousness. T h e re fo re you find w ith m any children an awareness of the contents of the collective unconscious, a fact w hich in some Eastern beliefs is in te rp re te d as rem iniscence of a form er existence. T ib e ta n philosophy, for instance, speaks of the “Bardo” existence and of the conditio n of the m in d betw een death an d b irth .9 T h e idea of form er existence is a projection of the psychological condition of early childhood. Very young chil­ dren still have an awareness of m ythological contents, and if these contents rem ain conscious too long, the individual is threatened by an incapacity for adaptation; he is h au n ted by a constant yearning to rem ain w ith o r to re tu rn to the original vision. T h e re are very b eau tifu l descriptions of these experi­ ences by mystics an d poets. 205 U sually at th e age of fo u r to six the veil of forgetfulness is drawn u p o n these experiences. However, I have seen cases of ethereal children, so to speak, w ho had an extraordinary aware­ ness of these psychic facts a n d were living th e ir life in archetypal 9 Cf. W. Y. Evans-W entz. T h e T ib e ta n B ook of the Dead.

d re a m s a n d c o u ld n o t a d a p t. R e c e n tly I sa w a c ase o f a little g irl o f t e n w h o h a d s o m e m o s t a m a z i n g m y t h o l o g i c a l d r e a m s . 10 H e r fa th e r c o n s u lte d

m e a b o u t th e s e

w h a t I th o u g h t b e c a u se th e y

d re a m s. I

c o n ta in e d

c o u ld

an

n o t te ll h im

uncanny

p ro g n o s is .

T h e l it t le g ir l d ie d a y e a r la te r o f a n in f e c tio u s d is e a s e . S h e h a d n e v e r b e e n b o r n e n tire ly .

Dr. Leonard F. Browne: I s h o u l d l ik e to a s k P r o f e s s o r J u n g a q u e s t io n w ith r e g a r d to th e i n te r p r e ta tio n o f th e d re a m s h e to ld u s to d a y . I n v ie w o f th e fa c t th a t th e p a tie n t w as u n a b le sh o u ld

lik e

to

know

w h e th e r

to a c c e p t th e in te r p r e ta tio n , I

th a t

d iffic u lty

c o u ld

have

been

o v e rc o m e b y so m e v a r ia tio n in th e te c h n iq u e .

Professor Jung: 2° 7

I f I h a d h a d th e i n te n tio n o f b e in g a m is s io n a ry , o r a s a v io u r, I s h o u ld h a v e u s e d a c le v e r tric k . I s h o u ld h a v e s a id to

th e p a ­

t i e n t , “ Y e s , t h a t i s t h e m o t h e r c o m p l e x a l l r i g h t , ’’ a n d w e w o u l d h a v e g o n e o n ta lk in g th a t k in d o f ja rg o n fo r se v e ra l m o n th s a n d p e rh a p s in th e e n d I w o u ld h a v e sw u n g h im fro m

ro u n d . B u t I know

e x p e r i e n c e t h a t s u c h a t h i n g is n o t g o o d ; y o u s h o u l d n o t

c h e a t p e o p le e v e n f o r th e ir g o o d . I d o n o t w a n t to c h e a t p e o p le o u t o f t h e ir m is ta k e n f a ith . P e r h a p s it w a s b e tt e r f o r th a t m a n to g o to th e d o g s th a n to b e sa v e d b y w ro n g m e a n s . I n e v e r h in d e r p e o p le . W h e n

som ebody

says, “ I

am

g o in g

to

c o m m it s u ic id e

i f — , ” I s a y , “ I f t h a t i s y o u r i n t e n t i o n , I h a v e n o o b j e c t i o n . ’’

Dr. Browne: 2°8

D id y o u h a v e a n y e v id e n c e t h a t th e s y m p to m s o f m o u n ta in s ic k n e s s w e r e c u r e d ?

Professor Jung: 209

T h e

p a tie n t lo s t h is

n e u ro s is

in

g o in g

dow n

in

life .

T hat

m a n d i d n o t b e l o n g a t a h e i g h t o f 6 ,0 0 0 f e e t; h e b e lo n g e d lo w e r dow n. H e

becam e

in f e r io r in s te a d

o f b e in g

n e u ro tic .

O nce

I

ta lk e d to th e h e a d o f a g re a t in s titu tio n in A m e ric a fo r th e e d u ­ c a tio n o f c r im in a l c h ild r e n , a n d w as to ld a b o u t a v e ry in te re s t­ in g e x p e r ie n c e . T h e y h a v e tw o c a te g o rie s o f c h ild r e n . T h e m a ­ jo r ity o f th e m , w h e n m uch

b e tte r, th e y

th e y c o m e to

th e i n s t it u t io n , fe e l e v e r so

d e v e lo p v e ry n ic e ly a n d

n o rm a lly

and

th e y

10 [Cf. infra, pars. 525®. T h e case is also discussed in Jacobi, C o mp l e x / A r c h e ­ t y p e / Sy mb o l , pp. 139S.]

eventually grow o u t of w hatever their original evil was. T h e other category, the m inority, become hysterical w hen they try to be nice a n d norm al. T hose are the b o rn crim inals w hom you cannot change. T h e y are norm al w hen they do wrong. W e also do n o t feel q u ite rig h t w hen we are behaving perfectly, we feel m uch b e tte r w hen we are doing a b it of wrong. T h a t is because we are n o t perfect. T h e H indus, w hen they b u ild a tem ple, leave one corner unfinished; only the gods make som ething p er­ fect, m an never can. I t is m uch better to know th a t one is n o t perfect, th en one feels m uch better. So it is w ith these children, and so it is w ith o u r patients. I t is w rong to cheat people o u t of their fate an d to h elp them to go beyond th eir level. If a m an has it in him to be adapted, help him by all means; b u t if it is really his task n o t to be adapted, help him by all means n o t to be adapted, because th en he is all right. 210 W h at w ould the w orld be like if all people were adapted? It would be b o ring beyond endurance. T h e re m ust be some people who behave in the w rong way; they act as scapegoats an d objects of interest for the norm al ones. T h in k how grateful you are for detective novels an d newspapers, so th at you can say, “T h a n k heaven I am n o t th at fellowr who has com m itted the crim e, I am a perfectly in n o cen t creature.” You feel satisfaction because the evil people have done it for you. T h is is th e deeper m eaning of the fact th a t C hrist as the redeem er was crucified betw een two thieves. T hese thieves in th e ir way were also redeem ers of m an­ kind, they were th e scapegoats. Question: 211 I w ould like to ask a question a b o u t the psychological func­ tions, if th a t is n o t going too far back. In answ ering a question last n ig h t you said th a t there was no criterio n for considering either of the fo u r functions as being superior in itself an d you further said th a t all the fo u r functions w ould have to be equally differentiated in order to obtain full and adequate know ledge of the world. Do you m ean, therefore, th a t it is possible in any given case for all th e fo u r functions to be equally differentiated or to be arrived a t by education? 212

Professor Jung: I do n o t believe th a t it is hum anly possible to differentiate all four functions alike, otherw ise we w ould be perfect like God,

an d that surely w ill not happen. T h e re w ill always be a flaw in the crystal. W e can never reach perfection. M oreover, if we could differentiate the four functions equally we should only m ake them into consciously disposable functions. T h e n we w ould lose the most precious connection w ith the unconscious through the inferior function, which is invariably the weakest; only through o u r feebleness and incapacity are we lin k ed up w ith the unconscious, w ith the lower w orld of the instincts and w ith o u r fellow beings. O u r virtues only enable us to be inde­ pendent. T h e re we do n o t need anybody, there we are kings; b u t in o u r inferiority we are linked up w ith m an k in d as well as w ith the w orld of o u r instincts. I t w ould no t even be an advan­ tage to have all the functions perfect, because such a condition w ould am ount to com plete aloofness. I have no perfection craze. My principle is: for heaven’s sake do n o t be perfect, b u t by all means try to be com plete— w hatever that means. 213

214

215 216 217 218

Q uestion: May I ask what it means to be complete? W ill you enlarge upon that? Professor Jung: I m ust leave som ething to your own m ental efforts. It is surely a m ost am using enterprise, for instance, to th in k on your way hom e w hat it possibly means to be complete. W e should no t deprive people of the pleasure of discovering something. T o be com plete is a very great problem , and to talk of it is amusing, b u t to be it is the m ain thing. Q uestion: H ow do you fit mysticism into your scheme? Professor Jung: In to w hat scheme? Reply: T h e scheme of psychology and the psyche. Professor Jung: O f course you should define w hat you m ean by mysticism. L et us assume th at you m ean people who have mystical experi­ ence. Mystics are people who have a p articularly vivid ex­ perience of the processes of the collective unconscious. Mystical experience is experience of archetypes. 98

Q uestion: Is there any difference betw een archetypal forms an d m ysti­ cal forms? Professor Jung: 220 I m ake no distinction betw een them . If you study the phe­ nom enology of mystical experience you w ill come across some very in teresting things. For instance, you all know th a t o u r C hristian heaven is a m asculine heaven an d th a t the fem inine elem ent is only tolerated. T h e M other of G od is n o t divine, she is only the arch-saint. She intercedes for us at the th ro n e of G od but she is n o t p a rt of the Deity. She does n o t belong to the T rin ity. 221 Now some C hristian mystics have a different experience. For instance we have a Swiss mystic, N iklaus von d er Fltie.11 H e ex­ perienced a G od a n d a Goddess. T h e n there was a m ystic of the th irteen th century, G u illaum e de D igulleville, who w rote the Pelerinage de Vdme de Jesus C hrist.12 Like D ante, he h ad a vi­ sion of the highest paradise as “le ciel d ’o r,” an d there u p o n a throne one th ousand tim es m ore b rig h t th an the sun sat Ie Roi, who is G od himself, and beside him on a crystal th ro n e of brownish hue, la R eine, presum ably the E arth. T h is is a vision outside the T rin ity idea, a mystical experience of an archetypal nature w hich includes the fem inine principle. T h e T rin ity is a dogmatic im age based on an archetype of an exclusively m ascu­ line n atu re. In the Early C hurch the G nostic in te rp re ta tio n of the H oly G host as fem inine was declared a heresy. 222 Dogm atic images, such as the T rin ity , are archetypes which have becom e abstract ideas. B ut there are a n u m b e r of mystical experiences inside the C hurch whose archetypal character is still visible. T h e re fo re they som etim es contain a heretical o r pagan elem ent. R em em ber, for instance, St. Francis of Assisi. O nly through the great diplom atic ab ility of Pope Boniface V III could St. Francis be assim ilated in to the C hurch. You have only to th in k of his relatio n to anim als to u n d erstan d the difficulty. Animals, like the w hole of N atu re, were taboo to the C hurch. Yet there are sacred anim als like the Lam b, the Dove, and, in the Early C hurch, the Fish, w hich are w orshipped. 219

11 ["B ro th e r K la u s” (C .W ., vol. 11).] *2 [Psychology a n d A lc h e m y (C.W ., vol. 12), p ars. 315ff.J

Q uestion: W ill Professor J u n g give us his view on the psychological differences betw een the dissociation in hysteria an d the dissocia­ tion in schizophrenia? Professor Jung: 224 In hysteria the dissociated personalities are still in a sort of interrelation, so th a t you always get the im pression of a total person. W ith a hysterical case you can establish a rap p o rt, you get a feeling reaction from the whole person. T h e re is only a superficial division betw een certain m em ory com partm ents, bu t the basic personality is always present. In the case of schizophre­ nia th a t is n o t so. T h e re you encounter only fragments, there is now here a whole. T herefore, if you have a friend o r a relative w hom you have know n well and who becomes insane, you will get a trem endous shock w hen you are confronted w ith a frag­ m entary personality which is com pletely split up. You can only deal w ith one fragm ent at a tim e; it is like a splinter of glass. You do not feel the continuity of the personality any longer. W hile w ith a hysterical case you think: if I could only wipe away that sort of obscuration or th at sort of som nam bulism then we should have the sum -total of the personality. B ut w ith schizophrenia it is a deep dissociation of personality; the fragm ents cannot come together any more. Question: 225 A re there any m ore strictly psychological conceptions by w hich th at difference can be expressed? Professor Jung: 226 T h e re are certain borderline cases w here you can stitch the parts together if you can reintegrate the lost contents. I w ill tell you of a case I had. A wom an had been twice in a lunatic asylum w ith a typical schizophrenic attack. W hen she was b ro u g h t to me she was better, b u t still in a state of hallucination. I saw th at it was possible to reach the split-off parts. T h e n I began to go through every detail of the experiences which she had had in the lunatic asylum w ith her; we w ent through all th e voices and all the delusions, and I explained every fact to h er so th at she could associate them w ith h er consciousness. I showed her w hat these unconscious contents were that came u p d u rin g h er insanity, an d because she was an intelligent person, I gave her books to 100

223

read so th a t she acq u ired a great deal of know ledge, chiefly m ythological knowledge, by which she herself could stitch the parts together. T h e b reak in g lines were still there, of course, and w henever afterw ards she had a new wave of d isin teg ratio n I told h e r to try to draw or p a in t a picture of th at p articu lar situa­ tion in o rd er to have a picture of the whole of herself which objectified h e r condition, and so she did. She b ro u g h t me q u ite a n u m b er of pictures she had made, which had help ed h e r w hen­ ever she felt she was falling ap art again. In this way I have kept her afloat for ab o u t twelve years, and she has had no m ore at­ tacks w hich necessitated her seclusion in an asylum. She could always m anage to w ard off the attacks by objectifying th eir con­ tents. She told me, m oreover, th a t w hen she had m ade such a picture she w ent to h er books an d read a chapter a b o u t some of its m ain features, in o rder to bring it into general connection w ith m ankind, w ith w hat people know, w ith the collective con­ sciousness, and th en she felt rig h t again. She said she felt adapted and she was no longer at the m ercy of the collective unconscious. 227 AU cases are n o t as accessible as th a t one, as you will realize. I cannot cure schizophrenia in principle. Occasionally by great good chance I can synthetize the fragm ents. B ut I do n o t like to do it because it is frightfully difficult work.

L E C T U R E IV T h e Chairman (Dr. Em anuel Miller): I shall not take any of Professor Jung’s time away from you but w ill merely express my great pleasure at the opportunity of being Chairman this evening. Only I am put to a grave disad­ vantage: I have not been able to attend the previous lectures and therefore I do not know to what depths of the unconscious Professor Jung has already led you, but I think he is going to continue tonight the presentation of his method of dream-analysis. Professor Jung: T he interpretation of a profound dream, such as our last one was, is never sufficient when it is left in the personal sphere. T his dream contains an archetypal image, and that is always an indication that the psychological situation of the dreamer ex­ tends beyond the mere personal layer of the unconscious. His problem is no more entirely a personal affair, but something which touches upon the problems of mankind in general. The symbol of the monster is an indication of this. This symbol brings up the hero myth, and furthermore the association with the battle of St. Jacob, which characterizes the localization of the scene, appeals also to a general interest. T he ability to apply a general point of view is of great thera­ peutic importance. Modern therapy is not much aware of this, but in ancient medicine it was well known that the raising of the personal disease to a higher and more impersonal level had a curative effect. In ancient Egypt, for instance, when a man was bitten by a snake, the priest-physician was called in, and he took from the temple library the manuscript about the myth of Ra and his mother Isis, and recited it. Isis had made a poisonous worm and hidden it in the sand, and the god Ra had stepped on

the serpent an d was b itte n by it, so th a t he suffered te rrib le pain and was th reaten ed w ith death. T h erefo re the gods caused Isis to work a spell w hich drew the poison o u t of h im .1 T h e idea was that the p a tie n t w ould be so im pressed by this n arrativ e th a t he w ould be cured. T o us this sounds q u ite im possible. W e could not im agine th a t the reading of a story from G rim m ’s Fairy Talesj for instance, w ould cure typhoid fever or pn eu m o n ia. B ut we only take in to account o u r ra tio n a l m o d em psychology. T o u nderstand the effect we have to consider the psychology of the ancient Egyptians, w hich was q u ite different. A n d yet those peo­ ple were n o t so very different. Even w ith us certain things can work m iracles; som etim es sp iritu al consolation o r psychological influence alone can cure, or at least w ill help to cure an illness. A nd of course it is all the m ore so w ith a person on a m ore p rim ­ itive level an d w ith a m ore archaic psychology. 23> In the East a great a m o u n t of practical therapy is b u ilt u p o n this p rin cip le of raising the m ere personal ailm en t in to a gener­ ally valid situation, an d an cien t G reek m edicine also w orked w ith the same m ethod. O f course the collective im age o r its a p ­ plication has to be in accordance w ith the p a rticu lar psychologi­ cal condition of the patien t. T h e m yth o r legend arises from the archetypal m aterial w hich is constellated by the disease, an d the psychological effect consists in connecting th e p a tie n t w ith the general h u m an m eaning of his p a rtic u la r situation. Snakebite, for instance, is an archetypal situation, therefore you find it as a m otif in any n u m b e r of tales. If the archetypal situ atio n u n d e r­ lying the illness can be expressed in the rig h t way the p a tie n t is cured. If no adequate expression is found, th e in d iv id u al is throw n back u p o n him self, in to the isolation of being ill; he is alone an d has no connection w ith the w orld. B u t if he is shown that his p a rtic u la r ailm ent is n o t his ailm en t only, b u t a general ailm ent— even a god’s ailm ent— he is in th e com pany of m en and gods, an d this know ledge produces a healing effect. M odern spiritual therapy uses the same princip le: p ain or illness is com1 “And Isis, the great lady of enchantments, said, ‘Flow on, poison, and come forth from Ra. . . . I have worked, and I make the poison to fall on the ground, for the venom hath been mastered. . . . Let Ra live, and let the poison die; and if the poison live then Ra shall die.’ And similarly, a certain man, the son of a certain man, shall live, and the poison shall die.” E. A. W allis Budge, Egyptian Literature, I, p. 55.

pared w ith the sufferings of Christ, and this idea gives consola­ tion. T h e individual is lifted out of his m iserable loneliness and represented as undergoing a heroic m eaningful fate which is ul­ tim ately good for the whole world, like the suffering and death of a god. W hen an ancient Egyptian was shown th at he was u n ­ dergoing the fate of Ra, the sun-god, he was im m ediately ranked w ith the Pharaoh, who was the son an d representative of the gods, an d so the ordinary m an was a god himself, and this brought such a release of energy th at we can u nderstand quite well how he was lifted out of his pain. In a p articu lar frame of m ind people can en d u re a great deal. Prim itives can walk on glowing coals and inflict the most terrib le injuries on themselves un d er certain circum stances w ithout feeling any pain. A nd so it is quite likely th a t an impressive an d adequate symbol can mo­ bilize the forces of the unconscious to such an extent that even the nervous system becomes affected and the body begins to react in a norm al way again. 232 In the case of psychological suffering, which always isolates the individual from the herd of so-called norm al people, it is also of the greatest im portance to understand th at the conflict is not a personal failure only, b u t at the same tim e a suffering common to all and a problem w ith which the whole epoch is burdened. T his general p o in t of view lifts the individual ou t of him self and connects him w ith hum anity. T h e suffering does no t even have to be a neurosis; we have the same feeling in very ordinary cir­ cumstances. If for instance you live in a well-to-do com m unity, and you suddenly lose all your money, your n atu ral reaction will be to th in k th a t it is terrible and sham eful and th at you are the only one who is such an ass as to lose his money. B ut if every­ body loses his money it is q u ite another m atter and you feel reconciled to it. W hen other people are in the same hole as I am I feel m uch better. If a m an is lost in the desert or q u ite alone on a glacier, o r if he is the responsible leader of a group of m en in a precarious situation, he will feel terrible. B ut w hen he is a sol­ d ier in a whole battalion th at is lost, he will jo in the rest in cheering and m aking jokes, and w ill n o t realize the danger. T h e danger is n o t less, b u t the individual feels q u ite differently ab o u t it in a group than w hen he has to face it alone. a33 W henever archetypal figures appear in dreams, especially in the later stages of analysis, I explain to the p atien t th at his case is 104

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not p a rtic u la r an d personal, b u t th at his psychology is approach­ ing a level w hich is universally hum an. T h a t outlook is very im portant, because a n e u ro tic feels trem endously isolated and asham ed of his neurosis. B ut if he knows his problem to be gen­ eral an d n o t m erely personal, it makes all the difference. In the case of o u r dream er, if I had been going on w ith the treatm en t I w ould have called the p a tie n t’s atten tio n to the fact th a t the m otif in his last dream was a general h u m an situation. H e him ­ self in his associations h ad realized the hero-dragon conflict. T h e h e ro ’s fight w ith the dragon, as the symbol of a typical hum an situation, is a very freq u en t m ythological m otif. O ne of the m ost ancient literary expressions of it is the B abylonian C re­ ation M yth, w here the hero-god M arduk fights the dragon T iamat. M arduk is the spring-god and T ia m a t is the m otherdragon, the p rim o rd ial chaos. M arduk kills h er and splits h e r in two parts. From one half he makes the heavens an d from the other he makes the e a rth .2 A m ore striking parallel to o u r case is the great B abylonian epos of G ilgam esh.3 G ilgam esh is really an arriviste par excelIencej a m an of am bitious plans, like o ur dream er, an d a great king an d hero. A ll the m en are w orking for him like slaves to bu ild a tow n w ith m ighty walls. T h e w om en feel neglected an d com plain to the gods ab o u t th e ir reckless tyrant. So the gods de­ cide th a t som ething has to be done a b o u t it. T ran sla ted in to psychological language this means: G ilgam esh is using his con­ sciousness only, his head has wings and is detached from th e body, an d his body is going to say som ething a b o u t it. It w ill react w ith a neurosis, th a t is, by constellating a very opposite factor. H ow is this neurosis described in the poem? T h e gods decide to “call u p ,” th a t is to make, a m an like Gilgamesh. T h e y create E n k id u ; yet he is in some ways different. T h e h a ir of his head is long, he looks like a cave-man, and he lives w ith th e w ild animals in the plains an d drinks from the water-wells of the ga­ zelles. G ilgam esh, being norm al so far, has a perfectly norm al dream a b o u t the in te n tio n of the gods. H e dream s th a t a star falls dow n on his back, a star like a m ighty w arrior, an d G il­ gamesh is w restling w ith him b u t can n o t shake him self free. Fi­ nally he overcomes him an d puts him down at his m o th e r’s feet, 2 [Symbols of Transformation, pars. 3758:·] 3 R. Campbell Thom pson, The Epic of Gilgamish. 105

and the m other “makes him eq u al” to Gilgamesh. T h e m other is a wise w om an and interprets the dream for Gilgamesh so that he is ready to m eet the danger. E nkidu is m eant to fight G il­ gamesh and bring him down, b u t Gilgamesh in a very clever way makes him his friend. H e has conquered the reaction of his unconscious by cu n ning and will-power and he persuades his o pponent th a t they are really friends and th a t they can work together. Now things are going worse than ever. 236 A lthough rig h t in the beginning E nkidu has an oppressive dream , a vision of the underw orld w here the dead live, Gilga­ mesh is preparing for a great adventure. Like heroes, Gilgamesh and E nkidu start o u t together to overcome H um baba, a terrible m onster whom the gods have m ade guardian of th eir sanctuary on the cedar m ountain. H is voice roars like the tem pest, and everybody who approaches the wood is overcome by weakness. E nkidu is brave and very strong, b u t he is nervous ab o u t the enterprise. H e is depressed by bad dream s an d pays a lo t of at­ tention to them , like the inferior m an in ourselves whom we ridicule w hen th at inferior p art of ourselves feels superstitious about certain dates, and so on; the inferior m an nevertheless continues to be nervous about certain things. E nkidu is very su­ perstitious, he has had bad dream s on the way to the forest and has forebodings th a t things will go wrong. B ut Gilgam esh in te r­ prets the dream s optim istically. Again the reaction of the uncon­ scious is cheated, an d they succeed in b rin g in g back H u m b ab a’s head triu m p h an tly to th eir city. 237 N ow the gods decide to interfere, or ra th e r it is a goddess, Ishtar, who tries to defeat Gilgamesh. T h e u ltim ate principle of the unconscious is the E ternal Fem inine, an d Ishtar, w ith true fem inine cunning, makes w onderful promises to Gilgam esh if he w ill become h er lover: he w ould be like a god an d his power and w ealth w ould increase beyond measure. B ut Gilgam esh does n o t believe a w ord of it, he refuses w ith insulting words and reproaches h er for all h er faithlessness and cruelty towards her lovers. Ishtar in her rage and fury persuades the gods to create an enorm ous bull, w hich descends from the heavens and devas­ tates the country. A great fight begins, and hundreds of m en are killed by the poisonous b reath of the divine bull. B ut again G il­ gamesh, w ith the help of E nkidu, slay him , and the victory is celebrated.

Is h ta r, overco m e by rag e a n d p ain , descends to th e w all of th e city, a n d now E n k id u h im self com m its a n o u tra g e ag ain st h er. H e curses h e r a n d throw s th e m e m b e r of th e d e a d b u ll in h e r face. T h is is th e clim ax, a n d n ow th e p e rip e te ia sets in. E n k id u has m o re d ream s o f a n o m in o u s n a tu re a n d becom es seriously ill and dies. 239 T h is m ean s th a t th e conscious separates fro m th e u n c o n ­ scious a lto g e th e r; th e u n co n scio u s w ith d raw s fro m th e field, a n d G ilgam esh is n o w alo n e a n d overcom e w ith grief. H e can h a rd ly accept th e loss of h is frie n d , b u t w h at to rm en ts h im m ost is th e fear of d e a th . H e has seen his frie n d die a n d is faced w ith th e fact th a t h e is m o rta l too. O n e m o re d esire to rtu re s h im — to secure im m o rta lity . H e sets o u t h ero ically to find th e m e d ic in e ag ain st death, because he know s of an o ld m an, his ancestor, w ho has etern al life a n d w ho lives far aw ay in th e W est. So th e jo u rn e y to the u n d e rw o rld , th e N ekyia, begins, a n d h e travels to th e W est like th e sun, th ro u g h th e d o o r of th e h eav en ly m o u n ta in . H e overcom es en o rm o u s difficulties, a n d even th e gods d o n o t o p ­ pose his plan , a lth o u g h they tell h im th a t he w ill seek in vain. F inally h e com es to h is d e stin a tio n a n d p ersu ad es th e o ld m a n to tell h im of th e rem ed y . A t th e b o tto m o f th e sea h e acq u ires th e m agic h e rb of im m o rta lity , th e p h a rm a k o n athanasias, a n d h e is b rin g in g th e h e rb hom e. A lth o u g h h e is tire d of tra v e llin g h e is fu ll of joy because he has th e w o n d e rfu l m e d icin e a n d does n o t n eed to be a fra id o f d e a th an y m o re. B u t w h ile he is refresh in g him self by b a th in g in a pool, a sn ak e sm ells o u t th e h e rb of im ­ m o rta lity a n d steals it fro m h im . A fte r h is r e tu r n , h e takes u p new plans for th e fo rtificatio n o f his city, b u t h e finds n o peace. H e w ants to k n o w w h a t h ap p en s to m a n a fte r d e a th a n d he finally succeeds in ev o k in g E n k id u ’s s p irit, w h ich com es u p from a h o le in th e e a rth a n d gives G ilg am esh v ery m elan ch o ly in fo r­ m atio n . W ith th is th e epos ends. T h e u ltim a te v icto ry is w o n by the co ld-blood ed an im al. a4° T h e r e a re q u ite a n u m b e r of dream s reco rd ed fro m a n tiq u ity w ith p a ra lle l m o tifs, a n d I w ill give you a sh o rt ex am p le o f how o u r colleagues of o ld — th e d re a m in te rp re te rs o f th e first c e n ­ tu ry a.d.— pro ceed ed . T h e story is to ld by F lavius Jo sep h u s in his h isto ry of th e Jew ish w ar,4 w h ere h e also reco rd s th e d e stru c ­ tio n o f Jeru salem .

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4 [Josephus, T h e Jewish W ar 2.111-115.]

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T h e re was a T e tra rc h of Palestine by the nam e of Archelaos, a R om an governor who was very cruel and who, like practically all of those provincial governors, regarded his position as an op­ portunity to enrich him self and steal w hat he could lay his hands on. T h erefo re a delegation was sent to the em peror A ugustus to com plain about him . T his was in the ten th year of Archelaos’ governorship. A bout this tim e he had a dream in which he saw nine big ripe ears of w heat which were eaten u p by hungry oxen. Archelaos was alarm ed and instantly called in his court psychoanalyst. B ut the psychoanalyst did no t know w hat the dream m eant, or he was afraid to tell the tru th and wriggled out of it. Archelaos called in other psychoanalysts for consul­ tation, and they in the same way refused to know anything ab o u t the dream . 242 B ut there was a peculiar sect of people, the Essenes or Therapeutai, w ith m ore independent minds. T h ey lived in Egypt and near the D ead Sea, and it is n o t impossible that Jo h n the Baptist as well as Simon Magus belonged to such circles. So as a last resort a m an called Sim on the Essene was sent for, and he told Archelaos: “T h e ears of w heat signify the years of your reign, and the oxen the change of things. T h e n in e years are fulfilled and there will be a great change in your fate. T h e hungry oxen m ean your destruction.” In those countries such a dream-image w ould be perfectly understandable. T h e fields have to be guarded carefully against foraging cattle. T h e re is little grass, and it is a catastrophe when d u rin g the n ig h t the oxen break through the fence into the field and tram ple down an d eat the growing grain, so that in the m orning the whole bread of a year is gone. Now for the confirm ation of the in terp retatio n . A few days later a R om an ambassador arrived to investigate, dismissed Archelaos, took all his property from him , an d exiled him to G aul. 243 Archelaos was m arried, and his wife, G laphyra, also had a dream . N aturally she was im pressed by w hat had happened to h er husband. She dream t of h er first husband— Archelaos was h er th ird m arriage—who had been disposed of in a very im po­ lite way: he had been m urdered, and Archelaos was m ost prob­ ably the m urderer. T hings were a b it rough in those days. This form er husband, Alexandros, appeared to h er in the dream and blam ed h er for her conduct an d told h er that he was going to 108

take h e r back in to his household. Simon did n o t in te rp re t this dream , so the analysis is left to o u r discretion. T h e im p o rtan t fact is th a t A lexandras was dead, and that G laphyra saw th e dead husband in h er dream . T h is, of course, in those days, m ean t the ghost of th a t person. So w hen he told her th a t he was going to take h e r back to his household it signified th at he was going to fetch h e r to Hades. A nd indeed, a few days later she co m m itted suicide. 244 T h e way the d ream -in terp reter proceeded w ith the dream of Archelaos was very sensible. H e understood the dream exactly as we w ould, alth o u g h these dream s are of a m uch sim pler n a tu re than m ost of o u r dream s. I have noticed th at dream s are as sim ­ ple o r as com plicated as the dream er is himself, only they are always a little b it ahead of the d ream er’s consciousness. I do n o t un derstand my ow n dream s any b e tte r th an any of you, for they are always som ew hat beyond my grasp and I have the same tro u ­ ble w ith them as anyone who knows n o th in g ab o u t dream in terp retatio n . K nowledge is no advantage w hen it is a m a tte r of one’s own dream s. 245 A n o th er in terestin g parallel to o u r case is the story you all know in the fo u rth chapter of the Book of D an iel .5 W h en the king N ebuchadnezzar had conquered th e whole of M esopotam ia and Egypt, he th o u g h t he was very great in d eed because he pos­ sessed the whole know n w orld. T h e n he had the typical dream of the arriviste w ho has clim bed too high. H e dream ed of an enorm ous tree grow ing u p to heaven an d casting a shadow over the w hole earth. B ut then a w atcher and holy one from heaven ordered th e tree to be hew n dow n, an d his branches cut off, and his leaves shaken, so th a t only his stum p rem ained; an d th a t he should live w ith the beasts an d his h u m an h eart be taken from him an d a beast’s h e art given to him . 246 O f course all the astrologers an d wise m en and dream -interpreters refused to u n d erstan d the dream . O nly D aniel, w ho al­ ready in the second chapter had proved him self a courageous analyst— he even h ad a vision of a dream which N eb u ch ad ­ nezzar could n o t rem em ber— understood its m eaning. H e w arned the kin g to re p e n t of his avarice an d injustice, otherw ise the dream w ould come true. B ut the king w ent on as before, 5 [Cf. T h e S tr u c tu r e a n d D y n a m ic s refs, w ith it.]

0}

th e P sy ch e (C.W ., vo l. 8), fr o n tisp ie c e a n d

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very p ro u d of his power. T h e n a voice from heaven cursed him and repeated the prophecy of the dream . A nd it all happened as foretold. N ebuchadnezzar was cast ou t to the beasts and he be­ came like an anim al himself. H e ate grass as the oxen and his body was wet w ith the dew of heaven, his hair grew long like eagles’ feathers an d his nails like birds’ claws. H e was turned back in to a prim itive m an and all his conscious reason was taken away because he had m isused it. H e regressed even fu rth e r back than the prim itive and became com pletely in h u m an ; he was H um baba, the m onster, himself. All this symbolized a complete regressive degeneration of a m an who has overreached himself. His case, like our patien t’s, is the eternal problem of the suc­ cessful m an who has overreached him self and is contradicted by his unconscious. T h e contradiction is first shown in the dreams and, if not accepted, m ust be experienced in reality in a fatal way. T hese historical dreams, like all dreams, have a compensa­ tory function: they are an indication— a sym ptom , if you prefer to say so— th at the individual is at variance w ith unconscious conditions, th a t somewhere he has deviated from his natural path. Somewhere he has fallen a victim to his am b itio n and his ridiculous designs, and, if he does n o t pay atten tio n , the gap will w iden an d he w ill fall in to it, as o u r p a tien t has. I w ant to emphasize th at it is n o t safe to in te rp re t a dream w ith o u t going into careful detail as to the context. N ever apply any theory, b u t always ask the p a tien t how he feels ab o u t his dream-images. For dream s are always ab o u t a p articu lar prob­ lem of the individual ab o u t which he has a w rong conscious judgm ent. T h e dream s are the reaction to o u r conscious attitude in the same way th a t the body reacts w hen we overeat or do not eat enough or w hen we ill-treat it in some other way. Dreams are the natural reaction of the self-regulating psychic system. T his form ulation is the nearest I can get to a theory ab o u t the struc­ tu re an d function of dreams. I hold th at dream s are ju st as m ani­ fold an d unpredictable an d incalculable as a person you observe d u rin g the day. If you watch an individual a t one m om ent and then at another you w ill see an d hear the m ost varied reactions, an d it is exactly the same w ith dreams. In o u r dream s we are just as many-sided as in o u r daily life, an d ju st as you cannot form a theory ab o u t those m any aspects of the conscious personality you I 10

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cannot make a general theory of dreams. Otherwise we would have an almost divine knowledge of the hum an mind, which we certainly do not possess. W e know precious little about it, there­ fore we call the things we do not know unconscious. But today I am going to contradict myself and break all my rules. I am going to in terp ret a single dream, not one out of a series; moreover I do not know the dreamer, and further, I am not in possession of the associations. Therefore I am interpret­ ing the dream arbitrarily. T h ere is a justification for this proce­ dure. If a dream is clearly form ed of personal m aterial you have to get the individual associations; but if the dream is chiefly a mythological structure— a difference which is obvious at once— then it speaks a universal language, and you or I can supply par­ allels w ith which to construct the context as well as anybody else, always provided we possess the necessary knowledge. For instance, when the dream takes up the hero-dragon conflict, everybody has som ething to say about it, because we have all read fairytales and legends and know something of heroes and dragons. O n the collective level of dreams there is practically no difference in hum an beings, while there is all the difference on the personal level. T h e m ain substance of the dream I am going to speak of is mythological. H ere we are confronted with the question: Under what conditions does one have mythological dreams? W ith us they are rather rare, as our consciousness is to a great extent detached from the underlying archetypal mind. Mythological dreams therefore are felt by us as a very alien element. B ut this is not so w ith a m entality nearer to the prim ordial psyche. P rim ­ itives pay great attention to such dreams and call them “big dreams” in contradistinction to ordinary ones. T hey feel that they are im portant and contain a general meaning. Therefore in a prim itive com m unity the dream er feels bound to announce a big dream to the assembly of men, and a palaver is held over it. Such dreams were also announced to the Roman Senate. T here is a story of a senator’s daughter in the first century B .C . who dreamed th at the goddess M inerva had appeared to her and complained th at the Rom an people were neglecting her temple. The lady felt obliged to report the dream to the Senate, and the Senate voted a certain sum of money for the restoration of the temple. A sim ilar case is told of Sophocles, when a precious 111

golden vessel had been stolen from the tem ple of H erakles. T h e god appeared to Sophocles in a dream and told him the nam e of the thief.® A fter the th ird rep etitio n of the dream , Sophocles felt obliged to inform the Areopagus. T h e m an in question was seized, and in the course of the investigation he confessed and bro u g h t back the vessel. T hese mythological or collective dream s have a character which forces people instinctively to tell them . T h is instinct is q u ite appropriate, because such dream s do n o t belong to the individual; they have a collective meaning. T hey are tru e in themselves in general, an d in p articu lar they are true for people in certain circumstances. T h a t is the reason why in a n tiq u ity and in the M iddle Ages dream s were h eld in great esteem. I t was felt th at they expressed a collective hum an tru th . 2S1 N ow I w ill tell you the dream . It was sent to me by a col­ league of m ine years ago w ith a few rem arks ab o u t the dream er. My colleague was an alienist at a clinic, and the p atien t was a dis­ tinguished young Frenchm an, twenty-two years of age, highly in­ telligent, and vesy aesthetic. H e had travelled in Spain and had come back w ith a depression which was diagnosed as manicdepressive insanity, depressive form. T h e depression was not very bad, b u t bad enough for him to be sent to the clinic. After six m onths he was released from confinem ent, and a few m onths later he com m itted suicide. H e was no longer u n d er the depres­ sion, which was practically cured; he com m itted suicide appar­ ently in a state of calm reasoning. W e shall u nderstand from the dream why he com m itted suicide. T h is is the dream , and it oc­ curred at the beginning of the depression: U nderneath the great cathedral o f Toledo there is a cistern filled w ith water which has a subterranean connection w ith the river Tagus, which skirts the city. T h is cistern is a sm all dark room. I n the water there is a huge serpent whose eyes sparkle like jewels. N ear it there is a golden bowl containing a golden dagger. T his dagger is the key to Toledo, and its ow ner com ­ m ands fu ll pow er over the city. T h e dreamer knows the serpent to be the friend and protector o f B — C— , a young frien d o f his who is present. B — C— puts his naked foot into the serpent's jaws. T h e serpent licks it in a friendly way and B — C— enjoys β [T hus far, the dream is docum ented in the “Life o f Sophocles,” sec. 12, in Sophoclis F abulae, ed. Pearson, p. xix.]

playing with the serpent; he has no fear of it because he is a child w ithou t guile. In the dream B— C— appears to be about the age of seven; he had indeed been a friend of the dreamer’s early youth. Since this time, the dream says, the serpent has been forgotten and nobody dared to descend into its haunts. 252 T his part is a sort of introduction, and now the real action begins. T h e dreamer is alone with the serpent. H e talks to it respect­ fully, but without fear. The serpent tells the dreamer that Spain belongs to him as he is B— C— '5 friend, and asks him to give back the boy. T h e dreamer refuses to do this and promises in­ stead that he himself will descend into the darkness of the cave to be the friend of the serpent. B ut then he changes his mind, and instead of fulfilling his promise he decides to send another friend, a Mr. S— to the serpent. This friend is descended from the Spanish Moors, and to risk the descent into the cistern he has to recover the original courage of his race. T h e dreamer advises him to get the sword with the red hilt which is to be found in the weapons factory on the other bank of the Tagus. It is said to be a very ancient sword, dating back to the old Phocaeansd S— gets the sword and descends into the cistern, and the dreamer tells him to pierce his left palm with the sword. S— does so, but he is not able to keep his countenance in the powerful presence of the serpent. Overcome by pain and fear, he cries out and staggers up the stairs again w ithout having taken the dagger. Thus the dreamer cannot hold Toledo, and he could do nothing about it and had to leave his friend there as a mere wall decoration. 252a That is the end of the dream. T h e original of course is in French. N ow for the context. W e have certain hints as to these friends. B— C— is a friend of the dreamer’s early youth, a little bit older than himself, and he projected everything that was wonderful and charming into this boy and made him a sort of hero. But he lost sight of him later; perhaps the boy died. S— is a friend of more recent date. H e is said to be descended from the Spanish Moors. I do not know him personally, but I know his family. It is a very old and honourable family from the South of 7 [The people o£ ancient Phocaea, on the western coast of Asia Minor, founded Massilia (Marseilles) and colonies on the east coast of Spain.]

France, and the nam e m ight easily be a M oorish nam e. T h e dream er knew this legend about the family of S— . 253 As I told you, the dream er had recently been to Spain and of course had seen T oledo, and he had the dream after he got back and had been taken to the clinic. H e was in a bad state, practi­ cally in despair, and he could not help telling the dream to his doctor. My colleague did n o t know w hat to do w ith it, b u t he felt an urge to send me the dream because he felt it to be very im portant. B ut at the tim e I received the dream I could not understand it. Nevertheless I had the feeling th at if I had known som ething m ore ab o u t such dreams, and if I could have handled the case myself, I m ight have been able to help the young m an and his suicide m ight not have occurred. Since then I have seen many cases of a sim ilar nature. O ften one can tu rn a difficult corner by a real understanding of dream s like this one. W ith such a sensitive, refined individual who had studied the history of a rt and was an unusually artistic and intelligent person, one m ust be exceedingly careful. Banalities are no use in such a case; one has to be serious and enter into the real m aterial. 253 a W e make no m istake w hen we assume that the dream er has picked out T o led o for a p articu lar reason—b o th as the object of his trip and of his dream ; and the dream brings u p m aterial which practically everybody w ould have who had seen T oledo w ith the same m ental disposition, the same education an d re­ finem ent of aesthetic perception and knowledge. T o led o is an extrem ely impressive city. It contains one of the m ost m arvel­ lous G othic cathedrals of the world. I t is a place w ith an im ­ mensely old tradition; it is the old R om an T o letu m , and for centuries has been the seat of the C ardinal A rchbishop and P rim ate of Spain. From the sixth to the eighth century it was the capital of the Visigoths; from the eighth to the eleventh it was a provincial capital of the M oorish kingdom ; and from the elev­ enth to the sixteenth century it was the capital of Castile. T h e cathedral of T oledo, being such an impressive and beautiful building, naturally suggests all th a t it represents: the greatness, th e power, the splendour, and the mystery of m edieval Chris­ tianity, w hich found its essential expression in the C hurch. T h erefo re the cathedral is the em bodim ent, the incarnation, of the spiritual kingdom , for in the M iddle Ages the w orld was ru le d by the E m peror and by God. So the cathedral expresses 114

the C hristian philosophy or W eltanschauung of the M iddle Ages. 254 T h e dream says th a t u n d ern eath the cathedral there is a mys­ terious place, which in reality is n o t in tu n e w ith a C hristian church. W h at is beneath a cathedral of that age? T h e re is always the so-called under-church or crypt. You have probably seen the great crypt at C hartres; it gives a very good idea of the m ysteri­ ous character of a crypt. T h e crypt at C hartres was previously an old sanctuary w ith a well, w here the w orship of a virgin was celebrated— n o t of the V irgin Mary, as is done now— b u t of a Celtic goddess. U n d er every C hristian church of the M iddle Ages there is a secret place w here in old times the mysteries were celebrated. W h at we now call the sacraments of the C hurch were the m ysteria of early C hristianity. In Provengal the crypt is called Ie m usset, w hich m eans a secret; the w ord perhaps orig­ inates from m ysteria and could m ean mystery-place. In Aosta, where they speak a Provengal dialect, there is a musset u n d e r the cathedral. 255 T h e crypt is probably taken over from the cu lt of M ithras. In M ithraism the m ain religious cerem ony took place in a vault half sunk into the earth, and the com m unity rem ain ed separated in the m ain church above. T h e re were peepholes so th a t they could see an d h ear the priests and the elect ones ch an tin g an d celebrating th e ir rites below, b u t they were n o t ad m itted to them. T h a t was a privilege for the initiates. In the C hristian church the separation of the baptistry from the m ain body of the b u ild in g derives from the same idea, for baptism as well as the com m union were m ysteria of which one could n o t speak d i­ rectly. O ne had to use a sort of allegorical allusion so as n o t to betray the secrets. T h e mystery also attached to the nam e of Christ, w hich therefore was n o t allow ed to be m entioned; in ­ stead, he was referred to by the nam e of Ichthys, the Fish. You have probably seen reproductions of very early C hristian p a in t­ ings w here C hrist appears as the Fish. T h is secrecy connected with the holy nam e is probably the reason why the nam e of Christ is n o t m entioned in an early C hristian docum ent of about a . d . 140 know n as T h e Shepherd of H erm as,8 w hich was an im p o rtan t p a rt of the body of C hristian literatu re recognized 8 [Cf. Psychological T yp es, ch. V, 4a.]

by the C hurch till about the fifth century. T h e w riter of this book of visions, H erm as, is supposed to have been the brothtr of the R om an bishop Pius. T h e spiritual teacher who appears 10 H erm as is called the Poim en, the Shepherd, and n o t the Christ. 256 T h e idea of the crypt or mystery-place leads us to something below the C hristian W eltanschauung, som ething older than C hristianity, like the pagan well below the cathedral at C hartres, o r like an antique cave in h ab ited by a serpent. The well w ith the serpent is of course n o t an actual fact w hich the dream er saw w hen he travelled in Spain. T h is dream -im age is n o t an individual experience and can therefore only be paral­ leled by archaeological and mythological knowledge. I have t*> give you a certain am ount of th at parallelism so th a t you can se® in w hat context or tissue such a symbolical arrangem ent appeals w hen looked at in the light of com parative research work. YoU know th at every church still has its baptism al font. T h is was originally the piscina, the pond, in which the initiates were bath ed or symbolically drow ned. A fter a figurative d eath in the baptism al b ath they came o u t transform ed quasi m odo geniti, zi re b o rn ones. So we can assume that the crypt or baptism al font has the m eaning of a place of terro r and death an d also of re ­ b irth , a place where dark initiations take place. 257 T h e serpent in the cave is an image which often occurs in antiquity. It is im p o rtan t to realize th a t in classical an tiq u ity , as in o th er civilizations, the serpent n o t only was an anim al that aroused fear and represented danger, b u t also signified healing. T herefore Asklepios, the god of physicians, is connected w ith the serpent; you all know his em blem which is still in use. In the tem ples of Asklepios, the Asklepieia, which were the ancient clinics, there was a hole in the ground, covered by a stone, and in th a t hole lived the sacred serpent. T h e re was a slot in the stone through which the people who came to the place of heal­ ing threw dow n the fee for the doctors. T h e snake was at the same tim e the cashier of the clinic an d collector of gifts that were throw n dow n into its cave. D u rin g the great pestilence in the tim e of D iocletian the famous serpent of the A sklepieion at E pidaurus was b ro u g h t to R om e as an an tid o te to the epidem ic. I t represented the god himself. 258 T h e serpent is n o t only the god of healing; it also has the q u ality of wisdom and prophecy. T h e fo u n tain of Castalia at 116

D elphi was originally inh ab ited by a python. A pollo fought and overcame the python, and from that tim e D elphi was the seat of the fam ous oracle and A pollo its god, u n til he left half his pow ­ ers to Dionysus, who later came in from the East. In the u n d e r­ world, w here the spirits of the dead live, snakes and w ater are always together, as we can read in A ristophanes’ T h e Frogs. T h e serpent in legend is often replaced by the dragon; the L atin draco simply means snake. A particularly suggestive parallel to o u r dream symbol is a C hristian legend of the fifth century about St. Sylvester:9 there was a terrible dragon in a cave u n d er the T a rp e ia n rock in R om e to whom virgins were sacrificed. A nother legend says th at the dragon was not a real one b u t a rti­ ficial, and th at a m onk w ent down to prove it was n o t real and when he got dow n to the cave he found that the dragon had a sword in his m o u th and his eyes consisted of sparkling jewels. 259 Very often these caves, like the cave of Castalia, contain springs. T hese springs played a very im p o rtan t role in the cult of M ithras, from which m any elem ents of the early C hurch orig­ inated. Porphyry relates th a t Zoroaster, the founder of the P er­ sian religion, dedicated to M ithras a cave containing m any springs. T hose of you who have been to G erm any and seen the Saalburg near F ran k fu rt will have noticed the spring n ear the grotto of M ithras. T h e cu lt of M ithras is always connected w ith a spring. T h e re is a beautiful M ithraeum in Provence which has a large piscina w ith w onderful crystal-clear water, and in the background a rock on which is carved the M ithras T au roktonos —the bull-killing M ithras. T hese sanctuaries were always a great scandal to the early Christians. T h ey hated all these n a tu ­ ral arrangem ents because they were no friends of n atu re. In Rome a M ithraeum has been discovered ten feet below the sur­ face of the C hurch of San C lem ente. It is still in good condition but filled w ith water, an d w hen it is pu m p ed o u t it fills again. It is always u n d e r w ater because it adjoins a spring w hich floods the interior. T h e spring has never been found. W e know of other religious ideas in antiquity, for instance of th e O rphic cult, w hich always associate the underw o rld w ith water. 26° T h is m aterial will give you an idea th a t the serpent in the cave full of w ater is an image th at was generally know n and 9 [Sym bo ls of T r a n s f o r m a t i o n 3 pars. 572L] 117

played a great role in antiquity. As you have noticed, I have chosen all my exam ples exclusively from antiquity; I could have chosen other parallels from other civilizations, and you w ould find it was the same. T h e water in the depths represents the un­ conscious. In the depths as a rule is a treasure guarded by a ser­ pent or a dragon; in our dream the treasure is the golden bowl w ith the dagger in it. In order to recover the treasure the dragon has to be overcome. T h e treasure is of a very mysterious nature. It is connected w ith the serpent in a strange way; the peculiar nature of the serpent denotes the character of the treasure as though the two things were one. O ften there is a golden snake with the treasure. G old is som ething that everyone is seeking, so w e could say that it looks as if the serpent him self were the great treasure, the source of im m ense power. In early Greek myths, for instance, the dweller in the cave is a hero, such as Cecrops, the founder o f Athens. A bove he is half m an and half wom an, a herm aphrodite, but the lower part of his body is a serpent; he is clearly a monster. T h e same is said of Erechtheus, another myth­ ical king of Athens. T h at prepares us a little for understanding the golden bowl and the dagger in our dream. If you have seen W agner’s Parsifal you know that the bowl corresponds to the Grail and the dagger to the spear and that the two belon g together; they are the male and the fem ale principle w hich form the u n io n of opposites. T h e cave or underw orld represents a layer of the unconscious where there is no discrim ination at all, not even a distinction betw een the m ale and the fem ale, w hich is the first differenti­ ation prim itives make. T h ey distinguish objects in this way, as we still do occasionally. Some keys, for instance, have a hole in the front, and some are solid. T h ey are often called m ale and fem ale keys. You know the Italian tiled roofs. T h e convex tiles are placed above and the concave ones underneath. T h e upper ones are called monks and the under ones the nuns. T h is is not an indecent joke to the Italians, but the quintessence of discrim ­ ination. W hen the unconscious brings together the m ale and the fe­ m ale, things becom e utterly indistinguishable and we cannot say any m ore whether they are m ale or fem ale, just as Cecrops came from such a m ythical distance that one could n ot say whether he was man or woman, hum an or serpent. So we see that the bot118

tom of the cistern in o u r dream is characterized by a com plete union of opposites. T h is is the prim ordial condition of things, and at the same tim e a most ideal achievem ent, because it is the union of elem ents eternally opposed. Conflict has come to rest, and everything is still or once again in the original state of indis­ tinguishable harm ony. You find the same idea in ancient C hi­ nese philosophy. T h e ideal condition is nam ed T ao , and it con­ sists of the com plete harm ony betw een heaven and earth. Figure 13 represents the symbol for T ao. O n one side it is w hite w ith a

C E ig . 13. T a o

black spot, an d on the other it is black w ith a w hite spot. T h e w hite side is the hot, dry, fiery principle, the south; the black side is the cold, hum id, dark principle, the north. T h e condition of T ao is the beginning of the w orld w here n o th in g has yet be­ gun— an d it is also the condition to be achieved by the attitu d e of superior wisdom. T h e idea of the u n io n of the two opposite principles, of m ale an d female, is an archetypal image. I once had a very nice exam ple of its still-living prim itive form . W h en on m ilitary d u ty w ith the arm y d u rin g the war, I was w ith the m ountain artillery, and the soldiers had to dig a deep hole for the position of a heavy gun. T h e soil was very refractory, and they cursed a good deal w hile they were digging u p the heavy blocks. I was sitting h id d en b eh in d a rock, sm oking my pipe and listening to w hat they said. O ne m an said: “Now, dam n it all, we have dug in to the depths of this bloom ing old valley w here the old lake-dwellers lived and where father an d m o th er are still sleeping together.” T h a t is the same idea, very naively ex­ pressed. A N egro m yth says th at the prim ordial m an and the prim ordial wom an were sleeping together in the calabash; they were q u ite unconscious u n til they found they were to rn asunder and w hat was in betw een was the son. M an was in betw een, and **9

from that tim e they were separated, and th en they knew each other. T h e original condition of absolute unconsciousness is ex­ pressed as a com pletely restful condition w here n o th in g hap­ pens. 263 W hen the dream er comes to these symbols he reaches the layer of com plete unconsciousness, which is represented as the greatest treasure. It is the central m otif in W agner’s Parsifal that the spear should be restored to the G rail because they belong eternally together. T h is un io n is a symbol of com plete fulfil­ m en t— eternity before and after the creation of the w orld, a dor­ m ant condition. T h a t is probably the th in g which the desire of m an is seeking. T h a t is why he ventures into the cave of the dragon, to find th a t condition where consciousness an d the u n ­ conscious are so com pletely u n ite d th at he is n eith er conscious n o r unconscious. W henever the two are too m uch separated, consciousness seeks to u n ite them again by going dow n in to the depths where they once were one. T h u s you find in T an tric Yoga or K und alin i Yoga an attem p t to reach the condition w here Shiva is in eternal un io n w ith Shakti. Shiva is the eter­ nally un ex ten d ed point, and he is encircled by the fem ale p rin­ ciple, Shakti, in the form of a serpent. I could give you m any m ore instances of this idea. It played a great role in the secret tra d itio n of the M iddle Ages. In m edi­ eval alchemical texts there are pictures of the process of the u n io n of Sol and L una, the m ale an d the fem ale principle. We have traces of an analogous symbolism in C hristian reports about the ancient mysteries. T h e re is a re p o rt by a Bishop Asterios about Eleusis, and it says th at every year the priest m ade the katabasis or descent into the cave. A nd the priest of A pollo and the priestess of D em eter, the earth m other, celebrated the hierosgamos, the sacred nuptials, for the fertilization of the earth. T his is a C hristian statem ent which is n o t substantiated. T h e initiates of the E leusinian mysteries were sworn to the strictest secrecy; if they betrayed anything, they were punished w ith death. So we have practically no knowledge of their rites. W e know, on the other hand, th at d u rin g the mysteries of D em eter certain ob­ scenities took place because they were th o u g h t good for the fer­ tility of the earth. T h e distinguished ladies of A thens assembled, w ith the priestess of D em eter presiding. T h e y had a good meal 120

and plenty of wine an d afterwards perform ed the rite of the aischrologia. T h a t is, they had to tell indecent jokes. T h is was considered a religious duty because it was good for the fertility of the next season.10 A sim ilar rite took place in Bubastis in Egypt at the tim e of the Isis mysteries. T h e inhabitants of the villages on the up p er N ile came down in parties, and the wom en on the barges used to expose themselves to the w om en on the banks of the N ile. I t was probably done for the same reason as the aischrologia, to ensure the fertility of the earth. You can read about it in H erodotus.11 In southern G erm any as late as the n ineteen th century, in order to increase th e fertility of the soil, the peasant used to take his wife to his fields and have in te r­ course w ith h er in a furrow . T his is called sym pathetic magic. 265 T h e bowl is a vessel th at receives or contains, and is th ere­ fore female. It is a symbol of the body which contains the anim a, the breath an d liq u id of life, w hile the dagger has piercing, p enetrating qualities and is therefore male. It cuts, it discrim i­ nates and divides, and so is a symbol of the m asculine Logos principle. 266 In o u r dream the dagger is said to be the key to T oledo. T h e idea of the key is often associated w ith the mysteries in the cave. In the cult of M ithras there is a peculiar k in d of god, the key god Aion, whose presence could not be explained; b u t I th in k it is quite understandable. H e is represented w ith the winged body of a m an and the head of a lion, and he is encoiled by a snake which rises u p over his head.12 You have a figure of him in the British M useum . H e is Infinite T im e and Long D uration; he is the suprem e god of the M ithraic hierarchy and creates and de­ stroys all things, the duree creatrice of Bergson. H e is a sun-god. Leo is th e zodiacal sign w here the sun dwells in sum m er, w hile 10 [Cf. P sy c h o lo g y a n d A lc h e m y , par. 105, n . 35, c itin g F oucart, L e s M y ste re s d ’E leu sis. A c co rd in g to classicists, A sterio s’ rep o rt referred to r itu a ls o f D e m ete r celeb rated a t A le x a n d r ia in w h ic h a priest (n ot o f A p o llo ) a n d a p riestess p e r ­ form ed th e h iero sg a m o s. T h e n a rra tio n o f a isch ro lo g ia to p le a se D em eter o c ­ curred d u r in g th e T h e sm o p h o r ia , a n a u tu m n festival in h e r h o n o u r , th e S ten ia, celeb ra tin g h er r etu rn , a n d th e m id -w in te r H a lo a , sacred to D e m ete r a n d D io n y ­ sus. Cf. H arrison , P ro le g o m e n a , ch. IV , esp . p p . 136, 148L] 11 [H ero d o tu s 2.60 (P en g u in e d n ., p p . I25f.).] *2 [See A io n (C .W ., vol. 9, ii), fro n tisp iece, a n d S y m b o ls o f T ra n s fo rm a tio n , in ­ dex, s.v.]

the snake symbolizes the w inter or wet time. So A ion3 the lion­ headed god w ith the snake ro u n d his body, again represents the u n io n of opposites, light and darkness, m ale and female, crea­ tion an d destruction. T h e god is represented as having his arms crossed an d holding a key in each hand. H e is the spiritual father of St. Peter, for he too holds the keys. T h e keys which A ion is holding are the keys to the past and future. 2δ7 T h e ancient mystery cults are always connected w ith psychopom pic deities. Some of these deities are eq u ip p ed w ith the keys to the underw orld, because as the guardians of the door they watch over the descent of the initiates into the darkness and are the leaders in to the mysteries. H ecate is one of them. 268 In o u r dream the key is the key to the city of T oledo, so we have to consider the symbolic m eaning of T o led o an d of th e city. As the old capital of Spain, T oledo was a very strong fortifica­ tion and the very ideal of a feudal city, a refuge and stronghold which could not easily be touched from outside. T h e city rep re­ sents a totality, closed in upon itself, a pow er which cannot be destroyed, which has existed for centuries and w ill exist for m any centuries m ore. T herefore the city symbolizes the totality of man, an a ttitu d e of wholeness which cannot be dissolved. 2δ9 T h e city as a synonym for the self, for psychic totality, is an old and well-known image. W e read for instance in the Oxyrhynchus sayings of Jesus:13 “A city b u ilt upon the top of a high h ill and stablished, can neither fall n o r be h id .” A nd: “Strive therefore to know yourselves, and ye shall be aware th a t ye are the sons of the alm ighty Father; and ye shall know th at ye are in the city of G od an d ye are the city.” T h e re is a Coptic treatise in the Codex B rucianus in w hich we find the idea of the M onog­ enes, or only son of God, w ho is also the A nthropos, M an.14 H e is called the city w ith the four gates. T h e city w ith the fo u r gates symbolizes the idea of totality; it is the individual who pos­ sesses the fo u r gates to the world, the four psychological func­ tions, and so is contained in the self. T h e city w ith the four gates is his indestructible wholeness—consciousness and the un co n ­ scious united . 13 New Sayings of Jesus and Fragment of a Lost Gospel, ed. by Grenfell and Hunt [pp. 36 and 15]. 14 [It is MS. Bruce 96, Bodleian Library, Oxford. Cf. Psychology and Alchemy, par. 138L]

So these depths, th at layer of u tte r unconsciousness in o u r dream , contain at the same tim e the key to individual com­ pleteness and wholeness, in other words to healing. T h e m ean ­ ing of “w hole” or “wholeness” is to make holy or to heal. T h e descent in to the depths will bring healing. I t is the way to the total being, to the treasure which suffering m ankind is forever seeking, which is hidden in the place guarded by terrib le d an ­ ger. T h is is the place of prim ordial unconsciousness and at the same tim e the place of healing and redem ption, because it con­ tains the jewel of wholeness. It is the cave w here th e dragon of chaos lives and it is also the indestructible city, the magic circle or tem enos, the sacred precinct where all the split-off parts of the personality are united. 271 T h e use of a magic circle or m andala, as it is called in the East, for h ealing purposes is an archetypal idea. W hen a m an is ill the P ueblo Indians of New Mexico m ake a sand-painting of a m andala w ith four gates. In the centre of it they b u ild the socalled sweat-house o r medicine-lodge, w here the p atien t has to undergo the sweat-cure. O n the floor of the m edicine-lodge is painted another magic circle— being thus placed in the centre of the big m andala— and in the m idst of it is the bowl w ith the healing water. T h e w ater symbolizes the entrance to the u n d e r­ world. T h e healing process in this cerem ony is clearly analogous to the symbolism which we find in the collective unconscious. It is an indiv id u atio n process, an identification w ith the totality of the personality, w ith the self. In C hristian symbolism the to tal­ ity is C hrist, and the healing process consists of the im itatio Christi. T h e four gates are replaced by the four arms of the cross. 272 T h e serpent in the cave in o u r dream is the frien d of B— C— , the hero of the dream er’s early days, in to whom he p ro ­ jected everything he w anted to become and all the virtues to which he was aspiring. T h a t young friend is a t peace w ith the serpent. H e is a child w ithout guile, he is in n o cen t and knows as yet of no conflict. T herefore he has the key to Spain an d the power over the four gates.15

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15 [For further analysis of this dream, from the Basel Seminar (supra, p. 3), see lu n g ’s L ’H o m m e a la d eco u verte d e son d m e, pp. 214ft.]

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Dr. D a vid Yellowlees: I need hardly m en tio n th a t I shall n o t atte m p t to discuss anything that has been said tonight. W e are all glad Professor J u n g has given us such an extraordinarily fascinating account of his own views, ra th e r than spend tim e on controversial matters. B ut I th in k some of us w ould be grateful if he w ould recognize th at we approach psychology and psychotherapy along lines not exclusively F reudian perhaps, b u t in accordance w ith certain fundam ental principles w ith which F reu d ’s nam e is associated, though he may n o t have originated them . W e are very grateful th a t Professor Ju n g has given us w hat we believe to be a wider view. Some of us prefer th at view, and perhaps the Freudians w ould be able to tell us why. B ut the question was raised the other n ig h t as to the relationship betw een the concept of the unconscious which Professor Ju n g has been laying before us and F reu d ’s concept of it, and I th in k if Professor J u n g will be so good he could help us a little in th at direction. I know quite well I may be m isinterpreting him , b u t th e im pression I got on Tuesday n ig h t was alm ost as if he had said th at he was dealing w ith facts and F reud w ith theories. H e knows as well as I do that this bald statem ent really requires some am plification and I wish he could tell us, for exam ple, w hat we ought to do from a th era­ peutic p o in t of view w hen faced w ith a p atien t who produces spontaneously w hat I w ould call F reudian m aterial, an d how far we should regard F reudian theories simply as theories in view of the evidence which can be proved by such m aterial as infantile fixation of the libido— oral, anal, phallic, an d so on. If Professor Ju n g w ould say a little to give us some kind of correlation we w ould be very grateful. Professor Jung: I told you at the beginning that I do no t w ant to be critical. I ju st w ant to give you a p o in t of view of my own, of how I en­ visage psychological m aterial, and I suppose th a t w hen you have heard w hat I have to con trib u te you will be able to make up your m inds ab o u t these questions, an d how m uch of Freud, how m uch of A dler, or myself, or I do not know whom, you w ill w ant 124

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to follow. If you w ant me to elucidate the question of the con­ nection w ith Freud, I am q u ite glad to do it. I started o u t en­ tirely on F reu d ’s lines. I was even considered to be his best dis­ ciple. I was on excellent terms w ith him u n til I had the idea th at certain things are symbolical. Freud would no t agree to this, and he identified his m ethod w ith the theory and the theory w ith the m ethod. T h a t is impossible, you cannot identify a m ethod w ith science. I said th a t in view of these things I could n o t keep on publishing the Jahrbuch15 an d I w ithdrew . B ut I am perfectly well aware of the m erits of F reu d and I do not w ant to dim inish them . I know that w hat F reu d says agrees with m any people, and I assume th at these people have exactly the k in d of psychology th at he describes. A dler, who has entirely different views, also has a large following, and I am convinced that m any people have an A dlerian psychology. I too have a fol­ lowing—n o t so large as F reu d ’s— and it consists presum ably of people w ho have my psychology. I consider my co n trib u tio n to psychology to be m y subjective confession. It is my personal psy­ chology, my prejudice th a t I see psychological facts as I do. I ad­ m it th a t I see things in such and such a way. B ut I expect F reu d and A dler to do the same and confess that th eir ideas are their subjective p o in t of view. So far as we adm it o u r personal p re ju ­ dice, we are really co n trib u tin g towards an objective psychology. W e cannot help being prejudiced by our ancestors, who w ant to look at things in a certain way, and so we instinctively have certain points of view. It w ould be n eu ro tic if I saw things in another way than my instinct tells me to do; my snake, as the prim itives say, w ould be all against me. W h en F reu d said cer­ tain things, my snake did not agree. A nd I take the route th at my snake prescribes, because th a t is good for me. B ut I have patients w ith whom I have to make a F reudian analysis and go in to all the details w hich F reu d has correctly described. I have other cases th a t force m e to an A dlerian p o in t of view, b e ­ cause they have a pow er com plex. People who have the capacity to adapt and are successful are m ore inclined to have a F reu d ian psychology, because a m an in th a t position is looking for the gratification of his desires, w hile the m an who has no t been suc15 [Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische u n d psych opath ologisch e Forschungen (L eip­ zig and Vienna); Ju n g w ithdrew from the editorship in 1913.]

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cessful has no tim e to th in k ab o u t desires. H e has only one de­ sire— to succeed, an d he will have an A dlerian psychology, be­ cause a m an who always falls into the second place will develop a power complex. I have no pow er com plex in th a t sense because I have been fairly successful and in nearly every respect I have been able to adapt. If the w hole w orld disagrees w ith m e it is perfectly indif­ ferent to me. I have a perfectly good place in Switzerland, I en­ joy myself, and if nobody enjoys my books I enjoy them . I know n o th in g b etter than being in my library, and if I m ake discov­ eries in my books, th a t is w onderful. I cannot say I have a F reu d ­ ian psychology because I never had such difficulties in relation to desires. As a boy I lived in the country and took things very n aturally, and the n atu ral and u n n a tu ra l things of which Freud speaks were not interesting to me. T o talk of an incest com plex just bores m e to tears. B ut I know exactly how I could make myself neurotic: if I said or believed som ething th at is n o t my­ self. I say w hat I see, and if som ebody agrees w ith m e it pleases m e and if nobody agrees it is indifferent to me. I can jo in n ei­ th er the A dlerian n o r the F reudian confession. I can agree only w ith the J u n g ian confession because I see things th a t way even if there is n o t a single person on earth who shares my views. T h e only th in g I hope for is to give you some interesting ideas and let you see how I tackle things. It is always interesting to me to see a craftsm an a t work. His skill makes the charm of a craft. Psychotherapy is a craft an d I deal in my individual way— a very h u m b le way w ith n o th in g particu lar to show— w ith the things I have to do. N o t th at I be­ lieve for a m om ent th a t I am absolutely right. N obody is abso­ lutely rig h t in psychological m atters. N ever forget th a t in psy­ chology the means by w hich you judge and observe the psyche is the psyche itself. H ave you ever heard of a ham m er beating it­ self? In psychology the observer is the observed. T h e psyche is n o t only the object b u t also the subject of o u r science. So you see, it is a vicious circle an d we have to be very modest. T h e best we can expect in psychology is th at everybody puts his cards on the table and adm its: “I handle things in such and such a way, a n d this is how I see them .” T h e n we can com pare notes. I have always com pared notes w ith F reu d and A dler. T h ree books have been w ritten by pupils of m in e who tried to give a 126

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synopsis of the three points of view.16 You have never heard this from the o th er side. T h a t is o u r Swiss tem peram ent. W e are lib ­ eral an d we try to see things side by side, together. From my po in t of view the best th in g is to say th a t obviously there are thousands of people who have a Freudian psychology and th o u ­ sands w ho have an A dlerian psychology. Some seek gratification of desire and some others fulfilm ent of pow er and yet others w ant to see the w orld as it is and leave things in peace. W e do not w ant to change anything. T h e w orld is good as it is. T h e re are m any different psychologies in existence. A certain A m erican university, year after year, issues a volum e of the psy­ chologies of 1934, 1935, and so on. T h e re is a total chaos in psy­ chology, so do n o t be so frightfully serious ab o u t psychological theories. Psychology is n o t a religious creed b u t a p o in t of view, and w hen we are hum an about it we may be able to u n d erstan d each other. I adm it th a t some people have sexual tro u b le and others have o th er troubles. I have chiefly o th er troubles. You now have an idea of how I look at things. My problem is to wrestle w ith the big m onster of the historical past, the great snake of the centuries, the b u rd en of the h u m an m in d , the p ro b ­ lem of C hristianity. It w ould be so m uch sim pler if I knew n o th ­ ing; b u t I know too m uch, through m y ancestors and m y own education. O th er people are n o t w orried by such problem s, they do n o t care ab o u t the historical burdens C hristianity has heaped upon us. B ut there are people who are concerned w ith the great battle betw een the present an d the past or the future. I t is a trem endous hum an problem . C ertain people m ake history and others b u ild a little house in the suburbs. M ussolini’s case is no t settled by saying he has a pow er complex. H e is concerned w ith politics, an d th a t is his life an d death. T h e w orld is huge an d there is n o t one theory only to explain everything. X 0 F reu d the unconscious is chiefly a receptacle for things repressed. H e looks at it from the corner of th e nursery. T o m e it is a vast historical storehouse. I acknowledge I have a nursery too, b u t it is small in com parison w ith the vast spaces of history which were m ore interesting to me from childhood th an the nursery. T h e re are m any people like myself, I am optim istic in that respect. O nce I thought there were no people like myself; I ie W. M. K ranefeldt, Secret Ways of the M in d; G. R . H eyer, T h e Organism of the M in d ; Gerhard A dler, E n tdeck u ng der Seele.

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was afraid it was megalomania to think as I did. T hen I found many people who fitted in with my point of view, and I was satisfied that I represented perhaps a minority of people whose basic psychological facts are expressed more or less happily by my formulation, and when you get these people under analysis you w ill find they do not agree with Freud’s or Adler’s point of view, but with mine. I have been reproached for my naivete. W hen I am not sure about a patient I give him books by Freud and Adler and say, “Make your choice,” in the hope that we are going on the right track. Sometimes we are on the wrong track. As a rule, people who have reached a certain maturity and who are philosophically minded and fairly successful in the world and not too neurotic, agree with my point of view. But you must not conclude from what I present to you that I always lay my cards on the table and tell the patient all I m ention here. T im e would not allow me to go into all those details of interpretation. But a few cases need to acquire a great amount of knowledge and are grateful when they see a way to enlarge their point of view. I cannot say where I could find common ground with Freud when he calls a certain part of the unconscious the Id. Why give it such a funny name? It is the unconscious and that is some­ thing we do not know. W hy call it the Id? Of course the differ­ ence of temperament produces a different outlook. I never could bring myself to be so frightfully interested in these sex cases. T hey do exist, there are people with a neurotic sex life and you have to talk sex stuff with them until they get sick of it and you get out of that boredom. Naturally, with my temperamental at­ titude, I hope to goodness we shall get through with the stuff as quickly as possible. It is neurotic stuff and no reasonable normal person talks of it for any length of time. It is not natural to dwell on such matters. Primitives are very reticent about them. They allude to sexual intercourse by a word that is equivalent to “hush.” Sexual things are taboo to them, as they really are to us if we are natural. But taboo things and places are always apt to be the receptacle for all sorts of projections. And so very often the real problem is not to be found there at all. Many people make unnecessary difficulties about sex when their actual trou­ bles are of quite a different nature. Once a young man came to me with a compulsion neurosis. 128

H e b ro u g h t m e a m anuscript of his of a h u n d re d and forty pages, giving a com plete F reudian analysis of his case. I t was q u ite perfect according to the rules, it could have been published in the Jahrbuch, H e said: “W ill you read this and tell m e why I am n o t cured although I m ade a com plete psychoanalysis?” I said: “So you have, and I do n o t understand it either. You ought to be cured according to all the rules of the art, b u t w hen you say you are n o t cured I have to believe you.” H e repeated: “W hy am I n o t cured, having a com plete insight into the struc­ ture of my neurosis?” I said: “I cannot criticize your thesis. T h e whole th in g is m arvellously well dem onstrated. T h e re rem ains only one, perhaps q u ite foolish, question: you do n o t m en tio n where you come from and who your parents are. You say you spent last w inter on the R iviera and the sum m er in St. M oritz. W ere you very careful in the choice of your parents?” “ N o t at all.” “You have an excellent business and are m aking a good deal of money?” “No, I cannot make m oney.” “T h e n you have a big fortune from an uncle?” “N o.” “T h e n where does the m oney come from ?” H e replied: “I have a certain arrangem ent. I have a friend who gives me the m oney.” I said: “I t m ust be a w onderful frien d ,” and he replied, “It is a w om an.” She was m uch older th an himself, aged thirty-six, a teacher in an elem en­ tary school w ith a small salary, who, as an elderly spinster, fell in love w ith the fellow who was twenty-eight. She lived on bread and m ilk so th a t he could spend his w in ter on th e R iviera and his sum m er in St. M oritz. I said: “A nd you ask why you are illl” H e said: “O h, you have a m oralistic p o in t of view; th a t is no t scientific.” I said: “T h e m oney in your pocket is the m oney of the w om an you cheat.” H e said, “No, we agreed u p o n it. I had a serious talk w ith h er an d it is n o t a m atter for discussion th a t I get the m oney from her.” I said: “You are p reten d in g to your­ self th a t it is n o t h er money, b u t you live by it, and th a t is im ­ moral. T h a t is the cause of your com pulsion neurosis. I t is a com pensation an d a punishm ent for an im m oral a ttitu d e .” A n u tterly unscientific p o in t of view, of course, b u t it is my convic­ tion th a t he deserves his com pulsion neurosis an d w ill have it to the last day of his life if he behaves like a pig. Dr. T . A. Ross: a8S D id n o t th at come o u t in the analysis? 129

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Professor Jung: H e w ent rig h t away like a god and thought: “D r. Ju n g is only a m oralist, not a scientist. A nybody else w ould have been impressed by the interesting case instead of looking for simple things.” H e com m its a crim e and steals the savings of a lifetim e from an honest w om an in order to be able to have a good time. T h a t fellow belongs in gaol, and his com pulsion neurosis pro­ vides it for him all right. Dr. P. W . L. Camps: I am a hum ble general practitioner, n o t a psychologist, and may be labelled as a suburban villa. I am an outsider in this place. T h e first n ight I thought I had no rig h t to be here; the second night I was here again; the th ird n ig h t I was glad to be here; and the fo urth n ight I am in a maze of mythology. J w ould like to ask som ething abou t last night. W e were sent away w ith the idea th at perfection was most undesirable and com pletion the end an d aim of existence. I slept soundly last n ig h t b u t I felt th at I had had an ethical shock. Perhaps I am n o t gifted w ith m uch intellect and it was an in tellectual shock too. Professor J u n g declares him self a determ inist or fatalist. A fter he had analysed a young m an who w ent away disappointed and then w ent to bits, Professor J u n g felt it was only rig h t that he should go to bits. You as psychologists, I take it, are endeav­ o u rin g to cure people, and you have a purpose in life, no t m erely to enjoy your interests, w hether it be mythology o r the study of h um an nature. You w ant to get at the b ottom of h um an n a tu re and try to b u ild it up to som ething better. I listened w ith the greatest interest to Professor Ju n g ’s sim ple English term s and rejoiced in them . I have been con­ founded w ith all this new term inology. T 0 h ear of o u r sensation and th in k in g and feeling and in tu itio n — to w hich possibly an X may be added for som ething else— was m ost illu m in atin g to m e as an ordinary individual. B ut I feel th at we d id n o t hear where the conscious or ra th e r w here the unconscious of the child develops. I fear th at we did n o t hear enough ab o u t children. I should like to ask Professor Ju n g w here the unconscious in the child does become the con­ scious. I should also like to know whether we are not misled some130

w hat by this m u ltitu d e of diagrams, barriers, Egos, an d Ids, an d other things I have seen portrayed; w hether we could n o t im ­ prove on these diagram s by having a gradation of stages. 290 As Professor J u n g has pointed out, we have in h e rite d faces and eyes an d ears and there are a m u ltitu d e of faces an d in psy­ chology there are a m u ltitu d e of types also. Is it n o t reasonable to suppose th at there is an enorm ous possibility of varieties planted on th a t inheritance, th a t they are a sort of mesh, a sieve as it were, th a t w ill receive impressions an d select them in the unconscious years of early life and reach th ro u g h in to conscious­ ness later? I should like to ask Professor J u n g w hether these thoughts have crossed the m in d of an em in en t psychologist such as he is— the very greatest psychologist in my view— tonight? Professor Jung: 291 A fter th at severe reproach for im m orality I owe an explana­ tion of my cynical rem arks of yesterday. I am n o t as b ad as all that. I natu rally try to do my best for my patients, b u t in psy­ chology it is very im p o rtan t th a t the doctor should no t strive to heal at all costs. O ne has to be exceedingly careful n o t to impose one’s own w ill an d conviction on the patient. W e have to give him a certain am ount of freedom . You can’t wrest people away from th e ir fate, ju st as in m edicine you can n o t cure a p atien t if n a tu re m eans him to die. Sometimes it is really a question w hether you are allowed to rescue a m an from the fate he m ust undergo for the sake of his fu rth e r developm ent. You cannot save certain people from com m itting terrib le nonsense because it is in th e ir grain. If I take it away they have no m erit. W e only gain m e rit and psychological developm ent by accepting o u r­ selves as we are and by being serious enough to live the lives we are trusted w ith. O u r sins and errors and m istakes are necessary to us, otherw ise we are deprived of the m ost precious incentives to developm ent. W hen a m an goes away, having h eard some­ th in g w hich m ight have changed his m ind, an d does n o t pay atten tio n , I do n o t call him back. You may accuse m e of being unchristian, b u t I do n o t care. I am on the side of n atu re. T h e old C hinese Book of W isdom says: “T h e M aster says it once.” H e does n o t ru n after people, it is n o good. T hose w ho are m eant to h ear w ill understand, and those w ho are n o t m ean t to u n d erstan d w ill n o t hear.

I was u n d er the im pression that my audience consisted chiefly of psychotherapists. If I had know n th a t m edical men were present I w ould have expressed myself m ore civilly. But psychotherapists will understand. Freud— to q u o te the m aster’s own words— says it is n o t good to try to cure at all costs. He often repeated th at to me, and he is right. a93 Psychological tru th s are two-edged, and w hatever I say can be used in such a way th at it can work the greatest evil, the greatest devastation and nonsense. T h e re is n o t one statem ent I have m ade w hich has n o t been twisted into its opposite. So I do not insist on any statem ent. You can take it, b u t if you do not take it, all right. You may perhaps blam e me for that, b u t I trust th at there is a will to live in everybody which will help them to choose the thing that is right for them . W hen I am treatin g a m an I m ust be exceedingly careful n o t to knock him dow n with my views or my personality, because he has to fight his lonely fight through life and he m ust be able to trust in his perhaps very incom plete arm o u r and in his own perhaps very im perfect aim. W hen I say, “T h a t is n o t good and should be b e tte r,” I deprive him of courage. H e m ust plough his field w ith a plough th at is n o t good perhaps; m ine may be better, b u t what good is it to him? H e has n o t got my plough, I have it and he cannot b o r­ row it; he m ust use his own perhaps very incom plete tools and has to w ork w ith his own in herited capacities, w hatever they are. I help him of course, I may say for instance; “Y our th in k in g is perfectly good, b u t perhaps in anoth er respect you could im ­ prove.” If he does n o t w ant to hear it, I shall n o t insist because I do n o t w ant to m ake him deviate. Dr. M arion M ackenzie: s 94 In the same way th at the rich young m an was n o t called back b u t w ent away sorrowful? Professor Jung: 295 Yes, it is the same technique. If I w ere to say to a m an, “You should n o t go away,” he w ould never come back. I have to say, “H ave your ow n way.” T h e n he w ill tru st me. a9® As to the question about children, there has been in the last decades such a noise ab o u t children th a t I often scratch m y head at a m eeting and say: “A re they all midwives an d nurses?” Does n o t the w orld consist chiefly of parents an d grandparents? T h e 29

a

132

a d u lts h a v e th e p ro b le m s . L e a v e th e p o o r c h ild r e n a lo n e . I g e t th e m o th e r b y th e e a rs a n d n o t th e c h ild . T h e p a r e n ts m a k e th e n e u ro se s o f c h ild re n . 297

I t is c e r t a i n l y i n t e r e s t i n g t o m a k e r e s e a r c h e s i n t o t h e d e v e l ­ o p m e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e b e g i n n i n g o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is a f lu id c o n d i tio n , a n d y o u c a n n o t say w h e n th e c h ild h a s b e c o m e r e a lly c o n s c io u s a n d w h e n i t h a s n o t y e t. B u t t h a t b e lo n g s to a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t c h a p t e r : t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e a g e s . T h e r e is a p s y c h o lo g y o f c h i ld h o o d , w h ic h a p p a r e n t l y c o n s is ts i n t h e p s y ­ c h o lo g y o f t h e r e s p e c tiv e p a r e n ts ; a p s y c h o lo g y f r o m in f a n c y to p u b e r ty ; a p s y c h o lo g y o f p u b e r ty , o f th e y o u n g m a n , o f th e a d u l t m a n o f th irty -fiv e , o f th e m a n in th e s e c o n d h a l f o f life , o f th e m a n i n o l d a g e . T h a t is a s c i e n c e i n i t s e l f , a n d I c o u l d n o t p o s ­ s i b l y b r i n g i n a l l t h a t t o o . I h a v e a m o s t d i f f i c u l t t i m e a s i t is t o i l l u s t r a t e o n e s i n g l e d r e a m . S c i e n c e is l a r g e . I t is a s i f y o u e x ­ p e c te d a p h y s ic is t, w h e n h e ta lk s o f th e th e o r y o f lig h t , to e l u c i­ d a t e a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e w h o l e o f m e c h a n i c a l p h y s i c s . I t is s i m p l y n o t p o s s i b l e . P s y c h o l o g y is n o t a n i n t r o d u c t o r y c o u r s e f o r n u r s e s ; i t is a v e r y s e r i o u s s c i e n c e a n d c o n s i s t s o f a h e a p o f k n o w le d g e , so y o u s h o u ld n o t e x p e c t to o m u c h f ro m m e . I a m d o in g m y le v e l b e s t to g r a p p le w ith d r e a m s a n d to te ll y o u s o m e ­ th in g a b o u t th e m , a n d I n a t u r a lly c a n n o t fu lfil a ll e x p e c ta tio n s .

298

A s to th e q u e s tio n a b o u t p e r f e c tio n : to s triv e f o r p e r f e c tio n is a h i g h i d e a l . B u t I s a y : “ F u l f i l s o m e t h i n g y o u a r e a b l e t o f u l f i l r a t h e r t h a n r u n a f t e r w h a t y o u w i l l n e v e r a c h i e v e . ’’ N o b o d y is p e r f e c t . R e m e m b e r t h e s a y i n g : “ N o n e is g o o d b u t G o d a l o n e , ” n a n d n o b o d y c a n b e . I t is a n i l l u s i o n . W e c a n m o d e s t l y s t r i v e t o fu lfil o u r s e lv e s a n d t o b e as c o m p le te h u m a n b e in g s as p o s s ib le , a n d t h a t w ill g iv e u s t r o u b l e e n o u g h .

Dr. Eric B. Strauss: 299

D o e s P ro fe s s o r J u n g i n t e n d to p u b lis h th e re a s o n s w h ic h le d h im

to id e n tif y c e r ta in a r c h e ty p a l s y m b o ls w ith p h y s io lo g ic a l

p ro cesses?

Professor Jung: g°°

T h e c a se y o u r e f e r to w as s u b m i tte d to m e b y D r. D a v ie , a n d a f t e r w a r d s h e p u b l i s h e d i t w i t h o u t m y k n o w l e d g e . 18 I d o n o t u [Luke 18:19.] 18JSee supra, par. 135, n. 15.]

Ϊ33

w is h to s a y m o r e a b o u t th is c o r r e l a t i o n b e c a u s e I d o n o t y e t fee l o n v e ry sa fe g r o u n d . Q u e s tio n s o f d if f e r e n tia l d ia g n o s is b e tw e e n o r g a n ic d is e a s e a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l s y m b o ls a r e v e r y d if fic u lt, a n d I p r e f e r n o t to say a n y th in g a b o u t it f o r th e tim e b e in g .

Dr. Strauss: 3 °1

B u t y o u r d ia g n o s is w a s m a d e f r o m t h e fa c ts o f t h e d r e a m ?

Professor Jung: 302

Y es, b e c a u s e t h e o r g a n ic t r o u b l e d is t u r b e d th e m e n ta l f u n c ­ tio n in g . T h e r e w as a s e rio u s d e p re s s io n a n d p r e s u m a b ly a p r o ­ f o u n d d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e s y m p a th e tic sy ste m .

Dr. H . C richton-M tiler: 3°3

T o m o r r o w is t h e l a s t s e m i n a r , a n d t h e r e is a p o i n t t h a t i n ­ t e r e s t s u s t h a t h a s n o t b e e n r e f e r r e d t o . T h a t is t h e d i f f i c u l t p r o b ­ le m o f tra n s fe re n c e . I w o n d e r if P ro fe s s o r J u n g w o u ld th in k it p r o p e r to g iv e u s h is v ie w to m o r r o w — w i t h o u t d e a lin g n e c e s s a r ­ ily w i t h o t h e r s c h o o ls — as t o tr a n s f e r e n c e a n d t h e p r o p e r h a n ­ d l i n g o f it?

LECTURE V

304

T h e Chairman (Dr. J. R . Rees): Ladies an d G entlem en: You w ill have noticed th a t the C hairm an’s rem arks have been grow ing shorter each evening. Yesterday Professor J u n g was in the m iddle of a continuous story, and I th in k we all w ant him to get on w ith it straight away.

Professor Jung: Ladies an d G entlem en: You rem em ber th a t I began to give you the m aterial belonging to this dream . I am now in the m iddle of it an d there is a great m ore to come. B ut a t th e en d of yesterday’s lecture I was asked by D r. C richton-M iller to speak about the problem of transference. T h a t showed m e som ething which seems to be of practical interest. W h en I analyse such a dream carefully an d p u t in a great deal of work, it often happens that my colleagues w onder why I am heaping u p such a q u a n tity of learned m aterial. T h e y think, “W ell, yes, it shows his zeal an d his goodwill to m ake som ething of a dream . B ut w hat is the practical use of all these parallels?’’ s°6 I do n o t m in d these doubts in the least. B ut I was really ju st about to b rin g in som ething belonging to the problem , and Dr. C richton-M iller has caught m e in this a tte m p t an d asked just that question w hich any practical doctor w ould ask. Practical doctors are tro u b led by practical problem s, an d n o t by th eo reti­ cal questions; therefore they always get a b it im p atien t w hen it comes to theoretical elucidations. T h e y are p articu larly tro u ­ bled by th e half-am using, half-painful, even tragic problem s of transference. If you had been a little b it m ore patien t, you w ould have seen th a t I was h an d lin g th e very m aterial by w hich transference can be analysed. B ut since the question has been raised I th in k I should ra th e r give way to your wish a n d talk about the psychology an d treatm ent of transference. B ut the

305

choice is up to you. My feeling was th a t Dr. C richton-M iller had spoken the m in d of the m ajority of you. Am I rig h t in this as­ sum ption? M em bers: 307 Yes. Professor Jung: 3°8 I th in k you are rig h t in your decision, for if I am going to speak ab o u t transference I shall have the o p p o rtu n ity to lead back to w hat I had originally in ten d ed w ith the analysis of that dream . I am afraid we will n o t have tim e to finish it; b u t I think it is b etter if I start from your actual problem s and your actual difficulties. 3°9 I w ould never have been forced to w ork o u t th a t elaborate symbolism and this careful study of parallels if I had n o t been terribly w orried by the problem of transference. So, in discuss­ ing the question of transference, an avenue will open to the kind of w ork I was trying to describe to you in my lecture last night. I told you in the beginning th at my lectures will be a sorry torso. I am simply unable, in five evenings, even if I com­ press things together as I have done, to give you a com plete sum­ m ary of what I have to tell. Speaking about the transference makes it necessary first to de­ fine the concept so th at we really understan d w hat we are talking about. You know th at the w ord transference, originally coined by Freud, has become a sort of colloquial term ; it has even found its way into the larger public. O ne generally means by it an aw kward hanging-on, an adhesive sort of relationship. 311 T h e term “transference” is the translation of the G erm an w ord Vbertragung. L iterally Vbertragung means: to carry some­ thing over from one place to another. T h e word V bertragung is also used in a m etaphorical sense to designate the carrying over from one form into another. T h erefo re in G erm an it is synony­ mous w ith Vbersetzung— th at is, translation. 312 T h e psychological process of transference is a specific form of the m ore general process of projection. It is im p o rtan t to bring these two concepts together and to realize th a t transference is a special case of projection— at least th a t is how I u nderstand it. O f course, everybody is free to use the term in his ow n way.

3

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P rojection is a general psychological m echanism th at carries over subjective contents of any kin d into the object. F o r in ­ stance, w hen I say, “T h e colour of this room is yellow,” th at is a projection, because in the object itself there is no yellow; yellow is only in us. C olour is o u r subjective experience as you know. T h e same w hen I h ear a sound, that is a projection, because sound does n o t exist in itself; it is a sound in my head, it is a psychic phenom enon w hich I project. 314 T ransference is usually a process that happens betw een two people and not betw een a hum an subject and a physical object, though there are exceptions; whereas the m ore general m echa­ nism of projection, as we have seen, can ju st as well extend to physical objects. T h e m echanism of projection, w hereby subjec­ tive contents are carried over into the object and appear as if belonging to it, is never a voluntary act, and transference, as a specific form of projection, is no exception to this ru le. You cannot consciously and intentionally project, because then you know all the tim e th a t you are projecting your subjective con­ tents; therefore you cannot locate them in the object, for you know th a t they really belong to you. In projection the ap p aren t fact you are confronted w ith in the object is in reality an illu ­ sion; b u t you assume w hat you observe in the object n o t to be subjective, b u t objectively existing. T herefore, a projection is abolished w hen you find o u t that the apparently objective facts are really subjective contents. T h e n these contents become asso­ ciated w ith your ow n psychology, and you cannot a ttrib u te them to the object any m ore. 3*5 Sometimes one is apparently q u ite aware of one’s projections though one does n o t know th e ir full extent. A nd th at portion of which one is n o t aware rem ains unconscious and still appears as if belonging to the object. T his often happens in practical analy­ sis. You say, for instance: “Now, look here, you simply project the image of your father in to th at man, or into myself,” an d you assume th a t this is a perfectly satisfactory explanation an d q u ite sufficient to dissolve the projection. It is satisfactory to the doc­ tor, perhaps, b u t n o t to the patient. Because, if there is still som ething m ore in that projection, the p atien t will keep on p ro­ jecting. It does n o t depend upon his will; it is sim ply a phenom ­ enon that produces itself. Projection is an autom atic, spontane­ ous fact. It is simply there; you do no t know how it happens.

313

You ju s t find it th ere. A n d this ru le, w hich holds good fo r pro­ je c tio n in general, is also tru e of tran sferen ce. T ra n sfe re n c e is so m eth in g w hich is ju s t th ere. If it exists at all, it is th e re a priori. P ro jectio n is always an u n conscious m echanism , th e re fo re con­ sciousness, o r conscious realizatio n , destroys it. 316 T ran sferen c e, strictly, as I have already said, is a p ro jectio n w hich h ap p en s b etw een tw o in d iv id u als a n d w hich, as a ru le , is of an e m o tio n al a n d com pulsory n a tu re . E m o tio n s in them selves are always in som e degree o v erw h elm in g fo r th e subject, because th ey a re in v o lu n ta ry co n d itio n s w hich o v errid e th e in te n tio n s of th e ego. M oreover, they clin g to th e subject, a n d he ca n n o t de­ tach th e m fro m him self. Yet this in v o lu n ta ry c o n d itio n of the su b ject is a t th e sam e tim e p ro jec ted in to th e o b ject, an d th ro u g h th a t a b o n d is established w hich c an n o t b e b ro k en , and exercises a co m p u lso ry influence u p o n th e subject. 3»7 E m otions are n o t d etach ab le lik e ideas o r th o u g h ts, because they are id e n tic a l w ith c e rta in physical co n d itio n s an d are thus deeply ro o te d in th e heavy m a tte r of th e body. T h e re fo re the em o tio n of th e p ro jec ted co n ten ts always form s a lin k , a so rt of dynam ic rela tio n sh ip , b etw een th e su b ject a n d th e o b ject— and th a t is th e transference. N atu rally , this em o tio n al lin k o r b rid g e o r elastic strin g can be positive o r n egative, as you know . 3l8 T h e p ro jec tio n of e m o tio n al co n ten ts always has a p ecu liar influence. E m o tio n s are contagious, because th ey a re deeply ro o ted in th e sy m p ath etic system; h en ce th e w o rd “ sym pathicus.” A ny process o f a n e m o tio n al k in d im m ed iately arouses sim ilar processes in others. W h e n you are in a crow d w h ich is m oved by a n em o tio n , you ca n n o t fail to be ro u sed by th a t same em o tio n . Suppose you are in a co u n try w h ere a lan g u ag e is spoken w hich you d o n ’t u n d e rsta n d , a n d som ebody m akes a joke a n d p eo p le lau g h , th e n you la u g h to o in a n id io tic way, sim ply because you can ’t re fra in fro m la u g h in g . A lso w hen you are in a crow d w h ich is p o litically ex cited you c a n ’t h e lp b ein g excited too, even w h en you do n o t share th e ir o p in io n a t all, because em o tio n has this suggestive effect. T h e F ren ch psychologists have d e a lt w ith th is “ co n tag io n m e n ta le ” ; th e re a re som e very good books on th e sub ject, especially T h e Crowd: A S tu d y of th e P o p u la r M in d , by L e Bon. 3J9 I n psychotherapy, even if th e d o cto r is en tire ly d etach ed fro m th e em o tio n al co n ten ts of th e p a tie n t, th e very fact th a t th e 138

p atient has em otions has an effect u p o n him . A nd it is a great mistake if the doctor thinks he can lift him self o u t of it. H e can­ not do m ore than become conscious of the fact th at he is affected. If he does n o t see that, he is too aloof and then he talks beside the point. I t is even his duty to accept the em otions of the patien t an d to m irro r them . T h a t is the reason why I reject the idea of p u ttin g the p atien t upon a sofa and sitting b eh in d him . I p u t my patients in fro n t of me and I talk to them as one n atu ral hum an being to another, and I expose myself com pletely and react w ith no restriction. 320 I rem em ber very well a case of an elderly w om an of ab o u t fifty-eight— a doctor too— from the U n ited States. She arrived in Zurich in a state of u tte r bew ilderm ent. She was so confused at first I th o u g h t h er half crazy, u n til I discovered th a t she had been in an analysis. She told m e certain things she had done in her bew ilderm ent, an d it was q u ite obvious that she w ould never have done these things if her analyst had been a h u m an being and n o t a mystical cipher who was sittin g b eh in d her, oc­ casionally saying a wise w ord out of the clouds and never show­ ing an em otion. So she got q u ite lost in h e r own mists an d did some foolish things which he could easily have prevented h er from doing if he had behaved like a h u m an being. W h en she told m e all that, I n aturally had an em otional reaction and swore, or som ething like that. U pon w hich she shot o u t of h er chair and said reproachfully, “ B ut you have an em otion!” I an­ swered, “W hy, of course I have an em otion.” She said, “ B ut you should n o t have an em otion.” I replied, “W hy not? I have a good rig h t to an em otion.” She objected, “B ut you are an analyst!” I said, “Yes, I am an analyst, and I have emotions. Do you th in k th at I am an idiot o r a catatonic?” “B ut analysts have no em otions.” I rem arked, “W ell, your analyst ap parently had no em otions, and, if I m ay say so, he was a fool!” T h a t one m o­ m ent cleared h er up com pletely; she was absolutely different from then on. She said, “T h a n k heaven! N ow I know w here I am. I know there is a h u m an being opposite m e w ho has h u m an em otions!” My em otional reaction had given her o rientation. She wasn’t a th in k in g type, she was a feeling type an d therefore needed th a t k in d of orientation. B ut her analyst was a m an w ho simply tho u g h t and existed in his intellect, an d had no connec­ tion w ith h er feeling-life. She was a highly em otional sanguine

sort of person who needed the em otionality and the feeling ges­ tu re of an o th er hum an being in order no t to feel alone. W hen you have to treat a feeling type and you talk intellectual stuff exclusively it is the same as if you, as the only intellectual, were talking to a com pany of feeling types. You w ould be u tterly lost; you w ould feel as if you were at the N o rth Pole, because you w ouldn’t be understood; nobody w ould react to your ideas. Peo­ ple w ould all be frightfully nice— and you w ould feel u tterly foolish because they w ould not respond to your way of thinking. 321 O ne always has to answer people in th eir m ain function, otherwise no contact is established. So, in order to be able to show my patients th a t their reactions have arrived in my system, I have to sit opposite them so th at they can read the reactions in my face and can see th at I am listening. If I sit b e h in d them , then I can yawn, I can sleep, I can go off on m y own thoughts, and I can do w hat I please. T h ey never know w hat is happening to me, an d then they rem ain in an auto-erotic and isolated con­ dition which is n o t good for ordinary people. O f course, if they were going to prepare for an existence as herm its on the H im a­ layas, it w ould be a different m atter. 322 T h e emotions of patients are always slightly contagious, and they are very contagious w hen the contents w hich the p atien t projects in to the analyst are identical w ith the analyst’s own u n ­ conscious contents. T h e n they b oth fall in to the same dark hole of unconsciousness, and get in to the condition of participation. T h is is the phenom enon which F reud has described as counter­ transference. I t consists of m utual projecting into each o th er and being fastened together by m u tu al unconsciousness. P articipa­ tion, as I have told you, is a characteristic of prim itiv e psychol­ ogy, th a t is, of a psychological level w here there is no conscious discrim ination betw een subject an d object. M utual uncon­ sciousness is of course m ost confusing both to the analyst and to the patien t; all o rientation is lost, an d the end of such an analy­ sis is disaster. 323 Even analysts are n o t absolutely perfect, and it can happen th at they are occasionally unconscious in certain respects. T h erefo re long ago I stipulated th a t analysts ought to be ana­ lysed themselves; they should have a father confessor or a m other confessor. Even the Pope, for all his infallibility, has to 140

confess regularly, and n o t to a m onsignor or a cardinal b u t to an ordinary priest. If the analyst does n o t keep in touch w ith his unconscious objectively, there is no guarantee w hatever th a t the patient will n o t fall into the unconscious of the analyst. You probably all know certain patients who possess a diabolical cun­ ning in finding out the weak spot, the vulnerable place in the analyst’s psyche. T o th a t spot they seek to attach the projections of th e ir own unconscious. O ne usually says th at it is a character­ istic of wom en, b u t th a t is n o t true, men do ju st the same. T h ey always find out this vulnerable spot in the analyst, and he can be sure that, w henever som ething gets in to him , it will be exactly in th a t place w here he is w ithout defence. T h a t is the place where he is unconscious him self and w here he is apt to m ake exactly the same projections as the patient. T h e n th e condition of participation happens, or, m ore strictly speaking, a condition of personal contam ination through m utual unconsciousness. 324

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O ne has, of course, all sorts of ideas ab o u t transference, and we are all som ewhat prejudiced by the definition which F reud has given; one is inclined to think that it is always a m atter of erotic transference. B ut my experience has n o t confirm ed the th e­ ory that it is erotic contents or infantile things exclusively th a t are projected. A ccording to my experience, anything can be a m at­ ter for projection, and the erotic transference is just one of the m any possible forms of transference. T h e re are m any oth er con­ tents in the h u m an unconscious which are also of a highly emo­ tional n atu re, and they can project themselves ju st as well as sexuality. All activated contents of the unconscious have the tendency to appear in projection. It is even the ru le that an u n ­ conscious content which is constellated shows itself first as a p ro ­ jection. Any activated archetype can appear in projection, eith er into an external situation, or in to people, ο ϊ in to circum stances — in short, into all sorts of objects. T h e re are even transferences to anim als an d to things. N o t very long ago I had an interesting case of an u n usually intelligent man. I explained to him a projection he h ad “m ade” : he had projected his unconscious image of w om an in to a real woman, and the dream s showed very clearly ju st w here the real person was u tterly different from what he expected h er to be. 141

T h e fact w ent hom e. T h e n he Saidj “ If I h ad know n th a t two years ago it w ould have saved me 40,000 francs!” I asked, “ H ow is that?” “W ell, somebody showed me an old Egyptian sculpture, an d I instantly fell in love w ith it. I t was an Egyptian cat, a very beautiful th ing.” H e instantly bought it for 40,000 francs and p u t it on the m antelpiece in his drawing-room . B ut then he found th a t he had lost his peace of m ind. H is office was on the floor below, an d nearly every h o u r he had to ju m p u p from his w ork to look at the cat, an d w hen he had satisfied his desire he w ent back to work only to go upstairs again after some time. T h is restlessness became so disagreeable th a t he p u t the cat on his desk rig h t opposite him — to find th a t he co u ld n ’t w ork any more! T h e n he had to lock it away in the attic in ord er to be lib ­ erated from its influence, and he had to fight dow n a continuous tem ptation to open the box an d look at the cat again. W h en he understood his general projection of the fem inine im age— for, of course, the cat symbolized the woman— then the whole charm and fascination of the sculpture was gone. 326 T h a t was a projection into a physical object, an d it m ade the cat into a living being to whom he always h ad to re tu rn as some people re tu rn to the analyst. As you know, the analyst is often accused of having snake’s eyes, of m agnetizing or hypnotizing people, of forcing them to come back to him , of n o t letting them go. T h e re are certain exceptionally bad cases of counter­ transference w hen the analyst really cannot let go of the patient; b u t usually such accusations are the expression of a very dis­ agreeable k ind of projection which may even am o u n t to ideas of persecution. 327 T h e intensity of the transference relationship is always equivalent to the im portance of its contents to the subject. If it is a particularly intense transference, we can be sure th a t the con­ tents of th e projection, once they are extracted an d m ade con­ scious, will prove to be ju st as im p o rtan t to the p atien t as the transference was. W hen a transference collapses it does n o t van­ ish in to the air; its intensity, or a corresponding am o u n t of energy, will appear in another place, for instance in another re ­ lationship, or in some other im p o rtan t psychological form. For the intensity of the transference is an intense em otion w hich is really the property of the patient. If the transference is dis­ solved, all th a t projected energy falls back into the subject, and 142

he is then in possession of the treasure which form erly, in the transference, had sim ply been wasted. N ow we have to say a few words ab o u t the aetiology of the transference. T ransference can be an entirely spontaneous and unprovoked reaction, a sort of “love at first sight.” O f course transference should never be m isunderstood as love; it has n o th ­ ing to do w ith love whatever. T ransference only misuses love. It may appear as if transference were love, and inexperienced ana­ lysts m ake the m istake of taking it for love, a n d th e p atien t makes the same m istake and says th a t he is in love w ith the analyst. B ut he is n o t in love at all. 329 Occasionally a transference can even spring u p before the first sight, th at is before or outside the treatm ent. A nd if it happens to a person who does n o t come for analysis afterwards, we cannot find o u t the reasons. B ut this shows all the m ore that it has n o th in g w hatever to do w ith the real personality of the analyst. 33° O nce a lady came to m e w hom I had seen ab o u t three weeks before at a social reception. I had n o t even spoken to h e r then, I had only talked to h er husband, an d I knew him only ra th e r superficially. T h e lady then w rote for a consultation, an d I gave her an appointm ent. She came, an d w hen she was at the door of my consulting room she said, “ I d o n ’t w ant to e n ter.” I replied, “You d o n ’t have to enter; you can go away, of course! I have absolutely no interest in having you here if you d o n ’t w ant to com e.” T h e n she said, “ B ut I m ust!” I answered, “I ’m n o t forc­ ing you.” “B ut you forced m e to com e.” “H ow d id I do that?” I thought she was crazy, b u t she was n o t crazy a t all, she m erely had a transference which pulled her to me. She had m ade some kind of projection in the m eantim e, and th a t projection had such a high em otional value for h e r th at she could n o t resist it; she was m agically draw n to come to m e because th a t elastic string was too strong for her. In the course of her analysis we n aturally fo u n d o u t w hat the contents of th a t non-provoked transference were. 331 U sually a transference establishes itself only d u rin g th e an al­ ysis. Very often it is caused by a difficulty in m aking contact, in establishing em otional harm ony betw een the doctor an d the p a­ tient— w hat the French psychologists at the tim e of hypnotic

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a n d s u g g e s t io n t h e r a p y u s e d to c a l l “ le r a p p o r t . ” A g o o d r a p ­ p o r t m e a n s t h a t t h e d o c t o r a n d p a t i e n t a r e g e t t i n g o n w e ll to ­ g e t h e r , t h a t t h e y c a n r e a l l y t a l k t o e a c h o t h e r a n d t h a t t h e r e is a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f m u t u a l c o n f id e n c e . O f c o u r s e , a t t h e t i m e o f t h e h y p n o t i c t h e r a p i s t s , t h e w h o l e h y p n o t i c a n d s u g g e s tiv e e ffe c t d e p e n d e d o n th e e x is te n c e o r n o n -e x is te n c e o f th e r a p p o r t. In a n a ly tic a l tr e a tm e n t, if th e r a p p o r t b e tw e e n a n a ly s t a n d p a tie n t is d i f f ic u l t o n a c c o u n t o f d i f f e r e n c e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y , o r if th e r e a r e o t h e r p s y c h o lo g ic a l d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m t h a t h i n d e r th e t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t, t h a t la c k o f c o n t a c t c a u s e s t h e u n c o n s c i o u s o f t h e p a t i e n t t o t r y to c o v e r t h e d i s t a n c e b y b u i l d i n g a c o m p e n s a ­ t o r y b r i d g e . S in c e t h e r e is n o c o m m o n g r o u n d , n o p o s s i b i l i t y o f f o r m in g a n y k in d o f r e la tio n s h ip , a p a s s io n a te fe e lin g o r an e r o t i c f a n t a s y a t t e m p t s to fill t h e g a p . 332 T h i s o f t e n h a p p e n s t o p e o p l e w h o h a b i t u a l l y r e s is t o t h e r h u ­ m a n b e in g s — e ith e r b e c a u s e o f a n in f e r io r ity c o m p le x o r b e ­ c a u s e o f m e g a l o m a n i a , o r f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s — a n d w h o a r e p sy ­ c h o lo g i c a l ly v e r y is o l a te d . T h e n , o u t o f f e a r o f g e t t i n g lo s t, t h e i r n a t u r e cau ses a v io le n t e ffo rt o f th e e m o tio n s to a tta c h th e m ­ s e lv e s t o t h e a n a ly s t. T h e y a r e i n d e s p a i r t h a t p e r h a p s h e t o o w ill n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e m ; so t h e y t r y t o p r o p i t i a t e e i t h e r t h e c i r ­ c u m s ta n c e s , o r t h e a n a ly s t, o r t h e i r o w n u n w i l l i n g n e s s b y a s o rt of se x u a l a ttra c tio n . 333 A ll th e s e c o m p e n s a to r y p h e n o m e n a c a n b e t u r n e d r o u n d a n d b e a p p l i e d t o t h e a n a l y s t a s w e ll. S u p p o s e , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t a n a n a ly s t h a s to tr e a t a w o m a n w h o d o e s n o t p a r tic u la r ly i n t e r ­ e s t h i m , b u t s u d d e n l y h e d is c o v e r s t h a t h e h a s a s e x u a l f a n ta s y a b o u t h e r . N o w I d o n ’t w is h i t o n a n a ly s ts t h a t t h e y s h o u l d h a v e s u c h f a n ta s ie s , b u t i f t h e y d o t h e y h a d b e t t e r r e a l i z e it, b e c a u s e i t is i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e i r u n c o n s c i o u s t h a t t h e i r h u ­ m a n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p a t i e n t is n o t g o o d , t h a t t h e r e is a d i s t u r b ­ a n c e o f r a p p o r t . T h e r e f o r e t h e a n a l y s t ’s u n c o n s c i o u s m a k e s u p f o r t h e l a c k o f a d e c e n t h u m a n r a p p o r t b y f o r c i n g a f a n ta s y u p o n h im in o r d e r to c o v e r th e d is ta n c e a n d to b u i l d a b r id g e . T h e s e f a n ta s ie s c a n b e v is u a l, t h e y c a n b e a c e r t a i n f e e l i n g o r a s e n s a ­ t i o n — a s e x u a l s e n s a ti o n , f o r i n s t a n c e . T h e y a r e i n v a r i a b l y a s ig n t h a t t h e a n a l y s t ’s a t t i t u d e t o t h e p a t i e n t is w r o n g , t h a t h e o v e r ­ v a lu e s h i m o r u n d e r v a l u e s h i m o r t h a t h e d o e s n o t p a y t h e r i g h t a t t e n t i o n . T h a t c o r r e c t i o n o f h is a t t i t u d e c a n a ls o b e e x p r e s s e d b y d r e a m s . S o i f y o u d r e a m o f a p a t i e n t , a lw a y s p a y a t t e n t i o n

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and try to see w hether the dream is showing you w here you may be wrong. Patients are trem endously grateful w hen you are h o n ­ est in th a t respect, and they feel it very m uch w hen you are dis­ honest or neglectful. 334 I once had a m ost instructive case of th at sort. I was treatin g a young girl of a b o u t tw enty or twenty-four. She had had a very peculiar childhood; she was b orn in Java of a very good E uropean family, an d had a native nurse.1 As happens w ith children b o m in the colonies, the exotic environm ent and th a t strange and, in this case, even barbarous civilization got u n d e r her skin, an d the whole em otional and instinctual life of the child became tain ted w ith th a t peculiar atm osphere. T h a t atm osphere is som ething the w hite m an in the East hardly ever realizes; it is the psychic atm osphere of the native in regard to the w hite m an, an atm os­ phere of intense fear— fear of the cruelty, the recklessness, and the trem endous and unaccountable pow er of the w hite m an. T h a t atm osphere infects children b o rn in the East; the fear creeps in to them and fills them w ith unconscious fantasies ab o u t the cruelty of the w hite m an, an d th eir psychology gets a pecul­ iar twist and th e ir sex life often goes com pletely wrong. T h e y suffer from unaccountable nightm ares and panics an d cannot adapt themselves to norm al circum stances w hen it comes to the problem of love an d m arriage and so on. 335 T h a t was the case w ith this girl. She w ent hopelessly astray and got in to the most risky erotic situations, and she acq u ired a very bad reputation. She adopted inferio r ways; she began to paint an d pow der herself in a ra th e r conspicuous fashion, also to wear big ornam ents in o rder to satisfy the prim itive w om an in her blood, o r ra th e r in h er skin, so th a t she could jo in in an d help her to live. Because she could not and n atu rally w ould no t live w ith o u t h er instincts, she had to do all sorts of things w hich went too low. For instance, she easily succum bed to bad taste; she wore terrib le colours to please the prim itive unconscious in her so th a t it w ould join in when she w anted to interest a m an. B ut natu rally h e r choice of m en was also below the m ark, an d so she got in to a frightful tangle. H e r nicknam e was “th e great I [T he case is discussed m ore fully in “T h e R ealities o f Practical Psychotherapy” (C.W., vol. 16, 2nd edn.), appendix. See also “C oncerning M andala Sym bolism ” (C.W., vol. 9, i), pars. 656-659 and figs. 7, 8, and 9, show ing m andalas painted by this patient.]

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whore of Babylon.” A ll this was, of course, m ost unfortunate for an otherwise decent girl. W h en she came to m e she really looked absolutely forbidding, so that I felt pretty awkward on account of my own maids w hen she was in my office for an hour. I said, “N ow , you sim ply can’t look like that, you look like— ” and I said som ething exceedingly drastic. She was very sad over it but she couldn’t help it. A t this point I dreamed of her in the follow ing way: I was on a highway at the foo t of a high Ml l j and u pon the hill was a castle, and on that castle was a high tower, the donjon. On top of that high tower was a loggia, a beautiful open contrivance with pillars and a beautiful marble balustrade, and u pon that balus­ trade sat an elegant figure of a woman. I looked u p— and I had to look up so that I felt the pain in my neck even afterwards— and the figure was my patient! T h en I woke up and instantly I thought, “Heavens! W hy does m y unconscious put that girl so high up?” A nd im m ediately the thought struck me, “I have looked down on her.” For I really thought that she was bad. My dream showed m e that this was a mistake, and I knew that I had been a bad doctor. So I told her the n ext day: “I have had a dream about you where I had to look up to you so that my neck hurt me, and the reason for this com pensation is that I have looked down on you.” T h at worked miracles, I can tell you! N o trouble with the transference any more, because I sim ply got right with her and m et her on the right level. I could tell you quite a num ber of inform ative dreams like that about the doctor’s own attitude. A nd when you really try to be on a level w ith the patient, not too high nor too low, when you have the right attitude, the right appreciation, then you have m uch less trouble w ith the transference. It w on ’t save you from it entirely, b u t sure enough you w on’t have those bad forms o f transference w hich are m ere over-compensations for a lack of rapport. T h ere is another reason for over-compensation by transfer­ ence in the case of patients w ith an utterly auto-erotic attitude; patients w ho are shut away in auto-erotic insulation and have a thick coat of armour, or a thick wall and m oat around them. Yet they have a desperate need for hum an contact, and they natu­ rally begin to crave for a hum an b ein g outside the walls. But 146

t h e y d o n ’t d o a n y t h i n g a b o u t i t . T h e y w o n ’t l i f t a f i n g e r , a n d n e i t h e r w ill th e y a llo w a n y b o d y to a p p r o a c h th e m , a n d f ro m th is a t t i t u d e th e y g e t a te r r ib le tr a n s f e re n c e . S u c h tr a n s f e re n c e s c a n ­ n o t b e to u c h e d , b e c a u s e th e p a t ie n t s a r e to o w e ll d e f e n d e d o n a ll s id e s . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i f y o u t r y t o d o s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e tr a n s f e r e n c e , th e y f e e l i t as a s o r t o f a g g re s s io n , a n d th e y d e f e n d th e m s e lv e s s till m o r e . S o y o u m u s t le a v e th e s e p e o p l e to r o a s t in t h e i r o w n f a t u n t i l th e y a r e s a tis f ie d a n d c o m e v o l u n t a r i l y o u t o f th e ir fo rtre s s . O f c o u rs e th e y w ill c o m p la in lik e a n y th in g a b o u t y o u r l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d so o n , b u t t h e o n l y t h i n g y o u c a n d o is t o b e p a t i e n t a n d s a y , “ W e l l , y o u a r e i n s i d e , y o u s h o w n o t h i n g , a n d a s l o n g a s y o u d o n ’t s h o w a n y t h i n g I c a n d o n o t h ­ in g e ith e r .” 339

I n s u c h a c a se th e tr a n s f e r e n c e c a n c o m e a lm o s t to th e b o i l ­ i n g p o i n t , b e c a u s e o n l y a s tr o n g f la m e w ill c a u s e t h e p e r s o n to le a v e h is c a s tle . O f c o u r s e t h a t m e a n s a g r e a t o u t b u r s t ; b u t t h e o u tb u r s t m u s t b e b o r n e q u ie tly b y th e d o c to r, a n d th e p a tie n t w ill la te r o n b e v e ry th a n k f u l th a t h e h a s n o t b e e n ta k e n l i t e r ­ a lly . I r e m e m b e r t h e c a s e o f a c o lle a g u e o f m i n e — a n d I c a n s a f e l y t e l l y o u o f t h i s c a s e b e c a u s e s h e is d e a d — a n A m e r i c a n w o m a n w h o c a m e to m e u n d e r v e ry c o m p lic a te d c irc u m s ta n c e s . I n th e b e g in n in g sh e w as o n h e r h ig h h o rse . Y o u k n o w th e re a re p e c u l i a r i n s t i t u t i o n s i n A m e r ic a c a lle d u n iv e r s itie s a n d c o lle g e s f o r w o m e n ; in o u r te c h n ic a l la n g u a g e w e c a ll th e m a n im u s in c u ­ b a to rs , a n d th e y t u r n o u t a n n u a lly a la rg e n u m b e r o f fe a rf u l p e rso n s. N o w sh e w as su c h a b ird . S h e w as “ v e ry c o m p e te n t,” a n d sh e h a d g o t in to a d is a g re e a b le tr a n s f e re n c e s itu a tio n . S h e w as a n a n a ly s t a n d h a d a c a se o f a m a r r ie d m a n w h o fe ll w ild ly in lo v e w ith h e r , a p p a r e n tly . I t w as n o t, o f c o u rs e , lo v e , i t w as tra n s fe re n c e . H e p r o je c te d in to h e r th a t sh e w a n te d to m a r r y h i m b u t w o u ld n o t a d m i t t h a t s h e w a s in lo v e w ith h i m a n d so w a s te d n o e n d o f flo w e rs a n d c h o c o la te s a n d f in e r y o v e r h e r , a n d fin a lly h e e v e n th r e a te n e d h e r w ith a r e v o lv e r. S o s h e h a d to

3 40

le a v e a t o n c e a n d c o m e to m e . I t s o o n t u r n e d o u t t h a t s h e h a d n o i d e a o f a w o m a n ’s f e e l i n g lif e . S h e w a s O .K . as a d o c t o r , b u t w h a t e v e r t o u c h e d t h e s p h e r e o f a m a n w as a b s o lu te ly a n d u tte r ly s tra n g e to h e r. S h e w as e v e n b l i s s f u l l y i g n o r a n t o f a m a n ’s a n a t o m y , b e c a u s e a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y w h e r e s h e h a d s tu d ie d o n e o n ly d is s e c te d f e m a le b o d ie s . S o y o u c a n im a g in e th e s itu a tio n w ith w h ic h I w as c o n f r o n te d . 147

N aturally I saw it coming, and I saw rig h t away why the man had fallen into the trap. She was totally unconscious of herself as a woman; she was ju st a m a n ’s m ind w ith wings u n derneath, and the whole w om an’s body was non-existent, and h er p atien t was forced by natu re to fill the gap. H e had to prove to her that a m an does exist and th at a m an has a claim, th at she was a woman an d th a t she should respond to him . It was h er female non-exist­ ence that baited the trap. H e was, of course, equally uncon­ scious, because he d id not see at all th at she did no t exist as a woman. You see, he also was such a bird, consisting of only a head w ith wings underneath. H e also was no t a m an. W e often discover w ith Am ericans th at they are trem endously uncon­ scious of themselves. Sometimes they suddenly grow aware of themselves, an d then you get these interesting stories of decent young girls eloping w ith C hinam en or w ith Negroes, because in the A m erican th a t prim itive layer, which w ith us is a b it diffi­ cult, w ith them is decidedly disagreeable, as it is m uch lower down. It is the same phenom enon as “going black’’ or “going native’’ in Africa. 342 Now these two people both came into this awful transference situation, an d one could say they were both entirely crazy, and therefore the woman had to ru n away. T h e treatm en t was, of course, perfectly clear. O ne had to make h er conscious of herself as a woman, and a woman never becomes conscious of herself as long as she cannot accept the fact of her feelings. T h erefo re her unconscious arranged a marvellous transference to me, which n aturally she w ould not accept, and I did not force it upon her. She was ju st such a case of com plete insulation, and facing her w ith h er transference would m erely have forced h er into a posi­ tion of defence which of course w ould have defeated the whole purpose of the treatm ent. So I never spoke of it and just let things go, and quietly w orked along w ith the dreams. T h e dreams, as they always do, were steadily inform ing us of the progress of her transference. I saw the climax com ing and knew th a t one day a sudden explosion w ould take place. O f course, it w ould be a b it disagreeable and of a very em otional nature, as you have perhaps noticed in your own experience, an d I foresaw a highly sentim ental situation. W ell, you ju st have to p u t u p w ith it; you cannot help it. A fter six m onths of very q u iet and painstaking systematic work she couldn’t hold herself in any 341

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longer, and suddenly she alm ost shouted: “B ut I love you!” and then she broke dow n and fell upon her knees and m ade an awful mess of herself. 343 You just have to stand such a m om ent. It is really aw ful to be thirty-four years old and to discover suddenly th at you are hum an. T h e n it comes, of course, as a big lu m p to you and th at lum p is often indigestible. If I had told h er six m onths before th a t the m om ent w ould come w hen she w ould m ake declara­ tions of love, she w ould have jum ped off to the m oon. H ers was a co ndition of auto-erotic insulation, and the rising flame, the increasing fire of her em otions finally b u rn ed through the walls, and n atu rally it all came o u t as a sort of organic eru p tio n . She was the b etter for its happening, and in th at m om ent even the transference situation in A m erica was settled. 344 You probably th in k th at all this sounds p retty cold-blooded. As a m a tte r of fact, you can only cope decently w ith such a situ a­ tion w hen you do n o t behave as if you were superior. You have to accom pany the process and lower your consciousness an d feel along the situation, in order n o t to differ too m uch from your patient; otherw ise he feels too aw kward and w ill have the m ost terrible resentm ent afterwards. So it is q u ite good to have a re ­ serve of sentim ents which you can allow to play on such an occa­ sion. O f course it requires some experience and ro u tin e to strike the rig h t note. It is n o t always q u ite easy, b u t one has to bridge over these p ain fu l m om ents so th a t the reactions of the p a tien t will n o t be too bad. 345

I have already m entioned a fu rth er reason for th e transfer­ ence, an d th a t is m u tu al unconsciousness and contam ination.2 T h e case which I ju st told you about provides an exam ple of this. C ontam ination through m u tu al unconsciousness happens as a ru le w hen the analyst has a sim ilar lack of ad aptation to th a t of the patient; in o th er words, w hen he is neurotic. In so far as th e analyst is neurotic, w hether his neurosis be good or bad, he has an open w ound, somewhere there is an open door w hich he does not control, and there a p atien t will get in, and th en the analyst will be contam inated. T h erefo re it is an im p o rtan t postulate th at the analyst should know as m uch as possible ab o u t himself. 2 [Supra, pars. 322L]

346

I rem em ber the case of a young girl who had been w ith two analysts before she came to me, and when she came to m e she had the identical dream she had had when she was w ith those analysts . 3 Each tim e at the very beginning of h er analysis she had a particular dream : She came to the fro n tier and she wanted to cross it, but she could not find the custom-house where she should have gone to declare whatever she carried w ith her. In the first dream she was seeking the frontier, b u t she did n o t even come to it. T h a t dream gave her the feeling that she w ould never be able to find the proper relation to her analyst; b u t be­ cause she had feelings of inferiority and d id no t tru st her ju d g ­ m ent, she rem ained w ith him , and noth in g came of it at all. She w orked w ith him for two m onths and then she left. 347 She then w ent to another analyst. Again she dream ed that she came to the frontier; it. was a black night, and the only thing she could see was a fa in t little light. Som ebody said that that was the light in the custom-house, and she tried to get to it. O n the way she w ent down a hill and crossed a valley. I n the depths of the valley was a dark wood and she was afraid to go on, b u t nev­ ertheless she w ent through it, and suddenly she fe lt that some­ body was clinging to her in the darkness. She tried to shake her­ self free, b u t that som ebody clung to her still m ore, and she suddenly discovered that it was her analyst. Now w hat happened was that after about three m onths of work this analyst developed a violent counter-transference to her, which the initial dream had foreseen. 348 W hen she came to me— she had seen me before at a lecture an d had m ade u p h er m ind to work w ith me— she dream ed that she was com ing to the Swiss frontier. I t was day and she saw the custom-house. She crossed the frontier and she w ent into the custom-house, and there stood a Swiss customs official. A w om an w ent in fro n t of her and he let that w om an pass, and then her turn came. She had only a small bag w ith her, and she thought she w ould pass unnoticed. B u t the official looked at her and said: “W hat have you got in your bag?" She said: “O h, n o th in g at all," and opened it. H e p u t his hand in and p u lled ou t some­ thing that grew bigger and bigger, u n til it was two com plete beds. H e r problem was th a t she had a resistance against mar3

[T his is actually the same case that was discussed supra, pars. 334f.] 150

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riage; she was engaged and w ould not m arry for certain reasons, and those beds were the marriage-beds. I p u lled th a t com plex out of her an d m ade her realize the problem , an d soon after she m arried. T hese initial dream s are often most instructive. T h e re fo re I always ask a new patien t w hen he first comes to me: “D id you know some tim e ago that you were coming? H ave you m et me before? H ave you had a dream lately, perhaps last night?”— be­ cause if he did, it gives me most valuable inform ation ab o u t his attitu d e. A nd w hen you keep in close touch w ith the u n co n ­ scious you can tu rn m any a difficult corner. A transference is always a hindrance; it is never an advantage. You cure in spite of the transference, n o t because of it.

A no th er reason for the transference, p articularly for bad forms of it, is provocation on the p art of the analyst. T h e re are certain analysts, I am sorry to say, who w ork for a transference because they believe, I d o n ’t know why, th a t transference is a useful and even necessary p a rt of the treatm ent; therefore patients ought to have a transference. O f course this is an entirely m istaken idea. I have often h ad cases who came to m e after a previous analysis and who after a fortnight or so became alm ost desperate. So far things h ad gone on very nicely and I was fully confident th a t the case w ould w ork o u t beautifully—and suddenly the patients in ­ form ed m e th at they could n o t go on, and th en the tears came. I asked, "W hy can’t you go on? Have you got n o money, o r w hat is the m atter?” T h e y said, “Oh, no, th a t is n o t the reason. I have no transference.” I said, “T h a n k heaven you have no transfer­ ence! A transference is an illness. It is abnorm al to have a trans­ ference. N orm al people never have transferences.” T h e n the analysis goes on again quietly and nicely. 351 W e do not need transference ju st as we do n o t need projec­ tion. O f course, people w ill have it nevertheless. T h e y always have projections b u t n o t the k in d they expect. T h e y have read F reu d on transference, or they have been w ith an o th er analyst, and it has been pum ped in to them th a t they ought to have a transference or they will never be cured. T h is is perfect n o n ­ sense. T ransference or n o transference, th a t has n o th in g to do w ith the cure. It is sim ply due to a peculiar psychological condition th at there are these projections, and, ju st as one dis-

35 °

solves other projections by making them conscious, one has to dissolve the transference by making it conscious too. If there is no transference, so much the better. You get the material just the same. It is not transference that enables the patient to bring out his material; you get all the material you could wish for from dreams. T h e dreams bring out everything that is neces­ sary. If you work for a transference, most likely you will provoke one, and the result of the analysis will be bad; for you can only provoke a transference by insinuating the wrong things, by arousing expectations, by making promises in a veiled way, which you do not mean to keep because you could not. You can­ not possibly have affairs with eleven thousand virgins, and so you cheat people. An analyst is not allowed to be too friendly, otherwise he will be caught by it; he will produce an effect which goes beyond him. H e cannot pay the bill when it is pre­ sented, and he should not provoke something for which he is not willing to pay. Even if the analyst means to do it for the good of the patient, it is a very misguided way, and it is always a great mistake. Leave people where they are. It does not matter whether they love the analyst or not. We are not all Germans who want to be loved when they sell you a pair of sock-suspenders. It is too sentimental. T he patient’s main problem is pre­ cisely to learn how to live his own life, and you don’t help him when you meddle with it. 352

353

Those are some of the reasons for a transference. T h e general psychological reason for projection is always an activated uncon­ scious that seeks expression. T he intensity of the transference is equivalent to the importance of the projected content. A strong transference of a violent nature corresponds to a fiery content; it contains something important, something of great value to the patient. But as long as it is projected, the analyst seems to em­ body this most precious and important thing. He can’t help being in this unfortunate position, but he has to give that value back to the patient, and the analysis is not finished until the patient has integrated the treasure. So, if a patient projects the saviour complex into you, for instance, you have to give back to him nothing less than a saviour— whatever that means. But you are not the saviour— most certainly not. Projections of an archetypal nature involve a particular diffi-

culty for the analyst. Each profession carries its respective diffi­ culties, and the danger of analysis is th at of becom ing infected by transference projections, in particu lar by archetypal con­ tents. W h en the p atien t assumes th a t his analyst is the fulfilm ent of his dream s, th a t he is n o t an ordinary doctor b u t a sp iritu al hero an d a sort of saviour, of course the analyst w ill say, “W h at nonsense! T h is is ju st m orbid. It is a hysterical exaggeration.” Yet— it tickles him ; it is just too nice. And, moreover, he has the same archetypes in himself. So he begins to feel, “ If there are saviours, well, perhaps it is ju st possible that I am one,” and he will fall for it, at first hesitantly, and then it will become m ore and m ore plain to him th a t he really is a sort of extraordinary individual. Slowly he becomes fascinated and exclusive. H e is terrib ly touchy, susceptible, an d perhaps makes him self a n u i­ sance in m edical societies. H e cannot talk w ith his colleagues any m ore because he is— I d o n ’t know what. H e becomes very disagreeable or w ithdraw s from h u m an contacts, isolates h im ­ self, and then it becomes m ore and m ore clear to him th a t he is a very im p o rta n t chap really and of great sp iritu al significance, probably an equal of the M ahatm as on the Himalayas, and it is q u ite likely th a t he also belongs to the great brotherhood. A nd then he is lost to the profession. 354 W e have very u n fo rtu n ate examples of this kind. I know q u ite a n u m b e r of colleagues who have gone th a t way. T h ey could n o t resist the continuous onslaught of the patients’ collec­ tive unconscious— case after case projecting the saviour com plex and religious expectations and the hope th a t perhaps this ana­ lyst w ith his “secret know ledge” m ight own the key th a t has been lost by the C hurch, and thus could reveal the redeem ing tru th . AU this is a subtle and very a llu rin g tem ptation and they have given way to it. T h ey identify w ith the archetype, they dis­ cover a creed of th e ir own, and as they need disciples who b e ­ lieve in them they will found a sect. 355 T h e same problem also accounts for th e peculiar diffi­ culty psychologists of different schools have in discussing th eir divergent ideas in a reasonably am icable way, and for a te n d ­ ency, peculiar to o u r branch of science, to lock themselves into little groups and scientific sects w ith a faith of th eir own. AU these groups really d o u b t their exclusive tru th , and th ere­ fore they all sit together and say the same th in g continually

u n til they finally believe it. Fanaticism is always a sign of re­ pressed doubt. You can study that in the history of the Church. Always in those times w hen the C hurch begins to waver the style becomes fanatical, or fanatical sects spring up, because the secret d o u b t has to be quenched. W hen one is really convinced, one is perfectly calm and can discuss one’s belief as a personal p o in t of view w ithout any p articular resentm ent. 356 It is a typical occupational hazard of the psychotherapist to become psychically infected and poisoned by the projections to which he is exposed. H e has to be continually on his guard against inflation. B ut the poison does n o t only affect him psycho­ logically; it may even disturb his sym pathetic system. I have ob­ served q u ite a n u m b e r of the m ost extraordinary cases of physi­ cal illness am ong psychotherapists, illness which does n o t fit in w ith the know n m edical symptomatology, and which I ascribe to the effect of this continuous onslaught of projections from which the analyst does n o t discrim inate his own psychology. T h e pe­ culiar em otional condition of the patien t does have a contagious effect. O ne could alm ost say it arouses sim ilar vibrations in the nervous system of the analyst, and therefore, like alienists, psy­ chotherapists are apt to become a little queer. O ne should bear th at problem in m ind. I t very definitely belongs to the problem of transference. W e now have to speak of the therapy of the transference.4 T his is an enorm ously difficult and com plicated subject, and I am afraid I shall tell you certain things w hich you know just as well as I do, b u t in order to be systematic I cannot om it them. 358 I t is obvious th a t the transference has to be dissolved and dealt w ith in the same way as the analyst w ould deal w ith any other projection. T h a t means in practical terms: you have to m ake the p atien t realize the subjective value of the personal and im personal contents of his transference. For it is n o t only p er­ sonal m aterial which he projects. As you have ju st heard, the contents can ju st as well be of an im personal, th a t is archetypal, nature. T h e saviour com plex is certainly n o t a personal m otif; it is a world-wide expectation, an idea which you find all over the

357

[For Tu n S’s la ter views on this problem , see “T h e Psychology of the T ran sfer­ ence” (C.W., vol. 16).]

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w orld and in every epoch of history. It is the archetypal ideas of the magic personality.5 In the beginning of an analysis, transference projections are inevitable repetitions of form er personal experiences of the pa­ tie n t’s. A t this stage you have to treat all the relationships which the p a tie n t has had before. For instance, if you have a case who has been in m any health-resorts w ith the typical doctors you find in such places, the p a tie n t will project these experiences in to the analyst; so you have first to work through the figures of all those colleagues in seaside places and sanatoria, w ith enorm ous fees and the necessary theatrical display, and the p a tien t q u ite n a tu ­ rally assumes th a t you too are such a bird. You have to w ork through the whole series of people th at the p atien t has experi­ enced— th e doctors, the lawyers, the teachers in schools, the uncles, the cousins, the brothers, and the father. A nd w hen you have gone through the whole procession and come rig h t dow n to the nursery you th in k th at now you are through w ith it, b u t you are not. It is just as if b ehind the father there was still m ore, and you even begin to suspect th a t the grandfather is being p ro ­ jected. T h a t is possible; I never knew of a great-grandfather th a t was projected in to me, b u t I know of a g randfather th a t was. W hen you have got dow n to the nursery, so th a t you alm ost peep out of the other side of existence, then you have exhausted the possibilities of consciousness; and if the transference does n o t come to an end there, despite all your efforts, it is on ac­ count of the projection of im personal contents. You recognize the existence of im personal projections by the peculiar im per­ sonal n atu re of th eir contents; as for instance the saviour com­ plex or an archaic God-image. T h e archetypal character of these images produces a “m agic,” th at is, an overpow ering effect. W ith o u r ratio n al consciousness we can’t see why this should happen. God, for instance, is spirit, and spirit to us is n o th in g substantial or dynam ic. B ut if you study the original m eaning of these terms, you get at the real n a tu re of the u nderlying experi­ ence, and you u n derstand how they affect the prim itive m ind, and, in a sim ilar way, the prim itive psyche in ourselves. Spirit, spiritus, o r p neu m a really m eans air, w ind, b reath; spiritus and pneu m a in th eir archetypal character are dynam ic an d half5 T w o E ssays (C .W ., v o l. 7), p a rs . 374ft.

s u b s t a n t i a l a g e n c i e s ; y o u a r e m o v e d b y t h e m a s b y a w i n d , th e y a r e b r e a th e d i n t o y o u , a n d th e n y o u a r e in fla te d . 360

T h e p r o je c te d a r c h e ty p a l fig u re s c a n j u s t as w e ll b e o f n e g a ­ tiv e c h a r a c t e r , lik e im a g e s o f t h e s o r c e r e r , t h e d e v il, o f d e m o n s a n d so o n . E v e n a n a ly s ts a r e n o t a t a ll q u ite f ir e p r o o f in th a t re s p e c t. I k n o w c o lle a g u e s w h o p r o d u c e th e m o s t m a rv e llo u s f a n t a s i e s a b o u t m y s e l f a n d b e l i e v e t h a t I a m i n l e a g u e w i t h th e d e v il a n d w o r k b la c k m a g ic . A n d w ith p e o p le w h o n e v e r b e f o r e t h o u g h t th a t th e r e w as s u c h a th in g as th e d e v il, th e m o s t in c re d ­ i b l e f ig u re s a p p e a r i n th e tr a n s f e r e n c e o f im p e r s o n a l c o n te n ts . T h e p r o j e c t i o n o f im a g e s o f p a r e n t a l in f lu e n c e c a n b e d is s o lv e d w ith

th e

o rd in a ry

m e a n s o f n o rm a l re a s o n in g

and

com m on

s e n s e ; b u t y o u c a n n o t d e s tr o y th e h o l d o f im p e r s o n a l im a g e s b y m e r e re a s o n . I t w o u ld n o t e v e n b e r ig h t to d e s tro y th e m , b e ­ c a u s e t h e y a r e t r e m e n d o u s l y i m p o r t a n t . I n o r d e r t o e x p l a i n th is , I a m a f r a id I s h a ll h a v e to r e f e r a g a in to th e h is to r y o f th e h u m a n m in d . 361

I t is n o n e w d i s c o v e r y t h a t a r c h e t y p a l i m a g e s a r e p r o j e c t e d . T h e y a c tu a lly h a v e to b e p r o je c te d , o th e rw is e th e y in u n d a te c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e p r o b l e m is m e r e l y t o h a v e a f o r m w h i c h is a n a d e q u a t e c o n t a i n e r . T h e r e is, a s a m a t t e r o f f a c t, a n a g e - o l d i n ­ s t i t u t i o n w h ic h h e l p s p e o p l e to p r o j e c t im p e r s o n a l im a g e s . Y o u k n o w i t v e r y w e ll; y o u a ll p r o b a b ly h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h th e p r o ­ c e d u r e , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y y o u w e r e t o o y o u n g t o r e c o g n i z e its i m p o r t a n c e . T h i s i n s t i t u t i o n is r e l i g i o u s i n i t i a t i o n , a n d w i t h u s i t is b a p t i s m . W h e n t h e f a s c i n a t i n g a n d u n i q u e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e p a r e n t a l i m a g e s h a s t o b e l o o s e n e d , s o t h a t t h e c h i l d is l i b e r a t e d f ro m h is o r ig in a l b io lo g ic a l p a r tic ip a tio n w ith th e p a r e n ts , th e n N a t u r e , t h a t is t h e u n c o n s c i o u s n a t u r e i n m a n , i n h e r i n f i n i t e w is d o m p r o d u c e s a c e r ta in k in d o f in it ia t io n . Y o u fin d it w ith v e r y p r i m i t i v e t r i b e s — i t is t h e i n i t i a t i o n i n t o m a n h o o d , i n t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s p i r i t u a l a n d s o c ia l lif e o f t h e tr ib e . I n th e c o u r s e o f t h e d i f f e r e n tia tio n o f c o n s c io u s n e s s , i n i t i a t i o n h a s u n ­ d e rg o n e m a n y c h a n g e s o f fo rm , u n til w ith u s it w as e la b o ra te d in to th e C h ris tia n in s titu tio n o f b a p tis m . I n b a p tis m , th e re a re tw o n e c e s s a ry f u n c tio n a r ie s , g o d f a th e r a n d g o d m o th e r . I n o u r S w is s d i a l e c t w e c a l l t h e m b y t h e n a m e s o f G o d , “ G o t t i ” a n d “ G o t t e . ” “ G o t t i ” is t h e m a s c u l i n e f o r m , i t m e a n s t h e b e g e t t e r ; “ G o t t e ” is t h e f e m i n i n e f o r m . T h e w o r d “ G o d ” h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w ith “ g o o d ” ; i t re a lly m e a n s th e B e g e tte r. B a p tis m a n d th e 156

sp ir itu a l p a ren ts in th e fo r m o f g o d fa th e r a n d g o d m o th e r e x ­ press th e m y ste r iu m o f b e in g tw ice-b o rn . Y o u k n o w th a t a ll th e h ig h e r castes in I n d ia h a v e th e h o n o r ific title o f “T w ic e - b o r n .” I t w as a lso th e p r e r o g a tiv e o f th e P h a ra o h to b e tw ic e-b o rn . T h e r e fo r e v ery o fte n y o u fin d in E g y p tia n te m p le s b e s id e th e m a in r o o m th e so -ca lled b ir th -ch a m b er w h er e o n e o r tw o ro o m s w e re re serv e d fo r th e r ite . In th e m th e P h a r a o h ’s tw o fo ld b ir th is d e sc r ib e d , h o w h e is b o rn in th e flesh as a h u m a n b e in g fro m o rd in a r y p a ren ts, b u t is also g e n e r a te d b y th e g o d a n d ca r ried a n d g iv e n b ir th to b y th e god d ess. H e is b o rn th e son o f m a n a n d of G od. 362 O u r b a p tism m e a n s th e d e ta c h in g o f th e c h ild fr o m th e m e r e ly n a tu r a l p a ren ts a n d fr o m th e o v e r p o w e r in g in flu e n c e o f th e p a ren ta l im a g es. F or th is p u rp o se, th e b io lo g ic a l p a ren ts are r e p la c e d b y sp ir itu a l p aren ts; g o d fa th e r a n d g o d m o th e r re p r e ­ se n t th e in te r c e s s io d i v i n a th r o u g h th e m e d iu m o f th e C h u rch , w h ic h is th e v is ib le fo r m o f th e sp ir itu a l k in g d o m . I n th e C a th o lic r ite e v e n m a rriage— w h er e w e w o u ld su p p o se it to b e a ll-im p o r ta n t th a t th is p a rticu la r m a n a n d th is p a r tic u la r w o m a n b e c o m e u n ite d a n d are c o n fr o n te d w ith ea ch o th e r — is in te r fe r e d w ith b y th e C h u rch ; th e in te rc e s s io s a c e r d o tis p re­ v e n ts th e im m e d ia te c o n ta c t o f th e c o u p le . T h e p r ie st r e p r esen ts th e C h u rch , a n d th e C h u rch is alw ays in b e tw e e n in th e fo r m o f c o n fe ssio n , w h ic h is o b lig a to r y . T h is in te r v e n tio n is n o t d u e to th e p a r tic u la r c u n n in g o f th e C h u rch ; it is ra th er h er grea t w is­ d o m , a n d it is an id e a g o in g b ack to th e v ery o r ig in s o f C h risti­ a n ity th a t w e are n o t m a r ried m e r e ly as m a n a n d w o m a n ; w e are m a r ried in C h r is to . I o w n a n a n tiq u e vase u p o n w h ic h a n early C h r istia n m a rria g e is re p r e se n te d . T h e m a n a n d th e w o m a n h o ld ea ch o th e r ’s h a n d in th e Fish; th e F ish is b e tw e e n th e m , a n d th e F ish is C h rist. In th is w ay th e c o u p le is u n ite d in th e F ish . T h e y are sep a ra ted a n d u n ite d b y C h rist; C h rist is in b e ­ tw e e n , h e is th e r e p r e se n ta tiv e o f th e p o w er w h ic h is m e a n t to sep a ra te m a n fr o m m e r e ly n a tu r a l forces. 36b T h is p rocess o f sep a ra tio n fr o m n a tu r e is u n d e r g o n e in th e w e ll-k n o w n in it ia t io n r ite s o r p u b e r ty r ite s o f p r im itiv e trib es. W h e n th e y a p p r o a ch p u b e r ty , th e b oys are c a lle d aw a y su d ­ d e n ly . I n th e n ig h t th e y h ea r th e v o ic e o f th e sp irits, th e b u llroarers, a n d n o w o m a n is a llo w e d to a p p ea r o u t o f th e h o u se , o r sh e is k ille d in sta n tly . T h e n th e b oys are b r o u g h t o u t to th e

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bush-house, where they are put through all sorts of gruesome performances. T hey are not allowed to speak; they are told that they are dead, and then they are told that they are now reborn. They are given new names in order to prove that they are no more the same personalities as before, and so they are no longer the children of their parents. T he initiation can even go so far that, after they return, the mothers are not allowed to talk to their sons any more, because the young men are no longer their children. Formerly, with the Hottentots, the boy had occasion­ ally even to perform incest once with his mother in order to prove that she was not his mother any more, but just a woman like the rest. Our corresponding Christian rite has lost much of its impor­ tance, but if you study the symbolism of baptism you still see traces of the original meaning. Our birth-chamber is the baptis­ mal font; this is really the piscina, the fish-pond in which one is like a little fish; one is symbolically drowned and then revived. You know that the early Christians were actually plunged into the baptismal font, and this used to be much larger than it is now; in many old churches the baptistry was a building on its own, and it was always built on the ground-plan of a circle. On the day before Easter, the Catholic Church has a special cere­ mony for the consecration of the baptismal font, the Benedictio Fontis. T he merely natural water is exorcised from the admix­ ture of all malign powers and transformed into the regenerating and purifying fountain of life, the immaculate womb of the di­ vine source. T hen the priest divides the water in the fourfold form of the cross, breathes upon it three times, plunges the con­ secrated Easter candle three times into it, as a symbol of the eter­ nal light, and at the same time his incantation brings the virtue, the power of the Spiritus Sanctus to descend into the font. From this hierosgamos, from the holy marriage between the Spiritus Sanctus and the baptismal water as the womb of the Church, man is reborn in the true innocence of new childhood. T he maculation of sin is taken from him and his nature is joined with the image of God. H e is no longer contaminated by merely natural forces, he is regenerated as a spiritual being. W e know of other institutions for detaching man from natu­ ral conditions. I can’t go into much detail, but if you study the 158

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psychology o f prim itives, you find that all im portant events of life are connected w ith elaborate cerem onies whose purpose is to detach man from the preceding stage of existence and to help him to transfer his psychic energy in to the next phase. W h en a girl marries, she ought to be detached from the parental images and should n ot becom e attached to a projection of the fatherim age in to the husband. T herefore in Babylon a peculiar ritual was observed w hose purpose was to detach the young girl from the father-image. T h is is the rite of tem ple prostitution, in w hich girls o f good fam ilies had to hand them selves over to a stranger visiting the tem ple, who presumably w ould never re­ turn, and had to spend a n igh t w ith him . W e know of a sim ilar institution in the M iddle Ages, the jus prim ae noctis, the right of the first n igh t w hich the feudal lord had in regard to his serfs. T h e bride had to spend her w edding-night w ith her feudal lord. By the rite of tem ple prostitution, a most impressive im age was created w hich collided with the image of the man the young wom an was goin g to marry, and so w hen there was trouble in marriage— for even in those days trouble occasionally arose— the regression w hich is the natural result w ould not go back to the father-im age b u t to the stranger she had once m et, the lover w ho cam e from unknow n lands. T h en she did not fall back in to childhood but upon a hum an b ein g suited to her age, and so was sufficiently protected against infantile regression. T h is ritual shows a very beautiful observation of the hum an psyche. For there is an archetypal im age in w om en of a lover in a rem ote, unknow n land, a man com ing over the seas who meets her once and then goes away again. You know this m otif from W agner’s Flying D utch m an and from Ibsen’s Lady from the Sea. In both dramas the heroine is w aiting for the stranger who w ill com e from far over the seas to have the great love experience w ith her. In W agner’s opera she has fallen in love w ith the ac­ tual im age of h im and knows him even before he arrives. T h e Lady from the Sea has m et him once before and is under the com pulsion of always goin g to the sea to await his return. In that Babylonian rite this archetypal im age is lived concretely in order to detach the wom an from the parental images which are real archetypal images and therefore exceedingly powerful. I have w ritten a little book about the relations betw een the ego

and the unconscious,6 w here I have described a case of projec­ tion of the father-im age by a woman who was u n d er my treat­ m ent, and how the problem then developed through the analy­ sis of the archetypal image which was at the basis of this father transference. 367 T h e first stage of the treatm ent of the transference does not involve only the realization by the patien t th at he is still looking at the w orld from the angle of the nursery, school-room, and so on, by projecting and expecting all the positive and negative authoritative figures of his personal experience; this realization m erely deals w ith the objective side. T o establish a really ma­ ture attitude, he has to see the subjective value of all these im­ ages which seem to create trouble for him . H e has to assimilate them in to his own psychology; he has to find out in w hat way they are p art of himself; how he attributes for instance a positive value to an object, w hen as a m atter of fact it is he who could and should develop this value. A nd in the same way, w hen he projects negative qualities and therefore hates and loathes the object, he has to discover that he is projecting his own inferior side, his shadow, as it were, because he prefers to have an opti­ mistic and one-sided image of himself. Freud, as you know, deals only w ith the objective side. B ut you cannot really help a pa­ tie n t to assimilate the contents of his neurosis by indulgence in a childish lack of responsibility, or by resignation to a b lin d fate of which he is the victim. H is neurosis means him to become a total personality, and that includes recognition of and responsibility for his whole being, his good and his bad sides, his superior as well as his inferior functions. 368

Let us now assume th at the projection of personal images has been worked through and is sufficiently dealt with, b u t there is still a transference which you simply cannot dissolve. T h e n we come to the second stage in the therapy of transference. T h a t is th e discrim ination between personal and impersonal contents. T h e personal projections, as we have seen, m ust be dissolved; and they can be dissolved through conscious realization. B ut the im personal projections cannot be destroyed because they belong to the structural elem ents of the psyche. T h ey are n o t relics of a e T w o Essays, pars. 206S.

past which has to be outgrow n; they are, on the contrary, p u r­ posive an d com pensatory functions of the utm ost im portance. T hey are an im p o rtan t protection against situations in w hich a m an m ight lose his head. In any situation of panic, w hether ex­ ternal or internal, the archetypes intervene and allow a m an to react in an instinctively adapted way, just as if he had always know n the situation: he reacts in the way m ankind has always reacted. T herefore the m echanism is of vital im portance. 369 I t goes w ithout saying that the projection of these im p er­ sonal images upon the analyst has to be w ithdraw n. B ut you m erely dissolve the act of projection; you should not, and really cannot, dissolve its contents. N either, of course, can the p atien t assimilate the im personal contents into his personal psychology. T h e fact th at they are im personal contents is ju st the reason for projecting them ; one feels th a t they do no t belong to one’s sub­ jective m ind, they m ust be located somewhere outside one’s ego, and, for lack of a suitable form, a hum an object is m ade th eir receptacle. So you have to be exceedingly careful in handling im personal projections. It would, for instance, be a great mis­ take to say to a patient: “You see, you simply project the saviourimage in to me. W h at nonsense to expect a saviour an d to make me responsible.” If you m eet such an expectation, take it seri­ ously; it is by no means nonsense. T h e whole w orld has a saviour expectation; you find it everywhere. Look at Italy, for instance, or look at G erm any. A t present you have no saviour in England, and in Switzerland we have none; b u t I d o n ’t believe th at we are so very different from the rest of Europe. T h e situation w ith us is slightly different from th at of the Italians and Germ ans; they are perhaps a little b it less balanced; b u t even w ith us it w ould need precious little. In those countries you have th e saviour com plex as mass psychology. T h e saviour com plex is an arche­ typal image of the collective unconscious, and it q u ite naturally becomes activated in an epoch so full of tro u b le and disorienta­ tion as ours. In these collective events, we m erely see, as through a m agnifying glass, w hat can also happen w ithin the individual. It is in ju st such a m om ent of panic th a t the com pensatory psy­ chic elem ents come in to action. It is no t at all an abnorm al phe­ nom enon. I t is perhaps strange to us th a t it should be expressed in political form . B ut the collective unconscious is a very irra­ tional factor, an d o u r ratio n al consciousness cannot dictate to it 161

how it should m ake its appearance. O f course, if left entirely to itself, its activation can be very destructive; it can, for instance, be a psychosis. T herefore, m an ’s relation to the collective uncon­ scious has always been regulated; there is a characteristic form by which the archetypal images are expressed. For the collective unconscious is a function th at always operates, and m an has to keep in touch w ith it. H is psychic and sp iritu al h ealth is de­ pendent on the co-operation of the im personal images. T h ere­ fore m an has always had his religions. 37° W hat are religions? R eligions are psychotherapeutic systems. W hat are we doing, we psychotherapists? W e are trying to heal the suffering of the hum an m ind, of the h um an psyche or the hum an soul, and religions deal w ith the same problem . T h ere­ fore o u r L ord him self is a healer; he is a doctor; he heals the sick and he deals w ith the troubles of the soul; and that is exactly w hat we call psychotherapy. It is n o t a play on words w hen I call religion a psychotherapeutic system. It is the m ost elaborate system, and there is a great practical tru th b eh in d it. I have a cli­ entele which is pretty large and extends over a n u m b er of conti­ nents, an d where I live we are practically su rro u n d ed by Catho­ lics; b u t d u rin g the last thirty years I have no t had m ore than about six practising Catholics am ong my patients. T h e vast ma­ jority were Protestants and Jews. I once sent ro u n d a question­ naire to people whom I d id n o t know, asking: “If you were in psychological trouble w hat w ould you do? W ould you go to the doctor o r w ould you go to the priest o r parson?” I cannot re­ m em ber the actual figures; b u t I rem em ber th at ab o u t twenty per cent of the Protestants said they w ould go to the parson. All the rest were most em phatically against the parson and for the doctor, an d the most em phatic were the relatives and children of parsons. T h e re was one Chinese who replied, and he p u t it very nicely. H e rem arked: “W hen I am young I go to the doctor, and w hen I am old I go to the philosopher." B ut ab o u t fifty-eight or sixty per cent of the Catholics answered th a t they w ould certainly go to the priest. T h a t proves th at the Catholic C hurch in particu­ lar, w ith its rigorous system of confession and its director of con­ science, is a therapeutic institution. I have had some patients who, after having h ad analysis w ith me, even jo in ed the Catholic C hurch, ju st as I have had some patients who now go to the so-called O xford G roup M ovem ent— w ith my blessing! I th in k it 162

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is perfectly correct to m ake use of these psychotherapeutic insti­ tutions which history has given to us, and I wish I were still a medieval m an who could join such a creed. U n fo rtu n ately it needs a som ew hat m edieval psychology to do it, and I am n o t sufficiently m edieval. B ut you see from this th at I take the arche­ typal images and a suitable form for th eir projection seriously, because the collective unconscious is really a serious factor in the hum an psyche. All those personal things like incestuous tendencies and other childish tunes are m ere surface; w hat the unconscious really contains are the great collective events of the time. In the collective unconscious of the individual, history prepares itself; and w hen the archetypes are activated in a n u m b er of in d iv id u ­ als an d come to the surface, we are in the m idst of history, as we are at present. T h e archetypal image which the m om ent re ­ quires gets in to life, and everybody is seized by it. T h a t is w hat we see today. I saw it coming, I said in 1918 th a t the “blond beast’’ is stirrin g in its sleep and th a t som ething w ill h appen in G erm any.7 N o psychologist then understood at all w hat I m eant, because people had simply no idea th at o u r personal psy­ chology is ju st a th in skin, a ripple upon the ocean of collective psychology. T h e pow erful factor, the factor which changes o ur whole life, which changes the surface of o u r know n w orld, which makes history, is collective psychology, and collective psychology moves according to laws entirely different from those of o ur con­ sciousness. T h e archetypes are the great decisive forces, they bring ab o u t the real events, and not o u r personal reasoning and practical intellect. Before the G reat W ar all intelligent people said: “W e shall n o t have any m ore war, we are far too reasonable to let it happen, an d o u r com m erce and finance are so interlaced internationally th at w ar is absolutely o u t of the question.” A nd then we produced the most gorgeous war ever seen. A nd now they begin to talk th a t foolish k in d of talk ab o u t reason and peace plans an d such things; they blindfold themselves by cling­ ing to a childish optim ism — and now look at reality I Sure enough, the archetypal images decide the fate of man. M an’s u n ­ conscious psychology decides, and n o t w hat we th in k an d talk in the brain-cham ber u p in the attic. T “T h e R ole of the Unconscious” (C.W., vol. 10), par. ιη. 163

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W ho w ould have thought in 1900 th a t it w ould be possible thirty years later for such things to happen in G erm any as are happening today? W ould you have believed th at a whole nation of highly intelligent and cultivated people could be seized by the fascinating power of an archetype? I saw it coming, and I can understand it because I know the power of the collective uncon­ scious. B ut on the surface it looks simply incredible. Even my personal friends are u n d er th a t fascination, an d w hen I am in G erm any, I believe it myself, I understan d it all, I know it has to be as it is. O ne cannot resist it. It gets you below the b elt an d not in your m ind, your b rain ju st counts for nothing, your sympa­ thetic system is gripped. It is a power th a t fascinates people from w ithin, it is the collective unconscious which is activated, it is an archetype which is com m on to them all th at has come to life. A nd because it is an archetype, it has historical aspects and we cannot understand the events w ithou t know ing history.8 It is G erm an history th a t is being lived today, just as Fascism is living Italian history. W e cannot be children ab o u t it, having intellec­ tual and reasonable ideas and saying: this should n o t be. T h a t is ju st childish. T h is is real history, this is w hat really happens to m an and has always happened, and it is far m ore im portant than o u r personal little woes and o u r personal convictions. I know highly educated G erm ans who were just as reasonable as I th in k I am o r as you think you are. B ut a wave w ent over them an d ju st washed their reason away, and w hen you talk to them you have to adm it th a t they could n o t do anything about it. An incom prehensible fate has seized them , and you cannot say it is right, o r it is wrong. I t has n o th in g to do w ith ratio n al judg­ m ent, it is ju st history. A nd w hen your p atien t’s transference touches u p o n the archetypes, you touch u p o n a m ine th at may explode, just as we see it explode collectively. T hese im personal images contain enorm ous dynam ic power. B ernard Shaw says in M an and Superm an: “T h is creature M an, who in his own selfish affairs is a coward to the backbone, will fight for an idea like a hero.” 9 O f course, we w ould n o t call Fascism or H itlerism ideas. T h ey are archetypes, an d so we w ould say: Give an archetype to the people an d the whole crow d moves like one m an, there is no resisting it. 8 “W otan” (C.W., vol. 10). ®[Act III, in a speech by Don Juan (Penguin edn., 1952, p. 149).]

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O n acco u n t of this trem en d o u s dynam ic pow er of archetypal images you ca n n o t reason th em away. T h e re fo re th e only th in g to do at th e th ird stage of th e th erap y of th e tran sferen ce is to d ifferen tia te th e personal relationship to th e analyst fro m im ­ personal factors. I t is perfectly u n d e rsta n d a b le th a t w h en you have carefully a n d ho n estly w orked for a p atien t, he likes you, a n d because you have d o n e a decen t b it of w ork o n a p a tie n t, you like h im , w h e th e r it is a m an or a w om an. T h a t is q u ite self-evident. I t w o u ld be m ost u n n a tu ra l an d n eu ro tic if th ere w ere n o t som e p erso n al reco g n itio n on th e p a tie n t’s p a rt for w hat you have d o n e fo r him . A personal h u m a n reac tio n to you is n o rm a l a n d reasonable, th erefo re le t it be, it deserves to live; it is n o t transferen ce any m ore. B u t such an a ttitu d e to th e a n a ­ lyst is possible in a h u m a n an d decen t form only w hen it is n o t v itiated by u n reco g n ized im personal values. T h is m eans th a t th e re has to be, on th e o th e r side, a fu ll reco g n itio n of th e im ­ p o rtan c e of th e arch ety p al im ages, m any of w hich have a re li­ gious character. W h e th e r you assum e th a t th e N azi sto rm in G erm an y has a relig io u s v alue or n o t does n o t m atter. I t has. W h e th e r you th in k th a t th e D uce is a religious figure o r n o t does n o t m a tter, because h e is a religious figure. Y ou co u ld even read th e affirm ation o f it in a n ew spaper these days, w hen they q u o te d th a t verse a b o u t a R o m a n Caesar: “Ecce deus, deus ille, M enalca.” 10 Fascism is th e L a tin form of relig io n , an d its re li­ gious ch ara cter explains w hy the w hole th in g has such a tre m e n ­ dous fascination. 374 T h e consequence of th is reco g n itio n of th e im p o rtan ce of im personal values m ay be th a t y o u r p a tie n t jo in s a C h u rc h o r a relig io u s creed o r w h atev er it m ay be. If he ca n n o t b rin g to ­ g e th e r his ex p erien ce of th e collective unconscious w ith in a given relig io u s form , th e n th e difficulty begins. T h e n th e im p e r­ sonal factors have n o receptacle, a n d so th e p a tie n t falls back in to th e transference, a n d th e arch ety p al im ages spoil th e h u m a n re la tio n to th e analyst. T h e n th e analyst is th e saviour, or curse h im , he is n o t w hen he o u g h t to be! F o r he is only a h u m a n being ; he can n o t be th e saviour n o r any o th e r archetypal im age w hich is activ ated in th e p a tie n t’s unconscious. 375 On acco u n t of th a t en orm ously difficult an d im p o rta n t prob373

io [Cf. Virgil, Eclogue V, 64: “ ipsa sonant arbusta: ‘deus, deus ille, Menalca!’ ” (the very groves ring out: “A god is he, a god, MenalcasI”) .] 165

Iem I have w o rk ed o u t a p a rtic u la r te c h n iq u e for resto rin g these p ro jec ted im p erso n al values to th e in d iv id u a l him self. I t is a ra th e r co m p licated te c h n iq u e , an d last n ig h t I was ju s t a b o u t to show you so m eth in g of it in re la tio n to th a t d ream . F o r w hen th e unconscious says th a t below th e C h ristian C h u rc h is the se­ cret c h am b er w ith th e golden bow l a n d th e golden dagger, it does n o t lie. T h e unconscious is n a tu re , an d n a tu re n ev er lies. T h e r e is gold, th e re is th e trea su re a n d th e g reat value. S76 If I h a d h a d th e o p p o rtu n ity I w o u ld have gone o n a n d told you so m eth in g a b o u t th a t trea su re a n d th e m eans to secure it. A n d th e n you w o u ld have seen th e ju stificatio n fo r th e m eth o d w h ich enables th e in d iv id u a l to k eep in to u c h w ith his im p er­ sonal im ages. As it is, I can only allu d e to it a n d m u st re fe r you to m y books for fu rth e r m a te ria l .11 377 I call this fo u r th stage of th e th e ra p y of tran sferen ce th e obje ctiv a tio n o f im p erso n a l images. I t is a n essential p a rt of the process of in d iv id u a tio n .12 Its goal is to detach consciousness from th e o b ject so th a t th e in d iv id u a l n o lo n g er places th e g u ar­ an tee of his happiness, o r of his life even, in factors o u tsid e h im ­ self, w h e th e r they be persons, ideas, o r circum stances, b u t comes to realize th a t ev ery th in g d ep en d s o n w h e th e r he holds the treasu re o r n o t. If th e possession o f th a t gold is realized, th e n the cen tre of gravity is in th e in d iv id u a l a n d n o lo n g er in an object o n w hich h e depends. T o reach such a c o n d itio n of d etach m e n t is th e aim o f E astern practices, a n d it is also th e aim of all the teachings of th e C h u rch . I n th e v ario u s relig io n s th e treasu re is p ro jec ted in to th e sacred figures, b u t this hypostasis is n o longer possible for th e m o d e rn e n lig h te n e d m in d . A g reat n u m b e r of in d iv id u als can n o t express th e ir im p erso n al values in historical sym bols any m ore. 378 T h e y are th e re fo re faced w ith th e necessity of fin d in g an in ­ d iv id u a l m e th o d by w h ich th e im p erso n al im ages are given shape. F o r th ey have to take o n form , th ey have to live th e ir ch aracteristic life, otherw ise th e in d iv id u a l is severed fro m the basic fu n c tio n of th e psyche, a n d th e n he is n e u ro tic, he is d isori­ e n ta te d an d in conflict w ith him self. B u t if h e is ab le to objectify U See particularly the “Commentary on The Secret of the Golden Flower" (C.W., vol. 13) and “T he Aims of Psychotherapy” (C.W., vol. 16). 12 See Psychological Types, Def. 29, and Two Essays, pars. 266f£. [Also “A Study in the Process of Individuation” (C.W., vol. 9, i).]

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the im personal images and relate to them, he is in touch with that vital psychological function which from the dawn of con­ sciousness has been taken care of by religion. 379 It is im possible for me to go into details of the problem , not only because the tim e for my lecture is over, but because it is beyond scientific conceptions to give adequate expression to a living psychic experience. A ll we can say rationally about this condition of detachm ent is to define it as a sort of centre w ithin the psyche of the individual, but not w ithin the ego. It is a n on ­ ego centre. I am afraid I should have to give you a long disserta­ tion on com parative religion in order to convey to you fully what I mean by a non-ego centre.13 So I can only m ention the existence of this problem . It is really the essential problem of a great num ber of individuals who come to analysis, and therefore the psychotherapist has to try to find a m ethod by which he can help them to solve it. 380 if We adopt such a m ethod, we take up the torch that was abandoned by our old colleagues of the seventeenth century when they put it down in order to becom e chemists. In so far as we psychologists are em erging from chem ical and m aterial con­ ceptions of the psyche, we are taking up that torch again, con­ tinuing a process which began in the West in the twelfth cen­ tury— for alchemy was the work of the doctors who were busy with the mind.

D iscussion Question:

381

May I ask Professor Jung a very elem entary question: W ould he give us a definition of neurosis? Professor Jung:

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A neurosis is a dissociation of personality due to the existence of com plexes. T o have com plexes is in itself normal; but if the com plexes are incom patible, that part of the personality which is too contrary to the conscious part becomes split off. If the split reaches the organic structure, the dissociation is a psychosis, a schizophrenic condition, as the term denotes. Each com plex then lives an existence of its own, w ith no personality left to tie them together. 13 [Cf. P s y c h o l o g y a n d A l c h e m y , p a rs. 44, 126, 129, 135, 325^.] 167

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As th e split-off com plexes are unconscious, they find only an in d ire c t m eans of expression, th a t is, th ro u g h n e u ro tic symp­ toms. In stead of suffering from a psychological conflict, one suffers from a neurosis. A ny in c o m p a tib ility of ch aracter can cause dissociation, a n d too g reat a sp lit betw een th e th in k in g a n d th e feelin g fu n ctio n , for instance, is already a slig h t n e u ro ­ sis. W h e n you are n o t q u ite at one w ith yourself in a given m at­ ter, you are ap p ro ac h in g a n e u ro tic co n d itio n . T h e idea of psy­ chic dissociation is th e m ost general an d cau tio u s way I can define a neurosis. O f course it does n o t cover th e sym ptom atol­ ogy a n d phen o m en o lo g y of neurosis; it is only th e m ost general psychological fo rm u la tio n I am able to give.

Dr. H . G. Baynes: 384 You said th a t tran sferen ce is of no p ractical value in analysis. Is it n o t possible to give it a teleological value? 385

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Professor Jung: I have n o t said it in so m any w ords, b u t th e teleological value of tran sferen ce becom es a p p a re n t from an analysis of its archetypal co n ten ts. Its p u rposive value is also show n in Avhat I said ab o u t tran sferen ce as a fu n ctio n of co m p en satio n for a lack of ra p p o rt betw een th e analyst an d th e p a tie n t— at least if one assumes th a t it is n o rm al fo r h u m a n beings to be en rapport w ith each oth er. O f course I co u ld im agine th a t an in tro v erted p h ilo so p h er is ra th e r in c lin ed to th in k th a t peo p le have n o con­ tacts. F o r instance, S ch o p en h au er says th a t h u m a n egotism is so g reat th a t a m an can k ill his b ro th e r in o rd e r to sm ear his boots w ith his b ro th e r’s fat. Dr. H e n r y V. Dicks: I th in k we can assum e then, Professor Ju n g , th a t you regard th e o u tb re a k of a n eu ro sis as an a tte m p t a t self-cure, as an at­ te m p t a t com p en satio n by b rin g in g o u t th e in fe rio r fu n ctio n ? Professor J u n g : A bsolutely. Dr. Dicks:

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I u n d erstan d , th en , th a t th e o u tb re a k of a n e u ro tic illness, from th e p o in t of view of m a n ’s d ev elo p m en t, is so m eth in g fa­ vourable?

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Professor Ju n g : T h a t is so, an d I am glad you b rin g u p th a t idea. T h a t is really m y p o in t of view. I am n o t alto g eth er pessim istic a b o u t neurosis. I n m any cases we have to say: “T h a n k heaven h e co u ld m ake u p his m in d to be n e u ro tic .” N eurosis is really an a tte m p t a t self-cure, ju s t as any physical disease is p a rt an a tte m p t a t self­ cure. W e c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d a disease as an ens p e r se any m ore, as so m eth in g d etach ed w hich n o t so lo n g ago it was believ ed to be. M o d ern m ed icin e— in te rn a l m edicine, for instance— con­ ceives of disease as a system com posed of a h arm fu l factor an d a h ealin g factor. I t is exactly th e same w ith neurosis. I t is an a t­ te m p t of th e self-regulating psychic system to restore th e b a l­ ance, in n o way d ifferen t from th e fu n ctio n of dream s— on ly ra th e r m o re forceful a n d drastic.

Dr. J. A . H ad field : W o u ld Professor J u n g give us a sh o rt acco u n t o f th e tech­ n iq u e of active im ag in atio n ? Professor Ju ng : 391 T h a t was th e su b ject I really w an ted to tell you a b o u t today in consequence of th e analysis of th e T o le d o dream , so I am very glad to tak e it u p . Y ou w ill realize th a t I shall n o t b e ab le to present any em pirical m aterial, b u t I m ay succeed in giving you an id ea o f th e m eth o d . I believe th a t th e best way is to tell you of a case w here it was very difficult to teach th e p a tie n t th e m ethod. 392 I was tre a tin g a yo u n g artist, a n d he h a d th e greatest tro u b le in u n d e rs ta n d in g w h at I m ean t by active im ag in atio n . H e trie d all sorts of th in g s b u t he could n o t get a t it. T h e difficulty w ith h im was th a t h e c o u ld n o t th in k . M usicians, p ain ters, artists o f all kinds, o ften c a n ’t th in k a t all, because they n ev er in ­ te n tio n a lly use th e ir b rain . T h is m a n ’s b ra in too was always w orking for itself; it h ad its artistic im aginations a n d he c o u ld n ’t use it psychologically, so he c o u ld n ’t u n d erstan d . I gave h im every chance to try, an d he trie d all sorts of stunts. I can n o t tell you all th e things h e d id , b u t I w ill tell you how h e finally succeeded in u sin g his im ag in atio n psychologically. 393 I live o u tsid e th e tow n, an d h e h a d to take th e tra in to get to m y place. I t starts from a sm all station, a n d on th e w all of th a t statio n was a poster. Each tim e he w aited fo r his tra in h e looked 390

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at that poster. T h e poster was an advertisem ent for M iirren in the Bernese Alps, a colourful picture of the waterfalls, of a green meadow and a hill in the centre, and on that hill were several cows. So he sat there staring at th a t poster an d th in k in g that he could n o t find o u t w hat I m eant by active im agination. A nd then one day he thought: “Perhaps I could start by having a fantasy a b o u t th at poster. I m ight for instance im agine th a t I am myself in the poster, th at the scenery is real and th a t I could walk up the hill am ong the cows and then look dow n on the other side, and then I m ight see w hat there is b eh in d th a t h ill.” 394 So he w ent to the station for th a t purpose and im agined that he was in the poster. H e saw the m eadow and the road and walked up the hill am ong the cows, an d th en he came u p to the top and looked down, and there was the m eadow again, sloping down, an d below was a hedge w ith a stile. So he walked down and over the stile, and there was a little footpath th a t ran round a ravine, an d a rock, an d w hen he came ro u n d th a t rock, there was a small chapel, w ith its door standing a little ajar. H e thought he w ould like to enter, and so he pushed the door open and w ent in, and there upon an altar decorated w ith pretty flowers stood a w ooden figure of the M other of God. H e looked u p at her face, and in th at exact m om ent som ething with p ointed ears disappeared b eh in d the altar. H e thought, “W ell, th a t’s all nonsense,” and instantly the whole fantasy was gone. 395 H e w ent away an d said, “Now again I haven’t understood w hat active im agination is.” A nd then, suddenly, the thought struck him : “W ell, perhaps th at really was there; perhaps that th in g b eh in d the M other of God, w ith the pointed ears, that disappeared like a flash, really happened.” T h erefo re he said to himself: “I will ju st try it all over as a test.” So he im agined that he was back in the station looking at the poster, and again he fantasied th a t he was w alking u p the hill. A nd w hen he came to the to p of the hill, he w ondered w hat he w ould see on the other side. A nd there was the hedge and the stile and the h ill sloping down. H e said, “W ell, so far so good. T hings haven’t moved since, apparently.” A nd he w ent ro u n d the rock, and there was the chapel. H e said: “T h e re is the chapel, that at least is no illu ­ sion. I t is all q u ite in order.” T h e door stood ajar and he was q u ite pleased. H e hesitated a m om ent an d said: “Now, w hen I 170

p u s h th a t d o o r o p e n a n d I see th e M a d o n n a o n th e a lta r , th e n th a t th in g w ith th e p o in te d e a rs s h o u ld ju m p d o w n b e h in d th e M a d o n n a , a n d i f i t d o e s n ’t, t h e n t h e w h o l e t h i n g is b u n k ! ” A n d so h e p u s h e d th e d o o r o p e n a n d lo o k e d — a n d th e r e it a ll w as a n d th e th in g ju m p e d d o w n , as b e fo re , a n d th e n h e w as c o n v in c e d . F r o m t h e n o n h e h a d th e k e y a n d k n e w h e c o u l d r e ly o n h is i m a g i n a t i o n , a n d s o h e l e a r n e d t o u s e it. 39®

T h e r e is n o t i m e t o t e l l y o u a b o u t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h i s im a g e s , n o r h o w o t h e r p a t ie n t s a r r iv e a t t h e m e th o d . F o r o f c o u r s e e v e r y b o d y g e ts a t it i n h is o w n w ay . I c a n o n ly m e n t i o n th a t i t m ig h t a ls o b e a d r e a m o r a n im p r e s s io n o f a h y p n a g o g ic n a t u r e f ro m w h ic h a c tiv e im a g in a tio n c a n s ta rt. I r e a lly p r e f e r t h e t e r m “ i m a g i n a t i o n ” t o “ f a n t a s y , ” b e c a u s e t h e r e is a d i f f e r ­ e n c e b e tw e e n th e tw o w h ic h th e o ld d o c to r s h a d in m i n d w h e n th e y s a id t h a t “ o p u s n o s t r u m ,” o u r w o rk , o u g h t to b e d o n e “ p e r v e ra m im a g in a tio n e m e t n o n p h a n ta s tic a ” — b y tr u e im a g in a tio n a n d n o t b y a f a n t a s t i c a l o n e . 13 I n o t h e r w o r d s , i f y o u t a k e t h e c o r r e c t m e a n i n g o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , f a n t a s y is m e r e n o n s e n s e , a p h a n t a s m , a f l e e t i n g i m p r e s s i o n ; b u t i m a g i n a t i o n is a c t i v e , p u r ­ p o s e f u l c r e a t i o n . A n d t h i s is e x a c t l y t h e d i s t i n c t i o n I m a k e to o . 397 A f a n t a s y is m o r e o r le s s y o u r o w n i n v e n t i o n , a n d r e m a i n s o n th e s u rfa c e o f p e r s o n a l th in g s a n d c o n s c io u s e x p e c ta tio n s . B u t a c tiv e im a g in a tio n , as t h e te r m d e n o te s , m e a n s t h a t th e im a g e s h a v e a lif e o f t h e i r o w n a n d th a t th e s y m b o lic e v e n ts d e v e lo p a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r o w n l o g i c — t h a t is, o f c o u r s e , i f y o u r c o n s c i o u s re a so n d o e s n o t in te rfe re . Y o u b e g in b y c o n c e n tra tin g u p o n a s t a r t i n g p o i n t . I w i l l g iv e y o u a n e x a m p l e f r o m m y o w n e x p e r i ­ e n c e . W h e n I w as a lit tle b o y , I h a d a s p in s te r a u n t w h o liv e d in a n ic e o ld -fa s h io n e d h o u se . I t w as f u ll o f b e a u tif u l o ld c o lo u re d e n g ra v in g s . A m o n g th e m w as a p ic tu r e o f m y g r a n d f a th e r o n m y m o t h e r ’s s i d e . H e w a s a s o r t o f b i s h o p , a n d h e w a s r e p r e s e n t e d a s c o m in g o u t o f h is h o u s e a n d s ta n d in g o n a l i t t l e te rr a c e . T h e r e w e re h a n d r a ils a n d s ta irs c o m in g d o w n f r o m th e te rr a c e , a n d a f o o tp a t h le a d in g to th e c a th e d r a l. H e w a s in f u ll r e g a lia , s ta n d ­ in g th e r e a t th e to p o f th e te rra c e . E v e ry S u n d a y m o r n in g I w as a llo w e d to p a y a c a ll o n m y a u n t , a n d t h e n I k n e l t o n a c h a ir a n d lo o k e d a t th a t p ic tu r e u n til g r a n d f a th e r c a m e d o w n th e s te p s . A n d e a c h t i m e m y a u n t w o u l d s a y , “ B u t , m y d e a r , h e 13 [Cf. Psychology an d A lch em y (C.W., vol. 12), par. 360.]

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d o e s n ’t w alk, h e is s till s ta n d in g th e r e .” B u t I k n e w I h a d seen h im w a lk in g d o w n . 398 Y ou see h o w it h a p p e n e d th a t th e p ic tu r e b e g a n to m ove. A n d in th e sam e way, w h e n y o u c o n c e n tra te o n a m e n ta l pic­ tu r e , i t b e g in s to stir, th e im a g e b eco m es e n r ic h e d b y d e ta ils, it m oves a n d dev elo p s. E ach tim e , n a tu ra lly , y o u m is tru s t it a n d h a v e th e id e a t h a t y o u h a v e ju s t m a d e it u p , th a t it is m erely y o u r o w n in v e n tio n . B u t y o u h a v e to o v e rc o m e th a t d o u b t, be­ cau se i t is n o t tru e . W e c a n re a lly p ro d u c e p re c io u s little b y o u r c o n scio u s m in d . A ll th e tim e w e a re d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e th in g s t h a t lite ra lly fall in to o u r consciousness; th e re fo re in G e rm a n w e call th e m E i n f a l l e . F o r in sta n c e , if m y u n c o n sc io u s s h o u ld p re fe r n o t to give m e ideas, I c o u ld n o t p ro c e e d w ith m y le c tu re , b e c au se I c o u ld n o t in v e n t th e n e x t step . Y o u a ll k n o w th e ex p e­ rie n c e w h e n y o u w a n t to m e n tio n a n a m e o r a w o rd w h ic h you k n o w q u ite w ell, a n d it sim p ly does n o t p re s e n t itself; b u t som e tim e la te r it d ro p s in to y o u r m em o ry . W e d e p e n d e n tir e ly u p o n th e b e n e v o le n t c o -o p e ra tio n of o u r u n c o n scio u s. I f it does n o t c o -o p erate, w e a re c o m p le te ly lost. T h e r e f o r e I a m co n v in c e d th a t w e c a n n o t d o m u c h in th e w ay of co n scio u s in v e n tio n ; we o v e r-e stim a te th e p o w e r o f in te n tio n a n d th e w ill. A n d so w h en w e c o n c e n tra te o n a n in n e r p ic tu r e a n d w h e n w e a re c a re fu l n o t to i n t e r r u p t th e n a tu r a l flow of events, o u r u n c o n sc io u s w ill p ro ­ d u c e a series o f im ages w h ic h m a k e a c o m p le te story. 399 I h a v e trie d th a t m e th o d w ith m a n y p a tie n ts a n d fo r m any years, a n d I possess a la rg e c o lle c tio n o f such “ o p e ra .” I t is m ost in te r e s tin g to w a tc h th e process. O f c o u rse I d o n ’t u se active im a g in a tio n as a p a n a c e a ; th e r e h a v e to b e d e fin ite in d ic a tio n s th a t th e m e th o d is s u ita b le fo r th e in d iv id u a l, a n d th e r e a re a n u m b e r o f p a tie n ts w ith w h o m it w o u ld b e w ro n g to force it u p o n th e m . B u t o fte n in th e la te r stage of analysis, th e o bjectiv a tio n o f im ages rep la ce s th e d rea m s. T h e im ages a n tic ip a te the d rea m s, a n d so th e d re a m -m a te ria l b e g in s to p e te r o u t. T h e u n ­ co n scio u s b eco m es d e fla te d in so fa r as th e co n scio u s m in d r e ­ lates to it. T h e n y o u g e t a ll th e m a te ria l in a c re a tiv e fo rm a n d th is has g re a t a d v a n ta g e s o v e r d re a m -m a te ria l. I t q u ic k e n s th e process o f m a tu r a tio n , f o r analysis is a process o f q u ic k e n e d m a t­ u r a tio n . T h is d e fin itio n is n o t m y o w n in v e n tio n ; th e o ld p ro ­ fessor S ta n le y H a ll in v e n te d th e te rm . 4°° S ince by a c tiv e im a g in a tio n a ll th e m a te ria l is p ro d u c e d in a 172

conscious state of m ind, the m aterial is far m ore ro u n d ed o u t than the dream s w ith their precarious language. A nd it contains m uch m ore than dream s do; for instance, the feeling-values are in it, and one can judge it by feeling. Q uite often, the patients themselves feel that certain m aterial contains a tendency to visi­ bility. T h e y say, for instance: “T h a t dream was so impressive, if I only could p ain t I w ould try to express its atm osphere.” O r they feel th a t a certain idea should be expressed n o t rationally b u t in symbols. O r they are gripped by an em otion which, if given form, w ould be explainable, and so on. A nd so they begin to draw, to paint, or to shape their images plastically, and women sometimes do weaving. I have even had one or two women who danced their unconscious figures. O f course, they can also be expressed in writing. 4°i I have m any com plete series of such pictures. T h ey yield an enorm ous am ount of archetypal m aterial. Ju st now I am about to work out the historical parallels of some of them. I com pare them w ith the pictorial m aterial produced in sim ilar attem pts in past centuries, particularly in the early M iddle Ages. C ertain elem ents of the symbolism go back to Egypt. In the East we find m any interesting parallels to our unconscious m aterial, even down to the last details. T h is com parative work gives us a most valuable insight into the structure of the unconscious. You have to h a n d the necessary parallels to the patients too, no t of course in such an elaborate way as you would present it in a scientific study, b u t as m uch as each individual needs in order to u n d er­ stand his archetypal images. For he can see th eir real m eaning only w hen they are not just a queer subjective experience with no external connections, b u t a typical, ever-recurring expression of the objective facts and processes of the hum an psyche. By objectifying his im personal images, and understanding th eir in ­ herent ideas, the p atient is able to work ou t all the values of his archetypal m aterial. T h e n he can really see it, and the uncon­ scious becomes understandable to him . M oreover, this work has a definite effect upon him . W hatever he has p u t into it works back on him and produces a change of attitu d e w hich I tried to define by m entioning the non-ego centre. 402 I will give you an interesting example. I had a case, a univer­ sity m an, a very one-sided intellectual. His unconscious had be­ come tro u b led and activated; so it projected itself into other

m en who appeared to be his enemies, and he felt terrib ly lonely, because everybody seemed to be against him . T h e n he began to d rink in order to forget his troubles, b u t he got exceedingly irri­ table and in these moods he began to q u arrel w ith oth er men, and several times he had very disagreeable encounters, and once he was throw n o u t of a restaurant an d got b eaten up. A nd there were m ore incidents of th at sort. T h e n things becam e really too thick for his endurance, and he came to m e to ask m y advice ab o u t what he should do. In that interview , I got a very definite im pression of him : I saw th at he was chock-full of archaic m ate­ rial, and I said to myself: “Now I am going to m ake an interest­ ing experim ent to get th at m aterial absolutely p ure, w ithout any influence from myself, and therefore I w on't touch it.’’ So I sent him to a wom an doctor who was th en just a b eg in n er and who did n o t know m uch about archetypal m aterial. T h u s I was absolutely sure that she would n o t tam per w ith it. T h e patient was in such low spirits that he did not object to my proposition. So he worked w ith h er an d did everything she said .14 4°3 She told him to watch his dreams, and he w rote them all down carefully, from the first to the last. I now have a series of ab o u t th irteen h u n d red dream s of his. T h e y contain the most m arvellous series of archetypal images. A nd q u ite naturally, w ithout being told to do so, he began to draw a n u m b e r of pic­ tures which he saw in his dreams, because he felt them to be very im portant. A nd in this w ork on his dream s an d on these pictures he did exactly the k ind of work which o th er patients do by ac­ tive im agination. H e even invented active im agination for him ­ self in order to work o u t certain most in tricate problem s which his dream s presented him with, as for instance how to balance the contents of a circle, and m ore things like this. H e worked o u t the problem of the p erp etu u m m obile, n o t in a crazy way b u t in a symbolic way. H e w orked on all the problem s which m edieval philosophy was so keen on and of w hich o u r rational m in d says, “T h a t is all nonsense.” Such a statem ent only shows th a t we do n o t understand. T hey d id understand; we are the fools, n o t they. 404 In the course of this analysis, which took him through about the first four h u n d re d dreams, he was n o t u n d e r my surveil[This case provided the material for Part II of Psychology and Alchem y.] 174

lance. A fter the first interview I did not see him at all for eight months. H e was five m onths w ith that doctor, and then for three m onths he was doing the work all by himself, continuing the observation of his unconscious w ith m inute accuracy. H e was very gifted in this respect. In the end, for about two months, he had a n u m b e r of interviews w ith me. B ut I did n o t have to explain m uch of the symbolism to him. 405 T h e effect of this work with his unconscious was that he be­ came a perfectly norm al and reasonable person. H e did not d rink any m ore, he became completely adapted and in every re­ spect com pletely norm al. T h e reason for this is quite obvious: th at m an— he was n o t m arried—had lived in a very one-sided intellectual way, and naturally had certain desires and needs also. B ut he had no chance w ith women at all, because he had no differentiation of feeling whatsoever. So he made a fool of him ­ self w ith wom en at once, and of course they had no patience w ith him . A nd he made himself very disagreeable to men, so he was frightfully lonely. B ut now he had found som ething that fas­ cinated him ; he had a new centre of interest. H e soon discovered that his dream s pointed to som ething very m eaningful, and so his whole in tu itiv e and scientific interest was aroused. Instead of feeling like a lost sheep, he thought: “Ah, w hen I am through w ith my work in the evening, I go to my study, and then I shall see w hat happens. I will work over my dreams, and then I shall discover extraordinary things.” A nd so it was. O f course rational judgm ent w ould say th at he just fell violently into his fantasies. B ut th at was not the case at all. H e did a real b it of hard work on his unconscious, and he worked out his images scientifically. W hen he came to me after his three m onths alone, he was al­ ready alm ost norm al. O nly he still felt uncertain; he was tro u ­ bled because he could not understand some of the m aterial he had dug up from the unconscious. H e asked my advice about it, and I m ost carefully gave him certain hints as to its meaning, b u t only so far as this could help him to keep on w ith the work and carry it through. 4°6 A t the end of the year I am going to publish a selection from his first four h u n d red dreams, where I show the developm ent of one m otif only, the central m otif of these archetypal images.15 15 “T raum sym bole des Individuationsprozesses,” in the Eranos-Jahrbuch - ; j5 [Now Part II of Psychology and Alchem y.]

T h e re w ill be an English translation later, and then you will have the o pportunity to see how the m ethod works in a case ab­ solutely untouched by myself, or by any other outside sugges­ tion. It is a most am azing series of images and really shows what active im agination can do. You understand, in this case it was only partially a m ethod for objectifying the images in plastic form, because many of the symbols appeared directly in the dreams; b u t all the same it shows the k in d of atm osphere which active im agination can produce. I have patients who, evening after evening, work at these images, p ain tin g and shaping their observations and experiences. T h e work has a fascination for them ; it is the fascination which the archetypes always exert upon consciousness. B ut by objectifying them , the danger of their in u n d atin g consciousness is averted and th eir positive ef­ fect is made accessible. It is almost impossible to define this ef­ fect in rational terms; it is a sort of “m agical” effect, th a t is, a suggestive influence which goes o u t from the images to the indi­ vidual, an d in this way his unconscious is extended and is changed. 4°7

I am told that Dr. B ennet has brought some pictures by a patient. W ill he be so kind as to show them? T his picture (Figure 1 4 ) is m eant to represent a bowl or vase. O f course it is very clumsily expressed and is a m ere attem pt, a suggestion of a vase or bowl. T h e m otif of the vessel is itself an archetypal image which has a certain purpose, and I can prove from this picture w hat the purpose is. A vessel is an instrum ent for containing things. It contains for instance liquids, and pre­ vents them from getting dispersed. O u r G erm an w ord for vessel is Gefdss, w hich is the n o u n of fassen, th a t is, to set, to contain, to take hold of. T h e w ord Fassung means the setting, an d also, m etaphorically, composure, to rem ain collected. So th e vessel in this picture indicates the m ovem ent of containing in order to gather in and to hold together. You have to hold som ething to ­ gether w hich otherwise w ould fall asunder. From the way this picture is composed, and from certain features in it, it is obvious th a t the psychology of this m an contains a n u m b er of disparate elements. It is a picture characteristic of a schizophrenic condi­ tion. I do n o t know the case at all, b u t Dr. B ennet confirms th at my conclusion is correct. You see the disparate elem ents all over 176

LECTURE V

(DISCUSSION)

the picture; there are a n u m b er of things which are n o t m oti­ vated and which d o n ’t belong together. Moreover, you see pe­ culiar lines dividing the field. These lines are characteristic of a schizophrenic m entality; I call them the breaking lines. W hen a schizophrenic paints a picture of himself, he naturally expresses

F ig. 14. P ainting by a patient

the schizophrenic split in his own m ental structure, and so you find these breaking lines w hich often go rig h t through a particu­ lar figure, like the breaking lines in a m irror. In this picture, the figures themselves show no breaking lines; they only go all over the field.

T h is m an, then, tries to gather in all the disparate elements into the vessel. T h e vessel is m eant to be the receptacle for his whole being, for all the incom patible units. If he tried to gather them into his ego, it w ould be an impossible task, because the ego can be identical only w ith one part at a tim e. So he indicates by the symbol of the vessel thg.t he is trying to find a container for everything, and therefore he gives a h in t at a non-ego centre by th a t sort of ball or globe in the m iddle. 409 T h e picture is an attem pt at self-cure. I t brings all the dispar­ ate elem ents in to the light, and it also tries to p u t them to­ gether into th a t vessel. T h is idea of a receptacle is an archetypal idea. You find it everywhere, and it is one of the central motifs of unconscious pictures. It is the idea of the magic circle which is draw n ro u n d som ething th at has to be prevented from escaping o r protected against hostile influences. T h e magic circle as an apotropaic charm is an archaic idea which you still find in folk­ lore. For instance, if a m an digs for a treasure, he draws the magic circle ro u n d the field in order to keep the devil out. W hen the ground-plan of a city was set out, there used to be a ritu al walk or rid e ro u n d the circum ference in order to protect the place w ithin. In some Swiss villages, it is still the custom for the priest and the town council to rid e ro u n d the fields w hen the blessing is adm inistered for the protection of the harvest. In the centre of the magic circle or sacred precinct is the tem ple. One of the most w onderful examples of this idea is the tem ple of B orobudur in Java. T h e walk ro u n d , the circum ambulatio, is done in a spiral; the pilgrim s pass the figures of all the different lives of the B uddha, u n til on the top there is the invisible Bud­ dha, the B uddha yet to come. T h e ground-plan of B o robudur is a circle w ith in a square. T h is structure is called in Sanskrit a m andala. T h e w ord means a circle, particularly a magic circle. In the East, you find the m andala n o t only as th e ground-plan of temples, b u t as pictures in the temples, or draw n for the day of certain religious festivals. In the very centre of the m andala there is the god, or the symbol of divine energy, the diam ond th u n d er­ bolt. R o u n d this innerm ost circle is a cloister w ith four gates. T h e n comes a garden, an d ro u n d this there is an o th er circle which is the outer circum ference. 4 1° T h e symbol of the m andala has exactly this m eaning of a holy place, a temenos} to protect the centre. A nd it is a symbol 408

178

which is one of the most im portant motifs in the objectivation of unconscious images.16 It is a means of protecting the centre of the personality from being draw n ou t and from being influ­ enced from outside. 411 T his picture by Dr. B ennet’s patient is an attem pt to draw such a m andala. It has a centre, and it contains all his psychic elements, an d the vase w ould be the magic circle, the temenos, ro u n d which he has to do the circumambulatio. A tten tio n is thus directed towards the centre, and at the same tim e all the disparate elem ents come u n d er observation and an attem p t is m ade to unify them . T h e circumambulatio had always to be done clockwise. If one tu rn e d ro u n d in the other direction it was very unfavourable. T h e idea of the circumambulatio in this picture is the p a tie n t’s first attem pt to find a centre and a con­ tainer for his whole psyche. B ut he does no t succeed. T h e design shows no balance, and the vase is toppling over. It even topples over towards the left, towards the side of the unconscious. So the unconscious is still too powerful. If he wants his apotropaic magic to work, he m ust do it in a different way. W e shall see w hat he does in the next picture. 4 1^ I n th is p ic tu re (F ig u re ig ) he makes an attem pt at symmetry. N ow these disparate, m onstrous things w hich he could n o t grasp before are collected and assimilated into m ore favourable, less pathological forms. H e can now gather the living units of his unconscious, in the form of snakes, into the sacred vase. A nd the vase stands firm, it does not topple over any m ore, and its shape has im proved. H e does n o t succeed yet w ith his inten tio n ; b u t at least he can give his anim als some form. T h ey are all anim als of the underw orld, fishes that live in the deep sea, and snakes of the darkness. T h e y symbolize the low er centres of his psychology, the sym pathetic system. A most rem arkable thing is th at he also gathers in the stars. T h a t means th at the cosmos, his world, is collected into the picture. It is an allusion to the unconscious astrology which is in o u r bones, though we are unaw are of it. A t the top of the whole picture is the personification of the uncon­ scious, a naked anima-figure who turns h er back. T h a t is a typi­ cal position; in the beginning of the objectivation of these im ­ ages the anima-figure often turns her back. A t th e foot of the ie [Cf. “Com m entary on T h e Secret of the G olden Flower" (C.W., vol. 13) and “Concerning M andala Symbolism” (C.W. vol. 9, 1).]

vase are eight figures of the crescent m oon; the m oon is also a symbol of the unconscious. A m an’s unconscious is the lunar world, for it is the n ig h t world, and this is characterized by the

■CS

Wkc \\SS

F ig . 15. P ainting by a p atien t

m oon, and L una is a fem inine designation, because the uncon­ scious is fem inine. T h e re are still various breaking lines which disturb the harm ony. B ut I should assume th a t if no particular trouble interferes, the p a tie n t will most likely continue along 180

this constructive line. I should say that there is hope that he m ight come ro u n d altogether, because the appearance of the anim a is ra th e r a positive sign. She also is a sort of vase, for in the beginning she incorporates the whole of the unconscious, in ­ stead of its being scattered in all the various units. Also, the pa­ tien t tries to separate the motifs to the rig h t and to the left, and this indicates an attem p t at conscious orientation. T h e ball or globe in the first picture has disappeared, b u t this is n o t a nega­ tive sign. T h e whole vessel is the centre, and he has corrected the toppling over of the vase, it stands q u ite firmly on its base. All this shows th a t he is really m aking an attem p t to p u t him self right. 4'3 T h e pictures should be given back to the p atien t because they are very im portant. You can get copies; patients like to do copies for the doctor. B ut he should leave the originals w ith the patients, because they w ant to look at them; and w hen they look at them they feel that their unconscious is expressed. T h e ob­ jective form works back on them and they become enchanted. T h e suggestive influence of the picture reacts on the psychologi­ cal system of the patient and induces the same effect which he p u t into the picture. T h a t is the reason for idols, for the magic use of sacred images, of icons. T hey cast their magic into o ur system and p u t us right, provided we p u t ourselves into them . If you p u t yourself in to the icon, the icon w ill speak to you. T a k e a Lamaic m andala which has a Budda in the centre, or a Shiva, and, to the extent that you can p u t yourself into it, it answers and comes into you. It has a magic effect. 4H Because these pictures of the unconscious express the actual psychological condition of the individual, you can use them for the purpose of diagnosis. You can tell rig h t away from such a picture where the p atien t stands, w hether he has a schizophrenic disposition or is m erely neurotic. You can even tell w hat his prognosis is. It only needs some experience to m ake these p ain t­ ings exceedingly helpful. O f course, one should be careful. O ne should n o t be dogm atic and say to every patient, “ Now you p a in t.” T h e re are people who think: “D r. Ju n g ’s treatm en t con­ sists in telling his patients to p ain t,” just as form erly they thought: “H e divides them into introverts and extraverts and says ‘you should live in such and such a way, because you belong to this type or th a t.’ ” T h a t is certainly n o t treatm ent. Each pa181

tien t is a new problem for the doctor, and he will only be cuied of his neurosis if you help him to find his individual way to the solution of his conflicts.

415

The Chairman: Ladies an d G entlem en, you have been expressing by your applause som ething of w hat you feel about Professor Jung. This is the last tim e in this group of talks th a t we w ill have the hon­ o u r and pleasure and privilege of hearing Professor Jung. We have only inadequate ways of expressing o u r thanks to him for these lectures which have been so stim ulating, so challenging, which have left us w ith so many things to th in k ab o u t in the future, things which to all of us, especially those who are practis­ ing psychotherapy, are enorm ously suggestive. I th in k th at is w hat you m eant to do for us, Sir, and that is w hat you have done. W e in this In stitu te are extrem ely p ro u d to have had you here talking to us, an d all of us, I think, are h arb o u rin g the idea that before long you will be back in England to talk to us again and m ake us th in k m ore about these great problems.

II SYMBOLS AND T H E IN TERPRETATIO N OF DREAMS

[This essay was composed in English and com pleted shortly before Ju n g ’s death in Ju n e 1961. W ith o u t title, it was w ritten to introduce a symposium, Man and His Symbols (© 1964 Aldus Books, London), consisting of essays by Ju n g and four colleagues, edited by Ju n g and after his death by Dr. M arie-Louise von Franz, w ith Jo h n Freem an as co-ordinating editor. T h e symposium was con­ ceived as a po p u lar presentation of Ju n g ’s ideas, and accordingly its contents were, w ith the a u th o rs’ agreem ent, extensively reworked u n d er the supervision of Jo h n Freem an in collaboration w ith Dr. von Franz. Jung's essay was largely rew ritten and, particularly in th e opening sections, rearranged; a n um ber of deletions were made, some explanatory passages were added, an d it was given the title “ A pproaching the Unconscious.” T h e present version is Ju n g ’s original text, revised by R. F. C. H ull; except for some m inor transpositions the original arrangem ent has been preserved. T h e illustrations (122 in the original edn.) have been om itted. C hapter divisions and titles have been introduced in consultation w ith Dr. von Franz. Acknowledgment is m ade to Aldus Books an d Doubleday and Co. for perm ission to incorporate some stylistic im provem ents from the 1964 version.— E d i t o r s .]

I. T H E SIG N IFIC A N C E OF DREAM S 416

T h ro u g h his language, m an tries to designate things in such a way th at his words w ill convey the m eaning of w hat he intends to com m unicate. B ut sometimes he uses terms or images th at are n o t strictly descriptive and can be understood only u n d er cer­ tain conditions. T ake, for instance, the many abbreviations like U N , U NESCO, N A T O , etc., which infest o ur newspapers, or tradem arks or the names of patent medicines. A lthough one cannot see w hat they mean, they yet have a definite m eaning if you know it. Such designations are no t symbols, they are signs. W h at we call a symbol is a term , a name, or an image which in itself may be fam iliar to us, b u t its connotations, use, and ap p li­ cation are specific o r peculiar and h in t at a hidden, vague, or unknow n m eaning. T a k e as an exam ple the image of the double adze th at occurs frequently on C retan m onum ents. W e know the object, b u t we do n o t know its specific m eaning. Again, a H in d u who had been on a visit to E ngland told his friends at hom e th at the English w orshipped animals, because he had found eagles, lions, and oxen in their old churches and cathe­ drals, and he was n o t aware th at these animals were the symbols of the evangelists. T h ere are even m any Christians who do not know th at they are derived from the vision of Ezekiel, which in tu rn offers a parallel to the Egyptian H orus and his four sons. O ther examples are the wheel and the cross, which are univer­ sally know n objects, yet u n d er certain conditions they are sym­ bolic and m ean som ething th a t is still a m atter for controversial speculation. 417 A term or image is symbolic when it means m ore than it denotes or expresses. It has a w ider “unconscious” aspect—an as­ pect th a t can never be precisely defined or fully explained. T h is peculiarity is due to the fact that, in exploring the symbol, the m ind is finally led towards ideas of a transcendent n atu re, where 185

our reason m ust capitulate. T h e wheel, fox instance, may lead o u r thoughts to the idea of a “divine” sun, b u t at this point reason has to adm it its inadequacy, for we are unable to define or to establish the existence of a “divine” being. W e are merely hum an, and o u r intellectual resources are correspondingly lim ­ ited. W e may call som ething “divine,” b u t this is simply a name, a fagon de parIer^ based perhaps on a creed, yet never am ount­ ing to a proof. 4»8 Because there are innum erable things beyond the range of hum an understanding, we constantly use symbolic expressions and images w hen referring to them (ecclesiastical language in p articular is full of symbols). B ut this conscious use of symbol­ ism is only one aspect of a psychological fact of great im por­ tance: we also produce symbols unconsciously and spontane­ ously in our dreams. 4*9 Each act of apperception, or cognition, accomplishes its task only partially; it is never complete. First of all, sense-perception, fundam ental to all experience, is restricted by the lim ited num ­ b er and quality of o u r senses, which can however be com pen­ sated to a certain extent by the use of instrum ents, b u t n o t suffi­ ciently to elim inate entirely a fringe of uncertainty. M oreover apperception translates the observed fact into a seemingly in­ com m ensurable m edium — into a psychic event, the n atu re of which is unknow able. U nknow able, because cognition cannot cognize itself— the psyche cannot know its own psychic sub­ stance. T h e re is thus an indefinite n u m b er of unknow n factors in every experience, in addition to which the object of cognition is always unknow n in certain respects since we cannot know the ultim ate n atu re of m atter itself. 420 Every conscious act or event thus has an unconscious aspect, ju st as every sense-perception has a sublim inal aspect: for in­ stance, sound below or above audibility, or light below or above visibility. T h e unconscious p a rt of a psychic event reaches con­ sciousness only indirectly, if at all. T h e event reveals the exist­ ence of its unconscious aspect inasm uch as it is characterized eith er by em otionality or by a vital im portance th a t has not been realized consciously. T h e unconscious part is a sort of afterthought, w hich may become conscious in th e course of time by means of in tu itio n or by deeper reflection. B ut the event can also m anifest its unconscious aspect— and this is usually the case 186

— in a dream . T h e d ream shows this aspect in th e fo rm of a sym­ bolic im age an d n o t as a ra tio n a l th o u g h t. I t was th e u n d e rs ta n d ­ ing of dream s th a t first en ab led us to investigate th e unconscious aspect of conscious psychic events a n d to discover its n a tu re . 421 I t has taken th e h u m a n m in d a lo n g tim e to arriv e a t a m o re or less ra tio n a l an d scientific u n d e rsta n d in g of th e fu n ctio n al m e a n in g of dream s. F re u d was th e first w ho trie d to elu cid ate the unconscious b ack g ro u n d of consciousness in a n em p irical way. H e w ork ed o n th e g en eral assum ption th a t dream -contents are re la te d to conscious rep resen tatio n s th ro u g h th e law of asso­ ciatio n , i.e., by causal dep en d en ce, a n d are n o t m erely chance occurrences. T h is assu m p tio n is by n o m eans a rb itra ry b u t is based on th e em p irical fact, observed lo n g ago by n eurologists an d especially by P ie rre J a n e t, th a t n e u ro tic sym ptom s are con­ n ected w ith som e conscious experience. T h e y even ap p e a r to be split-off areas of th e conscious m in d w hich, at a n o th e r tim e a n d u n d e r d iffere n t con d itio n s, can be conscious, ju st as an hysterical anaesthesia can be th e re one m o m en t a n d gone th e n ex t, only to re a p p e a r again after a w hile. B reu er a n d F re u d recognized m ore th a n h a lf a cen tu ry ago th a t n e u ro tic sym ptom s are m ean in g fu l a n d m ake sense in asm u ch as they express a c ertain th o u g h t. I n o th e r w ords, they fu n c tio n in th e sam e m a n n e r as dream s: they sym bolize. A p a tien t, fo r instance, c o n fro n te d w ith an in to le r­ ab le situ a tio n , develops a spasm w h en ev er he tries to swallow: “H e c a n ’t sw allow it.” U n d e r sim ilar co n d itio n s a n o th e r p a tie n t develops asthm a: “ H e c a n ’t b re a th e th e atm o sp h ere a t h o m e .” A th ird suffers fro m a p e c u lia r paralysis of th e legs: “ H e can ’t go o n any m o re.” A fo u rth vom its ev ery th in g h e eats: “ H e can ’t stom ach it.” A n d so on. T h e y co u ld all ju s t as w ell have h a d dream s of a sim ilar k ind. 422 D ream s, of course, display a g reater variety an d are o ften fu ll of p ic tu re sq u e an d lu x u ria n t fantasy, b u t they b o il d o w n even­ tu a lly to th e sam e basic th o u g h t if one follow s F re u d ’s o rig in al m e th o d of “free association.” T h is m e th o d consists in le ttin g th e p a tie n t go o n ta lk in g a b o u t his dream -im ages. T h a t is precisely w h a t th e non-psychological d o cto r om its to do. B eing always pressed fo r tim e, he loathes le ttin g his p a tie n t b ab b le o n a b o u t his fantasies seem ingly w ith o u t en d . Yet, if he only knew , his p a tie n t is ju s t a b o u t to give him self away a n d to reveal th e u n ­ conscious b a ck g ro u n d of his ailm en t. A n y o n e w ho talks lo n g 187

enough will inevitably betray him self by w hat he says and what he purposely refrains from saying. H e may try very hard to lead the doctor and him self away from the real facts, b u t after a while it is quite easy to see which p o in t he is trying to steer away from. T h ro u g h apparently ram bling and irratio n al talk, he uncon­ sciously circum scribes a certain area to which he continually re­ turns in ever-renewed attem pts to hide it. In his circum locutions he even makes use of a good deal of symbolism, apparently serv­ ing his purpose of hiding and avoiding yet p o in tin g all the time to the core of his predicam ent. 423 T hus, if the doctor is patien t enough, he will hear a wealth of symbolic talk, seemingly calculated to hide som ething, a se­ cret, from conscious realization. A doctor sees so m any things from the seamy side of life th at he is seldom far from the tru th w hen he interprets the hints which his patient is em ittin g as signs of an uneasy conscience. W h at he eventually discovers, u n ­ fortunately, confirms his expectations. T h u s far nobody can say anything against F reu d ’s theory of repression and wish-fulfilm ent as apparent causes of dream symbolism. 424 If one considers the following experience, however, one be­ comes sceptical. A friend and colleague of m ine, travelling for long hours on a train journey through Russia, passed the time by trying to decipher the Cyrillic script of the railway notices in his com partm ent. H e fell into a sort of reverie ab o u t w hat the letters m ight m ean and— following the principle of “free associ­ a tio n ”— w hat they rem inded him of, and soon he found himself in the m idst of all sorts of reminiscences. A m ong them , to his great displeasure, he did n o t fail to discover those old and dis­ agreeable com panions of sleepless nights, his “complexes”— re­ pressed and carefully avoided topics w hich the doctor w ould joy­ ously p o in t to as the most likely causes of a neurosis o r the most convincing m eaning of a dream . 425 T h e re was no dream , however, m erely “free associations” to incom prehensible letters, which means th at from any p o in t of the compass you can reach the centre directly. T h ro u g h free as­ sociation you arrive at the critical secret thoughts, no m atter where you start from , be it symptoms, dreams, fantasies, Cyrillic letters or examples of m odern art. A t all events, this fact proves n oth in g w ith regard to dream s and th e ir real m eaning. I t only shows the existence of associable m aterial floating about. Very 188

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often dreams have a very definite, as if purposeful, structure, indicating the underlying thought or intention though, as a rule, the latter is not im m ediately comprehensible. T h is experience was an eye-opener to me, and, w ithout dis­ m issing the idea of “association” altogether, I thought one should pay m ore attention to the dream itself, i.e., to its actual form and statem ent. For instance, a patient of m ine dreamed of a drunken, dishevelled, vulgar woman called his “w ife” (though in reality his w ife was totally different). T h e dream statement, therefore, is shocking and utterly unlike reality, yet that is what the dream says. N aturally such a statem ent is not acceptable and is im m ediately dismissed as dream nonsense. If you let the pa­ tient associate freely to the dream, he w ill most likely try to get away as far as possible from such a shocking thought in order to end up w ith one of his staple com plexes, but you w ill have learnt noth in g about the m eaning of this particular dream. W hat is the unconscious trying to convey by such an obviously untrue statement? If somebody w ith little experience and knowledge of dreams should think that dreams are just chaotic occurrences w ithout m eaning, he is at liberty to do so. But if one assumes that they are norm al events, which as a m atter of fact they are, one is bound to consider that they are either causal— i.e., that there is a rational cause for their existence— or in some way purposive, or both; in other words, that they make sense. Clearly, the dream is seeking to express the idea of a degener­ ate fem ale who is closely connected with the dreamer. T h is idea is projected upon his wife, where the statem ent becomes untrue. W hat does it refer to, then? Subtler m inds in the M iddle Ages already knew that every man “carries Eve, his wife, hidden in his body.” 1 It is this fem i­ nine elem ent in every man (based on the m inority of fem ale genes in his biological make-up) which I have called the anima. “She” consists essentially in a certain inferior kind of relatedness to the surroundings and particularly to wom en, which is kept carefully concealed from others as w ell as from oneself. A m an’s visible personality may seem quite normal, w hile his anim a side is som etim es in a deplorable state. T h is was the case w ith our 1 [D om inicus G nosius, H e rm e tis T rism eg isti T ra cta tu s vere A u re u s de L a p id e p h ilo so p h ic i secreto (1610), p . 101.— E d i t o r s .] 189

dreamer: his fem ale side was not nice. A pplied to his anima, the dream-statement hits the nail on the head w hen it says: you are behaving like a degenerate female. It hits him hard as indeed it should. O ne should not, however, understand such a dream as evidence for the moral nature of the unconscious. It is m erely an attem pt to balance the lopsidedness of the conscious m ind, w hich had believed the fiction that one was a perfect gentlem an throughout. 43° Such experiences taught m e to mistrust free association. I no longer follow ed associations that led far afield and away from the m anifest dream-statement. I concentrated rather on the ac­ tual dream-text as the thing w hich was intended by the uncon­ scious, and I began to circum am bulate the dream itself, never letting it out of my sight, or as one turns an unknow n object round and round in o n e’s hands to absorb every detail of it. 431 But why should one consider dreams, those flimsy, elusive, unreliable, vague, and uncertain phantasms, at all? Are they worthy of our attention? Our rationalism w ould certainly not recom m end them, and the history of dream interpretation be­ fore Freud was a sore point anyway; m ost discouraging in fact, most “unscientific” to say the least of it. Yet dreams are the com ­ monest and universally accessible source for the investigation of m an’s sym bolizing faculty, apart from the contents of psychoses, neuroses, myths, and the products of the various arts. A ll these, however, are m ore com plicated and m ore difficult to under­ stand, because, w hen it comes to the question of their individual nature, one cannot venture to interpret such unconscious prod­ ucts w ithout the aid of the originator. Dreams are indeed the ch ief source of all our knowledge about symbolism. 432 O ne cannot invent symbols; wherever they occur, they have n ot been devised by conscious in tention and w ilfu l selection, be­ cause, if such a procedure had been used, they w ould have been noth in g but signs and abbreviations of conscious thoughts. Sym­ bols occur to us spontaneously, as one can see in our dreams, w hich are not invented but which happen to us. T h ey are not im m ediately understandable, they need careful analysis by means of association, but, as I have said, not of “free associa­ tion ,” which we know always leads back eventually to the em o­ tional thoughts or com plexes that are unconsciously captivating our m ind. T o get there, we have no need of dreams. B ut in the 190

early days of m edical psychology the general assum ption was that dreams were analysed for the purpose of discovering com­ plexes. For this purpose, however, it is sufficient to conduct an association test, which supplies all the necessary hints as I have shown long ago. A nd not even this test is necessary, because one can obtain the same result by letting people talk long enough. 433 T h e re can be no do u b t th a t dream s often arise from an em o­ tional disturbance in which the habitual complexes are in ­ volved. T h e habitual complexes are the tender spots of the psyche, which react m ost quickly to a problem atical external sit­ uation. B ut I began to suspect that dreams m ight have another, m ore interesting function. T h e fact that they eventually lead back to the complexes is n o t the specific m erit of dreams. If we w ant to learn w hat a dream means and w hat specific function it fulfils, we m ust disregard its inevitable outcome, the complex. W e m ust p u t a check on limitless “free” association, a restriction provided by the dream itself. By free association, we move away from the individual dream-image and lose sight of it. W e must, on the contrary, keep close to the dream and its individual form. T h e dream is its own lim itation. It is itself the criterion of w hat belongs to it and of w hat leads away from it. AU m aterial that does not lie w ithin the scope of the dream , or th at oversteps the boundaries set by its individual form, leads astray and pro­ duces noth in g b u t the complexes, and we do n o t know w hether they belong to the dream or n o t since they can be produced in so m any other ways. T h e re is, for instance, an alm ost infinite vari­ ety of images by which the sexual act can be “symbolized,” or ra th e r allegorized. B ut the dream obviously intends its own spe­ cific expression in spite of the fact that the resultant associations will lead to the idea of sexual intercourse. T h is is no news and is easy to see, b u t the real task is to understand why the dream has chosen its own individual expression. 434 O nly the m aterial th a t is clearly and visibly indicated as be­ longing to the dream by the dream-images themselves should be used for interpretation. W hile free association moves away from the them e of the dream in som ething like a zigzag line, the new m ethod, as I have always said, is m ore like a circum am bulation, the centre of which is the dream-image. O ne concentrates on the specific topics, on the dream itself, and disregards the frequent attem pts of the dreameT to break away from it. T h is ever-

present “neu ro tic” dissociative tendency has m any aspects, but at bottom it seems to consist in a basic resistance of the conscious m ind to anything unconscious and unknow n. As we know, this often fierce resistance is typical of the psychology of prim itive societies, which are as a ru le conservative and show pronounced misoneistic tendencies. A nything new and unknow n causes dis­ tinct and even superstitious fear. T h e prim itive manifests all the reactions of a w ild anim al to untow ard events. O u r highly differentiated civilization is not at all free from such prim itive behaviour. A new idea that is not exactly in line w ith general expectations meets w ith the severest obstacles of a psychological kind. It is given no credit, b u t is feared, com batted, and ab­ horred in every way. M any pioneers can tell a story of misery, all due to the prim itive misoneism of their contem poraries. W hen it comes to psychology, one of the youngest of the sciences, you can see m isoneism at work, and in dealing w ith your own dream s you can easily observe your reactions w hen you have to adm it a disagreeable thought. I t is chiefly and above all fear of the unexpected and unknow n that makes people eager to use free association as a means of escape. I do n o t know how many times in my professional w ork I have had to repeat the words: “Now let’s get back to your dream . W h at does the dream say?” 435 If one wants to understand a dream it m ust be taken seri­ ously, and one m ust also assume th a t it means w hat it manifestly says, since there is no valid reason to suppose th at it is anything other than it is. Yet the ap p aren t futility of dreams is so over­ w helm ing that n o t only the dream er b u t the in terp reter as well may easily succum b to the prejudice of the “n o th in g b u t” expla­ nation. W henever a dream gets difficult and obstinate, the tem p­ tation to dismiss it altogether is not far away. 436 W hen I was doing fieldwork w ith a prim itive tribe in East Africa, I discovered to my am azem ent that they denied having dream s at all. B ut by p atient indirect talk I soon found th at they had dreams all right, like everybody else, b u t were convinced th at their dreams m eant nothing. “Dreams of ordinary men m ean nothing,” they said. T h e only dreams that m attered were those of the chief and the medicine-m an, which concerned the welfare of the tribe. Such dream s were highly appreciated. T h e only draw back was that the chief as well as the m edicine-man denied having any m ore dream s “since the B ritish were in the 192

country.” T h e D istrict Commissioner had taken over the func­ tion of the “big dream .” 437 T h is incident shows th at even in a prim itive society opinions about dream s are am bivalent, just as in our society, where most people see no th in g in dreams while a m inority thinks very highly of them . T h e C hurch, for instance, has long know n of somnia a Deo missa (dreams sent by God), and in o ur own tim e we have w atched the grow th of a scientific discipline which aims at exploring the vast field of unconscious processes. Yet the aver­ age m an thinks little or nothing about dream s, and even a th o r­ oughly educated person shares the comm on ignorance and underrates everything rem otely connected w ith the “un co n ­ scious.” 438 T h e very existence of an unconscious psyche is denied by a great n u m b er of scientists and philosophers, who often use the naive argum ent th at if there were an unconscious psyche there would be two subjects in the individual instead of one. B ut that is precisely the case, in spite of the supposed unity of the person­ ality. It is, indeed, the great trouble of o u r tim e th a t so many people exist whose rig h t hand does no t know w hat th eir left is doing. It is by no means the neurotic alone who finds himself in this predicam ent. I t is not a recent developm ent, n o r can it be blam ed on C hristian m orality; it is, on the contrary, the symp­ tom of a general unconsciousness that is the heritage of all m an­ kind. 439 T h e developm ent of consciousness is a slow and laborious process th at took u n to ld ages to reach the civilized state (which we date somewhat arbitrarily from the invention of w riting, ab o u t 4 0 0 0 B . C . ) . A lthough the developm ent since th a t date seems to be considerable, it is still far from complete. Indefi­ nitely large areas of the m ind still rem ain in darkness. W h at we call “psyche” is by no means identical w ith consciousness and its contents. T hose who deny the existence of the unconscious do n o t realize th at they are actually assuming o u r knowledge of the psyche to be com plete, w ith n othing left for fu rth er discoveries. I t is exactly as if they declared o u r present knowledge of n atu re to be the sum m it of all possible knowledge. O u r psyche is part of nature, and its enigm a is just as limitless. W e cannot define “n a­ tu re ” or “psyche,” b u t can only state what, at present, we u n d er­ stand them to be. N o m an m his senses, therefore, could make

such a statem ent as “there is no unconscious,” i.e., no psychic contents of which he and others are unconscious— no t to men­ tion the m o u n tain of convincing evidence th at m edical science has accum ulated. It is not, of course, scientific responsibility or honesty th at causes such resistance, b u t age-old misoneism, fear of the new and unknow n. 440 T h is peculiar resistance to the unknow n part of the psyche has its historical reasons. Consciousness is a very recent acquisi­ tion and as such is still in an “experim ental state”— frail, men­ aced by specific dangers, and easily injured. As a m atter of fact one of the most com m on m ental derangem ents am ong prim i­ tives consists in the “loss of a soul,” which, as the term indicates, means a noticeable dissociation of consciousness. O n the prim i­ tive level the psyche or soul is by no means a u n it, as is widely supposed. M any prim itives assume that, as well as his own, a m an has a “bush-soul,” incarnate in a w ild anim al or a tree, with which he is connected by a kind of psychic identity. T h is is what L^vy-Bruhl called participation m ystique .2 In the case of an anim al it is a sort of brother, so m uch so th a t a m an whose b ro th er is a crocodile is supposed to be safe w hile swimming across a crocodile-infested river. In the case of a tree, the tree is supposed to have authority over the individual like a parent. In ju ry to the bush-soul means an equal in ju ry to the man. O thers assume that a m an has a n u m b er of souls, which shows clearly th at the prim itive often feels th a t he consists of several units. T h is indicates th at his psyche is far from being safely syn­ thesized; on the contrary, it threatens to fall asunder only too easily u n d e r the onslaught of unchecked emotions. 441 W hat we observe in the seemingly rem ote sphere of the prim itive m in d has by no means vanished in o u r advanced civil­ ization. O nly too often, as I have said, the rig h t h an d does n o t know w hat the left is doing, and in a state of violent affect one frequently forgets who one is, so th at people can ask: “W h at the devil has got into you?” W e are possessed and altered by o ur moods, we can suddenly be unreasonable, or im p o rtan t facts u n ­ accountably vanish from our memory. W e talk about being able to “control ourselves,” b u t self-control is a rare and rem arkable 2 Livy-Bruhl later retracted this term under the pressure of adverse criticism, to which he unfortunately succumbed. His critics were wrong inasmuch as un­ conscious identity is a well-known psychological fact.

v irtu e . I f y o u ask y o u r frie n d s o r rela tiv e s th e y m ay b e a b le to te ll y o u th in g s a b o u t y o u rse lf of w h ic h you h av e n o k n o w le d g e . O n e a lm o st alw ays fo rg e ts o r o m its to a p p ly to o n e self th e c r iti­ cism th a t o n e h a n d s o u t so freely to o th ers, fa sc in a te d by th e m o te in o n e ’s b r o th e r ’s eye. 442 A ll th ese w e ll-k n o w n facts show b e y o n d a d o u b t th a t, o n th e h e ig h ts o f o u r c iv iliz a tio n , h u m a n consciousness has n o t y e t a t ­ ta in e d a re a s o n a b le d e g re e of c o n tin u ity . I t is still d isso ciab le a n d v u ln e ra b le , in a w ay f o rtu n a te ly so, since th e d isso c ia b ility o f th e psyche is also a n a d v a n ta g e in t h a t i t e n a b le s u s to c o n c e n ­ tra te o n o n e p o in t by d ism issin g e v e ry th in g else th a t m ig h t c la im a tte n tio n . I t m ak es a g re a t d iffe re n c e, h o w e v e r, w h e th e r y o u r consciousness p u rp o se ly sp lits off a n d su p p resses a p a r t of th e psyche te m p o ra rily , o r w h e th e r th e sam e th in g happen s to y o u , so th a t th e psyche sp lits s p o n ta n e o u s ly w ith o u t y o u r c o n ­ s e n t a n d k n o w le d g e , o r p e rh a p s ev en a g a in st y o u r w ill. T h e first is a civ iliz e d a c h ie v e m e n t, th e seco n d a p rim itiv e a n d a rc h a ic c o n d itio n o r a p a th o lo g ic a l e v e n t a n d th e cause of a n e u ro sis. I t is th e “ loss o f a s o u l,” th e sy m p to m o f a still e x is tin g m e n ta l p rim itiv ity . 443 I t is a lo n g w ay in d e e d fro m p rim itiv ity to a re lia b le c o h e ­ sio n o f consciousness. E v e n in o u r days th e u n ity o f co n scio u s­ ness is a d o u b tf u l affair, sin ce o n ly a little affect is n e e d e d to d is r u p t its c o n tin u ity . O n th e o th e r h a n d th e p e rfe c t c o n tro l o f e m o tio n , h o w e v e r d e s ira b le fro m o n e p o in t o f view , w o u ld b e a q u e s tio n a b le a c c o m p lis h m e n t, fo r i t w o u ld d e p riv e social i n te r ­ c o u rse of a ll v a rie ty , c o lo u r, w a rm th , a n d ch a rm .

2. T H E 444

F U N C T IO N S

OF TH E

U N C O N S C IO U S

O u r n e w m e t h o d tr e a ts th e d r e a m as a s p o n ta n e o u s p r o d u c t o f t h e p s y c h e a b o u t w h i c h t h e r e is n o p r e v i o u s a s s u m p t i o n e x ­ c e p t t h a t i t s o m e h o w m a k e s s e n s e . T h i s is n o m o r e t h a n e v e r y s c i e n c e a s s u m e s , n a m e l y t h a t it s o b j e c t is w o r t h y o f i n v e s t ig a ­ t i o n . N o m a t t e r h o w l o w o n e ’s o p i n i o n o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s m a y b e , t h e u n c o n s c i o u s is a t le a s t o n a l e v e l w i t h t h e l o u s e , w h i c h , a f t e r a ll, e n j o y s t h e h o n e s t i n t e r e s t o f t h e e n t o m o l o g i s t . A s t o th e a lle g e d b o ld n e s s o f th e h y p o th e s is th a t a n u n c o n s c io u s p sy ch e e x is t s , I m u s t e m p h a s i z e t h a t a m o r e m o d e s t f o r m u l a t i o n c o u ld h a r d ly b e i m a g i n e d . I t is s o s i m p l e t h a t i t a m o u n t s t o a t a u t o l ­ o g y : a c o n t e n t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s d is a p p e a r s a n d c a n n o t b e r e p r o ­ d u c e d . T h e b e s t w e c a n s a y o f i t is: t h e t h o u g h t ( o r w h a t e v e r it w a s) h a s b e c o m e u n c o n s c i o u s , o r is c u t o f f f r o m c o n s c io u s n e s s , so t h a t i t c a n n o t e v e n b e r e m e m b e r e d . O r e l s e i t m a y h a p p e n th a t w e h a v e a n i n k l i n g o r h u n c h o f s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is a b o u t to b r e a k i n t o c o n s c io u s n e s s : “ s o m e t h i n g is i n t h e a ir ,” “ w e s m e l l a r a t ,” a n d s o o n . T o s p e a k u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s o f l a t e n t or u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s is h a r d ly a d a r i n g h y p o t h e s is .

445

W h e n s o m e t h i n g v a n is h e s f r o m c o n s c io u s n e s s i t d o e s n o t d is ­ s o l v e i n t o t h i n a ir o r c e a s e t o e x i s t , a n y m o r e t h a n a c a r d is a p ­ p e a r i n g r o u n d a c o r n e r b e c o m e s n o n - e x i s t e n t . I t is s i m p l y o u t o f s ig h t , a n d , as w e m a y m e e t t h e c a r a g a in , s o w e m a y c o m e a c r o s s a t h o u g h t a g a in w h i c h w a s p r e v i o u s l y lo s t . W e f i n d t h e sa m e t h in g w it h s e n s a tio n , as t h e f o llo w in g e x p e r im e n t p ro v es. I f y o u p r o d u c e a c o n tin u o u s n o te o n th e ed g e o f a u d ib ility , y o u w i l l o b s e r v e i n l i s t e n i n g t o i t t h a t a t r e g u l a r in t e r v a l s i t is a u ­ d ib le a n d in a u d ib le . T h e s e o s c illa tio n s a re d u e to a p e r io d ic in ­ cr ea se a n d d e c r e a s e o f a tte n tio n . T h e n o te n e v e r ce a ses to e x is t w i t h s t a t i c i n t e n s i t y . I t is m e r e l y t h e d e c r e a s e o f a t t e n t i o n t h a t c a u s e s it s a p p a r e n t d is a p p e a r a n c e .

446

T h e u n c o n s c i o u s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n s is t s i n t h e fir s t p la c e o f a 196

m u ltitu d e of tem porarily eclipsed contents which, as experience shows, continue to influence the conscious processes. A m an in a distracted state of m ind goes to a certain place in his room , obvi­ ously to fetch som ething. T h e n he suddenly stops perplexed: he has forgotten why he got up and w hat he was after. H e gropes absent-m indedly am ong a whole collection of objects, com­ pletely at sea as to w hat he wants to find. Suddenly he wakes up, having discovered the thing he wants. H e behaves like a m an w alking in his sleep oblivious of his original purpose, yet un co n ­ sciously guided by it. If you observe the behaviour of a neurotic, you can see him perform ing apparently conscious and purpose­ ful acts yet, w hen you ask him about them , you discover to your surprise th at he is either unconscious of them or has som ething q u ite different in m ind. H e hears and does no t hear, he sees yet is blind, he knows and does not know at the same time. T h o u ­ sands of such observations have convinced the specialist th a t u n ­ conscious contents behave as if they were conscious, and th a t you can never be sure w hether thought, speech, or action is con­ scious or not. Som ething so obvious to yourself that you cannot im agine it to be invisible to anybody can be as good as n o n ­ existent to your fellows, and yet they behave as if they were just as conscious of it as you are yourself. 447 T h is kind of behaviour has given rise to the medical p re ju ­ dice that hysterical patients are confirmed liars. Yet the surplus of lies they seem to produce is due to the uncertainty of their m ental state, to the dissociability of th eir consciousness, which is liable to unpredictable eclipses, just as th eir skin shows u n ex ­ pected and changing areas of anaesthesia. T h e re is no certainty w hether a needle-prick will be registered or not. If th eir atten ­ tion can be focused on a certain point, the whole surface of th eir body may be com pletely anaesthetized, and, w hen atten tio n re ­ laxes, sense-perception is instantly restored. M oreover w hen one hypnotizes such cases one can easily dem onstrate th at they are aware of everything th at has been done in an anaesthetized area or d u rin g an eclipse of consciousness. T h ey can rem em ber every detail ju st as if they had been fully conscious d u rin g the experi­ m ent. I recall a sim ilar case of a wom an who was adm itted to the clinic in a state of com plete stupor. N ext day w hen she came to, she knew who she was, b u t did n o t know w here she was n o r how or why she had come there, n o r did she know the date. I hypno-

448

449

45 °

tized her, and she could tell me a verifiable story o£ why she fell ill, how she had got to the clinic, and who had received her, with all the details. As there was a clock in the entrance hall, though n o t in a very conspicuous place, she could also rem em ber the tim e of her admission to the m inute. Everything happened as if she had been in a com pletely norm al condition and not deeply unconscious. I t is tru e th at the b ulk of our evidential m aterial comes from clinical observation. T h a t is the reason why m any critics assume th at the unconscious and its m anifestations belong to the sphere of psychopathology as neurotic or psychotic symptoms and that they do not occur in a norm al m ental state. But, as has been pointed out long ago, neurotic phenom ena are no t by any means the exclusive products of disease. T hey are as a m atter of fact norm al occurrences pathologically exaggerated, and therefore ju st m ore obvious than their norm al parallels. O ne can indeed observe all hysterical symptoms in a dim inutive form in norm al individuals, b u t they are so slight that they usually pass u n n o ­ ticed. In this respect, everyday life is a m ine of evidential m ate­ rial. J u st as conscious contents can vanish into the unconscious, other contents can also arise from it. Besides a m ajority of mere recollections, really new thoughts and creative ideas can appear which have never been conscious before. T hey grow u p from the dark depths like a lotus, and they form an im p o rtan t p art of the sublim inal psyche. T his aspect of the unconscious is of particu­ la r relevance in dealing w ith dreams. O ne m ust always bear in m in d th at dream m aterial does n o t necessarily consist of memo­ ries; it may ju st as well contain new thoughts th at are n o t yet conscious. Forgetting is a norm al process, in which certain conscious contents lose their specific energy through a deflection of atten­ tion. W hen interest turns elsewhere, it leaves form er contents in the shadow, just as a searchlight illum inates a new area by leav­ ing another to disappear in the darkness. T h is is unavoidable, for consciousness can keep only a few images in full clarity at one time, and even this clarity fluctuates, as I have m entioned. “Forgetting” may be defined as tem porarily sublim inal contents rem aining outside the range of vision against one’s will. B ut the forgotten contents have n o t ceased to exist. A lthough they can­ n o t be reproduced they are present in a sublim inal state, from 198

451

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453

which they can rise up spontaneously at any tim e, often after many years of apparently total oblivion, or they can be fetched back by hypnosis. Besides norm al forgetting, there are the cases described by Freud of disagreeable m em ories which one is only too ready to lose. As N ietzsche has remarked, w hen pride is insistent enough, mem ory prefers to give way. T hus am ong the lost m em ories we encounter not a few that owe their sublim inal state (and their incapacity to be reproduced at will) to their disagreeable and incom patible nature. T h ese are the repressed contents. As a parallel to norm al forgetting, sublim inal sense-perceptions should be m entioned, because they play a n ot unim portant role in our daily life. W e see, hear, sm ell and taste many things w ithout n oticing them at the tim e, either because our attention is deflected or because the stim ulus is too slight to produce a conscious impression. But in spite of their apparent non-exist­ ence they can influence consciousness. A w ell-known exam ple is the case of the professor w alking in the country w ith a pupil, deep in serious conversation. Suddenly he notices that his thoughts are interrupted by an unexpected flow o f m em ories from his early childhood. H e cannot account for it, as he is u n ­ able to discover any associative connection w ith the subject of his conversation. H e stops and looks back: there at a little dis­ tance is a farm, through w hich they had passed a short w hile ago, and he remembers that soon afterwards images o f his childhood began to surge up. “L et us go back to the farm,” he says to his pupil; “it must be about there that my fantasies started.” Back at the farm, the professor notices the sm ell of geese. Instantly he recognizes it as the cause of the interruption: in his early youth he had lived on a farm where there were geese, whose character­ istic sm ell had form ed a lasting impression and caused the repro­ duction o f the memory-images. H e had noticed the sm ell w hile passing the farmyard, sublim inally, and the unconscious percep­ tion had called back long-forgotten memories. T h is exam ple illustrates how the sublim inal perception re­ leased early childhood memories, the energic tension of which proved to be strong enough to interrupt the conversation. T h e perception was sublim inal because the attention was engaged elsewhere, and the stim ulus was not strong enough to deflect it and to reach consciousness directly. Such phenom ena are fre­ quent in everyday life, b u t m ostly they pass unnoticed.

454

A re la tiv e ly r a r e b u t a ll th e m o re a s to n is h in g p h e n o m e n o n th a t falls in to th e sam e c a te g o ry is c ry p to m n e sia , o r th e “ c o n ­ c e ale d re c o lle c tio n .” I t consists in th e fact th a t s u d d e n ly , m ostly in th e flow o f c re a tiv e w ritin g , a w o rd , a se n te n c e , a n im age, a m e ta p h o r, o r ev en a w h o le sto ry a p p e a rs w h ic h m ay e x h ib it a stra n g e o r o th e rw ise re m a rk a b le c h a ra c te r. I f y o u ask th e a u th o r w h e re th is fra g m e n t com es fro m , h e does n o t k n o w , a n d it b e ­ com es o b v io u s th a t h e has n o t ev en n o tic e d it as a n y th in g p e c u l­ ia r. I w ill q u o te o n e su ch e x a m p le fro m N ie tz sc h e ’s T h u s Sp a ke Z a ra th u stra . T h e a u th o r d escrib es Z a r a th u s tr a ’s “d e sc e n t to h e ll” w ith c e rta in c h a ra c te ris tic d e ta ils w h ic h c o in c id e alm ost w o rd fo r w o rd w ith th e n a r r a tio n in a s h ip ’s lo g fro m th e year 1686.

455

Nietzsche, T h u s Spake Zara­ thustra (1883)1

Ju stin u s K erner, B la tter Prevorst (1831-39)2

Now ab o u t the tim e th a t Zara­ th u stra sojourned on the H appy Isles, it hap p en ed th a t a ship anchored a t the isle on w hich the sm oking m o u n ta in stands, an d the crew w ent ashore to shoot rabbits. A bout the n o o n ­ tide hour, however, w hen the cap tain and his m en were to­ gether again, they suddenly saw a m an com ing tow ards them th ro u g h the air, and a voice said distinctly: “I t is tim e! I t is h ig h ­ est tim e!” B ut w hen the figure drew close to them , flying past quickly like a shadow in the direction of the volcano, they recognized w ith the greatest dis­ m ay th a t it was Z arathustra. . . . “B ehold,” said the old helm sm an, “Z arathustra goes dow n to hell!”

T h e fo u r captains and a m er­ chant, M r. Bell, w ent ashore on the island of M o u n t Strom boli to shoot rabbits. A t three o’clock they m ustered th e crew to go aboard, w hen, to th eir inexpress­ ible astonishm ent, they saw two m en flying rapidly tow ards them th ro u g h the air. O ne was dressed in black, the o th er in grey. T hey came past them very closely, in the greatest haste, and to their utm ost dism ay descended into the crater of the terrib le vol­ cano, M o u n t Strom boli. T hey recognized the p a ir as acquain­ tances from L ondon.

aus

1 Ch. X L, “G reat Events” (trans. Common, p. 180, slightly modified). [For other discussions, see Psychiatric Studies, pars. i4off. and i8off.— E d i t o r s .] 2 Vol. IV, p. 57, headed “A n E xtract of Awe-Inspiring Im p o rt from the Log of th e Ship Sphinx in the Year 1686, in the M editerranean.”

W h e n I re a d N ietzsch e’s story I was stru ck by its p ecu liar style, w hich is d ifferen t fro m N ietzsche’s usual language, an d by the strange im ages of a sh ip an ch o red off a m ythological island, of a c ap tain a n d his crew sh o o tin g rab b its, an d of th e descent to hell of a m a n w ho was recognized as an o ld acq u ain tan ce. T h e parallels w ith K e rn e r co u ld n o t be a m ere coincidence. K e rn e r’s collection dates from a b o u t 1835 an d is p ro b ab ly th e only ex ta n t source of th e seam an ’s yarn. A t least I was certain th a t N ietzsche m ust have glean ed it fro m there. H e retells th e story w ith a few significant v ariatio n s an d as if it w ere his ow n in v e n tio n . As it was in th e year 1902 th a t I cam e across this case, I still h ad th e o p p o rtu n ity to w rite to E lizab eth F o rster-N ietzsche, th e a u th o r’s sister, a n d she re m e m b e re d th a t she an d h e r b ro th e r h a d read the B la tte r aus P revorst w h en N ietzsche was eleven years old, th o u g h she d id n o t re m e m b e r this p a rtic u la r story. T h e reason why I re m e m b e re d it was th a t I h ad com e across K e rn e r’s col­ lectio n fo u r years before, in a p riv ate lib rary ; an d , as I was in ­ te re sted in th e w ritin g s of th e physicians of th a t tim e as the fo re ru n n e rs of m edical psychology, I h ad read th ro u g h all the volum es of th e B la tter. N a tu ra lly I sh o u ld have fo rg o tten th e y arn in th e course of tim e, because it d id n o t in te re st m e in any way. B u t in re a d in g N ietzsche I su d d en ly h a d a s e n tim e n t du dejd vu , follow ed by a d im reco llectio n of old-fashioned cut, a n d g rad u ally th e p ic tu re of K e rn e r’s b o o k filtered in to m y co n ­ sciousness. 457 B enoit, w ho p ro d u ced a su rp risin g p arallel to R id e r H ag ­ g a rd ’s She in his novel L ’A tla n tid e , w h en accused of p lagiarism h ad to answ er th a t he h ad n ev er com e across R id e r H a g g a rd ’s book a n d was e n tirely u n aw are of its existence. T h is case could also have b e e n one of cryptom nesia, if it h ad n o t b een a n elab o ­ ra tio n of a so rt of rep resen ta tio n collective, as L evy-B ruhl has n am ed c e rta in g en eral ideas characteristic of p rim itiv e societies. I shall b e d ealin g w ith these la te r on. 458 W h a t I have said a b o u t th e unconscious w ill give th e re a d e r a fa ir id ea of th e s u b lim in a l m a te ria l o n w h ich th e sp ontaneous p ro d u c tio n of dream -sym bols is based. I t is ev id en tly m a teria l th a t owes its unconsciousness chiefly to th e fact th a t ce rta in con­ scious co n ten ts m u st necessarily lose th e ir energy, i.e., th e a tte n ­ tio n bestow ed o n th em , o r th e ir specific em o tio n al tone, in o rd er to m ake ro o m fo r new con ten ts. If they w ere to re ta in th e ir en201 456

ergy, they w ould rem ain above the threshold and one could not get rid of them. I t is as if consciousness were a sort of projector th at casts its light (of atten tio n or interest) on new perceptions — due to arrive presently— as well as on the traces of form er ones in a dorm ant state. As a conscious act, this process can be u n d er­ stood as an intentional and voluntary event. Yet just as often consciousness is forced to tu rn on its light by the intensity of an external or internal stim ulus. 459 T his observation is n o t superfluous, for there are m any peo­ ple who overestim ate the role of will-power and th in k nothing can happen in their m inds th at they do no t intend. But, for the sake of psychological understanding, one should learn to dis­ crim inate carefully betw een intentional and unintentional con­ tents. T h e form er are derived from the ego-personality, while the latter arise from a source which is no t identical w ith the ego, th at is, from a sublim inal p art of the ego, from its “other side,” which is in a way another subject. T h e existence of this other subject is by no means a pathological symptom, b u t a norm al fact th at can be observed at any tim e anywhere. 46° I once had a discussion w ith one of my colleagues ab o u t an­ other doctor who had done som ething I had qualified as “utterly idiotic.” T h is doctor was my colleague’s personal friend, and m oreover a believer in the somewhat fanatical creed to which my colleague subscribed. Both were teetotalers. H e impulsively replied to my criticism: “O f course he is an ass”— p ulling himself up short— “a highly intelligent m an, I m eant to say.” I m ildly rem arked th at the ass came first, w hereupon he angrily denied ever having said such a th in g about his friend, and to an u n b e­ liever at that. T his m an was highly regarded as a scientist, b u t his rig h t hand did n o t know w hat his left was doing. Such people are not fit for psychology and, as a m atter of fact, do no t like it. B ut th at is the way the voice from the other side is usually treated: “I d id n ’t m ean it, I never said so.” A nd in the end, as Nietzsche says, m em ory prefers to give way.

g. T H E LA N G U A G E OF DREAM S 46»

A ll contents of consciousness have been or can become sub­ lim inal, thus form ing p a rt of the psychic sphere which we call the unconscious. AU urges, impulses, intentions, affects, all p er­ ceptions and intuitions, all rational and irratio n al thoughts, conclusions, inductions, deductions, premises, etc., as well as all categories of feeling, have their sublim inal equivalents, which may be subject to partial, tem porary, or chronic unconscious­ ness. O ne uses a w ord or a concept, for instance, th at in another connection has an entirely different m eaning of which one is m om entarily unconscious, an d this can lead to a ridiculous or even disastrous m isunderstanding. Even a most carefully defined philosophical or m athem atical concept, which we are sure does n o t contain m ore than we have p u t into it, is nevertheless m ore than we assume. It is at the least a psychic event, the n atu re of w hich is actually unknow able. T h e very num bers you use in counting are m ore th an you take them for. T h ey are a t th e same tim e m ythological entities (for the Pythagoreans they were even divine), b u t you are certainly unaw are of this w hen you use num bers for a practical purpose. 462 W e are also unconscious of the fact th at general terms like “state,” “m oney,” “health ,” “society” etc. usually m ean m ore than they are supposed to signify. T hey are general only because we assume them to be so, b u t in practical reality they have all sorts of nuances of m eaning. I am n o t th in k in g of th e deliberate tw isting of such concepts in their C om m unist usage, b u t of the fact th at even w hen they are understood in th eir p roper sense they nevertheless vary slightly from person- to person. T h e rea­ son for this variation is th a t a general n o tio n is received into an individual context and is therefore understood an d used in an individual way. As long as concepts are identical w ith m ere words, the variation is alm ost im perceptible and of n o practical 203

im portance. B ut when an exact definition or a careful explana­ tion is needed, one can occasionally discover the m ost amazing variations, n o t only in the purely intellectual understanding of the term , b u t particularly in its em otional tone and its applica­ tion. As a ru le these variations are sublim inal and therefore never realized. 463 O ne may dismiss such differences as red u n d an t or over-nice distinctions, b u t the fact that they exist shows that even the most banal contents of consciousness have a p enum bra of uncertainty around them , which justifies us in th in k in g th at each of them carries a definite sublim inal charge. A lthough this aspect plays little role in everyday life, one m ust bear it in m in d w hen ana­ lysing dreams. I recall a dream of my own th at baffled me for a while. In this dream , a certain Mr. X was desperately trying to get b ehind me and ju m p on my back. I knew n o th in g of this gentlem an except th at he had succeeded in tw isting som ething I had said into a rath er grotesque travesty of my m eaning. T his kind of thing had frequently happened to m e in my professional life, and I had never bothered to realize w hether it m ade me angry or not. B ut as it is of practical im portance to m aintain conscious control of one’s emotions, the dream pointedly brought up the incident again in the ap p aren t "disguise” of a colloquialism . T his saying, com m on enough in ordinary speech, is “D u kannst m ir auf den Buckel steigen” (you can clim b on my back), which means "I do n ’t give a dam n w hat you say.” 464 O ne could say th at this dream-image was symbolic, for it did n o t state the situation directly b u t in a ro u n d ab o u t way, through a concretized colloquial m etaphor which I did n o t u n ­ derstand at first sight. Since I have no reason to believe that the unconscious has any in ten tio n of concealing things, I m ust be careful n o t to project such a device on its activity. It is character­ istic of dreams to prefer pictorial and picturesque language to colourless and m erely rational statements. T h is is certainly not an intentional concealm ent; it simply emphasizes o u r inability to understand the em otionally charged picture-language of dreams. 465 As daily adaptation to the reality of things dem ands accurate statements, we have learnt to discard the trim m ing of fantasy, and have thus lost a quality that is still characteristic of the prim itive m ind. Prim itive thinking sees its object surrounded 204

by a fringe of associations which have become m ore or less u n ­ conscious in civilized m an. T h u s animals, plants, and inanim ate objects can acquire properties that are most unexpected to the w hite m an. A nocturnal anim al seen by day is, for the prim itive, q uite obviously a m edicine-m an who has tem porarily changed his shape; o r else it is a doctor-anim al or an animal-ancestor, or somebody’s bush-soul. A tree can be part of a m an ’s life, it has a soul and a voice, and the m an shares its fate, and so on. C ertain South A m erican Indians assure you that they are red araras (parrots), although they are quite aware that they have no feathers and d o n ’t look like birds. In the prim itive’s world, things do n o t have the same sharp boundaries they do in ours. W hat we call psychic identity or participation m ystique has been stripped off our w orld of things. It is exactly this halo, or “fringe of consciousness,” as W illiam James calls it, which gives a colourful and fantastic aspect to the prim itive’s world. W e have lost it to such a degree that we do no t recognize it w hen we m eet it again, and are baffled by its incom prehensibility. W ith us such things are kept below the threshold; and when they occa­ sionally reappear, we are convinced th at som ething is wrong. 466 I have m ore than once been consulted by highly educated and otherwise intelligent people because they had peculiar dreams, involuntary fantasies, or even visions, which shocked or frightened them . T h ey assumed that nobody in a sound m ental condition could suffer from such phenom ena, and that a person who had a vision was certainly pathological. A theologian I knew once avowed his belief th at Ezekiel’s visions were m orbid symptoms, and th at w hen Moses and other prophets heard “voices” they were suffering from hallucinations. N aturally he got into a panic when some spontaneous events of this kind hap­ pened to him . W e are so used to the rational surface of our w orld that we cannot im agine anything untow ard happening w ithin the confines of com m on sense. If o u r m ind once in a w hile does som ething thoroughly unexpected, we are terrified and im m ediately think of a pathological disturbance, whereas prim itive m an w ould th in k of fetishes, spirits, or gods b u t w ould never d o u b t his sanity. M odern m an is very m uch in the situa­ tion of the old doctor who was him self a psychotic patient. W hen I asked him how he was, he replied th a t he had h ad a w onderful n ight disinfecting the whole heaven w ith chloride of 205

m ercury b u t had found no trace of God. W h at we find instead of God is a neurosis or som ething worse, and the fear of God has changed into a phobia or anxiety neurosis. T h e em otion re­ mains the same, only its object has changed its nam e and nature for the worse. 467 I rem em ber a professor of'philosophy and psychology who consulted me about his cancer phobia. H e suffered from a com­ pulsive conviction th at he had a m alignant tum our, although nothing of the sort was ever found in dozens of X-ray pictures. “Oh, I know there is n o th in g ,’’ he w ould say, “b u t there still m ight be som ething.’’ Such a confession is certainly far more hum iliating to a strong intellect than the belief of a prim itive that he is plagued by a ghost. M alevolent spirits are at least a perfectly admissible hypothesis in a prim itive society, b u t it is a shattering experience for a civilized person to have to adm it that he is the victim of noth in g m ore than a foolish prank of the im agination. T h e prim itive phenom enon of obsession has not vanished, it is the same as ever. It is only in terp reted in a differ­ en t and m ore obnoxious way. 468 Many dream s present images and associations that are analo­ gous to prim itive ideas, myths, and rites. T hese dream-images were called “archaic rem nants” by Freud. T h e term suggests th at they are psychic elem ents left over from tim es long ago and still adhering to our m odern m ind. T h is p o in t of view forms p art of the prevailing depreciation of the unconscious as a mere appendix of consciousness or, to p u t it m ore drastically, a dust­ bin which collects all the refuse of the conscious m ind— all things discarded, disused, worthless, forgotten, and repressed. 469 T h is opinion had to be abandoned in m ore recent times, since fu rth er investigation has shown th a t such images and asso­ ciations belong to the regular structure of the unconscious and can be observed m ore or less everywhere, in the dreams of highly educated as well as illiterate people, of the intelligent as well as the stupid. T hey are in no sense dead or meaningless “rem ­ n ants”; on the contrary, they still continue to function and are therefore of vital value just because of th eir “historical” nature. T hey are a sort of language th at acts as a bridge betw een the way in which we consciously express our thoughts and a m ore prim i­ tive, m ore colourful and pictorial form of expression— a lan­ guage that appeals directly to feeling and em otion. Such a Ian206

guage is needed to translate certain truths from th eir “c u ltu ra l” form (where they are utterly ineffectual) into a form th at hits the nail on the head. For instance, there is a lady well know n for her stupid prejudices and stubborn argum ents. T h e doctor tries in vain to instil some insight. H e says: “My dear lady, your views are indeed very interesting an d original. B ut you see, there are m any people who unfortunately lack your assumptions and have need of your forbearance. C o u ld n ’t you . . .” etc. H e could just as well talk to a stone. B ut the dream follows a different m ethod. She dreams: there is a great social affair to which she is invited. She is received by her hostess (a very b rig h t woman) at the door w ith the words: “Oh, how nice th at you have come, all your friends are already here and are expecting you.” She leads h er to a door, opens it, and the lady steps into— a cowshed. T h is is a m ore concrete and drastic language, sim ple enough to be understood even by a blockhead. A lthough the lady w ould n o t adm it the point of the dream , it nevertheless w ent hom e, and after a tim e she was forced to accept it because she could not help seeing the self-inflicted joke. T h e message of the unconscious is of greater im portance th an m ost people realize. As consciousness is exposed to all sorts of external attractions and distractions, it is easily led astray and seduced in to following ways th a t are u n su ited to its individual­ ity. T h e general function of dream s is to balance such d istu rb ­ ances in the m ental e q u ilib riu m by producing contents of a com plem entary or com pensatory kind. Dream s of high ver­ tiginous places, balloons, aeroplanes, flying and falling, often accompany states of consciousness characterized by fictitious assum ptions, overestim ation of oneself, unrealistic opinions, and grandiose plans. If the w arning of the dream is n o t heeded, real accidents take its place. O ne stumbles, falls downstairs, runs into a car, etc. I rem em ber the case of a m an who was inextricably in ­ volved in a n u m b er of shady affairs. H e developed an alm ost m orbid passion for dangerous m ountain-clim bing as a sort of com pensation: he was trying to “get above him self.” In one dream he saw him self stepping off the sum m it of a high m o u n ­ tain into the air. W hen he told me his dream , I instantly saw the risk he was ru n n in g , and I tried my best to emphasize the w arn­ ing an d convince him of the need to restrain himself. I even told him th a t the dream m eant his death in a m o u n tain accident. I t 207

w a s i n v a in . S ix m o n th s l a t e r h e “ s te p p e d o ff i n t o th e a i r . ” A m o u n ta in g u id e w a tc h e d h im a n d a y o u n g f r ie n d le ttin g th e m ­ s e lv e s d o w n o n a r o p e i n a d i f f i c u l t p l a c e . T h e f r i e n d h a d f o u n d a te m p o r a r y f o o th o ld o n a le d g e , a n d th e d r e a m e r w a s f o llo w in g h im d o w n . S u d d e n ly h e le t g o o f th e r o p e “ as if h e w e re ju m p i n g i n t o t h e a i r , ” as th e g u id e r e p o r t e d a f te r w a r d s . H e f e ll o n h is f r ie n d , a n d b o th w e n t d o w n a n d w e re k ille d . 472

A n o th e r ty p ic a l c a se w as t h a t o f a la d y w h o w as liv in g a b o v e h e r s e lf i n a fa n ta s y o f d is t in c t io n a n d a u s te r ity . B u t s h e h a d s h o c k in g d r e a m s , r e m i n d i n g h e r o f a l l s o rts o f u n s a v o u r y th in g s . W h e n I p u t m y f in g e r o n th e m , s h e in d ig n a n tly r e f u s e d to a c ­ k n o w le d g e th e m . T h e d r e a m s th e n b e c a m e m e n a c in g , fu ll o f r e f e r e n c e s to t h e lo n g lo n e ly w a lk s s h e to o k in t h e w o o d s n e a r th e to w n , w h e r e sh e in d u lg e d in s o u lf u l m u s in g s . I sa w th e d a n ­ g e r a n d w a r n e d h e r in s is te n tly , b u t sh e w o u ld n o t w e e k la te r a se x u a l p e r v e rt a tta c k e d h e r m u rd e ro u s ly , in th e n ic k o f tim e w as sh e re s c u e d b y so m e p e o p le h e a r d h e r sc re a m s . O b v io u s ly sh e h a d a s e c re t lo n g in g

lis te n . A a n d o n ly w ho had fo r so m e

s u c h a d v e n tu r e a n d p r e f e r r e d to p a y t h e p r ic e o f tw o b r o k e n r ib s a n d th e f r a c tu r e o f a la ry n g e a l c a r tila g e , ju s t as th e m o u n ta in c l im b e r a t le a s t h a d th e s a tis f a c tio n o f f in d in g a d e f in ite w a y o u t o f h is p r e d ic a m e n t. 473

D re a m s p r e p a r e , a n n o u n c e , o r w a r n a b o u t c e r ta in s itu a tio n s , o f t e n l o n g b e f o r e t h e y a c t u a l l y h a p p e n . T h i s is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a m ir a c le o r a p r e c o g n itio n . M o s t c ris e s o r d a n g e r o u s s itu a tio n s h a v e a l o n g i n c u b a t i o n , o n l y t h e c o n s c i o u s m i n d is n o t a w a r e o f it. D re a m s c a n b e tra y

t h e s e c r e t . T h e y o f t e n d o , b u t j u s t as

o f te n , it se em s, th e y d o n o t. T h e r e f o r e o u r a s s u m p tio n o f a b e ­ n e v o l e n t h a n d r e s t r a i n i n g u s i n t i m e is d o u b t f u l . O r , t o p u t i t m o r e p o s i t i v e l y , i t s e e m s t h a t a b e n e v o l e n t a g e n c y is a t w o r k s o m e tim e s b u t a t o th e r tim e s n o t. T h e m y s te r io u s fin g e r m a y e v e n p o in t th e w a y to p e r d itio n . O n e c a n n o t a ffo rd to b e n a iv e i n d e a l i n g w i t h d r e a m s . T h e y o r i g i n a t e i n a s p i r i t t h a t is n o t q u i t e h u m a n , b u t is r a t h e r t h e b r e a t h o f n a t u r e — o f t h e b e a u t i ­ f u l a n d g e n e r o u s as w e ll as th e c r u e l g o d d e s s . I f w e w a n t to c h a r ­ a c te r iz e th is s p ir it, w e w o u ld d o b e t t e r to t u r n to t h e a n c ie n t m y t h o l o g i e s a n d t h e f a b l e s o f t h e p r i m e v a l f o r e s t . C i v i l i z a t i o n is a m o s t e x p e n s iv e p ro c e s s a n d its a c q u is itio n s h a v e b e e n p a i d f o r b y e n o r m o u s lo s s e s , t h e e x t e n t o f w h i c h w e h a v e l a r g e l y f o r g o t ­ te n o r h a v e n e v e r a p p re c ia te d .

474

T h ro u g h our efforts to understand dreams we become ac­ qu ain ted w ith w hat W illiam Jam es has aptly called the “ fringe of consciousness.” W hat appear to be red u n d an t and unwelcom e accessories are, if studied m ore closely, the almost invisible roots of conscious contents, i.e., their sublim inal aspects. T h e y form the psychic m aterial th at m ust be considered as the interm ediary betw een unconscious and conscious contents, or the bridge that spans the gap betw een consciousness and the ultim ately physi­ ological foundations of the psyche. T h e practical im portance of such a bridge can hardly be overrated. It is the indispensable link betw een the rational w orld of consciousness and the w orld of instinct. T h e m ore o u r consciousness is influenced by p re ju ­ dices, fantasies, infantile wishes, and the lure of external objects, the m ore the already existing gap will w iden ou t into a neurotic dissociation and lead to an artificial life far rem oved from healthy instincts, nature, and truth. Dream s try to re-establish the eq u ilib riu m by restoring the images and emotions th at ex­ press the state of the unconscious. O ne can hardly ever restore the original condition by rational talk, which is far too flat and colourless. B ut, as my examples have shown, the language of dream s provides just those images which appeal to the deeper strata of the psyche. O ne could even say th at the in terp retatio n of dream s enriches consciousness to such an extent th a t it re­ learns the forgotten language of the instincts. 475 In so far as instincts are physiological urges, they are p er­ ceived by the senses and at the same tim e m anifest themselves as fantasies. B ut in so far as they are n o t perceived sensually, they reveal th e ir presence only in images. T h e vast m ajority of in ­ stinctive phenom ena consists, however, of images, m any of which are of a symbolic n atu re whose m eaning is n o t im m ediately rec­ ognizable. O ne finds them chiefly in that tw ilight realm betw een dim consciousness and the unconscious background of the dream . Sometimes a dream is of such vital im portance th a t its message reaches consciousness no m atter how uncom fortable or shocking it may be. From the standpoint of m ental eq u ilib riu m and physiological health in general, it is m uch b etter for the conscious and the unconscious to be connected and to move on parallel lines than for them to be dissociated. In this respect the production of symbols can be considered a most valuable func­ tion.

476

O n e w i l l n a t u r a l l y a s k w h a t is t h e p o i n t o f th is f u n c t i o n if its s y m b o ls s h o u l d p a s s u n n o t i c e d o r p r o v e to b e in c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ? B u t la c k o f c o n s c io u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t th e d r e a m h a s n o e f f e c t a t a ll. E v e n c i v i liz e d m a n c a n o c c a s io n a lly o b s e r v e t h a t a d r e a m w h i c h h e c a n n o t r e m e m b e r c a n s lig h tly a l t e r h is m o o d f o r b e t t e r o r w o r s e . D r e a m s c a n b e “ u n d e r s t o o d ” to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t i n a s u b l i m i n a l w a y , a n d t h a t is m o s t l y h o w t h e y w o r k . O n l y w h e n a d r e a m is v e r y im p r e s s iv e , o r r e p e a ts i t s e l f o f t e n , d o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d c o n s c io u s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e ­ c o m e d e s i r a b l e . B u t i n p a t h o l o g i c a l c a se s a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is im p e r a tiv e a n d s h o u ld b e u n d e r ta k e n if th e r e a re n o c o u n te r ­ i n d i c a t i o n s , s u c h as t h e e x i s te n c e o f a l a t e n t p s y c h o s is , w h i c h is, as i t w e r e , o n l y w a i t i n g f o r a s u i t a b l e r e l e a s i n g a g e n t t o b u r s t f o r th in f u ll fo rc e . U n in te llig e n t a n d in c o m p e te n t a p p lic a tio n o f d r e a m a n a ly s is a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is i n d e e d n o t a d v is a b le , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t w h e n t h e r e is a d i s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n a v e r y o n e ­ s i d e d c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y i r r a t i o n a l o r “ c ra z y ” u n c o n s c io u s . 477 O w i n g t o t h e i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y o f c o n s c io u s c o n t e n t s a n d t h e i r d e v ia tio n fro m th e id e a l m id d le lin e , th e u n c o n s c io u s c o m p e n ­ s a t i o n is e q u a l l y v a r ie d , s o t h a t o n e w o u l d b e h a r d p u t t o i t to s a y w h e t h e r d r e a m s a n d t h e i r s y m b o ls a r e c la s s if ia b le o r n o t. T h o u g h t h e r e a r e d r e a m s a n d o c c a s io n a l s y m b o ls — b e t t e r c a lle d m o tifs i n th is case— w h ic h a re ty p ic a l a n d o c c u r o fte n , m o st d r e a m s a r e i n d i v i d u a l a n d a t y p ic a l. T y p i c a l m o t i f s a r e f a llin g , f ly in g , b e i n g c h a s e d b y d a n g e r o u s a n i m a l s o r m e n , b e i n g in su ffi­ c i e n t l y o r a b s u r d l y c l o t h e d i n p u b l i c p la c e s , b e i n g i n a h u r r y o r lo s t i n a m i l l i n g c r o w d , f i g h t i n g w i t h u s e le s s w e a p o n s o r b e i n g u t t e r l y d e f e n c e le s s , r u n n i n g a n d g e t t i n g n o w h e r e , a n d so o n . A t y p i c a l i n f a n t i l e m o t i f is t h e d r e a m o f g r o w i n g i n f i n i t e l y s m a ll o r i n f i n i t e l y b i g , o r o f b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d f r o m t h e o n e i n t o th e o th e r. 478 A n o t e w o r t h y p h e n o m e n o n is t h e r e c u r r e n t d r e a m . T h e r e a r e c a s e s o f d r e a m s r e p e a t i n g th e m s e lv e s f r o m t h e d a y s o f c h i l d ­ h o o d t o t h e a d v a n c e d y e a r s o f a d u l t lif e . S u c h d r e a m s u s u a lly c o m p e n s a t e a d e f e c t i n o n e ’s c o n s c io u s a t t i t u d e , o r t h e y d a t e f r o m a t r a u m a t i c m o m e n t t h a t h a s l e f t b e h i n d s o m e s p e c ific p re ju d ic e , o r th e y a n tic ip a te a f u tu r e e v e n t o f so m e im p o rta n c e . I m y s e lf d r e a m t o f a m o t i f t h a t w a s r e p e a t e d m a n y t im e s o v e r a p e r io d o f y e a rs. I t w as t h a t I d is c o v e re d a p a r t o f a w in g o f m y 210

h o u s e w h i c h I d i d n o t k n o w e x i s t e d . S o m e t im e s i t w a s t h e p la c e w h e r e m y p a re n ts liv e d — w h o h a d d ie d lo n g a g o — w h e r e m y fa ­ t h e r , t o m y g r e a t s u r p r is e , h a d a la b o r a t o r y i n w h i c h h e s t u d i e d t h e c o m p a r a t i v e a n a t o m y o f f is h e s , a n d w h e r e m y m o t h e r r a n a h o s t e l r y f o r g h o s t l y v is i t o r s . U s u a l l y t h e w i n g o r i n d e p e n d e n t g u e s t - h o u s e w a s a n h i s t o r i c a l b u i l d i n g s e v e r a l h u n d r e d y e a r s o ld , lo n g fo r g o tte n , y e t m y a n c e s tr a l p r o p e r ty . I t c o n ta in e d in te r e s t­ i n g o l d f u r n i t u r e , a n d t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h is s e r ie s o f r e c u r r e n t d r e a m s I d i s c o v e r e d a n o l d lib r a r y w h o s e b o o k s w e r e u n k n o w n t o m e . F i n a l l y , i n t h e la s t d r e a m , I o p e n e d o n e o f t h e o l d v o l ­ u m e s a n d f o u n d in it a p r o fu s io n o f th e m o s t m a r v e llo u s sy m ­ b o lic p ic tu r e s . W h e n I a w o k e , m y h e a r t w a s p o u n d in g w it h e x ­ c ite m e n t. 479

S o m e t i m e b e f o r e t h is d r e a m I h a d p la c e d a n o r d e r w i t h a n a n tiq u a r ia n b o o k s e lle r a b r o a d fo r o n e o f th e L a t in a lc h e m ic a l c la s s ic s , b e c a u s e I h a d c o m e a c r o s s a q u o t a t i o n t h a t I t h o u g h t m i g h t b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h e a r ly B y z a n t i n e a lc h e m y , a n d I w i s h e d t o v e r i f y it . S e v e r a l w e e k s a f t e r m y d r e a m a p a r c e l a r r iv e d c o n ­ t a in in g a p a r c h m e n t v o lu m e o f th e s ix t e e n t h c e n tu r y w it h m a n y m o s t f a s c i n a t i n g s y m b o l i c p ic t u r e s . T h e y i n s t a n t l y r e m i n d e d m e o f m y d r e a m lib r a r y . A s t h e r e d i s c o v e r y o f a l c h e m y f o r m s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f m y l i f e as a p i o n e e r o f p s y c h o lo g y , t h e m o t i f o f t h e u n k n o w n a n n e x o f m y h o u s e c a n e a s ily b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a n a n tic ip a tio n o f a n e w fie ld o f in te r e s t a n d resea rch . A t a ll e v e n ts, fr o m th a t m o m e n t th ir ty y ea rs a g o th e r e c u r r e n t d r e a m c a m e to an en d.

480

S y m b o ls , l i k e d r e a m s , a r e n a t u r a l p r o d u c t s , b u t t h e y d o n o t o c c u r o n ly in d r e a m s. T h e y c a n a p p e a r in a n y n u m b e r o f p sy ­ c h ic m a n ife s ta tio n s : th e r e a r e s y m b o lic th o u g h ts a n d fe e lin g s , s y m b o l i c a c t s a n d s i t u a t i o n s , a n d i t o f t e n lo o k s a s i f n o t o n l y t h e u n c o n s c io u s b u t e v e n in a n im a te o b je c ts w e r e c o n c u r r in g in th e a r r a n g e m e n t o f s y m b o lic p a tte r n s. T h e r e a re n u m e r o u s w e lla u t h e n t i c a t e d s t o r ie s o f a c l o c k t h a t s t o p p e d a t t h e m o m e n t o f it s o w n e r ’s d e a t h , l i k e F r e d e r ic k t h e G r e a t ’s p e n d u l u m c l o c k a t S a n s S o u c i ; o f a m ir r o r t h a t b r o k e , o r a b o i l i n g c o f f e e - p o t t h a t e x p l o d e d , j u s t b e f o r e o r d u r i n g a c r is is ; a n d s o o n . F v e n i f t h e s c e p t ic r e f u s e s t o c r e d i t s u c h r e p o r t s , s t o r ie s o f t h is k i n d a r e e v e r r e n e w e d a n d a r e t o l d a g a in a n d a g a in , w h i c h is a m p l e p r o o f o f t h e ir p s y c h o lo g ic a l im p o r ta n c e , e v e n t h o u g h ig n o r a n t p e o p le d e n y th e ir fa c tu a l e x is te n c e .

481

T h e most im p o rtan t symbols, however, are n o t individual b u t collective in their n atu re and origin. T hey are found princi­ pally in the religions. T h e believer assumes th at they are of d i­ vine origin— that they are revealed. T h e sceptic thinks they are invented. Both are wrong. It is tru e that, on the one hand, such symbols have for centuries been the objects of careful and quite conscious elaboration and differentiation, as in the case of dog­ mas. But, on the other hand, they are representations collectives dating from dim and rem ote ages, and these are “revelations” only in the sense th a t they are images originating in dream s and creative fantasies. T h e latter are involuntary, spontaneous m an­ ifestations and by no means arbitrary and in ten tio n al inven­ tions. 482 T h e re was never a genius who sat dow n w ith his p en or brush and said: “ Now I am going to invent a sym bol.” N o one can take a m ore or less rational thought, reached as a logical conclusion or deliberately chosen, and then disguise it as a “sym­ bolic” phantasm agoria. No m atter how fantastic the trappings may look, it w ould still be a sign h in tin g at a conscious thought, and not a symbol. A sign is always less than the thing it points to, and a symbol is always m ore than we can u nderstand at first sight. T herefore we never stop at the sign b u t go on to the goal it indicates; b u t we rem ain w ith the symbol because it promises m ore than it reveals. 483 If the contents of dream s agree w ith a sex theory, then we know th eir essence already, b u t if they are symbolic we at least know th at we do no t understand them yet. A sym bol does no t dis­ guise, it reveals in tim e. It is obvious th a t dream in terpretation w ill yield one resu lt w hen you consider the dream to be sym­ bolic, and an entirely different one w hen you assume th at the essential thought is m erely disguised b u t already know n in prin­ ciple. In the la tte r case, dream in terp retatio n makes no sense whatever, for you find only w hat you know already. T herefore I always advise my pupils: “ L earn as m uch as you can ab o u t sym­ bolism and forget it all w hen you are analysing a dream .” This advice is sp im portant in practice th at I myself have m ade it a ru le to adm it th at I never understand a dream well enough to in te rp re t it correctly. I do this in order to check the flow of my own associations and reactions, which m ight otherwise prevail over my p a tie n t’s uncertainties and hesitations. As it is of the 212

highest therapeutic im portance for the analyst to get the mes­ sage of the dream as accurately as possible, it is essential for him to explore the context of the dream-images w ith the utm ost thoroughness. I had a dream while I was w orking w ith Freud th at illustrates this very clearly. 484 I dream t th a t I was in “my house,” apparently on the first floor, in a cosy, pleasant drawing-room furnished in the style of the eighteenth century. I was ra th e r astonished because I real­ ized I had never seen this room before, and began to w onder w hat the ground floor was like. I w ent downstairs and found it ra th e r dark, w ith panelled walls and heavy fu rn itu re dating from the sixteenth century or even earlier. I was greatly sur­ prised and my curiosity increased, because it was all a very u n ­ expected discovery. In order to become b etter acquainted w ith the whole structure of the house, I thought I w ould go dow n to the cellar. I found a door, w ith a flight of stone steps th a t led dow n to a large vaulted room . T h e floor consisted of large slabs of stone, and the walls struck me as very ancient. I exam ined the m o rtar and found it was m ixed w ith splinters of brick. O bvi­ ously it was an old R om an wall. I began to grow excited. In a corner, I saw an iron rin g in one of the stone slabs. I lifted it up and saw yet another narrow flight of steps leading down to a sort of cave which was obviously a prehistoric tom b. It contained two skulls, some bones, an d broken shards of pottery. T h e n I woke up. 485 If Freud, w hen analysing this dream , had followed my m ethod of exploring the context, he w ould have heard a farreaching story. B ut I am afraid he would have dismissed it as a m ere attem p t to escape from a problem th at was really his own. T h e dream is in fact a short sum m ary of my life— the life of my m ind. I grew up in a house two h u n d red years old, o ur fu rn itu re consisted mostly of pieces about a h u n d red years old, and m en­ tally my greatest adventure had been the study of K ant and Schopenhauer. T h e great news of the day was the w ork of Charles D arw in. Shortly before this I had been living in a still m edieval w orld w ith my parents, w here the w orld and m an were still presided over by divine om nipotence and providence. T h is w orld had become an tiq u ated and obsolete. My C hristian faith had been relativized by my encounter w ith Eastern religions and 213

G reek philosophy. I t is for this reason th at the g round floor was so still, dark, and obviously uninhabited. 486 My then historical interests had developed from my original preoccupation w ith com parative anatom y and paleontology w hen I worked as an assistant at the A natom ical Institute. I was fascinated by the bones of fossil m an, particularly by the muchdiscussed Neanderthalensis and the still m ore controversial skull of D ubois’ Pithecanthropus. As a m atter of fact, these were my real associations to the dream . B ut I did no t dare m ention the subject of skulls, skeletons, or corpses to Freud, because I had learned th a t this them e was not popular w ith him . H e cherished the peculiar idea th at I anticipated his early death. H e drew this conclusion from the fact th a t I was interested in the m um m ified corpses in the so-called B leikeller in Brem en, which we had vis­ ited together in 1909 on our trip to A m erica.1 487 T h u s I was relu ctan t to come o u t w ith my thoughts, since through recent experience I was deeply im pressed by the almost unbridgeable gap betw een F reu d ’s m ental outlook and back­ ground and my own. I was afraid of losing his friendship if I should open u p to him about my inner w orld, which, I surmised, w ould look very queer to him . Feeling q u ite un certain about my own psychology, I almost autom atically told him a lie about my “free associations” in order to escape the im possible task of enlightening him about my very personal and u tterly different m ental constitution. 488 I soon realized th a t F reud was seeking for some incom patible wish of m ine. A nd so I suggested tentatively th a t the skulls m ight refer to certain m em bers of my family whose death, for some reason, I m ight desire. T h is proposal m et w ith his ap­ proval, b u t I was not satisfied w ith such a “phoney” solution. 489 W hile I was trying to find a suitable answer to F reu d ’s ques­ tions, I was suddenly confounded by an in tu itio n ab o u t the role w hich the subjective factor plays in psychological understand­ ing. My in tu itio n was so overw helm ing that my only thought was how to get o u t of this impossible snarl, and I took the easy way o u t by a lie. T h is was n eith er elegant n o r m orally defen­ sible, b u t otherw ise I should have risked a fatal row w ith Freud — and I did n o t feel up to that for m any reasons. For further details, see my M em ories, D ream s, R eflections, pp. ig6ff. (London edn., pp. isaff.).

1

My in tu itio n consisted in a sudden and most unexpected in ­ sight into the fact th a t my dream m eant myself, m y life and m y w orld, my whole reality as against a theoretical structure erected by another, alien m in d for reasons and purposes of its own. It was not F reu d ’s dream , it was m ine; and suddenly I understood in a flash w hat my dream m eant. 491 I m ust apologize for this ra th e r lengthy n arratio n of the jam I got into through telling F reud my dream . B ut it is a good ex­ am ple of the difficulties in which one gets involved in the course of a real dream analysis. So m uch depends on th e personal differences betw een the analyst an d the analysand. 492 D ream analysis on this level is less a technique than a dialec­ tical process betw een two personalities. If it is handled as a tech­ nique, the peculiarity of the subject as an individual is excluded and the therapeutic problem is reduced to the simple question: who w ill dom inate whom? I had given u p hypnotic treatm en t for this very reason, because I did n o t w ant to impose my will on others. I w anted the healing processes to grow ou t of the pa­ tie n t’s own personality, and not out of suggestions of m ine that w ould have only a passing effect. I w anted to protect and p re­ serve my p a tie n t’s dignity and freedom so that he could live his life by his own volition. 493 I could n o t share F reu d ’s almost exclusive interest in sex. Assuredly sex plays no small role am ong hum an motives, b u t in m any cases it is secondary to hunger, the power drive, am bition, fanaticism , envy, revenge, o r the devouring passion of the cre­ ative im pulse and the religious spirit. 494 F or the first tim e it daw ned on me that before we construct general theories about m an and his psyche we should learn a great deal m ore about the real hum an being, ra th e r th an an ab­ stract idea of H om o sapiens.

490

4- T H E PROBLEM OF TYPES IN DREAM IN T E R P R E T A T IO N 495

In all other branches of science, it is a legitimate procedure to apply an hypothesis to an impersonal object. Psychology, how­ ever, inescapably confronts us with the living relationship be­ tween two individuals, neither of whom can be divested of his subjectivity or depersonalized in any way. T hey can mutually agree to deal with a chosen theme in an impersonal, objective manner, but when the whole of the personality becomes the ob­ ject of their discussion, two individual subjects confront one an­ other and the application of a one-way rule is excluded. Progress is possible only if mutual agreement can be reached. T h e objec­ tivity of the final result can be established only by comparison with the standards that are generally valid in the social milieu to which the individuals belong, and we must also take their own mental equilibrium, or “sanity,” into account. T his does not mean that the final result must be the complete collectivization of the individual, for this would be a most unnatural condition. On the contrary, a sane and normal society is one in which peo­ ple habitually disagree. General agreement is relatively rare outside the sphere of the instinctive qualities. Disagreement functions as a vehicle of mental life in a society, but it is not a goal; agreement is equally important. Because psychology basi­ cally depends upon balanced opposites, no judgment can be considered final unless allowance is made for its reversibility. T he reason for this peculiarity lies in the fact that there is no standpoint above or outside psychology that would enable us to form a final judgment as to what the psyche is. Everything we can imagine is in a psychic state, i.e., in the state of a conscious representation. T o get outside this is the whole difficulty of the physical sciences.

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In sp ite o f the fact that the only reality is the in d ivid u al, som e gen eralities are necessary in order to clarify and classify the em p irical m aterial, for it w o u ld ob viou sly be im p ossib le to for­ m u la te any psychological theory, or to teach it, by describing in d ivid u als. A s a p rin cip le of classification, on e can choose any likeness or u n lik en ess if o n ly it is general enou gh , b e it a n atom i­ cal, ph ysiological, or psychological. For our purpose, w h ich is m ain ly con cern ed w ith psychology, it w ill be a psychological on e, n am ely the w idespread and easily observable fact that a great n u m b er of p eo p le are e x tr a v e r te d and others in tro v e rte d . T h e r e is n o n eed for a special exp lan ation o f these term s as they have passed in to com m on speech. 497 T h is is o n e of the m any gen eralities from w h ich o n e can choose, and it is fairly su itab le for ou r purpose in so far as w e are seek in g to describe the m eth o d of, and approach to, an u n d er­ stan d in g o f dream s as the m ain source o f natural sym bols. A s I have said, th e process of in terp retation consists in the con fron ta­ tio n o f tw o m ind s, the analyst’s and the analysand’s, and n o t in the a p p lica tio n of a precon ceived theory. T h e analyst’s m in d is characterized by a n u m b er of in d iv id u a l p ecu liarities, perhaps ju st as m any as th e analysand’s. T h e y have the effect of p reju­ dices. It can n ot b e assum ed that the analyst is a superm an just because he is a doctor and possesses a theory and a correspond ing tech n iq u e. H e can o n ly im agin e h im self to b e superior if he as­ sum es that his theory and tech n iq u e are absolute truths, capable of em b racin g the w h o le o f the psyche. Since such an assum ption is m ore than d o u b tfu l, he can n ot really be sure o f it. C on se­ q u en tly h e w ill be assailed by secret doubts in a d op tin g such an attitu d e, i.e., in co n fro n tin g the hum an w holeness of th e analysand w ith a theory and a tech n iq u e (w hich are m ere h yp oth ­ eses) instead of w ith his ow n liv in g w holeness. T h is alon e is the e q u iv a len t of his analysand’s personality. P sychological ex p eri­ ence and k n ow led ge are n o th in g m ore than professional advan­ tages o n the part o f the analyst that d o n o t keep h im safely o u t­ side the fray. H e w ill be tested ju st as m u ch as th e analysand. 498 Since th e system atic analysis of dream s dem ands the con fron ­ tation o f tw o in d ivid u als, it w ill m ake a great difference w h eth er their type of attitu d e is the sam e or not. If b oth b elo n g to the sam e type, they m ay sail a lon g h ap p ily for a lo n g tim e. B u t if o n e is an extravert and the other an introvert, their different 217

and contradictory standpoints may clash right away, particularly w hen they are unconscious of their own type or are convinced th at it is the only rig h t one. Such a mistake is easily m ade, be­ cause the value of the one is the non-value of the other. T h e one w ill choose the m ajority view, the other will reject it ju st be­ cause it is everybody’s taste. Freud him self in terp reted the in tro ­ verted type as an individual m orbidly engrossed in himself. But introspection and self-knowledge can ju st as well be of the great­ est value. 499 T h e apparently trifling difference betw een the extravert, w ith his emphasis on externals, and the introvert, who puts the emphasis on the way he takes a situation, plays a very great role in the analysis of dreams. From the start you m ust bear in m ind that w hat the one appreciates may be very negative to the other, and the high ideal of the one can be an object of rep u l­ sion to the other. T h is becomes m ore and m ore obvious the fur­ th er you go in to the details of type differences. Extraversion and introversion are just two am ong m any peculiarities of hum an behaviour, b u t they are often ra th e r obvious and easily recog­ nizable. If one studies extraverted individuals, for instance, one soon discovers th a t they differ from one another in many ways, and th at being extraverted is a superficial and too general criterion to be really characteristic. T h a t is why, long ago, I tried to find some fu rth er basic peculiarities th at m ight serve the purpose of getting some order into the apparently limitless vari­ ations of hum an personality. 5°° I had always been impressed by the fact th a t there are sur­ prisingly m any individuals who never use th eir m inds if they can avoid it, and yet are n o t stupid, and an equal n u m b er who obviously do use th e ir m inds b u t in an amazingly stu p id way. I was also surprised to find m any intelligent and wide-awake peo­ ple who lived (as far as one could m ake out) as if they had never learned to use th eir sense organs. T h ey did n o t see the things before their eyes, hear the words sounding in their ears, notice the things they touched or tasted, and lived w ith o u t being aware of th eir ow n bodies. T h e re were others who seemed to live in a most curious condition of consciousness, as if the state they had arrived at today were final, w ith no change in sight, or as if the w orld and the psyche were static an d w ould rem ain so for ever. T h ey seemed devoid of all im agination, and entirely and exclu218

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sively dependent on sense perception. Chances and possibilities did n o t exist in th eir w orld, and in th eir “today” there was no real “ tom orrow .” T h e fu tu re was just the rep etitio n of the past. W hat I am trying to convey to the reader is the first glimpse of the impressions I received w hen I began to observe the many people I met. It soon became clear to me th at the people who used th e ir m inds were those who thought, who em ployed th eir intellectual faculty in trying to adapt to people and circum ­ stances; and th a t the equally intelligent people, who yet did no t think, were those who sought and found th eir way by feeling. Now “feeling” is a w ord th a t needs some explanation. For in ­ stance, one speaks of “feeling” when it is a m atter of “senti­ m en t” (corresponding to the French sentim ent). B ut one also applies the same w ord to an opinion; a com m unication from the W hite H ouse may begin: “T h e P resident feels . . . ” O r one uses it to express an in tu itio n : “I had a feeling . . .” Finally, feeling is often confused w ith sensation. W h at I m ean by feeling in contrast to th in k in g is a ju d g ­ m en t o f value: agreeable or disagreeable, good or bad, and so on. Feeling so defined is n o t an em otion or affect, which is, as the words convey, an involuntary m anifestation. Feeling as I m ean it is a judgm ent w ithout any of the obvious bodily reac­ tions th a t characterize an em otion. Like thinking, it is a ra­ tional function; whereas in tu itio n , like sensation, is irrational. In so far as in tu itio n is a “h u n c h ” it is no t a p roduct of a volun­ tary act; it is ra th e r an involuntary event, which depends on different external or internal circumstances instead of an act of judgm ent. In tu itio n is m ore like sense perception, w hich is also an irrational event in so far as it depends essentially on external o r in tern al stim uli deriving from physical an d n o t m ental causes. T hese four functional types correspond to th e obvious means by which consciousness obtains its orientation. Sensation (or sense perception) tells you th a t som ething exists; th in kin g tells you w hat it is; feeling tells you w hether it is agreeable or not; and in tu itio n tells you where it comes from and w here it is going. T h e reader should understand that these four criteria are ju st so m any view points am ong others, such as will-power, tem ­ peram ent, im agination, memory, m orality, religiousness, etc. 219

T h e re is nothing dogm atic about them , n or do they claim to be the ultim ate tru th ab o u t psychology; b u t th eir basic n atu re rec­ om m ends them as suitable principles of classification. Classifica­ tion has little value if it does not provide a means of orientation and a practical terminology. I find classification in to types p ar­ ticularly helpful w hen I am called upon to explain parents to children or husbands to wives, and vice versa. I t is also useful in understanding one’s own prejudices. 5°5 T hus, if you w ant to understand an o th er person’s dream, you have to sacrifice your own predilections and suppress your prejudices, at least for the tim e being. T h is is n eith er easy nor com fortable, because it means a m oral effort th a t is n o t every­ one’s cup of tea. But, if you do not make the effort to criticize your own standpoint and to adm it its relativity, you w ill get n ei­ th e r the rig h t inform ation about, n o r sufficient insight into, your analysand’s m ind. As you expect at least some willingness on his p art to listen to your opinion and to take it seriously, the p atient m ust be granted the same right too. A lthough such a relationship is indispensable for any un derstanding and is there­ fore a self-evident necessity, one has to rem in d oneself again and again that in therapy it is m ore im p o rtan t for the p atient to understand than for the analyst’s theoretical expectations to be satisfied. T h e p a tie n t’s resistance to the analyst is n o t necessarily wrong; it is rath er a sign th at som ething does no t “click.” Either the p atient is not yet at a point where he w ould be able to u n ­ derstand, o r the in terp retatio n does n o t fit. 5°6 In o u r efforts to in te rp re t the dream symbols of an o th er p er­ son, we are particularly ham pered by an alm ost invincible tend­ ency to fill the gaps in our understanding by projection—th a t is, by the assum ption th a t w hat I th in k is also my p artn er’s thought. T his source of error can be avoided by establishing the context of the dream-images and excluding all theoretical assum ptions— except for the heuristic hypothesis th at dreams somehow m ake sense. 5°7 T h e re is no rule, let alone a law, of dream interpretation, although it does look as if the general purpose of dream s is com­ pensation. A t least, com pensation can be said to be the most prom ising and m ost fertile hypothesis. Sometimes the manifest dream dem onstrates its com pensatory character from the start. For instance, a p atient w ith no small idea of him self and his 220

m oral superiority dream t of a drunk en tram p wallowing in a ditch beside the road. T h e dream er says (in the dream ): “ I t’s awful to see how low a m an can fall!” It is evident that the dream was attem pting to deflate his exalted opinion of himself. B ut there was m ore to it than that. It tu rn ed o u t that he had a black sheep in the family, a younger b rother who was a degener­ ate alcoholic. W h at the dream also revealed was that his superior a ttitu d e com pensated the inferiority of his brother— and of the b ro th er w ho was also himself. 5°8 In an o th er case, a lady who was proud of her intelligent u n ­ derstanding of psychology kept on dream ing about a certain w om an whom she occasionally m et in society. In real life she did not like her, th in k in g her vain, dishonest, and an intriguer. She w ondered why she should dream of a person so unlike herself and yet, in the dream , so friendly and intim ate, like a sister. T h e dream obviously w anted to convey the idea that she was “shadow ed” by an unconscious character resem bling that woman. As she had a very definite idea of herself, she was u n a­ ware of h e r own power-complex and her own shady motives, which had m ore than once led to disagreeable scenes that were always a ttrib u te d to others b u t never to her own m achinations. 5°9 It is n o t only the shadow-side th at is overlooked, disregarded and repressed; positive qualities can also be subjected to the same treatm ent. A n instance of this w ould be an apparently m odest, self-effacing m an w ith w inning, apologetic or depreca­ tory m anners, w ho always takes a back seat though w ith seeming politeness he never misses an opportunity to be present. His ju d g m en t is w ell-inform ed, even com petent and apparently ap­ preciative, yet it hints at a certain higher level from which the m a tte r in question could be dealt w ith in a far superior way. In his dream s he constantly meets great m en such as N apoleon and A lexander the G reat. H is obvious inferiority complex is clearly com pensated by such m om entous visitors, b u t at the same tim e the dream s raise the critical question: w hat sort of m an m ust I be to have such illustrious callers? In this respect, they show that the dream er nurses a secret m egalom ania as an antidote to his inferiority com plex. W ith o u t his knowing it, the idea of gran­ d eu r enables him to im m unize himself against all influences from his surroundings; n othing penetrates his skin, and he can thus keep aloof from obligations th at w ould be b in d in g to other 221

people. H e does not feel in any way called u p o n to prove to him self or his fellows th a t his superior judgm ent is based on cor­ responding merits. H e is n o t only a bachelor, b u t m entally ster­ ile as well. H e only understands the art of spreading hints and w hisperings ab o u t his im portance, b u t no m o n u m en t witnesses to his deeds. H e plays this inane game all unconsciously, and the dreams try to b rin g it hom e to him in a curiously ambiguous way, as the old saying goes: D u cu n t volentem fata} nolentem trahunt (the fates lead the willing, b u t drag the unwilling). H obno b b in g w ith N apoleon or being on speaking term s with A lexander the G reat is ju st the thing a m an w ith an inferiority com plex could wish for—a wholesale confirm ation of the great­ ness b ehind the scenes. It is tru e wish-fulfilment, which antici­ pates an achievem ent w ithout the m erits th a t should lead to it. B ut why, one will ask, can’t dream s be open and d irect about it, and say it clearly w ithout subterfuges that seem to m islead in an almost cunning way? 51° I have frequently been asked this question and I have asked it myself. I am often surprised at the tantalizing way dreams seem to evade definite inform ation or om it the decisive point. F reud assumed the existence of a special factor, called th e “cen­ sor,” which was supposed to twist the dream-images and make them unrecognizable or m isleading in order to deceive the dream ing consciousness ab o u t the real subject of the dream : the incom patible wish. T h ro u g h the concealm ent of the critical point, it was supposed th at the dream er’s sleep w ould be pro­ tected against the shock of a disagreeable rem iniscence. B ut the dream as a guardian of sleep is an unlikely hypothesis, since dream s ju st as often disturb sleep. 511 I t looks ra th e r as if, instead of an unconscious censor, con­ sciousness, or the dream er’s approach to consciousness, had itself a blotting-out effect on the sublim inal contents. Sublim inality corresponds to w hat Ja n e t calls abaissement du niveau mental. I t is a low ering of the energic tension, in which psychic contents sink below the threshold and lose the qualities they possess in th eir conscious state. T h e y lose th e ir definiteness and clearness, and th eir relations become vaguely analogous instead of rational and com prehensible. T h is is a phenom enon th a t can be ob­ served in all dream like conditions, w hether due to fatigue, fever, or toxins. B ut as soon as th e ir tension increases, they become less 222

sublim inal, m ore definite, and thus m ore conscious. T h e re is no reason to believe th a t the abaissement shields incom patible wishes from discovery, although it may incidentally h appen that an incom patible wish disappears along w ith the vanishing con­ sciousness. T h e dream , being essentially a sublim inal process, cannot produce a definite thought, unless it should cease to be a dream by instantly becom ing a conscious content. T h e dream cannot b u t skip all those points th at are particularly im p o rtan t to the conscious m ind. I t manifests the “fringe of conscious­ ness,” like the faint glim m er of the stars d u rin g a total eclipse of the sun. 512 D ream symbols are for the most p art m anifestations of a psyche th at is beyond the control of consciousness. M eaning and purposefulness are n o t prerogatives of the conscious m ind; they operate through the whole of living n atu re. T h e re is no differ­ ence in principle betw een organic and psychic form ations. As a p la n t produces its flower, so the psyche creates its symbols. Every dream is evidence of this process. T hus, through dreams, intuitions, impulses, and other spontaneous happenings, in ­ stinctive forces influence the activity of consciousness. W h eth er th a t influence is for b e tte r o r worse depends on the actual con­ tents of the unconscious. If it contains too m any things th a t n o r­ m ally ought to be conscious, then its function becomes twisted and prejudiced; motives appear that are n o t based on true in ­ stincts, b u t owe th e ir activity to the fact th a t they have been consigned to the unconscious by repression or neglect. T h ey overlay, as it were, the norm al unconscious psyche and distort its n a tu ra l sym bol-producing function. 5!3 T h erefo re it is usual for psychotherapy, concerned as it is w ith the causes of a disturbance, to begin by eliciting from the p a tien t a m ore o r less voluntary confession of all the things he dislikes, is ashamed of, or fears. T h is is like the m uch older con: fession in the C hurch, which in m any ways anticipated m odern psychological techniques. In practice, however, th e procedure is often reversed, since overpow ering feelings of inferiority o r a serious weakness may m ake it very difficult, if n o t impossible, for the patien t to face a still deeper darkness and worthlessness. I have often found it m ore profitable first to give a positive o u t­ look to the patient, a foundation on which he could stand, be­ fore we approached m ore painful and d eb ilitatin g insights. 223

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T ake as a sim ple exam ple the dream of “personal exalta­ tion,” in which one has tea w ith the Q ueen of England, or is on intim ate terms w ith the Pope. If the dream er is n o t a schizo­ phrenic, the practical in terp retatio n of the symbol depends very m uch on the state of his consciousness. If he is obviously con­ vinced of his greatness a dam per will be indicated, b u t if it is a m atter of a w orm already crushed by the weight of his inferior­ ity, a fu rth er low ering of his values w ould am ount to cruelty. In the form er case a reductive treatm ent w ill recom m end itself, and it will be easy to show from the associative m aterial how inappropriate and childish the dream er’s intentions are, and how m uch they em anate from infantile wishes to be equal or superior to his parents. B ut in the latter case, w here an allpervading feeling of worthlessness has already devalued every positive aspect, to show the dream er, on top of it all, how infan­ tile, ridiculous, o r even perverse he is w ould be q u ite unfitting. Such a procedure w ould only increase his inferiority, as well as cause an unw elcom e and quite unnecessary resistance to the treatm ent. 5 :5 T h e re is no therapeutic technique or doctrine th at is gener­ ally applicable, since every case th at comes for treatm en t is an individual in a specific condition. I rem em ber a p atien t I had to treat over a period of n ine years. I saw him only for a few weeks each year, as he lived abroad. From the start I knew w hat his real trouble was, b u t I also saw how the least attem p t to get closer to the tru th was m et by a violent reaction and a self-defence that threatened com plete ru p tu re betw een us. W h eth er I liked it or not, I had to do my best to m aintain the rap p o rt and to follow his inclination, supported by his dreams, though this led the dis­ cussion away from the central problem that, according to all rea­ sonable expectations, should have been discussed. It w ent so far th a t I often accused myself of leading my p atien t astray, and only the fact th a t his condition slowly b u t clearly im proved pre­ vented me from confronting him brutally w ith the tru th . 51G In the ten th year, however, the p a tien t declared himself cured an d freed from all symptoms. I was surprised an d ready to do u b t his statem ent, because theoretically he could n o t be cured. N oticing my astonishm ent, he sm iled and said: “A nd now I w ant to thank you q u ite particularly for your unfailing tact and patience in helping m e to circum vent the painful cause of 224

my neurosis. I am now ready to tell you everything about it. If I had been able to do so I w ould have told you rig h t ou t at the first consultation. B ut th a t w ould have destroyed my ra p p o rt w ith you, and w here w ould I have been then? I w ould have been m orally b a n k ru p t and w ould have lost the g round from u n d er my feet, having noth in g to stand on. In the course of the years I have learn t to tru st you, and as my confidence grew my condi­ tion im proved. I im proved because my belief in myself was re­ stored, and now I am strong enough to discuss the problem th at was destroying m e.” 5J7 H e then m ade a devastatingly frank confession, which showed m e the reasons for the peculiar course our treatm ent had fol­ lowed. T h e original shock had been such that he could n o t face it alone. It needed the two of us, and th at was the therapeutic task, not the fulfilm ent of theoretical presuppositions. 518 From cases like this I learn t to follow the lines already in d i­ cated in the m aterial presented by the p atient and in his disposi­ tion, ra th e r than com m it myself to general theoretical consider­ ations th a t m ight n o t be applicable to that p articu lar case. T h e practical know ledge of hum an n atu re I have accum ulated in the course of sixty years has taught me to regard each case as a new experience, for which, first of all, I have to seek the individual approach. Sometimes I have not hesitated to plunge into a care­ ful study of infantile events and fantasies; at other times I have begun at the top, even if this m eant soaring into a m ist of most unlikely metaphysical speculations. It all depends on w hether I am able to learn the language of the p atien t and to follow the gropings of his unconscious towards the light. Some dem and one th in g and some another. Such are the differences betw een in d i­ viduals. 5!9 T h is is em inently tru e of the interp retatio n of symbols. Tw o different individuals can have almost the same dream , yet if one is young and the other old, the problem s d istu rb in g them will be correspondingly different, and it w ould be absurd to in te r­ p ret both dream s in the same way. A n exam ple th at comes to m in d is a d ream in which a com pany of young m en are rid in g on horseback across a wide field. T h e dream er is in the lead and jum ps a ditch of w ater, just clearing it. T h e others fall into the ditch. T h e young m an who told me this dream was a cautious, introverted type and rath er afraid of adventure. B ut the old

m an, who also had this dream , was bold an d fearless, and had lived an active and enterprising life. A t the tim e of the dream, he was an invalid w ho w ould not settle down, gave m uch trou­ ble to his doctor and nurse, and had in ju red him self by his dis­ obedience and restlessness. Obviously the dream was telling the young m an w hat he ought to do, an d the old m an w hat he was still doing. W hile it encouraged the hesitant young m an, the old one w ould be only too glad to risk the ju m p . B ut th at stillflickering spirit of adventure was ju st his greatest trouble. 52° T his exam ple shows how the in terp retatio n of dream s and symbols depends largely on the individual disposition of the dream er. Symbols have n o t one m eaning only b u t several, and often they even characterize a p air of opposites, as does, for in ­ stance, the stella m atutina, the m orning star, which is a wellknow n symbol of C hrist and at the same tim e of the devil (Luci­ fer). T h e same applies to the lion. T h e correct interpretation depends on the context, i.e., the associations connected w ith the image, and on the actual condition of the dream er’s m ind.

5- T H E A R C H E T Y P E IN D R E A M SYM BOLISM T h e hypothesis we have advanced, that dreams serve the purpose of c o m p e n s a t i o n is a very broad and com prehensive as­ sum ption. It means that we believe the dream to be a norm al psychic phenom enon that transmits unconscious reactions or spontaneous im pulses to the conscious m ind. Since only a small m inority o f dreams are m anifestly compensatory, we m ust pay particular attention to the language of dreams that we consider to be sym bolic. T h e study o f this language is alm ost a science in itself. It has. as w e have seen, an infinite variety of individual expressions. T h ey can be read w ith the help of the dreamer, who h im self provides the associative m aterial, or context of the dream-image, so that we can look at all its aspects as if circum ­ am bulating it. T h is m ethod proves to be sufficient in all ordi­ nary cases, such as w hen a relative, a friend, or a patient tells you a dream more or less conversationally. B ut w hen it is a m atter of outstanding dreams, of obsessive or recurrent dreams, or dreams that are highly em otional, the personal associations produced by the dreamer no longer suffice for a satisfactory interpretation. In such cases, we have to take in to consideration the fact, already observed and com m ented on by Freud, that elem ents often oc­ cur in a dream that are not individual and cannot be derived from personal experience. T h ey are what Freud called “archaic rem nants’’— thought-form s whose presence cannot be explained by anything in the in d ividu al’s own life, but seem to be aborigi­ nal, innate, and inherited patterns of the hum an m ind. Just as the hum an body represents a w hole m useum of or­ gans, w ith a long evolutionary history behind them, so we should expect the m in d to be organized in a sim ilar way rather than to be a product w ith ou t history. By “history” I do not m ean the fact that the m ind builds itself up through conscious tradition (language, etc.), but rather its biological, prehistoric, 227

a n d u n c o n sc io u s d e v e lo p m e n t b e g in n in g w ith a rc h a ic m an, w hose psyche was still s im ila r to th a t of a n a n im a l. T h is im ­ m en se ly o ld psyche fo rm s th e basis o f o u r m in d , ju s t as th e s tr u c tu r e o f o u r b o d y is e re c te d u p o n a g e n e ra lly m a m m a lia n a n a to m y . W h e re v e r th e tr a in e d eye o f th e m o rp h o lo g is t looks, it reco g n izes traces of th e o rig in a l p a tte rn . S im ila rly , th e e x p e ri­ e n c e d in v e s tig a to r of th e psyche c a n n o t h e lp se ein g th e analogies b e tw e e n d rea m -im a g e s a n d th e p ro d u c ts of th e p r im itiv e m in d , its r e p re se n ta tio n s c o lle ctive s, o r m y th o lo g ic a l m o tifs. B u t ju st as th e m o rp h o lo g is t n e e d s th e science o f c o m p a ra tiv e a n a to m y , so th e psy ch o lo g ist c a n n o t d o w ith o u t a “ c o m p a ra tiv e a n a to m y of th e p sy ch e.” H e m u s t h a v e a sufficient e x p e rie n c e o f d re a m s a n d o th e r p ro d u c ts of th e u n c o n sc io u s o n th e o n e h a n d , a n d o n th e o th e r of m y th o lo g y in its w id e st sense. H e c a n n o t ev e n see th e an a lo g y b e tw e e n a case o f c o m p u lsio n n e u ro sis, sc h iz o p h ren ia , o r h y ste ria a n d th a t o f a classical d e m o n ic possession if h e has n o t sufficient k n o w le d g e of b o th . 52s M y view s a b o u t th e “ a rc h a ic r e m n a n ts ,” w h ic h I h av e c alled “ a rc h e ty p e s” 1 o r “ p r im o rd ia l im a g e s,” are c o n s ta n tly c ritic iz e d b y p e o p le w h o lac k a sufficient k n o w le d g e b o th of th e psychol­ ogy o f d rea m s a n d of m y th o lo g y . T h e te r m “ a rc h e ty p e ” is o ften m is u n d e rs to o d as m e a n in g a c e rta in d e fin ite m y th o lo g ic a l im age o r m o tif. B u t th is w o u ld b e n o m o re th a n a co nscious re p re s e n ­ ta tio n , a n d i t w o u ld b e a b s u rd to assu m e th a t su ch v a ria b le re p re s e n ta tio n s c o u ld b e in h e rite d . T h e a rc h e ty p e is, o n th e co n ­ tra ry , a n in h e r ite d te n d e n c y o f th e h u m a n m in d to fo rm r e p r e ­ s e n ta tio n s o f m y th o lo g ic a l m o tifs— re p re s e n ta tio n s th a t vary a g re a t d e a l w ith o u t lo sin g th e ir basic p a tte rn . T h e r e are, fo r in ­ stan ce, n u m e ro u s re p re s e n ta tio n s o f th e m o tif of th e h o stile b ro th e rs , b u t th e m o tif re m a in s th e sam e. T h is in h e r ite d te n d ­ ency is in stin c tiv e , lik e th e specific im p u ls e o f n e s t-b u ild in g , m i­ g ra tio n , etc. in b ird s. O n e finds th ese re p re se n ta tio n s collectives p ra c tic a lly ev e ry w h ere , c h a ra c te riz e d b y th e sam e o r sim ila r m o tifs. T h e y c a n n o t b e assigned to a n y p a rtic u la r tim e o r r e ­ g io n o r race. T h e y a re w ith o u t k n o w n o rig in , a n d th e y c a n re ­ p ro d u c e th em selv es ev e n w h e re tra n sm issio n th ro u g h m ig ra tio n m u s t b e r u le d o u t. 5a4 M y c ritic s h a v e also in c o rre c tly a ssu m e d t h a t by a rc h e ty p e s I I From Gk. arche, ‘origin’, and tupos, ‘blow, imprint’.

228

m e a n “ in h e r i t e d id e a s ,” a n d o n th is g r o u n d h a v e d is m is s e d th e c o n c e p t o f th e a r c h e ty p e as a m e r e s u p e r s titio n . B u t if a rc h e ty p e s w e re id e a s th a t o r i g in a t e d

in

o u r c o n s c io u s m in d

o r w e re ac­

q u ir e d b y it, o n e w o u ld c e r ta in ly u n d e r s ta n d th e m , a n d w o u ld not be

a s to n is h e d

and

b e w ild e re d

w hen

th e y

appear

in

con­

s c io u s n e s s . I c a n r e m e m b e r m a n y c ases o f p e o p le w h o h a v e c o n ­ s u l t e d m e b e c a u s e th e y w e r e b a ff le d b y t h e i r o w n o r t h e i r c h i l ­ d r e n ’s d r e a m s . T h e r e a s o n w a s t h a t t h e d r e a m s c o n t a i n e d i m a g e s t h a t c o u ld n o t b e tr a c e d to a n y th i n g th e y r e m e m b e r e d , a n d th e y c o u ld n o t e x p la in w h e re th e ir c h ild re n such

s tra n g e

h ig h ly O ne

and

e d u c a te d

o f th e m

in c o m p re h e n s ib le p e rso n s,

w as

a

s o m e tim e s

p ro fe sso r w h o

th o u g h t h e w as c ra z y . H e

cam e

to

c o u ld h a v e p ic k e d

id e a s . T h e s e

p e o p le

p s y c h ia tris ts had

a

m e in

sudden

th e m s e lv e s . v is io n

and

a s ta te o f c o m p le te

p a n ic . I s im p ly to o k a f o u r - h u n d r e d - y e a r - o ld v o lu m e f r o m s h e lf a n d s h o w e d h im

up

w e re

th e

a n o ld w o o d c u t t h a t d e p ic te d h is v is io n .

“ Y o u d o n ’t n e e d t o b e c r a z y , ” I t o l d h i m . “ T h e y k n e w a l l a b o u t y o u r v is io n f o u r h u n d r e d y e a rs a g o .” W h e r e u p o n h e s a t d o w n e n tir e ly d e fla te d b u t o n c e m o r e n o r m a l. I p a r tic u la r ly re m e m b e r th e case o f a m a n w h o w as h im s e lf a

525

p s y c h ia tris t. H e b r o u g h t m e a h a n d w r itte n b o o k le t h e h a d r e ­ c e iv e d as a C h r is tm a s p r e s e n t f r o m h is te n - y e a r-o ld d a u g h te r . I t c o n ta i n e d a w h o le s e rie s o f d r e a m s s h e h a d h a d w h e n s h e w a s e ig h t y e a rs o ld . I t w a s th e w e ir d e s t s e rie s I h a d e v e r s e e n , a n d I c o u ld w e ll u n d e r s ta n d w h y h e r f a th e r w a s m o r e th a n p u z z le d b y th e

d re a m s. C h ild lik e

c a n n y , c o n ta in in g h e n s ib le

to

th o u g h

th e y w e re , th e y w e re a b it u n ­

im a g e s w h o s e o r i g in

h e r fa th e r.

H e re

a re

th e

w as w h o lly

in c o m p re ­

s a lie n t m o tifs f r o m

th e

d re a m s :2 1. T h e “ b a d a n i m a l ” : a s n a k e l i k e m o n s t e r w i t h m a n y h o r n s , t h a t k ills a n d d e v o u rs a ll o th e r a n im a ls . B u t G o d c o m e s f r o m th e f o u r c o r n e r s , b e i n g r e a l l y f o u r g o d s , a n d g iv e s r e b i r t h t o a l l t h e a n i m a l s . 2. A s c e n t i n t o h e a v e n w h e r e p a g a n d a n c e s a r e b e i n g c e l e b r a t e d , a n d d e s c e n t to h e ll w h e re a n g e ls a re d o in g g o o d d e e d s. 3. A h o r d e o f s m a ll a n im a ls f r ig h te n s th e d r e a m e r . T h e a n im a ls g r o w t o e n o r m o u s s iz e , a n d o n e o f t h e m d e v o u r s h e r . 4 . A s m a l l m o u s e is p e n e t r a t e d b y w o r m s , s n a k e s , f is h e s , a n d h u -

2 [For another analysis of this case, see Jacobi, ComplexjArchetype/Symbol, Part II.— E d i t o r s .]

man beings. Thus the mouse becomes human. This is the origin of mankind in four stages. 5. A drop of water is looked at through a microscope: it is full of branches. This is the origin of the world. 6. A bad boy with a clod of earth. He throws bits of it at the passers-by, and they all become bad too. 7. A drunken woman falls into the water and comes out sober and renewed. 8. In America many people are rolling in an ant heap, attacked by the ants. The dreamer, in a panic, falls into a river. 9. T he dreamer is in a desert on the moon. She sinks so deep into the ground that she reaches hell. 10. She touches a luminous ball seen in a vision. Vapours come out of it. Then a man comes and kills her. 11. She is dangerously ill. Suddenly birds come out of her skin and cover her completely. 12. Swarms of gnats hide the sun, moon, and stars, all except one star which then falls on the dreamer. 526

In the unabridged G erm an original, each dream begins w ith the words of the fairytale: “O nce u p o n a tim e . . W ith these words the little dream er suggests th a t she feels as if each dream were a sort of fairytale, w hich she wants to tell h er father as a Christmas present. H er father was u nable to elucidate the dreams through their context, for there seemed to be no per­ sonal associations. Indeed, this k ind of childhood dream often seems to be a “Ju st So Story,” w ith very few or no spontaneous associations. T h e possibility th a t these dreams were conscious elaborations can of course be ru led o u t only by someone who h ad an intim ate knowledge of the ch ild ’s character and d id not do u b t her truthfulness. T h ey would, however, rem ain a chal­ lenge to our understanding even if they were fantasies that orig­ in ated in the w aking state. T h e father was convinced th a t they were authentic, and I have no reason to do u b t it. I knew the little girl myself, b u t this was before she gave the dream s to her father, and I had no chance to question h er ab o u t them , for she lived far away from Switzerland and died of an infectious disease about a year after th at Christmas. 527 T h e dream s have a decidedly peculiar character, for their leading thoughts are in a way like philosophical problem s. T h e first dream , for instance, speaks of an evil m onster killing all other animals, b u t G od gives re b irth to them through a kind of 230

apocatastasis, or restitu tio n . In the W estern w orld this idea is know n th ro u g h C hristian trad itio n . It can be fo u n d in the Acts of the Apostles 3:21: “ (Christ,) whom the heaven m ust receive u n til the tim es of re stitu tio n of all things . . .” T h e early G reek Fathers of the C hurch (O rigen, for instance) p articularly insisted on the idea that, at the end of tim e, everything w ill be restored by the R edeem er to its original an d perfect state. Ac­ cording to M atthew 17:11, there was already an old Jew ish tra ­ d itio n th at Elias “ truly shall first come, an d restore all things.” I C orinthians 15:22 refers to the same idea in th e follow ing words: “ For as in A dam all die, even so in C hrist shall all be m ade alive.” 528 O ne m ig h t argue th a t the child had m et w ith this th o u g h t in h er religious education. B ut she had had very little of this, as h er parents (Protestants) belonged to those people, com m on enough in o u r days, w ho know the B ible only from hearsay. I t is p articularly unlikely th a t th e idea of apocatastasis had been ex­ plained to her, and had becom e a m a tte r of vital interest. H e r father, at any rate, was entirely unaw are of this m ythical idea. 529 N ine of the twelve dream s are concerned w ith the them e of destruction an d restoration. W e find the same connection in I C orinthians 15:22, w here A dam an d ChristJ i.e., death an d res­ urrection, are linked together. N one of these dream s, however, shows an ything m ore th an superficial traces of a specifically C hristian education or influence. O n th e contrary, they show m ore analogy w ith prim itive tales. T h is is corroborated by the o th er m otif— the cosmogonic m yth of th e creation of th e w orld an d of m an, w hich appears in dream s 4 an d 5. 53° T h e idea of C hrist the R edeem er belongs to the w orld-wide and pre-C hristian m otif of the hero an d rescuer who, although devoured by the m onster, appears again in a m iraculous way, having overcome the dragon or w hale or w hatever it was th at swallowed him . How , w hen, and w here such a m o tif originated nobody knows. W e do n o t even know how to set ab o u t investi­ gating the pro b lem in a sound way. O u r only certainty is th a t every generation, so far as we can see, has fo u n d it as an old trad itio n . T h u s we can safely assume th a t the m otif “o rig in ated ” at a tim e w hen m an d id n o t yet know th a t he possessed a hero m yth— in an age, therefore, w hen he d id n o t yet reflect con231

sciously on w hat he was saying. T h e hero figure is a typical im­ age, an archetype, which has existed since tim e im m em orial. 53· T h e best examples of the spontaneous production of arche­ typal images are presented by individuals, particularly children, who live in a m ilieu where one can be sufficiently certain that any direct knowledge of the tradition is ou t of the question. T h e m ilieu in which o u r little dream er lived was acquainted only w ith the C hristian tradition, and very superficially at that. C hristian traces may be represented in her dream s by such ideas as God, angels, heaven, hell, and evil, b u t the way in which they are treated points to a trad itio n th a t is entirely non-C hristian. 532 L et us take the first dream , of the God who really consists of four gods, com ing from the “four corners.” T h e corners of what? T h e re is no room m entioned in the dream . A room w ould not even fit in w ith the picture of w hat is obviously a cosmic event, in w hich the U niversal Being him self intervenes. T h e quaternity itself is a strange idea, b u t one th at plays a great role in Eastern religions and philosophies. In the C hristian trad itio n it has been superseded by the T rin ity , a notio n that we m ust as­ sume was know n to the child. B ut who in an ordinary middleclass m ilieu w ould be likely to know of a divine quaternity? It is an idea th at was once cu rren t in circles acquainted w ith H er­ m etic philosophy in the M iddle Ages, b u t it petered o u t at the beginning of the eighteenth century and has been entirely obso­ lete for at least two h u n d red years. "Where, then, did the little girl pick it up? From Ezekiel’s vision? B ut there is no Christian teaching th a t identifies the seraphim w ith God. 533 T h e same question may be asked about the h o rn ed serpent. In the Bible, it is true, there are m any h orned animals, for in­ stance in the Book of R evelation (ch. 1 3 ). B ut they seem to be quadrupeds, although their overlord is the dragon, which in G reek (drakon) means serpent. T h e h o rned serpent appears in L atin alchemy as the quadricornutus serpens (four-horned ser­ pent), a symbol of M ercurius an d an antagonist of the Christian T rin ity . B ut this is an obscure reference, and, as far as I can discover, it occurs only in one au th o r.3 534 In dream 2 a m otif appears that is definitely non-C hristian and a reversal of values: pagan dances by m en in heaven and 3

[G erard D orn, of F rankfurt, a 17th-century physician and alchemist.] 232

good deeds by angels in hell. T his suggests, if anything, a relativization of m oral values. W here did the child h it on such a revo­ lutionary and m odern idea, worthy of Nietzsche’s genius? Such an idea is not strange to the philosophical m ind of the East, b u t where could we find it in the child’s milieu, and what is its place in the m ind of an eight-year-old girl? 535 T his question leads to a further one: what is the compensa­ tory m eaning of the dreams, to which the little girl obviously attrib u ted so m uch im portance that she gave them to her father as a Christmas present? 536 If the dream er had been a prim itive medicine-man, one would not go far wrong in supposing them to be variations on the philosophical themes of death, resurrection, or restitution, the origin of the world, the creation of man, and the relativity of values (Lao-tze: “high stands on low”). O ne m ight well give u p such dreams as hopeless if one tried to in terp ret them from a personal standpoint. But, as I have said, they undoubtedly con­ tain representations collectives, and they are in a way analogous to the doctrines taught to young people in prim itive tribes when they are initiated into manhood. A t such times they learn about w hat G od or the gods or the “founding” animals have done, how the world and m an were created, what the end of the world will be, and the m eaning of death. A nd when do we, in our C hristian civilization, hand out sim ilar instructions? A t the beginning of adolescence. B ut many people begin to think of these things again in old age, at the approach of death. 537 O ur dream er, as it happened, was in both these situations, for she was approaching puberty and at the same tim e the end of her life. L ittle or nothing in the symbolism of the dreams points to the beginning of a norm al adult life, b u t there are many al­ lusions to destruction and restoration. W hen I first read the dreams, I had the uncanny feeling that they foreboded disaster. T h e reason I felt like that was the peculiar nature of the com­ pensation that I deduced from the symbolism. It was the oppo­ site of w hat one would expect to find in the consciousness of a girl of that age. These dreams open up a new and rath er terrify­ ing vision of life and death, such as one m ight expect in someone who looks back upon life rath er than forward to its natural con­ tinuation. T h e ir atmosphere recalls the old R om an saying, vita som nium breve (life is a short dream), rath er than the joy and

538

539

54 °

exuberance of life’s springtim e. For this child, life was a ver sacrum vovendum , a vow of a vernal sacrifice. Experience shows th at the unknow n approach of death casts an adum bratio, an anticipatory shadow, over the life and dream s of the victim. Even the altar in o u r C hristian churches represents, on the one hand, a tom b, and on the other a place of resurrection— the transform ation of death in to eternal life. Such are the thoughts th at the dreams b rought hom e to the child. T h ey were a preparation for death, expressed through short stories, like the instruction at prim itive initiations, or the koans of Zen Buddhism . It is an instruction th a t does n o t resem­ ble the orthodox C hristian doctrine b u t is more like prim itive thought. It seems to have originated outside the historical tradi­ tion, in the m atrix that, since prehistoric times, has nourished philosophical and religious speculations about life and death. In the case of this girl, it was as if fu tu re events were casting their shadow ahead by arousing thought-form s that, though nor­ mally dorm ant, are destined to describe or accompany the ap­ proach of a fatal issue. T h ey are to be found everywhere and at all times. A lthough the concrete shape in which they express themselves is m ore or less personal, th eir general p attern is col­ lective, ju st as anim al instincts vary a good deal in different spe­ cies and yet serve the same general purpose. W e do n o t assume th at each new born anim al creates its own instincts as an individ­ ual acquisition, and we cannot suppose, either, th at h um an be­ ings invent and produce their specifically hum an modes of reac­ tion w ith every new b irth . Like the instincts, the collective thought-patterns of the hum an m ind are innate and inherited; and they function, w hen occasion arises, in m ore or less the same way in all of us. Em otional m anifestations are based on sim ilar patterns, and are recognizably the same all over the earth. W e understand them even in animals, and the animals themselves understand each other in this respect, even if they belong to different species. A nd w hat about insects, w ith their com plicated symbiotic func­ tions? M ost of them do n o t even know th e ir parents and have nobody to teach them . W hy should we suppose, then, th at man is the only living creature deprived of specific instincts, or that his psyche is devoid of all traces of its evolution? N aturally, if you identify the psyche w ith consciousness, you can easily suc-

cum b to th e erroneous idea th a t the psyche is a tabula rasa, com ­ pletely em pty at b irth , an d th a t it la ter contains only w hat it has le a rn t by in d iv id u al experience. B u t the psyche is m ore th a n consciousness. A nim als have little consciousness, b u t they have m any im pulses an d reactions th a t den o te the existence of a psyche, an d p rim itives do a lo t of things whose m ean in g is u n ­ know n to them . You m ay ask m any civilized people in v ain for th e reason an d m ean in g of th e C hristm as tree or of th e coloured eggs at Easter, because they have no idea ab o u t th e m ean in g of these custom s. T h e fact is, they do things w ith o u t kno w in g why they do them . I am in clin ed to believe th a t things w ere gener­ ally done first an d th a t only a long tim e afterw ards som ebody asked a questio n ab o u t them , an d th e n eventually discovered why they w ere done. T h e m edical psychologist is constantly con­ fro n te d w ith otherw ise in tellig en t p atien ts w ho behave in a pe­ cu liar way an d have n o in k lin g of w hat they say o r do. W e have dream s whose m ean in g escapes us entirely, even th o u g h we m ay be firm ly convinced th a t the dream has a definite m eaning. W e feel it is im p o rta n t or even terrifying, b u t why? 541 R eg u lar observation of such facts has enforced th e hypothesis of an unconscious psyche, th e contents of w hich seem to be of ap p ro x im ately the same variety as those of consciousness. W e know th a t consciousness depends in large m easure on the col­ la b o ra tio n of th e unconscious. W h en you m ake a speech, th e n ex t sentence is b ein g p rep ared w hile you speak, b u t this p rep a­ ra tio n is m ostly unconscious. If th e unconscious does n o t collab­ orate an d w ithholds th e n e x t sentence you are stuck. You w an t to q u o te a nam e, o r a term otherw ise fam iliar to you, b u t n o th ­ in g is forthcom ing. T h e unconscious does n o t deliver it. You w an t to in tro d u ce som ebody w hom you know well, b u t his nam e has vanished, as if you h ad nev er k now n it. T h u s you d ep en d on the goodw ill of yo u r unconscious. A ny tim e th e unconscious chooses, it can defeat your otherw ise good m em ory, o r p u t som e­ th in g in to yo u r m o u th th a t you d id n o t in te n d a t all. I t can produce u n p red ic tab le an d unreaso n ab le m oods a n d affects an d thus cause all sorts of com plications. 542 Superficially, such reactions an d im pulses seem to be of an in tim ately personal n a tu re an d are therefo re believed to be en ­ tirely in d iv id u al. I n reality , they are based o n a p refo rm ed an d ever-ready instinctive system w ith its own characteristic an d uni-

versally understandable thought-forms, reflexes, attitudes, and gestures. T hese follow a pattern that was laid down long before there was any trace of a reflective consciousness. It is even con­ ceivable that the latter originated in violent em otional clashes and their often disastrous consequences. T ake the case of the savage who, in a m om ent of anger and disappointm ent at having caught no fish, strangles his m uch beloved only son, and is then seized w ith im m easurable regret as he holds the little dead body in his arms. Such a m an has a great chance to rem em ber the agony of this m om ent for ever. T his could have been the begin­ ning of a reflective consciousness. A t all events, the shock of a sim ilar em otional experience is often needed to m ake people wake up and pay attention to w hat they are doing. I w ould m en­ tion the famous case of the Spanish hidalgo, R am bn Lull, who after a long chase finally succeeded in m eeting his lady at a secret rendezvous. Silently she opened her garm ent and showed him her cancer-eaten bosom. T h e shock changed his life: he became a holy man. 543 O ften in the case of these sudden transform ations one can prove that an archetype has been at work for a long tim e in the unconscious, skilfully arranging circumstances th a t will una­ voidably lead to a crisis. It is n o t rare for the developm ent to m anifest itself so clearly (for instance in a series of dreams) that the catastrophe can be predicted w ith reasonable certainty. One can conclude from experiences such as these th a t archetypal forms are n o t ju st static patterns, b u t dynamic factors th at m ani­ fest themselves in spontaneous impulses, ju st as instincts do. C ertain dreams, visions, o r thoughts can suddenly appear, and in spite of careful investigation one cannot find o u t w hat causes them . T h is does n o t m ean th at they have no cause; they cer­ tainly have, b u t it is so rem ote or obscure th a t one cannot see w hat it is. O ne m ust wait u n til the dream and its m eaning are sufficiently understood, or u n til some external event occurs that w ill explain the dream . 544 O u r conscious thoughts often concern themselves w ith the future and its possibilities, and so does the unconscious and its dreams. T h e re has long been a world-wide belief th a t the chief function of dreams is prognostication of the future. In a n tiq ­ uity, and still in the M iddle Ages, dream s played th eir part in m edical prognosis. I can confirm from a m odern dream the 236

prognosis, o r ra th e r preco g n itio n , in an old dream q u o te d by A rtem idoros of Daldis, in th e second century a .d . H e relates th a t a m a n d ream t he saw his fath er die in th e flames of a house on fire. N o t long afterw ards, he him self died of a p h leg m o n e (fire, high fever), presum ably p n eu m o n ia. N ow it so h ap p en ed th a t a colleague of m in e was suffering from a deadly gangrenous fever — in fact, a p h leg m o n e. A form er p a tie n t of his, w ho h ad no know ledge of th e n a tu re of th e d o cto r’s illness, d ream t th a t the doctor was p erish in g in a great fire. T h e dream occurred three weeks before the doctor died, at a tim e w hen he h ad ju st en tered hospital and the disease was only at its b eg inning. T h e dream er knew n o th in g b u t the b are fact th a t the doctor was ill an d had e n tered hospital. 545 As this exam ple shows, dream s can have an an ticip ato ry or prognostic aspect, and th e ir in te rp re te r w ill be w ell advised to take this aspect in to account, p articu larly w hen an obviously m ean in g fu l dream does n o t yield a co n tex t sufficient to explain it. Such a dream o ften comes rig h t o u t of th e blue, a n d one w on­ ders w hat could have p ro m p ted it. O f course, if one knew its u ltim a te outcom e, th e cause w ould be clear. I t is only o u r con­ scious m in d th a t does n o t know ; the unconscious seems already inform ed, an d to have su b m itted th e case to a careful prognostic exam ination, m ore o r less in th e way consciousness w ould have done if it had know n the relev an t facts. B ut, precisely because they w ere su b lim inal, they could be perceived by th e u n co n ­ scious an d su b m itted to a sort of ex am in atio n th a t anticipates th e ir u ltim a te result. So far as one can m ake o u t from dream s, the unconscious in its “d elib eratio n s” proceeds in an instinctive way ra th e r th an along ratio n al lines. T h e la tte r way is th e p re ­ rogative of consciousness, w hich selects w ith reason an d know l­ edge. B ut the unconscious is g u id ed chiefly by instinctive trends, rep resen ted by co rresponding thought-form s— th e archetypes. It looks as if it w ere a p o et w ho h ad b een at w ork ra th e r th a n a ratio n al doctor, w ho w ould speak of infection, fever, toxins, etc., w hereas the dream describes th e diseased body as a m a n ’s earthly house, an d th e fever as th e h eat of a conflagration th at is destroy­ ing th e house an d its in h a b itan t. 546 As this dream shows, th e archetypal m in d has h an d led the situ atio n in th e same way as it d id at th e tim e of A rtem idoros. A situ atio n of a m ore or less unk n o w n n a tu re has been in tu itiv ely

g ra s p e d b y t h e u n c o n s c io u s a n d s u b m i tt e d to a n a r c h e ty p a l t r e a t m e n t. T h i s sh o w s c le a rly th a t , in p la c e o f th e r a i s o n n e m e n t w h ic h c o n s c io u sn e ss w o u ld h a v e a p p lie d , th e a r c h e ty p a l m in d h a s a u to n o m o u s ly ta k e n o v e r th e ta s k o f p r o g n o s tic a tio n . T h e a r c h e ty p e s h a v e t h e i r o w n i n i ti a t i v e a n d t h e i r o w n sp ec ific e n ­ e rg y , w h ic h e n a b le th e m n o t o n ly to p r o d u c e a m e a n i n g f u l i n ­ t e r p r e t a t i o n (in t h e i r o w n sty le) b u t also to i n t e r v e n e in a g iv e n s i t u a t io n w i t h t h e i r o w n im p u ls e s a n d th o u g h t- f o r m s . I n th is r e ­ s p e c t th e y f u n c ti o n lik e c o m p le x e s , w h ic h a lso e n jo y a c e r ta in a u to n o m y i n e v e ry d a y life . T h e y c o m e a n d g o v e ry m u c h as th e y p le a s e , a n d th e y o f t e n i n t e r f e r e w i t h o u r c o n s c io u s i n t e n t io n s i n a n e m b a r r a s s in g w ay. 547 O n e c a n p e r c e iv e th e sp ec ific e n e rg y o f th e a r c h e ty p e s w h e n o n e e x p e rie n c e s th e p e c u lia r f e e lin g o f n u m i n o s it y t h a t a c c o m ­ p a n ie s t h e m — th e fa s c in a tio n o r s p e ll t h a t e m a n a te s fr o m th e m . T h i s is also c h a r a c te r is tic o f th e p e r s o n a l c o m p le x e s , w h o se b e ­ h a v i o u r m a y b e c o m p a r e d w ith th e r o le p la y e d b y th e a r c h e ty p a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s c o lle c tiv e s i n t h e so c ia l life o f a ll tim e s . A s p e r ­ s o n a l c o m p le x e s h a v e t h e i r i n d i v id u a l h is to ry , so d o social c o m p le x e s o f a n a r c h e ty p a l c h a r a c te r . B u t w h ile p e r s o n a l c o m ­ p le x e s n e v e r p r o d u c e m o r e t h a n a p e r s o n a l b ia s, a rc h e ty p e s c r e a te m y th s , re lig io n s , a n d p h ilo s o p h ic a l id e a s t h a t in flu e n c e a n d s e t t h e i r s ta m p o n w h o le n a tio n s a n d e p o c h s . A n d j u s t as th e p r o d u c ts o f p e r s o n a l c o m p le x e s c a n b e u n d e r s to o d as c o m p e n s a ­ tio n s o f o n e s id e d o r f a u lty a t t i tu d e s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s, so m y th s o f a re lig io u s n a t u r e c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d as a s o r t o f m e n ta l t h e r ­ a p y f o r t h e s u ffe rin g s o f m a n k i n d , s u c h as h u n g e r , w a r, d isease, o l d ag e, a n d d e a th . 548 T h e u n iv e r s a l h e r o m y th , f o r e x a m p le , sh o w s th e p i c t u r e o f a p o w e r f u l m a n o r g o d -m a n w h o v a n q u is h e s e v il i n t h e fo r m o f d ra g o n s , s e r p e n ts , m o n s te rs , d e m o n s , a n d e n e m ie s o f a ll k in d s , a n d w h o lib e r a te s h is p e o p le fr o m d e s t r u c ti o n a n d d e a th . T h e n a r r a t i o n o r r i t u a l r e p e t i t i o n o f s a c re d te x ts a n d c e re m o n ie s , a n d t h e w o r s h ip o f s u c h a fig u re w ith d a n c e s , m u s ic , h y m n s, p ra y e rs , a n d sacrifices, g r i p th e a u d ie n c e w i t h n u m i n o u s e m o ­ t io n s a n d e x a lt th e p a r tic ip a n ts t o id e n tif ic a tio n w i t h t h e h e ro . I f w e c o n t e m p l a t e s u c h a s i t u a t io n w i t h t h e eyes o f a b e lie v e r , w e c a n u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e o r d i n a r y m a n is g r ip p e d , f r e e d f r o m h is im p o te n c e a n d m is e ry , a n d r a is e d to a n a lm o s t s u p e r h u m a n s ta tu s , a t le a s t f o r th e tim e b e in g , a n d o f te n e n o u g h h e is sus238

tained by such a conviction for a long time. An initiation of this kind produces a lasting impression, and may even create an attitude that gives a certain form and style to the life of a so­ ciety. I w ould m ention as an exam ple the Eleusinian mysteries, which were finally suppressed at the beginning of the seventh century. T h ey formed, together with the Delphic oracle, the essence and spirit of ancient Greece. On a much greater scale the Christian era owes its name and significance to another an­ tique mystery, that of the god-man, which has its roots in the archetypal Osiris-Horus myth of ancient Egypt. 549 It is nowadays a common prejudice to assume that once, in an obscure prehistoric time, the basic mythological ideas were “invented” by a clever old philosopher or prophet, and ever afterwards “believed” by credulous and uncritical people, al­ though the stories told by a power-seeking priesthood were not really “true” but mere “wishful thinking.” T h e word “invent” is derived from the Latin invenire and means, in the first place, to “com e upon” or to “find” som ething and, in the second, to find som ething by seeking for it. In the latter case, it is not a matter of finding or com ing upon som ething by mere chance, for there is a sort of foreknowledge or a faint inkling of the thing you are going to find. 550 W hen we contem plate the strange ideas in the dreams of the little girl, it seems unlikely that she sought them, as she was rather surprised at finding them. T hey occurred to her rather as strange and unexpected stories that seemed noteworthy and in ­ teresting enough to be given to her father as a Christmas pres­ ent. In doing so, she lifted them up into the sphere of our still living Christian mystery, the birth of our Lord, blended with the secret of the evergreen tree that carries the newborn Light. A lthough there is ample historical evidence for the symbolic re­ lationship between Christ and the tree symbol, the little girl’s parents w ould have been badly embarrassed had they been asked to explain exactly what they m eant by decorating a tree with burning candles to celebrate the nativity of Christ. “Oh, it’s just a Christmas custom!” they w ould have said. A serious answer w ould require a far-reaching dissertation on the symbolism of the dying god in antiquity, in the N ear East, and its relation to the cult of the Great Mother and her symbol, the tree— to m en­ tion only one aspect of this com plicated problem.

T h e fu rth er we delve into the origins of a representation collective or, in ecclesiastical language, of a dogma, the more we uncover a seemingly limitless web of archetypal patterns that, before m odern times, were never the object of conscious reflec­ tion. T hus, paradoxically enough, we know m ore about m ytho­ logical symbolism than did any age before o ur own. T h e fact is that in form er times m en lived their symbols rath er than re­ flected upon them . I will illustrate this by an experience I once had w ith the prim itives on M ount Elgon in East Africa. Every m orning at dawn they leave their huts and breathe or spit into th e ir hands, stretching them out to the first rays of the sun, as if they were offering either th eir breath or th eir spittle to the ris­ ing god— to m ungu. (T his Swahili word, which they used in ex­ plaining the ritu al act, is derived from a Polynesian root equiva­ le n t to mana or m u lu n g u . T hese and sim ilar terms designate a “pow er” of extraordinary efficacy, an all-pervading essence which we w ould call divine. T h u s the word m u n g u is their equivalent for A llah or God.) W hen I asked them w hat they m eant by this act and why they did it, they were completely baffled. T hey could only say: “W e have always done it. It has always been done w hen the sun rises.” T h ey laughed at the ob­ vious conclusion th a t the sun is m ungu. T h e sun is n o t m ungu when it is above the horizon; m ungu is the actual m om ent of the sunrise. 552 W hat they were doing was obvious to me b u t no t to them. T hey just do it, they never reflect on w hat they are doing, and are consequently unable to explain themselves. T h ey are evi­ dently just repeating w hat they have “always” done at sunrise, no do u b t w ith a certain em otion and by no m eans m erely m echani­ cally, for they live it while we reflect on it. T h u s I knew that they were offering their souls to m ungu, because the breath (of life) and the spittle m ean “soul substance.” B reathing o r spit­ ting on som ething conveys a “m agical” effect, as, for instance, when C hrist used spittle to heal the blind, or w hen a son inhales his dying father’s last breath in order to take over the father’s soul. I t is m ost unlikely th at these prim itives ever, even in the rem ote past, knew any m ore about the m eaning of th eir cere­ mony. O n the contrary, th eir ancestors probably knew even less, because they were m ore profoundly unconscious and thought if possible even less about their doings. 551

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Faust aptly says: “Im A nfang war die T a t” (in the begin­ ning was the deed). Deeds were never invented, they were done. T houghts, on the other hand, are a relatively late discovery; they were found, and then they were sought and found. Yet u n ­ reflected life existed long before m an; it was n o t invented, b u t in it m an found him self as an afterthought. First he was moved to deeds by unconscious factors, and only a long tim e afterwards did he begin to reflect about the causes that had moved him; then it took him a very long tim e indeed to arrive at the prepos­ terous idea th at he m ust have moved himself— his m in d being unable to see any other m otivating force than his own. W e w ould laugh at the idea of a plant or an anim al inventing itself, yet there are m any people who believe th at the psyche or the m ind invented itself and thus brought itself into being. As a m atter of fact, the m ind has grown to its present state of con­ sciousness as an acorn grows into an oak or as saurians developed into mammals. As it has been, so it is still, and thus we are moved by forces from w ithin as well as from w ithout. 554 In a mythological age these forces were called m ana, spirits, demons, and gods, and they are as active today as they ever were. If they conform to our wishes, we call them happy hunches or impulses and pat ourselves on the back for being sm art fellows. If they go against us, then we say it is just bad luck, or that certain people have it in for us, or it m ust be pathological. T h e one th in g we refuse to adm it is that we are dependent on “pow­ ers” beyond our control. 555 It is tru e that civilized m an has acquired a certain am ount of will-power which he can apply where he pleases. W e have learnt to do our work efficiently w ithout having recourse to chanting and drum m ing to hypnotize us into the state of doing. W e can even dispense w ith the daily prayer for divine aid. W e can carry out w hat we propose to do, and it seems self-evident th at an idea can be translated into action w ithout a hitch, whereas the p rim i­ tive is ham pered at every step by doubts, fears, and superstitions. T h e m otto “W here th ere’s a will there’s a way” is n o t just a G erm anic prejudice; it is the superstition of m odern m an in general. In order to m aintain his credo, he cultivates a rem arka­ ble lack of introspection. H e is blind to the fact that, w ith all his rationality and efficiency, he is possessed by powers beyond his control. T h e gods and demons have no t disappeared at all, they 241

h a v e m e re ly g o t n e w n a m e s. T h e y k e e p h im o n th e r u n w ith r e s tle s s n e s s , v a g u e a p p r e h e n s i o n s , p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o m p lic a tio n s , a n i n v i n c i b l e n e e d f o r p il l s , a lc o h o l, to b a c c o , d i e t a r y a n d o t h e r h y g i e n ic s y s te m s — a n d a b o v e , a ll, w i t h a n im p r e s s iv e a r r a y o f n eu ro ses. 556 I o n c e m e t a d r a s t i c e x a m p l e o f t h i s i n a p r o f e s s o r o f p h ilo s o ­ p h y a n d “ p s y c h o lo g y ” — a p s y c h o lo g y i n w h i c h t h e u n c o n s c io u s h a d n o t y e t a r r i v e d . H e w a s t h e m a n I m e n t i o n e d w h o w as o b ­ s e s s e d b y t h e i d e a t h a t h e h a d c a n c e r , a l t h o u g h X -r a y s h a d p r o v e d to h i m t h a t i t w a s a ll i m a g i n a r y . W h o o r w h a t c a u s e d th is id e a ? I t o b v i o u s l y d e r i v e d f r o m a f e a r t h a t w a s n o t c a u s e d b y o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e fa c ts . I t s u d d e n l y o v e r c a m e h i m a n d t h e n r e ­ m a i n e d . S y m p to m s o f t h i s k i n d a r e e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y o b s t i n a t e a n d o fte n e n o u g h h in d e r th e p a tie n t fro m g e ttin g th e p ro p e r t r e a t m e n t . F o r w h a t g o o d w o u l d p s y c h o t h e r a p y b e i n d e a lin g w i t h a m a l i g n a n t t u m o u r ? S u c h a d a n g e r o u s t h i n g c o u l d o n ly b e o p e r a t e d o n w i t h o u t d e la y . T o t h e p r o f e s s o r ’s e v e r - r e n e w e d r e ­ l ie f , e v e r y n e w a u t h o r i t y a s s u r e d h i m t h a t t h e r e w a s n o tr a c e o f c a n c e r . B u t t h e v e r y n e x t d a y t h e d o u b t b e g a n n a g g i n g a g a in , a n d h e w as p lu n g e d o n c e m o re in to th e n ig h t o f u n m itig a te d fe a r. 557 - T h e m o r b i d t h o u g h t h a d a p o w e r o f its o w n t h a t h e c o u ld n o t c o n t r o l . I t w a s n o t f o r e s e e n i n h is p h i l o s o p h i c a l b r a n d o f p s y c h o lo g y , w h e r e e v e r y t h i n g f lo w e d n e a t l y f r o m c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d s e n s e - p e r c e p t i o n . T h e p r o f e s s o r a d m i t t e d t h a t h is c a s e w as p a t h o l o g i c a l , b u t t h e r e h is t h i n k i n g s to p p e d , b e c a u s e i t h a d a r ­ r iv e d a t th e s a c ro sa n c t b o r d e r - lin e b e tw e e n th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n d t h e m e d i c a l f a c u lty . T h e o n e d e a ls w i t h n o r m a l a n d t h e o t h e r w i t h a b n o r m a l c o n t e n t s , u n k n o w n i n t h e p h i l o s o p h e r ’s w o rld . 558 T h i s c o m p a r t m e n t p s y c h o lo g y r e m i n d s m e o f a n o t h e r case. I t w a s t h a t o f a n a l c o h o li c w h o h a d c o m e u n d e r t h e l a u d a b l e i n f l u e n c e o f a c e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s m o v e m e n t a n d , f a s c i n a t e d b y its e n t h u s i a s m , h a d f o r g o t t e n h e n e e d e d a d r i n k . H e w a s o b v io u s ly a n d m i r a c u l o u s l y c u r e d b y J e s u s , a n d a c c o r d i n g l y w a s h e l d u p as a w itn e s s t o d i v i n e g r a c e o r t o t h e efficacy o f t h e s a id o r g a n iz a ­ t i o n . A f t e r a fe w w e e k s o f p u b l i c c o n f e s s io n , t h e n o v e l t y b e g a n t o w e a r o ff a n d s o m e a lc o h o l i c r e f r e s h m e n t s e e m e d t o b e i n d i ­ c a te d . B u t t h i s t i m e t h e h e l p f u l o r g a n i z a t i o n c a m e t o t h e c o n c l u ­ s io n t h a t t h e c a s e w a s “ p a t h o l o g i c a l ” a n d n o t s u i t a b l e f o r a n 242

559

intervention by Jesus. So they p u t him in a clinic to let the doc­ tor do b etter than the divine healer. T h is is an aspect of the m odern “cu ltu ral” m ind that is well w orth looking into. It shows an alarm ing degree of dissociation and psychological confusion. W e believe exclusively in con­ sciousness and free will, and are no longer aware of the powers th at control us to an indefinite degree, outside the narrow do­ m ain where we can be reasonable and exercise a certain am ount of free choice and self-control. In our time of general disorienta­ tion, it is necessary to know about the true state of hum an affairs, which depends so m uch on the m ental and m oral q u ali­ ties of the individual and on the hum an psyche in general. B ut if we are to see things in their rig h t perspective, we need to understand the past of m an as well as his present. T h a t is why a correct understanding of myths and symbols is of essential im ­ portance.

6. T H E F U N C T IO N OF R E L IG IO U S SYMBOLS 56°

A lthough o u r civilized consciousness has separated itself from the instincts, the instincts have not disappeared; they have m erely lost their contact w ith consciousness. T hey are thus forced to assert themselves in an indirect way, through what Jan e t called automatism s. These take the form of symptoms in the case of a neurosis or, in norm al cases, of incidents of various kinds, like unaccountable moods, unexpected forgetfulness, mis­ takes in speech, and so on. Such m anifestations show very clearly the autonom y of the archetypes. It is easy to believe th at one is m aster in one’s own house, but, as long as we are unable to con­ trol our emotions and moods, or to be conscious of the myriad secret ways in which unconscious factors insinuate themselves into our arrangem ents and decisions, we are certainly n o t the masters. O n the contrary, we have so m uch reason for uncer­ tainty th at it w ill be b etter to look twice at w hat we are doing. 561 T h e exploration of one’s conscience, however, is n o t a popu­ lar pastime, although it w ould be most necessary, particularly in our tim e w hen m an is threatened w ith self-created and deadly dangers th at are growing beyond his control. If, for a m om ent, we look at m ankind as one individual, we see th at it is like a m an carried away by unconscious powers. H e is dissociated like a neurotic, w ith the Iron C urtain m arking the line of division. W estern man, representing the kind of consciousness hitherto regarded as valid, has become increasingly aware of the aggres­ sive will to pow er of the East, and he sees him self forced to take extraordinary measures of defence. W h at he fails to see is that it is his own vices, publicly repudiated and covered u p by good international m anners, that are throw n back in his face through their shameless and m ethodical application by the East. W hat the W est has tolerated, b u t only secretly, and indulged in a b it shamefacedly (the diplom atic lie, the double-cross, veiled 244

threats), comes back openly and in full measure and gets us tied u p in knots— exactly the case of the neurotic! It is the face of our own shadow th at glowers at us across the Iron C urtain. 562 T his state of affairs explains the peculiar feeling of helpless­ ness th at is creeping over o u r W estern consciousness. W e are be­ ginning to realize th at the conflict is in reality a m oral and m en­ tal problem , and we are trying to find some answer to it. W e grow increasingly aware th at the nuclear d eterren t is a desperate and undesirable answer, as it cuts both ways. W e know that m oral and m ental rem edies would be m ore effective because they could provide us w ith a psychic im m unity to the everincreasing infection. B ut all our attem pts have proved to be sin­ gularly ineffectual, and will continue to do so as long as we try to convince ourselves and the w orld th at it is only they, o u r op­ ponents, who are all wrong, m orally and philosophically. W e expect them to see and understand where they are wrong, in ­ stead of m aking a serious effort ourselves to recognize o u r own shadow and its nefarious doings. If we could only see our shadow, we should be im m une to any m oral and m ental infec­ tion and insinuation. B ut as long as this is not so, we lay o u r­ selves open to every infection because we are doing practically the same things as they are, only w ith the additional disadvan­ tage th at we neither see n o r w ant to understand w hat we are doing u n d er the cloak of good m anners. 563 T h e East has one big m yth— which we call an illusion in the vain hope th at o u r superior judgm en t will make it disappear. T his myth is the time-hallowed archetypal dream of a Golden Age or a paradise on earth, where everything is provided for everybody, and one great, just, and wise Chief rules over a h u ­ man kindergarten. T his pow erful archetype in its infantile form has got them all right, b u t it w on’t disappear from the w orld at the m ere sight of our superior point of view. W e even support it by our own childishness, for our W estern civilization is in the grip of the same mythology. W e cherish the same prejudices, hopes, and expectations. W e believe in the W elfare State, in universal peace, in m ore or less equality for m an, in his eternal hum an rights, in justice and truth, and (not too loud) in the Kingdom of God on earth. 564 T h e sad tru th is that m an’s real life consists of inexorable opposites—day and night, w ellbeing and suffering, b irth and

death, good and evil. W e are not even sure that the one will prevail against the other, that good will overcome evil, or joy defeat pain. Life and the world are a battleground, have always been and always will be, and, if it were not so, existence would soon come to an end. It is for this reason that a superior religion like Christianity expected an early end to this world, and Bud­ dhism actually puts an end to it by turning its back on all de­ sires. These categorical answers would be frankly suicidal if they were not bound up with the peculiar moral ideas and practices that constitute the body of both religions. 565 I mention this because in our time there are countless people who have lost faith in one or other of the world religions. They do not understand them any longer. W hile life runs smoothly, the loss remains as good as unnoticed. But when suffering comes, things change very rapidly. One seeks the way out and begins to reflect about the meaning of life and its bewildering experi­ ences. It is significant that, according to the statistics, the psychi­ atrist is consulted more by Protestants and Jews than by Catho­ lics. This might be expected, for the Catholic Church still feels responsible for the cura animarum, the care of souls. But in this scientific age, the psychiatrist is apt to be asked questions that once belonged to the domain of the theologian. People feel that it makes, or would make, a great difference if only they had a positive belief in a meaningful way of life or in God and immor­ tality. T he spectre of death looming up before them often gives a powerful incentive to such thoughts. From time immemorial, men have had ideas about a Supreme Being (one or several) and about the Land of the Hereafter. Only modern man thinks he can do without them. Because he cannot discover God’s throne in heaven with a telescope or radar, or establish for cer­ tain that dear father or mother are still about in a more or less corporeal form, he assumes that such ideas are not “true.” I would rather say that they are not “true” enough. They have accompanied human life since prehistoric times and are still ready to break through into consciousness at the slightest provo­ cation. 566 One even regrets the loss of such convictions. Since it is a matter of invisible and unknowable things (God is beyond hu­ man understanding, and immortality cannot be proved), why should we bother about evidence or truth? Suppose we did not 246

know and understand the need for salt in our food, we w ould nevertheless profit from its use. Even if we should assume that salt is an illusion of our taste-buds, or a superstition, it w ould still contribute to our w ellbeing. W hy, then, should we deprive ourselves of views that prove helpful in crises and give a m ean­ ing to our existence? A nd how do we know that such ideas are not true? Many people w ould agree with me if I stated flatly that such ideas are illusions. W hat they fail to realize is that this de­ nial amounts to a “b elief” and is just as im possible to prove as a religious assertion. W e are entirely free to choose our stand­ point; it w ill in any case be an arbitrary decision. T h ere is, how­ ever, a strong em pirical reason why we should hold beliefs that we know can never be proved. It is that they are known to be useful. Man positively needs general ideas and convictions that w ill give a m eaning to his life and enable him to find his place in the universe. H e can stand the most incredible hardships when he is convinced that they make sense; but he is crushed when, on top of all his misfortunes, he has to admit that he is taking part in a “tale told by an id iot.” 567 It is the purpose and endeavour of religious symbols to give a m eaning to the life of man. T h e P ueblo Indians believe that they are the sons of Father Sun, and this belief gives their life a perspective and a goal beyond their individual and lim ited ex­ istence. It leaves am ple room for the unfolding of their person­ ality, and is infinitely more satisfactory than the certainty that one is and w ill remain the underdog in a departm ent store. If St. Paul had been convinced that he was nothing but a w andering weaver of carpets, he w ould certainly not have been himself. H is real and m eaningful life lay in the certainty that he was the mes­ senger of the Lord. You can accuse him of m egalom ania, but your op in ion pales before the testim ony of history and the con­ sensus om nium . T h e myth that took possession of him made him som ething greater than a mere craftsman. 568 Myths, however, consist of symbols that were not invented but happened. It was not the man Jesus who created the m yth of the God-man; it had existed many centuries before. H e him self was seized by this sym bolic idea, which, as St. Mark tells us, lifted him out of the carpenter’s shop and the m ental narrow­ ness of his surroundings. Myths go back to prim itive story-tellers and their dreams, to m en m oved by the stirrings of their fanta247

sies, who were not very different from poets and philosophers in later times. Prim itive story-tellers never worried about the ori­ gin of their fantasies; it was only much later that people began to wonder where the story came from. Already in ancient Greece they were advanced enough to surmise that the stories about the gods were nothing but old and exaggerated traditions of ancient kings and their deeds. T h ey assumed even then that the myth did not mean what it said because it was obviously improbable. T herefore they tried to reduce it to a generally understandable yarn. T h is is exactly what our tim e has tried to do w ith dream symbolism: it is assumed that it does not mean what it seems to say, but som ething that is generally known and understood, though not openly adm itted because of its inferior quality. For those who had got rid of their conventional blinkers there were no longer any riddles. It seemed certain that dreams meant som ething different from what they said. 569 T his assumption is w holly arbitrary. T h e T alm ud says more aptly: “T h e dream is its own interpretation.” W hy should dreams mean som ething different from what appears in them? Is there anything in nature that is other than what it is? For in ­ stance, the duck-billed platypus, that original m onster which no zoologist w ould ever have invented, is it not just what it is? T h e dream is a norm al and natural phenom enon, which is certainly just what it is and does not mean som ething it is not. W e call its contents sym bolic because they have obviously not only one meaning, but point in different directions and m ust therefore mean som ething that is unconscious, or at least not conscious in all its aspects. 57° T o the scientific m ind, such phenom ena as sym bolic ideas are most irritating, because they cannot be form ulated in a way that satisfies our intellect and logic. T h ey are by no means the only instance of this in psychology. T h e trouble begins already with the phenom enon of affect or em otion, which evades all the attempts of the psychologist to pin it down in a hard-and-fast concept. T h e cause of the difficulty is the same in both cases— the intervention of the unconscious. I know enough of the scientific standpoint to understand that it is most annoying to have to deal w ith facts that cannot be grasped com pletely or at any rate ade­ quately. T h e trouble w ith both phenom ena is that the facts are undeniable and yet cannot be form ulated in intellectual terms. 248

Instead of observable details w ith clearly discernible features, it is life itself th a t wells u p in emotions and symbolic ideas. In m any cases em otion and symbol are actually one and the same thing. T h e re is no intellectual form ula capable of representing such a com plex phenom enon in a satisfactory way. 571 T h e academic psychologist is perfectly free to dismiss the em otions or the unconscious, or both, from his consideration. Yet they rem ain facts to which at least the medical psychologist has to pay am ple attention, for em otional conflicts and the in te r­ ventions of the unconscious are the classical features of his sci­ ence. If he treats a p atient at all, he is confronted w ith irratio n ­ alities of this kind w hether he can form ulate them intellectually or not. H e has to acknowledge their only too troublesom e exist­ ence. It is therefore quite natural that people who have n o t had the medical psychologist’s experience find it difficult to follow w hat he is talking about. Anyone who has not had the chance, or the m isfortune, to live through the same or sim ilar experiences is hardly capable of understanding what happens w hen psychol­ ogy ceases to be a tran q u il pursuit for the scientist in his labora­ tory and becomes a real life adventure. T a rg e t practice on a shooting range is far from being a battlefield, b u t the doctor has to deal w ith casualties in a real war. T herefore he has to concern him self w ith psychic realities even if he cannot define them in scientific terms. H e can nam e them, b u t he knows th at all the terms he uses to designate the essentials of life do not pretend to be m ore than names for facts that have to be experienced in themselves, because they cannot be reproduced by th eir names. N o textbook can teach psychology; one learns only by actual ex­ perience. No understanding is gained by m em orizing words, for symbols are the living facts of life. 572 T h e cross in the C hristian religion, for instance, is a m ean­ ingful symbol that expresses a m ultitu d e of aspects, ideas, and emotions, b u t a cross before somebody’s nam e simply indicates that that individual is dead. T h e lingam or phallus functions as an all-em bracing symbol in the H in d u religion, b u t if a street urchin draws one on a wall, it just means an interest in his penis. Because infantile and adolescent fantasies often continue far into ad u lt life, m any dreams contain unm istakable sexual allu­ sions. It would be absurd to understand them as anything else.

B ut when a mason speaks of monks and nuns to be laid upon each other, or a locksm ith of male and female keys, it would be nonsensical to suppose th at he is indulging in glowing adoles­ cent fantasies. H e simply means a particular kind of tile or key that has been given a colourful name. B ut w hen an educated H in d u talks to you about the lingam, you will hear things we W esterners w ould never connect w ith the penis. You may even find it most difficult to guess w hat he actually means by this term , and you w ill naturally conclude th at the lingam sym bol­ izes a good many things. I t is certainly no t an obscene allusion; nor is the cross a m ere sign for death b u t a symbol for a great many other ideas. M uch, therefore, depends on the m aturity of the dream er who produces such an image. 573 T h e in terpretation of dreams and symbols requires some in ­ telligence. I t cannot be mechanized and cram m ed into stupid and unim aginative brains. It dem ands an ever-increasing knowl­ edge of the dream er’s individuality as well as an ever-increasing self-awareness on the p a rt of the interpreter. N o experienced w orker in this field will deny that there are rules of th u m b that can prove helpful, b u t they m ust be applied w ith prudence and intelligence. N ot everybody can m aster the “technique.” You may follow all the rig h t rules and th e apparently safe path of knowledge and yet you get stuck in the most appalling nonsense, simply by overlooking a seemingly u n im p o rtan t detail that a better intelligence would n o t have missed. Even a m an with a highly developed intellect can go badly astray because he has never learnt to use his in tu itio n or his feeling, which m ight be at a regrettably low level of developm ent. 574 T h e attem pt to understand symbols does not only b rin g you up against the symbol itself, b u t u p against the wholeness of the symbol-producing individual. If one is really u p to this chal­ lenge, one may m eet w ith success. B ut as a ru le it will be neces­ sary to make a special study of the individual and his or h er cultural background. O ne can learn a lot in this way and so get a chance to fill in the gaps in one’s education. I have m ade it a ru le myself to consider every case an entirely new proposition about w hich I do n o t even know the ABC. R outine may be and often is practical, and quite useful as long as one skates on the surface, b u t as soon as one gets in touch w ith the vital problems, 250

lif e its e lf ta k e s o v e r a n d e v e n th e m o s t b r i l l i a n t th e o r e tic a l p r e ­ m is e s b e c o m e in e f f e c tu a l w o rd s . 575

T h is m a k e s th e te a c h in g o f m e th o d s a n d te c h n iq u e s a m a jo r p r o b le m . A s I h a v e s a id , th e p u p i l h a s to a c q u ir e a g o o d d e a l o f s p e c ia liz e d k n o w le d g e . T h i s p ro v id e s h im w ith th e n e c e s s a ry

m e n t a l t o o l - s h o p , b u t t h e m a i n t h i n g , t h e h a n d l i n g o f t h e to o ls , c a n b e a c q u ir e d o n ly if th e p u p i l u n d e r g o e s a n a n a ly s is th a t a c ­ q u a i n t s h i m w ith h is o w n c o n flic t. T h i s c a n b e q u i t e a ta s k w ith s o m e s o -c a lle d n o r m a l b u t u n i m a g i n a t i v e in d iv id u a ls . T h e y a r e ju s t in c a p a b le o f re a liz in g , fo r in s ta n c e , th e s im p le fa c t th a t p sy ­ c h ic e v e n ts h a p p e n to u s s p o n ta n e o u s ly . S u c h p e o p l e p r e f e r to c l i n g t o t h e i d e a t h a t w h a t e v e r o c c u r s e i t h e r is d o n e b y t h e m ­ s e lv e s o r e l s e is p a t h o l o g i c a l a n d m u s t b e c u r e d b y p i l l s o r i n j e c ­ t i o n s . T h e y s h o w h o w c l o s e d u l l n o r m a l i t y is t o a n e u r o s i s , a n d as a m a t t e r o f f a c t s u c h p e o p l e s u c c u m b m o s t e a s ily to p s y c h ic e p id e m ic s . 576 I n a ll t h e h ig h e r g r a d e s o f s c ie n c e , i m a g in a tio n a n d i n t u i t i o n p la y a n in c re a s in g ly im p o r ta n t r o le o v e r a n d a b o v e in te lle c t a n d i t s c a p a c i t y f o r a p p l i c a t i o n . E v e n p h y s ic s , t h e m o s t r i g o r o u s o f a l l t h e a p p l i e d s c ie n c e s , d e p e n d s t o a n a s t o n i s h i n g d e g r e e o n i n ­ tu itio n , w h ic h w o rk s b y w a y o f th e u n c o n s c io u s p ro c e sse s a n d n o t b y l o g i c a l d e d u c t i o n s , a l t h o u g h i t is p o s s i b l e t o d e m o n s t r a t e a f te r w a r d s w h a t lo g ic a l p r o c e d u r e m i g h t h a v e le d to th e s a m e re s u lt. 577 I n t u i t i o n is a l m o s t i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f sy m b o ls , a n d c a n c a u s e a n im m e d ia te a c c e p ta n c e o n th e p a r t o f th e d r e a m e r . B u t, s u b je c tiv e ly c o n v in c in g as s u c h a lu c k y h u n c h m a y b e , i t is a l s o s o m e w h a t d a n g e r o u s , b e c a u s e i t l e a d s t o a f a ls e se n se o f s e c u rity . I t m a y e v e n s e d u c e b o th th e in te r p r e te r a n d th e d r e a m e r i n t o c o n t i n u i n g th is r a t h e r f a c ile e x c h a n g e o f id e a s , w h i c h m a y e n d i n a s o r t o f m u t u a l d r e a m . T h e s e c u r e b a s is o f r e a l i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d m o r a l k n o w l e d g e g e t s l o s t i f o n e is s a t i s f i e d w ith a v a g u e f e e lin g o f h a v in g u n d e r s to o d . U s u a lly w h e n o n e a s k s p e o p l e th e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r s o -c a lle d u n d e r s t a n d i n g , th e y a r e u n a b l e to g iv e a n e x p l a n a tio n . O n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d a n d e x ­ p la i n o n ly w h e n o n e h a s b r o u g h t i n t u i t i o n s d o w n to th e sa fe b a s is o f r e a l k n o w le d g e o f t h e fa c ts a n d t h e i r lo g ic a l c o n n e c tio n s . A n h o n e s t i n v e s t i g a t o r w i l l h a v e t o a d m i t t h a t t h i s is n o t p o s ­ s ib le in c e r t a i n ca se s, b u t i t w o u ld b e d is h o n e s t o f h i m to d is m is s t h e m o n t h a t a c c o u n t . E v e n a s c i e n t i s t is a h u m a n b e i n g , a n d i t

II. SYMBOLS AND THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS

is quite n atu ral th at he, like others, hates the things he cannot explain and thus falls victim to the com m on illusion that what we know today represents the highest sum m it of knowledge. N othing is m ore vulnerable and ephem eral than scientific theo­ ries, which are m ere tools and no t everlasting truths.

7. H E A L IN G T H E SPL IT 578

579

580

W hen the m edical psychologist takes an interest in symbols, he is primarily concerned w ith “natural” symbols as distinct from “cultural” symbols. T h e former are derived from the un­ conscious contents of the psyche, and they therefore represent an enorm ous num ber of variations on the basic archetypal motifs. In many cases, they can be traced back to their archaic roots, i.e., to ideas and images that we m eet in the most ancient records and in prim itive societies. In this respect, I should like to call the reader’s attention to such books as Mircea Eliade’s study of sha­ m anism ,1 where a great many illum inating examples may be found. “C ultural” symbols, on the other hand, are those that have expressed “eternal truths” or are still in use in many religions. T h ey have gone through many transformations and even a proc­ ess of more or less conscious elaboration, and in this way have becom e the representations collectives of civilized societies. Nevertheless, they have retained m uch of their original num inosity, and they function as positive or negative “prejudices” w ith which the psychologist has to reckon very seriously. N o b o d y can dism iss these num inous factors on m erely ra­ tional grounds. T h ey are im portant constituents of our m ental make-up and vital forces in the bu ild in g up of hum an society, and they cannot be eradicated w ithout serious loss. W hen they are repressed or neglected, their specific energy disappears into the unconscious w ith unpredictable consequences. T h e energy that appears to have been lost revives and intensifies whatever is upperm ost in the unconscious— tendencies, perhaps, that have hitherto had no chance to express themselves, or have not been allowed an u n in h ib ited existence in our consciousness. T hey I S h a m a n ism : A rc h a ic T e c h n iq u e s o f E cstasy.

fo rm a n e v e r-p re se n t d e s tru c tiv e “sh a d o w .” E ven ten d e n c ie s th a t m ig h t b e a b le to e x e rt a b en eficial in flu e n ce tu r n in to v e ri­ ta b le d e m o n s w h e n th e y a re rep ressed . T h is is w hy m an y wellm e a n in g p e o p le a re u n d e rs ta n d a b ly a fra id of th e u n co n scio u s, a n d in c id e n ta lly of psychology. 5 Sl O u r tim es have d e m o n s tra te d w h a t it m ean s w h e n th e gates of th e psychic u n d e rw o rld a re th ro w n o p e n . T h in g s w hose e n o r­ m ity n o b o d y c o u ld h av e im a g in e d in th e id y llic in n o c e n c e o f th e first d e c ad e of o u r c e n tu ry h av e h a p p e n e d a n d h av e tu r n e d th e w o rld u p s id e do w n . E v e r since, th e w o rld has r e m a in e d in a sta te of sc h iz o p h ren ia . N o t o n ly has th e g re a t civ ilized G e rm a n y d isg o rg e d its p rim itiv ity , b u t R u ssia also is r u le d by it, a n d A f­ ric a has b e e n set o n fire. N o w o n d e r th e W e s te rn w o rld feels uneasy, fo r it does n o t k n o w how m u c h it plays in to th e h a n d s of th e u p ro a rio u s u n d e rw o rld a n d w h a t it has lo st th ro u g h th e d e ­ s tru c tio n of its n u m in o s itie s . I t has lost its m o ra l a n d s p iritu a l values to a v ery d a n g e ro u s deg ree. Its m o ra l a n d s p iritu a l tr a d i­ tio n has co llap sed , a n d has le ft a w o rld w id e d is o rie n ta tio n a n d d isso ciatio n . 582 W e c o u ld h av e seen lo n g ago fro m p rim itiv e societies w h a t th e loss o f n u m in o s ity m ean s: th ey lose t h e ir raison d’e tr e , th e o r d e r of th e ir social o rg an iz atio n s, a n d th e n th ey dissolve a n d decay. W e a re n o w in th e sam e c o n d itio n . W e h a v e lost som e­ th in g w e h av e n e v e r p ro p e rly u n d e rs to o d . O u r s p iritu a l lea d e rs c a n n o t b e s p a re d th e b la m e fo r h a v in g b e e n m o re in te re s te d in p ro te c tin g th e ir in s titu tio n s th a n in u n d e rs ta n d in g th e m ystery t h a t sym bols p re se n t. F a ith does n o t e x c lu d e th o u g h t (w h ich is m a n ’s stro n g e st w e a p o n ), b u t u n f o rtu n a te ly m an y b eliev ers are so a fra id of science, a n d also of psychology, t h a t th ey t u r n a b lin d eye to th e n u m in o u s psychic p ow ers th a t fo re v e r c o n tro l m a n ’s fate. W e h av e s trip p e d a ll th in g s o f th e ir m y stery a n d n u ­ m in o sity ; n o th in g is h o ly an y lo n g er. 583 T h e m asses a n d th e ir lea d e rs d o n o t rea liz e th a t it m akes n o su b s ta n tia l d iffe re n c e w h e th e r y o u c a ll th e w o rld p rin c ip le m a le a n d a fa th e r (sp irit), o r fem ale a n d a m o th e r (m a tte r). E ssen­ tially , w e k n o w as little o f th e o n e as o f th e o th e r. Since th e b e g in n in g of th e h u m a n m in d , b o th w e re n u m in o u s sym bols, a n d th e ir im p o rta n c e lay in th e ir n u m in o s ity a n d n o t in th e ir sex o r o th e r c h a n ce a ttrib u te s . Since en erg y n e v e r vanishes, th e e m o tio n a l en e rg y th a t m an ifests itse lf in a ll n u m in o u s p h e n o m -

ena does not cease to exist when it disappears from conscious­ ness. As I have said, it reappears in unconscious m anifestations, in symbolic happenings that compensate the disturbances of the conscious psyche. Our psyche is profoundly disturbed by the loss of moral and spiritual values that have hitherto kept our life in order. Our consciousness is no longer capable of integrating the natural afflux of concom itant, instinctive events that sustains our conscious psychic activity. T h is process can no longer take place in the same way as before, because our consciousness has deprived itself of the organs by which the auxiliary contribu­ tions of the instincts and the unconscious could be assimilated. These organs were the num inous symbols, held holy by com m on consent. 5®4 A concept like “physical m atter,” stripped of its num inous connotation of the “Great M other,” no longer expresses the vast em otional m eaning of “M other Earth.” It is a mere intellectual term, dry as dust and entirely inhum an. In the same way, “spirit” identified w ith “intellect” ceases to be the Father of A ll. It degenerates into the lim ited m ind of man, and the im m ense em otional energy expressed in the image “our Father” vanishes in the sand of an intellectual desert. 585 T hrough scientific understanding, our world has becom e de­ humanized. Man feels him self isolated in the cosmos. H e is no longer involved in nature and has lost his em otional participa­ tion in natural events, w hich hitherto had a symbolic m eaning for him. T h u nd er is no longer the voice of a god, nor is light­ n in g his avenging missile. N o river contains a spirit, no tree means a m an’s life, no snake is the em bodim ent of wisdom, and no m ountain still harbours a great dem on. N either do things speak to him nor can he speak to things, like stones, springs, plants, and animals. H e no longer has a bush-soul identifying him w ith a w ild animal. H is im m ediate com m unication w ith nature is gone for ever, and the em otional energy it generated has sunk into the unconscious. 586 T h is enormous loss is com pensated by the symbols in our dreams. T h ey bring up our original nature, its instincts and its peculiar thinking. U nfortunately, one w ould say, they also ex­ press their contents in the language of nature, which is strange and incom prehensible to us. It sets us the task of translating its images into the rational words and concepts of modern speech,

which has liberated itself from its prim itive encum brances— notably from its mystical participation w ith things. Nowadays, talking of ghosts and other num inous figures is n o longer the same as conjuring them up. W e have ceased to believe in magi­ cal formulas; n o t m any taboos and sim ilar restrictions are left; and our w orld seems to be disinfected of all such superstitious n um ina as “witches, warlocks, and worricows,” to say nothing of werewolves, vampires, bush-souls, and all the other bizarre be­ ings that populate the prim eval forest. 587 At least the surface of our w orld seems to be purified of all superstitious and irrational adm ixtures. W hether, however, the real inner world of m an— and not o u r wish-fulfilling fiction about it— is also freed from prim itivity is another question. Is not the n u m b er 13 still taboo for many people? A re there not still m any individuals possessed by funny prejudices, projec­ tions, and illusions? A realistic picture of the hum an m ind re­ veals many prim itive traits and survivals, which are still playing th eir roles just as if nothing had happened d u rin g the last five hun d red years. T h e m an of today is a curious m ixture of charac­ teristics acquired over the long ages of his m ental development. T his is the m an and his symbols we have to deal with, and we m ust scrutinize his m ental products very carefully indeed. Scep­ tical viewpoints and scientific convictions exist in him side by side w ith old-fashioned prejudices, outdated habits of thought and feeling, obstinate m isinterpretations, and b lin d ignorance. 5 88 Such are the people who produce the symbols we are investi­ gating in their dreams. In order to explain the symbols and their m eaning, it is essential to learn w hether these representations are still the same as they ever were, or w hether they have been chosen by th e dream for its particular purpose from a store of general conscious knowledge. If, for instance, one has to deal w ith a dream in which the n u m b er 13 occurs, the question is: Does the dream er habitually believe in the unfavourable nature of the num ber, or does the dream m erely allude to people who still indulge in such superstitions? T h e answer will m ake a great difference to the interpretation. In the form er case, the dream er is still u n d er the spell of the unlucky 13, and will therefore feel most uncom fortable in room no. 13 or sitting at a table with thirteen people. In the latter case, 13 may no t be m ore than a chiding or disparaging rem ark. In one case it is a still num inous 256

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; i n t h e o t h e r i t is s t r i p p e d o f i t s o r i g i n a l e m o ­ tio n a lity a n d h as a s s u m e d th e in n o c u o u s c h a r a c te r o f a m e re p ie c e o f in d if f e r e n t in f o r m a tio n . 589

T h is illu s tr a te s th e w a y in w h ic h a rc h e ty p e s a p p e a r in p r a c ­ tic a l e x p e r ie n c e . I n th e firs t c a se th e y a p p e a r i n t h e i r o r ig in a l f o r m — th e y a r e im a g e s a n d a t th e s a m e tim e e m o tio n s . O n e c a n s p e a k o f a n a r c h e ty p e o n ly w h e n th e s e tw o a s p e c ts c o in c id e . W h e n t h e r e is o n l y a n i m a g e , i t is m e r e l y a w o r d - p i c t u r e , l i k e a c o r p u s c l e w i t h n o e l e c t r i c c h a r g e . I t is t h e n o f l i t t l e c o n s e ­ q u e n c e , j u s t a w o r d a n d n o t h i n g m o r e . B u t i f t h e i m a g e is c h a r g e d w i t h n u m i n o s i t y , t h a t is, w i t h p s y c h i c e n e r g y , t h e n i t b e c o m e s d y n a m i c a n d w i l l p r o d u c e c o n s e q u e n c e s . I t is a g r e a t m is ta k e in p r a c tic e to tr e a t a n a r c h e ty p e as if i t w e r e a m e r e n a m e , w o r d , o r c o n c e p t . I t is f a r m o r e t h a n t h a t : i t is a p i e c e o f life , a n im a g e c o n n e c t e d w ith th e liv in g in d iv i d u a l b y th e b r i d g e o f e m o t i o n . T h e w o r d a l o n e is a m e r e a b s t r a c t i o n , a n e x c h a n g e a b le c o in in in te lle c tu a l c o m m e rc e . B u t th e a rc h e ty p e is l i v i n g m a t t e r . I t is n o t l i m i t l e s s l y e x c h a n g e a b l e b u t a l w a y s b e ­ lo n g s to t h e e c o n o m y o f a liv in g in d iv i d u a l, f r o m w h ic h i t c a n ­ n o t b e d e ta c h e d a n d u s e d a r b itr a r ily fo r d iffe re n t e n d s. I t c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d i n j u s t a n y w a y , b u t o n l y i n t h e o n e t h a t is i n d i ­ c a te d b y th a t p a r tic u la r in d iv id u a l. T h u s th e sy m b o l o f th e c ro ss, in th e c a se o f a g o o d C h r is tia n , c a n b e in t e r p r e t e d o n ly in th e C h r is t ia n w a y u n le s s th e d r e a m p r o d u c e s v e ry s tr o n g re a s o n s to th e c o n t r a r y , a n d e v e n t h e n t h e s p e c ific a lly C h r i s t i a n m e a n ­

i n g s h o u l d n o t b e l o s t s i g h t o f. T h e m e r e u s e o f w o r d s is f u t i l e i f y o u d o n o t k n o w w h a t t h e y s t a n d f o r . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n p s y c h o l o g y , w h e r e w e s p e a k o f a r c h e t y p e s l i k e t h e a n i m a a n d a n i m u s , t h e w is e o l d m a n , th e g r e a t m o th e r , a n d so o n . Y o u c a n k n o w a b o u t a ll th e s a in ts , sa g es, p r o p h e ts , a n d o t h e r g o d ly m e n , a n d a ll th e g r e a t m o th e r s o f t h e w o r ld , b u t if th e y a r e m e r e im a g e s w h o s e n u m i ­ n o s ity y o u h a v e n e v e r e x p e r ie n c e d , it w ill b e as if y o u w e re ta lk ­ in g in a d re a m , f o r y o u d o n o t k n o w w h a t y o u a re ta lk in g a b o u t. T h e w o rd s y o u u s e a r e e m p ty a n d v a lu e le s s , a n d th e y g a in lif e a n d m e a n in g o n ly w h e n y o u tr y to le a r n a b o u t th e ir n u m in o s ­ ity , t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e liv i n g i n d i v i d u a l . T h e n o n ly d o y o u b e g in to u n d e r s ta n d th a t th e n a m e s m e a n v e ry little , b u t th a t t h e w a y t h e y a r e r e l a t e d t o y o u is a l l - i m p o r t a n t . 591 T h e s y m b o l - p r o d u c i n g f u n c t i o n o f o u r d r e a m s is a n a t t e m p t 59°

to bring o u r original m ind back to consciousness, where it has never been before, and where it has never undergone critical self-reflection. W e have been th at m ind, b u t we have never know n it. W e got rid of it before understanding it. I t rose from its cradle, shedding its prim itive characteristics like cumbersome and valueless husks. It looks as if the unconscious represented the deposit of these rem nants. Dreams and th eir symbols contin­ ually refer to them , as if they intended to b rin g back all the old prim itive things from which the m ind freed itself in the course of its evolution: illusions, childish fantasies, archaic thoughtforms, prim itive instincts. T his is in reality the case, and it ex­ plains the resistance, even fear and horror, one experiences in approaching the unconscious. O ne is shocked less by the primitivity of its contents than by their em otionality. T hey are not merely neutral or indifferent, they are so charged w ith affect th at they are often exceedingly uncom fortable. T h ey can even cause real panic, and the m ore they are repressed the m ore they spread through the whole personality in the form of a neurosis. 592 It is just their em otionality, however, th at gives them such a vital im portance. I t is as if a m an who has lived through a period of life in an unconscious state should suddenly realize that there is a gap in his memory— th at im portant events seem to have taken place th at he cannot rem em ber. In so far as he assumes th at the psyche is an exclusively personal affair (and this is the usual assum ption), he will try to retrieve the apparently lost infantile memories. B ut the gaps in his childhood mem ories are merely the symptoms of a m uch greater loss, the loss of the prim ­ itive psyche— the psyche th at lived and functioned before it was reflected by consciousness. 593 As the evolution of the em bryonic body repeats its prehis­ tory, so the m ind grows u p through the series of its prehistoric stages. Dreams seem to consider it their m ain task to bring back a sort of recollection of the prehistoric as well as the infan­ tile world, right dow n to the level of the m ost prim itive in­ stincts, as if such memories were a priceless treasure. A nd these memories can indeed have a rem arkably healing effect in certain cases, as Freud saw long ago. T his observation confirms the view th at an infantile memory-gap (a so-called amnesia) am ounts to a definite loss and th at its recovery brings an increase in vitality and well-being. Since we measure a child’s psychic life by the 258

paucity and sim plicity of its conscious contents, we do no t ap­ preciate the far-reaching com plexities of the infantile m ind that stem from its original identity w ith the prehistoric psyche. T h a t “original m in d ” is ju st as m uch present and still functioning in the child as the evolutionary stages are in the embryo. If the reader rem em bers w hat I said earlier about the child who made a present of her dream s to her father, he will get a good idea of w hat I mean. 594 In infantile amnesia, one finds strange adm ixtures of m ytho­ logical fragm ents th at also often appear in later psychoses. Im ­ ages of this kind are highly num inous and therefore very im por­ tant. If such recollections reappear in adult life, they may in some cases cause profound psychological disturbances, w hile in other people they can produce astonishing cures or religious conversions. O ften they bring back a piece of life, missing for a long time, th at enriches the life of an individual. 595 T h e recollection of infantile memories and the reproduction of archetypal modes of psychic functioning create a w ider h o ri­ zon and a greater extension of consciousness, provided th a t one succeeds in assim ilating and integrating the lost and regained contents. Since they are not neutral, their assim ilation will m od­ ify the personality, even as they themselves will have to undergo certain alterations. In this p art of the individuation process the in terp retatio n of symbols plays an im p o rtan t practical role; for the symbols are natu ral attem pts to reconcile and reu n ite often widely separated opposites, as is apparent from the contradictory n atu re of many symbols. It w ould be a particularly obnoxious error in this work of assimilation if the in terp reter were to take only the conscious memories as “tru e ” o r “real,” w hile consider­ ing the archetypal contents as merely fantastic representations. Dreams and their am biguous symbols owe th eir forms on the one hand to repressed contents and on the other to archetypes. T hey thus have two aspects and enable one to in terp ret in two ways: one lays the emphasis either on th eir personal or on their archetypal aspect. T h e form er shows the m orbid influence of re­ pression and infantile wishes, w hile the latter points to the sound instinctive basis. H ow ever fantastic the archetypal con­ tents may be, they represent em otional powers or “numinosities.” If one should try to brush them aside, they w ould only get repressed and would create the same neurotic condition as be-

fore. T h e ir num inosity gives the contents an autonom ous na­ ture. T his is a psychological fact that cannot be denied. If it is nevertheless denied, the regained contents are annihilated and any attem pt at a synthesis is futile. B ut it appears to be a tem pt­ ing way out and therefore it is often chosen. 596 N ot only is the existence of archetypes denied, b u t even those people who do adm it their existence usually treat them as if they were m ere images and forget th at they are living entities th at make up a great p art of the hum an psyche. As soon as the interp reter strips them of their num inosity, they lose their life and become m ere words. It is then easy enough to link them together w ith other mythological representations, and so the process of limitless substitution begins; one glides from arche­ type to archetype, everything means everything, and one has re­ duced the whole process to absurdity. AU the corpses in the world are chemically identical, b u t living individuals are not. It is true that the forms of archetypes are to a considerable extent interchangeable, b u t their num inosity is and rem ains a fact. It represents the value of an archetypal event. T h is em otional value must be kept in m ind and allowed for th ro u g h o u t the whole intellectual process of interpretation. T h e risk of losing it is great, because thinking and feeling are so diam etrically op­ posed th at thinking abolishes feeling-values and vice versa. Psy­ chology is the only science th a t has to take the factor of value (feeling) into account, since it forms the lin k betw een psychic events on the one hand, and m eaning and life on the other. 597 O ur intellect has created a new w orld that dom inates nature, and has populated it w ith m onstrous machines. T h e latter are so indubitably useful and so m uch needed th at we cannot see even a possibility of getting rid of them or of o u r odious subservience to them. M an is bou n d to follow the exploits of his scientific and inventive m ind and to adm ire him self for his splendid achieve­ ments. A t the same time, he cannot help adm itting th at his gen­ ius shows an uncanny tendency to invent things that become m ore and m ore dangerous, because they represent b etter and b etter means for wholesale suicide. In view of the rapidly in­ creasing avalanche of w orld population, we have already begun to seek ways and means of keeping the rising flood at bay. But n atu re may anticipate all o u r attem pts by tu rn in g against man his own creative m ind, and, by releasing the H -bom b or some 260

equally catastrophic device, put an effective stop to over­ population. In spite of our proud dom ination of n atu re we are still h er victims as m uch as ever and have not even learn t to control our own nature, which slowly and inevitably courts dis­ aster. 598 T h ere are no longer any gods whom we can invoke to help us. T h e great religions of the w orld suffer from increasing anae­ m ia, because the helpful n u m in a have fled from the woods, rivers, m ountains, and animals, and the God-men have disap­ peared underground into the unconscious. T h ere we suppose they lead an ignom inious existence among the relics of our past, w hile we rem ain dom inated by the great Deesse Raison, who is o ur overw helm ing illusion. W ith her aid we are doing laudable things: we rid the w orld of m alaria, we spread hygiene every­ where, w ith the result th a t under-developed populations in ­ crease at such a rate that food is becom ing a problem . “W e have conquered n a tu re ” is a m ere slogan. In reality we are confronted w ith anxious questions, the answers to which seem now here in sight. T h e so-called conquest of n atu re overwhelms us w ith the natural fact of over-population and makes our troubles m ore or less unm anageable because of our psychological incapacity to reach the necessary political agreements. I t rem ains q u ite n a tu ­ ral for m en to quarrel and fight and struggle for superiority over one another. W here indeed have we “conquered n a tu re ”? 599 As any change m ust begin somewhere, it is the single in d i­ vidual who will undergo it and carry it through. T h e change m ust begin w ith one individual; it m ight be any one of us. N o­ body can afford to look around and to wait for somebody else to do w hat he is loath to do himself. As nobody knows w hat he could do, he m ight be bold enough to ask him self w hether by any chance his unconscious m ight know som ething helpful, w hen there is no satisfactory conscious answer anywhere in sight. M an today is painfully aware of the fact that n eith er his great religions nor his various philosophies seem to provide him w ith those pow erful ideas that w ould give him the certainty and secu­ rity he needs in face of the present condition of the world. 600 I know th at the Buddhists would say, as indeed they do: if only people w ould follow the noble eightfold path of the D harm a (doctrine, law) and had true insight into the Self; or the Christians: if only people had the rig h t faith in the Lord; or 261

the rationalists: if only people could be intelligent and reason­ able— then all problem s w ould be manageable and solvable. T he trouble is that none of them manages to solve these problems himself. Christians often ask why God does no t speak to them, as he is believed to have done in form er days. W hen I hear such questions, it always makes me think of the R ab b i who was asked how it could be th at God often showed himself to people in the olden days b u t th at nowadays one no longer saw him . T he R ab b i replied: “N or is there anyone nowadays who could stoop so low.” 6°i T his answer hits the nail on the head. W e are so captivated by and entangled in our subjective consciousness that we have simply forgotten the age-old fact th a t God speaks chiefly through dreams and visions. T h e B uddhist discards the world of uncon­ scious fantasies as “distractions” and useless illusions; the Chris­ tian puts his C hurch and his Bible betw een himself and his un­ conscious; and the rationalist intellectual does no t yet know that his consciousness is not his total psyche, in spite of the fact that for m ore than seventy years the unconscious has been a basic scientific concept th at is indispensable to any serious student of psychology. 602 W e can no longer afford to be so God-almighty as to set our­ selves u p as judges of the m erits or dem erits of n atu ral phenom ­ ena. W e do not base our botany on a division into useful and useless plants, or our zoology on a classification into harmless and dangerous animals. B ut we still go on blithely assuming that consciousness is sense and the unconscious is nonsense— as if you could make o u t w hether any natural phenom enon makes sense or not! Do microbes, for instance, make sense or nonsense? Such evaluations m erely dem onstrate the lam entable state of our m ind, which conceals its ignorance and incom petence u n d er the cloak of megalomania. C ertainly microbes are very small and most despicable, b u t it w ould be folly to know n o th in g about them. 603 W hatever else the unconscious may be, it is a natural phe­ nom enon th at produces symbols, and these symbols prove to be m eaningful. W e cannot expect someone who has never looked through a microscope to be an authority on microbes; in the same way, no one who has n o t made a serious study of natural symbols can be considered a com petent judge in this m atter. But 262

the general u n d e rv a lu a tio n of th e h u m a n psyche is so g reat th a t n e ith e r the great relig io n s n o r th e philosophies n o r scientific r a ­ tio n alism have b een w illin g to look a t it twice. I n spite of the fact th a t the C atholic C h u rch adm its th e o ccurrence of dream s sent by G od, m ost of its th in k ers m ake no a tte m p t to u n d e rsta n d them . I also d o u b t w h eth er th e re is a P ro te sta n t treatise on dog­ m atics th a t w o u ld “ stoop so low ” as to consider th e possibility th a t the v o x D ei m ig h t b e perceived in a dream . B u t if some. body really believes in G od, by w h at a u th o rity does he suggest th a t G od is u n a b le to speak th ro u g h dream s? 604 I have sp en t m ore th a n h alf a cen tu ry investig atin g n a tu ra l symbols, an d I have com e to th e conclusion th a t dream s an d th e ir symbols are n o t stu p id a n d m eaningless. O n th e co ntrary, dream s p ro v id e you w ith the m ost in terestin g in fo rm atio n if only you take th e tro u b le to u n d e rsta n d th e ir symbols. T h e re ­ sults, it is tru e, have little to do w ith such w orldly concerns as b u y in g a n d selling. B u t th e m e an in g of life is n o t exhaustively e x p lain ed by y o u r business activities, n o r is the deep desire of the h u m a n h e a rt answ ered by y o u r b a n k account, even if you have n ev er h eard of a n y th in g else. 605 A t a tim e w h en all available energy is sp en t in th e investiga­ tio n of n a tu re , very little a tte n tio n is p aid to th e essence of m an, w hich is his psyche, alth o u g h m any researches are m ade in to its conscious fun ctio n s. B u t th e really u n k n o w n p art, w hich p ro ­ duces symbols, is still v irtu ally u n ex p lo red . W e receive signals from it every n ig h t, yet d ecip h erin g these co m m u n icatio n s seems to b e such an odious task th a t very few people in th e w hole civilized w o rld can be b o th e re d w ith it. M an ’s greatest in stru m e n t, his psyche, is little th o u g h t of, if n o t actually m is­ tru ste d a n d despised. “ I t ’s only psychological” too o ften m eans: I t is n o th in g . 606 W h ere, exactly, does this im m ense p reju d ice com e from ? W e have obviously b een so busy w ith th e q u estio n of w h at we th in k th a t we en tirely forget w h at th e unconscious psyche th in k s a b o u t us. F re u d m ad e a serious a tte m p t to show why th e u n c o n ­ scious deserves n o b e tte r ju d g m en t, an d his teachings have in a d ­ v erten tly increased an d confirm ed th e ex istin g c o n tem p t for th e psyche. Before h im it h a d b een m erely overlooked a n d neg­ lected; now it has becom e a d u m p for m o ral refuse an d a source of fear.

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T his m odern standpoint is surely onesided and unjust. It does not even accord w ith the known facts. O u r actual know l­ edge of the unconscious shows it to be a n atu ral phenom enon, and that, like n ature herself, it is at least neutral. It contains all aspects of hum an natu re— light and dark, beautiful and ugly, good and evil, profound and silly. T h e study of individual as well as collective symbolism is an enorm ous task, and one that has n o t yet been mastered. B ut at last a beginning has been made. T h e results so far gained are encouraging, and they seem to indicate an answer to many of the questions perplexing pres­ ent-day m ankind.

Ill THE SYMBOLIC LIFE

[A sem inar talk given on 5 A pril 1939 to the G uild of P astoral Psychology, London. Issued privately, as a transcript from shorthand notes by D erek K itchin, as Guild L ecture No. 80 (L ondon, 1954). Ju n g h a d approved the transcript. Subsequently published, in abbreviated form, in Darshana (M oradabad, I n d ia ), 1 :3 (A ugust 1961), 11—22; th e issue was dedicated to the m em ory of C. G. Jung, w ho h ad died on 6 Ju n e of th a t year. T h e G uild L ecture is reproduced here w ith stylistic revisions.]

T H E SY M B O LIC L IF E Professor Jung was asked two questions: First, had he any views on what was likely to be the next step in religious development? D id he, for example, think that there would be a new revelation— as some· would phrase it, a new incar­ nation of the W orld Teacher, a new collective fantasy? Or was there likely to be a reinterpretation and new appreciation of the esoteric m eaning of Christianity— perhaps with the aid of psychology? Or would there be no collective expression, but a period in which each m an had to m ake his own individual contact and live out his own personal expression? Secondly, would he explain w hy the believing Catholic was not subject to neurosis, and what could be done by the Protestant churches to counteract the tendency of their members to neurotic conditions? 608

I am not as ambitious as the questions th at have been p u t to me! I should like to start with the second question, about the R om an Catholics, which has not been considered as of primary im portance, b u t which, from a technical point of view, deserves full attention. 609 Y o u have heard th at I said R om an Catholics are less threatened by neurosis than members of other religious confessions. O f course there are Catholic neurotics just as well as others, b u t it is a fact th a t in my forty years of experience I have had no more than six practising Catholics am ong my patients. N aturally I do not count all those who have been Catholics, or who say th a t they are C atho­ lics b u t who do not practise; b u t of practising Catholics I have had not more than about six. T h at is also the experience of my colleagues. In Zurich we are surrounded by Catholic cantons; not quite two-thirds of Switzerland is Protestant and the rest is Catholic. A nd then we have on the frontier Southern Germany, which is Catholic. So we should have a fair num ber of Catholic patients, but we have n o t; we have very few. 610 I was once asked by students of divinity a very interesting ques-

bi I

tio n : whether in my view people in modern times, in case of psycho­ logical trouble, would go to the doctor rather than to the parson or the priest? Now, I said I could not answer th a t question, but I would enquire. So I sent round a questionnaire with detailed questions. I did not do it myself, because if I ask something, of course that is already a prejudice, and every answer would be preju­ diced. So I gave the questionnaire to certain people who were not known to be acquainted with me, or in any kind of relation to me, and they sent it around, and we got hundreds of very interest­ ing answers. And there I found the confirmation of w hat I already knew, namely, a large percentage— by far the majority— of C atho­ lics said that, in case of psychological trouble, they would go to the priest and not to the doctor. T he vast majority of Protestants said they would naturally go to the doctor. I had a very large num ­ ber of answers from members of families of parsons, and they nearly all said that they would not go to the parson, they would rather go to the doctor. (I can talk quite freely about this. I am the son of a parson, and my grandfather was a sort of bishop, and I had five uncles all parsons, so I know something about the jo b ! I have no hostile attitude to the clergy. O n the contrary; but this is a fact.) I also had answers from Jews, and not one single Jew said he would go to the R abbi— he w ouldn’t even think of it. And I had one Chinese, who gave me a classical answer. He said: “ When I am young I go to the doctor, and when I am old I go to the philosopher.” I also had answers from representatives of the clergy, and I must mention one answer, which I hope is not in any way represen­ tative, b u t which casts a certain light upon a certain kind of theolo­ gian. T he w riter said, “Theology has nothing to do with the practi­ cal m an.” W hat has it to do with, then? You could say, “ W ith G od” ; but you are not going to tell me th at theology deals with God in that sense. Theology is really m eant for man, if it is m eant for anything. God needs no theology, I should say. T h at [answer] is a symptom of a certain attitude which explains a lot. Now, I have spoken of my own experience in this field, but recently statistical researches have been m ade in America about the very same question, b u t from another angle. It is a sort of appreciation of the am ount of complexes, or complex manifesta­ tions, you find in people. You find the least or the smallest number of complex manifestations in practising Catholics, far more in P rot­ estants, and the most in Jews. T h a t is absolutely independent of

my ow n researches; a colleague of m ine in th e U n ited States m ade these researches,1 a n d th a t bears out w h at I have told you. 613 So there m ust be som ething in the C atholic C h u rch w hich ac­ counts for this peculiar fact. O f course, we think in the first place of confession. T h a t is only th e outer aspect. I h a p p e n to know a great deal about confession, because I have often h a d to do w ith the C atholic clergy, particularly w ith Jesuits, w ho w ere busy in psychotherapy. F o r m any years the C atholic clergy have studied psychotherapy; they have followed it up very closely. In the first place it was, of course, the Jesuits w ho studied it, a n d now recently I have h eard th a t the Benedictines have done so too. T h ere is an old trad itio n in the C atholic C hurch of the directeur de con­ science— a sort of leader of souls. These directors have an extraordi­ n ary am o u n t of experience a n d trainin g in th a t work, a n d I have often been am azed at the w isdom w ith w hich Jesuits and other C atholic priests advised their patients. 614· Ju st recently it hap p en ed th a t a patien t of m ine, a w om an of the nobility, w ho h a d a Jesuit father-confessor, discussed w ith him all the critical points of th e analysis she m ad e u n d e r m y care. O f course, a n u m b er of things were not quite orthodox, an d I was fully aw are th a t there was a great conflict in her m ind, a n d I advised h er to discuss these m atters w ith her father-confessor. (H e was a fam ous Jesuit— he is now d ead.) A nd then, after she h ad had th a t very fran k talk, she told m e all he said to her, and he h a d confirm ed every w ord I h ad told her— a thing th a t was rath e r am azing to m e, particularly from the m outh of a Jesuit. T h a t opened m y eyes to the extraordinary wisdom a n d culture of the C atholic directeur de conscience. A nd it explains to a certain extent w hy th e practising C atholic w ould ra th e r go to th e priest. 615 T h e fact is th a t there are relatively few neurotic Catholics, an d yet they are living u n d e r the sam e conditions as we do. T h ey are presum ably suffering from th e sam e social conditions an d so on, and so one w ould expect a sim ilar am ount of neurosis. T h ere m ust be som ething in the cult, in the actu al religious practice, w hich explains th a t peculiar fact th a t there are few er complexes, or th a t these complexes m anifest themselves m uch less in C atholics th a n in o ther people. T h a t som ething, besides confession, is really the 1 [H en ry A. M u rra y , in his “ C onclusions” to E xp lo ra tio n s in P ersonality: A C linical a n d E x p e rim e n ta l S tu d y of F ifty M e n o f C ollege A g e , by th e W orkers a t th e H a rv a rd Psychological C lin ic, u n d e r M u rra y ’s d ire ctio n (1 9 3 8 ) , p. 739, sec. 17. C ite d also in “ P sy ch o th erap y T o d a y ” (1 9 4 1 ), C .W ., vol. 16, p a r. 218.]

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cult itself. It is the Mass, for instance. T he heart of the Mass con­ tains a living mystery, and that is the thing that works. When I say “a living mystery,” I mean nothing mysterious; I m ean mystery in that sense which the word has always had— a mysterium trem endum .2 A nd the Mass is by no means the only mystery in the Catholic Church. There are other mysteries too. They begin with the very preparations, the simple things, in the Church. Take, for instance, the preparation of the baptismal w ater— the rite of the benedictio fontis major, or minor, on the night of the Sabbath be­ fore Easter. There you can see that a part of the Eleusinian Myste­ ries is still performed. If you ask the average priest, he is unable to give you any ac­ count of these things. H e does not know them. I once asked the Bishop of Fribourg, in Switzerland, to send us a m an who could give a good account of the mystery of the Mass. It was a sad failure; he could tell us nothing. H e could only confess to the wonderful impressicn, the marvellous mystical feeling, b u t he could say noth­ ing at all as to why he had that feeling. It was only sentiments, and we could do nothing with it. But if you go into the history of the rite, if you try to understand the whole structure of th at rite, including all the other rites round it, then you see it is a mystery that reaches down into the history of the hum an m ind; it goes back very far— far beyond the beginnings of Christianity. You know th a t very im portant parts of the Mass— for instance, the Host— belonged to the cult of M ithras. In the cult of M ithras they used bread stam ped with the cross, or divided into four; they used the little bells; and they used baptismal w ater— th at is quite certainly pre-Christian. W e even have texts th a t bear this out. T h e rite of the divine water, or the aqua permanens— the “eternal w ater”— is an alchemical conception, older than its Christian use; and when you study the benedictio fontis, the actual making of the water, you see that it is an alchemical procedure; and we have a text from the first century, a text of Pseudo-Democritus, which says w hat the blessing was done for. These are absolute facts which are quite surely established. They point back into prehistory, into a continuity of tradition perhaps hundreds of years before Christianity. Now these mysteries have always been the expression of a fundam ental psychological condi­ tion. M an expresses his most fundam ental and most im portant psy­ chological conditions in this ritual, this magic, or whatever you 2 [“ trem en d o u s m ystery.” ]

call it. A nd the ritual is the cult performance of these basic psycho­ logical facts. T h a t explains why we should not change anything in a ritual. A ritual must be done according to tradition, and if you change one little point in it, you make a mistake. You must not allow your reason to play with it. For instance, take th at most difficult dogma, the dogm a of the Virgin Birth: it is absolutely wrong to rationalize it. If you leave it as it is, as it has been handed down, then it is tru e; b u t if you rationalize it, it is all wrong, because then you shift it over to the plane of our playful intellect, which does not understand the secret. It is the secret of virginity and the virginal conception, and th a t is a most im portant psychological fact. T he sad tru th is th at we do not understand it any more. But, you know, in form er centuries m an did not need th at kind of intellectual understanding. W e are very proud of it; but it is nothing to be proud of. O u r intellect is absolutely incapable of understanding these things. W e are not far enough advanced psychologically to understand the tru th , the extraordinary truth, of ritual and dogma. Therefore such dogmas should never be submitted to any kind of criticism. 618 So, you see, if I treat a real Christian, a real Catholic, I always keep him down to the dogma, and say, “ You stick to it! And if you begin to criticize it in any way intellectually, then I am going to analyse you, and then you are in the frying-pan!” W hen a p rac­ tising Catholic comes to me, I say, “D id you confess this to your father-confessor?” N aturally he says, “ No, he does not understand.” “W hat in hell, then,” I say, “did you confess?” “O h, lousy little things of no im portance”— but the m ain sins he never talked of. As I said, I have had quite a num ber of these Catholics— six. I was quite proud to have so many, and I said to them, “Now, you see, w hat you tell me here, this is really serious. You go now to your father-confessor and you confess, w hether he understands or does not understand. T h a t is of no concern. I t must be told before God, and if you don’t do it, you are out of the Church, and then analysis begins, and then things will get hot, so you are m uch better off in the lap of the C hurch.” So, you see, I brought these people back into the C hurch, with the result th at the Pope himself gave me a private blessing for having taught certain im portant Catholics the right way of confessing. 6 *9 For instance, there was a lady who played a very great role in the war. She was very Catholic, and always in the summer she used to come to Switzerland to pass her summer holiday. There is a famous monastery there with m any monks, and she used to

go to it for confession and spiritual advice. Now, being an interest­ ing person, she got a bit too interested in her father-confessor, and he got a bit too interested in her, and there was some conflict. H e was then removed to the C lausura,3 and she naturally collapsed, and she was advised to go to me. So she came to me in full resistance against the authorities who had interfered, and I m ade her go back to her spiritual authorities and confess the whole situation. And when she went back to Rome, where she lived, and where she had a confessor, he asked her, “ Well, I know you from many years ago: how is it that you now confess so freely?” And she said she had learnt it from a doctor. T h at is the story of how I got the Pope’s private blessing. M y attitude to these m atters is that, as long as a patient is really a m em ber of a church, he ought to be serious. He ought to be really and sincerely a member of th a t church, and he should not go to a doctor to get his conflicts settled when he believes th at he should do it with God. For instance, when a m ember of the Oxford G roup comes to me in order to get treatm ent, I say, “You are in the Oxford G roup; so long as you are there, you settle your affair with the Oxford Group. I can’t do it better than Jesus.” I will tell you a story of such a case. A hysterical alcoholic was cured by this G roup movement, and they used him as a sort of model and sent him all round Europe, where he confessed so nicely and said th a t he had done wrong and how he had got cured through the G roup movement. A nd when he had repeated his story twenty, or it may have been fifty, times, he got sick of it and took to drink again. T he spiritual sensation had simply faded away. Now w hat are they going to do w ith him? They say, now he is pathologi­ cal, he must go to a doctor. See, in the first stage he has been cured by Jesus, in the second by a d o cto r! I should and did refuse such a case. I sent th at m an back to these people and said, “ If you believe th a t Jesus has cured this m an, he will do it a second time. A nd if he can’t do it, you don’t suppose th a t I can do it better than Jesus?” But th at is just exactly w hat they do expect: when a m an is pathological, Jesus w on’t help him but the doctor will. As long as a fellow believes in the Oxford G roup movement, he stays there; and as long as a m an is in the Catholic Church, he is in the Catholic Church for better or worse and he should 8 [The part of the religious house from which those of the opposite sex are excluded.]

be cured by those m eans. A nd m ind you, I have seen th a t they can b e cured by those m eans— th a t is a f a c t ! Absolution, the H oly C om m union, can cure them , even in very serious cases. If the ex­ perience of the H oly C om m union is real, if the ritu al an d the dogm a fully express the psychological situation of th a t individual, he can be cured. If th e ritu al a n d dogm a do not fully express the psycho­ logical situation of th a t individual, he c a n ’t be cured. T h a t is the reason w hy you have Protestantism , an d th a t is w hy Protestantism is so un certain , w hy it splits a n d splits. T h a t is no objection to P rotestantism ; it is exactly the sam e as the story ab o u t the Code N apoleon. 623 A fter th e C ode N apoleon h a d been in use a year, the m an en­ trusted w ith th e execution of N apoleon’s orders cam e back w ith a portfolio of im m ense size. N apoleon looked a t it and asked, “ M ais com m ent? Est-ce que Ie Code est m ort?”— because th e m an h ad so m an y propositions to m ake. But th e m an answ ered, “A u contraire, S ire; il v it! ” 624 T h e splitting u p of Protestantism into new denom inations— four h u n d red or m ore we have— is a sign of life. But, a la s ! I t is not a very nice sign of life, in the sense of a church, because there is no dogm a a n d there is no ritual. T h e re is not the typical symbolic life. 6a5 Y ou see, m an is in need of a symbolic life— badly in need. W e only live ban al, ordinary, rational, or irratio n al things— w hich are natu rally also w ithin the scope of rationalism , otherwise you could not call them irrational. B ut w e have no symbolic life. W here do we live symbolically? N ow here, except w here we particip ate in the ritual of life. But w ho, am ong the m any, are really particip atin g in the ritu a l of life? V ery few. A nd w hen you look a t th e ritual life of the P ro testan t C hurch, it is alm ost nil. Even th e H oly C om ­ m union has been rationalized. I say th a t from th e Swiss point of view : in the Swiss Z w inglian C h u rc h the H oly C om m union is not a com m union a t all; it is a m eal of m em ory. T h ere is no M ass either; there is no confession; there is no ritual, symbolic life. 626 H av e you got a corner som ew here in your house w here you p e r­ form th e rites, as you can see in In d ia ? Even the very sim ple houses there have a t least a cu rtain ed corner w here the m em bers of the household can lead th e symbolic life, w here they can m ake their new vows or m editation. W e d o n ’t have it; we have no such corner. W e have ou r ow n room , of course— b u t th ere is a telephone w hich can ring us u p a t any tim e, an d w e always m ust be ready. W e

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have no time, no place. W here have we got these dogmatic or these mysterious images? Nowhere! We have art galleries, yes—where we kill the gods by thousands. We have robbed the churches of their mysterious images, of their magical images, and we put them into a rt galleries. T h at is worse than the killing of the three hundred children in Bethlehem; it is a blasphemy. Now, we have no symbolic life, and we are all badly in need of the symbolic life. Only the symbolic life can express the need of the soul— the daily need of the soul, m ind y o u ! A nd because people have no such thing, they can never step out of this mill— this awful, grinding, banal life in which they are “nothing but.” In the ritual they are near the G odhead; they are even divine. Think of the priest in the Catholic Church, who is in the G odhead: he carries himself to the sacrifice on the altar; he offers himself as the sacrifice. D o we do it? W here do we know th a t we do it? N o­ where! Everything is banal, everything is “nothing b u t” ; and that is the reason why people are neurotic. They are simply sick of the whole thing, sick of th at banal life, and therefore they w ant sensa­ tion. They even w ant a w ar; they all w ant a war. They are all glad when there is a w ar: they say, “T hank heaven, now something is going to happen— something bigger than ourselves!” These things go pretty deep, and no wonder people get neurotic. Life is too rational, there is no symbolic existence in which I am something else, in which I am fulfilling my role, my role as one of the actors in the divine dram a of life. I once had a talk with the m aster of ceremonies of a tribe of Pueblo Indians, and he told me something very interesting. He said, “Yes, we are a small tribe, and these Americans, they w ant to interfere with our religion. They should not do it,” he said, “be­ cause we are the sons of the Father, the Sun. H e who goes there” (pointing to the su n )—-“th at is our Father. We m ust help him daily to rise over the horizon and to walk over Heaven. And we don’t do it for ourselves only: we do it for America, we do it for the whole world. And if these Americans interfere with our religion through their missions, they will see something. In ten years Father Sun w on’t rise any more, because we can’t help him any more.” N o w , you m ay say, th at is just a sort of mild madness. Not a t all! These people have no problems. They have their daily life, their symbolic life. They get up in the m orning w ith a feeling of their great and divine responsibility: they are the sons of the Sun, the Father, and their daily duty is to help the F ath er over the

horizon— not for themselves alone, but for the whole world. You should see these fellows: they have a natural fulfilled dignity. And I quite understood when he said to me, “Now look at these Ameri­ cans: they are always seeking something. They are always full of unrest, always looking for something. W hat are they looking for? There is nothing to be looked for!” T h at is perfectly true. You can see them , these travelling tourists, always looking for something, always in the vain hope of finding something. O n my many travels I have found people who were on their third trip round the world— uninterruptedly. Just travelling, travelling; seeking, seeking. I met a w om an in C entral Africa who had come up alone in a car from Cape Tow n and w anted to go to Cairo. “ W hat for?” I asked. “ W hat are you trying to do th at for?” A nd I was amazed when I looked into her eyes— the eyes of a hunted, a cornered animal— seeking, seeking, always in the hope of something. I said, “ W hat in the world are you seeking? W hat are you waiting for, w hat are you hunting after?” She is nearly possessed; she is pos­ sessed by so m any devils th a t chase her around. A nd why is she possessed? Because she does not live the life that makes sense. Hers is a life utterly, grotesquely banal, utterly poor, meaningless, with no point in it at all. If she is killed today, nothing has happened, nothing has vanished— because she was nothing! But if she could say, “ I am the daughter of the M oon. Every night I must help the M oon, my M other, over the horizon”— ah, th at is something else! T hen she lives, then her life makes sense, and makes sense in all continuity, and for the whole of humanity. T h a t gives peace, when people feel that they are living the symbolic life, th a t they are actors in the divine dram a. T h at gives the only m eaning to hum an life; everything else is banal and you can dismiss it. A career, producing of children, are all maya com pared with th a t one thing, th a t your life is meaningful. 63i T h a t is the secret of the Catholic C hurch: th a t they still, to a certain extent, can live the meaningful life. For instance, if you can w atch daily the sacrifice of the Lord, if you can partake of his substance, then you are filled w ith the Deity, and you daily repeat the eternal sacrifice of Christ. O f course, w hat I say is just so m any words, b u t to the m an who really lives it, it means the whole world. I t means more than the whole world, because it makes sense to him. It expresses the desire of the soul; it expresses the actual facts of our unconscious life. W hen the wise m an said, “N a­ ture dem ands death,” he m eant just that.

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So I think we can go on now to the next question. W hat I have spoken of is, alas, to a great extent the past. We cannot turn the wheel backw ards; we cannot go back to the symbolism th at is gone. N o sooner do you know th at this thing is symbolic than you say, “ Oh, well, it presumably means something else.” D oubt has killed it, has devoured it. So you cannot go back. I cannot go back to the Catholic Church, I cannot experience the miracle of the Mass; I know too m uch about it. I know it is the truth, b u t it is the tru th in a form in which I cannot accept it any more. I cannot say “This is the sacrifice of Christ,” and see him any more. I cannot. I t is no more true to m e; it does not express my psychological condition. My psychological condition wants some­ thing else. I must have a situation in which th a t thing becomes true once more. I need a new form. W hen one has had the misfor­ tune to be fired out of a church, or to say “This is all nonsense,” and to quit it— th at has no m erit at all. But to be in it and to be forced, say, by God, to leave it— well, then you are legitimately extra ecclesiam. But extra ecclesiam nulla salus; then things really become terrible, because you are no more protected, you are no more in the consensus gentium, you are no more in the lap of the All-compassionate M other. You are alone and you are confronted with all the demons of hell. T h a t is w hat people don’t know. Then they say you have an anxiety neurosis, nocturnal fears, compul­ sions— I don’t know what. Your soul has become lonely; it is extra ecclesiam and in a state of no-salvation. And people don’t know it. They think your condition is pathological, and every doctor helps them to believe it. And, of course, when they say, and when every­ body holds, th at this is neurotic and pathological, then we have to talk that language. I talk the language of my patients. W hen I talk with lunatics, I talk the lunatic language, otherwise they don’t understand me. And when I talk w ith neurotics, I talk neu­ rotic with them. But it is neurotic talk when one says that this is a neurosis. As a m atter of fact it is something quite different: it is the terrific fear of loneliness. I t is the hallucination of loneliness, and it is a loneliness th a t cannot be quenched by anything else. You can be a member of a society w ith a thousand members, and you are still alone. T h a t thing in you which should live is alone; nobody touches it, nobody knows it, you yourself don’t know it; but it keeps on stirring, it disturbs you, it makes you restless, and it gives you no peace. 633 So, you see, I was forced simply through my patients to try

to find out w h a t we could do about such a condition. I am not going to found a religion, an d I know n othing about a fu tu re reli­ gion. I only know th a t in certain cases such an d such things develop. F o r instance, tak e any case you w a n t: if I go far enough, if the case dem ands it, or if certain conditions are favourable, then I shall observe certain unm istakable things, nam ely, th a t the uncon­ scious facts are com ing up a n d becom ing threateningly clear. T h a t is very disagreeable. A nd therefore F reud h a d to invent a system to pro tect people, a n d himself, against the reality of the unconscious, by p u ttin g a m ost depreciatory explanation upon these things, an explanation th a t always begins w ith “ nothing b u t.” T h e ex plana­ tion of every neurotic sym ptom was know n long ago. W e have a theory ab o u t it: it is all due to a father fixation, or to a m other fix atio n ; it is all nonsense, so you can dismiss it. A nd so we dismiss our souls— -“ O h , I am b o u n d by a fixation to m y m other, and if I see th a t I have all kinds of impossible fancies ab o u t my m other, I am liberated from th a t fixation.” If the p atien t succeeds, he has lost his soul. Every tim e you accept th a t explanation you lose your soul. You have n o t helped your soul; you have replaced your soul by an explanation, a theory. 634 I rem em ber a very sim ple case.4 T h e re was a student of philoso­ phy, a very intelligent w om an. T h a t w as quite a t the beginning of m y career. I was a young doctor then, a n d I did not know anything beyond F reud. I t was not a very im p o rta n t case of n eu ro ­ sis, a n d I was absolutely certain th a t it could be cu red ; b u t the case h a d not been cured. T h a t girl h a d developed a terrific fathertransference to m e— projected the im age of th e fath e r on m e. I said, “ But, you see, I ’m not your fa th e r!” “ I know ,” she said, “ th a t you’re n o t m y father, b u t it always seems as if you w ere.” She behaved accordingly a n d fell in love w ith m e, a n d I was h er father, b rother, son, lover, husband— and, of course, also h er hero an d saviour— every thinkable th in g ! “ B ut,” I said, “you see, th a t is absolute nonsense!” “ B ut I c a n ’t live w ithout it,” she answ ered. W h a t could I do w ith th at? N o depreciatory explanation w ould help. She said, “ Y ou can say w h a t you like; it is so.” She was in the g rip of an unconscious im age. T h e n I h a d the id ea: “ Now , if anybody knows anything ab o u t it, it m ust be the unconscious, th a t has produced such a n aw kw ard situation.” So I began to w atch the dream s seriously, not ju st in ord er to catch certain fantasies, b u t because I really w an ted to u n d erstan d how her psychic system 4 [Cf. T w o Essays on A n a ly tic a l P sychology (C .W ., vol. 7 ), p ars. 2o6ff.]

reacted to such an abnorm al situation— or to such a very normal situation, if you like to say so, because that situation is usual. She produced dreams in which I appeared as the father. T h a t we dealt with. T hen I appeared as the lover, and I appeared as the hus­ band— th a t was all in the same vein. Then I began to change my size: I was much bigger than an ordinary hum an being; sometimes I had even divine attributes. I thought “ O h, well, that is the old saviour idea.” A nd then I took on the most am azing forms. I ap ­ peared, for instance, the size of a god, standing in the fields and holding her in my arms as if she were a baby, and the wind was blowing over the corn and the fields were waving like waves of water, and in the same way I rocked her in my arms. And then, when I saw th a t picture, I thought, “Now I see w hat the uncon­ scious really is a fte r: the unconscious wants to make a god of m e : th a t girl needs a god— at least, her unconscious needs a god. H er unconscious wants to find a god, and because it cannot find a god, it says ‘Dr. Ju n g is a god.” And so I said to her w hat I thought: “I surely am not a god, b u t your unconscious needs a god. T h at is a serious and a genuine need. No time before us has fulfilled that need; you are just an intellectual fool, just as much as I am, but we don’t know it.” T h at changed the situation completely; it m ade all the difference in the world. I cured th at case, because I fulfilled the need of the unconscious. 635 I can tell you another case.5 T he patient was a Jewish girl. She was a funny little character, a very pretty, elegant little thing— and I thought “W hat a useless beast!” She had a frightful neurosis, a terrible anxiety neurosis, w ith awful attacks of fear, and she had suffered from these things for years. She had been with another analyst and had turned his head altogether; he fell in love with her, and she found no help in him. T hen she came to me. The night before she came— before I had seen her at all— I had a dream, and I dream ed of a young girl, a pretty girl, th at came to me, and I did not understand her case at all. Suddenly I thought, “By Jove! H asn’t she an extraordinary father complex!” And I felt it as a sort of revelation. I was much impressed by th a t dream ; I did not know to w hat it referred. Then, when th at girl came in next day, instantly I thought of my dream : “ Perhaps she is the one!” First she told me her story. At first I couldn’t see w hat it was all about, and then I thought, “ Isn’t it a father complex?” 5

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I saw nothing of a father complex, but it gave me the idea of asking more about the history of her family. T hen I found out th a t she came from a Hasidic family— you know, those great mys­ tics. H er grandfather had been a sort of w onder-rabbi— he had second sight— and her father had broken away from th a t mystic community, and she was completely sceptical and completely scien­ tific in her outlook on life. She was highly intelligent, with that m urderous kind of intellect th at you very often find in Jews. So I thought, “A h a ! W hat does that mean with reference to her neuro­ sis? W hy does she suffer from such an abysmal fear?” And I said to her, “ Look here, Tm going to tell you something, and you will probably think it is all foolishness, b u t you have been untrue to your God. Y our grandfather led the right life, but you are worse than a heretic; you have forsaken the mystery of your race. You belong to holy people, and w hat do you live? No wonder th a t you fear God, that you suffer from the fear of G od.” 636 W ithin one week I had cured th at anxiety neurosis, and th at is no lie ( I am too old to lie !) — th at is a fact. Before she had had months, m any months, of analysis, but all too rational. W ith th a t rem ark she turned the corner, as if she suddenly began to understand, and her whole neurosis collapsed. It had no point in it any m o re : it had been based upon the mistake th a t she could live w ith her miserable intellect alone in a perfectly banal world, when in fact she was a child of God and should have lived the symbolic life, where she would have fulfilled the secret will in herself th at was also in her family. She had forgotten all that, and was living, of course, in full contradiction to her whole natural system. Suddenly her life had a meaning, and she could live again; her whole neurosis went by the board. 637 In other cases, of course, it is not sc— should I say— simple (it was not quite simple, you k n ow !). I do not w ant to tell you further details of th a t case. It was a most instructive one, b u t I would rather tell you of other cases where things are not so simple, where you have to guide people quite slowly and w ait for a long tim e until the unconscious produces the symbols th at bring them back into the original symbolic life. T hen you have to know a great deal about the language of the unconscious, the language of dreams. T hen you see how the dreams begin to produce extraordinary fig­ ures. These are all found in history under different names. They are unknow n quantities, b u t you find these figures in a literature w hich is itself completely obsolete. If you happen to know these

symbols, you can explain to your patients w hat the unconscious is after. 638 O f course, I can’t give you a full description of these things, I can only mention them. From my observations I learned th a t the m odern unconscious has a tendency to produce a psychological condition which we find, for instance, in medieval mysticism. You find certain things in Meister E ck h art; you find m any things in Gnosticism; th a t is a sort of esoteric Christianity. You find the idea of the A dam K adm on in every m an— the Christ within. Christ is the second Adam, which is also, in exotic religions, the idea of the A tm an or the complete man, the original m an, the “ all-round” m an of Plato, symbolized by a circle or a d raw in g .with circular motifs. You find all these ideas in medieval mysticism; you find them all through alchemical literature, beginning with the first cen­ tury after Christ. You find them in Gnosticism, you find many of them in the New Testament, of course, in Paul. But it is an abso­ lutely consistent development of the idea of Christ within— not the historical Christ without, but the Christ w ithin; and the argument is th at it is immoral to allow Christ to suffer for us, th a t he has suffered enough, and th at we should carry our own sins for once and not shift them off on to Christ— th at we should carry them all. Christ expresses the same idea when he says, “ I appear in the least of your brethren” ;® and w hat about it, my dear son, if the least of your brethren should be yourself— w hat about it then? Then you get the intim ation th at Christ is not to be the least in your life, that we have a brother in ourselves who is really the least of our brethren, m uch worse than the poor beggar whom you feed. T h at is, in ourselves we have a shadow ; we have a very bad fellow in ourselves, a very poor m an, and he has to be accepted. W hat has Christ done— let us be quite banal about it— w hat has Christ done when we consider him as an entirely hum an creature? Christ was disobedient to his m other; Christ was disobedient to his tradi­ tion; Christ falsified himself, and played it out to the bitter end: he carried through his hypothesis to the bitter end. How was Christ born? In the greatest misery. W ho was his father? H e was an illegiti­ m ate child— hum anly the most miserable situation: a poor girl hav­ ing a little son. T h a t is our symbol, that is ourselves; we are all that. A nd if anyone lives his own hypothesis to the bitter end (and pays with his death, p erh ap s), he knows th at Christ is his brother. 6 [C f. M a t t h e w

2 5 :4 0 .]

639

T h a t is m o d e rn psychology, a n d th a t is th e fu tu re . T h a t is th e tru e fu tu re , t h a t is th e fu tu re of w h ich I know — b u t, of course, th e h isto rical fu tu re m ig h t b e q u ite d ifferent. W e do n o t kn o w w h e th e r it is n o t th e C a th o lic C h u rc h th a t w ill re a p th e h arv est th a t is n o w g o in g to b e c u t d ow n. W e do n o t know th a t. W e do n o t k n o w w h e th e r H itle r is going to fo u n d a new Islam . ( H e is a lre a d y o n th e w a y ; h e is like M o h a m m e d . T h e em o tio n in G e r­ m a n y is Isla m ic ; w arlik e a n d Islam ic. T h e y are all d ru n k w ith a w ild g o d .) T h a t c a n b e th e historic fu tu re . B u t I do n o t care fo r a h isto ric fu tu re a t all, n o t a t all; I am n o t co n c ern e d w ith it. I a m only c o n c e rn e d w ith th e fu lfilm en t of th a t w ill w h ich is in every in d iv id u a l. M y h isto ry is only th e history of those in d iv id ­ u als w h o a re g o in g to fulfil th e ir hypotheses. T h a t is th e w hole p ro b le m ; t h a t is th e p ro b le m of th e tru e P u e b lo : th a t I do to d a y ev e ry th in g t h a t is necessary so t h a t m y F a th e r ca n rise o v er th e h o rizo n . T h a t is m y sta n d p o in t. N o w I th in k I h a v e talk ed e n o u g h !

Discussion Canon H . E ngland: 64 °

I n th e C h u rc h of E n g la n d ritu a l w e h av e , a fte r th e H o ly C o m ­ m u n io n : “ H e re w e o ffer a n d p resen t u n to T h e e , O L o rd , ourselves, o u r souls a n d bodies, to b e a reaso n ab le, holy, a n d lively sacrifice.” T h a t is th e sacrifice a n d t h a t is th e ritu a l w h ich sh o u ld satisfy th e co n d itio n s yo u d e m a n d , is it n ot?

Professor Jung: 641

A b so lu tely. Yes, th e C h u rc h of E n g la n d h as a g re a t asset in th a t. T h e C h u rc h of E n g la n d , of course, is n o t th e w hole P ro te sta n t w o rld , a n d it is n o t q u ite P ro te s ta n t in E n g la n d .

T h e Bishop of Southw ark: 642

T h e q u estio n is w h e th e r it is q u ite a P ro te sta n t w orld.

Professor Jung: 643

B u t I sh o u ld call th e C h u rc h of E n g la n d a real c h u rch . P ro tes­ ta n tis m in itself is n o c h u rc h a t all.

T h e Bishop of Southw ark: 644

B u t th e re a re o th e r p a rts of th e P ro te s ta n t w o rld w h ich h av e ch u rch es. T h e r e are, fo r in stan ce, th e L u th e ra n s in S w ed en ; ta k e th e m as a n e x a m p le of a re fo rm e d c h u rc h . T h e ir con d itio n s are m o re like o u r ow n. H a v e y o u r ever com e across th e O rth o d o x ritu a l? D oes th e R u ssia n ritu a l h a v e th e sam e effect?

Professor Jung: 645

I a m a f r a i d t h a t , o w in g to h is t o r ic a l e v e n ts , t h e w h o le th in g h a s b e e n i n t e r r u p t e d . I h a v e s e e n a fe w O r t h o d o x p e o p le , a n d I a m a f r a i d th e y w e r e n o l o n g e r v e r y o r th o d o x .

T h e Bishop of Southw ark: 64 6

I m e e t a g o o d n u m b e r o f R u s s ia n e x ile s in P a r is , in a c o lo n y th e r e , w h o a r e v e r y d e l ib e r a t e ly tr y i n g to k e e p a liv e th e o ld R u s s ia n r e lig io u s life w i t h a s lit tle c h a n g e a s p o s s ib le .

Professor Jung: 647

I h a v e n e v e r se en a re a l m e m b e r of th e O rth o d o x C h u rc h , b u t I am

q u i t e c o n v i n c e d t h a t a s th e y liv e t h e s y m b o lic lif e in t h a t

c h u r c h th e y a r e a ll r ig h t.

T h e Bishop of Southw ark: 648

W e A n g lic a n s a r e

in m u c h c lo s e r t o u c h w i t h t h e O r t h o d o x

C h u r c h t h a n w i t h t h e C a th o lic s , a n d t h e y s e e m to u s r a t h e r to o s y m b o lic — n o t q u i t e t o b e f a c in g u p t o t h e s t r a i g h t p a t h , th e f a c ts th e y o u g h t to b e d e a lin g w ith . T h e y h a v e r a t h e r t h e e x ile p s y c h o l­ o g y — a w o r l d o f t h e i r o w n — a n d I a m r a t h e r f r i g h t e n e d of t h a t p s y c h o lo g y f o r s o m e o f o u r o w n p e o p le , w h o s e e m to w a n t to t a k e r e f u g e i n s y m b o lis m f r o m t h e r e s p o n s ib ilitie s o f life .

Professor Jung: 649

W ith th e b e st tr u th y o u c a n c h e a t; y o u so t h e r e a r e p e o p l e w h o t a k e ill e g it im a te in s t a n c e , m o n a s te r ie s a r e f u ll o f p e o p l e a n d its o b lig a tio n s a n d liv e t h e s y m b o lic

can cheat r e f u g e in w ho ru n life — t h e

w ith a n y t h in g , s y m b o lis m . F o r a w a y f r o m life s y m b o lic life o f

t h e i r p a s t. S u c h c h e a t s a r e a lw a y s p u n i s h e d , b u t it is a p e c u lia r f a c t t h a t t h e y c a n s t a n d i t s o m e h o w w i t h o u t g e t t i n g to o n e u r o tic . T h e r e is a p e c u l i a r v a l u e i n t h e s y m b o lic life . I t is a f a c t t h a t t h e p r i m i t i v e A u s t r a l i a n s s a c r if ic e to i t tw o - t h i r d s o f t h e i r a v a ila b le tim e — o f t h e i r lif e tim e in w h i c h th e y a r e c o n s c io u s .

T h e Bishop of Southw ark: 6 5°

K i n g A lf r e d t h e G r e a t d i d s o m e th in g v e r y m u c h lik e t h a t.

Professor Jung: 6 51

Y e s , t h a t is t h e s e c r e t o f p r i m i t i v e c iv iliz a tio n s .

T h e Bishop of Southw ark: 652

H e w a s a v e r y p r a c t i c a l c iv iliz in g m a n .

Professor Jung: 653

Y e s, b e c a u s e t h e v e r y f a c t t h a t y o u liv e t h e s y m b o lic life h a s a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c iv iliz in g in flu e n fc e . T h o s e p e o p l e a r e f a r m o r e

c iv iliz e d a n d c r e a tiv e o n a c c o u n t o f t h e s y m b o lic life . P e o p le w h o a r e o n ly r a t i o n a l h a v e v e r y lit tle in f l u e n c e ; i t is a ll ta lk , a n d w i t h ta l k y o u g e t n o w h e r e .

Canon E ngland: 654

B u t s y m b o ls m a y a p p e a l t o r e a s o n , f o r a ll t h a t ; t o a n e n l i g h t ­ e n e d re a so n .

Professor Jung: 655

T h e y m a y , y e s! S y m b o ls o f te n c a u s e a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y in te n s it y o f m e n t a l life , e v e n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l life . I f y o u lo o k t h r o u g h t h e P a t r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e y o u f in d m o u n t a i n s o f e m o tio n , a ll c o u c h e d in s y m b o lis m .

T h e R e v e r e n d D. Glan M organ: 656

. B u t w h a t a r e t h e P r o t e s t a n t s t o d o n o w , e s p e c ia lly w e o f t h e le f t— t h e F r e e C h u r c h e s — t h e N o n c o n f o r m is ts ? W e h a v e n o s y m b o ls a t a ll, w e h a v e r e j e c t e d t h e m , lo c k , s to c k , a n d b a r r e l . O u r c h a p e ls a r e d e a d , o u r p u l p i t s a r e p la tf o r m s .

Professor Jung: 657

E x c u s e m e ! Y o u h a v e a l o t o f s y m b o lis m still. Y o u s p e a k o f G o d o r o f J e s u s ? T h e r e y o u a r e ! W h a t c o u ld b e m o r e s y m b o lic ? G o d is a s y m b o l o f s y m b o l s !

M r. M organ: 658

E ven

th a t

sy m b o l

becom es

a

c o n tra d ic tio n .

A nd

th e re

are

c r o w d s o f p e o p l e i n o u r c h u r c h e s w h o c a n b e lie v e in J e s u s C h r is t , b u t w h o c a n n o t b e lie v e i n G o d .

Professor Jung: 659

Y e s , a n d i n t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h t h e r e a r e p l e n t y w h o b e lie v e i n t h e C h u r c h , b u t d o n ’t b e lie v e in G o d — n o r i n a n y t h i n g e lse !

T h e Bishop of S o u thw ark: 660

H o w f a r h a s th is s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h i t ? N o t o n ly h a s t h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h a v e r y f u ll s y m b o lic s y s te m , b u t i t is c o m ­ b i n e d w i t h t h e p r o f e s s io n o f a b s o lu te c e r t i t u d e — t h e d o g m a o f i n f a l ­ lib ility . T h a t m u s t h a v e a d i r e c t b e a r i n g o n t h e v a l u e o f s y m b o ls .

Professor Jung: 661

V e r y i m p o r t a n t . T h e C h u r c h is a b s o lu te ly r i g h t , w h o lly r ig h t, in in s is tin g o n t h a t a b s o lu te v a l id ity , o th e r w is e s h e o p e n s t h e d o o r to d o u b t .

Dr. A n n Harling: T o c o n f lic t o r n e u r o s is ?

663

664

665

Professor Jung: Absolutely. Therefore “extra ecclesiam nulla salus.” T he Bishop of Southwark: Are all forms of conflict neurosis? Professor Jung: Only when the intellect breaks away from th at symbolic obser­ vance. W hen the intellect does not serve the symbolic life it is the devil; it makes you neurotic.

666

M r. Morgan: M ay there be a transition, a moving over from one system to another, and may not that be neurotic?

667

Professor Jung: Neurosis is a transitory phase, it is the unrest between two positions.

668

669

670

671

M r. Morgan: I am asking because I myself feel at the moment th at there is a good deal of neurosis among Protestants on account of the price that has to be paid for moving over from one state to the other. Professor Jung: T h at is w hat I say: “ extra ecclesiam nulla salus.” You get into a terrible frying-pan when you get out of the C hurch; therefore I don’t wish it on people. I point out the validity of the primary Church. The Bishop of Southwark: W hat are we to do with the great m ajority of people we have to deal with who are not in any church? They say they are in the Church of England, b u t they don’t belong in any sense. Professor Jung: I am afraid you can’t do anything with such people. The Church is there and is valid for those who are inside. Those who are outside the walls of the Church cannot be brought back into the Church by the ordinary means. But I wish the clergy would understand the language of the soul, and th at the clergyman would be a directeur de conscience! W hy should I be a directeur de con­ science? I am a doctor; I have no preparation for that. It is the natural calling of the clergym an; he should do it. Therefore I wish that a new generation of clergymen would come in and do the same as they do in the Catholic C hurch: that they would try to

translate the language of the unconscious, even the language of dream s, into p roper language. F or instance, I know th a t there is now in G erm any the B erneuchener C ircle,7 a liturgical m ovem ent; an d one of the m ain representatives is a m an w ho has a great know l­ edge of symbolism. H e has given m e quite a n u m b er of instances, w hich I am able to check, w here he translated the figures in dream s into dogm atic language w ith the greatest success, and these people quietly slipped back into the order of the C hurch. T h ey have no right to be neurotic. T h ey belong to a church, an d if you can help them to slip back to the C h u rc h you have helped them . Several of m y patients becam e C atholics, others w ent back into th e C hurch organization. B ut it m ust be som ething th a t has substance a n d form . I t is by no m eans tru e th a t w hen one analyses som ebody he neces­ sarily jum ps into the future. H e is perhaps m ean t for a church, an d if he can go back into a church, perhaps th a t is the best thing th a t can happen. Mr. Morgan:

672

W h a t if he c a n ’t? Professor J u n g :

T h e n there is tro u b le; th en he has to go on the Q u e st; th en he has to find out w h a t his soul says; then he has to go th rough the solitude of a lan d th a t is not created. I have published such an exam ple in m y lectures8— th a t of a g reat scientist, a very fam ous m an, w ho lives today.9 H e set out to see w h at the unconscious said to him , a n d it gave him a w onderful lead. T h a t m an got into order again because he g radually accepted th e symbolic d a ta , a n d now he leads th e religious life, th e life of th e careful observer. Religion is careful observation of the d ata. H e now observes all the things th a t are b ro u g h t him by his dream s; th a t is his only guidance. 674 W e are in a new w orld w ith th a t; we are exactly like prim itives. W hen I w ent to E ast A frica, I w ent to a sm all tribe in M o u n t Elgon a n d I asked the m edicine-m an about dream s. H e said, “ I know w h a t you m ea n ; m y fath er still h ad dream s.” I said, “ You have no dream s?” A nd th en he w ept an d answ ered, “ N o, I have no dream s any m o re.” I asked, “W hy?” H e answ ered, “ Since the British cam e into the country.” “ Now , how is th a t? ” H e said, “ T h e 673

7 [A G e rm a n P ro te s ta n t m o v e m e n t (fo u n d e d a t B em e u c h en , N e u m a rk ) aim in g a t a d eep e n in g of religious life. See L e tte rs, ed . G . A d ler, vol. 1, p. 215, n. 1.] 8 [Cf. “T rau m sy m b o le des In d iv id u atio n sp ro zesses,” E ran os Ja h rb u c h 1935. T h e m a te ria l w as sub seq u en tly in c o rp o ra te d in P sychology a n d A lc h e m y , P a rt II.] 9 W o lfg an g P a u li (1 9 0 0 —1 9 5 8 ), Swiss physicist a n d N obel P rize w in n er.]

District Commissioner knows when there shall be w ar; he knows when there are diseases; he knows where we must live— he does not allow us to move.” The political guidance is now represented by the D .C., by the superior intelligence of the white m an ; there­ fore, why should they need dreams? Dreams were the original guid­ ance of m an in the great darkness. Read th at book of Rasmussen’s about the Polar Eskimos.10 There he describes how a medicine-man became the leader of his tribe on account of a vision. W hen a m an is in the wilderness, the darkness brings the dreams— somnia a Deo missa— th at guide him. It has always been so. I have not been led by any kind of wisdom; I have been led by dreams, like any primitive. I am ashamed to say so, b u t I am as primitive as any nigger,11 because I do not k now ! W hen you are in the darkness you take the next thing, and that is a dream. A nd you can be sure th a t the dream is your nearest frien d ; the dream is the friend of those who are not guided any more by the traditional truth and in consequence are isolated. T h at was the case with the old alchemi­ cal philosophers, and you read in the Tractatus Aureus of Hermes Trismegistus a passage th at bears out w hat I said about isolation. There you read: “ (Deus) in quo est adiuvatio cuiuslibet sequestrati” (God, in whom is the help of all who are lonely). Hermes, at the same time, was a real leader of souls and the very incarnation of inspiration, thus representing the unconscious manifest in dreams. So, you see, the one who is going alone and has no guidance, he has the somnia a Deo missa; he has no D .C. O f course, when we have a D.C. we do not need a dream , but when we are alone, that is something else. 675

676

T he Bishop of Southwark: A practising parson, a Rom an Catholic, has a D.C., an author­ ity, and does not need dreams. Professor Jung: A greed! Nevertheless, there are people in the Church who have somnia a Deo missa, and the Church is very careful to appreciate the im portance of such dreams. They don’t deny the fact that there are somnia a Deo missa; the Church reserves the right of judgment, but they do consider it. 10 [Cf. K n u d Rasmussen, Across A rctic Am erica, ch. I l l : “A W izard and His H ousehold.”] 11 [This offensive term was not invariably derogatory in earlier British and C ontinental usage, and definitely not in this case.]

677

L t.-C o lo n e l Η . M . E d w a r d s : A re R o m a n C a th o lic priests b e in g tra in e d as psy ch o th erap ists?

678

Professor J u n g : Yes.

C olonel E d w a r d s : 679 N o t in th is co u n try ? Professor J u n g : 680 N o , th e Jesu its are. F o r ex a m p le , th e m a in J e n a is a J e s u it tra in e d in p sy ch o th erap y . 681 (582

fa th er-co n fesso r of

Dr. A . D . Belilios: O f th e J u n g ia n school? Professor J u n g : O f all schools. I a m a fra id h e d oesn ’t go as fa r as I go. I asked h im a b o u t his po sitio n as to d re am s, a n d h e said, “ W ell, th e re w e h av e to b e ca refu l, a n d w e a re a lre a d y a b it suspect. W e h av e th e m e a n s of g ra c e of th e C h u rc h .” “ R ig h t you a r e ,” I said, “ you d o n ’t n e e d d re am s. I c a n give n o ab so lu tio n , I h av e n o m ean s of g ra c e ; th e re fo re I m u st listen to d ream s. I a m a p rim itiv e ; you a re a civ ilized m a n .” I n a w a y t h a t m a n is m u c h m o re w o n d e rfu l th a n I am . H e c a n b e a s a in t; I c a n n o t b e a sain t— I c a n only b e a n ig g er, v ery p rim itiv e , g o in g b y th e n e x t th in g — q u ite su p erstitious.

W in g-C om m and er T . S. R ip p o n : 683 H o w d o you feel w ith th e q u estio n

of life a fte r d e a th ?

Professor J u n g : 684 I h a v e n o t b e e n th e re consciously yet. W h e n I die, I shall say “ N o w , let u s se e !” F o r th e tim e b e in g I a m in this fo rm , a n d I say, “ N o w , w h a t is h ere? L e t us d o ev e ry th in g w e c a n h e re .” If, w h e n w e die, w e fin d th e re is a n ew life, I sh all say, “ N o w let us live o nce m o re — encore u n e fo is !” I d o n ’t k now , b u t I c a n tell you th is : th e un co n scio u s h a s n o tim e. T h e r e is n o tro u b le a b o u t tim e in th e unconscious. P a r t o f o u r psyche is n o t in tim e a n d n o t in sp ace. T h e y a re on ly a n illusion, tim e a n d space, a n d so in a c e rta in p a r t of o u r psyche tim e does n o t exist a t all.

685

M r . D e r e k K i t ch in : Y o u w ro te so m ew h ere, P rofessor, th a t fo r m a n y persons a belief in a fu tu re life w as a necessity to psychological h e a lth .

686

P rofessor J u n g : Y es. Y o u would be out of tune if you did not consider immor­

tality w hen your dreams put you up against th a t problem; then you should decide. If they don’t you can leave it. But if they put you up against it, then you have to say, “I must try how I feel. Let us assume th a t there is no such thing as immortality, no life after death: how do I feel about that? How do I function with such a conviction?” Then, perhaps, your stomach goes wrong. So you say, “ Let us assume th at I am im m ortal,” and then you func­ tion. So you m ust say, “T h at must be right.” How do we know? How does an anim al know that the particular bit of grass it has eaten is not poisonous, and how do animals know that something is poisonous? They go wrong. T h at is how we know the tr u th : the truth is that which helps us to live— to live properly. T h e R e v e r e n d F rancis B o y d :

68 7

T h at which works; the pragm atic test. P rofessor J u n g :

688

T h at which really works. I have no assumptions about these things. How can I? I only know th at if I live in a certain way I live wrongly; I am unhealthy. And if I live in another way I am right. For instance, if the Pueblos believe th at they are the sons of the Father Sun, they are in order. So I say, “ I wish I could be a son of the Sun.” Alas! I can’t do it; I can’t afford it; my intellect doesn’t allow it. So I am bound to find another form. But they are all right. It would be the greatest mistake to tell those people that they are not the sons of the Sun. I tried, for instance, the argum ent of St. A ugustine:12 “Non est Dominus Sol factus, sed per quern Sol factus est” (God is not the sun but the one who m ade the sun). But my Pueblo got into a frightful state; he thought th at was the most awful blasphemy. H e said, “This is the Father; there is no Father behind it. How can we think of a Father we cannot see?” A nd in so far as they live in th at belief, it is true. Anything that lives on earth, is true. So the Christian dogma is true, much truer than we have ever thought. We think we are m uch cleverer. As long as we don’t understand it, as long as we don’t see where it could lead beyond, there is no reason why we should give it up. If we see we are out of it, then we have w hat we call a superior point of view. T h at is another thing. Analysis 12 [In Johannis Evang., X X X IV , a.}

is m e r e l y a m e a n s o f m a k i n g u s m o r e c o n s c i o u s o f o u r p e r p l e x i t y ; w e a r e a ll o n th e Q u e s t.

T h e Bishop of S o uthw ark: 689

W o u ld

y o u say

th e s a m e

o f th e

N a z i o r th e

M oham m edan,

t h a t th e y a r e r i g h t to g o o n in t h e i r f a i th ?

Professor Jung: 690

G od

is t e r r i b l e ; t h e

liv in g

G od

is a l i v i n g f e a r . I t h i n k i t is

a n in s tr u m e n t, a s M o h a m m e d w a s f o r t h a t p e o p le . A U p e o p le , f o r i n s t a n c e , w h o a r e f i ll e d w i t h t h a t u n c a n n y p o w e r , a r e a l w a y s m o s t d is a g re e a b le p e o p le in

f o r o th e rs .

th e

O ld

I

am

q u ite

c o n v in c e d

T e s ta m e n t w e re v e ry

th a t som e

o f th e

d is a g r e e a b le p e o p le .

T h e R e v ere n d W . H opkins: 691

T h e re

is o b v i o u s l y ,

sc ie n c e a n d do

you

and

a lw a y s h a s b e e n , a

r e l i g i o n . I t is n o t s o a c u t e n o w

b rin g

c o n flic t b e tw e e n

as it h a s b e e n . H o w

a b o u t a re c o n c ilia tio n , w h ic h

o b v i o u s l y is t h e s o r t

o f t h i n g t h a t is n e e d e d ?

Professor Jung: 692

T h e re

is n o

c o n flic t b e tw e e n

re lig io n

and

s c i e n c e . T h a t is a

v e r y o l d - f a s h i o n e d i d e a . S c i e n c e h a s t o c o n s i d e r w h a t t h e r e is. T h e r e is r e l i g i o n , a n d i t is o n e o f t h e m o s t e s s e n t i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e hum an

m in d .

I t is a f a c t , a n d

s c ie n c e h a s n o th i n g to s a y a b o u t

i t ; i t s i m p l y h a s t o c o n f i r m t h a t t h e r e is t h a t f a c t . S c i e n c e a l w a y s ru n s a f t e r th e s e th in g s ; it d o e s n o t tr y to e x p la in th e p h e n o m e n a . S c i e n c e c a n n o t e s t a b l i s h a r e l i g i o u s t r u t h . A r e l i g i o u s t r u t h is e s s e n ­ tia lly a n

e x p e r i e n c e , i t is n o t a n o p i n i o n . R e l i g i o n is a n a b s o l u t e

e x p e r i e n c e . A r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e is a b s o l u t e , i t c a n n o t b e d is c u s s e d . F o r in s ta n c e , w h e n s o m e b o d y h a s h a d ju s t h a s s u c h a n

a re lig io u s e x p e r ie n c e , h e

e x p e rie n c e , a n d n o th in g c a n ta k e it a w a y fro m

h im .

M r. H opkins: 693

In

th e

n in e te e n th

m o re d o g m a tic th a n an

illu s io n .

B ut

c e n tu r y t h e s c ie n tis ts w e r e a p t to b e m u c h th e y a r e n o w . T h e y d is m is s e d a ll r e lig io n a s

now

th e y

a d m it

it,

and

th e y

e x p e rie n c e

it

th e m s e lv e s .

Professor Jung: s 94·

O u r s c i e n c e is p h e n o m e n o l o g y . I n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s c i e n c e w a s la b o u r in g u n d e r th e illu s io n t h a t s c ie n c e c o u ld e s ta b lis h a t r u th . N o s c ie n c e c a n e s ta b lis h a tr u th .

M r. Hopkins: 6 95

But it is the science of the nineteenth century th a t th e ordinary people have today. T h a t is our problem . Professor J u n g :

696

Yes, you are up against it. It has filtered dow n into the lower stra ta of the population, and has w orked no end of evil. W hen the asses catch hold of science, th a t is awful. Those are the great m ental epidem ics of o u r tim e ; they are all insane, the whole c ro w d !

IV ON OCCULTISM (related to Volum e I o f the Collected Works)

O N S P IR IT U A L IS T IC P H E N O M E N A 1 I t is impossible, w ithin the short space of a lecture, to say any­ th ing fu n d am en tal ab o u t such a com plicated historical and psycho­ logical problem as spiritualism 13· appears to be. O ne m ust content oneself w ith shedding a little light on one o r the other aspect of this intricate question. T his kind of ap p ro ach will a t least give the hearer an ap p ro x im ate idea of the m any facets of spiritualism . Spiri­ tualism , as well as being a theory (its advocates call it “scientific” ), is a religious belief w hich, like every religious belief, form s the spiri­ tual core of a religious m ovem ent. T his sect believes in the actual and tangible intervention of a spiritual w orld in o u r w orld, a n d consequently m akes a religious practice of com m unicating w ith the spirits. T h e d u al n a tu re of spiritualism gives it an advantage over other religious m o v em en ts: not only does it believe in certain articles of faith th a t are n o t susceptible of proof, b u t it bases its belief on a body of allegedly scientific, physical phenom ena w hich are sup­ posed to be of such a n a tu re th a t they cannot be explained except by th e activity of spirits. Because of its dual n a tu re — on the one side a religious sect, on the other a scientific hypothesis— spiritualism touches upon w idely differing areas of life th a t w ould seem to have n othing in com m on. 698 Spiritualism as a sect originated in A m erica in th e year 1848. T h e story of its origin is a strange one.2 T w o girls of th e M ethodist fa m ily Fox, in H ydesville, near R ochester ( N e w Y ork), w ere fright­ ened every n ig h t by sounds of knocking. A t first a great scandal arose, because the neighbours suspected th a t the devil was u p to his usual tricks. G radually, how ever, com m unication was estab­ lished w ith the knocking sounds w hen it was discovered th a t ques­ tions w ere answ ered w ith a definite n u m b er of knocks. W ith the help of a knocking alphabet, it w as learned th a t a m an h a d been 697

1 ILecture delivered a t the B ernoullianum , Basel, 5 Feb. 1905. Published serially as “U eber spiritistische E rscheinungen” in the Basler N ach rich ten , nos. 311—316 ( 12—17 N ov. 1 9 0 5 ). J u n g’s original footnotes are given in full.] la [W hile “spiritism” (for S piritism u s) is the form now preferred by specialists, “spiritualism ,” the form in general currency, has been used in this paper and those that follow .] 2 D etailed report in C apron, M o d ern S piritu alism , Its F acts and F anaticism s (Boston, 1885) ; resume in Aksakow, A n im ism us und Spiritism u s (1 8 9 4 ).

m urdered in the Foxes’ house, and his body buried in the cellar. Investigations were said to have confirmed this. 669 Thus far the report. T he public performances given by the Foxes with the poltergeists were quickly followed by the founding of other sects. Tableturning, much practised earlier, was taken up again. Numerous mediums were sought and found, th at is, persons in whose presence such phenom ena as knocking noises occurred. The movement spread rapidly to England and the continent. In Europe, spiritualism took the form chiefly of an epidemic of table­ turning. There was hardly an evening party or dance where the guests did not steal away at a late hour to question the table. This particular symptom of spiritualism was ram pant everywhere. The religious sects m ade less headway, but they continued to grow stead­ ily. In every big city today there is a fairly large community of practising spiritualists. 700 I n America, which swarms with local religious movements, the rise of spiritualism is understandable enough. W ith us, its favourable reception can be explained only by the fact th a t the ground had been historically prepared. T he beginning of the nineteenth century had brought us the R om antic M ovement in literature, a symptom of a widespread, deep-seated longing for anything extraordinary and abnormal. People adored wallowing in Ossianic emotions, they went crazy over novels set in old castles and ruined cloisters. Every­ where prominence was given to the mystical, the hysterical; lectures about life after death, about sleepwalkers and visionaries, about animal magnetism and mesmerism, were the order of the day. Scho­ penhauer devoted a long chapter to all these things in his Parerga und Paralipomena, and he also spoke of them at various places in his chef d’ceuvre.3 Even his im portant concept of “sanctity” is a far-fetched, mystico-aesthetic ideal. Similar movements made themselves felt in the Catholic church, clustering round the strange figure of Johan Joseph von Gorres ( 1776-1848). Especially signifi­ cant in this respect is his four-volume work Die christliche M ystik (Regensburg, 1836-42). T he same trends appear in his earlier book, Em anuel Swedenborg, seine Visionen u n d sein Verhdltnis zur Kirche (Speyer, 1827). T he Protestant public raved about the soulful poetry of Justinus K em er and his clairvoyante, F rau Friederike H auffe, while certain theologians gave vent to their catholiciz­ ing tendencies by excommunicating spirits. From this period, too, 3 [The W orld as W ill and Idea.]

701

come a large num ber of rem arkable psychological descriptions of abnorm al people— ecstatics, somnambulists, sensitives. They were m uch in dem and and were cultivated assiduously. A good example was F rau H auffe herself, the clairvoyante of Prevorst, and the circle of adm irers who gathered round her. H er Catholic counterpart was K atharina Emmerich, the ecstatic nun of Dulmen. Reports of simi­ lar personalities were collected together in a weighty tome by an anonymous savant, entitled “T he Ecstatic Virgins of the Tyrol. G uiding Stars in the D ark Firm am ent of Mysticism.” 4 W hen these strange personages were investigated, the following suprasensible processes were observed: 1. “ M agnetic” phenom ena. 2. Clairvoyance and prophecy. 3. Visions.

702

A nim al magnetism, as understood at the beginning of the nineteenth century, covered a vaguely defined area of physiological and psychological phenom ena which, it was thought, could all be explained as “m agnetic.” “A nim al m agnetism ” had been in the air ever since the brilliant experiments of Franz Anton M esmer. It was M esmer who discovered the art of putting people to sleep by light passes of the hand. In some people this sleep was like the natural one, in others it was a “waking sleep” ; th at is, they were like sleepwalkers, only p art of them was asleep, while some senses rem ained awake. This half-sleep was also called “ magnetic sleep” or somnambulism. People in these states were wholly under the will of the magnetist, they were “m agnetized” by him. Today, as we know, there is nothing w onderful about these states; they are known as hypnosis and we use the mesmeric passes as a valuable adjunct to other m ethods of suggestion. T he significance attributed to the passes quickly led to their being grossly overestimated. People thought th a t some vitalistic force had been discovered; they spoke of a “ magnetic fluid” th a t stream ed from the magnetist into the patient and destroyed the diseased tissue. They also used it to ex­ plain the movements of the table in tableturning, im agining th at the table was vitalized by the laying on of hands and could therefore move about like a living thing. T he phenom ena of the divining rod and the autom atically swinging pendulum were explained in the same way. Even completely crazy phenom ena of this sort were I.

i D i e T y r o l e r e ksta tisc h e n J u n g f rau en . L e i t s t e r n e in d ie d u n k l e n G e b i e t e d e r M y s t i k (R e g en sb u r g , 1 8 4 3 ) .

703

704

705

7°6

widely reported and believed. Thus the N eue Preussische Zeitung reported from Barmen, in Pomerania, that a party of seven persons sat themselves round a table in a boat, and magnetized it. “ In the first 20 minutes the boat drifted 50 feet downstream. Then it began to turn, with steadily increasing speed, until the rotary movement had carried it through an arc of 180 degrees in 3 m in­ utes. Eventually, by skilful m anipulation of the rudder, the boat moved forwards, and the party travelled half a mile upstream in 40 minutes, but on the return journey covered the same distance in 26 minutes. A crowd of spectators, watching the experiment from the banks of the river, received the ‘table travellers’ with jubi­ lation.” In very truth, a mystical m oto rb o at! According to the re­ port, the experiment had been suggested by a Professor Nageli, of Freiburg im Breisgau. Experiments in divination are known from the grey dawn of history. Thus Ammianus M arcellinus reports from a .d . 371 th at a certain Patricius and Hilarius, living in the reign (364 -7 8 ) of the Em peror Valens, had discovered by the “abom inable arts of soothsaying” who would succeed to the throne. For this purpose they used a m etal bowl, with the alphabet engraved round the rim. O ver it, am id fearful oaths, they suspended a ring on a thread. This began to swing, and spelt out the nam e Theodorus. W hen their magic was divulged, they were arrested and p u t to death. Ordinarily, experiments w ith the autom atic movements of the table, the divining rod, and the pendulum are not as bizarre as the first example or as dangerous as the second. The various phe­ nom ena that may occur in tableturning have been described in a treatise by Justinus Kerner, bearing the significant title: “The Som nam bulant Tables. A History and Explanation of these Phe­ nom ena”5 (1853). They have also been described by the late Pro­ fessor Thury, of Geneva, in Les Tables parlantes au point de vue de la physique generate (1855). 2. Clairvoyance and prophecy are further characteristics of somnambulists. Clairvoyance in time and space plays a large role in the biographies and descriptions of these cases. T h e literature abounds in more or less credible reports, most of which have been collected by Gurney, Myers, and Podmore in their book, Phantasms of the Living (1886). An excellent example of clairvoyance is preserved for us in phil5 Dte som nam bulen T ische. Z u r Geschichte und E rklarung dieser E ncheinungen.

osophical literature and is especially interesting because it was per­ sonally commented on by Kant. In an undated letter to Charlotte von Knobloch, he wrote as follows about the spirit-seer Swedenborg:6 T h e follow ing occurrence appears to me to have the greatest w eight of proof, a n d to place the assertion respecting Sw edenborg’s ex trao rd i­ nary gift beyond all possibility of doubt. 708 I n th e year 1759, tow ards the end of Septem ber, on S atu rd ay at four o ’clock p.m ., S w edenborg arrived at G ottenburg from E ngland, w hen M r. W illiam C astel invited him to his house, together w ith a p arty of fifteen persons. A bout six o’clock Sw edenborg w ent out, an d retu rn ed to the com pany q u ite pale and alarm ed. H e said th a t a d a n ­ gerous fire h a d ju st broken o u t in Stockholm , a t the S oderm alm (G ottenburg is ab o u t fifty G erm an miles from S tockholm ), a n d th a t it was spreading very fast. H e was restless, an d w ent out often. H e said th a t the house of one of his friends, w hom he nam ed, was already in ashes, and th a t his ow n was in danger. A t eight o ’clock, afte r he h ad been out again, h e joyfully exclaim ed, ‘T h a n k God! the fire is extinguished; the th ird d o o r from m y house.’ T his news occasioned g re at com m otion th ro u g h o u t the w hole city, b u t p articu larly am ongst th e com pany in w hich he was. I t was an n o u n ced to the G overnor the sam e evening. O n S unday m orn in g Sw edenborg w as sum m oned to the G overnor who questioned him concerning th e disaster. Sw edenborg described the fire precisely, how it h a d begun a n d in w h a t m an n er it h a d ceased, an d how long it h a d continued. O n the sam e day the news spread through the city, a n d as the G overnor th o u g h t it w orthy of attention, the con­ sternation was considerably increased; because m any w ere in trouble on ac co u n t of th eir friends a n d property, w hich m ight have been in ­ volved in th e disaster. O n M onday evening a m essenger arrived at G ottenburg, w ho was despatched by the B oard of T ra d e d u rin g the tim e of th e fire. I n th e letters b ro u g h t by him , th e fire was described precisely in the m a n n e r stated by Sw edenborg. O n T uesday m orning the R oyal C o u rier arrived a t the G overnor’s w ith th e m elancholy in tel­ ligence of th e fire, of the loss w hich it h a d occasioned, a n d of the houses it h a d d am aged a n d ruined, no t in the least differing from th a t w hich S w edenborg h ad given a t th e very tim e w hen it h a p p e n e d ; for the fire was extinguished at eight o’clock. 709 W h a t can be b ro u g h t forw ard against the authenticity of this occur­ rence (th e conflagration in Stockholm ) ? M y friend who w rote this to m e has exam ined all, no t only in Stockholm , b u t also, ab o u t two m onths ago, in G o tten b u rg , w here h e is well acq u ain ted w ith the most 707

6 [D re a m s of a Sp irit-S eer, tra n s. by E. F. G oerw itz, p p . i5 8 ff. T h e u n id en tified te x t q u o te d by J u n g gives th e d a te 1756 fo r S w ed en b o rg ’s experience. In th e G oerw itz edn. th e d a te 1759 is ju stified in A p p en d ix I I I , p p . 160—61.]

respectable houses, and where he could obtain the most authentic and complete inform ation, for as only a very short time had elapsed since 1759, most of the inhabitants are still alive who were eyewitnesses of this occurrence. P rophecy is a phenom enon so well know n from the teachings of religion th a t there is no need to give any examples. 7 11 3. Visions have always figured largely in m iraculous tales, w h eth er in the form of a ghostly a p p aritio n or a n ecstatic vision. Science regards visions as delusions of the senses, or hallucinations. H allucinations are very com m on am ong the insane. L et me cite an exam ple from the literature of psy ch iatry : 7x0

712

A twenty-four-year-old servant girl, with an alcoholic father and a neurotic m other, suddenly begins falling into peculiar states. From time to time she falls into a state of consciousness in which she sees everything th a t comes into her m ind vividly before her, as though it were there in reality. All the time the images keep changing with breathtaking speed and lifelikeness. T he patient, who in actual life is nothing but a simple country girl, then resembles an inspired seer. H er features become transfigured, her movements flow with grace. Famous figures pass before her m ind’s eye. Schiller appears to her in person and plays with her. He recites his poems to her. T hen she her­ self begins to recite, improvising in verse the things she has read, ex­ perienced, and thought. Finally she comes back to consciousness tired and exhausted, with a headache and a feeling of oppression, and with only an indistinct memory of w hat has happened. At other times her second consciousness has a sombre character. She sees ghostly figures prophesying disaster, processions of spirits, caravans of strange and ter­ rifying beastlike forms, her own body being buried, etc.7

713

V isionary ecstasies are usually of this type. N um erous visionaries are know n to us from history, am ong them m any of the O ld T e sta ­ m en t prophets. T h e re is the rep o rt of St. P a u l’s vision on the road to D am ascus, followed by a blindness th a t ceased a t the psychologi­ cal m om ent. T his blindness rem inds us on th e one h a n d of the blindness w hich can be produced by suggestion, a n d on the other h a n d of th e blindness w hich occurs spontaneously w ith certain hys­ terical patients an d again disappears a t a suitable psychological m om ent. T h e best visions, a n d th e ones th a t are psychologically the m ost tran sp aren t, are found in the legends of the saints, the visions being m ost colourful in the case of fem ale saints experiencing 7 K rafT t-E bing, L e h rb u c h der P sychiatrie [B uch I I I , T e il I I I , cap . 3, Beob. 6 8 ; cf. tran s. by C . G . C h a d d o c k , T e x t-b o o k o f In s a n ity , p. 4 9 5 , case 52].

the heavenly m arriage. An outstanding visionary type was the M aid of Orleans, who was unconsciously im itated by the devout dream er Thom as Ignaz M artin at the time of Louis X V I I I .8 714 Swedenborg, a learned and highly intelligent m an, was a vision­ ary of unexam pled fertility. H is im portance is attested by the fact that he had a considerable influence on K a n t .9 7'5 These rem arks are not m eant to be conclusive, they are only intended to sketch in broad outline the state of knowledge at th a t time and its mystical tendency. They give some idea of the psycho­ logical premises which explain the rapid spread of American spiri­ tualism in Europe. T h e tableturning epidemic of the fifties has already been m entioned. I t reached a climax in the sixties and seventies. In Paris, spiritualistic seances were held at the court of Napoleon III. Famous and sometimes infamous mediums appeared — Cum berland, the D avenport brothers, H om e, Slade, Miss Cook. This was the real heyday of spiritualism, for these mediums pro­ duced marvellous phenom ena, quite extraordinary things which went so far beyond the bounds of credibility th a t a thinking person who was not himself an eyewitness could only treat them w ith scep­ ticism. T h e impossible happened: hum an bodies, and parts of bodies, m aterialized out of thin air, bodies th a t had an intelligence of their own and declared themselves to be the spirits of the dead. They complied w ith the doubting requests of the worldlings and even subm itted to experim ental conditions; on vanishing from this world, they left behind pieces of their white gauzy robes, prints of their hands and feet, handw riting on the inner side of two slates sealed together, and, finally, even let themselves be photographed. 716 But the full im pact of these tidings, impressive as they were, was not felt until the famous English physicist, W illiam Crookes, in his Quarterly Journal of Science, presented to the world a report on the observations he had m ade during the past eight years, which had convinced him of the reality of the phenom ena in question. Since the report is concerned with observations a t w hich none of us was present, under conditions w hich it is no longer possible to check, we have no alternative b u t to let the observer himself inform us how these observations were m irrored in his brain. T he tone 8 Cf. K em er, D ie Geschichte des Thom as Ign a z M a rtin , L andsm anns zu Gallardon, iiber Frankreich u n d dessen Z u k u n ft im Jahre 1816 geschaut (H eilbronn, 1835). 9 Cf. G ilbert Ballet, Swedenborg: H istoire d ’un visionnaire au X V I I I siicle (Paris, 1899).

o f th e r e p o r t a t le a s t a llo w s u s to su rm ise th e s ta te o f h is feelin g s a t th e tim e o f w ritin g . I s h a ll th e r e f o re c ite v e r b a tim a p a ssa g e f ro m h is in v e s tig a tio n s d u r in g th e y e a rs 1 8 7 0 - 7 3 : 10 C L A S S VI

717

718

7 «9

720

721

T h e L e v it a tio n of H u m a n Beings T h is h as o c c u rre d in m y p resen ce o n fo u r occasions in darkness. T h e test c o n d itio n s u n d e r w h ic h th ey took p lac e w ere q u ite satisfac­ tory, so f a r as th e ju d g m e n t w as c o n c e rn e d ; b u t o c u la r d e m o n stra tio n of su ch a fa c t is so necessary to d istu rb o u r p re fo rm e d opinions as to “ th e n a tu ra lly possible a n d im possible,” th a t I w ill h e re only m e n ­ tio n cases in w h ic h th e d e d u c tio n s of reaso n w ere confirm ed by th e sense of sight. O n o n e o ccasion I w itnessed a c h a ir, w ith a la d y sittin g on it, rise several in ch es fro m th e g ro u n d . O n a n o th e r occasion, to avoid th e suspicion o f th is b ein g in som e w ay p e rfo rm e d by herself, th e lady k n e lt o n th e c h a ir in such m a n n e r th a t its fo u r feet w ere visible to us. I t th e n rose a b o u t th re e inches, re m a in e d su sp e n d e d fo r a b o u t ten seconds, a n d th e n slow ly d escen d ed . A t a n o th e r tim e tw o c h ild ren , o n s e p a ra te occasions, rose fro m th e floor w ith th e ir ch airs, in full d a y ­ lig h t, u n d e r (to m e) m o st satisfacto ry c o n d itio n s; fo r I w as kn eelin g a n d k eep in g close w a tc h u p o n th e feet o f th e ch a ir, a n d observing th a t n o o n e m ig h t to u c h th e m . T h e m o st strik in g cases o f le v ita tio n w h ic h I h av e w itnessed h av e b een w ith M r. H o m e. O n th re e s e p a ra te occasions h av e I seen h im raised co m p letely fro m th e floor of th e room . O n c e sittin g in a n easy c h a ir, o n ce k n eelin g o n his c h a ir, a n d o n ce s ta n d in g u p . O n each o c c a ­ sion I h a d fu ll o p p o rtu n ity of w a tc h in g th e o c c u rre n ce as it was ta k in g place. T h e re a re a t least a h u n d re d re c o rd e d in stan ces o f M r. H o m e ’s risin g fro m th e g ro u n d , in th e p resen ce o f as m a n y se p a ra te persons, a n d I h a v e h e a rd fro m th e lips o f th e th re e w itnesses to th e m ost strik ­ in g o c c u rre n c e of th is k in d — th e E a rl o f D u n r a ven, L o rd L indsay, a n d C a p ta in C. W y n n e — th e ir o w n m ost m in u te a c co u n ts o f w h a t took place. T o re je c t th e re c o rd e d ev id en ce o n this su b je c t is to re je c t all h u m a n testim o n y w h a te v e r; fo r n o fa c t in sacred o r p ro fa n e history is s u p p o rte d b y a stro n g e r a rra y o f proofs. T h e a c c u m u la te d testim o n y estab lish in g M r. H o m e ’s levitations is o v erw h elm in g . I t is g re a tly to be d esired th a t som e p erso n , w hose e v i­ d e n c e w o u ld be a c c e p te d as conclusive by th e scientific w orld— if in ­ d e e d th e re lives a p e rso n w hose testim o n y in fa v o u r of such p h e n o m e n a 10 [“Notes of an Enquiry into the Phenom ena called Spiritual, during the years 1870-73,” Q uarterly Journal of Science (L o n d o n ), X I (n.s., IV ) (1 8 7 4 ), 85-86.]

w ould be taken— w ou ld seriously and patiently exam ine these alleged facts. M ost o f the eye-w itnesses to these levitations are now living, and w ould, doubtless, be w illin g to give their evidence. But, in a few years, such direct evidence w ill be difficult, if n ot im possible, to be obtained. 722

I t is o b v io u s f r o m t h e t o n e o f th is p a s s a g e t h a t C r o o k e s w a s c o m p le t e ly c o n v i n c e d o f t h e r e a l i t y o f h is o b s e r v a tio n s . I r e f r a i n f r o m f u r t h e r q u o t a t i o n s b e c a u s e th e y w o u l d n o t te ll u s a n y t h i n g n e w . I t is s u f f ic ie n t to r e m a r k t h a t C r o o k e s s a w p r e t t y w e ll e v e r y ­ t h i n g t h a t o c c u r r e d w i t h th e s e g r e a t m e d iu m s . I t is h a r d l y n e c e s s a r y to s tre s s t h a t if th is u n p r e c e d e n t e d h a p p e n i n g is a n a c t u a l f a c t, t h e w o r l d a n d s c ie n c e h a v e b e e n e n r i c h e d b y a n e x p e r ie n c e o f t h e m o s t t r e m e n d o u s i m p o r t a n c e . F o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s , i t is n o t p o s s ib le t o c r itic iz e C r o o k e s ’s p o w e r s o f a p p r e h e n s i o n a n d r e t e n t i o n d u r i n g th o s e y e a r s f r o m t h e p s y c h ia t r ic p o i n t o f v ie w . W e o n ly k n o w t h a t a t t h a t tim e C r o o k e s w a s n o t m a n if e s tl y in s a n e . C r o o k e s a n d h is o b s e r v a tio n s m u s t r e m a i n f o r t h e p r e s e n t a n u n s o lv e d p s y ­ c h o lo g ic a l e n i g m a . T h e s a m e is t r u e o f a n u m b e r o f o t h e r o b s e r v e r s w h o s e in te lli g e n c e a n d h o n e s ty o n e d o e s n o t w is h t o d i s p a r a g e w i t h ­ o u t g o o d re a s o n . O f n u m e ro u s o th e r o b se rv e rs, n o te d fo r th e ir p r e ju ­ d ic e s , la c k o f c r itic is m , a n d e x u b e r a n t i m a g i n a t i o n , I s h a ll s a y n o t h i n g : t h e y a r e r u l e d o u t f r o m t h e s ta r t .

723

O n e d o e s n o t h a v e t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y b e s e t b y d o u b t s a s to w h e t h e r o u r k n o w le d g e o f t h e w o r l d i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y h a s r e a lly a t t a i n e d t h e h ig h e s t p o s s ib le p e a k t o f e e l h u m a n l y t o u c h e d b y th is f o r t h r i g h t te s tim o n y o f a n e m i n e n t s c h o la r . B u t , in s p it e o f o u r s y m p a th y , w e m a y le a v e o u t o f a c c o u n t th e q u e s tio n o f th e p h y s ic a l r e a l i t y o f s u c h p h e n o m e n a , a n d in s t e a d t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n to t h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l q u e s t i o n : h o w d o e s a t h i n k i n g p e r s o n , w h o h a s s h o w n h is s o b e r - m in d e d n e s s a n d g if t f o r s c ie n tif ic o b s e r v a tio n

to g o o d a d v a n t a g e i n o t h e r fie ld s , c o m e to a s s e r t t h a t s o m e t h i n g in c o n c e iv a b l e is a r e a lity ? 724 T h i s p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n te r e s t o f m i n e h a s p r o m p t e d m e t o k e e p t r a c k o f p e r s o n s w h o a r e g if te d a s m e d iu m s . M y p r o f e s s io n a s a p s y c h ia t r is t g a v e m e a m p l e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r th is , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a c ity lik e Z u r i c h . S o m a n y r e m a r k a b l e e le m e n ts c o n v e r g in g i n so s m a ll a s p a c e c a n p e r h a p s b e f o u n d n o w h e r e else in E u r o p e . I n t h e la s t f e w y e a r s I h a v e in v e s t i g a t e d e i g h t m e d iu m s , s ix o f t h e m w o m e n a n d tw o o f t h e m m e n . T h e t o t a l im p r e s s io n m a d e b y th e s e in v e s tig a tio n s c a n b e s u m m e d u p b y s a y in g t h a t o n e m u s t a p p r o a c h a m e d i u m w i t h a m i n i m u m o f e x p e c t a t i o n s if o n e d o e s n o t w a n t to b e d i s a p p o i n t e d . T h e r e s u lts a r e o f p u r e l y p s y c h o lo g ic a l in te r e s t,

and no physical or physiological novelties cam e to light. Everything th a t m ay be considered a scientifically established fact belongs to the dom ain of th e m ental an d cerebral processes an d is fully explica­ ble in term s of th e laws already know n to science. 725 AU phenom ena w hich the spiritualists claim as evidence of the activity of spirits are connected w ith the presence of certain persons, the m edium s themselves. I was never able to observe happenings alleged to be “sp iritu al” in places or on occasions w hen no m edium was present. M edium s are as a rule slightly abnorm al m entally. F ra u R othe, for exam ple, although she could not be declared non compos m entis by forensic psychiatrists, nevertheless exhibited a n u m b er of hysterical symptoms. Seven of m y m edium s showed slight symptom s of hysteria (w hich, incidentally, are extraordinarily com ­ m on in other walks of life to o ). O n e m edium was an A m erican sw indler whose abnorm ality consisted chiefly in his im pudence. T he other seven acted in good faith. O nly one of them , a w om an of m iddle age, was born w ith her gifts; she h a d suffered since earliest childhood from alterations of consciousness (freq u en t an d slightly hysterical tw ilight states). She m ade a virtue of necessity, induced the change of consciousness herself by auto-suggestion, and in this state of auto-hypnosis was able to prophesy. T h e other m edium s discovered their gift only through social contacts an d then cultivated it a t spiritualistic seances, w hich is n o t particularly difficult. O ne can, w ith a few skillful suggestions, teach a rem arkably high percent­ age of people, especially w om en, the sim ple spiritualistic m an ip u la­ tions, tab le-turning for instance, and, less comm only, autom atic w riting. 7a6 T h e ordinary phenom ena m et w ith in m edium s are table-turn­ ing, autom atic w riting, and speaking in a trance. 727 T ab le-tu rn in g consists in one or m ore persons laying their hands on a table th a t can move easily. A fter a tim e (a couple of m inutes to a n h o u r) th e table begins to m ove, m aking tu rn in g or rocking m ovem ents. T his phenom enon can be observed in the case of all objects th a t are touched. T h e autom atically swinging pendulum a n d the divining rod are based on the sam e principle. I t was, then, a very childish hypothesis to assume, as in earlier decades, th a t the objects touched m oved of themselves, like living things. If a fairly heavy object is chosen, an d one feels the arm muscles of the m edium w hile the object is m oving, th e m uscular tension is im m edi­ ately app aren t, an d hence also the effort of the m edium to move the object. T h e only rem arkable thing is th a t the m edium s assert

they feel nothing of this effort, but, on the contrary, have a definite feeling th a t the object is moving of its own accord, or else that their arm or hand is moved for them. This psychological phenom e­ non is strange only to people who know nothing of hypnosis. A hypnotized person can be told that, on waking, he will forget every­ thing that happened under the hypnosis, b u t that at a certain sign he will, w ithout knowing why, suddenly raise his right arm. Sure enough, on waking, he has forgotten everything; at the sign he raises his right arm , w ithout knowing why— his arm “simply rose up in the air of its own accord.” 728 Spontaneous phenom ena can occasionally be observed in hys­ terics, for instance the paralysis or peculiar autom atic movements of an arm. Either the patients cannot give the reasons for these sudden symptoms, or they give the wrong reasons; for instance, the symptom came from their having caught cold, or from over­ strain. O ne has only to hypnotize the patient in order to discover the real reason and the significance of the symptom. For instance, a young girl wakes up in the m orning to find th a t her right arm is paralysed. She rushes in terror to the doctor and tells him she doesn’t know how it happened, she must obviously have over­ strained herself doing the housework the day before. T h a t is the only reason she can think of. U nder hypnosis it turns out th a t the day before she had a violent quarrel with her parents, and that her father grabbed her by the right arm and pushed her out of the door. T he paralysis of the arm is now clear; it is connected with the unconscious memory of yesterday’s scene, which was not present in her waking consciousness. (T he existence of “unconscious ideas” is discussed in my paper “T he Reaction-time R atio in the Association Experim ent.” 11) 729 It is evident from these facts th a t our bodies can easily execute autom atic movements whose cause and origin are not known to us. A nd if science had not draw n our attention to it, we would not know, either, th a t our arms and hands are constantly making slight movements, called “ intended trem ors,” w hich accompany our thoughts. If, for instance, one vividly imagines a simple geometrical figure, a triangle, say, the tremors of the outstretched hand will also describe a triangle, as can be dem onstrated very easily by means of a suitable apparatus. Hence, if we sit down at the table with a lively expectation of autom atic movements, the intended tremors will reflect this expectation and gradually cause the table to move. 11 [C.W ., vol. 2.]

But once we have felt the apparently autom atic movement, we are immediately convinced that “the thing works.” T he conviction (suggestion) clouds our judgm ent and observation, so that we do not notice how the tremors, very slight at first, gradually build up into m uscular contractions which then naturally produce stronger and stronger and still more convincing effects. 73° Now if an ordinary table, whose simple construction we know, can execute movements apparently of its own accord and behave as if it were alive, then hum an fantasy is quite ready to believe that the cause of the movement is some mystic fluid or even the spirits of the air. And if, as usually happens, the table composes sentences with an intelligible content out of the letters of the alpha­ bet, then it seems proved beyond a doubt that an “alien intelli­ gence” is at work. We know, however, that the initial, automatic tremors are in large measure dependent on our ideas. If they are capable of moving the table, they can equally well guide its move­ ments in such a way that they construct words and sentences out of the alphabet. N or is it necessary to visualize the sentence before­ hand. T he unconscious part of the psyche which controls the auto­ matic movements very soon causes an intellectual content to flow into them.12 As m ight be expected, the intellectual content is as a rule on a very low level and only in exceptional cases exceeds the intelligence of the medium. A good example of the poverty of “table-talking” is given in Allan K ardec’s Buck der M edien. 731 “Automatic writing” follows the same principles as table-turn­ ing. T he content of the writing is in no way superior to that of “table-talking.” The same considerations apply to talking in a trance or ecstasy. Instead of the muscles of the arm and hand, it is the muscles of the speech apparatus th a t start functioning inde­ pendently. T he content of trance communications is naturally on the same level as the products of the other automatisms. 732 These phenom ena are statistically the ones most commonly ob­ served in mediums. Clairvoyance is m uch rarer. Only two of my mediums had the reputation of being clairvoyant. O ne of them is a well-known professional, who has already made a fool of herself in various cities in Switzerland. In order to assess her mental state as fairly as possible, I had nearly thirty sittings with her over a period of six months. T he results of the investigation, so far as clairvoyance is concerned, can be p u t very briefly: nothing th at 12 F o r a d etaile d a c c o u n t of these p h e n o m en a , see m y “ O n th e Psychology an d P athology of S o -C alled O c c u lt P h e n o m e n a ” (C .W ., vol. 1, pars. 79ff.).

quite unquestionably exceeded the norm al psychological capacities was observed. O n the other hand, she did in some instances display a rem arkably fine gift for unconscious combination. She could com­ bine “ petites perceptions” and guesses and evaluate them in a very skilful way, mostly in a state of slight clouding of consciousness. There is nothing supernatural about this state; on the contrary, it is a well-known subject of psychological research. 733 H ow delicate is the capacity for unconscious apprehension could be dem onstrated experimentally with my second medium. T he ex­ periments were conducted as follows. T he medium sat opposite me at a small table th a t stood on a thick soft carpet (to assist greater m obility). Both of us laid our hands on the table. While the m edi­ um ’s m ind was occupied by her engaging in conversation with a third person, I thought intensively of a num ber between o and 10— for instance, 3. T he arrangem ent was that the table had to indicate the num ber thought of by the same num ber of tilts. T he fact th at the num ber was indicated correctly each time when I kept my hands on the table throughout the experiment is not remarkable. W hat is rem arkable is th a t in 77 per cent of the cases the correct num ber was also given when I removed my hands immediately after the first tilt. If my hands did not touch the table at all, there were no correct scores. T he results of numerous experiments showed that by means of intended tremors it is possible to communicate a num ber between 0 and 10 to another person, in such a way that though this person could not recognize the num ber, he could nevertheless reproduce it by autom atic movements. I was able to establish to my satisfaction th a t the conscious mind of the medium never had any inkling of the num ber I had communicated. N um ­ bers above 10 were reproduced very uncertainly, sometimes only one of the num erals being given. If I thought of the num bers in R om an instead of Arabic numerals, the results were considerably worse. T he aforesaid 77 per cent correct scores applies only to ex­ periments with Arabic numerals. From this one can conclude th a t my unconscious movements m ust have com m unicated a pictorial image of the numbers. T he more complicated and less customary images of R om an numerals fared worse, as was also the case with numbers above 10. 734 I cannot report these experiments w ithout recalling a curious and instructive observation I m ade one day w hen all the psychologi­ cal experiments with the m edium went wrong. Even the experi­ ments w ith numbers failed to come off, until I finally hit on the

follow ing e x p e d ie n t: I n a n ex p erim en t c o n d u c te d alo n g m u ch th e sam e lines, I told th e m e d iu m th a t th e n u m b e r I w as th in k in g of ( 3 ) w as b etw e en 2 a n d 5. I th e n got th e ta b le to answ er m e a dozen tim es. T h e n u m b e rs it re p ro d u c e d w ith iro n consistency w ere 2, 4, a n d 5 , b u t n ev e r 3 ; th u s in d ic a tin g , negatively b u t q u ite clearly, th a t th e tab le, o r ra th e r th e u nconscious of th e m ed iu m , w as w ell a w are of th e n u m b e r I w as th in k in g of a n d av o id ed it o u t of m ere cap rice. T h e capriciousness o f th e unconscious is som e­ th in g th e spiritualists could tell us a good d eal a b o u t, only in th e ir la n g u ag e it w o u ld be said th a t th e good spirits h a d b e e n su p p la n te d b y m ischievous m o ck in g spirits w h o h a d ru in e d th e ex p erim en t. 735 T h e sensitive a p p reh en sio n of th e unconscious, sh o w n by its ca p a c ity to tra n sla te a n o th e r p e rso n ’s trem o rs in to n u m b ers, is a strik in g b u t by n o m ean s u n p re c e d e n te d fact. T h e re a re n u m ero u s c o rro b o rativ e exam ples in th e scientific lite ra tu re . B u t if th e u n c o n ­ scious, as m y ex p erim en ts prove, is c a p a b le of reg isterin g a n d re p ro ­ d u c in g so m eth in g w ith o u t th e conscious m in d k n o w in g a n y th in g a b o u t it, th e n th e greatest ca u tio n is necessary in e v a lu a tin g clair­ v o y an t p erform ances. B efore w e ju m p to th e conclusion th a t th o u g h t flies th ro u g h tim e a n d sp ace d e ta c h e d fro m th e b ra in , w e sh o u ld seek to discover b y m eticu lo u s psychological investigation th e h id d e n sources of th e ap p a re n tly s u p e rn a tu ra l know ledge. 736 O n th e o th e r h a n d , a n y u n p re ju d ic e d in v estig ato r w ill readily a d m it th a t w e do n o t s ta n d to d a y o n th e p in n a c le of all w isdom , a n d th a t n a tu re still has in fin ite possibilities u p h e r sleeve w hich m a y b e rev ealed in h a p p ie r days to com e. I shall th ere fo re confine m yself to p o in tin g o u t th a t th e cases I observed of supposed clair­ v oyance m ig h t easily b e ex p lain e d in a n o th e r a n d m o re intelligible w a y th a n b y th e assu m p tio n of m ystic pow ers of cognition. T h e a p p a re n tly in explicable cases of clairvoyance I know only b y h e a r­ say, o r h a v e re a d of in books. 737 T h e sam e is tru e of th a t o th e r g re a t class of sp iritu alistic m a n i­ festations, th e ph ysica l p h e n o m en a . T h o se I saw w ere re p u te d to b e su ch , b u t in fa c t w ere not. G e n erally speaking, a m o n g th e c o u n t­ less believers in m iracles of o u r days v ery few w ill be fo u n d w ho h a v e ev er seen a n y th in g m anifestly su p e rn a tu ra l. A n d a m o n g these few th e re will b e still few er w h o d o n o t su ffer fro m a n o v erh eated im a g in a tio n a n d do n o t rep lace critica l o b serv atio n by fa ith . N e v er­ theless, w e a re left w ith a residue of w itnesses w ho o u g h t n o t to b e cavilled a t. A m ong these I w o u ld in c lu d e C rookes.

AU h u m a n b e in g s a r e b a d o b s e rv e rs o f th in g s t h a t a r e u n f a m ilia r to th e m . C ro o k e s, to o , is a h u m a n b e in g . T h e r e is n o u n iv e rs a l g ift f o r o b s e r v a tio n t h a t c o u ld c la im a h ig h d e g re e o f c e r ta in ty w ith o u t s p e c ia l tr a in in g . H u m a n o b s e rv a tio n a c h ie v e s s o m e th in g o n ly w h e n t r a i n e d in a d e f in ite field . T a k e a se n sitiv e o b s e rv e r a w a y fro m h is m ic ro s c o p e a n d t u r n h is a tte n tio n to w in d a n d w e a th e r , a n d h e is m o r e h e lp le ss t h a n a n y h u n t e r o r p e a s a n t. I f w e p lu m p a g o o d p h y s ic is t d o w n in th e d e c e p tiv e , m a g ic a l d a rk n e s s o f a s p iri­ tu a lis tic s e a n c e , w ith h y s te ric a l m e d iu m s p ly in g th e ir tr a d e w ith a ll th e in c r e d ib le r e f in e m e n t m a n y o f th e m h a v e a t th e ir c o m m a n d , h is o b s e r v a tio n w ill b e n o m o r e a c u te t h a n a la y m a n ’s. E v e ry th in g w ill th e n d e p e n d o n t h e s tr e n g th o f his p r e ju d ic e f o r o r a g a in s t. I n th is re s p e c t th e p s y c h ic d is p o s itio n o f a m a n lik e C ro o k e s w o u ld b e w o r th in v e s tig a tin g . I f as a re s u lt o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l in flu e n c e a n d e d u c a tio n , o r h is in n a t e te m p e r a m e n t, h e is n o t d is in c lin e d to b e lie v e in m ira c le s , h e w ill b e c o n v in c e d b y th e a p p a r itio n . B u t if h e is d is in c lin e d f ro m th e s t a r t to b e lie v e in m ira c le s , h e w ill r e m a in u n c o n v in c e d in sp ite o f th e a p p a r itio n , ju s t as d id m a n y o th e r p e o p le w h o w itn e s s e d s im ila r th in g s w ith th e sa m e m e d iu m . 739 H u m a n o b s e r v a tio n a n d r e p o r tin g a r e s u b je c t to d is tu r b a n c e b y c o u n tle s s so u rc e s o f e r r o r , m a n y o f w h ic h a r e still q u ite u n k n o w n . F o r in s ta n c e , a w h o le s c h o o l o f e x p e r im e n ta l p sy c h o lo g y is n o w s tu d y in g th e “ p s y c h o lo g y o f e v id e n c e ,” t h a t is, th e p ro b le m o f o b s e r­ v a tio n a n d r e p o r tin g . P ro fe s so r W illia m S te r n ,13 th e f o u n d e r o f th is s c h o o l, h a s p u b lis h e d e x p e r im e n ts w h ic h s h o w m a n ’s p o w e rs o f o b ­ s e r v a tio n in a b a d lig h t. A n d y e t S t e r n ’s e x p e rim e n ts w e re c o n ­ d u c te d o n e d u c a te d p e o p le ! I t se e m s to m e t h a t w e m u s t go o n w o rk in g p a tie n tly f o r a fe w m o r e y e a rs in th e d ir e c tio n o f th e S te rn sc h o o l b e fo re w e ta c k le th e d iffic u lt q u e s tio n o f th e re a lity o f s p ir itu ­ a listic p h e n o m e n a . 740 S o f a r a s th e m ir a c u lo u s r e p o r ts in th e lite r a tu r e a r e c o n c e rn e d , w e s h o u ld , f o r a ll o u r c ritic is m , n e v e r lose s ig h t o f th e lim ita tio n s o f o u r k n o w le d g e , o th e rw is e s o m e th in g e m b a r ra s s in g ly h u m a n m ig h t h a p p e n , m a k in g u s fe e l a s fo o lish as th e a c a d e m ic ia n s fe lt o v e r C h l a d n i ’s m e te o r s ,14 o r th e h ig h ly r e s p e c te d B a v a r ia n B o a r d 738

13 [ ( 1 8 7 1 -1 9 3 8 ), p ro fesso r of a p p lie d psychology, B reslau U .; a t D u k e U ., in th e U .S .A ., 1 9 3 4 -3 8 . See T h e F r e u d /J u n g L e tte rs, in d ex , s.v., a n d “ T h e Psychological D iagnosis of E v id e n c e ” (C .W ., vol. 2 ) , p a r. 728.] 14 [C o rrectly, m eteo rites, w h ic h even in to th e 19 th cen t, astro n o m ers b elieved of te rre stria l o rig in . T h e G e rm a n physicist E .F .F . C h la d n i (1 7 5 6 —1827) a d v o ­ cate d th e th eo ry of e x tra -te rre stria l origin.]

of Physicians over the railway.15 Nevertheless I believe that the present state of affairs gives us reason enough to w ait quietly until m ore impressive physical phenom ena p u t in an appearance. If, after m aking allowance for conscious and unconscious falsification, selfdeception, prejudice, etc., we should still find something positive behind them , then the exact sciences will surely conquer this field by experim ent and verification, as has happened in every other realm of hum an experience. T h a t m any spiritualists brag about their “science” and “scientific knowledge” is, of course, irritating nonsense. These people are lacking not only in criticism but in the most elementary knowledge of psychology. A t bottom they do not w ant to be taught any better, b u t merely to go on believing—surely the naivest of presumptions in view of our hum an failings. 15 [W hen the first Germ an railway was opened, in 1835, from Nuremberg to Fiirth, the Board o f Physicians held th at the speed o f the trains would cause dizziness in travellers and onlookers and w ould sour the milk of cows grazing near the tracks.]

FO R E W O R D T O JU N G : “PH EN O M EN ES O C C U L T E S”1 741

T h e essays collected together in this little volum e were w ritten over a period of th irty years, the first in 1902 a n d the last in 1932. T h e reason w hy I am bringing them o u t together is th a t all three are concerned w ith certain borderline problem s of the h u m an psyche, th e question of the soul’s existence a fter death. T h e first essay gives an account of a young som nam bulistic girl who claim ed to be in com m unication w ith th e spirits of the departed. T h e second essay deals w ith the problem of dissociation an d “ part-souls” (or splinter-personalities). T h e th ird discusses the psychology of the belief in im m ortality a n d the possibility of the continued existence of the soul after death. 742 T h e point of view I have ad o p ted is th a t of m odern em pirical psychology an d the scientific m ethod. A lthough these essays deal w ith subjects w hich usually fall w ithin the province of philosophy or theology, it w ould be a m istake to suppose th a t psychology is concerned w ith th e m etaphysical n a tu re of the problem of im m or­ tality. Psychology cannot establish any m etaphysical “ tru th s,” nor does it try to. I t is concerned solely w ith th e phenom enology of the psyche. T h e idea of im m ortality is a psychic phenom enon th a t is dissem inated over th e w hole earth. Every “ id ea” is, from the psychological point of view, a phenom enon, just as is “ philosophy” or “theology.” F or m odern psychology, ideas are entities, like a n i­ m als a n d plants. T h e scientific m ethod consists in the description of n atu re. All m ythological ideas are essentially real, a n d fa r older th a n any philosophy. Like ou r know ledge of physical n a tu re , they were originally perceptions a n d experiences. In so fa r as such ideas are universal, they are sym ptom s o r characteristics or norm al expo­ nents of psychic life, w hich are naturally present an d need no proof of th eir “ tru th .” T h e only question we can profitably discuss is w hether they are universal or not. If they are universal, they belong 1 [Paris, 1939. T h e book is a trans., by E. G od et and Y. L e Lay, o f “O n the Psychology and Pathology o f So-C alled O ccu lt Phenom ena” (C .W ., vol. 1 ), “T h e Soul and D ea th ,” and “T h e Psychological F oundations of B elief in Spirits” (both in C .W ., vol. 8 ) . T h e present trans. o f the foreword is from the original Germ an M S.]

3°9

to the natural constituents and normal structure of the psyche. And if by any chance they are not encountered in the conscious mind of a given individual, then they are present in the unconscious and the case is an abnorm al one. T he fewer of these universal ideas are found in consciousness, the more of them there will be in the unconscious, and the greater will be their influence on the conscious mind. This state of things already bears some resemblance to a neurotic disturbance. 743 It is norm al to think about immortality, and abnorm al not to do so or not to bother about it. If everybody eats salt, then th at is the norm al thing to do, and it is abnorm al not to. But this tells us nothing about the “rightness” of eating salt or of the idea of immortality. T h a t is a question which strictly speaking has nothing to do with psychology. Im m ortality cannot be proved any more than can the existence of God, either philosophically or empirically. We know th at salt is indispensable for our physiological health. W e do not eat salt for this reason, however, but because food with salt in it tastes better. We can easily imagine th at long before there was any philosophy hum an beings had instinctively found out w hat ideas were necessary for the normal functioning of the psyche. Only a rather stupid mind will try to go beyond that, and to venture an opinion on whether immortality does or does not exist. This question cannot be asked for the simple reason th a t it cannot be discussed. M ore im portant, it misses the essential point, which is the functional value of the idea as such. 744 If a person does not “believe” in salt, it is u p to the doctor to tell him th a t salt is necessary for physiological health. Equally, it seems to me th a t the doctor of the soul should not go along w ith the fashionable stupidities b u t should remind his patient w hat the norm al structural elements of the psyche are. For reasons of psychic hygiene, it would be better not to forget these original and universal ideas; and wherever they have disappeared, from neglect or intellectual bigotry, we should reconstruct them as quickly as we can regardless of “philosophical” proofs for or against (which are impossible anyw ay). In general, the heart seems to have a more reliable memory for w hat benefits the psyche than does the head, which has a rather unhealthy tendency to lead an “abstract” exis­ tence, and easily forgets th a t its consciousness is snuffed out the m om ent the heart fails in its duty. 745 Ideas are not just counters used by the calculating m ind; they are also golden vessels full of living feeling. “ Freedom ” is not a

mere abstraction, it is also an emotion. Reason becomes unreason when separated from the heart, and a psychic life void of universal ideas sickens from undernourishm ent. T he B uddha said: “These four are the foodstuffs, ye bhikkus, which sustain the creatures that are born, and benefit the creatures th at seek rebirth. T he first is edible food, coarse or fine; touch is the second; the thinking capac­ ity of the m ind is the th ird ; and the fourth is consciousness.” 2' 2 S a m y u t t a - N i k a y a,

I938

12.

11.

P S Y C H O L O G Y A N D S P IR IT U A L IS M 1 746

T h e read er should n o t casually lay this book aside on discovering th a t it is ab o u t “ Invisibles,” th a t is to say ab o u t spirits, on the assum ption th a t it belongs to th e literature of spiritualism . O n e can very well read the book w ithout resorting to any such hypothesis or theory, a n d take it sim ply as a rep o rt of psychological facts or a continuous series of com m unications from th e unconscious— w hich is, indeed, w h a t it is really about. Even spirits appear to be psychic p h enom ena whose origins lie in th e unconscious. A t all events, th e “ Invisibles” w ho are th e source of inform ation in this book are shadow y personifications of unconscious contents, con­ form ing to th e rule th a t activated portions of th e unconscious as­ sum e the ch aracter of personalities w hen they are perceived by the conscious m ind. F o r this reason, the voices heard by the insane seem to belong to definite personalities w ho can often be identified, a n d personal intentions are a ttrib u ted to them . A nd in fact, if the observer is able— though this is not always easy— to collect together a fair n u m b er of these verbal hallucinations, h e will discover in them som ething very like motives an d intentions of a personal character. 747 T h e sam e is tru e to an even greater degree of the “ controls” in m edium istic seances w ho m ake th e “ com m unications.” Every­ thing in our psyche has to begin w ith a personal character, an d one m ust push one’s investigations very fa r before one comes across elem ents th a t are no longer personal. T h e “I ” or “w e” of these com m unications has a m erely g ram m atical significance a n d is never proof of the existence of a spirit, b u t only of the physical presence 1 [First published as th e foreword to S tew art E dw ard W hite, Uneingeschranktes W eltall (Zurich, 1948), the G erm an trans. of T h e Unobstructed. Universe (New York, 1940), in w hich a foreword by Ju n g h ad n o t appeared. I t was subsequently published as “ Psychologie u nd Spiritismus,” N eue Schweizer R undschau, n.s., X V I :7 (Nov., 1948), 43° ~ 35- W hite (1 8 7 3 -^ 9 4 6 ), American author, chiefly w rote adventure stories w ith a fro n tier b ack g ro u n d ; he becam e involved w ith spiritualism later in life. Ju n g was introduced to his books in 1946 by F ritz K iinkel, A m erican psychotherapist; see his le tte r to K iinkel, 10 July 1946, discussing T h e Unobstructed Universe a t length, in C. G. Jung: Letters, ed. G. A dler, vol. 1.]

of th e m e d iu m o r m ed iu m s. I n d e a lin g w ith “ proofs of id e n tity ,” su ch as a re offered in th is b o o k , o n e m u st re m e m b e r t h a t proofs of th is k in d w o u ld seem to b e th eo re tic ally im possible co n sid erin g th e en o rm o u s n u m b e r o f possible sources of erro r. W e kn o w fo r a c e rta in ty t h a t th e u n co n scio u s is c a p a b le of su b lim in al p ercep tio n s a n d is a tre a s u re h o u se o f lost m em ories. I n a d d itio n , it has b een p ro v e d b y e x p e rim e n t t h a t tim e a n d sp ace a re relative fo r th e u n ­ conscious, so t h a t u n co n sc io u s p e rc e p tio n , n o t b e in g im p e d e d by th e sp a c e -tim e b a rrie r, c a n o b ta in experiences to w h ic h th e c o n ­ scious m in d h a s n o access. I n this c o n n e ctio n I w o u ld re fer to th e ex p e rim en ts c o n d u c te d a t D u k e U n iv e rsity a n d o th e r p lace s . 2 748 C o n sid e rin g all this, th e p ro o f o f id e n tity seem s to b e a fo rlo rn h o p e, in th e o ry an y w ay . In p ra c tic e , h ow ever, th in g s a re ra th e r d iffe re n t b ec au se cases a c tu a lly o c c u r w h ich a re so o v erw h elm in g ly im p ressiv e t h a t th e y a re ab so lu tely co n v in cin g to th o se co n c ern e d . E v e n th o u g h o u r critica l a rg u m e n ts m a y cast d o u b t o n every single case, th e re is n o t a single a rg u m e n t th a t co u ld p ro v e t h a t spirits d o n o t exist. I n th is re g a rd , th ere fo re , w e m u st rest c o n te n t w ith a “ n o n liq u e t.” T h o se w h o a re co n v in ce d of th e re a lity of spirits sh o u ld k n o w t h a t th is is a su b jectiv e o p in io n w h ic h c a n b e a tta c k e d on a n y n u m b e r of g ro u n d s. T h o se w h o are n o t co n v in ced sh o u ld b e w a re of n aiv ely assu m in g t h a t th e w hole q u estio n of sp irits a n d ghosts h a s b e e n settled a n d t h a t all m a n ife sta tio n s of this k in d are m ean in g less sw indles. T h is is n o t so a t all. T h e se p h e n o m e n a exist in th e ir o w n rig h t, reg ard less of th e w ay th e y a re in te rp re te d , a n d it is b e y o n d all d o u b t t h a t th e y a re g en u in e m a n ife sta tio n s o f th e u n co n scio u s. T h e co m m u n ic a tio n s of “sp irits” a re sta te m e n ts a b o u t th e u n co n scio u s p sych e, p ro v id e d th a t th e y a re re ally sp o n ta n e o u s a n d a re n o t cooked u p b y th e conscious m in d . T h e y h a v e this in co m m o n w ith d re a m s ; fo r d re am s, too, a re sta te m e n ts a b o u t th e u n co n scio u s, w h ic h is w h y th e p sy c h o th e ra p ist uses th e m as a firstclass so u rce of in fo rm a tio n . 749 T h e U n o b stru c te d U niverse m a y th e re fo re b e re g a rd e d as o ffer­ in g v a lu a b le in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e un co n scio u s a n d its w ays. I t differs v ery fa v o u ra b ly fro m th e u su al r u n of sp iritu alistic c o m m u n i­ catio n s in t h a t it eschew s all edify in g v e rb ia g e a n d co n c en trate s in stead o n c e rta in g e n e ra l ideas. T h is p leasin g d ifferen ce m a y b e a ttrib u ta b le to th e h a p p y c irc u m sta n c e t h a t th e re a l b e g e tte r of th e b o o k is th e m e d iu m B etty, th e deceased w ife of th e a u th o r. 2 J. B. R h in e , N e w F rontiers o f the M i n d ( 1 9 3 7 ) ; T h e R e a c h of the M i n d (1 9 4 8 ) . Also G .N .M . T yrrell, T h e Personality of M a n (1 9 4 7 ) .

3^3

It is her “spirit” th at pervades the book. We are familiar with her personality from M r. W hite’s earlier books,3 and we know how great an educative influence she had on all those around her, con­ stellating in their unconscious all the things th at come to light in these communications. 75«· T h e educative intention behind Betty’s activity does not differ essentially from the general tenor of spiritualistic literature. The “spirits” strive to develop m an’s consciousness and to unite it with the unconscious, and Betty, on her own admission, pursues the same aim. It is interesting to note that the beginnings of American spiri­ tualism coincided with the growth of scientific materialism in the middle of the nineteenth century. Spiritualism in all its forms there­ fore has a compensatory significance. N or should it be forgotten that a num ber of highly competent scientists, doctors, and philoso­ phers have vouched for the tru th of certain phenom ena which dem­ onstrate the very peculiar effect the psyche has upon m atter. Among them were Friedrich Zollner, W illiam Crookes, Alfred Richet, Camille Flam m arion, Giovanni Schiaparelli, Sir Oliver Lodge, and our Zurich psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler, not to mention a large num ­ ber of less well-known names. Although I have not distinguished myself by any original researches in this field, I do not hesitate to declare that I have observed a sufficient num ber of such phenom ­ ena to be completely convinced of their reality. T o me they are inexplicable, and I am therefore unable to decide in favour of any of the usual interpretations. 75* Although I do not wish to prejudice the reader of this book, I cannot refrain from draw ing attention to some of the issues it raises. W hat, above all, seems to me w orth mentioning—especially in view of the fact th a t the author has no knowledge of modern psychology— is th a t the “ Invisibles” favour an energic conception of the psyche which has much in common with recent psychological findings. T h e analogy is to be found in the idea of “ frequency.” But here we come upon a difference that should not be overlooked. For whereas the psychologist supposes th a t consciousness has a higher energy than the unconscious, the “Invisibles” attribute to the spirit of the departed (i.e., to a personified unconscious content) a higher “frequency” than to the living psyche. O ne should not, however, attach too much im portance to the fact th a t the concept s \T h e B e tty B o o k (

1937

) ; A c ro ss th e U n k n o w n (

( 1 9 4 2 )·]

3H

1939

); The R oad I K now

of energy is m ade use of in both cases, since this is a fundam ental category of thought in all the m odern sciences. 752 T h e “ Invisibles” further assert th at our world of consciousness and the “Beyond” together form a single cosmos, with the result that the dead are not in a different place from the living. There is only a difference in their “frequencies,” which m ight be likened to the revolutions of a propeller: at low speeds the blades are visible, but a t high speeds they disappear. In psychological terms this would m ean th a t the conscious and the unconscious psyche are one, b u t are separated by different am ounts of energy. Science can agree with this statem ent, although it cannot accept the claim th a t the unconscious possesses a higher energy since this is not borne out by experience. 753 A ccording to the “Invisibles,” the “Beyond” is this same cosmos but w ithout the lim itations imposed on m ortal m an by space and time. H ence it is called “the unobstructed universe.” O u r world is contained in this higher order and owes its existence principally to the fact th a t the corporeal m an has a low “frequency,” thanks to which the limiting factors of space and time become operative. T he world w ithout limitations is called “O rthos,” which means the “right” or “tru e” world. This tells us clearly enough w hat kind of significance is im puted to the “ Beyond,” though it must be em­ phasized th a t this does not imply a devaluation of our world. I am rem inded of the philosophical riddle which my Arab dragonm an asked me when visiting the tombs of the Khalifs in Cairo. “ W hich m an is the cleverer: the one who builds his house where he will be for the longest time, or the one who builds it where he will be only tem porarily?” Betty is in no doubt th a t this limited life should be lived as fully as possible, because the attainm ent of m axim um consciousness while still in this w orld is an essential con­ dition for the coming life in “O rthos.” She is thus in agreement not only w ith the general trend of spiritualistic philosophy, b u t also with Plato, who regarded philosophy as a preparation for death. 754 M odern psychology can affirm th a t for m any people this prob­ lem arises in the second half of life, when the unconscious often makes itself felt in a very insistent way. T he unconscious is the land of dreams, and according to the primitive view the land of dreams is aIso the land of the dead and of the ancestors. From all we know about it, the unconscious does in fact seem to be rela­ tively independent of space and time, nor is there anything objec­ tionable in the idea th at consciousness is surrounded by the sea

of the unconscious, just as this w orld is contained in “ O rthos.” T h e unconscious is of unknow n extent an d is possibly of greater im portance th a n consciousness. A t any rate, the role which con­ sciousness plays in the life of prim itives an d prim ates is insignificant com pared w ith th a t of the unconscious. T h e events in ou r m odern w orld, as we see h um anity blindly staggering from one catastrophe to th e next, are not calculated to strengthen anyone’s belief in the value of consciousness a n d the freedom of th e will. Consciousness should of course be of suprem e im portance, fo r it is the only g u a ra n ­ tee of freedom a n d alone m akes it possible for us to avoid disaster. But this, it seems, m ust rem ain for the present a pious hope. 755 Betty’s aim is to extend consciousness as far as possible by u n it­ ing it w ith “ O rth o s.” T o this end it m ust be train ed to listen to th e unconscious psyche in order to bring a b o u t the collaboration of the “ Invisibles.” T h e aims of m odern psychotherapy are sim i­ la r: it too endeavours to com pensate the onesidedness a n d narrow ­ ness of the conscious m ind by deepening its knowledge of the unconscious. 756 T h e sim ilarity of aim should not, however, lead us to overlook a profound difference of view point. T h e psychology of the “ Betty Books” differs in no essential respect from th e prim itive view of the w orld, w here the contents of the unconscious are all projected into external objects. W h a t appears to the prim itive to be a “spirit” m ay on a m ore conscious level be an abstract thought, just as the gods of an tiq u ity tu rn e d into philosophical ideas a t the beginning of our era. T his prim itive projection of psychological factors is com ­ m on to b oth spiritualism and theosophy. T h e adv an tag e of projec­ tion is obvious: the projected content is visibly “ th ere” in the object a n d calls for no fu rth e r reflection. B ut since th e projection does brin g th e unconscious a bit n ea re r to consciousness, it is at least better th a n nothing. M r. W h ite’s book certainly m akes us think, b u t th e kind of thinking it caters to is not psychological; it is m echa­ nistic, a n d this is of little help w hen w e are faced w ith the task of in tegrating projections. M echanistic thinking is one of the m any A m ericanism s th a t stam p th e book as a typical p ro d u ct and leave one in no d oubt as to its origin. B ut it is well w o rth while getting to know this side of the A m erican psyche, for the w orld will hear a g reat deal m ore of it in times to come. Ju ly i g 4.8

FO R EW O RD T O M OSER: “S P U R : IR R G L A U B E O D E R W A H R G LA U B E?” 1 757

T he author has asked me for a few introductory words to her book. It gives me all the m ore pleasure to compIy with her request as her previous book on occultism,2 w ritten with great care and knowledge of the subject, is still fresh in my memory. I welcome the appearance of this new book, a copiously docum ented collection of parapsychological experiences, as a valuable contribution to psy­ chological literature in general. Extraordinary and mysterious stories are not necessarily always lies and fantasies. M any “ingenious, curious, and edifying tales” were known to previous centuries, among them observations whose scientific validity has since been confirmed. T h e m odern psychological description of m an as a total­ ity had its precursors in the numerous biographical accounts of unusual people such as somnambulists and the like at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Indeed, though we owe the discovery of the unconscious to these old pre-scientific observations, our inves­ tigation of parapsychological phenom ena is still in its infancy. We do not yet know the full range of the territory under discussion. Hence a collection of observations and of reliable m aterial performs a very valuable service. T he collector must certainly have courage and an unshakable purpose if he is not to be intim idated by the difficulties, handicaps, and possibilities of error th a t beset such an undertaking, and the reader, too, must summon up sufficient inter­ est and patience to allow this sometimes disconcerting m aterial to work upon him objectively, regardless of his prejudices. In this vast and shadowy region, where everything seems possible and nothing believable, one m ust oneself have observed m any strange happen­ ings and in addition heard, read, and if possible tested m any stories by exam ining their witnesses in order to form an even moderately sure judgm ent. 758 In spite o f such advances as the founding o f the British and American Society for Psychical Research and the existence of a 1 [B aden, 1950. By F a n n y M oser. ( “ G h o st: F alse B elief o r T r u e ? ” )] 2 [O kku ltism us: T d u s c h u n g e n u n d T a ts a c h e n (1 9 3 5 ).]

3W

759

considerable and in p art -well-documented literature, a prejudice is still ram pant even in the best informed circles, and reports of this kind meet with a mistrust which is only partially justified. It looks as though K an t will be proved right for a long time to come when he wrote nearly two hundred years ag o : “Stories of this kind will have at any time only secret believers, while publicly they are rejected by the prevalent fashion of disbelief.”3 He himself reserved judgm ent in the following words: “T he same ignorance makes me so bold as to absolutely deny the tru th of the various ghost stories, and yet with the common, although queer, reservation th a t while I doubt any one of them, still I have a certain faith in the whole of them taken together.” 4 O ne could wish that very many of our bigots would take note of this wise position adopted by a great thinker. I am afraid this will not come about so easily, for our rational­ istic prejudice is grounded— lucus a non lucendo— not on reason but on something far deeper and more archaic, namely on a primi­ tive instinct to which Goethe referred when he said in Faust} “Sum­ m on not the well-known throng . . .” I once had a valuable oppor­ tunity to observe this instinct at work. I t was while I was with a tribe on M ount Elgon, in East Africa, most of whom had never come into contact with the white m an. Once, during a palaver, I incautiously uttered the word selelteni, which means “ghosts.” Sud­ denly a deathly silence fell on the assembly. T he men glanced away, looked in all directions, and some of them made off. My SomaIi headm an and the chief confabulated together, and then the head­ m an whispered in my ear: “ W h at did you say th a t for? Now you’ll have to break u p the palaver.” This taught me th a t one must never mention ghosts on any account. T he same primitive fear of ghosts is still deep in our bones, b u t it is unconscious. Rationalism and superstition are complementary. It is a psychological rule that the brighter the light, the blacker the shadow ; in other words, the more rationalistic we are in our conscious minds, the more alive becomes the spectral world of the unconscious. And it is indeed obvious th a t rationality is in large measure an apotropaic defence against superstition, which is everpresent and unavoidable. T he daemonic world of primitives is only a few generations away from us, and the things th a t have happened and still go on happening in the dictator states teach us how terrifyingly close it is. I must constantly 8 [ D r e a m s o f a S p i r i t - S e e r , tr a n s. b y G o e r w itz , p . 9 2 .] 4

[ I b id ., p . 8 8 .]

3 l8

rem ind myself th a t the last witch was burned in Europe in the year my grandfather was born. 760 Xhe widespread prejudice against the factual reports discussed in this book shows all the symptoms of the primitive fear of ghosts. Even educated people who should know better often advance the most nonsensical arguments, tie themselves in knots and deny the evidence of their own eyes. They will put their names to reports of seances and then— as has actually happened more than once— w ithdraw their signatures afterwards, because w hat they have wit­ nessed and corroborated is nevertheless impossible— as though any­ one knew exactly w hat is impossible and w hat is n o t! 761 Ghost stories and spiritualistic phenom ena practically never prove w hat they seem to. They offer no proof of the immortality of the soul, which for obvious reasons is incapable of proof. But they are of interest to the psychologist from several points of view. They provide inform ation about things the laym an knows nothing of, such’as the exteriorization of unconscious processes, about their content, and about the possible sources of parapsychological phe­ nomena. They are of particular im portance in investigating the localization of the unconscious and the phenom enon of synchronicity, w hich points to a relativation of space and time and hence also of m atter. It is true th a t with the help of the statistical m ethod existence of such effects can be proved, as Rhine and other investi­ gators have done. But the individual nature of the m ore complex phenom ena of this kind forbids the use of the statistical method, since this stands in a com plementary relation to synchronicity and necessarily destroys the latter phenom enon, which the statistician is bound to discount as due to chance. We are thus entirely depen­ dent on well observed and well authenticated individual cases. The psychologist can only bid a hearty welcome to any new crop of objective reports. 762 XJie author has put together an impressive collection of factual m aterial in this book. It differs from other collections of the kind by its careful and detailed docum entation, and thus gives the reader a total impression of the situation which he often looks for in vain in other reports of this nature. A lthough ghosts exhibit certain uni­ versal features they nevertheless appear in individual forms and under conditions which are infinitely varied and of especial im por­ tance for the investigator. Xhe present collection provides the most valuable inform ation in just this respect. 763 Xhe question discussed here is a weighty one for the future. 3*9

S c ie n c e h a s o n ly j u s t b e g u n t o ta k e a s e r io u s in t e r e s t in t h e h u m a n p s y c h e a n d , m o r e p a r tic u la r ly , in th e u n c o n s c io u s . T h e w id e r e a lm o f p s y c h ic p h e n o m e n a a ls o in c lu d e s p a r a p s y c h o lo g y , w h ic h is o p e n ­ in g

u n d r e a m t - o f v is t a s b e f o r e o u r e y e s . I t is h ig h

to o k

c o g n iz a n c e

m ore m an

and

of

m ore

th e

n a tu re

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c o m es fr o m

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e m p ir ic a l w o r ld w e k n o w

th a t p a r t o f th e

th e le a s t a b o u t. P s y c h o lo g y n e e d s a tr e ­

m e n d o u s w i d e n i n g o f i t s h o r i z o n . T h e p r e s e n t b o o k is a m i l e s t o n e on

th e

lo n g

road

to

k n o w le d g e

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p s y c h ic n a tu r e

of m an.

April i g g o J u n g ’s C o n t r i b u t i o n 5 764 of

In

th e

D r.

X ,

su m m er o f to

e x p e c ta tio n

1920

I

w e n t to

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so m e

le c tu r e s .

my

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of

had

M y

L o n d o n , a t t h e in v ita tio n c o lle a g u e

fo u n d

a

to ld

s u ita b le

me

th a t, in

w eek en d

p la c e

fo r th e su m m e r . T h is , h e s a id , h a d n o t b e e n so e a sy , b e c a u s e e v e r y th in g

had

a lr e a d y b e e n

l e t f o r t h e s u m m e r h o l i d a y s , o r e ls e w a s

so e x o r b ita n tly e x p e n s iv e o r u n a t t r a c t iv e t h a t h e h a d a lm o s t g iv e n u p h o p e . B u t f in a lly , b y a lu c k y c h a n g e , h e h a d f o u n d a c h a r m in g c o t t a g e t h a t w a s j u s t r ig h t fo r u s, a n d a t a r id ic u lo u s ly lo w

p r ic e .

I n a c tu a l f a c t it tu r n e d o u t to b e a m o s t a ttr a c tiv e o ld fa r m h o u s e in

B u c k in g h a m s h ir e ,

as w e

saw

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o f o u r f ir s t w e e k o f w o r k , o n a F r i d a y e v e n i n g . D r . X a g ir l fr o m

a t th e en d

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h o u s e w a s r o o m y , tw o - s t o r e y e d , a n d b u ilt in t h e s h a p e o f a r ig h t a n g le . O n e o f th e s e w in g s w a s q u ite s u ffic ie n t f o r u s. O n t h e g r o u n d flo o r

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fr o m

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w in g . T h is w a s m y r o o m . It h a d a n d a fir e p la c e in t h e fr o n t w a ll

w in d o w s f a c in g

e a st a n d w e st,

( n o r t h ) . T o t h e le ft o f th e d o o r

s to o d a b e d , o p p o s ite th e fir e p la c e a b ig o ld -fa s h io n e d c h e st o f d r a w ­ ers, a n d t o th e r ig h t a w a r d r o b e a n d a ta b le . T h is , t o g e th e r w it h a fe w

c h a i r s , w a s a l l t h e f u r n i t u r e . O n e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e c o r r id o r

5 [Pp· 2 5 3 ff-l

w a s a ro w o f b e d ro o m s , w h ic h w e re u se d b y D r. X a n d o c c a sio n a l gu ests. 765 T h e first n ig h t, tir e d f r o m th e s tre n u o u s w o rk o f th e w e ek , I s le p t w ell. W e s p e n t t h e n e x t d a y w a lk in g a n d ta lk in g . T h a t e v e ­ n in g , fe e lin g r a t h e r tir e d , I w e n t to b e d a t 11 o ’clock, b u t d id n o t g e t b e y o n d th e p o in t o f d ro w s in g . I o n ly fell in to a k in d o f to r p o r , w h ic h w a s u n p le a s a n t b e c a u s e I fe lt I w a s u n a b le to m o v e . A lso it s e e m e d to m e t h a t th e a ir h a d b e c o m e stu ffy , a n d t h a t th e r e w a s a n in d e f in a b le , n a s ty sm e ll in th e ro o m . I th o u g h t I h a d f o r ­ g o tte n to o p e n th e w in d o w s . F in a lly , in sp ite o f m y to r p o r , I w a s d r iv e n to lig h t a c a n d le : b o th w in d o w s w e re o p e n , a n d a n ig h t w in d b le w so ftly th r o u g h th e ro o m , fillin g it w ith th e flo w e ry scen ts o f h ig h s u m m e r. T h e r e w a s n o tr a c e o f th e b a d sm ell. I r e m a in e d h a lf a w a k e in m y p e c u lia r c o n d itio n , u n til I g lim p s e d th e first p a le lig h t o f d a w n t h r o u g h th e e a s t w in d o w . A t th is m o m e n t th e to r p o r d r o p p e d a w a y f r o m m e lik e m a g ic , a n d I fell in to a d e e p sle e p fro m w h ic h I a w o k e o n ly to w a r d s n in e o ’clock. 766 O n S u n d a y e v e n in g I m e n tio n e d in p a s s in g to D r. X t h a t I h a d sle p t r e m a r k a b ly b a d ly t h e n ig h t b e fo re . H e r e c o m m e n d e d m e to d r in k a b o ttle o f b e e r , w h ic h I d id . B u t w h e n I w e n t to b e d th e s a m e t h in g h a p p e n e d : I c o u ld n o t g e t b e y o n d th e p o in t o f d ro w sin g . B o th w in d o w s w e re o p e n . T h e a ir w a s fre s h to b e g in w ith , b u t a f te r a b o u t h a lf a n h o u r it se e m e d to t u r n b a d ; it b e c a m e s ta le a n d fu g g y , a n d fin a lly s o m e h o w re p u ls iv e . I t w a s h a r d to id e n tify th e sm e ll, d e s p ite m y e ffo rts to e s ta b lis h its n a tu r e . T h e o n ly th in g t h a t c a m e in to m y h e a d w a s t h a t th e r e w a s s o m e th in g sickly a b o u t it. I p u r s u e d th is c lu e th r o u g h a ll th e m e m o rie s o f sm ells t h a t a m a n c a n c o lle c t in e ig h t y e a rs o f w o r k a t a p s y c h ia tr ic c lin ic . S u d ­ d e n ly I h it o n t h e m e m o r y o f a n o ld w o m a n w h o w a s s u ff e rin g f r o m a n o p e n c a r c in o m a . T h is w a s q u ite u n m is ta k a b ly th e sa m e sick ly s m e ll I h a d so o fte n n o tic e d in h e r ro o m . 76 7 A s a p sy c h o lo g ist, I w o n d e r e d w h a t m ig h t b e t h e c a u s e o f th is p e c u lia r o lf a c to r y h a llu c in a tio n . B u t I w a s u n a b le to d is c o v e r a n y c o n v in c in g c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n it a n d m y p re s e n t s ta te o f c o n ­ scio u sn ess. I o n ly fe lt v e ry u n c o m f o r ta b le b e c a u s e m y to r p o r se e m e d to p a r a ly z e m e . I n th e e n d I c o u ld n o t th in k a n y m o re , a n d fell in to a to r p id d o z e . S u d d e n ly I h e a r d th e n o ise o f w a te r d r ip p in g . “ D i d n ’t I t u r n o ff th e t a p p r o p e r ly ? ” I th o u g h t. “ B u t o f c o u rse, th e r e ’s n o r u n n in g w a te r in th e r o o m — so i t ’s o b v io u sly r a in in g — y e t to d a y w a s so fin e .” M e a n w h ile th e d r ip p in g w e n t o n re g u la rly , o n e d r o p e v e ry tw o se c o n d s. I im a g in e d a little p o o l o f w a te r to th e

left of my bed, near the chest of drawers. “T hen the roof must leak,” I thought. Finally, with a heroic effort, so it seemed to me, I lit the candle and went over to the chest of drawers. There was no w ater on the floor, and no dam p spot on the plaster ceiling. Only then did I look out of the window: it was a clear, starry night. T he dripping still continued. I could make out a place on the floor, about eighteen inches from the chest of drawers, where the sound came from. I could have touched it with my hand. AU at once the dripping stopped and did not come back. Towards three o’clock, at the first light of dawn, I fell into a deep sleep. No— I have heard death-watch beetles. T he ticking noise they make is sharper. This was a duller sound, exactly w hat would be made by drops of w ater falling from the ceiling. 768 I was annoyed with myself, and not exactly refreshed by this weekend. But I said nothing to Dr. X. T he next weekend, after a busy and eventful week, I did not think a t all about my previous experience. Yet hardly had I been in bed for half an hour than everything was there as before: the torpor, the repulsive smell, the dripping. A nd this time there was something else: something brushed along the walls, the furniture creaked now here and now there, there were rustlings in the corners. A strange restlessness was in the air. I thought it was the wind, lit the candle and went to shut the windows. But the night was still, there was no breath of wind. So long as the light was on, the air was fresh and no noise could be heard. But the m om ent I blew out the candle, the torpor slowly returned, the air became fuggy, and the creakings and rus­ tlings began again. I thought I must have noises in my ear, but at three o’clock in the morning they stopped as promptly as before. 769 T he next evening I tried my luck again with a bottle of beer. I had always slept well in London and could not imagine w hat could give me insomnia in this quiet and peaceful spot. During the night the same phenom ena were repeated, b u t in intensified form. T he thought now occurred to me th a t they must be parapsychological. I knew th at problems of which people are unconscious can give rise to exteriorization phenom ena, because constellated unconscious contents often have a tendency to manifest themselves outwardly somehow or other. But I knew the problems of the pres­ ent occupants of the house very well, and could discover nothing that would account for the exteriorizations. T he next day I asked the others how they had slept. They all said they had slept wonderfully.

77°

T h e th ird n ig h t it was even worse. T here w ere loud knocking noises, a n d I h a d the im pression th a t an anim al, ab o u t the size of a dog, was rushing ro u n d th e room in a panic. As usual, the h u b b u b stopped abru p tly w ith the first streak of light in the east. 77’ T h e phen o m en a grew still m ore intense d u rin g the following w eekend. T h e rustling becam e a fearful racket, like th e roaring of a storm . Sounds of knocking cam e also from outside in th e form of dull blows, as th o u g h som ebody w ere banging on the brick walls w ith a muffled h am m er. Several times I h ad to assure myself th a t there was no storm , a n d th a t nobody was banging on the walls from outside. 772 T h e next w eekend, the fo u rth , I cautiously suggested to my host th a t th e house m ig h t be h a u n te d , a n d th a t this w ould explain the surprisingly low rent. N atu rally he laughed a t m e, although he was as m u ch a t a loss as I ab o u t m y insom nia. I t h ad also struck m e how quickly the tw o girls cleared aw ay after d in n er every evening, a n d alw ays left th e house long before sundow n. By eight o’clock there was no girl to be seen. I jokingly rem arked to the girl w ho did th e cooking th a t she m ust be a fraid of us if she h a d herself fetched every evening by her friend a n d was th en in such a h u rry to get hom e. She lau g h ed a n d said th a t she w asn’t a t all afraid of th e gentlem en, b u t th a t n o thing w ould induce her to stay a m om ent in this house alone, an d certainly n o t after sunset. “ W h a t’s th e m a tte r w ith it? ” I asked. “ W hy, it’s h au n ted , d id n ’t you know ? T h a t’s the reason w hy it was going so cheap. N obody’s ever stuck it h ere.” I t h a d been like th a t as long as she could rem em ­ ber. B ut I could get n othing out of h er ab o u t th e origin of the rum our. H e r friend em phatically confirm ed everything she h a d said. 773 As I was a guest, I n atu rally couldn’t m ake fu rth e r inquiries in th e village. ,M y host w as sceptical, b u t he w as w illing to give the house a th o ro u g h looking over. W e found n othing rem arkable u n til we cam e to the attic. T h ere, betw een th e tw o wings of the house, we discovered a dividing w all, a n d in it a com paratively new door, ab o u t h alf a n inch thick, w ith a heavy lock a n d tw o huge bolts, th a t sh u t off our w ing from the unoccupied p a rt. T h e girls d id n o t know of the existence of this door. It presented som e­ thing of a puzzle because th e tw o wings com m unicated w ith one an o th er b o th on the g ro u n d floor a n d on th e first floor. T h e re w ere no room s in the attic to be sh u t off, a n d no signs of use. T h e purpose of th e door seem ed inexplicable. 774 T h e fifth w eekend was so unb earab le th a t I asked m y host to

give me another room. This is what had happened: it was a beauti­ ful moonlight night, with no wind; in the room there were rustlings, creakings, and bangings; from outside, blows rained on the walls. I had the feeling there was something near me, and opened my eyes. There, beside me on the pillow, I saw the» head of an old woman, and the right eye, wide open, glared at me. The left half of the face was missing below the eye. The sight of it was so sudden and unexpected that I leapt out of bed with one bound, lit the candle, and spent the rest of the night in an armchair. The next day I moved into the adjoining room, where I slept splendidly and was no longer disturbed during this or the following weekend. 775 I told my host that I was convinced the house was haunted, but he dismissed this explanation with smiling scepticism. His atti­ tude, understandable though it was, annoyed me somewhat, for I had to admit that my health had suffered under these experi­ ences. I felt unnaturally fatigued, as I had never felt before. I there­ fore challenged Dr. X to try sleeping in the haunted room himself. He agreed to this, and gave me his word that he would send me an honest report of his observations. He would go to the house alone and spend the weekend there so as to give me a “fair chance.” 776 Next morning I left. Ten days later I had a letter from Dr. X. He had spent the weekend alone in the cottage. In the evening it was very quiet, and he thought it was not absolutely necessary to go up to the first floor. The ghost, after all, could manifest itself anywhere in the house, if there was one. So he set up his camp bed in the conservatory, and as the cottage really was rather lonely, he took a loaded shotgun to bed with him. Everything was deathly still. He did not feel altogether at ease, but nevertheless almost succeeded in falling asleep after a time. Suddenly it seemed to him that he heard footsteps in the corridor. He immediately struck a light and flung open the door, but there was nothing to be seen. He went back grumpily to bed, thinking I had been a fool. But it was not long before he again heard footsteps, and to his discomfiture he discovered that the door lacked a key. He rammed a chair against the door, with its back under the lock, and returned to bed. Soon afterwards he again heard footsteps, which stopped just in front of the door; the chair creaked, as though somebody was pushing against the door from the other side. He then set up his bed in the garden, and there he slept very well. The next night he again put his bed in the garden, but at one o’clock it started to rain, so he shoved the head of the bed under the eaves of the conservatory

and covered the foot w ith a waterproof blanket. In this way he slept peacefully. But nothing in the world would induce him to sleep again in the conservatory. H e had now given up the cottage. 777 A little later I heard from Dr. X that the owner had had the cottage pulled down, since it was unsaleable and scared away all tenants. U nfortunately I no longer have the original report, but its contents are stam ped indelibly on my mind. It gave me consider­ able satisfaction after my colleague had laughed so loudly at my fear of ghosts. *

778

I would like to make the following remarks by way of summing up. I can find no explanation of the dripping noise. I was fully awake and examined the floor carefully. I consider it out of the question that it was a delusion of the senses. As to the rustling and creaking, I think they were probably not objective noises, but noises in the ear which seemed to me to be occurring objectively in the room. In my peculiar hypnoid state they appeared exagger­ atedly loud. I am not a t all sure th a t the knocking noises, either, were objective. They could just as well have been heartbeats th at seemed to me to come from outside. My torpor was associated with an inner excitation probably corresponding to fear. O f this fear I was unconscious until the mom ent of the vision— only then did it break through into consciousness. T h e vision had the character of a hypnagogic hallucination and was probably a reconstruction of the memory of the old w om an with carcinoma. 779 Coming now to the olfactory hallucination, I had the impression th at my presence in the room gradually activated something th at was somehow connected w ith the walls. It seemed to me th a t the dog rushing round in a panic represented my intuition. Common speech links intuition with the nose: I had “smelt” something. If the olfactory organ in m an were not so hopelessly degenerate, b u t as highly developed as a dog’s, I would have undoubtedly have had a clearer idea of the persons who had lived in the room earlier. Primitive medicine-men can not only smell out a thief, they also “smell” spirits and ghosts. 780 T he hypnoid catalepsy that each time was associated with these phenom ena was the equivalent of intense concentration, the object of which was a subliminal and therefore “fascinating” olfactory perception. T he two things together bear some resemblance to the

physical and psychic state of a pointer th at has picked up the scent. T he source of the fascination, however, seems to me to have been of a peculiar nature, which is not sufficiently explained by any sub­ stance emitting a smell. T he smell may have “embodied” a psychic situation of an excitatory nature and carried it across to the per­ cipient. This is by no means impossible when we consider the extra­ ordinary im portance of the sense of smell in animals. It is also con­ ceivable that intuition in m an has taken the place of the world of smells that were lost to him with the degeneration of the olfactory organ. T he effect of intuition on m an is indeed very similar to the instant fascination which smells have for animals. I myself have had a num ber of experiences in which “ psychic smells,” or olfactory hallucinations, turned out to be subliminal intuitions which I was able to verify afterwards. 781 This hypothesis naturally does not pretend to explain all ghost phenomena, b u t at most a certain category of them. I have heard and read a great many ghost stories, and among them are a few that could very well be explained in this way. For instance, there are all those stories of ghosts haunting rooms where a m urder was committed. In one case, bloodstains were still visible under the carpet. A dog would surely have smelt the blood and perhaps recog­ nized it as human, and if he possessed a hum an imagination he would also have been able to reconstruct the essential features of the crime. O u r unconscious, which possesses very much more subtle powers of perception and reconstruction than our conscious minds, could do the same thing and project a visionary picture of the psychic situation th at excited it. For example, a relative once told m e that, when stopping at a hotel on a journey abroad, he had a fearful nightm are of a woman being m urdered in his room. The next m orning he discovered th a t on the night before his arrival a woman had in fact been m urdered there. Tliese remarks are only m eant to show th at parapsychology would do well to take account of the modern psychology of the unconscious.

F O R E W O R D T O JA F F fi: “A P P A R IT IO N S A N D P R E C O G N IT IO N ” 1 782

T he author of this book has already m ade a nam e for herself by her valuable contributions to the literature of analytical psychol­ ogy. H ere she tells of strange tales which incur the odium of super­ stition and are therefore exchanged only in secret. They were lured into the light of day by a questionnaire sent out by the Schweizerischer Beobachter, which can thereby claim to have rendered no small service to the public. T he mass of m aterial th a t came in ar­ rived first at my address. Since my age and my evergrowing pre­ occupation with other m atters did not allow me to burden myself with further work, the task of sorting out such a collection and subm itting it to psychological evaluation could not have been placed in w orthier hands th an those of the author. She had displayed so m uch psychological tact, understanding and insight in her approach to a related theme— an interpretation of E.T.A . H offm ann’s story “T he Golden P o t” 2— th a t I never hesitated in my choice. 783 Curiously enough, the problem of w onder tales as they are cur­ rently told— enlightenm ent or no enlightenm ent— has never been approached from the psychological side. I naturally don’t count mythology, although people are generally of the opinion th a t m yth­ ology is essentially history and no longer happens nowadays. As a psychic phenom enon of the present, it is considered merely a hu n t­ ing-ground for economics. Nevertheless, ghost stories, w arning vi­ sions, and other strange happenings are constantly being reported, and the num ber of people to whom something once “happened” is surprisingly large. M oreover, despite the disapproving silence of the “enlightened,” it has not rem ained hidden from the wider public th a t for some tim e now there has been a serious science which goes by the nam e of “parapsychology.” This fact m ay have helped to encourage the popular response to the questionnaire. 1 [A niela Jaffe, G eistererscheinungen u n d V orzeich en (Z urich, 1 9 5 8 ). Trans., N ew H yde Park, N ew York, 1963, w ith the present trans. o f the foreword, here som ew hat revised.] 2 “B ilder und Sym bole aus E .T .A . H offm anns M archen ‘D er goldne T o p f,’ ” in Jung, G estaltu n gen des U n bew u ssten ( r g s o ) .

784

O ne of the most notable things that came to light is the fact that among the Swiss, who are commonly regarded as stolid, un­ imaginative, rationalistic and materialistic, there are just as many ghost stories and suchlike as, say, in England or Ireland. Indeed, as I know from my own experience and that of other investigators, magic as practised in the M iddle Ages and harking back to much remoter times has by no means died out, b u t still flourishes today as ram pantly as it did centuries ago. O ne doesn’t speak of these things, however, They simply happen, and the intellectuals know nothing of them— for intellectuals know neither themselves nor people as they really are. In the world of the latter, w ithout their being conscious of it, the life of the centuries lives on, and things are continually happening that have accompanied hum an life from time im m em orial: premonitions, foreknowledge, second sight, hauntings, ghosts, return of the dead, bewitchings, sorcery, magic spells, etc. 785 N aturally enough our scientific age wants to know whether such things are “true,” w ithout taking into account w hat the nature of any such proof would have to be and how it could be furnished. For this purpose the events in question must be looked at squarely and soberly, and it generally turns out th at the most exciting stories vanish into thin air and w hat is left over is “not w orth talking about.” Nobody thinks of asking the fundam ental question: w hat is the real reason why the same old stories are experienced and repeated over and over again, without losing any of their prestige? O n the contrary, they return with their youthful vitality constantly renewed, fresh as on the first day. 786 T h e author has m ade it her task to take these tales for w hat they are, th a t is, as psychic facts, and not to pooh-pooh them be­ cause they do not fit into our scheme of things. She has therefore logically left aside the question of truth, as has long since been done in mythology, and instead has tried to inquire into the psycho­ logical questions: Exactly who is it that sees a ghost? U nder w hat psychic conditions does he see it? W hat does a ghost signify when examined for its content, i.e., as a symbol? 787 She understands the art of leaving the story just as it is, with all the trimmings th a t are so offensive to the rationalist. In this way the twilight atmosphere th at is so essential to the story is preserved. A n integral component of any nocturnal, numinous experience is the dimming of consciousness, the feeling th a t one is in the grip of something greater than oneself, the impossibility of exercising

criticism, and the paralysis of the will. U nder the im pact of the experience reason evaporates and another power spontaneously takes control— a most singular feeling which one willy-nilly hoards up as a secret treasure no m atter how m uch one’s reason may pro­ test. T h at, indeed, is the uncom prehended purpose of the experi­ ence— to make us feel the overpowering presence of a mystery. 788 T he author has succeeded in preserving the total character of such experiences, despite the refractory nature of the reports, and in m aking it an object of investigation. Anyone who expects an answer to the question of parapsychological tru th will be disap­ pointed. T h e psychologist is little concerned here w ith w hat kind of facts can be established in the conventional sense; all th a t matters to him is w hether a person will vouch for the authenticity of his experience regardless of all interpretations. T he reports leave no doubt about this; moreover, in most cases their authenticity is con­ firmed by independent parallel stories. It cannot be doubted th a t such reports are found at all times and places. H ence there is no sufficient reason for doubting the veracity of individual reports. D oubt is justified only when it is a question of a deliberate lie. T he num ber of such cases is increasingly small, for the authors of such falsifications are too ignorant to be able to lie properly. 789 T he psychology of the unconscious has throw n so many beams of light into other dark corners that we would expect it to elucidate also the obscure world of w onder tales eternally young. From the copious m aterial assembled in this book those conversant w ith depth psychology will surely gain new and significant insights which m erit the greatest attention. I can recom m end it to all those who know how to value things th a t break through the monotony of daily life w ith salutary effects, (sometimes!) shaking our certitudes and lend­ ing wings to the im agination. A u gu st i g $ 7

32 9

V THE PSYCHOGENESIS OF MENTAL DISEASE (related to V olum e 3 of the Collected W orks)

T H E P R E S E N T S T A T U S O F A P P L IE D P S Y C H O L O G Y 1 In G e rm a n S w itzerlan d 79 °

T hough psychology is not taught in either Basel or Fribourg, a psychological institute has just been opened in Bern, under the direction of Professor D iirr. In the w inter semester 1907 he has given a course on general psychology and another on paedagogics based on psychology, as well as an introduction to experimental psychology. 79« As to Zurich: Professor Schum ann is giving a course on Special Psychology and conducting a sem inar for advanced students a t the University laboratory for experim ental psychology. — Privatdocent W reschner2 is lecturing this w inter on physiology and psychology of the voice and language and conducting an introductory course (w ith dem onstrations) on experim ental psychology at the psycho­ logical laboratory. — A t the psychological laboratory of the U niver­ sity’s psychiatric clinic, established 1906, I am holding a seminar for advanced students. T h e program m e includes norm al and patho­ logical psychology. 792 As to associations concerned with psychology, there is nothing in Bern or Basel. (F ribourg need not be mentioned at all.) 793 In Zurich the following have existed for some years: 1. A n association for legal psychiatry, whose chairm an I have been since early 1907.3 2. T here also has existed for m any years a psychological-neuro­ logical society where an occasional psychological lecture may be heard. T he chairm an is Professor von M onakow.4 1 [(T ran slate d by W. S.) “D er gegenw artige S tand der angew andten Psychologie in den einzelnen K u ltu rla n d ern ,” u n d er “N ach rich ten ” in Z eitsckrift fiir angew andte Psychologie u nd psychologische Sam m elforschung (L eip zig ), I (1907—8 ) , 466ff. T here were contributions from F rance, F rench Switzerland, and th e U nited States, as well as Ju n g ’s (pp. 4 6 9 -7 0 ).] 2 [A rthur W reschner, G erm an experim ental psychologist and physician, practis­ ing in Z urich. See T h e F reu d /Ju n g Letters, 124J, n. 9.] 3 [See T h e F reu d /Ju n g Letters, 198J, n. 2a.] 4 [C onstantin von M onakow, Swiss neurologist. See T h e F re u d /Jung Letters, index, s.v. M onakow.]

3. In addition, in the autum n of 1907 a Society for Freudian Researches was founded (w ith ca. 20 m em bers). T he chairman is Professor Bleuler.6 G. G. 5 [See T h e F r e u d / J u n g Lett ers, 46J, 47J.]

J ung

(Burgholzli-Zurich)

O N D E M E N T IA P R A E C O X 1 794

T h e depotentiation of the association process o r abaissement du niveau mental, which consequently has a dow nright dreamlike quality, seems to indicate th a t a pathogenic agent [Noxe] contributes to dem entia praecox which is absent in, say, hysteria. T h e character­ istics of the abaissement were assigned to the pathogenic agent, which was construed as organically conditioned and likened to a symptom of poisoning (e.g., paranoid states in chronic poisoning). 1 [Jung’s abstract contributed to O tto R ank’s report of the First International Psychoanalytic Congress (Salzburg, 27 Apr. 1 9 0 8 ), in Z e ntralblatt fur Psycho­ analyse (W iesb a d en ), 1 :3 (D ec. 1 9 1 0 ), 128. T h e original paper is lost. Cf. T h e F re u d /J u n g Letters, 85J, n. 4.]

R E V IE W O F S A D G E R : “ K O N R A D F E R D IN A N D M EYER. E IN E P A T H O G R A P H IS C H -P S Y C H O L O G IS C H E S T U D IE m 795

T he new art of writing biographies from the psychological point of view has already produced a num ber of m oderately successful studies. O ne has only to think of M obius2 on Goethe, Schopenhauer, Schum ann, and Nietzsche, and Lange on H olderlin.3 Among these “pathographies,” Sadger’s book occupies an exceptional position. I t does not stand out because of a meticulous unearthing of the diagnosis, nor does it try to squeeze the poet’s pathology into a particular clinical fram e of reference, as M obius did in an objec­ tionable m anner in the case of Goethe. Sadger’s aim is rather to understand the development of the whole personality as a psycho­ logical process, and to grasp it from within. It is no m atter for regret th at the psychiatric pigeon-holing of the “case” receives scant attention. O u r understanding is in no way advanced when we know for certain the medical designation of the subject’s state of mind. The recognition th at Schum ann suffered from dementia praecox and K. F. Meyer from periodic melancholia contributes nothing whatever to an understanding of their psyches. People are only too ready to stop at the diagnosis, thinking th at any further understanding can be dispensed with. But this is just where the real task of the pathographer begins, if he wants, as he should, to understand m ore th a n the ordinary biographer. T h e biographer would rather not penetrate too deeply into certain areas, and be­ cause he does not understand w hat is going on there and can dis­ cover nothing understandable, he calls those areas m ad or “patho­ logical.” Mobius sticks psychiatric labels on them and reports something of their geography. T h e proper task of the pathographer, 1 [Basler N achrichten, Nov. 1909. Isidor Sadger, K onrad Ferdinand M eyer: E ine pathographisch-psychologische Studie (G renzfragen des Nerven- und Seelenlebens, 59; W iesbaden, 1908). For the Viennese psychoanalyst Sadger, see T h e F re u d /Jung Letters, 75J, n. 1. In his study he discussed the influence of the m other and sister on the sexual life of the Zurich poet M eyer ( 1825-98).] 2 [Paul Julius M obius (1 8 5 4 -1 9 0 7 ), Leipzig neurologist, published on the psychopathology of these and other writers.] 3 [W ilhelm L ange (1875—1950), H olderlin: eine Pathographie (1909).]

however, is to describe in intelligible language w hat is actually hap­ pening in these locked regions of the psyche, and w hat powerful influences pass to and fro between the world of the understandable and the world of the not-understood. U p to now psychography has failed miserably, believing th at its task is complete once insanity has been established; and there is some justification for this since not a few of the most prom inent modern psychiatrists are firmly convinced th a t insanity is beyond further understanding. T he valid­ ity of this statem ent is purely subjective, however: anything we do not understand we are likely to call insane. In view of this lim ita­ tion, we should not venture so far, let alone assert th a t w hat we do not understand is not understandable at all. It is understandable, only we are intellectually still so dense and lethargic th a t our ears cannot hear and our minds cannot grasp the mysteries of which the insane speak. H ere and there we do understand something, and occasionally we glimpse inner connections which link up w hat appears to be wildly fortuitous and utterly incoherent into regular causal chains. W e owe this insight to the genius of Sigmund Freud and his psychology, which is now undergoing all the punishments of hell th a t the scientific Philistines hold in reserve for every new discovery.4 796 Anyone who wishes to read Sadger’s book with real understand­ ing should first familiarize himself with F reud’s psychology, other­ wise he will get a curious impression of the special prominence the author gives to the significance of the m other in the life of the poet. Lacking the requisite knowledge the reader will also find it difficult to understand m any of the parenthetical remarks con­ cerning the father-son and mother-son relationship and to appreci­ ate their general validity. It will be evident from these hints th a t Sadger’s book can claim a special place am ong the pathographies because, unlike th e others, it digs down far deeper to the very roots of the pathological and annexes wide areas of th a t dark world of the non-understood to the world of intelligible things. Anyone who has been able to profit by F reu d ’s writings will read w ith great 4 A w ell-know n sage w rites: “ If you have a fresh view or an original idea, if you present m en and things from an unexpected p oin t o f view , you w ill surprise the reader. A nd the reader does not like being surprised. H e never looks in a history for anything but the stupidities that he knows already. If you try to instruct him you only hum iliate him and m ake him angry. D o not try to enlighten him ; he w ill only cry out that you insult his beliefs.” [Anatole France, preface to Penguin Island (1 9 0 8 ; trans. by A. W . Evans, 1909): preface, p. vii.]

interest how the sensitive soul of the poet gradually freed itself from the crushing weight of mother-love and its attendant emotional conflicts, and how as a result the hidden source of poetic creativity began to flow. W e owe the author a debt of gratitude for this glimpse into the life of an artist whose development presents so many baffling problems. Readers who bring no preliminary knowl­ edge w ith them may be prom pted by this book to acquire some.

R E V IE W O F W A L D S T E IN : “DAS U N B E W U SSTE IC H ” 1 797

F or a variety of reasons it is welcome news th at W aldstein’s book T h e Subconscious Self has been rescued from oblivion and m ade accessible to a w ider public in an excellent translation. T he content of the book is equally good and, in places, very im portant. In his preface to the G erm an edition, Dr. V eraguth2 (Zurich) re­ marks th a t the book, first published m ore than a decade ago, is to be valued prim arily as an historical document. This, unfortunately, is only too true, for now here does the present end sooner and the past begin earlier th an in m edical literature. T h e English edition was published at a tim e when another tu rn of the ascending spiral of scientific knowledge had just been completed in Germany. The scientists had once again reached the point th a t had been reached eighty years earlier. Those were the days of th a t rem arkable m an Franz A nton M esmer,3 perhaps the first in the German-speaking world to observe th at, arm ed w ith the necessary self-assurance, prac­ tically anyone could im itate the miraculous cures w rought at places of pilgrimage, by priests, French kings, and thaum aturges in sheep’s clothing (witness Ast the Shepherd, who relieved his milieu of sev­ eral million m arks). This art was nam ed “ Mesmerism.” I t was not a swindle, and m uch good was accomplished by it. Mesmer offered his art to science, and even founded a school, but he took too little account of the fact th a t ever since science has existed there has also existed an undying elite enthroned at the top, th at knows everything far better than anybody else, and from time to time guards m ankind against various pernicious aberrations. It pro­ tected us from the erroneous belief th a t Ju p iter had moons, th at 1 [Basler N a c h ric h te n 1 9 D ec. 1909. L ouis W ald ste in , D as u n b ew u sste I c h u n d sein V e rh a ltn is zu r G e su n d h e it u n d E rzie h u n g (W ie sb a d en , 1908) ; tra n s. fro m th e E n g lish ( T h e S u b co n scio u s S e lf a n d I t s R e la tio n to E d u c a tio n a n d H e a lth , N ew Y ork, 1897) b y G e rtru d V e ra g u th . W a ld ste in (1 8 5 3 -1 9 1 5 ) w as a n A m erican neurolo g ist.] 2 [O tto V e ra g u th (1 8 7 0 —1 9 4 4 ), Z u ric h n eu ro lo g ist, h u sb a n d of th e tra n sla to r. F o r J u n g ’s com m en ts o n h im a n d o n th e book ( “ abysm ally in sig n ifican t” ), see T h e F r e u d /J u n g L e tte rs, 115J, p a r. 2.] 3 [ ( 1734—> 8 1 5 ), A u stria n p h y sician , e x p e rim e n te r w ith a n im a l m ag n etism .]

such things as m eteors could fall from the air, th a t puerperal fever was caused by dirty hands, an d th a t the b rain possessed a fibrous structure. F o r eighty years the elite protected psychology from the discovery of hypnotism by pooh-poohing M esm er’s “ an im al m ag n e­ tism .” Nevertheless a few G erm an crackpots an d obscurantists of th e R om antic Age kept M esm er’s teachings alive, quietly collecting observations and experiences th a t w ere ridiculed by th eir contem ­ poraries a n d successors because they sm acked of superstition. N o t­ w ithstanding the persistent m ocking laughter, the num erous books from the pen of Justinus K erner, Eschenm ayer, E n n e m oser, H orst, etc.,4 to nam e b u t a few w ho reported “ curious tales of som nam bu­ lists,” contain, along w ith obvious nonsense, glaring truths w hich w ere p u t to sleep for the next sixty years. T h e F ren ch country doctor L iebeault,5 w ho m ade a tim id a tte m p t in the sixties to publish a little book on this subject, was stuck w ith his w hole edition unsold at th e publisher’s for tw enty years. T h irty years later there existed a literature of h u ndreds of books a n d a n u m b e r of technical periodi­ cals. T h e spiral h ad once again entered this dom ain. AU of a sudden it was discovered th a t an enorm ous a m o u n t could be done, both in theory and practice, w ith the earlier “ M esm erism ” ; th at a p p a r­ ently dangerous sym ptom s of nervous ailm ents, such as paresis, con­ tractures, paraesthesias, etc., could be produced a t will by suggestion a n d then blow n aw ay again— in short, th a t th e w hole arm y of the neuroses, accounting for a t least eighty p er cent of the neurologist’s clientele, w ere disturbances of a psychic n atu re. (A realization th a t is so m odern today th a t its rediscoverers are hailed as incalculably g reat benefactors of m a n k in d .) 798 In its u n fathom able wisdom the elite instantly recognized th a t m an k in d w as in dire peril, a n d declared ( I ) th a t suggestion th erap y w as fra u d u len t a n d ineffective; (2 ) th a t it was exceedingly d a n ­ gerous ; ( 3 ) th a t the insights gained by hypnotic m ethods were sheer fabrication, im agination, a n d suggestion; a n d (4 ) th a t th e neuroses w ere organic diseases of th e b rain . I t h ad, how ever, also been redis­ covered th a t ou r consciousness obviously does n o t cover th e full ran g e of th e psyche, th a t th e psychic factor exists and is effective in regions beyond th e reach of consciousness. T his psychic factor 4 [For K erner (1 7 8 6 - 1 8 6 2 ), G erm an poet and student of occultism , see “On the Psychology and Pathology of So-C alled O ccu lt Phenom ena” (C . W ., vol. 1 ), par. 140. Joseph Ennem oser ( 1 7 8 7 - 1 8 5 4 ), K arl A ugust Eschenm ayer (1 7 6 8 1 8 5 2 ), and G eorg Conrad H orst (1 7 6 7 —1838) w rote on m agic, mesmerism, etc.] 5 [Auguste Ambroise L iebeault ( 1 8 2 3 - 1 9 0 4 ), French physician and hypnotist.].

b e y o n d c o n sc io u sn e ss w a s n a m e d th e su b c o n sc io u s o r th e se c o n d eg o o r th e u n c o n s c io u s p e rs o n a lity , e tc. I n G e r m a n y th e h e re tic s w e re D e s s o ir, F o re l, M o ll, V o g t, a n d S ch ren c k -N o tzin g ,® a m o n g o th e rs , a n d in F r a n c e , B in e t, J a n e t , a n d th e ir sch o o ls. W a ld s te in ’s b o o k o n th e “ s u b c o n s c io u s ” eg o c a m e o u t ju s t w h e n th e m o v e m e n t in G e r m a n y h a d r e a c h e d its c lim a x . AU h o n e s t re s e a rc h e rs g re e te d th is r e s u r g e n c e w ith e n th u s ia s m , b u t th e e lite rig h tly r e g a r d e d it as d e le te r io u s to t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f lo g ic a l th o u g h t. T h e le a d in g a u th o r itie s th e r e f o r e a s s e rte d t h a t th e su b c o n sc io u s w a s ( I ) n o n ­ e x is te n t; ( 2 ) n o t p s y c h ic b u t p h y s io lo g ic a l, a n d h e n c e im p e n e tr a ­ b le ; ( 3 ) o n ly fe e b ly c o n sc io u s, so fe e b le , in fa c t, t h a t o n e is n o lo n g e r c o n s c io u s o f b e in g c o n sc io u s o f it. S in ce th e n th e in v e s tig a to rs c f th e “ u n c o n s c io u s ” h a v e b e e n b r a n d e d as u n sc ie n tific ; th e “ u n c o n ­ sc io u s” h a s n o e x is te n c e a t a ll a n d is m e re ly a fe e b le flic k e r o f c o n ­ scio u sn ess. O r else it is p h y s io lo g ic a l, w h ic h is th e o p p o s ite of p s y c h o lo g ic a l, a n d th e r e f o r e n o t th e c o n c e rn o f th e p sy c h o lo g ist o r o f a n y b o d y else. I n th is w a y it is b a r r ic a d e d a g a in s t in v e s tig a tio n . 799 B u t th is tim e , in s p ite o f e v e ry th in g , th e se e d d id n o t d ie . W o rk w e n t a h e a d s te a d ily , a n d to d a y w e a r e m u c h f u r t h e r a d v a n c e d t h a n w e w e r e a d e c a d e a g o . E v e n so , th is a d v a n c e h o ld s o n ly f o r th e fe w w h o h a v e n o t a llo w e d th e m s e lv e s to b e c o m e e m b itte re d , a n d w h o a r e w o r k in g in d e f a tig a b ly to o p e n u p th e abysses o f th e h u m a n p sy c h e to c o n sc io u sn e ss. F o r th e s e fe w , W a ld s te in ’s b o o k is, to b e s u re , n o n o v e lty a n d w ill a d d little to th e ir k n o w le d g e , b u t fo r a ll o th e rs it c o n ta in s m u c h t h a t is n e w a n d m u c h t h a t is g o o d . I t h a s s h r e w d th in g s t o s a y a b o u t a e s th e tic s a n d th e o rig in o f w o rk s o f a r t. S till b e tt e r is its p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n c e p tio n o f th e n e u ro se s, a c o n c e p tio n w h ic h o n e h o p e s w ill b e w id e ly d is s e m in a te d , se e in g t h a t th e e lite still c lin g s firm ly to th e n o tio n t h a t h y s te ria a n d n e rv o u s d is o rd e rs o r ig in a te in a lte r a tio n s w ith in th e b r a in . U n f o r tu n a te ly m a n y r u n - o f - th e - m ill d o c to rs still s w e a r b y th is g o sp e l to th e d e tr i­ m e n t o f th e ir n e u r o tic p a tie n ts , w h o m o u r a g e p r o d u c e s in sw a rm s. N e a r ly a ll th e s e p a tie n ts h a v e b e e n c o n v in c e d b y th e m e d ic a l d o g m a t h a t th e ir sick n ess is o f a p h y s ic a l n a tu r e . A g a in a n d a g a in th e d o c to rs b a c k u p th is n o n s e n s e , a n d th e tr e a tm e n t goes m u d d lin g o n w ith its m e d ic a m e n ts a n d m a g ic n o s tru m s . I t is h a r d ly s u rp ris in g t h a t n o w a d a y s C h r is tia n S c ie n c e h a s b e tte r re su lts to sh o w t h a n m a n y n e u ro lo g is ts . T h i s little b o o k p e rfo rm s a v a lu a b le se rv ic e b y 6 [M ax Dessoir (au th o r of Das Doppel-Icht 1890), August Forel (infra, par. 921, n. 20 ), A lbert M oll (infra, par. 8 9 3 ), O skar Vogt, A lbert von SchrenckN otzing : all psychiatrists.]

at least throw ing a ray of light on those dark regions of the psyche from which all hum an achievements ultimately spring, whether they be artistic creations or nervous disorders. I t is to be hoped th at books of this kind will find favour w ith the educated public, so as gradually to prepare the ground for a deeper understanding of the hum an psyche, and to free the minds of the sound and sick alike from the crass materialism of the cerebro-organic dogma. T he sensitive psychological note which W aldstein strikes gives his book a particularly attractive character, even though his analysis does not probe nearly as deeply as F reud’s researches.

C R IM E A N D T H E S O U L 1 T h e dual personality of the crim inal is frequently apparent at first glance. O ne need not follow the tortuous p ath of his psychologi­ cal experiences, disguises, and eventual unmasking as the story of his dual existence is dram atically told in the film. Generally speak­ ing, every criminal, in his outw ard show of acting honourably, wears a quite simple disguise which is easily recognizable. O f course, this does not apply to the lowest dregs of the crim inal fraternity— to the m en and women who have become outcasts from all ordinary hum an society. Generally, however, criminals, men and women alike, betray a certain am bition to be respectable, and repeatedly emphasize their respectability. T he “rom ance” of a crim inal exis­ tence is only rarely rom antic. A very large num ber of criminals lead a thoroughly middle-class existence and commit their crimes, as it were, through their second selves. Few criminals succeed in attaining a complete severance between their liking for middle-class respectability, on the one hand, and their instinct for crime on the other. 801 I t is a terrible fact th a t crime seems to creep up on the criminal as something foreign th a t gradually gains a hold on him so th a t eventually he has no knowledge from one m om ent to another of w hat he is about to do. Let me illustrate this w ith a striking example from my own experience. 802 A nine-year-old boy stabbed his little sister above the eye with a pair of scissors, w hich penetrated as far as the cerebral m em brane. H ad it gone half a millimetre deeper the child would have died instantly. Tw o years earlier, when the boy was seven, his m other told me th a t there was something w rong w ith him. T he boy was doing some peculiar things. A t school, during lessons, he would suddently rise from his seat and cling to his teacher w ith every sign of extreme terror. A t home he would often ru n aw ay from play and hide in the loft. W hen asked to explain the reason he

800

1 [Published in th e Sun day Referee (L o n d o n ), 11 D ec. 1932. A G erm an version, “Blick in die V erbrecherseele,” w hich m ay have been the original of the English, appeared in the Wiener Journal, 15 Ja n . 1933. T h e present text contains some m inor changes taken over from the G erm an.]

m a d e n o r e p ly . W h e n I s p o k e t o t h e b o y h e to l d m e t h a t h e h a d

8 0 3

f r e q u e n t a t t a c k s o f c r a m p . T h e n t h e f o llo w in g c o n v e r s a ti o n to o k p la c e : “ W h y a r e y o u a lw a y s a f r a i d ? ”

804

T h e c h i ld d i d n o t r e p ly . I r e a liz e d t h a t h e w a s r e l u c t a n t to s p e a k , so I t r i e d p e r s u a s io n . F i n a l l y h e s a i d : 805 “ I m u s t n o t te ll y o u . ” 8 ° 6 “ W h y n o t? ”

807

8 ° 8

809 8 1 0

I p resse d

h im

f u r t h e r , b u t a ll I w a s a b l e to g e t o u t o f h im

w a s t h a t h e m u s t n o t s a y w h y h e w a s a f r a i d . A t la s t h e b l u r t e d i t o u t. “ I a m a f r a i d o f t h e m a n , ” h e s a id . “ W hat m an?” N o r e p ly . T h e n , a f t e r m u c h w h e e d lin g , I s u c c e e d e d i n w i n n i n g h is c o n f id e n c e . H e t o l d m e t h a t a t t h e ag e of sev en a little m a n a p p e a r e d t o h im . T h e lit t l e m a n h a d a b e a r d . T h e b o y a lso g a v e o t h e r d e t a il s o f t h e lit tle m a n ’s a p p e a r a n c e . T h i s lit tle m a n h a d w i n k e d a t h im , a n d t h a t h a d f r i g h t e n e d h i m . T h a t w a s w h y h e c l u n g t o h is t e a c h e r a t s c h o o l a n d r a n a w a y f r o m p l a y a t h o m e

811 8 1 2

813 814

t o h i d e i n t h e lo f t. “ W h a t d i d th is lit tle m a n w a n t o f y o u ? ” I a s k e d . “ H e w a n te d to p u t th e b la m e o n m e .” “ W h a t d o y o u m e a n b y ‘b l a m e ’?” T h e b o y c o u l d n o t a n s w e r . H e m e r e ly r e p e a t e d th e w o r d “ b l a m e . ” H e s a id t h a t e a c h t i m e t h e l i t t l e m a n c a m e n e a r e r a n d n e a r e r t o h im , a n d la s t ti m e h e h a d c o m e q u i t e c lo se , a n d t h a t w a s w h y h e , t h e b o y , s t a b b e d h is s is te r . T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e lit tle m a n w a s n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e p e r s o n if ic a ti o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l i n s t in c t , a n d w h a t t h e b o y d e s c r ib e d a s “ b l a m e ” w a s a s y m b o l o f th e s e c o n d s e lf t h a t w a s d r i v i n g h i m t o d e s tr u c tio n .

815

S i6

A f t e r t h e c r im e t h e b o y h a d e p i l e p t i c fits. S in c e t h e n h e h a s c o m m i t t e d n o f u r t h e r c r im e s . I n th is c a s e a s i n m a n y o th e r s , e p ile p s y r e p r e s e n t e d a n e v a s io n o f t h e c r im e , a r e p r e s s i o n o f t h e c r i m i n a l in s t in c t . U n c o n s c io u s ly p e o p l e t r y t o e s c a p e t h e i n n e r u r g e to c r im e b y t a k i n g r e f u g e i n illn e ss. I n o th e r cases it h a p p e n s t h a t p e o p le w h o a r e a p p a r e n tly n o r m a l t r a n s m i t t h e e v il in s t in c t s c o n c e a le d u n d e r th is a p p e a r a n c e o f n o r ­ m a lity to o th e r p e o p le , a n d f re q u e n tly le a d th e m , q u ite u n c o n ­

s c io u s ly , t o c a r r y o u t t h e d e e d s w h i c h t h e y th e m s e lv e s w o u ld n e v e r c o m m it a l t h o u g h t h e y w o u l d lik e to . 817 H e r e is a n e x a m p l e : S o m e tim e a g o t h e r e w a s a m u r d e r in

818

819

820

821

the R hineland which created a great sensation. A m an of up-to-then blameless character killed his entire family, and even his dog. No one knew the reason; no one had ever noticed anything abnorm al about the m an. This m an told me th a t he had bought a knife w ith­ out having any particular object in mind. O ne night he fell asleep in the living-room, where there was a clock with a pendulum . He heard the ticking of the clock, and this tick-tock was like the sound of a battalion of m arching soldiers. T he sound of m arching gradu­ ally died away, as though the battalion had passed. W hen it ceased completely he suddenly felt, “Now I m ust do it.” T hen he com­ m itted the murders. H e stabbed his wife eleven times. According to my subsequent investigations it was th e woman who was chiefly to blame for w hat happened. She belonged to a religious sect, whose members regarded all who do not pray with them as outsiders, children of the devil, and themselves as saints. This w om an transm itted the evil th a t was in her, unconsciously perhaps, b u t quite certainly, to her husband. She persuaded him that he was evil, whereas she herself was good, and instilled the crim inal instinct into his subconscious m ind. I t was characteristic th a t the husband recited a saying from the Bible at each stab, which best indicates the origin of his hostility. F ar more crime, cruelty, and horror occur in the hum an soul than in the external world. T h e soul of the criminal, as manifested in his deeds, often affords an insight into the deepest psychological processes of hum anity in general. Sometimes it is quite rem arkable w hat a background such m urders have, and how people are driven to perpetrate acts w hich at any other tim e and of their own accord they would never commit. O nce a baker w ent for his Sunday walk. T he next thing he knew was th at on waking up he found himself in a police cell, w ith his hands and feet manacled. H e was amazed. H e thought he was dream ing. H e had no idea why he was locked up. But in the m eantim e the m an had m urdered three people and seriously injured two. U ndoubtedly he committed these crimes in a cataleptic state. T h e baker’s Sunday walk tu rn ed out quite differently from w hat he had intended on leaving home. T h e wife of this baker was a m em ber of the same sect as the other woman, and therefore a “saint,” so th a t the motive of this crime is analogous to th at described above. T he more evil a person is, the more he tries to force upon others the wickedness he does not w ant to show to the outside world.

T he baker and the R hinelander were respectable men. Before they com mitted their crimes they would have been am azed had anyone thought them capable of such things. They certainly never intended to commit m urder. This idea was unconsciously instilled into them as a means of abreacting the evil instincts of their wives. M an is a very complicated being, and though he knows a great deal about all sorts of things, he knows very little about himself.

T H E Q U E S T IO N O F M E D IC A L IN T E R V E N T IO N 1 T h e m edical jo u rn a l Psyche published answ ers2 to a questionnaire sent to tw enty-eight doctors concerning a rep o rt by D r. M ed a rd Boss, de­ livered a t the 66th C ongress of South-w est G erm an Psychiatrists an d N eurologists in B adenw eiler, in w hich he presented the case of a tra n s­ vestite “u n d e r its existential-analytical aspect.” T h e tre a tm e n t ended w ith th e to tal castratio n of the p a tie n t by D r. Boss, including a m p u ta ­ tion of the penis w ith im p la n ta tio n of artificial labiae. T h e re p o rt p ro ­ voked critical com m ents from some of his colleagues3 follow ed by a rejo in d er from D r. Boss.4 In view of the significance of the case for th e d o cto r-p atien t relationship, th e editors of Psyche circulated the follow ing q u estionnaire to the colleagues w hom D r. Boss h ad n am ed : 1. D o you consider an in terv en tio n like th a t perform ed by D r. Boss perm issible from the general m edical stan d p o in t o r not? 2 . D o you consider such an intervention perm issible from the stan d p o in t of the psychotherapist?

I had first of all to plough my way through the report of this case. The totally superfluous existentialist jargon complicates the situation unnecessarily and does not make for enjoyable reading. T he patient was obviously bent upon getting himself transformed into a wom an as far as possible and equally set against any other kind of influence. It is quite clear that nothing could be done about it psychotherapeutically. T hat settles Question 2 . A n operation like this has nothing to do with psychotherapy, because anyone, the patient included, could have advised himself to ask a surgeon to castrate him. If Dr. Boss gave him this advice, that is his own private affair, and something that one does not make a song and dance about in public. 82 3 Question I is not so easy to answer. O n the principle nulla poena sine lege an intervention of this kind is “justified” if the law either permits it or does not forbid it. There is no law against cosmetic operations, and if I succeed in persuading a surgeon to

822

1 [Psy c he ( H e i d e l b e r g ) , I V :8 ( 1 9 5 0 - 5 1 ) , 4 6 4 - 6 5 . ] 2 [ I b id ., 4 4 8ff.] 3 [ Ib id ., I V :4 , a a g ff.] 4 [ I b id ., I V :7 , 394!!.]

am putate a finger for me th a t is his and my private affair, a prob­ lem of individual ethics. If anyone who is compos mentis wishes to be castrated and feels happier for it afterwards than he did be­ fore, there is not m uch in his action th at one can fairly object to. If the doctor is convinced th at such an operation really does help his patient, and nobody is injured by it, his ethical disposition to help and am eliorate m ight very well prom pt him to perform the operation w ithout anyone being in a position to object to it on principle. Only, he should realize th a t he is offending the collec­ tive professional ethics of doctors in a hazardous way by his some­ w hat unusual and unconventional procedure. M oreover, the opera­ tion affects an organ th at is the object of a collective taboo; th at is to say, castration is a num inous m utilation which makes a power­ ful impression on everyone and is consequently hedged about with all sorts of emotional considerations. A doctor who risks this inter­ vention should not be surprised if there is a collective reaction against it. H e may be justified before his own conscience, b u t he risks his reputation by violating collective feeling. (T h e hangm an is in m uch the same situation.) Insults of this nature are not in the interests of the m edical profession and are therefore, quite rightly, abhorred. 8a4 Dr. Boss would have done better to preserve a decent silence about this painful affair instead of proclaim ing it urbi et orbi with “existential-analytical” eclat, however concerned he was to justify himself in the eyes of his profession. Evidently he has only the dim ­ mest notion of how m uch his action offends professional m edical feeling. 8a5 So I can answer Question I by saying that, for the above rea­ sons, I consider the intervention, from the medical standpoint, hazardous if not impermissible. From the individual standpoint I w ould prefer to give D r. Boss the benefit of the doubt.

FO R EW O R D T O CUSTANCE: “W IS D O M , M A D N E SS A N D F O L L Y ” 1 W h e n I w as w o rk in g in 1906 on m y b o o k T h e Psycho log y of D e m e n t i a P r a e c o x 2 (a s sc h iz o p h re n ia w as th e n c a lle d ), I n ev e r d re a m t t h a t in th e su cceed in g h a lf-c e n tu ry psychological in v estig a­ tio n of th e psychoses a n d th e ir c o n te n ts w o u ld m ak e v irtu a lly no p rogress w h a te v e r. T h e d o g m a, o r in te lle c tu a l su p erstitio n , th a t only p h y sical causes a re v a lid still b a rs th e p sy ch iatrist’s w a y to th e psyche of his p a tie n t a n d im pels h im to ta k e th e m o st reckless a n d in c a lc u la b le lib erties w ith this m ost d elica te of all o rg a n s r a th e r th a n allo w h im self even to th in k a b o u t th e possibility of g en u in ely p sychic causes a n d effects, a lth o u g h these a re p erfectly obvious to a n u n p re ju d ic e d m in d . A ll t h a t is necessary is to p a y a tte n tio n to th e m , b u t th is is ju st w h a t th e m a te ria listic p re ju d ic e p re v en ts p eo p le fro m d o in g , even w h e n th e y h a v e seen th ro u g h th e fu tility of m e ta p h y sic a l assum ptions. T h e o rg a n ic , d esp ite th e fa c t th a t its n a tu re is larg e ly u n k n o w n a n d p u re ly h y p o th e tic a l, seem s m u c h m o re co n v in cin g t h a n psychic reality , since this still does n o t exist in its o w n rig h t a n d is re g a rd e d as a m iserab le v a p o u r exhaled, as it w ere, fro m th e alb u m in o u s sch em e of th in g s. H o w in th e w o rld d o p e o p le k n o w t h a t th e only re a lity is th e p h y sical a to m , w h e n th is c a n n o t even b e p ro v e d to exist a t all ex c ep t b y m e a n s of th e psyche? I f th e re is a n y th in g t h a t c a n b e d escrib ed as p rim a ry , it m u s t su rely b e th e psyche a n d n o t th e a to m , w h ich , like ev e ry th in g else in o u r ex p e rien ce , is p re se n te d to us d irec tly only as a psychic m o d e l o r im ag e. 8a7 I still re m e m b e r v ividly th e g re a t im pression it m a d e u p o n m e w h e n I su cceed ed fo r th e first tim e in d e c ip h e rin g th e a p p a re n tly co m p lete n o n sense of sch izo p h ren ic neologism s, w h ic h m u st h av e b ee n in fin itely easier th a n d e c ip h e rin g h iero g ly p h s o r c u n e ifo rm 826

1 [New York, 1952. By John Custance. The foreword (not included in the British edition, 1951) was translated by an unknown hand from a German MS w ritten in 1951 and is given here in revised form. The German original was published in Custance, Weisheit and Wahn (Zurich, 1954).] 2 [G.W., vol. 3.]

828

829

inscriptions. W hile these give us authentic insight into the intellec­ tual culture of ancient m an— an achievement certainly not to be u n ­ derestimated— deciphering of the products of insanity and of other manifestations of the unconscious unlocks the m eaning of far older and more fundam ental psychic processes, and opens the way to a psychic underw orld or hinterland which is the m atrix not only of the m ental products of the past b u t of consciousness itself. This, however, seems quite uninteresting to the psychiatrist and to con­ cern him least of all— just as if it were tremendously im portant to know exactly where the stones were quarried to build our m edi­ eval cathedrals, but of no im portance w hatever to know w hat the m eaning and purpose of these edifices m ight be. H alf a century has not sufficed to give the psychiatrist, the “ doctor of the soul,” the smallest acquaintance w ith the structure and contents of the psyche. Nobody need write an apology for the m eaning of the b rain since it can actually be put under the micro­ scope. T he psyche, however, is nothing, because it is not sufficiently physical to be stained and m ounted on a slide. People still go on despising w hat they don’t know, and w hat they know least of all they claim to know best. T h e very attem pt to bring some kind of order into the chaos of psychological experience is considered “unscientific,” because the criteria of physical reality cannot be applied directly to psychic reality. Docum entary evidence, though fully recognized in the study of history and in jurisprudence, still seems to be unknow n in the realm of psychiatry. For this reason a book like the present one should be particularly welcome to psychologists. It is a docum ent hum ain, unfortunately one of few. I know no more than half a dozen such autochthonous descriptions of psychosis, and of these this is the only one derived from the dom ain of manic-depressive insanity, all the others being derived from th a t of schizophrenia. In my experience at any rate it is quite unique. Certainly there are, in numerous clinical histories, com parable descriptions given by the patients themselves, but they never reach the light of day in the form of a printed publication; and besides, few of them could equal the autobiography of our author in point of articulateness, general education, wide reading, deep thought, and self-criticism. T he value of this book is all the greater because, uninfluenced by any outside literature, it describes the discovery, or rath er th e rediscovery, of certain fundam ental and typical psychic structures. Although I myself have been studying the very same phenom ena for years, and have repeatedly described

them, it still came to me as a surprise and a novelty to see how the delirious flight of ideas and uninhibitedness of the m anic state lower the threshold of consciousness to such an extent that, as with the abaissement du niveau m ental in schizophrenia, the unconscious is laid bare and rendered intelligible. W hat the author has discov­ ered in the m anic state is in exact agreement with my own discov­ eries. By this I m ean more particularly the structure of opposites and their symbolism, the anim a archetype, and lastly the unavoid­ able encounter with the reality of the psyche. As is generally known, these three m ain points play an essential role in my psychology, with which, however, the author did not become acquainted until afterwards. 83° I t is of particular interest, more especially for the expert in this field, to see w hat kind of total picture emerges when the inhibi­ tions exerted by the conscious m ind on the unconscious are removed in m ania. T he result is a crude and unm itigated system of opposites, of every conceivable colour and form, extending from the heights to the depths. T h e symbolism is predom inantly collective and arche­ typal in character, and thus decidedly mythological or religious. Clear indications of an individuation process are absent, since the dialectical dram a unfolds in the spontaneous, inner confrontation of opposites before the eyes of a perceiving and reflecting subject. H e does not stand in any dialectical relationship to a hum an p art­ n er; in other words, there is no dialogue. T he values delineate them ­ selves in an undifferentiated system of black and white, and the problem of the differentiated functions is not posed. H ence the ab­ sence of any clear signs of individuation; as is well known, the prerequisite for this is an intense relationship w ith another indi­ vidual and a coming to terms w ith him. T h e question of relation­ ship, or Eros, nowhere appears as a problem in this book. Instead, psychic reality, which the author very rightly calls “actuality,” re­ ceives all the m ore attention, and the value of this cannot be denied. 831 As m ight be expected from the impressive contents of his psy­ chosis, the author was profoundly affected by them. This runs like a leit-motiv through his book from the beginning to the end, m ak­ ing it a confessional monologue addressed to an anonymous circle of listeners, as well as an encounter w ith the equally anonymous spirit of the age. Its intellectual horizon is wide and does honour to the “logos” of its author. I do not know w hat sort of impression it will make on the “norm al” layman, who has never had anything thrust upon him from the other side of the barrier. I can only

V. T H E

P S Y C H O G E N E S IS OF M E N T A L D IS E A S E

say th a t psychiatrists and practising psychologists owe the author the greatest possible thanks for the illumination his unaided efforts have given them. As a contribution to our knowledge of those highly significant psychic contents th a t manifest themselves in pathological conditions or underlie them, his book is as valuable as it is unique.

F O R E W O R D T O PE R R Y : “T H E SELF IN P S Y C H O T IC P R O C E S S ” 1 832

As I studied Dr. Perry’s manuscript, I could not help recalling the time when I was a young alienist searching vainly for a point of view which would enable me to understand the workings of the diseased mind. M erely clinical observations— and the subse­ quent post m ortem when one used to stare at a b rain which ought to have been out of order yet showed no sign of abnorm ality— were not particularly enlightening. “ M ental diseases are diseases of the brain” was the axiom, and told one just nothing at all. W ithin my first months at the Clinic,2 I realized th at the thing I lacked was a real psychopathology, a science which showed w hat was h ap ­ pening in the m ind during a psychosis. I could never be satisfied with the idea th at all th at the patients produced, especially the schizophrenics, was nonsense and chaotic gibberish. O n the con­ trary, I soon convinced myself th a t their productions m eant some­ thing which could be understood, if only one were able to find out w hat it was. In 1901, I started my association experiments w ith norm al test persons in order to create a norm al basis for com­ parison. I found then th a t the experiments were almost regularly disturbed by psychic factors beyond the control of consciousness. I called them complexes. No sooner had I established this fact than I applied my discovery to cases of hysteria and schizophrenia. In both I found an inordinate am ount of disturbance, which m eant that the unconscious in these conditions is not only opposed to con­ sciousness b u t also has an extraordinary energic charge. W hile with neurotics the complexes consist of split-off contents, which are systematically arranged, and for this reason are easily understand­ able, with schizophrenics the unconscious proves to be not only unm anageable and autonomous, but highly unsystematic, dis­ ordered, and even chaotic. Moreover, it has a peculiar dreamlike 1 [Berkeley and Los Angeles: U niversity of C alifornia Press; L ondon: C am ­ bridge U niversity Press, 1953. By Jo h n W eir Perry. T h e foreword appears to have been w ritten in English.] 2 T h e Burgholzli, Zurich.]

q u a lity , w ith associations a n d b iz a rre id eas su c h as a re fo u n d in d re am s. I n m y a tte m p ts to u n d e rs ta n d th e co n ten ts of schizo­ p h re n ic psychoses, I w as co n sid erab ly h e lp e d b y F r e u d ’s b o o k on d re a m in te rp re ta tio n , w h ic h h a d ju s t a p p e a re d ( i g o o ) . By 1905, I h a d a c q u ire d so m u c h re lia b le k n o w led g e a b o u t th e psychology of s c h iz o p h re n ia (th e n called “ d e m e n tia p ra e c o x ” ) t h a t I w as able to w rite tw o p a p e rs 3 a b o u t it. T h e P sych o lo g y o f D e m e n tia P ra eco x ( 1 9 0 6 ) h a d p ra c tic a lly n o in flu en c e a t all, since n o b o d y w as in te r­ ested in p a th o lo g ic a l psychology ex c ep t F re u d , w ith w hom I h a d th e h o n o u r of c o lla b o ra tin g fo r th e n e x t seven years. 833 D r. P e rry , in th is book, gives a n ex c ellen t p ic tu re of th e psychic co n te n ts w ith w h ic h I fo u n d m yself co n fro n te d . A t th e b eg in n in g , I felt co m p letely a t a loss in u n d e rs ta n d in g th e association of ideas w h ic h I c o u ld observe d aily w ith m y p a tie n ts. I d id n o t know th e n t h a t all th e tim e I h a d th e key to th e m ystery in m y pocket, in as­ m u c h as I co u ld n o t h e lp seeing th e o fte n strik in g p arallelism b e ­ tw e e n th e p a tie n ts ’ delusions a n d m y th o lo g ica l m otifs. B ut fo r a lo n g tim e I d id n o t d a re to assum e a n y re la tio n sh ip b etw e en m y th o ­ log ical fo rm a tio n s a n d in d iv id u a l m o rb id delusions. M o re o v er, m y k n o w led g e of folklore, m y th o lo g y , a n d p rim itiv e psychology w as re g re tta b ly d eficient, so t h a t I w as slow in d isco v erin g h ow co m m o n th ese p arallels w ere. O u r clinical a p p ro a c h to th e h u m a n m in d w as o n ly m e d ic a l, w h ic h w as a b o u t as h e lp fu l as th e a p p r o a c h of th e m in e ra lo g ist to C h a rtre s C a th e d ra l. O u r tra in in g as alienists w as m u c h c o n c e rn e d w ith th e a n a to m y of th e b ra in b u t n o t a t all w ith th e h u m a n psyche. O n e co u ld n o t ex p e ct v ery m u c h m o re in th o se days, w h e n even neuroses, w ith th e ir overflow of psychologi­ cal m a te ria l, w e re a psychological terra in co g n ita . T h e m a in a rt th e stu d e n ts of p sy ch iatry h a d to le a rn in th o se days w as h o w n o t to listen to th e ir p a tie n ts. 834 W ell, I h a d b e g u n to listen, a n d so h a d F re u d . H e w as im ­ pressed w ith c e rta in facts o f n e u ro tic psychology, w h ic h h e even n a m e d a fte r a fa m o u s m y th o lo g ica l m o d el, b u t I w as o v erw h elm ed w ith “ h isto ric a l” m a te ria l w hile stu d y in g th e psychotic m in d . F ro m 1906 u n til 1912 I a c q u ire d as m u c h k n o w led g e o f m ythology, p rim ­ itiv e psychology, a n d c o m p a ra tiv e relig io n as possible. T h is stu d y g av e m e th e key to a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e d e e p e r layers of th e psyche a n d I w as th u s e n a b le d to w rite m y b o o k 4 w ith th e E n g lish 3 [The second p ap e r is probably “T h e C onten t of the Psychoses” (C.W ., vol. 3 ). Cf. below, par. 982.] * [W andlungen u nd Sym bole der L ibido (1 9 1 1 -1 2 ).]

title Psychology of the Unconscious. This title is slightly misleading, for the book represents the analysis of a prodrom al schizophrenic condition. I t appeared forty years ago, and last year I published a fourth, revised edition under the title Symbols of Transformation. O ne could not say th a t it had any noticeable influence on psychia­ try. T he alienist’s lack of psychological interest is by no means peculiar to him. H e shares it w ith a num ber of other schools of thought, such as theology, philosophy, political economy, history, and medicine, which all stand in need of psychological understand­ ing and yet allow themselves to be prejudiced against it and rem ain ignorant of it. I t is only w ithin the last years, for instance, th a t medicine has recognized “ psychosomatics.” 835 Psychiatry has entirely neglected the study of the psychotic mind, in spite of the fact th a t an investigation of this kind is im por­ ta n t not only from a scientific and theoretical standpoint but also from that of practical therapy. 836 Therefore I welcome D r. Perry’s book as a messenger of a time when the psyche of the m ental patient will receive the interest it deserves. T h e author gives a fair representation of an average case of schizophrenia, w ith its peculiar m ental structure, and, a t the same time, he shows the reader w hat he should know about general hum an psychology if he wishes to understand the apparently chaotic distortions and the grotesque “bizarrerie” of the diseased mind. An adequate understanding often has a rem arkable therapeutic effect in m ilder cases which, of course, do not appear in m ental hospitals, but all the more in the consultation hours of the private specialist. O ne should not underrate the disastrous shock which pa­ tients undergo when they find themselves assailed by the intrusion of strange contents which they are unable to integrate. T he mere fact that they have such ideas isolates them from their fellow men and exposes them to an irresistible panic, which often marks the outbreak of the manifest psychosis. If, on the other hand, they meet with adequate understanding from their physician, they do not fall into a panic, because they are still understood by a hum an being and thus preserved from th e disastrous shock of complete isolation. 837 T h e strange contents w hich invade consciousness are rarely met with in neurotic cases, least not directly, which is the reason why so m any psychotherapists are unfam iliar with the deeper strata of the hum an psyche. T he alienist, on the other hand, rarely has the time or the necessary scientific equipm ent to deal with, or even to bother with, his patients’ psychology. In this respect, the au th o r’s

book fills a yawning gap. T he reader should not be misled by the current prejudice th a t I produce nothing but theories. My so-called theories are not figments b u t facts th a t can be verified, if one only takes the trouble, as the author has done with so much success, to listen to the patient, to give him the credit— th at is hum anly so im portant— of m eaning something by w hat he says, and to en­ courage him to express himself as m uch as he possibly can. As the author has shown, drawing, painting and other methods are some­ times of inestimable value, inasm uch as they complement and am ­ plify verbal expression. It is of param ount im portance that the in­ vestigator should be sufficiently acquainted with the history and phenomenology of the mind. W ithout such knowledge, he could not understand the symbolic language of the unconscious and so would be unable to help his patient assimilate the irrational ideas th a t bewilder and confuse his consciousness. I t is not a “peculiar historical interest,” a sort of hobby of mine to collect historical curiosities, as has been suggested, b u t an earnest endeavour to help the understanding of the diseased mind. T he psyche, like the body, is an extremely historical structure. 838 I hope th a t Dr. Perry’s book will arouse the psychiatrist’s interest in the psychological aspect of his cases. Psychology belongs as much to his training as anatom y and physiology to th a t of the surgeon.

F O R E W O R D T O SC H M A LTZ : “K O M P L E X E PSYC H O L O G IE U N D K O R P E R L IC H E S S Y M P T O M ” 1 839

H aving read his book w ith lively interest and undivided agree­ ment, I am all the more ready to comply with the author’s request th a t I say a few words by way of introduction. H e has successfully undertaken to treat a case from the field of psychosomatic medicine psychologically, in collaboration with an internal specialist, and to describe the whole course of the treatm ent up to the cure in all its details. T he clinical description of the case is impeccable and thorough, and it seems to me th a t its psychological elucidation and interpretation is equally satisfactory. Nowhere does the author be­ tray any theoretical bias; all his conclusions are amply docum ented with noteworthy care and circumspection. T he clinical history con­ cerns one of those frequent cases of cardiac disorder, a disease that is associated with the lesion of feeling so characteristic of our tme. T he author deserves particular credit for fearlessly pointing out the deeper reasons for a neurosis and for setting it in a broader context. A neurosis is an expression of the “ affections” of the whole m an, and it is impossible to treat the whole m an solely within the framework of a medical specialism. Psychogenic causes have to do w ith the psyche, and this, by its very nature, not only extends be­ yond the medical horizon b u t also, as the m atrix of all psychic events, transcends the bounds of scientific understanding. Certainly the aetiological details have to be worked out w ithin the limits of a specialist method, b u t the psychology and therapy of the neurosis dem and an A rchim edean point outside, w ithout which they merely turn in a circle. Indeed, medicine itself is a science th a t has been able to make such great progress only because it borrowed lavishly from the other sciences. I t necessarily had to draw physics, chemis­ try, and biology into its orbit, and if this was true of somatic m edi­ cine, then the psychology of the neuroses will not be able to get along w ithout borrowing from the humanities. 1 [Stuttgart, 1955. By G ustav Schmaltz. ( “Com plex Psychology an d Som atic Symptom.” )]

84°

O f decisive im portance for the aetiology and therapy of the neuroses is the individual’s own attitude. If this is subjected to care­ ful analysis, one finds th a t it rests on personal and collective prem ­ ises which can be pathogenic as well as curative in their effects. Just as m odern medicine is no longer content to establish th at a patient has infected himself with typhoid fever, b u t m ust also worry about the w ater supply responsible for the infection, so the psychol­ ogy of the neuroses cannot possibly be content w ith an aetiology that makes do with trau m ata and infantile fantasies. W e have known for a long time th at children’s neuroses depend on the psychic situation of the parents. W e also know to our cost how m uch these “ psychic situations” are due not merely to personal defects b u t to collective psychic conditions. T h a t would be reason enough for the specialist to take heed of these general conditions— one cannot com bat an epidemic of typhoid even w ith the most careful diagnosis and treatm ent of individual cases. T he older medi­ cine h ad to be satisfied w ith handing out any philtre provided only th a t it helped. Thanks to th e auxiliary sciences, m odern medicine is in a position to find out the true nature of its nostrums. But w hat cures a neurosis? In order to find the real answer to this question, the psychology of the neuroses must go far beyond its purely m edical confines. There are a few doctors who already have inklings of this. In this respect, too, the author has dared to fling open one or two windows.

VI FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYSIS (related to V olum e 4 of the Collected Works)

S IG M U N D F R E U D : “ O N D R E A M S” 1 25 January I go I 841

Freud begins by giving a short exposition of his work. H e first distinguishes the various interpretations which the problem of dreams has undergone in the course of history: 1. T he old “mythological” or, rather, mystical hypothesis that dreams are m eaningful utterances of a soul freed from the fetters of sense. T he soul is conceived as a transcendent entity which either produces dream s independently, as [Gotthilf Heinrich von] Schubert still supposed, or else represents the medium of com munication be­ tween the conscious m ind and divine revelation. 2. T he more recent hypothesis of [K. A.] Schem er and [J.] Volkelt, according to which dreams owe their existence to the operation of psychic forces th a t are held in check during the day. 3. T he critical m odern view th a t dreams can be traced back to peripheral stimuli which partially affect the cerebral cortex and thereby induce dream-activity. 4. T he common opinion th a t dreams have a deeper meaning, and may even foretell the future. Freud, with reservations, inclines to this view. H e does not deny the dream a deeper m eaning and admits the rightness of the common m ethod of dream interpreta­ tion, in so far as it takes the dream -image as a symbol for a hidden content th a t has a meaning. 842 In his opening observations Freud compares dreams w ith obses­ sional ideas, which, like them, are strange and inexplicable to the conscious mind. 1 [Trans, from a typescript discovered in Ju n g’s posthum ous papers; apparently a report given to his colleagues on the staff of the B urgholzli M ental H ospital, w here Jung had taken up his first professional post, as assistant physician, on 10 D ec. 1900. (C f. M em o ries, D ream s, R eflection s, end o f C h. I l l , “Student Years,” ) T h e subject was Freud’s O ber den T ra u m (trans., “O n D ream s,” Standard E dn., V ) , published as part (pp. 307—3 4 4 ) o f a serial publication, G renzfragen des N erven - un d Seelenlebens, ed. L. Low enfeld and H . KurelIa (W iesbaden, 1901) ; it was a summary of D ie T ra u m d eu tu n g (1 9 0 0 ; trans., T h e In terp reta tio n of D ream s, Standard E dn., IV —V ) . T h e present trans. was published in S p rin g , 1973.]

T h e p sy ch o th era p y o f ob sessio n a l id eas offers th e key to u n ra v el­ lin g th e id ea s in dream s. J u st as w e g e t a p a tie n t w h o suffers from a n ob session to ta k e n o te of all th e id e a s th a t a sso cia te th em selves w ith th e d o m in a tin g id e a , w e can m a k e u p o n ou rselves the ex p er i­ m e n t o f o b serv in g e v e r y th in g th a t b e c o m e s a ssociated w ith th e ideas in th e d r e a m if, w ith o u t criticism , w e a llo w a ll th o se th in g s to a p p e a r w h ic h w e are in th e h a b it o f su p p ressin g as w orthless an d d istu rb in g . W e tak e n o te , th erefo re, o f a ll p sy ch ica lly valu eless ideas, th e m o m e n ta r y p ercep tio n s a n d th o u g h ts w h ic h are not a c c o m ­ p a n ie d b y a n y d eep er fe e lin g o f v a lu e , a n d w h ic h are p ro d u ced ev ery d a y in u n e n d in g q u a n tities. s 44 E x a m p le , p. 3 1 0 : 2 O n th e basis o f th e results o f this m e th o d , F r e u d co n jectu res th a t th e d rea m is a k in d o f su b stitu te, th a t is, a sy m b o lic rep resen ta tio n o f tra in s o f th o u g h t th a t h a v e a m ea n in g , a n d are o ften b o u n d u p w ith liv e ly a ffects. T h e m ech a n ism o f this su b stitu tio n is still n o t v ery clea r a t p resen t, b u t a t any rate w e m a y a cco rd it th e sta tu s o f a n e x tr e m ely im p o r ta n t p sych ological p rocess o n c e w e h a v e esta b lish ed its b e g in n in g an d en d b y th e m e th o d ju st d escrib ed . F r e u d ca lls th e c o n te n t o f th e d ream as it a p p ea rs in con scio u sn ess th e m a n if e s t c o n te n t o f th e d r e a m . T h e m a te r ia l o f th e d rea m , th e p sy c h o lo g ica l p rem ises, th a t is to say a ll th e tra in s o f th o u g h t th a t are h id d e n fr o m th e d rea m in g c o n ­ sciou sn ess a n d c a n b e d isco v ered o n ly b y an alysis, h e calls th e la te n t c o n te n t o f th e d r e a m . T h e sy n th etic p rocess, w h ic h elaborates th e d isc o n n e c te d or o n ly su p erficia lly c o n n e c te d id ea s in to a rela tiv ely u n ified d r e a m -im a g e , is c a lle d th e d r e a m - w o r k . 845 W e are n o w fa c e d w ith tw o c a r d in a l q u e s tio n s : 1. W h a t is th e p sy c h ic process th a t ch a n g es th e la ten t d ream c o n te n t in to th e m a n ife st d rea m -co n ten t? 2. W h a t is th e m o tiv e fo r th is ch a n g e? 846 T h e r e are d ream s w h o se la te n t c o n te n t is n o t h id d e n a t all, or b a rely so , a n d w h ic h in th em selv es are lo g ic a l a n d u n d e rsta n d ­ a b le b e c a u se th e la te n t c o n te n t is p ra ctic a lly id e n tic a l w ith th e m a n ife st co n ten t. C h ild r e n ’s d rea m s are fre q u en tly o f th is k in d , b e c a u se th e th o u g h t-w o r ld o f ch ild ren is c h ie fly filled w ith sen su ou s, c o n crete im a g ery . T h e m o r e c o m p lic a te d a n d ab stract th e th o u g h ts o f a n a d u lt b e c o m e , th e m o r e c o n fu sed are m o st o f his dream s. W e seld o m m e e t w ith a c o m p le te ly tra n sp aren t a n d co h eren t dream in a n a d u lt. F r e q u e n tly th e d ream s o f ad u lts b e lo n g to th e class o f drea m s w h ic h , th o u g h m e a n in g fu l a n d lo g ic a l in th em selves, are

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2 [Standard Edn., V, p. 641.]

unintelligible because their m eaning does not in any way fit the thought-processes of the w aking consciousness. The great majority of dreams, however, are confused, incoherent dreams th a t surprise us by their absurd or impossible features. These are the dreams, also, th a t are furthest removed from their premise, the latent dreamm aterial, th a t bear the least resemblance to it and are therefore difficult to analyse, and have required for their synthesis the greatest expenditure of transform ative psychic energy. 847 C hildren’s dreams, w ith their clarity and transparent meaning, are the least subject to the transform ative activity of the dreamwork. T heir nature is therefore fairly clear; most of them are wish-dreams. 848 A child th a t is hungry dream s of food, a pleasure forbidden the day before is enacted in the dream , etc. Children are concerned with simple sensuous objects and simple wishes, and for this reason their dreams are very simple too. W hen adults are concerned with similar objects, their dream s as well are very simple. T o this class belong the so-called dreams of convenience, most of which take place shortly before waking. For example, it is time to get up, and one dream s th at one is up already, washing, dressing, and already at work. O r if any kind of exam ination is impending, one finds oneself in the m iddle of it, etc. W ith adults, however, very simplelooking dream s are often fairly complicated because several wishes come into conflict and influence the form ation of the dream-image. 849 F or children’s dreams and dream s of convenience in adults the author lays down the following form ula: A thought expressed in the optative has been replaced by a representation in the present tense.3 85° T h e second of the questions we asked, concerning the motive for the conversion of the latent content into the concrete dream image, can be answered most easily in these simple cases. Evidently the enacted fulfilment of the wish mitigates its affectivity; in conse­ quence, the wish does not succeed in breaking through the inhibi­ tion and w aking the sleeping organism. In this case, therefore, the dream performs the function of a guardian of sleep. 851 O u r first question, concerning the process of the dream-work, can best be answered by exam ining the confused dreams. 8Sa In exam ining a confused dream, the first thing th a t strikes us is how very m uch richer the latent dream -m aterial is th an the dream -image constructed from it. Every idea in the manifest dream 3IIbid., p. 647.]

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proves, on analysis, to be associated w ith at least three or four other ideas w h ich all h ave som ethin g in com m on. T h e corresponding dream -im age frequently com bines all th e different characteristics o f the ind ividu al underlying ideas. Freud com pares such an im age w ith G alton ’s fam ily photographs, in w h ich several exposures are superim posed. T his com bination of different ideas Freud calls con ­ den sation. T o this process is due the indefinite, blurred quality of m any dream -im ages. T h e dream know s no “either-or” b u t only the copulative “an d .” O ften, on a superficial exam in ation of tw o ideas united in a single im age, no com m on factor can be fou n d. But, on penetrating m ore deeply, w e discover that w henever no tertiu m com parationis is present, the dream creates one, and generally does so by m an ip u ­ latin g the linguistic expression o f the ideas in question. Som etim es dissimilar ideas are hom op hon ou s; som etim es they rhyme, or could be confused w ith on e another if attention is poor. T h e dream uses these possibilities as a q u id p ro quo and thus com bines the dissimilar elem ents. In other cases it works n ot only w ittily b u t positively p oeti­ cally, speaking in tropes and m etaphors, creating sym bols and alle­ gories, all for the purpose of concealm ent under deceptive veils. T h e process of condensation begets m onstrous figures that far sur­ pass the fabulous beings in O riental fairytales. A m odern philoso­ pher holds that the reason w hy w e are so prosaic in our daily lives is that w e squander too m uch p oetic fantasy in our dreams. T h e figures in a confused dream are thus, in the m ain, com posite struc­ tures. (E x a m p le on p. 3 2 1 . ) 4 In th e m anifest dream , the latent dream -m aterial is represented by these com posite structures, w h ich Freud calls th e dream -elem ents. T hese elem ents are n ot incoherent, b ut are connected to­ gether by a com m on dream -thought, i.e., they often represent differ­ ent w ays of expressing th e sam e d om inating idea. T h is rather com plicated situation explains a good deal of the confusion and unintelligibility o f th e dream , but n ot all o f it. So far w e have considered only th e ideational side of th e dream. T h e feelings and affects, w h ich p lay a very large part, have still to be discussed. I f w e analyse on e o f our ow n dream s, w e finally arrive by free association at trains of th ou ght w h ich at on e tim e or another were o f im portance to us, and w hich are charged w ith a feeling o f value. D u rin g th e process o f condensation and reinterpretation, certain 4 [Ibid., p. 651.]

thoughts are pushed onto the stage of the dream , and their peculiar character m ight easily invite the dream er to criticize and suppress them , as actually happens in the waking state. T he affective side of the dream , however, prevents this, since it imbues the dream elements with feelings th a t act as a powerful counterweight to all criticism. Obsessional ideas function in the same way. For example, agoraphobia manifests itself with an overwhelming feeling of fear, and so m aintains the position it has usurped in consciousness. 857 Freud supposes th a t the affects attached to the components of the latent dream -m aterial are transferred to the elements of the manifest dream , thus helping to complete the dissimilarity between the latent and the manifest content. H e calls this process displace­ m ent, or, in m odern terms, a transvaluation of psychic values. 858 By means of these two principles, the author believes he can offer an adequate explanation of the obscurity and confusion of a dream constructed out of simple, concrete thought-m aterial. These two hypotheses shed a new light on the question of the instigator of a dream , and the connection between the dream and waking life. There are dreams whose connection with waking life is quite evident, and whose instigator is a significant impression received during the day. But far more frequently the dream -instigator is an incident which, although trivial enough in itself, and often positively silly, in spite of its complete valuelessness, introduces a long and intensely affective dream . In these cases, analysis leads us back to complexes of ideas which, though unim portant in them ­ selves, are associated with highly significant impressions of the day by incidental relationships of one kind or another. In the dream the incidental elements occupy a large and imposing place, while the significant ones are completely occluded from the dream ing consciousness. T he real instigator of the dream , therefore, is not the trivial, incidental element, b u t the powerful affect in the back­ ground. Why, then, does the affect detach itself from th e ideas th a t are associated w ith it, and in their place push the nugatory and valueless elements into consciousness? W hy does the dream ing intellect trouble to rout out the forgotten, incidental, and unim por­ tant things from every corner of our memory, and to build them up into elaborate an d ingenious images? 859 Before turning to the solution of this question, Freud tries to point out further effects of the dream -work in order to shed a clear light on the purposiveness of the dream-functions. 860 In adults, besides visual and auditory memory-images, the m ate-

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rial underlying the dream includes num erous abstract elements which it is not so easy to represent in concrete form. In considering the representability of the dream-content, a new difficulty arises which influences the dream ’s performance. A t this point the author digresses a bit and describes how the dream represents logical rela­ tions in sensuous imagery. His observations in this respect are of no further im portance for his theory; they merely serve to increase the stock of the discredited dream in the estimation of the public. O ne extremely rem arkable effect of the dream-work is w hat F reud calls the dream-composition. This, according to his definition, is a kind of revision which the disordered mass of dream-elements undergo at the m om ent of their inception— a regular dram atization frequently conforming to all the rules of art exposition, develop­ ment, and solution. In this way the dream acquires, as the author says, a fagade, which does not of course cover it up at all points. This fagade is in F reud’s view the crux of the misunderstanding about dreams, since it systematizes the deceptive play of the dream elements and brings them into a plausible relationship. Freud thinks th a t the reason for this final shaping of the dream -content is the regard for intelligibility. H e imagines the dream producer as a kind of jocular daim on who wants to make his plans plausible to the sleeper. A part from this last effect of the dream-work, w hat is created by the dream is nothing in any way new or intellectually superior. A nything of value in the dream -image can be shown by analysis to be already present in the latent m aterial. A nd it may very well be doubted w hether the dream-composition is anything but a direct effect of reduced consciousness, a fleeting attem pt to explain the hallucinations of the dream. W e now come to the final question: W hy does the dream do this work? In analysing his own dreams, the author usually came upon quickly forgotten and unexpected thoughts of a distinctly un­ pleasant nature, which had entered his waking consciousness only to be suppressed again immediately. H e designates the state of these thoughts by the nam e repression. In order to elucidate the concept of repression, the author postu­ lates two thought-producing systems, one of which has free access to consciousness, while the other can reach consciousness only through the m edium of the first. T o p u t it m ore clearly, there is on the borderline between conscious and unconscious a censorship w hich is continually active throughout waking life, regulating the

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flow of thoughts to consciousness in such a way th a t it keeps back all incidental thoughts which for some reason are prohibited, and admits to consciousness only those of which it approves. D uring sleep there is a m om entary predom inance of w hat was repressed by d a y ; the censorship must relax and produces a compromise— the dream. T he author does not conceal the somewhat too schematic and anthropom orphic features of this conception, b u t solaces him ­ self w ith the hope th at its objective correlate may one day be found in some organic or functional form. T here are thoughts, often of a preeminently egoistic nature, which are able to slip past the censorship imposed by ethical feelings and criticism when this is relaxed in sleep. T he censorship, however, is not entirely abrogated, b u t only reduced in effectiveness, so th at it can still exert some influence on the shaping of the dream thoughts. T h e dream represents the reaction of the personality to the intrusion of unruly thoughts. Its contents are repressed thoughts portrayed in distorted or disguised form. From the example of dreams th at are comprehensible and have a m eaning, it is evident th a t their content is generally a fulfilled wish. It is the same w ith confused dreams th at are difficult to under­ stand. They, too, contain the fulfilment of repressed wishes. Dreams, therefore, can be divided into three classes: 1. Those th a t represent an unrepressed wish in undisguised form. Such dreams are of the infantile type. 2. Those th a t represent the fulfilment of a repressed wish in disguised form . According to Freud, most dreams belong to this class. 3. Those th at represent a repressed wish in undisguised form . Such dreams are said to be accompanied by fear, the fear taking the place of dream-distortion. T hrough the conception of the dream as a compromise we ar­ rive at an explanation of dreams in general. W hen the waking con­ sciousness sinks into sleep, the energy needed to m aintain the inhibi­ tion against the sphere of repressed m aterial abates. But just as the sleeper still has some attention at his disposal for sensory stimuli coming from outside, and, by means of this attention, can eliminate sleep-disturbing influences by weaving around them a disguising veil of dreams, so stimuli arising from w ithin, from the unconscious psychic sphere, are neutralized by the periphrasis of a dream . T he purpose in both cases is the same, namely, the preservation of sleep, and for this reason Freud calls the dream the “guardian of sleep.”

E x ce lle n t ex am p les of th is a re w a k in g d re am s, w h ic h a b o u n d in p e rip h ra s tic in v en tio n s desig n ed to m a k e th e c o n tin u a tio n of th e rev erie p lau sib le. 869 C o n fu sed d re a m s a re n o t so c le a r in th is resp ect, b u t F re u d m a in ta in s th a t, w ith a p p lic a tio n a n d goodw ill, rep ressed w ishes ca n b e d isco v ered in th e m too. O n th is p o in t h e a d o p ts a ra th e r o n e­ sid ed a ttitu d e , since, in ste a d of a w ish, th e cau se of a d re a m m a y easily p ro v e to b e ju s t th e opposite, a rep ressed fe a r, w h ich , m a n i­ festin g itself in u n d isg u ise d a n d o ften e x a g g e ra te d fo rm , m ak es th e teleo lo g ical e x p la n a tio n of d re a m s a p p e a r d o u b tfu l. Freud: D ream s CONTENTS

870 A rrangem ent: In tro d u ctio n . 1. E xam ple from analysis. U n critical tracin g back of associations. a) M anifest dream -content. b) L a te n t dream -content. 2. C lassification of dream s. a) M eaningful a n d intelligible. b ) M eaningful a n d unintelligible. c) C onfused. 3. C h ild ren ’s dream s. 4. A dults. D ream s of convenience an d w ish-dream s. 5. Causes of the strangeness of dream s. a) C ondensation. i. by m eans of the n a tu ra l com m on factor. ii. by m eans of a com m on facto r created by the dream itself. b) D isplacem ent. D ream -distortion. D istortion of prohibited thoughts. c) C oncrete representation of in ad eq u a te ideas, hence m e ta ­ phors. Sensuous m etam orphosis of logical relations. C ausal: tran sfo rm atio n or m ere juxtaposition. A lternatives = “a n d .” Sim ilarity, com m on factor, congruence. C o n trad ictio n , m ockery, scorn = absurdity of m anifest dream . d ) D ream -com position fo r the purpose of intelligibility. e) T eleological conception: d re am as g u ard ia n of sleep.

R E V IE W O F H E L L P A C H : “ G R U N D L IN IE N E IN E R PSYC H O L O G IE D E R H Y S T E R IE ” 1 871

AU those professional colleagues who are interested in the great problem of hysteria will surely welcome with joy and eager expecta­ tion a work that, judging by its bulk, promises a thorough-going treatm ent of the psychology of hysteria on the broadest possible basis. Anyone acquainted with the present position of the hysteria theory, and especially the psychology of hysteria, is aware th a t our knowledge of this obscure field is unfortunately a m inim al one. F reud’s researches, which have received b u t scant recognition though they have not yet been superseded, have prepared the ground for thinking th at future research into hysteria will be psycho­ logical. H ellpach’s book appears to meet this expectation. Casting the most cursory glance at the index of names appended to the end of the book, we find the following cited: Archimedes, Behring, Billroth, Buchner, Buddha, Cuvier, D arwin, Euler, Fichte, Galileo, Gall, Goethe, H erbart, H um e, Kepler, Laplace, de la M ettrie, New­ ton, Rousseau, Schelling, and m any others, all illustrious names among which we now and then light on th a t of a psychiatrist or neurologist. There can be no doubt at all th a t a future theory of hysteria will go far beyond the narrow confines of psychiatry and neurology. T h e deeper we penetrate into the riddle of hysteria, the more its boundaries expand. H ellpach thus starts from a basis of great scope, assuredly not w ithout reason. But when we recall the limitless range of knowledge indicated by the names in the index, H ellpach’s basis for a psychology of hysteria would seem to have undergone a dangerous expansion. 872 From various hints throw n out by the author we gather that he is inclined to suspect adverse critics of being ill-intentioned. I would therefore like to say at once th a t I have no prejudices against Hellpach. O n the contrary, I have read his book sine ira and with 1 IZentralblatt fiir N ervenheilkunde u n d Psychiatrie (B erlin ), X X V I I I (Γ 9 0 5 ), 318—21. W illy H ellp ach , Grundlinien einer Psychologie der H ysterie (L eipzig, 1 9 0 4 ). ( “Basics o f a Psychology of H ysteria.” ) See T h e F re u d /J u n g Letters, 230J, n. 7.]

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attention, in the honest endeavour to understand it and be fair to it. T he text up to p. 146 can be considered an introduction. T here are disquisitions on the concepts, theories, and history of sci­ ence, ranging over every conceivable field of knowledge, which at first blush have nothing to do w ith hysteria. A mere handful of aphorisms culled from the history of the hysteria theory, chiefly appreciations of the achievements of C harcot and other investiga­ tors, have a tenuous connection w ith the theme. I do not feel compe­ tent to criticize the highly generalized discussions on the theories of scientific research. T h e sidelights from the history of hysteria research are neither exhaustive as a presentation of the subject nor do they offer the researcher anything new. They make practically no contribution to psychology. T he actual treatm ent of the them e begins on p. 147. First we have a discussion on suggestibility. H ere H ellpach’s thinking and his sure touch m ust be applauded: he is tackling one of the most difficult points in the hysteria theory. It is immediately obvious th a t the current concept of suggestibility is rath er vague and hence u n ­ satisfactory. H ellpach tries to probe the problem of volition and m otivation by analysing “ com m and” and “suggestion.” The analy­ sis leads on to a discussion of m echanization and demotivation: em ancipation of the act of will from the motive. By various con­ voluted trains of thought we then get to the problem of appercep­ tion (as understood by W u n d t), w hich is intim ately connected with the problem of volition. H ellpach attaches particular im portance to one quality of apperception, and th a t is the extinction of sensa­ tion. Stimuli which are only just perceptible on the periphery of the visible field m ay under certain circumstances be extinguished, b u t the source of the stimulus (small stars, etc.) disappears as the result of focussing. This observation is extended by analogy to ap­ perception, so-called active apperception taking over the role of focussing. A sensation-extinguishing effect is thus attributed to ap­ perception. H ellpach expatiates a t length on this notion, unfortu­ nately in a hardly intelligible m anner and w ithout adducing suffi­ cient reasons in support. Extinction of sensation seems to him to be something common and regular. But actually it is an exception, for apperception does not extinguish sensation— on the contrary. T h e discussion on apperception culminates in the passage: “ The control th a t in the more passive state of apperception extends over the whole field of consciousness disappears w ith the increasing ten­ sion of active apperception. This gives rise to distracted actions.”

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A fu rth e r “state of a p p ercep tio n ” H ellpach finds in “ em ptiness of consciousness.” H e re he undertakes, am ong other things, a little excursion into the u n cu ltivated deserts of dem entia praecox an d carries off, as a trophy, negativism as a m anifestation of suggesti­ bility in the em pty consciousness of th e catatonic— as though anyone h a d th e slightest idea of w h a t th e consciousness of a catatonic looks lik e ! 875 T h e follow ing sentence m ay be taken as the final result of his analyisis of suggestibility: “ I regard com plete senselessness or com ­ plete lack of m o d eratio n as the criteria for all psychic effects th a t can be called suggestions.” U nfo rtu n ately I can m ake neither head nor tail of this. I n th e course of a fifty-page analysis the concept of suggestibility has, to be sure, ram bled off into nebulosity, one doesn’t q u ite know how , no r does one know w h at has becom e of it. In stead we are offered tw o peculiar criteria for suggestion, whose beginning a n d end b o th lie in th e realm of unintelligibles. 876 T h e re now follows a c h a p te r on one of th e th ousand hysterical sy m p to m s: ataxia-abasia. T h e essence of this c h a p te r is its em phasis on th e m eaning of hysterical paralysis. A n o th er c h a p te r deals w ith the m ean in g of hysterical disturbance of sensation. H ellpach treats hysterical p a in -a p ra x ia as an illness on its own, b u t offers no proof of this. E qually, he treats hysterical hyperaesthesias as a physiologi­ cal a n d not a psychological problem . H ere again conclusive reasons are lacking. P articu larly in hysteria, how ever, “ explanatory princi­ ples should n o t be m ultiplied beyond th e necessary . ” 2 T o explain anaesthesia, H ellp ach uses th e apperceptive extinction of sensation, th a t aforem entioned p aradoxical phenom enon w hich is anything b u t a sim ple, certain, clear-cut fact. T h e proposition th a t hysterics cease to feel w hen they o ught to feel m ust be applauded. B ut this singular fac t should n o t b e explained by a n even m ore obscure an d ill-founded observation. 8 77 H ellpach finds th e hysterical intellect characterized by fantastic apperception a n d tractability. F antastic ap p erception is a psycho­ logical state in w hich “fantasy activity is linked w ith a tendency tow ards passivization of app ercep tio n .” O n e can dim ly guess w h at H ellp ach is getting a t w ith this tu rg id pronouncem ent, b u t I m ust ow n I am incapable of form ing any clear conception of it. A nd 1 do n o t th in k th a t H ellpach h a d any clear conception of it either, o r he w ould have been able to com m unicate it to an attentive reader. 2 [O ccam ’s R azo r: “ E ntia praeter necessitatem non sunt m ultiplicanda.” ]

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H ellpach defines tractability as follows: “ T he tractable person is one who meets the demands m ade upon him willingly or with psychic indifference, or at least w ithout actively fighting down inner resistances.” Suggestibility, w hich in an earlier chapter vanished beneath a flood of psychological and conceptual verbiage, unex­ pectedly surfaces here in the innocuous guise of “tractability.” 879 In the chapter entitled “T h e Psychological Bar to a Psychology of H ysteria,” we get to the “root phenom enon of hysteria.” The “disproportion between the insignificance of the affective cause and the intensity of the expressive phenom enon” is supposed to be the core of hysterical mental abnormity. 880 Xhe last section of the book deals with the further elaboration and application of the principles previously laid down, and partly w ith a discussion of F reud’s teachings in regard to the genesis of hysteria. It is to H ellpach’s credit that he understands Freud and is able to keep in check and counterbalance certain biases and exag­ gerations of the Freudian school. But as regards the genesis of hys­ teria he nowhere advances beyond Freud, and in point of clarity he lags far behind. 881 Now and then H ellpach makes sorties against the “uncon­ scious.” H e set out to explain various expressive movements in hys­ teria w ithout reference to this hypothesis. This attem pt deserves to be read in the original (pp. 4 0 iff.). T o me it seems neither clear nor convincing. Moreover, expressive movements are, par ex­ cellence, not unconscious phenom ena. I t is known th a t the hypothe­ sis of the psychological unconscious is based on quite other facts, which H ellpach does not touch on. Even so, he makes use of the concept of the unconscious several times, probably because he knows of no better one to p u t in its place. 88a His attem pts in the concluding chapters to elucidate the socio­ logical and historical aspects of the hysteria problem deserve to be greeted as a general tendency; they show th a t the author has an unusual, indeed splendid over-all view of his m aterial. U nfortu­ nately he remains stuck at all points in the most general and uncer­ tain of concepts. T he net result of all this effort is disproportionately small. T he psychological gain reduces itself to the announcem ent of a grand design and to a few astute observations and interpreta­ tions. For this failure the blam e lies not least with the extreme infelicities of H ellpach’s style. If the reader has at last m anaged to grasp a sentence or a question, and then hopes to find its continu­ ation or answer in the next sentence, he is again and again pulled

up by explanations of how the author arrived at the first sentence and all th a t can or could be said about this first sentence. In this way the argum ent proceeds by fits and starts, and the effect of this in the long ru n is insufferably fatiguing. The num ber of wrong turns H ellpach takes is astonishing, b u t he enum erates still more circumstantially how m any others he could have taken. T he result is th a t he often has to explain why he is coming back to his theme again. Because of this, the book suffers from a peculiar opacity which makes orientation extraordinarily difficult. 883 T he author has, furtherm ore, committed a grave sin of omission in th a t he cites next to no examples. This omission is especially painful when pathological phenom ena are being discussed. Anyone who wants to teach something new must first teach his public how to see, b u t w ithout examples this is impossible. M aybe H ellpach could still come out w ith a few good and new things if he deigned to descend into the nether regions of case m aterial and experim ental research. If he wishes to address himself to the empiricist at all, he will find this advice assuredly justified.

R E V IE W S O F P S Y C H IA T R IC L I T E R A T U R E 1 1906 L. B runs: D ie H ysterie im K in d esa lter. 2nd revised edn., H alle, 1 9 0 6 .— T h e au th o r, know n for his researches into the sym ptom ­ atology a n d th era p y of hysteria, has now published a second edition of his book on hysteria in childhood, a w ork fam iliar to m ost m edi­ cal m en. A fter a short historical in tro d u ctio n he gives a concise survey of th e sym ptom atology, keeping to the em pirical essentials a n d leaving aside all rarities a n d curiosities w ith com m endable selfrestraint. W ith th e help of clear-cut cases he gives a brief description of th e various form s a n d localizations of th e paralyses a n d spasm s, tics a n d choreic affections; som nam bulism , lethargies, a n d states of possession are tre a te d m ore cursorily, being less com m on. T h e p ainful sym ptom s (neuralgias, etc.) a n d b lad d er disturbances, an d particu larly the psychic sym ptom s th a t are so extrao rd in arily im p o r­ ta n t in hysteria, come off ra th e r poorly. In his discussion of the aetiology, th e a u th o r holds, as against C harcot, th a t too m u ch sig­ nificance should n ot be atta ch e d to heredity. M ore im p o rta n t, it seems to him , a n d I th ink rightly, are the psychic causes in the individual concerned, p articu larly im itatio n of b ad exam ples, the influence of b ad upbringing, fright, fear, etc. I n m any cases the influence of th e parents is directly psychogenic. δδ5 I n view of the a d m itte d frequency of infantile hysteria, diagnosis is of g rea t im portance, fo r m an y cases are n o t only reta rd e d by a false diagnosis b u t are com pletely w recked by it. T h e a u th o r takes a firm stan d on psychogenesis: th e unm istakable psychic elem ent in hysterical sym ptom s is of th e utm ost significance in differential diagnosis. O ften one has to rely on one’s ow n im pressions; the

884

1 [Twenty-five reviews published in th e Correspondenz-Blatt fu r Schw eizer A rzte (B asel), X X V I-X L (1906—10), rediscovered by H enri F. EIlenberger in the course of research for his book T h e Discovery o f the Unconscious. T h e Editors are grateful to Professor E llenberger for inform ing them of these articles, w hich Ju n g w rote for the Correspondenz-Blatt ( “Bulletin for Swiss Physicians” ) d uring his association w ith the psychoanalytic m ovem ent, and w hich often express his p artiality for F reud’s work.]

author quotes the classic words of M o b iu s:2 “ According to the view 1 have form ed of the nature of hysteria, many symptoms can be hysterical, m any others n o t.” In m any cases, therefore, the diagnosis of hysteria is less a science th a n an art. Commendably, the author urges the greatest caution against assuming simulation. 886 T reatm ent is fundam entally always a psychic one; water, elec­ tricity, etc. work only by suggestion. This excellently w ritten chapter is an invaluable guide for the practitioner, but the details of it cannot be gone into here. 887 T h e book is w ritten by a practitioner for practitioners; it is no handicap, therefore, that the theoretical side is represented some­ w hat aphoristically and takes no account of the latest analytical views of Freud. 888

889

E. Bleuler: Affektivitat, Suggestibility, Paranoia .3 H alle, 1906. — This work, addressed chiefly to psychologists and psychiatrists, is distinguished, like all Bleuler’s publications, by its lucidity; its them e is one th a t is coming m ore and more into the forefront of psychological interest: namely, affects and their influence on the psyche. This field of research, like some other domains of psychol­ ogy, suffers greatly from a confusion of concepts. Bleuler therefore proposes, first of all, a clean division between affects proper and intellectual feelings, a conceptual distinction of the greatest value in scientific discussion. Affectiuity, comprising all affects and quasiaffective processes, is an inclusive concept w hich covers all non­ intellectual psychic processes such as volition, feeling, suggestibility, attention, etc. It is a psychic factor th a t exerts as m uch influence on the psyche as on the body. In the first and second parts of his book Bleuler applies this conception in th e realm of norm al psychology. In the third part he discusses the pathological alterations of affectiuity. Affectivity is of the greatest im aginable im portance in psychopathology. Q uite apart from the affective psychoses proper (manic-depressive in­ sanity), it plays a significant role in psychoses which one was wont to regard as predom inantly intellectual. Bleuler demonstrates this w ith the help of careful clinical histories of paranoia originaria.4 H e found th a t the content of the paranoid picture developed from 2 [See above, par. 795, n. 2.] 3 [Eugen Bleuler (1 8 5 7 -1 9 3 9 ), director of the Burgholzli. See T he F reu d fJu n g Letters, 2J, no. 8 ; 40F, n. 6 ; 41 J j an d infra, par. 938.] 4 [O riginating in childhood, a term la te r rejected by Bleuler.]

a feeling-toned complex, th a t is, from ideas accom panied by inten­ sive affect which therefore have an abnorm ally strong influence on the psyche. This is the keynote of the book. 89 ° It is impossible, in a short review, to do justice to the numerous perspectives which Bleuler’s book opens out and to the wealth of empirical m aterial it contains. It is urgently recommended first of all to professionals; but non-psychiatrists also, who are interested in the general problems of psychopathology, will not be able to lay it aside w ithout reaping a rich harvest of psychological insights. Carl W ern ick e:5 Grundriss der Psychiatrie in klinischen Vorlesungen. 2nd revised edn., Leipzig, 1906. — Following W ernicke’s sudden death, Liepm ann and K napp have seen to the publication of the second edition of this im portant book, w hich has acted as a ferm ent in m odern psychiatry like no other. W ernicke incarnated, so to speak, th at school of psychopathology which believed it could base itself exclusively on anatom ical data. His book is an impressive exponent of this thinking; besides a huge mass of empirical material we find m any brilliant speculations whose starting point is always anatomical. T he book is the work of an entirely original mind th at tried, on the basis of clinical d ata combined w ith brain anatomy, to introduce new viewpoints into psychotherapy, hoping to effect a final synthesis of those two m utually repellent disciplines, brain anatom y and psychology. W ernicke is always the master where psychopathological events come closest to the anatomical, above all, therefore, in the treatm ent of problems clustering round the question of aphasia. His “ Psychophysiological Introduction,” where he tries to answer questions concerning the connection between cere­ bral and psychophysiological data, is, even for the non-psychiatrist, one of the most interesting in recent medical literature. 892 T he section th at follows, “ Paranoid States,” introduces W er­ nicke’s famous sejunction theory,® which is the cornerstone of his system. T he third and longest section treats of “acute psychoses and defective states.” Here, with the help of numerous examples, W ernicke develops his revolutionary clinical approach, which has m et w ith only the limited approbation of fellow professionals and has so far no t produced a school. W ernicke’s ideas, for all their brilliance, are too narrow : b rain anatom y and psychiatric clinics are certainly im portant for psychopathology, b u t psychology is more

891

5 [See T h e F re u d /J u n g L etters, 33J, n. 8.] 6 [See “T h e Psychology o f D em en tia Praecox” (C .W ., vol. 3 ) , par. 55.]

im portant still and this is w hat is lacking in Wernicke. T h e danger of dogm atic schematism for anyone who follows in W ernicke’s foot­ steps, but with less brilliance, is very great. It is devoutly to be hoped, therefore, th a t this adm irable book will produce as few schools as possible. 1907 893

A lbert M o ll:7 Der H ypnotism usj m it Einschluss der H auptpunkte der Psychotherapie und des Occultismus. 4th enlarged edn., Berlin, 1907. — M oll’s well-known book has now attained nearly twice the size of the first edition. T h e first, historical section is very full and covers the whole range of the hypnosis movement. T he second is a lucid and, didactically speaking, very good introduction to the various forms and techniques of hypnotism, followed by a discussion of the hypnotist’s work and the nature of suggestion. Moll defines it thus: “ Suggestion is a process whereby, under inade­ quate conditions, an effect is obtained by evoking the idea that such an effect will be obtained.” T he third part, treating of symp­ tomatology, is very thorough and contains some good criticism. It also covers the very latest phenom ena in the dom ain of hypnotism, including M me. M adeleine and “ Clever H ans.” 8 I t is incom prehen­ sible to me why M oll, in the section on dreams, does not consider Freud’s pioneering researches. Freud is accorded only a few meagre quotations. In his discussion on the relations between certain m ental disturbances (catatonia especially) and similar hypnoticstates, Moll has overlooked th e work of R agnar V ogt,9 which is of significance in this respect. Altogether, the exam ination of the connection of pathological m ental states w ith hypnosis and related functional phe­ nom ena is neither exhaustive nor productive of tangible results, as is the case, incidently, in all textbooks of hypnotism to date. T he case of echolalia described on p. 200 m ay well be a simple catatonia, and this is true also of a large num ber of so-called “im ita­ tive illnesses” which are generally observed by doctors who have no knowledge of the symptomatology of catatonia. If Moll can blithely speak of great suggestibility during sleep, then the whole concept of suggestibility needs very drastic revision. In the discussion on the subconscious one again misses the highly im portant re7 [See The Freud/Jung Letters, 94F, n. 1.] 8 [A talking dog. Cf. C W ., vol. 8, par. 364, n. 27.] 9 [See the Freud/Jung Letters, 102F, n.3]

searches of Freud. Section V III, “ M edicine,” gives a very valuable and useful account of the influence of “authorities” on the question of hypnosis and its alleged dangers. Discussing hypnotic methods of treatm ent, Moll also touches on the cathartic method. H e bases himself here on the original publications of Breuer and F reud,10 which Freud meanwhile has long since superseded. His present tech­ nique differs somewhat from the way Moll describes it. Recently Lowenfeld11 has given up his negative attitude towards Freud, at least as regards anxiety neurosis. T he rem aining chapters give a comprehensive account of various psychotherapeutic methods. The forensic significance of hypnotism is also discussed at some length. T he final chapter, “T h e O ccult,” is a critical survey of the most im portant “occult” phenomena. 894 A part from Lowenfeld’s book,12 M oll’s is the best and fullest introduction to hypnotic psychotherapy. I t is warmly recommended to all doctors, nerve specialists in particular. 895

A lbert K n ap p : Die polyneuritischen Psychosen. Weisbaden, 1906. — T he first 85 pages are taken up with detailed clinical his­ tories and their epicrises. T he following 50 contain a general de­ scription of the relevant symptoms, in clear language which makes a rapid orientation possible. T he nom enclature is strongly influ­ enced by Wernicke, which will hardly meet with general approval. T he preference given to the term “akinetic motility psychosis” for catatonia etc., is hardly intelligible, especially w hen one considers th a t it only describes a condition th a t can take on a totally different appearance the next moment. T h e book should be especially wel­ come to psychiatrists.

M . R eich h ard t: Leitfaden zur psychiatrischen K linik. Jena, date not given. — This book is a valuable introduction to the elements of psychiatry. T h e author discusses them under three m ain h ead s: 897 General symptomatology, with clear and precise definitions. 898 Exploratory methods, with a detailed description of the num er­ ous methods for testing intelligence and apprehension. 899 Special psychiatry. H ere the author confines himself to essen­ tials. O n the controversial subject of dem entia praecox, the em pha896

10 [Studies on Hysteria.] [See T he Freud/Jung Letters, I iF , n. 3.] 12 [Der Hypnotismus: Handbuch der Lehre Suggestion.] 11

von

der

Hypnose

und

der

sis falls on dem entia simplex, catatonia and paranoia, the latter being treated in globo, w ithout reference to the special diagnoses of the K raepelin school, which in practice are irrelevant anyhow. A good index adds to the book’s handiness. A part from the clear exposition, one of its m ain advantages is the noteworthy restriction to w hat is essential. T he legal definitions of insanity are taken exclu­ sively from G erm an law-books. O n the question of intelligence tests, no m ention is m ade of the not unim portant m ethod of reading a fable with free reproduction afterwards. T he statem ent th a t in country areas an institution with 1000-1500 beds is enough for a million inhabitants is certainly not true of Switzerland. Besides private institutions, we have in C anton Zurich about 1300 public beds, not nearly enough to meet the dem and. For the rest, the book is warmly recom mended not only to students, but especially to all doctors called upon to give a judicial opinion on any kind of m ental abnormality. 1908 900

F ranz C. R. E schle: Grundzuge der Psychiatrie. V ienna, 1907. — T h e author— director of the sanatorium at Sinsheim in Baden— has tried to present the fundam entals of psychiatry in the form of a m anual, draw ing upon his many years of experience as an alienist. P a rt I treats of the nature and development of insanity. H e distinguishes, as general forms of psychic abnormality, a distinc­ tive, an affective, and an appetitive insufficiency, corresponding roughly to the old psychology of K ant. This chapter is rather heavy going. T he arrangem ent is far from clear and the style is often tortuous, for instance p. 37: “ In hypnotic sleep, which represents the most intense and persistent form of the artificial suggestive in­ sufficiency of the psychosomatic mechanism, Rosenbach holds th at the psychic organ is unable to build up the differentiating unity which stands in antithetical relation to the other parts of the body (and to the external w orld) as the ‘ego,’ although it nevertheless represents this unity,” etc. This b u t one example am ong m any! In P art II, “ Clinical Pictures of Insanity,” the author gives a description of the specific diseases w ith a great deal of interesting case m aterial and original views which one cannot always endorse, as for instance when he asserts with Rosenbach th a t a widespread use of hypnosis would lead to a general stultification of the public. His classification of the psychoses is a m ixture of old and m odem

points of view ; he groups acute hallucinatory confusion a n d acute dem entia (curable stupidity) w ith dem entia praecox while distin­ guishing p a ra n o ia a n d paran o id dem entia, 9°2 P a rt I I I is a forensic evaluation of doubtful m ental conditions. T h e re is a good index of authors an d subjects. T h e book is essen­ tially eclectic a n d tries to select the best from the old psychiatry a n d the new an d com bine them into a unity w ith a dash of philoso­ phy th row n in. I t should therefore prove stim ulating reading for doctors in san ato ria w ho have not kept abreast of the latest develop­ m ents in psychiatry. 9 °3

P. D u b o is : 13 D ie E inbildung als K rankheitsursache. W iesbaden, — D ubois presents in generally understandable outline his view of the n a tu re an d the tre a tm e n t of the psychoneuroses. H e begins w ith a clear a n d illum inating definition of “im agination” and then proceeds to show the pathological effects of im agination w ith the help of num erous instructive exam ples. H is therapy, like­ wise derived from this view a n d clearly expounded, consists essen­ tially in enlightening the patients on th e n a tu re of their sym ptom s a n d in re-educating their thinking. L et us hope th at this distin­ guished book will contribute to a general b reakthrough of the con­ ception of th e psychogenic n a tu re of m ost neuroses I Like all D ubois’ other w ritings, it is urgently recom m ended to the practising doctor. Even though th e D ubois m ethod m ay not be successful w ith every neurosis, it is em inently suited to have a prophylactic effect, so th a t cases w here the sym ptom s are due to im p ru d en t suggestions on th e p a rt of the doctor m ay gradually becom e less com m on. I n con­ clusion D ubois hints a t a possible extension of his therapy to the psychoses— b u t in this m atte r the alienist is n o t so optim istic. 1907.

904

G eorg L o m e r: L ieb e u n d Psychose. W iesbaden, 1 9 0 7 . — L om er’s book is m ore an exam ple of belles-lettres th an a scientific evaluation of sexuality and its psychological derivates. By far the greater p a rt of it is concerned w ith n orm al psychosexual processes w hich it seeks to present to an intelligent lay public. R eaders w ho w ould like to p enetrate deeper m ust have recourse to H avelock Ellis a n d F reud. T h e pathology of sex is discussed in an appendix, w ith— in com parison w ith sim ilar productions— a wholesome re­ serve in the com m unication of p iq u an t case histories. O n e could have w ished for a ra th e r deeper grasp of the problem s of psycho13 [See T h e Freud,/Jung L e tte rs, 115J, n. 8, and infra, following par. 1050.]

sex u al p ath o lo g y , w h e re su ch excellent p re p a ra to ry w ork has been d o n e, as w itness th e researches of F re u d . 9°5

E . M e y e r: D ie U rsachen der G eisteskrankheiten, J e n a , 1907. — M e y e r’s b o o k com es a t th e rig h t tim e a n d w ill b e w el­ c o m ed n o t only by every p sy ch iatrist b u t by all those w h o a re in te r­ ested in th e causes of m e n ta l illnesses in th e w idest sense. I t also rem ed ies th e p a lp a b le lack of a n y com prehensive a c c o u n t of th e aetiology of th e psychoses. T h e a u th o r discusses in g re a t d etail th e n u m e ro u s facto rs t h a t h a v e to b e ta k e n in to a c c o u n t in th e ir cau sa­ tio n . T h e c h a p te r o n poisonings is w ritte n w ith especial care. In discussing th e psychic causes, w h ic h a re a t p re se n t th e su b je c t of v io len t controversy, th e a u th o r displays a ca lm im p a rtia lity , allo w ­ in g th e p sychic elem en ts m o re freed o m of p lay th a n d o c e rta in o th e r view s w h ich w o u ld like to re d u c e th e w hole aetiology to n o n ­ psychic causes. O n e sm all e rro r needs c o rre c tin g : F re u d a n d th e Z u ric h school see in th e psychological disposition only th e m a te ria l d e te rm in a n ts of th e la te r sym ptom s, b u t n o t th e sole cause of psychosis. T h e a u th o r h a s m a d e a sin g u larly good selection fro m th e extensive lite ra tu re d ea lin g w ith th e question of aetiology. A n ex cellen t in d e x assists easy reference.

9°6

S ig m u n d F r e u d : Z u r P sych o p a th o lo g ie des A llta g sleb en s. 2 n d e n la rg e d ed n ., B erlin, 1907.14 — I t is a h e a rte n in g sign th a t this im p o rta n t book h as n o w go n e in to a second ed itio n . I t is p ra ctically th e o nly m a jo r w o rk o f F r e u d ’s th a t in tro d u ce s his ideas in to th e w o rld w ith little o r n o effort, so sim ply a n d flu en tly is it w ritten . T h u s it is w ell su ited to in itia te th e la y m a n (a n d th e re a re few w h o a re n o t lay m en in this field) in to th e p ro b lem s of F re u d ia n psychology. I t is c o n c ern e d n o t w ith th e sp ecu latio n s of th e o re tic a l psychology b u t w ith psychological case m a te ria l ta k e n fro m every­ d ay life. I t is ju s t th e a p p a re n tly in sig n ifican t in cid en ts of everyday life t h a t F re u d h as m a d e th e th e m e of his researches, show ing w ith th e h e lp of n u m e ro u s ex am p les how th e unconscious influences o u r th o u g h ts a n d actio n s a t every tu r n in a n u n e x p e c te d w ay. M a n y of his ex am p les h a v e a n im p lau sib le look, b u t one sh o u ld n o t b e p u t off by th a t, b ecau se all un co n scio u s tra in s o f th o u g h t in a n in d iv id u a l look a n y th in g b u t p lau sib le o n p a p e r. T h e p ro fo u n d tr u th o f F re u d ’s id eas w ill c a rry co n v ictio n only w h e n o n e tests th e m fo r oneself. E v en fo r those w ho a re n o t especially in tere ste d 14 [See T h e F r e u d / J u n g L e tte rs, 27F , n. 11.]

in psychological m atters F re u d ’s book m akes stim ulating read in g ; for those w ho think m ore deeply, w ho by inclination o r profession are interested in the psychic processes, it is a rich m ine of far-sighted ideas w hich have a significance th a t can scarcely be estim ated a t present for th e w hole range of m en tal a n d nervous diseases. In this respect th e book is an easy guide to F re u d ’s latest works on hysteria,15 w hich despite the deep tru th of th eir subject-m atter, or because of it, have h ith erto m et only w ith fan atical opposition an d in tractab le m isunderstanding. T h e book is therefore recom m ended w ith all urgency to alienists a n d to nerve specialists in particu lar. 1909 9°7

L. L o w en fe ld :10 H om osexualitat u n d S tra fgesetz. W iesbaden, 1908. — T his book is the p ro d u ct of th e cu rre n t struggle th a t has been tou ch ed off in G erm any by section 175 of th e penal code. T h is section, as is generally know n, concerns u n n a tu ra l vice betw een m en, a n d also w ith anim als. T h e a u th o r gives a concise history of the clinical concept of hom osexuality. H e sums u p the present state of opinion as follows: “T h o u g h hom osexuality is an anom aly th a t m ay a p p e a r in the physical sphere in association w ith disease a n d degeneration, in th e m ajority of cases it is an isolated psychic deviation from the norm , w hich cannot be reg ard ed as pathological or degenerative a n d is not likely to reduce th e value of the individ­ ual as a m em ber of society.” Section 175, w hich becam e law only u n d e r th e pressure of orthodoxy despite opposition by influential authorities, has so fa r proved to be n o t only useless a n d in h u m an , b u t directly h a rm fu l as it offers opportunities for professional black­ m ail w ith all its tragic a n d repulsive consequences. T h e book gives a very good survey of th e w hole question of hom osexuality.

908

K a rl K le ist: U ntersuchungen zur K e n n tn is der psychom otorischen Bew egungsstdrungen bei G eisteskranken. Leipzig, 1908 — T h e book presents th e clinical history of a m otility psychosis alias c a ta to n ia w ith a detailed epicritical discussion. T h e a u th o r leans heavily on the views of W ernicke, w ith th e result th a t the book is concerned chiefly w ith cerebral localizations. T h e conclusion 15 [This probably refers to “F ragm ent of an Analysis of a Case of H ysteria,” and “T h re e Essays on the T heory of Sexuality,” b oth in S tan d ard Edn., vol. 7.] 16 [See n. 11, supra.]

reached is that psychomotor disturbances in catatonics are condi­ tioned by two factors, innervatory and psychic. T he seat of disease is supposed to be the term inal point of the cerebellar-cortical tracts, i.e., the frontal cerebral cortex. As the patients occasionally have sensations of strain and fatigue in the performance of the tasks assigned them , and as the psychomotor symptoms are due to a dis­ turbance of the m otor reactions coordinated with these sensations, the psychic conditioning factor likewise points to the cerebellar-fron­ tal system. This conclusion is logical if one regards the psychic func­ tional complexes as an appendix of their executive organs from the start. T he book is recommended to specialists because of its acute differential-diagnostic analysis of apraxia and related motility disturbances. Oswald B um ke:17 Landlaufige Irrtiim er in der Beurteilung von Geisteskranken. Wiesbaden, 1908. — This little book contains more than its title indicates. It is a short and clearly w ritten outline of psychiatry, and while it does not give an altogether elementary de­ scription of the psychoses it presupposes some knowledge of the main types— knowledge which almost every practitioner possesses today. O n this basis the author discusses questions which are wont to present difficulties to doctors with no psychiatric training in their assessment of m ental disturbances. Aetiology, diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy are discussed from this standpoint, the author giving valuable advice and hints from his own practical experience. At the end there is a chapter on the forensic view of the insane. 9 10 A comprehensive and handy little book, highly recommended. 9°9

9 11

Christian von Ehrenfels: Grundbegriffe der Ethik. Wiesbaden, 19 07. — The author— professor of philosophy in Prague— gives a philosophical but easily understandable account of his basic ethical concepts. His argum ent culminates in the confrontation between social and individual morality, once more a subject of violent con­ troversy. T he conclusion reached, though typical of the general tenor of the book, can hardly be called positive: “N orm ative m oral­ ity is identical with correct social morality, the sole proviso being that every individual must be free to modify social morality, not in accordance with his own caprice b u t in a m anner he can defend before the tribunal of the eternal and inscrutable.” 17 [See The F reud/Jung Letters, 196J, n. 2.J

191°

9 12

Christian von Ehrenfels: Sexualethik. W iesbaden5 1907.— W hile the author’s Grundbegriffe der E thik is mainly of theoretical interest, this work is of great practical im portance. It is the clearest and best account I know of sexual ethics and its postulates. T he author begins with a deeply thought out and lucid presentation of n atu ral and cultural sexual morality. T h e following chapter, “ Contem porary Sexual M orality in the W est,” discusses the tre­ m endous conflict between the postulates of n atural and cultural sexuality, the socially useful effects of monogamy on the one hand and its shadow-side on the other, prostitution, the double sexual m orality of society and its pernicious influence on culture. In his discussion of reform movements the author takes a cautious and reserved stand, as far from Philistine approval of the status quo as from certain m odem tendencies that would like to pull down all barriers. Although he has no definite program m e of reform (which shows he is no d ream er!), he expresses m any liberal views which will surely help to solve our greatest social problem, begin­ ning w ith the individual. His book, which unlike others of the kind is not a parade of garish nudities veiled in scientific garb, deserves the widest acclaim for its unpretentious and reasonable attem pt to find possible solutions.

9 13

M ax Dost: K urzer Abriss der Psychologie, Psychiatrie und gerichtlichen Psychiatrie. Leipzig, 1908. — This little book is a new kind of com pendium of psychiatry w ith special reference to intelli­ gence testing. Psychology comes off rath er too lightly. T he chapters on psychiatry, however, really offer everything one could expect from a short outline. F or the psychiatrist the enum eration of various psychic exploratory m ethods will be particularly welcome. It will be hard to find so handy an account anywhere in the literature.

9*4

Alexander P ilcz: Lehrbuch der speziellen Psychiatrie fur Studierende und Aerzte. 2nd revised edn., Leipzig and V ienna, 1909. — N ot every branch of medicine is in such an infantile state of development as psychiatry, where a textbook, which ought to have general validity, is only of local significance. W hen one con­ siders that dem entia praecox is a disease which in Zurich accounts for half the admissions, in M unich is steadily decreasing (as a result of new theories), is not common in Vienna, is rare in Berlin and

in Paris hardly occurs at all, the reviewer of a psychiatric textbook must disregard the Babylonian confusion of tongues and concepts and simply accept the standpoint of the textbook in question. Pilcz’s book, now in its 2nd edition, is an adm irable work which fulfils its purpose. It is excellently written, and contains everything essen­ tial. T he m aterial is clearly arranged, the exposition terse and pre­ cise. Highly recommended. 915

W. von B echterew : Psyche und Leben. 2nd edn., Wiesbaden, 1908. — This book does not treat of psychological problems on the basis of a wide knowledge of the literature, as the title m ight suggest, but deals w ith psychophysiological relations in general from the theoretical philosophical side, and then goes on to discuss the rela­ tion of energy to the psyche and of the psyche to physiology and biology. T he style is aphoristic; the chapters, thirty-one in num ber, are only loosely connected. T he chief value of the book lies in its numerous reports of the views of a great variety of specialist re­ searchers and in its literary references. Readers who w ant a syn­ thetic or critical clarification of the psychophysiological problems will seek for it in vain. But for anyone who seeks orientation in this interesting field and its complicated, widely dispersed literature this stimulating book is highly recommended.

9 16

M . U rstein : Die Dementia praecox und ihre Stellung zum manisch-depressiven Irresein. V ienna, 1909. — As the title indi­ cates, this is a clinical exam ination of dem entia praecox diagnosis, a topic th a t has come once more to the forefront because of the recent swing towards the Kraepelin school. Not everyone will be able to im itate the ease w ith which manic-depressive insanity is now distinguished from dem entia praecox, and U rstein is one of them. H e sharply criticizes the work of W ilmann and Dreyfus, who would like to restrict dem entia praecox diagnosis in favour of manic-depressive insanity. His book can count on the decided sym­ pathy of all who doubt the thoroughness of K raepelin’s diagnostics, and who cannot go along with the idea that a catatonic is from now on a manic-depressive. Pages 125 to 372 are padded out with case histories, an unnecessary appendage in view of the specialist readership for which the book is intended.

9*7

Albert R eibm ayer: Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies. M unich, 1908. — Only the first volume of the book

is available at present, but despite this draw back it is already ap ­ parent th a t it is a broad and comprehensive study. The present volume is essentially a theoretical, constructive survey of the prob­ lem, w hich naturally has extensive ramifications into biology and history. If the second volum e provides the necessary biographies and suchlike m aterial, we shall have in Reibm ayer’s book an im por­ ta n t work m eriting the widest attention. 9 18

P. N ack e:18 Vber Fam ilienm ord durch Geisteskranke. Halle, 1908. — T h e book is a m onograph on family m urder. The author presents 161 cases, classified according to their respective peculiari­ ties. H e is of the opinion th a t family m urder is now on the increase. H e distinguishes between “ complete” and “incomplete” family m urder. T h e first is m ore common in the case of relatively sane individuals; the second m ore common w ith the insane. The m urder­ ers are usually in the prim e of life. T h e victims of the m en are usually their wives, of the women their children. T he commonest causes are chronic alcoholism, paranoia, and epilepsy in m en; melancholy, paranoia, and dem entia praecox in women.

9 19

T h. Becker: Einfiihrung in die Psychiatrie. 4th revised and enlarged edn., Leipzig, 1908. — This handy little book is a clear and concise introduction to psychiatry. W ith regard to the classifica­ tion of the psychoses the author is conservative, allowing a good deal of room for paranoia alongside dem entia praecox. T he book has m uch to recom m end it as an “introduction” if one disregards the chapter on hysteria, which no longer meets with m odern requirements.

920

A. C ram er: Gerichtliche Psychiatrie. 4th revised and enlarged edn., Jena, 1908. — C ram er’s guide to judicial psychiatry, now in its fourth edition, is one of the best of its k in d ; it is thorough, com­ prehensive, and, com pared w ith H oche’s m anual,19 has the great ad­ vantage of consistent exposition. As everywhere in psychiatry, the lack of a consistent classification is to be regretted; this is not the fault of the author b u t of the discipline itself. W ere it not for this inconvenience C ram er’s book could be generally recom m ended; as it is, the beginner can rely on it completely only if he is disposed 18 [See T h e F reu d /Ju n g L etters, 49J, n. 2.] 19 [Alfred E. H oche, H andbuch der gerichtlichen Psychiatrie.]

to trust its particular approach. For the rest, the book will prove useful in the hands of psychiatric experts. 921

August F o re l:20 Ethische und rechtliche K onflikte im Sexualleben in- und ausserhalb der E he. M unich, 1909. — T he author in­ troduces his book with the following words: “T he following pages are for the most p art an attack, based on docum entary material, on the hypocrisy, the dishonesty and cruelty of our present-day m o­ rality and our almost non-existent rights in matters of sexual life.” From which it is apparent th a t this work is another contribution to the great social task to which Forel has already rendered such signal service. Essentially it presents a large num ber of psychosexual conflicts of a m oral or judicial nature, knowledge of which is indis­ pensable not only for the nerve specialist, but for every doctor who has to advise his patients in the difficult situations of life. 20 [August (or A uguste) H enri Forel (1 8 4 8 —1 9 3 1 ), director of the Burgholzli before Bleuler. See T h e F r e u d / Jung Letters, index, s.v.]

T H E S IG N IF IC A N C E O F F R E U D ’S T H E O R Y F O R N E U R O L O G Y A ND PSY C H IA T R Y 1 In medical terms, F reu d ’s achievements are on the whole limited to the fields of hysteria and obsessional neurosis. His investigations begin with the psychogenetic explanation of the hysterical symptom, an explanation form ulated by M obius and experimentally tested by Pierre Janet. According to this point of view, every physical symptom of a hysterical nature is causally connected with a corre­ sponding psychological event. This view can be corroborated by a critical analysis of the hysterical symptom, which becomes intel­ ligible only when the psychological factor is taken into account, as exemplified by the m any paradoxical phenom ena of cutaneous and sensory anesthesias. But the theory of psychogenesis cannot ex­ plain the individual determinants of the hysterical symptom. Stim u­ lated by Breuer’s discovery of a psychological connection, Freud bridged this large gap in our knowledge by his m ethod of psychanalysis, and he dem onstrated th a t a determ ining psychological factor can be found for every symptom. T he determ ination always pro­ ceeds from a repressed feeling-toned com plex of representations. (Lecturer illustrates this statem ent w ith a few case histories taken partly from Freud, partly from his own experience.) The same principle applies to the obsessional neurosis, the individual manifes­ tation of which is determ ined by very similar mechanisms. (Lec­ tu rer adduces a num ber of examples.) As Freud m aintains, sexual­ ity in the widest sense plays a significant role in the genesis of a neurosis, quite understandably so, since sexuality plays an im portant role in the intim ate life of the psyche. Psychanalysis, in addition, has in m any cases an unm istakable therapeutic effect, which how ­ ever does not m ean th a t it is the only way of treating a neurosis. By dint of his theory of psychological determ ination, Freud has become very im portant for psychiatry, especially for the elucidation 1 [(Translated by W. S.) “Uber die Bedeutung der Lehre Freud’s fur Neurologie und Psychiatrie,” a lecture to the Zurich Cantonal M edical Society, autumn meeting, 26 Nov. 1907: Jung’s abstract, Correspondenz-Blatt filr Schiveizer Arzte3 X X X V III (1 9 0 8 ), 218. See The F reud/Jung L etters3 54J.]

of the symptoms, so far completely unintelligible, of dem entia praecox. Analysis of this disease uncovers the same psychological mecha­ nisms that are at work in the neuroses, and thus makes us under­ stand the individual forms of illusionary ideas, hallucinations, paraesthesias, and bizarre hebephrenic fantasies. A vast area of psychiatry, up until now totally dark, is thus suddenly illuminated. (Lecturer relates two case histories of dem entia praecox as examples.)

R E V IE W O F S T E K E L : “N E R V O SE A N G S T Z U STA ND E U N D IH R E B E H A N D L U N G ” 1 923

T h e book contains a presentation of states of nervous anxiety, buttressed by an abundance of case m aterial: in P art I, Anxiety Neuroses, in P art II , Anxiety Hysteria. T he clinical boundaries for either group are flung far afield, taking in m uch more than existing clinical methods have accounted for. Anxiety neurosis, especially, is enriched by m any new categories of disease, the symptoms of which are taken to be equivalents of anxiety. By its very nature anxiety hysteria has fluctuating boundaries and tends to merge with other forms of hysteria. P art I I I is concerned with the general diag­ nostics of anxiety states as well as general therapy and, specifically, the technique of psychotherapy. Now, w hat makes the book espe­ cially attractive is the fact th a t Stekel, a pupil of Freud, very laud­ ably makes the first attem pt to enable a larger m edical public to gain insight in the psychological structure of the neuroses. In his case histories, Stekel does not confine himself to presenting only the surface (as has hitherto been u sual), but, following the most intim ate individual reactions of the patient, gives a penetrating pic­ ture of the psychogenesis in each case and its further progress during the therapeutic effect of the psychoanalysis. H e analyses many cases w ith great skill and rich experience and in great detail, while others are presented only in psychological outline, w hich the psychological laym an m ay have difficulty in following. Such outline presentations, unfortunately, cannot be avoided if the book is not to become in­ ordinately long, even though such cases are h ard to understand and can easily lead to misconstruction and to the reproach th at the author indulges in rash interpretation. O n the basis of this m ethod, w hich specifically considers every individuality on its own 1 [(T ran slate d by W . S.) M edizinische K lin ik (B erlin ), IV :4 5 (8 Nov. 1908), 1735—36. W ilhelm StekePs book, w ith a preface by F reud (in S tan d ard Edn., vol. I X ) , was published in Berlin and V ienna, 1908. T h e preface was om itted afte r th e 2nd edn. (1912) in view of StekePs defection from orthodox psycho­ analysis. T rans., C onditions of N ervous A n xiety and T h eir T rea tm en t (London, 1922). F o r Ju n g ’s relations w ith Stekel 1907—13, see T h e F reu d /Ju n g Letters, index, s.v. Stekel.]

924

terms, Stekel can dem onstrate th a t without exception states of ner­ vous anxiety are determined by psychosexual conflicts of the most intimate nature, thereby once more confirming Freud’s assertion th a t neurotic anxiety is nothing b u t a converted sexual desire. U p to now we suffered from a lack of case material in the light of Freudian analysis. T o an extent Stekel’s book fills this gap. It is very readable and therefore must be highly recommended to all practising physicians, not merely to specialists, for open and hidden neuroses are legion and every physician has to cope with them.

E D I T O R I A L P R E F A C E T O T H E “J A H R B U C H ” 1 9 25

In the spring of 1908 a private m eetin g w as held in Salzburg of all those w h o are interested in th e d evelop m en t of the psychology created by S igm un d Freud and in its application to nervous and m ental diseases. A t this m eetin g it w as recognized th at th e w orking o u t of th e problem s in question w as already b eginn in g to go beyond th e boun d s of purely m edical interest, and th e need w as expressed for a periodical w h ich w ou ld gather together studies in this field that hitherto h ave been scattered at random . Such was the im petus th at gave rise to our Jah rbuch. Its task is to b e th e progressive pub lication of all scientific papers th at are concerned in a positive w ay w ith the deeper understanding and solution of our problems. T h e Jah rbuch w ill thus provide n ot only an insight into the steady progress of work in this dom ain w ith its great future, but also an orientation on the current state and scope of questions of the utm ost im portance for all the h u m an e sciences. D

1 [Jahrbuch

r

. C. G . J

ung

fu r psychoanalytische u nd psychopathologische Forschungen (Leipzig and V ie n n a ), I : i (1 9 0 9 ), of w hich Ju n g was ed ito r and Freud and BleuIer co-directors. F or its founding an d history, see T h e F reu d /Ju n g Letters, index, s.v. T h e Jahrbuch, V :2 (1 9 1 3 ), contained Ju n g ’s and Bleuler’s statem ents of resignation; see T h e F re u d /J u n g L etters, com m ent following 357J5 27 O ct. 1913.]

M A R G IN A L N O T E S O N W IT T E L S : “D IE S E X U E L L E N O T ” 1 926

This book is w ritten w ith as m uch passion as intelligence. It discusses such questions as abortion, syphilis, the family, the child, women, and professions for women. Its m otto is: “ H u m an beings m ust live out their sexuality, otherwise their lives will be w arped.” Accordingly, W ittels lifts up his voice for the liberation of sexuality in the widest sense. H e speaks a language one seldom hears, the language of unsparing, almost fanatical truthfulness, th a t falls un­ pleasantly on the ear because it tears away all shams and unmasks all cultural lies. It is not my business to pass judgm ent on the author’s morals. Science has only to listen to this voice and tacitly adm it th a t it is not a lone voice crying in the wilderness, th a t it could be a leader for m any who are setting out on this path, th at we have here a m ovem ent rising from invisible sources and swelling into a m ightier current every day. Science has to test and weigh the evidence-—and understand it. 92 7 T h e book is dedicated to F reud and m uch of it is based on F reud’s psychology, w hich is in essence the scientific rationalization of this contem porary movement. For the social psychologist the movem ent is and rem ains an intellectual problem , while for the social m oralist it is a challenge. W ittels meets this challenge in his own way, others do so in theirs. W e should listen to them all. N o­ w here is the w arning m ore in place th a t on the one h an d we should refrain from enthusiastic applause, an d on the other not kick against the pricks in blind rage. W e have to realize, quite dispassionately, th a t w hatever we fight about in the outside world is also a battle in our inner selves. In the end we have to adm it th a t m ankind is not just an accum ulation of individuals utterly different from one another, b u t possesses such a high degree of psychological col­ lectivity th a t in com parison th e individual appears as merely a slight variant. H ow shall we judge this m atter fairly if we cannot adm it 1 IJahrbuck fu r psychoanalytische u n d psychopathologische F orschungen, I I : I ( r 9 i o ) , 312—Γ5. F ritz W itteIs1 D ie sexuelle N o t ( “S ex u al-P rivation” ), (V ienna and Leipzig, 1909). See T h e F re u d /J u n g Letters, 209F an d n. 1. T h e present translation was published in Spring, 1973.]

th a t it is also our own problem ? Anyone who can adm it this will first seek the solution in himself. This, in fact, is the way all great solutions begin. 9 28 M ost people, however, seem to have a secret love of voyeurism; they gaze at the contestants as though they were w atching a circus, w anting to decide immediately who is finally right or wrong. But anyone who has learnt to exam ine the background of his own thoughts and actions, and has acquired a lasting and salutary im ­ pression of the way our unconscious biological impulses warp our logic, will soon lose his delight in gladiatorial shows and public disputation, and will perform them in himself and w ith himself. In that way we preserve a perspective th at is particularly needful in an age when Nietzsche arose as a significant portent. Wittels will surely not rem ain alone; he is only the first of m any who will come up w ith “ ethical” conclusions from the mine of F reud’s truly biological psychology— conclusions th a t will shake to the m arrow w hat was previously considered “good.” As a French w it once re­ m arked, of all inventors moralists have the hardest lot, since their innovations can only be immoralities. This is absurd and a t the same time sad, as it shows how out of date our conception of m oral­ ity has become. It lacks the very best thing th a t m odern thought has accom plished: a biological and historical consciousness. This lack of adaptation must sooner or later bring about its fall, and nothing can stop this fall. A nd here I am rem inded of the wise words of Anatole F rance: “A nd, although the past is there to point out to them ever-changing and shifting rights and duties, they would look upon themselves as dupes were they to foresee th at future hum anity is to create for itself new rights, duties and gods. Finally, they fear disgracing themselves in the eyes of their contemporaries, in assuming the horrible im m orality which future morality stands for. Such are the obstacles to a quest of the future .” 2 929 T h e danger of our old-fashioned conception of morality is th at it blinkers our eyes to innovations which, however fitting they may be, always carry w ith them the odium of immorality. But it is just here th a t our eyes should be clear and far-seeing. T he movement 1 spoke of, the urge to reform sexual morality, is not the invention of a few cranky somnambulists b u t has all the im pact of a force of nature. No argum ents or quibbles about the raison d'etre of m orality are any use h ere; we have to accept w hat is most intelligent and m ake the best of it. This means tough and dirty work. W ittels’ 2 \T h e W hite Stone (1905; trans. by C. E. R oche, 1924), p. r 33.]

book gives a foretaste of w hat is to come, and it will shock and frighten m any people. T h e long shadow of this fright will naturally fall on Freudian psychology, which will be accused of being a hot­ bed of iniquity. T o anticipate this I would like to say a w ord in its defence now. O u r psychology is a science th at can at most be accused of having discovered the dynamite terrorists work with. W hat the moralist and general practitioner do with it is none of our business, and we have no intention of interfering. Plenty of unqualified persons are sure to push their way in and commit the greatest follies, b u t th at too does not concern us. O u r aim is simply and solely scientific knowledge, and we do not have to bother with the uproar it has provoked. If religion and morality are blown to pieces in the process, so much the worse for them for not having more stamina. Knowledge is a force of nature that goes its way irresistibly from inner necessity. There can be no hushing up and no compromises, only unqualified acceptance. 93° This knowledge is not to be identified with the changing views of the ordinary medical m an, for which reason it cannot be judged by m oral criteria. This has to be said out loud, because today there are still people claiming to be scientific who extend their moral misgivings even to scientific insights. Like every proper science, psy­ choanalysis is beyond m orality; it rationalizes the unconscious and so fits the previously autonomous and unconscious instinctual forces into the psychic economy. T he difference between the position be­ fore and afterwards is th a t the person in question now really wants to be w hat he is and to leave nothing to the blind dispensation of the unconscious. T he objection th a t immediately arises, th a t the world would then get out of joint, must be answered first and fore­ most by psychoanalysis; it has the last word, b u t only in the privacy of the consulting room, because this fear is an individual fear. It is sufficient th a t the goal of psychoanalysis is a psychic state in which “you ought” and “you m ust” are replaced by “ I will,” so that, as Nietzsche says, a m an becomes m aster not only of his vices but also of his virtues. Inasm uch as psychoanalysis is purely ra ­ tional— and it is so of its very nature— it is neither moral nor anti­ moral and gives neither prescriptions nor any other “you oughts.” U ndoubtedly the trem endous need of the masses to be led will force m any people to abandon the standpoint of the psychoanalyst and to start “prescribing.” O ne person will prescribe morality, another licentiousness. Both of them cater to the masses and both follow the currents th a t drive the masses hither and thither. Science stands

above all this and lends the strength of its arm our to Christian and anti-C hristian alike. It has no confessional axe to grind. 931 I have never yet read a book on the sexual question th a t dem ol­ ishes present-day m orality so harshly and unmercifully and yet re­ m ains in essentials so true. For this reason W ittels’ book deserves to be read, bu t so do m any others th at deal with the same question, for the im portant thing is not the individual book but the problem common to them all.

R E V IE W O F W U L F F E N : “ D E R S E X U A L V E R B R E C H E R ” 1 932

933

W ulffen’s com prehensive account of sexual m isdem eanours is not confined m erely to crim inal case histories b u t seeks to get at the psychological and social foundations of the offence. Tw o h u n ­ dred and fifty pages alone are devoted to sexual biology in general, sexual psychology, characterology, and pathology. In the chapter on sexual psychology the author himself will surely deplore the ab­ sence of psychoanalytic viewpoints. T h e other chapters on crim inol­ ogy, being w ritten by an experienced criminologist, are of great interest a n d very stim ulating to the researcher in this field. T h e illustrations are uniform ly good, some of them of great psychological value. F or a fu tu re psychoanalytic investigation of this subject W ulffen’s book should be a most valuable source alongside the compilations of P itav al .2 1 IJahrbuch f u r psychoanalytische u n d psychopathologische Forschungen, I I : a (1 9 1 0 ), 747. E ric h W ulffen, D er Sexualv erbrecher ( “T h e Sexual O ffen d er,” subtitled “ A H a n d b o o k fo r Ju rists, M agistrates, a n d D octors, w ith n u m erous original crim inological p h o to g ra p h s” ) (B erlin, i g i o ) . ] 2 [Francois G ay o t d e P itav al (1 6 7 3 -1 7 4 3 ), F re n c h jurisco n su lt, co m p iler of Causes celebres et interessantes ( 1 7 3 4 - 4 3 ), in 20 vols.]

A B STR A C TS O F T H E P S Y C H O L O G IC A L W O R K S O F SW ISS A U T H O R S ( to the end of ig o g ) 1 934

This compilation contains am ong other things all works of the Zurich school th a t are either directly concerned with psychoanalysis or touch upon it in essentials. Works w ith a clinical or psychological content not concerned w ith psychoanalysis have been omitted. A braham ’s works, including those w ritten in Zurich, are abstracted in Jahrbuch 1909. A few works by G erm an authors th a t come close to the findings in Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien are noted in passing. A consideration of the critical and oppositional literature is unfortunately impossible as long as the scientific soundness of our principles of research is called in question.

935

Bezzola (formerly Schloss H ard, E rm atingen) : “Zur Analyse psychotraum atischer Symptome,” Journ. f. Psychol, u. Neurol., V II I (1 9 0 7 ). — T he author still bases himself entirely on the traum a theory. His procedure corresponds in detail to the BreuerF reud m ethod, which was called “ cathartic.” T he author has no real grasp of later methods. H e recom mends a modification which he calls psychosynthesis. “ Every psychically effective experience reaches consciousness in the form of dissociated excitations of the senses. In order to become concepts, these excitations have to be associated am ong themselves and also with consciousness. But in consequence of the narrow range of consciousness, this process can1 [“R eferate iiber psychologische A rbeiten schw eizerischen Autoren (bis E nde 1 9 0 9 ),” Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische u n d psychopathologische Forschungen1 I I : I ( 1 9 1 0 ) , 35 6 —88. T h e authors and m any of the publications m entioned are com m ented on in T h e F r e u d /J u n g L etters (see in d e x ), except the fo llo w ­ ing, on w hom inform ation is u navailable: Eberschweiler, H erm ann, Ladam e, H . M uller, Pototsky, Schnyder, and Schw arzw ald. For references by Freud and Jun g to the abstracts in general, see ibid., 9 1 J and 209F . T h e Jahrbuch, under Jung’s editorship, also published abstracts or survey articles on Freud’s w ritings (by A b ra h a m ), the Austrian and G erm an psychoanalytic literature (A b ra h a m ), E nglish and A m erican literature on clinical psychology and psycho­ p athology (J o n e s), Freudian psychology in R ussia (N e id itsch ), and F reud’s theories in Italy (A ssa g io li).]

not be fully completed, certain components remain in the uncon­ scious or become conscious by false association. Psychosynthesis con­ sists in reinforcing these isolated conscious components by empathy until the components subconsciously associated with them are reacti­ vated, w hereupon the development of the whole process reaches consciousness and the dissolution of the psychotraumatic symptoms ensues.” This theory is supported by a series of cases. Naturally they are presented with total blindness for the actual psychosexual background. T he epilogue contains an attack on Freud’s sexual theory in the usual nervous tone and with arguments to match. Binswanger, see Ju n g : Diagnost. Assoz. stud., X I. 936

Bleuler (Zurich) : “Freudsche M echanismen in der Symptomatologie von Psychosen,” Psychiatr.-neurol. Wochenschrift, 1906.— Analyses of symptoms and associations in various psychotic states.

937

Bleuler and Ju n g : “Komplexe und Krankheitsursache bei Dementia praeeox,” Zentralbl. /. Nervenheilkunde u. Psychiatrie, X X X I ( 1908), 22off. — T he authors seek to clarify their aetiological standpoint in the light of Meyer’s critique of Ju n g ’s theory of dem entia praeeox. They first demonstrate th a t the new conception is not aetiological but symptomatological. Questions of aetiology are complicated and take second place. Bleuler makes a rigorous distinction between the physical process of disease and the psycho­ logical determ ination of the symptoms, and in view of the im por­ tance of the form er he attaches no aetiological significance to the latter. As against this, Ju n g leaves the question of the ideogenic aetiology open, since in physical processes of disease the physical correlate of affect can play an aetiologically significant role.

938

Bleuler: A ffektivitat, Suggestibilitat, Paranoia. Halle, 1906.— In this book Bleuler makes a broadm inded attem pt to provide a general psychological description and definition of affective processes, and to correlate them with an outline of Freudian psychology. The conception of attention and suggestibility as special in­ stances or partial manifestations of affectivity is a pleasing simplifi­ cation of the Babylonian confusion of tongues and concepts prevail­ ing in psychology and psychiatry today. Even though the last word has not been spoken, BleuIer offers us a simple interpretation, based on experience, of complicated psychic processes. Psychiatry is in

939

940

urgent need of this since the psychiatrist is forced to think and operate w ith com plicated psychic entities. W e could easily w ait for a hundred years until we got anything of this kind from experi­ m ental psychology. W ith affectivity as a basis, Bleuler devotes an uncom monly im portant chapter to the inception of paranoid ideas, dem onstrating in four cases th at a feeling-toned complex lies at the root of the delusion. T h e reviewer must rest content w ith this general sketch of the book’s scope and tendency. Its wealth of detail does not lend itself to brief sum m ation. We can say th a t Bleuler’s book is the best gen­ eral description to date of the psychology of affect. It is warmly recom m ended to everyone, especially the beginner. ----------- . “ Sexuelle A bnorm itaten der K inder,” Jahrbuch der schweiz. Gesellschaft f. Schulgesundheitspflege, IX (1 9 0 8 ), 62388 — A lucid description of sexual perversions in children. Frequent reference is m ade to F reu d ’s psychology. T he author favours sexual enlightenm ent, not in the form of mass sex education at school, but at home, the right m om ent being tactfully chosen by the parents.

. See Ju n g : Diagnost. Assoz. stud., V. 941

Bolte (Brem en) : “Assoziationsversuche als diagnostisches Hilfsm ittel,” Allgemeine Zeitschrift f. Psychiatrie, L X IV ( 1 9 0 7 ) .— T he author demonstrates the use of the association experiment for diagnostic purposes. H e concurs in essentials with the basic findings of the Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien. Some interesting examples bring the ideas in this book vividly to life.

942

Chalewsky (Zurich) : “ H eilung eines hysterischen Bellens durch Psychoanalyse,” ZentralbL f. N ervenheilkunde u. Psychiatrie, X X ( 1909). [Abstract, by M aeder, omitted.]

943

Claparede (G en ev a): “Quelques mots sur la definition de l’hysterie,” Archives de psychologie, V II (1 9 0 8 ), ig6gff. — The author criticizes w ith great skill the recent conception of hysteria inaugurated by Babinski. In the concluding chapter he develops his own views into a conception which itself consists of a series of ques­ tion marks. H e acknowledges the im portance of Freudian repression and endows it w ith biological significance. Psychoanalytic resis­ tance, of w hich he has gained first-hand experience, is for him a defence reaction. H e takes the same view of globus [hysteri400

CUS = lum p in the throat], vomiting, spasms in the oesophagus, lying, simulation, etc. H e sees bodily symptoms as a revivification of ancestral reactions th at were once useful. Thus the hysterogenic mechanism is conceived as a “tendance a la reversion,” an atavistic mode of reaction. Its infantile character and the “ disposition ludique” (play tendency) seem to him to support this theory. His arguments lack the necessary empirical basis which of course can only be acquired through psychoanalysis.

944

945

946

Eberschweiler (Zurich) : “U ntersuchungen fiber die sprachliche Komponente der Assoziation,” Allgemeine Zeitschrift fiir Psychiatric, 1908. — A painstaking and careful investigation prom pted by the reviewer. O ne finding is of particular interest for complex psychol­ ogy: it has been shown th at in the association experiment certain vowel sequences occur, i.e., successive reactions have the same vowel sound. Now if these “perseverations” are correlated with complexindicators, we find that, given an average percentage of 0.36 complex-indicators per reaction, 0.65 fall on a word in the vowel sequence. If we take the two associations preceding the vowel sequences w ithout clang affinity, we reach the following resu lt: a) Association w ithout vowel sequence: 0.10 complexindicators. b ) Association w ithout vowel sequence: 0.58 complexindicators. I . Beginning of vowel sequence (association with vowel sound perseverating in the ensuing series): 0.91 complex-indicators. 2nd term in the vowel sequence: 0.68. 3rd term in the vowel sequence: 0.10. 4th term in the vowel sequence: 0.05. It is evident th a t after complex-disturbances there is a distinct tendency to clang perseverations, and this is an im portant finding as regards the mechanism of punning and rhyming. Flournoy (G eneva) : Das Indes a la Planete Mars. Dtude sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolalie. 3rd edn., Paris, 1900.— “Nouvelles observations sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glos­ solalie,” Archives de psychologie, I (1901). — Flournoy’s compre­ hensive and extremely im portant work on a case of hysterical som­ nambulism contributes valuable m aterial on fantasy systems and merits the attention not only of psychoanalysts but also of the gen­ eral public. In presenting his case Flournoy comes very close to

certain of F re u d ’s views, th o u g h no use could be m ad e of his m ore recent discoveries. 947

F ra n k ( Z u ric h ): “ Z ur Psychoanalyse” (Festschrift for F o re l), Journ. f. Psychol, u. N eurol., X I I I ( 1908). — A fter a short histori­ cal in tro d u ctio n based on the studies by B reuer a n d F reu d , the a u th o r expresses his regret th a t F re u d has ab a n d o n ed th e original m ethod w ith o u t giving his reasons for so doing. (A ttentive reading of F re u d ’s subsequent w ritings discloses soon enough why he p re ­ ferred th e perfected technique to the originally im perfect o n e .) T h e a u th o r restricts him self to th e use of the original ca th a rtic m ethod in conjunction w ith hypnosis, a n d his case m aterial proves th a t he is w orking w ith a valuable, practically useful m ethod w hich yields rew ard in g results. T h e inevitable a tta c k on F re u d ’s theory of sexuality is consequently set forth in m ore tem p erate tones. T h e a u th o r poses th e question: “ W hy should ju st th e sexual affects am ong th e m an y others w ith w hich th e psyche is endow ed give rise to disturbances, or is the sexual affect supposed to be th e root of all others?” (T h e role of sexuality in the neuroses was not in ­ ven ted a priori, b u t w as discovered em pirically th ro u g h th e use of psychoanalysis, a n d this is som ething quite different from the ca th a rtic m eth o d .) T h e a u th o r does not use psychoanalysis because “ a practising physician should n o t b e obliged, in each case, to carry the psychoanalysis th ro u g h to its very end for theoretical reasons only.” (T h is obligation exists now here, b u t for practical reasons one h as to go fu rth e r th a n one did in 1895; h a d the m eth o d of th a t tim e accom plished everything, there w ould have been no need for going fu rth e r.) T h e a u th o r gained th e im pression th a t F reu d m astered hypnosis a n d suggestion very well in theory, b u t by no m eans perfectly in actu al practice. “ I can u n d e rsta n d his constant change of m eth o d only on th e supposition th a t, because of his in ­ sufficiently thorough hypnotic treatm ents a n d their unsatisfactory results, he, eis a theoretician, w as constantly try in g to find new m eth ­ ods.” (R eview er’s italics.) A little earlier in His p ap er, th e a u th o r says th a t “ F re u d has relinquished these m ethods in spite o f his suc­ cesses.” I n connection w ith this co n trad ictio n it should b e noted th a t F ra n k utterly ignores F re u d ’s late r works, as well as the w ritings of o th er au th o rs a n d th e Z urich C linic, otherw ise he could not possibly assert— in 1908!— th a t th e c a th a rtic m eth o d and its results rem ained “ un n o ticed ” a n d only “isolated verifications” w ere attem p ted .

948

(T h e reviewer cannot refrain from pointing out how simple it is to obtain inform ation on these seemingly difficult problems. If, for instance, an author is faced with the problem why Freud may have given up hypnosis, he need only compose a letter to Pro­ fessor Freud and inquire about it. O n this point the reviewer is insistent because it is the basic sickness of Germ an psychiatry that one is never eager to understand, but only to misunderstand. In these m atters a personal discussion is needed in order to eliminate all unnecessary difficulties and misunderstandings. If this principle, which is fully accepted in America, were acknowledged on our con­ tinent, we would not see so m any otherwise deserving authors m ak­ ing fools of themselves by their criticism, which is frequently couched in a language th at renders any reply impossible.) Fiirst, see Ju n g : Diagnost. Assoz. stud., X.

949

H erm ann (G alkhausen) : “Gefiihlsbetonte Komplexe im Seelenleben des Kindes, im Alltagsleben und im W ahnsinn,” Zeitschrift fiXr K inderforschung, X III, 129—43. — Clearly w ritten introduc­ tion to the theory of complexes and its application to various norm al and pathological psychic states.

950

Isserlin (M unich) : “Die diagnostische Bedeutung der Assoziationversuche,” MiXnchner medizinische Wochenschrift, no. 27 (1907). — In this critical account of the association studies in Zurich, the author acknowledges the existence of several im portant findings. But where Freudian psychology begins, his approval ends.

951

Jung (Zurich) : Z u r Psychologie und Pathologie sogenannter okkulter Phanom ene.2 Leipzig 1 9 0 2 .— Besides clinical and psy­ chological discussions on the nature of hysterical somnambulism, this work contains detailed observations on a case of spiritualistic mediumship. T he splitting of the personality derives from its infan­ tile tendencies and the fantasy systems are found to be rooted in sexual wish-deliria. Examples of neurotic automatisms include a case of cryptomnesia which the author discovered in Nietzsche’s Zarathustra. 2 [ = “ O n th e Psychology a n d (C .W ., vol. 1).]

P ath o lo g y of S o-called O c c u lt P h e n o m e n a ”

952------ ------ . “ Ein Fall von hysterischem Stupor bei einer U ntersuchungsgefangenen,” 3 Journ. f. Psychol, u. Neurol., I ( 1 9 0 2 ) .— Description of the p atient’s pathological intention, wish to be ill, F reudian repression of anything unpleasant, and wish-fulfilling delusions in a ca«^ of the Ganser-Raecke twilight state. 953

-------. “Die psychopathologische Bedeutung des Assoziationsexperim entes,”4 Archiv fu r Krim inalanthropologie, X X (1 9 0 6 ), i45fif. — General introduction to the association experiment and the theory of complexes.

954

-------. “Experimentelle Beobachtungen fiber das Erinnerungsvermogen,” 5 Zentralbl. f. Nervenheilkunde u. Psychiatrie, X X V III ( 1905), 653ff. — T he author describes the reproduction procedure he himself inaugurated. If, on completion of an association experi­ m ent, the subject is asked w hether he can rem em ber his previous reaction to each of the stimulus words, it is found th a t the forgetting usually occurs at or immediately after complex-disturbances. Hence it is a “ Freudian forgetting.” T h e procedure is of practical value in pin-pointing complex-indicators.

955

-------. “Die Hysterielehre Freuds. Eine Erw iderung auf die AschafFenburgsche K ritik,”6 (M iinchner medizinische W ochenschrift, L I I I :47 ( 1 9 0 6 ) .— As the title indicates, this is a piece of polemic the aim of which is to induce our opponent to get better acquainted w ith the psychoanalytic m ethod before judging it. T oday this pap er is merely of historical value, marking, we m ight say, the starting-point of the now flourishing Freudian movement.

95 6

-------. “Die Freudsche H ysterietheorie,” 7 M onatsschrift f. Psy­ chiatrie u. Neurologie, X X I I I :4 ( 1908), 3ioff. — A report written at the request of the president of the International Congress for Psychiatry in Amsterdam, 1907. T he author confines his remarks to the most elementary principles in accordance w ith his knowledge a t th a t time, which since then has been considerably enlarged with 8 [ = “A C ase of H ysterical Stupor in a Prisoner in D eten tio n ” (ib id .).] 4 [ = “T h e Psychopathological Significance of the A ssociation E xperim ent” (C .W ., vol. 2 ).] 5 [ = “Experim ental O bservations on the F acu lty of M em ory” (ib id .).] e [ = “Freud’s T h eory of H ysteria: A R ep ly to Aschaffenburg” (C .W . vol.

4 )·] 7 [ = “T h e Freudian T heory of H ysteria” (ib id .).]

increasing experience. Historically, Freud’s theory may be regarded as a transform ation of the cathartic method into psychoanalysis. The psychoanalytic conception of hysteria is illustrated with the help of a case which may serve as a paradigm. Summary (abbrevi­ ated ) : Certain precocious sexual activities of a more or less perverse nature grow up on a constitutional basis. At puberty, the fantasies tend in a direction constellated by the infantile sexual activity. The fantasies lead to the formation of complexes of ideas that are incom­ patible with the other contents of consciousness and are therefore repressed. This repression takes with it the transference of libido to a love-object, thus precipitating a great emotional conflict which then provides occasion for the outbreak of actual illness. 957

.“Associations d’idees familiales” 8 (avec 5 graphiques), Archives de psychologie, V II (1 9 0 7 ). — W ith the help of Fiirst’s material (see Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien, X ) the author evaluates the average difference between various types of association. The results are given in percentages, with graphs.

958

------- . “L ’analyse des reves,”9 Annee psychologique, published by Alfred Binet, V ( 1909), i6off. — Outline of the elements of Freud’s interpretation of dreams, based on examples from the author’s own experience.

959

. t/ber die Psychologie der Dementia praecox.10 Halle, 1907. — T he book consists of five chapters: I. Critical survey of theoretical views on the psychology of dementia praecox, as found in the literature up to 1909. In general, a central disturbance is assumed, given different names by different authors, some of whom also mention “fixation” and the “splittingoff of sequences of ideas.” Freud was the first to demonstrate the psychogenic mechanism of paranoid dementia. II. T he feeling-toned complex and its general effects on the psyche. A distinction is made between the acute and the chronic effects of the complex, i.e., between the immediate and long-lasting assimilation of its contents. III. T he influence of the feeling-toned complex on the valency of associations. This question is discussed in some detail, the main 8 [O m itted from th e C o llected W orks. See C .W ., vol. 2, p a r. 999, n. t.] 9 [ = “ T h e A nalysis of D re a m s” (C .W ., vol. 4 ).] 10 [ = “ T h e Psychology of D e m e n tia P raeco x ” (C .W ., vol. 3 ).]

9 60

accent falling on the biological problem of w orking through the com plex a n d of psychological a d a p ta tio n to the environm ent. IV . D em entia praecox a n d hysteria: a parallel. A com prehen­ sive description of the sim ilarities a n d differences of both diseases. S u m m ary : H ysteria contains as its innerm ost core a complex th a t can never be overcom e com pletely, th o u g h the possibility of over­ com ing it is present in potentia. D em en tia contains a com plex th a t has becom e perm an en tly fixed a n d can never be overcome. V . Analysis of a case of p a ra n o id dem en tia as a paradigm . An absolutely typical case of a n elderly p a tie n t, presum ed to be im becilic, w ho pro d u ced masses of neologisms th a t could b e satisfactorily explained u n d e r analysis an d confirm th e content of th e preceding chapters. X he book has been tran slated into English by Peterson a n d Brill, w ith an intro d u ctio n by th e translators. T itle : C. G. Ju n g : T h e Psychology of D em entia Praecox. N ervous a n d M ental Diseases M o n o g rap h Series N o. 3. A uthorized tran slatio n w ith an in tro d u c ­ tio n by Frederick Peterson, M .D ., a n d A. A. Brill, Ph.B., M .D . N ew York, 1909.

9 6t

. D iagnostische Assoziationsstudien. B eitrage zur experim entellen Psychopathologie. E d ited by G. G. Ju n g . Vol. I. [L eip­ zig,] 1906.11 — T his volum e contains a selection of works from the Z urich C linic on association a n d the association experim ent w hich w ere previously published separately in th e Journal fiir Psychologie u n d N eurologie. Q u ite a p a rt from th eir psychological view point, these works are of practical a n d m edical interest because it was from these researches th a t th e diagnostic association experim ent was devel­ oped, an experim ent w hich furnishes us w ith a quick and certain clue to th e m ost im p o rta n t of th e complexes. T h e diagnostic use of th e experim ent is of p rim a ry im p o rta n c e ; of secondary im portance is its use as a clinical aid to differential diagnosis in very m any cases w here the diagnosis is still un certain . [C ontents as follows.]

962

P reface: by Professor B leu ler: “ U b e r die B edeutung von Assoziationsversuchen,” pp. 1-6. — V e rb a l association is one of th e few psychological products th a t can be evaluated experim entally. M uch 11 [J u n g also a b stra c te d V o l. I in L iA n n e e p sy ch o lo g iq u e (P a r is ) , its e d ito r, A lfre d B in et. (S e e T h e th e a b stra c ts a re sim ila r to , b u t a re o m itted .]

o f th e D ia g n o stisch e A sso zia tio n sstu d ien X I V ( 1 9 0 8 ) , 4 5 3 -5 5 , a t th e in v ita tio n of F r e u d /J u n g L e tte rs, 5 9 J a n d n. 2 .) As b rie fe r th a n , those tra n sla te d h e re , th ey

may be expected from these experiments because the whole psychic past and present, w ith all their experiences and aspirations, are reflected in the associative activity. It is an “index of all psychic processes, and we need only decipher it in order to know the whole m an.” 963

I. C. G. Ju n g and Franz Riklin (Z u ric h ): “ Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber Assoziationen Gesunder,” 12 pp. 7 — 1 4 5 . — The aim of this paper was to collect and present a large am ount of associations of norm al subjects. In order to evaluate the m aterial statistically, a system of classification was needed th a t would repre­ sent an extension and improvement of the Kraepelin-Aschaffenburg system. T he system adopted by the two authors follows logical lin­ guistic principles and allows a statistical evaluation which, though imperfect, is nevertheless sufficient for present purposes. T he first question to be discussed was whether and if so w hat types of reac­ tion occur in the norm al state. It was found that, on average, edu­ cated subjects exhibit a shallower type of reaction than do the uneducated; further, th a t the subjects fall into two m ain types, which shade off into each other: an objective and an egocentric type. T he first reacts with few signs of emotion, the second with many. T he second type is of particular interest from the practical standpoint and falls into two further subdivisions: the so-called con­ stellation or complex-constellation type and the predicate type. The first tries to suppress emotions, the second to display them. 964 Fatigue, somnolence, alcoholic intoxication, and m ania produce a shallow type of reaction. T he shallowness is due prim arily to dis­ turbance of attention in these states. This was proved by conducting a special experiment designed to distract the subject’s attention and then continuing the association test under these conditions. T he experiments yielded positive results. 965

II. K . W ehrlin (Zurich) : “ D ber die Assoziationen von Im bezillen und Idioten,” pp. 1 4 6 - 1 7 4 . — T he author reports the re­ sults of his association experiments with 1 3 imbeciles. T he asso­ ciations of the most feeble-minded exhibit a distinct type known as the definition type. Characteristic reactions: Winter: Singing: 12

consists of snow. consists of notes and song-books.

“T h e Associations of N orm al Subjects” (C.W ., vol. 2.]

F ather: Cherry:

member beside the mother. a garden thing.

9 66

Im beciles thus display an ex traordinarily intense attitude to the intellectual m eaning df th e stim ulus w ord. I t is characteristic th a t this type is found precisely am ong the feeble-m inded.

96 7

I I I . C. G. J u n g : “ Analyse der A ssoziationen eines E pileptikers,” 13 pp. 175-92. — T h e associations of this epileptic clearly b e ­ long to th e definition type, having a n aw kw ard a n d cum bersom e c h a ra c te r th a t confirms an d supplem ents the subject’s own re a c tio n : F ruit: Strong: Jolly:

th at is a fruit, a fruity fruit. am powerful, th at’s strong. I ’m jolly, I ’m merry.

968

T h e re are also an ex trao rd in ary n u m b er of feeling-toned, ego­ centric associations th a t are expressed undisguised. C ertain in d ica­ tions sup p o rt th e conjecture th a t the epileptic feeling-tone has a m arkedly perseverating character.

969

IV . C. G. J u n g : “ t)b e r das V erh alten der Reaktionszeit beim A ssoziationsexperim ente,” 14 p p . 193-228. — T h e hitherto unknow n reasons for th e a b n o rm al prolongation of certain reaction-tim es are here investigated, w ith th e follow ing results: E ducated subjects react, on average, quicker th a n the u n educated. R eaction-tim e of fem ale subjects is, on average, considerably longer th a n th at of m ale subjects. T h e g ram m atical quality of th e stim ulus w ord has a defi­ nite influence on reaction-tim e, a n d so has th e logical linguistic q uality of th e association. R eaction-tim es exceeding the probable m ean are for the m ost part caused by the interference of an un co n ­ scious ( repressed) com plex. H ence they are a n im p o rta n t aid in th e discovery of repressed complexes. T his is docum ented w ith num erous exam ples of analyses of associations th a t have been con­ stellated in this way.

970

V . E. B leu ler: “ Bewusstsein u n d A ssoziation,” pp. 2 2 9 - 5 7 .— D raw in g upon literary as well as case m aterial, this p a p e r sets out to prove th a t “so fa r as has been observed, no sh a rp distinction can be m ad e betw een conscious a n d unconscious,” and th a t the 13 [ = “A n Analysis of th e Associations of an E pileptic” (ib id .).] 14I = “T h e R eaction-T im e R atio in th e Association E xperim ent” (ibid.).]

same functional structures and mechanisms that we find in our consciousness can be shown to exist outside it and to influence the psyche just as m uch as the analogous conscious processes. “In this sense there are unconscious sensations, perceptions, conclusions, feel­ ings, fears and hopes, which differ from their conscious counterparts only because the quality of consciousness is absent.” B. cites in p ar­ ticular the cases of multiple personality and remarks th a t we should not speak merely of an unconscious, b u t that an almost infinite num ber of different unconscious groupings is possible. The grouping of memory elements into different personalities is due without ex­ ception to the overriding influence of affects. B. regards the quality of consciousness as something subsidiary, since psychic processes need to become conscious only under certain conditions, th a t is to say when they enter into association with “those ideas, sensations, strivings which at a given m om ent consti­ tute our personality.” V I. Jung : “ Psychoanalyse und Assoziationsexperiment,” 15 pp. 258-81. — This paper still shows the strong influence of the original Breuer-Freud theory of neurosis, namely, the theory of the psychic traum a. Neurotic symptoms are essentially symbols of repressed com­ plexes. Disturbed reactions in the association experiment reveal the words and things th a t lead directly to the unknow n complex. Thus far the experiment can be a valuable aid in analysis. This possibility is discussed by means of a practical example, a case of obsessional neurosis. T he building up of disturbed reactions into a legend proves the existence of an extensive erotic complex containing a num ber of individual determinants. In this way we gain a deep insight into the actual personality. Subsequent psychoanalysis justified the ex­ pectations the association experiment had aroused, thus bearing out the conclusion th a t the experiment renders the complex hidden behind the neurotic symptoms accessible to investigation. Every neu­ rosis harbours a complex th a t exerts considerable influence on the experiment and, as countless experiences show, it must have a causal significance. *

Contributions V II to X I have now been published in Vol. I I of Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien: is [ = “ Psychoanalysis and Association Experim ents” (ib id .).]

973

V II. R ik lin : “Kasuistische Beitrage zu r K enntnis hysterischer A ssoziationsphanom ene,” pp. 1—3 0 . — T h e au th o r examines the association phenom ena in eight hysterics an d comes to the following conclusions: T h e hysterical type of reaction is d om inated by m ore or less autonom ous complexes of great affective pow er, the develop­ m ent of w hich seems to be m uch m ore pronounced th a n with norm al subjects. O ne or the o th er com plex dom inates th e reaction to the exclusion of everything else, so th a t the experim ent is thickly studded w ith com plex-disturbances. D om ination by one com plex is the hall­ m ark of hysterical psychology; it is probable th a t all the symptoms can be derived directly from the complex.

974

V I I I. J u n g : “Assoziation, T ra u m u n d hysterisches Sym p­ tom ,” 1®pp. 31 -6 6 . — T his p ap er undertakes to describe an d to de­ term ine the various ways in w hich th e erotic complex manifests itself in a case of hysteria. First, analysis of the associations shows how they are constellated by th e erotic com plex, th e n follows an analysis of its transform ations in a dream -series, an d finally the com plex is shown to be the root of th e neurosis as well. In hysteria the com plex possesses an ab n o rm al degree of autonom y an d tends to lead an active existence on its own, w hich progressively dim in­ ishes and replaces the pow er of th e ego-complex. In this w ay a new, pathological personality comes into being, whose inclinations, judgm ents, an d decisions ten d only in the direction of the pathologi­ cal will. T h e second personality consumes the norm al ego-rem nant and forces it into th e role of a secondary (controlled) complex.

975

IX . J u n g : “ U b er die R eproduktionsstorungen beim Assoziationsexperim ent,” 17 pp. 6 7 -7 6 . — T h e subject of this pap er is th e reproduction m ethod discussed above (Ju n g , “ Experim entelle Beobachtungen fiber das E rinnerungsverm ogen” ). O n th e basis of ex­ tensive pathological m aterial it is shown th a t a faultily reproduced association has a reaction-tim e th a t exceeds th e m ean for th e experi­ m ent, and exhibits an average of m ore th a n tw ice as m any com plexindicators as a correctly reproduced association. From this it is evident th a t disturbance of reproduction is ano th er indicator for th e interference of a complex.

976

X . E m m a Ffirst (S chaffhausen) : “ Statistische U ntersuchungen fiber W ortassoziationen u n d fiber fam iliare U berstim m ung im 16 [ = “Association, Dream, and Hysterical Symptom” (ib id .).] 17 [ = “Disturbances of R eproduction in the Association Experiment” (ib id .).]

Reaktiontypus bei U ngebildeten,” pp. 7 7 -1 1 2 .— Association ex­ periments were m ade with 24 families totalling 100 subjects; this interim paper presents the results of the evaluation of only 9 of the uneducated families consisting of 37 subjects. Evaluation of the re­ maining material is not yet complete. 977 It was found th at husbands tend to produce rather more outer associations than their wives, and sons rather more than their sisters. 54% of the subjects, predom inantly women, were pronounced predicate-types. T he tendency to form value-judgments is greater in age than in youth; w ith women it begins at 40 and with men at 60. Relatives have a tendency to conform in reaction type to concordance of associations. T he most striking and most regular conformity occurs between parents and children of the same sex. 978

X I. Ludwig Binswanger (Kreuzlingen) : ttUber das Verhalten des psychogalvanischen Phanomens beim Assoziationsexperiment,” pp. 113-95. [Abstract, by Binswanger, omitted.] *

T he following works of the Zurich Clinic are concerned with the diagnostic use of the association experim ent: 979

Ju n g : Die psychologische Diagnose des Tatbestandesds Halle, 1906. — General description and interpretation of the experiment. Practical application to a case of theft.

9 8°

------ . ttLe nuove vedute della psicologia criminale. Contributo al metodo della tDiagnosi della conoscenza del fatto,’ ” 19 Rivista di psicologia applicata, IV ( 1908), pp. 285-304. — Practical applica­ tion to an actual case of theft with several suspects.

9 81

Philipp Stein (Budapest) : ttTatbestandsdiagnostische Versuche bei Untersuchungsgefangenen,” Zeitschrift fixr Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, 1909. — Investigation of factual evi­ dence presented by guilty, suspected, and innocent persons. T he material was collected partly from the Psychiatric Clinic and partly from prisoners held in detention in Zurich, and is of particular interest as stemming from the living reality of criminal practice. *

is [ = “T h e Psychological D iagnosis of Evidence” (ib id .).] 18 [ = ttN ew Aspects of Crim inal Psychology” (ibid., ap p en d ix).]

411

9 82

J u n g : D e r I n h a lt der P sychose.20 (F re u d s S ch riften z u r an g e w a n d te n S eelen k u n d e , N o. 3, 1 9 0 8 ). — T h is p a p e r, an a c a d e m ic le ctu re, discusses th e g re a t c h a n g e w h ich th e in tro d u c tio n of F r e u d ­ ia n psychology has w ro u g h t in o u r psychological co n c ep tio n of th e psychoses. F irst a sim p le a c c o u n t is giv en of th e sw itch fro m th e a n a to m ic a l to th e p sy chological a p p r o a c h ; th e n follow s a n o u tlin e of th e psy ch ological s tru c tu re o f d e m e n tia p ra e c o x , illu stra te d by a n u m b e r of c o n c rete cases. T h e p a p e r does n o t p u r p o r t to b e a n y ­ th in g m o re th a n a n in tro d u c tio n to th e m o d e rn p ro b lem s of psycho­ lo g ical p sy ch iatry . I t w as p u b lish e d in R u ssia n a n d Polish in 1909.

98 3

L a d a m e (G e n e v a ) : “ L ’asso ciatio n des idees e t son u tilisatio n co m m e m e th o d e d ’e x a m e n d a n s. Ies m a la d ie s m e n ta le s,” L ’E n c e p h a le, jo u r n a l m e n su e l de neurologie et de psych ia trie, N o . 8, ( 1 9 0 8 ). — E x tre m e ly o b jectiv e a c c o u n t of th e results of association studies.

984

------- . R ev iew of J u n g ’s P sychologie d er D e m e n tia p ra eco x. A rc h iv e s d e psychologie, I X ( 1 9 0 9 ), 76. — T h e a u th o r sum m arizes th e c o n te n t of th e book in som e d e ta il, b u t re fra in s from criticism a n d only a d d s th e fo llo w in g passage a t th e e n d : “ I n conclusion, le t us re m a rk h o w fru itfu l a tte m p ts of th is k in d . . . are. A fte r re a d ­ in g th e m it is im possible to g o to sleep a g a in m e n ta lly a n d to tak e a ca lm o r d esu lto ry view of th e in n u m e ra b le d e m e n tia p ra e c o x p a tie n ts w h o in h a b it o u r asylum s. O n e feels irresistibly co m p elled to look fo r so m e th in g else b e h in d th e b a n a l sy m p to m s of psychosis, to d isco v er th e in d iv id u a l him self a n d his n o rm a l a n d a b n o rm a l p e rso n a lity .”

9 85

A lp h o n se M a e d e r (Z u ric h ) : I. “ C o n trib u tio n s a la p sy ch o p a th o lo g ie d e la vie q u o tid ie n n e ,” A rc h iv e s d e p sych o lo g ie, V I . — I I . “ N o u v elles c o n trib u tio n s a la p sy c h o p a th o lo g ie ,” A r c h iv e s de p sy c h o ­ logie, V I I . ( I ) S im p le analyses o f F re u d ia n slips of th e to n g u e, fo rg e ttin g , fa u x p a s, d e m o n s tra tin g th e existence of a repressed id ea w ith n e g a tiv e fe elin g -to n e. ( I I ) T h e a u th o r gives exam ples of v a ri­ ous k in d s of fo rg e ttin g cau sed b y “ iso la tio n ” a n d “ d e riv a tio n ,” dis­ cusses a b re a c tio n ( “ d e c h a rg e e m o tio n n e lle ” ) in re la tio n to th e c o n ­ c e p t of th e co m p lex , a n d offers ev id en ce of d issociation in n o rm a l p erso n s, in c lu d in g th e m e c h a n ism s of d isp la c e m e n t, “ irra d ia tio n ” a n d id e n tific a tio n . A tte n tio n is d ra w n to “ au to m a tism e s m u sic a u x ” 20 [ = “T h e C ontent of the Psychoses” (C .W ., vol. 3 ).]

and to the indirect means of expression employed by the uncon­ scious. T h e author stresses the fruitfulness of this branch of psychopathology. 986

------ . “Essai d ’interpretation de quelques reves,” Archives de psychologie, V I. — A short introductory account of Freud’s theory of dream interpretation and of psychoanalysis, illustrated by four of the author’s dream analyses. H e shows that the same symbols are frequently employed in dreams, legends, and myths in exactly the same way (notably the snake, dog, bird, garden, house, b o x ).

987

----------- . “ Die Symbolik in den Legenden, M archen, Gebrauchen und T raum en,” Psychiatrisch-neurologische Wochenschrift, X. — Thinking in symbols is an inferior stage of association th at equates similarity with identity; it is frequently a process of uncon­ scious activity (hence its role in dreams, hallucinations, delusional ideas, as well as in poetry). Examples are taken from epileptic twi­ light states. A uthor discusses the assimilative tendency of the sexual complex in relation to symbol formation. Interpretation of the fish as a sexual symbol provides the clue to numerous customs, folk beliefs (fish on Friday, April fish = April fool, the game on Ash W ednesday), legends and fairytales (G rim m : “ T he Golden Fish” ).

------ . Une voie nouvelle en psychologie. Coenobium LuganoMilano, 1909.—-Inform ative essay on Freudian psychology (ex­ cluding psychopathology). By uncovering unconscious motivations, psychoanalysis provides a coherent view of the way a person thinks and acts. 989 Disturbances of unconscious activity are discussed with the help of the author’s own analyses. These disturbances should be regarded as expressions of the unconscious, as revelations of unadm itted ten­ dencies. T he gradual transition to the pathological is stressed throughout. Dreams are intimately connected with the individual’s actual conflicts; they are solutions offered by the unconscious which are often accepted later on and become realities. Conflicts are due partly to the stresses of civilization. 99 ° Section I I I treats of symbols in dreams, hallucinations, fairy­ tales, and legends, and in ordinary speech. T he symbol is a special form of thought association characterized by its impreciseness: vague analogies are taken as identities. This is probably typical of the unconscious: it has something infantile and primitive about it. Sym988

bolisms in popular speech (Rabelais, folklore), in legends, in the language of primitives show affinities with associations under fa­ tigue, in abaissement du niveau mental, in sym ptom atic actions when attention is distracted, in dreams, psychoses, and neuroses. 991

-------. “A propos des Symboles,” Journal de Psychologie normale et pathologique, 1909. [Abstract, by M aeder, omitted.]

992

H erm ann M uller (Zurich) : “Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Hyperemesis G ravidarum ,” Psychiatrische-neurologische W ochenschrift, X . — O n the basis of careful clinical observations on a num ber of cases of hyperemesis21 the author comes to the following conclusions: 1. V om itus m atutinus gravidarum is a psychogenic symptom. 2. Hyperemesis is in the m ajority of cases psychogenic. 993 A lthough the author does not p u t forw ard any complete analy­ sis, in several of his cases he makes psychological insight possible. A ttention is paid throughout to the views of the Freudian school. 994

-------. “ Ein Fall von induziertem Irresein nebst anschliessenden E rorterungem ,” Psychiatrisch-neurologische W ochenschrift, X I . — A case of religious exaltation in a female religious fanatic induced a psychosis in a female hysteric who lived w ith her, by reason of the “same aetiological dem and.” T h e presentation of the two cases is elegant and lucid, thanks to the application of Freudian analysis.

995

O skar Pfister (Zurich) : “W ahnvorstellung und Schiilerselbstm ord. Auf G rund einer Traum analyse beleuchtet,” Schweizerische Blatter fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, I ( 1909) . — “Psychoanalytische Seelsorge und experimentelle M oralpadogogik,” Protestantische M onatshefte, I (1 9 0 9 ). — “ Ein Fall von psychoanalytischer SeeIsorge und Seelenheilung,” Evangelische Freiheit. M onatsschrift fiir die kirchliche Praxis in der gegenwdrtigen K u ltu r, I I - V ( 1 9 0 9 ). [Abstract, by Pfister, covering all three items, omitted.]

996

Pototsky (Berlin) : “Die V erw ertbarkeit des Assoziationsversuches fiir die Beurteilung der traum atischen Neurosen,” M onatsschrift fiir Psychiatrie und Neurologie, X X V , pp. 52 iff. — The 21 [Excessive vom iting in pregnancy.]

414

author applied the association experiment to two patients with neuroses due to an accident. In the first case there was an over­ whelming predominance of the compensation complex, in the second a striking absence of the same complex. Prognostic conclusions are drawn from these findings. 997

F ran k R ik lin (Z u rich ): “H ebung epileptischer Amnesien durch Hypnose,” Journ. f. Psychol, u. Neurol., 1 :5 /6 (1903). — T he author’s success in clearing up the amnesias of epileptics under hypnosis demonstrates their affinity with hysterical amnesias. Associ­ ation experiments of clinical, diagnostic interest are also reported.

998

— — . “Zur Anwendung der Hypnose bei epileptischen Amnesien,” Journ. f. Psychol, u. Neurol., I I (1903). — R eport of an ­ other case with epileptic twilight states and disappearance of am ­ nesia, though it is to be regretted th at no analysis is given of their content. D uring these states the patient lovingly stroked a cat, and sometimes a goat too. I t has since been brought to my knowledge that this scene was a fragm ent of an infantile erotic experience.

------- . “Zur Psychologie hysterischer Dammerzustande und des Ganserschen Symptoms,” Psychiatrisch-neurologische W ochenschrift, No. 22 (1904). — Ganser has described the symptom of “irrelevant talk” in hysterical twilight states. Subsequently, the con­ cept of Ganser’s symptom has been taken by various authors (Raecke in particular) now in a broader and now in a narrower sense. Further, it was m aintained :hat the symptom is exclusively associated with the outbreak of twilight states among prisoners in detention. T he psychological affinity between the irrelevant talk of hysterics and the mechanism of simulation forced itself upon these authors largely because of this fact. Jung ( “Ein Fall von hysterischem Stupor bei einer Untersuchungsgefangenen,” Journ. f. Psychol, u. Neurol., I, 1902) was the first to place the problem on the footing of Freudian psychology, thus facilitating the correct evaluation and interpretation of Ganser’s symptom and the twilight state.21a 000 T he paper reports four cases of hysterical twilight states with Ganser’s symptom. Only one of them was a prisoner in detention, the others not. T he psychic situation of the detainee is exceptional: he is driven into a corner, gives false answers, tells lies, and in an 999

21a[Cf. “A Case o f Hysterical Stupor in a Prisoner in D eten tion ,” pars. 278®.]

extremity of distress falls into a twilight state; and only under these conditions will the symptom of “autom atized simulation,” of not knowing and not understanding, come markedly to the fore. T he general situation at the onset of G anser’s twilight state is th at a painful event is immediately repressed and thrust into oblivion be­ cause it is incompatible w ith the other contents of consciousness. T he motive of not knowing or of not w anting to know produces the symptom of irrelevant talk. Disturbance of orientation proves to be a wish not to be oriented in regard to the existing situation. In twilight states, not knowing can also be replaced by compensa­ tory wish-fantasies. T he pronounced “restriction of consciousness” serves to split off the intolerably painful idea and to allow the emergence of censored, wish-fulfilling situations. 1001

. “Analytische Untersuchungen der Symptome und Assoziationen eines Falles von Hysterie,” Psychiatrisch-neurologische W ochenschrift, No. 46 (1 9 0 5 ). — For the m ain part the analysis stems from the year 1902-3 and concerns a typical, severe case of conversion hysteria. At th a t time the Breuer-Freud Studien uber Hysterie still served as a theoretical and technical model. T he th era­ peutic results m ust be rated very good; during the 6 -7 years since then, the patient’s physical symptoms have come back only occa­ sionally. H er personality, however, shows signs of m oral deteriora­ tion. Nowadays, perhaps, we would no longer have the courage or the desire to analyse a personality of so little value and so poorly developed, and with so few hopes for the future. T he results are therefore to be rated all the more highly. An im portant contributory factor was the transference to the analyst. While the author found th a t abreaction was not sufficient to account for the therapeutic result, he was handicapped by insufficient knowledge of the nature of the transference. 1002 A t the time of the analysis the author was also not fam iliar enough w ith dream interpretation to derive m uch benefit from it. IO° 3 T h e structure of the symptoms was analysed and a num ber of psychic trau m ata were discovered. T he p atient’s early childhood received scant attention; on the other hand the mechanism by which hysterical ailments of the body are produced is amply documented. 1004 O ne section of the book is devoted to association experiments. A t th a t tim e it was of great im portance to show th a t the same mechanisms are a t work in the association experiment as those

1005

which produce hysterical phenomena, and that the laws governing the effects of the complex are the same in the experiment as in normal persons, but only emerge with greater clarity. Another section is concerned with the association mechanism leading to conversion hysteria and with the theory of abreaction. The author was keenly aware of the gap between theory and fact, which has since been filled by introducing the concepts of transfer­ ence, libido, and infantile sexuality.

1006

. Die diagnostische Bedeutung von Assoziationsversuchen hei Hysterischen. — Lecture delivered at the 35th meeting of the Society for Swiss Psychiatrists in St. U rban, 1904. Abstract in the annual report of the Society and in the Psychiatrisch-neurologische Wochenschrift1 No. 29 (1904).

1007

. uU ber Versetzungsbesserungen,” Psychiatrisch-neurolo­ gische Wochenschrift, Nos. 16/18 (1905). — T he opening of the annexes to the R heinau Sanatorium (C anton Zurich) affords an opportunity to observe the effect of transferring mentally ill patients from one institution to another. T he observations relate to 85 pa­ tients of whom the author has previous knowledge at the Burgholzli. In more than half the cases an improvement was noted. A daptation to reality is helped by greater freedom of movement and, above all, by work therapy. Especially in the commonest dis­ ease, dem entia praecox, this draws the patient out of his introversion and transfers his interest to reality. In order to show how the pa­ tients assimilate their new milieu, the author briefly discusses the psychological significance of the most im portant symptoms of this disease (negativism, blocking, wish-fulfilment in delusional ideas, servant-girl psychoses, fertility symbols, mistaken identity due to complexes, religious delusions as translation of wish fantasies into paranoid ideas; their elaboration, condensation, stereotypization, cathexis of the m otor apparatus by complex-automatisms). T he best results are obtained through the exercise of complexes of ideas and functions that have remained normal. Equally effective are early discharge, replacement whenever possible of bed treat­ ment, w hich only accentuates introversion and “ dreaminess,” by work therapy which draws the patients out of themselves. W ith the aid of two case histories it is shown how the introver­ sion comes about, where the transference of interest to the outside world fails, and how the process of introversion goes m uch further

1008

th a n sim p le w ish -fu lfilm en t in fa n ta sy w o u ld re q u ire . In th e second case ev en th e a tte m p t a t' w ish -fu lfilm en t in re ality w as u n a b le to ch eck th e in tro v e rsio n ; th e u n co n scio u s p ro d u c e d id eas of self-de­ s tru c tio n to w h ic h th e p a tie n t su c c u m b e d by c o m m ittin g suicide. 1011 I n a b o u t h a lf th e cases th e tra n s fe r h a d no n o tic e a b le influence. 1012 X h e effects of th e tra n s fe r a re illu s tra te d b y a series of ex cerp ts fro m case histories a n a ly tic a lly in te rp re te d . 10 *3

. “ B e itra g z u r P sychologie d e r k a ta le p tisc h e n Z u sta n d e bei K a ta to n ie ,” P sych ia trisch -n eu ro lo g isch e W o c h e n s c h rift, N os. 3 2 /3 3 ( 1 9 0 6 ) . — T h e a u th o r su cc eed e d in m a k in g c o n ta c t w ith a c a ta ­ to n ic w h ile in a severe c a ta le p tic s ta te a n d in d isco v erin g so m eth in g of w h a t w as g o in g o n in th is state. W e le a rn fro m th e an a m n e sis t h a t th is c o n d itio n set in a fte r a psychosis la stin g fo r fo u r years. T h e psychosis first m a n ife ste d itself in th e p a tie n t’s a u to e ro tic selfa g g ra n d iz e m e n t fro m th e ag e o f 18. H e trie d to w in th e h a n d of a re la tiv e ’s ric h d a u g h te r, co m p letely ig n o rin g th e im possibility of d o in g so. D e sp ite b e in g re b u ffe d h e c o n tin u e d to press his s u it u n ­ d e te rre d . C a ta le p tic sy m p to m s w e re a lre a d y p re sen t on his ad m is­ sion to th e clinic, a lo n g w ith a p ersisten t te n d e n c y to b re a k o u t a n d g e t to his cousin. I0I4 T h e p a tie n t’s c o n d itio n c a n b e o u tlin e d as follow s: u n d e rly in g th e ca ta lep sy is a p o w e rfu l te n d e n c y to sleep, to “ b e a d e a d m a n ,” as w as e v id e n t fro m th e p a tie n t’s o w n sta te m e n ts. T h e re su lt of th is te n d e n c y resem bles n a tu r a l sleep, b u t a c tu a lly it is m o re like h y p n o tic sleep. I t is m o tiv a te d b y th e repression o f a com plex, a w ish to fo rg et. 10‘ 5 A lth o u g h th e a u th o r su cceed ed in b re a k in g th ro u g h this sleep te n d e n c y , th e b re a k th ro u g h w as n o t c o m p lete, so th a t, side b y side w ith a d e q u a te d isc h a rg e o f affect, fo r in sta n c e w e ep in g o v er th e u tte r hopelessness o f e v e r re a c h in g th e b elo v ed , a p e c u lia r c o m p ro ­ m ise b e tw e e n th e d isc h a rg e o f affec t a n d th e sleep te n d e n c y co u ld b e o b serv ed in th e p a tie n t’s fa c ia l expression a n d d e m e a n o u r. T h e tw o co m p o n e n ts w e re so m etim es d iv id e d in to th e tw o h alv es of th e fa c e : o n e sid e w e ep in g , o n e eye o p en . K e e p in g th e eyes o p en m e a n t r a p p o r t w ith th e in v e stig a to r; closing th e eyes m e a n t b re a k ­ in g o ff th e r a p p o r t a n d th e v ic to ry o f th e te n d e n c y to sleep o r fo rg et. i Oi6 T h ro u g h o u t th e in v e stig a tio n th e th o u g h t p e rse v e ra te d , “ I am g o in g to m a rr y E m m a C .,” o r “ I love E m m a C .,” c o u n te rb a la n c e d b y a n o th e r th o u g h t w h ic h m a in ta in s th e sleep te n d e n c y as a p ro -

1017

1018

1019

1020

tective factor and which voices the cousin’s reply, “D on’t expea. anything of the future.” The patient readily imagined wish-fulfilling situations in which he believed his beloved was standing before him, went towards her, tried to em brace her, took other persons present (doctor, warder) as substitutes (mistaken identity), b u t always through the veil of cataleptic sleep. Through this veil it is possible to perceive quite adequate and profound discharges of affect. Evaluation of the questions and modes of reaction follows the laws of complex-reactions in the association experiment. This study suggests th a t the catatonic phenom ena in dem entia praecox have in general the significance attributed to them in the present case.

1021

. “ tlb e r Gefangnispsychosen,” Psychiat rise h-neurologische Wochenschrift, X I, Nos. 30/37. — An attem pt to explain and classify the clinical pictures of prison psychosis along psychoanalytic lines. Prison is a psychological situation which, despite differences of constitution in the diagnostic sense, releases psychological and pathological reactions th at are more or less uniform.

1022

. “ Psychologie und Sexualsymbolik der M archen,” Psychiatrisch-neurologische W ochenschrift, IX , Nos. 2 2 /24. — Ex­ cerpts from the author’s m ajor work: W unscherfullung und Symbolik im M archen. . W unscherfullung und Sym bolik im M archen. ( Schriften zur angew andten Seelenkunde, edited by Freud, No. 2, 1908.) [Abstract, by Riklin, omitted.]

1023

Schnyder (B ern ): Definition et nature de Vhysterie. ( Congres des medecins alienistes et neurologistes de France et des pays de langue frangaise, X V IIiem e Session.) Geneva, 1907. — T he doctrinal tenets of a wide-ranging literature are scrutinized in this volume. Among the reviews there is an objective account of the Breuer-Freud method, as well as of the theory of complexes. Schnyder rejects the modern viewpoints. “T he ideas of Freud and his partisans are certainly an im portant contribution to the solution of the problem of hysteria. However, the sage of V ienna might be reproached for having introduced an arbitrary mechanization

in to th e psychological conception of hysteria, a n d for relying on hypotheses w hich, how ever ingenious, are of too subjective a n a tu re to lay claim to incontestable scientific v alue.” 1024

S chw arzw ald (L a u sa n n e ) : “ B eitrag zur Psychopathologie der hysterischen D am m erzustande u n d A utom atism en,” Journ. /. Psy­ chol. u. N eurol., X V ( 1909). — Investigation of a psychogenic tw i­ light state in w hich th e p a tie n t set fire to his house. T he m aterial allows glimpses in to the psychological m echanism of the deed and of th e case itself. T h e infantile history is un fo rtu n ately incom plete, b u t the a u th o r is m istaken in dispensing entirely w ith infantile de­ velopm ent. T h e p a tie n t’s childhood is of th e greatest im portance for th e subsequent developm ent of neurosis, a t least as g reat as the situation a t the m om ent, if n ot greater. 1025 A refining of his psychoanalytic technique w ould convince the a u th o r of the soundness of this view. T h e d rea m of “ T om T h u m b ” w hich th e p a tie n t h a d the day before the incendiarism is very signifi­ c a n t an d clearly indicates th a t the act was determ ined by infantile rem iniscences. T his has escaped the a tte n tio n of the author. Analysis of childhood a n d the correct evaluation of its results is one of the m ost difficult p a rts of the psychoanalytical technique, particularly for the beginner. Editorial N o te [Jung contributed several abstracts to the periodical Folia neuro-biologica (Leipzig),22 for which he was an editorial consultant. As these are summaries w ithout critical comment, they are not translated but merely listed here: In Vol. 1:3 (1908) : (388) Jung, C. G. “Associations d ’idees familiales,” Archives de psychologie, V I I : 26 (1907). (389) M etral, M . “Experiences scolaires sur la memoire de 1’orthographe,” ibid. (394) Lom bard, Emile. “Essai d’une classification des phenomenes de glossolalie,” ibid., V II :25 (1907). (395) Claparede, Ed. “Quelques mots sur la definition de l’hysterie,” ibid., V I I : 26 ( 1907). [See above, par. 943.] (396) Flournoy, T h. “Automatisme teleologique antisuicide. U n cas de suicide empeche p ar une hallucination,” ibid. 22 [For F reud’s disparagem ent of this journal, see T h e F reud/Jung Letters, 55F and n. 3.]

A B S T R A C T S OF T H E P S Y C H O L O G I C A L W O R K S OF S W I S S

AUTHORS

( 3 9 7 ) L e r o y , E . - B e r n a r d . ' ' E s c r o q u e r i e et hypnose. Escroqueries prolongees p e n d a n t plusiers mois a l ' a c i d e de m a n o e u v r e s h y p n o t i q u e s pratiquees sur une des v i c t i m e s , " ibid. (398) L e m a i t r e , A u g . " U n n o u v e a u c y c l e s o m n a m b u l i q u e d e M i l e S m i t h . L e s p e i n t u r e s religieuses," ibid., V I I : 2 5 (19°7)In V o l . I I : 1 ( 1 9 0 8 ) : ( 1 2 2 ) P i ^ r o n , H . " L a T h e o r i e des Amotions et l e s d o n n e e s act u e l l e s d e l a p h y s i o l o g i e , " Journal de psychologie normale et pathologique, I V - V (1907-8). (123) Revault d'Allones, G . "L'Explication physiologique de 1'emotion," ibid. ( 1 2 4 ) H a r t e n b e r g , P. " P r i n c i p e d ' u n e p h y s i o g n o m i e s c i e n t i f i q u e , " ibid. ( 1 3 0 ) D u m a s , G . " Q u ' e s t - c e q u e la psychologie p a t h o l o g i q u e ? , " ibid. ( 1 3 1 ) D r o m a r d , G . " D e la dissociation de l a m i m i q u e c h e z les alienes," ibid. ( 1 3 2 ) M a r i e , A . " S u r q u e l q u e s troubles fonctionnels de 1'audition chez certains debiles m e n t a u x , " ibid. ( 1 3 3 ) J a n e t , P. " L e r e n v e r s e m e n t de 1'orientation ou l'allochirie des r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . " ( 1 3 4 ) P a s c a l , C o n s t a n z a . " L e s M a l a d i e s mentales de R o b e r t S c h u m a n n , " ibid. ( 1 3 5 ) V i g o u r o u x , A . , a n d J u q u e l i e r , P. " C o n t r i b u t i o n clinique a l'etude des delires d u r e v e , " ibid. In V o l . I L 3 (1908) : (348) V a r e n d o n c k . J. " L e s ideals des e n f a n t s , " Archives de psychologie, V I I : 28 ( 1 9 0 8 ) . (349) C l a p a r e d e , E d . " C l a s s i f i c a t i o n et p l a n des m e t h o d e s psyc h o l o g i q u e s , " ibid. ( 3 5 0 ) K a t z a r o f f , D i m i t r e . ( T r a v a i l d u L a b o r a t o i r e d e psychologie de l ' U n i v e r s i t e de G e n e v e . ) " E x p e r i e n c e s sur le role de la r e c i t a t i o n c o m m e f a c t e u r de la m e m o r i s a t i o n , " ibid. ( 3 5 1 ) M a e d e r , A l p h o n s e . " N o u v e l l e s c o n t r i b u t i o n s a l a psychop a t h o l o g i e d e la vie q u o t i d i e n n e , " ibid., V I I : 27 ( 1 9 0 8 ) . [See a b o v e , p a r . 985.] ( 3 5 2 ) R o u m a , G e o r g e s . " U n cas de m y t h o m a n i e , C o n t r i b u t i o n a l'etude d u m e n s o n g e et de la f a b u l a t i o n c h e z l ' e n f a n t , " ibid. EDITORS.]

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R E V IE W O F H IT S C H M A N N : “ F R E U D ’S N E U R O S E N L E H R E ” 1 H itschm ann’s book meets a longfelt need. A book th a t intro­ duces the beginner to the problems of psychoanalysis in a clear and simple way has long been w anted. H itschm ann has fulfilled this task most satisfactorily. I t cannot have been easy to present the manifold discoveries and conclusions of psychoanalysis in sys­ tem atic order, for, contrary to the prejudices of our opponents, it is not at all a question of a preconceived system that puts no difficulties in the way of further theoretical development, b u t of extraordinarily complicated m aterial th a t throws into relief the whole laboriousness of patient empirical research (only, of course, if one works in this field oneself.) T he content of the book is very diverse b u t in no way confusing. T he author has confined himself to essentials and, where the problems are still fluid, has been satisfied w ith hints. H e has thus succeeded in painting an excellent picture of the present state of psychoanalysis and its far-reaching problems. It is to be hoped th a t the book will reach the widest possible public, not least because it will dispel numerous prejudices and false opin­ ions which have arisen am ong m edical men through inadequate knowledge of the literature. W e m ust also hope th a t it will soon be translated into foreign languages, for which purpose it is better suited than m any original researches which are so specialized that they are difficult to understand. 1 [Jahrbuch fiir p sych o a n a lytisch e u n d p sych o p a th o lo g isch e F o rsch u n g en, I I I : 1 (1 9 1 1 ) , 480. E d u a rd H its c h m a n n , F reu d s N e u ro se n leh re ; n a ch ih re m gegenw artigen S ta n d e zu sa m m en fa sse n d dargestellt ( “ F re u d ’s T h e o ry of N eu ro sis: a C o m p reh en siv e In te rp re ta tio n of Its P re se n t S ta tu s” ) (L eip zig a n d V ien n a, 1 9 1 1 ). See T h e F r e u d /J u n g L e tte rs, 194F, n . 3.]

A N N U A L R E P O R T (1 9 1 0 /1 1 ) BY T H E P R E S ID E N T O F T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L PSY C H O A N A LY TIC A S S O C IA T IO N 1

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A year and a half ago at the Congress in Nuremberg it was decided to establish an International Association; the foundation of local branches in Vienna, Berlin, and Zurich followed in quick succession. T he Berlin branch, with nine members, was set up in M arch 1910, with Dr. A braham 2 as chairm an; V ienna followed in April with twenty-four members, under the chairmanship of Dr. Adler.3 Zurich was established in June with nineteen members, under Dr. Binswanger4 as chairman. These branches formed the base of our International Psychoanalytic Association, though with its fifty-two members in three countries it was still a tender shoot. W ith great pleasure and satisfaction I now can announce th a t in the past year our Association has led a most vigorous life. In Febru­ ary the seed planted in America sprouted. A local branch was estab­ lished in New York with twenty-one members under the chairm an­ ship of D r. Brill.5 A nd at long last South Germany joined in: the M unich branch was established in M arch w ith six members under Dr. Seif6 as chairman. D uring 1911 the respective memberships grew as follows: Ber­ lin, from g to 12; Vienna, from 24 to 38; Zurich, from 19 to 1 K Translated by W. S .) Part of the R eport on the Third Psychoanalytic Congress, W eim ar, 2 1 -2 2 Sept. 1911, in the B u lletin , or K o rresp o n d en zb la tt der internation alen psychoanalytischen V ereinigung, in Z en tra lb la tt fiir P sycho­ analyse (W iesb a d en ), 1 1 :3 (D ec. 1 9 1 1 ), 233—34. Jung had b een elected presi­ dent of the International Psychoanalytic A ssociation upon its founding at the Second Psychoanalytic Congress at Nuremberg, 30—31 Mar. 1910. For the Congress programmes, see T h e F re u d /Ju n g L etters, appendix 4, pp. 4 7 3 - 7 6 .]

2 [Karl Abraham : see T h e F re u d /Jung L etters, 35J, n. 7.] 8 [Alfred A dler: see ibid., 20F, n. 5, and 260F, n. 3. AdIer had resigned from the V ien n a Society the previous June, but his resignation was not officially announced until 11 O ct. 1911.] 4 [Ludwig B insw anger: see ibid., 16J, n. 1.] 5 [Abraham A. Brill: see ibid., 6 9 J, n. 2, and 238F , n. 4.] ®[Leonhard S e if: see ibid., 137J, n. 1.}

29. T h u s th e to ta l m e m b e rsh ip rose fro m 52 to 106. I n o th e r w ords, w e h a v e slightly m o re th a n d o u b led . 1029 T h e Z u ric h g ro u p is deep ly g ra te fu l to th e stim ulus p ro v id ed b y F r e u d ’s scientific theories. I t m a y to som e e x te n t lessen o u r d e b t o f g ra titu d e if w e m a y b e allow ed to p o in t o u t t h a t th e fo u n d ers of th e b ra n c h e s in B erlin, M u n ic h , a n d N e w Y ork have com e o u t of th e Z u ric h school. I0 3 ° T h is e n c o u ra g in g p ro life ra tio n in th e o u tsid e w o rld is m a tc h e d b y th e te e m in g scientific activ ity w ith in th e sections. I re fer to th e v a rie ty of topics on w h ic h lectu res w ere given in th e in d iv id u a l g ro u p s. P ositive c o n trib u tio n s to o u r scientific problem s, how ever, c a n b e ex p e cted only w h e n a n in d iv id u a l m e m b e r’s ric h experience is b ro u g h t to b e a r o n th e so lu tio n of th e p ro b le m a d d u c e d . I n g en ­ eral, su ch a n id eal co n d itio n is difficult to b rin g a b o u t; specifically, g ro u p s w ith c o m p a ra tiv e ly re c e n t lo cal tra d itio n s w ill co n sid er it th e ir forem o st g o al to in stru c t a n d e d u c a te th e ir m em bers. A t this tim e psychoanalysis d e m a n d s of a n y b o d y w h o w a n ts to m a ste r it a n u n c o m m o n a m o u n t of in d u stry a n d scientific co n c e n tra tio n , if it is to b e m o re th a n th e free-w h eelin g exercise of h ig h ly in d iv id u a l­ ized talen ts. T h e te m p ta tio n to eschew em p iric a l evidence is very stro n g in p sy ch o a n aly tic w o rk , especially since scientific p se u d o ­ e x a c titu d e , like all c u ltu ra l ab su rd ities, collapses b efo re th e gaze of th e a n a ly s a n d in to its o w n no th in g n ess. Y et, th is does n o t do aw ay w ith th e n ee d fo r system atic p la n n in g of scientific research a n d ex p o sition, w h ic h m u st b e w ell conceived a n d im m e d ia tely co n ­ v in cin g . W e w h o a re fa v o u re d w ith ta k in g possession of these new ly disco v ered te rrito rie s are obliged to use self-discipline so as to p re ­ v e n t th ese goods fro m b e in g je o p a rd iz e d b y a n u n b rid le d im a g in a ­ tio n . L e t u s n e v e r fo rg et th a t ev e ry th in g w e conceive a n d create is w ell co n ceived a n d w ell c re a te d only w h e n it is ad dressed to m a n k in d in a h u m a n ly intelligible lan g u ag e . W h a t fa te expects of us is t h a t w e fa ith fu lly h u s b a n d th e e n o rm o u s sto re of know ledge p ro v id e d b y F r e u d ’s discoveries a n d pass it o n to o u r fellow m en , ra th e r th a n p e rv e rt it fo r th e g ra tific a tio n of o u r o w n am bitions. T h is task re q u ire s fro m ea ch of us n o t only a h ig h degree of selfcriticism , b u t also a th o ro u g h p sy ch o a n aly tic tra in in g . W e know w ell t h a t th is tra in in g is h a r d to com e b y in iso la tio n ; it is easier to o b ta in it w h e n m a n y d iffe re n t h e a d s w o rk to g eth er. T h is task of te a c h in g a n d tra in in g is o n e o f th e m a in pu rp o ses of th e b ra n c h e s of o u r A ssociation, a n d I sh o u ld like to re c o m m e n d it to th e local

chairmen with special emphasis. Next to the results of new research, discussions of elementary questions should be on the agenda of local meetings; they would enable younger members to acquire knowl­ edge of fundam ental ideas and principles with which a thorough familiarity is the sine qua non of the scientific method. Such basic discussions would make it possible to dispose of many theoretical and practical misconceptions. A nd it seems to me of great im por­ tance to expose deviations of opinion to immediate and thorough discussion in order to forestall any squandering of our strength on pointless side-issues. This possibility, as the events in V ienna7 have shown, lies not so far afield, inasmuch as the present unbridled ways of psychoanalytic investigation and the multitude of problems that are touched upon encourage changes, as revolutionary as they are unjustified, in the principles of neurosis theory th a t Freud dis­ covered and elaborated in decades of hard work. I believe, vis-a-vis such temptations, th at we must never forget th a t our Association also has the im portant purpose of discrediting “wild” psychoanalysis and not adm itting it to its own ranks. W e need not fear th a t dogma­ tism— long desired by our opponents— would surely invade psycho­ analysis; b u t it rather means th at we are holding tightly to the principles we have gained and to which we will adhere until they have been either entirely confirmed or else recognized as wholly false. I03r After these remarks and wishes concerning the cultivation of our science in the local branches, I must also call your attention to the publishing activities in the psychoanalytic field. T he past year has seen the Zentralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse8 added to the Jahrbuch; under its alert editorship the new journal has already published a great deal of m aterial and by its variety rendered a good account of the variety of psychoanalysis. N ext year a further organ will be added,9 of a more general rather than strictly medical character. 1032 This year I have witnessed with my own eyes the tremendous 7 [The allusion is to the secession of A dler an d several of his followers from the V ienna Society in June.] 8 [The first issue appeared in O ct. 1910 under th e direction of Freud and the jo in t editorship of AdIer and Stekel.] 9 [Imago: Z eitschrift fiir A nw endung der Psychoanalyse a uf die Geisteswissenschaften ( “Journal for the A pplication of Psychoanalysis to th e H um anities” ), directed by F reud, edited by O tto R ank and H anns S a c h s fits first issue ap ­ peared in M arch 1912.]

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impression th a t the efforts on behalf of our cause have created in the world. Knowledge and appreciation of psychoanalysis are more widespread than is generally assumed. This past year has brought us in Zurich a loss, a loss of special poignancy for the hopes for our scientific future. It is the death of our friend H onegger,10 who had recom mended himself to the membership by his ingenious paper read at Nuremberg. 10 [Jo h a n n Ja k o b H o n e g g er, J r ., w h o c o m m itte d su icid e o n 28 M a r. 1911. See T h e F r e u d / J u n g L e tte rs, 148J, n. 2, a n d 24.7J; a n d H . H . W alser, “A n E a rly P sy ch o an aly tical T ra g e d y ,” S p rin g , 1974. T h e “ p a p e r re a d a t N u re m ­ b e rg ” h as n o t survived.]

T W O L E T T E R S O N PSYCH O AN A LY SIS1 io January 1912 In the communication from Dr. Kesselring and Dr. B. of the K eplerbund, which appeared in this column, exception was taken to the following rem ark of the reporter: “Dr. Kesselring, as he him ­ self observed, spoke as an opponent of F reud’s psychoanalytic method and at the request of the Keplerbund. This Society is op­ posed to a tendentiously materialistic pursuit of the natural sciences and wishes to com bat the erroneous view that scientific knowledge stands in the way of religious belief. Hence the impression which the speaker intended to make upon his audience is perfectly under­ standable.” 1035 In saying this the reporter did not “discredit” Dr. Kesselring’s willingness to speak on Freud in the K eplerbund, nor did he dis­ credit the general activity of th a t Society— he merely stated some­ thing th a t was self-evident. T he K eplerbund has the following article in its program m e, which it claims is based on a “scientifically and ethically unassailable foundation” : “T he K eplerbund holds the conviction th a t the tru th contains within itself the harm ony of scien­ tific facts with philosophical knowledge and w ith religious experi­ ence.” F urther: “T he K eplerbund differs quite consciously from the materialistic dogma of monism and combats the atheistic propa­ ganda resulting therefrom, which wrongly seeks support in the findings of natural science.” 1034

1 [Neue

ZU rcher Z e itu n g , o n th e d ates given. J u n g ’s artic le “N eu e B ah n en d e r P sychologie” ( “N ew P a th s in Psychology,” C .W ., vol. 7, a p p e n d ix ), in R aschers Ja h rb u ch fu r S c h w etze r A r t u n d K u n s t, 191a (issued in D ec. 1 9 1 1 ), p re c ip ita te d con tro versy w h ich led to a p u b lic le c tu re a tta c k in g psychoanalysis by M ax K esselring, M .D ., a n eu ro lo g ist of Z u ric h , o n 15 D ec. 1911 in th e S ch w urgerichtssaal, sponsored by th e Z u ric h b ra n c h of th e K ep lerb u n d . D u rin g J a n . 1912 articles in th e Z e itu n g by K esselring a n d o th ers c a rrie d th e polem ic o n ; J u n g c o n trib u te d these tw o. H e p u b lish ed a n a rtic le designed to close the discussion, in W issen u n d L e b e n (Z u ric h ), 15 F eb. 1912: “ C o n cern in g P sychoanalysis,” C .W ., vol. 4. T h e e n tire co ntroversy is sum m arized in H . F . E llenberger, T h e D iscovery o f th e U nconscious, p p . 8 1 0 -1 4 ; see aIso T h e F r e u d /J u n g L e tte rs, 2 8 7 J, n. 7 ; 293F , n. 7 ; 2 9 4 J ; 295JO

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According to this program m e, therefore, the K eplerbund is not merely a cham pion of enlightenm ent and popular education, but also a m ilitant organization. Since F reu d ’s teachings likewise stand in sharpest contrast to the “harm ony” sought for by the Keplerbund, every thinking person will know th a t the society must, on its own admission, fight against them. W hen an organization ar­ ranges a lecture, it usually makes sure beforehand of the point of view of the lecturer, no m atter w hether its interest in the theme is religious, political, artistic, or scientific. Anyone who knows that D r. Kesselring was a pupil of F reud’s must also know—so at least one must assume— th at he is F reu d ’s opponent in theory and in practice. Equally, a reporter engaged by the K eplerbund knows th a t he cannot defend F reud’s “pan-sexualism” within its precincts. T h e reporter, who incidentally is neither a Freudian nor against the K eplerbund, did not credulously rely on the opinions of others, b u t to the best of his ability oriented himself beforehand on the theme of the lecture, the principles of the K eplerbund, and the views of Dr. Kesselring. 1037 In this same connection a correspondent w rote: “T o the am aze­ m ent of professional people D r. Kesselring’s lecture O n Psychoanal­ ysis’ brought before the public at the Schwurgerichtssaal a recent line of m edical research which, am ong other things, has to include within the scope of its analytical work the most intim ate and repul­ sive of all hum an fantasies. Disputes over the results of this research are taking a violent form in professional circles, and opinions are very m uch divided. But however violent the scientific discussion m ay be, opponents and friends of psychoanalysis are alike agreed th a t such things, even if only for the sake of good taste, should not be paraded before the public at the Schwurgerichtssaal, quite apart from the fact th a t even the best educated public can exercise no com petent judgm ent in these matters. O ne could, w ith as much right, hold gynaecological examinations at the Schwurgerichtssaal in order to arouse public feeling against some of the findings of m edical research.” 1038 For the rest, the lecture, whose lack of objectivity must have struck even the layman, contained so m any distortions th a t it seemed designed to spread confusion and error. Those who wish to find out w hat psychoanalysis is really about are recommended to read F reud’s Uber Psychoanalyse2 (publ. Deuticke, V ienna and 2 [Freud’s Clark U niversity lectures, pub. by D euticke 1910; trans. as “Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis” (S ta n d ard E dn., X I).]

Leipzig), in w hich he gives an account of his views and m ethods in m ore or less p o p u lar language. Reference should also be m ade to the invaluable work Die Psychoanalyse Freuds3 (D euticke) by Eugen Bleuler, professor of psychiatry at Zurich, who discusses in an objective and critical way the pros and cons of psychoanalysis. T h e authority a n d continental reputation of this excellent scholar should g u aran tee the educated public a m ore com petent view of psychoanalysis th an the statem ents of D r. Kesselring. D r . J.

17 Ja n u a ry 1912 1039

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In connection w ith the article on “ Psychoanalysis” th a t was published in your colum ns last Saturday, I w ould like to rem ark th at the concept of sexuality used by F reud and m e has a far w ider range of m eaning th a n it has in com m on usage. As I have often pointed out, we understand by “sexuality” all those instinctual forces w hich extend beyond the dom ain of the instinct of selfpreservation. T h e scientific justification for this conception cannot be discussed here. It can be read about in F re u d ’s and my writings. Confusion betw een the com m on conception and our biological con­ ception of sexuality n aturally leads to the greatest m isunderstandings. I fu rth e r allow myself to rem ark th a t it is not permissible to lay at ou r door all the im m ature researches th a t have been u n d er­ taken by less qualified persons. W e can accept responsibility only for w h at w e ourselves have w ritten, an d not for the m anifold sins of other writers. O n e could just as well hold C hristianity responsible for th e abom inations of the Inquisition, if one wished to adopt so sum m ary a procedure. N aturally, I am not thinking of the in­ valuable researches of D r. R iklin, w ith w hich I am in full agree­ m ent, b u t of the book by M ichelsen,4 m entioned by my critic F. M .,5 an d a n u m b er of other w ritings whose standpoints and m ethod of exposition I m ust repudiate. D r. J ung 3 [O riginally in the Jahrbuch fiir psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, 11 :2 (1 9 1 0 ). Trans, by C. R. Payne, Freud’s Theories of the Neuroses (1 9 1 3 ).] 4 [Johann M ichelsen, Ein Wort an den geistigen A del deutscher. N a tion (M unich, 1911) (from Ellenberger, p. 877, n. 270).] 5 [Fritz M arti, literary editor o f the N eue Ziircher Zeitung, w ho signed ( “F .M .” ') some of the articles.]

O N T H E PSY C H O A N A L Y T IC T R E A T M E N T O F N E R V O U S D IS O R D E R S 1 I

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Psychoanalysis differs from other psychotherapeutic methods in that, by preference, it takes as its starting point those products of the hum an psyche which originate outside the selective effect of attention-—parapraxes, the seemingly pointless fantasies of day­ dreaming, nocturnal dreams. T he founder of the method, Professor Freud of Vienna, has succeeded in dem onstrating from this material the existence of a principle which governs psychic events, the princi­ ple of determination. These inferior products, accordingly, are not fortuitous, b u t clearly and dem onstrably are causally conditioned, or in psychological terms determined. They are formed under the influence of feeling-toned, unconscious ideas. T he application of the m ethod to the pathological formations of psychoneurotics has shown th a t these are built up in a similar way, only they are m uch more complicated. T he first formulation of the newly won insights was the traum a theory, as propounded by Breuer and Freud in their Studies on Hysteria, published in l 8

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1044 1045

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5

·

F urther investigations showed, however, th a t the traum a is of less pathological significance than the conflict, or rather, th a t most experiences acquire traum atic force only when they release a con­ flict within the patient. These conflicts are in the overwhelming majority of cases between sexual wishes (in the widest sense) and opposing tendencies of a m oral and aesthetic nature. T he result of such conflicts, which affect the emotional life, is a series of patho­ logical processes, mechanisms altogether com parable to the defen­ sive measures which the body puts up against a noxious agent. T o trace these mechanisms is now the task of the therapy, the ultim ate aim of which is to free the psyche from the conflict. In the case of a 35-year-old female hysteric, m arried, m other 3 [Jung’s abstract o f a report to the M edical-P harm aceutical Society of Bern at a m eeting on 4 June 1912. T h e abstract, including the discussion, was published in the Correspondenzblatt fiir Schw eizer A rzte, X L I I ( i O ct. 1 9 1 2 ), 1 0 7 9 -8 4 . Cf. T h e F r e u d /J u n g Letters, 318J, last par., and 319F , for the “K reuzlingen episode,” w hich occurred shortly before this occasion.]

ON T H E P SY C H O A N A L Y T IC T R E A T M E N T OF NER VO US DISO RDERS

of several ch ild re n , w h o since h e r 2 0 th y ear h a d ex h ib ited a n u m b e r of h y sterical physical sym ptom s, psychoanalysis w as c a rrie d o u t afte r n u m ero u s o th e r tre a tm e n ts h a d failed. T h re e of h e r sym ptom s, w h ich all affected th e re sp ira to ry activity, could be tra c e d b ack to a tra u m a a t th e ag e of p u b erty , a n a tte m p te d ra p e, w h e n th e full im p a c t of th e m a n ’s b o d y h a d com pressed th e th o ra x . B ut th e u ltim ate d e te rm in a n t w as to be fo u n d in th e experiences of earliest ch ild h o o d , w h e n th e p a tie n t h a d listened w ith sexual excitem en t to th e n ig h tly in terco u rse of h e r p aren ts. T h u s th e sym p to m w h ich seem ed like a su d d e n in v o lu n ta ry e x p ira tio n w ith sim u ltan eo u s clo­ sure of th e glottis w as a re p e titio n of th e follow ing s c e n e : h e r m o th e r once cam e to h e r b e d , w h e re u p o n she s ta rte d violently a n d w a n te d to let o u t a scream , w h ic h she w as ju st able to suppress. T h ese tw o o p p o sed in n e rv a tio n s p ersisted in th e fo rm o f th e aforesaid sym ptom . 1046 N o w w h e n , as a result of u n fa v o u ra b le experiences, th e in d iv id ­ u a l does n o t o b ta in sufficient sexual g ra tificatio n in la te r life, a p ro ­ cess o ccu rs w h ich F re u d calls re g ressio n : as a su b stitu te fo r th e fail­ u re of g ra tific atio n , th e p a tie n t reverts to a n earlier, in fa n tile one. 1047 T h is in fa n tile g ra tific atio n , how ever, is n o t re-ex p e rien ce d in its o rig in al fo rm , b u t only in th e fo rm of its som atic, physiological c o n c o m itan t. T h e re is a conversion of sexual ex c ita tio n in to so m aticm o to r ex c ita tio n . ,04-8 So w ith this p a tie n t th e re sp irato ry d istu rb a n c e in d u c e d by th e tw o o p p o sed in n e rv a tio n s b e c a m e fix ated n o t b ecau se of th e frig h t she h a d received, b u t because of th e sexual ex c ite m e n t th a t h a d acco m p an ied h e r listening. ,0 49 T h e on set o f th e d iso rd er w as directly co n n e cted w ith h e r m a r ­ riage, w h ich h a d b ro u g h t th e p a tie n t d isap p o in tm e n ts, so th a t in in terco u rse she re m a in e d frigid. T h e libido th a t w as nevertheless p resen t co n se q u en tly chose th e w ay o f regression a n d led to th e re a c tiv a tio n o f those p ast a n d fo rg o tte n experiences of g ra tific atio n , o r r a th e r to th e ir physiological co n co m itan ts. n>5° X h e resu lt of th e tre a tm e n t w as th a t all sym ptom s d isa p p e a re d b u t fo r a few traces. [T he discussion th a t followed did n o t deal specifically w ith Ju n g ’s case. T h e speakers, including P aul-C harles Dubois, of B ern,2 recounted cases of th eir ow n th a t h ad been cured by nonpsycfioanalytic m eans a n d m ade various hostile rem arks. Ju n g c o n c lu d e d :] 2 [See ib id., r i 6 F , n. 8.]

io S i

I t is r e g r e t t a b l e t h a t t h e d is c u s s io n f a il e d to d e a l m o r e s p e c if i­ c a lly w i t h t h e a n a ly s is p r e s e n t e d h e r e . T h e m e t h o d o f p s y c h o a n a ly ­ tic r e s e a r c h a n d t r e a t m e n t c a n n o t b e r e j e c t e d as a w h o le u n le s s o n e x a m i n a t i o n it t u r n s o u t to b e d e f e c tiv e , b u t th is w as n o t d o n e h e r e . P s y c h o a n a ly s is r e p r e s e n ts a r a d i c a l t h e o r y w h i c h s h o u ld b e u s e d t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r m e th o d s .

>°52

T h e v ie w t h a t it s h o u ld n o t b e u s e d b e c a u s e its u s e fu ln e s s h a s n o t b e e n p r o v e d o r th e o r e t i c a l l y e s ta b l is h e d c a n n o t b e s u p p o r t e d b y t h e f a c ts [o f t h e c a s e ], a n d it w o u l d d i s r e g a r d t h e p r in c i p le o f s c ie n tif ic r e s e a r c h t h a t p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n is to b e g iv e n p r e f ­ e r e n c e o v e r t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s id e r a t io n s .

1053

F a ilu r e s , n a t u r a l l y , d o o c c u r , b u t j u s t a s i n o t h e r fie ld s th e y d o n o t p e r m i t u s t o d r a w c o n c lu s io n s o f a g e n e r a l v a lid ity . 1054 T h e d is c u s s io n o f s e x u a l m a t t e r s is a d m i t t e d l y n o t easy a n d n o t to e v e r y o n e ’s t a s t e ; t a c t f u l l y e m p lo y e d , h o w e v e r , i t is a n e s s e n tia l i n g r e d i e n t o f a n y p s y c h o t h e r a p y . -— D r e a m s a r e o f t e n in e x a c tly r e ­ p o r t e d o r a d d e d t o ; th e s e a d d i t i o n s a r e , h o w e v e r , s h o w n , n o t f o r t u i t o u s c o i n c id e n c e s , b u t g o v e r n e d b y c o n s c io u s id e a s t h a t i n f o r m e d t h e d r e a m its e lf. T h a t p r e s s io n s p e r s is t t h r o u g h o u t o n e ’s life , e v e n if th e y

as F re u d th e s a m e c h i ld h o o d s e e m in g ly

has un­ im ­ are

in s i g n if i c a n t, is a c e r ta in t y . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r th is is t h a t s u c h im p r e s s io n s h a v e b e e n r e p r e s s e d b e c a u s e o f a c e r t a i n s ig n if ic a n t c o n ­ j u n c t i o n o f id e a s , a n d f o r th is v e r y r e a s o n c o u l d s u r v iv e i n t h e u n ­ c o n s c io u s u n t i l t h e y w e r e u n c o v e r e d b y a n a ly s is .

A C O M M E N T O N T A U S K ’S C R IT IC IS M O F N E L K E N 1 1055

In the first issue of this periodical there was a review by Tausk of Nelken’s “Analytische Beobachtungen iiber Phantasien eines Schizophrenen.” 2 In this review I came upon the following passage: In the first catatonic attack the patient produced the fantasy that mice and rats were gnawing at his genitals. Nelken derives the symbolic significance of these animals from a suggestion of Jung’s, who sees them as symbolizing nocturnal fear. There is no doubt that this interpreta­ tion is correct, but it comes from a later elaboration of this symbol and bars the way to deeper insight. Analysis of dreams and neuroses has taught me beyond question— and I find my view supported by other psychoanalysts— that mice and rats are cloacal animals and that they represent, in symbolic form, the defecation complex (anal com plex).

1056

I would like to defend Nelken’s view against Tausk’s. I do not doubt in the least th at Tausk’s view is also right. W e have known this for a long time, and it has been completely confirmed once more by F reud ’s rat-m an.3 Further, we know very well that catatonic introversion and regression reactivate all the infantile impulses, as is evident from numerous observations in Nelken’s analysis. So there is no question of this aspect of the case having escaped u s; it merely seemed unim portant because by now it is self-evident. I t is no longer of vital im portance to know that the anal complex can act as a substitute for norm al modes of transference or adaptation, since we know already th a t the pathological regression of libido reacti­ vates every variety of infantile sexualism and produces infantile fantasies of every conceivable kind. Anyone who still thinks that a definite group of fantasies, or a “ complex” has been singled out 1 [“Eine Bemerkung zur T auskschen Kritik der N elkenschen Arbeit,” In ter­ nationale Zeitschrift fiir arztliche Psychoanalyse (V ien n a and L eip zig ), 1 :3 ( 19 1 3 ) , 2 8 5 -8 8 . For V ictor Tausk, o f V ienna, see T h e Freud./Jung Letters, 348J, n. 4. For Jan N elken, a psychiatrist of the Zurich School, see ibid., 305J, n. 3. T h e present trans. was published in Spring, r973.] 2 [In the Jahrbuch fiir psycho analytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, I V : i ( 1912) . ( “A nalytical Observations on the Fantasies of a Schizophrenic.” )] 3 [Freud, “N otes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis” (orig., 1 9 0 9 ), Standard Edn., X .]

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just hasn’t seen enough cases. We therefore consider it irrelevant th at the castration is perform ed by cloacal animals. Incidentallyj mice are not “ cloacal animals” b u t animals th a t live in holes, and this is a more comprehensive concept than “ cloacal animals.” T he only thing we learn from this interpretation is that an infan­ tile complex or infantile interest takes the place of the normal inter­ est. It may be of some value for the specialist to know that in this particular case it was the anal fantasy th a t contributed a bit of symbolism for the purpose of expressing the introversion and regression of libido. But this interpretation does not supply a gener­ ally applicable principle of explanation when we come to the far more im portant task of discovering the real functional significance of the castration motif. W e cannot content ourselves with a simple reduction to infantile mechanisms and leave it at that. I was once given a very impressive example of this kind of interpretation. In a discussion on the historical fish-symbol, one of those present rem arked th at the fish vanishing in the sea was simply the father’s penis vanishing in his wife’s vagina. This kind of interpretation, which I consider sterile, is w hat I call sexual concretism. It seems to me th a t psychoanalysts are confronted with the much greater and more im portant task of understanding what these analogies are trying to say. W hat did men of many different races and epochs mean by the symbol of the fish? Why— in the present case too, for th a t m atter— were these infantile channels of interest reactivated? W h at does this fetching up of infantile material signify? For this obviously is the problem. T he statem ent: “ Infantile reminiscences are coming to the surface again” is vapid and selfevident. It also leads us away from the real meaning. In N elken’s case the problem is not the derivation of part of the rat-symbol from the anal complex, b u t the castration motif to which the fantasy obviously belongs. T he rats and mice are the instrum ent of the castration. But there are m any other kinds of castrating instrum ent which are by no means anally determined. Tausk’s reduction of the rats is merely of value to the specialist and has no real signifi­ cance as regards the problem of sacrifice, which is at issue here. T he Zurich school naturally recognizes that the material is re­ ducible to simpler infantile patterns, b u t it is not content to let it go at that. It takes these patterns for w hat they are, th a t is, images through which the unconscious m ind is expressing itself. Thus, with reference to the fish-symbol, we would argue as follows : We do not deny the Viennese school the possibility that the fish-

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1061

symbol can ultim ately be reduced to parental intercourse. W e are ready to assum e this provided there are fairly cogent reasons for doing so. But, because we are not satisfied w ith this relatively u nim ­ portant reduction, we ask ourselves w hat the evocation of parental intercourse or som ething sim ilar m eans to the patient. W e thus carry the assum ption a stage fu rther, because w ith the reduction to the infantile p a tte rn we have not gained an understanding of the real significance of the fact th a t the rem iniscence was regressively reacti­ vated. W ere we to rem ain satisfied w ith the reduction, we would come back again and again to the long-since-accepted tru th th at the infantile lies a t the root of the m ental w orld, and th a t ad u lt m ental life is built upon the foundations of the infantile psyche. Even in the backw aters of th e psychoanalytic school one should have got beyond m arvelling over the fact th a t, for instance, the artist m akes use of images relating to the incest complex. N aturally every wish has these infantile patterns w hich it m akes use of in every conceivable variation in order to express itself. B ut if th e p a t­ tern, the infantile elem ent, w ere still absolutely operative (i.e., not just regressively rea c tiv a te d ), all m ental products w ould tu rn out to be unbelievably trivial a n d deadly m onotonous. I t w ould always be the same old infantile story th a t form ed th e essential core of all m ental products. F ortunately, the infantile motifs are not the essential; th a t is to say, for th e m ost p a rt they are regressively reacti­ vated, and are fittingly em ployed for the purpose of expressing cur­ rents a n d trends in the actual present— and m ost clearly of all w hen the things to be expressed are as far-off and intangible as the most distant childhood. N or should it be forgotten th a t there is also a future. T h e reduction to infantile m aterial m akes the inessential in a rt— the lim ited h u m an expression— th e essence of art, w hich consists precisely in striving for the greatest variety of form and the greatest freedom from the lim itations of the conventional and the given. H e rb e rt SiJberer i once m ade the very good observation th a t there is a m ythological stage of cognition w hich apprehends symbolically. This saying holds good for the em ploym ent of infantile rem inis­ cences : they aid cognition or apprehension a n d are expressive sym­ bols. N o d o u b t the infantile rem iniscence or tendency is still partly operative a n d thus has an extraordinarily disturbing an d obstructive 4 [Cf. H e rb e rt S ilb erer, “ tlb e r die S y m b o lb ild u n g ,” J a k r b u c k 1 I I I : 1 (1 9 1 1 ) a n d “V o n d en K a te g o rie n d e r Sym bolik,” Z e n tr a lb la tt fiir P sychoanalyse, 1 1 :4

(«912) 0

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effect in actual life. T h a t is also the reason why it is so easy to find. But we would be w rong to regard it as a source of energy on th a t account; it is much more a limitation and an obstacle. But because of its undeniable existence it is at the same time a necessary means of expression by analogy, for the furthest reaches of fantasy cannot offer any other m aterial for analogical purposes. Accordingly, even if we do approach the primitive images analyti­ cally, we are not content w ith reduction and with establishing their self-evident existence, but, by com paring them w ith similar m ate­ rial, we try rather to reconstruct the actual problem that led to the employment of these primitive patterns and seeks expression through them. In this sense we take incest prim arily as a symbol, as a means of expression, as Adler too has suggested. Hence I cannot agree with Tausk when he says th a t comparison with analogous m aterial “bars the way to deeper insight.” W e do not regard the discovery of the anal fantasy as an insight th at could be com pared in im portance with an understanding of the castration motif. I must therefore defend Nelken’s attem pt to establish general connections in a wider context. W e can hardly expect proof of the self-evident existence of infantile fantasies to furnish any insight into the general problem of sacrifice, which makes use of the. castra­ tion motif am ong others. T h a t Nelken has this question in mind is clear from his footnote, in which he refers to the snake and scor­ pion as historical castration animals. I have taken the liberty of dwelling at some length on Tausk’s comment because it seemed to offer a favourable opportunity to sketch out our different approach to these matters. We do not by any means deny the possibility of Tausk’s reduction, as should be obvious. But in this and all similar reductions we find nothing that seems to us to offer a satisfactory explanation. W e believe, on the contrary, th a t a satisfactory explanation m ust make clear the teleological significance of the castration motif. In psychology, as is gen­ erally known, you cannot get very far w ith purely causal explana­ tions, since a very large num ber of psychic phenom ena can be satis­ factorily explained only in teleological terms. This does nothing to alter or to detract from the exceedingly valuable discoveries of the Freudian school. W e merely add the factor of teleological obser­ vation to w hat already exists. I have devoted a special study to this question, which will shortly appear in the J ah rb u ch .5 5 [“V ersuch einer D arstellung d er psychoanalytischen T heorie,” Jahrbuch, V : 1 (1913) I trans., “T h e Theory of Psychoanalysis” (C.W ., vol. 4 ) . ] 436

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O u r attem pts to develop and broaden the previous insights have given rise to absurd talk of a schism. Anything of that sort can only be the invention of people who take their working hypotheses as articles of faith. This rather childish standpoint is one which I do not share. M y scientific views change with my experience and insight, as has always been the case in science generally. It would be a m atter for suspicion if this were not so.

A N SW ER S T O

Q U E S T IO N S O N F R E U D 1

O n 24 July 1953, the representative of the N e w York Times in Geneva, M ichael L. H offm an, sent Jung the following questionnaire in connec­ tion with a projected article on Freud: 1. W hat part of Freud’s work do you accept? 2. W hat was the role of Freud’s work and views in the development of your own analytical psychology? 3. In your opinion does Freudian sexuality play any part in the aetiology of neuroses? 4. W ould you care to make an estimate of Freud’s contribution to our knowledge of the psyche? 5. W ould you care to comment on the value of Freud’s procedure as a therapeutic procedure? 065 066 067

068

069

A s it is im p o ssib le to d e a l w ith a critiq u e o f F r e u d ’s w ork in a sh ort article I h a v e to restrict m y self to co n cise answ ers. i . I a c c e p t th e fa cts F reu d h as d isco v ered , b u t a cc ep t his theory o n ly partially. 2. T h e fa cts o f repression, su b stitu tio n , sy m b o liz a tio n , an d sys­ te m a tic a m n e sia d escrib ed b y F reu d c o in c id e d w ith th e results of m y a sso cia tio n ex p erim en ts ( 1 9 0 2 - 4 ) . L a ter o n ( 1 9 0 6 ) I d iscovered sim ila r p h e n o m e n a in sch izo p h ren ia . I a cc e p te d in th ose years all o f F r e u d ’s v ie w s, b u t I c o u ld n o t m a k e u p m y m in d to a ccep t th e se x u a l th eo ry o f neu rosis a n d still less o f psychosis, n o m atter h o w m u c h I tried . I ca m e to th e c o n c lu sio n ( 1 9 1 0 ) th a t F r e u d ’s o n e -sid e d em p h a sis o n sex m u st b e a su b je ctiv e preju d ice. 3. I t is o b v io u s th a t th e se x u a l in stin ct p lays a con sid erab le ro le ev ery w h ere in life , a n d th u s also in neurosis, a n d it is eq u ally o b v io u s th a t th e p o w er-d riv e, th e m a n y form s o f fear, an d th e in d i­ v id u a l n ecessities are o f e q u a l im p o r ta n c e. I o b jec t o n ly to the u n iq u en ess o f sex u a lity as su g g ested b y F reu d . 4 . F r e u d ’s co n tr ib u tio n to o u r k n o w le d g e o f th e p sych e is w ith ­ o u t d o u b t o f th e grea test im p o rta n ce. It yield s an in sig h t in to the 1 [J u n g w ro te th is rep ly (in E n g lish ) to H o ffm a n ’s q u estio n s o n 7 A ug. 1953. So fa r as is k n o w n , J u n g ’s answ ers w ere n o t p u b lish ed by th e N e w Y o rk T im es. F irst p u b lish e d in S p rin g , 1968.]

dark recesses of the hum an m ind and character which can be com­ pared only to Nietzsche’s Genealogy of Morals. In this respect Freud was one of the great cultural critics of the nineteenth century. His specific resentment explains the one-sideness of his explanatory principle. 1070 O ne could not say th a t Freud is the discoverer of the uncon­ scious— C. G. Carus and E duard von H artm ann were before him and Pierre Janet was his contemporary— but he certainly showed a way to the unconscious and a definite possibility of investigating its contents. In this respect his book on dream interpretation proved to be most helpful, although from a scientific standpoint it is most objectionable. 1 07 1 5. T he question of psychological therapy is exceedingly com­ plex. W e know for certain th a t just any m ethod or any procedure or any theory, seriously believed, conscientiously applied and sup­ ported by a humanly congenial understanding, can have a most remarkable therapeutic effect. Therapeutic efficacy is by no means the prerogative of any particular system; w hat counts is the char­ acter and the attitude of the therapist. For this reason I tell my pupils: you must know the best you can about the psychology of neurotic individuals as well as of yourself. If it is the best, you are likely to believe it, and then you can be serious enough to apply what you know with devotion and responsibility. If it is the best you know, then you will always entertain a reasonable doubt whether somebody else m ight not know better than yourself, and out of sheer compassion w ith your patient you will make sure that you don’t lead him astray. Therefore you will never forget to inquire how far he agrees or disagrees with you. W hen he disagrees you are stuck, and if this fact is overlooked both doctor and patient are fooled. 1072 Theory is im portant in the first place for science. In practice you can apply as many theories as there are individuals. If you are honest you will preach your individual gospel, even if you don’t know it. If you are right, it will be good enough. If you are wrong, even the best theory will be equally wrong. Nothing is worse than the right means in the hands of the wrong man. Never forget that the analysis of a patient analyses yourself, as you are just as much in it as he is. 1073 I am afraid psychotherapy is a very responsible business and anything b u t an impersonal application of a convenient medical method. There was a time when the surgeon did not even think

of w ashing his h an d s before an operation, a n d the tim e is still w ith us w hen doctors believe they are not personally concerned w hen they apply psychotherapeutic m ethods. 1074 F o r this reason I object to any k in d of prejudice in th e th e ra ­ peutical app ro ach . I n F re u d ’s case I disagree w ith his m aterialism , his credulity (tra u m a th e o ry ), his fanciful assum ptions (totem and taboo th e o ry ), a n d his asocial, m erely biological p o in t of view (theory of neurosis). 1075 T his is a m ere outline of critical view points. I myself regard such statem ents as futile, since it is m u ch m ore im p o rta n t to p u t forw ard facts th a t d em an d a n altogether different conception of th e psyche, i.e., new facts unknow n to F re u d a n d his school. >076 I t has never been m y purpose to criticize F reu d , to w hom I owe so m uch. I have been fa r m ore interested in th e continuation of th e ro ad he tried to build, nam ely the fu rth e r investigation of th e unconscious so sadly neglected by his ow n school.

VII ON SYMBOLISM (related to V olum e 5 of the C ollected Works)

[T hough n o t recorded by Ju n g himself, these brief abstracts are in ­ cluded as evidence of J u n g ’s p re p ara to ry work for W an dlu ngen u n d Sym bole der L ibido (1911—12), revised as Sym bols of Transform ation (1 9 52). T h e F r e u d f J u n g Letters contains references to prelim inary drafts, e.g., th e unrecovered “H erisau lectu re,” in 193J, par. 3, w hich F reu d subjected to d etailed criticism in iggaF .]

T H E C O N C E P T O F A M B IV A L E N C E 1 1077

Discussion.2 C. G. Ju n g : T he concept of ambivalence is prob­ ably a valuable addition to our terminology. In one and the same thing the opposite m ay be contained. Altus = high and deep. Plea­ sure m ay derive from pain. This implies not a sequence of one after the other, b u t a simultaneous one-in-the-other: a uniform given. H e [Jung] objects to the statem ent “Ambivalence is the driv­ ing force.” Ambivalence probably is not the driving force, but rather a form al aspect as we find it everywhere. Freud has adduced m any examples from the history of language. M odern words too show ambivalence, e.g., sacre,3 luge (Irish) = co n tract;4 bad (E n ­ glish) = bat = bass (M iddle H igh G erm an) = good. T hrough the m igration of language the m eaning of a w ord is transform ed into its historical opposite. Dreams m ake use of similarities as well as of opposites. Among the possibilities of similarity, contrast is closest at hand. He, Jung, had this dream : H e is a small m an with a beard, wears no glasses and is no longer young. H ence, everything the opposite. If we w ant to dem onstrate our psychoanalytic view, we too, just like the anatomists, com mand an unam biguous kind of m aterial th a t we find in the monum ents of antiquity and in the field of mythology. For example, the fertility god is at the same time the destroyer ( I n d ra ). T he sun means fertility and destruction. Therefore we have the lion eis a zodiac sign standing for the intense heat of the sun. Ambivalence is evident in the mythological succes­ sions. O din becomes the wild hunter who molests lonely girls on 1 [(T ran slate d by W. S.) A bstract of rem arks by Ju n g a t the W inter M eeting of Swiss Psychiatrists, Bern, 2 7 Nov. 1 9 1 0 , reported in the Z entralblatt fiir Psychoanalyse, 1 : 5 / 6 (F e b ./M a r. 1 9 1 1 ) , 2 6 7 —6 8 . T h e report, m ore o r less abbreviated, ap peared also in the Psychiatrisch-neurologische W ockensckrift (H a lle ), X II :4 3 ( 2 1 Jan . 1 9 1 1 ) , and the Correspondenzblatt fiir Sckw eizer A rzte, X L I : 6 ( 2 0 Feb. 1 9 1 1 ) . See T h e F reu d /Ju n g Letters, 2 2 2 J ( 2 9 Nov. 1 9 1 0 ) , n. I . ] 2 [Of a p ap e r by Eugen BIeuler, “ tJber Ambivalenz” ( “O n Ambivalence” ) ; its publication, if any, could not be traced.] 3 [In French, sacre can m ean both “blessed” and “cursed.” ] 4 [The w ord intended is probably luige, “oath,” b u t the po in t of this exam ple is obscure.]

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the highways. Freia has turned into a she-devil. Venus, as the philol­ ogists teach us, acquired a good aspect and turned into St. V erena (St. Verena, the patron saint of Baden, Ct. A a rg a u ; watering places, as we know from history, were consecrated and subject to V enus). St. Verena, Venus, however, also lends her nam e to dangerous m ountains ( Verenelisgartli n ear the G larnisch; St. Verenakehle is the nam e of the great avalanche chute on the Schafburg in the Santis m ountains). Devas (Sanskrit, = angel) becomes the devil in Persian. T he snake on the pole corresponds to the ambivalence of the concept of Christ. T he representation of libido oscillates between the symbols of the lion and the snake, the principle of dry and w e t: both are oppo­ site sexual or phallic symbols. Ju n g saw a stele of Priapus in Verona. T he god smilingly holds a basket full of phalli on his arm and points with the other h an d to a snake which bites off his erect penis.5 Nice examples of ambivalence are shown by the language of erotic jokes, such as occur in the Golden Ass of Apuleius ;6 also in the language of mysticism; M echtild of M agdeburg says: “ By Christ’s love I have been w ounded unto death.” T hrough the killing of the bull (in the M ithras mythologies) creation is brought about. “T he bull is the father of the snake and the snake is the father of the bull.” 7 O u r Christian religious ideas are likewise based on this principle. Through C hrist’s death, m an is redeemed for life eternal. W e encounter the same idea in the cult of M ithras, which was of great im portance in antiquity and helped spread the concepts of Christianity.

Discussion.8 C. G. Ju n g : T h e expression “taken off my chest” 9 in reference to the discussion of the torm enting complex is very apt and characteristic of analytic therapy. A n officer, whenever his complex was about to get the better of him, com m anded: “ At5 [Cf. Sym bols of T ransformation (C .W ., vol 5 ) , par. 680 and pi. L X Ib ; also in 1 9 1 1 /1 2 edn. See also T h e F re u d /J u n g L etters, 215J, par, 1.] 8 [Cf. Sym bo ls of T ransformation3 par. 439, n. 43.] 7 [Cf. ibid., par. 671.] 8 [O f a lecture by Prof. von Spevr, “Zwei F alle von eigentiim licher Affektverschiebung” ( “T w o Cases of the D isp lacem en t of A ffect” ) ; its publication could n o t be traced.] 9 [“vom L eibe geriickt,” lit., “rem oved from m y body.”]

tention— halt! Six paces to the rear— m arch!” and every time felt very m uch relieved by this objectivation of his disease.

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Discussion .10 As a contribution from child psychology to the significance of sacrifice, C. G. Ju n g tells about the “T antalus C lub” which was founded by some youngsters for th e celebration of sexual mysteries. T heir emblem depicted a m an who hung from a gallows by a rope tied to his penis and his nose. T he sacrificed and to r­ mented were the youngsters themselves, just like T antalus whose torm ent consists in constantly being denied satisfaction of his most ardent desires. 10 [O f a lecture by Franz R iklin, “D ie ‘A llm acht der G edanken’ bei der Zwangsneurose” ( “T h e ‘O m n ip oten ce of T h ou gh ts’ in Com pulsion Neurosis” ) ; its publication could not be traced.]

C O N T R IB U T IO N S T O SY M B O LISM 1

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Starting from the contrast th at exists between hysterical fantasies and those of dem entia praecox, the lecturer points out that in order to understand the latter, historical parallels must be adduced, be­ cause in dem entia praecox the patient suffers from the reminiscences of m ankind. In contrast to hysteria, his language uses ancient images of universal validity, even though at first glance they seem incomprehensible to us. The case of a 34-year-old female neurotic serves to illustrate how a recent fantasy can be documented and elucidated by histori­ cal material. T he patient’s fantasy deals with a m an she loves unrequitedly who is suspended by the genitals, a fantasy which was also found in a 9-year-old boy as a symbolic expression of his unful­ filled libido ( “H anging and fearing, suspended in pain” ).2 This fantasy, when taken together with corresponding ethnological tradi­ tions and mythological parallels of the sacrifice of the god of spring by hanging or flaying, signifies a sacrifice of sexuality which one hangs on to and cannot get rid of and which in ancient cults was offered to the G reat M other as a sacrifice of the phallus.3 H (T ra n sla te c ) by W. S .) A n ab stra c t, re co rd ed by O tto R an k , of J u n g ’s lec­ tu re , e n title d “B eitrag e z u r Sym bolik,” a t th e T h ir d P sychoanalytic Congress in W eim ar, 2 1 -2 2 S ept. 1911. A b stracts of th e tw elve p a p ers re a d a t th e C ongress w ere p u b lish ed in th e Z e n tra lb la tt fu r P sychoanalyse, 11 :2 (N ov. 1911) , 100—104. A M S of J u n g ’s le c tu re has n o t been found.] 2 [G oethe, E g m o n t, K la rc h e n ’s song, A ct I I I.] 3 [F or th e p arallels, see Sym b o ls o f T ra n sfo rm a tio n , index, s.v. “A ttis” an d “ca stra tio n .” (also in 1 9 1 1 /1 2 e d n .)]

VIII TWO ESSAYS ON ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY (related to Volum e 7 of the Collected W orks)

A D A P T A T IO N , IN D IV ID U A T IO N , C O L L E C T IV IT Y 1

I.

A d a p ta tio n

A. P sych ological a d a p ta tio n consists of tw o processes: 1. A d a p ta tio n to o u te r con d itio n s. 2. A d a p ta tio n to in n e r conditions. 085 By o u te r c o n d itio n s a re m e a n t n o t only th e c o n d itio n s o f th e s u rro u n d in g w o rld , b u t also m y conscious ju d g m e n ts, w h ic h I h a v e fo rm e d of o b jectiv e th in g s. 086 B y in n e r c o n d itio n s a re m e a n t those facts o r d a ta w h ic h force them selves u p o n m y in n e r p e rc e p tio n fro m th e unconscious, in d e ­ p en d e n tly o f m y conscious ju d g m e n t a n d som etim es even in o p p o ­ sition to it. A d a p ta tio n to in n e r co n d itio n s w o u ld th u s be a d a p ta tio n to th e u n co n scio u s. 087 B. I n neurosis th e a d a p ta tio n process is d istu rb e d , o r r a th e r we m ig h t say th a t th e neu ro sis is itself a d istu rb e d o r d im in ish ed process o f a d a p ta tio n t h a t takes tw o b asic fo r m s : 1. D is tu rb a n c e of a d a p ta tio n to o u te r con d itio n s. 2. D is tu rb a n c e o f a d a p ta tio n to in n e r conditions. 088 I n th e first case w e m u st a g a in d istin g u ish tw o d iffe re n t a n d fu n d a m e n ta l situ a tio n s : 1. A d a p ta tio n to o u te r co n d itio n s is d istu rb e d b ec au se th e s u b ­ ject tries to a d a p t e n tire ly a n d exclusively to th e ou tsid e, w h ile en ­ tirely n e g le c tin g th e inside, th e re b y u p s e ttin g th e b a la n c e of th e a c t of a d a p ta tio n . 2. T h e d is tu rb a n c e arises fro m a p re fe re n tia l a d a p ta tio n to th e inside. 084

1 [Translated from typescripts discovered 1964 in the archives of the Psychologi­ cal C lub, Zurich. T h e papers are signed and dated “O ct. 1916” in Ju n g’s handw riting, and w ould thus have been w ritten about the sam e tim e as “T h e T ranscendent F u n ction ” (C .W ., vol. 8 ) and “T h e Structure of the U n co n ­ scious” (C .W ., vol. 7, 2nd edn., A ppendix 2 ) . T h eir con ten t appears to be, in part, a further elaboration of the A ddendum to the latter, pars, so g ff. T he present trans., w ith a prefatory n ote and postscript by R .F.C . H u ll, was published in Spring, 1970.]

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E qually, ad a p ta tio n to inner conditions can be disturbed in two w ay s: 1. By exclusive a d a p ta tio n to the outside. 2. By neglect of th e outside in favour of ad ap tatio n to the inside. I09 ° C. T h e Energetics of A d a p ta tio n : These considerations lead to the energetics of the a d a p ta tio n process. W hen the libido invested in a p a rtic u la r function cannot be equilibrated by the exercise of th e function, it accum ulates until it attains a value w hich exceeds th a t of th e neighbouring functional system. T h e n a process of equili­ b ratio n begins, because a potential is present. T h e energy flows over, as it w ere, into an o th er system. W hen, therefore, adaptation to th e inside is not achieved, th e libido intended fo r th at purpose accum ulates u ntil it begins to flow out of the system of inner a d a p ta ­ tio n into th e system of o uter a d a p ta tio n , w ith the result th a t ch arac­ teristics belonging to inner ad a p ta tio n are carried over into outer— th a t is to say, fantasies intervene in th e relation to th e real world. Conversely, w hen the system of o uter ad a p ta tio n overflows into the system of inner a d ap tatio n , characteristics belonging to the form er are carried over into the latter, nam ely, qualities belonging to th e reality-function. 109 1 D . A daptation, in Analysis: A d a p ta tio n in analysis is a special question. D u rin g the analysis, experience shows th at, b arrin g quite exceptional circum stances, th e analysis is th e m ain thing. T here is no categorical im perative, “T h e analysis m ust be th e m ain th in g ” ; it is sim ply th a t, judging by th e average ru n of experience, the analysis is th e m ain thing. H ence th e m ain achievem ent is in the first place a d a p ta tio n to th e analysis, w hich for one patient is repre­ sented by the person of th e analyst, a n d for an o th er by the “ analyti­ cal idea.” T h e purpose in either case is to secure tru st: the one w ho starts off w ith a n unconscious m istrust of his fellow seeks above everything to m ake sure of the personality of the analyst; th e other, whose m ain desire is to be instructed ab o u t the reliability of m ethods of thinking, seeks above everything to u n derstand the basic ideas. 109 2 As th e analysis proceeds, th e form er m ust n aturally catch up in un d erstan d in g th e idea, th e la tte r in learning to tru st the analyst’s personality. W hen ad a p ta tio n has been carried thus far, th e analysis is gener­ ally held to have com e to a n end for all practical purposes, in so f a r as it is assum ed th a t this personal balance is th e essential aim

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and dem and. T h ere is, on the face of it, nothing to be said against this view. Experience shows, however, th at in certain and not too uncom ­ mon cases a dem and is raised by the unconscious, which expresses itself to begin w ith in the extraordinary intensity of the transference, and in the influence thus exerted on the patient’s lifeline. This heightened transference seems, at first, to contain the dem and for a particularly intensive adaptation to the analyst, and for the time being it should be accepted as such, though it is at bottom an over­ compensation for a resistance to the analyst that is felt to be irra­ tional. This resistance arises from the dem and for individuation, which is against all adaptation to others. But since the breaking of the patien t’s previous personal conformity would mean the de­ struction of an aesthetic and moral ideal, the first step in individua­ tion is a tragic guilt. T he accum ulation of guilt dem ands expiation. This expiation cannot be offered to the analyst, for th a t would only restore the patien t’s personal conformity. T he guilt and its expiation call for a new collective function: just as before the object of faith and love, namely the image of the analyst, was a representa­ tive of hum anity, so now hum anity itself takes the place of the analyst and to it is offered the expiation for the guilt of individuation. Individuation cuts one off from personal conformity and hence from collectivity. T h a t is the guilt which the individuant leaves behind him for the world, that is the guilt he must endeavour to redeem. H e m ust offer a ransom in place of himself, that is, he must bring forth values which are an equivalent substitute for his absence in the collective personal sphere. W ithout this production of values, final individuation is im moral and— more th an th a t— suicidal. T h e m an who cannot create values should sacrifice himself consciously to the spirit of collective conformity. In so doing, he is free to choose the collectivity to which he will sacrifice himself. O nly to the extent th a t a m an creates objective values can he and may he individuate. Every further step in individuation creates new guilt and necessitates new expiation. H ence individuation is possible only so long as substitute values are produced. Individuation is ex­ clusive adaptation to inner reality and hence an allegedly “mystical” process. T h e expiation is adaptation to the outer world. I t has to be offered to the outer world, with the petition th at the outer world accept it. T he individuant has no a priori claim to any kind of esteem.

H e has to be content w ith w hatever esteem flows to him from o u t­ side by virtue of the values he creates. N ot only has society a right, it also has a d u ty to condem n th e indiv id u an t if he fails to create equivalent values, for he is a deserter. 1097 W hen, therefore, the dem an d for individuation appears in a n a l­ ysis u n d e r th e guise of an exceptionally strong transference, it m eans farew ell to personal conform ity w ith th e collective, and stepping over into solitude, into th e cloister of th e in n er self. O nly the shadow of th e personality rem ains in th e outer w orld. H ence th e contem pt an d hate th a t come from society. B ut in n er a d a p ta tio n leads to th e conquest of in n er realities, from w hich values are w on for the rep a ra tio n of th e collective. 1098 Ind iv id u atio n rem ains a pose so long as no positive values are created. W hoever is not creative enough m ust re-establish collective conform ity w ith a group of his ow n choice, otherwise he rem ains an em pty w aster a n d w indbag. W hoever creates unacknow ledged values belongs to th e contem ned, an d he has him self to blam e for this, because society has a right to expect realizable values. For the existing society is always of absolute im portance as the point of transition th ro u g h w hich all w orld developm ent passes, an d it dem ands th e highest collaborative achievem ent from every individual. 2. In d ivid u a tio n and C ollectivity 1099

In d iv id u atio n and collectivity are a p a ir of opposites, two diver­ gent destinies.2 T h ey are related to one an o th er by guilt. T h e indi­ v id u al is obliged by th e collective dem ands to purchase his individu­ ation a t the cost of a n equivalent w ork fo r the benefit of society. So far as this is possible, in dividuation is possible. A nyone who c an n o t do this m ust subm it directly to the collective dem ands, to th e dem ands of society, or rath er, he will be caught by them au to ­ m atically. W h a t society dem ands is im itation or conscious identifica­ tion, a tre a d in g of accepted, authorized paths. O nly by accom plish­ ing an equivalent is one exem pted from this. T h e re are very m a n y people w ho at first are altogether incapable of accom plishing this equivalent. T h ey are therefore b o u n d to th e w ell-trodden p ath . If they are pushed ofif it, they are seized by helpless anxiety, from w hich only an o th er of th e prescribed paths can deliver them . Such people can achieve self-reliance only after im itating for a very long 2 [Bestim mungen; could also m ean “destinations.”]

I IOO

I IOI

I 102

I 103

time one of the models they have chosen. A person who by reason of special capacities is entitled to individuate must accept the con­ tempt of society until such time as he has accomplished his equiva­ lent. O nly a few are capable of individuating, because individuation rules out any renunciation of collective conformity until an equiva­ lent has been accomplished whose objective value is acknowledged. H um an relationship establishes itself autom atically on the basis of an acknowledged equivalent, because the libido of society goes directly tow ards it. W ithout the equivalent, all attem pts at confor­ mity are foredoomed to failure. T hrough im itation, one’s own values become reactivated. If the way to im itation is cut off, they are nipped in the bud. T h e result is helpless anxiety. If the im itation is a dem and m ade by the analyst, i.e., if it is a dem and for the sake of adaptation, this again leads to a destruction of the p atient’s values, because im itation is an auto­ matic process th a t follows its own laws, and lasts as long and goes as far as is necessary. It has quite definite limits which the analyst can never know. T hrough im itation the patient learns individua­ tion, because it reactivates his own values. The collective function m ay be divided into two functions, which from the “m ystical” or metapsychological point of view are identical: 1. T h e collective function in relation to society. 2. T h e collective function in relation to the unconscious. T he unconscious is, as the collective psyche, the psychological representative of society. T h e persona can have no relation to the unconscious since it is collectively identical w ith it, being itself col­ lective. H ence the persona must be extinguished or, in other words, restored to the unconscious. From this arises individuality as one pole th a t polarizes the unconscious, which in tu rn produces the counterpole, the God-concept. The individual must now consolidate himself by cutting himself off from God and becoming wholly himself. Thereby and at the same tim e he also separates himself from society. O utw ardly he plunges into solitude, b u t inw ardly into hell, distance from God. In consequence, he loads himself w ith guilt. In order to expiate this guilt, he gives his good to the soul, the soul brings it before God (the polarized unconscious), and God returns a gift (produc­ tive reaction of the unconscious) which the soul offers to m an, and w hich m an gives to m ankind. O r it may go another w ay: in order to expiate the guilt, he gives his supreme good, his love, not

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to the soul but to a hum an being who stands for his soul, and from this hum an being it goes to God and through this hum an being it comes back to the lover, but only so long as this hum an being stands for his soul. T hus enriched, the lover begins to give to his soul the good he has received, and he will receive it again from God, in so far as he is destined to climb so high that he can stand in solitude before God and before m ankind. Thus I, as an individual, can discharge my collective function either by giving my love to the soul and so procuring the ransom I owe to society, or, as a lover, by loving the hum an being through whom I receive the gift of God. But here as well there is a discord between collectivity and indi­ viduation : if a m a n ’s libido goes to the unconscious, the less it goes to a hum an being; if it goes to a hum an being, the less it goes to the unconscious. But if it goes to a hum an being, and it is a true love, then it is the same as if the libido w ent direct to the unconscious, so very m uch is the other person a representative of the unconscious, though only if this other person is truly loved. Only then does love give him the quality of a mediator, which otherwise and in himself he would not possess.

F O R E W O R D T O T H E H U N G A R IA N E D IT IO N O F JU N G : “O N T H E P S Y C H O L O G Y O F T H E U N C O N S C IO U S ” 1 I 107

I

108

T he H ungarian translation of my book O n the Psychology of the Unconscious,2 by D r. Peter Nagy, carefully collated and checked by Dr. Jolande Jacobi, deserves to be greeted as a novum since this is the first H ungarian publication of any of my writings. Except for a few translations into Russian, one of my earliest books now appears in a language of Eastern E urope for the first time. I am indebted to D r. Jacobi not only for m aking this possible, b u t more particularly because she was closely associated with the revision of this book and its publication, and was ready with helpful sugges­ tions and useful advice. It is also due to her conscientious collabora­ tion th a t the H ungarian edition is equipped with an index, lacking in the Swiss edition, as well as w ith a short glossary to elucidate the terminology, w hich is often difficult and new, attaching to the theme. For it is a particular pleasure th a t my book is now available in H ungary, a country from which signs of the liveliest interest have again and again come my way. I hope to pay off a little of my debt of gratitude, at least indirectly, w ith this foreword. O f my many pupils, who all come from the W estern half of the world, Dr. Jacobi is the first H u n g arian ; she has worked for years under my personal direction in Zurich, and in so doing has acquired a profound knowledge of th a t very extensive and difficult territory, the psychology of the unconscious. In her book T h e Psychology of C. G. Jung,3 an excellent introduction to my work in general, she has given evidence of this. H er knowledge also guarantees the accuracy and fidelity of the translation, so very necessary in dealing with such tricky and delicate m aterial as the psychology of the unconscious. This essay makes no claim to be a comprehensive exposition; its aim is to acquaint the reader w ith the m ain problems of the 1 IBevezetes a T u d a t t a l a n Pszichologia j i b a, tra n s. by P e te r N ag y (B u d a p e st: B ibliotheca, 1 9 4 8 ).] 2 [C .W ., vol. 7.] 3 [See in fra , p a r. 1121, n. 1.]

psychology of the unconscious, and this only within the limits pre­ scribed by direct m edical experience. As it does not pretend to be more th a n an introduction, the manifold relations w ith the history of hum an thought, mythology, religion, philosophy, the psychology of primitives, and so on are only hinted at. Kusnacht-Zurich, January IQ44

IX THE STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE PSYCHE (related to Volum e 8 of the Collected W orks)

F O R E W O R D S T O J U N G : uIJB ER P S Y C H ISC H E E N E R G E T IK U N D DAS W ESE N D ER T R A U M E ” 1 First Edition ( 1928) mo

In this volume, the second of the Psychologische Abhandlungen,2 I am publishing four papers of which three have so far appeared only in English.3 O ne of the papers deals w ith the still unsolved problem of dream interpretation, while the others are con­ cerned with— in my view— a question of central im portance: the fundam ental psychic factors, the dynam ic images, which it seems to m e express the n atu re of psychic energy. M y concept of psychic energy, first p u t forw ard in W andlungen und Sym bole der Libido ( 19 12 ) ,* has m et w ith so m uch opposition and m isunderstanding that it seemed to me w orth working over the problems of psychic energetics once again, this time not from the practical b u t from the theoretical side. T h e reader, therefore, need fear no repetitions. K usnacht-Zurich 1928 Second Edition {1948)

' 111

T he papers in this volume are attem pts to introduce some order into the chaotic profusion of psychic phenom ena by means of con­ cepts th a t are current in other fields of research besides psychology. Since our psychological knowledge is still in its infancy, our prim ary 1 [O riginally titled V b e r d ie Energetik der S eele.] 2 [A series of psychological publications edited by Jung. See addenda, par. 1825.] 3 [“General A spects o f D ream Psychology,” first published as “T h e Psychology of Dream s,” in C olle cted Papers on A n alytica l Psychology ( i g i 6 ) ; “Instinct and the U n consciou s,” first published in the British Journal of Psychology, X : i ( 191g ) ; “T h e Psychological F oundations of B elief in Spirits,” first pub­ lished in Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, X X X I :79 (M ay, 1920). T h e latter two papers w ere reprinted in C ontributions to A nalytical Psychology ( 1 9 2 8 ) , together w ith the fourth paper, “O n Psychic Energy.” All four papers are in C .W ., vol. 8.] 4 [Trans, as Psychology of the Unconscious ( 1 9 1 6 ) ; revised edn., Sym bols of Transform ation, C .W ., vol. 5.]

concern m ust be with elementary concepts and groups of facts, and not with the individual complications in which our case histories abound, and which can never be completely elucidated. The Freudian “m odel” of neurosis and dreams gives only a partial expla­ nation of the em pirical m aterial. As m edical psychologists, we must seek to refine our methods as well as our psychological concepts, more particularly because the “ academ ic” psychologists have aban­ doned the attem pt to investigate the unconscious empirically. It falls to the lot of the medical psychologist to probe more deeply into the compensatory relationship between conscious and uncon­ scious which is so vital for an understanding of the psyche as a whole. Except for some improvements I have m ade no drastic altera­ tions to the text. T he num ber of papers has been increased to six, as I have added a short “Review of the Complex Theory” and some recent apergus on dream research, “O n the N ature of D ream s.” 1 K usnacht-Zurich, M a y 1947 1 [Both in C .W ., vol. 8.]

O N H A L L U C IN A T IO N 1 H allucination is not merely a pathological phenom enon b u t one that also occurs in the sphere of the normal. T he history of prophecy as well as experiences am ong primitives show th a t psychic contents not infrequently come to consciousness in hallucinatory form. In this respect only the form is w orthy of note, not the function, which is nothing other th a n w hat is commonly called a “brain w ave” [Einfall], As the w ord itself indicates, a certain spontaneity attaches to the phenom enon; it is as though the psychic content h ad a life of its own and forced its way into consciousness by its own strength. This peculiarity probably explains the ease with which the brain wave assumes an hallucinatory character. Common speech is fam il­ iar with these transitions from brain wave to hallucination. In the mildest cases we say: “ I thought” ; “it occurred to m e” is a little stronger; stronger still is “it was as though an inner voice said,” and finally “it was as though someone were calling to m e,” or “I heard a voice quite distinctly.” 11*4 H allucinations of this kind usually derive from the still sublimi­ nal, m aturer personality w hich is not yet capable of direct conscious­ ness, as observations of somnambulists show. In the case of primitive medicine-men they come from a sublim inal thinking or intuiting which at th a t level is not yet capable of becoming conscious. π 13

1 [C o n trib u tio n to a discussion a t a m e e tin g o f th e S chw eizerische G esellsch aft fiir P sy ch iatrie, P ra n g in s (n e a r G e n e v a ), 1933. T ra n s , fro m th e P ro ceed in g s in Sch w eizer A r c h iv fiir N eu ro lo g ie u n d P sych ia trie, X X X I I ( 1 9 3 3 ) : 2, 382.]

F O R E W O R D T O S C H L E IC H : “D IE W U N D E R D E R S E E L E 5’1 1115

W hen, after m any years, I again took up the works of Carl Ludwig Schleich and tried to capture the mental world of this re­ m arkable thinker in a telling image, w hat persistently came into my m ind was the indelible impression which another powerful thinker— very unlike Schleich and yet so very like him— had made upon m e: Paracelsus. O dd bedfellows indeed— the contemporary of the humanists and the m odern, forward-looking Schleich, sepa­ rated by four centuries of spiritual growth and change, not to speak of differences of personality. T he very idea would have struck me as preposterous had I not been strangely moved just by the affinity of opposites. Above all, it seemed to me significant th at Paracelsus stood at the beginning of an epoch in the history of medicine and Schleich at its end. Both were typical representatives of a period of transition, and both of them revolutionaries. Paracelsus cleared the way for scientific medicine, benighted at times by age-old ani­ mistic beliefs yet filled w ith the liveliest apprehension of an age in which the intangibles of the soul would be replaced by a massive materialism. Schleich was a revolutionary in the opposite sense. A lthough steeped in anatom ical and physiological concepts, he boldly reached out towards the very same psychic realm upon which Paracelsus, obeying the dictates of his age, had half-reluctantly turned his back. Both were enthusiasts, uplifted and fortified by the certitudes of their vision, optimistically credulous, rejoicing in their hopes, pioneers of a new spiritual outlook who went their head-spinning way sure-footed and undismayed. Both, gazed fear­ lessly into suprahum an, metaphysical abysses and both avowed their faith in the eternal images deeply engraved in the hum an psyche. Paracelsus5 way took him down to the divine but essentially preChristian prim a materia, the “Hyliaster.” 2 Schleich, starting from 1 [B erlin, 1934. A collectio n of essays. S chleich (1 8 5 9 —1 9 2 2 ), G e rm a n surgeon a n d w riter, discovered lo cal an aesth esia. C f. his au to b io g ra p h ic a l T h o se W ere G ood D ays! tran s. by B. M ia ll (1 9 3 6 ).] 2 [“ Paracelsus as a S p iritu a l P h e n o m en o n ” (C .W ., vol. 1 3 ), pars. i7 o f. ( “ Ilia ste r” ).]

the darkness of the blood vessels, ducts, an d th e labyrinth of the nerve-endings, m o u n ted th e ganglionic lad d e r of the sym pathetic nervous system to a tran scen d en tal soul which ap p eared to him in all its P latonic glory in th e “supracelestial place.” Both w ere inspired by th e effervescence of an age of decay a n d change. Both were b o rn o u t of th eir tim e, eccentric figures eyed askance by th eir contem poraries. O n e ’s contem poraries are always dense an d never un d erstan d th a t enthusiasm , a n d w h a t appears to them to be u n ­ seemly ebullience com e less from personal tem p eram en t th an from the still unknow n well-springs of a new age. H ow people looked askance a t N ietzsche’s volcanic em otion, a n d how long he will be spoken of in tim es to c o m e ! E ven Paracelsus has now been g rate­ fully disinterred after fo u r h u n d red years in an a tte m p t to resusci­ tate him in m o d ern dress. W h at will h ap p en w ith SchleichP W e know th a t he was aim ing a t th a t un itary vision of psychic a n d physical processes w hich has given the strongest im petus to m edical and biological research today. T h o u g h h am p ered by a term inology inherited from a n age of scientific m aterialism , he broke th ro u g h the n arro w confines of a de-psychized m ateriality a n d crossed th e threshold, b a rric a d e d w ith th o rn y prejudices, w hich sep arated the soul from th e body. A n d th o u g h he h a d no know ledge of m y ow n efforts, w hich for a long tim e rem ained unknow n to th e scientific public in G erm any, in his ow n w ay he fought shoulder to shoulder w ith m e for th e recognition of th e soul as a factor sui generis, a n d thus broke a new p a th for psychology, w hich till th en h a d been condem ned to get along w ith o u t a psyche. T h e b reak th ro u g h initiated by Paracelsus led the w ay o u t of m edieval scholasticism in to the then unknow n w orld of m atter. T his is the g rea t a n d essential service w hich has placed m edicine forever in his debt. A n d it is not isolated facts, m ethods, or laws w hich m ake Schleich im p o rta n t for us, b u t his pushing fo rw ard into a new field of vision w here the m ass of know n facts appears in a new a n d different light. By syncretizing all o u r previous know ledge and seeking a sta n d p o in t from w hich to gain a view of the whole, he succeeded in escaping from the charm ed circle of p u re em piricism and tou ch ed u p o n th e very fo u n d atio n of th e em pirical m ethod itself, th o u g h m ost people are q u ite u n aw are of it. T his fu n d am en tal th in g is th e relation of th e body’s chem istry to psychic life. P aracel­ sus ultim ately decided in fav o u r of “ chem ism ,” despite his alle­ giance to a view o f the w orld d o m inated by the spirit as the highest authority. Schleich, fo u r h u n d re d years later, decided in favour

of psychic anim ation, an d thus raised the psyche from its undig­ nified position as a subsidiary p roduct to th a t of the auctor rerum. W ith a bold stroke he p u t the m echanism s a n d chemisms of the body in a new hierarchy. T h e “vestigial’ sym pathetic nervous sys­ tem , an apparently fortuitous tangle of ganglionic nodes th a t regu­ late the vegetative functions of the body in an astoundingly p urpo­ sive way, becomes the m atrix of the cerebrospinal system, whose crow ning m iracle, the b rain , seems to our fascinated gaze the con­ troller of all bodily processes. N ay m ore: the sym pathetic system is, for Schleich, the mysterious “ cosmic nerve,” the true “ideoplast,” the original an d most im m ediate realization of a body-building and body-sustaining W orld Soul, w hich was there before m ind and body cam e into existence. T h e H yliaster of Paracelsus is thus stripped of its unfathom able creative secret. O nce again the solidity and tangibility of m atter, so fervently believed in a n d so convincing to the senses, dissolve into M aya, into a m ere em anation of prim or­ dial tho u g h t a n d will, a n d all hierarchies a n d all values are reversed. T h e intangible, the psyche, becomes the ground and substrate, and the “ m erely vegetative” sym pathetic system the possessor and realizer of unthinkable creative secrets, the vehicle of the life-giving W orld Soul, and, ultim ately, the architect of the b rain , this newest achievem ent of the pre-existent creative will. W h at lay modestly hidden beneath the overw helm ing g ran d eu r of the cerebrospinal system, w hich, as the vehicle of consciousness, seems to be identical w ith the psyche as such— this same sym pathetic system is “ psyche” in a deeper and m ore em bracing sense th an is the interplay of the cortical fields of the cerebrum . N otw ithstanding its quantitative and qualitative insignificance, it is the exponent of a psyche far excelling consciousness both in depth and scope, and is not, like this, defencelessly exposed to the potions of th e endocrine system, b u t itself creates these m agical secretions w ith single-m inded purposiveness. 11 *7 Ju st as Paracelsus laboured to concoct sylphids and succubi out of m andrakes, h a n g m a n ’s am ulets, an d the blackest folk-medicine in his alchem ical reto rt while yet having intim ations of the tru th , so Schleich spoke th e language of the best “ b rain m ythology” of the pre-w ar era and yet penetrated into th e deepest problem s and symbols of th e h u m an psyche, following his inner intuition and w ithout know ing w h at he was doing. His soaring im agination tran s­ m uted figures of speech into forms w hich, unbeknow nst to him, are actually archetypes of th e collective unconscious th at m anifest

themselves wherever introspection seeks to plum b the depths of the psyche, as for instance in In d ian and Chinese yoga. π 18 Schleich was thus a pioneer not only in somatic medicine but also in the rem oter reaches of psychology, where it coalesces with the vegetative processes of the body. This is without doubt the dark­ est area of all, w hich scientific research has long sought to elucidate in vain. It is just this darkness which fascinated Schleich’s m ind and let loose a spate of im aginative ideas. Though they were not based on any new facts, they will certainly stimulate new interpre­ tations and new modes of observation. As the history of science shows, the progress of knowledge does not always consist in the discovery of facts but, just as often, in opening up new lines of inquiry and in form ulating hypothetical points of view. O ne of Schleich’s favourite ideas was th at of a psyche spread through the whole of the body, and dependent more on the blood than on grey m atter. This is a brilliant notion of incalculable im port. It enabled him to reach certain conclusions as to the way in which the psychic processes are determ ined, and these conclusions have independently confirmed my own research work. I am thinking chiefly of the his­ torical factors determ ining the psychic background, as form ulated in my theory of the collective unconscious. T he same m ight be said of the mysterious connections between the psyche and the geograph­ ical locality, w hich Schleich linked up w ith dietetic differences— a possibility that should not be dismissed out of hand. W hen one considers the rem arkable psychic and biological changes to which European im m igrants are subject in A merica,3 one cannot help feeling th a t in this m atter science has still a num ber of im portant problems to solve. 11'9 A lthough Schleich’s thought and language were wholly depen­ dent on the d ata of the body, he was nevertheless impressed by the incorporeal nature of the psyche. W hat struck him about dreams was their spacelessness and timelessness, and for him hysteria was a “metaphysical problem ”—metaphysical because the “ideoplastic” capacities of the unconscious psyche were nowhere more palpably in evidence than in the neuroses. M arvelling he gazed at the bodily changes w rought by the unconscious in hysteria. O ne can see from this almost childlike am azem ent how new and unexpected such 3 [“T h e R o le of th e U n co n sc io u s,” p a r. 18; “M in d a n d E a r th ,” pars. 94U “T h e C o m p licatio n s o f A m eric a n P sychology,” pars. 947ff, 97of. (a ll in C .W ., vol. 1 0 ).]

observations were for him, although for the psychopathologist they have long been truisms. But one also sees from w hat generation of m edical men he came— a generation blinded by prejudice, that passed unheedingly by the workings of the psyche upon the body, and even with its first, groping steps in psychology believed that the psyche could be dispensed with. Considering this lack of psycho­ logical knowledge, it is all the more astonishing and greatly to Schleich’s credit th at he was able to break through to a recognition of the psyche and to a complete reversal of biological causality. His conclusions seem almost too radical to the psychologist, or at any rate over-audacious, since they trespass upon regions which philosophical criticism must put beyond the bounds of hum an understanding. Schleich’s limited knowledge of psychology and his enthusiasm for intuitive speculation are responsible for a certain lack of reflec­ tion and for the occasional shallow patches in his work, for instance, his blindness to the psychic processes in dreams, which he sees through the spectacles of materialistic prejudice. Again, there is no inkling of the philosophical and m oral problems th a t are con­ jured up by his identification of conscience w ith the function of hormones. Schleich thus paid tribute to the scientific past and to the spirit of the W ilhelmine era, when the authority of science swelled into blind presum ption and the intellect turned into a raven­ ing beast. But he saw very clearly th a t if medicine considered only the body and had no eyes for the living m an, it was doomed to stultification. For this reason he turned away from the investigation of mere facts and used his knowledge of biology for w ider purposes, to construct a bold synoptic view which would eradicate the grave errors of an obsolete materialism. T he nineteenth century did every­ thing it could to bring the psyche into disrepute, and it is Schleich’s great achievement to have thrust the psychic m eaning of vital pro­ cesses into the light of day. His works may serve as an introduction to the revolution th at has taken place in our general outlook and extricated us from the straitjacket of academic specialism.

F O R E W O R D T O JA C O B I: “T H E P S Y C H O L O G Y O F C. G. JU N G ” 1 Π21

T he present work, I believe, meets a generally felt need which I myself up to now have not been in a position to satisfy— the wish for a concise presentation of the elements of my psychological theories. M y endeavours in psychology have been essentially pioneer work, leaving me neither tim e nor opportunity to present them sys­ tematically. D r. Jacobi has taken this difficult task upon herself with a happy result, having succeeded in giving an account free from the ballast of technical particulars. It is a synopsis th a t includes or at least touches upon all essential points, so th a t it is possible for the reader— with the aid of the references and the bibliography of my writings— to orient himself readily wherever needful. An addi­ tional m erit is th a t the text has been supplem ented w ith a num ber of diagrams, w hich are a help in understanding certain functional relations. 1122 I t is a particular satisfaction to m e th a t the author has been able to avoid furnishing any support to the opinion th a t my re­ searches constitute a doctrinal system. Expositions of this kind slip all too easily into a dogmatic style which is wholly inappropriate to my views. Since it is my firm conviction th a t the time for an all-inclusive theory, taking in and describing all the contents, pro­ cesses, and phenom ena of the psyche from one central viewpoint, has not yet arrived, I regard my concepts as tentative attem pts to form ulate a scientific psychology based in the first place upon im m ediate experience w ith h um an beings. This is not a kind of psychopathology, but a general psychology which also takes cogni­ zance of the empirical m aterial of pathology. 1 [Jolan (or Jolan d e) Jacobi, D ie Psychologie von C. G. Jung (Z urich: R ascher, 1 9 4 0 ). C oncerning the au th or (1 8 9 0 —1 9 7 3 ), see infra, par. 1134. T h e fore­ word w as trans. by K . W . Bash in T h e Psychology of C. G. Ju n g (N ew H aven: Y ale U niversity Press, 1 9 4 2 ); an ed ition published the sam e year by R ou tledge & K egan Paul, L ondon, om its the foreword.- A revised edn. of the entire book, in clu d in g the foreword, was retrans. by R alph M anheim and published by both houses, 1962; 8th edn., revised, 1973. T h e version published here has been revised by R .F.C . H ull.]

1123

I hope th at it may be the lot of this book not only to give the general reader an insight into my researches, but also to save him m uch laborious searching in his study of them. A u g u st 1Q3Q F orew o rd to the Spanish E d itio n 1

1124

It gives me particular pleasure to know th a t this book is now appearing in a Spanish translation. It will acquaint the Spanish public w ith the most recent developments of a psychology th a t has grown out of the experiences of the physician’s art. This psychology is concerned w ith complex psychic phenom ena th a t are continually encountered in daily life. It is not an abstract academic science, but a form ulation of practical experiences which remains faithful to the scientific method. As a result, this psychology includes within its scope wide areas of other sciences and of life in general. My very best wishes accompany this book on its journey through the world. 1 [Jo lan Ja co b i, L a Psicologia de C. G. J u n g , tra n s. by Jose M . S acrista n (M a d rid , 1 9 4 7 ). T h e p re se n t tran s. is fro m th e G erm an M S.]

F O R E W O R D T O H A R D IN G : “P S Y C H IC E N E R G Y ” 1 I I 25

I 126

This book presents a comprehensive survey of the experiences of analytical practice, a survey such as anyone who has spent many years in the conscientious pursuit of professional duties m ay well feel the need of making. In the course of time, insights and recogni­ tions, disappointm ents and satisfactions, recollections and conclu­ sions m ount to such proportions th a t one would gladly rid oneself of the burden of them in the hope not merely of throw ing out worthless ballast but also of presenting a summation which will be useful to the world of today and of the future. T he pioneer in a new field rarely has the good fortune to be able to draw valid conclusions from his total experience. T h e efforts and struggles, the doubts and uncertainties of his voyage of dis­ covery have penetrated his m arrow too deeply to allow him the perspective and clarity of vision needed for a comprehensive survey. Those of the second generation, who base their work on the grop­ ing experiments, the lucky hits, the circuitous approaches, the half truths and mistakes of the pioneer, are less burdened and can take more direct roads, envisage more distant goals. They can cast off m any doubts and hesitations, concentrate on essentials, and, in this way, m ap out a simpler and clearer picture of the newly discovered territory. This simplification and clarification redound to the benefit of those of the third generation, who are thus equipped from the outset w ith an over-all chart. W ith this chart they are enabled to form ulate new problems and m ark out the boundary lines more sharply th an ever before. W e can congratulate the author on the success of her attem pt to provide a general orientation on the problems of medical psycho­ therapy in its most m odern aspects. H er m any years of practical 1 [M. Esther H arding, Psychic Energy: Its Source and Goal (N ew York, B ollingen Series X , and L ondon, 1 9 4 7 ). T h e author (1 8 8 9 —1 9 7 1 ), originally English, practiced in N ew York. T h e forew ord w as trans. for the 1947 edn. by H ildegard N a g el; republished in 2nd edn., 1963, w ith subtitle of the book changed to “ Its Source and Its T ransform ation.” T h e N agel trans. is published here with m inor revisions. For forew ords to other works of H arding’s, see infra, pars. 1228ff. and 1 795ff.]

I Ϊ28

experience have stood her in good stead; w ithout them her under­ taking would not have been possible at all. For it is not a question, as m any believe, of a “philosophy,” but rath er of facts and their formulation, which in tu rn must be tested in practice. Concepts like “shadow ” and “ anim a” are in no sense intellectual inventions. They are designations for psychic facts of a complex nature which are empirically verifiable. These facts can be observed by anyone who takes the trouble to do so and who is able to lay aside his preconceived ideas. Experience shows how difficult this is. For in­ stance, how many people still labour under the delusion th a t the term archetype denotes an inherited id e a ! Such completely unw ar­ ranted assumptions naturally make any understanding impossible. It is to be hoped th a t Dr. H arding’s book, w ith its simple and lucid exposition, will be especially suited to dispel such absurd mis­ understandings. In this respect it can be of the greatest service not only to the doctor but also to the patient. I should like to emphasize this point particularly. I t is obviously necessary for a doctor to have an adequate understanding of the m aterial laid before him ; but if he is the only one who understands, it is of no great help to the patient, since he is actually suffering from lack of consciousness and should therefore become more conscious. To this end, he needs knowledge; and the more of it he acquires, the greater is his chance of overcoming his difficulties. For those of my patients who have reached the point where greater spiritual independence is necessary, Dr. H arding’s book is one th a t I should unhesitatingly recommend. Kusnacht-Zurich, July 8, ig 4 7

ADDRESS ON TH E OCCASION OF THE FOUNDING OF THE C. G. JUNG INSTITUTE, ZURICH, 24 APRIL 19481 I t is a particular pleasure and satisfaction for me to have the privilege of speaking to you on this memorable day of the founding of an Institute for Complex Psychology. I am honoured th at you have come here for the purpose of establishing this institute of re­ search w hich is designed to carry on the work begun by me. I hope, therefore, I m ay be allowed to say a few words about w hat has been achieved up to the present, as well as about our aims for the future. 1130 As you know, it is nearly fifty years since I began my work as a psychiatrist. A t th a t time, the broad fields of psychopathology and psychotherapy were so m uch wasteland. Freud and Jan et had just begun to lay the foundations of methodology and clinical obser­ vation, and Flournoy in Geneva had m ade his contribution to the art of psychological biography, which is still far from being appreci­ ated at its true value. W ith the help of W u n d t’s association experi­ ments, I was trying to evaluate the peculiarities of neurotic states of m ind as exactly as possible. In the face of the laym an’s prejudice th a t the psyche was something im measurably subjective and bound­ lessly capricious, my purpose was to investigate w hat appeared to be the most subjective and most complicated psychic process of all, namely, the associative reaction, and to describe its nature in num erically expressible quantities. This work led directly to the discovery of th e feeling-toned complex, and indirectly to a new question, namely, the problem of attitude, w hich exerts a decisive influence upon the associative reaction. T h e answer to this question was found by clinical observation of patients and by analysis of their behaviour. From these researches there emerged a psychologi­ cal typology, which distinguished tw o attitude-types, the extravert and the introvert, and four function-types corresponding to the four orienting functions of consciousness. 1129

1 [T rans, fro m th e u n p u b lish e d G e rm a n M S . A tra n s la tio n by H ild e g a rd N ag el a p p e a re d in th e B u lle tin o f th e A n aly tica l P sychology C lu b o f N ew Y ork, 1 0 :7 (O c t. 1 9 4 8 ), S u p p le m e n t. T h e p re s e n t tran s. is new.]

1131

The existence of complexes and of typical attitudes could not be adequately explained without the hypothesis of the unconscious. From the beginning, therefore, the above-mentioned experiments and researches went hand in hand with an investigation of uncon­ scious processes. This led, about 1912, to the actual discovery of the collective unconscious. T he term itself is of a later date. If the theory of complexes and type psychology had already overstepped the bounds of psychiatry proper, with the hypothesis of the collec­ tive unconscious the scope of our researches was extended without limit. N ot only the domain of norm al psychology, but also those of racial psychology, folklore, and mythology in the widest sense became the subject-m atter of complex psychology. This expansion found expression in the collaboration with the sinologist Richard W ilhelm and the indologist H einrich Zimmer. Both are now dead, but our science has not forgotten the inestimable contribution they made. Wilhelm above all introduced me to medieval Chinese alchemy and thus prepared the ground for an understanding of the rudim ents of m odern psychology that are to be found in the medieval texts. Into the painful gap left by the death of these two fellow workers there stepped, a few years ago, K arl Kerenyi, one of the most brilliant philologists of our time. Thus a wish I person­ ally had long cherished saw fulfillment, and our science was granted a new helper.la 1132 T he insights gained originally in the domains of psychopathol­ ogy and norm al psychology proved to be keys to the most difficult Taoist texts and to abstruse Indian myths, and Kerenyi has now supplied such a wealth of connections with Greek mythology that the cross-fertilization of the two branches of science can no longer be doubted. In the same way that Wilhelm aroused an interest in alchemy and m ade possible a true interpretation ■of this little understood philosophy, Kerenyi’s work has stim ulated a large num ­ ber of psychological researches, in particular the investigation and elucidation of one of the most im portant problems in psychotherapy, namely, the phenom enon of the transference.2 I 133 Recently an unexpected and most promising connection has been forged between complex psychology and physics, or to be more accurate, microphysics. O n the psychological side, it was first of all G. A. M eier who pointed out the common conception of complel a [The work of R ichard W ilhelm (1 8 7 3 -1 9 3 0 ), H einrich Zim m er (1 8 9 0 -1 9 4 3 ), and K arl K erenyi ( 1897-1973) has been widely translated.] 2 [Cf. M ysterium C oniunctionis, pp. xiii and xv.]

mentarity. Pascual Jo rd an approached psychology from the physi­ cist’s side by draw ing attention to the phenomenon of spatial rela­ tivity which applies equally to the phenom ena of the unconscious. W. Pauli has taken up the new “psychophysical” problem on a much broader basis, exam ining it from the standpoint of the form a­ tion of scientific theories and their archetypal foundations.3 R e­ cently, in two impressive lectures, he showed on the one hand how the archetypal triad or trinity formed the point of departure for K epler’s astronomy, and on the other how F ludd’s polemics with Kepler were based on the alchemical thesis of the quaternity. The object at issue, the proportio sesquitertia or ratio of 3 : 1, is likewise a fundam ental problem in the psychology of the unconscious. T hirty years ago, the problem first presented itself in psychology as a typo­ logical phenom enon, i.e., as the relation of three more or less differ­ entiated functions to one inferior function which was contam inated with the unconscious. Since then it has been considerably widened and deepened by the study of Gnostic and alchemical texts. It a p ­ pears there partly in the form of the social or folkloristic marriage quaternio, derived originally from the primitive cross-cousin-marriage, and partly in the form of a differentiation in the sequence of elements, in which one or the other element, usually fire or earth, is distinguished from the other three. T h e same problem appears in the controversy between the trinitarian and the quaternarian standpoint in alchemy. In complex psychology the quaternity sym­ bol has been shown to be an expression of psychic totality, and in the same way it could be established th a t the proportio sesqui­ tertia commonly occurs in the symbolism produced by the uncon­ scious. If, as conjectured, the quaternity or above-nam ed proportion is not only fundam ental to all concepts of totality b u t is also inherent in the nature of observed microphysical processes, we are driven to the conclusion th a t the space-time continuum , including mass, is psychically relative— in other words, th a t it forms a unity with the unconscious psyche. Accordingly, there m ust be phenom ena which can be explained only in terms of a psychic relativity of space, time, and mass. Besides num erous individual observations the experiments conducted at D uke University by R hine and else­ where by other investigators have furnished sufficient proof of this. You will forgive me if I have dwelt on the latest connections of 3 [“T h e Influence of A rchetypal Ideas on the Scientific T heories of K ep ler,” in Ju ng and Pauli, T h e In te rp re ta tio n of N a tu re an d the Psyche (trans., ! 9 5 5 )·]

our psychology with physics at some length. It did not seem to me superfluous in view of the incalculable im portance of this question. “ 34 To round out the position of complex psychology as it is at present, I would like to mention some m ajor works by pupils. These include the “Einfiihrung in die Grundlagen der komplexen Psycholo­ gic,” by Toni Wolff,4 a work distinguished for its philosophical clarity; the books of Esther H arding on feminine psychology;5 the analysis of the Hypnerotomachia of Francesco Colonna, by Linda Fierz-David,6 a showpiece of medieval psychology; the valuable in­ troduction to our psychology by Jolande Ja c o b i: 7 the books on child psychology by Frances Wickes,8 notable for their interesting m ate­ rial; the great book by H. G. Baynes, M ythology of the Soul;0 a synoptic study by G erhard A dler;10 a large-scale work in several volumes by Hedwig von Roques and Marie-Louise von F ran z;11 and finally, a work of significant content and scope on the evolution of consciousness by Erich N eum ann.12 1*35 O f particular interest are the repercussions of complex psychol­ ogy in the psychology of religion. The authors here are not my personal pupils. I would draw attention to the excellent book by H ans Schaer13 on the Protestant side, and to the writings of W. P. W itcutt14 and Father Victor W hite15 concerning the relations 4 [In D ie kulturelle Bedeutung der K om plexen Psychologie (1 9 3 5 ); reprinted posthumously in Studien zu C. G. Jungs Psychologic (1 9 5 9 ), with introduction by Jung (in C.W ., vol. 10).] 5 [W om an’s Mysteries and T h e W ay of AU W omen. Cf. infra, pars. i228ff. and 17953.] 6 [The Dream 0} Poliphilo. Cf. infra, pars. 1749ft.] 7 [The Psychology of C. G. Jung. Cf. supra, pars. i i 2i f f . Also C om plex/A rche­ type/Sym bol, infra, pars. i256ff.] 8 [The Inner W orld of Childhood. Cf. C.W ., vol. 17.] 9 [London, 1940. Cf. infra, pars. 142 iff.] 10 [Studies in Analytical Psychology. Cf. infra, pars. 123831.] 11 [Symbolik des M irch en s and Gegensatz und Erneuerung im M archen (Bern, 1959), by H edw ig von Beit, m aiden nam e of F rau von Roques; the publications are based on the work of D r. von Franz.] 12 [The Origins and History of Consciousness. Cf. infra, pars. 12343.] 13 [(1 9 1 0 -1 9 6 8 ), professor of philosophy and the psychology of religion, Bern U. T h e reference is to his Religion and the Cure of Souls in Jung’s Psychology (trans. by R.F.C. H ull, 1950). Cf. his Erlosungsvorstellungen und ihre psychologischen Aspekte (1950).] 14 [English priest, a t th a t time a Rom an Catholic convert; after 1949, Anglican. Cf. his Catholic T hought and M odern Psychology (1943), and his account of his reconversion, R eturn to R eality (1954).] 15 [God and the Unconscious. Cf. Ju n g ’s foreword, C.W ., vol. 11.]

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of our psychology to Thom ist philosophy, and finally to the excellent account of the basic concepts by G ebhard Frei ,16 whose unusual erudition facilitates an understanding from all sides. To the picture of the past and present I must now try to sketch out one for the future. This can naturally take the form only of program m atic hints. T h e m anifold possibilities for the further development of com­ plex psychology correspond to the various developmental stages it has already passed through. So far as the experimental aspect is concerned, there are still numerous questions which need to be worked out by experim ental an d statistical methods. I have had to leave m any beginnings unfinished because of more pressing tasks that claimed my time and energies. T he potentialities of the associa­ tion experim ent are by no means exhausted yet. For instance, the question of the periodic renewal of the emotional tone of complexstim ulators is still unansw ered; the problem of familial patterns of association has rem ained stuck in its beginnings, promising though these w ere; and so has the investigation of the physiological concomitants of the complex. In the m edical and clinical field there is a dearth of fully elabo­ rated case histories. This is understandable, because the enormous complexity of the m aterial puts almost insurm ountable difficulties in the way of exposition and makes the highest dem ands not only on the knowledge and therapeutic skill of the investigator b u t also on his descriptive capacity. In the field of psychiatry, analyses of paranoid patients coupled w ith research into com parative symbol­ ism would be of the utm ost value. Special consideration m ight be given to the collection and evaluation of dreams in early childhood and pre-catastrophal dreams, i.e., dreams occurring before accidents, illness, and death, as well as dream s during severe illnesses and under narcosis. T h e investigation of pre- and post-mortal psychic phenom ena also comes into this category. These are particularly im portant because of the relativation of space and time th a t accom­ panies them. A difficult b u t interesting task would be research into the processes of compensation in psychotics and in criminals, and in general into the goal of compensation and the n atu re of its directedness. In norm al psychology, the most im portant subjects for research le [(1 9 0 5 -6 8 ), professor of phiiosophy and com parative religion, TheoiogicaI Sem inary of Schoneck (C an t. N id w ald en ). Cf. his Probleme der Parapsychologie: G esam m elte A ufsatze1 ed. A. Resch (1 9 6 9 ).]

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w ould be the psychic structure of the fam ily in relation to heredity, the com pensatory c h aracter of m arriage a n d of em otional relation­ ships in general. A particularly pressing problem is th e behaviour of the individual in the mass a n d the unconscious com pensation to w hich this gives rise. A rich harvest is to be reaped in the field of the hum anities. H ere a trem endous prospect opens out, an d a t present we are sta n d ­ ing only on its extrem e periphery. M ost of it is still virgin territory. T h e sam e applies to biographical studies, w hich are especially im ­ p o rta n t for the history of literature. B ut above all, analytical work rem ains to be done on questions concerned w ith th e psychology of religion. T h e study of religious m yths w ould throw light not only on racial psychology b u t also on certain borderline problem s such as the one I m entioned earlier. I n this respect, p articu lar a tte n ­ tion w ould have to be paid to the q u atern ity symbol and the proportio sesquitertia, as exemplified in the alchem ical axiom of M aria, both from the side of the psychologist a n d from th a t of the physicist. T h e physicist m ay have to consider revising his concept of space­ tim e, an d for the psychologist there is need of a m ore thorough investigation a n d description of triad ic a n d tetrad ic symbols and th eir historical developm ent, to w hich F robenius has contributed valuable m aterial. Com prehensive studies are also needed of sym­ bols of the goal or of unity. T his list, p u t together m ore or less a t random , m akes no claim to completeness. W h a t I have said m ay suffice to give you a rough id ea of w h a t has already been achieved in com plex psychology and of th e direction w hich fu tu re researches conducted by the Institute m ig h t be expected to take. M u ch will rem ain a m ere desideratum . N o t all of it will be fulfilled; the individual differences of our w ork­ ers on th e one h an d , a n d the irrationality and unpredictability of all scientific developm ent on th e other, will see to that. H appily, it is the prerogative of any institution w ith lim ited m eans, an d not ru n by th e State, to produce w ork of high quality in order to survive.

D EPTH PSYCHOLOGY1 “D epth psychology” is a term deriving from medical psychol­ ogy, coined by Eugen Bleuler to denote th a t branch of psycho­ logical science w hich is concerned with the phenom enon of the unconscious. 1143 As a philosophical and metaphysical concept, the unconscious occurs fairly early, for instance as “petites perceptions” in Leibniz,2 “eternal unconscious” in Schelling, “unconscious W ill” in Schopen­ hauer, and as the “divine Absolute” in von H artm ann. 1144 In the academic psychology of the nineteenth century, the un­ conscious occurs as a basic theoretical concept in Theodor Lipps, who defines it as the “psychic reality which must necessarily be thought to underlie the existence of a conscious content” ; and in F. H .W . Myers and W illiam James, who stress the im portance of an unconscious psyche. W ith Theodor Fechner, the unconscious becomes an em pirical concept. Nevertheless, the em pirical approach to the unconscious m ay properly be said to date from quite recent times, since up to the turn of the century the psyche was usually identified w>th consciousness, and this m ade the idea of the uncon­ scious appear untenable (W u n d t). ” 45 T he real pioneers of experimental research into the unconscious were Pierre Jan et and Sigm und Freud, two m edical psychologists whose investigations of pathological psychic life laid the foundations of the m odem science of the unconscious. G reat credit is due to Janet for his investigation of hysterical states, which he developed in his theory of “partial psychic dissociation,” draw ing a distinc­ tion between the “partie superieure” and “partie inferieure” of a function. Equally fruitful was his experimental proof of “idees fixes” and “obsessions,” and of their autonomous effects upon consciousness. 1142

1 IA rticle w r itte n (in 1 9 4 8 ) fo r th e L e x i c o n d e r P a e d o g o g i k (B ern , 1 9 5 1 ), vol. I I , pp. 7 6 8 - 7 3 : “T ie fe n p sy c h o lo g ie .” ] 2 [T h a t is, su b lim in a l p e r ce p tio n s w h ic h are n o t a p p er c eiv ed . C f. “ S yn ch ron icity” (C .W ., vo l. 8 ) , pars. 9 3 1 , 9 3 7 . F o r th e referen ces in th is an d th e fo llo w in g par., cf. L. L . W h y te , T h e U n c o n s c io u s b e fo re F r e u d , in d ex , s s .w .]

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T he prominence given to the unconscious as a fundamental concept of empirical psychology, however, goes back to Freud, the true founder of the depth psychology which bears the name of psy­ choanalysis. This is a special method of treating psychic illnesses, and consists essentially in uncovering w hat is “hidden, forgotten, and repressed” in psychic life. Freud was a nerve specialist. His theory was evolved in the consulting room and always preserved its stamp. His fundam ental premise was the pathological, neuroti­ cally degenerate psyche. "'47 The development of Freud’s thought can be traced as follows. He began by investigating neurotic symptoms, more particularly hysterical symptom-formation, whose psychic origin Breuer, em­ ploying a method borrowed from hypnotism, had previously dis­ covered in the existence of a causal connection between the symp­ toms and certain experiences of which the patient was unconscious. In these experiences Freud recognized affects which had somehow got “blocked,” and from which the patient had to be freed. He found there was a meaningful connection between the symptom and the affective experience, so m uch so that conscious experiences which later became unconscious were essential components of neu­ rotic symptoms. T he affects remained unconscious because of their painful nature. In consequence, Freud m ade no further use of hyp­ nosis in “abreacting” the blocked affects, but developed instead his technique of “free association” for bringing the repressed pro­ cesses back to consciousness. He thus laid the foundations of a causal-reductive method, of which special use was to be made in his interpretation of dreams. ” 48 In order to explain the origin of hysteria, Freud established the theory of the sexual traum a. H e found th at traum atic experi­ ences were especially painful because most of them were caused by instinctual impulses coming from the sexual sphere. He assumed to begin with that hysteria in general was due to a sexual traum a in childhood. Later he stressed the aetiological significance of infan­ tile-sexual fantasies th a t proved to be incompatible with the moral values of consciousness and were therefore repressed. The theory of repression forms the core of Freud’s teaching. According to this theory, the unconscious is essentially a phenomenon of repression, and its contents are elements of the personal psyche that although once conscious are now lost to consciousness. T he unconscious would thus owe its existence to a moral conflict. 1149 T he existence of these unconscious factors can be demonstrated,

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as F reud showed, w ith the help of parapraxes (slips of the tongue, forgetting, m isreading) and above all with the help of dreams, which are an im portant source of inform ation regarding uncon­ scious contents. It is F reu d ’s particular merit to have m ade dreams once m ore a problem for psychologists and to have attem pted a new m ethod of interpretation. H e explained them by means of the repression theory, and m aintained th at they consisted of morally incompatible elements which, though capable of becoming con­ scious, were suppressed by an unconscious moral factor, the “ cen­ sor,” and could therefore appear only in the form of disguised wish-fulfillments. T he instinctual conflict underlying this phenom enon F reud de­ scribed initially as the conflict between the pleasure principle and the reality principle, the latter playing the p art of an inhibiting factor. L ater he described it as the conflict between the sexual in­ stinct and the ego-instinct (or between the life-instinct and the death-instinct). T he obtaining of pleasure was correlated w ith the pleasure principle, and the culture-creating impulse w ith the reality principle. Culture required the sacrifice of instinctual gratification by the whole of m ankind and the individual alike. Resistance to this sacrifice led to secret wish-fulfillments distorted by the “ censor.” The danger inherent in this theory was th a t it m ade culture appear a substitute for unsatisfied n atu ral instincts, so th a t complex psychic phenom ena like art, philosophy, and religion became “suspect,” as though they were “ nothing b u t” the outcome of sexual repression. It would seem th a t F reud’s negative and reductive attitude towards cultural values was historically conditioned. His attitu d e towards myth and religion was th a t of the scientific m aterialism of the nine­ teenth century. As his psychology was mainly concerned w ith the neuroses, the pathological aspect of the transform ation of instinct claims a disproportionately large place in his theory of the uncon­ scious and of th e neuroses themselves. T h e unconscious appears to be essentially an appendix of consciousness; its contents are re­ pressed wishes, affects, and memories th a t owe their pathogenic significance to infantile sexuality. T h e most im portant of the re­ pressed contents is the so-called Oedipus complex, which represents the fixation of infantile sexual wishes on the m other and the resis­ tance to the father arising from feelings of envy and fear. This complex forms the core of a neurosis. T he question of the dynamics of unconscious fantasy-formations led F reud to a concept of great im portance for the further develop-

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m ent of depth psychology, namely, the concept of libido. A t first he regarded this as the sexual instinct, b u t later broadened it by assuming the existence of “libidinal affluxes” due to the displace­ m ent and dissociability of the libido. T hrough the investigation of libido-fixations Freud discovered the “transference,” a fundam ental phenom enon in the treatm ent of neurosis. Instead of recollecting the repressed elements, the patient “transfers” them to the analyst in the form of some current experience; th at is, he projects them and thereby involves the analyst in his “family rom ance.” In this way his illness is converted into the “ transference neurosis” and is then acted out between them. Freud later expanded the concept of the unconscious by calling it the “id ” in contradistinction to the conscious ego. (T he term derives from G roddeck.) T he id represents the n atural unconscious dynamism of m an, while the ego forms th a t part of the id which is modified under the influence of the environm ent or is replaced by the reality principle. In working out the relations between the ego and the id, Freud discovered th at the ego contains not only conscious but also unconscious contents, and he was therefore com­ pelled to frame a concept to characterize the unconscious portion of the ego, which he called the “super-ego” or “ego-ideal.” He regarded this as the representative of the parental authority, as the successor of the Oedipus complex, th a t impels the ego to restrain the id. I t manifests itself as conscience, which, invested with the authority of collective morality, continues to display the character of the father. T he super-ego accounts for the activity of the censor in dreams. A lthough Alfred Adler is usually included am ong the founders of depth psychology, his school of individual psychology represents only a partial continuation of the line of research initiated by his teacher Freud. Confronted w ith the same empirical material, Adler considered it from an entirely different point of view. For him, the prim ary aetiological factor was not sexuality b u t the powerdrive. T he neurotic individual appeared to him to be in conflict w ith society, w ith the result th at his spontaneous development was blocked. O n this view the individual never exists for himself alone; he m aintains his psychic existence only within the community. In contrast to the emphasis Freud laid on instinctual strivings, Adler stressed the im portance of environmental factors as possible causes of neurosis. N eurotic symptoms and disturbances of personality were the result of a morbidly intensified valuation of the ego, which,

instead of adapting to reality, develops a system of “guiding fic­ tions.” This hypothesis gives expression to a finalistic viewpoint dia­ metrically opposed to the causal-reductive method of Freud, in th at it emphasizes the direction towards a goal. Each individual chooses a guiding line as a basic pattern for the organization of all psychic contents. A m ong the possible guiding fictions, Adler attached spe­ cial im portance to the w inning of superiority and power over others, the urge “to be on to p .” T h e original source of this misguided ambition lies in a deep-rooted feeling of inferiority, necessitating an over-compensation in the form of security. A prim ary organinferiority, o r inferiority of the constitution as a whole, often proves to be an aetiological factor. Environm ental influences in early child­ hood play their part in building up this psychic mechanism, since it is then th a t the foundations are laid for the development of the guiding fiction. T h e fiction of future superiority is m aintained by tendentiously distorting all valuations and giving undue im portance to being “on to p ” as opposed to “underneath,” “masculine” as opposed to “feminine,” a tendency which finds its clearest expression in the so-called “ masculine protest.” ■'54 In A dler’s individual psychology, F reud’s basic concepts undergo a process of recasting. T he Oedipus complex, for example, loses its im portance in view of the increasing drive for security; illness becomes a neurotic “ arrangem ent” for the purpose of consoli­ dating the life-plan. Repression loses its aetiological significance when understood as an instrum ent for the better realization of the guiding fiction. Even the unconscious appears as an “ artifice of the psyche,” so th a t it may very well be asked w hether Adler can be included am ong the founders of depth psychology. Dreams, too, he regarded as distortions aiming at the Active security of the ego and the strengthening of the power drive. Nevertheless, the services rendered by A dler and his school to the phenomenology of person­ ality disturbances in children should not be overlooked. Above all, it m ust be emphasized th a t a whole class of neuroses can in fact be explained prim arily in terms of the power drive. ' '55 W hereas Freud started out as a neurologist, and Adler later became his pupil, C. G. Ju n g was a pupil of Eugen Bleuler and began his career as a psychiatrist. Before he came into contact with F reud’s ideas, he had, in treating a case of somnambulism in a fifteen-year-old girl (1 8 9 9 ), observed th a t her unconscious con­ tained the beginnings of a future personality development, which took the form of a split (o r “double” ) personality. Through experi-

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mental researches on association ( 19 0 3 ) he found that in normal individuals as well as in neurotics the reactions to word-tests were disturbed by split-off ( “repressed” ) emotional complexes ( “feelingtoned complexes of ideas” ), which manifested themselves by means of definite symptoms ( “ complex-indicators” ). These experiments confirmed the existence of the repressions described by Freud and their characteristic consequences. In 1 9 0 6 Ju n g gave polemical sup­ port to F reud ’s discovery. T he theory of complexes maintains that neurosis is caused by the splitting-off of a vitally im portant complex. Similar splinter-complexes can be observed in schizophrenia. In this disease the personality is, as it were, broken up into its complexes, with the result th at the normal ego-complex almost disappears. T he splinter-complexes are relatively autonomous, are not subject to the conscious will, and cannot be corrected so long as they remain unconscious. They lend themselves to personification (in dreams, for instance), and, with increasing dissociation and autonomy, as­ sume the character of partial personalities (hence the old view of neuroses and psychoses as states of possession). In 1 9 0 7 Ju n g became personally acquainted with Freud, and derived from him a wealth of insights, particularly in regard to dream psychology and the treatm ent of neurosis. But in certain respects he arrived at views which differed from those of Freud. Experience did not seem to him to justify F reud’s sexual theory of neurosis, and still less th a t of schizophrenia. T he conception of the unconscious needed to be broadened, inasm uch as the uncon­ scious was not just a product of repression b u t was the creative m atrix of consciousness. Equally, he was of the opinion th a t the unconscious could not be explained in personalistic terms, as a merely personal phenom enon, b u t th at it was also in part collective. Accordingly, he rejected the view th a t it possessed a merely instinc­ tu al nature, as well as rejecting the wish-fulfillment theory of dreams. Instead, he emphasized the compensatory function of the unconscious processes and their teleological character. For the wishfulfillment theory he substituted the concept of development of per­ sonality and development of consciousness, holding that the uncon­ scious does not consist only of morally incompatible wishes but is largely composed of hitherto undeveloped, unconscious portions of the personality which strive for integration in the wholeness of the individual. In the neurotic, this process of realization is manifested in the conflict between the relatively m ature side of the personality and the side w hich Freud rightly described as infantile. T h e conflict

has at first a purely personal character and can be explained personalistically, as the patients themselves do, and moreover in a m an­ ner which agrees both in principle and in detail with the Freudian explanation. T h eir standpoint is a purely personal and egoistic one, and takes no account of the collective factors, this being the very reason why they are ill. In schizophrenics, on the other hand, the collective contents of the unconscious predom inate strongly in the form of mythological motifs. Freud could not subscribe to these modifications of his views, so Ju n g and he parted company. 1157 Such differences of viewpoint, further increased by the contra­ diction between F reud’s and A dler’s explanation of neurosis, prom pted Ju n g to investigate more closely the im portant question of the conscious attitude, on which the compensatory function of the unconscious depends. Already in his association experiments he had found indications of an attitude-type, and this was now confirmed by clinical observations. As a general and habitual dispo­ sition in every individual, there proved to be a more or less pro­ nounced tendency towards either extraversion or introversion, the focus of interest falling in the first case on the object, and in the second on the subject. These attitudes of consciousness determ ine the corresponding modes of compensation by the unconscious: the emergence in the first case of unconscious demands upon the sub­ ject, and in the second of unconscious ties to the object. These relationships, in p art complementary, in p art compensatory, are complicated by the simultaneous participation of the variously differentiated orienting functions of consciousness, namely, thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition, which are needed for a whole judg­ ment. T he most differentiated ( “superior” ) function is comple­ mented or compensated by the least differentiated ( “inferior” ) function, but at first only in the form of a conflict. 1158 F urther investigation of the collective m aterial of the uncon­ scious, presented by schizophrenics and by the dreams of neurotics and norm al people, elicited typical figures or motifs which have their counterparts in m yth and may therefore be called archetypes. These are not to be thought of as inherited ideas; rather, they are the equivalent of the “ pattern of behaviour” in biology. T he arche­ type represents a mode of psychic behaviour. As such, it is an “irrepresentable” factor which unconsciously arranges the psychic elements so th at they fall into typical configurations, m uch as a crystalline grid arranges the molecules in a saturated solution. T he specific associations and memory images form ing these configurations

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vary endlessly from individual to individual; only the basic pattern remains the same. O ne of the clearest of these archetypal figures is the anima, the personification of the unconscious in feminine form. This archetype is peculiar to masculine psychology, since the uncon­ scious of a m an is by nature feminine, probably owing to the fact th at sex is determined merely by a preponderance of masculine genes, the feminine genes retreating into the background. T he corre­ sponding role in a woman is played by the animus. A figure com­ mon to both sexes is the shadow, a personification of the inferior side of the personality. These three figures appear very frequently in the dreams and fantasies of normal people, neurotics and schizo­ phrenics. Less frequent is the archetype of the wise old man and of the earth mother. Besides these there are a num ber of functional and situational motifs, such as ascent and descent, the crossing (ford or strait), tension and suspension between opposites, the world of darkness, the breakthrough (or invasion), the creation of fire, help­ ful or dangerous animals, etc. Most im portant of all is the sup­ posedly central archetype or self, which seems to be the point of reference for the unconscious psyche, just as the ego is the point of reference for consciousness. T he symbolism associated with this archetype expresses itself on the one hand in circular, spherical, and quaternary forms, in the “squaring of the circle,” and in mandala symbolism; on the other hand in the imagery of the supraordinate personality (God-image, Anthropos symbolism). These empirical findings show that the unconscious consists of two layers: a superficial layer, representing the personal uncon­ scious, and a deeper layer, representing the collective unconscious. The former is made up of personal contents, i.e., things forgotten and repressed, subliminal or “extrasensory” perceptions and antici­ pations of future developments, as well as other psychic processes that never reach the threshold of consciousness. A neurosis origi­ nates in a conflict between consciousness and the personal uncon­ scious, whereas a psychosis has deeper roots and consists in a conflict involving the collective unconscious. T he great majority of dreams contain mainly personal material, and their protagonists are the ego and the shadow. Normally, the dream material serves only to compensate the conscious attitude. There are, however, com para­ tively rare dreams (the “big” dreams of primitives) which contain clearly recognizable mythological motifs. Dreams of this sort are of especial importance for the development of personality. Their psychotherapeutic value was recognized even in ancient times.

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Since the personal unconscious contains the still active residues of the past as well as the seeds of the future, it exerts a direct and very considerable influence on the conscious behaviour of the indi­ vidual. AU cases of unusual behaviour in children should be investi­ gated for their psychic antecedents through rigorous interrogation of both child and parents. T h e behaviour of the parents, whether they have open or hidden conflicts, etc., has an incalculable effect on the unconscious of the child. T he causes of infantile neurosis are to be sought less in the children than in the parents or teachers. The teacher should be more conscious of his shadow than the aver­ age person, otherwise the work of one hand can easily be undone by the other. It is for this reason that medical psychotherapists are required to undergo a training analysis, in order to gain insight into their own unconscious psyche. 1160a Thanks to the parallelism between mythological motifs and the archetypes of the unconscious, depth psychology has been applied in widely differing fields of research, especially by students of m yth­ ology, folklore, com parative religion, and the psychology of prim i­ tives (R ichard W ilhelm, H einrich Zimmer, K arl Kerenyi, Hugo Rahner, Erich N eu m an n ), as was also the case with the Freudian school earlier (K arl A braham , O tto Rank, Ernest Jones). As the archetypes have a “num inous” quality and underlie all religious and dogm atic ideas, depth psychology is also of im portance for theology. 1161 T he activity of the collective unconscious manifests itself not only in compensatory effects in the lives of individuals, but also in the m utation of dom inant ideas in the course of the centuries. This can be seen most clearly in religion, and, to a lesser extent, in the various philosophical, social, and political ideologies. It ap ­ pears in most dangerous form in the sudden rise and spread of psychic epidemics, as for instance in the witch hunts in Germany at the end of the fourteenth century, or in the social and political utopias of the tw entieth century. How far the collective unconcious m ay be considered the efficient cause of such movements, or merely their m aterial cause, is a question for ethnologists and psychologists to decide; but certain experiences in the field of indi­ vidual psychology indicate the possibility of a spontaneous activity of archetypes. These experiences usually concern individuals in the second half of life, when it not infrequently happens th at drastic changes of outlook are thrust upon them by the unconscious as a result of some defect in their conscious attitude. While the activity

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of the personal unconscious is confined to com pensatory changes in the personal sphere, th e changes effected by th e collective uncon­ scious have a collective aspect: they alter o u r view of th e world, and, like a contagion, infect o u r fellow m en. ( H en ce the astonishing effects of certain psychopaths on society!) T h e regulating influence of th e collective unconscious can be seen a t w ork in th e psychic developm ent of th e individual, o r indi­ viduation process. Its m ain phases are expressed by th e classic arche­ types th a t are fo u n d in th e an cien t in itiatio n mysteries and in H er­ m etic philosophy. T hese arch ety p al figures a p p e a r in projected form d u rin g th e transference. F reu d recognized only th e personal aspect of this psycho therapeutically very im p o rtan t phenom enon. Despite appearances to th e contrary, its real psychotherapeutic value does no t lie in the sphere of personal problem s ( a m isunderstanding for w hich the neu ro tic p atie n t has to pay d e a rly ), b u t in the projec­ tion of archety p al figures (an im a, anim us, e tc .). T he archetypal relationships th u s p ro d u ced d u rin g th e transference serve to com­ pensate th e u n lim ited exogam y of o u r culture by a realization of the unconscious endogam ous tendency. T h e goal of th e psychother­ apeutic process, th e self-regulation of th e psyche by means of the n a tu ra l drive to w ard s in d iv id u atio n , is expressed by th e above-m en­ tioned m a n d a la an d A nthropos symbolism.

F O R E W O R D T O T H E F IR S T V O L U M E O F S T U D IE S F R O M T H E C. G. JU N G IN S T IT U T E 1 1163

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T he works which the Institute proposes to publish in this series derive from m any different spheres of knowledge. This is under­ standable since they are predom inantly psychological in character. Psychology, of its very nature, is the intermediary between the dis­ ciplines, for the psyche is the m other of all the sciences and arts. Anyone who wishes to paint her portrait must mingle m any colours on his palette. In order to do justice to its subject, psychology has to rely on any num ber of auxiliary sciences, on whose findings its own grow th and prosperity depend. T he psychologist gratefully acknowledges his borrowings from other sciences, though he has neither the intention nor the am bition to usurp their domains or to “know better.” H e has no wish to intrude into other fields but restricts himself to using their findings for his own purposes. Thus, for example, he will not use historical m aterial in order to write history b u t rather to dem onstrate the nature of the psyche— a con­ cern which is foreign to the historian. T he forthcom ing publications in this series will show the great diversity of psychological interests and needs. R ecent developments in psychological research, in particular the psychology of the collec­ tive unconscious, have confronted us w ith problems which require the collaboration of other sciences. T he facts and relationships u n ­ earthed by the analysis of the unconscious offer so m any parallels to the phenomenology of myths, for example, th a t their psychologi­ cal elucidation m ay also shed light on the mythological figures and their symbols. At all events, we must gratefully acknowledge the invaluable support psychology has received from students of myths and fairy-tales, as well as from com parative religion, even if they 1 IV ol. I o f S tu d ien aus d em C . G . J u n g In stitu t, Z u rich , 1 9 4 9 : C . A. M eier, A n tik e I n k u b a t i o n u n d m o d e r n e P s y c h o th e r a p ie . T h e forew ord w a s p u b lish ed in a trans. by R a lp h M a n h e im , in th e first vo l. o f S tu d ies in J u n g ia n T h o u g h t, Jam es H illm a n , G en era l E d ito r : E v i l : E ssa ys b y C a r l K e r e n y i [and others] (E v a n sto n , 111., 1 9 6 7 ) , an d (sa m e series, sam e y e a r ) , in a trans. o f M eier ’s book: A n c i e n t I n c u b a t i o n a n d M o d e r n P s y c h o th e r a p y . T h e presen t trans. is by R .F .C . H u ll.]

on th e ir p a rt have n o t yet le arn t how to m ak e use of its insights. T h e psychology of th e unconscious is still a very young science w h ich m ust first justify its existence before a critical public. This is th e end w h ich th e pu b licatio n s of th e In stitu te are designed to serve. September

IQ 48

F O R E W O R D T O F R IE D A F O R D H A M : “ IN T R O D U C T IO N T O JU N G ’S PSY C H O LO G Y ” 1 Mrs. Frieda Fordham has undertaken the by no means easy task of producing a readable resume of all my various attempts at a better and more comprehensive understanding of the hum an psyche. As I cannot claim to have reached any definite theory ex­ plaining all or even the m ain p art of the psyche’s complexities, my work consists of a series of different approaches, or one m ight call it a circum am bulation of unknow n factors. This makes it rather difficult to give a clear-cut and simple account of my ideas. M ore­ over, I always felt a particular responsibility not to overlook the fact that the psyche does not reveal itself only in the doctor’s consulting-room, b u t above all in the wide world, as well as in the depths of history. W hat the doctor observes of its manifestations is an infinitesimal p art of the psychic world, and moreover often distorted by pathological conditions. I was always convinced that a fair picture of the psyche could be obtained only by a com parative method. But the great disadvantage of such a m ethod is th at one cannot avoid the accum ulation of com parative material, with the result th a t the laym an becomes bewildered and loses his tracks in the maze of parallels. 1166 The autho r’s task would have been m uch simpler if she had been in possession of a neat theory for a point de depart, and of well-defined case m aterial w ithout digressions into the immense field of general psychology. T he latter, however, seems to me to form the only safe basis and criterion for the evaluation of pathological phenomena, even as norm al anatom y and physiology are an indis­ pensable precondition for a study of their pathological aspects. Just as hum an anatom y has a long evolution behind it, the psychology of m odern m an depends upon its historical roots and can only be judged by its ethnological variants. M y works offer innum erable possibilities of side-tracking the reader’s attention w ith considera­ tions of this sort. 1 IPenguin Books, 1953. T h e foreword was w ritten in English.] 489

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U n d e r those so m ew h at trying conditions th e au th o r h as never­ theless succeeded in ex tricatin g herself fro m all th e opportunities to m ake m is-statem ents. She has p resented a fa ir a n d simple account of th e m a in aspects of m y psychological w ork. I am in d eb ted to h e r fo r this ad m irab le piece of w ork. September igg2

F O R E W O R D T O M IC H A E L F O R D H A M : “ N E W D E V E L O P M E N T S IN A N A L Y T IC A L P S Y C H O L O G Y ” 1 It is n o t easy to w rite a forew ord to a book consisting of a collection of essays, especially w hen each essay requires one to take up an a ttitu d e o r stim ulates the reader into discursive com m ents. But this is just w h at D r. F o rd h a m ’s papers do: every single one of them is so carefully th o u g h t out th a t the reader can hardly avoid holding a conversation w ith it. I do not m ean in a polem ical sense, but ra th e r in the sense of affirm ation and in the desire to carry the objective discussion a stage fu rth e r and collaborate on the solu­ tion of the problem s involved. O p p o rtunities for such enjoyable d ia­ logues are unfo rtu n ately ra th e r rare, so th a t one feels it as a distinct loss w hen one has to forgo them . A forew ord ought not to m ake rem arks to the a u th o r and, so to speak, buttonhole him for a private conversation. I t ought, rath er, to convey to the read er som ething of the im pressions w hich the w riter of the forew ord received w hen reading the m anuscript. If I m ay be forgiven a som ew hat frivolous expression, the forew ord should be content w ith the role of an intel­ lectual aperitif. ,i69 T h u s I can confess myself grateful for the stim ulation the book has b rought m e, an d salute the a u th o r’s collaboration in the field of psychotherapy a n d analytical psychology. F or in this territory questions arise of a p ractical an d theoretical kind, w hich are so difficult to answ er th a t they will continue to exercise ou r m inds for a long tim e to come. A bove all I w ould like to draw atten tio n to D r. F o rd h a m ’s discussion of th e problem of synchronicity, first m ooted by m e a n d now dealt w ith by him in a m asterly m anner. I m ust rate his achievem ent all the higher because it dem ands not only u nderstanding, b u t courage too, not to let oneself be prevented from going m ore deeply into this problem by the prejudices of our intellectual .compeers. Also I m ust acknow ledge th a t the a u th o r has in no wise succum bed to the very u n d erstandable tem p tatio n to underestim ate the problem , to pass off one’s ow n lack of com pre­ hension as the stupidity of others, to. substitute o th er term s for the 1168

1 [London, 1957. T h e foreword was translated from a German ms.]

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concepts I have proposed and to think th a t som ething new has been said. H ere D r. F o rd h am ’s feeling for essentials is confirmed in the finest way. T h e p ap er on the transference m erits attentive reading. Dr. F o rd h am guides his reader th ro u g h the m ultifarious aspects of this “ problem w ith horns”— to use an expression of N ietzche’s— with circum spection, insight, and caution, as befits this in every respect delicate them e. T h e problem of the transference occupies a central position in the dialectical process of analytical psychology an d there­ fore m erits quite special interest. I t makes th e highest dem ands not only on the doctor’s know ledge an d skill b u t also on his m oral responsibility. H ere th e tru th of the old alchem ical dictum is proved yet ag ain : “ ars to tu m req u irit hom inem ” (th e a rt requires the total m a n ). T h e au th o r takes full account of the overriding im portance of this phenom enon an d accordingly devotes to it a particularly attentive and careful exposition. T h e practising psychologist would be very w rong if he th o u g h t he could dismiss general considerations of this kind based on b ro ad er principles, a n d dispense w ith all deeper reflection. Even if psychotherapy adm its of num erous provi­ sional an d superficial solutions in practice, th e practising analyst will nevertheless come up against cases from tim e to time th a t chal­ lenge him as a m an an d a personality in a way th a t m ay be decisive. T h e usual interim solutions and other b an al expedients, such as appeals to collective precepts, w hich are invariably constructed with “ m ust” or “ o u g h t,” then have a h ab it of breaking down, and the question of ultim ate principles, or of the u ltim ate m eaning of the individual, arises. T his is the m om ent w hen dogm atic tenets and pragm atic rules of th u m b m ust m ake w ay fo r a creative solution issuing from the to tal m an, if his therap eu tic endeavours are not to get m iserably silted u p an d stuck. In such cases he will need reflection and will be th ankful to those w ho have been farsighted enough to struggle for an all-round understanding. F o r it is n o t only a routine perform ance th a t is expected of the analyst, b u t also a readiness and ability to m aster unusual situa­ tions. T his is particularly true of psychotherapy, w here in the last analysis we are concerned w ith the whole of the hum an personality an d not m erely w ith life in its p artial aspects. R outine cases can be disposed of in a variety of ways— w ith good advice, w ith sugges­ tion, w ith a b it of training, w ith confession of sin, w ith any m ore or less plausible system of views an d m ethods. I t is the uncom m on cases th a t set us th e m aster test, by forcing us into fundam ental

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reflections and dem anding decisions of principle. From this vantage point we shall then discover th at even in ordinary cases there is adum brated a line th a t leads to the central theme, namely, the indi­ viduation process w ith its problem of opposites. This level of insight cannot be reached without the dialectical discussion between two individuals. Here the phenomenon of the transference forcibly brings about a dialogue that can only be con­ tinued if both patient and analyst acknowledge themselves as p art­ ners in a common process of approxim ation and differentiation. For, in so far as the patient frees himself from his infantile state of unconsciousness and its restrictive handicaps, or from its opposite, namely unbounded egocentricity, the analyst will see himself obliged to diminish the distance between them (hitherto necessary for rea­ sons of professional au thority), to a degree th a t does not prevent him from displaying th at measure of hum anity which the patient needs in order to assure himself of his right to exist as an individual. Just as it is the duty of parents and educators not to keep children on the infantile level b u t to lead them beyond it, so it is incum bent on the analyst not to treat patients as chronic invalids b u t to recog­ nize them, in accordance w ith their spiritual development and in­ sight, as more or less equal partners in the dialogue, with the same rights as himself. An authority that deems itself superior, or a per­ sonality th a t remains hors concours, only increases the patient’s feel­ ings of inferiority and of being excluded. A n analyst who cannot risk his authority will be sure to lose it. In order to m aintain his prestige he will be in danger of w rapping himself in the protective mantle of a doctrine. But life cannot be m astered with theories, and just as the cure of neurosis is not, ultimately, a mere question of therapeutic skill, b u t is a m oral achievement, so too is the solution of problems throw n up by the transference. No theory can give us any inform ation about the ultim ate requirem ents of individua­ tion, nor are there any recipes th a t can be applied in a routine manner. T h e treatm ent of the transference reveals in a pitiless light what the healing agent really is : it is the degree to which the analyst himself can cope with his own psychic problems. T h e higher levels of therapy involve his own reality and are the acid test of his superiority. I hope D r. F ordham ’s book, which is distinguished for its far­ sightedness, carefulness, and clarity of style, will meet w ith the inter­ est it so m uch deserves. June ig g y

A N A S T R O L O G IC A L E X P E R IM E N T 1 In the Swiss edition2 I purposely set o u t th e results of th e astro­ logical statistics in ta b u la r form in this chapter, so th at th e reader could gain som e insight into th e behav io u r of th e figures— in other w ords, see for him self how fortuitous these results were. Subse­ quently, I w an ted to suppress th a t account of th e experim ent in the English edition an d for a very peculiar reason indeed. T h a t is, it has been forcibly bo rn e in on m e th a t practically nobody has understood it th e right way, despite— or p erh ap s because— of the fact th a t I took th e trouble to describe th e experim ent in great detail an d in all its vicissitudes. Since it involved the use of statistics and com parative frequencies, I h ad the (as it now seems) unlucky idea th a t it w ould be helpful to present th e resultant figures in ta b u la r form . B ut evidently th e suggestive effect em anating from statistical tables is so strong th a t nobody can rid himself of the notion th a t such a n array of figures is som ehow connected w ith th e tendentious desire to prove som ething. N o th in g could have been fu rth er from m y m ind, because all I in tended to do was to describe a certain sequence of events in all its aspects. T his altogether too unassum ing intention was m isunderstood all ro u n d , with the conse­ quence th a t th e m eaning of th e w hole exposition w ent by the board. 1175 I am not going to com m it this m istake again, b u t shall m ake m y point a t once by anticip atin g th e result: th e experim ent shows how synchronicity plays havoc w ith statistical m aterial. E ven the choice of m y m aterial seems to have th ro w n m y readers into confu­ sion, since it is concerned w ith astrological statistics. O ne can easily im agine how obnoxious such a choice m ust be to a prudish intellectualism . Astrology, w e are told, is unscientific, absolute nonsense, an d everything to do w ith it is b ra n d e d as ran k superstition. In

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1 [A condensed version of ch. I I of “ S ynchro n icity : A n AcausaI C o n n ectin g P rin cip le” (C .W ., vol. 8 ) . P ublished as “ E in astrologisches E x p erim e n t,” Z eitsch rift fiir Parapsychologie u n d G renzgebiete der Psychologie (B e rn ), 1 :2 /3 (M a y 1 9 5 8 ), 81—92. A lo n g p re fa to ry n o te by th e ed ito r, H a n s B ender, q uoted a le tte r to him fro m Ju n g , 12 Feb. 1958, in fu rth e r clarificatio n ; it is in L ette rs, ed. G. A dler, vol. 2.] 2 IJn n g an d P auli, N a tu rerkla ru n g u n d P syche, 1952.]

such a dubious context, how could columns of figures m ean any­ thing except an attem pt to furnish proofs in favour of astrology, proofs whose invalidity is a foregone conclusion? I have already said th a t there was never any question of that— but w hat can words do against num erical tables? 1176 We hear so m uch of astrology nowadays that I determined to inquire a little more closely into the empirical foundations of this intuitive method. For this reason I picked on the following question: How do the conjunctions and oppositions of the sun, moon, Mars, Venus, ascendant, and descendant behave in the horoscopes of mar­ ried people? T he sum of all these aspects am ount to fifty. 1177 T he m aterial to be examined, namely, m arriage horoscopes, was obtained from friendly donors in Zurich, London, Rome, and Vienna. T he horoscopes, or rather the birth data, were piled up in chronological order just as the post brought them in. T he misun­ derstanding already began here, as several astrological authorities informed me th a t my procedure was quite unsuited to evaluating the m arriage relationship. I thank these amiable counsellors, but on my side there was never any intention of evaluating m arriage astrologically b u t only of investigating the question raised above. As the m aterial only trickled in very slowly I was unable to restrain my curiosity any longer, and I also w anted to test out the methods to be employed. I therefore took the 360 horoscopes (i.e., 180 pairs) that had so far accum ulated and gave the m aterial to my co­ worker, Dr. Liliane Frey-Rohn, to be analysed. I called these 180 pairs the “first batch.” 1178 Exam ination of this batch showed th at the conjunction of sun (masculine) and moon (fem inine) was the most frequent of all the 50 aspects, occurring in 10% of all cases. T he second batch, evaluated later, consisted of 440 additional horoscopes (220 pairs) and showed as the most frequent aspect a moon-moon conjunction (1 0 .9 % ). A third batch, consisting of 166 horoscopes (83 pairs), showed as the most frequent aspect the ascendant-moon conjunc­ tion (9 .6 % ). 1179 W hat interested me most to begin w ith was, of course, the ques­ tion of probability: were the m axim um results obtained “signifi­ cant” figures or not; th a t is, were they im probable or not? Calcula­ tions undertaken by a m athem atician showed unmistakably that the average frequency of 10% in all three batches is far from repre­ senting a significant figure. Its probability is m uch too great; in other words, there is no ground for assuming th a t our m axim um

frequencies are m ore th a n m ere dispersions due to chance. T hus far the result of o u r statistics (w hich nevertheless cover nearly one thousand horoscopes) is disappointing for astrology. T he m aterial is, how ever, m uch too scanty for us to be able to draw from it any conclusions either for or against. I 180 B ut if we look a t th e results qualitatively, we are im m ediately struck by the fact th a t in all th ree batches it is a m oon conjunction, an d w h at is m ore— a p o in t w hich th e astrologer will doubtless ap ­ preciate— a conjunction of m oon an d sun, m oon an d m oon, moon an d ascendant, respectively. T h e sun indicates th e m onth, th e moon th e day, an d th e ascendant th e “m o m en t” of birth . T he positions of sun, m oon, an d ascendant form the three m ain pillars of the horoscope. I t is altogether p ro b ab le th a t a m oon conjunction should occur once, b u t th a t it should occur th ree tim es is extremely im prob­ able (th e im probability increases by th e square each tim e ), and th a t it should single out precisely the three m ain positions of the horoscope from am ong 47 oth er possibilities is som ething supranorm al and looks like th e most gorgeous falsification in favour of astrology. I 181 These results, as sim ple as they are unexpected, were consistently m isunderstood by the statisticians. T h ey th o u g h t I w anted to prove som ething w ith my set of figures, w hereas I only wished to give an ocular dem onstration of th eir “ chance” n atu re. It is naturally a little unexpected th a t a set of figures, m eaningless in themselves, should “ a rran g e” a result w hich everybody agrees to be im probable. It seems in fact to be an instance of th a t possibility w hich SpencerBrow n has in m in d w hen he says th a t “ th e results of th e best-de­ signed a n d m ost rigorously observed experim ents in psychical re­ search are chance results after all,” an d th a t “th e concept of chance can cover a w ider n a tu ra l field th a n we previously suspected.” 8 In other w ords w h at th e previous statistical view obliged us to reg ard as “significant,” th a t is, as a quasi-intentional grouping or arrangem ent, m ust be reg ard ed equally as belonging to th e realm of chance, w hich m eans n o th in g less th a n th a t th e whole concept of probability m ust be revised. O n e can also in terp ret SpencerB row n’s view as m eaning th a t u n d er certain circum stances the quality of “ pseudo-intention55 attaches to chance, or— if we wish to avoid a negative form ulation— th a t chance can “ create55 m ean ­ ingful arrangem ents th a t look as if a causal intention h ad been 3 [G. Spencer-Brown, “Statistical Significance in Psychical Research,” N a tu re , vol. 172, 25 July 1953, P- 154-1

at work. But th a t is precisely w hat I mean by “synchronicity,” and what I w anted to dem onstrate in the report on my astrological experiment. N aturally I did not embark on the experiment for the purpose of achieving, or in anticipation of, this unexpected result, which no one could have foreseen; I was only curious to find out what sort of numbers would turn up in an investigation of this kind. This wish seemed suspicious not only to certain astrologers but also to my friendly m athem atical adviser, who saw fit to w arn me against thinking th a t my m axim al figures would be a proof of the astrological thesis. N either before nor afterwards was there any thought of such proof, besides which my experiment was arranged in a way most unsuited to th a t purpose, as my astrological critics had already pointed out. 1182 Since most people believe th a t numbers have been invented or thought out by m an, and are therefore nothing but concepts of quantities, containing nothing th a t was not previously put into them by the hum an intellect, it was naturally very difficult for me to put my question in any other form. But it is equally possible th at numbers were fo u n d or discovered. In th a t case they are not only concepts but something more— autonomous entities which somehow contain more than just quantities. Unlike concepts they are based not on any psychic assumption b u t on the quality of being them ­ selves, on a “so-ness” th at cannot be expressed by an intellectual concept. U nd er these circumstances they m ight easily be endowed with qualities th a t have still to be discovered. Also one could, as with all autonomous beings, raise the question of their behaviour; for instance one could ask w hat numbers do when they are intended to express something as archetypal as astrology. For astrology is the last rem nant, now applied to the stars, of th a t fateful assemblage of gods whose numinosity can still be felt despite the critical pro­ cedures of our scientific age. In no previous age, however “supersti­ tious,” was astrology so widespread and so highly esteemed as it is today. 1183 I must confess th a t I incline to the view th a t num bers were as much found as invented, and that in consequence they possess a relative autonom y analogous to th a t of the archetypes. They would then have, in common with the latter, the quality of being pre-existent to consciousness, and hence, on occasion, of conditioning it rather than being conditioned by it. T h e archetypes too, as a priori forms of representation, are as m uch found as invented: they are discovered inasmuch as one did not know of their unconscious

autonom ous existence, an d invented by th e m in d inasm uch as their presence was inferred from analogous representational structures. A ccordingly it w ould seem th a t n a tu ra l num bers m ust possess an archetypal character. If th a t is so, th en n o t only w ould certain n u m ­ bers have a relation to an d a n effect on certain archetypes, but th e reverse w ould also be true. T h e first case is equivalent to nu m b er m agic, b u t th e second is equivalent to m y question w hether n u m ­ bers, in conjunction w ith th e num inous assem blage of gods w hich the horoscope represents, w ould show a tendency to behave in a special way. ,i8 4 All reasonable people, especially m ath em atician s, are acutely concerned w ith th e question of w h at we can do by m eans of n u m ­ bers. O nly a few devote any atten tio n to th e question of w hat, in so far as they are autonom ous, num bers do in themselves. T he question sounds so absurd th a t one h ard ly dares to u tter it in decent intellectual society. I could not p red ict w h a t result my scandalous statistics w ould show. I h a d to w ait an d see. A nd as a m a tte r of fact my figures behaved in so obliging a fashion th a t an astrologer can probably ap p reciate th em fa r b etter th a n a m athem atician. O w ing to th eir excessively strict adherence to reason, m ath em a ti­ cians seem unable to see beyond th e fact th a t in each separate case m y result has too g reat a probability to prove an y th in g ab o u t astrol­ ogy. O f course it doesn’t, because it w as never intended to do any such thing, an d I never for a m o m en t believed th a t the m axim um , falling each tim e on a m oon conjunction, represented a so-called significant figure. Y et in spite of this critical attitu d e a nu m b er of m istakes w ere m ad e in w orking o u t an d com puting th e statistics, w hich all w ith o u t exception contrived to b rin g about th e most favourable possible result fo r astrology. As th o u g h to punish him for his w ell-m eaning w arning, th e w orst m istake of all fell to the lot of m y m ath em atician , w ho a t first calculated far too small a probability for th e in d iv id u al m axim a, an d was thus unw ittingly deceived by th e unconscious in th e interests of astrological prestige. 1185 S uch lapses can easily be explained by a secret support for astrol­ ogy in face of th e violently p reju d iced attitu d e of the conscious m ind. B ut this exp lan atio n does n o t suffice in th e case of th e ex­ trem ely significant over-all result, w hich w ith the help of quite fortuitous num bers p ro d u ced th e p ictu re of th e classical m arriage trad itio n in astrology, nam ely th e conjunction of the m oon w ith th e three prin cip al positions of th e horoscope, w hen there w ere 47 other possibilities to choose from . T ra d itio n since th e tim e of

Ptolem y predicts th a t the m oon conjunction w ith the sun or m oon of the p a rtn e r is the m arriag e characteristic. Because of its position in the horoscope, th e ascendant has ju st as m uch im portance as the sun a n d m oon. In view of this tradition one could not have wished for a b e tte r result. T h e figure giving th e probability of this predicted concurrence, unlike th e first-obtained m axim um of 1 0 % , is indeed highly significant an d deserves em phasizing, although we are no m ore able to account for its occurrence an d for its ap p a re n t m eaningfulness th a n we can account for the results of R h in e ’s ex­ perim ents, w hich prove th e existence of a perception independent of the space-tim e b arrier. n86 N atu rally I do not think th a t this experim ent or any other rep o rt on happenings of this kind proves any th in g ; it m erely points to som ething th a t even science can no longer overlook— nam ely, th a t its tru th s are in essence statistical a n d are therefore not absolute. H ence there is in n a tu re a back g ro u n d of acausality, freedom , and m eaningfulness w hich behaves com plem entarily to determ inism , m echanism , a n d m eaninglessness; a n d it is to be assum ed th a t such phenom ena are observable. O w ing to th eir peculiar n a tu re , how ­ ever, they will h ard ly be prevailed u p o n to lay aside th e chance character th a t m akes th em so questionable. If they did this they would no longer be w h a t they are— acausal, undeterm ined, m eaningful.4 ii87 [P u re causality is only m eaningful w hen used for the crea­ tion an d functioning of a n efficient instrum ent or m achine by an intelligence stan d in g outside this process an d in d ep en d en t of it. A self-running process th a t operates entirely by its ow n causality, i.e., by absolute necessity, is m eaningless. O n e of m y critics accuses m e of hav in g too rigid a conception of causality. H e has obviously not considered th a t if cause a n d effect w ere not necessarily5 con­ nected th ere w ould h ard ly be any m eaning in speaking of causality at all. M y critic m akes th e sam e m istake as the fam ous scientist8 w ho refuses to believe th a t G od played dice w hen he created th e world. H e fails to see th a t if G od did n o t play dice he h a d no choice b u t to create a (from th e h u m a n p o in t of view ) m eaningless m achine. Since this question involves a tran scen d en tal ju d g m en t 4 [T he follow ing tw o p a ra g ra p h s, n o t w ere a d d e d by J u n g resp ectiv ely to th e queries sen t to h im by th e tra n sla to r, 23 5 W ith all d u e resp ec t to th e ir sta tistic al 6 [A lbert E instein .]

re p re sen ted in th e Z e itsc h rift version, G e rm a n M S a n d to a le tte r c o n ta in in g A p ril 1954.] n a tu re ! ( G .G .J .)

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there can be no final answ er to it, only a paradoxical one. M eaning arises not from causality but from freedom , i.e., from acausality. [M odern physics has deprived causality of its axiom atic charac­ ter. T hus, w hen we explain n atu ral events we do so by m eans of an instrum ent w hich is not quite reliable. H ence an elem ent of uncertainty always attaches to our judgm ent, because— theoreti­ cally, at least— we m ight always be dealing w ith an exception to the rule w hich can only be registered negatively by the statistical m ethod. N o m a tter how small this chance is, it nevertheless exists. Since causality is our only m eans of explanation and since it is only relatively valid, we explain the w orld by applying causality in a paradoxical way, both positively and negatively: A is th e cause of B and possibly not. T h e negation can be om itted in the great m ajority of cases. But it is my contention th a t it cannot be omitted in the case of phenom ena w hich are relatively independent of space an d tim e. As th e tim e-factor is indispensable to the concept of caus­ ality, one cannot speak of causality in a case w here the time-factor is elim inated (as in precognition). Statistical truth leaves a gap open for acausal phenom ena. A nd since our causalistic explanation of n atu re contains the possibility of its own negation, it belongs to the category of transcendental judgm ents, w hich are paradoxical or antinom ian. T h a t is so because n atu re is still beyond us an d be­ cause science gives us only an average picture of the world, b u t not a tru e one. If h u m an society consisted of average individuals only, it w ould be a sad sight indeed.] From a rational point of view an experim ent like the one I conducted is com pletely valueless, for the oftener it is repeated the m ore probable becomes its lack of results. B ut th a t this is also not so is proved by th e very old tradition, w hich w ould hardly have come about h ad not these “ lucky hits” often happened in th e past. T hey behave like R h in e’s results: they are exceedingly im probable, an d yet they hap p en so persistently th a t they even compel us to criticize the foundations of o u r probability calculus, or at least its applicability to certain kinds of m aterial. W hen analysing unconscious processes I often had occasion to observe synchronistic or E SP phenom ena, an d I therefore turned m y attention to the psychic conditions underlying them . I believe I have found th a t they nearly always occur in th e region of arche­ typal constellations, th a t is, in situations w hich have either activated an archetype or w ere evoked by th e autonom ous activity of an archetype. It is these observations w hich led m e to the idea of get-

ting the com bination of archetypes found in astrology to give a quantitatively m easurable answ er. In this I succeeded, as the result shows; indeed one could say th a t the organizing factor responded w ith enthusiasm to m y prom pting. T h e reader m ust p ard o n this anthropom orphism , w hich I know positively invites m isinterpreta­ tion ; it fits in excellently well w ith the psychological facts an d aptly describes the em otional background from w hich synchronistic phe­ nom ena em erge. 1191 I am aw are th a t I o ught a t this point to discuss the psychology of the archetype, b u t this has been done so often an d in such detail elsewhere7 th a t I do not wish to rep eat myself now. 1192 I am also aw are of th e enorm ous impression of im probability m ade by events of this kind, a n d th a t their com parative rarity does not m ake them any m ore probable. T h e statistical m ethod therefore excludes them , as they do n o t belong to the average ru n of events. 7 [Cf. “O n the N ature of the Psyche” (C .W ., vol. 8 ) , pars. 397ff.]

L E T T E R S O N S Y N C H R O N IC IT Y T o M arkus F ierz1

21 F ebruary 1950 D ear Professor Fierz, 1 *93 Y ou were kind enough to read through my M S on synchroni­ city, for w hich I have never thanked you sufficiently. I have been too engrossed in w orking out this idea. 1194 T oday I take th e liberty of burdening you w ith yet another portion of this m anuscript, my excuse being th a t I am in great perplexity as regards the m athem atical evaluation of the results w orked out. I enclose the Tables, together w ith the com m entary. For your general orientation I w ould only rem ark th a t the peculiar nature of the m aterial has necessitated a som ew hat peculiar ar­ rangem ent of the Tables. T h e basis of the experim ent consists of 180 m arried pairs, whose horoscopes w ere com pared for the fre­ quency of the so-called classical m arriage aspects, nam ely, the con­ junction and opposition of sun an d moon, M ars an d V enus, ascen­ d a n t an d descendant. These yield 50 aspects. T h e results obtained for m arried pairs were com pared w ith 180 X 180 — 1 = 32,220 com binations of unm arried pairs. T o the original m aterial of 180 m arried pairs an o th er 145 were added later, w hich w ere also in­ cluded in the statistics. T hey were exam ined in p a rt separately, in p a rt together w ith the 180, as you can see from the Tables. 1195 T h e m ost interesting seems to m e to be T ab le V I,2 w hich shows the dispersions in the frequency values of the aspects. I w ould now be most grateful if you w ould give me your criticism an d view of the T ables as a whole, and, in particular, answ er a question arising out of T able V I. W e have here some aspects w hich consid­ erably exceed th e probable m ean value of the com binations. I would now like to know w h at is th e probability of these deviations from the probable m ean. I know th a t for this purpose a calculation is 1 [Cf. “S y n ch ro n icity : A n A causal C o n n ectin g P rin cip le” {C .W ., vol. 8 ) . See oth er letters to Fierz in Ju n g : L e tte rs, ed . G. A dler.] 2 [T able I I in th e E n glish edn.]

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used w hich is based on the so-called “ deviation sta n d a rd .” 3 But this m ethod is beyond m y m athem atical capacity a n d here I am wholly d ep en d en t on your help. I w ould be very glad if you w ould concentrate m ainly on this question. F o r outside reasons there is some urgency w ith these T ables, as the book is soon to go to press. F ailing all else it w ould be enough for m e if you could simply con­ firm th a t the T ables as a w hole are in order, an d if you could give m e th e probability a t least for the tw o highest values in T ab le V I, colum n I. All the rest, I devoutly hope, you will be able to see from th e T ables themselves. A fter brooding on them for a long tim e they have becom e clear to m e, an d I m ust confess I w ould n ot know how to m ake th em any clearer. Should you be interested in the whole of the m anuscript, or th ink it desirable to read it for th e present purpose, it is naturally at your disposal. B ut I w o u ld n ’t like to send such an avalanche crashing dow n on you w ith o u t w arning. T h a n k in g you in advance for the trouble you are taking, Yours sincerely, C. G. J un g

2 M a rc h 1950 D ear Professor Fierz, 1'97 M y best th anks for all th e trouble you have taken. Y ou have given m e ju st w h a t I hoped for from you— an objective opinion as to th e significance of the statistical figures obtained from my m aterial of now 400 m arriages. O nly I am am azed th a t m y statistics have am ply confirm ed th e trad itio n al view th a t the sun-m oon as­ pects a re m arriag e characteristics, w hich is fu rth e r u nderlined by the value you give for th e m oon-m oon conjunction, nam ely 0 .125% . F o r myself I reg ard th e result as very unsatisfactory a n d have therefore stopped collecting fu rth e r m aterial, as th e approxim ation to th e probable m ean w ith increasing m aterial seems to m e suspicious. 1198 A lthough the figure of 0 .1 2 5 % is still entirely w ithin the bounds of possibility, I w ould nevertheless like to ask you, for the sake of clarity, w h eth er one m ay reg ard this value as “significant” in so fa r as its represents a relatively low probability th a t coincides w ith th e historical trad itio n ? M ay one a t least conjecture th a t it argues fo r ra th e r th a n against the trad itio n (since P tolem y)? I fully share your view of divinatory m ethods as catalysts of intuition. B ut the result of these statistics has m ad e m e som ew hat sceptical, espe3 [English in the original.]

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cially in connection w ith the latest ESP experim ents w hich have obtained probabilities of io~31. These experim ents and the whole experience of ESP are sufficient proof th a t m eaningful coincidences do exist. T here is thus some probability th a t the divinatory methods actually produce synchronistic phenom ena. These seem to me most clearly discernible in astrology. T h e statistical findings undoubtedly show th a t the astrological correspondences are nothing m ore than chance. T h e statistical m ethod is based on th e assumption of a con­ tin u u m of uniform objects. But synchronicity is a qualified individ­ ual event w hich is ruined by the statistical m e th o d ; conversely, syn­ chronicity abolishes the assum ption of [a continuum of] uniform objects and so ruins th e statistical m ethod. I t seems, therefore, that a com plem entarity relationship exists betw een synchronicity and causality. R h in e’s statistics have proved the existence of synchroni­ city in spite of unsuitable m ethods. T his aroused false hopes in me as regards astrology. In R h in e’s experim ents the phenom enon of synchronicity is an extremely simple m atter. T h e situation in astrol­ ogy is incom parably m ore com plicated and is therefore m ore sensi­ tive to the statistical m ethod, w hich emphasizes just w h at is least characteristic of synchronicity, th a t is, uniform ity. Now my results, mischievously enough, exactly confirm the old tradition although they are as m uch due to chance as were the results in the old days. So again som ething has h ap p en ed th a t shows all the signs of syn­ chronicity, nam ely a “m eaningful coincidence” or “Just So” story. Obviously the ancients m ust have experienced the same thing quite by chance, otherwise no such tradition could ever have arisen. I d o n ’t believe any ancient astrologer statistically exam ined 800 horo­ scopes for m arriage characteristics. H e always had only small batches a t his disposal, w hich did not ruin the synchronistic phe­ nom enon and could therefore, as in my case, establish the preva­ lence of m oon-m oon an d m oon-sun conjunctions, although these are bound to dim inish w ith a higher range of num bers. All syn­ chronistic phenom ena, w hich are m ore highly qualified th a n ESP, are as such unprovable, th a t is to say a single authenticated instance is sufficient proof in principle, just as one does not need to produce ten thousand duckbilled platypi in order to prove they exist. It seems to m e synchronicity represents a direct act of creation which m anifests itself as chance. T h e statistical proof of n atu ral conformity to law is therefore only a very lim ited w ay of describing nature, since it grasps only uniform events. B ut n atu re is essentially discon­ tinuous, i.e., subject to chance. T o describe it we need a principle

Π99

of discontinuity. In psychology this is the drive to individuation, in biology it is differentiation, b u t in nature it is the “ meaningful coincidence,” th a t is to say synchronicity. Forgive me for putting forw ard these somewhat abstruse-looking reflections. They are new to me too and for that reason are still rather chaotic like everything in statu nascendi. T hanks again for your trouble! I should be glad to have your impressions. Best regards, C. G. J u n g 2 0 O ctober 1954

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D ear Professor Fierz, Just now an English version of my book on synchronicity is being prepared. I would like to take this opportunity to make the necessary corrections for the probabilities of the maximal figures which you have so kindly calculated for me. My publishers now want to see the details of your calculation, as they don’t understand w hat m ethod you have employed. If it would be possible for you to let me have this report fairly soon I should be most grateful. U nfortunately I must still add a special request, namely the answer to the question: W hat is the probability of the total result th at the 3 conjunctions, moon-sun, moon-moon, moon asc., all come out together?4 This result (though consisting of chance figures) corresponds to the traditional astrological prediction and at least imitates th a t picture, and if it consisted of “significant figures” would prove the rightness of astrological expectations. I hope I have succeeded in expressing myself clearly. I am in­ deed extremely sorry to bother you with this question and take up your valuable time. Perhaps you can assign the task to a student. Naturally in this m atter I am helpless and am therefore quite pre­ pared to recompense you or the student for the expenses involved. Please do not be offended at this practical suggestion. Best thanks in ad v an ce! Yours sincerely, C. G. J u n g 28 O ctober 1954 D ear Professor Fierz, Let me thank you most cordially for your kind and prom pt fulfilment of my request. T here is, of course no need for you to 4 [The report is sum m arized in “Synchronicity,” pp. 483^]

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repeat your exposition; I will send it direct to Dr. M ichael F ordham . A m isunderstanding seems to have arisen over my question about the m oon-sun, m oon-m oon, moon-asc. tr ia d : 1. T h e fact th a t my figures are due to chance was something I myself h ad noticed w hen p u tting my tables together. T h a t is why I had the T ables p rinted in full; they express th e chance nature of the figures quite clearly an d so enable the non-m athem atical reader to take it in at a glance. F o r the sake of accuracy I then asked you to give m e the probability of my m axim a. Your answer is m ore o r less in line w ith w h at I expected. I t was never my inten­ tion to prove th a t the astrological prediction is correct— I know the unreliability of astrology m uch too well for th at. I only w anted to find out th e exact degree of probability of m y figures. You have already w arned m e twice ab o u t th e impossibility of proving any­ thing. T h a t, if you will perm it m e to say so, is carrying coals to Newcastle. I t doesn’t m a tter to m e a t all w hether astrology is right or not, b u t only ( as s a id ) w h at degree of probability those figures ( “m axim a” ) have, w hich sim ulate an ap p aren t proof of th e right­ ness of the astrological prediction. 2. T h e astrological prediction consists in th e traditional asser­ tion th a t my three m oon conjunctions are specifically characteristic of m arriage. (S un, moon, asc. are the m ain pillars of the horo­ scope.) So this triad is not arbitrarily selected at all, for which reason I consider the analogy of the three w hite ants5 entirely to the point. W ith all due respect, you seem to m e to go very wide of the m ark if you im agine th a t I regard my results as other than statistically determ ined. N aturally they fall w ithin the limits of m athem atical probability, b u t th a t does not stop m y m axim a from occurring a t the very places th e astrologer w ould expect. T h e only thing th a t interests m e is th e degree of probability to be attributed to. this coincidence, merely for the sake of accuracy! I d o n ’t w ant to prove anything w ith m y figures b u t only to show w hat has hap­ pened and w h at I have done. Q uite by chance, as I have tried to show w ith all possible clarity, a configuration resulted which, if it consisted of significant figures, w ould argue in favour of astrol­ ogy. T h e whole story is in other words a case like the scarab® and simply shows w h at chance can do— a “Ju st So” story in f a c t! T h a t such coincidences are in principle m ore th a n merely statistically s [C f. ib id ., p a r . 9 0 2 .] 6 [ I b i d ., p a r . 8 4 3 .]

determ ined is proved by R h in e ’s results, b u t n o t by an isolated instance like m y statistics. 1204 N atu rally I speak in favour of chance in one respect, because I contest the absolute validity of statistical statem ents in so fa r as they dismiss all exceptions as unim p o rtan t. This gives us a n abstract, average picture of reality w hich is to some extent a falsification of it, an d this c an n o t rem ain a m a tte r of indifference to the psychol­ ogist since he has to cope w ith the pathological consequences of this ab stract substitute for reality. 1205 T h e exception is actually m ore real th a n the average since it is the vehicle of reality pa r excellence, as you yourself p o in t out in your letter of O ctober 24th. 1206 I am sorry to have caused you so m uch w ork, a n d th a t you now have to read this long letter as well. B ut I really do n o t know w h a t could have led you to believe th a t I w anted to prove the tru th of astrology. I only w an ted to present a case of “ m eaningful coincidence” w hich w ould illustrate the m ain idea of m y p a p e r on synchronicity. T his fact has been generally overlooked. In L o n ­ don they have called in a top statistician7 to solve th e riddle of m y T ables. T h a t is ra th e r like a peasant n o t being able to open his b a rn door a n d th en sending for a n expert on safes, w ho n atu rally can ’t open it either. R egrettably, he too has succum bed to th e error th a t I w a n te d to prove som ething in favour of astrology, although I disclaim this a t some length in m y book. r2°7 U nfo rtu n ately I am u n ab le to und erstan d how you can consider any other constellations (am ong m y 50) just as “ m eaningful” as the th ree m oon conjunctions. N one of the others are “ classical pre­ dictions.” N o r does ju st any a n t ap p ear, b u t only th e “p red icted ” w hite a n t. I am interested to know the probability of this m eaningful occurrence precisely because it is not very probable th a t th e w hite a n t will be th e first to come out of the box three tim es in succession. I f the probability of a single tim e is 1 : 50, w ouldn’t the probability of three times be 1 :5 o3? A quite appreciable figure, it seems to me. T h is result m ay surely be tak en as com plying w ith m y intention to present a case of synchronicity, even though it proves nothing a b o u t astrology, w hich was never m y intention anyway. H o p in g th a t I have succeeded this tim e in clearing up the m isunderstanding, I rem ain w ith best thanks a n d cordial greetings, Y ours, C. G. J u n g 7 [M . J . M oroney , Fellow of th e R o y al S ta tistic al Society.]

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T o M ichael F ordham s 1st July 1955 1208

D ear Fordham , Synchronicity tells us som ething about the nature of w hat I call the psychoid factor, i.e., the unconscious archetype (n o t its conscious rep resen tatio n !). As the archetype has the tendency to gather suitable forms of expression round itself, its nature is best understood w hen one im itates an d supports this tendency through am plification. T h e n atu ral effect of an archetype an d its am plifica­ tion can be certainly understood as an analogy of the synchronistic effect, inasm uch as the latter shows the same tendency of arranging collateral and coincidental facts w hich represent suitable expressions of the underlying archetype. It is difficult or even impossible, how ­ ever, to prove th a t am plificatory associations are not causal, whereas am plificatory facts coincide in a way th a t defies causal explanation. T h a t is the reason w hy I call spontaneous an d artificial am plifica­ tion a m ere analogy of synchronicity. I t is true, however, th a t we cannot prove a causal connection in every case of amplification, and thus it is quite possible th a t in a num ber of cases, w here we assume causal “association,” it is really a m a tter of synchronicity. W h at is “ association” after all? W e d o n ’t know. I t is not impossible th a t psychic arrangem ent in general is based upon synchronicity w ith the exception of th e secondary rational “ enchainem ent” of psychic events in consciousness. T his is analogous to th e n atu ral course of events, so different from our scientific an d abstract recon­ struction of reality based upon th e statistical average. T h e latter produces a picture of natu re consisting of m ere probabilities, whereas reality is a crisscross of m ore or less im practicable events. O u r psychic life shows the sam e phenom enological picture. This is the reason why I am rath e r inclined to think th a t it would be presum ptuous to suppose th e psyche is based exclusively u p o n the synchronistic principle, at least In our present state of knowledge. I quite agree w ith your idea of the tw o com plem entary attitudes of understanding, viz., rational and irrational or synchronistic. But it rem ains to be seen w hether all irrational events are m eaningful coincidences. I doubt it. I t is refreshing to see you at w ork w ith these interesting problems and to hear som ething intelligent from you instead of th e am azing stupidities dished out by o u r contem poraries. 8 [H a n d w ritte n , in E n g lish .]

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I am sorry th a t I cannot come over to England to celebrate with you, I am writing in hospital, where I am nursing some pros­ tatic trouble. Tom orrow I shall be dismissed for the time being. Old age is not exactly my idea of a joke. M y best wishes, Yours cordially, C. G. J ung

1212 P.S. As you are going to celebrate my 8oth birthday in London and I am unfortunately unable to attend I thought it m ight be a nice gesture if you could send an invitation to the Swiss Ambassa­ dor to G reat Britain. I am sure th a t he would appreciate at least your friendly gesture to one of his countrymen.

T H E F U T U R E O F PARAPSYCHOLOGY T h e I n te r n a tio n a l J o u rn a l of P a r a p s y c h o lo g y (N e w Y o r k ), in its 1963 a u tu m n issue ( V : 4 , pp. 4 5 o f .) , p u blished J u n g ’s answers to a ques­ tio n n a ire w h ic h h a d been circu la ted in Ju n e i9 6 0 am on g various au th orities in co n n e c tio n w ith a survey o n “T h e Future o f Para­ psych o lo g y .”

H o w do you define parapsychology? Parapsychology is th e science dealing w ith those biological or psychological events w hich show th a t the categories of m atter, space, and tim e (an d thus of causality) are n o t axiomatic. W hich areas of research, in your opinion, should be classified as belonging w ithin parapsychology? 1214 T h e psychology of the unconscious. D o you anticipate th a t fu tu re research w ould em phasize quanti­ tative or qualitative work? 1215 F u tu re research will have to em phasize both. D o you believe that a repeatable experim ent is essential to strengthen the position of parapsychological studies w ithin the scien­ tific com m unity? 1216 T h e repeatable experim ent is desirable b u t, inasm uch as most of the events are spontaneous an d irregular, the experim ental m ethod will no t be generally applicable. H ave you any com m ents on recent criticisms with regard to statistical m ethods em ployed in parapsychological studies? 1217 T h e statistical m ethod is most desirable and indispensable to scientific research, w here an d w hen it can be applied. But this is only possible w hen the m aterial shows a certain regularity and com parability. D o you believe that certain qualitative researches m ay be quan­ tified in order to gain w ider acceptance? T h e quantification of qualitative research is surely the best m eans of conviction. I n the qualitative area, w here do you foresee the greatest poten­ tial for fu tu re research progress— spontaneous phenom ena, crisis telepathy, survival studies, out-of-the-body experiences, or any other?

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T he greatest and most im portant part of parapsychological re­ search will be the careful exploration and qualitative description of spontaneous events. Do you feel that during the past decade parapsychology has become more widely accepted among scientists active in other areas? M y impression is that, in Europe, at least, open-mindedness has increased. H ave you any comments regarding the psychological signifi­ cance of certain psychic phenomena? T he psychological significance of parapsychological events has hardly been explored yet. H ave you any comments regarding the special psychological conditions that seem to favour, or reduce, the likelihood of an occur­ rence of psychic phenomena? T h e factor which favours the occurrence of parapsychological events is the presence of an active archetype, i.e., a situation in which the deeper, instinctual layers of the psyche are called into action. T he archetype is a borderline phenomenon, characterized by a relativation of space and time, as already pointed out by Albertus M agnus (D e mirabilibus m u n d i) ,1 whom I have mentioned in my paper “ Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle.” 1 [Incunabulum , undated, Z entralbibliothek, Zurich. Cf. C.W ., vol. 8, par. 859-1

T H E ARCHETYPES AND T H E C O L LE C TIV E U N CO N SC IO U S (related to Volume 9 of the Collected Works)

T H E H Y P O T H E S IS O F T H E C O L L E C T IV E U N C O N S C IO U S 1 Indications of the concept of a collective psyche are to be found in Leibniz’s theory of “petites perceptions,” also in K a n t’s anthro­ pology. In Schelling the “eternally unconscious” is the absolute ground of consciousness. Despite different terminology Hegel’s view is similar. C. G. Carus was the first to base a developed philosophi­ cal system on the concept of the unconscious. Related features may be found in Schopenhauer. E duard von H artm ann exalted the un­ conscious to the concept of an absolute, universal Spirit. T he scien­ tific investigation of the psychological unconscious began with the discovery of hypnotism and was continued via the Salpetriere school in the works of Jan et and Flournoy. Independently of this, it was the Breuer-Freud discovery of the aetiology of neurosis th at led to F reu d ’s sexual theory of the unconscious. Independent, again, of the Freudian school was the discovery of th e so-called “com­ plexes” and “ autonomous contents” of the unconscious by the author. 1224 W hereas for Freud the unconscious is essentially a function of consciousness, the author holds the unconscious to be an indepen­ dent psychic function prior to consciousness and opposed to it. Ac­ cording to this view the unconscious may be divided into a personal and a collective unconscious. T he latter is a psychic propensity to a regular functioning, independent of time and race. Its products may be com pared with “ mythological motifs.” Despite the autoch­ thonous origin of the former, the two are analogous in principle, which m ay be taken as an indication of their conforming to psycho­ logical law. 1225 In the further course of the lecture the author, with the help of a special departm ent of symbology, the so-called m andala sym­ bolism, dem onstrated the parallelism between the symbol of the circle, as produced by educated patients undergoing treatm ent, and 1223

1 [Author’s abstract of a lecture delivered at the Federal Polytechnic Institute (E T H ), Zurich, 1 Feb. 1932. Published in the Vierteljahrschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zurich, L X X V I I, Pt. 2 ( 1 9 3 2 ) , iv—v. T h e M S of the original lecture has not been found. Cf. supra, pars. 1143—45.]

the ritual m andalas of lam aism and kundalini yoga, as well as the parallels w ith th e views of the T antrists, of classical Chinese philoso­ phy, and Chinese yoga. F u rth er parallels are children’s drawings, the prehistoric m andalas of Rhodesia, the sand-paintings from the healing ceremonies (yaibichy dances) of the N avaho (A rizo n a),2 the visions of H ildegard of Bingen from the Codex Lucca3 (12th to 13th cen t.), and the eschatological views of Jacob Boehme.4 The m odem pictorial m aterial was derived from people who produced it spontaneously an d were not in any w ay influenced. 2 [C f. P s y c h o l o g y a n d A l c h e m y , C .W ., vo l. [ I b i d ., f i g . 195.] 4 [ I b id ., p a r s . 2 1 4 —16.] 3

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F O R E W O R D T O A D L E R : “E N T D E C K U N G D E R SEEL E” 1 1226

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This book is a systematic account of the three different ap ­ proaches now current in psychotherapy: F reud’s, Alfred A dler’s, and my own. D raw ing on his wide professional knowledge, the author has carefully elaborated the principal viewpoints underlying each approach, and thus gives the reader, who may have neither the tim e nor the opportunity to study the originals, a complete and rigorously objective survey of this controversial field. T he expo­ sition and m anner of expression are such that the educated layman can follow the argum ent w ithout difficulty. Psychological theories, which at the outset seemed destined for use only in the strictly delimited domain of medical psychotherapy, have long since burst the bounds of a specialized science, and have not only penetrated into the provinces of its sister sciences b u t be­ come— even if fragm entarily— the common property of all educated persons. This means, however, th at informed public opinion has been infected w ith the same confusion which still prevails today in medical psychology. W hat distinguishes Dr. A dler’s work in p a r­ ticular is his thoroughly reliable and comprehensive account of my own views, which differ in so radical and characteristic a way from those of the other two investigators. His book, sober, lucid, and systematic, is a worthy com panion to the earlier works by K ranefeldt2 and H eyer.3 I t is a milestone in the slow b u t sure conquest of the crises and confusions th at hang over the psychological views of our day. December ig33 1 IZ urich, 1934. By G e rh a rd A d ler, a t th a t tim e in B erlin ; a fte r 1936, in E n g lan d . ( “D iscovery of th e S o u l.” ) ] 2 [See in fra , p a rs, i j a j i . , a n d J u n g ’s in tro d u c tio n to W .M . K ra n e fe ld t’s Secret Ways of the M i n d (C .W ., vol. 4, p ars. 7 4 5 ff.).] 3 [See in fra , pars. i7 7 4 ff.]

F O R E W O R D T O H A R D IN G : “W O M A N ’S M Y S T E R IE S ” 1 28

E sther H ard in g , the au th o r of this book, is a physician and specialist in th e treatm en t of psychogenic illness. She is a former pupil of m ine w ho has endeavoured n o t only to understand the m odem psyche b u t also., as the present book shows, to explore its historical background. P reoccupation w ith historical subjects may a t first glance seem to be merely a physician’s personal hobby, but to the psychotherapist it is a necessary p a rt of his m ental equipm ent. T h e psychology of primitives, folklore, mythology, and the science of com parative religion open o u r eyes to the w ide horizons of the h u m an psyche and give us th a t indispensable aid we so urgently need for an understanding of unconscious processes. O nly when we see in w h at shape an d w h at guise dream symbols, w hich seem to us unique, ap p ear on the historical an d ethnic scene, can we really understand w h at they are pointing at. Also, once equipped w ith this extensive com parative m aterial, we can com prehend more nearly th a t factor w hich is so decisive for psychic life, the archetype. O f course this term is not m ean t to denote an inherited idea, but rath e r an inherited m ode of psychic functioning, corresponding to the inborn w ay in w hich th e chick emerges from the egg, th e bird builds its nest, a certain kind of w asp stings the m otor ganglion of the caterpillar, and eels find their w ay to the Bermudas. In other words, it is a “ p attern of behaviour.” This aspect of the archetype, the purely biological one, is the p roper concern of scientific psychology. 29 But the picture changes a t once w hen looked at from th e inside, from w ithin th e realm of the subjective psyche. H ere the archetype appears as a num inous factor, as an experience of fundam ental significance. W henever it clothes itself in suitable symbols (w hich 1 [M . E s th e r H a rd in g , W o m a n ’s M y s te rie s: A n c ie n t a n d M o d e r n ; A P sychologi­ c a l I n te r p r e ta tio n o f th e F e m in in e P rin c ip le as P o rtra y e d in M y th , S tory, a n d D re a m s. T h e o rig in a l e d n . (N ew Y o rk , 19 3 5 ) d id n o t c o n ta in th is fo re ­ w o rd , w h ic h w as w ritte n fo r th e G e rm a n tra n s., F ra u e n -M y ste rie n (Z u ric h , 1 9 4 9 ) ; tra n s . by E d w a rd W h itm o n t fo r th e rev ised e d n . o f th e b o o k (N ew Y o rk , 1 9 5 5 ). T h e p re s e n t v ersio n is rev ised . See su p ra , p a is . 1125!!.]

is not always the case), it seizes hold of the individual in a startling way, creating a condition am ounting almost to possession, the conse­ quences of which may be incalculable. It is for this reason that the archetype is so im portant in the psychology of religion. All reli­ gious and metaphysical concepts rest upon archetypal foundations, and, to the extent th a t we are able to explore them, we can cast at least a superficial glance behind the scenes of world history, and lift a little the veil of mystery which hides the m eaning of metaphysi­ cal ideas. Metaphysics is, as it were, a physics or physiology of the archetypes, and its dogmas form ulate the insights th at have been gained into the nature of these dominants— the unconscious leitmo­ tifs th a t characterize the psychic happenings of a given epoch. T he archetype is “metaphysical” because it transcends consciousness. 1230 D r. H arding’s book is an attem pt to describe some of the arche­ typal foundations of feminine psychology. In order to understand the author’s intention, the reader must overcome the prejudice that psychology consists merely of w hat M r. Smith and Mrs. Jones hap­ pen to know about it. T he psyche consists not only of the contents of consciousness, which derive from sensory impressions, b u t also of ideas apparently based on perceptions which have been modified in a peculiar way by preexistent and unconscious formative factors, i.e., by the archetypes. T he psyche can therefore be said to consist of consciousness plus the unconscious. This leads us to conclude that one p art of the psyche is explicable in terms of recent causes, but th a t another p art reaches back into the deepest layers of our racial history. I83 · Now the one certain fact about the nature of neurosis is that it is due to a disturbance of the prim ary instincts, or at least affects the instincts to a considerable degree. T he evolution of hum an anatomy and of hum an instincts extends over geological periods of time. O u r historical knowledge throws light upon only a few stretches of the way, whose total length would have to be reckoned in millions of miles. However, even th a t little bit is a help when, as psychotherapists, we are called upon to remedy a disturbance in the sphere of instinct. H ere it is the therapeutic myths offered by religion that teach us the most. T he religions m ight indeed be con­ sidered as psychotherapeutic systems which assist our understanding of instinctual disturbances, for these are not a recent phenom enon but have existed from tim e immemorial. A lthough certain types of disease, notably infectious ones like typhus antiquorum , may dis­ appear and others take their place, it is still not very probable that

tuberculosis, shall we say, was an entirely different disease five or ten thousand years ago. T h e sam e is true of psychic processes. Therefore, in the descriptions of abnorm al psychic states left us by antiquity, we are able to recognize certain features that are fam il­ iar to us; and w hen it comes to th e fantasies of neurotic and psy­ chotic patients, it is just here, in ancient literature, th a t we find the most illum inating parallels. 123a From the em pirical evidence, it has now been known for some time th a t any one-sidedness of the conscious m ind, or a disturbance of the psychic equilibrium , elicits a com pensation from the uncon­ scious. T h e com pensation is brought ab o u t by the constellation and accentuation of com plem entary m aterial w hich assumes archetypal forms when the fonction du reel, or correct relation to the sur­ rounding w orld, is disturbed. W hen, for instance, a w om an develops too m asculine an attitu d e— som ething th a t m ay very easily happen owing to the social em ancipation of w om en today— the unconscious compensates this one-sidedness by a sym ptom atic accentuation of certain fem inine traits. This process of com pensation takes place w ithin the personal sphere so long as the vital interests of the person­ ality have no t been harm ed. But if m ore profound disturbances should occur, as w hen a w om en alienates herself from h er husband through her insistence on always being in th e right, then archetypal figures appear on the scene. Difficulties of this kind are very com­ mon, and once they have grow n to pathological proportions they can be rem edied only by psychotherapeutic methods. For this reason, it has long been the endeavour of analytical psychologists to acquire as wide a knowledge as possible of the netw ork of archetypal images produced by th e unconscious, w ith a view to understanding the nature of the archetypal com pensation in each individual case. 1233 D r. H ard in g ’s systematic survey of th e archetypal m aterial of feminine com pensation comes as a m ost welcome contribution to these endeavours, and we m ust be grateful to her for having devoted herself to this task w ith such self-sacrificing effort in addition to her professional work. H er investigation is valuable and im portant not only for the specialist b u t for the educated laym an w ho is inter­ ested in a psychology founded on experience of life and a knowledge of hum an nature. O u r times, characterized as they are by an almost total disorientation in regard to the ends of h um an existence, stand in need, above all else, of a vast am ount of psychological knowledge. A ugust 1948

F O R E W O R D T O N E U M A N N : “T H E O R IG IN S AND H IS T O R Y O F C O N SC IO U SN ESS” 1 T he author has requested me to preface his book with a few words of introduction, and to this I accede all the more readily because I found his work more than usually welcome. It begins just where I, too, if I were granted a second lease of life, would start to gather up the disjecta membra of my own writings, to sift out all those “beginnings w ithout continuations” and knead them into a whole. As I read through the manuscript of this book it became clear to me how great are the disadvantages of pioneer work: one stumbles through unknown regions; one is led astray by analogies, forever losing the Ariadne thread; one is overwhelmed by new impressions and new possibilities; and the worst disadvan­ tage of all is that the pioneer only knows afterwards w hat he should have known before. T he second generation has the advantage of a clearer, if still incomplete, picture; certain landmarks th at at least lie on the frontiers of the essential have grown familiar, and one now knows w hat must be known if one is to explore the newly discovered territory. Thus forewarned and forearmed, a representa­ tive of the second generation can spot the most distant connections; he can unravel problems and give a coherent account of the whole field of study, whose full extent the pioneer can only survey at the end of his life’s work. 1235 This difficult and meritorious task the author has performed with outstanding success. He has woven his facts into a pattern and created a unified whole, which no pioneer could have done nor could ever have attem pted to do. As though in confirmation of this, the present work opens at the very place where I unwittingly made landfall on the new continent long ago, namely, the realm of matriarchal symbolism; and, as a conceptual framework for his discoveries, the author uses a symbol whose significance first dawned on me in my recent writings on the psychology of alchemy: the 1234

1 INew Y ork ( BoHiniren Series X L I I ) , 1954; L o n d o n , 1955. T ra n s, by R .F .C . H ull (in c lu d in g th e fo rew o rd ) fro m U rsprungsgeschichte des B ew usstseins (Z u rich , 1 9 4 9 ). E ric h N e u m a n n (1 9 0 5 -1 9 6 0 ), o rig in ally G e rm a n , la te r lived in Israel.]

uroboros. U pon this foundation he has succeeded in constructing a unique history of th e evolution of consciousness, an d at the same time is representing th e body of m yths as th e phenomenology of this same evolution. In this w ay he arrives a t conclusions and in­ sights w hich are am ong the most im p o rtan t ever to be reached in this field. 1236 N aturally to me, as a psychologist, the most valuable aspect of the w ork is th e fundam ental contribution it m akes to a psychol­ ogy of the unconscious. T h e au th o r has placed the concepts of ana­ lytical psychology— w hich for m any people are so bewildering— on a firm evolutionary basis, an d erected upon this a comprehensive structure in which the em pirical forms of thought find their rightful place. N o system can ever dispense w ith an over-all hypothesis w hich in its tu rn depends upon th e tem peram ent and subjective assum ptions of the au th o r as well as upon objective data. This fac­ to r is of the greatest im portance in psychology, for the “ personal equation” colours th e m ode of seeing. U ltim ate truth, if there be such a thing, dem ands th e concert of m any voices. 1237 I can only congratulate th e au th o r on his achievement. May this brief forew ord convey to him m y heartfelt thanks. i M arch ig 4 g

FO R EW O RD T O ADLER: “ ST U D IE S IN A N A LY TIC A L PSY C H O LO G Y ” 1 1238

It gave me particular pleasure to hear th at Dr. G erhard Adler’s adm irable book Studies in Analytical Psychology is now to appear in G erm an. T h e author is a skilled psychotherapist and therefore in a position to handle his them e on the basis of practical experi­ ence. This advantage can hardly be overrated, for therapeutic work means not only the daily application of psychological views and methods to living people and to sick people in particular, b u t also a daily criticism which success or failure brings to bear upon the therapy and its underlying assumptions. W e may therefore expect from the author a well-pondered judgm ent amply backed by experi­ ence. In this expectation we are not disappointed. Everywhere in these essays we come across nicely balanced opinions and never upon prejudices, bigotries, or forced interpretations. 1239 W ith a happy choice the author has picked out a num ber of problems which must inevitably engage the attention of every think­ ing psychotherapist. First and foremost he has been concerned— very understandably— to stress the peculiarity of analytical psychol­ ogy as com pared with the materialistic and rationalistic tendencies of the Freudian school— an undertaking which, in view of the Iatter’s delight in sectarian seclusion, has still lost nothing of its topical­ ity. This is by no means a m atter of specialist or merely captious differences th at would not interest a w ider public; it is m ore a m atter of principle. A psychology th a t wants to be scientific can no longer afford to base itself on so-called philosophical premises such as materialism or rationalism. If it is not to overstep its compe­ tence irresponsibly, it can only proceed phenomenologically and abandon preconceived opinions. But the opinion th a t we can pass transcendental judgm ents, even when faced w ith highly compli­ cated m aterial like th at presented by psychological experience, is so ingrown th at philosophical statements are still im puted to analyti1 [The foreword, not in the original edn. (London an d New York, 1 9 4 8 ) , was w ritten for the G erm an edition, Z u r analytischen Psychologie (Zurich, ■952)j and is included (trans. by R.F.C . H u ll) in th e new English edition (London, 1 9 6 6 ; New York, 1 9 6 7 ) . ]

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cal psychology, although this is com pletely to m isunderstand its phenom enological standpoint. A m ajor interest of psychotherapy is, for practical reasons, the psychology of dream s, a field w here theoretical assumptions have not only suffered the greatest defeats b u t are applied at th eir most odious. T h e dream analysis in the th ird essay is exemplary. I t is m uch to be welcomed th a t the au th o r pays due attention to the im p o rtan t role of the ego. H e thus counters the common prejudice th a t analytical psychology is only interested in th e uncon­ scious, and at th e same tim e he gives instructive examples of the relations betw een the unconscious and the ego in general. T h e controversial question of w hether, and if so how, the raising to consciousness of unconscious contents is therapeutically effective meets w ith adequate treatm ent. A lthough their conscious realization is a curative factor of prim e im portance, it is by no means the only one. Besides th e initial “ confession” an d the em otional “ abreaction” we have also to consider transference an d symbolization. T h e pres­ ent volum e gives excellent illustrations of th e latter two from case histories. I t is m uch to the credit of th e au th o r th a t he has also turned to the religious aspect of psychic phenom ena. T his question is not only delicate— it is particularly a p t to irritate philosophical suscepti­ bilities. But, provided th a t people are able to read and to give up their prepossessions, I truly have no idea how anybody could feel himself affronted by the au th o r’s rem arks— provided, again, that the reader is able to understand the phenom enological viewpoint of science. U nh ap p ily this understanding, as I often h ad occasion to know, does not ap p ear to be particularly widespread— least of all, it w ould seem, in professional m edical circles. T he theory of knowledge does not of course figure in th e m edical curriculum , b u t is indispensable to the study of psychology. N ot only on account of the lucidity of its exposition, b u t also because of its w ealth of illustrative case histories, this book fills a gap in psychological literature. I t gives bo th the professional and the psychologically m inded laym an a welcome set of bearings in territory w hich— a t any rate to begin w ith— most people find rather h ard of access. But th e examples draw n direct from life offer an equally direct approach, and this is an aid to understanding. I w ould therefore like to recom m end this book most cordially to the reading public. M a y ig4Q

FOREWORD TO JUNG: “GESTALTUNGEN DES UNBEWUSSTEN” (1950)1 In so far as poetry is one of those psychic activities th at give shape to the contents of the unconscious, it seems to me not unfit­ ting to open this volume with an essay which is concerned with a num ber of fundam ental questions affecting the poet and his work.la This discussion is followed by a lecture on the rebirth motif,2 given on the occasion of a symposium on this theme. D ram a, the principal theme of poetic art, had its origin in ceremonial, magically effective rites which, in form and meaning, represented a Ερωμένον or δράμα, something “ acted” or “ done.” D uring this time the tension builds up until it culminates in a 7repe7reTaa, the denouement, and is re­ solved. Menacingly, the span of life narrows down to the fear of death, and out of this angustiae (straits, quandary, wretchedness, distress) a new birth emerges, redemptive and opening on to larger horizons. It is evident th a t dram a is a reflection of an eminently psychological situation which, infinitely varied, repeats itself in hum an life and is both the expression and the cause of a universally disseminated archetype clothed in multitudinous forms. 1246 T he third contribution is a case history.3 It is the description of a process of transform ation illustrated by pictures. This study is supplem ented by a survey of m andala symbolism draw n from case m aterial.4 T he interpretation of these pictures is in the m ain formal and, unlike the preceding essay, lays more emphasis on the common denom inators in the pictures than on their individual psychology. IS47 T he fifth and last contribution is a psychological study of E.T.A. H offm ann’s tale “T he Golden P ot,” by Aniela Jaffe.5 This tale of H offm ann’s has long been on my list of literary creations which 1245

1 IC 1Configurations of the U nconscious.” ) Psychologische A bhandlungen, V II. For contents, see the follow ing notes.] la [“Psychology and Literature” (in C .W ., vol. 1 5).] 2 [“C oncerning R ebirth” (in C .W ., vol. 9, i ) .] 3 [“A Study in the Process o f In d ivid u ation ” (ib id .).] 4 [“C oncerning M andala Symbolism” (ib id .).] 5 [“Bilder und Sym bole aus E .T .A . H offm anns M archen ‘D er goldne T o p f.’ ”]

cry o u t fo r in te rp re ta tio n a n d d eep er u n d e rsta n d in g . I a m greatly in d eb te d to M rs. Ja ffe for h a v in g u n d e rta k e n th e n o t inconsiderable la b o u r of in v estig atin g th e psychological background of “ T h e G olden P o t,” th u s absolving m e from a task w h ich I felt to be a n obligation. January i g 4 g

F O R E W O R D T O W IC K E S : “ V O N D E R IN N E R E N W E L T D E S M E N S C H E N ” 1 248

249

Frances G. W ickes’ book, w hich first appeared in A m erica in 1938,2 is now available in a G erm an translation. I t is the fruit of a long an d industrious life, uncom m only rich in experience of people of all classes a n d ages. A nyone w ho wishes to form a picture of the in n er life of th e psyche a n d broaden his know ledge of psychic phenom ena in general is w arm ly recom m ended to read this book. T h e a u th o r has tak en th e greatest pains to express the inner experi­ ences of her patients w ith the help of th e view points I have in tro ­ duced into psychology. H e r collection of case histories is of the greatest value to the skilled psychotherapist a n d practising psycholo­ gist, n ot to m ention th e laym an, for w hom she opens vistas into a w orld of experience hitherto inaccessible to him. If, as in this book, fantasy is taken for w h a t it is— a n a tu ra l expression of life w hich w e can a t m ost seek to u n derstand b u t cannot correct— it will yield possibilities of psychic developm ent th a t are of th e utm ost im portance for the cure of psychogenic neuroses and of the m ilder psychotic disturbances. Fantasies should n ot be negatively valued by subjecting them to rationalistic prejudices; they also have a positive aspect as creative com pensations of the conscious attitude, w hich is always in danger of incom pleteness and one-sidedness. Fantasy is a self-justifying biological function, and the question of its practical use arises only w hen it has to be ch an ­ neled into so-called concrete reality. So long as this situation has not arisen, it is com pletely beside th e point to explain fantasy in term s of some preconceived theory a n d to declare it invalid, or to reduce it to some o ther biological process. Fantasy is th e n a tu ra l life of th e psyche, w hich a t th e sam e tim e harbours in itself the irra ­ tional creative factor. T h e neurotic’s involuntary over- or under1 [Zurich, 1953. Frances G. W ickes (1 8 7 5 - 1 9 6 7 ), A m erican psychotherapist, was influenced by Jung’s theories. Cf. Jung’s introduction to her Analyse der Kinderseele ( T h e In n er W orld of C hildhood, 1 9 2 7 ), C.W ., vol. 17, pars. 8off.] 2 [T he Inner W orld of M a n (N ew York and T o ro n to ), w ithout this foreword (w hich was also published in E. D . K irkham ’s trans. in the Bulletin of the Analytical Psychology Club of N e w York, 1 6 :2 , Feb. 1954).]

X.

THE

ARCHETYPES

AND

THE

C O L L E C T IV E

U N C O N S S IO U S

valuation of fantasy is as injurious to the life of th e psyche as its rationalistic condem nation or suppression, for fantasy B not a sick­ ness b u t a n atu ral an d vital activity w hich helps th e seeds of psychic developm ent to grow. Frances Wickes illustrates this in exem plary fashion by describing the typical figures and phases th at are encoun­ tered in involuntary fantasy processes. September i g s ^

FOREWORD TO JUNG: “VON DEN WURZELN DES BEWUSSTSEINS” (1954)1 125°

I n th is n i n th v o lu m e o f th e “ P sy ch o lo g isc h e A b h a n d lu n g e n ” I h a v e p u t to g e th e r a n u m b e r o f w o rk s w h ic h fo r th e m o s t p a r t g re w o u t o f E r a n o s le c tu re s. S o m e h a v e b e e n re v ise d , so m e a u g ­ m e n te d , a n d s o m e c o m p le te ly re w o rk e d . T h e essay o n “ T h e P h ilo ­ s o p h ic a l T r e e ” is n e w , a lth o u g h I h a v e d e a lt w ith th is th e m e e a rlie r in a sk e tc h y w a y . T h e c e n tr a l th e m e of th is b o o k is th e a r c h e ty p e , th e n a t u r e a n d sig n ific a n c e of w h ic h a r e d e sc rib e d a n d e lu c id a te d f ro m v a r io u s a n g l e s : h isto ry , p sy c h o lo g y b o th p r a c tic a l a n d th e o r e ti­ c a l, c a se m a te r ia l. I n s p ite o f th e f a c t t h a t th is th e m e h a s o fte n b e e n d isc u sse d b y m e as w e ll as b y o th e r a u th o rs , s u c h as H e in r ic h Z im m e r, K a r l K e re n y i, E r ic h N e u m a n n , M ir c e a E lia d e , etc ., i t h a s p r o v e d to b e b o t h in e x h a u s tib le a n d p a r tic u la r ly d iffic u lt to c o m p r e h e n d , if o n e m a y g iv e c re d e n c e to c ritic ism s v itia te d b y p r e j u ­ d ic e a n d m is u n d e r s ta n d in g . O n e is le ft w ith th e su sp ic io n t h a t th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l s ta n d p o in t a n d its c o n se q u e n c e s a r e fe lt in m a n y q u a r te r s to b e d is a g re e a b le a n d f o r th is re a so n a re n o t p e r m itte d a h e a r in g . T h e sim p lis tic a p p r o a c h is in s ta n tly a ssu re d o f th e a p ­ p la u s e o f th e p u b lic b e c a u s e it p r e te n d s to m a k e th e a n s w e rin g o f d iffic u lt q u e s tio n s s u p e rflu o u s , b u t w e ll-fo u n d e d o b s e rv a tio n s t h a t c a s t d o u b t o n th in g s w h ic h a p p e a r s im p le a n d s e ttle d a ro u se d is p le a s u re . T h e th e o r y o f a rc h e ty p e s seem s to c o m e in to th is c a te ­ g o ry . F o r s o m e it is s e lf-e v id e n t a n d a w e lc o m e a id in u n d e r s ta n d in g s y m b o l-fo rm a tio n , in d iv id u a l a s w e ll as h is to ric a l a n d co llectiv e . F o r o th e rs it se e m s to e p ito m iz e a n a n n o y in g a b e r r a tio n t h a t h a s to b e e x tir p a te d b y a ll p o ssib le m e a n s , h o w e v e r rid ic u lo u s. I 25 i A lth o u g h it is easy to d e m o n s tr a te th e e x iste n c e a n d efficacy o f th e a rc h e ty p e s , th e i r p h e n o m e n o lo g y le a d s to re a lly d iffic u lt q u e s ­ tio n s o f w h ic h I h a v e g iv e n a fe w sa m p le s in th is b o o k . F o r th e p r e s e n t th e r e is still n o p o ssib ility o f s im p lific a tio n a n d o f b u ild in g h ig h w a y s “ t h a t fo o ls m a y n o t e r r .”

May *953 1 [ ( “F ro m tiv e th e in

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11) ;

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T re e ”

F O R E W O R D T O V A N H E L S D IN G E N : “BEELDEN U IT H E T O N B EW U STE”1

1253

D r. R. J. van H elsdingen has asked m e to w rite a foreword to his book. I am happy to comply w ith his request for a particular reason: the case th a t is discussed an d com m ented on was one that I treated m any years ago, as can now be said publicly w ith the kind permission of my form er patient. Such liberality is n o t encoun­ tered everywhere, because m any one-tim e patients are u n d erstan d ­ ably shy abo u t exposing their intim ate, torm enting, pathogenic problem s to th e eye of the public. A nd indeed one m ust adm it th a t their draw ings or paintings do not as a rule have anything th a t would recom m end them to the aesthetic needs of th e public at large. If only for technical reasons th e pictures are usually u n ­ pleasant to look a t and, lacking artistic power, have little expressive value for outsiders. These shortcom ings are happily absent in the present case: the pictures are artistic compositions in th e positive sense and are uncom m only expressive. T hey com m unicate their frightening, daem onic content to the beholder an d convince him of the terrors of a fantastic underw orld. W hile it was the p atien t’s own m other country th a t produced the great masters of th e m onstrous, H ieronym us Bosch and others, w ho opened the flood-gates of creative fantasy, the pictures in this book show us im aginative activity unleashed in another fo rm : the Indom alaysian p hantasm agoria of pullulating vegetation an d of fear-haunted, stifling tropical nights. E nvironm ent an d inner dispo­ sition conspired to produce this series of pictures w hich give expres­ sion to an infantile-archaic fear. P artly it is the fear of a child who, deprived of h er parents, is defencelessly exposed to the uncon­ scious and its m enacing, phantasm al figures; p artly the fear of a E uropean who can find no other attitu d e to everything th a t the East conjures u p in h er save th a t of rejection an d repression. Because the E uropean does not know his own unconscious, he does not u nderstand th e East and projects into it everything he fears and despises in himself. 1 IA rn h e m (N e th e r la n d s ) , 1957. ( “ P ic tu re s fro m th e U n c o n sc io u s.” ) F o re w o rd in G e rm a n .]

)254

For a sensitive child it is a veritable catastrophe to be removed from her parents and sent to Europe after the unconscious influence of the O riental world had moulded her relation to the instincts, and then, at the critical period of puberty, to be transported back to the East, when this development had been interrupted by West­ ern education and crippled by neglect.2 T he pictures not only illus­ trate the phase of treatm ent th at brought the contents of her neuro­ sis to consciousness, they were also an instrum ent of treatm ent, as they reduced the half conscious or unconscious images floating about in her m ind to a common denom inator and fixated them. Once an expression of this kind has been found, it proves its “magi­ cal” efficacy by putting a spell, as it were, on the content so repre­ sented and m aking it relatively innocuous. T he more complex this content is, the more pictures are needed to depotentiate it. T he therapeutic effect of this technique consists in inducing the conscious m ind to collaborate with the unconscious, the latter being integrated in the process. In this way the neurotic dissociation is gradually remedied. 1255 T h e author is to be congratulated on having edited this valuable and unusual m aterial. Although only the initial stages of the analysis are presented here, some of the pictures indicate possibilities of a further development. Even with these limitations, however, the case offers a considerable enrichm ent of the literature on the subject, which is still very meagre. M a y 1954 2 [T his case is n o t to b e confused w ith th e sim ilar case— th e p a tie n ts w ere in fa c t sisters— discussed in “T h e R ealities of P ra c tic a l P sy c h o th erap y ,” a p p e n ­ d ix to T h e Practice of P sycho th erap y (C .W ., vol. 16, 2 n d e d n .).]

F O R E W O R D T O JA C O B I: “ C O M P L E X /A R C H E T Y P E /S Y M B O L ” 1 T h e problem this book is concerned w ith is one in which I, too, have been interested for a long time. It is now exactly fifty years since I learned, thanks to the associaton experim ent, the role which complexes play in our conscious life. T h e thing th at most impressed me was the peculiar autonom y the complexes display as com pared w ith the other contents of consciousness. W hereas the latter are u n d er the control of the will, com ing or going at its com m and, complexes either force themselves on our consciousness by breaking through its inhibiting effect, or else, just as suddenly, they obsti­ nately resist our conscious intention to reproduce them. Complexes have not only an obsessive, b u t very often a possessive, character, behaving like imps and giving rise to all sorts of annoying, ridicu­ lous, and revealing actions, slips of the tongue, and falsifications of m emory and judgm ent. T hey cut across the adapted perform ance of consciousness. 257 It was not difficult to see th a t while complexes owe their relative autonom y to their em otional nature, their expression is always de­ pendent on a network of associations grouped round a centre charged w ith affect. T h e central em otion generally proved to be individually acquired, and therefore an exclusively personal matter. Increasing experience showed, however, th a t th e complexes are not infinitely variable, b u t mostly belong to definite categories, which soon began to acquire th eir popular, and by now hackneyed, nam es— inferiority complex, power complex, father complex, m other complex, anxiety complex, an d all the rest. This fact, th a t there are w ell-characterized and easily recognizable types of com­ plex, suggests th a t they rest on equally typical foundations, th at is, on em otional aptitudes or instincts. In h u m an beings instincts express themselves in the form of unreflected, involuntary fantasy images, attitudes, and actions, w hich b ear an inner resemblance

256

1 [Jolande Jacobi, K o m p l e x / A r c h e t y p u s / S y m b o l in d e r Psychologie C. G. Jungs (Z u rich, 1 9 5 7 ), trans. by R a lp h M an heim (N ew York, B ollin gen Series L V I I, and L on d on , 1 9 5 9 ). T h e forew ord w as trans. by R .F.C . H u ll. For Jacobi, see supra, pars. 1 1 2 iff.]

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to one another and yet are identical with the instinctive reactions specific of H om o sapiens. They have a dynamic and a formal as­ pect. T heir formal aspect expresses itself, among other things, in fantasy images th at are surprisingly alike and can be found practi­ cally everywhere at all epochs, as m ight have been expected. Like the instincts, these images have a relatively autonomous character; that is to say, they are “num inous” and can be found above all in the realm of numinous or religious ideas. F or reasons th a t I cannot enter into here, I have chosen the term “ archetype” for this formal aspect of the instinct. Dr. Jacobi has m ade it her task, in this book, to expound the im portant connec­ tion on the one hand between the individual complex and the uni­ versal, instinctual archetype, and on the other hand between this and the symbol. T he appearance of her study is the more welcome to me in that the concept of the archetype has given rise to the greatest misunderstandings and— if one may judge by the adverse criticisms— must be presumed to be very difficult to comprehend. Anyone, therefore, who has misgivings on this score can seek infor­ mation in this volume, which also takes account of much of the literature. M y critics, with but few exceptions, usually do not take the trouble to read over w hat I have to say on the subject, but im pute to me, among other things, the opinion th a t the archetype is an inherited idea. Prejudices seem to be more convenient than seeking the truth. In this respect, too, I hope th at the author’s en­ deavours, especially the theoretical considerations contained in P art I, illustrated by examples of the archetype’s mode of manifestation and operation in P art II, may shed a little illumination. I am grate­ ful to her for having spared me the labour of having constantly to refer my readers to my own writings. February ig$6

F O R E W O R D T O B E R T IN E : “H U M A N R E L A T IO N S H IP S ” 1

260

T h e au th o r of this book has undertaken the im portant task of investigating the problem s of h u m an relationship from the stand­ point of analytical psychology, an undertaking w hich will be wel­ come not only to the psychotherapist b u t also to those interested in the w ider field of general psychology. Facts th a t are of the great­ est significance for an understanding of h u m an relationships have undoubtedly come to light in th e course of my ow n and m y col­ leagues’ researches. W hile th e conclusions w hich F reud an d Adler had draw n from th eir intensive studies of neurosis were based on the personal psychology of their neurotic patients, which they tried to apply to th e psychology of society, analytical psychology has called attention to m ore general h u m an facts w hich also play an im p o rtan t role in neurosis b u t are not specifically characteristic of it, being a norm al p a rt of the h u m an constitution. I would m ention in particular the existence of differences in type, such as extraversion and introversion, w hich are not difficult for a laym an to recognize. It is obvious th a t these two diam etrically opposed attitudes must have a very decisive influence on th e relationship of individuals, and the psychology of the function types— thinking, feeling, sensa­ tion, and intuition— fu rth er differentiates th e general effects of ex­ traversion and introversion. These attitu d e an d function types belong m ainly to m a n ’s con­ scious psychology. T h e researches of analytical psychology have shown, further, th a t it is not only th e d a ta of the senses and uncon­ scious personal repressions w hich exert an influence of conscious­ ness. I t is also profoundly affected by unconscious, instinctive— th a t is, innate— patterns of psychic behaviour. These patterns are just as characteristic of m an as are th e instincts in th e behaviour of animals. But while we know ab o u t the instinctive patterns in ani1 [N ew York and L on d on , 1958. J u n g w rote th e forew ord for the Swiss edn., M en sch lich e B ezieh u n gen (Z u rich , 1 9 5 7 ), and it w as trans. by Barbara H a n n a h for the E nglish ed n . I t appears h ere in slightly revised form . E leanor Bertine (1 8 8 7 —1968) w as an A m erican analytical psychologist.]

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mals only by observing their outw ard behaviour, the hum an psyche offers a great advantage in th a t— thanks to ideas and language— the instinctive process can be visualized in the form of fantasy images, and this inner perception can be com municated to an outside ob­ server by m eans of speech. If the anim al psyche were capable of such an accomplishment, we would be able to recognize the mythol­ ogy w hich the w eaver bird is expressing when it builds its nest, and the yucca m oth when it deposits its eggs in the yucca flower.2 T h a t is, we would know w hat kind of fantasy images trigger off their instinctive actions. This insight, however, is possible only in the case of hum an beings, w here it opens up th e boundless w orld of m yth and folklore th a t spans the globe with analogies and p aral­ lel motifs. T he images which appear here conform w ith those in dreams and hallucinations to an astonishing degree, to say the least. This discovery was actually m ade by Freud, and he erected a m onum ent to it in his concept of the Oedipus complex. H e was gripped by the numinosity of this motif, or archetype, and accordingly gave it a central place in his theory-building. But he failed to draw the fu rth er and inescapable conclusion th a t there m ust be another, “norm al” unconscious beyond the one produced by arbitrary repressions. This “norm al” unconscious consists of w hat F reud described as “ archaic rem nants.” But if the Oedipus complex represents a universal type of instinctive behaviour independent of time, place, and individual conditioning, it follows inevitably th at it cannot be the only one. A lthough the incest complex is u n ­ doubtedly one of the most fundam ental an d best known complexes, it must obviously have its feminine counterpart which will express itself in corresponding forms. (A t the time I proposed calling it the Electra complex. ) 3 But incest, after all, is not the only complica­ tion in hum an life, though this sometimes seems to be the case according to Freudian psychology. T here are also other typical p a t­ terns w hich regulate the relation of father to son, m other to daugh­ ter, parents to children, brothers and sisters to each other, and so on. Oedipus is only one of the existing patterns and determines only the behaviour of the son, an d this only u p to a point. M ythol­ ogy, folklore, dreams, and psychoses do not fall short in this respect. They offer a veritable plethora of patterns and formulas n o t only 2 [C f. “ I n s t i n c t a n d t h e U n c o n s c io u s ” 3 [“ T h e T h e o r y

of

P s y c h o a n a ly s is ”

( C .W ., v o l. 8 ) , p a r s. 2 6 8 , 2 7 7 .]

(1912),

( C / W ., v o l.

4 ) , p a r s. 3 4 7 f f .

C f.

F r e u d ’s c o m m e n t , “ A n O u t li n e o f P s y c h o - A n a ly s is ” ( 1 9 4 0 ) , S td . E d n ., X X I I I , P- 194·]

I 262

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for family relationships b u t also for m an an d w om an, individual and society, conscious and unconscious, dangers to body an d soul, and so forth. These archetypes exert a decisive influence on hum an relation­ ships. H ere I w ould m ention only the em inently practical signifi­ cance of the anim us (th e archetype of m an in w om an) and anim a (the archetype of w om an in m a n ) , w hich are the source of so much fleeting happiness and long-draw n-out suffering in m arriage and friendship. T h e au th o r has m uch to say about these things, based on her medical practice and on her arduous b u t rew arding work with people. She deserves to be heard, an d I hope her book will find a large num ber of attentive readers. August i g j 6

PR E F A C E T O D E L A S Z L O : “PSYCH E A ND SY M BO L” 1 Dr. de Laszlo has risked shocking the American reader by in­ cluding some of my most difficult essays in her selection from my writings. In sympathy with the reader I acknowledge how tem pting if not unavoidable it is to fall into the trap of appearances as the eye wanders over the pages in a vain attem pt to get at the gist of the m atter in the shortest possible time. I know of so many who, opening one of my books and, stumbling upon a num ber of Latin quotations, shut it w ith a bang, because Latin suggests history and therefore death and unreality. I am afraid my works dem and some patience and some thinking. I know: it is very hard on the reader who expects to be fed by informative headlines. It is not the con­ scientious scientist’s way to bluff the public with impressive resumes and bold assertions. H e tries to explain, to produce the necessary evidence, and thus to create a basis for understanding. In my case, moreover, understanding is not concerned with generally known facts, but rather w ith those th at are little known or even new. It was therefore incum bent upon me to make these facts known. In so far as such unexpected novelties dem and equally unexpected means of explanation I found myself confronted with the task of explaining the very nature of my evidential material. a65 T he facts are experiences gained from a careful and painstaking analysis of certain psychic processes observed in the course of psychic treatm ent. As these facts could not be satisfactorily ex­ plained by themselves, it was necessary to look round for possible comparisons. W hen, for instance, one comes across a patient who produces symbolic m andalas in his dreams or his waking im agina­ tion and proceeds to explain these circular images in terms of cer­ tain sexual or other fantasies, this explanation carries no conviction, seeing th a t another patient develops wholly different motivations. N or is it permissible to assume that a sexual fantasy is a more likely motivation than, for instance, a power drive, since we know from 264.

1 [A selection from th e w ritin g s of C . G . Ju n g , ed. b y V io le t S. d e Laszlo (A n c h o r Books, N ew Y ork, 1 9 5 8 ). T h e fo rew o rd a p p e a rs h ere in slightly revised form .]

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experience th a t the individual’s disposition will of necessity lead him to give preference to the one or the other. Both patients, on the other hand, may have one fact in com m on— a state of m ental and m oral confusion. W e w ould surely do better to follow up this clue and try to discover w hether the circular images are connected w ith such a state of m ind. O u r th ird case producing m andalas is perhaps a schizophrenic in such a disturbed state th a t he cannot even be asked for his accom panying fantasies. This patient is obvi­ ously completely dissolved in a chaotic condition. O u r fourth case is a little boy of seven who has decorated the corner of the room w here his bed stands w ith num erous m andalas w ithout w hich he cannot go to sleep. H e only feels safe w hen they are around him. H is fantasy tells him th a t they protect him against nameless fears assailing him in the night. W h at is his confusion? His parents are contem plating divorce.2 A nd w hat shall we say of a hard-boiled scientific rationalist who produced m andalas in his dream s and in his w aking fantasies? H e h ad to consult an alienist, as he was about to lose his reason because he h ad suddenly become assailed by the most am azing dream s an d visions. W h at was his confusion? T he clash betw een two equally real worlds, one external, th e other inter­ n al: a fact he could no longer deny.3 T h ere is no need to prolong this series since, leaving aside all theoretical prejudices, the underlying reason for producing a m andala seems to be a certain definable m ental state. But have we any evidence which m ight explain why such a state should produce a m andala? O r is this m ere chance? C onsequently we m ust ask w hether our experiences are the only ones on record and, if not, w here we can find com parable occurrences. T h ere is no difficulty in finding th em ; plenty of parallels exist in th e F a r East an d the F a r W est, or right here in E urope, several h u n d red years ago. T he books of reference can be found in our university libraries, but for the last tw o h u n d red years nobody has read them , an d they are— oh h o rro r!— w ritten in L atin an d some even in Greek. But are they dead? A re those books n o t th e distant echo of life once lived, of m inds and hearts quick w ith passions, hopes, and visions, as keen as our own? Does it m a tter so m uch w hether th e pages before us tell th e story of a p atient still alive, or dead for fifty years? Does it really m atter w hether th eir confessions, their anguish, their strivings speak the English of today or L atin or Greek? N o m atter 2 [Cf. “C on cernin g M an d a la Sym bolism ” (C .W ., vol. 9,1 ), par. 6 8 7 and fig. 33.] 3 [Cf. th e dream series in P sycho log y a n d A lc h e m y , C .W ., vol. 12, Part II.]

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how much we are of today, there has been a yesterday, which was just as real, just as hum an and warm, as the mom ent we call Now, which— alas— in a few hours will be a yesterday as dead as the first of January anno Domini 1300. A good half of the reasons why things now are w hat they are lies buried in yesterday. Science in its attem pt to establish causal connections has to refer to the past. W e teach com parative anatomy, why not comparative psy­ chology? T he psyche is not only of today, it reaches right back to prehistoric ages. Has m an really changed in ten thousand years? H ave stags changed their antlers in this short lapse of time? Of course the hairy m an of the Ice Ages has become unrecognizable when you try to discover him among the persons you meet on Fifth Avenue. But you will be amazed when you have talked with them for a hundred hours about their intimate life. You will then read the mouldy parchm ents as if they were the latest thrillers. You will find the secrets of the m odern consulting room curiously expressed in abbreviated mediaeval Latin or in an intricate Byzantine hand. W hat the doctor can hear, when he listens attentively, of fan­ tasies, dreams, and intim ate experiences is not m entioned in the Encyclopaedia Britannica or in textbooks and scientific journals. These secrets are jealously guarded, anxiously concealed, and greatly feared and esteemed. They are very private possessions, never divulged and talked about, because they are feared as ridicu­ lous and revered as revelations. They are numinous, a doubtful treasure, perhaps comical, perhaps miraculous, at all events a pain­ fully vulnerable spot, yet presiding over all the crossroads of one’s individual life. They are officially and by general consent just as unknown and despised as the old parchm ents with their indecipher­ able and unaesthetic hieroglyphics, evidence of old obscurantisms and foolishness. W e are ignorant of their contents, and we are equally ignorant of w hat is going on in the deeper layers of our unconscious, because “those who know do not talk, those who talk do not know.” 4 As inner experiences of this kind increase, the social nexus between hum an beings decreases. T he individual becomes isolated for no apparent reason. Finally this becomes unbearable and he has to confide in someone. M uch will then depend on w hether he is properly understood or not. It would be fatal if he were to be misinterpreted. Fortunately, such people are instinctively careful and as a rule do not talk more than necessary. W hen one hears a confession of this kind, and the patient wants * [T a o - te - c h in g ,

ch.

5 6 .]

to understand himself better, some com parative knowledge will be most helpful. W hen the hard-boiled rationalist m entioned above cam e to consult m e for the first time, he was in such a state of panic th a t not only he b u t I myself felt the w ind blowing over from the lunatic asylum! As he was telling me of his experiences in detail he m entioned a particularly impressive dream . I got up and fetched an ancient volum e from my bookshelf and showed it to him , saying: “Y ou see the date? Ju st ab o u t four hundred years old. N ow w atch !” I opened the book at the place where there was a curious w oodcut, representing his dream almost literally. “ You see,” I said, “your dream is no secret. You are not the victim of a pathological insult and not separated from m ankind by an inexplicable psychosis. Y.ou are merely ignorant of certain experi­ ences well w ithin the bounds of hum an knowledge and understand­ ing.” It was w orth seeing the relief which cam e over him. H e had seen w ith his own eyes the docum entary evidence of his sanity. 1269 This illustrates why historical com parison is not a mere learned hobby b u t very practical and useful. I t opens the door to life and hum anity again, w hich h ad seemed inexorably closed. It is of no ultim ate advantage to deny or reason aw ay or ridicule such seem­ ingly abnorm al or out-of-the-way experiences. T hey should not get lost, because they contain an intrinsic individual value, the loss of w hich entails definite dam age to one’s personality. O ne should be aw are of the high esteem w hich in past centuries was felt for such experiences, because it explains th e extraordinary im portance th a t we ignorant m oderns are forced to attribute to them in spite of ourselves. 1270 U nderstanding an illness does not cure it, b u t it is a definite help because you can cope w ith a com prehensible difficulty far more easily th a n w ith an incom prehensible darkness. Even if in the end a rational explanation cannot be reached, you know at least th at you are not the only one confronted by a “merely im aginary” wall, b u t one of the m any who have vainly tried to climb it. You still share the com m on hum an lot an d are not cut off from hum anity by a subjective defect. T hus you have not suffered the irreparable loss of a personal value and are not forced to continue your way on the crutches of a dry and lifeless rationalism . O n the contrary, you find new courage to accept an d integrate the irrationality of your own life and of life in general. 1271 Instincts are the most conservative determ inants of any kind of life. T h e m ind is n o t bom a tabula rasa. Like the body, it has

its p r e d e t e r m i n e d i n d i v i d u a l a p t i t u d e s : n a m e ly , p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v ­ io u r . T h e y b e c o m e m a n if e s t i n t h e e v e r - r e c u r r i n g p a t t e r n s o f p s y c h ic f u n c ti o n in g . A s t h e w e a v e r - b i r d w ill in f a llib ly b u ild its n e s t in t h e a c c u s to m e d f o r m , so m a n d e s p ite h is f r e e d o m a n d s u p e r f ic ia l c h a n g e a b ili ty w ill f u n c t i o n p s y c h o lo g ic a lly a c c o r d in g t o h is o r ig in a l p a t t e r n s — u p to a c e r t a i n p o i n t ; t h a t is, u n t i l f o r s o m e r e a s o n h e c o llid e s w i t h h is s till liv in g a n d e v e r - p r e s e n t in s t i n c t u a l r o o ts . T h e in s tin c ts w ill t h e n p r o te s t a n d e n g e n d e r p e c u lia r t h o u g h t s a n d e m o ­ tio n s , w h i c h w ill b e a ll t h e m o r e a lie n a n d i n c o m p r e h e n s ib le t h e m o r e m a n ’s c o n s c io u s n e s s h a s d e v i a t e d f r o m its o r ig in a l c o n f o r m ity to th e s e in s tin c ts . A s n o w a d a y s m a n k i n d is t h r e a t e n e d w i t h selfd e s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h r a d i o a c t i v i t y , w e a r e e x p e r ie n c in g a f u n d a m e n ­ ta l r e a s s e r tio n o f o u r in s t in c t s i n v a r io u s f o rm s . I h a v e c a lle d t h e 1272

p s y c h o lo g ic a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f in s t in c t “ a r c h e ty p e s .” T h e a r c h e ty p e s a r e b y n o m e a n s u se le ss a r c h a i c s u r v iv a ls o r re lic s. T h e y

a r e liv in g e n titie s w h i c h

ca u se th e p re fo rm a tio n

of

n u m i n o u s id e a s o r d o m i n a n t r e p r e s e n ta t io n s . I n s u f f ic ie n t u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g , h o w e v e r , a c c e p ts th e s e p r e f ig u r a tio n s i n t h e i r a r c h a i c fo rm , b e c a u s e th e y h a v e a n u m in o u s fa s c in a tio n fo r th e u n d e r d e v e l­ o p e d m i n d . T h u s C o m m u n is m is a n a r c h a i c , h ig h ly in s id io u s p a t ­ t e r n o f lif e w h ic h c h a r a c t e r iz e s p r im it iv e s o c ia l g r o u p s . I t im p lie s la w le s s c h i e f ta i n s h ip a s a v ita lly n e c e s s a r y c o m p e n s a tio n , a f a c t w h ic h c a n b e o v e r lo o k e d o n ly b y m e a n s o f a r a t i o n a l i s t i c b ia s , ia73

th e p re ro g a tiv e o f a b a r b a r o u s m in d . I t is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t h a t m y c o n c e p t o f th e a r c h e ty p e s h a s b e e n f r e q u e n t l y m is u n d e r s to o d a s d e n o t i n g i n h e r i t e d id e a s o r as a k i n d o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l s p e c u la tio n . I n r e a lity th e y b e l o n g to

t h e r e a l m o f i n s t i n c t u a l a c tiv i ty a n d in t h a t s e n s e t h e y r e p r e s e n t i n h e r i t e d p a t t e r n s o f p s y c h ic b e h a v i o u r . A s s u c h t h e y a r e in v e s te d w ith c e r ta in d y n a m i c q u a l itie s w h ic h , p s y c h o lo g ic a lly s p e a k in g , a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s “ a u t o n o m y ” a n d “ n u m i n o s i t y .” 1274 I d o n o t k n o w o f a n y m o r e r e li a b le w a y b a c k to t h e in s t i n c t u a l b a s is t h a n t h r o u g h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e s e p s y c h o lo g ic a l p a t t e r n s , w h ic h e n a b l e u s to r e c o g n iz e t h e n a t u r e o f a n i n s t in c t iv e a t t i t u d e . T h e in s t in c t t o s u r v iv e is a r o u s e d a s a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e te n d e n c y to m a s s s u ic id e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e H - b o m b a n d t h e u n d e r ly i n g p o litic a l s c h is m o f t h e w o r l d . T h e l a t t e r is c le a r ly m a n - m a d e a n d d u e t o r a t i o n a l i s t i c d is to r tio n s . C o n v e rs e ly , i f u n d e r s t o o d b y a m a ­ t u r e m i n d , t h e a r c h e t y p a l p r e f o r m a t i o n s c a n y ie ld n u m i n o u s id e a s a h e a d o f o u r a c t u a l in t e l l e c t u a l le v e l. T h a t is j u s t w h a t o u r tim e is in n e e d o f. T h i s , it s e e m s t o m e , is a n a d d i t i o n a l in c e n ti v e t o

pay attention to the unconscious processes w hich in many persons today anticipate future developments. 1275 I m ust w arn the read er: this book will not be an easy pastime. O nce in a while he will m eet w ith thoughts w hich dem and the effort of concentration and careful reflection— a condition unfortu­ nately rare in m odern times. O n the other hand, the situation today seems to be serious enough to cause at least uneasy dreams if nothing else. August I g57

FO R EW O RD TO BRUNNER: “D IE A N IM A ALS SC H IC K SA LSPR O B LEM DES M A N N ES” 1 T he antecedents of this book are such that it m ight give rise to misunderstandings unless the reader is acquainted with them beforehand. Let me therefore say at once that its subject-matter is a dialogue extending over a period of eight years. The partners to this dialogue m ade it a condition from the start that the record they kept of it should be as honest and complete as was humanly possible. In order to fulfil this condition, and not restrict it to the conscious aspects of the situation, they m ade it their task to take note also of the unconscious reactions th at accompanied or followed the dialogue. Obviously, this ambitious project could be completed only if the unconscious reactions of both partners were recorded. A “biographical” debate of such a nature would indeed be some­ thing unique in our experience, requiring exceptionally favourable circumstances for its realization. In view of the unusual difficulties she was faced with, the author deserves our thanks for having repro­ duced, scrupulously and in all the necessary detail, at least threequarters of the dialogue. H er experiment will be acclaimed by all those who are interested in the real life of the psyche, and more particularly because it gives a vivid account of a typical masculine problem which invariably arises in such a situation. 1277 Although every case of this kind follows an archetypal ground plan, its value and significance lie in its uniqueness, and this unique­ ness is the criterion of its objectivity. T h e true carrier of reality is the individual, and not the “statistical average” who is a mere abstraction. So if the author confines her observations to two persons only, this shows her feeling for the psychological facts. T he value of the personality, too, lies in its uniqueness, and not in its collective and statistical qualities, which are merely those of hum an species and, as such, irreducible factors of a suprapersonal nature. Although the limitation to two persons creates an “unscientific” impression 1276

1 [Vol. X IV of Studien aus dem C. G. Ju n g In stitu t (Zurich, 1963), by C ornelia Brunner. ( “T h e A nim a as a Problem in the M an ’s F ate.” )]

of subjectivity, it is actually a g uarantee of psychological objectivity: this is how real psychic life behaves, this is w h at happens in reality. T h a t p a rt of it w hich can be form ulated theoretically belongs to the com m on foundations of psychic life an d can therefore be ob­ served just as easily u n d er other conditions and in other individuals. Scientific insight is essentially a by-product of a psychological pro­ cess of dialectic. D uring this process, “ tru e” an d “un tru e,” “ right” and “ w rong” are valid only in the m oral sense and cannot be judged by any general criterion of “ tru th ” or “rightness.” “T ru e ” and “ right” simply tell us w hether w h at is happening is “ tru e” or “rig h t” for the person concerned. 1278 T h e reader of this book is thus an invisible listener a t a serious dialogue betw een tw o cultivated persons of our tim e, w ho discuss the various questions th a t come their way. Both of them m ake their contribution in com plete freedom and rem ain tru e to their purpose throughout. I lay p articu lar em phasis on this because it is by no m eans certain at the outset th a t such a dialogue will be continued. O ften these discussions come to an ab ru p t stop for lack of enthu­ siasm in one p artn e r or both, or for some other reason, good or bad. V ery often, too, they give up at th e first difficulty. T he circum ­ stances m ust have been unusually favourable for the dialogue to have continued over such a long period of tim e. Special credit is due to the au th o r for having recorded the proceedings on two levels at once and successfully com m unicated them to the outside world. T h e thoughts an d interior happenings she describes form a most instructive docum ent humain, b u t its very uniqueness exposes it to the danger of being m isunderstood an d contem ptuously brushed aside as a “subjective fantasy.” F o r it is concerned m ainly with th a t special relationship w hich F reud sum m ed up under the term “transference,” whose products he regarded as “infantile fantasies.” As a result of this devaluation an d rationalistic prejudice, th eir im­ portance as phenom ena of psychic transform ation was n o t recog­ nized. T his scientific sin of omission is only one link in th e long chain of devaluation of th e h u m an psyche th a t has nothing to justify it. I t is a sym ptom of profound unconsciousness th a t our scientific age has lost sight of th e p aram o u n t im portance of the psyche as a fundam ental condition of h um an existence. W h at is th e use of technological im provem ents w hen m ankind m ust still trem ble be­ fore those infantile tyrants, ridiculous yet terrible, in th e style of H itler? Figures like these owe their pow er only to the frightening im m aturity of th e m an of today, an d to his barbarous unconscious-

ness. Truly we can no longer afford to underestimate the im por­ tance of the psychic factor in world affairs and to go on despising the efforts to understand psychic processes. We are still very far from understanding where we ourselves are at fault, and this book should grant us a deep insight. It is, indeed, only a random sample, but all experience consists of just that. W ithout individual experi­ ence there can be no general insight. 1279 T he author has done well to take a well-known case from the history of literature as an introduction to the real piece de resistance of her book. T he case is th at of R ider H aggard, who was afflicted with a similar problem. (O ne m ight also m ention Pierre Benoit and G erard de N erval.) Rider H aggard is without doubt the classic exponent of the anim a motif, though it had already appeared among the humanists of Renaissance, for instance, as the nymph Polia in the H ypnerotom achia of Francesco Colonna,2 or as a psy­ chological concept in the writings of R ichard White of Basingstoke,8 or as a poetic figure am ong the “fedeli d’amore.” 4 1280 Xhe m o tif o f the anim a is developed in its purest and most naive form in R ider H aggard. T rue to his name, he remained her faithful knight throughout his literary life and never wearied of his conversation with her. H e was a spiritual kinsman of Rene d’Anjou, a latter-day troubadour or knight of the Grail, who had somehow blundered into the V ictorian Age and was himself one of its most typical representatives. W hat else could he do b u t spin his strange tale of past centuries, harking back to the figures of Simon M agus and H elena, Zosimos and Theosebeia, in the some­ w hat sorry form of a popular “yarn?” Psychology, unfortunately, cannot take aesthetic requirements into account. T he greatness and im portance of a m otif like th a t of the anim a bear no relation to the form in which it is presented. If R ider H aggard uses the modest form of a yarn, this does not detract from the psychological value of its content. Those who seek entertainm ent or the higher art can easily find something better. But anyone who w ants to gain insight into his own anim a will find food for thought in She, precisely because of the simplicity and naivete of presentation, which is en­ tirely devoid of any “psychological” intent. 2 [Cf. infra, pars, 1749ff.] 3 [Cf. Jung, M ysterium Coniunctionis, C.W ., vol. 14, pars, giffr] 4 [Mystical cult in Sufism; its attitudes are com pared to those of D an te tow ard Beatrice. See C orbin, Creative Im agination in the Siifism of Ib n 'Arabt, esp. P art I I , pp. 136!!.]

I 281

1282

R ider H ag g ard ’s literary work forms an excellent introduction to the real purpose of this book, since it provides a wealth of m ate­ rial illustrating the symbolism of the anim a and its problems. Ad­ mittedly, She is only a flash in the pan, a beginning w ithout con­ tinuation, for a t no point does the book come dow n to earth. Every­ thing rem ains stuck in the realm of fantasy, a symbolic anticipation. R ider H aggard was unaw are of his spiritual predecessors, so did not know th a t he h ad been set a task a t w hich the philosophical alchemists had laboured, and w hich the last of the M agna Opera, G oethe’s Faust, could bring to fruition not in life but only after death, in the Beyond, an d then only wistfully. H e followed in the footsteps of th e singers and poets who enchanted the age of chivalry. T h e rom antic excursions of his G erm an contem porary, R ichard W agner, did not pass off so harmlessly. A dangerous genius, Fried­ rich Nietzsche, had a finger in the pie an d Z arathustra raised his voice, w ith no wise w om an a t his side as p artn er to the dialogue. This m ighty voice em anated from a m igraine-ridden bachelor, “six thousand feet beyond good an d evil,” w ho m et his “D udu and Suleika” 5 only in the tempests of m adness an d penned those confes­ sions w hich so scandalized his sister th a t traces of them can be found only in his clinical history. T his sounds neither good nor beautiful, but it is p a rt of th e business of grow ing up to listen to the fearful discords w hich real life grinds out and to include them am ong the images of reality. T ru th an d reality are as­ suredly no music of the spheres— they are th e beauty an d terror of N ature herself. T h e richest yield of all is naturally to be found in the prim ary m aterial itself, th a t is to say in the dream s, w hich are n o t thought u p or “spun” like a yarn. T hey are involuntary products of nature, spontaneously expressing th e psychic processes w ithout the interfer­ ence of th e conscious will. B ut this richness reveals itself, one might say, only to him w ho understands th e language of anim als and plants. A lthough this is a tall order, it is n o t putting too great a b u rd en on th e learning capacity of an intelligent person w ho has a m oderate am o u n t of intuition and a healthy aversion for doctrinal opinions. Following its instinct for tru th , intuition goes along with th e stream of images, feels its way into them until they begin to speak and yield up their m eaning. I t rediscovers forgotten or choked-up paths w here m any have w andered in distant times and places— perhaps even one’s p artn e r in the dialogue. Picking u p the 5 [In Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra, Part IV.]

1283

trail, he will pursue a parallel p ath and in this way learn the natural structure of the psyche. T he author has successfully evoked in the dream er the intuitive attitude he needs in order to follow the unconscious process of devel­ opment. T he “interpretation” does not adhere to any particular theory, but simply takes up the symbolic hints given by the dreams. Even though use is m ade of psychological concepts such as the anima, this is not a theoretical assumption, because “ anim a” is merely a nam e for a special group of typical psychic happenings that anyone can observe. In an extensive dialogue like this, interpre­ tations can only be passing phases and tentative formulations, b u t they do have to prove themselves correct when taken as a whole. Only at the end of the journey will it be discovered whether they have done so, and w hether one was on the right path or not. The dialectical process is always a creative adventure, and at every mo­ m ent one has to stake one’s very best. Only then, and with G od’s help, can the great work of transform ation come to pass. April i g 5 g

XI CIVILIZATION IN TRANSITION (related to Volum e 10 of the Collected Works)

R E P O R T O N A M E R IC A 1 1284

Lecturer described a num ber of impressions he had gained on two journeys in N orth A m erica.2 T he psychological peculiarities of the Americans exhibit features th at would be accessible to psy­ choanalysis, since they point to intense sexual repression. T he rea­ sons for repression are to be sought in the specifically American complex, namely, living together with lower races, more particu­ larly the Negroes. Living together with barbarous races has a sug­ gestive effect on the laboriously subjugated instincts of the white race and drags it down. Hence strongly developed defensive m ea­ sures are necessary, which manifest themselves in the particular aspects of American culture. 1 [An abstract, recorded by O tto R ank, of Ju n g ’s “Bericht iiber A m erika,” at the Second Psychoanalytic Congress in N urem berg, 30-31 M ar. 1910. A bstracts of the papers read a t the Congress w ere published in th e Ja h tb u ch fu r psychoanalytische u nd psychopathologische Forschungen, 11:2 (1 9 1 0 ). R an k also published a briefer ab stract in the Z entralblatt fu r Psychoanalyse, 1 :3 (Dec. 1910), 130; trans. in T h e Freud./Jung Letters, 223F, n. 6. Also see ibid., index, s.v. Ju n g : “R eport on A m erica,” for evidence th a t a rep o rt on the psychoanalytic m ovem ent in the U.S.A. h ad originally been planned. A M S of Jung’s rep o rt has not been found.] 2 [In Aug—Sept. 1909, to the C lark Conference, and in M ar. 1910, to Chicago.]

O N T H E PSY CH O LO G Y O F T H E N EG R O 1 !285

T h e psychoses of Negroes are the same as those of white men. In m ilder cases the diagnosis is difficult because one is not sure w hether one is dealing w ith superstition. Investigation is compli­ cated by the fact th a t th e N egro does n o t understand w h at one w ants of him , and besides th a t is ignorant [does not know his age, has no idea of tim e].2 H e shows a g reat inability to look into his own thoughts, a phenom enon th a t is analogous to resistance among our patients. Little is said of hallucinations, and equally little of delusional ideas an d dreams. — T h e N egro is extraordinarily reli­ gious: his concepts of God an d Christ are very concrete. T h e lec­ tu rer has pointed out on an earlier occasion3 how certain qualities of the Americans (for instance, their self-control) m ay be explained by their living together w ith the (uncontrolled) Negroes. In the same w ay this living together also exerts an influence on the Negro. F or him the white m an is pictured as an id e a l: in his religion Christ is always a w hite m an. H e himself w ould like to be w hite or to have w hite children; conversely, he is persecuted by white men. In the dream examples given by the lecturer, th e wish or the task of the N egro to ad ap t himself to th e w hite m an appears very fre­ quently. O n e is struck by the large nu m b er of sacrificial symbols th a t occur in th e dream s, just as th e lecturer has m entioned in his book W andlungen u n d Sym bole der L ib id o .4 This is yet another indication th a t such symbols are not only C hristian b u t have their origin in a biological necessity. 1 [A b stra c t o f a le c tu re to th e Z u ric h P sy c h o a n a ly tic S o ciety o n 22 N ov. 1912, p u b lish e d in th e In te r n a tio n a le Z e its c h r ift fiir a rztlic h e P sychoanalyse, I : I ( 1 9 1 3 ), 115 ( B u lle tin s e c tio n ). See T h e F r e u d /J u n g L e tte r s , 3 2 3 J, n. 3. F o r J u n g ’s la te r view s o n th e in flu e n c e of N e g ro e s a n d A m e ric a n In d ia n s o n A m e ric a n b e h a v io u r, see “ M in d a n d E a r th ” a n d “ T h e C o m p lic a tio n s of A m e ric a n P sych o lo g y ” (C .W ., vol. 10) . A M S o f th e p re s e n t le c tu re has n o t b e e n disco v ered .] 2 [So b ra c k e te d in th e a b stra c t.] 3 [N o t t r a c e d ; p e rh a p s a n e a rlie r le c tu re to th e S o ciety , b u t cf. th e p re c e d in g “ R e p o r t o n A m e ric a .” ] 4 [N e ith e r th is w o rk (tra n s . b y H in k le , P sych o lo g y o f th e U n c o n sc io u s) n o r its rev isio n , C .W ., vol. 5, c o n ta in s re fe re n c e to sacrificial sym bols in th e d ream s o f N egroes. C o n c e rn in g th e d re a m s o f p sy c h o tic N eg ro es o th erw ise, see C .W ., vol. 6, p a r . 747, a n d C .W ., vol. 5 , p a r. 154.]

A R A D IO T A L K IN M U N IC H 1 1286

Y our question is n o t so easy to answer. M y interest in these m atters was not the result of a prim ary interest in Chinese philoso­ phy, from a study of w hich, it m ight be supposed, I h a d learnt all sorts of valuable things for my psychology. O n th e contrary, Chinese tho u g h t was very alien to m e to begin w ith. I owe my relations to C h in a a n d to R ich ard W ilhelm simply and solely to certain psychological discoveries. In the first place, it was th e dis­ covery of the collective unconscious, th a t is to say, of im personal psychic processes, th a t aroused my interest in prim itive an d O riental psychology. A m ong these im personal psychic processes there are quite a n um ber w hich seem absolutely strange and incom prehensi­ ble and cannot be b ro u g h t into connection w ith any of the historical symbols know n to us, b u t for w hich we can find plenty of unques­ tionable analogies in the psychologies of the O rient. T h u s a whole group or layer of im personal contents can only be understood in term s of the psychology of prim itives, while others have their nearest analogies in In d ia or C hina. It h a d previously been supposed th a t m ythological symbols w ere dissem inated by m igration. But I have found th a t the occurrence of the sam e symbols in different countries and continents does not depend on m igration, b u t ra th e r on the spontaneous revival of the sam e contents. I8®7 Years of observing such processes has convinced m e th a t— for the present a t least— the unconscious psyche of E uropeans shows a distinct tendency to produce contents th a t have th eir nearest analogies in the older Chinese philosophy a n d the later T a n tric philosophy. T his p rom pted m e to subm it m y observations to the em inent sinologist R ic h a rd W ilhelm , w ho thereu p o n confirm ed the existence of some astonishing parallels. T h e fru it of our collabora­ tion is the recently published book called T h e Secret of the Golden Flower.2 These parallels bear out a conjecture I have long held, 1 IU n p u b lish e d ; fro m a M S in J u n g ’s h a n d , d a te d 19 J a n . 1930. T h e b a c k ­ g ro u n d of J u n g ’s rem ark s co u ld n o t b e ascertain ed .] 2 [Das G eheim nis der g o ld en en B liite (la te 1 9 2 9 ); tran s. by C ary F . Baynes, T h e S ecret o f th e G olden F lo w er (1 9 3 1 ; revised e d n ., 1 9 6 2 ). See J u n g ’s com ­ m en tary , C .W ., vol. 13, a n d his m em o rial address fo r W ilh elm (w h o died I M a r. 1 9 3 0 ), C .W ., vol. 15.]

th a t our psychic situation is now being influenced by an irruption of the O riental spirit, an d th a t this is a factor to be reckoned with. W h a t is going on is analogous to the psychic change th a t could be observed in R om e d u rin g the first century of o u r era. As soon as the R om ans, beginning w ith the cam paigns of Pompey, m ade themselves the political m asters of Asia M inor, R om e becam e in u n ­ dated w ith H ellenistic-Asiatic syncretism. T h e cults of Attis, Cybele5 Isis, and the M ag n a M ater spread thro u g h o u t the R om an Em pire. M ithras conquered R o m an officialdom an d the entire arm y, until all these cults were overthrow n by C hristianity. I do not know how m uch the spiritual an d political decline of Spain an d Portugal had to do w ith th eir conquest of the prim itive South A m erican conti­ nent, b u t the fact rem ains th a t the tw o countries which first estab­ lished their rule in East Asia, nam ely H olland and England, were also the first to be thoroughly infected w ith theosophy. I t seems to be a psychological law th a t though th e conquerer may conquer a country physically, he will secretly absorb its spirit. T o d ay the old C hina has succum bed to th e W est, an d my purely em pirical findings show th a t th e Chinese spirit is m aking itself clearly percep­ tible in the E uropean unconscious. You will understand th a t this statem ent is no m ore for m e th a n a w orking hypothesis, b u t one w hich can claim a considerable degree of probability in view of the historical analogies. *

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M y journey to A frica3 arose from th e sam e need th at h ad taken m e to N ew M exico4 the year before. I w anted to get to know the psychic life of prim itives a t first h an d. T h e reason for this is the aforem entioned fact th a t certain contents of th e collective uncon­ scious are very closely connected w ith prim itive psychology. O u r civilized consciousness is very different from th a t of primitives, but deep dow n in o u r psyche there is a thick layer of prim itive processes w hich, as I have said, are closely related to processes th a t can still be found on th e surface of th e prim itive’s daily life. Perhaps I can best illustrate this difference by m eans of an example. W hen I ask an employee to deliver a letter to a certain address, I simply say to h im : “Please take this letter to M r. X .” In Africa I lived for a tim e w ith a very prim itive tribe, th e Elgonyis, who in h ab it the prim eval forests of M o u n t Elgon, in E ast A frica, an d are still partly 3 [ I n 1 9 2 5 ; see M e m o r ie s , D re a m s, R e fle c tio n s, ch . I X , iii.] 4 [I n 1 9 2 4 -2 5 ; ib id ., ch . I X , ii.]

troglodytes. O ne day I w anted to send some letters. T he nearest white men were some engineers who were working at the terminus of a branch line of the U ganda railway, two and a half days’ journey away. In order to reach them, I needed a runner, and at my request the chief put a m an at my disposal. I gave him a bundle of letters, telling him in Swahili (which he understood) to take the letters to the white bwanas. Naturally, everybody within a radius of a hundred miles would know where to find them, for news travels fast in Africa. But after receiving my order, the m an remained standing before me as though struck dum b and did not stir from the spot. I thought he was waiting for baksheesh in the form of cigarettes, and gave him a handful, but he stood there as dumb and stiff as before. I had no idea w hat this m eant, and, looking round me in perplexity, my eye fell on my safari headm an Ibrahim , a long thin Somali, who, squatting on the ground, was watching the scene, grinning. In his frightful English he said to m e: “ You no do it like so, Bwana, b u t like so— ” And he sprang up, seized his rhinoceros whip, cracked it through the air a couple of times in front of the runner, then gripped him by the shoulders, and with shouts and gesticulations delivered himself of the following peroration: “Here, the great bw ana M ’zee, the wise old m an, gives you letters. See, you hold them in your hand. But you must put them in a cleft stick. H o boys”— this to my servants— “bring a cleft stick, give it to this pagan. Hold it in your hand so— p u t the letters in the cleft here— bind it tight with grass— so— and now hold it high, so th at all will see you are the runner of the great bwana. A nd now go to the bwanas at the waterfall and seek one till you find him, and then go to him and say to him : ‘T h e great bw ana M ’zee has given me letters, they are in my stick here, take them !’ A nd the white bw ana will say: ‘I t is well.’ T hen you can return home. A nd now run, but so— ” and Ibrahim began running with upraised whip— “so m ust you run and run, until you come to the place where the little houses go on wheels. R un, run, you dog, run like hell!” T h e runner’s face had gradually lit up as though witnessing a great revelation. G rinning all over, he raised his stick and hurtled away from us, as though shot from a cannon, Ibrahim close behind him with cracking whip and a flood of curses. The m an ran 74 miles in 36 hours w ithout stopping. 1289 Ibrahim had succeeded, with an enormous expenditure of mime and words, in putting the m an into the mood of the runner, hypno­ tizing him into it, so to speak. This was necessary because a mere

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order from me could not conjure up a single movement. H ere you see the chief difference betw een prim itive an d civilized psychology: w ith us a w ord is enough to release an accum ulation of forces, b u t w ith primitives an elaborate pantom im e is needed, w ith all m anner of em bellishments w hich are calculated to put the man into the right m ood for acting. If these prim itive vestiges still exist in us— and they do— you can im agine how m uch there is in us civilized people th a t cannot catch up w ith the accelerated tempo of our daily life, gradually producing a split an d a counter-will th a t sometimes takes a culturally destructive form . T h at this really is so, is clearly shown by the events of th e last few decades. N aturally, the purpose of my travels was not to investigate only the differences, b u t also the similarities betw een th e civilized and the prim itive m ind. H ere there are m any points of connection. F or instance, in dream s we think in very m uch th e same w ay as the prim itive thinks consciously. W ith primitives, w aking life and dream life are less divided th a n w ith us— so little, in fact, that it is often difficult to find out w hether w h at a prim itive tells you was real or a dream . E verything th a t we reject as mere fantasy be­ cause it comes from the unconscious is of extraordinary im portance for the prim itive, perhaps m ore im p o rtan t th a n the evidence of his senses. H e values the products of th e unconscious— dreams, visions, fantasies, an d so on— quite differently from us. H is dreams are an extrem ely im p o rtan t source of inform ation, and the fact th a t he has dream t som ething is just as significant for him as w hat happens in reality, an d sometimes very m uch m ore significant. My Somali boys, those of them th a t could read, h ad their A rabic dream books w ith them as th eir only reading m a tter on the journey. Ib rah im assiduously instructed m e in w h at I o u ght to do if I dream t of Al K hidr, th e V erd an t O n e,5 for th a t was the first angel of Allah, w ho sometimes ap p eared in dream s. F or prim itives, certain dream s are th e voice of God. T hey distin­ guish tw o types of d ream : o rdinary dream s th a t m ean nothing, an d the dream s they call the g reat vision. So far as I was able to judge, th e “ big dream s” are of a kind th a t we too would consider significant. T h e only dream th a t occurred while I was there— at least, the only one th a t was reported to me— was the dream of an old chief, in w hich he learn t th a t one of his cows h ad calved, and was now standing w ith her calf dow n by the river, in a particu­ la r clearing. H e was too old to keep track of his m any cattle that 5 [C f. “ C o n c e rn in g R e b ir th ” (C .W ., vol. 9, i ) , p a r. 250.]

pastured in the various open places in the forest, so he naturally didn’t know this cow was going to calve, let alone where. But the cow and the calf were found just where he had dream t they would be. These people are extraordinarily close to nature. Several other things happened which m ade it quite clear to me why they were so convinced th at their dream told the truth. P art of the reason is that their dreams often fulfil the thinking function over which they still do not have full conscious control. They themselves say that the appearance of the white m an in their country has had a devastating effect on the dream life of their medicine-men and chiefs. An old medicine-man told me with tears streaming down his face: “ We have no dreams any more since the white m an is in the land.” After m any talks on this subject, I finally discovered that the leading men owed their leadership chiefly to dreams that came true. Since everything is now under British control, the politi­ cal leadership has been taken out of the hands of the chiefs and medicine-men. They have become superfluous, and the guiding voice of their dreams is silenced.

FO R EW O R D S T O JU N G : “SEELEN PRO BLEM E D ER GEG EN W ART” First E dition (1931)

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T h e lectures an d essays contained in this volum e1 owe their existence prim arily to questions addressed to m e by the public. These questions are enough in themselves to sketch a picture of the psychological problem s of our time. A nd, like the questions, the answers have come from my personal an d professional experi­ ence of the psychic life of our so rem arkable era. T h e fundam ental error persists in the public th a t there are definite answers, “solu­ tions,” or views w hich need only be uttered in order to spread the necessary light. But the most beautiful tru th — as history has shown a thousand times over— is of no use a t all unless it has become the innerm ost experience an d possession of the individual. Every unequivocal, so-called “ clear” answ er always rem ains stuck in the head and seldom penetrates to the heart. T h e needful thing is not to know the tru th b u t to experience it. N ot to have an intellectual conception of things, b u t to find our way to th e inner, an d perhaps wordless, irrational experience— th a t is the great problem . N othing is m ore fruitless th a n talking of how things m ust or should be, and nothing is m ore im p o rtan t th a n finding the w ay to these far-off goals. M ost people know very well how things should be, b u t who can point the w ay to get there? As the title of this book shows, it is concerned with problems, not solutions. T h e psychic endeavours of our tim e are still caught in the realm of the pro b lem atical; we are still looking for the essential question w hich, w hen found, is already half the solution. These essays m ay open the read er’s eyes to our wearisom e struggle with th a t trem endous problem , th e “soul,” which perhaps torm ents K usnacht-Z urich, D ecem ber 1930 1 [ ( “ C o n te m p o ra ry P sy ch ic P ro b le m s.” ) P sy ch o lo g isch e A b h a n d lu n g e n , I I I . T h ir te e n a rtic le s b y J u n g , o rig in a lly p u b lish e d fro m 1925 o n , a n d assig n ed to sev en C .W . v o ls.; a n d o n e essay, “ ‘!C om plex’ u n d M y th o s,” b y W . M . K ra n e fe ld t.]

m o d e r n m a n in ev en h ig h er d eg ree th a n it d id his n ea r a n d d istan t ancestors. S e c o n d E d itio n ( / 9 3 3 ) (294

A s o n ly o n e a n d a h a lf years h a v e g o n e b y sin ce th e a p p e a ra n c e of th e first ed itio n , th ere are n o reasons for essential alterations in th e tex t. T h e c o llectio n of m y essays therefore appears in u n a l­ tered fo rm . A n d as n o fu n d a m e n ta l o b jection s or m isu n d erstan d in gs th a t m ig h t h a v e p ro v id ed o cca sio n for a n ex p lan atory an sw er h a v e b e c o m e k n o w n to m e, th ere is n o n e e d either o f a lo n ger forew ord . A t an y rate, th e rep ro a ch o f p sych o lo g ism so o ften lev elled a t m e w o u ld b e n o ex cu se for a lo n g d isq u isition , for n o fa ir-m in d ed per­ son w ill e x p e c t m e to p refer th e a ttitu d e of a m eta p h y sicia n or a th e o lo g ia n in m y o w n field o f w ork. I sh all n ever stop seein g an d ju d g in g all o b servab le p sy ch ic p h e n o m e n a p sy ch o lo g ica lly . E very rea so n a b le m a n k now s th a t this does n o t express a n y fin al a n d u ltim a te tru th . A b so lu te assertions b e lo n g to th e realm o f fa ith — or o f im m o d esty .

K iis n a c h t- Z u r ic h 3 J u ly i g j 2

I ta lia n N e w E d iti o n ( / 9 5 9 ) 2 1*95

T h is b o o k is a c o lle c tio n of lectu res an d essays w h ic h o rigin ated in th e 1 9 2 0 ’s a n d co n stitu te v o lu m e I I I o f m y “ P sy ch ologisch e A b h a n d lu n g e n .” T h e y are for th e m ost p art p o p u la r exp osition s o f certa in fu n d a m e n ta l q u estio n s o f p ractical p sych ology, w h ic h con cern s itself n o t o n ly w ith th e sick b u t w ith th e h ea lth y . T h e la tter a lso h a v e “ p ro b lem s,” th e sa m e in p rin cip le as th o se o f th e n eu ro tic, b u t b eca u se p ra ctica lly ev ery b o d y has th em a n d k n o w s th em th ey are co u n te d as “ co n tem p o ra ry q u estio n s,” w h ile in th eir n e u ­ rotic form th e y a p p ea r rath er as b io g r a p h ic a l curiosa. T h e treat­ m e n t o f th e neu roses has n a tu ra lly co n fro n ted doctors w ith m a n y q u estion s th e y co u ld n o t answ er b y m e d ic a l m ea n s a lon e. T h e y h a d to resort to an a c a d e m ic p sy ch o lo g y th a t h a d n ever con cern ed itself w ith liv in g h u m a n b ein g s, or o n ly u n d er restrictive ex p erim en 2 [II problem a dell’inconscio nella psicologia m oderna, trans. by A rrigo V ita and G iovanni Bollea ( T u rin ), originally published 1942; new edn., 1959, w ith the present foreword, here trans, from the G erm an original.]

tal conditions w hich were a direct hin d ran ce to the natural expres­ sion of the psyche as a whole. Since the doctors received no help from outside (w ith the exception of a few philosophers like C. G. C arus, Schopenhauer, E d u ard von H artm a n n , N ietzsche), they saw themselves compelled to build up a m edical psychology of real h u m an beings. T h e essays in this volum e b ear witness to these efforts. M arch /9 5 9

F O R E W O R D T O A L D R IC H : “T H E P R IM IT IV E M IN D AND M O D E R N C IV IL IZ A T IO N ” 1 1296

T he author of this book, who studied analytical psychology in Zurich a few years ago, has asked me for a few introductory words to his work. I accede to his request with all the more pleasure as I was not bored but decidedly delighted by reading his book. Books of this kind are often of a very dry, though learned and useful, character. There are indeed not a few of them, because, to­ gether with the discovery of a new empirical psychology, the m od­ ern scientific m ind has become interested in w hat were formerly called “ curiosites et superstitions des peuples sauvages,” a field formerly left to missionaries, traders, hunters, and geographical and ethnographical explorers. A rich harvest of facts has been gleaned and gathered up in long rows of volumes even more formidable than Sir Jam es Frazer’s Golden Bough series. As everywhere in the science of the nineteenth century, the collection type of m ethod has prevailed, producing an accumulation of disconnected and undigested facts which in the long run could not fail to make a survey almost impossible. Such an ever increasing accumulation, here as well as in other sciences, has hindered the formation of judgm ent. It is a truism th at there are never facts enough, but, on the other hand, there is only one hum an brain, which only too easily gets swamped by the boundless flood of material. This hap­ pens particularly to the specialist, whose m ind is trained to a careful consideration of facts. But when judgm ent is required the m ind must turn away from the impression of the facts and should lift itself to a higher level from which a survey becomes possible. O ne m ight almost say: as a rule the higher standpoint is not given by the specialized science but by a convergence of viewpoints from other scientific realms. 1 [W ith a n in tro d u c tio n by B ronislaw M alinow ski (L o n d o n a n d N ew Y ork, 19 3 1). A ld ric h ’s tra n s. of th e fo rew o rd is re p ro d u c e d h e re w ith 'm in o r changes. T h e o rig in al a p p e a rs to h a v e b ee n lost. See J u n g ’s le tte r to th e a u th o r, 5 J a n . 1 9 3 1, in L e tte rs, ed. G. A d ler, vol. 1. C h a rle s R o b erts A ld rich , w ho re­ sided in C alifo rn ia , d ie d in 1933.]

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T hus the understanding of prim itive psychology w ould have rem ained an almost insoluble task w ithout the assistance of m ythol­ ogy, folklore, history, and com parative religion. Sir Jam es F razer’s w ork is a splendid exam ple of this composite m ethod. I t is rath er astonishing th a t am ong the co-operating sciences psychology seems to be lacking. It was, however, not com pletely absent. A m o n g the m any who tried to tackle the problem s of th e prim itive m ind, no one has done so w ithout psychology. But the psychological point of view em ployed by each investigator was his ow n— just as if there w ere only one psychological standpoint, i.e., the a u th o r’s own psy­ chology. Seen from T ylor’s point of view, anim ism is quite obviously his individual bias. Levy-Bruhl measures prim itive facts by means of his extremely rational m ind. F rom his standpoint it appears quite logical th a t th e prim itive m ind should be an “etat prelogique.” Y et the prim itive is far from being illogical an d is just as far from being “ anim istic.” H e is by no m eans th a t strange being from w hom the civilized m an is separated by a gulf th a t cannot be bridged. T h e fundam ental difference betw een them is not a difference in m ental functioning, b u t rath er in th e premises upon w hich the functioning is based. T h e reason why psychology has hitherto rendered so little assis­ tance to the explorer in th e vast field of prim itive psychology is not so m uch the n atu ra l disinclination of the specialist to appeal to principles outside his particu lar dom ain as the fact th a t a psychol­ ogy w hich w ould be really helpful simply d id not exist. T h e psychol­ ogy th a t is needed m ust be a psychology of th e com plex functions, i.e., a psychology th a t does not reduce th e complexities of th e m ind to their hypothetical elements, w hich is th e m ethod of experim ental or physiological psychology. T h e first attem p t at a complex psychol­ ogy was m ade by F reud, an d his essay T o tem and T aboo was one of the first direct contributions of th e new psychology to th e investi­ gation of the prim itive m ind. It m atters little th a t his attem p t is nothing m ore th a n an application of his sexual theory, originally gleaned from pathological m inds. H is essay nevertheless dem on­ strates the possibility of a rapprochem ent betw een psychology and the problem of th e prim itive m ind. Sometime before th e w ork above m entioned, I undertook a sim ilar task2 th a t eventually led m e to the prim itive m ind, b u t w ith a very different m ethod. W hile F reu d ’s m ethod consisted in th e application of an already existing theory, my m ethod was a com parative one. I have reason to believe th a t 2

[W a n d lu n g e n u n d S y m b o le d e r L ib i d o ( 1 9 1 2 ).]

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the latter yields better results. T he main reason is that our new psychology is in no way advanced enough to present a theory of the m ind th a t would have universal application. W ith modesty we can claim no more than the possession of sound facts and some rules of thum b which m ight prove useful in the attem pt to master the problem of the primitive mind. M r. Aldrich, I observe, has m ade use of his studies in analytical psychology, to the advantage of his research. His sane and balanced opinions, equally distant from the Charybdis of dry empirical enum ­ eration of facts and the Scylla of deduction from arbitrary premises, owe their vitality and colour in no small measure to a consideration of analytical psychology. I am sure that the analytical psychologist will welcome M r. A ldrich’s book as one of the most vivid and clear presentations of the primitive m ind in its relation to civilized psy­ chology. I may also express the hope th a t the co-operation of the psychologist will prove its usefulness to all students of primitive psychology who approach their subject from the ethnological standpoint.

PR ESS C O M M U N IQ U E O N V IS IT IN G T H E U N IT E D S T A T E S 1 September /9 3 6

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T h e reason why I come to the U n ited States is the fact th a t H a rv a rd U niversity has bestowed upon m e th e great h o nour of inviting m e to its T ercentenary Celebration. Being a psychopatholo­ gist as well as psychologist, I have been asked to p articip ate in a symposium ab o u t “ Psychological Factors D eterm ining H u m an Behaviour.” 2 T his is no t my first visit to the U n ited States, though my last visit dates back as far as 1924. I am eagerly looking forw ard to observing the changes w hich the last eventful decade has brought to public as well as to private life over here an d to com pare them w ith those of o u r own profoundly upset E urope. It is my sincere hope to find m ore com m on sense, m ore social peace, an d less in­ sanity in the U n ited States th a n in the old countries. As a psycholo­ gist I am deeply interested in m ental disturbances, particularly when they infect whole nations. I w ant to em phasize th a t I despise politics w holeheartedly: thus I am n either a Bolshevik, n o r a N a ­ tional Socialist, nor an Anti-Sem ite. I am a n eu tral Swiss an d even in m y own country I am uninterested in politics, because I am convinced th a t 99 per cent of politics are m ere symptom s an d any­ thing b u t a cure for social evils. A bout 50 p er cent of politics is definitely obnoxious inasm uch as it poisons the utterly incom petent m ind of the masses. W e are on our g u ard against contagious diseases of the body, b u t we are exasperatingly careless w hen it comes to the even m ore dangerous collective diseases of the m ind. I m ake this statem ent in order to disillusion any attem p t to claim m e for any p articu lar political party. I have some reason 1 [U n p u b lish ed typescript, w ritten in E nglish . W h ile it ap p aren tly w as inten d ed for th e N e w York press, no in stan ce o f its p u b lication or q u o ta tio n has been discovered. For an interview th a t J u n g gave the N e w Y o rk T im e s (4 O ct. ! 9 3 6 ) upon lea v in g N e w Y ork, see “T h e 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 Y ear O ld M a n ,” in C. G. Ju n g S p e a k in g .] 2 [For J u n g ’s con trib u tion , u n d er this title, see C .W ., vol. 8. T h e sym posium at H arvard w as actu ally en titled F actors D e te r m in in g H u m a n B ehavior.\

for it, since my nam e has been repeatedly d raw n into th e political discussion, w hich is, as you best know, in a feverish condition actually. I t h ap p en ed chiefly on account of the fact th a t I am in te r­ ested in the undeniable differences in national a n d racial psychol­ ogy, w hich chiefly account for a series of m ost fatal m isunderstand­ ings a n d practical m istakes in international dealings as well as in in tern al social frictions. I n a politically poisoned an d overheated atm osphere th e sane and dispassionate scientific discussion of such delicate, yet m ost im p o rtan t problem s has becom e well-nigh im pos­ sible. T o discuss such m atters in public w ould be about as successful as if th e director of a lunatic asylum w ere to set out to discuss the p a rticu la r delusions of his patients in the m idst of them . You know, the tragicom ical th ing is th a t they are all convinced of their norm ality as m uch as the doctor himself of his ow n m en tal balance. ■303 I t will soon b e th irty years since my first visit to th e U n ited States. D u rin g this tim e I w atched the trem endous progress of the country, a n d I learned to appreciate also th e enorm ous change A m erica has undergone an d is still undergoing, nam ely the tran si­ tion from a still pioneering m ood to th e very different a ttitu d e of a people confined to a definite area of soil. ' 3°4 I shall spend m y tim e ^ h ie fiy a t H a rv a rd , a n d after a short visit to the m useum s of N ew Y ork I intend to sail again in the first days of O ctober.

P S Y C H O L O G Y A N D N A T IO N A L P R O B L E M S 1 13°5

T h e question of psychology an d national problem s with w hich I have been asked to deal is indeed of some topicality. It is a ques­ tion, however, th a t w ould not have been asked before the W orld W ar. People in general w ere then not aw are of any disturbance in the m ental or psychic atm osphere of E urope, although th e psy­ chological critic or a philosopher of the an tiq u e style could have found enough to talk about. I t was a prosperous world then and one w hich believed in w h at the eye saw an d the ear h eard and in w hat rationalism an d philosophical positivism h a d to say. Even the rational possibility of a great w ar seemed, in spite of historical evidence, a far-fetched an d artificial nightm are, nothing m ore th an a theoretical scarecrow occasionally conjured u p by politicians and new spapers w hen they h ad noth in g else to say. O ne was thoroughly convinced th a t international, financial,-com m ercial, and industrial relations were so tightly knit together as to exclude th e m ere possi­ bility of a w ar. T h e A gadir incident2 and sim ilar gestures seemed to be m ere pranks of a psychopathic m onarch, otherwise safely enm eshed in an international netw ork of financial obligations, whose gigantic proportions were supposed to rule out any attem pts of a serious m ilitary n atu re. M oreover the fabulous developm ent of science, the high stan d ard of public education in most E uropean countries, an d a public opinion organized as never before in history, allowed E uropean hum anity to believe in m a n ’s conscious achieve­ m ents, in his reason, intelligence an d will-power. I t almost appeared 1 [A le c tu re d e liv e re d in E n g lish a t th e I n s titu te o f M e d ic a l P sychology (T h e T a v isto c k C lin ic ), L o n d o n , 14 O c t. 1936, w h en J u n g h a d ju s t r e tu rn e d fro m his v isit to th e U n ite d S ta te s (see th e p re c e d in g a r t ic l e ) . H e h a d w ritte n th e le c tu re d u rin g th e v o y ag e, a c c o rd in g to h is d a u g h te r M a r ia n n e N ie h u sJ u n g . T h e te x t, b a se d o n a h o lo g ra p h M S , h as n o t b e e n p rev io u sly p u b lish e d , th o u g h sim ila r id e a s a re fo u n d in a n in te rv ie w w ith J u n g in th e O b server (L o n d o n , d a te u n d e te r m in e d ) , r e p r in te d in T i m e 3 9 N o v . 1936, T h e L i v i n g A g e (N e w Y o r k ) , D e c . 1936, a n d as “ T h e P sy cho lo g y of D ic ta to rs h ip ” in C. G. J u n g S p e a k i n g .] 2 [A rriv al o f a G e rm a n w a rsh ip a t th e p o r t o f A g a d ir, M o ro c c o , w h ic h p re c ip i­ ta te d a n in te r n a tio n a l crisis in 1911.]

as if m an and his ideals were going to possess the earth and rule it wisely for the welfare of all peoples. 1306 T he W orld W ar has shattered this dream and has crushed most of the ideals of the preceding era. In this postwar mood originated the doubt: Is everything right with the hum an mind? O ne began to question its sanity because thinking people grew more and more astonished at all the things hum anity could do. The benevolent god of science that had done such marvellous things for the benefit of m an had uncovered his dark face. H e produced the most diaboli­ cal w ar machinery, including the abomination of poison gases, and hum an reason got more and more obscured by strange and absurd ideas. International relations turned into the most exaggerated nationalism, and the very God of the earth, the ultim a ratio of all things worldly— money— developed a more and more fictitious character never dream t of before. Not only the security of the gold standard but also that of treaties and other international arrange­ ments, already badly shaken by the W ar, did not recover b u t be­ came increasingly illusory. Nearly all m ajor attempts at reduction of arm am ents and at stabilization of international finances w ent wrong. Slowly it daw ned upon m ankind th at it was caught in one of the worst moral crises the world had ever known. !307 It is natural enough th a t in many quarters the doubt arose as to w hether the hum an m ind had not changed. It did not appear preposterous any more to assume that possibly there were peculiar psychological reasons for all these disquieting developments which otherwise could hardly be explained. M any people wondered w hat psychology would have to say about the world situation. Such ques­ tions, as a m atter of fact, have often been put to me, and I must confess I always felt not only definitely uncom fortable b u t singularly incom petent to give a satisfactory answer. T he subject is really too complicated. T h e predom inant and im mediate reasons for the crisis are factors of an economic and political nature. Inasm uch as these are activities of the hum an m ind they should be subject to certain psychological laws. But the economic factors especially are not wholly psychological in character; they depend to a great extent on conditions th a t can hardly be linked up with psychology. In politics on the other hand psychology seems to prevail, b u t there is an ultim ate factor of numbers, of sheer force and violence, that corresponds to a cavem an’s or an anim al’s psychology rather than to anything hum an. T here is no psychology yet of such infinitely complex m atters as economics or politics. It is still-quite question-

able w hether there is any hope at all th a t psychology can be applied to things due to non-psychological factors. I d o n ’t consider myself com petent to deal w ith the ultim ate m eaning of o u r world crisis. T h ere are certain sides to it, how ever, th a t possess a definitely psy­ chological aspect, offering an opportunity for com ment. I t seems to be w ithin the reach of contem porary psychology to produce a certain point of view a t least. 1308 Before entering u p o n this subject I w an t to say a few words about psychology in g en era l: Conscious


315 T he psychology of masses is always inferior, even in their most idealistic enterprises. T he whole of a nation never reacts like a nor­ mal m odern individual, but always like a primitive group being. Therefore masses are never properly adjusted except on very prim i­ tive levels. T heir reactions belong to our second category— the nega­ tive form. M an in the group is always unreasonable, irresponsible, emotional, erratic, and unreliable. Crimes the individual alone could never stand are freely committed by the group being. A so­ ciety wom an would rather die than appear at a dinner in an obscene dress, b u t if it were the fashion in the group she would not hesitate for a second to p u t on the most shocking monstrosity. Think for a m om ent of the famous cul de Paris th at embellished the youth of our older generation. And men are no better. T he larger an organization the lower its morality. T he leader of a great religious movement, when caught out in a lie, said, “O h! for Christ you may even lie.” ’3'6 Nations being the largest organized groups are from a psycho­ logical point of view clumsy, stupid, and amoral monsters like those huge saurians with an incredibly small brain. They are inaccessible to reasonable argument, they are suggestible like hysterical patients, they are childish and moody, helpless victims of their emotions. They are caught in every swindle, called slogans, they are stupid to an amazing degree, they are greedy, reckless, and blindly violent, like a rhino suddenly aroused from sleep. They persevere in every nonsense, in every emotion and resentment, in every prejudice, far

beyond the psychological moment, and they get ensnared by the cheapest of all obvious tricks. Most of the time they live in dreams and primitive illusions usually rigged out as “isms.” As long as they can feed on open ground in an undisturbed way they are sleepy and harmless. But if their food gets scarce and they begin to migrate and to encroach upon neighbouring territory, they resort to vio­ lence. They are not to be convinced that hum an beings have evolved much better methods in many thousands of years and that these individual men believe in reason and intelligence. !31? M onster groups have a natural leaning to leaders. But a leader always means a group within the nation, and such a group is more greedy and eats more than the other groups it leads. And as all greedy monsters are jealous they get rid of their leaders and call the new condition a democracy, in which nobody rules and nobody is ruled. T he logic of this procedure closely resembles the story of the m an who got stranded on an uninhabited island. T he first thing he did was an act of statesm anship: he called himself a democracy and consequently felt extraordinarily free and in full possession of all political rights. rSr^ Even a group being can’t help noticing that in living in a de­ mocracy you run your head against remarkably unintelligent restric­ tions of freedom, imposed upon each free, self-ruling citizen by an invisible, wholly legendary being called the “State.” W hen a monster group first called itself a “democracy” it surely did not think th at its former ruler, now dethroned, would turn into a ghost. Yet he did. H e became the State. >319 The State is the psychological mirror-image of the democracy monster. As the nation always rises as one man, the State is just as good as one man. As a m atter of fact it is quite a person, of unlimited means, more exacting than any tyrant ever was, greedy to the limit and biologically dangerous. It, the State, is not like a Rom an Caesar, enslaving prisoners of w ar on the lower strata of the population; it squeezes its contributions out of the most vital and most gifted individuals of its domain, making slaves of them for its own wasteful devices. It does not know that energy only works when accumulated. Its energy is money. It taps all carefully prepared and studied accumulations of this energy and dissipates it so th at it becomes ineffectual, thereby causing an artificial entropy. 1S20 It seems that “democracy” was a suitable nam e only in the very youth of the State-ghost. In order to support its boundless

ambitions two brand-new “isms” had to be invented: Socialism and Communism. They enhance its ultra-democratic character to an extraordinary degree: the m an on the lonely island is now the communistic social democracy. Together with these illusions goes another helpful procedure, the hollowing out of money, which in the near future will make all savings illusory and, along with cultural continuity, guaranteed by individual responsibility. T he State takes over responsibility and enslaves every individual for its own ridicu­ lous schemes. All this is done by w hat one calls inflation, devalua­ tion, and, most recently, “dilution,” which you should not mix up with the unpopular term “inflation.” Dilution is now the right word and only idiots can’t see the striking difference between this concept and inflation. Money value is fast becoming a fiction guaranteed by the State. M oney becomes paper and everybody convinces every­ body else th a t the little scraps are w orth something because the State says so. 1321 I am by no means sure that w hat T am saying is not fictitious too. I don’t know exactly w hat has gone wrong, but I have a strong and most uncom fortable feeling th a t something has gone wrong and that it is even getting worse. I am also certain th a t I am not the only one to experience such a queer feeling. There must be hundreds of people who have lost their confidence in the direction in which things are apparently moving. As group beings we are all befogged in the same way, but as individuals we m ight just as well apply as much of our psychiatric knowledge as seems to befit the peculiar symptomatology of our bewildering epoch. 1322 As I mentioned at the beginning, we find the symptoms chiefly in those nations th a t have been mangled the most by the w ar beast. There is for instance the G erm an case. As far back as 1918 I pub­ lished a paper5 in which I called the attention of my contemporaries to an astounding development in the German edition of the collec­ tive unconscious. I had caught hold of certain collective dreams of Germans which convinced me that they portrayed the beginning of a national regression analogous to the regression of a frightened and helpless individual, becoming first infantile and then primitive or archaic. I saw Nietzsche’s “blond beast” looming up, with all that it implies. I felt sure that Christianity would be challenged and that the Jews would be taken to account. I therefore tried to start the discussion in order to forestall the inevitable violence of the unconscious outburst of which I was afraid— though not 5 [Cf. “T h e Role of the U nconscious” (C.W ., vol. 10), pars. i7ff.]

enough, as subsequent events have unfo rtu n ately shown only too clearly. I d on ’t need to say th a t I was n o t h eard a t all. T h e fog of war-psychology was just too dense. 1323 G erm any was the first country to experience the m iracles w orked by dem ocracy’s ghost, th e State. She saw h er money becom ­ ing elastic an d expanding to astronom ical proportions an d then evaporating altogether. She experienced all in one heap w h at the ghosts of other dem ocracies are trying to do to us in a sort of slowm otion picture, probably hoping th a t nobody understands th e eye­ wash. G erm any got it right in th e neck an d there was no joke about it. T h e whole educated m iddle class was utterly ruined, but the State was on top, p u ttin g on m ore an d m ore of the “ -istic” rouge as w ar-paint. T h e country was in a condition of extrem e misery an d insecurity, an d waves of panic sw ept over the p o p u la­ tion. In an individual case these are th e sym ptom s of an oncom ing outburst. Any such outburst w ould b rin g up archaic m aterial, arche­ types th a t join forces w ith th e individual as well as w ith th e people. T h ere is some teleology ab o u t this: it creates strength w here there was weakness, conviction instead of doubt, courage instead of fear. B ut the energy needed to b rin g ab o u t such a transform ation is taken aw ay from m any old values an d the success gained is p aid for dearly. Such an outburst is always a regression into history and it always m eans a low ering of the level of civilization. 13 24 T h ro u g h C om m unism in Russia, th ro u g h N ational Socialism in G erm any, th ro u g h Fascism in Italy, th e State becam e all-pow er­ ful and claim ed its slaves body an d soul. D em ocracy becam e its ow n m irror-im age, its own ghost, w hile the ghost becam e ap p al­ lingly real, an all-em bracing m ystical presence an d personality th a t usurped the th ro n e a pious theocratic C hristianity h a d hoped G od w ould take. T h e old to talitarian claim of th e C ivitas D ei is now voiced by the S tate: one sheep as good as an o th er and th e whole herd crow ded together, gu ard ed by plain-clothed an d uniform ed wolf-dogs, utterly deprived of all the rights w hich the m an on the island w ho called himself a dem ocracy h ad d ream t of. T h ere are no rights left, only duties. Every source of energy, industry, com ­ m erce, money, even private enterprise, is sucked up into the new slave-owner, the State. 1325 A nd a new m iracle hap p en ed . O u t of now here certain m en cam e, an d each of them said like Louis X IV , “ L ’etat c’est m oi.” T h ey are the new leaders. T h e State has proved its personal reality by in carn atin g itself in m en th a t cam e from Galilee, inconspicuous

nobodies previously, but equipped with the great spirit voice that cowed the people into soundless obedience. They are like Rom an Caesars, usurpers of empires and kingdoms, and like those incarna­ tions of a previously invisible deity devoutly invoked and believed in by everybody. They are the State th at has superseded the medieval theocracy. 1326 This process of incarnation is particularly drastic in H itler’s case. H itler himself as an ordinary person is a shy and friendly m an with artistic tastes and gifts. As a mere m an he is inoffensive and modest, and has nice eyes. But he comes from Braunau, a little town th at has already produced two famous mediums— the Schneider brothers. (H arry Price has written a book about one of them .6) H itler is presumably the third and the most efficient medium from Braunau. W hen the State-spirit speaks through him, he sends forth a voice of thunder and his word is so powerful that it sweeps together crowds of millions like fallen autum n leaves. 1327 There is obviously no power left in the world and particularly no State-loving “-ism” which is capable of resisting this incredible force. O f course you will say, as everybody does, “O ne must be a G erm an to understand such miracles.” Yes, this is just as true as that you must be an Italian to understand the mythology of the Fascio, or a Russian to appreciate the charms of Stalin’s pater­ nal regime. O f course you can’t understand those funny foreigners, Sir Oswald Mosley and Colonel de la R ocque7 being still babes in arms. But if you carefully study w hat President Roosevelt is up to and w hat the famous N .R .A .8 m eant to the world of American commerce and industry, then you get a certain idea of how near the great State in America is to becoming Roosevelt’s incarnation. Roosevelt is the stuff all right, only the circumstances are not bad enough. G reat Britain seems to be pretty conservative, yet you have a taxation which makes the great estates uninhabitable. T h a t is 6 [Cf. Price, A n A cco u n t o f S o m e F u rth er E xperim en ts w ith W illy Schneider ( 1925) , T h e P henom ena of R u d i S ch n eider ( 19 2 6 ) , and other books on these Austrian mediums.] 7 [M osley founded the British U n io n of Fascists ( “Blackshirts” ) in 1932. Col. Frangois de la R ocque was leader of the French reactionary group “Croix de F eu.”] 8 [N ational R ecovery A dm inistration, established to adm inister the N ational Industrial R ecovery A ct (13 June 1 9 3 3 ), recognizing a “national em ergency” and vesting in the President (F. D . R oosevelt) authority to approve codes of fair com petition for various trades and industries, regulate wages, hours of labour, etc.]

exactly how things began in Italy. You have devalued your money, this is the second step. Y ou could not stop the boastful m arch of R o m an legions th ro u g h the bottleneck of Suez, an d Sir S am uel9 meekly an d wisely took all the air o u t of th a t m agnificent gesture of a p roud British fleet ado rn in g th e en tran ce to Italy ’s triu m p h . T his was the th ird step. E n g lan d comes p erh ap s so late into the paradise of a new age th a t she arrives th ere w ith m any old-w orld values well preserved by sheer lack of interest. Being Swiss I heartily sym pathize w ith this attitude. K now ing of nothing th a t w ould be better, we h an g on to th e rear of events an d m uddle along as we have been used to do for six h u n d red years. W e c a n ’t im agine our dictato r yet, b u t already an u n fo rtu n ate m ajority believes in the m ighty ghost to w hom we have sacrificed all o u r railways an d the gold stan d ard on top of th at. !328 X he incarn atio n of the State-ghost is no m ean affair. I t com­ petes w ith fam ous historical parallels; it even challenges them . Just as C hristianity h ad a cross to symbolize its essential teaching, so H itler has a swastika, a symbol as old an d w idespread as the cross. A nd just as it was a star over Bethlehem th a t announced th e in car­ n ation of G od, so R ussia has a red star, an d instead of th e Dove an d the L am b a ham m er an d sickle, an d instead of th e sacred body a place of pilgrim age w ith th e m um m y of th e first witness. Even as C hristianity challenged the R o m an Im p eriu m , enthroned am bitious R o m an bishops as Pontifices R o m a n i, an d perpetuated th e great E m pire in th e theocracy of th e C h u rch and th e Holy R o m an E m pire, so th e D uce has produced once m ore all the stage scenery of the Im p eriu m w hich will soon reach from E thiopia to th e Pillars of H ercules as of old. !329 A gain it is G erm any th a t gives us some notion of th e underlying archetypal symbolism bro u g h t u p by the eruption of the collective unconscious. H itler’s picture has been erected upon C hristian altars. T h ere are people w ho confess on th eir tom bstones th a t they died in peace since th eir eyes h ad beheld not th e L ord b u t the Fiihrer. T h e onslaught on C hristianity is obvious; it w ould not even need corroboration th ro u g h a neo-pagan m ovem ent incorporating three m illion people. T his m ovem ent can only be com pared w ith the archetypal m aterial exhibited by a case of p aran o id schizophrenia. You find in neo-paganism th e most beautiful W otanistic symbolism, Indogerm anic speculation, an d so on. In N o rth G erm any th ere is 9 [Sir Sam u el H o a re, la ter V isco u n t T em p le w o o d ( 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 5 9 ) , British foreign secretary in 1935, w h en h e sou gh t to ap p ease Ita ly in its con q u est of E thiopia.]

a sect that worships Christ in the form of a rider on a white horse.10 It does not go as far as collective hallucinations, though the waves of enthusiasm and even ecstasy are running high. 133° N ations in a condition of collective misery behave like neurotic or even psychotic individuals. First they get dissociated or disinte­ grated, then they pass into a state of confusion and disorientation. As it is not a question of psychotic disintegration in an individual case, the confusion affects mainly the conscious and subconscious layers but does not touch the fundam ental instinctual structure of the m ind, the collective unconscious. O n the contrary, the confusion in the top layers produces a compensatory reaction in the collective unconscious, consisting of a peculiar personality surrogate, an archaic personality equipped with superior instinctive forces. This new constellation is at first completely unconscious, b u t as it is acti­ vated it becomes perceptible in the form of a projection. It is usually the doctor treating a patient who unwittingly assumes the role of the projected figure. T he mechanism of this projection is the trans­ ference. By transference the doctor appears in the guise of the father, for instance, as th at personality who symbolizes superior power and intelligence, a guarantee of security and a protection against overwhelming dangers. So long as the disintegration has not reached the deeper layers, the transference will not produce more than the projection of the father-image. But once the confu­ sion has stirred up these unknow n depths, the projection becomes more collective and takes on mythological forms. In this case the doctor appears as a sort of sorcerer or saviour. W ith actively reli­ gious persons the doctor would be superseded by an activated image of Christ or by th at of an invisible divine presence. 1331 Mystical literature abounds in descriptions of such experiences. You also find detailed records in William Jam es’ Varieties of Reli­ gious Experience. But if you observe the dreams of such patients you will find peculiar symbolic images, often long before the pa­ tients themselves become conscious of any so-called mystical experi­ ences. These images always show a specific p a tte rn : they are circular or square, or like a cross or a star, or are composites of such ele­ ments. The technical term I use for such figures is the mandala, the Sanskrit word for “circle.” 11 The corresponding medieval Latin term is the circulus quadratus or rosa. In H indu literature you 10 [Cf. “Wotan” (C.W., vol. io ) , par. 373.] 11 [Cf. “A Study in the Process of Individuation” and “Concerning Mandala Symbolism” (C.W ., vol. g, i).]

also find the term s pa d m a (lotus) and chakra, m eaning th e flowerlilie centres of d ifferen t localizations o f consciousness.12 !332 Because of its circular form th e m a n d ala expresses roundness, th a t is, completeness or integration. In T an trism and Lam aism it is used as an in stru m en t of concentration an d as a m eans of uniting the individual consciousness, th e h u m an ego-personality, w ith the superior divine personality of the non-ego, i.e., of the unconscious. M andalas often have the character of rotating figures. O ne such figure is the swastika. W e m ay therefore in terp ret it as a projection of an unconscious collective attem p t a t th e form ation of a com pen­ satory unified personality. This unconscious attem p t plays a great role in the general personification of th e State. I t gives it its ghost­ like quality a n d bestows u p o n it the faculty of in c arn atin g itself in a hu m an personality. T h e alm ost personal auth o rity an d a p ­ p aren t efficiency of the S tate are, in a sense, n o th in g else th a n the unconscious constellation of a superior instinctual personality w hich com pensates the obvious inefficiency of th e conscious ego-personality. 1333 W hen Nietzsche w rote his prophetic m asterpiece, T h u s Spake Zarathustra, he certainly h ad not the faintest notion th a t th e super­ m an he h ad created out of his personal misery an d inefficiency w ould becom e a prophetic an ticip atio n of a F iihrer or D uce. H itler and M ussolini are m ore or less ordinary h u m an beings, b u t ones w ho, curiously enough, assume th a t they themselves know w h at to do in a situation w hich practically nobody understands. They seem to have the su p erh u m an courage or th e equally superhum an recklessness to shoulder a responsibility w hich apparently nobody else is willing or able to carry. O nly a superm an could be entrusted w ith faculties th a t are equal to the difficulties of the actual situation. B ut we know th a t m ystical experience as well as identification w ith an archetypal figure lend alm ost su p erh u m an force to th e ordinary m an. N ot in vain do the G erm ans call their F iihrer “o u r Jo a n of A rc.” H e is very m u ch the ch aracter th a t is open to unconscious influences. I am told th a t H itler locked himself in his room for three days an d nights w hen his w hole staff beseeched him not to leave the L eague of N ations. W h en he ap p eared again he said w ith ­ out any explantion, “ G entlem en, G erm any m ust leave th e L eague.” This story sounds as if G erm an politics w ere not m ade b u t revealed. !334 H itler’s unconscious seems to be female. M ussolini’s L atin an d very m asculine tem p eram en t does n o t allow a com parison w ith H it­ ler. As a n Ita lia n he is im bued w ith R o m an history, an d indeed 12 [Cf. “T h e R ealities of P ra ctical P sy chotherap y ” {C.W ., vol. 16, 2 n d edn., A p p e n d ix ), p ar. 56 0 , Also A rth u r A valon, T h e S erp en t P ow er.]

in every gesture he betrays his identity with the Caesar. It is most characteristic w hat rum our has to say about him. I am told— I don’t know w hether there is any truth in it or not— that not very long ago he appeared at a reception in the Roman toga and the golden laurel w reath of the Caesar, creating a panic th a t could only be hushed up by the most drastic measures. Even if this is a mere legend it shows beautifully how rum our interprets the D uce’s role. Gossip is surely a bad thing, but I confess I always find it interesting because it is often the only means of getting inform ation about a public figure. Gossip does not need to be true in order to be of value. Even if it gives an entirely twisted picture of a m an, it clearly shows the way in which his persona, th a t is his public ap­ pearance, functions. T he persona is never the true character; it is a composite of the individual’s behaviour and of the role attrib­ uted to him by the public.13 Most of the biography of a public figure consists of the persona’s history and often of very little individual truth. Well, this is the penalty the m an in the limelight has to pay! 335 It seems as if in nearly all the countries of Europe the gulf between the right and left wing were widening, in so far as these countries are not already Fascist. It is so in Spain and it soon m ight be as obvious in France. Since Socialism and Communism merely enhance the attributes of democracy, i.e., of a Constitution where there is a ruler w ithout subjects and subjects w ithout a ruler, they only serve to hollow out the m eaning of Parliament, of government, of money, and of the so-called rights of the free citizen. T he only possible synthesis seems to be the eventual incarnation of the Stateghost in a superm an with all his mythological paraphernalia. R e­ cently Ramsay M acD onald m ade a very clear statement. Speaking of the L abour Party he literally said: “Its members are a flock without a shepherd and w ith a plethora of sheep-dogs in disagree­ ment with one another about the fold in which the flock should be penned. Is it not time for L abour policy to be realistic? By its fumbling with the cardinal issues of defence and peace, it is casting doubt on the competence of democracy and playing straight into the hands of Fascism. T he problems of m odern life are too urgent to rem ain the playthings of shortsighted partisans.” 14 336 It is doubtful w hether the European nations would rem ain for any length of time in the chaotic disorder of the childish Commu13 [Concerning the persona, cf. T, ί ο Essays on A nalytical Psychology, C.W ., vol. 7, pars. 24.3S., 305¾.] 14 [Source unidentifiable. M acD onald (1886-1937) was G reat B ritain’s first L abour prim e m inister, 1924, and again 1929—1935.]

nistic doctrine. T hey rath er revert to type, to a state of enforced order which is nothing else than dictatorship and tyrannical oligar­ chy. A t least this form has come to light even in sluggish Russia, w here 170 million people are kept in order by a few million m em ­ bers of the C om m unist Party. In Italy it is the Fascio, and in G er­ m any the S.S. is fast on the w ay to becom ing som ething like a religious order of knights th a t is going to rule a colony of sixty million natives. In the history of th e w orld there has never been a case w here order was established w ith sweet reasonableness in a chaos. Chaos yields only to enforced order. '3 3 7 In the d ictato r an d his oligarchical hierarchy the State-ghost appears in the flesh. Yet such statesm en are h u m an beings who assume pow er over their fellow beings, an d instantly the la tter feel suppressed, w hich they did n o t feel as long as they were called dem ocrats. O f course this State slavery is ju st as b ad as before, b u t now they rem em ber they m ight have to say som ething political and are told to shut up. T h e n they feel as if som ething dreadful had happened to them . T hey don’t realize th a t w hatever they talked ab o u t in the dem ocracy was just as futile as anything they m ight talk ab o u t now. It is tru e th a t dem ocrats talk an d socialists talk m ore and com munists b eat them all at talk. I t is just th a t sort of thing th a t has led them to disintegration, an d th a t’s why in a condition of enforced order talk comes abruptly to an end. !338 D isorder is destructive. O rd e r is always a cage. Freedom is the prerogative of a m inority and it is always based on the disadvantage of others. Switzerland, the oldest dem ocracy in the world, calls herself a free country because no foreigner ever enjoyed a liberty to her disadvantage u n til A m erica an d G reat B ritain w ent off the gold standard . Since then we have felt like victims. N ow we play the sam e trick on the other countries th a t hold Swiss bonds (m ind you, Sw itzerland is th e th ird biggest banker in E u ro p e!) and we probably feel b etter for it. But are we really free? W e are weak an d u n im p o rtan t an d we try to be so; o u r style of life is narrow an d our outlook ham pered not only by ordinary hills b u t by verita­ ble m ountains of prejudice against anything an d everybody th a t exceeds our size. W e are locked in th e cage of o rder an d we enjoy just enough air not to suffocate. W e have one virtue yet: w e are m odest and o u r am bitions are small. T h a t is why we can stick to order and w hy w e don’t believe m uch in talk. B ut o u r freedom is exceedingly lim ited— fortunately enough. I f m ay save us from a dictator.

I n c o n tin e n ta l E u ro p e to d ay , I am afra id it is h a rd ly a question of w h e th e r w e are going to enjoy m o re freed o m or less. As a m a tte r of fa c t th in g s h a v e gone so fa r th a t soon even th e p ro b lem of free­ d o m w ill b e obsolete. T h e question is ra th e r th a t of “ to b e o r no t to b e .” T h e d ile m m a is now betw een chaos a n d en forced order. W ill th e re be civil w a r o r n o t? — th a t is w h a t we anxiously ask th e d a rk F ates of E u ro p e . I w ould like to q u o te h ere M ig u el de U n a m u n o , one of those S p an ish liberals w ho u n d e rm in e d th e tr a d i­ tio n al o rd e r in th e h o p e of c reatin g g re a te r freedom . H e re is his m ost re cen t confession: “ T im es h av e ch an g ed . I t is n o t an y m o re a q u estio n of L iberalism a n d D em ocracy, R ep u b lic o r M o n a rc h y , Socialism o r C ap italism . I t is a question of civilization a n d b a r b a r ­ ity. C iv ilization is now rep resen ted in S p ain by G e n eral F ra n c o ’s A rm y .” 15 •340 C o m p u lso ry o rd e r seem s to b e p re fera b le to th e terro rs of chaos, a t all events th e lesser of tw o g re a t evils. O rd e rs, I am a fra id , have to b e h e a rd in silence. 134 ' B u t th e re is a m a jo rity of people to w hom it seem s th e m ost serious m a tte r in th e w orld w hen they c a n ’t talk a n y m ore. T h is a p p e a rs to b e th e reason w hy even th e m ost [ ] 16 d ictato rsh ip s a re ev en tu ally talk ed ou t of existence, a n d w hy th e senseless a n d la m e n ta b le g am b le of politics is m e a n d e rin g its w ay th ro u g h his­ to ry — a sad com edy to th e th in k in g m in d a n d to th e feeling h ea rt, ‘342 If w e are stu m b lin g in to a n era of d ictato rs, C aesars, a n d in c a r­ n a te d S tates, w e h av e accom plished a cycle of tw o th o u sa n d years a n d th e serp en t has ag ain m et w ith its ow n tail. T h e n o u r era will b e a n e a r rep lica of th e first centuries a . d ., w h e n C a e sa r w as th e S tate a n d a god, a n d divine sacrifices w ere m a d e to C aesar w hile th e tem ples of th e gods cru m b le d aw ay. Y ou kn o w th a t th o u ­ san d s in those days tu rn e d th e ir eyes aw ay fro m this visible w orld, filled w ith h o rro r a n d disgust, a n d a d o p te d a p h ilosophy w hich h ealed th e ir souls. S ince -history re p eats itself a n d th e sp iral of ev o lu tio n seem ingly re tu rn s to th e p o in t w here it to o k off, th ere is a possibility th a t m a n k in d is a p p ro a c h in g an ep och w h e n en o u g h will b e said a b o u t things w h ich are n ev e r w h a t w e wish th e m to be, a n d w h en th e q u estio n will be raised w hy w e w ere ever interested in a b a d com edy. 1339

15 [T h e Observer (L o n d o n ), 11 O ct. 1936, in an article written from Salamanca 3 Oct. 1936. U nam uno (1864-1936) repudiated the Franco regim e in a m oving speech at Salamanca on 12 Oct. 1936.] 1K[Illegible in holograph.]

5Sl

RETURN

TO

THE

S IM P L E

L IF E 1

W h a t are your views on a return of the Swiss people to the simple life? •343

T h e r e t u r n to t h e s im p le life c a n b e r e g a r d e d as a n u n h o p e d - f o r p ie c e o f g o o d f o r t u n e e v e n t h o u g h it d e m a n d s c o n s id e r a b le selfs a c rific e a n d is n o t u n d e r t a k e n v o lu n ta r ily . T h a n k s to th e m a ss m e d i a a n d t h e c h e a p s e n s a tio n a lis m o ff e r e d b y t h e c in e m a , r a d io , a n d n e w s p a p e r s , a n d t h o u s a n d s o f a m u s e m e n ts o f a ll k in d s , life in t h e r e c e n t p a s t h a s r a p i d l y b e e n a p p r o a c h i n g a c o n d itio n t h a t w a s n o t f a r r e m o v e d f r o m t h e h e c tic A m e r ic a n te m p o . I n d e e d , in th e m a t t e r o f d iv o r c e s , Z u r i c h h a s a l r e a d y r e a c h e d th e A m e r ic a n r e c o r d . A ll tim e - s a v in g d e v ic e s , a m o n g s t w h ic h w e m u s t c o u n t e a s ie r m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a t i o n a n d o t h e r c o n v e n ie n c e s , d o n o t, p a r a d o x i ­ c a lly e n o u g h , s a v e ti m e b u t m e r e ly c r a m o u r t im e so f u ll t h a t w e h a v e n o tim e f o r a n y t h i n g . H e n c e th e b r e a th le s s h a s te , s u p e rfic ia lity , a n d n e r v o u s e x h a u s tio n w i t h a ll t h e c o n c o m i t a n t s y m p to m s — c r a v ­ in g f o r s t im u la tio n , im p a t i e n c e , i r r i ta b ility , v a c illa tio n , e tc . S u c h a s ta t e m a y l e a d to a ll s o r ts o f o t h e r th in g s , b u t n e v e r to a n y i n ­ c re a se d c u ltu re o f th e m in d a n d h e a rt.

D o you think we should turn m ore and m ore to the treasures of our culture? 1344

A s t h e b o o m i n g b o o k t r a d e in m a n y c o u n tr ie s s h o w s , if th e w o r s t c o m e s to t h e w o r s t p e o p le w ill e v e n t u r n to a g o o d b o o k . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s u c h a d e c is io n a lw a y s n e e d s a c o m p e llin g e x te r n a l c a u s e . U n le s s d r iv e n b y n e c e ss ity , m o s t p e o p le w o u ld n e v e r d r e a m o f “ t u r n i n g to th e tr e a s u r e s o f o u r c u l t u r e .” T h e d e lu s io n o f s te a d y s o c ia l i m p r o v e m e n t h a s b e e n d i n n e d i n t o th e m so lo n g t h a t th e y w a n t t o f o r g e t t h e p a s t a s q u ic k ly a s p o ssib le so a s n o t to m iss t h e b r a v e n e w w o r ld t h a t is c o n s ta n tly b e in g d a n g le d b e f o r e t h e i r ey es b y u n r e f o r m a b l e w o r ld - r e f o r m e r s . T h e i r n e u r a s t h e n i c c r a v in g 1 [T ran slated from “R iickkehr zum ein fa ch en L eb en ,” D U : S ch w eizerisch e M o n a tssc h r ift, Jh g . I , no. 3 (M a y 1 9 4 1 ) , A n ed ito ria l n o te in D U states th at it is a sum m ation o f J u n g ’s reply to a question n aire sent o u t by th e S chw eizer F eu illeto n -D ien st (featu res serv ice) to various em in en t Sw iss, o n the effects o f w artim e con d itio n s in Sw itzerland.]

1345

'346

for the latest novelty is a sickness and not culture. T h e essence of culture is continuity an d conservation of the past; craving for novelty produces only anti-culture an d ends in barbarism . T h e in­ evitable outcom e is th a t eventually the whole nation will yearn for the very culture w hich, owing to the delusion of better conditions in the fu tu re (w hich seldom if ever m aterialize), has alm ost (o r entirely) disappeared. U n fo rtu n ately our w orld, or perhaps the m oral structure of m an , is so constituted th a t no progress and no im provem ent are consistently good, since sooner or later the corre­ sponding misuse will a p p e ar w hich turns th e blessing into a curse. C an anyone seriously m ain tain th a t our wars are in any way “b e t­ te r” th a n those of the R om ans? T h e craze for m ass organization wrenches everyone out of his private w orld into the deafening tu m u lt of the m arket-place, m ak­ ing him an unconscious, m eaningless particle in the mass a n d the helpless prey of every kind of suggestion. T h e never failing b ait is the alleged “ better fu tu re ,” w hich prevents him from ad ap tin g himself to the actual present and m aking the best of it. H e no longer lives in the present and for the future, b u t— in a totally unrealistic w ay— already in th e future, defrauded of the present an d even m ore of th e past, cut off from his roots, robbed of his continuity, and everlastingly du p ed by the m ocking fata m organa of a “b e tte r fu tu re .” A trem endous disillusionm ent is needed to save people from w ishful thinking a n d brin g them back to th e sound bases of trad itio n , a n d to rem ind them of the blessings of a spiritual culture w hich the “ age of progress” has destroyed w ith its nihilistic criticism. O n e has only to think of the spiritual devastation th a t has already been w rought by m aterialism , th e invention of w ould-be intellectuals equipped w ith truly infantile argum ents. I t will be diffi­ cult to get rid of th e kind of thinking whose very stupidity m akes it so popular. D o you believe that happiness is fo u n d not in m aterial but in spiri­ tual things? T o rem ove the ideal from th e m aterial to th e spiritual w orld is a tricky business, because m aterial happiness is som ething tangible ( if ever it is a tta in e d ), an d th e spirit an invisible thing w hich it is difficult to find or to dem onstrate. It is even supposed th a t most of w h at goes by the nam e of “spirit” is so m uch em pty talk an d a clattering of words. A n a ttain ab le sausage is as a rule m ore illum i­ n a tin g th a n a devotional exercise; in o ther words, to find happiness

in the spirit one m ust be possessed of a “sp irit” to find happiness in. A life of ease an d security has convinced everyone of all the m aterial joys, an d has even com pelled th e spirit to devise new and b etter ways to m aterial w elfare, b u t it has never produced spirit. P robably only suffering, disillusion, an d self-denial do that. A nyone w ho can live u n d er such stresses a n d still find life w o rth w hile al­ read y has spirit, or a t least has som e inklings of it. B ut at all times there are only very few who are convinced from th e bottom of th eir hearts th a t m aterial happiness is a d an g er to th e spirit, and w ho are able to renounce th e w orld fo r its sake. 1347 I hope, therefore, th a t th e scourge w hich is now lashing E urope will b rin g the nations to realize th a t this w orld, w hich was never the best of all possible w orlds in th e past, will n o t be so in the fu tu re either. It is, as always, co m pounded of day an d night, light and darkness, brief joys a n d abiding sorrows, a b attleg ro u n d w ith ­ out respite o r peace, because it is n o th in g b u t th e m elting-pot of h u m a n desires. B ut th e spirit is an o th er w orld w ith in this w orld. If it is not ju st a refuge for cow ards, it comes only to those who suffer life in this w orld a n d accept even happiness w ith a gesture of polite doubt. H a d th e C h ristian teachings n o t been so utterly forgotten in th e face of all this technological “ progress,” th e av a­ lanches th a t now th rea ten to engulf E u ro p e w ould never have started rolling. Belief in this w orld leaves room n eith er for th e spirit of C hristianity n o r for any oth er good spirit. T h e spirit is always hidden a n d safe from th e w orld, an inviolable san ctu ary fo r those w ho have forsw orn, if n o t th e w orld, a t least th e ir belief in it.

j 348

C an there be an optim ism of austerity? In stead of “ optim ism ,” I w ould have said an “ o p tim u m ” of austerity. B ut if “ optim ism ” is really m ean t, very m u ch m ore w ould be required, for “ austerity” is anything b u t enjoyable. I t m eans real suffering, especially if it assumes acute form . You can be “ o pti­ m istic” in the face of m arty rd o m only if you are sure of th e bliss to come. B ut a certain m inim al degree of austerity I reg ard as benefi­ cial. A t any rate, it is h ealth ier th a n affluence, w hich only a very few people can enjoy w ith o u t ill effects, w h eth er physical o r psychic. O f course one does n o t wish an y th in g u n p leasan t for anybody, least of all oneself, b u t, in com parison w ith other countries, Sw itzerland has so m uch affluence to spare (how ever honourably earn e d ) th a t w e are in an excellent position to give some of it aw ay. T h ere is an “ o p tim u m ” of austerity w hich it is dangerous to exceed, for

to o m u c h o f it d o e s n o t m a k e y o u g o o d b u t h a r d a n d b itte r . A s t h e Sw iss p r o v e r b tr e n c h a n tly p u ts i t : “ B e h in d ev e ry ric h m a n s ta n d s a d e v il, a n d b e h in d e v e ry p o o r m a n tw o .” 1349 S in c e “ o p tim is m ” seem s to h a v e b e e n m e a n t, a n d h e n c e a n o p tim is tic a tt it u d e to w a r d s s o m e th in g u n p le a s a n t, I w o u ld a d d th a t in m y v ie w it w o u ld b e e q u a lly in s tr u c tiv e to sp e a k o f a “ p e ssim ism ” o f a u s te rity . H u m a n te m p e r a m e n ts b e in g e x tre m e ly v a rie d , in d e e d c o n tr a d ic to r y , w e s h o u ld n e v e r fo rg e t t h a t w h a t is g o o d fo r o n e m a n is h a r m f u l f o r a n o th e r . O n e m a n , b e c a u se of h is in n e r w e a k ­ ness, n e e d s e n c o u r a g e m e n t; a n o th e r , b e c a u se o f his in n e r a s s u ra n c e , n e e d s th e r e s tr a in t o f a u s te rity . A u s te rity e n fo rc e s sim p lic ity , w h ic h is t r u e h a p p in e s s . B u t to live sim p ly , w ith o u t re g re t a n d b itte rn e s s , is a m o r a l ta s k w h ic h m a n y p e o p le w ill fin d v e ry h a r d . W i l l t u r n i n g a w a y f r o m m a te r ia l th in g s foster th e te a m - s pirit? A c o m m o n n e e d n a tu r a lly s tr e n g th e n s th e te a m -s p irit, as w e c a n see in E n g la n d a t th is m o m e n t. B u t th e v e ry e x iste n c e o f m a n y m o r a l w e a k lin g s in c re a s e s th e d a n g e r of selfishness. A ll e x tr a o r d i­ n a r y c o n d itio n s b r in g m e n ’s b a d n e s s as w ell as th e ir g o o d n e ss to lig h t. H o w e v e r, sin c e th e m a jo r ity o f o u r p e o p le m a y b e r e g a r d e d as m o r a lly h e a lth y , th e r e is g r o u n d f o r h o p e t h a t a c o m m o n n e e d w ill c a u s e th e ir v irtu e s to s h in e m o r e b rig h tly . 1351 B e lie v in g as I d o in th e v ir tu e s a n d d ilig e n c e o f th e Sw iss, I a m c o n v in c e d t h a t th e y h a v e a n a b s o lu te w ill to p re s e rv e th e ir n a ­ tio n a l in d e p e n d e n c e a n d a r e re a d y to m a k e th e h e a v ie st sacrifices. A t a n y r a te , th e te a m - s p ir it in S w itz e r la n d is n o t u n d e v e lo p e d a n d h a r d ly n e e d s s p e c ia l s tr e n g th e n in g . A b o v e all, w e d o n o t h a v e th o se so c ia l c o n tra s ts b e tw e e n a so lid u p p e r c ru s t o r p a r ty o n th e o n e h a n d a n d a n a n o n y m o u s m a ss o n th e o th e r , w h ic h in o th e r c o u n trie s k e e p c itiz e n s a p a r t . G lass co n flic ts w ith us a r e m a in ly im p o r te d fro m a b r o a d . I n s te a d o f p u s h in g t h e te a m - s p ir it a rtific ia lly to th e fo re , it seem s to m e m o r e im p o r ta n t to stress th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p e rs o n a lity , sin c e th is is th e r e a l v e h ic le o f th e te a m . F a c e d w ith th e q u e s tio n o f w h a t a m a n d o es, o n e s h o u ld n e v e r fo rg e t w h o is d o in g it. I f a c o m m u n ity consists o f n o th in g b u t tr a s h , th e n it a m o u n ts to n o th in g , f o r a h u n d r e d im b e c ile s still d o n o t a d d u p to a n y th in g sen sib le. T h e n o isy a n d in s is te n t p r e a c h in g o f th e te a m - s p ir it o n ly c a u se s th e m to fo rg e t t h a t th e ir c o n tr ib u tio n to so ciety co n sists o f n o th in g b u t th e i r o w n uselessness, i f I b e lo n g to a n o r g a n iz a tio n w ith 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 m e m b e rs i t do es n o t p ro v e in th e le a s t t h a t I a m a n y g o o d , le t a lo n e if th e r e a r e m illio n s o f th e m . '35°

13 5 2

A n d if I p a t m y s e lf o n t h e b a c k f o r b e i n g a m e m b e r , I a m m e r e l y a d d i n g t o m y n o n - v a l u e t h e ill u s i o n o f e x c e s s iv e v a l u e . S in c e , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l a w s o f m a s s p s y c h o lo g y , e v e n t h e b e s t m a n lo s e s h is v a l u e a n d m e a n i n g i n t h e m a s s , i t is d o u b l y i m p o r t a n t f o r h i m t o b e i n s e c u r e p o s s e s s io n o f h is g o o d q u a l i t i e s i n o r d e r n o t t o d a m a g e t h e c o m m u n i t y o f w h i c h h e is a m e m b e r . I n s t e a d o f ta lk in g so m u c h a b o u t th e te a m - s p ir it it w o u ld b e m o r e to th e p o i n t t o a p p e a l to t h e s p i r i t u a l m a t u r i t y a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . I f a m a n is c a p a b l e o f l e a d i n g a r e s p o n s i b l e lif e h im s e lf , t h e n h e is a ls o c o n s c io u s o f h is d u t i e s t o t h e c o m m u n i t y . W e S w is s b e l i e v e i n q u a l i t y ; l e t u s t h e r e f o r e u s e o u r n a t i o n a l b e lie f f o r im p r o v in g th e v a lu e o f th e in d iv id u a l, in s te a d o f le ttin g h i m b e c o m e a m e r e d r o p i n t h e o c e a n o f t h e c o m m u n i t y . S e lf k n o w l e d g e a n d s e lf - c r it ic i s m a r e p e r h a p s m o r e n e c e s s a r y f o r u s i n S w itz e rla n d , a n d m o re im p o r ta n t f o r th e fu tu re , th a n a g r e a t h e rd o f s o c ia l i r r e s p o n s i b l e s . I n S w i t z e r l a n d w e c o u l d d o n o t h i n g a n y w a y w ith m a sse s w e ld e d to g e th e r a n d c o n tro lle d b y iro n d is c ip lin e ; o u r c o u n t r y is f a r t o o s m a ll. W h a t c o u n t s w i t h u s a r e t h e v i r t u e s , t h e s t o u t h e a r t e d n e s s a n d t o u g h n e s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o is c o n s c io u s o f h im s e lf . I n t h e c a s e o f e x t r e m e n e c e s s ity e v e r y o n e h a s t o d o h is b i t i n h is a l l o t t e d p l a c e . I t is n i c e t o h o p e f o r a h e l p e r i n t i m e o f n e e d , b u t s e l f - r e l i a n c e is b e t t e r . T h e c o m m u n i t y is n o t a n y t h i n g g o o d i n its e lf , a s i t g iv e s c o u n t le s s w e a k l i n g s a w o n d e r f u l o p p o r t u ­ n ity to h id e b e h in d e a c h o th e r a n d p a lm o ff th e ir o w n in c o m p e te n c e o n t h e i r f e llo w s . P e o p l e a r e o n l y t o o w i l l i n g t o e x p e c t t h e c o m m u ­ n ity to d o w h a t th e y th e m s e lv e s a r e in c a p a b le o f d o in g , a n d th e y h o l d i t r e s p o n s i b l e w h e n t h e y a s i n d i v i d u a l s f a i l t o f u lf i l t h e i r n e c e s ­ s a r y o b lig a tio n s .

r 353

A l t h o u g h w e S w is s d o u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e a f a i r l y w e l l - d e v e l o p e d te a m - s p ir it, m o s t o f o u r a tte m p ts a t c o m m u n ity a r e m is e r a b le s p e c i­ m e n s . T h e y g ro w o n s to n y g r o u n d a n d a r e d iv id e d b y th o r n y h e d g e s . O n e a n d a l l s u f f e r f r o m t h e S w is s n a t i o n a l v ic e s o f o b s t i n a c y a n d m i s t r u s t f u l n e s s — a t l e a s t , t h e s e n a t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s a r e c a l l e d v ic e s w h e n p e o p le g e t a n n o y e d a b o u t th e m , as v e ry o fte n h a p p e n s . B u t f r o m a n o t h e r p o i n t o f v ie w t h e y c o u l d a l m o s t b e e x t o l l e d a s v i r t u e s . I t is q u i t e im p o s s i b l e t o s a y h o w m u c h o f o u r p o l i t i c a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l , a n d m o r a l in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e p o w e rfu l w o rld a r o u n d u s w e o w e to th e s e u n p le a s a n t q u a litie s . F o r tu n a te ly — I a m a lm o s t in c lin e d t o s a y — t h e i r r o o t s p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e d e e p e s t r e c e s s e s o f e v e r y S w is s h e a r t . W e a r e n o t e a s ily f o o l e d . H o w m a n y p o i s o n o u s i n f e c t i o n s , h o w m a n y f a n ta s tic id e a s m a y w e n o t h a v e a v o id e d in th e c o u rse

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of the centuries thanks to these q u a litie s! T h e fact th a t we are in some respects a h u n d red years behind the times, an d th a t m any reform s are desperately overdue, is the price we have to pay for such useful n ational failings. H ence I expect m ore from the Swiss national ch aracter th an from an artifically fostered team -spirit, because it has deeper roots in o u r native soil th an an enthusiasm which wanes w ith the words th a t conjure it up. It is all very fine to be swept along on a tide of enthusiasm , b u t one cannot enthuse indefinitely. Enthusiasm is an exceptional state, a n d h u m an reality is m ade up of a thousand vulgarities. Ju st w h at these are is the decisive thing. If the ordinary Swiss makes very sure th a t he himself has it good an d can sum m on up no enthusiasm w hatever for the joys of having nothing in glori­ ous solidarity w ith everybody else, th a t is certainly u nrom antic— worse, it is selfish, b u t it is sound instinct. T h e healthy m an does not to rtu re others— generally it is the to rtu red w ho tu rn into to r­ turers. A nd th e healthy m an also has a certain am o u n t of goodness w hich he is th e m ore inclined to expend since he does n o t enjoy a particularly good conscience on account of his obvious selfishness. W e all have a g reat need to be good ourselves, and occasionally we like to show it by th e ap p ro p riate actions. If good can come of evil self-interest, then the two sides of h u m an n a tu re have co­ operated. But w hen in a fit of enthusiasm we begin w ith th e good, our deep-rooted selfishness rem ains in the background, unsatisfied and resentful, only w aiting for an opportunity to take its revenge in the m ost atrocious way. C om m unity at all costs, I fear, produces the flock of sheep th a t infallibly attracts the wolves. M a n ’s m oral endow m ent is of so dubious a n a tu re th a t a stable condition seems possible only w hen every sheep is a bit of a w olf an d every wolf a bit of a sheep. T h e tru th is th a t a society is m ore secure the m ore the m uch m aligned instincts can, of their ow n accord, start off the counterplay of good a n d evil. “ P ure good” a n d “ pure evil” are b o th superhum an excesses. A lthough there is n aturally no need to preach self-interest, since it is om nipresent, it should not be needlessly slandered; for w hen the individual does not prosper neither does th e whole. A n d w hen he is driven to u n n a tu ra l altruism , self-interest reappears in m on­ strous, in h u m an form — “ changing shape from h o u r to hour, I em ­ ploy my savage pow er” 2— for the instincts cannot be finally sup­ pressed or eradicated. Excessive sacrifice of the individual for the 2 [Faust II , A ct 5.]

sake of the com m unity m akes no sense in our case anyway, since, our country being so small, we are in no position to assert our self-interest in nationalistic form , th a t is, by the conquest of foreign countries. 1SS6 In sober scepticism as opposed to p ro p ag an d a talk, in sure in­ stinct an d closeness to n atu re, in self-lim itation grounded in self knowledge, I see m ore h ealth for our F ath e rlan d than in fervent speeches abou t regeneration an d hysterical attem pts at a reo rien ta­ tion. Sooner or later it will be found th a t nothing really “ new ” happens in history. T h ere could be talk of som ething really novel only if the unim aginable h ap p en ed : if reason, hum anity, and love won a lasting victory.

“ L ’H O M M E 357

E P IL O G U E T O J U N G : A LA D E C O U V E R T E DE SO N A M E ”1

T h e fundam ental concepts of m y psychology have been set forth in the course of this book. H elped by the perceptive translation of M . C ahen-Salabelle, the reader w ill not have failed to take note that this psychology does not rest on academ ic postulates, b ut on m y experiences of m an, in health and in sickness. T h at is why it could not be confined to a study of the contents and functions of consciousness: it had to concern itself also with that part of the psyche w e call the unconscious. Everything we say about the uncon­ scious should be taken w ith a grain of salt; w e have only indirect evidence for its existence since it is not open to direct observations; w hatever conceptions w e form of it are but logical deductions from its effects. T hese deductions possess only a hypothetical validity b e­ cause it cannot be determ ined beforehand whether the nature of the unconscious can b e adequately grasped by the conscious m ind. I have alw ays endeavoured, therefore, to find a form ulation w hich brings together in a logical relationship the greatest possible num ber of observed facts, or else, on the basis of m y know ledge of a given psychic state, to predict its probable future developm ent, w hich is also a m ethod for proving the correctness of a given hypothesis. M any a m edical diagnosis, as w e know, can hardly be proved right at the m om en t th e doctor form ulates it, and can be confirm ed only w hen the disease takes its predicted course. It is in this w ay that my view s concerning the unconscious have little by little been built UP-

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It is m y conviction that the investigation of the psyche is the science of the future. Psychology is the youngest of the sciences and is only at the b eginning of its developm ent. It is, however, 1 [(T ra n s la te d from th e F re n c h by A .S.B .G .) T h e volum e fo r w h ich this w as w ritte n (in th e series C o llectio n A ction e t Pensee, no. 10, G eneva, 1944) c o n tain ed five essays by Ju n g , tra n sla te d , w ith a p reface, by R o la n d C ah en S alabelle, to g e th e r w ith e x tra cts from J u n g ’s Basel S em in ar (1 9 3 4 ) a n d “ T a v i­ stock L e c tu re s” (su p ra , p ars, if f .) , e d ited by D r. C a h e n (la te r form of his n a m e ). O nly tw o of th e essays are am o n g th e eleven th a t com posed M o d e r n M a n in Search o f a So ul (N ew Y ork a n d L o n do n, 1 9 3 3 ).]

the science we need most. Indeed, it is becom ing ever m ore obvious th a t it is not fam ine, n o t earthquakes, n o t microbes, not cancer b u t m an himself who is m a n ’s greatest danger to m an, for th e simple reason th a t there is no ad eq u ate protection against psychic epidem ­ ics, w hich are infinitely m ore devastating th a n th e w orst of n atu ra l catastrophes. T h e suprem e d anger w hich threatens individuals as well as whole nations is a psychic danger. R eason has proved itself com pletely powerless, precisely because its argum ents have an effect only on the conscious m ind and n o t on th e unconscious. T h e g reat­ est danger of all comes from the masses, in w hom the effects of the unconscious pile up cum ulatively an d the reasonableness of the conscious m ind is stifled. Every mass organization is a laten t danger just as m uch as a heap of dynam ite is. I t lets loose effects w hich no m an w ants an d no m an can stop. It is therefore in the highest degree desirable th a t a know ledge of psychology should spread so th a t m en can u n d erstan d th e source of th e suprem e dangers th a t th reaten them . N ot by arm ing to th e teeth, each for itself, can th e nations defend themselves in th e long ru n from th e frightful catastrophes of m odern w ar. T h e h eap in g u p of arm s is itself a call to w ar. R a th e r m ust they recognize those psychic conditions u n d er w hich the unconscious bursts the dykes of consciousness and overwhelm s it. 1359 I t is my hope th a t this book will help to throw light on this fu n d am en tal problem for m ankind.

M A R G IN A L IA O N C O N T E M P O R A R Y EV EN TS1 360

U ntil a few centuries ago those regions of the world which have since been illuminated by science were shrouded in deepest dark­ ness. N ature was still in her original state, as she had been from time immemorial. Although she had long since been bereft of gods, she had not by any means been de-psychized. Demonic spirits still haunted the earth and water, and lingered in the air and fire; witchcraft and prophecies cast their shadows over hum an rela­ tionships, and the mysteries of faith descended deep into the natural world. In certain flowers there could be found images of the martyrs’ instruments of torture, and of Christ’s blood; the clockwise spiral of the snail’s shell was a proof of the existence of G od; in alchemy the Virgin birth was figured in the awakening of the infans mercurialis in the womb of the earth; Christ’s passion was repre­ sented by the separatio, solutio, and digestio of the arcane sub­ stance; his death and resurrection were reproduced in the processes of chemical transformation. These depicted the otherwise unim ag­ inable transubstantiation. T he secret of the baptismal w ater was rediscovered in the marvellous properties of the solvent par excel­ lence, the vScop Oelov or aqua permanens. Christ’s crucifixion was like a prefiguration of the task of natural science, for the tree of the Cross corresponded to the arbor philosophica, which in turn stood for the opus alchymicum in general. 361 Today we can scarcely imagine this state of mind any more, and we can form no proper conception of w hat it m eant to live in a world that was filled from above with the mysteries of God’s wonder, down to the very crucible of the smelter, and was corrupted from below by devilish deception, tainted by original sin, and secretly anim ated by an autochthonous demon or an anima m undi— or by those “sparks of the W orld Soul” which sprang up 1 [Translated from a typescript, “R andglossen zur Z eitgeschichte,” dated 1945, unpublished except for the last nine paragraphs (see below , par. 1374, n. 5 ) . Cf. Jung, A ufsatze zu r Z eitgesch ich te (1 9 4 6 ) ; trans. as Essays on C ontem porary E ven ts ( 1 9 4 7 ) ; its contents (in C.W ., vols. 10 and 16) were published originally 1936-45.]

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as the seeds of life w hen the R u ach Elohim brooded on th e face of the waters. O ne can scarcely im agine th e unspeakable change th a t was w rought in m a n ’s em otional life w hen he took farewell from th a t alm ost wholly an tiq u e world. Nevertheless, anyone whose childhood was filled w ith fantasy can feel his w ay back to it to a certain extent. W hether one lam ents or welcomes th e inevitable d isappear­ ance of th a t p rim ordial w orld is irrelevant. T h e im p o rtan t thing is th e question th a t nobody ever asks: W h a t happens to those figures and phantom s, those gods, dem ons, m agicians, those messengers from heaven an d m onsters of th e abyss, w hen w e see th a t there is no m ercurial serpent in the caverns of th e earth, th a t there are no dryads in th e forest an d no undines in the w ater, an d th a t the mysteries of faith have shrunk to articles in a creed? Even w hen we have corrected an illusion, it by no m eans follows th a t the psychic agency w hich produces illusions, and actually needs them , has been abolished. I t is very doubtful w hether o u r w ay of rectifying such illusions can be reg ard ed as valid. If, for exam ple, one is con­ te n t to prove th a t th ere is no w hale th a t could or w ould like to swallow a Jo n ah , an d th a t, even if it did, a m an w ould rapidly suffocate un d er those conditions and could not possibly be spewed forth alive again— w hen we criticize in this w ay we are not doing justice to the m yth. Indeed, such an arg u m en t is decidedly ridicu­ lous because it takes the m yth literally, an d today this seems a little bit too naive. A lready we are beginning to see th a t enlightened correction of this kind is painfully beside th e point. F o r it is one of the typical qualities of a m yth to fabulate, to assert the unusual, the extraordinary, an d even th e impossible. In th e face of this ten ­ dency, it is quite in ap p ro p riate to tro t out one’s elem entary-school knowledge. This sort of criticism does nothing to abolish th e m ythol­ ogizing factor. O nly an inau th en tic conception of th e m yth has been corrected. But its real m eaning is n o t touched, even remotely, a n d th e m ythologizing psychic facto r n o t at all. O ne has merely created a new illusion, w hich consists in th e belief th a t w h at the m yth says is n o t true. A ny elem entary-school child can see th at. B ut no one has any idea of w h at th e m yth is really saying. I t ex­ presses psychic facts an d situations, ju st as a norm al dream does or the delusion of a schizophrenic. I t describes, in figurative form , psychic facts whose existence can never be dispelled by m ere expla­ nation. W e have lost o u r superstitious fear of evil spirits an d things th a t go bu m p in the night, b u t, instead, are seized w ith terro r of

people w ho, possessed by demons, perpetrate the frightful deeds of darkness. T h a t the doers of such deeds think of themselves not as possessed, b u t as “superm en,” does not alter the fact of their possession. 1363 T h e fantastic, m ythological w orld of the M iddle Ages has, thanks to our so-called enlightenm ent, simply changed its place. It is no longer incubi, succubi, w ood-nym phs, melusines, and the rest th a t terrify a n d tease m an k in d ; m an himself has taken over their role w ithout know ing it and does the devilish work of de­ struction w ith fa r m ore effective tools th an the spirits did. In the olden days m en were b ru tal, now they are dehum anized and pos­ sessed to a degree th a t even the blackest M iddle Ages did not know. T h e n a decent a n d intelligent person could still— w ithin lim its— escape the devil’s business, b u t today his very ideals drag him dow n into th e bloody m ire of his natio n al existence. 1364 T h e developm ent of n a tu ra l science as a consequence of the schism in the C hurch continued the work of the de-deification of N atu re, drove aw ay the dem ons and w ith them the last rem nants of th e m ythological view of the w orld. T h e result of this process was the g rad u al dissolution of projections a n d the w ithdraw al of projected contents into the h u m an psyche. T hus the rabble of spooks th a t w ere form erly outside have now transported themselves into the psyche of m an, and w hen we adm ire the “ p u re,” i.e., depsychized, N a tu re we have created, we willy-nilly give shelter to her dem ons, so th a t w ith the end of the M iddle Ages anno 1918 th e age of total blood baths, total dem onization, an d total deh u m an ­ ization could begin. Since the days of the C hildren’s C rusade, of the A nabaptists and the Pied P iper of H am elin, no such psychic epidem ics have been seen, especially not on a national scale. Even the to rtu re cham ber— th a t staggering achievem ent of m odern tim es!— has been reintroduced into E urope. Everyw here Chris­ tianity has proved incapable2 of stopping the abom ination, although m any C hristians have set their lives a t stake. Finally, th e invention of h u m an slaughterhouses— com pared w ith w hich the R o m an cir­ cuses of 2,000 years ago were b u t a piffling prelude— is a scarcely surpassable achievem ent of the neo-G erm an spirit. ' 365 T hese facts m ake one think. T he dem onism of N ature, w hich m an h ad apparently trium phed over, he has unw ittingly swallowed 2 T his can be disputed, since it is the Christian organizations that have dem on­ strated their im potence. But if you identify the Church with Christianity, this distinction collapses.

into himself an d so becom e the devil’s m arionette. This could h a p ­ pen only because he believed he h ad abolished the dem ons by de­ claring them to be superstition. H e overlooked the fact th a t they w ere, a t bottom , the products of certain factors in th e h u m an psyche. W hen these products w ere u n real an d illusory, th e ir sources w ere in no w ay blocked up or rendered inoperative. O n th e con­ trary, after it becam e impossible for th e dem ons to in h ab it the rocks, woods, m ountains, an d rivers, they used h u m an beings as m uch m ore dangerous dw elling places. In n a tu ra l objects m u ch narro w er limits were draw n to th eir effectiveness: only occasionally did a rock succeed in h itting a h u t, only rarely was it possible for a river to overflow its banks, devastate th e fields, an d drow n people. But a m an does not notice it w hen he is governed by a dem on; he puts a l l ' his skill an d cunning a t th e service of his unconscious m aster, thereby heightening its pow er a thousandfold. 1366 T his w ay of looking at th e m a tter will seem “ original,” or pecul­ iar, or absurd, only to a person w ho has never considered w here those psychic pow ers have gone w hich w ere em bodied in the demons. M uch as the achievem ents of science deserve o u r ad m ira ­ tion, the psychic consequences of this greatest of h u m a n trium phs are equally terrible. U n fortunately, there is in this w orld no good thing th a t does n o t have to be p aid for by an evil at least equally great. People still do not know th a t the greatest step forw ard is balanced by a n equally great step back. T h e y still have no notion of w hat it m eans to live in a de-psychized world. T h ey believe, on the contrary, th a t it is a trem endous advance, w hich can only be profitable, for m a n to have conquered N atu re an d seized the helm , in order to steer th e ship according to his will. AU th e gods and dem ons, whose physical nothingness is so easily passed off as th e “ opium of th e people,” retu rn to th eir place of origin, M an, a n d becom e an intoxicating poison com pared w ith w hich all previ­ ous dope is child’s play. W h a t is N atio n al Socialism3 except a vast intoxication th a t has plunged E u ro p e into indescribable catas­ trophe? 1367 W h at science has once discovered can never be undone. T h e 3 A ll -ism s th at prom ise a “ b etter” w orld are to be distrusted o n p rin cip le, for this w orld on ly b ecom es d ifferen t, b u t n o t b etter. M a n can , h ow ever, to a certain ex te n t a d o p t a b etter or w orse a t t i t ud e , o n e th a t is m ore reasonable or less. O f th e basic evils of ex isten ce, in n er an d ou ter, h e w ill n ever b e freed. H e w ou ld d o b etter to realize th a t this w orld is a b a ttleg ro u n d , and a t any tim e only a short span b etw een b irth an d d eath .

1368

advance of tru th cannot and should not be held up. But the same urge for truth that gave birth to science should realize w hat progress implies. Science must recognize the as yet incalculable catastrophe which its advances have brought with them. T he still infantile man of today has had means of destruction put into his hands which require an immeasurably enhanced sense of responsibility, or an almost pathological anxiety, if the fatally easy abuse of their power is to be avoided. T h e most dangerous things in the world are im ­ mense accumulations of hum an beings who are m anipulated by only a few heads. Already those huge continental blocs are taking shape which, from sheer love of peace and need of defence, are preparing future catastrophes. The greater the equalized masses, the more violent and calamitous their m ovem ent! W hen m ankind passed from an anim ated N ature into an exani­ m ated N ature, it did so in the most discourteous w ay: animism was held up to ridicule and reviled as superstition. W hen Christi­ anity drove away the old gods, it replaced them by one God. But when science de-psychized N ature, it gave her no other soul, merely subordinating her to hum an reason. U nder the dominion of Chris­ tianity the old gods continued to be feared for a long time, at least as demons. But science considered N ature’s soul not worth a glance. H ad it been conscious of the world-shattering novelty of w hat it was doing, it would have reflected for a mom ent and asked itself w hether the greatest caution m ight not be indicated in this opera­ tion, when the original condition of hum anity was abolished. If yes, then a “rite de sortie,” a ceremonial proclamation to the gods it was about to dethrone, and a reconciliation with them, would have been necessary. T h a t at least would have been an act of rever­ ence. But science and so-called civilized m an never thought th at the progress of scientific knowledge would be a “ peril of the soul” which needed forestalling by a powerful rite. This was presumed impossible, because such a “rite de sortie” would have been nothing but a polite kowtowing to the demons, and it was the trium ph of the Enlightenm ent th at such things as nature-spirits did not exist at all. But it was merely that w hat one imagined such spirits to be did not exist. They themselves exist all right, here in the hum an psyche, unperturbed by w hat the ignorant and the enlightened think. So m uch so th a t before our very eyes the “most industrious, efficient, and intelligent” nation in Europe could fall into a state of non compos mentis and p u t a poorly gifted housepainter, who was never distinguished by any particular intelligence but only by

the use of the right m eans of mass intoxication, quite iiterally on the altar of totalitarianism , otherwise reserved for a theocracy, and leave him there. Evidently neither know ledge nor prep aratio n of any kind is needed for the direction of th e State, an d w ithout any m ilitary train in g 430 No rules can cope with the paradoxes of life. M oral law, like natural law, represents only one aspect of reality. It does not prevent one from following certain “regular” habits unconsciously— habits which one does not notice oneself b u t can only discover by making careful inquiries among one’s fellows. But people seldom enjoy having w hat they don’t know about themselves pointed out to them by others, and so they prefer to lay down rules which are the exact opposite of w hat they are doing in reality. 1428

1 IWeltwoche (Z u ric h ), Jhg. 22, no. ir o o (10 Dec. 1954). Ju n g was one of several prom inent persons asked to com m ent on this subject.]

O N F L Y IN G S A U C E R S 1 1431

Y our wish to b rin g u p th e “ Flying Saucers” for discussion is certainly a tim ely one. B ut th o u g h you m ay n o t have overshot the m ark in questioning m e, I m ust tell you th a t in spite of the interest I have taken in th e subject since ab o u t 1946, I have still n o t been able to establish an em pirical basis sufficient to p erm it any conclu­ sions to be draw n. In th e course of years I have accum ulated a volum inous dossier on th e sightings, including the statem ents of tw o eyewitnesses well-known to me personally ( I myself have never seen an y th in g !) an d have read all th e available books, b u t I have found it impossible to determ ine even approxim ately the n atu re of these observations. So far only one th in g is c e rta in : it is not just a rum our, som ething is seen. W h a t is seen m ay in individual cases be a subjective vision (o r h allu cin atio n ), or, in the case of several observers seeing it sim ultaneously, a collective one. A psychic phenom enon of this kind w ould, like a rum our, have a com pensa­ tory significance, since it w ould be a spontaneous answ er of the unconscious to th e present conscious situation, i.e., to fears created by an apparen tly insoluble political situation w hich m ight a t any m om ent lead to a universal catastrophe. A t such times m en’s eyes tu rn to heaven for help, an d m arvellous signs ap p ear from on high, of a threatenin g o r reassuring n atu re. (T h e “ ro u n d ” symbols are 1 [L etter to W e l tw o c h e (Z u r ic h ), Jh g . 2 2 , no. 1078 (9 Ju ly 1 9 5 4 ), in reply to th e ed itor’s request fo r a n in terview by G eorg G erster. f t w as fo llo w ed by further questions an d answ ers, p rin ted in the sam e issue. E xtracts subse­ q u en tly appeared as an article (n o t su b m itted to J u n g before p u b lica tio n ) in th e F lying S a u c e r R e v i e w (L o n d o n ), M ay—Ju n e 1955, w h ich w as reprinted b y th e A erial P h en o m en a R esearch O rg a n iza tio n in th e A P R O B u lletin (A la ­ m ogord o, N e w M e x ic o ), Ju ly 1958. T h e extracted version o f the W e ltw o c h e letters resulted in m isu n d erstan d in gs w h ich w ere g iv en m u ch p u b licity, and o n 13 A u gu st J u n g released a sta tem en t to th e U n ite d Press In tern a tio n a l ( U P I ) an d to th e N a tio n a l In v estig a tio n s C o m m ittee on A erial P h en om en a ( N I C A P ) , o f w h ic h an E n glish version w as p u b lish ed in the Sept. issue o f the A P R O Bulletin. A fu r th e r sta te m e n t, in th e fo r m o f a le tte r to the d irecto r o f N IC A P , M ajor D o n a ld E. K ey h o e (in fra, pars. i4 4 7 f .) , w as p u b lish ed by N I C A P in th e U F O I n v e s tig a to r, 1 :5 (A u g .-S e p t. 1 9 5 8 ). AU th ese docu m en ts w ere repu blish ed in C S I of N e w Y o rk , P u b lication N o . 27 (J u ly 1 9 5 9 ).]

particularly suggestive, appearing nowadays in m any spontaneous fantasies directly associated w ith the threatening w orld situation.) 143 s T h e possibility of a purely psychological explanation is illusory, for a large n u m b er of observations point to a n atu ral phenom enon, or even a physical one— for instance, those explicable by reflections from “ tem p eratu re inversions” in the atm osphere. Despite its con­ tradictory statem ents, the A m erican A ir Force, as well as the C an a­ dian, consider the sightings to be “ real,” and have set up special b u reau x to collect th e reports. T h e “ disks,” however, th a t is, the objects themselves, do not behave in accordance w ith physical laws b u t as though they w ere weightless, and they show signs of intelli­ gent guidance such as w ould suggest quasi-hum an pilots. Y et the accelerations are so trem endous th a t no h u m an being could survive them . 1433 T h e view th a t the disks are real is so w idespread (in A m erica) th a t reports of landings were n o t long in coming. Recently I read accounts of this kind from two different sources. In b o th of them the mystical elem ent in the vision or fantasy was very m uch in evidence: they described half-hum an, idealized h u m an beings like angels w ho delivered th e app ro p riate edifying messages.2 U n fo rtu ­ nately, there is a total lack of any useful inform ation. A nd in both cases the photographs failed to come out. R eports of landings, there­ fore, m ust for the tim e being be taken w ith considerable caution. '434 W h a t astonishes m e m ost of all is th a t th e A m erican Air Force, despite all the inform ation it m ust possess, a n d despite its alleged fear of creating a panic sim ilar to the one w hich broke out in New Jersey on the occasion of W elles’s radio play,3 is systematically w ork­ ing tow ards th a t very thing by refusing to release an authentic and reliable account of the facts.4 AU we have to go on is the occasional inform ation squeezed out by journalists. I t is therefore impossible for the uninitiated to form an adequate picture of w hat is h ap p en ­ ing. A lthough for eight years I have been collecting everything th a t cam e w ithin m y reach, I m ust adm it I am n o fu rth e r forw ard today th a n I was at th e beginning. I still do n o t know w h at we 2 G e o rg e A d a m sk i’s b o o k ( w ith D e s m o n d L e s lie ), F l y i n g S a u c e r s H a u e L a n d e d , a p p e a r e d in 1953 ( L o n d o n ) . I n it h e tells th e sto ry o f h o w h e m e t a sa u c e r-m a n in th e C a lif o r n ia d e s e rt. i I T h e W a r o f t h e W o r l d s , a d a p te d by O rs o n W elles ( 1 9 3 8 ) fro m H . G . W ells’s n o v el. I t is a b o u t M a r tia n s in v a d in g th e U n i t e d S ta te s.] 4 T h e r e p o r t b y M a j o r D o n a ld E. K e y h o e c o n c e r n in g h is s tru g g le w ith th e P e n ta g o n f o r r e c o g n itio n o f th e in te r p la n e ta r y o rig in of th e U fo s w as p u b lis h e d ' n >953 u n d e r th e title F ly i n g S a u c e r s f r o m O u t e r S p a c e .

627

a re u p a g a in st w ith these “ flying sau cers.” T h e rep o rts a re so w eird th a t, g ra n te d th e rea lity of these p h e n o m e n a , one feels te m p te d to c o m p a re th e m w ith p a ra p sy c h o lo g ic al h a p p e n in g s. *435 B ecause w e lack a n y su re fo u n d a tio n , all sp e cu la tio n is w o rth ­ less. W e m u st w a it a n d see w h a t th e fu tu re b rin g s. S o-called “ scien­ tific” e x p la n a tio n s, such as M e n ze l’s reflection th eo ry , a re possible only if all th e re p o rts th a t fail to fit th e th eo ry a re co n veniently overlooked. 1436 T h a t is all I h a v e to say on th e su b je c t of F lying Saucers. A n in terv iew w o u ld th ere fo re n o t be w o rth w h ile. [iS u p p le m e n ta r y Q u estio n s A d d re sse d to J u n g by L e tte r ] S u p p o sin g it sh o u ld tu rn o u t th a t w e are b ein g spied u p o n by n o n -h u m a n , in te llig en t beings, do y o u th in k th a t this c o u ld be as­ sim ila ted in to th e existin g w o rld -p ic tu re w ith o u t h a r m fu l results? O r do y o u th in k it w o u ld necessarily lea d to a k in d o f C o p ernican revo lu tio n , a n d th a t c o n seq u en tly th e p a n ic y o u fea r w o u ld be a leg itim a te counteraction? F u rth er, s h o u ld th e responsible a u th o rities ta ke steps to p re v e n t a p a n ic, a n d w h a t p sych o hygienic m easures seem suitable to y o u fo r this purpose? !437

T h e se questions are en tirely leg itim ate to d ay , since th e re a re responsible persons— b e tte r in fo rm e d th a n I — w h o a re of th e o p in ­ ion th a t th e p h e n o m e n a w e a re discussing a re of e x tra te rre stria l origin. As I h a v e said, I c a n n o t, o r c a n n o t yet, sh a re this view , b ecau se I h a v e n o t b e e n ab le to o b ta in th e necessary c o n firm atio n . I f these “ o b jects” a re , as claim ed , of e x tra te rre stria l or possibly p la n e ta ry origin (M a rs , V e n u s ), w e still h a v e to co n sid er th e rep o rts of S aucers rising o u t of th e sea or th e e a rth . W e m u st also tak e a c c o u n t of n u m e ro u s re p o rts of p h e n o m e n a resem bling b a ll lig h t­ n in g , o r stra n g e , sta tio n a ry w ill-o’-the-w isps ( n o t to be confused w ith St. E lm o ’s fir e ). I n ra re cases b a ll lig h tn in g c a n a tta in consid­ era b le dim ensions, a p p e a rin g as a dazzlin g b a ll of lig h t, h a lf as big as th e m o o n , m o v in g slow ly fro m c lo u d to cloud, o r rip p in g a p a th a b o u t five y ard s w id e a n d 200 y a rd s lo n g th ro u g h a forest, sm ash in g all th e trees in its w ay. I t is e ith e r soundless, like th e S aucers, o r it c a n v an ish w ith a clap of th u n d e r. I t is possible th a t b a ll lig h tn in g in th e fo rm o f isolated ch arges of electricity (so-called “ b e a d -lig h tn in g ” ) is th e orig in of those S aucers a rra n g e d in a row w h ic h h a v e b een p h o to g ra p h e d o n several occasions. O th e r electrical

p h e n o m e n a h a v e f r e q u e n tly b e e n r e p o r te d in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e S a u c e rs. i438

If, o rig in

d e s p ite o f th e

t h i s s t il l u n c l a r i f i e d

p o s s ib il it y , t h e

e x tr a te r re s tria l

S a u c e r s s h o u ld b e c o n firm e d , th is w o u ld

e x is te n c e o f in te llig e n t in te r p la n e ta r y a fa c t m ig h t m e a n

fo r h u m a n ity

p ro v e th e

c o m m u n ic a tio n . W h a t su c h

c a n n o t b e im a g in e d . B u t th e r e

is n o d o u b t w e w o u l d f i n d o u r s e lv e s i n t h e s a m e c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n a s p r i m i t i v e s o c i e ti e s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e s u p e r i o r c u l t u r e o f t h e w h ite m a n . T h e re in s o f p o w e r w o u ld b e w r e n c h e d fro m o u r h a n d s , a n d , as a n w e w o u ld

o l d w i t c h d o c t o r o n c e t o l d m e w i t h t e a r s i n h is e y e s , have

“no

d r e a m s a n y m o r e ” — th e lo f ty flig h ts o f o u r

s p irit w o u ld h a v e b e e n c h e c k e d a n d c rip p le d fo re v e r. ■439

N a tu r a lly , th e firs t th in g to b e c o n s ig n e d to th e ru b b is h h e a p w o u l d b e o u r s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y . W h a t t h e m o r a l e f f e c ts o f such

a c a ta s tr o p h e w o u ld b e c a n b e se e n fr o m

th e p itif u l d e c a y

o f p r im itiv e c u ltu r e s ta k in g p la c e b e f o r e o u r ey es. T h a t th e c o n s tr u c ­ ti o n o f s u c h m a c h i n e s w o u ld b e e v id e n c e o f a s c ie n tific te c h n o lo g y im m e n s e ly s u p e r io r to o u r s a d m its o f n o tw o o p in io n s . J u s t a s th e P a x B r it a n n ic a p u t a n e n d to tr ib a l w a r f a r e in A f r ic a , so o u r w o rld c o u l d r o l l u p its I r o n C u r t a i n a n d u s e i t a s s o m u c h s c r a p a l o n g w i t h a ll t h e b i l l i o n s o f t o n s o f a r m a m e n t s , w a r s h i p s , a n d m u n i t i o n s . T h a t w o u l d n ’t b e s u c h a b a d t h i n g , b u t w e w o u l d h a v e b e e n “ d i s ­ c o v e re d ” ‘4 4 °

and

c o lo n iz e d — re a s o n

e n o u g h fo r u n iv e rs a l p a n ic !

I f w e w i s h t o a v o i d s u c h a c a t a s t r o p h e , t h e o ff ic ia ls i n p o s s e s s io n o f a u th o r ita tiv e in f o r m a tio n

s h o u ld n o t h e s ita te to

p u b l i c a s s p e e d i l y a n d t h o r o u g h l y a s p o s s ib le , a n d

e n lig h te n

th e

a b o v e a ll s to p

th is s t u p i d g a m e o f m y s tif ic a tio n a n d s u g g e s tiv e a llu s io n . I n s te a d , th e y h a v e a llo w e d a lo t o f f a n t a s ti c a n d m e n d a c io u s p u b lic ity to ru n

rio t— th e

b est

p o s s ib le

p re p a ra tio n

fo r

p a n ic

and

p s y c h ic

e p id e m ic s .

[Further Supplem entary Questions] T h e idea of a possible parallel w ith parapsychological processes is extrem ely interesting. Presum ably you are thinking of apparitions? Y ou write that in tim es like these m e n ’s eyes turn to heaven for help. A re you thinking of som e period of upheaval in the past, w hich produced com parable phenom ena? Is there evidence of other collective visions or hallucinations w ith a sim ilar content? H o w do you explain the fact that w ith few exceptions Saucers have so far been observed only over the N o rth A m erican continent?

D oes this, in yo u r view , suggest th a t th ey are m ore likely to be psychic— specifically A m erica n “apparitions,” as it were— or, on the contrary, that they are of an objective nature? 144»

1442

I t is hardly possible to answ er your question ab o u t th e analogy of the Saucers w ith parapsychological p h en o m en a, since a basis for com parison is totally lacking. If we w ished to take such a possi­ bility seriously, it w ould first have to be show n th a t th e “ a p p a ri­ tions” are causally connected w ith psychic states; in o th er w ords, th a t u n d e r th e influence of certain em otional conditions a m ajo r p opulation group experiences th e sam e psychic dissociation an d the sam e ex terio rizatio n of psychic energy as does a single m edium . All we know a t present is th a t collective visions do exist. B ut w h eth er collective physical phenom ena, su ch as levitations, a p p a ri­ tions of light, m aterializatio n s, etc., can also be p ro d u ced is a m oot question. A t p resen t an y reference to th e parapsychological aspect only dem onstrates the boundless perplexity in w hich w e find ourselves today. I cannot refrain from rem arking, how ever, th a t the w hole col­ lective psychological problem th a t has been opened u p by th e S aucer epidem ic stands in com pensatory antithesis to our scientific p icture of the w orld. In the U n ited States this p ictu re has if possible an even greater dom inance th a n w ith us. I t consists, as you know , very largely of statistical or “ average” tru th s. T hese exclude all rare borderline cases, w hich scientists fight shy of anyw ay because they cannot u n d erstan d them . T h e consequence is a view of the w orld com posed entirely of no rm al cases. Like th e “ n o rm al” m an, they are essentially fictions, an d particu larly in psychology fictions can lead to disastrous errors. Since it can b e said w ith a little exag­ geration th a t reality consists m ainly of exceptions to th e rule, w hich th e intellect th en reduces to the norm , instead of a brig h tly coloured picture of th e real w orld we have a bleak, shallow rationalism th a t offers stones instead of b re a d to th e em otional a n d sp iritu al hungers of the w orld. T h e logical result is an insatiable h u n g er for anything extraordinary. If we a d d to this th e g reat defeat of h u m a n reason, daily dem onstrated in th e new spapers an d ren d ered even m ore m enacing by th e incalculable dangers of the hydrogen bom b, the p ic tu re th a t unfolds before us is one of u niversal sp iritu al distress, com parable to th e situation a t th e beginning of o u r era o r to chaos th a t followed a .d . 1000 , or th e upheavals a t th e tu rn of th e fifteenth century. I t is therefore n o t surprising if, as th e old chroniclers report,

all sorts of signs and wonders appear in the sky, or if miraculous intervention, where hum an efforts have failed, is expected from heaven. O u r Saucer sightings can be found— mutatis mutandis— in many reports th at go back to antiquity, though not, it would seem, with the same overwhelming frequency. But then, the possibility of destruction on a global scale, which has been given into the hands of our so-called politicians, did not exist in those days, 1443 M cCarthyism and the influence it has exerted are evidence of the deep and anxious apprehensions of the American public. T here­ fore most of the signs in the skies will be seen in N orth America. 1444 At the beginning of this century I was firmly convinced that nothing heavier than air could fly and that the atom was really “a-tomic” (indivisible). Since then I have become very cautious and will only repeat w hat I said at the beginning of our correspon­ dence: Despite a fairly thorough knowledge of the available litera­ ture (six books and countless reports and articles, including two eyewitness reports), I still do not know w hat kind of reality the Flying Saucers may have. So I am not in a position to draw conclu­ sions and to form any reliable judgm ent. I just don’t know w hat one should make of this phenomenon. Statement to the United Press International5 '445

As a result of an article published in the A P R O Bulletin, the report has been spread by the press that in my opinion the Ufos are physically real. This report is altogether false. In a recently published book (Ein Moderner Mythusj Zurich, 1958),® I expressly state th a t I cannot commit myself on the question to the physical reality or unreality of the Ufos since I do not possess sufficient evi­ dence either for or against. I therefore concern myself solely with the psychological aspect of the phenomenon, about which a great deal of m aterial is available. I have form ulated the position I take on the question of the reality of Ufos in the following sentence: “Something is seen, but it isn’t known w hat.” This formulation leaves the question of “seeing” open. Something material could be seen, or something psychic could be seen. Both are realities, but of different kinds. 5 [See above, n. 1. T h is text is translated from the Badener T a geb latt1 29 Aug. 1958, and differs in some respects from the translation in the A P R O Bulletin.] 0 [Trans, by R .F.C . H u ll as Flying Saucers: A M od ern M y t h of Things Seen in the Skies (N ew York and London, 1 9 5 9 ) ; in C.W ., vol. 10.]

1446

M y relations w ith A P R O are confined to th e follow ing: while I was collecting m aterial for the above-m entioned book, the A P R O Bulletin ap p ro ach ed m e in a friendly m anner. W hen this organiza­ tion recently asked m e if they m ig h t consider m e to be an honorary m em ber, I consented. I have sent m y book to A P R O to inform them of my position in reg ard to th e U fo question. A P R O advocates th e physical reality of th e U fo w ith m uch zeal an d idealism. I therefore regard its m isleading article as a regrettable accident. L etter to K eyh o e7 16 A ugust 1958 M a jo r D onald E . K eyhoe N ational Investigation C om m ittee on A erial P h enom ena 1536 C onnecticut A venue W ashington 6, D . C.

1447

1448

D ear M ajo r K eyhoe, T h a n k you very m u ch for your kind le tte r ! I have re a d all you have w ritten concerning U fos an d I am a subscriber to the N I C A P Bulletin. I am grateful for all th e courageous things you have done in elucidating th e thorny problem of U fo-reality. T h e article in A P R O Bulletin Ju ly 1958, w hich caused all th a t stir in the press, is u n fo rtu n ately inaccurate. As you know I am an alienist an d m edical psychologist. I have never seen a U fo an d I have no first-hand in form ation either ab o u t th em or ab o u t th e dubious a ttitu d e of th e A A F [A m erican A ir Force]. O n account of this regrettable lack I am u nable to form a definite opinion con­ cerning th e physical n a tu re of th e U fo-phenom enon. As I am a scientist, I only say w h at I can prove a n d reserve m y ju d g m en t in any case w here I d o u b t m y com petence. T h u s I said: “ T hings are seen, b u t one does n o t know w h a t.” I n eith er affirm, n o r deny. B ut it is certain beyond all possible d o u b t th a t plenty of statem ents ab o u t U fos are m ad e an d they are of all sorts. I am chiefly con­ cerned w ith this aspect of the phenom enon. I t yields a rich harvest of insight into its universal significance. M y special preoccupation precludes n eith er th e physical reality of th e U fos n o r th eir ex tra ter­ restrial origin, n o r th e purposefulness of their behaviour, etc. But I do n o t possess sufficient evidence w hich w ould enable m e to draw 7 [O rig in a l in E n g lish . S e e a b o v e , n. 1.]

d e f in ite c o n c lu s io n s . T h e e v id e n c e a v a ila b le to m e h o w e v e r is c o n ­ v in c in g e n o u g h to a r o u s e a c o n t in u o u s a n d f e r v e n t in te r e s t. I fo llo w w i t h m y g r e a t e s t s y m p a th y y o u r e x p lo its a n d y o u r e n d e a v o u r s to e s ta b lis h t h e t r u t h a b o u t t h e U f o s . ■449

I n s p ite o f t h e f a c t t h a t I h o ld m y j u d g m e n t c o n c e r n in g th e n a tu re

of

th e

U fo s— te m p o ra rily

le t

us

h o p e — in

abeyance,

I

t h o u g h t i t w o r t h w h ile t o t h r o w a lig h t u p o n t h e r ic h f a n ta s y m a t e ­ r i a l w h i c h h a s a c c u m u l a t e d r o u n d t h e p e c u lia r o b s e r v a tio n s in th e sk ies. A n y n e w e x p e r ie n c e h a s tw o a s p e c t s : ( I ) t h e p u r e f a c t a n d ( 2 ) t h e w a y o n e c o n c e iv e s o f it. I t is t h e l a t t e r I a m c o n c e r n e d w ith . I f i t is t r u e t h a t t h e A A F o r t h e G o v e r n m e n t w ith h o ld s te llta le f a c ts , t h e n o n e c a n o n ly s a y t h a t th is is th e m o s t u n p s y c h o lo g ic a l a n d s t u p i d p o lic y o n e c o u l d in v e n t. N o t h i n g h e lp s r u m o u r s a n d p a n i c s m o r e t h a n ig n o r a n c e . I t is s e lf - e v id e n t t h a t t h e p u b l i c o u g h t to b e to l d t h e t r u t h , b e c a u s e u lti m a t e ly it w ill n e v e r th e le s s c o m e to t h e l i g h t o f d a y . T h e r e c a n b e h a r d l y a n y g r e a t e r s h o c k t h a n '4 5 °

t h e H - b o m b a n d y e t e v e r y o n e k n o w s o f i t w i t h o u t f a in t in g . A s to y o u r q u e s tio n a b o u t t h e p o s s ib le h o s tility o f th e U fo s , I m u s t e m p h a s i z e t h a t I h a v e n o o t h e r k n o w le d g e a b o u t t h e m t h a n t h a t w h ic h e v e r y b o d y c a n g e t o u t o f p r i n t e d r e p o r ts . T h a t is t h e r e a s o n w h y I a m s till f a r f r o m

!451

c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e U f o s 5 p h y s ic a l

r e a lity . T h a n k y o u f o r y o u r k in d o f f e r to s e n d m e c lip p in g s . I h a v e g o t e n o u g h o f th e m . I t is a c u r io u s f a c t t h a t w h e n e v e r I m a k e a s t a t e m e n t it is a t o n c e tw is te d a n d f a ls ifie d . T h e p r e s s s e e m s to e n jo y lie s m o r e t h a n t h e t r u t h . I re m a in , d e a r M a jo r, Y o u rs, C . G . J u n g

HUM AN

N A T U R E D O E S N O T Y IE L D T O ID E A L IS T IC A D V IC E 1

E A S IL Y

T h e r e is lit t l e t o c r itic iz e i n M r . R o b e r t s ’ a r tic le s in c e its a u t h o r is o b v io u s ly a m a n o f g o o d w ill a n d o p tim is tic e n th u s ia s m . M o r e ­ o v e r , h e p o in t s i n t h e r i g h t d ir e c t i o n , a n d h e g iv e s p r o p e r v a lu e t o m a n ’s m e n t a l a n d m o r a l a t t i t u d e . H e h o p e s a n d b e lie v e s , i t se e m s t o m e , t h a t s a y in g t h e r i g h t a n d g o o d t h i n g w ill b e e n o u g h t o p r o ­ d u c e t h e d e s ir e d e ffe c t. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h u m a n n a t u r e is a b i t m o r e c o m p li c a t e d a n d d o e s n o t y ie ld t o a w e ll- m e a n in g h i n t o r to id e a lis ­ tic a d v ic e . 1453 I t a lw a y s h a s b e e n a n d s till is t h e g r e a t q u e s tio n h o w t o g e t t h e o r d i n a r y h u m a n t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e h e c a n m a k e u p h is m i n d to d r a w t h e r i g h t c o n c lu s io n a n d t o d o t h e r i g h t t h i n g , o r h o w to m a k e h i m lis te n a t a ll. H is m o r a l a n d m e n t a l i n e r t i a a n d h is n o t o r i ­ o u s p r e ju d i c e s a r e t h e m o s t s e r io u s o b s ta c le t o a n y m o r a l o r s p i r i t u a l r e n a is s a n c e . I f h e h a d b e e n i n c l in e d t o re s is t t h e o v e r w h e lm in g i m ­ p a c t o f h is e m o t i o n a l e n t a n g l e m e n t s , p a s s io n s , a n d d e s ire s , a n d to p u t a s to p t o t h e h a s t e a n d r u s h o f h is d a ily a c tiv itie s , a n d to t r y a t le a s t t o g e t o u t o f h is l a m e n t a b l e y e t c h e r is h e d u n c o n s c io u s n e s s a b o u t h im s e lf , t h e w o r l d a n d its s a d h is to r y o f i n t r i g u e , v io le n c e , a n d c r u e l ty w o u l d h a v e r e a c h e d a s t a t e o f p e a c e a n d h u m a n i t y lo n g b e f o r e C h r is t — i n t h e t i m e o f B u d d h a o r S o c r a te s . B u t to g e t h i m t h e r e , t h a t ’s j u s t t h e t r o u b l e . *454 I t is p e r h a p s a g o o d i d e a to l i b e r a t e m a n f r o m a ll in h ib itio n s a n d p r e ju d i c e s t h a t h a m p e r , t o r m e n t , a n d d is f ig u r e h im . B u t t h e q u e s t io n is less t o l i b e r a t e f r o m s o m e t h in g , t h a n r a t h e r , a s N ie tz s c h e a s k e d , t o w h i c h e n d ? I n c e r t a i n c a s e s it lo o k s a s if in g e t t i n g r i d o f o n e ’s i n h i b it i o n s a n d b u r d e n s , o n e h a d “ t h r o w n a w a y o n e ’s b e s t .” L i b e r a t i o n c a n b e a g o o d o r a v e r y b a d s o lu tio n . I t la r g e ly d e p e n d s

1452

1 [W ritte n in E nglish as an in v ited com m en t on an article , “ Analysis and F a ith ,” by W illiam H . R oberts, w hich to g e th er w ith com m ents by J u n g an d o thers— in c lu d in g G regory Z ilboorg, E rich F ro m m , a n d K a rl M e n n in g er— was p u blished in T h e N e w R e p u b lic (W a sh in g to n ), 1 3 2 :2 0 (16 M ay 1 9 5 5 ). T h e article was s u b title d : “H ow close are religion a n d p sy ch iatry in th e ir a p ­ p roach es to sin a n d sa lv atio n ?” R o b erts w as professor of philosophy a n d religion a t P h ila n d e r S m ith College, a B lack college in L ittle R ock, A rkansas.]

upon the choice of one’s further goal whether the liberation has been a boon or a fatal mistake. 1455 I don’t w ant to go further into the complexities of this problem, and moreover it would be unfair to criticize the author for some­ thing he obviously is not aware of, viz., the fact that this formulation of the problem dates from about forty years ago. Since th at time, a voluminous literature thoroughly dealing with the point in ques­ tion has come into existence. I don’t know which circumstances have prevented the author from informing himself about the more modern developments in the discussion between religion and psy­ chology. In view of F reud’s notorious inability to understand reli­ gion, the reader would have welcomed, if not expected, a summary at least of the main work done along this line during the past four decades. Goodwill and enthusiasm are not to be underrated, but ignorance is regrettable.

O N T H E H U N G A R IA N U P R IS IN G 1 I

1456

I . T he bloody suppression of the H ungarian people by the Rus­ sian arm y is a vile and abominable crime, to be condemned forthwith. 2 . T he Egyptian dictator has by unlawful measures provoked G reat Britain and France to a warlike act. This is to be deplored as a relapse into obsolete and barbarous methods of politics. II

Γ457

T he crushing of H ungary is one more link in the chain of iniqui­ tous events which m ake the middle of the tw entieth century one of the blackest chapters in history, rich in infamies as it is. Western Europe had to endure the spectacle of a civilized European country being throttled and, conscious of its own miserable impotence, be content to play the Good Sam aritan. Though the great storm of indignation unleashed by outraged public feeling was unable to blow away the Russian tanks, it at least brought with it the relief everyone feels when guilt can be laid beyond all doubt at somebody else’s door. In the worldwide moral outcry we scarcely heard the voice of our own conscience, rem inding the West of those wicked deeds of Machiavellianism, short-sightedness, and stupidity w ithout which the events in H ungary would not have been possible. T he focus of the deadly disease lies in Europe. 1 [C o n tr ib u tio n s to sy m p o sia : ( I ) “ D a s g e is tig e E u r o p a u n d d ie u n g a r isc h e R e v o lu t io n ,” D i e K u l t u r ( M u n i c h ) , J h g . 5 , n o . 73 (1 D e c . 1 9 5 6 ) ; ( I I ) A u f s ta n d d e r F reih e it: D o k u m e n te z u r E r h e b u n g des un ga rischen V olkes (Z u r ic h , 1 9 5 7 ) ]

O N P S Y C H O D IA G N O S T IC S 1 C an one, w ith todayJs psychodiagnostic m ethods, determ ine the suit­ ability of a candidate for a job, in a m atter of hours or days, more efficiently than the em ployer could w ith the help of his general know ledge of hum an nature?

1458

T he employer may have a very good knowledge of hum an n a ­ ture, able to size up the total situation intuitively in a few seconds. N aturally you can’t acquire a knack like this from any method. There are, however, employers who are anything but good judges of men. In this case a careful and conscientious psychodiagnosis is the only right thing. Anyway, it is better th an nothing, and cer­ tainly better than the employer’s illusions and projections. A re we right to oppose the use of psychodiagnostics in the selection of candidates, or is it sim ply another futile attem pt to turn back the w heel of history?

'459

It would be plain stupid to oppose the use of psychodiagnostics, for these tests are so widely used today that nobody can fight against them. By refusing them one puts oneself in a false position from the start, as in certain cases of refusal to testify in court. But if you are faced with a good judge of men, he will extract your painful secrets from your trouser pocket with the greatest skill w ithout your knowing it, and do it much better than was ever done by a psycho­ diagnostic method. W e w ould like to ask you for a short prognosis concerning the fu r­ ther developm ent of these m ethods and their influence on society.

r46o

J am no prophet, and I cannot predict the future of our society. I can only tell you th at I hope for a further improvement in psycho­ diagnostic methods and in the understanding of m an in general, as contrasted with the other possibility that any m an may be pushed into any kind of job anywhere. Anything th at promotes the under­ standing of one’s fellow men is welcome to me. 1 [L etter of 27 June 1958, answ ering questions from the editors of the Z iircker S tu d en t (see above, par. 1403, n. 1) and published in the Ju ly 1958 issue, Jhg. 36.]

IF C H R IS T W A L K E D T H E E A R T H T O D A Y 1 I t is absolutely certain th a t if a C hrist should reappear in th e w orld he w ould b e interview ed an d p h o to g rap h ed by th e press an d w ould n o t live longer th a n one m o n th . H e w ould die being fed u p w ith himself, as he w ould see him self banalized beyond all en­ d urance. H e w ould be killed by his ow n success, morally and physically. 1 [C o n tr ib u tio n , w r itte n in E n g lish , to a sy m p o siu m p u b lis h e d in C c sm o p o lita n (N e w Y o r k ) , C X L V :6 (D e c . 1 9 5 8 ), a n d c o n sistin g o f “ te n h ig h ly in d iv id u a l o p in io n s fro m n o te d th in k e rs w h o h a v e d e v o te d th e i r lives to p ro b le m s of th e s p ir it.” T h e s e also in c lu d e d N o rm a n V in c e n t P e a le , A ld o u s H u jJe y , P itirim A. S o ro k in , a n d B illy G ra h a m .]

FO R EW O R D T O “H U G H C RICH TO N-M ILLER,

1462

It is more than thirty years ago—on the occasion of a short stay in England—that I became acquainted with Dr. Hugh Crichton-Miller. Being a stranger and, on account of my unorthodox views, a psychiatric outsider, I was deeply impressed by the friendly, open, and unprejudiced manner of his welcome. Not only did he introduce me to the staff of his clinic, he also invited me to give them a short address—much to my embarrassment, since I never felt particularly certain of myself when called upon to talk to an entirely unknown audience. But I soon felt the presence of an atmo­ sphere of mutual trust and confidence between chief and staff, so that I could talk to them in a more or less natural way— at least I hope so. Talking to Crichton-Miller was easy. I felt we were speaking the same language, though our views were not always the same. But they were reasonably different, so that a satisfactory discussion was possible. Whenever I had a chance in the course of many years, I very much enjoyed discussing controversial points with him. He was for I don’t know how many years the only man of my age with whom I could talk as man to man, without con­ stantly fearing that my partner would suddenly throw a fit or be­ come otherwise impolite. We took each other at our face value and in the course of years we grew slowly into the conviction that we had a good relationship. Such a silent conviction can be, in spite of everything, an illusion as long as it has not come to an actual showdown. The proof of this came in the last years before the second World War. '463 We then had an international Society for Psychotherapy on the continent consisting of a Dutch, Danish, Swiss, and a very large German group. The president of the Society had been Professor Kretschmer up to 1933, when he resigned in the fatal year of H it­ ler’s usurpation of power. I had been up to then in the inactive 1 [T he book (D orchester, 1961) had the subtitle “A Personal M em oir by H is Friends and F am ily.” T h e foreword, w ritten in E nglish, is published here w ith m inor stylistic changes.]

role of a n hon o rary vice-president. T h e G erm an g ro u p , afraid of getting am algam ated w ith, i.e., overshadow ed by, th e far m ore in ­ fluential “ Society fo r Psychiatry” w ith its w ell-know n anti-psycho­ logical prejudice, asked m e to take over th e function of president, just because I was n o n -G erm an a n d w ould therefore em phasize th e in tern atio n al ch aracter of th e organization. T h ey hoped in th a t w ay to escape com plete an n ih ilatio n , even if they h a d to survive in a society of herb addicts a n d believers in “ n a tu ra l h ealing.” I knew it w ould be a very difficult task if I w ere to accept this proposi­ tion. B ut having been vice-president for a n u m b er of years, I did n o t consider it particu larly h o n o u rab le co n d u ct to get cold feet, and so I stepped in. 1 4 6 4 . X h e f i r s t task confronting m e was to increase th e n o n -G erm an m em bership in o rd er to form an ad eq u a te counterw eight. W e added a Swedish group, an d I opened negotiations w ith F ren ch rep resen ta­ tives, b u t I looked m ost to w ard E n g lan d an d A m erica. T h e first person I ap p ro ach ed was C richton-M iller, an d I did n o t find him w anting. H e understood th e situation an d m y motives. T h e G er­ m ans becam e m ore an d m ore difficult an d tried to overw helm us w ith a large Ita lia n an d even a Jap an ese m em bership. Since noth in g was know n of m o d ern m edical psychology in either of those contries, the long lists of new m em bers w ere com posed by o rd er and consisted of people w ho w ere absolutely innocent of th e slightest p ro ­ fessional know ledge of m o d ern psychotherapy. S hortly before th e outbreak of th e w ar, it cam e to a decisive show dow n w ith th e G er­ m ans in Z urich. Being th e British representative, C richton-M iller lent m e personally his invaluable help to w ard off th e G erm an in ­ trigue. I am forever g ratefu l to him fo r his sturdy co-operation an d his truly loyal friendship. T h a t was th e m a n I shall never forget. 1465 D u rin g th e w a r w e n atu rally saw n o th in g of each other, an d it w as only afterw ards th a t I received th e shocking new s of his fatal disease. I w an ted very m uch to see him again b u t was over­ b u rd en ed w ith u rg en t w ork a n d ham p ered by th e consequences of an injury to m y h eart. I fo u n d no occasion to go to E ngland. F ortunately enough, in 1949 he could m an ag e to com e o u t to Sw it­ zerland, to th e Bernese O b erlan d , w here I w en t to m eet him an d his wife. I fo u n d h im in a n ad v an ced stage of his illness. As he h a d expressed th e u rg en t w ish to talk to m e, I w as eager to h ear from h im w h a t it was. A fter lu n ch w e w ithdrew . H e took o u t a sheet of p ap er w ith a closely w ritten text. As o u r talks h ith erto h a d never been intim ate or personal, I was surprised w hen he

FOREW ORD TO “ H U G H

C R ICH TO N-M ILLER”

plunged straight in medias res and asked me to answer a num ber of questions on religion. It was a complete survey of the religio medici, of all the religious conclusions an old doctor m ight draw from his innum erable experiences of suffering and death and from the inexorable reality of life’s reverses. I knew we were talking in conspectu mortis of ultimate things, at the end of days. Then we took leave of each other, shook hands amiably and politely, as if after a delightful lunch with a distant yet friendly acquaintance. Vale amice! January

iq

6o

XII PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION (re la te d to V o lu m e 11 of th e C o llected W orks)

W H Y I A M N O T A C A T H O L IC 1 466

467

468

Firstly: Because I am a practical Christian to whom love and

justice to his brother m ean more than dogmatic speculations about whose ultim ate truth or u n truth no hum an being can ever have certain knowledge. T he relation to my brother and the unity of the true “ catholic” Christendom is to me infinitely more im portant th an “justification by fide sola ." As a Christian I have to share the burden of my brother’s wrongness, and th at is most heavy when I do not know whether in the end he is not more right than I. I hold it to be immoral, in any case entirely unchristian, to put my brother in the wrong (i.e., to call him fool, ass, spiteful, obdurate, etc.) simply because I suppose myself to be in possession of the absolute truth. Every totalitarian claim gradually isolates itself be­ cause it excludes so m any people as “defectors, lost, fallen, apostate, heretic,” and so forth. The totalitarian maneuvers himself into a corner, no m atter how large his original following. I hold all confessionalism to be completely unchristian. Secondly: Because I am a doctor. If I possessed the absolute truth I could do nothing further than to press into my patient’s hand a book of devotion or confessional guidance, just w hat is no longer of any help to him. W hen, on the other hand, I discover in his untruth a truth, in his confusion an order, in his lostness something th a t has been found, then I have helped him. This re­ quires an incom parably greater self-abnegation and self-surrender for my brother’s sake than if I assessed, correctly from the stand­ point of one confession, the motivations of another. Y o u underestimate the immense num ber of those of goodwill, b u t to whom confessionalism blocks the doors. A Christian has to con­ cern himself, especially if he is a physician of souls, with the spirituality of the reputedly unspiritual (spirit = confessionalism!) and he can do this only if he speaks their language and certainly not if, in the deterrent way of confessionalism, he sounds the kerygmatic ![(T r a n sla te d by Η . N .) W ritten as part of a letter to H . Irm inger of Zurich, 22 Sept. 1944, but not sent; instead, Jung retained it in his literary papers. For the letter to Irm inger, see Jung: Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1.]

trumpet, hoarse with age. W hoever talks in today’s world of an absolute and single truth is speaking in an obsolete dialect and not in any way in the language of mankind. Christianity possesses a ε υ α γ γ ε λ ίο υ , good tidings from God, but no textbook of a dogm a with claim to totality. Therefore it is hard to understand why God should never have sent more than one message. Christian modesty in any case strictly forbids assuming that God did not send ε υ α γ γ έ λ ια in other languages, not just in Greek, to other nations. If we think otherwise our thinking is in the deepest sense unchristian. The Christian— my idea of Christian— knows no curse form ulas; indeed he does not even sanction the curse put on the innocent fig-tree by the rabbi Jesus, nor does he lend his ear to the missionary Paul of Tarsus when he forbids cursing to the Christian and then he himself curses the next moment. 1469 T h ir d ly : Because I am a m an of science. !47° T h e Catholic doctrine, as you present it to me so splendidly, is familiar to me to that extent. I am convinced of its “truth” in so far as it formulates determinable psychological facts, and thus far I accept this truth without further ado. But where I lack such empirical psychological foundations it does not help me in the least to believe in anything beyond them, for that would not compensate for my missing knowledge; nor could I ever surrender to the selfdelusion of knowing something where I merely believe. I am now nearly seventy years old, but the charisma of belief has never arisen in me. Perhaps I am too overweening, too conceited; perhaps you are right in thinking that the cosmos circles around the God Jung. But in any case I have never succeeded in thinking that what I believe, feel, think, and understand is the only and final truth and that I enjoy the unspeakable privilege of God-Iikeness by being the possessor of the sole truth. You see that, although I can estimate the charisma of faith and its blessedness, the acceptance of “faith” is impossible for m e because it says nothing to me. J47i You will naturally remonstrate that, after all, I talk about “G od.” I do this with the same right as humanity has from the beginning equated the numinous effects of certain psychological facts with an unknown primal cause called God. This cause is be­ yond my understanding, and therefore I can say nothing further about it except that I am convinced of the existence of such a cause, and indeed w ith the same logic by which one may conclude from the disturbance of a planet’s course the existence of a yet unknown heavenly body. T o be sure, I do not believe in the absolute

validity of the law of causality, which is why I guard against “posit­ ing” God as cause, for by this I would have given him a precise definition. 147« Such restraint is surely an offense to confessors of the Faith. But according to the fundam ental Christian com mandment I must not only bear with and understand my schismatic Protestant brother, but also my brothers in Arabia and India. They, too, have received strange but no less notable tidings which it is my obligation to understand. As a European, I am burdened most heavily by my unexpectedly dark brother, who confronts me with his antichristian Neo-Paganism. This extends far beyond the borders of Ger­ many as the most pernicious schism th a t has ever beset Christianity. And though I deny it a thousand times, it is also in me. O ne cannot come to terms with this conflict by im puting wrong to someone else and the undoubted right to onself. This conflict I can solve first of all only within myself and not in another.

T H E D E F IN IT IO N O F D E M O N IS M 1 1473

Demonism (synonymous w ith daem onom ania = possession) de­ notes a peculiar state of m ind characterized by the fact th at certain psychic contents, the so-called complexes, take over the control of the total personality in place of the ego, at least temporarily, to such a degree th a t the free will of the ego is suspended. In certain of these states ego-consciousness is present, in others it is eclipsed. Demonism is a prim ordial psychic phenom enon and frequently oc­ curs under primitive conditions. (Good descriptions in the New Testam ent, Luke 4 :3 4 , M ark 1:23, 5 :2 , etc.) T he phenom enon of demonism is not always spontaneous, b u t can also be deliberately induced as a “trance,” for instance in shamanism, spiritualism, etc. (C f. J . Hastings, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; Schiirer. “Zur Vorstellung von der Besessenheit im N euen Testam ent,” Jahrbuch fur protestantise he Theologie, 1892.) *474 Medically, demonism belongs partly to the sphere of the psycho­ genic neuroses, partly to th a t of schizophrenia. Demonism can also be epidemic. O ne of the most celebrated epidemics of the M iddle Ages was the possession of the Ursulines of London, 1632. T he epi­ demic form includes the induced collective psychoses of a religious or political nature, such as those of the tw entieth century. (Cf. G. Ie Bon, The Crowd, a Stu dy of the Popular M ind , 1896; O tto Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der Volkerpsychologie, 2nd edn., 1904.) 1 [W ritten J u ly 1945, at th e req u est o f E n cy clio s-V erla g , Z u rich , pub lish ers of th e S c h w e iz e r L e x ik o n . T h e first sen ten ce an d the referen ces a t th e en d o f the article w ere p u b lish ed (w ith o u t a ttrib u tio n ) as th e d efin itio n o f “D a m o n ie ” in th e L ex ik o n ( 1 9 4 9 ) , vol. I.]

F O R E W O R D T O J U N G : “ S Y M B O L IK D ES G E IS T E S ”

(! 94 8) 1475

T h e present volum e, the sixth of the Psychologische A b h a n d Iungens contains five essays w hich are concerned w ith the symbol­ ism of the spirit: a study of Satan in the O ld T estam ent by D r. R iw kah Scharf,1 an d four essays from my pen. T h e first essay in the book, “ T h e Phenom enology of the Spirit in Fairytales,” 2 gives an account of th e “spirit archetype,” or rather, of a dream and fairytale m otif whose behaviour is such th a t one has to conceive of it as “spirit.” Exam ples are also given of the d ram atic entangle­ m ents to w hich th e ap p earan ce of this m otif leads. T h e second essay describes how , in the m edieval n atu ral philosophy of the alche­ mists, the prim itive “n ature-spirit” developed into the “ Spirit M ercurius.”3 As the original texts show, a spirit-figure cam e into being th a t was directly opposed to the C hristian view of the spirit. T h e th ird contribution, by D r. Scharf, describes the historical develop­ m ent of the ungodly spirit, S atan, as depicted in the texts of the O ld T estam ent. T h e fo u rth essay, “A Psychological A pproach to the D ogm a of the T rin ity ,” 4 gives a brief sketch of the historical devel­ opm ent of the trin ita ria n concept before and after C hrist, followed by a synopsis of psychological view points th a t need to be taken into account for a rational com prehension of the idea of the T rinity. I t goes w ithout saying th a t in any such discussion, m etaphysical views cannot be considered, because, w ithin th e confines of a scientific psychology an d its tasks, an idea characterized as “ m etaphysical” can claim th e significance only of a psychic phenom enon. Equally the psychologist does not presum e to say anything “m etaphysical,” i.e., transcending his p roper province, ab o u t his subject-m atter— th a t lies outside his com petence. In so fa r— a n d only so fa r— as the T rin ity is n o t m erely an object of belief but, over a n d above th a t, a h u m an concept falling w ithin th e purview of psychology, 1 [“D ie G estalt Satans im A lten T estam ent” · trans., Satan in th e O ld T estam en t (Evanston, 1 9 6 7 ).] 2 [In T h e A rch etypes a n d the C ollective Unconscious, C.W ., vol. 9, i.] 3 [In Alchem ical Studies, C.W ., vol. 13.] i [In Psychology and Religion: W est and East, C .W ., vol. 11.]

can it be subjected to scientific observation. T his does not affect the object of belief in any way. T h e read er will do well to keep this lim itation of th e them e constantly in m ind. '476 T h e final co n trib u tio n 5 is a description an d analysis of a C hi­ nese, b u t originally In d ia n , text w hich describes a w ay of m editation for th e attain m en t of B uddhahood. I have ad d ed this essay for the purpose of ro u n d in g o u t th e p icture for m y reader, show ing him an E astern aspect of it. J477 I t now rem ains fo r m e to correct an error. In m y book T h e Psychology of the Transference6 I prom ised to publish m y new work, M ysteriu m C oniunctionis/ as volum e 6 of th e “ Psychologische A b h an d lu n g en .” O w in g to illness an d oth er causes I h a d to alter plans an d am therefore publishing Sym b o lik des Geistes in its stead. T h e above-m entioned w ork will not go to press until later. June

1 Q4 7

5 [“ T h e Psychology of E astern M e d iatio n ,” ibid.] 6 [Die Psychologie der V bertragung 3 p. xi. Cf. forew o rd to “ T h e Psychology of th e T ra n sfe re n c e ” (C .W ., vol. 16).] ^ [C .W ., vol. 14.]

F O R E W O R D T O Q U IS P E L : “T R A G IC C H R IS T IA N IT Y ” 1 14 7 8

T he author of this essay has asked me to start of! his book with a few introductory words. Although I am not a philologist, I gladly accede to this request because Dr. Quispel has devoted particular attention to a field of work which is fam iliar also to me from the psychological standpoint. Gnosticism is still an obscure affair and in need of explanation, despite the fact that sundry per­ sonages have already approached it from the most diverse angles and tried their hands at explanations with doubtful success. O ne even has the impression th at the ban on heresy still hangs over this wide domain, or at least the disparagement which specialists are accustomed to feel for annoying incomprehensibilities. W e have an equivalent of this situation in psychiatry, which has ostentatiously neglected the psychology of the psychoses and shows pronounced resistances to all attem pts in this direction. This fact, though aston­ ishing in itself, is, however, comprehensible when one considers the difficulties to be overcome once one tries to fathom the psychology of delusional ideas. We can understand mental illness only if we have some understanding of the m ind in general. Delusional ideas cannot be explained in terms of themselves, b u t only in terms of our knowledge of the norm al mind. H ere the only phenomenologi­ cal m ethod that promises success, as opposed to philosophical and religious prejudice, has m ade next to no headway, indeed it has still not even been understood. T he fundam ental reason for this is that the doctor, to whom alone psychopathological experiences are accessible, seldom or never has the necessary epistemological premises at his command. Instead of which, if he reflects a t all and does not merely observe and register, he has usually succumbed to a philosophical or religious conviction and fills out the gaps in his knowledge with professions of faith. 1 [According to inform ation from Gilles Quispel (professor of ancient church history, U trec h t University, N etherlands), in 1949 he p la n n e d ”to publish in Bollingen Series a volume of his lectures given a t the Eranos conferences. T h e projected title was Tragic Christianity, an d Ju n g consented to write this foreword. T h e book was never published.]

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W h a t is tru e of psychopathology can— m utatis m utandis— be applied directly to th e trea tm e n t w hich G nosticism has undergone. Its p ecu liar m en tal products d em an d th e sam e psychological u n d er­ stan d in g as do psychotic delusional form ations. B ut th e philologist or theologian w ho concerns him self w ith G nosticism generally pos­ sesses not a shred of psychiatric know ledge, w hich m ust always be called upon in explaining ex trao rd in ary m en tal phenom ena. T h e explanation of G nostic ideas “ in term s of them selves,” i.e., in term s of th e ir historical foundations, is futile, for in th a t w ay they are reduced only to th e ir less developed forestages b u t not understood in their actu al significance. W e find a sim ilar state of affairs in th e psychopathology of th e neuroses, w here, for instance, F re u d ’s psychoanalysis reduces th e neurotic sym ptom atology only to its infantile forestages an d com pletely overlooks its functional, th a t is, its sym bolic value. So long as we know only th e causality or th e historical developm ent of a n o rm al biological or psychic phenom enon, b u t n o t its functional developm ent, i.e., its purposive significance, it is n o t really u n d e r­ stood. T h e sam e is tru e of G nostic ideas: they are n o t m ere sym p­ tom s of a certain historical developm ent, b u t creative new con­ figurations w hich w ere of th e utm ost significance for th e fu rth er developm ent of W estern consciousness. O n e has only to think of the Jew ish-G nostic presuppositions in P a u l’s w ritings and of the im m ense influence of the “gnostic” gospel of Jo h n . A p art also from these im p o rtan t witnesses, an d in spite of being persecuted, b ran d ed as heresy, and pron o u n ced d ead w ithin th e realm of th e C h urch, G nosticism did n o t die o u t a t once by any m eans. Its philosophical an d psychological aspects w ent on developing in alchem y u p to th e tim e of G oethe, an d th e Jew ish syncretism of th e age of P hilo2 found its con tinuation w ithin o rthodox Ju d aism in the K ab b ala. B oth these trends, if n o t exactly forestages of th e m o d ern psychology of the unconscious, are a t all events well-nigh inexhaustible sources of know ledge for th e psychologist. T h is is no accident inasm uch as parallel phen o m en a to th e em pirically established contents of the collective unconscious underlie the earliest G nostic systems. T h e archetypal m otifs of th e unconscious are th e psychic source of G nostic ideas, of delusional ideas (especially of th e p aran o id 2 [P hilo Ju d aeu s (fl. a . d . 3 9 ) , G ra eco -J u d a ic p h ilo so p h er o f A lexa n d ria . H is w orks in clu d e co m m en ta ries on th e O ld T esta m en t, w h ic h h e interp reted a llegorically, fin d in g in it th e source of th e m a in d octrin es o f P lato, A ristotle, and oth er G reek philosophers.]

schizophrenic form s), of symbol-formation in dreams, and of active im agination in the course of an analytical treatm ent of neurosis. 1481 In the light of these reflections, I regret Dr. Quispel’s quotations from the Gnostics, th at the “A utopator contained in himself all things, in [a state of] unconsciousness (έν α γ ν ω σ ία ) ”3 and th at “T he Father was devoid of consciousness (άνεννόητος) ,”4 as a funda­ m ental discovery for the psychology of Gnosticism. It means nothing less than that the Gnostics in question derived the knowable νπ ίρ κ ό σ μ α from the unconscious, i.e., that these represented uncon­ scious contents. This discovery results not only in the possibility but also in the necessity of supplem enting the historical method of ex­ planation by one th at is based on a scientific psychology. 1482 Psychology is indebted to the author for his endeavours to facili­ tate the understanding of Gnosticism, not merely because we psy­ chologists have m ade it our task to explain Gnosticism, but because we see in it a tertium comparationis which affords us the most valuable help in the practical understanding of modern individual symbol-formation. M ay i$4g 3 Epiphanius, Panarium1 X X X I , cap V . [The quotation is here abbreviated; for Jung’s fu ller version of the Greek text see A ion (C .W ., vol. 9, i i ), par. 298 and n. 16.] 4 H ippolytus, Elenchos, V I, 42, 4. [This quotation, also abbreviated here, com es im m ediately after the one from Epiphanius in Aion, par. 298, where Jung cites Q uispel’s French trans. of the Greek text.]

FO REW O RD T O ABEGG: “ O S T A S IE N D E N K T A N D E R S ” 1 1483

T h e au th o r of this book, th e entire tex t of w hich unfo rtu n ately I have not seen, has talked to m e ab o u t h e r p ro ject an d ab o u t h er ideas w ith reg ard to th e difference betw een E astern an d W est­ ern psychology. T h u s I w as able to note m any points of agreem ent betw een us, an d also a com petence on her p a rt to m ake judgm ents w hich is possible only to one w ho is a E u ro p ean an d at th e sam e tim e possesses the invaluable ad v an tag e of hav in g spent m ore th a n h alf a lifetim e in th e F a r East, in close co n tact w ith th e m in d of Asia. W ith o u t such first-hand experience it w ould be a hopeless task to ap p ro ach th e problem of E astern psychology. O ne m ust be deeply an d directly m oved by th e strangeness, one m ight alm ost say by th e incom prehensibility, of th e E astern psyche. Decisive ex­ periences of this kind cannot be tran sm itted th ro u g h books; they com e only from living in im m ediate, daily relationship w ith th e people. H aving h a d u n u su al advantages in this respect, th e au th o r is in a position to discuss w h a t is perh ap s th e basic, an d is in any case an extrem ely im p o rtan t, question of th e difference betw een E astern an d W estern psychology. I have often found myself in situ a­ tions w here I h a d to take account of this difference, as in th e study of Chinese an d E ast In d ia n literary texts an d in th e psychological tre a tm e n t of Asiatics. A m ong m y patients, I am sorry to say, I have never h a d a Chinese or a Jap an ese, n o r have I h a d th e privi­ lege of visiting either C h in a or Ja p a n . B ut a t least I have h ad th e oppo rtu n ity to experience w ith p ain fu l clarity th e insufficiency of m y know ledge. In this field we still have everything to learn, an d w hatever we learn will be to o u r im m ense ad v antage. K now l­ edge of E astern psychology provides th e indispensable basis for a 1 [Z u ric h , 1950. ( “ E a s t A sia T h in k s O th e rw is e .” ) T h e fo re w o rd w as n o t in ­ c lu d e d in th e E n g lis h -la n g u a g e e d itio n o f th e b o o k , b y L ily A b eg g , T h e M i n d o f E a s t A s ia ( L o n d o n a n d N ew Y o rk , 1 9 5 2 ). I t is r e p r o d u c e d h e re , in a tr a n s la tio n b y H ild e g a r d N a g e l a n d E lle n T h a y e r , title d “ T h e M in d o f E a s t a n d W e s t,” fr o m th e I n w a r d L ig h t (W a s h in g to n , D . C . ) , no . 49, ( a u tu m n 1 9 5 5 ), h a v in g p re v io u sly a p p e a r e d in th e B u lle tin o f th e A n a ly tic a l P sy c h o lo g y C lu b o f N e w Y o r k vol. 15, n o . 3 (M a r. 1 9 5 3 ).]

critique of W estern psychology, as indeed for any objective under­ standing of it. A nd in view of the truly lamentable psychic situation of the West, the im portance of a deeper understanding of our Occi­ dental prejudices can hardly be overestimated. 1484 Long experience with the products of the unconscious has taught me th at there is a very remarkable parallelism between the specific character of the W estern unconscious psyche and the “m an­ ifest” psyche of the East. Since our experience shows th a t the bio­ logical role which the unconscious plays in the psychic economy is compensatory to consciousness, one can venture the hypothesis th a t the m ind of the F ar East is related to our Western consciousness as the unconscious is, th a t is, as the left hand to the right. 1485 O u r unconscious has, fundamentally, a tendency tow ard whole­ ness, as I believe I have been able to prove. O ne would be quite justified in saying the same thing about the Eastern psyche, but with this difference: th a t in the East it is consciousness that is char­ acterized by an apperception of totality, while the West has devel­ oped a differentiated and therefore necessarily one-sided attention or awareness. W ith it goes the Western concept of causality, a prin­ ciple of cognition irreconcilably opposed to the principle of synchronicity which forms the basis and the source of Eastern “incompre­ hensibility,” and explains as well the “strangeness” of the unconscious with which we in the West are confronted. T he under­ standing of synchronicity is the key which unlocks the door to the Eastern apperception of totality th a t we find so mysterious. T he au­ thor seems to have devoted particular attention to just this point. I do not hesitate to say th at I look forward to the publication of her book with the greatest interest. March ig^g

F O R E W O R D T O A L L E N B Y : “A P S Y C H O L O G IC A L S T U D Y O F T H E O R IG IN S O F M O N O T H E IS M ” 1 1486

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i t can no longer be do u b ted today th a t m eaningful connections are discoverable in dream s an d oth er spontaneous m anifestations of the unconscious. T h is raises the question of th e origin of uncon­ scious contents. A re they genuine creations of the unconscious psy­ che, or thoughts th a t w ere originally conscious b u t subsequently becam e unconscious for one reason or another? rJ q i e individual dream -thoughts, or a t least their elements, are always of conscious origin, otherw ise they could not be represented or recognized. Also, a whole sequence of im ages connected together in a m eaningful way, or an entire scene, frequently derives from th e conscious m em ory. But w hen we consider th e m eaning of the dream as a whole, th e question of derivation becom es m uch m ore difficult to answer. So far as can be established em pirically, the function of dream s is to com pensate the conscious situation, as though there w ere a n a tu ra l drive to restore th e balance. T h e m ore one-sided th e conscious situation is, the m ore th e com pensation takes on a com plem entary ch aracter. O bvious exam ples of this can be found in people w ho naively deceive themselves o r who hold to some fanatical belief. As we know , the most lu rid scenes of tem p ta­ tion a re depicted in the dream s of ascetics. In such cases it w ould be very difficult to prove th a t th e m eaning of the dream derives from a conscious th o u g h t th a t subsequently becam e unconscious, for obviously no such reflection or self-criticism ever took place an d for th a t very reason h ad to be perform ed by th e dream . T h e hypothesis becomes com pletely unten able w hen th e dream s produce m eaningful connections w hich are absolutely unknow n to the d ream er or w hich cannot be know n to him . T h e clearest p h en o m ­ ena of this kind, convincing even to th e laym an, are telepathic dream s w hich give in form ation concerning events at a distance or in the future, beyond th e ran g e of sense-perception. These phenom ena offer striking proof th a t there are m eaningful 1 [W ritten for A m y I. A llen b y’s book (P h .D . d issertation , O x fo rd U . ) , -which w as n o t p u b lish ed . D r. A llen b y is an an aly tica l p sy ch o lo g ist in O xford .]

1489

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connections in the unconscious which are not derived from con­ scious reflection. T h e same is true of dream motifs found otherwise only in myths and fairytales, and exhibiting characteristic forms of which the dream er has no conscious knowledge. Here we are not dealing in any sense with ideas, but with instinctual factors, the fundam ental forms th at underlie all imaginative representation; in short, w ith a pattern of mental behaviour which is ingrained in hum an nature. This accounts for the universal occurrence of these archetypes of the imagination. Their a priori presence is due to the fact th at they, like the instincts, are inherited, and therefore constantly produce mythological motifs in every individual as soon as his im agination is given free play, or whenever the unconscious gains the upper hand. M odern psychological experience has shown that not only the meaning of the dream , but also certain dream-contents, must derive entirely from the unconscious, for the simple reason th a t they could not have been known to consciousness and therefore cannot be de­ rived from it. However slight the effect of a particular dream may be, the unconscious compensation is of great importance for a m an’s con­ scious life and for w hat one calls his “fate.” The archetypes n atu ­ rally play a considerable role here, and it is no accident th at these determining factors have always been personified in the form of gods and demons. Since the relation of the unconscious to consciousness is not a mechanical one and not purely complementary, but performs a meaningful and compensatory function, the question arises as to who m ight be the “ author” of the effects produced. In our ordi­ nary experience, phenom ena of this kind occur only in the realm of the thinking and willing ego-consciousness. There are, however, very similar “intelligent” acts of compensation in nature, especially in the instinctual activities of animals. For us, at least, they do not have the character of conscious decisions, but appear to be just like hum an activities th at are exclusively controlled by the u n ­ conscious. T he great difference between them is th at the instinctual behaviour of animals is predictable and repetitive, whereas the com­ pensatory acts of the unconscious are individual and creative. rPhe “ author” in both cases seems to be the pattern of behaviour, the archetype. Although in hum an beings the archetype represents a collective and almost universal mode of action and reaction, its activity cannot as a rule be predicted; one never knows when an

archetype will react, an d w hich archetype it will be. But once it is constellated, it produces “num inous” effects of a determ ining character. T h u s F reud not only stum bled on the O edipus complex b u t also discovered the dual-m other m otif of the hero m yth in Leo­ nard o da V inci. But he m ade th e m istake of deriving this m otif from the fact th a t Leonardo h ad tw o m others in reality, nam ely, his real m other an d a stepm other. Actually, the dual-m other m otif occurs not only in myths b u t also in th e dream s an d fantasies of individuals w ho neither have tw o m others nor know anything about the archetypal motifs in mythology. So there is no need of two m others in reality to evoke the dual-m other motif. O n the contrary, the m otif shows th e tendency of th e unconscious to reproduce the dual-m other situation, or the story of double descent or child-substitution, usually for th e purpose of com pensating the subject’s feel­ ings of inferiority. '493 As the archetypes are instinctive, inborn forms of psychic behav­ iour, they exert a pow erful influence on the psychic processes. U n ­ less the conscious m ind intervenes critically an d w ith an effort of will, things go on happening as they have always happened, w hether to the advantage or disadvantage of th e individual. T h e advantages seem to preponderate, for otherwise the developm ent of conscious­ ness could hardly have come about. T h e advantage of “free” will is indeed so obvious th a t civilized m an is easily persuaded to leave his whole life to the guidance of consciousness, an d to fight against the unconscious as som ething hostile, or else dismiss it as a negligible factor. Because of this, he is in danger of losing all contact w ith the w orld of instinct— a danger th a t is still fu rth er increased by his living an u rb an existence in w hat seems to be a purely m anm ade environm ent. 1494 This loss of instinct is largely responsible for the pathological condition of o u r contem porary culture. T h e great psychotherapeutic systems em bodied in religion still struggle to keep the w ay open to th e archetypal w orld of the psyche, b u t religion is increasingly losing its grip w ith the result th a t m uch of E urope today has become dechristianized or actually anti-C hristian. Seen in this light, the efforts of m odern psychology to investigate th e unconscious seem like salutary reactions of the E uropean psyche, as if it were seeking to re-establish the connection w ith its lost roots. I t is not simply a m a tter of rescuing th e n a tu ra l instincts (this seems to have been F reu d ’s p articu lar preo ccu p atio n ), b u t of m aking contact again w ith the archetypal functions th a t set bounds to th e instincts and

give them form a n d m eaning. F or this purpose a know ledge of the archetypes is indispensable. 1495 T h e question of the existence of an archetypal God-image is n atu rally of prim e im portance as a factor determ ining h u m an be­ haviour. F rom the history of symbols as well as from the case his­ tories of patients it can be dem onstrated em pirically th a t such a G od-im age actually exists, an im age of wholeness w hich I have called th e sym bol of th e self. I t occurs most frequently in th e form of m andala symbols. T h e au th o r of this book has m ade it her task to investigate the psychological aspect of the G od-im age on the one h a n d and th e theological aspect of the self on the other— a task w hich in m y view is as necessary as it is timely. A t a tim e w hen o u r m ost valuable spiritual possessions are being squandered, we w ould do well to consider very carefully the m eaning and p u r­ pose of th e things we so heedlessly seek to cast overboard. A nd before raising th e cry th a t m odern psychology destroys religious ideas by “psychologizing” them , we should reflect th a t it is just this psychology w hich is trying to renew the connection w ith the realities of the psyche, lest consciousness should flutter about rootlessly an d helplessly in the void, a prey to every im aginable intellectualism . A trophy of instinct is equivalent to pathological suggestibility, th e devastating effects of w hich m ay be witnessed in th e recurrent psychic epidem ics of to talitarian m adness. •49 6 I can only hope this book finds a wide circle of serious readers. M a y 1950

T H E M IR A C U L O U S F A S T O F B R O T H E R K L A U S 1 497

T h e fact th a t B ro th er K laus, on his ow n adm ission an d a c c o rd ­ ing to the reports of reliable witnesses, lived w ith o u t m ate ria l suste­ n a n c e for tw en ty years is som ething th a t c a n n o t he b ru sh ed aside how ever u n c o m fo rta b le it m ay be. I n th e case of T h erese of K onn e rs re u th 2 th ere are also reports, w hose reliability of course I can n e ith e r confirm n o r contest, th a t for a long period of tim e she lived sim ply a n d solely on holy w afers. S uch things n a tu ra lly c a n n o t be u n d e rsto o d w ith our p resent know ledge of physiology. O n e w ould be well advised, how ever, not to dismiss th em as u tte rly im possible on th a t acco u n t. T h e re are very m an y things th a t e a rlie r w ere held to be im possible w h ich nevertheless we know a n d can prove to be possible today. 493 N a tu ra lly I h av e no e x p lan atio n to offer co n cern in g such p h e ­ n o m e n a as the fast of B ro th er K lau s, b u t I am inclined to th ink it sh o u ld be so ught in th e realm of parapsychology. I m yself was p resen t a t th e investigation of a m edium w ho m anifested physical p h e n o m e n a . A n electrical en g in eer m easu red the degree of io n iza­ tion of the a tm o sp h ere in the im m ed iate vicinity of th e m edium . T h e figures w ere everyw here n o rm al except a t one p o in t on the rig h t side of th e th o ra x , w h ere th e ionization w as a b o u t sixty tim es th e no rm al. A t this po in t, w h en th e ( p ara p sy c h o lo g ic al) p h e n o m ­ e n a w ere in progress, th ere was a n emission of ectoplasm capable of acting a t a distance. If such things can occur, th e n it is also conceivable th a t persons in th e vicinity of th e m ed iu m m ig h t act as a source of ions— in o th e r w ords, n o u rish m en t m ig h t he effected 1 [T r a n sla te d from “ D a s F a ste n w u n d e r des B ru d er K la u s ,” N e u e Wi ss e n s c h a f t (B a d e n , S w itz e r la n d ), 1 9 5 0 / 5 1 , n o. 7; revised fro m a le tte r to F ritz B lan k e, 10 N o v . 1 9 4 8 , th a n k in g h im fo r h is b o o k B r u d e r K l a u s v o n Fl ii e (Z u r ic h , 1 9 4 8 ) . C f. L e t t e r s , e d . G. A d le r , vo l. 1. A p r e fa to r y n o te by th e e d ito r o f N e u e Wi s s e n s c h a f t sta te s: “T h e p e r io d of B ro th er K la u s’s fast la ste d from 1 4 6 7 to 1 4 8 7 . AU c o n te m p o r a r y w itn e sses, e v e n th ose in th e im m e d ia te n e ig h ­ b o u r h o o d o f th e sa in t, a g r ee th a t d u r in g th is tim e h e took n o n o u r ish m e n t.” ] - [ I h erese N e u m a n n ( 1 8 8 9 —1 9 6 2 ) , g e n e r a lly k n o w n as T h e r e s e of K o n n e r sr e u th , G erm a n y , stig m a tize d sin ce 1926, w h e n sh e c la im e d to h a v e r e -e x p e r ie n c e d C h r ist’s P assion .]

by the passage of living molecules of albumen from one body to another. In this connection it should be mentioned that in parapsychological experiments decreases of weight up to several kilograms have been observed during the (physical) phenomena, in the case both of the medium and of some of the participants, who were all sitting on scales. This seems to me to offer a possible approach to an explanation. Unfortunately these things have been far too little investigated at present. This is a task for the future.

C O N C E R N IN G “A N S W E R T O J O B ” 1 1498a

T h is is n o t a “scientific” book b u t a personal co n fro n tatio n w ith th e tra d itio n a l C h ristian w orld view , occasioned by th e im p a c t of th e n e w d o g m a of the A ssum ption. I t echoes th e reflections of a physician a n d theological lay m an , w ho h a d to find th e answers to m a n y questions on religious m atte rs a n d w as th u s com pelled to w restle w ith th e m e a n in g of religious ideas fro m his p a rticu lar, n o n ­ confessional sta n d p o in t. I n a d d itio n , th e questions w ere m o tiv ated by c o n te m p o ra ry events: falsehood, injustice, slavery, a n d m ass m u rd e r engulfed n o t only m a jo r p a rts of E u ro p e b u t continue to p revail in vast areas of th e w orld. W h a t has a benevolent a n d a l­ m ighty G od to say to these problem s? T h is d esperate question, asked a th o u sa n d tim es, is th e co n cern of this book. 1 [ ( T r a n s la te d by R . H .) A u th o r’s d e sc rip tio n , p r in te d o n th e d u st ja c k e t o f th e o rig in a l e d n . of A tittu o rt a u f H i o b , w h ic h w as p u b lis h e d in Z u rich a ro u n d I A p r. 1952. I t w as r e p r in te d in th e a p p e n d ix to G esam . W e r k e , X I , p . 6 8 7 , b u t n o t in C .W ., vol. 1 1 (w h ic h c o n ta in s “A n sw er to J o b ” ) .]

R E L IG IO N A N D PSY C H O LO G Y : A R E P L Y T O M A R T IN BU BER1

1500

1501

Some while ago the readers of your magazine were given the opportunity to read a posthumous article by Count Keyserling,2 in which I was characterized as “unspiritual.” Now, in your last issue, I find an article by M artin Buber3 which is likewise concerned with my classification. I am indebted to his pronouncements at least in so far as they raise me out of the condition of unspirituality, in which Count Keyserling saw fit to present me to the G erm an public, into the sphere of spirituality, even though it be the spiritual­ ity of early Christian Gnosticism, which has always been looked at askance by theologians. Funnily enough this opinion of Buber’s coincides with another utterance from an authoritative theological source accusing me of agnosticism— the exact opposite of Gnosticism. Now when opinions about the same subject differ so widely, there is in my view ground for the suspicion that none of them is correct, and th a t there has been a misunderstanding. W hy is so m uch attention devoted to the question of whether I am a Gnos­ tic or an agnostic? W hy is it not simply stated th a t I am a psychia­ trist whose prim e concern is to record and interpret his empirical m aterial? I try to investigate facts and make them more generally comprehensible. M y critics have no right to slur over this in order to attack individual statements taken out of context. T o support his diagnosis Buber even resorts to a sin of my youth, com mitted nearly forty years ago, which consists in my once having perpetrated a poem .4 In this poem I expressed a num ber of psycho1 [W ritten 22 Feb. 1952 as a letter to the editor, published as “R eligion und P sychologie” in M e r k u r (S tu ttg a rt), V I : 5 (M a y 1 9 5 2 ), 4 6 7 -7 3 , and reprinted as “A ntw ort an M artin Buber” in Gesam. Werkej X I , A nhang. T h e present translation was published in Spring, 1973.] 2 [H erm ann K eyserling (1 8 8 0 —1 9 4 6 ), “Begegnungen m it der Psychoanalyse,” M erkur, I V : 11 (N ov. 1 9 5 0 ), 11 5 1 -6 8 .] 3 [“R eligion und modernes D enken,” M erku r V I : 2 (Feb. 1 9 5 2 ). Trans., “R eli­ gion and M odern T h in k in g,” together w ith Buber’s reply to Jung (in the same issue w ith Ju n g’s reply, M erk u r, V I .'s ) , in Eclipse of G o d (1 9 5 3 )·] 4 [ V I I Serm ones a d M ortu os, by Basilides of A lexandria (n.d. [1 9 1 6 ]), privately printed. E nglish trans. by H . G. Baynes, privately printed 1925; reprinted in the 2nd edn. of M em ories, Dreams, Reflections, appendix,]

logical apergus in “ G nostic” style, because I was then studying the Gnostics w ith enthusiasm . M y enthusiasm arose from the discovery th a t they were apparently the first thinkers to concern themselves (after their fashion) w ith the contents of the collective unconscious. I h ad the poem p rinted u nder a pseudonym and gave a few copies to friends, little dream ing th a t it w ould one day b ear witness against m e as a heretic. 150a I w ould like to point out to m y critic th a t I have in my tim e been regarded not only as a Gnostic an d its opposite, b u t also as a theist and an atheist, a mystic an d a m aterialist. In this concert of contending opinions I do not wish to lay too m uch stress on w hat I consider myself to be, b u t will quote a judgm ent from a leading article in the British M edical Journal (9 F ebruary 1952), a source th a t w ould seem to be above suspicion. “ Facts first and theories later is the keynote of J u n g ’s work. H e is an em piricist first an d last.” This view meets w ith m y approval. 1503 Anyone w ho does not know m y w ork will certainly ask himself how it is th a t so m any contrary opinions can be held about one and th e same subject. T h e answ er to this is th a t they are all th o u g h t u p by “m etaphysicians,” th a t is, by people who for one reason or another think they know ab o u t unknow able things in the Beyond. I have never v en tured to declare th a t such things do not exist; b u t neither have I ventured to suppose th a t any statem ent of m ine could in any way touch them or even represent them correctly. I very m uch d o ubt w hether our conception of a thing is identical w ith the n atu re of th e thing itself, and this for very obvious scientific reasons. 1504 B ut since views an d opinions ab o u t m etaphysical or religious subjects play a very great role in em pirical psychology,5 I am obliged for practical reasons to w ork w ith concepts corresponding to them . In so doing I am aw are th a t I am dealing w ith an th ro p o ­ m orphic ideas an d not w ith actual gods an d angels, although, thanks to th eir specific energy, such (archetypal) images behave so autonom ously th a t one could describe them m etaphorically as “ psychic daim onia.” T h e fact th a t they are autonom ous should be taken very seriously; first, from the theoretical standpoint, b e­ cause it explains th e dissociability of th e psyche as well as actual dissociation, an d second, from th e practical one, because it forms the basis for a dialectical discussion betw een th e ego an d the uncon­ scious, w hich is one of th e m ainstays of th e psychotherapeutic 5 Cf. G. Schmaltz, 0 stliche Weisheit und westliche Psychotherapie (1 9 5 1 ).

f 5°5

method. Anyone who has any knowledge of the structure of a neuro­ sis will be aware that the pathogenic conflict arises from the coun­ terposition of the unconscious relative to consciousness. T he socalled “forces of the unconscious” are not intellectual concepts that can be arbitrarily manipulated, but dangerous antagonists which can, am ong other things, work frightful devastation in the economy of the personality. They are everything one could wish for or fear in a psychic “T hou.” The layman naturally thinks he is the victim of some obscure organic disease; but the theologian, who suspects it is the devil’s work, is appreciably nearer to the psychological truth. I am afraid that Buber, having no psychiatric experience, fails to understand w hat I mean by the “reality of the psyche” and by the dialectical process of individuation. T he fact is that the ego is confronted with psychic powers which from ancient times have borne sacred names, and because of these they have always been identified with metaphysical beings. Analysis of the unconscious has long since demonstrated the existence of these powers in the form of archetypal images which, be it noted, are not identical with the corresponding intellectual concepts. O ne can, of course, believe that the concepts of the conscious m ind are, through the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, direct and correct representations of their m eta­ physical referent. But this conviction is possible only for one who already possesses the gift of faith. Unfortunately I cannot boast of this possession, for which reason I do not imagine that when I say something about an archangel I have thereby confirmed that a metaphysical fact. I have merely expressed an opinion about something that can be experienced, that is, about one of the very palpable “powers of the unconscious” . These powers are numinous “types”— unconscious contents, processes, and dynamisms— and such types are, if one may so express it, immanent-transcendent. Since my sole means of cognition is experience I may not overstep its boundaries, and cannot therefore pretend to myself th at my de­ scription coincides with the portrait of a real metaphysical arch­ angel. W hat I have described is a psychic factor only, but one which exerts a considerable influence on the conscious mind. Thanks to its autonomy, it forms the counterposition to the subjective ego because it is a piece of the objective psyche. It can therefore be designated as a “T hou.” For me its reality is amply attested by the truly diabolical deeds of our tim e: the six million m urdered Jews, the uncounted victims of the slave labour camps in Russia,

as well as the invention of the atom bom b, to nam e b u t a few exam ples of th e dark er side. But I have also seen th e other side w hich can be expressed by th e words beauty, goodness, wisdom, grace. These experiences of the depths an d heights of h u m an n atu re justify the m etaphorical use of the term “ daim on.” !506 i t should not be overlooked th a t w h at I am concerned with are psychic phenom ena w hich can be proved em pirically to be the bases of m etaphysical concepts, an d th a t w hen, for exam ple, I speak of “ G od” I am unable to refer to anything beyond these dem onstra­ ble psychic models w hich, we have to adm it, have shown themselves to be devastatingly real. T o anyone who finds their reality incredible I w ould recom m end a reflective to u r th ro u g h a lunatic asylum. J5°7 T h e “ reality of the psyche” is my w orking hypothesis, an d my principal activity consists in collecting factu al m aterial to describe and explain it. I have set up n either a system n o r a general theory, b u t have merely form ulated auxiliary concepts to serve m e as tools, as is custom ary in every b ran ch of science. If B uber m isunderstands m y empiricism as Gnosticism, it is up to him to prove th a t the facts I describe are nothing b u t inventions. If he should succeed in proving this w ith em pirical m aterial, th en indeed I am a Gnostic. But in th a t case he will find himself in th e uncom fortable position of having to dismiss all religious experiences as self-deception. M eanw hile I am of the opinion th a t B uber’s ju d g m en t has been led astray. T his seems especially evident in his ap p aren t inability to understand how an “ autonom ous psychic co n ten t” like th e G odim age can burst u p o n the ego, an d th a t such a confrontation is a living experience. I t is certainly not th e task of an em pirical sci­ ence to establish how far such a psychic content is dependent on and determ ined by the existence of a m etaphysical deity. T h a t is the concern of theology, revelation, an d faith. M y critic does not seem to realize th a t w hen he himself talks ab o u t God, his statem ents are dependent firstly on his conscious an d then on his unconscious assumptions. O f w hich m etaphysical deity he is speaking I do not know. If he is an orthodox Jew he is speaking of a G od to w hom th e incarnation in th e year 1 has not yet been revealed. If he is a C hristian, th e n his deity knows ab o u t th e incarnation of w hich Y ahw eh still shows no sign. I do not d o ubt his conviction th a t he stands in a living relationship to a divine T h o u , b u t now as before I am of th e opinion th a t this relationship is prim arily to an autonom ous psychic content w hich is defined in one w ay by him and in an o th er by th e Pope. Consequently I do n o t perm it

myself the least judgm ent as to whether and to w hat extent it has pleased a metaphysical deity to reveal himself to the devout Jew as he was before the incarnation, to the Church Fathers as the Trinity, to the Protestants as the one and only Saviour without co-redemptrix, and to the present Pope as a Saviour with co-redemptrix. N or should one doubt th at the devotees of other faiths, including Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and so on, have the same living relationship to “ God,” or to N irvana and Tao, as Buber has to the God-concept peculiar to himself. 15°8 It is remarkable th a t he takes exception to my statem ent that God cannot exist apart from m an and regards it as a transcendental assertion. Yet I say expressly that everything asserted about “ G od” is a hum an statement, in other words a psychological one. For surely the image we have or make for ourselves of God is never detached from man? Can Buber show me where, apart from m an, God has m ade an image of himself? How can such a thing be substantiated and by whom? Here, just for once, and as an exception, I shall in ­ dulge in transcendental speculation and even in “ poetry” : God has indeed m ade an inconceivably sublime and mysteriously contradic­ tory image of himself, without the help of man, and im planted it in m an’s unconscious as an archetype, an αρχέτυπον φώς, archetypal light: not in order th a t theologians of all times and places should be at one another’s throats, but in order th at the unpresumptuous m an m ight glimpse an image, in the stillness of his soul, th a t is akin to him and is w rought of his own psychic substance. This image contains everything he will ever imagine concerning his gods or concerning the ground of his psyche. ■5°9 This archetype, whose existence is attested not only by ethnology but by the psychic experience of individuals, satisfies me completely. It is so hum anly close and yet so strange and “ other” ; also, like all archetypes, it possesses the utm ost determinative power with which it is absolutely necessary th at we come to terms. T he dialecti­ cal relationship to the autonomous contents of the collective uncon­ scious is therefore, as I have said, an essential p art of therapy. 1S10 Buber is mistaken in thinking th at I start with a “fundamentally Gnostic viewpoint” and then proceed to “elaborate” metaphysical assertions. O ne should not misconstrue the findings of empiricism as philosophical premises, for they are not obtained by deduction but from clinical and factual material. I would recommend him to read some autobiographies of the mentally ill, such as John Custance’s W isdom, M adness and Folly (1951), or D. P. Schreber’s

M e m o i r s of M y N e r v o u s Illness (first p ub lish ed 1 9 0 3 ) , w h ich cer­ ta in ly do n ot p roceed from G n ostic h ypotheses an y m ore th a n I d o ; or he m ig h t try an analysis of m y th o lo g ica l m aterial, su ch as th e ex cellen t w ork of D r. E rich N e u m a n n , h is n eigh b ou r in T e! A v iv : A m o r a n d P syche ( 1 9 5 2 ) . M y co n ten tio n th at the products o f th e u ncon sciou s are an alogou s and related to certain m etap h ysi­ cal ideas is fo u n d ed on m y professional exp erien ce. In this co n n ec­ tio n I w o u ld p oin t ou t th at I k n o w q u ite a n u m b er o f in flu en tial th eologian s, C ath olics as w e ll as P rotestants, w h o h a v e no difficulty in grasp in g m y em pirical stan d p oin t. I th erefore see n o reason w h y I sh ould take m y m eth o d o f exp osition to be q u ite so m islead ing as B uber w o u ld h ave us b elieve. 15 11 T h e re is o n e m isu n d erstan d in g w h ich I w o u ld like to m en tion h ere b eca u se it com es u p so often . T h is is th e curious assum ption th a t w h en a p rojection is w ith d ra w n n o th in g m ore o f th e ob ject rem ains. W h en I correct m y m istak en op in ion of a m an I h ave n o t n eg a ted h im and cau sed h im to v an ish ; on th e contrary, I see h im m ore n early as h e is, and this can on ly b en efit th e relation ­ ship. So if I h old th e v iew th a t all statem en ts ab ou t G od h ave th eir origin in th e p syche and m u st therefore b e d istin gu ished from G od as a m etap h ysical b ein g, this is n eith er to d en y G od n or to p u t m a n in G o d ’s p lace. I frankly confess th at it goes again st the grain w ith m e to th ink th at th e m etap h ysical G od h im self is sp eak ­ in g th ro u g h everyon e w h o q u otes th e B ible or ven tilates his religious op in ion s. F a ith is certainly a sp len d id th in g if o n e h as it, and k n ow l­ ed g e b y fa ith is p erhaps m ore p erfect th an a n y th in g w e can p rod uce w ith ou r labou red an d w h eezin g em piricism . T h e ed ifice of C hris­ tia n d o g m a , for instance, u n d o u b ted ly stan d s on a m u ch high er lev el th a n th e so m ew h a t w ild “ p h ilo so p h o u m en a ” of th e G nostics. D o g m a s are spiritual structures o f suprem e b eau ty, a n d th ey possess a w o n d erfu l m e a n in g w h ic h I h a v e sou gh t to fa th o m in m y fash ion. C o m p a red w ith th em ou r scien tific en d eavors to d evise m od els of th e o b jectiv e psyche are u nsigh tly in th e extrem e. T h e y are b oun d to earth an d reality, fu ll o f con trad iction s, in com p lete, logically an d aesthetically u nsatisfyin g. T h e em p irical con cepts o f scien ce an d particu larly o f m ed ica l p sych ology d o n o t p roceed from n eat an d seem ly principles o f th o u g h t, b u t are th e o u tco m e o f our d aily labou rs in th e sloughs of ordinary h u m an existen ce an d h u m an pain . T h e y are essentially irrational, an d th e p h ilosop h er w h o criti­ cizes th em as th o u g h th ey w ere p h ilosop h ical con cep ts tilts against w in d m ills and gets into th e greatest difficulties, as B uber does w ith

the concept of the self. Empirical concepts are names for existing complexes of facts. Considering the fearful paradoxicality of hum an existence, it is quite understandable that the unconscious contains an equally paradoxical God-image which will not square at all with the beauty, sublimity, and purity of the dogmatic concept of God. T he God of Job and of the 89th Psalm is clearly a bit closer to reality, and his behaviour does not fit in badly with the God-image in the unconscious. Of course this image, with its Anthropos symbolism, lends support to the idea of the incarnation. I do not feel responsible for the fact that the history of dogma has m ade some progress since the days of the O ld Testament. This is not to preach a new religion, for to do th a t I would have to follow the old-established custom of appealing to a divine revela­ tion. I am essentially a physician, whose business is with the sickness of m an and his times, and with remedies th a t are as real as the suffering. N ot only Buber, but every theologian who baulks at my odious psychology is at liberty to heal my patients with the word of God. I would welcome this experiment with open arms. But since the ecclesiastical cure of souls does not always produce the desired results, we doctors must do w hat we can, and at present we have no better standby than that modest “gnosis” which the empirical m ethod gives us. O r have any of my critics better advice to offer? !5i2 As a doctor one finds oneself in an awkward position, because unfortunately one can accomplish nothing with th at little word “ought.” We cannot dem and of our patients a faith which they reject because they do not understand it, or which does not suit them even though we may hold it ourselves. We have to rely on the curative powers inherent in the patient’s own nature, regardless of w hether the ideas th at emerge agree with any known creed or philosophy. M y empirical material seems to include a bit of every­ thing— it is an assortment of primitive, Western, and O riental ideas. There is scarcely any myth whose echoes are not heard, nor any heresy th at has not contributed an occasional oddity. T he deeper, collective layers of the hum an psyche must surely be of a like nature. Intellectuals and rationalists, happy in their established beliefs, will no doubt be horrified by this and will accuse me of reckless eclecti­ cism, as though I had somehow invented the facts of m an’s nature and mental history and had compounded out of them a repulsive theosophical brew. Those who possess faith or prefer to talk like philosophers do not, of course, need to wrestle with the facts, but

a doctor is n o t a t liberty to dodge the grim realities o: h um an n ature. 1S'3 It is inevitable th a t th e adherents of trad itio n al religion systems should find my form ulations h ard to understand. A G nosic would n ot be a t all pleased w ith me, b u t w ould reproach m e fcT having no cosmogony an d for the cluelessness of my gnosis in ig a r d to the happenings in the Plerom a. A B uddhist w ould com jiain th a t I was deluded by M aya, an d a T aoist th a t I was too conplicated. As for an orthodox C hristian, he can hardly do othervise th an deplore the nonchalance an d lack of respect w ith w hich In av ig a te through the em pyrean of dogm atic ideas. I m ust, how e'er, once m ore beg my unm erciful critics to rem em ber th a t I start fiom fact s for w hich I seek an interpretation.

A D D R E S S A T T H E P R E S E N T A T IO N O F T H E JU N G G O D E X 1 M r . P residen t, viri magnifici, Ladies a n d Gentlem en!

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I t gives m e m uch pleasure to accept this precious gift in the n am e of o u r Institu te. F o r this I thank you, an d also for the surpris­ ing a n d undeserved h o n o u r you have done m e in baptising the Codex w ith m y nam e. I w ould like to th an k D r. M eier personally for his persistent and successful efforts to acquire the Codex, and for organizing this celebration. H e has asked m e to say som ething about th e psychological significance of G nostic texts. 15*5 A t present, unfortunately, I know only three of th e treatises contained in th e Codex. O n e of these is an im portant, so it seems, early V alen tin ian text th a t affords us some insight into the m entality of th e second century a . d . It is called “ T h e Gospel of T r u th , ” 2 b u t it is less a gospel th a n a treatise explaining the C hristian m es­ sage, its purpose being to assim ilate this strange an d hardly u n d e r­ standable m essage to the H ellenistic-Egyptian w orld of thought. It is evident th a t th e a u th o r was appealing to the intellectual u n d e r­ standing of his reader, as if in rem em brance of the w ords: “ W e preach C hrist crucified, u n to the Jew s a stum bling-block, a n d unto the Greeks foolishness” ( I Cor. 1 : 23) . F or him C hrist was prim arily a light-bringer, w ho w en t forth from the F a th e r in order to illum i­ nate th e stupidity, darkness, an d unconsciousness of m ankind. T his deliverance from agnosia relates the text to the accoum tr vvihwh H ippolytus has left of th e Gnostics, and of the Naassenes an d Peratics in p a rtic u la r, in his Elenchos.3 T h e re we also find most of w hat I call the “ phenom ena of assim ilation.” T hey consisted partly of allegories a n d p a rtly of genuine symbols, and th eir purpose was to shed light on th e essentially m etaphysical figure of C hrist and m ake it m ore com prehensible to th e m entality of th a t epoch. For the m odern m in d this accum ulation of symbols, parables, and syno1 [Draft w ritten for a convocation at the Gesellschaftshaus zum R fiden, Zurich, 15 N ov. 1953. For J u n g ’s final version, see the A ddenda. T h e Jung Codex is a Gnostic papyrus in C optic found in 1945 near the village o f N ag H am adi in U pper E gypt and acquired in 1952 for the C. G. Jung Institute.] 2 [Published under the editorship o f M . M alinine, H . C. Puech, and G. Q uispel, Evangelium Veritatis (Z urich, 19 5 6).] 3 [Otherwise know n as Philosophoumena, or T h e Refutation of A ll Heresies, trans. by F. L egge ( 1 9 2 1 ).]

nyms has just the opposite effect, since it only deepens the darkness and entangles the light-bringer in a netw ork of barely intelligible analogies. I t is n o t likely th a t the Gnostic attem pts at elucidation m et w ith m uch success in the pagan w orld, especially as the C hurch very soon opposed them an d w henever possible suppressed them . Luckily during this process some of the best pieces (to ju d g e by their content) w ere preserved for posterity, so th a t today we are in a position to see in w h at way th e C hristian message was taken u p by the unconscious of th a t age. 1516 These phenom ena are naturally of especial significance for psy­ chologists and psychiatrists, w ho are professionally concerned w ith the psychic background, an d this is the reason why our Institute is so interested in acquiring and translating Gnostic texts. A lthough suppressed an d forgotten, the process of assimilation th a t began w ith Gnosticism continued all through th e M iddle Ages, and it can still be observed in m odern times w henever the individual conscious­ ness is confronted w ith its ow n shadow , or the inferior p a rt of the personality. This happens spontaneously in certain cases, w hether they be norm al or pathological. T h e general rule, however, is th a t m odern m an needs expert help to becom e conscious of his darkness, because in m ost cases he has long since forgotten this basic problem of Christianity: the m oral an d intellectual agnosia of the merely n a tu ra l m an. C hristianity, considered as a psychological phenom e­ non, contributed a great deal to the developm ent of consciousness, and w herever this dialectical process has n o t come to a stan d ­ still we find new evidence of assimilation. Even in medieval Judaism a parallel process took place over th e centuries, indepen­ dently of the C hristian one, in the K abbala. Its nearest analogy in the C hristian sphere was philosophical alchemy, whose psycho­ logical affinities w ith Gnosticism can easily be dem onstrated. 1517 T h e urgen t therap eu tic necessity of confronting the p atient w ith his own dark side is a continuation of th e C hristian developm ent of consciousness an d leads to phenom ena of assimilation sim ilar to those found in Gnosticism, the K ab b ala, an d H erm etic philoso­ phy. Since com parison w ith these earlier historical stages is of the greatest im portance in interpreting the m odern phenom ena, the discovery of authentic G nostic texts is of the utm ost practical value to us in our researches. These few hints m ust suffice to explain o u r interest in a Gnostic codex. A detailed account of these relation­ ships m ay be found in a n u m b er of studies th at have already been published.

L E T T E R T O PER E B R U N O 1 5 November 1953 D ear Fr. Bruno, 518 Y our questions interested me extremely. You ask for information about the m ethod to be followed in order to establish the existence of an archetype. Instead of a theoretical discourse, I propose to give you a practical dem onstration of my method by trying to tell you w hat I think about th a t probably historical personage, Elijah. 519 If the tradition were concerned with a person characterized rather by individual and more or less unique traits, to whom few or no legends, miraculous deeds, and exploits or relations or p ar­ allels with mythological figures were attached, there would be no reason to suppose the presence of an archetype. If on the other hand the biography of the person concerned contains mythical motifs and parallels, and if posterity has added elements th at are clearly mythological, then there is no longer any doubt th a t we are dealing w ith an archetype. 520 rP he prophet Elijah is a highly mythical person, though that does not prevent his being a historical one at the same time, like for example St. John the Baptist or even Jesus, the rabbi of N aza­ reth. I call the mythical attributes “phenom ena of assimilation.” (I have just published a study on the astrological assimilation of Christ as fish in my book A ion, 1951.) 5 21 There is no need to repeat to you the well-known O ld Testa­ m ent traditions. Let us rath er glance at the Christian tradition in the New Testam ent and later. As a “hairy” m an [2 Kings 1:8] Elijah is analogous to St. John the Baptist [M ark 1:6]. His calling of an apostle (E lisha), walking on the water, the discouragement ( I Kings 19: 4 ff.) prefigure analogous incidents in the life of Christ, who is also interpreted as a reappearance of Elijah, and his saying 1 [(T ran slated from the French by A.S.B.G . and J .A .P .) Published in S lie Ie p ro ph e te, ed. by Pfere Bruno de Jesus-M arie, O .C .D ., vol. II (L es Etudes C arm elitaines, Paris, 1 9 5 6 ), pp. 1 3 -1 8 . Com m ents w ere supplied- by Charles Baudouin, R en e L aforgue, and Father Bruno to form a chapter entitled “Puissance de l’archetype,” signed by the four. See also Jung’s letter o f 20 N ov. 1956 to Pere Bruno in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 2.]

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on th e cross: “ Eli, Eli . , as a n inv o catio n of E lijah . T h e nam e derives from E l ( = G o d ). C hrysostom derives th e n am e Elias [ = E lijah ] from H e lio s : “ q u o d sicut sol ex oceano em ergens versus su p re m u m coelus te n d it.” 2 A t his b irth he was hailed by angels. H e w as w ra p p e d in fiery sw ad d lin g clothes a n d n o urished by flam es. H e h a d tw o souls ( I ) . (See J . F r. M ieg, D e ra p tu Eliae, 1660, a n d Schulinus, D e E lia corvorum a lu m n o , 1718.) I n R o m a n days, th e re w as a p a g a n sa n c tu a ry on C arm el, w hich seems to have con­ sisted only of a n a lta r (T a citu s, H ist. I I , 78, “ ta n tu m a ra et revere n tia ” ) .3 V espasian is said to h av e o b tain e d a n oracle in this sa n c tu ­ ary. Iam b lic h u s ( V ita P ythagorica I I I , 15) says th a t th e m o u n ta in is sacred a n d represents a tab o o a re a a n d th a t P ythagoras often stayed in th e sacred solitude of C arm el. I t is possible th a t the D ruses h ave preserved in th e ir sa n ctu a ry o n th e m o u n ta in th e p lace of th e a lta r of E lijah . I n P irke E liezer 31, E lija h is th e in c a rn a tio n of a n e tern al soulsubstance a n d is of th e sam e n a tu re as th e angels. I t w as his spirit th a t called u p th e ra m w hich was su b stitu ted fo r Isaac. H e w ears th e ra m ’s skin as a girdle o r ap ro n . H e is p resent a t th e circum cision as th e “A ngel of th e C o v e n a n t” ( P irke E liezer 2 9 ) . E ven in o u r ow n day, a special c h a ir is reserved for E lija h a t the rite of circu m ­ cision, a n d a t th e feast of th e P assover a goblet of w ine is placed on th e ta b le a n d th e h e a d of th e fam ily opens th e door to invite E lija h to e n te r a n d share th e feast. L eg en d calls h im “ v io len t,” “ qu arrelso m e,” a n d “ m erciless.” I t w as because of these u n fav o u ra b le q u alities th a t he h a d to yield u p his office of p ro p h et to Elisha. H e caused th e sun to sta n d still d u rin g th e sacrifice of C arm el. I n th e tim e to com e h e will aw aken th e d e a d . T h e boy h e raised to life w as J o n a h (la te r sw allow ed by th e m o n ste r). Since his ascension to h eaven he is am o n g th e angels, a n d h e hovers over th e e a rth like an eagle spying o u t th e secrets of m en. H e is also considered to be a p arallel of M oses. T h e y h av e in com m on th e m u rd e r of a m a n , th e ir flight, b e in g nourished by a w o m an , th e vision of G od, th e calling to g eth e r of th e people b y a m o u n ta in . E lija h a n d M oses w ere present a t th e tran sfig u ratio n o n T a b o r. E lija h helped R a b b i M e ir by tra n sfo rm in g him self in to a heta ira . H e is generally a h e lp e r in all sorts of h u m a n difficulties ( h e a l­ ing even th e to o th ach e, en ric h in g th e p o o r, b rin g in g leaves from 2 [“ w hich extends tow ard th e highest heaven as th e sun rising from th e ocean.” ] 3 ["only a n a lta r an d th e w orship (o f th e g o d )” ]

p a ra d ise, b u ild in g m a g ic p a la ces, e t c .) H e also p lays tricks b y m a k ­ in g p e o p le lose th eir purses. H e slays on th e sp ot a m a n w h o does n o t pray prop erly. T h u s E lija h is id en tica l w ith th e figure o f K h a d ir or K h id r in Isla m ic tr a d itio n .4 W h e n , y ie ld in g to th e prayer o f R a b b i H iy y a , h e reveals th e secret o f resurrecting th e d ea d , th e angels in te r c e d e , carry th e rab b i o ff, a n d g iv e him a g o o d h id in g w ith fiery w h ip s. T h e v illa g e d o g s bark jo y o u sly w h e n E lija h appears (in d is g u is e ). T h r e e days b efo re th e ap p ea rin g o f th e M essiah , E lija h w ill m a n ife st h im self on th e m o u n ta in s o f Israel. 1526 A c c o r d in g to M o se s b en L e o n , E lija h b elon gs to th e category o f a n g els w h o r e c o m m en d e d th e creation o f m a n . M oses C ord overo co m p a res h im to E n o c h , b u t w h erea s th e latter’s b o d y is co n su m ed b y fire, E lija h reta in s h is earth ly form so as to b e ready to ap p ear a g a in . H is b o d y d escen d s fro m th e T r ee o f L ife. S in ce h e w as n o t d ea d , h e w a s su p p o sed to d w ell in visib ly o n M o u n t C a rm el; for e x a m p le , th e S h u n a m ite w e n t to look for h im an d fo u n d h im at C a r m e l ( I I K in g s 4 : 2 5 ) . (F o r th e J ew ish trad ition , see Strack a n d B illerb eck , K o m m e n t a r z u m N . T . , v ol. I V , p art 2 , p p . 7 6 4 !!. A lso E n c y c l o p e d i a J u d a i c a j 1 9 3 0 , v o l. 6 .) I n H a sid ic tra d itio n , E lija h w a s e n d o w e d w ith th e c o lle ctiv e so u l o f Israel. E very m a le c h ild , w h e n p resen ted for th e c o v e n a n t w ith G od , receives a part o f th e sou l o f E lija h an d after a tta in in g a d u lt age a n d d ev e lo p in g th is so u l, E lija h ap p ea rs to h im . A b r a h a m ib n E zra o f T o le d o is sa id to h a v e b e e n u n a b le to d ev elo p this so u l co m p letely . ( I t is ev id e n t th a t E lija h represents b o th th e co llectiv e u n c o n scio u s and th e “se lf,” a tm a n , p u ru sh a, o f m a n . It is a q u estio n o f th e in d i v i d u a ­ tio n process. S e e M . B u b er, D i e E r z a h lu n g e n d e r C h a ssid im ( 1 9 4 9 ) , p. 4 0 2 .5 M . B u b er is o n e o f m y relentless adversaries. H e has n o t u n d ersto o d ev e n w h a t h e w ro te h im se lf!) .6 '52 7 Isla m ic tr a d itio n d e p e n d s in th e first p la c e o n th e J ew ish c o m ­ m en taries. Ily a s (E lija h ) h as receiv ed from G od p o w e r to con trol th e rain. H e cau ses a g reat d ro u g h t. H e ascen d s to h e a v e n o n a fiery horse a n d G o d tran sform s h im into a h a lf-h u m a n a n g el ( a c ­ co r d in g to a l-T a b a r i) . In th e K o r a n , S u ra 18, 6 4 !!., h e is rep laced by a l-K h a d ir . ( I n a J e w ish le g e n d it is E lija h w h o travels w ith J o sh u a b e n L ev i, in th e K o r a n it is a l-K h a d ir w ith J o sh u a b en N u n . ) O rd in a rily , Ily a s a n d a l-K h a d ir are im m o rta l tw in s. T h e y sp e n d R a m a d a n at J eru sa lem every y ear a n d afterw ard s th ey take 4 [Cf. “C oncerning R ebirth” (C .W ., vol. 9, i ) , pars. 24off.] 5 [Buber, Tales of the H asidim , vol. I: “E lijah,” by E lim elekh o f Lizhensk, P- 257·] 6 [Cf. supra, “R eply to Buber,” pars. i 499 fl.]

part in the pilgrim age to M ecca w ithout being recognized. Ilyas is identified with Enoch and Idris ( = H erm es Trism egistus). Later Ilyas and al-K hadir are identified with St. G eorge (see E ncyclo­ pedia of Islam, Leiden and Leipzig, 1913)J5a8 J n m edieval Christian tradition, Elijah continues to haunt the im agination. For exam ple, it is specially fascinated by his ascent to heaven, w hich is frequently represented. In illum inated M SS, the m odel is follow ed of the M ithraic representation of the ascent of Sol inviting M ithras to join him in the fiery chariot. (See Bousset, “D ie Him m elsreise der Seele,” Arch. f. Relig. wiss., 1901, IV , p. i6 o ff., Cum ont, Textes et m onum ents, I, p. 178, fig. 11.) Tertullian {D e praescriptione hereticorum 4 0 ) says of M ithras: “im aginem resurrectionis inducit.” 7 T h e M andaean hero-saviour Saoshyant, the next to com e in the series of m illenniary saviours or prophets, is fused w ith M ithras, as is the latter with Idris (H erm es, M ercurius; see Dussaud, “N otes de m yth, syrienne,” pp. 2 3 f f.) .s In these cir­ cumstances, it is not very surprising that Elijah should becom e “H elyas Artista” in m edieval alchem y (e.g., Dorn, “D e transmut. m et.,” Theatr. chem., 1602, I, p. 610: “usque in adventum HeIiae Artistae quo tem pore nihil tam occultum quod non revelabitur” ) .9 T his passage has its origin in the treatise “D e tinctura physicorum ” of Paracelsus. (See also H elvetius, Vitulus aureus, 1667 ; Glauber, D e Elia Artista, 1668, and K opp, D ie A lchem ie, 1886, I, pp. 25off. ) 10 7 [“ h e offers a n im a g e of th e re s u rre c tio n .” ] 8 [R e n e D u ssa u d , N o te s d u m y th o lo g ie syrienn e (P a ris, 1903—5 ) .] 8 [“ u n til th e c o m in g o f H e ly a s A rtista , in w h o se tim e all t h a t is h id d e n w ill b e re v e a le d ” ] 10 [F o llo w in g this le tte r, B ru n o q u o te d a n o th e r le tte r fro m J u n g o f 22 D ec. 1 9 5 4 ( m isd a te d b y B ru n o 1 9 5 3 ; h e re tra n s. b y J .A .P .) : “ So fa r as c o n c e rn s th e H e lia s o f th e alc h e m ists, le t m e re m in d you o f th e te x t b y G e ra rd u s D o rn e u s [q u o te d as above]. In s te a d o f say in g ‘u sq u e a d a d v e n tu m C h ris ti,’ th e a lc h e m ist p re fe rs a n e a rlie r fo rm o f th e a n th ro p o s, E lija h , w h o is o n e o f th e fo u r p e rso n s ra ise d to h e a v e n w ith th e ir b o d ie s: E n o c h , E lija h , C h ris t, a n d M a ry . “ T h e re a s o n w h y th e a lc h e m is t p re fe rre d E lija h , a fig u re o r c o n d itio n p r io r to C h ris t, is p ro b a b ly b e c a u se in P a ra c e lsu s E lija h , lik e E n o c h , b elo n g s am o n g th e ‘E n o c h d ia n i a n d H e lie z a ti,’ t h a t is, a m o n g th o se w h o se bo d ies a re c a p a b le o f lo n g e v ity (u p to a th o u s a n d y e a rs ) o r else in c o rru p tib le , like th e bo d ies o f E n o c h a n d E lija h . T h e p ro lo n g a tio n o f life w as a v ery sp ecial in te re s t o f th e m a s te r’s, w h e re as th e p re m a tu r e d e a th o f C h ris t d id n o t seem in te re s tin g to h im . (C e rta in ly P a ra c e lsu s v e rg e d o n th e scie n tific m a te ria lism o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry ! C f. T h e o p h r a s t i P aracelsi T r a c t . D e V i t a L o n g a , e d it, b y A d a m v. B o d e n ste in , 15 6 2 .) “ Je w ish tr a d itio n says t h a t E lija h re m a in e d in th e c o rp o re a l s ta te so as

1529

It is unnecessary to continue this long list of phenom ena of assimilation which follow w ithout interruption, so to speak, from the remotest times to our own day. This proves irrefutably th at Elijah is a living archetype. In psychology, we call it a constellated archetype, that is to say one th a t is more or less generally active, giving birth to new forms of assimilation. O ne of these phenom ena was the choice of Carm el for the foundation of the first convent in the twelfth century. T he m ountain had long been a numinous place as the seat of the C anaanite deities Baal and Astarte. ( Cf. the duality of Elijah, the transform ation into a hetaira.) Y H W H supplants them as inhabitant of the sacred place (Eli-yah like K hadir a kind of personification of Y H W H or Allah. Cf. the tem peram ent and the fire of the p ro p h et!). T he numinous inhabitant of Carm el is chosen as the patron of the order. T he choice is curious and unprecedented. According to the empirical rule, an archetype becomes active and chooses itself when a certain lack in the conscious sphere calls for a compensation on the p art of the unconscious. W hat is lacking on the conscious side is the immediate relation with G od: in so far as Elijah is an angelic being fortified with divine power, having the magic nam e of Eli-Y H W H , delivered from corruptibility, omniscient and omnipresent, he represents the ideal compensation not only for Christians but for Jews and Moslems also. H e is the typical θβός άνθρωπος, more hum an than Christ inasmuch as he is begotten and born in peccatum originale, and more universal in that he included even the pre-Yahwist pagan deities like Baal, El-Elyon, M ithras, M ercurius, and the personification of Allah, al-Khadir. to b e v is ib le to m o r ta l e y e s d u r in g h is p e r e g r in a t io n s o n e a r th . A f t e r r e a d in g a l i t t l e b o o k I h a d j u s t w r it te n ( w h ic h h a d to d o a m o n g o t h e r t h in g s w ith t h e a r c h e ty p a l n a tu r e o f Y a h w e h as r e v e a le d in t h e B o o k o f J o b ) , a n in t e lle c ­ tu a l a n d a g n o s t ic ( o r m a t e r ia lis t ic ) J e w h a d a d r e a m w h ic h w a s s e n t to m e . I n h is d r e a m h e w a s b a c k in a c o n c e n t r a t io n c a m p (w h e r e h e h a d a c t u a lly been

d u r in g

c ir c lin g

over

th e w a r ) . th e

S u d d e n ly h e p e r c e iv e d a n e x t r a o r d in a r ily la r g e e a g le

cam p. H e

f e lt s p ie d

upon

a n d w a tch ed

b y t h e m e n a c in g

b ird a n d , in a h ig h ly e m o tio n a l s ta te , w a n t e d t o d e f e n d h im s e lf b y a t ta c k in g it. T o th is e n d , h e th e a n im a l d o w n . “Thanks

to

my

w a s lo o k in g book,

he

had

fo r

a

c o m b a t p la n e w it h

r e a liz e d

th a t

in

r e a lit y

w h ic h it

to b r in g

is p o s s ib le

to

a b o lis h t h e id e a o f a g o d b y m e a n s o f r e a s o n , y e t n o t p o s s ib le to f r e e o n e s e lf fr o m it w h e n o n e is d e a lin g w it h a n a r c h e t y p e in n a t e in t h e s tr u c tu r e o f t h e p s y c h e its e lf. ( T h i s d r e a m is d isc u s se d i n “ T h e P h ilo s o p h ic a l T r e e ” [C .W . 13], p a r s. 4 6 6 fF .) E lij a h in t h e s h a p e o f a n e a g le r e p r e s e n ts th e e y e o f Y a h w e h w h ic h se e s a ll-— ‘o c u li D e i q u i d is c u r r e n t in u n iv e r s a m te r r a m ’ ( Z a c h . 4 : 1 0 ) . The

fe a r

of G od

had

s e iz e d

h im .

Thus

th e

a n c ie n t p r o p h e t still p la y s its p a r t in o u r t im e .” ]

t h e r io m o r p h ic a t tr ib u t e o f t h e

15 3 °

I have already said th a t the archetype “gets itself chosen” rath er th a n is deliberately chosen. I prefer this w ay of p u ttin g it because it is alm ost the rule th a t one follows unconsciously the attraction and suggestion of the archetype. I think th a t the legend of Elijah and the unique atm osphere of M o u n t C arm el exercised an influence from w hich th e founder of th e order could no m ore w ithdraw him ­ self th a n could th e Druses, the R om ans, Jews, C anaanites, or Phoe­ nicians. I t was n o t only th e place w hich favoured th e choice for the adoption of a com pensatory figure b u t the tim e. T h e tw elfth century and th e beginning of the th irteen th were just the period w hich activated th e spiritual m ovem ents bro u g h t into being by the new aeon w hich began w ith th e eleventh century.11 These were the days of Joachim of F lora an d the B rethren of th e Free Spirit, of A lbertus M agnus an d R oger Bacon, of the beginning of L atin alchem y and of the n atu ra l sciences an d also of a fem inine religious symbol, the H oly G rail. (F o r th e significance of th e year iooo, see m y A ion, chs. V I an d X , 3.) J53' T o com plete th e establishm ent of a living archetype, th e histori­ cal proofs do not wholly suffice, since one can explain the historical docum entation by trad itio n (whose beginnings, however, always rem ain u n ex p lain ed ). T h a t th e archetype also m anifests itself spon­ taneously outside trad itio n needs to be added to the evidence. God as collective soul, as spirit of nature, eternally renew ed, incorrupti­ ble, archetype of the spirit even in th e form of th e “T rickster,” pagan divinity, is encountered in ancient an d m edieval alchemy having nothing to do w ith th e local trad itio n of C arm el. T h e Deus absconditus of alchem y has th e sam e com pensating function as the figure of E lijah. Lastly— as is little know n— the psychology of al­ chem y has becom e com prehensible to us thanks to the fact th a t we observe analogous com pensations in pathological an d norm al indi­ viduals in m odern times. In calling themselves “atheists” or “agnos­ tics,” people dissatisfied w ith th e C hristian trad itio n are not being merely negative. In m any cases it is easy to observe the phenom enon of th e “ com pensating G od,” as I have dem onstrated in m y most recent works. I hope, d ear F r. B runo, th a t I have show n you th e w ay an archetype is established an d have answ ered your question concern­ ing the choice of th e archetype. Yours sincerely, 1 1 CGf. A io n , pars.

1 37ff-]

C.

G.

Jung

L E T T E R T O PERE LA CH AT1 Kiisnacht, 27 M arch 1954 D ear Sir, 1532 I t was very kind of you to send me your booklet2 on the recep­ tion and action of the Holy Spirit. I have read it with special interest since the subject of the Holy Spirit seems to me one of current im por­ tance. I rem em ber that the form er Archbishop of York, Dr. Temple, adm itted, in conversation w ith me, th at the C hurch has not done all th a t it m ight to develop the idea of the Holy Spirit. It is not difficult to see why this is so, for τό ττνεϋμα v v e l 01τον θ έ λ ε ι3— a fact which an institution may find very inconvenient! In the course of reading your little book a num ber of questions and thoughts have occurred to me, which I set out below, since my reactions may perhaps be of some interest to you. '533 I quite agree w ith your view th a t one pauses before entrusting oneself to the “unforeseeable action” of the Holy Spirit. O ne feels afraid of it, not, I think, w ithout good reason. Since there is a m arked difference between the God of the O ld Testam ent and the God of the New, a definition is desirable. You nowhere explain your idea of God. W hich God have you in m ind: T he New Testa­ m ent God, or the O ld? T he latter is a paradox; good and demon­ like, just and unjust at the same time, while the God of the New Testam ent is by definition perfect, good, the Summum Bonum even, w ithout any element of the dark or the demon in him. But if you identify these two Gods, different as they are, the fear and resistance one feels in entrusting oneself unconditionally to the H oly Spirit are easy to understand. T he divine action is so unforeseeable th at it may well be really disastrous. T h a t being so, the prudence of the serpent counsels us not to approach the Holy Spirit too closely. ‘534 If, on the other hand, it is the New Testam ent God you have in m ind, one can be absolutely certain th at the risk is m ore apparent ‘ [(Translated from the French by A.S.B.G.) See Jung’s letters of 1 8 J a n . and 29 June 1955 to Pere William Lachat in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 2.] 2 [La Reception et faction du Saint-Esprit dans la vie personnelle et communautaire (Neuch&tel, 1953).] 3 [“The spirit bloweth where it Iisteth.” John 3:8.]

th a n real since the end will always be good. In th a t event the experi­ m ent loses its venturesom e ch aracter; it is not really dangerous. It is then merely foolish not to give oneself u p entirely to the action of the Holy Spirit. R ath er one should seek him day by day, and one will easily lay hold of him , as M r. H o rto n 4 assures us. In the absence of a form al statem ent on your part, I assume th a t you identify the tw o Gods. In th a t case the Holy Spirit would n o t be easy to appreh en d ; it w ould even be highly dangerous to attract the divine attention by specially pious behaviour (as in th e case of Job and some o thers). In the O ld T estam ent S atan still has the F ath e r’s ear, and can influence him even against th e righteous. T h e O ld T estam ent furnishes us w ith quite a n u m b er of instances of this kind, and they w arn us to be very careful w hen we are dealing w ith the Holy Spirit. T h e m an who is not particularly bold and adventurous will do well to b ear these exam ples in m ind and to th an k G od th a t th e H oly Spirit does not concern himself w ith us overm uch. O ne feels m uch safer u n d er th e shadow of the C hurch, w hich serves as a fortress to protect us against G od and his Spirit. It is very com forting to be assured by the C atholic C hurch th a t it “ possesses” th e Spirit, w ho assists regularly a t its rites. T h en one knows th a t he is well chained up. Protestantism is no less reassuring in th a t it represents the Spirit to us as som ething to be sought for, to be easily “ d runk,” even to be possessed. We get the impression th a t he is som ething passive, w hich cannot budge w ithout us. H e has lost his dangerous qualities, his fire, his au to n ­ omy, his power. H e is represented as an innocuous, passive, and purely beneficent element, so th a t to be afraid of him w ould seem just stupid. r535 This characterization of th e H oly Spirit leaves o u t of account the terrors of Y H W H . I t does not tell us w h at th e H oly Spirit is, since it has failed to explain to us clearly w h at it has done w ith the D eus absconditus. A lbert Schw eitzer naively inform s us th a t he takes the side of th e ethical G od an d avoids th e absconditus, as if a m ortal m an h ad the ability to hide himself w hen faced w ith an alm ighty G od or to take th e other, less risky side. G od can im pli­ cate him in unrighteousness w henever he chooses. '5 3 6 I also fail to find a definition of C hrist; one does not know w hether he is identical w ith the Holy Spirit, or different from him. Everyone talks about C hrist; b u t who is this Christ? W hen talking to a Catholic or A nglican priest, I am in no doubt. B ut w hen I 4 [U n identified.]

am talking to a pastor of the Reformed Church, it may be th at Christ is the Second Person of the Trinity and God in his entirety, or a divine m an (the “supreme authority,” as Schweitzer has it. which doesn’t go too well with the error of the parousia), or one of those great founders of ethical systems like Pythagoras, Confu­ cius, and so on. It is the same with the idea of God. W hat is M artin Buber talking about when he discloses to us his intimate relations with “G od” ? Y H W H ? T he olden Trinity, or the m odern Trinity, w hich has become something more like a Q uaternity since the Sponsa has been received into the Thalam us?5 O r the rather misty God of Protestantism? Do you think th at everyone who says th at he is surrendering himself to Christ has really surrendered himself to Christ? Isn’t it more likely that he has surrendered himself to the image of Christ which he has made for himself, or to th at of God the F ather or the Holy Spirit? Are they all the same Christ— the Christ of the Synoptics, of the Exercitia Spiritualia, of a mystic of M ount Athos, of Count Zinzendorf,® of the hundred sects, of C aux7 and Rudolf Steiner, and— last but not least— of St. Paul? Do you really believe th a t anyone, be he who he may, can bring about the real presence of one of the Sacred Persons by an earnest utterance of their nam e? I can be certain only that someone has called up a psychic image, b u t it is impossible for me to confirm the real presence of the Being evoked. I t is neither for us nor for others to decide who has been invoked by the holy nam e and to whom one has surrendered oneself. Has it not happened th a t the invocation of the Holy Spirit has brought the devil on the scene? W hat are invoked are in the first place images, and th a t is why images have a special im portance. I do not for a m om ent deny that the deep emotion of a true prayer may reach transcendence, but it is above our heads. There would not even be any transcen­ dence if our images and m etaphors were more th an anthropom or­ phism and the words themselves had a magical effect. T he Catholic C hurch protects itself against this insinuation expressis verbis, insist­ ing on its teaching th a t God cannot go back on his own institutions. H e is morally obliged to m aintain them by his Holy Spirit or his 5 [Apostolic Constitution ("Munificentissimus Deus” ) of Pius X I I (1 9 5 0 ), sec. 3 3 : “ . . . on this day th e V irgin M other w as taken up to her heavenly bridal-cham ber.” Cf. “A nswer to Job” (C .W ., vol. 11 ), par. 743, n. 4 .] e [C ount N ikolaus L udw ig von Zinzendorf (1 7 0 0 - 6 0 ) , founder o f the H erm huter Briidergem einde, a com m unity o f M oravian Brethren.] 7 [Caux-sur-M ontreux, Switzerland, a conference centre of the M oral R e-Arm a­ m ent m ovem ent. A W orld Assembly was held there in 1949.]

grace. Al! theological preaching is a mythologem, a series of arch e­ typal images intended to give a m ore or less exact description of the unim aginable transcendence. I t is a paradox, b u t it is justified. T h e totality of these archetypes corresponds to w hat I have called the collective unconscious. W e are concerned here w ith empirical facts, as I have proved. (Incidentally, you don’t seem to be well inform ed abo u t either th e n atu re of the unconscious or my psychol­ ogy. T h e idea th a t the unconscious is the abyss of all the horrors is a bit out of date. T h e collective unconscious is n eu tra l; it is only nature, both spiritual and chthonic. T o im pute to my psychology the idea th a t the H oly Spirit is “ only a projection of the hum an soul” is false. H e is a transcendental fact which presents itself to us un d er the guise of an archetypal im age (e.g, [ ] s, or are we to believe th a t he is really “ breathed fo rth ” by the F ath er and the S on?). T h ere is no guarantee th a t this im age corresponds ex­ actly to the transcendental entity. '53 7 T h e unconscious is am bivalent; it can produce bo th good and evil effects. So the im age of G od also has tw o sides, like Y H W H or the G od of Clem ent of R om e w ith tw o h a n d s ; the right is Christ, the left Satan, an d it is w ith these two hands th a t he rules the w orld.9 Nicholas of Gusa calls G od a com plexio oppositorum (n a tu ­ rally un d er th e apotropaic condition of the privatio b o n i!). Y H W H ’s paradoxical qualities are continued in the New T esta­ m ent. In these circumstances it becomes very difficult to know w hat to m ake of prayer. C an we address our prayer to the good God to the exclusion of the dem on, as Schw eitzer recom mends? H ave we the pow er of dissociating G od like the countryw om an who said to the child Jesus, w hen he interrupted her prayer to the V irgin: “Shhh, child, I ’m talking to your m other” ? C an we really p u t on one side the G od w ho is dangerous to us? Do we believe th a t God is so powerless th a t we can say to h im : “ G et out, I ’m talking to your better half?” O r can we ignore th e absconditus? Schweitzer invites us to do just this; w e’re going to have our b ath e in the river, and never m ind the crocodiles. O ne can, it seems, brush them aside. W ho is there w ho can produce this “simple faith ” ? J5 3 8 Like God, then, the unconscious has two aspects; one good, favourable, beneficent, the other evil, malevolent, disastrous. T he unconscious is th e im m ediate source of o u r religious experiences. T his psychic n atu re of all experience does not m ean th a t the tran8 [L acuna in the file copy of th e letter.] 9 [Cf. A io n , C .W ., vol. g, ii, pars. ggff.J

scendental realities are also psychic; the physicist does not believe that the transcendental reality represented by his psychic model is also psychic. H e calls it matter, and in the same way the psycholo­ gist in no wise attributes a psychic nature to his images or arche­ types. H e calls them “ psychoids” 30 and is convinced th a t they repre­ sent transcendental realities. H e even knows of “simple faith” as that conviction which one cannot avoid. It is vain to seek for it; it comes when it wills, for it is the gift of the Holy Spirit. There is only one divine spirit— an immediate presence, often terrifying and in no degree subject to our choice. There is no guarantee that it may not just as well be the devil, as happened to St. Ignatius Loyola in his vision of the serpens oculatus, interpreted at first as Christ or God and later as the devil.11 Nicholas of Fliie had his terrifying vision of the absconditus, and transformed it later into the kindly Trinity of therparish church of Sachseln.12 1539 Surrender to God is a formidable adventure, and as “simple” as any situation over which m an has no control. He who can risk himself wholly to it finds himself directly in the hands of God, and is there confronted w ith a situation which makes “simple faith” a vital necessity; in other words, the situation becomes so full of risk or overtly dangerous th a t the deepest instincts are aroused. An experience of this kind is always numinous, for it unites all aspects of totality. All this is wonderfully expressed in Christian religious symbolism: the divine will incarnate in Christ urges towards the fatal issue, the catastrophe followed by the fact or hope of resurrec­ tion, while Christian faith insists on the deadly danger of the adven­ ture; but the Churches assure us that God protects us against all danger and especially against the fatality of our character. Instead of taking up our cross, we are told to cast it on Christ. H e will take on the burden of our anguish and we can enjoy our “simple faith” at Caux. We take flight into the Christian collectivity where we can forget even the will of God, for in society we lose the feeling of personal responsibility and can swim with the current. O ne feels safe in the m ultitude, and the Church does everything to reassure us against the fear of God, as if it did not believe th a t H e could bring about a serious situation. O n the other hand psychology is painted as black as possible, because it teaches, in full agreement 10 [Cf. M ysterium Coniunctionis, C.W ., vol. 14, pars. 786f.] 11 [Cf. “O n th e N ature of the Psyche” (C.W ., vol. 8 ), p ar. 395.] 12 [Cf. “B rother K laus” (C.W ., vol. 11) and “Archetypes of the Collective U nconscious” (C.W ., vol. 9, i) , pars. i2ff.]

w ith the C hristian creed, th a t no m an can ascend unless he has first descended. A professor of theology once accused me publicly th a t “in flagrant contradiction to the words of C hrist” I h ad criti­ cized as childish the m an who rem ains an in fan t retaining his early beliefs. I h ad to rem ind him of the fact th a t Christ never said “rem ain children” b u t “ become like children.” This is one small exam ple of the way in w hich C hristian experience is falsified; it is prettied up, its sombre aspects are denied, its dangers are hidden. But the action of the H oly Spirit does not meet us in the atm osphere of a norm al, bourgeois (o r p ro le ta ria n !), sheltered, regular life, b u t only in the insecurity outside the h u m an economy, in th e infinite spaces w here one is alone w ith the providentia Dei. W e m ust never forget th a t Christ was an innovator and revolutionary, executed w ith criminals. T h e reform ers and great religious geniuses were heretics. I t is there th a t you find the footprints of the H oly Spirit, and no one asks for him or receives him w ithout having to pay a high price. T h e price is so high th a t no one today w ould dare to suggest th a t he possesses or is possessed by the H oly Spirit, or he w ould be too close to the psychiatric clinic. T h e danger of m ak­ ing oneself ridiculous is too real, not to m ention th e risk of offending our real god: respectability. T h ere one even becomes very strict, and it w ould not be at all allowable for G od an d his Spirit to perm it themselves to give advice or orders as in the O ld Testam ent. C ertainly everyone would lay his irregularities to the account of the unconscious. O ne w ould sa y : God is faithful, he does not forsake us, G od does n o t lie, he will keep his w ord, and so on. W e know it isn’t true, b u t we go on repeating these lies ad infinitum . It is quite understandable th a t we should seek to hold th e tru th at arm ’s length, because it seems impossible to give oneself up to a G od w ho doesn’t even respect his own laws w hen he falls victim to one of his fits of rage or forgets his solemn oath. W hen I allow myself to m ention these well-attested facts the theologians accuse m e of blasphem y, unw illing as they are to adm it the am bivalence of the divine nature, the dem onic character of the God of the Bible and even of th e C hristian God. W hy was th a t cruel im m olation of the Son necessary if th e anger of th e “ deus ultionum ” is not h ard to appease? O ne doesn’t notice m uch of the F ath er’s goodness and love during the tragic end of his Son. 1540 T rue, w e ought to abandon ourselves to the divine will as m uch as we can, b u t adm it th a t to do so is difficult and dangerous, so dangerous indeed th a t I w ould n o t dare to advise one of m y clients

to “ take” the H oly S pirit or to abandon himself to him until I h ad first m ade him realize the risks of such an enterprise. 1541 P erm it m e here to m ake a few comm ents. O n pp. x i f .: T h e H oly Spirit is to be feared. H e is revolutionary especially in religious m atters (n o t a t all “ perhaps even religious,” p. n b o tto m ). Ah, yes, one does well to refuse the Holy Spirit, because people w ould like to palm him off on us w ithout telling us w hat this sacred fire is w hich killeth a n d m aketh to live. O n e m ay get through a battle w ithout being w ounded, b u t there are some unfortunates w ho do not know how to avoid either m utilation or death. Perhaps one is am ong their num ber. O ne can hardly take the risk of th a t w ithout the m ost convincing necessity. I t is quite norm al and reasonable to refuse oneself to the Holy Spirit. H as M . Boegner’s13 life been tu rn e d upside dow n? H as he taken the risk of breaking w ith con­ vention (e.g., eating w ith Gentiles w hen one is an orthodox Jew , or even better w ith w om en of doubtful re p u ta tio n ), or been im ­ m ersed in darkness like H osea, m aking himself ridiculous, overturn­ ing th e trad itio n al order, etc.? I t is deeds th a t are needed, not words. ■542 p. 13. I t is very civil to say th a t the H oly Spirit is “ uncom fort­ able an d sometimes upsetting,” b u t very characteristic. 1543 p. 16. I t is clear th a t th e H oly Spirit is concerned in the long run w ith the collectivity ( ecclesia), b u t in the first place w ith the individual, a n d to create him he isolates him from his environm ent, just as C hrist himself was thought m ad by his own family. ■544 p. i g. T h e H oly Spirit, “ the accredited bearer of the holiness of G od.” B ut w ho will recognize him as such? Everyone will certainly say th a t he is d runk o r a heretic or m ad. T o th e description “ bearer of the holiness” needs to be added the holiness w hich G od himself sometim es sets on one side (Ps. 8 9 ) . ■545 p. 21. It is no use for M r. H o rto n to believe th a t receiving the H oly Spirit is quite a simple business. It is so to the degree th at we do not realize w h at is a t issue. W e are surrendering our­ selves to a Spirit w ith two aspects. T h a t is why we are not p a rticu ­ larly ready to “ d rink” of him , o r to “thirst” for him. W e hope rath e r th a t G od is going to pass us by, th a t we are protected against his injustice a n d his violence. G ranted, the N ew T estam ent speaks otherwise, b u t w hen we get to the Apocalypse the style changes re­ m arkably and approxim ates to th a t of older times. C hrist’s kingdom has been provisional; the w orld is left thereafter for another aeon to A ntichrist a n d to all th e horrors th a t can be envisaged by a pitiless 13 [Unidentified.]

!546

'547

■548

r 549

and loveless im agination. This witness in favour of the god w ith two faces represents th e last and tragic chapter of the New T esta­ m ent w hich would like to have set up a god exclusively good and m ade only of love. This Apocalypse— was it a frightful gaffe on the p a rt of those Fathere who drew up the canon? I don’t think so. T hey were still too close to the h ard reality of things and of religious traditions to share o u r m awkish interpretations and prettily falsified opinions. p. 23. “ S urrender w ithout the least reserve.” W ould M r. H orton advise us to cross the Avenue de l’O p era blindfold? H is belief in the good God is so strong th a t he has forgotten the fear of God. F or M r. H orton God is dangerous no longer. But in th a t case— w h at is the Apocalypse all about? H e asks nevertheless, “ T o w h at interior dynam ism is one surrendering oneself, n atu ral or supernatural?” W hen he says, “ I surrender myself wholly to G od,” how does he know w h at is “ whole” ? O u r wholeness is an uncon­ scious fact, whose extent we cannot establish. God alone can judge of hum an wholeness. W e can only say hum bly: “As wholly as possible.” T here is no guarantee th a t it is really G od w hen we say “god.” I t is perhaps a w ord concealing a dem on or a void, or it is an act of grace coincident w ith our prayer. This total surrender is disturbing. N early tw enty years ago I gave a course at the Ecole Polytechnique Suisse for tw o semesters on the Exercitia Spiritualia of St. Ignatius.14 O n th a t occasion I received a profound impression of thjs' total surrender, in relation to w hich one never knows whether:' one is dealing w ith sanctity or w ith spiritual pride. O ne sees too th a t th e god to w hom one surrenders oneself is a clear and well-defined prescription given by the director of the Exercises. T his is particularly evident in the p a rt called the “ colloquium ,” w here there is only one who speaks, and th a t is the initiand. O ne asks oneself w h at G od or Christ would say if it were a real dialogue, b u t no one expects God to reply. p. 26. T h e identity of C hrist w ith the H oly Spirit seems to me to be questionable, since C hrist m ade a very clear distinction be­ tw een himself and th e paraclete, even if the la tter’s function resem­ bles C hrist’s. T h e near-identity of the H oly Spirit w ith Christ in St. Jo h n ’s Gospel is characteristic of th e evangelist’s Gnosticism. 14 [L e c tu re s a t th e F e d e ra l P o ly te c h n ic In s titu te to M a r c h 1940. P riv a te ly issued.]

( E T H ) , Z u ric h , J u n e

1939

I t seem s to m e im p o rta n t to insist o n th e ch ronological sequence of th e T h re e P ersons, fo r th e re is a n evolution in th re e stages: 1. T h e F a th e r. T h e opposites n o t yet d iffe re n tia te d ; S a ta n is still n u m b e re d a m o n g th e “ sons of G o d .” C h rist th e n is only h in te d at. 2. G o d is in c a rn a te d as th e “ Son of M a n .” S a ta n has fallen fro m h ea v en . H e is th e o th e r “ so n .” T h e opposites are d iffe re n tia te d . 3. T h e H o ly S p irit is O n e , his p ro to ty p e is th e R u a c h E lo h im , a n e m a n a tio n , a n activ e p rin cip le, w h ich proceeds (as q u in tessen ce) a P a tre F ilioque. In a s m u c h as h e proceeds also fro m th e S on h e is d iffe ren t fro m th e R u a c h E lo h im , w ho represents th e active p rin c ip le o f Y a h w eh (n o t in c a rn a te , w ith only angels in p lace of a s o n ). T h e angels a re called “ sons,” th ey a re n o t b e g o tte n a n d th e re is n o m o th e r of th e angels. C h rist o n th e o th e r h a n d shares in h u m a n n a tu re , he is even m a n b y definition. I n th is case it is ev id en t th a t th e H o ly S p irit p ro c eed in g fro m th e Son does n o t arise fro m th e d iv in e n a tu re only, th a t is, fro m th e second P erson, b u t also fro m th e h u m a n n a tu re . T h a n k s to th is fa ct, h u m a n n a tu re is in c lu d e d in th e m ystery of th e T rin ity . M a n form s p a r t of it. !550 T h is “ h u m a n n a tu r e ” is only figuratively h u m a n , fo r it is ex­ e m p t fro m o rig in al sin. T h is m ak es th e “ h u m a n ” elem e n t definitely d o u b tfu l in a sm u c h as m a n w ith o u t ex cep tio n , save fo r C h rist a n d his m o th e r, is b e g o tte n a n d b o rn b e a rin g th e sta m p o f th e m a c u la p eccati. T h a t is w h y C h rist a n d his m o th e r enjoy a n a tu re divine ra th e r th a n h u m a n . F o r th e P ro te s ta n t th e re is n o reaso n to th in k of M a ry as a goddess. T h u s h e c a n easily a d m it t h a t o n his m o th e r’s side C h rist w as c o n ta m in a te d b y o rig in al sin ; this m ak es h im all th e m o re h u m a n , a t least so fa r as th e filio q u e of th e P ro te sta n t confession does n o t exclude th e tru e m a n fro m th e “ h u m a n ” n a tu re of C h rist. O n th e o th e r h a n d it becom es e v id e n t t h a t th e H oly S p irit necessarily proceeds fr o m th e tw o na tu res of C h rist, n o t only fro m th e G o d in h im , b u t also fro m th e m a n in him . ’55 i T h e re w ere v ery good reasons w hy th e C ath o lic C h u rc h has carefu lly p u rified C h rist a n d his m o th e r fro m all c o n ta m in a tio n by th e p e c c a tu m originale. P ro te sta n tism w as m o re courageous, even d a rin g o r— p erh a p s? — m o re oblivious of th e consequences, in n o t d en y in g — expressis verbis— th e h u m a n n a tu r e (in .p a rt) of C h rist a n d (w h o lly ) of his m o th e r. T h u s th e o rd in a ry m a n becam e a source o f th e H o ly S p irit, th o u g h ce rtain ly n o t th e only one. I t is like lig h tn in g , w h ic h issues n o t only fro m th e clouds b u t also

15 5 2

from the peaks of the mountains. This fact signifies the continued and progressive divine incarnation. T hus m an is received and inte­ grated into the divine dram a. H e seems destined to play a decisive part in it; that is why he must receive the Holy Spirit. I look upon the receiving of the Holy Spirit as a highly revolutionary fact which cannot take place until the am bivalent nature of the Father is recog­ nized. If God is the sum m um bonum , the incarnation makes no sense, for a good god could never produce such hate and anger that his only son had to be sacrificed to appease it. A M idrash says th a t the Shofar is still sounded on the Day of Atonem ent to remind Y H W H of his act of injustice towards A braham (by compelling him to slay Isaac) and to prevent him from repeating it, A conscien­ tious clarification of the idea of God would have consequences as upsetting as they are necessary. They would be indispensable for an interior development of the trinitarian dram a and of the role of the Holy Spirit. T he Spirit is destined to be incarnate in m an or to choose him as a transitory dwelling-place. “Non habet nomen proprium ,” says St. T h o m as;15 because he will receive the nam e of m an. T h at is why he must not be identified with Christ. We cannot receive the Holy Spirit unless we have accepted our own individual life as Christ accepted his. Thus we become the “sons of god” fated to experience the conflict of the divine opposites, represented by the crucifixion. M an seems indispensable to the divine dram a. We shall under­ stand this role of m an’s better if we consider the paradoxical nature of the Father. As the Apocalypse has alluded to it ( evangelium aeternum ) and Joachim of Flora1®has expressed it, the Son would seem to be the interm ediary between the F ather and the Holy Spirit. We could repeat w hat O rigen said of the Three Persons, that the F ather is the greatest and the Holy Spirit the least. This is true inas­ m uch as the F ather by descending from the cosmic immensity be­ came the least by incarnating himself within the narrow bounds of the hum an soul (cult of the child-god, Angelus Silesius). Doubtless the presence of the Holy Spirit enlarges hum an nature by divine attributes. H um an nature is the divine vessel and as such the union of the Three. This results in a kind of quaternity which always signifies totality, while the triad is rather a process, but never the natural division of the circle, the natural symbol of wholeness. T he quaternity as union of the T hree seems to be aimed at by the 15 [“H e has no proper nam e.” S u m m a theologica, I, xxvi, art. i .] 16 [The “everlasting gospel” in R ev. 1 4 : 7 is “Fear G od .” For Joachim ’s view , see A ion, pars. 137ΙΪ.]

Assumption of M ary. This dogma adds the feminine element to the masculine Trinity, the terrestrial element {virgo terra!) to the spiritual, and thus sinful m an to the Godhead. For M ary in her character of om nium gratiarum mediatrix intercedes for the sinner before the judge of the world. (She is his “paraclete.” ) She is φιλάνθρωπος like her prefiguration, the Sophia of the O ld Testa­ m ent.17 Protestant critics have completely overlooked the symbolic aspect of the new dogm a and its emotional value, which is a capital fault. 1553 T he “littleness” of the Holy Spirit stems from the fact that G od’s pneum a dissolves into the form of little flames, remaining none the less intact and whole. His dwelling in a certain num ber of hum an individuals and their transformation into νίφ τον θεον signifies a very im portant step forward beyond “Christocentrism.” Anyone who takes up the question of the Holy Spirit seriously is faced with the question w hether Christ is identical with the Holy Spirit or different from him. W ith dogma, I prefer the indepen­ dence of the Holy Spirit. T he Holy Spirit is one, a complexio oppositorum, in contrast to Y H W H after the separation of the divine opposites symbolized by G od’s two sons, Christ and Satan. O n the level of the Son there is no answer to the question of good and evil; there is only an incurable separation of the opposites. The annulling of evil by the privatio boni (declaring to be μή ον) is a petitio principii of the most flagrant kind and no solution w hat­ ever.18 I t seems to me to be the Holy Spirit’s task and charge to re­ concile and reunite the opposites in the hum an individual through a special development of the hum an soul. T he soul is paradoxical like the F ather; it is black and white, divine and demon-like, in its primitive and n atural state. By the discriminative function of its conscious side it separates opposites of every kind, and especially those of the moral order personified in Christ and Devil. Thereby the soul’s spiritual development creates an enormous tension, from which m an can only suffer. Christ promised him redemption. But in w hat exactly does this consist? T he imitatio Christi leads us to Calvary and to the annihilation of the “body,” that is, of biological life, and if we take this death as symbolic it is a state of suspension between the opposites, th at is to say, an unresolved conflict. T h at is exactly w hat Przywara has nam ed the “rift,” 19 the gulf separating good from evil, the latent and apparently incurable dualism of 17 [Cf. “Answer to Job,” pars. 613fF.] 18 [Cf. A ion, pars. 8gff.] 19 [Erich Przywara, D eus semper maior, I, pp. 7 if.]

Christianity, the eternity of the devil and of dam nation. (Inasm uch as good is real so also is evil.) *554 T o find the answer to this question we can but trust to our m ental powers on the one hand and on the other to the functioning of the unconscious, th a t spirit which we cannot control. It can only be hoped that it is a “holy” spirit. T he cooperation of conscious reasoning with the d ata of the unconscious is called the “transcen­ dent function” (cf. Psychological Types, par. 8 2 8 ). 20 This function progressively unites the opposites. Psychotherapy makes use of it to heal neurotic dissociations, but this function had already served Eis the basis of Herm etic philosophy for seventeen centuries. Besides this, it is a natural and spontaneous phenom enon, p art of the pro­ cess of individuation. Psychology has no proof th a t this process does not unfold itself at the instigation of G od’s will. 1555 T he Holy Spirit will manifest himself in any case in the psychic sphere of m an and will be presented as a psychic experience. He thus becomes the object of empirical psychology, which he will need in order to translate his symbolism into the possibilities of this world. Since his intention is the incarnation, th a t is, the realization of the divine being in hum an life, he cannot be a light which the darkness com prehendeth not. O n the contrary, he needs the support of man and his understanding to com prehend the mysterium iniquitatis which began in paradise before m an existed. (T he serpent owes his existence to God and by no means to m an. T h e idea: omne bonum a Deo, omne m alum ab homine is an entirely false one.) Y H W H is inclined to find the cause of evil in men, b u t he evidently represents a moral antinomy accompanied by an almost complete lack of reflection. For example, he seems to have forgotten that he created his son Satan and kept him among the other “sons of G od” until the coming of Christ— a strange oversight! !556 T he data of the collective unconscious favour the hypothesis of a paradoxical creator such as Y H W H . An entirely good Father seems to have very little probability; such a character is difficult to adm it, seeing th at Christ himself endeavoured to reform his Father. H e didn’t completely succeed, even in his own logia. O ur unconscious resembles this paradoxical God. T h a t is why m an is faced w ith a psychological condition which does not let him differ­ entiate himself from the image of God (Y H W H ). N aturally we can believe th a t God is different from the image of him th at we possess, but it must be adm itted on the other side th at the Lord 20 [Cf. also “T h e T ranscendent F unction” (C .W ., vol. 8 ).]

himself, while insisting on the Father’s perfect goodness, has given a picture of him which fits in badly with the idea of a perfectly moral being. (A father who tempts his children, who did not pre­ vent the error of the immediate parousia, who is so full of w rath that the blood of his only son is necessary to appease him, who left the crucified one to despair, who proposes to devastate his own creation and slay the millions of mankind to save a very few of them, and who before the end of the world is going to replace his Son’s covenant by another gospel and complement the love by the fear of G od.) It is interesting, or rather tragic, th at God under­ goes a complete relapse in the last book of the New Testament. But in the case of an antinom ian being we could expect no other development. T he opposites are kept in balance, and so the kingdom of Christ is followed by th at of Antichrist. In the circumstances the Holy Spirit, the third form of God, becomes of extreme im por­ tance, for it is thanks to him th a t the m an of good will is draw n towards the divine dram a and mingled in it, and the Spirit is one. In him the opposites are separated no longer, i 557 Begging you to excuse the somewhat heretical character of my thoughts as well as their imperfect presentation, I remain, dear monsieur, yours sincerely, C. G. J u n g

O N R E S U R R E C T IO N 1 Y o u a r e q u ite r i g h t : I h a v e n e v e r d e a lt w ith a ll asp e c ts o f th e C h ris t-fig u re f o r th e s im p le re a s o n t h a t it w o u ld h a v e b e e n to o m u c h . I a m n o t a th e o lo g ia n a n d I h a v e h a d n o tim e to a c q u ire a ll th e k n o w le d g e t h a t is w a n te d in o r d e r to a tte m p t th e s o lu tio n o f s u c h p ro b le m s as t h a t o f th e R e s u rre c tio n . 559 I n d u b i ta b l y r e s u r r e c tio n is o n e of th e m o st— if n o t th e m o st— im ­ p o r t a n t ite m in th e m y th o r th e b io g r a p h y o f C h ris t a n d in th e h is to ry o f th e p r im itiv e c h u r c h .

558

i . R e s u r f e c tio n as a historical f a c t in th e b io g r a p h y of Jesus 560

T h r e e G o sp e ls h a v e a c o m p le te r e p o r t a b o u t th e p o s tm o rta l e v e n ts a f te r th e C ru c ifix io n . M a r k , h o w e v e r, m e n tio n s o n ly th e o p e n a n d e m p ty to m b a n d th e p re s e n c e o f th e a n g e l, w h ile th e a p p a r itio n o f th e v isib le b o d y o f C h r is t h a s b e e n r e p o r te d b y a l a te r h a n d in a n o b v io u s a d d e n d u m . T h e first r e p o r t a b o u t th e re s u rre c te d C h r is t is m a d e b y M a r y M a g d a le n e , f ro m w h o m C h r is t h a d d r iv e n o u t se v e n d ev ils. T h is a n n o ta tio n h a s a p e c u lia rly c u rso ry c h a r a c te r ( c f. in p a r ti c u l a r M a r k 1 1 : r g ) , 2 as if s o m e b o d y h a d re a liz e d t h a t M a r k ’s r e p o r t w a s a lto g e th e r to o m e a g re a n d t h a t th e u s u a l th in g s to ld a b o u t C h r is t’s d e a th o u g h t to b e a d d e d fo r th e sa k e of c o m p le te n e ss. 561 T h e e a rlie s t s o u rc e a b o u t th e R e s u r r e c tio n is S t. P a u l, a n d h e is n o ey e w itn e ss, b u t h e s tro n g ly e m p h a siz e s th e a b s o lu te a n d v ita l i m p o r ta n c e o f r e s u r r e c tio n as w e ll as t h e a u th e n tic ity o f th e re p o rts . ( C f . I C o r. 1 5 : 1 4fT a n d 1 5 : 5fT.) H e m e n tio n s C e p h a s ( P e t e r ) as th e first w itn e ss, th e n th e tw e lv e , th e n t h e five h u n d r e d , th e n J a m e s , 1 [W ritten in E nglish, 19 Feb. 1954, in reply to an inquiry from M artha D an a, Peggy Gerry, and M arian R eith , members o f a sem inar on Jung’s A ion led by D r. Jam es Kirsch, Los A ngeles, 1 9 5 3 -5 4 , during w hich (Dr. Kirsch has stated) “every line of the book was read and com m ented upon. W hile the sem inar was in progress Mrs. D an a, Mrs. Gerry, and Mrs. Reith becam e curious about the fact that in all of the writings of Jung they had not found any com m entary on the id ea of Resurrection . . . [which] seem ed to be the central event in the Christ story, and they therefore wondered w hy Jung had not said anything about it.” ] 2 [Evidently an error for 1 6 : gff.]

then the apostles, and finally himself. This is interesting, since his experience was quite clearly an understandable vision, while the later reports insist upon the m aterial concreteness of C hrist’s body (particularly Luke 2 4 :4 2 and Jo h n 2 0 : 24ff.). T h e evangelical testi­ monies agree w ith each other only about the emptiness of the tom b, but not a t all about the chronology of the eyewitnesses. T here the tradition becomes utterly unreliable. If one adds the story about the end of Judas, w ho m ust have been a very interesting object to the hatred of the Christians, our doubts of the Resurrection story are intensified: there are two absolutely different versions of the way of his death. 1562 T h e fact of the Resurrection is historically doubtful. If we ex­ tend the beneficium dubii to those contradictory statem ents we could consider the possibility of an individual as well as collective vision (less likely of a m aterialization). >563 T h e conclusion draw n by the ancient Christians— since C hrist has risen from the dead so shall we rise in a new and incorruptible body— is of course just w h at St. P aul has feared m ost,3 viz., invalid and as vain as th e expectation of the im m ediate parousia, which has come to naught. '564 As the m any shocking miracle-stories in the Gospels show, spiri­ tual reality could not be dem onstrated to the uneducated a n d rather prim itive population in any other way b u t by crude and tangible “m iracles” or stories of such kind. Concretism was unavoidable with all its grotesque im plications— for exam ple, the believers in Christ were by the grace of God to be equipped w ith a glorified body at their resurrection, and the unbelievers and unredeem ed sinners were too, so th a t they could be plagued in hell or purgatory for any length of tim e. A n incorruptible body was necessary for the latter perform ance, otherwise dam nation w ould have come to an end in no time. '565 U n d e r those conditions, resurrection as a historical and concrete fact cannot be m aintained, whereas the vanishing of the corpse could be a real fact. 2. Resurrection as a psychological event 1566

T h e facts here are perfectly clear an d well docum ented: T he life of the G od-m an on earth comes to an end w ith his resurrection a n d transition to heaven. T his is firm belief since the beginning 3 “ If C h rist be n o t risen, th en is o u r p re a c h in g v ain, a n d y o u r fa ith is also v ain ” ( I C or. 1 5 :1 4 ).

of Christianity. In mythology it belongs to the hero that he conquers death and brings back to life his parents, tribal ancestors, etc. H e has a more perfect, richer, and stronger personality than the ordinary mortal. Although he is also m ortal himself, death does not annihilate his existence: he continues living in a somewhat modified form. O n a higher level of civilization he approaches the type of the dying and resurrected god, like Osiris, who becomes the greater personality in every individual (like the Johannine C hrist), viz., his τέλειος ίίνθρωττος, the complete (or perfect) m an, the self. '567 T he self as an archetype represents a numinous wholeness, which can be expressed only by symbols (e.g., m andala, tree, etc.). As a collective image it reaches beyond the individual in time and space4 and is therefore not subjected to the corruptibility of one body; the realization of the self is nearly always connected with the feeling of timelessness, “eternity,” or immortality. (Cf. the per­ sonal and superpersonal atm an.) We do not know w hat an arche­ type is (i.e., consists of), since the nature of the psyche is inaccessi­ ble to us, but we know that archetypes exist and work. 1568 From this point of view it is no longer difficult to see to w hat degree the story of the Resurrection represents the projection of an indirect realization of the self th a t had appeared in the figure of a certain m an, Jesus of N azareth, of whom many rumors were circulating.5 In those days the old gods had ceased to be significant. T heir power had already been replaced by the concrete one of the visible god, the Caesar, whose sacrifices were the only obligatory ones. But this substitution was as unsatisfactory as th a t of God by the communistic state. It was a frantic and desperate attem pt to create— out of no m atter how doubtful material— a spiritual m on­ arch, a pantokrator, in opposition to the concretized divinity in Rome. (W hat a joke of the esprit d’escalier of history— the substitu­ tion for the Caesar of the pontifical office of St. P e te r!) 1569 T heir need of a spiritual authority then became so particularly urgent, because there was only one divine individual, the Caesar, while all the others were anonymous and h ad n ’t even private gods listening to their prayers.® They took therefore to magic of all kinds. i Cf. the so-called parapsychological phenom ena, 5 Cf. the passage about Christ in the C hurch Slavonic text o f Josephus, T h e Jewish War, in G .R .S. M ead, T h e Gnostic John the B aptizer, pp. 97ff. [ = ch. I l l : “T h e Slavonic Josephus’ A ccount of the Baptist and Jesus,” pp. i o 6ff.] 5 T h eir condition w as worse than that o f the Egyptians in the last pre-Christian centuries: these had already acquired an individual Osiris. As a m atter of fact, E gypt turned Christian at once w ith no hesitation.

O u r actual situation is pretty m uch the sa m e : we are rapidly becom ­ ing the slaves of an anonym ous state as the highest authority ruling our lives. C om m unism has realized this ideal in the most perfect way. U nfortunately ou r dem ocracy has nothing to offer in the way of different ideals; it also believes in the concrete pow er of the state. T h e re is no spiritual authority com parable to th a t of th e state anyw here. W e are badly in need of a spiritual counterbalance to the ultim ately bolshevistic concretism. I t is again the case of the “witnesses” against the Caesar. 157» T h e gospel w riters were as eager as St. Paul to heap m iraculous qualities an d spiritual significances upon th a t almost unknow n young rabbi, w ho after a career lasting perhaps only one year h ad m et w ith an untim ely end. W h a t they m ade of him we know, b u t we don’t know to w h at extent this picture has anything to do w ith the truly historical m an, sm othered u n d er an avalanche of projec­ tions. W hether he was the eternally living Christ a n d Logos, we don’t know. I t m akes no difference anyhow, since the im age of the G od-m an lives in everybody an d has been in carnated (i.e., p ro ­ jected) in th e m an Jesus, to m ake itself visible, so th a t people could realize him as their ow n interior hom o, their self. !571 T h u s they had regained their h u m an dignity: everybody had divine n ature. Christ h ad told them : D ii estis: “ye are gods” ; and as such they were his brethren, of his n ature, and h ad overcome annihilation either th rough th e power of th e C aesar or through physical death. T hey w ere “ resurrected w ith C hrist.” >572 Since we are psychic beings an d not entirely dependent upon space a n d time, we can easily understand the central im portance of the resurrection id ea: we are not com pletely subjected to the powers of annihilation because our psychic totality reaches beyond the barrier of space an d tim e. T h ro u g h the progressive integration of th e unconscious we have a reasonable chance to m ake experiences of an archetypal n a tu re providing us w ith th e feeling of continuity before a n d after our existence. T h e better we understand the arche­ type, the m ore we participate in its life and the m ore we realize its eternity or timelessness. >573 As roundness signifies completeness or perfection, it also ex­ presses ro tation (th e rolling m ovem ent) or progress on an endless circular way, an identity w ith th e sun an d the stars (hence th e beautiful confession in th e “ M ithraic L iturgy” ; εγώ είμι σ ύμ π λα νο ς νμϊν ά(ττήρ ( “ I am a S tar following his way like you” ). T h e realization of the self also m eans a re-establishm ent of M an as

the microcosm, i.e., m an’s cosmic relatedness. Such realizations are frequently accompanied by synchronistic events. (T h e prophetic experience of vocation belongs to this category.) r574 To the primitive Christians as to all primitives, the Resurrection had to be a concrete, materialistic event to be seen by the eyes and touched by the hands, as if the spirit had no existence of its own. Even in m odem times people cannot easily grasp (he reality of a psychic event, unless it is concrete at the same time. Resur­ rection as a psychic event is certainly not concrete, it is just a psychic experience. I t is funny that the Christians are still so pagan th a t they understand spiritual existence only as a body and as a physical event. I am afraid our Christian churches can­ not m aintain this shocking anachronism any longer, if they don’t w ant to get into intolerable contradictions. As a concession to this criticism, certain theologians have explained St. P aul’s glorified (subtle) body given back to the dead on the day of judgment as the authentic individual “form ,” viz., a spiritual idea sufficiently characteristic of the individual th a t the m aterial body could be skipped. It was the evidence for m an ’s survival after death and the hope to escape eternal dam nation th a t m ade resurrection in the body the mainstay of Christian faith. We know positively only of the fact th at space and time are relative to the psyche.

O N T H E D IS C O U R S E S O F T H E B U D D H A 1 575

I t was neither the history of religion nor the study of philosophy th a t first drew m e to the w orld of Buddhist thought, b u t my profes­ sional interests as a doctor. M y task was the treatm ent of psychic suffering, and it was this th a t impelled me to become acquainted w ith the views a n d m ethods of th at great teacher of hum anity whose principal them e was the “chain of suffering, old age, sickness, and d e a th .” F or although the healing of the sick naturally lies closest to the doctor’s heart, he is bound to recognize th at there are m any diseases a n d states of suffering which, not being susceptible of a direct cure, dem and from both patient and doctor some kind of attitude to their irrem ediable nature. Even though it m ay not am ount to actual incurability, in all such cases there are inevitably phases of stagnation and hopelessness w hich seem unendurable and require treatm en t just as m uch as a direct sym ptom of illness. They call for a kind of m oral attitude such as is provided by religious faith or a philosophical belief. In this respect the study of Buddhist literature was of great help to m e, since it trains one to observe suffering objectively an d to take a universal view of its causes. Ac­ cording to tradition, it was by objectively observing the chain of causes th a t the B uddha was able to extricate his consciousness from the snares of the ten thousand things, and to rescue his feelings from the entanglem ents of em otion and illusion. So also in our sphere of culture the suffering and the sick can derive considerable benefit from this prototype of the Buddhist m entality, however strange it m ay appear. 576 T h e discourses of th e B uddha, here presented in Κ . E. N e u ­ m a n n ’s new translation, have an im portance th at should not be 1 [Statem ent in the publisher’s prospectus for D ie R eden C otam o B uddhost translated from the Pali Canon by Karl Eugen N eum ann, 3 vols. Zurich, Stutt­ gart, V ienna, 1 9 5 6 ). Statements were also contributed to the prospectus by Thom as M ann and Albert Schweitzer. N eum ann (1 8 6 5 —1915) had published an earlier version of his translation in 1911, w hich Jung cited in W andlungen und S ym bole d er L ib id o ( 1911—1 2 ) ; cf. Psychology of th e Unconscious (N ew York, 1916), p. 538, n. 25. T he present statem ent was published as “Zu D ie R eden G otam o B u ddh os” in Cesam . W erket X I, Anhang.]

underestimated. Q uite ap art from their profound meaning, their solemn, almost ritual form emits a penetrating radiance which has an exhilarating and exalting effect and cannot fail to work directly upon one’s feelings. Against this use of the spiritual treasures of the East it m ight be— and indeed, often has been— objected from the Christian point of view th a t the faith of the West offers consola­ tions that are at least as significant, and th a t there is no need to invoke the spirit of Buddhism with its markedly rational attitude. Aside from the fact that in most cases the Christian faith of which people speak simply isn’t there, and no one can tell how it might be obtained (except by the special providence of G o d ), it is a truism th a t anything known becomes so familiar and hackneyed by fre­ quent use th a t it gradually loses its m eaning and hence its effect; whereas anything strange and unknown, and so completely different in its nature, can open doors hitherto locked and new possibilities of understanding. If a Christian insists so m uch on his faith when it does not even help him to w ard off a neurosis, then his faith is vain, and it is better to accept hum bly w hat he needs no m atter where he finds it, if only it helps. There is no need for him to deny his religion convictions if he acknowledges his debt to Bud­ dhism, for he is only following the Pauline injunction: “ Prove all things; hold fast th at which is good” ( I Thess. 5 : 2 1 ). ! 577 T o this good which should be held fast one must reckon the discourses of the Buddha, which have m uch to offer even to those who cannot boast of any Christian convictions. They offer Western m an ways and means of disciplining his inner psychic life, thus remedying an often regrettable defect in the various brands of Christianity. T he teachings of the B uddha can give him a helpful training when either the Christian ritual has lost its m eaning or the authority of religious ideas has collapsed, as all too frequently happens in psychogenic disorders. *578 People have often accused me of regarding religion as “mental hygiene.” Perhaps one may pardon a doctor his professional hum il­ ity in not undertaking to prove the tru th of metaphysical assertions and in shunning confessions of faith. I am content to emphasize the im portance of having a W eltanschauung and the therapeutic necessity of adopting some kind of attitude to the problem of psychic suffering. Suffering th a t is not understood is hard to bear, while on the other hand it is often astounding to see how m uch a person can endure when he understands the why and the wherefore. A philosophical or religious view of the world enables him to do this,

'579

! 5 So

and such views prove to be, at the very least, psychic methods of healing if not of salvation. Even Christ and his disciples did not scorn to heal the sick, thereby demonstrating the therapeutic power of their mission. T he doctor has to cope with actual suffering for better or worse, and ultimately has nothing to rely on except the mystery of divine Providence. It is no wonder, then, that he values religious ideas and attitudes, so far as they prove helpful, as thera­ peutic systems, and singles out the Buddha in particular, the essence of whose teaching is deliverance from suffering through the maxi­ m um development of consciousness, as one of the supreme helpers on the road to salvation. From ancient times physicians have sought a panacea, a medicina catholica, and their persistent efforts have unconsciously brought them nearer to the central ideas of the reli­ gion and philosophy of the East. Anyone who is familiar with methods of suggestion under hyp­ nosis knows that plausible suggestions work better than those which run counter to the patient’s own nature. Consequently, whether he liked it or not, the doctor was obliged to develop conceptions which corresponded as closely as possible with the actual psychologi­ cal conditions. Thus, there grew up a realm of theory which not only drew upon traditional thought but took account of the uncon­ scious products that compensated its inevitable one-sidedness— that is to say, all those psychic factors which Christian philosophy left unsatisfied. Among these were not a few aspects which, unknown to the West, had been developed in Eastern philosophy from very early times. So if, as a doctor, I acknowledge the immense help and stimula­ tion I have received from the Buddhist teachings, I am following a line which can be traced back some two thousand years in the history of hum an thought.

F O R E W O R D T O F R O B O E S E -T H IE L E : “T R A U M E — E IN E Q U E L L E R E L IG IO S E R E R FA H R U N G ?”1 58t

T h is b o o k h a s th e m e r it of b e in g th e first to in v e s tig a te h o w th e u n c o n s c io u s o f P r o te s ta n ts b e h a v e s w h e n it h a s to c o m p e n s a te a n in te n s e ly re lig io u s a ttitu d e . T h e a u th o r e x a m in e s th is q u e s tio n w ith th e h e lp o f case m a te r ia l sh e h a s c o lle c te d in h e r p r a c tic a l w o rk . S h e h a s e v id e n tly h a d th e g o o d f o r tu n e to c o m e u p o n so m e v e ry in s tr u c tiv e cases w h o , m o re o v e r, d id n o t o b je c t to th e p u b lic a ­ tio n o f th e ir m a te r ia l. S in c e w e o w e o u r k n o w le d g e o f u n c o n sc io u s p ro cesses p r im a r ily to d re a m s , th e a u t h o r is m a in ly c o n c e rn e d w ith th e d r e a m s o f h e r p a tie n ts . E v e n f o r o n e f a m ilia r w ith th is m a te ria l, th e d re a m s a n d sy m b o ls r e p o r te d h e re a r e r e m a rk a b le . A s a th e r a ­ p ist, sh e h a n d le s th e d re a m s in a v e ry fe lic ito u s m a n n e r , f r o m th e p r a c tic a l sid e ch iefly , so t h a t a r e c ip ro c a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e m e a n in g o f th e d r e a m is g r a d u a lly b u ilt u p b e tw e e n h e r a n d th e p a tie n t. T h is p u ts th e r e a d e r in th e a d v a n ta g e o u s p o s itio n o f lis te n ­ in g in o n a d ia lo g u e , so to sp e a k . T h e m e th o d is as in s tru c tiv e a s it is sa tisfy in g , sin c e it is p o ssib le to p re s e n t in th is w a y se v e ra l fa irly lo n g s e q u e n c e s o f d re a m s . A d e ta ile d sc ie n tific c o m m e n ta ry w o u ld ta k e u p a d is p r o p o r tio n a te a m o u n t of sp a c e w ith o u t m a k in g th e d r e a m i n te r p r e ta tio n a n y m o re im p re ssiv e . I f th e in te r p r e ta tio n is a t tim e s u n c e r ta in , o r d is re g a rd s v a rio u s d e ta ils, th is in n o w a y a ffe c ts th e t h e r a p e u tic in te n tio n to b r in g th e m e a n in g o f th e d r e a m n e a r e r to co n scio u sn ess. I n a c tu a l p ra c tic e , o n e c a n o fte n d o fu ll ju s tic e to a d r e a m if o n e s im p ly p u ts its g e n e ra l te n d e n c y , its e m o ­ tio n a l a tm o s p h e r e , a n d its a p p r o x im a te m e a n in g in th e r ig h t lig h t, h a v in g first, of c o u rse , a s s u re d o n e se lf o f th e s p o n ta n e o u s a p p ro v a l o f th e d r e a m e r . W ith in te llig e n t p e rso n s, th is th o u g h tf u l fe e lin g o f o n e ’s w a y in to th e m e a n in g o f th e d r e a m c a n so o n b e le ft to t h e p a t i e n t h im se lf. 582 T h e a u t h o r h a s b e e n e n tire ly su c c e ssfu l in b r in g in g o u t th e re li­ g io u s m e a n in g o f th e d r e a m s a n d so d e m o n s tr a tin g h e r th esis. A 1 [Gottingen, 1957. By Felicia Froboese-Thiele. ( “Dream s— a Source of Reli­ gious Experience?” )]

religious attitude does in fact offer a direct challenge to the uncon­ scious, and the m ore inim ical the conscious attitude is to life, the m ore forceful and drastic will be this unconscious reaction. It serves the purpose, firstly, of com pensating the extremism of the conscious attitude and, secondly, of individuation, since it re-establishes the approxim ate wholeness of the personality. ‘583 T h e m ateria] which D r. Froboese-Thiele has m ade available in her book is of considerable im portance for doctors and theolo­ gians alike, since both of them have here an opportunity to assure themselves th a t the unconscious possesses a religious aspect against w hich no cogent argum ents can be m ustered. O ne is left w ith a feeling of sham e th at so little of the empirical case m aterial which would give the laym an an adequate idea of these religious processes has been published. T h e author deserves our special thanks for hav­ ing taken the trouble to write up these exacting cases in extenso. I hope her book will come into the hands of m any thoughtful per­ sons whose m inds are not stopped up w ith needless prejudices, and who would be in a position to find a satisfactory answer to religious questions, or at least to come by those experiences which ought to underlie any authentic religious convictions.

J U N G A N D R E L IG IO U S B E L IE F 1 i, Questions to Jung an d H is A n sw ers 2 i. Y o u say that religion is psychically healthy an d often for the latter p a r t of life essential, but is it not psychically healthy only if the religious person believes that his religion is true? D o you think that in you r natural wish to keep to the realm of psychology you have te n d e d to u nderestim ate m a n ’s search for truth a n d the w ays in w hich he m ig h t reach this as, for exam ple, b y inference? j584 N ob od y is m ore con vinced of the im portance of the search for truth than I am. But w hen I say: som ething transcendental is true, m y critique begins. If I call som ething true, it does n ot m ean that it is absolutely true. It m erely seems to be true to m yself a n d /o r to other people. If I w ere not doubtful in this respect it w ould m ean that I im plicitly assume that I am able to state an absolute truth. T h is is an obvious hybris. W h en M r. Erich F rom m 3 criticizes q u e s tio n

1 [Extracts from H. L. P hilp1 Ju n g and the Problem of E vil (London, 1958). T h e book consists of correspondence betw een the au th o r and Ju n g in the form of questions and answers (in E nglish), an d an extended critical attack of 175 pages on Ju n g ’s writings on religion, w ith p articu lar reference to A nsw er to Job. I t concludes with Ju n g ’s answers to questions sent by ano th er correspondent, the Rev. D avid Cox (au th o r of Jung and S t. Paul, 1959). In both cases the answers are reproduced here w ith m inor stylistic revisions and additional footnotes. T h e bibliographical references to Ju n g ’s works have been brought up to date. F or oth er letters from Ju n g to Philp, see Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 2.] 2 [Philp, pp. 8-21. (9 Nov. 1956.)] 3 [In his question, Philp quoted the following passage from From m , Psychoanaly­ sis and R eligion, pp. 23f , : “Before I present J u n g ’s analysis of religion a critical exam ination of these methodological premises seems w arranted. Ju n g ’s use of the concept of tru th is not tenable. H e states th a t ‘tru th is a fact and n o t a judgm ent,’ th a t ‘an elephant is tru e because it exists.’ B ut he forgets th a t tru th always and necessarily refers to a ju d g m en t and not to a description of a phenom enon w hich we perceive w ith our senses and which we denote w ith a word symbol. Ju n g then states th a t an idea is ‘psychologically true inasm uch as it exists.’ B ut an idea ‘exists’ regardless of w hether it is a delusion or w hether it corresponds to fact. T h e existence of an idea does

me for having a w rong idea and quotes Judaism , Christianity, and Buddhism he dem onstrates how illogical his standpoint is, as are the views of those religions themselves, i.e., their truths contradict each other. Judaism has a morally am bivalent G od; Christianity a T rin ity and Sum m um B onum ; Buddhism has no G od b u t has interior gods. T h eir tru th is relative and not an absolute tru th — if you put them on the sam e level, as M r. From m does. I naturally adm it, and I even strongly believe, th at it is of the highest im por­ tance to state a “tru th .” I should be prepared to m ake transcenden­ tal statem ents, b u t on one condition: th at I state at the same time the possibility of their being untrue. For instance “God is,” i.e., is as I think he is. But as I know th a t I could not possibly form an adequate idea of an all-em bracing eternal being, my idea of him is pitifully incom plete; thus the statem ent “ God is not” (so) is equally true and necessary. T o m ake absolute statem ents is be­ yond m a n ’s reach, although it is ethically indispensable th a t he give all the credit to his subjective truth, which m eans th a t he ad ­ mits being bound by his conviction to apply it as a principle of his actions. Any hum an judgm ent, no m atter how great its subjec­ tive conviction, is liable to error, particularly judgm ents concerning transcendental subjects. M r. F rom m ’s philosophy has not tra n ­ scended yet— I am afraid-—the level of the tw entieth century; but the power-drive of m an and his hybris are so great th at he believes in an absolutely valid judgm ent. N o scientifically m inded person w ith a sense of intellectual responsibility can allow himself such arrogance. These are the reasons why I insist upon the criterion of existence, both in th e realm of science and in the realm of reli­ gion, and upon im m ediate and prim ordial experience. Facts are facts and contain no falsity. I t is our judgm ent th at introduces the elem ent of deception. T o my m ind it is m ore im portant th at an idea exists th an th a t it is true. This despite the fact th a t it makes a great deal of difference subjectively w hether an idea seems to not make it ‘true’ in any sense. Even the practising psychiatrist could not work were he not concerned with the truth of an idea, that is, w ith its relation to the phenom ena it tends to portray. Otherwise, he could not speak of a delusion or a paranoid system. But Jung’s approach is not only untenable from a psychiatric standpoint; he advocates a standpoint of relativism which though on the surface more friendly to religion than Freud’s, is in its spirit fundam entally opposed to religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Buddhism. These consider the striving for truth as one of m an’s cardinal virtues and obligations and insist that their doctrines w hether arrived at by revelation or only by the power of reason are subject to the criterion o f truth.”]

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me to be true or not, though this is a secondary consideration since there is no way of establishing the tru th or u n truth of a transcenden­ tal statem ent other than by a subjective belief. Is it possible that you depreciate consciousness through an overvaluation of the unconscious? :585 I have never had any tendency to depreciate consciousness by insisting upon the im portance of the unconscious. If such a tendency is attributed to me it is due to a sort of optical illusion. Conscious­ ness is the “know n,” but the unconscious is very little known and my chief efforts are devoted to the elucidation of our unconscious psyche. T he result of this is, naturally, th a t I talk more about the unconscious than about the conscious. Since everybody believes or, at least, tries to believe in the unequivocal superiority of rational consciousness, I have to emphasize the im portance of the uncon­ scious irrational forces, to establish a sort of balance. Thus to super­ ficial readers of my writings it looks as if I were giving the uncon­ scious a supreme significance, disregarding consciousness. As a m atter of fact the emphasis lies on consciousness as the conditio sine qua non of apperception of unconscious contents, and the supreme arbiter in the chaos of unconscious possibilities. My book about Types is a careful study of the empirical structure of conscious­ ness. If we had an inferior consciousness, we should all be crazy. T he ego and ego-consciousness are of param ount importance. It would be superfluous to emphasize consciousness if it were not in a peculiar compensatory relationship with the unconscious. !586 People like D em anti start from the prejudiced idea th a t the unconscious is something more or less nasty and archaic th a t one should get rid of. This is not vouched for by experience. T he uncon­ scious is neutral, rather like nature. If it is destructive on the one side, it is as constructive on the other side. It is the source of all sorts of evils and also the m atrix of all divine experience and— p ara­ doxical as it may sound— it has brought forth and brings forth consciousness. Such a statement does not m ean th a t the source origi­ nates, i.e., th a t the w ater is created just at the spot where you see the source of a river; it comes from deep down in the m ountain and runs along its secret ways before it reaches daylight. W hen I say, “ H ere is the source,” I only m ean the spot where the w ater becomes visible. T he water-simile expresses rather aptly the nature and im portance of the unconscious. W here there is no w ater nothing q u e s tio n 2.

4 [Cf. T h e R elig io u s P rospect, p p . i8 8 ff., q u o ted b y P h ilp in his question.]

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lives; w h e re th e re is too m u c h of it everything drow ns. I t is th e task of consciousness to select th e rig h t place w h ere you are n o t to o n e a r a n d n o t to o fa r fro m w a te r; b u t th e w a te r is indispensable. A n u n fa v o u ra b le o p in io n a b o u t th e unconscious does n o t en ab le p ro p e r C h ristian s, like D e m a n t, to realize th a t religious experience, so fa r as th e h u m a n m in d ca n grasp it, ca n n o t be distinguished fro m th e ex perience o f so-called unconscious p h e n o m en a . A m e ta ­ ph y sical b ein g does n o t as a rule speak th ro u g h th e telep h o n e to y o u ; it usually co m m u n icates w ith m a n th ro u g h th e m ed iu m of th e soul, in o th e r w ords, o u r unconscious, o r ra th e r th ro u g h its tra n s c e n d e n ta l “ psy ch o id ” basis.5 If one depreciates th e unconscious o n e blocks th e ch an n els th ro u g h w hich th e aqua gratiae flows, b u t o n e ce rtain ly does n o t in c a p a c ita te th e devil by this m eth o d . C re a t­ in g obstacles is ju st his m etier. ' 587 W h e n St. P a u l h a d th e vision of C hrist, th a t vision w as a psychic p h en o m e n o n — if it w as an y th in g . I d o n ’t presum e to know w h a t th e psyche is; I only know th a t th e re is a psychic re alm in w hich a n d fro m w h ic h such m an ifestatio n s start. I t is th e p lace w h ere th e a q u a gratiae springs fo rth , b u t it com es, as I know q u ite w ell, from th e im m e asu ra b le d ep th s of th e m o u n ta in a n d I d o n ’t p re te n d to k now a b o u t th e secret w ays a n d places th e w a te r flows th ro u g h b efo re it reaches th e surface. 1588 As th e g en e ral m an ifestatio n s of th e unconscious a re am b iv alen t o r even am b ig u o u s ( “ I t is a fe arfu l th in g to fall in to th e h an d s of th e living G o d ,” H e b . 1 0 :3 1 ) , decision a n d d iscrim in atin g ju d g ­ m e n t a re all-im p o rta n t. W e see th a t p a rtic u la rly clearly in th e devel­ o p m e n t of th e in d iv id u a tio n process, w h e n w e h av e to p re v e n t th e p a tie n t fro m e ith e r re je ctin g b lin d ly th e d a ta of th e unconscious o r s u b m ittin g to th e m w ith o u t criticism . (W h y has J a c o b to fight th e an g el of th e L o rd ? B ecause h e w ould be killed if h e d id n o t d e fe n d his life.) T h e r e is no d ev e lo p m e n t a t all b u t only a m iserable d e a th in a th irsty desert if one th in k s one c a n ru le th e unconscious b y o u r a rb itra ry ra tio n alism . T h a t is exactly w h a t th e G e rm a n p rin ­ ciple, “ W h e re th e re is a will, th e re is a w ay ,” tried to do, a n d you k n o w w ith w h a t results. q u e s t i o n 3. I n yo u r “A n sw e r to J o b ” lected W o rks, V ol. I i ): erI have been believe in th e existence o f G o d or n o t cern ed lest I be ta ken fo r an ad h eren t

yo u state, page 4 6 3 ( C ol­ asked so often w h eth er I th a t I am so m ew h a t con­ o f ‘psychologism ’ fa r m ore

5 [Cf. “ O n th e N a tu re of th e Psyche” (C .W ., vol. 8 ) , p a r. 368.]

commonly than I suspect.” You go on to say, “God is an obvious psychic and non-physical fact,” but I feel in the end you do not actually answer the question as to whether or not you believe in the existence of God other than as an archetype. Do you? This question is im portant because I should like to answer the kind of objection raised by Glover in his Freud or Jung, page 163: “Jung’s system is fundam entally irreligious. N obody is to care whether God exists, Jung least of all. AU that is necessary is to ‘experience’ an “attitude’ because it ‘helps one to live.’ ” *589 An archetype— so far as we can establish it empirically— is an image. An image, as the very term denotes, is a picture of something. An archetypal image is like the portrait of an unknown m an in a gallery. His name, his biography, his existence in general are unknown, but we assume nevertheless th a t the picture portrays a once living subject, a m an who was real. W e find numberless images of God, but we cannot produce the original. There is no doubt in my m ind th a t there is an original behind our images, but it is inaccessible. W e could not even be aw are of the original since its translation into psychic terms is necessary in order to make it perceptible at all. How would K an t’s Critique of Pure Reason look when translated into the psychic imagery of a cockroach? A nd I assume th at the difference between m an and the creator of all things is immeasurably greater than between a cockroach and m an. Why should we be so immodest as to suppose th at we could catch a universal being in the narrow confines of our language? We know that God-images play a great role in psychology, but we cannot prove the physical existence of God. As a responsible scientist I am not going to preach my personal and subjective convictions which I cannot prove. I add nothing to cognition or to a further improvement and extension of consciousness when I confess my personal prejudices. I simply go as far as my m ind can reach, but to venture opinions beyond my m ental reach would be immoral from the standpoint of my intellectual ethics. If I should say, “ I believe in such and such a G od,” it would be just as futile as when a Negro states his firm belief th a t the tin-box he found on the shore contains a powerful fetish. If I keep to a statem ent which I think I can prove, this does not m ean th at I deny the existence of anything else th a t m ight exist beyond it. It is sheer malevolence to accuse me of an atheistic attitude simply because I try to be honest and disciplined. Speaking for myself, the question whether God exists or not is futile. I am sufficiently convinced of the effects

m an has always attributed to a divine being. If I should express a belief beyond that or should assert the existence of God, it would not only be superfluous and inefficient, it would show that I am not basing my opinion on facts. W hen people say that they believe in the existence of God, it has never impressed me in the least. Either I know a thing and then I don’t need to believe it; or I believe it because I am not sure that I know it. I am well satisfied with the fact th at I know experiences which I cannot avoid calling numinous or divine. q u e s t i o n 4 . Do you ignore the importance of other disciplines for the psyche? Coldbrunner in his Individuation, page 1 6 1 , says that your treatment of ccwhat God is in H im self” is a question which you regard as beyond the scope of psychology, and adds: ccThis implies a positivistic, agnostic renunciation of all metaphysics.” Do you agree that your treatment amounts to that? W ould you not agree that such subjects as metaphysics and history have their place in the experience of the psyche? '59° I do not ignore the im portance of other disciplines for the psy­ che. W hen I was professor at the E.T.H . in Zurich I lectured for a whole year about T antrism 6 and for another year about the Spiri­ tual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola .7 Moreover, I have written a num ber of books about the peculiar spiritual discipline of the alchemists. >59i W hat Goldbrunner says is quite correct. I don’t know what God is in himself. I don’t suffer from megalomania. Psychology to me is an honest science that recognizes its own boundaries, and I am not a philosopher or a theologian who believes in his ability to step beyond the epistemological barrier. Science is made by man, which does not m ean th a t there are not occasionally acts of grace permitting transgression into realms beyond. I don’t depreciate or deny such facts, but to me they are beyond the scope of science as pointed out above. I believe firmly in the intrinsic value of the hum an attem pt to gain understanding, but I also recognize that the hum an mind cannot step beyond itself, although divine grace may and probably does allow at least glimpses into a transcendental

6 [Sem inar on Buddhism and T antric Yoga (O ct. 1938 to June 1 9 3 9 ), in T h e Process of Individuation. N otes on Lectures at the E T H , Zurich, trans. and ed. by Barbara H annah. Privately issued.] 7 [Exercitia Spiritualia of St. Ignatius of L oyola (June 1939 to M ar. 1 9 4 0 ), in ibid.]

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order of things. But I am neither able to give a rational account of such divine interventions nor can I prove them. M any of the analytical hours with my patients are filled w ith discussions of “metaphysical” intrusions, and I am in dire need of historical knowledge to meet all the problems I am asked to deal with. For the patient’s m ental health it is all-im portant that he gets some proper understanding of the num ina the collective unconscious pro­ duces, and that he assigns the proper place to them. It is, however, either a distortion of the tru th or lack of inform ation when Goldbrunner calls my attitude “ positivistic,” which means a one-sided recognition of scientific truth. I know too well how transitory and sometimes even futile our hypotheses are, to assume their validity as durable truths and as trustw orthy foundations of a W eltan­ schauung capable of giving m an sure guidance in the chaos of this world. O n the contrary, I rely very much on the continuous influx of the num ina from the unconscious and from whatever lies behind it. G oIdbrunner therefore is also wrong to speak of an “agnostic renunciation of all metaphysics.” I merely hold th a t metaphysics cannot be an object of science, which does not m ean that numinous experiences do not happen frequently, particularly in the course of an analysis or in the life of a truly religious individual. q u e s t i o n 5. I f m y reading of your views is correct, I should fudge that you think evil to be a far more active force than traditional theological views have allowed for. You appear unable to interpret the condition of the world today unless this is so. A m I correct in this? I f so, is it really necessary to expect to find the dark side in the Deity? A n d if you believe that Satan completes the quaternity does this not mean that the D eity would be amoral? Victor W hite in his God and the Unconscious writes at the end of his footnote on page j 6 : ccO n the other hand, we· are unable to find any intelligible, let alone desirable, meaning in such fu n d a ­ mental Jungian conceptions as the ‘assimilation of the shadow’ if they are not to be understood as the supplying of some absent good {e.g., consciousness) to what is essentially valuable and of itself ‘good.’ ” 1592 I am indeed convinced that evil is as positive a factor as good. Q uite apart from everyday experience it would be extremely illogical to assume th at one can state a quality without its opposite. If something is good, then there must needs be something th a t is evil or bad. T he statem ent th at something is good would not be

possible if one could not discriminate it from something else. Even if one says th a t something exists, such a statement is only possible alongside the other statement that something does not exist. Thus when the Church doctrine declares that evil is not (μη 6v) or is a mere shadow, then the good is equally illusory, as its statement would make no sense. 1593 Suppose one has something 1oo-per-cent good, and if anything evil comes in it is diminished, say by 5 per cent. Then one possesses 95 per cent of goodness and 5 per cent is just absent. If the original good diminished by 99 per cent, one has 1 per cent good and 99 per cent is gone. If that I per cent also disappears, the whole posses­ sion is gone and one has nothing at all. To the very last moment one had only good and oneself was good, but on the other side there is simply nothing and nothing has happened. Evil deeds sim­ ply do not exist. The identification of good with ousia is a fallacy, because a m an who is thoroughly evil does not disappear at all when he has lost his last good. But even if he has 1 per cent of good, his bcdy and soul and his whole existence are still thoroughly good; for, according to the doctrine, evil is simply identical with non-existence. This is such a horrible syllogism that there must be a very strong motive for its construction. The reason is obvious: it is a desperate attem pt to save the Christian faith from dualism. According to this theory [of the privatio bont] even the devil, the incarnate evil, must be good, because he exists, b u t inasmuch as he is thoroughly bad, he does not exist. This is a clear attem pt to annihilate dualism in flagrant contradiction to the dogma that the devil is eternal and dam nation a very real thing. I don’t pretend to be able to explain the actual condition of the world, but it is plain to any unprejudiced mind that the forces of evil are danger­ ously near to a victory over the powers of good. Here Basil the G reat would say, “O f course that is so, but all evil comes from m an and not from God,” forgetting altogether that the serpent in Paradise was not made by man, and that Satan is one of the sons of God, prior to man. If man were positively the origin of all evil, he would possess a power equal or almost equal to that of the good, which is God. But we don’t need to inquire into the origin of Satan. W e have plenty of evidence in the Old Testament that Yahweh is moral and immoral at the same time, and Rabbinic theology is fully aware of this fact. Yahweh behaves very much like an immoral being, though he is a guardian of law and order. He is unjust and unreliable according to the O ld Testament. Even

the God of the New Testam ent is still irascible and vengeful to such a degree th at he needs the self-sacrifice of his son to quench his w rath. Christian theology has never denied the identity of the God of the O ld Testam ent with th a t of the New Testament. Now I ask you: w hat would you call a judge th at is a guardian of the Law and is himself unjust? O ne would be inclined to call such a m an immoral. I would call him both immoral and moral, and I think I express the tru th with this formula. Certainly the God of the O ld Testam ent is good and evil. He is the Father or Creator of Satan as well as of Christ. Certainly if God the Father were nothing else than a loving Father, Christ’s cruel sacrificial death would be thoroughly superfluous. I would not allow my son to be slaughtered in order to be reconciled to my disobedient children. 1594 W hat V ictor W hite writes about the assimilation of the shadow is not to be taken seriously. Being a Catholic priest he is bound hand and foot to the doctrine of his C hurch and has to defend every syllogism. T he Church knows all about the assimilation of the shadow, i.e., how it is to be repressed and w hat is evil. Being a doctor I am never too certain about my m oral judgments. Too often I find th a t something th a t is a virtue in one individual is a vice in another, and something th at is good for the one is poison for another. O n the other hand, pious feeling has invented the term of felix culpa and Christ preferred the sinner. Even God does not seem particularly pleased with mere righteousness. 1595 Nowhere else is it more im portant to emphasize th at we are speaking of our traditional image of God (which is not the same as the original) than in the discussion of the privatio boni. We don’t produce God by the magic word or by representing his image. T he w ord for us is still a fetish, and we assume th a t it produces the thing of which it is only an image. W hat God is in himself nobody knows; at least I don’t. T hus it is beyond the reach of m an to make valid statements about the divine nature. If we disre­ gard the short-comings of the hum an m ind in assuming a knowl­ edge about God, which we cannot have, we simply get ourselves into most appalling contradictions and in trying to extricate our­ selves from them we use awful syllogisms, like the privatio boni. M oreover our superstitious belief in the power of the w ord is a serious obstacle to our thinking. T h a t is the historical reason why quite a num ber of shocking contradictions have been heaped up, offering facile opportunities to the enemy of religion. I strongly advocate, therefore, a revision of our religious formulas with the 7x0

aid of psychological insight. I t is the great advantage of P rotestant­ ism th a t an intelligent discussion is possible. Protestantism should m ake use of this freedom . O nly a thing th at changes a n d evolves, lives, b u t static things m ean spiritual d e a th .8 a. Final Questions and Answers0

•596

q u e s tio n i. I f Christ, in His Incarnation, concentrated, as you contend, on goodness ( “A nsw er to Job,” pp. 414, 42gf.) w hat do you m ean by “Christ preferred the sinner” and tcE ven God does not seem particularly pleased with mere righteousness”? Is there not an inconsistency here? O f course there is. I am just pointing it out. 2 . Y o u stress the principle of the opposites and the im por­ tance of their union. Y o u also write of enantiodrom ia in relation to the opposites but this ( in the sense in w hich H eraclitus used the term ) w ould never produce a condition of stability w hich could lead to the union of the opposites. So is there not a contradiction in w hat you say about the opposites? “ E n an tio d ro m ia” describes a certain psychological fact, i.e., I use it as a psychological concept. O f course it does not lead to a union of opposites, has— as a m atte r of fact— nothing to do w ith it. I see no contradiction anywhere.

q u e s tio n

'597

3 . I f the principle of enantiodrom ia, a perpetual swing­ ing of the p en d u lu m , is always present w ould we not have a condi­ tion in w hich there w ould be no sense of responsibility, but one of am orality and meaninglessness? [598 N aturally life w ould be quite meaningless if the enantiodrom ia of psychological states kept o n . for ever. But such an assum ption w ould be b o th arb itrary an d foolish.

q u e s tio n

4 . W h en we come into close contact w ith Pharisaism, theft or m urder, involving uncharitableness, ruthless and selfish treatm ent of others, we know that they are evil and very ugly. I n

q u e s tio n

8 For the com prehension of the problems here m entioned, I recom m end: “Answer to Job ” ; “A Psychological A pproach to the D ogm a of the Trinity” (ch. 5, “T h e Problem of the Fourth” ) ; A ion (ch. 5, “Christ, A Symbol of the S elf” ) ; Psychology an d A lch em y (Introduction, especially par. 3 6 ). For the biography o f Satan, see R. Scharf-Kluger, S atan in th e O ld T estam en t. 9 [Philp, pp. 2 1 4 -2 5 . (8 O ct. 1957.) Page references for “Answer to Job” are to C .W ., vol. 11.] 7 11

actual life w hat we call goodness— loyalty, integrity, charitable­ ness— does not appear as one of a pair of opposites but as the kind of behavior we w ant for ourselves and others. T h e difficulty is that we cannot fudge all the m otives involved in any action w ith certainty. W e are unable to see the com plete picture and so we should be cautious and charitable in our judgm ents. B ut this does not m ean that w hat is good is not good, or w hat is evil is not evil. D o you not th in k that w hat you have to say about the quatern ity a n d enantiodrom ia ultim ately blurs the distinction between good a n d evil? Is not w h a t is blurred only our capacity always to see the real m oral issues clearly? 1599 It only m eans th a t m oral jud g m en t is hu m an , lim ited, and u n d e r no condition m etaphysically valid. W ithin these confines good is good, an d evil is evil. O n e m ust have the courage to stand up for one’s convictions. W e cannot im agine a state of wholeness (q u aternity) w hich is good an d evil. I t is beyond our m oral judgm ent. 5. Theologians w ho believe in Satan have m aintained that he was created good but that through the use of his free will he became evil. W h a t necessity is there to assume that he is the inevitable principle of evil in the G odhead— th e fourth m em ber of the quaternity? Because the T hree are the Sum m um Bonum , an d the devil is the principle and personification of evil. In a C atholic quaternity the fo u rth w ould be th e M other, 99-per-cent divine. T h e devil w ould not count, being μη &v, an em pty shadow owing to th e privatio boni, in w hich th e Bonum is equal to ούσία.

q u e s tio n

1600

1601

q u e s t i o n 6 . Y o u build m u ch on the existence of four functions, thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. Is this a final or satisfac­ tory typology? I f feeling is included, w h y not conation? T h e four functions are a m ere m odel for envisaging the qualities of consciousness. C onation is a term applicable to th e creative p ro ­ cess starting in th e unconscious a n d ending in a conscious result, in other w ords a dynam ic aspect of psychic life.

1602

7. B y different approaches in your later writings you add Satan and the Blessed Virgin M a ry to the T rinity, but this w ould m ake a quinary. W h o compose the quaternity? T h e q u atern ity can be a hypothetical structure, depicting a wholeness. I t is also n ot a logical concept, b u t a n em pirical fact. T h e quinarius or quinio ( in th e form of 4 -(- 1, i.e., q u in c u n x ) does occur as a symbol of wholeness (in C h in a an d occasionally in alq u e s tio n

chemy) but relatively rarely. Otherwise the quinio is not a symbol of wholeness, quite the contrary (e.g., the five-rayed star of the Soviets or of U .S.A .). R ather, it is a chaotic prima materia. 8 . W ould not the quaternity involve not only a revision of doctrine but of moral issues as well, for it would appear inevitably to mean complete moral relativity and so amorality having its source in the Godhead Itself? M an cannot live without moral judgment. From the fact of the empirical quaternary structure of 3 -j- 1 (3 = good, 1 = evil) we can conclude that the unconscious characterizes itself as an un­ equal m ixture of good and evil. There are also not a few cases where the structure is reversed: 1 ~Ί“ 3 ( r = good, 3 = ev il). 3 in this case would form the so-called “lower triad.” Since the quaternity as a rule appears as a unity, the opposites annul each other, which simply means that our an­ thropom orphic judgm ent is no more applicable, i.e., the divinity is beyond good and evil, or else metaphysical assertion is not valid. In so far as the hum an m ind and its necessities issue from the hands of the Creator, we must assume that moral judgm ent was provided by the same source.

q u e s t io n

1603

1604

g . W hat exactly are you referring to when you use the word “quaternity” in relation to religion? Are you using “quaternity” purely for images which men form of the Godhead? You sometimes give the impression that you are referring to God-images alone. A t other times you write as if you have in m ind the Godhead itself. This is especially so when you stress the necessity of including Satan and also the Blessed Virgin M ary in the Godhead. I f you do not refer to the Godhead itself, there seems to me to be no explanation of the urgency of your words about recognizing the evil principle in God and your welcome of the promulgation of the Assumption. 1605 I use the term “quaternity” for the m andala and similar struc­ tures that appear spontaneously in dreams and visions, or are “in­ vented” (from invenire = to find), to express a totality (like four winds and seasons or four sons, seraphim, evangelists, gospels, four­ fold path, etc.). T he quaternity is of course an image or picture, which does not mean th at there is no original! i6 °6 J f ^fi e opposites were not contained in the image, it would not be an image of totality. But it is m eant to be a picture of ineffable wholeness, in other words, its symbol. I t has an im portance for the q u e s t io n

7*3

theologian only in so far as the latter attributes significance to it. If he assumes th at his images or formulations are not contents of his consciousness (w hich is a contradictio in adiecto), he can only state that they are exact replicas of the original. But who could suggest such a thing? In spite of the fact th a t the Church long ago discouraged the idea of a quaternity, the fact remains th at C hurch symbolism abounds in quaternity allusions. As Three (T rin ­ ity) is only one (albeit the m ain) aspect of the Deity, the remaining fourth principle is wiped out of existence by the privatio boni syllo­ gism. But the Catholic C hurch was aware th at the picture without opposites is not complete. It therefore adm itted (a t least tentatively) the existence of a feminine factor w ithin the precincts of the masculine Trinity (Assumptio Beatae Virginis ). For good rea­ sons the devil is still excluded, and even annihilated, by the privatio boni, 1607 T h e admission of the Beata Virgo is a daring attem pt, in so far as she belongs to lubricum illud genus10 (St. Epiphanius), so suspect to the moralistic propensities of the said Church. However, she has been spiritually “disinfected” by the dogm a of Conceptio immaculata. I consider the Assumption as a cautious approach to the solution of the problem of opposites, namely, to the integration of the fourth metaphysical figure into the divine totality. T he C ath­ olic C hurch has almost succeeded in creating a quaternity without shadow, but the devil is still outside. T he Assumption is at least an im portant step forw ard in Christian ( ?) symbolism. This evolu­ tion will be completed when the dogm a of the Co-Redem ptrix is reached. But the m ain problem will not be solved, although one pair of opposites ( S and 2 ) has been smuggled into the divine wholeness. T hus the Catholic Church (in the person of the Pope) has a t least seen fit to take the M arianic movement in the masses, i.e., a psychological fact, so seriously th at he did not hesitate to give up the time-hallowed principle of apostolic authority. 1608 Protestanism is free to ignore the spiritual problems raised by our time, b u t it will remove itself from the battlefield and thereby lose its contact w ith life. 1609 Being a natural and spontaneous symbol, the quaternity has everything to do with hum an psychology, while the trinitarian sym­ bol (though equally spontaneous) has become cold, a remote ab­ straction. Curiously enough, am ong my collection of m andalas I have only a small num ber of trinities and triads. They stem one 10 [“that slippery sex.”]

1610

1611

l6ia

1613

1614

1615

and all from G erm ans!11 (Unconscious of their shadows, therefore unaw are of collective g u ilt!) X do not know at all to w hat extent hum an formulas, whether invented or spontaneous, correspond with the original. I only know that we are profoundly concerned with them, whether people know it or not, just as you can be with an illness of which you are un­ aware. It makes an enormous practical difference whether your dom inant idea of totality is three or four. In the former case all good comes from God, all evil from man. Then m an is the devil. In the latter case m an has a chance to be saved from devilish posses­ sion, in so far as he is not inflated with evil. W hat happened under N ational Socialism in Germany? W hat is happening under Bolshe­ vism? W ith the quaternity the powers of evil, so much greater than m an’s, are restored to the divine wholeness, whence they originated, even according to Genesis. T he serpent was not created by man. T h e quaternity symbol has as much to do with the Godhead as the Trinity has. As soon as I begin to think at all about the experience of “ God,” I have to choose from my store of images between [concepts representing him as a] monad, dyad, triad, tetrad or an indistinct multiplicity. In any serious case the choice is limited by the kind of revealed image one has received. Yahweh and Allah are monads, the Christian God a triad (historically), the m odem experience presumably a tetrad, the early Persian deity a dyad. In the East you have the dyadic m onad T ao and the monadic Anthropos (purusha), Buddha, etc. In my hum ble opinion all this has very m uch to do w ith psychol­ ogy. We have nothing to go by but these images. W ithout images you could not even speak of divine experiences. You would be com­ pletely inarticulate. You only could stam mer “m ana” and even that would be an image. Since it is a m atter of an ineffable experience the image is indispensable. I would completely agree if you should say: God approaches m an in the form of symbols. But we are far from knowing w hether the symbol is correct or not. The privatio boni cannot be compared to the quaternity, be­ cause it is not a revelation. O n the contrary, it has all the earmarks of a “doctrine,” a philosophical invention. It makes no difference at all whether I say “ God” or “God­ head.” Both are in themselves far beyond m an’s reach. T o us they are revealed as psychic images, i.e., symbols. I am far from making any statements about God himself. I 11 [Cf. “Flying· Saucers: A M odem M yth” (C.W ., vol. t o ) , par. 775.]

715

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am talking about images, which it is very important to think and talk about, and to criticize, because so much depends upon the nature of our dominant ideas. It makes all the difference in the world whether I think that the source of evil or good is myself, my neighbour, the devil, or the supreme being. Of course I am pleading the cause of the thinking man, and, inasmuch as most people do not think, of a small minority. Yet it has its place in creation and presumably it makes sense. Its contri­ bution to the development of consciousness is considerable and since Nature has bestowed the highest premium of success on the con­ scious being, consciousness must be more precious to Nature than unconsciousness. Therefore I think that I am not too far astray in trying to understand the symbol of the Deity. My opinion is that such an attempt—whether successful or not— could be of great interest to theology which is built on the same primordial images, whether one likes it or not. At all events you will find it increasingly difficult to convince the educated layman that theology has nothing to do with psychology, when the latter acknowledges its indebted­ ness to the theological approach. My discussion with theology starts from the fact that the natu­ rally revealed central symbols, such as the quaternity, are not in harmony with trinitarian symbols. While the former includes the darkness in the divine totality, the Christian symbol excludes it. The Yahwistic symbol of the star of David is a complexio oppositorum: A, fire V and water A, a mandala built on three, an uncon­ scious acknowledgment of the Trinity but including the shadow. Properly so, because Satan is still among the bene Elohim [sons of God], though Christ saw him falling out of heaven [Luke 10:18]. This vision points to the Gnostic abscission of the shadow, men­ tioned by Irenaeus.12 As I have said, it makes a great and vital difference to man whether or not he considers himself as the source of evil, while maintaining that all good stems from God. Whether he knows it or not, this fills him with Satanic pride and hybris on the one side and with an abysmal feeling of inferiority on the other. But when he ascribes the immense power of the opposites to the Deity, he falls into his modest place as a small image of the Deity, not of Yahweh, in whom the opposites are unconscious, but of a quaternity consisting of the main opposites: male and female, good and evil, and reflected in human consciousness as confirmed by psychological experience and by the historical evi12 [A dversus haereses, I I, 5, 1. Cf. A ion, C.W ., vol. g,ii, par. 75 and n. 23.]

dence. O r have I invented the idea of T ao, the living spiritual symbol of ancient C hina? O r the four sons of H orus in ancient Egypt? O r the alchem ical quaternity that lived for almost a th o u ­ sand years? O r the M ah ay an a m andala which is still alive? q u e s t i o n i o . O ne of your objections to the p r iv a tio b o n i doctrine is that it m inim izes evil, but does not your view of the quaternity, w hich includes both good and evil, m inim ize evil m uch more surely and assume its existence for ever? 1618 T h e q uaternity symbol relativizes good and evil, b u t it does not m inim ize them in the least. 11. Y o u argue in “A nsw er to J o b ” (pp. 3 9 9 , 4 3 0 ) that, because of his virgin birth, Christ was not truly m an and so could not be a fu ll incarnation in terms of hum an nature. D o you believe that Christ was born of a virgin? I f not, the argum ent in “A nsw er to Job" falls to pieces. I f you believe in the Virgin Birth, w ould it not be logical to accept the whole emphasis of the Christian Creeds, for they w ould not appear to be more difficult to believe in than the Virgin Birth? 1619 T h e dogm a of th e V irgin Birth does n ot abolish th e fact th a t “ G od” in the form of the H oly Ghost is C hrist’s father. If Y ahw eh is his fath er, then it is a m atte r of an a priori union of opposites. If the Sum m um Bonum is his father, then the powers of darkness are missing and the term “ good” has lost its m eaning and C hrist has n ot becom e m an, because m an is afflicted w ith darkness. q u e stio n

1 2 . Christ, so the Gospel narratives assert, was b o m in a m anger because there was no room fo r H im in the inn at B eth­ lehem ; H is early life included the Slaughter of the Innocents and H is fam ily lived for a tim e exiled in E g y p t; H e faced tem ptation in the wilderness; H is m inistry was carried on under such hard conditions that H e “had not where to lay H is head” (M a tt. 8 :2 0 ). H e m et a n d m inistered to num erous sufferers; sinners received H is sym pathy and understanding; H e endured an agony of suffering in th e G arden of Gethsem ane and this was follow ed by H is trials, and finally the cruellest of deaths by crucifixion. O n w hat grounds then can you argue that Christ was an incarnation of the light side of G od and that H e did not enter fully into the dark aspects o f existence? ( “A nsw er to Job,” pp. 3g8f., 414, 4 3 0 .) O n the con­ trary, traditionally H e has often been thought o f as “a m an of sorrows, and acquainted w ith grief." q u e stio n

1620

AU th a t has nothing to do w ith the d ark side of m an. Christ is on th e contrary the innocent and blam eless victim w ithout the macula peccati, therefore not really a h u m an being who has to live w ithout the benefit of the V irgin Birth a n d is crucified in a thousand forms.

13. W h a t do you m ean w hen in “A n sw e r to J o b ” you refer to Antichrist and his reign, and state that this was astrologically foretold? 1621 i t is potentially foretold by th e aeon of the Fishes (>—623 Jo b w anted justice. H e saw th a t he could not obtain it. Y ahw eh cannot be argued w ith. H e is unreflecting pow er. W h a t else is left to Jo b b u t to shut his m outh? H e does not dream of individuation, b u t he knows w h at kind of G od he is dealing w ith. It is certainly not Jo b draw ing fu rth e r conclusions b u t God. H e sees th a t in ­ carnation is unavoidable because m a n ’s insight is a step ah ead of him . H e m ust “ em pty himself of his G odhead and assume the shape of the δούλος/’131i.e., m an in his lowest form of existence, in order to obtain the jewel w hich m an possesses in his self-reflection.

1,1 [Cf.

Philippians

2:6.]

7i 8

1624·

W hy is Y ahw eh, the om nipotent creator, so keen to have his “slave,” body an d soul, even to the point of adm itted jealousy? W hy do you say “ by individuation alone” ? Individuation is the life in G od, as m an d ala psychology clearly shows. H ave you not read m y later books? You can see it in every one of them . T h e symbols of the self coincide w ith those of the Deity. T h e self is not the ego, it symbolizes the totality of m an and he is obviously not whole w ithout G od. T h a t seems to be w hat is m eant by incar­ nation an d incidentally by individuation. 3. Answers to Questions from the R ev. D avid Cox14 I

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This question concerned J u n g ’s statem ent in T w o Essays on A n a­ lytical Psychology (par. 327) that ITeiiern culture has no nam e or concept for the “union of opposites by the m iddle p a th ” which could be com pared to the concept of Tao. I t was suggested that the Christian doctrine of justification by faith is such a concept. N ot being a theologian I cannot see a connection betw een the doctrine of justification and T ao . T ao is the cooperation of oppo­ sites, bright-dark, dry-hum id, hot-cold, south-north, dragon-tiger, etc., a n d has nothing to do w ith m oral opposites or w ith a reconcilia­ tion betw een the Sum m um Bonum and the devil. C hristian doc­ trine— so far as I know — does not recognize dualism as the constitu­ tion of T a o , b u t Chinese philosophy does. J t i s certainly true th a t n a tu ra l m an always tries to increase w hat seems “good” to him a n d to abolish “ evil.” H e depends upon his consciousness, w hich, however, m ay be crossed by “ conscience” or by some unconscious intention· This factor can occasionally be stronger th a n consciousness, so th a t it cannot be fought. W e are very m uch concerned in psychotherapy w ith such cases. rP h e “ W ill of G od” often contradicts conscious principles how ever good they m ay seem. Penitence o r rem orse follows the deviation from th e superior will. T h e result is— if n o t a chronic conflict— a coniunctio oppositorum in the form of the symbol (sym bolum = th e tw o halves of a broken co in ), the expression of totality. J not know th a t you understand C hrist as the new centre 14 [P h ilp , p p . 2 2 6 - 3 9 .

(A u g .

1 9 5 7 .)

T h e q u e s tio n s w e r e n o t d ir e c tly q u o te d

b e c a u se o f t h e p e r s o n a l w a y in w h ic h so m e o f th e m w e r e fr a m e d .]

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of the individual. Since this centre of the individual appears em piri­ cally as a union of opposites ( usually a q u a te rn ity ), C hrist m ust be beyond m oral conflict, thus representing ultim ate decision. T his conception coincides absolutely w ith m y view of the self ( = T ao, n ird v a n d v a ). B ut since the self includes my consciousness as well as m y unconscious, m y ego is a n integral p a rt of it. Is this also your view of C hrist? If this should be so, I could com pletely agree w ith you. Life then becomes a dangerous adventure, because I sur­ render to a pow er beyond the opposites, to a superior or divine factor, w ithout argum ent. His suprem e decision m ay be w h at I call good or w h at I call b ad, as it is unlim ited. W h a t is the differ­ ence betw een m y behaviour an d th a t of an anim al fulfilling the will of G od unreservedly? T h e only difference I can see is th at I am conscious of, an d reflect on, w h at I am doing. “ If thou knowest w h a t th o u a rt doing, th o u a rt blessed.” 15 Y ou have acted. 1629 [U njust steward.) T his is Gnostic m orality b u t not th a t of the decalogue. T h e tru e servant of G od runs risks of no m ean order. E n te n d u ! T hus, a t G od’s com m and, H osea m arries a w hore. It is n ot beyond the bounds of possibility th a t such orders could be issued even in m odern times. W ho is ready to obey? A nd w hat ab o u t th e fact th a t anything com ing from th e unconscious is ex­ pressed in a peculiar language (w ords, thoughts, feelings, im pulses) th a t m ight be m isinterpreted? These questions are not m ean t as argum ents against the validity of your view. T hey m erely illustrate th e enorm ity of the risk. I ventilate them only to m ake sure we really believe in a C hrist beyond good a n d evil. I am afraid of unreflecting optim ism a n d of secret loopholes, as for instance, “ O h, you can tru st in the end th a t everything will be all rig h t.” I d est: “ G od is good” (an d not beyond good and evil). W hy has G od created consciousness a n d reason an d doubt, if com plete surrender an d obedience to his will is th e ultima ratio? H e w as obviously not content w ith anim als only. H e w ants reflecting beings w ho are at th e sam e tim e capable of surrendering themselves to th e prim or­ dial creative darkness of his will, u n a fra id of th e consequences. i6 3° I cannot help seeing th a t there is m uch evidence in prim itive C hristianity for your conception of Christ, b u t none in th e later developm ent of the C hurch. Nevertheless there are th e seemingly unshakable scriptural testim onies to the essential goodness of G od a n d C hrist an d th ere is— to m y know ledge— no positive statem ent in favour of a beyond-good-and-evil conception, not even an im plied 51 [C odex B ezae to L u k e 6 : 4.]

one. This seems to m e to be a wholly modern and new interpreta­ tion of a revolutionary kind, at least in view of the Summum Bonum, as you add the M alum and transcend both. In this I com­ pletely agree with you. I only want to make sure that we understand each other when we reach the conclusion that m an’s true relation to God must include both love and fear to make it complete. If both are true, we can be sure that our relation to him is adequate. The one relativizes the other: in fear we may hope, in love we may distrust. Both conditions appeal to our consciousness, reflection, and reason. Both our gifts come into their own. But is this not a relativization of complete surrender? O r at least an acceptance after an internal struggle? O r a fight against God that can be won only if he himself is his advocate against himself, as Job understood it? And is this not a tearing asunder of God’s original unity by m an’s stubborness? A disruption sought by God himself, or by the self itself? As I know from my professional experience, the self does indeed seek such issues because it seeks consciousness, which cannot exist w ithout discrimination (differentiation, separation, opposition, contradiction, discussion). The self is empirically in a condition we call unconscious in our three-dimensional world. W hat it is in its transcendental condition, we do not know. So far as it becomes an object of cognition, it undergoes a process of discrimination and so does everything em anating from it. The discrimination is intellec­ tual, emotional, ethical, etc. T h at means: the self is subject to our free decision thus far. But as it transcends our cognition, we are its objects or slaves or children or sheep that cannot but obey the shepherd. Are we to emphasize consciousness and freedom of judg­ ment or lay more stress on obedience? In the former case can we fulfil the divine will to consciousness, and in the latter the primor­ dial instinct of obedience? Thus we represent the intrinsic Yea and Nay of the opus divinum of creatio continua. We ourselves are in a certain respect “beyond good and evil.” This is very dangerous indeed (cf. Nietzsche), but no argument against the truth. Yet our inadequacy, dullness, inertia, stupidity, etc. are equally true. Both are aspects of one and the same being. i63i Accordingly the alchemists thought of their opus as a con­ tinuation and perfection of creation, whereas the modern psycho­ logical attem pt confronts the opposites and submits to the tension of the conflict: “ Expectans naturae operationem, quae lentissima est, aequo animo,” 16 to quote an old master. We know th at a 18 [“Patiently awaiting a work of nature, which is very slow.”]

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tertium quid develops out of an opposition, partly aided by our conscious effort, partly by the co-operation of the unconscious effort, partly by the co-operation of the unconscious (the alchemists add: Deo concedente). T h e result of this opus is the symbol, in the last resort the self. T he alchemists understood it to be as much physical as spiritual, being the filius macrocosmi, a parallel to Christ, the νϊος τον άνθρωπον. The Gnostics understood the serpent in paradise to be the λό-yos, and in the same way the alchemists believed that their filius philosophorum was the chthonic serpens mercurialis transformed (taking the serpent on the στανρός [cross] as an allegoria ad Christum spectans) .17 T heir naivete shows a hesitation (w hich I feel too) to identify the self with Christ. T heir symbol is the lapis. It is incorruptible, semel f actus (from the increatum, the prim ordial chaos), everlasting, our tool and m aster at the same time ( “ artifex non est magister lapidis, sed potius eius minister” ),18 the redeemer of creation in general, of minerals, plants, animals, and of m an ’s physical imperfection. H ence its synonyms: panacea, alexipharm acum , medicina catholica, etc. (an d hellebore, because it heals insanity). O f course if you understand Christ by definition as a complexio oppositorum, the equation is solved. But you are confronted with a terrific historical counter-position. As it concerns a point of su­ preme im portance, I w anted to clarify the problem beyond all doubt. This may explain and excuse my long-winded argument.

π

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In " Answer to Job” Jung claims that Jesus cHncarnates only the light" side of God. This m ay represent the way in which Jesus is thought of by the m ajority of Western m en and women today, but is it not false to the N ew Testam ent and to Christian thought over the centuries? You m ust consider th a t I am an alienist and practical psycholo­ gist, who has to take things as they are understood, not as they could or should be understood. T hus the Gnostics thought th at Christ had cut off his shadow, and I have never heard th a t he embodies evil as Yahweh explicitly does. Catholic as well as Protes­ ta n t teaching insists th a t Christ is w ithout sin. As a scientist I am chiefly concerned with w hat is generally believed, although I can’t help being impressed by the fact th a t the ecclesiastical doctrines 17 [Cf. Psychology and A lchem y, C.W ., vol. 12, fig. 217.] is [“T h e artifex is not th e m aster of th e stone, b u t ra th e r its m inister.” ]

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do not do justice to certain facts in the New Testament. I have however to consider the consensus omnium that Christ is without the macula peccati. If I should say that Christ contains some evil I am sure to have the Churches against me. As a psychologist I cannot deal with the theological conception of truth. My field is people’s common beliefs. Since I am not chiefly concerned with theology but rather with the laym an’s picture of theological concepts (a fact you must con­ stantly bear in m in d ), I am liable to make many apparent contra­ dictions (like the medieval mind acquainted with funny stories about Jesus, as you rightly point out). The Gospels do indeed give many hints pointing to the dark side, but this has not affected the picture of the lum en de lumine, which is the general view. I am thinking— as a psychologist— about all sorts of erroneous notions which do exist in spite of higher criticism and accurate exegesis and all the achievements of theological research. My object is the general condition of the Christian mind, and not theology, where I am wholly incompetent. Because the lumen de lumine idea is param ount in the laym an’s mind, I dare to point to certain scrip­ tural evidence (accessible to the layman) showing another picture of Christ. I am certain that your conception of Christ would have a hard time getting through certain thick skulls. It is the same with the idea of evil contained in God. I am concerned with dogmas, prejudices, illusions, and errors and every kind of doubt in the laym an’s mind, and I try to get a certain order into that chaos by the means accessible to a layman, i.e., to myself as a repre­ sentative of the humble “ignoramus.” in

This question deals with the relationship between faith and projec­ tion, Has Jung1 in his writing, treated faith as being connected with an outward form of religion? 1635 This I do not properly understand. O f course “faith” is a rela­ tionship to projected contents. But I cannot see how that “corre­ sponds for all practical purposes to a withdrawal of the projection.” Faith on the contrary— as it seems to me— maintains the conviction that the projection is a reality. For instance, I project saintly quali­ ties on to somebody. M y faith maintains and enhances this projec­ tion and creates a worshipful attitude on my part. But it is quite possible that the bearer of the projection is nothing of the kind, perhaps he is even an unpleasant hypocrite. O r I may project,

i.e., h y p o statize, a religious conviction of a c e rta in k in d w h ich I m a in ta in w ith fa ith a n d fe rv o u r. W h e re is th e “ w ith d ra w a l of th e p ro je c tio n ” ? 1636 I n case 0f d o u b t you h a d b e tte r re fer to S y m b o ls o f T r a n s fo r m a ­ tion. O n c e I w as a t th e b eg in n in g of th in g s, a t th e tim e w h e n I se p a ra te d fro m F re u d in 1912. I fo u n d m yself in g re a t in n e r difficul­ ties, as I h a d n o n o tio n of th e collective unco n scio u s o r of a rc h e ­ types. M y e d u c a tio n w as b ase d chiefly o n science, w ith a m odest a m o u n t of th e h u m a n itie s. I t w as a tim e of S t u r m u n d D ran g. T h e so-called P sych olo gy o f th e U nconscious10 w as a n in tu itiv e leap in to th e d a rk a n d co n tain s n o e n d of in a d e q u a te fo rm u latio n s a n d u n fin ish ed th o u g h ts. 1637 I m a k e a g e n e ra l d istin c tio n b etw e en “ re lig io n ” a n d a “ c re e d ” fo r th e sake of th e la y m a n , since it is chiefly h e w h o re ad s m y books a n d n o t th e a c ad em ic scholar. H e (th e sc h o la r) is n o t in te r­ ested in th e la y m a n ’s m in d . As a ru le h e nurses re sen tm e n ts ag a in st psychology. I m u st re p e a t a g a in : I a m a psychologist a n d th u s p e o ­ p le ’s m in d s in tere st m e in th e first p lace , a lth o u g h I am keen to le a rn th e tr u th th e specialist pro d u ces. T h e la y m a n identifies reli­ gio n w ith a creed, t h a t is, w ith th e “ th in g s d o n e in th e c h u rc h .” T h u s Islam , Ju d a ism , B u d d h ism , etc. a re sim ply religions like C h ristia n ity . T h a t th e re is a g en u in e in n e r life, a c o m m u n io n w ith tra n s c e n d e n ta l pow ers, a possibility o f religious experience is m ere h ea rsay . N o r a re th e ch u rch es o v er-sy m p ath etic to th e view th a t th e a lp h a a n d o m eg a of religion is th e su b jectiv e in d iv id u a l e x p e ri­ ence, b u t p u t c o m m u n ity in th e first p lace, w ith o u t p ay in g a tte n tio n to th e fa c t t h a t th e m o re p eople th e re are th e less in d iv id u a lity th e re is. T o b e a lo n e w ith G o d is h ig h ly suspect, a n d , m in d you, it is, b ecau se th e w ill of G od c a n b e te rrib le a n d can isolate you fro m y o u r fam ily a n d y o u r frien d s a n d , if you a re co u rageous or foolish en o u g h , you m a y e n d u p in th e lu n a tic asylum . A n d yet h o w c a n th e re b e religion w ith o u t th e exp erien ce of th e divine w ill? T h in g s a re c o m p a ra tiv e ly easy as lo n g as G o d w a n ts n o th in g b u t th e fu lfilm en t of his law s, b u t w h a t if h e w a n ts you to b re a k th em , as h e m a y do eq u a lly w ell? P o o r H o se a co u ld believe in th e sym bolic n a tu re of his a w k w a rd m a rria g e , b u t w h a t a b o u t th e eq u ally p o o r little d o c to r w h o h a s to sw ea r his soul aw ay to save a h u m a n life? H e c a n n o t even b e g in to p o in t o u t w h a t a n affliction his a c t of ly in g is, a lth o u g h in his so litu d e w ith G o d h e m a y feel justified. 19 [T he translation T rans form ation . ]

( 1 91 6)

of the original

( 19 12 )

version

of Sym bols

of

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But in case of discovery he has to face the ignominious consequences of his deed and nobody will believe him to be a witness for the divine will. To be God’s voice is not a social function anymore. Si parva licet componere magnis— what did I get for my serious struggle over Job, which I had postponed for as long as possible? I am regarded as blasphemous, contemptible, a fiend, whose name is mud. It fell to my lot to collect the victims of the Summum Bonum and use my own poor means to help them. But I could not say that a church of any denomination has encouraged my endeavours. You are one of the very jew who adm it the complexio oppositorum in the Deity. ( Cusanus does not seem to have really known w hat he was talking about, nor anybody else in those days, otherwise he would have been roasted long ago.) T h at is the reason why I don’t identify religion with a creed. I can have a real com­ munion only with those who have the same or similar religious experience, but not with the believers in the W ord, who have never even taken the trouble to understand its implications and expose themselves to the divine will unreservedly. They use the W ord to protect themselves against the will of God. Nothing shields you better against the solitude and forlornness of the divine experience than community. It is the best and safest substitute for individual responsibility. X Jie se]f or Christ is present in everybody a priori, but as a rule in an unconscious condition to begin with. But it is a definite experience of later life, when this fact becomes conscious. It is not really understood by teaching or suggestion. It is only real when it happens, and it can happen only when you withdraw your projec­ tions from an outward historical or metaphysical Christ and thus wake up Christ within. This does not mean that the unconscious self is inactive, only th at we do not understand it. T he self (or Christ) cannot become conscious and real without the withdrawal of external projections. An act of introjection is needed, i.e., the realization that the self lives in you and not in an external figure separated and different from yourself. T he self has always been, and will be, your innermost centre and periphery, your scintilla and punctum solis. It is even biologically the archetype of order and— dynamically— the source of life. IV

Here the question is concerned with Jung’s objections to the view that Cod is the Sum m um Bonum and sin is a privatio boni.

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Well, I have noticed that it seems to be a m ajor difficulty for the theological m ind to accept the fact th at ( 1) “good” and “evil” are m an-m ade judgm ents. Somebody’s “good” may be bad or evil for another et vice versa. (2) O ne cannot speak of “good” if one does not equally speak of “ evil,” any more than there can be an “ above” w ithout a “ below,” or “ day” w ithout “night.” ( 3 ) The privatio boni appears to me a syllogism. If “ good” and ονσία are one w ithout an equally valid counterpart, then “good” is also a μη ον because the term “ good” has lost its m eaning; it is just “be­ ing” and evil is just “ not-being” and the term means “nothing.” O f course you are free to call “ nothing” evil, b u t nothing is just nothing and cannot bear another name, m aking it into “something.” Something non-existing has no nam e and no quality. The privatio boni suggests that evil is μ η ον, not-being or nothing. It is not even a shadow. There remains only the ov, b u t it is not good, since there is no “bad.” Thus the epithet “good” is redundant. You can call God the Summum , b u t not the Bonum, since there is nothing else different from “ being,” from the Sum m um qua being! Although the privatio boni is not the invention of the C hurch Fathers, the syllogism was most welcome to them on account of the M anichaean danger of dualism. Yet w ithout dualism there is no cognition at all, because discrimination is impossible. 164° j have never [as you state] understood from my study of the Fathers that God is the highest good with reference to man, no m at­ ter w hat he is in himself. This is certainly new to me. Obviously my critique of the Sum m um Bonum does not apply in this case. T he Bonum then would be an anthropom orphic judgm ent, “ God is good for m e,” leaving it an open question w hether he is the same for other people. If one assumes him to be a complexio oppositorum, i.e., beyond good and evil, it is possible th a t he may appear equally well as the source of evil which you believe to be ultimately good for m an. I am convinced, as I have seen it too often to doubt it, th a t an apparent evil is really no evil at all if you accept and obediently live it as far as possible, b u t I am equally convinced th a t an apparent good is in reality not always good at all b u t wholly destructive. If this were not the case, then everything would be ultimately good, i.e., good in its essence, and evil would not really exist, as it would be a merely transitory appearance. In other words: the term “good” has lost its meaning, and the only safe basis of cognition is our world of experience, in which the power of evil is very real and not at all a mere appearance. O ne can and does

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cherish an optimistic hope that ultimately, in spite of grave doubts, “all will be well.” As I am not making a metaphysical judgment, I cannot help remarking that at least in our empirical world the opposites are inexorably at work and that, without them, this world would not exist. W e cannot even conceive of a thing that is not a form of energy, and energy is inevitably based upon opposites. I must however pay attention to the psychological fact that, so far as we can make out, individuation is a natural phenomenon, and in a way an inescapable goal, which we have reason to call good for us, because it liberates us from the otherwise insoluble conflict of opposites (at least to a noticeable degree). It is not in­ vented by m an, but N ature herself produces its archetypal image. Thus the credo “in the end all will be well” is not without its psychic foundation. But it is more than questionable whether this phenomenon is of any importance to the world in general, or only to the individual who has reached a more complete state of con­ sciousness, to the “redeemed” man in accordance with our Christian tenet of eternal dam nation. “ M any are called, b u t few are chosen” is an authentic logion and not characteristic of Gnosticism alone. v

Jung has been given the title “Gnostic” which he has refected. This term has probably been used about him [and his system] because he appears to believe that salvation is for the few and that the many cannot and ought not to attem pt individuation. Is it possible that he is a “Gnostic” in this sense? 1642 T he designation of my “system” as “Gnostic” is an invention of my theological critics. Moreover I have no “system.” I am not a philosopher, merely an empiricist. T he Gnostics have the merit of having raised the problem of πόθΐν τό κακόν; [whence evil?]. Valentinus as well as Basilides are in my view great theologians, who tried to cope with the problems raised by the inevitable influx of the collective unconscious, a fact clearly portrayed by the “gnostic” gospel of St. John and by St. Paul, not to mention the Book of Revelation, and even by Christ himself (unjust steward and Codex Bezae to Luke 6 : 4 ). In the style of their time they hypostatized their ideas as metaphysical entities. Psychology does not hypostatize, b u t considers such ideas as psychological statements about, or models of, essential unconscious factors inaccessible to

im m ediate experience. T his is about as far as scientific u n derstand­ ing can go. In ou r days there are plenty of people w ho are unable to believe a statem ent they cannot u n d erstand, a n d they appreciate th e help psychology can give them by show ing them th a t h u m an behaviour is deeply influenced by num inous archetypes. T h a t gives them som e u n d erstan d in g of w hy a n d how the religious factor plays an im p o rta n t role. I t also gives them ways an d m eans of recognizing the operation of religious ideas in their ow n psyche. 1643 I m ust confess th a t I myself could find access to religion only th ro u g h the psychological un d erstan d in g of inner experiences, w hereas tra d itio n al religious interpretations left m e high an d dry. It was only psychology th a t helped m e to overcom e the fatal im ­ pressions of my youth th a t everything un tru e, even im m oral, in our o rdinary em pirical w orld m ust be believed to be the eternal tru th in religion. A bove all, th e killing of a h u m an victim to p lacate the senseless w ra th of a G od w ho h a d created im perfect beings unable to fulfil his expectations poisoned m y w hole religion. N obody knew an answer. “ W ith G od all things are possible.” Ju st s o ! As the p e rp etrato r of incredible things he is him self incredible, an d yet I was supposed to believe w h a t every fibre of m y body refused to a d m it! T h ere are a g reat m any questions w hich I could elucidate only by psychological understanding. I loved the Gnostics in spite of everything, because they recognized th e necessity of some fu rth er raisonnem ent, entirely absent in th e C hristian cosmos. T h ey were a t least h u m a n a n d therefore understandable. B ut I have no γν ώ σ ις τον Oeov. I know the reality of religious experience and of psychological m odels w hich perm it a lim ited understanding. I have Gnosis so fa r as I have im m ediate experience, a n d m y m odels are greatly helped by the representations collectives of all religions. But I cannot see w hy one creed should possess th e uniq u e and perfect tru th . E ach creed claims this prerogative, hence th e general dis­ agreem ent! T his is not very helpful. Som ething m ust be wrong. I think it is th e im m odesty of the claim to god-alm ightiness of the believers, w hich com pensates th eir in n er doubt. Instead of basing themselves upon im m ediate experience they believe in w ords for w a n t of som ething better. T h e sacrificium intellectus is a sweet d ru g for m a n ’s all-em bracing spiritual laziness a n d inertia. 1644 I owe yOU quite a n u m b er of apologies for th e fact th a t my lay m an ’s m en tal a ttitu d e m ust be excruciatingly irritatin g to your p o in t of view. B ut you know, as a psychologist I am not concerned w ith theology directly, b u t ra th e r w ith the incom petent general pub-

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lie and its erroneous and faulty convictions, which are however just as real to it as their competent views are to the theologians. I am continually asked “theological” questions by my patients, and when I say that I am only a doctor and they should ask the theolo­ gian, then the regular answer is, “Oh, yes, we have done so,” or “we do not ask a priest because we get an answer we already know, which explains nothing.” Well this is the reason why I have to try for better or worse to help my patients to some kind of understanding at least. It gives them a certain satisfaction as it has done to me, although it is adm it­ tedly inadequate. But to them it sounds as if somebody were speak­ ing their language and understanding their questions which they take very seriously indeed. Once, for instance, it was a very im por­ tant question to me to discover how far modern Protestantism con­ siders that the God of the Old Testament is identical with the God of the New Testament. I asked two university professors. They did not answer my letter. T he third (also a professor) said he didn’t know. T he fourth said, “ Oh, that is quite easy. Yahweh is a some­ w hat more archaic conception contrasted with the more differen­ tiated view of the New Testam ent.” I said to him, “T h at is exactly the kind of psychologism you accuse me of.” My question must have been singularly inadequate or foolish. But I do not know why. I am speaking for the laym an’s psychology. T he layman is a reality and his questions do exist. My “Answer to Job” voices the questions of thousands, but the theologians don’t answer, contenting them­ selves with dark allusions to my layman’s ignorance of Hebrew, higher criticism, O ld Testam ent exegesis, etc., but there is not a single answer. A Jesuit professor of theology asked me rather indig­ nantly how I could suggest th at the Incarnation has remained in­ complete. I said, “The hum an being is born under the macula peccati. Neither Christ nor his mother suffers from original sin. They are therefore not hum an, but superhuman, a sort of God.” W hat did he answer? Nothing. W hy is that so? M y laym an’s reasoning is certainly imperfect, and my theological knowledge regrettably meagre, b u t not as bad as all that, at least I hope not. But I do know something about the psychology of m an now and in the past, and as a psychologist I raise the questions I have been asked a hundred times by my patients and other laymen. Theology would certainly not suffer by paying attention. I know you are too busy to do it. I am all the more anxious to prevent avoidable mistakes and I shall feel

deeply obliged to you if you take the trouble of show ing me w here I am wrong. '647 Gnosis is characterized by the hypostatizing of psychological apperceptions, i.e., by the integration of archetypal contents beyond the revealed “ tru th ” of the Gospels. H ippolytus still considered clas­ sical G reek philosophy along w ith G nostic philosophies as perfectly possible views. C hristian Gnosis to him was m erely the best and superior to all of them . T h e people w ho call m e a Gnostic cannot u n derstand th a t I am a psychologist, describing m odes of psychic behaviour precisely like a biologist studying the instinctual activities of insects. H e does n o t believe in the tenets of th e bee’s philosophy. W hen I show the parallels betw een dream s and G nostic fantasies I believe in neither. T hey are just facts one does not need to believe or to hypostatize. An alienist is not necessarily crazy because he describes a n d analyses the delusions of lunatics, nor is a scholar studying the T ripitaka necessarily a Buddhist. 4. R e p ly to a Letter from the R ev. D avid C o x tt' 1648

rP he crux of this question is: ‘W ithin your ow n personality.” “ C h rist” can be an external reality (historical an d m etaphysical) or an archetypal im age or idea in the collective unconscious point­ ing to an unknow n background. I w ould u n d erstan d the form er m ainly as a projection, b u t not the latter, because it is im m ediately evident. I t is not projected upon anything, therefore there is no projection. O nly, “ fa ith ” in Christ is different from faith in anyone else, since in this case, “ C hrist” being im m ediately evident, the w ord “ faith ,” including or alluding to the possibility of doubt, seems too feeble a w ord to characterize th a t pow erful presence from w hich there is no escape. A general can say to his soldiers, “ Y ou m ust have faith in m e,” because one m ight doubt him . B ut you cannot say to a m an lying w ounded on the battlefield, “ You Ought to be­ lieve th a t this is a real b a ttle ,” or “ Be sure th a t you are up against the enem y ” It is just too obvious. Even the historical Jesus began to speak of “ faith ” because he saw th a t his disciples h ad no im m edi­ ate evidence. In ste a d they h a d to believe, while he him self being identical w ith G od h ad no need to “ have faith in G o d .” 1649 A s one habitually identifies the “ psyche” w ith w h a t one knows of it, it is assum ed th a t one can call certain (supposed or believed) 20 [ P h i l p , p p . 2 3 9 - 5 0 .

(2 5 S ep t.

1 9 5 7 ·)]

m etaphysical entities non-psychic. Being a responsible scientist I am unable to pass such a judgm ent, for all I know of regular reli­ gious phenom ena seems to indicate th a t they are psychic events. M oreover I do not know the full reach of the psyche, because there is the limitless extent of the unconscious. “ C hrist” is definitely an archetypal im age ( I don’t add “ only” ) and th a t is all I actually know of him . As such he belongs to the (collective) foundations of the psyche. I identify him therefore w ith w h at I call the self. T h e self rules th e whole of the psyche. I think our opinions do not differ essentially. You seem to have trouble only w ith the theo­ logical (a n d self-inflicted) devaluation of th e psyche, w hich you apparently believe to be ultim ately definable. 165° If my identification of Christ w ith the archetype of the self is valid, he is, or ought to be, a complexio oppositorum. Historically this is n ot so. T herefore I was profoundly surprised by your state­ m ent th a t C hrist contains the opposites. Between m y contention and historical C hristianity there stretches th a t deep abyss of C hris­ tian dualism — C hrist an d the Devil, good and evil, G od and C reation. 1651 “Beyond good an d evil” simply m eans: we pass no m oral ju d g ­ m ent. B ut in fact nothing is changed. T h e sam e is true w hen we state th a t w hatever G od is or does is good. Since G od does every­ thing (even m an created by him is his instrum ent) everything is good, and the term “good” has lost its m eaning. “ G ood” is a relative term . T h e re is no good w ithout bad. '652 I am afraid th a t even revealed tru th has to evolve. Everything living changes. W e should n o t be satisfied w ith unchangeable tra d i­ tions. T h e great battle th a t began w ith the daw n of consciousness has not reached its climax w ith any p articular interpretation, apos­ tolic, C atholic, P rotestant, or otherwise. Even the highly conserva­ tive C atholic C h u rch has overstepped its ancient rule of apostolic authenticity w ith the A ssum ptio Beatae Virginis. A ccording to w hat I hear from C atholic theologians, the next step w ould be the Coredem ptrix. T his obvious recognition of the fem ale elem ent is a very im p o rtan t step fow ard. I t m eans psychologically the recogni­ tion of the unconscious, since the representative of the collective unconscious is the anim a, the archetype of all divine m others (at least in the m asculine psyche) · i653 T h e equivalent on the P rotestant side w ould be a confrontation w ith the unconscious as the counterpart or consort of the m asculine Logos. T h e hitherto valid symbol of the suprem e spiritual structure

was T rin ity + S atan, the so-called 3 + I structure, corresponding to three conscious functions versus the one unconscious, so-called inferior fu n c tio n ; or i + 3 if the conscious side is understood as one versus the co-called inferior or chthonic tria d , m ythologically characterized as three m o th er figures."1 I suppose th a t the negative evaluation of the unconscious has som ething to do w ith the fact th a t it has been h itherto represented by S atan , while in reality it is the fem ale aspect of m a n ’s psyche and thus not wholly evil in spite of th e old saying: V ir a Deo creatus, m ulier a simia Dei. 1654 I t seems to m e of p a ra m o u n t im portance th a t Protestantism should integrate psychological experience, as for instance Jacob Boehm e did. W ith him G od does not only contain love, but, on the other side a n d in the sam e m easure, the fire of w rath , in w hich Lucifer himself dwells. C hrist is a revelation of his love, b u t he can m anifest his w rath in an O ld T estam ent way just as well, i.e., in the form of evil. Inasm uch as out of evil good m ay come, and out of good evil, we do not know w hether creation is ultim ately good or a regrettable m istake a n d G o d ’s suffering. It is an ineffable mystery. At any rate we are not doing justice either to n a tu re in general or to our own h u m an n a tu re w hen we deny the im m ensity of evil a n d suffering and tu rn our eyes from the cruel aspect of creation. Evil should be recognized and one should not attrib u te the existence of evil to m a n ’s sinfulness. Y ahw eh is not offended by being feared. 1655 I t is q u ite u n d erstan d ab le why it was an EvayyeXtov [evangel, “ good tidings”] to learn of the bonitas D ei and of his son. I t was know n to the ancients th a t the cognitio sui ipsius [self-knowledge]32 was a prerequisite for this, not only in the G raeco-R om an world b u t also in the F a r East. It is to the individual a p titu d e th a t the m an Jesus owes his apotheosis: he becam e the symbol of the self u n d e r the aspect of the infinite goodness, w hich was certainly the symbol most needed in ancient civilization (as it is still needed to d a y ) . 1656 i t can be considered a fact th a t the dogm atic figure of Christ is the result of a condensation process from various sources. O ne of the m ain origins is the age-old god-m an of E g ypt: O siris-H orus a n d his four sons. It was a rem odeling of the unconscious archetype 21 [Cf. “T h e Phenomenology of the S pirit in Fairytales” (C.W ., vol. 9, i), pars. 4Q5f., 436!!.; A ion, par. 351; and “T h e Spirit M ercurius” (C.W ., vol. 13), pars. 2 7off.] 22 [Cf. “T h e Spirit M ercurius,” par. 301.]

h ith erto p ro jected u p o n a d iv in e n o n -h u m an being. By em b od yin g itself in a h istorical m a n it cam e nearer to consciousness, b u t in keep­ in g w ith th e m e n ta l ca p a city o f the tim e it rem ained as if su sp en d ed b e tw e e n G o d a n d m a n , b etw een the need for go o d and the fear o f evil. A n y d o u b t a b o u t th e ab solute bonitas D e i w o u ld h a v e led to a n im m e d ia te regression to th e form er p a g a n state, i.e., to the am o ra lity of th e m eta p h y sica l p rinciple. 1657 S in c e then t w o th ou san d years h a v e passed. In this tim e w e h a v e learn ed th a t g o o d an d evil are categories of our m oral ju d gm en t, th erefo re relative to m a n . T h u s th e w ay w as op en ed for a new m o d e l of th e self. M o ra l ju d g m en t is a necessity of th e h u m a n m in d . T h e C hrist (ό Χ ρ ι σ τ ό ς ) is the C hristian m od el that expresses th e self, as th e Ανθρωπος is the corresponding E g y p to-Ju d aic form u la. M o ra l q u a lifica tio n is w ith d raw n from th e deity. T h e C a th o lic C h u rch has alm ost su cceed ed in ad d in g fem in in ity to th e m a scu lin e T rin ity . P rotestan tism is con fronted w ith the p sych olog­ ical p ro b lem o f th e u n con sciou s. 1658 I t is, as far as I can see, a p ecu liar process ex ten d in g over at least fou r th o u sa n d years of m en tal evolu tion . It can be co n tem ­ p la ted in a “ eu h em eristic” w a y as a d evelop m en t of m a n ’s u n d er­ sta n d in g o f th e su p rem e p ow ers b eyon d his control. [T h e process consists o f th e fo llo w in g sta g e s:] ( 1 ) G ods. ( 2 ) A suprem e D eity ru lin g th e g o d s a n d d em on s. ( 3 ) G od shares our h u m an fa te, is b etra y ed , killed or dies, a n d is resurrected again . T h er e is a fem in in e cou n terp a rt d ra m a tica lly in v o lv ed in G o d ’s fate. ( 4 ) G od becom es m a n in th e flesh a n d thu s historical. H e is id en tified w ith the a b ­ stract id ea of th e S u m m u m B o n u m an d loses th e fem in in e cou n ter­ part. T h e fem a le d eity is d egrad ed to an an cillary position ( C h u r c h ). C on sciousn ess begin s to prevail against the unconscious. T h is is an en orm ou sly im p o rta n t step forw ard in th e em a n cip a tio n of con sciousn ess a n d in th e lib era tio n of th o u g h t from its in v o lv e­ m en t in thin gs. T h u s th e fo u n d a tio n of scien ce is laid , b u t o n the oth er h a n d , th a t o f ath eism a n d m aterialism . B oth are in evitab le con seq u en ces o f th e basic sp lit b etw een spirit and m atter in C hris­ tia n p h ilo so p h y , w h ic h p ro cla im ed th e red em p tion of th e spirit from the b o d y a n d its fetters. ( 5 ) T h e w h o le m etap h ysical w orld is u n ­ derstood as a p sych ic structu re projected in to the sphere of the unknow n. 1659 T h e d a n g er o f this v ie w p o in t is exaggerated scepticism and ra tion alism , sin ce th e origin al “suprem e p ow ers” are reduced to m ere representations o v er w h ic h o n e assum es on e has co m p lete con-

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trol. This leads to a complete negation of the supreme powers (sci­ entific m aterialism ). T he other way of looking at it is from the standpoint of the archetype. T he original chaos of multiple gods evolves into a sort of monarchy, and the archetype of the self slowly asserts its central position as the archetype of order in chaos. O ne God rules supreme but apart from man. I t begins to show a tendency to relate itself to consciousness through a process of penetration: the humanizing effect of a feminine intercession, expressed for instance by the Isis intrigue. In the Christian myth the Deity, the self, penetrates con­ sciousness almost completely, without any visible loss of power and prestige. But in time it becomes obvious th at the Incarnation has caused a loss am ong the supreme powers: the indispensable dark side has been left behind or stripped off, and the feminine aspect is missing. Thus a further act of incarnation becomes necessary. T hrough atheism, materialism, and agnosticism, the powerful yet one-sided aspect of the Summum Bonum is weakened, so th a t it cannot keep out the dark side, and incidentally the feminine factor, any more. “Antichrist” and “Devil” gain the ascendancy: God as­ serts his power through the revelation of his darkness and destruc­ tiveness. M an is merely instrum ental in carrying out the divine plan. Obviously he does not w ant his own destruction but is forced to it by his own inventions. H e is entirely unfree in his actions because he does not yet understand th at he is a mere instrum ent of a destruc­ tive superior will. From this paradox he could learn th a t— nolens volens— he serves a supreme power, and th at supreme powers exist in spite of his denial. As God lives in everybody in the form of the scintilla of the self, m an could see his “ daem onic,” i.e., am biva­ lent, nature in himself and thus he could understand how he is penetrated by God or how God incarnates in man. T hrough his further incarnation God becomes a fearful task for m an, who m ust now find ways and means to unite the divine opposites in himself. H e is summoned and can no longer leave his sorrows to somebody else, not even to Christ, because it was Christ th a t has left him the almost impossible task of his cross. Christ has shown how everybody will be crucified upon his destiny, i.e., upon his self, as he was. H e did not carry his cross and suffer cruci­ fixion so th a t we could escape. T he bill of the Christian era is pre­ sented to us: we are living in a world rent in two from top to bottom ; we are confronted with the H-bom b and we have to face our own shadows. Obviously God does not w ant us to rem ain little

children looking out for a parent who will do their job for them. We are cornered by the supreme power of the incarnating Will. God really wants to become man, even if he rends him asunder. This is so no m atter w hat we say. One cannot talk the H-bomb or Communism out of the world. We are in the soup that is going to be cooked for us, w hether we claim to have invented it or not. Christ said to his disciples “Ye are gods.” This word becomes pain­ fully true. If God incarnates in the empirical man, man is con­ fronted with the divine problem. Being and remaining m an he has to find an answer. It is the question of the opposites, raised at the moment when God was declared to be good only. Where then is his dark side? Christ is the model for the hum an answers and his symbol is the cross, the union of the opposites. This will be the fate of man, and this he must understand if he is to survive at all. We are threatened with universal genocide if we cannot work out the way of salvation by a symbolic death. 1662 In order to accomplish his task, man is inspired by the Holy Ghost in such a way that he is apt to identify him with his own mind. H e even runs the grave risk of believing he has a Messianic mission, and forces tyrannous doctrines upon his fellow-beings. H e would do better to dis-identify his mind from the small voice within, from dreams and fantasies through which the divine spirit manifests itself. O ne should listen to the inner voice attentively, intelligently and critically (Probate spiritus!), because the voice one hears is the influxus divinus consisting, as the Acts of John aptly state, of “right” and “left” streams, i.e., of opposites.23 They have to be clearly separated so th at their positive and negative aspects become visible. O nly thus can we take up a middle position and discover a middle way. T h at is the task left to man, and th at is the reason why m an is so im portant to God that he decided to become a m an himself. 1663 I must apologize for the length of this exposition. Please do not think that I am stating a truth. I am merely trying to present a hypothesis which m ight explain the bewildering conclusions result­ ing from the clash of traditional symbols and psychological experi­ ences. I thought it best to put my cards on the table, so th at you get a clear picture of my ideas. 1664 Although all this sounds as if it were a sort of theological specu­ lation, it is in reality modern m an’s perplexity expressed in symbolic 23Q am es, T h e A p o c ry p h a l N e w T e sta m e n t, p. 2 5 5 : “T h e A cts of P e te r.” Cf. “T ra n sfo rm a tio n Sym bolism in th e M ass” (C .W ., vol. 11), p a r. 429.]

terms. It is the problem I so often had to deal with in treating the neuroses of intelligent patients. It can be expressed in a more scientific, psychological language; for instance, instead of using the term God you say “unconscious,” instead of Christ “self,” instead of incarnation “integration of the unconscious,” instead of salvation or redemption “individuation,” instead of crucifixion or sacrifice on the Cross “ realization of the four functions or of “wholeness.” I think it is no disadvantage to religious tradition if we can see how far it coincides w ith psychological experience. O n the contrary it seems to me a most welcome aid in understanding religious traditions. *665 A myth remains a myth even if certain people believe it to be the literal revelation of an eternal truth, but it becomes moribund if the living tru th it contains ceases to be an object of belief. It is therefore necessary to renew its life from time to time through a new interpretation. This means re-adapting it to the changing spirit of the times. W hat the Church calls “prefigurations” refer to the original state of the myth, while the Christian doctrine repre­ sents a new interpretation and re-adaptation to a Hellenized world. A most interesting attem pt at re-interpretation began in the eleventh century,24 leading up to the schism in the sixteenth century. The Renaissance was no more a rejuvenation of antiquity than Protes­ tantism was a return to the primitive Christianity: it was a new interpretation necessitated by the devitalization of the Catholic Church. *666 Today Christianity is devitalized by its remoteness from the spirit of the times. It stands in need of a new union with, or relation to, the atomic age, which is a unique novelty in history. T he myth needs to be retold in a new spiritual language, for the new wine can no more be poured into the old bottles than it could in the Hellenistic age. Even conservative Jewry had to produce an entirely new version of the m yth in its Cabalistic Gnosis. It is my practical experience th a t psychological understanding immediately revivifies the essential Christian ideas and fills them with the breath of life. This is because our worldly light, i.e., scientific knowledge and understanding, coincides with the symbolic statem ent of the myth, whereas previously we were unable to bridge the gulf between knowing and believing. *667 Coming back to your letter (pp. 2-3 , 25 September) I must say th a t I could accept your definition of the Summum Bonum, 24 [Cf. A io n , pars, I39ff.]

“ W hatever G od is, th at is good,” if it did not interfere w ith or tw ist our sense of good. In dealing w ith the m oral nature of an act of G od, we have either to suspend our m oral judgm ent and blindly follow the dictates of this superior will, or we have to judge in a h u m an fashion and call white white and black black. In spite of the fact th a t we sometimes obey the superior will blindly and alm ost heroically, I do not think th at this is the usual thing, nor is it com m endable on the whole to act blindly, because we are surely expected to act w ith conscious m oral reflection. It is too d a n ­ gerously easy to avoid responsibility by deluding ourselves th a t our will is th e will of G od. W e can be forcibly overcome by the latter, b u t if we are not we m ust use our judgm ent, and then we are faced w ith the inexorable fact th a t hum anly speaking some acts of G od are good and some bad, so m uch so th a t the assum ption of a Sum m um Bonum becomes almost an act of hubris. 1668 If God can be understood as the perfect complexio oppositorum , so can Christ. I can agree w ith your view about C hrist completely, only it is not the traditional b u t a very m odern concep­ tion w hich is on the way to the desired new interpretation. I also agree w ith your understanding of T a o and its contrast to C hrist, w ho is indeed the paradigm of the reconciliation of the divine oppo­ sites in m an brought about in the process of individuation. T hus C hrist stands for the treasure and the suprem e “ good.” (In G erm an “good” = gut, b u t the noun G ut also m eans “ property” and “ treasure.” ) 1669 W hen theology m akes m etaphysical assertions the conscience of the scientist cannot back it up. Since Christ never m eant m ore to m e th a n w h a t I could understand of him , and since this u n d er­ standing coincides w ith my em pirical knowledge of the self, I have to adm it th a t I m ean the self in dealing w ith the idea of Christ. As a m a tte r of fact I have no other access to Christ but the self, and since I do not know anything beyond the self I cling to his archetype. I say, “ H ere is the living and perceptible archetype w hich has been projected upon the m an Jesus or has historically m ani­ fested itself in him .” If this collective archetype h ad not been associated w ith Jesus he w ould have rem ained a nameless Zaddik. I actually prefer the term “self” because I am talking to H indus as well as Christians, a n d I do not w ant to divide b ut to unite. r67° Since I am p u ttin g my cards on the table, I m ust confess th at I cannot detach a certain feeling of dishonesty from any m etaphysi­ cal assertion— one m ay speculate b u t not assert. O ne cannot reach

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beyond oneself, and if somebody assures you he can reach beyond himself and his natural limitations, he overreaches himself and be­ comes immodest and untrue. This may be a deformation professionelle, the prejudice of a scientific conscience. Science is an honest-to-God attem pt to get at the truth and its rule is never to assert more than one can prove within reasonable and defensible limits. This is my attitude in ap­ proaching the problem of religious experience. I am unable to envisage anything beyond the self, since it is— by definition— a borderline concept designating the unknown totality of m an: there are no known limits to the unconscious. There is no reason whatsoever why you should or should not call the beyond-self Christ or Buddha or Purusha or T ao or K hidr or Tifereth. All these terms are recognizable formulations of what I call the “self.” Moreover I dislike the insistence upon a special name, since my hum an brethren are as good and as valid as I am. Why should their name-giving be less valid than mine? It is not easy for a layman to get the desired theological inform a­ tion, because even the Church is not at one with herself in this respect. W ho represents authentic Christianity? T hus the layman whether he likes it or not has to quote Protestant or Catholic state­ ments pele-mele as Christian views because they are backed up by some authority. In my case I believe I have been careful in quoting my sources. You as a theologian are naturally interested in the best possible view or explanation, while the psychologist is interested in all sorts of opinions because he wants to acquire some understanding of mental phenomenology and cares little for even the best possible metaphysical assertion, which is beyond hum an reach anyhow. The various creeds are just so many phenom ena to him, and he has no means of deciding about the tru th or the ultimate validity of any metaphysical statement. I cannot select the “best” or the “ulti­ m ate” opinions because I do not know which kind of opinion to choose from which Church. Also I do not care particularly where such opinions come from, and it is quite beyond my capacity to find out whether they are erroneous or not. I would be wrong only if I attributed, for instance, the idea of the conceptio immaculata to Protestantism or the sola fide standpoint to Catholicism. The many misunderstandings attributed to me come into this category. In either case it is plain to see that someone has been careless in his assumptions. But if I attribute Ritschl’s christological views to

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Protestantism , it is no error in spite of the fact th a t the C hurch of E ngland does not subscribe to the opinions of M r. Ritschl or of M r. B arth.24a I hope I have n ot inadvertently been guilty of some m isquotation. I can illustrate the problem by a typical instance. M y little essay on E astern M ed itatio n 25 deals with the popular tract A m itayur D hyana Sutra, w hich is a relatively late and not very valuable M a h ay an a text. A critic objected to my choice: he could not see why I should take such an inconspicuous tract instead of a genuinely Buddhist and classical P ali text in order to present Buddhist thought. H e entirely overlooked the fact th a t I h ad no intention w hatever of expounding classical Buddhism, b ut th a t my aim was to analyse the psychology of this p articular text. W hy should I not deal w ith Jacob Boehme o r Angelus Silesius as Christian writers, even though they are not classical representatives either of C atholi­ cism or of Protestantism ? A sim ilar m isunderstanding appears in your view th a t I am not doing justice to the ideal of comm unity. W henever possible I avoid ideals and m uch prefer realities. I have never found a com ­ m unity w hich w ould allow “full expression to the individual w ithin it.” Suppose the individual is going to speak the tru th regardless of the feelings of everybody else: he w ould not only be the most abom inable enfant terrible but m ight equally well cause a m ajor catastrophe. Edifying examples of this can be observed at the m eet­ ings of B uchm an’s so-called O xford G roup M ovem ent. A t the ex­ pense of tru th the individual has to “behave,53 i.e., suppress his reaction m erely for the sake of Christian charity. W h at if I should get up after a serm on about ideals an d ask the parson how m uch he himself is able to live up to his adm onitions? In my own case the m ere fact th a t I am seriously interested in psychology has cre­ ated a peculiar hostility or fear in certain circles. W h at has h ap ­ pened to those people in th e C hurch, th a t is in a C hristian com­ m unity, w ho ventured to have a new idea? No com m unity can escape the laws of mass psychology. I am critical of the com m unity in the sam e w ay as I suspect the individual who builds his castles in Spain while anxiously avoiding the expression of his own convic­ tions. I am shy of ideals w hich one preaches and never lives up to, sim ply because one cannot. I w ant to know rath e r w h at we 24a [Albrecht Ritschl (1 8 2 2 -1 8 8 9 ) and Karl Barth (1 8 8 6 -1 9 6 8 ), resp. German and Swiss Protestant theologians.] 25 [“T h e Psychology of Eastern M editation” (C .W ., vol. 11).]

can live. I w a n t to build up a possible h u m an life w hich carries th rough G od’s experim ent and does not invent an ideal scheme know ing th a t it will never be fulfilled. Later L e tte r26 I am m uch obliged to you for telling m e exactly w h at you think an d for criticizing my b lu n t ways of thinking and w riting (also of talking, I am a fra id ). It seems, however, to be the style of natu ral scientists: we simply state our proposition, assum ing th a t nobody will think it to be m ore th a n a disputable hypothesis. W e are so im bued w ith doubts concerning our assum ptions th a t scepticism is taken for granted. W e are therefore a p t to om it the conventional captatio benevolentiae lectoris w ith its “ W ith hesitation I su b ­ m it . . . “ I consider it a daring hypothesis . . . ,” etc. W e even forget the pream ble: “ T his is the way I look at it . . . 1678 rJ h e case of the Jesu it 27 was th a t he p u t th e direct question to m e: “ H ow on earth can you suggest th a t C hrist was not h u m an ?” T h e discussion was naturally on th e dogm atic level, as there is no other basis on w hich this question can be answered. It is n o t a question of truth, because the problem itself is far beyond hum an judgm ent. M y “A nsw er to J o b ” is m erely a reconstruction of the psychology discernible in this an d other O ld T estam ent texts for the interested laym an. H e knows very little of H ig h er Criticism, w hich is historical an d philological in th e m ain, a n d it is b u t little concerned w ith the laym an’s reactions to the paradoxes and m oral horrors of the O ld T estam ent. H e knows his Bible and hears the serm ons of his parson or priest. As a C atholic he has h a d a dogm atic education. 1679 W hen talking of “ J o b ” you m ust always rem em ber th a t I am dealing w ith the psychology of an archetypal an d anthropom orphic im age of G od a n d not w ith a m etaphysical entity. As far as we can see, the archetype is a psychic structure w ith a life of its own to a certain extent. 1680 G od in the O ld T estam en t is a g u ard ian of law a n d m orality, yet is himself unjust. H e is a m oral p aradox, unreflecting in an ethical sense. W e can perceive G od in an infinite variety of images, yet all of them are anthropom orphic, otherwise they w ould not

1 ^ 77

26 [Philp, pp. 250-54. (12 Nov. 1957.)] 27 [Cf. supra, par. 1645.]

get in to o u r heads. T h e divine p a ra d o x is th e source of u n en d in g su fferin g to m a n . J o b c a n n o t avoid seeing it a n d th u s he sees m ore th a n G o d him self. T h is explains w hy th e G od-im age has to com e d ow n “ in to th e flesh.” T h e p arad o x , expressed of course w ith m an y hesitatio n s in th e p a rtic u la ritie s of th e m yth a n d in th e C ath o lic d o g m a, is clearly discernible in th e fact th a t the “ S uffering R ig h ­ teo u s m a n ” is, historically speaking, a n erroneous conception, no t id en tical w ith th e suffering G od, because he is Jesus C hrist, w o r­ sh ip p ed as a s e p a ra te G o d (h e is a m ere p refig u ratio n , painfully in clu d ed in a triu n ity ) a n d n o t an o rd in ary m a n w ho is forced to ac cep t th e suffering of in to lerab le opposites he has n o t invented. T h e y w ere p re o rd a in e d . H e is th e victim , because h e is cap ab le of th ree -d im en sio n al consciousness a n d ethical decision. (T h is is a b it co ndensed. U n lik e Y ah w eh , m a n has self-reflection.) 1681 I d o n ’t k n o w w h a t J o b is supposed to h av e seen. B ut it seems possible th a t h e unconsciously a n tic ip a te d the historical fu tu re, n am ely th e evolution of th e G od-im age. G od h a d to becom e m an . M a n ’s su fferin g does n o t derive fro m his sins b u t from the m ak er of his im p erfections, th e p arad o x ical G od. T h e righteous m a n is th e in s tru m e n t in to w h ich G od enters in o rd e r to a tta in self-reflec­ tio n a n d th u s consciousness a n d re b irth as a divine child tru sted to th e care of a d u lt m an . 1682 N o w this is n o t the sta te m e n t of a tru th , b u t the psychological re a d in g of a m yth o lo g ical text— a m odel co n stru cted for th e purpose of estab lish ing th e psychological linking to g eth er of its contents. M y aim is to show w h a t th e results are w h e n you apply m o d ern psychology to such a tex t. H ig h e r C riticism a n d H e b rew philology are obviously superfluous, because it is sim ply a question of the te x t w h ich th e la y m a n has u n d e r his eyes. T h e C h ristia n religion has n o t b een sh ap e d by H ig h e r C riticism . 1683 rPjie tro u b le I h av e w ith m y academ ic re a d e r is th a t he can n o t see a psychic stru c tu re as a relatively au to n o m o u s entity, because he is u n d e r th e illusion th a t h e is d ealin g w ith a concept. B ut in reality it is a living th in g . T h e archetypes all h av e a life of th e ir ow n w h ic h follows a biological p a tte rn . A C h u rc h th a t has evolved a m ascu lin e T rin ity w ill follow th e old p a tte r n : 3 + 1 , w h ere 1 is a fem ale a n d , if 3 = good, I as a w o m an will m ed iate b etw een good a n d evil, th e la tte r b ein g the devil a n d th e sh ad o w of th e T rin ity . T h e w o m a n w ill in ev itab ly b e th e M o th er-S ister of th e S on-G od, w ith w h o m she w ill b e u n ite d in thalam o, i.e., in th e

lepo? γάμος, quod est demonstratum by the second Encyclical concerning the Assumption.28 i684 A passionate discourse between the m an Job and God will logi­ cally lead to a m utual rapprochem ent: God will be humanized, m an will be “divinized.” T hus Job will be followed by the idea of the Incarnation of God and the redemption and apotheosis of man. This development, however, is seriously impeded by the fact that the “woman,” as always, inevitably brings in the problem of the shadow. Therefore mulier taceat in ecclesia. The arch-sin the Catholic Church is ever after is sexuality, and the ideal par excel­ lence virginity, which puts a definite stop to life. But if life should insist on going on, the shadow steps in and sin becomes a serious problem, because the shadow cannot be left to eternal damnation any more. Consequently, at the end of the first millennium of the Christian aeon, as predicted in the Apocalypse, the world was sus­ pected of being created by the devil.29 T he impressive and still living myth of the Holy Grail came to life with its two significant figures of Parsifal and Merlin. At the same time we observe an extraordinary development of alchemical philosophy with its central figure of the filius macrocosmi, a chthonic equivalent of Christ. J 685 This was followed by the great and seemingly incurable schism of the Christian Church, and last but not least by the still greater and more formidable schism of the world towards the end of the second millennium. 1686 A psychological reading of the dom inant archetypal images re­ veals a continuous series of psychological transformations, depicting the autonomous life of archetypes behind the scenes of conscious­ ness. This hypothesis has been worked out to clarify and make com­ prehensible our religious history. T he treatm ent of psychological troubles and the inability of my patients to understand theological interpretations and terminology have given me my motive. T he ne­ cessities of psychotherapy have proved to me the immense impor­ tance of a religious attitude, which cannot be achieved without a thorough understanding of religious tradition, just as an individ­ ual’s troubles cannot be understood and cured without a basic knowledge of their biographical antecedents. I have applied to the 28 [Apostolic Constitution {“M unificentissim us Deus” ) of Pius X I I , sec. 22: “T he place of the bride whom the F ather had espoused was in the heavenly courts.” Sec. 33: “. . . on this day the V irgin M other was taken up to h er heavenly bridal-cham ber.”] 29 [Aion, pars. 225!?.]

1687

1688

1689

God-image w hat I have learned from the reconstruction of so many hum an lives through a knowledge of their unconscious. AU this is empirical and may have nothing to do with theology, if theology says so. But if theology should come to the conclusion that its tenets have something to do with the empirical hum an psyche, I establish a claim. I think that in those circumstances my opinion should be given a hearing. It cannot be argued on the level of metaphysi­ cal assertions. It can be criticized only on its own psychological level, regardless of whether it is a psychologically satisfactory interpreta­ tion of the facts or not. T he “facts” are the documented historical manifestations of the archetype, however “ erroneous” they may be. I have stated my point of view bluntly (for which I must ask your forgiveness!) in order to give you a fair chance to see it as clearly as possible. The end of your letter, where you deal with Christ, leaves me with a doubt. It looks to me as if you were trying to explain the empirical m an Jesus, while I am envisaging the ar­ chetype of the Anthropos and its very general interpretation as a collective phenomenon and not as the best possible interpretation of an individual and historical person. Christianity as a whole is less concerned with the historical m an Jesus and his somewhat doubtful biography than with the mythological Anthropos or GodSon figure. It would be rather hazardous to attem pt to analyse the historical Jesus as a hum an person. “ Christ” appears from a much safer (because mythological) background, which invites psy­ chological elucidation. Moreover it is not the Jewish rabbi and re­ former Jesus, but the archetypal Christ who touches upon the arche­ type of the Redeemer in everybody and carries conviction. approach is certainly not theological and cannot be treated as a theologoumenon. It is essentially a psychological attem pt based upon the archetypal, am oral God-image, which is not a concept but rather an irrational and phenom enal experience, an Urbild. But in so far as theologians are also concerned with the adult hum an psyche (perhaps not as much as medical psychology), I am con­ vinced that it would be of advantage to them to become acquainted with the psychological aspects of the Christian religion. I will not conceal the fact th at theological thinking is very difficult for me, from which I conclude that psychological thinking must be an equally laborious undertaking for the theologian. This may explain why I inundate you with such a long letter. W hen I see how C hina (and soon In d ia) will lose her old cul­ ture under the im pact of materialistic rationalism, I grow afraid

th at the Christian W est will succum b to the sam e m alady, simply because the old symbolic language is no longer understood and people cannot see any m ore where and how it applies. In Catholic countries anyone leaving the C hurch becomes frankly atheistic. In Protestant countries a small num ber become sectarians, and the others avoid the churches for their cruelly boring an d em pty ser­ mons. N ot a few begin to believe in the State— not even knowing th at they themselves are the State. T h e recent broadcasts of the B.B.C.30 give a good picture of the educated laym an’s m ind with regard to religion. W h at an understanding! AU due to the lack of a psychological standpoint, or so it seems to me. i69° I am sorry th a t I am apparently a petra scandali. I do not m ean to offend. Please accept my apologies for my bluntness. I am sincerely grateful to you for giving m e your attention. Faithfully yours, C. G - J u n g 30 [Probably a series of five talks on “Religion and Philosophy,” by Robert C. Walton, J. D. Mabbott, Alasdair MacIntyre, and the Rev. F. A. Cockin, broadcast in Sept.-O ct. 1957, according to information from the B.B.C.]

XIII ALCHEMICAL STUDIES

(related to V olum es 12, 13, and 14 of th e C ollected W orks)

F O R E W O R D T O A C A TA LO G U E O N A LC H EM Y 1 1691

Alchemy is the forerunner or even the ancestor of chemistry, and is therefore of historical interest to the student of chemistry, in so far as it can be proved to contain recognizable descriptions of chemical substances, reactions, and technical procedures. How much may be gained in this respect from alchemical literature is shown by the comprehensive work of E. O. von Lippm ann, Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie (Berlin, 1919). T he peculiar character of this literature lies, however, in the fact that there exists a comparatively large num ber of treatises from which, apart from the most superficial allusions, absolutely nothing of a chemical nature can be extracted. It was therefore supposed— and many of the alchemists themselves wanted us to believe— that their myste­ rious sign-language was nothing but a skilful way of disguising the chemical procedures which lay behind it. T he adept would see through the veil of hieroglyphics and recognize the secret chemical process. Unfortunately, alchemists of repute destroyed this legend by their admission th at they were unable to read the riddle of the Sphinx, complaining th at the old authors, like Geber and Raymundus Lullius, wrote too obscurely. And indeed, a careful study of such treatises, which perhaps form the majority, will reveal nothing of a chemical nature but something which is purely sym­ bolic, i.e., psychological. Alchemical language is not so much semeiotic as symbolic: it does not disguise a known content but suggests an unknown one, or rather, this unknown content suggests itself. This content can only be psychological. If one analyses these symbolic forms of speech, one comes to the conclusion that arche­ typal contents of the collective unconscious are being projected. Consequently, alchemy acquires a new and interesting aspect as a projected psychology of the collective unconscious, and thus ranks in im portance with mythology and folklore. Its symbolism has the closest connections with dream symbolism on the one hand, and the symbolism of religion on the other. 1 [K. A. Ziegler (b ook seller): A lchem ie II, List N o. 17 (Bern, M ay 194.6). Foreword published in both German and English (here slightly revised). R eprinted as a prefatory note to Ian M acPhail, comp., A lch em y an d the O ccu lt, A C atalogue of Books and M anuscripts from the C ollection of Paul and M ary M ellon G iven to Y ale U niversity Library (N ew H aven, 1968).]

FA U ST AND A L C H E M Y 1 69 2

693

694

T he dram a of Faust has its prim ary sources in alchemy; these are on the one hand dreams, visions, and parables, on the other, personal and biographical notes regarding the G reat Opus. One of the latest and most perfect examples of this sort is the Chymische H ochzeit of Christian Rosencreutz ( 1616 ), actually written by Johann Valentin Andreae (158 6 -1 6 3 4 ), a theologian of W urttemberg who was also the author of Turbo ( 1616), a comedy written in L atin.2 The hero of this play is a learned know-it-all who, disillu­ sioned with the sciences, finally returns to Christianity. T he Chymische Hochzeit represents the opus Alchym icum under the aspect of the hierosgamos of brother and sister (Venus gives birth to a herm aphrodite). But these things are only hinted at in veiled terms. Because the royal children are still too infantile (identification with the parents, incest with the m o th er), they are slain, purified, and put together again, by being subjected to every alchemical proce­ dure. T o be restituted, the bridal pair is taken over the sea, and a kind of Aegean festival is celebrated with nymphs and sea-goddesses and a paean to love is sung. Rosencreutz is revealed as the father of the young king or, respectively, the royal couple. Alchemy had long known th a t the mystery of transformation applies not only to chemical materials but to m an as well. The central figure is M ercurius, to whom I have devoted a special study.3 H e is a chthonic spirit, related to W otan and the Devil. Faust is introduced like Job, b u t it is not he who suffers; it is others who suffer through him, and even the Devil is not left unscathed. M ercurius enters in the shape of Mephistopheles (Devil and S atan ), as a dog to begin with, son of Chaos, and fire (alch. filius cams, arises out of chaos, natura ignea). He becomes the ser1 [(T ra n s la te d by Η . N .) A u th o r’s a b stra c t of a le c tu re given to th e Psychologi­ cal C lu b , Z u ric h , on 8 O ct. 1949; p u b lish e d in th e C lu b ’s Jahresbericht1 I949~ 5°- A ty p esc rip t (38 p p .) of th e en tire le c tu re , m a d e from a stenogram a n d evidently n o t co rre c te d by Ju n g , is in th e Ju n g archives.] 2 [See “T h e Psychology of th e T ra n sfe re n c e ” (C .W ., vol. 1 6 ), p a r. 407 and n . 18.] 3 [“ T h e S p irit M e rc u riu s” (C .W ., vol. 1 3 ), orig. 1942.]

vant of F aust (familaris, servus fugitivus). M ephisto has two ravens (cf. W o ta n ). H e is the “ northern phantom ” and has his “ pleasureg round” in the “ north-w est.” 1695 T h e axiom of M a ria ( 3 + 1 ) pervades the whole work (4 m ain phases, 4 thieves, 4 ( — 1) grey women, 4 elements, P luto’s four-inhand team of horses, 3 + 1 boys, 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 in the witches’ tables, 3 -4 , 7 -8 K abiri, “T hree and one and one and three,” e tc .). 1696 M ephisto brings about the projection onto the anim a w ith its tragic end (child m u rd e r). T here follows the suppression of Eros by the pow er drive ( W alpurgisnacht = overpowering by the shadow ). In the fire m agic and the gold swindle there appears the Boy C harioteer, a M ercurius juvenis, on the one hand herm aph­ rodite like his preform , the Devil, a kyllenios, and on the other an analogy to C hrist an d the Holy S p irit; at the same tim e he brings the wild host ( W o ta n I). 1697 T h e underw orld trip o d embodies the fem inine chthonic trinity (D iana, L un a, H ecate, and Phorkyads). It corresponds to the vas hermeticum (an d the early C hristian com m union table of the cata­ combs w ith 3 loaves a n d 1 fish). T h e Tripus Aureus of alchem y is the one th a t H ephaestus cast into the sea. 1698 Faust falls into a faint when he tries to possess Helen. This is the beginning of Phase II, and the second upsurge of Eros. Faust is again rejuvenated ( as in Phase I ) as the B accalaureus; the Devil, however, is “ old.” T h e H om unculus corresponds to the Boy C hario­ teer. His father is W agner (R osencreutz) ; his cousin is the Devil, hence M ercurius in a younger shape. Faust is taken to the classic “world of fable” (collective unconscious) for “healing.” T he “w ater” heals ( a qua permanens, mare nostrum ). From it emerges the m ountain (reb irth of the personality, alch. arising of the terra f r m a out of the se a). T h e Aegean Festival is the hierosgamos of H om unculus and G alatea (both are “stones brought to life” ) in the sea. T o u ch in g the tripod w ith the key an d the hierosgamos prefigure the “ chym ical” m arriage of F aust to H elen, the sister anim a. T h eir child E uphorion is the th ird renew al form of M ercurius. 1699 Phase I I I ends w ith the death of E uphorion, and once again the next and last phase begins w ith the power drive. T h e devout Philem on and Baucis are m urdered. A fter F aust’s death the Devil is cheated. T h e conflict goes on. F aust’s place is taken by his “entelechy,” th e puer aeternus, w ho never can realize his united double

n atu re because F au st is always the victim of w hatever his shape m ay be at the tim e. H e loses himself in sm atterings of knowledge, in autoerotic Eros, in m agic an d deception, in the delusion of being a dem igod (H e le n a ), an d finally in the inflation of thinking himself th e saviour of the w hole w orld. H e is always blind about himself, does not know w h at he is doing, a n d lacks both responsibility and hum our. But the Devil knows w ho he himself is; he does not lie to himself, he has h u m o u r a n d th e sm all kind of love (insects), all of w hich F au st lacks. T h e shadow cannot be redeem ed unless consciousness acknowledges it as a p a rt of its ow n self— th a t is, understands its com pensatory significance. T h e “ blessed boy” is therefore only a representation of a p ren a tal state th a t in no way throw s light on w h at the experience of earthly life was really for. D r. M arianus is th e “son of th e m o th er.” A possible parallel m ight be an eighth-century alchem ist, M orienes, M orienus, M arianus,4 w ho was one of th e m ost spiritual of all alchemists a n d understood th e opus as a h u m an transform ation system. H e says: “ T em porum quidem longa m utatio hom inem sub tem pore constitutum confu n d it et m u ta t . . . ultim am autem m utationem m ors dira subsequitur.” 5 4 [In the alchem ical literature, usually M orienus R om anus. See Psychology a nd A lch em y, G.W ., vol. 12, par. 386 and n. 88, and par. 558.] 5 [“For the long lapse of tim e upsets man, w ho is under the law of time, and transforms him . . . after the final transformation, how ever, fearful death follow s.”— M orienus R om anus, “D e transm utatione m etallorum ,” Artis auriferae (Basel, 1 6 1 0 ), II, p. 14.]

A LC H EM Y A ND PSY C H O LO G Y 1 1700

Throughout the history of alchemy we find— besides a consider­ able knowledge of substances (minerals and drugs) and a limited knowledge of the laws of chemical processes— indications of an ac­ companying “philosophy” which received the name “Hermetic” in the later M iddle Ages. This natural philosophy appears first and particularly clearly in the Greek alchemists of the first to the sixth centuries a .d . (Pseudo-Demokritus, Zosimos of Panopolis, and Olympiodorus). It was also especially evident in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when it reached its full development. This development owed a great deal to Paracelsus and his pupils ( Gerard Dorn and Heinrich K h u n rath ). In the interval between these two periods, philosophical speculation gave way to a more religious ten­ dency (ideas were produced which ran parallel to the dogmatic concepts), hand in hand with a “mystical” tendency which gives alchemy its peculiar character. As the alchemists had no real knowl­ edge of the nature and behaviour of chemical substances, they drew conscious parallels between the unknown processes and mythologi­ cal motifs and thus “explained” the former (cf. Dom Pernety, Dictionnaire mytho-hermetique, 1756) and they amplified these u n ­ known processes by the projection of unconscious contents. This explains a peculiarity of the texts: on the one hand, the authors repeat w hat was said by their predecessors again and again and, on the other, they give a free rein to unlimited subjective fantasy in their symbolism. Comparative research has proved that the al­ chemical symbols are partly variations of mythological motifs, be­ longing to the conscious world of the alchemists, and partly sponta­ neous products of the unconscious. This becomes evident in the parallel character of the symbolism in m odem dreams and that of alchemy. T he alchemical symbols portray partly the substances or their unknown “mystical” nature and partly the process which 1 [W ritten in English for Encyclopedia Hebraica (Tel Aviv, 1951; Hebrew year 5711), where it was published in vol. I l l , in a Hebrew translation. Nearly all the allusions are explained in Psychology and A lchem yj, C.W ., vol. 12. The English original is published here w ith m inor stylistic changes.]

leads to th e goal of th e work. I t is the latte r aspect th a t gives rise to th e m ost highly pictorial developm ent. T h e principal symbol of th e substance th a t is transform ed during the process is M e r curius, H is p o rtrait in the texts agrees in all essentials w ith the characteris­ tics of the unconscious. ' 7° 1 A t the beginning of the process, he is in the massa confusa, the chaos or nigredo (blackness). In this condition, the elements are fighting each other. H ere M ercurius plays the role of the prima materia, th e transform ing substance. H e corresponds to the Nous or A nthropos, sunk in Physis, of G reek alchem y. In later days he is also called the “w orld soul in chains,” a “system of th e higher powers in the low er,” etc. T his depicts a dark ( “ unconscious” ) condition of the ad ep t or of a psychic content. T h e procedures in th e next phase have the purpose of illum inating the darkness by a union of the opposed elem ents. T his leads to the albedo (w hit­ e n in g ), w hich is com pared to th e sunrise or to the full m oon. The w hite substance is also conceived as a p u re body w hich has been refined by the fire b u t w hich still lacks a soul. I t is considered to be fem inine an d is therefore called sponsa (b rid e ), silver, or moon. W hereas the transform ation of the darkness into light is symbolized by th e them e of th e fight w ith the dragon, it is the m otif of the hierosgamos (sacred m arriage of sister an d b ro th e r or m other and son) w hich appears in this phase. T h e q u atern ity ( quaternio) of the elem ents here becom es a duality ( binarius). T h e reddening (ru b e d o ) follows the w hitening. By m eans of the coniunctio the m oon is united w ith th e sun, the silver w ith the gold, the female w ith th e m ale. 1702 T h e developm ent of the prim a m ateria u p to th e rubedo (lapis rubeus, carbunculus, tinctura rubra, sanguis spiritualis s. draconis, etc.) depicts the conscious realization ( H lum inatio) of an uncon­ scious state of conflict w hich is henceforth kept in consciousness. D uring this process, th e scum ( terra d am nata) w hich cannot be im proved m ust be throw n out. T h e w hite substance is com pared to the corpus glorificationis, an d an o th er parallel is the ecclesia. T h e fem inine character of the lapis albus corresponds to th a t of the unconscious, symbolized by the m oon. T h e sun corresponds to th e “ light” of consciousness. 17°3 Becom ing conscious of an unconscious content am ounts to its integration in th e conscious psyche a n d is therefore a coniunctio Solis et L unae. T his process of integration is one of the m ost im­ p o rta n t, helpful factors in m odern psychotherapy, w hich is pre-

1704

em inently concerned w ith the psychology of the unconscious, for both the n a tu re of consciousness and th at of the unconscious are altered by it. As a rule the process is accom panied by the phe­ nom enon of the transference, th a t is, the projection of uncon­ scious contents on to the doctor. W e also meet this phenom enon in alchem y, w here a w om an adept often plays the role of the soror mystica (Zosimos and Theosebeia, Nicolas Flamel and Peronelle, Jo h n P ordage and Jan e Leade, and in the nineteenth century M r. South and his daughter, Mrs. A tw ood). T he coniunctio produces the lapis philosophorum, the central symbol of alchem y. T his lapis has innum erable synonyms. O n the one h and, its symbols are q uaternary or circular figures and, on the other, the rebis or the herm aphroditic Anthropos who is com ­ pared to C hrist. H e has a trichotom us form ( habat corpus, anim am et spiritum ) and is also com pared to the T rinity (trinus et u n u s ) . T h e symbolism of the lapis corresponds to the m andala (circle) symbols in dream s, etc., which represent wholeness and order and therefore express the personality th at has been altered by the integration of the unconscious. T h e alchemical opus portrays the process of individuation b u t in a projected form because the alchemists were unconscious of this psychic process.2 2 IJung a p p e n d e d the f o l lo w in g b ibl io gr aphy: ] Berthelot, C o lle c tio n des anciens alchim istes

grecs

(1887);

A rtis

auriferae,

II

(1593);

T h e a tru m

ch em icu m

( 1 6 0 2 - 6 1 ) , V I ; M a n g e t , B ib lio th e c a c h e m ic a curiosa ( 1 7 0 2 ) , I I ; H erb ert Si l berer, P r o b l e m s o f M y s t i c i s m a n d I t s S y m b o l i s m ( N e w Yo r k , 1 9 1 7 ) ; R. W i l h e l m a n d J u n g , T h e S e c r e t o f t h e G o l d e n F l o w e r ( 1931 ) ; J u n g , P a r a c e l s i c a ( 1 9 4 2 ) , P sych o lo g ie u n d A le h e m ie ( 1 9 4 4 ) , D ie P sych ologie d er U eb ertra g u n g ( 1 9 4 6 ) , S y m b o lik des G eistes ( 1 9 4 8 ) .

XIV THE SPIRIT IN MAN, ART, AND LITERATURE (related to Volume 15 of the Collected Works)

M E M O R IA L T O J. S.’ 705

706

7°7

708

D eath has laid its han d upon our friend. T h e darkness out of which his soul had risen has come again and has undone the life of his earthly body, and has left us alone in pain and sorrow. T o m any death seems t o be a brutal and meaningless end to a short and meaningless existence. So it looks, if seen from the surface and from the darkness. But when we penetrate the depths of the soul and when we try to understand its mysterious life, we shall discern th a t death is not a meaningless end, the mere vanishing into nothingless— it is an accom plishm ent, a ripe fruit on the tree of life. N or is death an a b ru p t extinction, but a goal th a t has been unconsciously lived and worked for during half a lifetime. In the youthful expansion of our life we think of it as an everincreasing river, and this conviction accom panies us often far be­ yond the noonday of our existence. But if we listen to the quieter voices of ou r deeper natu re we become aw are of the fact th at soon after the m iddle of o u r life the soul begins its secret work, getting ready for the departure. O u t of the turm oil a n d erro r of ou r life the one precious flower of the spirit begins to unfold, the fourpetaled flower of the im m ortal light, and even if our m ortal con­ sciousness should not be aw are of its secret operation, it nevertheless does its secret work of purification. W hen I m et J. S. for the first tim e I found in him a m an of rare clarity and purity of character and personality. I was deeply impressed w ith the honesty and sincerity of his purpose. A nd when I w orked w ith him , helping him to understand the intricacies of the h u m an psyche, I could not but adm ire the kindness of his feeling and the absolute truthfulness of his m ind. But though it was a privilege to teach a m an of such rare hum an qualities, it was not the thing th a t touched m e most. Yes, I did teach him , but he taught me too. H e spoke to m e in the eternal language of symbols, which I did not grasp until the aw e-inspiring conclusion, the culm ination 1 IPublished in S pri ng, 1955 (A n aly tical Psychology C lub of N ew Y o rk ), w ith the n o te : “T h ese w ords, spoken in 1927, are p rin te d h ere w ith . . . perm ission of D r. J u n g .” E v id en tly w ritte n in E nglish. C lub records in d icate th a t J. S. was Jerom e Schloss, of N ew Y ork, b u t no o th e r d etails have been available.]

«709

I 710

in death, becam e m anifest. I shall never forget how he liberated his m ind from the turm oil of m odern business life, and how, grad­ ually w orking back, he freed himself from the bonds th at held him fast to his earthly parents and to his youth; and how the eternal im age of the soul appeared to him , first dimly, then slowly taking shape in the vision of his dream s, an d how finally, three weeks before his death, he beheld the vision of his own sarcophagus from w hich his living soul arose. W ho am I th a t I should dare say one w ord beyond this vision? Is there a h u m an w ord that could stand against the revelation given to the chosen one? T h ere is none. L et us retu rn , therefore, to the eternal language and let us hear the words of the sacred text. A nd as the ancient words will give tru th to us, we will give life to them . (I Corinthians 13; 15:

37 - 5 5 · )

F O R E W O R D T O SC H M ID -G U ISA N : “TA G U N D N A C H T ” 1 I

T he atmosphere of this book is only too familiar to me. O n reading the manuscript, I found it difficult at first to extricate myself from the toils of day-to-day psychotherapeutic practice— until I suc­ ceeded in viewing the book against its historical background. It is indeed something of a literary orphan, seeming to have no affini­ ties with the present. Its strange form— the adventures of an alle­ gorical hero— reminds one of the eighteenth century. But this is no more than a reminder, for the book is quite alien to the eigh­ teenth century in its feeling. The problem of feeling is altogether modern, and the book opens up a world of experience that seems to have been locked away since the time of Rene d’Anjou— the whole sensuous world of Eros, which the latest Papal Encyclical on Christian m arriage2 and the penalistic conscience of modern m an have conspired to suppress in a quite terrifying manner. Ac­ tually it is an esoteric book, a petal fallen from the unfading mystic rose which the troubadours accused the Church of hiding under a veil of secrecy. As though any Church had ever known the secret, or knowing it could have tolerated it! This book is neither for nor of the masses. For the multitude, it had better not been written, or should be read only because of its bad reputation. They will be lucky if they emerge unscathed. Nearly five hundred years ago a similar book was written, again at a cultural turning-point, and again a petal from that mystic rose— a knightly adventure and a stumbling-block to the vulgar, the Hypnerotomachia3 of th at cele­ brated Poliphilo, who for a moment twitched the veil from the psychic background of the Cinquecento. From the preface to that book I would like to set down a classical passage which shows how the Knights of the Rose join hands across the centuries: 1 [Zurich and M unich, 1931. F or H ans Schmid-Guisan (1 8 8 1 -1 9 3 2 ), see Ju n g ’s letter of 6 Nov. 1915, in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1.] s [Casti Connubii of Pius X I, 31 Dec. 1930.] 3 [By Francesco Colonna, 1499. Cf. infra, pars. 175 iff., “Foreword to F ierzD av id : T h e D ream of Poliphilo.”]

F ro m th is it is e v id e n t th a t all wise m e n h a v e p ra c tise d th eir sciences b e n e a th th e sh a d o w o f th e fairest, in n e rm o st secrets of Love. L o v e w as, a n d is still, th e g ra c e fu l b ru sh w h ic h tra c e s o u t all th a t is stra n g e a n d a p p o in te d by F a te , as m u c h am o n g th e h ig h e r as th e lo w er pow ers, a n d all th a t is su b je c t to th e m . . . . K n o w , see a n d h e a r, a n d you will w isely re m a rk th a t th e m ost sp len d id , sublim e, a n d p re c io u s m ysteries a re h id d e n b e n e a th the b e a u tie s of L ove, fro m w h ic h th e y issue an ew , fo r L ove is th e joyful soul of e v e ry th in g th a t lives. . . . S h o u ld I d iscover th a t som e p ro fa n e p erso n h a d p u t fo rth his o d io u s h a n d to th is book to fin g er it, o r th a t som e u n w o rth y c re a tu re sh o u ld m a k e b o ld to tu r n its p ages, o r th a t som e sham eless dissem bler, u n d e r th e clo ak of p iety , sh o u ld d eriv e a v u lg a r p lea su re fro m it, or th a t som e e v il-m in d e d s p e c ta to r of these sovereign gifts should seek, fro m b o red o m , th e p ro fit th a t by rig h t belongs only to loving hearts, I w o u ld b re a k th e p e n w h ic h h a s d e sc rib e d so m a n y configurations of th e g re a t secret, a n d , u tte rly fo rg e tfu l o f m yself, w o u ld ex p u n g e all m em o ry o f th e sa tisfa c tio n I h a v e fo u n d in th e n a rra tio n , delicately v eiled in th e sem b lan ce o f p re tty fictions, o f th in g s m o st w o n d erfu l an d ra re , w h ic h serve b u t to e le v a te a m a n to all th a t is v irtu o u s, an d d e n y in g m yself th e v ery life of m y life, I w o u ld a b sta in fro m the e a g e r p u rs u it o f those v o lu p tu o u s c h a rm s w h ic h d ra w m en to w a rd s the sacred d e lig h ts.4 17 «2

S in c e w itless lite ra l-m in d e d n e s s h a s n o t d ie d o u t in f o u r h u n d r e d y e a rs, I w o u ld lik e to im p re s s u p o n th e r e a d e r th e cla ssica l w a rn in g w h ic h th e u n c o n s c io u s g a v e P o lip h ilo o n his jo u r n e y in to th e d a r k ­ n e s s : “ W h o e v e r t h o u m a y e s t b e , ta k e o f th is tr e a s u r e as m u c h as th o u w illst. Y e t I w a r n th e e , ta k e f r o m th e h e a d a n d to u c h n o t t h e b o d y .” 5

Hans Schmid-Guisan: In M em oriam 6 I 7, 3

L ife is in t r u t h a b a ttle , in w h ic h frie n d s a n d fa ith f u l co m ­ p a n io n s - in - a r m s sin k a w a y , s tru c k b y th e w a y w a r d b u lle t. S o rro w ­ fu lly I see th e p a s s in g o f a c o m r a d e , w h o fo r m o re t h a n tw e n ty 4 [This is from the “R eceu il steganographique,” the introduction to Beroalde de V erville’s French translation of 1600, and is not represented in the above­ cited English version. T h e trans. here, by A .S.B. Glover, is from the French.] 5 “Quisquis es quantum que libuerit, huius thesauri sume: at m oneo, aufer caput, corpus ne tangiot.” [Cf. T h e D rea m of Poliphiloj p. 39.] 6 [Basler Nachrichtenj 25 Apr. 1932.]

years shared w ith m e the experim ent of life and the adventure of the m odern spirit. 1714 I first m et H ans Schm id-Guisan at a conference of psychiatrists in L ausanne,ea where I discussed for the first tim e the impersonal, collective n atu re of psychic symbols. H e was then assistant physi­ cian a t the M ahaim Clinic in Cery. N ot long afterw ards he came to Zurich, in order to study analytical psychology w ith me. This col­ laborative effort gradually broadened into a friendly relationship, and the problem s o f psychological practice frequently brought us together in serious work or round a convivial table. At th a t time we were especially interested in the question of the relativity of psychological judgm ents, or, in other words, the influence of tem ­ peram ent on the form ation of psychological concepts. As it turned out, he developed instinctively an attitude type which was the direct opposite of my own. This difference led to a long and lively correspondence ,7 thanks to which I was able to clear up a num ber of fundam ental questions. T h e results are set forth in my book on types. 17 I rem em ber a highly enjoyable bicycle tour which took us to R avenna, w here we rode along the sand through the waves of the sea. T his to u r was a continual discussion which lasted from coffee in the m orning, all through the dust of the Lom bardy roads, to the round-bellied bottle of C hianti in the evening, and continued even in o u r dream s. H e stood the test of this journey: he was a good com panion and always rem ained so. H e battled valiantly with the hydra of psychotherapy and did his best to inculcate into his patients the sam e hum anity for which he strove as an ideal. H e never actually m ade a nam e for himself in the scientific world, b ut shortly before his death he had the pleasure of finding a pub­ lisher for his book T ag u n d N acht,s in which he set down m any of his experiences in a form peculiarly his own. Faithful to his con­ victions, he w rote it as he felt he had to write it, pandering to nobody’s prejudices. His hum anity and his sensitive psychological understanding were not gifts th at dropped down from heaven, b u t the fruit of unending work on his own soul. N ot only relatives and friends stand m ourning today by his bier, b u t countless people for w hom he opened the treasure-house of the psyche. They know w hat this m eans to them in a tim e of spiritual drought. 8a [Cf. T he F reud/Jung Letters, 259J, of 12 June 1911.] 7 [See Psychological Types, C.W ., vol. 6, p. xii.] 8 [Cf. supra.]

O N T H E TA LE O F T H E O T T E R 1 r 7i6

In writing a few introductory words to this publication, one of his last, I am discharging a duty to my dead friend, Oskar A. H. Schmitz. I am not a literary m an, nor am I competent to pass judgm ent on aesthetic questions. Moreover, the literary value of “T he Tale of the O tter” is of little concern to me. I readily admit that, as a fairytale, it is as good or as bad as any other th a t a w riter has invented. Such tales, as we know, even though invented by a great writer, do not breathe the flowery, woodland magic of the popular fairytale. Usually they can be shown to be products of the author’s personal psychology, and they have a problematical air th a t makes them slightly unnatural. This is true also of “The T ale of the O tter.” It is only a literary form for a content that could have been expressed in quite other words and in quite another way. Nevertheless, it was not chosen fortuitously. T he content clothed itself in fairytale form not with the secret pretence of being an allegory, but because in this guise it could find the simplest and most direct access to the reader’s heart. Childlike simplicity of heart was a basic trait of Schmitz’s nature, known to very few people, and one which he himself recognized only late in life. Thanks to this simplicity, he could speak to the hearts of those he wished to touch. 1 V1 7 I happen to know how the tale came to be written. It was not bom of any conscious intention to reach a particular kind of public; it was never even thought out, but flowed unconsciously from his pen. Schmitz had learnt how to switch off his critical intellect for certain purposes and to place his literary powers at the disposal of the h eart’s wisdom. In this way he was able to say things th a t are infinitely far removed from the usual style of his writings. A t times, it became a real necessity for him to express himself in this way. For m any things which reason wrestles with 1 [“V orw ort zum M archen vom Fischotter,” i.e., foreword to one tale in Oscar A. H. Schmitz, M archen aus dem Unbewussten (M unich, 1932), w ith draw ­ ings by A lfred K ubin. F or Schmitz (1 8 7 3 -1 9 3 1 ), see Ju n g ’s letter of 26 May 1923 in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1.]

in vain flow easily and effortlessly into a pen emptied of all critical intentions. 1718 T he result may seem very simple, indeed naive, and anyone who read it as one reads a popular fairytale would be disappointed. It is equally idle to take it as an allegory. Schmitz himself did not really know w hat his tale meant. H e told me so himself, for we often talked about it. 1719 T he utterances of the heart— unlike those of the discriminating intellect— always relate to the whole. The heartstrings sing like an Aeolian harp only under the gentle breath of a mood, an intuition, which does not drown the song but listens. W hat the heart hears are the great, all-embracing things of life, the experiences which we do not arrange ourselves but which happen to us. All the pyro­ technics of reason and literary skill pale beside this, and language returns to the naive and childlike. Simplicity of style is justified only by significance of content, and the content acquires its signifi­ cance only from the revelation of experience. The decisive experi­ ence of Schmitz’s life was his discovery of the reality of the psyche and the overcoming of rationalistic psychologism. He discovered that the psyche is something th at really exists. This changed his life and his work outlook. 1720 For those who are vouchsafed such a discovery, the psyche ap­ pears as something objective, a psychic non-ego. This experience is very like the discovery of a new world. The supposed vacuum of a merely subjective psychic space becomes filled with objective figures, having wills of their own, and is seen to be a cosmos that conforms to law, and among these figures the ego takes its place in transfigured form. This tremendous experience means a shatter­ ing of foundations, an overturning of our arrogant world of con­ sciousness, a cosmic shift of perspective, the true nature of which can never be grasped rationally or understood in its full implications. '721 An experience of this kind induces an almost frightening need to communicate with sympathetic fellow-beings, to whom one then turns with naive words. “T he Tale of the O tter” describes an ex­ perience of the unconscious and the resultant transformation both of the personality and of the figures in the psyche. T he King stands for the ruling principle of consciousness, which strays further and further away from the unconscious. (T he fish disappear from the waters of the kingdom.) The stagnation of consciousness finally compels the King to make contact with the unconscious again. (The

1722

K ing’s pilgrimage.) T he otter, the unconscious partner of the ego, seeks to bring about a reconciliation with consciousness. ( Gilgamesh-Eabani motif.) This is successful, and a new world of con­ sciousness arises on an apparently firm foundation. But as the King represents only the best p art of the personality, and not the inferior part, the shadow, which should also be included in the transforma­ tion, the old K ing dies and his good-for-nothing nephew succeeds to the throne. T he second half of the tale is concerned with the far more difficult task of including the weaknesses of the personality and its useless, adolescent traits in the process of transformation. This is especially difficult because the shadow is burdened with a still more inferior, feminine component, a negative anim a figure (Brolante, the h arlo t). W hile the masculine components are success­ fully brought into harm ony with the vital instincts (represented by anim als), there is a final separation between the spiritual and the physical nature of the anima. T he masculine half is rescued from evil, but the feminine half becomes its victim. “T he Tale of the O tter” gives touching and modest expression to an all-embracing and all-transforming initiation. R ead it with care and m editate upon it! For when all this has been fulfilled in him, Schmitz died. In this little fairytale he tells posterity how it fared with him and w hat transformations his soul had to undergo before it was ready to lay aside its garm ent and end its lifelong experiment.

IS T H E R E A FR E U D IA N TY PE O F P O E T R Y ?1 1723

1724

Poetry, like every product of the human mind, is naturally de­ pendent on a m an’s general psychological attitude. If a writer is sick, psychically sick, it is highly probable that whatever he pro­ duces will bear the stamp of his sickness. This is true with reserva­ tions, of course; for there actually are cases where the creative genius so far transcends the sickness of the creator that only a few traces of hum an imperfection are to be seen in the work. But these are exceptions; the general rule is that a neurotic poet will make neurotic poems. T he more neurotic a poem is, the less it is a creative work of art and the more it is a symptom. It is therefore very easy to point out infantile symptoms in such cases and to view the product in the light of a particular theory; indeed, it is some­ times possible to explain a work of art in the same way as one can explain a nervous illness in terms of Freud’s theory or Adler’s. But when it comes to great poetry the pathological explanation, the attem pt to apply Freudian or Adlerian theory, is in effect a ridiculous belittlement of the work of art. The explanation not only contributes nothing to an understanding of the poetry, but, on the contrary, deflects our gaze from that deeper vision which the poet offers. The Freudian and the Adlerian theory alike formulate noth­ ing but the human-all-too-human aspects of the commonplace neu­ rosis. So when one applies this point of view to great poetry, one is dragging it down to the level of dull ordinariness, when actually it towers above it like a high mountain. It is quite obvious that all hum an beings have father and mother complexes, and it there­ fore means nothing if we discern traces of a father or mother com­ plex in a great work of art; just as little as would the discovery that Goethe had a liver and two kidneys like any other mortal. If the meaning of a poetic work can be exhausted through the application of a theory of neurosis, then it was nothing but a patho1 [W ritten originally in German, in answer to the question “Existe-t’il une poesie de signe freudien?” and published in a French trans. in the Journal des poetes (B russels), 111:5 ( 11 D oc. 1 9 3 2 ), under the heading “La Psychanalyse devant la poesie,” w ith answers also from R. Allendy and Louis Charles Baudouin.]

logical product in the first place, to which I would never concede the dignity of a work of art. Today, it is true, our taste has become so uncertain th at often we no longer know w hether a thing is art or a disease. I am convinced, however, th a t if a work of art can be explained in exactly the same way as the clinical history of a neurosis, either it is not a work of art, or the explainer has com­ pletely misunderstood its meaning. I am quite convinced th a t a great deal of modern art, painting as well as poetry, is simply neu­ rotic and that it can, consequently, be reduced like an hysterical symptom to the basic, elementary facts of neurotic psychology. But so far as this is possible, it ceases to be art, because great art is m an’s creation of something superhum an in defiance of all the ordi­ nary, miserable conditions of his birth and childhood. T o apply to this the psychology of neurosis is little short of grotesque.

F O R E W O R D T O G ILB ER T: “T H E C U R SE O F IN T E L L E C T ”1 1725

T he author has kindly given me a chance of reading his book in m anuscript. I must say, I have read it with the greatest interest and pleasure. It is most refreshing, after the whole nineteenth cen­ tury and a stretch of the twentieth, to see the intellect once more turned loose upon herself, not exactly in the dispassionate form of a “Critique of Pure Reason,” but in the rather impassioned way of a most tem peram ental onslaught on herself. As a m atter of fact, it is a wholesome and vitalizing tearing into sorry shreds of what all “healthy-m inded” people believed in as their most cherished securities. I am hum an enough to enjoy a juicy piece of injustice when it comes in the right moment and in the right place. Sure enough, Intellect has done her worst in our “Western Civilization,” and she is still at it with undoubted force. K ant could still afford to deal with the contemporaneous intellect in a polite, careful, and gentle way, because she then was but a mere fledgling. But our time is concerned with a monster completely grown up and so fat th at it can easily begin to devour itself. 1V26 At the funeral somebody will be allowed to say only something nice about the deceased. In anticipation of that future event I will say it n o w : The chief trouble seems to be that the intellect escaped the control of m an and became his obsession, instead of remaining the obedient tool in the hands of a creator, shaping his world, adorning it with the colourful images of his mind. January 1334 1 [W ritten in English. T h e book was never published. For J. Alien Gilbert, M .D. (1 8 6 7 -1 9 4 8 ), A m erican psychotherapist, see Jung’s letters of 19 June 1927 and 8 Jan . 1934 (relevant to this M S) in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. i-l

F O R E W O R D T O JU N G : “W IR K L IC H K E IT D E R SEEL E” (1 9 3 4 )1 727

This, the fourth volume of my “ Psychologische A bhandlungen,” contains a num ber of essays th at faithfully reflect the manifold facets of the more recent psychology. It is not long since the psychol­ ogy of the personality broke free from the all too narrow confines of the consulting room on the one hand, and of materialistic and rationalistic assumptions on the other. I t is therefore no wonder if m uch still clings to it th a t is in need of clarification. U ntil recently the worst chaos prevailed in the realm of theory, and only now have serious attempts been m ade to clear away the confusion. Dr. K ranefeldt’s contributions2 are devoted to this task. Dr. Rosenthal’s contribution3 is an application of the typological viewpoint to the scientific study of religion. T he archetypical figures of anim a and animus form a special departm ent of depth psychology. Em m a Jung discusses the phenomenology of the animus complex.4 728 My own contributions are concerned on the one hand with the philosophical problems of modern psychology, and on the other hand with its applications. Since this time, too, my essays came into being as answers to questions addressed to me by the public,5 their unusual diversity may be taken as an indication th at recent psychological insights have left their m ark on as m any diverse realms of the mind. N ot only doctors and teachers, but writers and educated laymen, and— last b u t not least— even publishers are now evincing an interest in things psychological. 729 These m any facets of complex psychology, lighting up the most 1 [ ( “Reality of the Soul” ; subtitled “Applications and Advances of the New Psychology.” ) Besides the four contributions of other writers, there are nine essays by Jung, which were assigned to several vols. of the C.W.] 2 [W. M, Kranefeldt, “D er Gegensatz von Sinn und Rhythmus im seelischen Geschehen,” and “ ‘Ewige Analyse’. Bemerkung zur Traumdeutung und zum Unbewussten.”] 3 [Hugo Rosenthal, “Der Typengegensatz in der jiidischen Religionsgeschichte.”] 4 [Emma Jung, “Ein Beitrag zum Problem des Animus.” Trans, by Cary F. Baynes, “On the Nature of the Animus,” in Animus and Anima (Analytical Psychology Club of New York, 1957).] 5 [Cf. “Foreword to Seelenprobleme der Gegenwart,” supra, par. 1292.]

JUNG:

tlWIR KLICH KEIT DER SEE L E ”

varied walks of life and domains of the mind, are in turn a much simplified reflection of the measureless diversity and iridescence of the psyche itself. Although one could never dream of exhausting its mysteries and fathoming all its secrets, it nevertheless seems to me one of the foremost tasks of the human mind to labour with­ out cease for an ever deeper knowledge of m an’s psychic nature. For the greatest enigma in the world, and the one that is closest to us, is man himself. S e pt emb er i g g g

FOREWORD TO M EHLICH: “J. H. FICHTES SEELENLEHRE UND IHRE BEZIEHUNG ZUR GEGENWART”1 *73°

Although I owe not a little to philosophy, and have benefited by the rigorous discipline of its methods of thought, I nevertheless feel in its presence that holy dread which is inborn in every observer of facts. The unending profusion of concepts spawning yet other concepts, rolling along like a great flood in the history of philosophy, is only too likely to inundate the little experimental gardens of the empiricist, so carefully marked out, swamping his well-ploughed fields, and swallowing up the still unexplored virgin land. Confront­ ing the flux of events with unprejudiced gaze, he must fashion for himself an intellectual tool stripped of all preconceptions, and anx­ iously eschew as perilous temptations all those modes of thinking which philosophy offers him in such excessive abundance. !73* Because I am an empiricist first and foremost, and my views are grounded in experience, I had to deny myself the pleasure of reducing them to a well-ordered system and of placing them in their historical and ideological context. From the philosophical standpoint, of whose requirements I am very well aware, this is indeed a painful omission. Even more painful to me, however, is the fact that the empiricist must also forswear an intellectual clarifi­ cation of his concepts such as is absolutely imperative for the philos­ opher. His thinking has to mould itself to the facts, and the facts have as a rule a distressingly irrational character which proves re­ fractory to any kind of philosophical systematization. Thus it comes about that empirical concepts are concerned for the most part with the chaos of chance events, because it is their function to produce a provisional order amid the disorder of the phenomenal world. And because they are wholly bent on this urgent task, they ne­ glect—sometimes only too readily—their own philosophical devel­ opment and inner clarification, for a thinker who performs the first task satisfactorily will seldom be able to complete the second. 1 [Zurich and Leipzig, 1935. ( “Fichte’s Psychology and Its Relation to the Present.” ) The author, Dr. Rose Mehlich, closed her book with a chapter on Fichte and Jung.]

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T h e s e tw o a sp e c ts b e c a m e o v e rw h e lm in g ly c le a r to m e as I re a d th is a d m ir a b le s tu d y o f F ic h te ’s p sy c h o lo g y : o n th e o n e h a n d th e a p p a r e n t c a relessn ess a n d v a g u e n e ss of m y o w n c o n c e p ts w h e n it co m es to s y ste m a tic f o r m u la tio n , a n d o n th e o th e r th e p re c isio n a n d c la rity o f a p h ilo s o p h ic a l system w h ic h is sin g u la rly u n e n ­ c u m b e r e d b y e m p ir ic a l im p e d im e n ta . T h e s tra n g e b u t u n d e n ia b le a n a lo g y b e tw e e n tw o p o in ts of v ie w d e riv e d fro m to ta lly d iffe re n t so u rces c e rta in ly gives o n e fo o d fo r th o u g h t. I a m n o t a w a re of h a v in g p la g ia r iz e d F ic h te , w h o m I h a v e n o t re a d . N a tu r a lly I a m f a m ilia r w ith L e ib n iz , C . G . C a ru s , a n d v o n H a r tm a n n , b u t I n e v e r k n e w till n o w t h a t m y p sy c h o lo g y is “ R o m a n tic .” U n lik e R ic k e rt2 a n d m a n y o th e r p h ilo s o p h e rs a n d psychologists, I h o ld th a t, in sp ite of a ll a b s tr a c tio n , o b je c tiv ity , a b se n c e of b ia s, a n d e m p iric ism , e v e ry o n e th in k s as he th in k s a n d sees as he sees. A c c o rd in g ly , if th e re is a ty p e o f m in d , o r a d isp o sitio n , th a t th in k s a n d in te rp re ts “ r o m a n tic a lly ,” a n a lo g o u s co n c lu sio n s w ill e m e rg e n o m a tte r w h e th e r th e y a r e c o lo u re d b y th e s u b je c t o r b y th e o b je c t. I t w o u ld b e v a in to im a g in e — g a m e ly c o m p e tin g w ith B a ro n M iin c h h a u s e n — t h a t o n e c o u ld d is e m b a rra s s on eself o f o n e ’s o w n w e ig h t a n d th u s g e t r id of th e u ltim a te a n d m o st f u n d a m e n ta l of a ll p r e m ­ ises— o n e ’s o w n d is p o sitio n . O n ly a n iso la te d a n d h y p e rtr o p h ie d p sy c h ic f u n c tio n is c a p a b le of c h e ris h in g su c h a n illu sio n . B u t a f u n c tio n is o n ly a p a r t of th e h u m a n w h o le , a n d its lim ite d c h a r a c te r is b e y o n d a ll d o u b t. W e re it n o t f o r th e se c o n sid e ra tio n s th e a n a lo g y b e tw e e n F ic h te a n d m e w o u ld c e rta in ly h a v e to b e r e g a r d e d as a m in o r m ira c le . I t is a b o ld u n d e r ta k in g — fo r w h ic h th e a u th o r deserves a ll th e m o re c r e d it— to b r in g F ic h te in to lin e w ith a m o d e rn e m p iric a l p sy c h o lo g y b a s e d o n fa c ts t h a t w e re w h o lly in a cc essib le to th is p h i­ lo s o p h e r— a n e m p iric is m , m o re v e r, w h ic h h a s u n e a r th e d c o n c e p tu a l m a te r ia l t h a t is s in g u la rly u n s u ite d to p h ilo so p h ic a l e v a lu a tio n . B u t it seem s t h a t th is u n d e r ta k in g h a s b e e n successful, fo r I le a r n to m y a m a z e m e n t t h a t th e R o m a n tic M o v e m e n t h a s n o t b e e n re le ­ g a te d to th e a g e o f fossils, b u t still h a s liv in g re p re se n ta tiv e s. T h is is p r o b a b ly n o a c c id e n t, f o r it a p p e a rs th a t b esid es th e se lf-ev id e n t e x p e rie n c e o f th e “ o b je c tiv e ” w o rld th e re is a n e x p e r ie n c e o f th e p sy c h e , w ith o u t w h ic h a n e x p e rie n c e of th e w o rld w o u ld n o t b e p o ssib le a t all. I t seem s to m e t h a t th e se c re t of R o m a n tic is m is t h a t it c o n f r o n te d t h e a ll-to o -o b v io u s o b je c t of e x p e rie n c e w ith a 2 [H einrich R ickert ( 1863—193# ) , German philosopher, taught that an individ­ ual’s bias influences w hat he learns.]

subject of experience, which it proceeded to objectify thanks to the infinite refractive powers of consciousness. There is a psychology that always has another person or thing for an object— a fairly well-differentiated kind of behaviourism which might be described as “classical.” But besides this there is a psychology which is a know­ ing of the knower and an experiencing of the experiment. *734 The indirect influence of the type of mind exemplified by Hume, Berkeley, and K ant can hardly be overestimated. K ant in particular erected a barrier across the mental world which made it impossible for even the boldest flight of speculation to penetrate into the object. Romanticism was the logical counter-movement, expressed most forcefully, and most cunningly disguised, in Hegel, that great psychologist in philosopher’s garb. Nowadays it is not K ant but natural science and its de-subjectivized world that have erected the barrier against which the speculative tendency rebounds. Its essentially behaviourist statements about the object end in mean­ inglessness and nonsense. T h at is why we seek the meaning in the statements of the subject, believing we are not in error if we assume that the subject will first of all make statements about itself. Is it the empiricist in me, or is it because analogy is not identity, that makes me regard the “R om antic” standpoint simply as a point of departure and its statements as “comparative m aterial” ? 1735 I adm it that this attitude is disappointingly sober, but the psychic affinity with a romantic philosopher prompts me to a critical utterance which seems to me the more in place as there are only too many people for whom “Rom antic” always means something out of a romance. !73^ A part from this critical proviso, which the author herself stresses, her book is a welcome contribution of the study of a specific attitude of mind which has recurred many times in the course of history and presumably will also recur in the future.

F O R E W O R D T O V O N K O E N IG -FA C H SE N FE L D : “W A N D L U N G E N DES TR A U M PR O B LEM S V O N D ER R O M A N T IK BIS ZU R G EG EN W A RT” 1 1737

The author has asked me to write a foreword to her dissertation. I am happy to comply with her request because this comprehensive and well-documented work deserves to be known to a wider scien­ tific public. Although we already possess a number of valuable “synoptic” studies which give a fairly complete account of the vari­ ous doctrines prevalent in modern psychology— I would mention in particular the works of W. Kranefeldt, G. R. Heyer, and Gerhard Adler— there was always a noticeable gap as regards the historical and philosophical side of complex psychology. T he more conscious it became of the magnitude of its task— the study of the hum an psyche in its totality— the more contacts it made with other fields of thought where the psyche has an equal right to speak, above all with philosophy. For whenever a science begins to grow beyond its narrow specialist boundaries, the need for fundamental principles is forced upon it, and with this it moves into the sovereign sphere of philosophy. If the science happens to be psychology, a confronta­ tion with philosophy is unavoidable for the very reason th at it had been a philosophic discipline from the beginning, resolutely break­ ing away from philosophy only in quite recent times, when it estab­ lished itself within the philosophical and the medical faculties as an independent empirical science with mechanistic techniques. The experimental psychology inaugurated by W. W undt was succeeded by the psychology of the neuroses, which had been developed almost simultaneously by Fi’eud in Vienna and by Pierre Janet in Paris. My own course of development was influenced primarily by the French school and later by W undt’s psychology. Later, in 1906, I m ade contact w ith Freud, only to part company with him in 19 13, after seven years of collaboration, owing to differences of scien­ tific opinion. It was chiefly considerations of principle that brought 1 IS tu ttg a rt5 1935. ( “ T ra n sfo rm a tio n s of D ream Problem s from R om anticism to th e P resen t.” ) F o r D r. O lg a von K oen ig -F ach sen feld 5 see J u n g ’s le tte r of 5 M ay 1941 in L e tte rs, ed. G. A d ler, vol. 1.]

about the separation, above all the recognition th a t psychopathology can never be based exclusively on the psychology of psychic disease, which would restrict it to the pathological, but must include normal psychology and the full range of the psyche. M odern medicine quite rightly adheres to the principle that pathology must be based on a thorough knowledge of norm al anatom y and physiology. The criterion by which we judge disease does not and cannot lie in the disease itself, as most of the medieval physicians thought, but only in the normal functioning of the body. Disease is a variation of the normal. The same considerations apply to therapy. !738 For a long time it seemed as though experimental and medical psychologists could get along with purely scientific methods. But the view gradually gained ground th a t a critique of certain ideals originating in the humanistic disciplines was not out of place, since a careful investigation of the aetiology of pathological states had shown how the general attitude of the patient which led to the morbid variation depended on just these ideal or moral premises, not to mention the interpretation of facts and the theories resulting therefrom. But as soon as medical psychology reached this point, it turned out th a t the principles which had hitherto held unlimited sway over m en’s minds were of a purely rationalistc or materialistic nature, and, in spite of their “scientific” pretensions, had to be subjected to philosophical criticism because the object of their judg­ m ent was the psyche itself. T h e psyche is an extremely complex factor, so fundam ental to all premises th at no judgm ent can be regarded as “purely em pirical” but must first indicate the premises by which it judges. M odern psychology can no longer disguise the fact th a t the object of its investigation is its own essence, so that in certain respects there can be no “ principles” or valid judgments at all, but only phenomenology— in other words, sheer experience. O n this level of knowledge, psychology has to abdicate as a science, though only on this very high level. Below that, judgm ents and hence science are still possible, provided th a t the premises are always stated, and to th at extent the prospects for psychology as a science are by no means hopeless. But once it ceases to be conscious of the factors conditioning its judgm ents, or if it has never attained to this consciousness, it is like a dog chasing his own tail. J739 So far, then, as psychology takes its own premises into account, its relevance to philosophy and the history of ideas is self-evident, and this is w here the present book comes in. No one can deny th a t certain of these premises are a restatem ent of ideas dating

back to the tim e of the Rom antics. However, it is not so m uch the ideal prem ises th a t justify the a u th o r’s historical approach as the supposedly “ m o d ern ” phenom enological standpoint of “sheer experience,” w hich was n o t only anticipated by the R om antics but actually pertains to their very nature. It was the essence of R om anti­ cism to “ experience” the psyche rath er than to “investigate” it. This was once again an age of philosopher-physicians, a phenom e­ non th a t was observed for the first tim e in the post-Paracelsan era, m ore especially in philosophical alchemy, whose most im portant practitioners w ere usually doctors. In keeping w ith the pre-scientific spirit of th e times, the R om antic psychology of the early nineteenth century was a child of R om antic natural philosophy— one thinks of C. G. C arus— although the beginnings of empiricism were al­ ready discernible in Justinus K erner. T he psychology of the six­ teenth century, on the other hand, still had occult and religious undercurrents, a n d th o u g h it called itself “ philosophy” a later, “ en­ lightened” age w ould hardly have countenanced the nam e. T h e psyche as experience is the hallm ark of the R om antics w ho sought th e blue flow er,2 as well as of the philosophical alchemists who sought the lapis noster. i74° T h is book perform s th e valuable service of unlocking a veritable treasure-house of contem plative R om antic poetry for m odern psy­ chology. T h e parallelism w ith my psychological conceptions is suffi­ cient justification for calling them “R om antic.” A sim ilar inquiry into their philosophical antecedents would also justify such an epithet, for every psychology th a t takes the psyche as “experience” is from the historical point of view b oth “R om antic” and “ alchemystical.” Below this experim ental level, however, m y psychology is scientific an d rationalistic, a fact I w ould beg the reader not to overlook. T h e prem ise underlying m y judgm ents is the reality of everything psychic, a concept based on the appreciation of the fact th a t th e psyche can also be pure experience. 1741 T h e a u th o r has carried out her task w ith great professional ex­ pertise, a n d I w arm ly recom m end h er book to everyone who is interested in the problem s of m odern complex psychology. 2 [A sym bol of th e p o e t’s search , in G e rm an ro m an tic p o etry . C f. P sychology a n d A lc h e m y , C .W ., vol. 12, pars. 99ff.]

FO R E W O R D T O G IL L I: “D ER D U N K LE B R U D ER ”1 By w ritin g a fo re w o rd to G e rtru d G illi3S d ra m a in verse, I do n o t w ish to evoke th e im pression th a t it needs a psychological ex p la­ n a tio n in o rd e r to h e ig h te n its effect. W orks o f a r t a re th e ir ow n in te rp re ta tio n . T h e D a r k B ro th er does n o t sh a re th e m o d e rn obscu­ ra n tism of c e rta in c o n te m p o ra ry p ain tin g s, n o r is it a d irec t p ro d u c t o f u n co n scio u s activ ity w h ic h w o u ld re q u ire in te rp re ta tio n a n d tra n s c rip tio n in to g en e rally in telligible lan g u ag e . 743 T h e p lay is m o d e rn , h ow ever, in so f a r as th e c e n tra l process of C h ristia n ity , th e d iv in e d ra m a , is reflected in th e sp h ere of h u m a n m o tiv atio n s. A b o ld stro k e in d e e d ! B u t h a s n o t th e perso n ­ ality of J u d a s alw ays b ee n a p ro b le m a tic a l figure in th e red em p tio n m ystery? F o r c e rta in P ro te s ta n t th eo lo g ian s a n d historians, C hrist h im self h as b een s trip p e d of his d iv in e in c a rn a tio n a n d becom e sim ply a fo u n d e r of religion, a very su p e rio r a n d ex em p lary one, it is tru e , a n d his passion m ere h u m a n su fferin g fo r th e sake of a n id eal, th u s len d in g co n sid erab ly m o re p lau sib ility to th e h u m a n p ro tag o n ists a n d an tag o n ists. O n ly in th e m yth o lo g ical p h ase of th e m in d are heroes rep resen tativ es of lig h t a n d p u rity , a n d th eir ad v ersaries em b o d im en ts of ab so lu te evil. T h e re a l m a n is a m ix tu re of g o o d a n d b a d , of self-d eterm in atio n a n d su p in e d ep e n d en ce , a n d th e b o rd e rlin e b etw e en g en u in e ideals a n d p erso n al striv in g for p o w e r is o ften very difficult to d ra w . As fo r th e genius, his role as th e m o u th p ie c e a n d p ro c la im e r of n ew tru th s is n o t alw ays felt as a n u n m ix e d blessing b y o rd in a ry m o rtals, especially w h e re reli­ gious beliefs a re co n cern ed . 744 I n o ne fo rm o r a n o th e r, th e fig u re of th e re d e e m e r is universal b ecau se it p a rta k e s of o u r co m m o n h u m a n ity . I t in v a ria b ly em erges fro m th e u n conscious of th e in d iv id u a l o r th e p eo p le w h e n a n in to l­ erab le situ a tio n cries o u t fo r a so lu tio n th a t c a n n o t b e im p le m e n ted b y conscious m ean s alone. T h u s th e M essianic ex p e ctatio n s of the Jew s w ere b o u n d to rise to fever p itc h w h e n , as a re su lt of th e 742

1 [Zurich, 1938. ( “T he D ark B rother.” ) G ertrud Gilli was a graphologist. Cf. h e r article, “C. G. Ju n g in seiner H andschrift,” in Die kulturelle Bedeutung der kom plexen Psychologie (1935).]

c o r r u p t i o n t h a t f o llo w e d in t h e w a k e o f H e r o d t h e G r e a t , a ll h o p e o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t s a c e r d o t a l o r d e r o r k in g d o m h a d v a n is h e d , a n d th e c o u n t r y h a d b e c o m e a R o m a n p r o v in c e la c k in g a n y f o r m o f a u t o n o m y . I t is t h e r e f o r e r e a d ily u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t th e s e M e s ­ s ia n ic e x p e c t a ti o n s c e n t r e d o n a p o litic a l r e d e e m e r , a n d t h a t m o r e t h a n o n e e n t h u s ia s tic p a t r i o t s o u g h t to fu lfil th is r o le — a b o v e a ll J u d a s o f G a lile e , w h o s e in s u r r e c tio n is r e p o r t e d b y F la v iu s J o s e p h u s ,2 a n d w h o , b o ld ly b u t q u ite lo g ic a lly , e n ta n g le s t h e e p o n y ­ m o u s h e r o o f th is d r a m a in a s im ila r ta sk . 1745

B u t u n d e r l y i n g th e d iv in e d r a m a t h e r e is a d if f e r e n t p la n , w h ic h is n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a n ’s o u t w a r d , so c ia l, o r p o litic a l lib e r a tio n . I t fo c u s e s r a t h e r o n t h e in n e r m a n a n d h is p s y c h ic tr a n s f o r m a t io n . W h a t is t h e u s e o f c h a n g i n g th e e x t e r n a l c o n d itio n s if m a n ’s i n n e r a t t i t u d e r e m a i n s t h e s a m e ? I t is a ll t h e s a m e , p s y c h o lo g ic a lly , w h e t h e r h is s u b je c t io n is t h e r e s u lt o f e x t e r n a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s o r o f i n t e l l e c t u a l o r m o r a l sy ste m s. T r u e “ r e d e m p t i o n ” c o m e s a b o u t o n ly w h e n h e is le d b a c k to t h a t d e e p e s t a n d in n e r m o s t s o u r c e o f life w h ic h is g e n e r a lly c a lle d G o d . J e s u s w a s th e c h a n n e l f o r a n e w a n d d i r e c t e x p e r ie n c e o f G o d , a n d h o w little th is d e p e n d s o n e x t e r n a l c o n d itio n s is a m p ly d e m o n s tr a te d b y t h e h is to r y o f C h r is t ia n i ty .

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M a n liv e s i n a s t a t e o f t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d in tru th of th e p sy ch e th a t is p u l l e d n o w t o o n e s id e

o f c o n t in u a l c o n f lic t b e tw e e n th e t r u t h w h ic h h e h a s b e e n p la c e d a n d th e i n n e r c o n n e c ts h im w i t h th e s o u r c e o f life . H e a n d n o w to t h e o th e r u n t i l h e h a s l e a r n t

to see t h a t h e h a s o b lig a tio n s to b o th . I n th is se n s e G e r t r u d G illi’s p la y g iv e s e x p r e s s io n t o a u n iv e r s a l a n d tim e le s s h u m a n f a c t : b e ­ y o n d o u r p e r s o n a l a n d tim e - b o u n d c o n s c io u sn e ss, i n o u r in t e r i o r se lv es, t h e r e is e n a c t e d t h e e v e r la s tin g d r a m a i n w h ic h t h e a ll- to o h u m a n p la y e r s r e a c h o u t, y e a r n in g a n d s h r in k in g a t o n c e , f o r t h e d e e p e r t r u t h , a n d se e k t o b e n d it to t h e i r o w n p u r p o s e s a n d t h e ir o w n ru in . '747

I f J u d a s in G illi’s p la y is d e p i c te d a s t h e d a r k b r o t h e r o f J e s u s , a n d if h is c h a r a c t e r a n d f a t e a r e r e m in is c e n t o f H a m l e t ’s, t h e r e m a y w e ll b e d e e p e r r e a s o n s f o r th is . O n e c o u ld im a g in e h im m o r e a c tiv e a n d a g g r e s s iv e , f o r in s t a n c e a s a fie ry p a t r i o t w h o h a s to g e t r i d o f J e s u s f r o m i n n e r n e c e s sity , b e c a u s e J e s u s as t h e c o r r u p t e r o f t h e p e o p l e o b s tr u c t s h is p la n s f o r t h e i r lib e r a tio n , o r else b e c a u s e J u d a s se e s h im a s t h e p o litic a l M e s s ia h a n d t h e n b e tr a y s h im o u t 2 [T h e J e w is h W a r , I I , 5 6 ;

a .d

.

6

or

7.]

of disappointm ent and rage. In this sense, too, Judas would be his dark brother, since in the story of the Tem ptation the devil of worldly power stepped up to Jesus in m uch the same way as M ara tem pted the Buddha. Judas m ight easily have become a hero after the m anner of classical dram a. But because his dependence catches him on every side and he can scarcely act on his own initia­ tive, he becomes an exponent of the hum an dram a which, though played out within the confines of the earth ’s shadow, has at all times accompanied the divine dram a and often eclipsed it.

G ERA RD DE N ERV AL1 j

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G erard de Nerval (pseudonym of Gerard Labrunie, 18081853) was a lyric poet and translator of Goethe and Heine. He is best known by his posthumously published novel Aurelia, in w hich he relates the history of his anima and at the same time of his psychosis. T h e dream at the beginning, of a vast edifice and the fatal fall of a winged daemon, deserves special attention. The dream has no lysis. T he daemon represents the self, which no longer has any room to unfold its wings. The disastrous event preceding the dream is the projection of the anima upon “une personne ordi­ naire de notre siecle,” with whom the poet was unable to work on the mysterium and in consequence jilted Aurelia. Thus he lost his “pied a terre” and the collective unconscious could break in. His psychotic experiences are largely descriptions of archetypal figures. D uring his psychosis the real Aurelia appears to have died, so th a t his last chance of connecting the unconscious with reality, and of assimilating its archetypal contents, vanished. The poet ended by suicide. T he MS of Aurelia was found on his body. 1 [Author’s abstract of a lecture given to the Psychological Club, Zurich, on 9 June 1945; published in the C lub’s Jahresbericht1 1945-46. A typescript (24 pp .) o f the entire lecture, m ade from a stenogram and evidently not corrected by Jung, is in the Jung archives.]

FOREWORD TO FIERZ-DAVID: “THE DREAM OF POLIPHILO” 1 I t m ust be twenty-five years since Francesco G olonna’s H ypnerotom achia Poliphili first cam e my w ay in th e F rench translation published by B eroalde de Verville in 1 6 0 0 . L ater, in the M organ L ibrary, N ew York, I saw an d adm ired the first Italian edition 2 w ith its superb woodcuts. I set a b o u t read in g the book, b u t soon got lost in the mazes of its arch itectu ral fantasies, w hich no hum an being can enjoy today. P robably the sam e th in g has happened to m any a reader, an d we can only sym pathize w ith Ja co b B urckhardt, w ho dismissed it w ith a brief m ention w hile bothering little about its contents. I th en tu rn e d to the “ R ecueil S teganographique,” Beroald e’s In tro d u ctio n , a n d in spite of its turgid an d high-flow n verbiage I caught fleeting glimpses w hich aroused m y curiosity a n d encour­ aged m e to continue m y labours, for labours they are in a case like this. M y efforts found th eir rew ard, for plodding on, chapter by ch apter, I sensed, ra th e r th a n recognized, m ore a n d m ore things I was later to encounter in m y study of alchem y. Indeed, I cannot even say how fa r it was this book th a t p u t m e on the track of th e royal art. In any case, not long afterw ards I began to collect th e old L atin treatises of the alchemists, and in a close study of them lasting m any years I did eventually succeed in u n earthing those su b terran ean processes of th o u g h t from w hich sprang n o t only the w orld of alchem ical im agery b u t also Poliphilo’s dream . W hat first found expression in the poetry of the m innesingers an d tro u b a ­ dours can be heard here as a distant echo of a dream like past, b u t it is also a prem onition of th e future. Like every p ro p er dream , the H ypnerotom achia is Jan u s-faced : it is a picture of the M iddle Ages on the brin k of the R enaissance— a transition betw een two eras, an d therefore highly relevant to the w orld today, w hich is even m ore obviously a tim e of transition an d change. 75° So it was w ith considerable interest th a t I read the m anuscript

749

1 [Linda Fierz-D avid, D er L iebestrau m des Poliph.Uo, ein B eitrag zu r Pyschologie d er R enaissance u n d der M o d ern e (Z urich, 1 9 4 7 ); trans. by M ary H ottinger, T h e D ream of P oliph ilo (B ollingen Series X X V , N ew York, 1 9 5 0 ). T he translation o f the foreword is revised here.] 2 [V enice, 1499.]

sent m e by M rs. L in d a F ierz-D av id , fo r it is the first serious a tte m p t to u n lo ck P o lip h ilo ’s secret a n d to u n rav el its crab b ed sym bolism w ith th e h e lp of m o d e rn psychology. In m y opinion, h er u n d e rta k ­ ing h a s b een en tirely successful. She has pursued th e psychological p ro b lem w h ic h fo rm s th e ce n tral them e of the book th ro u g h all th e tw ists a n d tu rn s of th e story, dem o n stratin g its personal a n d su p ra p erso n al c h a ra c te r as w ell as b rin g in g to light its significance for th e w o rld of t h a t tim e. M a n y of h e r in terp re tatio n s are so astute a n d illu m in a tin g th a t this seem ingly o u tlan d ish a n d b aro q u e tale, eagerly re a d in th e six teen th a n d seventeenth centuries, is once m o re b ro u g h t w ith in th e in tellectu al orbit of the m o d ern read er. W ith an in tellig en ce eq u a lle d only by h er in tu itio n , she has p a in te d a p ictu re of th a t p e c u lia r R en aissan ce psychology w hose literary m o n ­ u m e n t is th e H y p n e r oto m a ch ia , w hile giving th a t p ictu re a tim eless b ac k g ro u n d . T h u s , th e tale re a p p e a rs in all th e freshness of its origi­ nal colours a n d m akes a d irec t ap p e al to th e m a n of to d ay by v irtu e of its im p e rish a b le psychological tru th . '751 O n its v oyage th ro u g h u n c h a rte d seas, th e book owes som e of its h a p p ie s t discoveries to th e sensitiveness of th e fem inine m ind, w hich, d elicately indiscreet, can tak e a peep beh in d F rancesco C o lo n n a’s richly o rn a te b a ro q u e facade. I t w as because of this fem i­ nine gift th a t St. C a th e rin e w as consulted by th e heavenly assem bly “in all difficult cases,” as w e le a rn from A natole F ra n c e ’s am using acco u n t in P e n g u in Isla n d . “ W hile on e a rth , St. C ath erin e h a d c o n fo u n d ed fifty very le a rn e d doctors. She w as versed in th e philoso­ phy of P la to as w ell as th e S criptures, a n d possessed rh e to ric .” H en ce, it is n o m a tte r fo r surprise if M rs. F ierz-D avid has b ro u g h t off som e d azzlin g feats of in te rp re ta tio n w h ich th ro w considerable light o n th e obscurities of P o lip h ilo ’s sym bolism . T h e to rtu o u s ways of th e m ascu lin e m in d , settin g tra p s fo r itself w ith its ow n vanities, are h ere exposed a n d illu m in a te d , a n d m o d ern m a n w ould do well to le a rn fro m this exam ple. '752 In h e r c o m m en tary , she takes us deep in to psychological p ro b ­ lems th a t re m a in u n fa th o m a b le to th e m o d ern m in d a n d set it a h a rd task. T h e book is n o t easy re ad in g — in d eed , it requires som e effort. B u t it is a ric h a n d stim u latin g repast, a n d w ill am ply re w ard th e a tte n tiv e re a d e r w h o com es to m eet it halfw ay. F o r m yself, I am g ra te fu l to th e a u th o r fo r th e en ric h ed know ledge a n d insight h er b o o k h a s b ro u g h t m e. F eb ru a ry

1 Q4 6

FOREW O RD T O C R O T T E T : “ M ONDW ALD” 1 1753

T he author of this book is no ordinary explorer, of whom there is no lack nowadays, but one who still understands the almost for­ gotten art of travelling with all his senses open. This art or, as we m ight also say, this gift bestowed by the grace of heaven, enables the traveller to bring back from distant shores more than can ever be captured by cameras and tape-recorders, to wit, his own experi­ ence through which we glimpse the lure of foreign lands and peoples. This alone makes them come alive for us as we listen to the tale of the clash of two worlds. The “subjectivity” so rightly feared by science here becomes a source of illumination, conveying to us flashes of insight which no description of facts however com­ plete can attain. This is a m atter of taking notes with scrupulous objectivity. Instead, the “sensitive traveller” creates an experience which does not, like a factual record, consist merely of the data of the senses and the intellect, b u t of those countless, indescribable, subliminal impressions which hold the traveller captive in a foreign land. Certainly his objective description tells us a great deal, but his emotion, his being carried away, means far more. It reveals something th a t cannot be expressed in w ords: the wholeness of pre­ historic nature and preconscious humanity, which for the civilized m an and inhabitant of a virtually enslaved earth is utterly alien and unfathom able. AU sorts of possibilities hang invisibly in the air, yet somehow we have always known of th e m ; realities of which an age-old, nearly forgotten knowledge in us evokes a distant echo; a longing that looks back to the golden haze of a childhood morn­ ing, and forw ard to fulfilment at the millennium. It is the intima­ tion of a pristine wholeness, lost and now hoped for again, that hovers over the primeval landscape and its inhabitants, and only the story-teller’s emotion can bring it home to us. We understand and share his passionate desire to preserve and perpetuate this fathomless splendour, for which a N ational Park would be but a feeble substitute, and we lam ent with him the devastation that 1 [Z urich, 1949. S tories.” ) ]

By

R o b e rt

C ro tte t.

( “ M o o n -F o rest,”

su b titled

“L appish

1754

threatens it because of our civilizing barbarism . In K enya an old squatter once said to m e: “ This ain’t m an ’s country, it’s G od’s coun­ try.” T o d a y it is dotted w ith goldmines, schools, mission stations— and w here are the slow rivers of grazing herds, the hum an dwellings clustering like w asps’ nests on yellow and red cliffs beneath the shade of acacias, the soundless eternity of a life w ithout history? T h e a u th o r’s aim is to preserve the life of a prim itive people, the L appish Skolts in n orthern Finland, who have been robbed of their reindeer herds, and thus protect at least a little bit of th a t prim eval age from irrem ediable disaster. M ay his wish be granted. M arch IQ4Q

F O R E W O R D T O JA C O B I: “PA R A C E LSU S: SEL E C T E D W R IT IN G S ” 1 755

756

757

758

T he author has asked me for some introductory words to the English edition of her book on Paracelsus. I am more than willing to comply with this request, for Paracelsus, an almost legendary figure in our time, was a preoccupation of mine when I was trying to understand alchemy, especially its connection with natural philoso­ phy. In the sixteenth century, alchemical speculation received a strong impetus from this master, notably from his singular doctrine of “longevity”— a theme ever dear to the alchemist’s heart. In her book, D r. Jacobi emphasizes the moral aspect of Paracel­ sus. She wisely lets the master speak for himself on crucial points, so th a t the reader can gain first-hand inform ation about this strange Renaissance personality, so amply endowed with genius. T he liberal use of original texts, with their vivid, im aginative language, helps to develop a striking picture of the m an who exerted a powerful influence not only on his own time but on succeeding centuries. A contradictory and controversial figure, Paracelsus cannot be brought into line w ith any stereotype— as Sudhoff,2 for instance, sought to do when, arbitrarily and w ithout a shadow of evidence, he declared th a t certain aberrant texts were spurious. Paracelsus remains a paradox, like his contemporary, A grippa von Nettesheim. H e is a true m irror of his century, which even at this late date presents m any unsolved mysteries. A n excellent feature of Dr. Jacobi’s book is her glossary of Para­ celsus’ concepts, each furnished with a succinct definition. T o follow the language of this physician, this natural philosopher and mys1 [W ritten in G erm an ; trans., w ith the entire book, by N orbert Guterman (B ollingen Series X X V I I I , N ew York, 1 9 5 1 ), and slightly revised here. The original book, edited by Jolande Jacobi (see supra, par. i i a i , n. 1) was T h eoph rastu s Paracelsus: L eben diges E rbe ( “L iving H eritage” ) (Zurich, 1 942)·] 2 [Karl Sudhoff, editor o f the S am m tlich e W erke of Paracelsus, in 14 vols. ( 1 9 2 2 -1 9 3 5 ).]

JACOBI:

"PARACELSUS.-

SELECTED

WRITINGS"

tic—a language freighted with technical terms and neologisms—is not easy for readers unfamiliar with alchemical writings. 1759 The book abounds in pictorial material which, coming for the most part from Paracelsus' time and from the places where he lived, rounds out and sharpens the presentation. May

1949

785

F O R E W O R D T O K A N K E L E IT : “ DAS U N B E W U SSTE ALS K E IM S T A T T E DES S C H O P F E R IS C H E N ” 1 D r . O tto Kankeleit has given me the m anuscript of his book and has asked me to write a foreword. It is not a scientific study of a theoretical nature, but a descriptive survey of the multitudinous phenom ena and problems which beset the practising psychothera­ pist in his daily work. It is a kaleidoscopic assortment of images, visions, flickerings on the edge of the m ind— a phantasm agoria of all the things the doctor wonders about. H e finds himself confronted w ith a mass of problems stretching into a limitless horizon. T hat is the particular value of this book: it opens vistas into reaches of the psyche extending far beyond the confines of the consulting room, giving the reader a glimpse into a world hitherto unknown to him. It does not stop short at the pathological and does not apply to the sick the psychopathology of the sick. It leads beyond that to the wide realm of psychic life in general, to an abiding concern with the sick person, for the principal aim of m odern medi­ cine is not so m uch to eliminate the symptoms of sickness as to guide the patient back to a norm al and balanced life. 761 N aturally this can be done only if he is given a balanced picture of the hum an psyche to offset his m orbid and limited experience of it. For this purpose, as the author very rightly points out, it is necessary for doctor and patient to come to terms w ith the nature of the unconscious, since, for good or ill, they are both involved in its mysterious reality. 76* T h e book is in m any respects extremely instructive for the doc­ tor, and a very sympathetic one because of its unbiased standpoint.

760

Jung’s C ontribution

Among the “testimonials from scholars, writers, and artists” (sub­ title of Dr. Kankeleit’s book) are Jung’s answers (ibid., pp. 68f.) to the following questionnaire: 1 [ M u n i c h a n d B a s e l, 1 9 5 9 .

( “ T h e U n c o n s c i o u s a s S e e d b e d o f t h e C r e a t i v e ,”

s u b t i t l e d “ T e s t i m o n i a l s f r o m S c h o l a r s , P o e ts , a n d A r t i s t s .” ) ]

W h a t is th e respective share of the conscious a n d the unconscious in th e creative process? 1763

Like all psychic life the creative process stems from the uncon­ scious. If you identify w ith the creative process you usually end up by im agining th a t you yourself are the creator. H a v e yo u , at th e onset of a new period of creativity, observed in yo urself e x c e p tio n a l states o f a n y kin d , in w hich th e unconscious took th e lead?

1764

Speaking fo r myself, I m ust confess th at I always notice the strangest things at th e onset of a new period of creativity. ( I don’t doubt th a t there are people who never notice such things.) T he unconscious takes th e lead nightly in our dreams, so it is not at all surprising th at it should usher in the creative process w ith all sorts of spontaneous phenom ena. D o y o u occasionally resort to stim u la n ts of a n y k in d ( alcohol, m o r­ p h in e, hashish, e tc .)?

1765

O h n o ! N e v e r! A new idea is intoxicating enough. D o y o u th in k d rea m s p la y a p a rt in the creative process?

1766

F o r years m y dream s used to anticipate my creative activities as well as other things. H a v e y o u ever ex p erien ce d exceptional states of a n y k in d ( precogni­ tio n , te le p a th y , e tc . ) w h ich are n o t d ep e n d en t on th e creative process?

]767

O n closer analysis, I don’t think any exceptional states can be separated from the creative process, because life itself is creativity p a r excellence. I w o u ld like very m u c h to have a detailed description of a creative process.

1768

j could give you a detailed description b u t will not do so because for m e th e whole thing is too mysterious. I stand in such awe of the g reat mysteries th a t I am unable to talk ab o u t them. In any case, a close study of any dream series will provide perfect examples.

F O R E W O R D T O S E R R A N O : “T H E V IS IT S O F T H E Q U E E N O F SHEBA ” 1 1769

This book is an extraordinary piece of work. It is dreams within dreams, highly poetic I should say, and most unlike the spontaneous products of the unconscious I am used to, although well-known archetypal figures are clearly discernible. The poetic genius has transform ed this prim ordial m aterial into almost musical shapes, just as, conversely, Schopenhauer understood music as the move­ m ent of archetypical ideas. The principal formative factor seems to be a strong aesthetic tendency. T he reader is caught in an end­ lessly proliferating dream , in ever-expanding space and immeasur­ able depths of time. O n the other hand the cognitive element plays no significant role— it even recedes into a misty background, yet alive with the wealth of colourful images. T he unconscious or what­ ever we designate by this nam e presents itself to the author under its poetic aspect, while I envisage it chiefly under its scientific and philosophical or, to be more accurate, its religious aspect. The un­ conscious is surely the Pam m eter, the M other of All (i.e., of all psychic life), being the matrix, background, and foundation of all the differentiated phenom ena we call psychic— religion, science, philosophy, art. T he experience of the unconscious, whatever form it may take, is an approach to wholeness, the one experience lacking in our modern civilization. It is the via regia to the Unus M undus. ![B o m b a y a n d L o n d o n (A sia P u b lish in g H o u s e ), i9 6 0 ; rep u b lish e d by R outled g e & K e g a n P au l, L o n d o n , 1972. F o r M ig u el S e rra n o , see J u n g ’s letter of 31 M a r. i9 6 0 in L e tte rs, ed . G . A d ler, vol. 2. T h e p re s e n t foreword w as o rig in ally a le tte r in E nglish to S e rra n o , 14 J a n . i9 6 0 ; h e re som ewhat revised.]

IS T H E R E A T R U E B IL IN G U A L IS M ?1 You have asked m e a question which I cannot answer precisely. I w ould n o t be able to define w hat you understand by “bilingualism .” 1771 T here are certainly people living abroad who have become so used to a new language th a t they not only think b u t even dream in the idiom of the country. I, personally, have experienced this after a ra th e r long stay in E ngland. I suddenly caught myself defi­ nitely thinking in English. 1772 T his has never h appened to me with the French language, but I noticed th a t after a com paratively short stay in France my vocabu­ lary unexpectedly increased. T his was caused not so m uch by in­ tense reading of F rench nor by conversation w ith French people, but was m ore the influence of the atm osphere— if this expression is permissible. T his is a fact th a t has been observed quite often. But once one returns to one’s country these riches generally disappear. ■773 I am absolutely convinced th a t in m any cases a second language can be im planted in this fashion— even a t the expense of the origi­ nal language. B ut as one’s m em ory is not w ithout limit, a bi- or tri-lingual state ends by dam aging the scope of one’s vocabulary as well as th e greatest potential use of each language. 1770

1 [Letter in answer to this question published (in French) in the Flinker A lm anac i g 6 i (Librairie Frangaise et Etrangere, Paris). For another letter to Martin Flinker, 17 Oct. 1957, published in his A lm an ac 1958, see L etters, ed. G. A dler, vol. 2.]

XV THE PRACTICE OF PSYCHOTHERAPY (related to Volume 16 of the Collected Works)

R E V IE W S O F B O O K S BY H E Y E R D e r Organismus der Seele1 1774

T h e a u th o r of this book has perform ed the grateful service of giving a com prehensive account of the chaos— one can hardly say less— th a t reigns in the field of psychotherapy. I know of no book th at grasps th e essential problem s of m odern therapy and its con­ flicting views in just this knowledgeable, unprejudiced, and wholly im partial m anner. U nfortunately, most other books of the kind are w ritten in the interests of some system and therefore suffer from th at distressing theoretical narrow -m indedness which, on occasion, borders on sectarian bigotry. M any of these authors appear to have forgotten th a t psychology, of all the sciences, dem ands the most constant self-criticism. Every psychologist should realize first and foremost th a t his point of view is his own subjective prejudice. This particular prejudice is certainly no worse th an any other, moreover it is extrem ely likely to be a fundam ental assum ption w ith m any other people as well. H ence it is generally w orth while pursuing one’s p o in t of view as far as possible. It will doubtless bear fruit th a t have a certain usefulness. But under no circumstances should one indulge in th e unscientific delusion th at one’s own subjective prejudice represents a universal and fundam ental psychological truth. N o tru e science can spring from this, only a faith whose shadow is intolerance a n d fantacism . C ontradictory views are neces­ sary for th e evolution of any science; they m ust not be set up in opposition to each other, b u t should seek the earliest possible synthe­ sis. Books like H eyer’s have long been w anting. They are absolutely indispensable if we are ever to create an objective psychology, which can never be th e w ork of a single individual b u t only the result of the concerted labours of m any. H eyer’s book offers a conspectus of the m ain contem porary doctrines of Freud, Adler, and myself. Separate accounts of these m ay be known to the reader, b u t until 1 IEuropaische R evue (B erlin), IX : 10 (Oct. 1933), 639. Gustav Richard Heyer, D er Organismus der Seele (M unich, 1932) ; trans. by E. and G. Paul, The Organism of the M in d (London, 1933)· For H eyer (1890-1967), see Jung’s letter of 20 Apr. 1934, in Letters, ed. G. Adler, vol. 1.]

no w th ey h a v e n o t, as a ru le, b ee n re la te d to one a n o th e r, so th a t ea ch fo rm e d a closed system . H e y e r’s book th u s fills a long-felt need. I t is w ritte n in a lively style a n d is richly in tersp ersed w ith the a u th o r ’s o w n p ra c tic a l experiences— p e r h a p s th e m ost c o m m en d ­ ab le book I k n o w on this su b ject. P ra ktisch e S e e le n h e ilk u n d e 2 *775

O n e is o ften te m p te d to th in k th a t it w as a fa ta l e rro r of m edical psychology in th e days of its in fa n c y to suppose th a t th e neuroses w ere q u ite sim p le th in g s w h ich co u ld b e e x p la in e d b y a single hy­ pothesis. T h is o p tim ism w as p ro b a b ly in e v ita b le ; h a d it b een o th er­ wise, p e rh a p s n o b o d y w o u ld h av e p lu c k e d u p co u ra g e to v en tu re a n y th e o ry a b o u t th e psyche a t all. T h e difficulties a n d com plica­ tions t h a t b eset th e psychology of neuroses a re n o w h e re m o re a p ­ p a r e n t th a n in th e g re a t v a rie ty of possible m eth o d s of tre a tm e n t. T h e re a re so m a n y of th e m th a t th e la y m a n in p sy ch iatry m ay easily b e d riv e n to d e sp a ir w h e n it com es to choosing th e m eth o d w h ich suits n o t only th e neurosis to b e tre a te d b u t th e d o c to r tre a t­ in g it. W e a re fa m ilia r e n o u g h , n o w a d ay s, w ith th e id e a t h a t physi­ cal illnesses d eriv e fro m all sorts of causes a n d a re su b je c t to all sorts o f co n d itio n s a n d th e re fo re g en e rally n e e d tre a tin g fro m v ari­ ous an g les; b u t it is still ta k e n to o m u c h fo r g ra n te d th a t, am ong all th ese ph ysical illnesses, a neurosis is ju s t a n o th e r illness or, at b est, a n o th e r c a te g o ry of illness. T h e re aso n fo r this p re ju d ic e is t h a t m o d e rn m e d ic in e h a s only re cen tly discovered th e “ psychologi­ cal fa c to r” in illness, a n d n o w clings to th e id e a t h a t this “ fa c to r” is a sim p le q u a n tity , o n e of th e m a n y co n d itio n in g fa cto rs o r causes of ph y sical disease. T h e psyche is th u s vested w ith th e k in d of reality w e co n ced e to a to x in , a bacillus, o r a c a n c e r ce ll; b u t w e are a lto g e th e r d isin clin ed to a ttrib u te to th e psyche a n y th in g like the re al ex isten ce w ith w h ic h w e u n th in k in g ly e n d o w th e body. 1 776 I n th is book, H e y e r a g a in p resen ts us, as h e d id w ith su ch signal success in his e a rlier w o rk O rg a n ism u s d er Seele, w ith a synoptic view , n o t of theories th is tim e , b u t of th e p ra c tic a l m eth o d s of tre a t­ m e n t. H e offers a survey, ric h ly d o c u m e n te d w ith case histories, of all th e te c h n iq u e s w h ic h th e p sy ch o th erap ist re q u ires fo r his ev ery d ay m ed ica l w o rk a n d w h ic h a re th e re fo re also of g re a t interest 2 [Z en tra lb la tt fu r P sych oth erapie, I X :3 Seelen h eilku n de (M u n ich , 1 9 3 5 ).]

(1 9 3 6 ) ,

1 8 4 -8 6 . H eyer, Praktische

to the general practitioner. T he latter regards his neurotic patients as being physically ill, like the other patients who are suffering from predom inantly physical disturbances. Illnesses th a t are psychogenic in origin are naturally, to his way of thinking, physical, and so his first tho u g h t will be of a physical cure. T he attitude of the orthodox psychotherapist who makes a sharp cut between neurosis and th e pathology of the body is foreign to him. But neuroses, too, are u n orthodox things and do not always prove resistant to physical treatm ent. T h e tru th is th a t some neuroses are predom inantly physi­ cal a n d others predom inantly psychological. A nd often it is a diag­ nostic feat to m ake out to w hich category a particular case belongs. Thus psychotherapy is inevitably, at least for the time being, a curi­ ous m ixture of psychological and physiological therapeutics. O n all this H eyer’s book provides a w ealth of inform ation th at should be of th e greatest value to the psychotherapist as well as to the general practitioner and the m edical student. '7 7 7 I t is sometim es said th a t w hen m any remedies are prescribed for a certain disease, none of them can claim to be particularly efficacious. T h e m ultitude of views in psychotherapy does not, how ­ ever, arise from this source of confusion, but rath er from the fact th at neurosis is n o t so m uch one disease as an am algam of several diseases w hich require an equal num ber of remedies. I t is exceed­ ingly probable th a t the psyche is analogous to the body and is capable of having as m an y diseases. T h e future has still to discover a pathol­ ogy of th e psyche to m atch th at of the body. T h a t modest “psycho­ logical facto r” will, in tim e, broaden out and cover a field of m edi­ cal experience no w hit inferior to th a t of the body in scope and significance. H ence we w ould do well to infer, from the diversity of psychotherapeutic m ethods, a corresponding diversity of psychopathological states. Every one of the types of treatm ent m entioned corresponds, up to a point, to one aspect of the so-called “neuro­ sis”— in other words, to a genuine form of sickness. But our present knowledge of psychopathology is not yet sufficiently advanced for us to specify w ithout a doubt w hat particular form of psychic sick­ ness calls fqr w h at treatm ent. W e are still in the position of the physicians tn the M iddle Ages who, lacking the requisite knowledge of anatom y, physiology, and pathological anatom y, were solely de­ pendent on practical experience, intuition, and the physician’s art. They w ere n o t necessarily bad doctors for th at, any m ore than prim ­ itive m edicine-m en are b a d doctors. It is precisely through the vari­ ous kinds of treatm ent, their successes and failures, th a t we shall

get to know the various kinds of psychic pathology, psychic biology, and psychic structure. j 778 H eyer’s book is an im portant milestone on the road to the dis­ covery of the diseases of the psyche and their specific remedies. It is w ritten from practical experience and will be particularly valu­ able to the general practitioner. In its arrangem ent it relies on clini­ cal pictures of illness; thus C hapter I I deals w ith disturbances in the respiratory and circulatory systems, C hapter I I I with digestive disturbances, C hapter IX with sexual disturbances, and Chaper X with insomnia. C hapters I, IV , and V form an introduction to psychology. Three chapters deal with the various kinds of therapy. T he book is equipped with a very readable appendix by Lucy Heyer, giving an account of the physical aids to psychotherapy, such as gymnastics, breathing, massage, etc. *779 I regret the absence of a similar account dealing w ith the artistic and spiritual remedies, for in practice these play no small p art along with the purely physical ones. M aldevelopment and inhibitedness exist in the psyche as well as in the body and are in just as much need of exercise and reeducation.

ON THE "ROSARIUM PHILOSOPHORUM"l 17 80

The Rosarium is one of the first, if not the first, synoptic texts covering the whole field of alchemy. It may have originated about 1350. The author is anonymous. It has been attributed to Peter of Toledo, who is supposed to have been an older brother of the famous Arnaldus de Villanova (1235-1313). Certain parts of it may date back to the former, but not the whole text, which was first printed in 1550 and contains numerous quotations from Arnaldus. The 1550 edition is a compilation consisting of two different parts, each a separate treatise. There are also interpolations of some length from various authors, for instance a letter of Raymundus Lullius to Rupertum Regem Franciae. (This Rupertus may be identical with Robert I, the Wise, 13°9-1343.) 17 81 The text begins with a kind of preface or introduction in which the author discusses the "art" in general terms. He emphasizes that the art operates only "within Nature." Only one thing is needed for the procedure, and not several things. Operating "outside Nature" leads nowhere. The author stresses that the laborant must have a sound mental disposition. The art consists in uniting the opposites, which are represented as male and female, form and matter. In addition the 4 roots (radices, rhizomata, elements) are needed. The prima materia (initial material) is found everywhere. It is also called lapis = stone, or "salt" or "water." The water (aqua permaens) is identical with argentum vivum (quicksilver). The elements are likewise represented as pairs of opposites: Earth water>

791 I believe th a t the coming age will be in desperate need of a comm on basic understanding of m an, which would enable m ankind to becom e a brotherhood rath er than a chaos of power-driven usurpers. 1 [Psychotherapy, I : i (A p ril 1 9 5 6 ), o rg an of the In d ia n P sy chotherapeutical Society, C alcutta. D r. S am iran B anerjee was h o n o rary secretary. Ju n g ’s type­ script, in E nglish, is d a te d 7 Sept. 1955.]

8oi

O N P IC T U R E S IN P S Y C H IA T R IC D IA G N O S IS 1 1792

T h e case th at you lay before me presents every ground for think­ ing of latent schizophrenia. This diagnosis is confirmed by the pic­ tures. There is a distinct tendency to translate living reality into abstractions in order to cut off the em otional rapport with the ob­ ject. This forces the ego into an unsuitable power stance with the sole aim of domination. His (the artist’s) com mentary is very en­ lightening in this respect. U nder these conditions there naturally can be no point in looking for symbols of the self,2 since there is an overwhelming tendency to push the ego into the foreground and suppress the self. T he ego is an arbitrary fragm ent, and the self the unw anted whole. No trace of the latter can be seen in the pictures. !{(T ranslated by Η . N .) C om m entary on W alter Poldinger3 “Z ur Bedeutung bildernischen GestaItens in der psychiatrischen D iagnostik,” Die Therapie des M onats (M a n n h e im )3 I X :2 (1 9 5 9 ), w ith reproductions of pictures by a patient. P oldinger was on th e staff of a m ental hospital in Lucerne.] 2 [Refers to a question asked in regard to one picture.]

XVI THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY (related to Volume 17 of the Collected Works)

F O R E W O R D T O EVANS: “T H E PROBLEM O F T H E N ERV O U S C H IL D ” 1 i793

I have read the manuscript of Mrs. Evans’ book, The Problem of the Nervous Child, with great pleasure and interest. Mrs. Evans’ knowledge of her subject-matter is based on a solid foundation of practical experience, an experience gained in the difficult and toil­ some treatm ent and education of nervous children. Whoever has had to deal with nervous children knows what an amount of pa­ tience, as well as skill, is needed to guide a child out of a wrong pathological attitude into a normal life. This book, as the reader can see on almost every page, is the fruit of extensive work in the field of neuroses and abnormal characters. Despite the fact that there are numerous books on education, there are very few that concern themselves with a child’s most intimate problems in such a careful and painstaking way. I t is self-evident that this contribution will be of great value to anyone interested in educational questions. The physician should be particularly indebted to the author, as her book will be a valuable ally in the fight against the widespread evil of neuroses in adults. More and more the neurologist of today realizes th a t the origin of the nervousness of his patients is very rarely of recent date, but goes back to the early impressions and developments in childhood. There lies the source of many later nervous diseases. Most of the neuroses originate from a wrong psy­ chological attitude which hinders adjustment to the environment or to the individual’s own requirements. This wrong psychological position which is at the bottom of almost every neurosis has, as a rule, been built up during the course of the years and very often began in early childhood as a consequence of incompatible familial influences. Knowing this, Mrs. Evans lays much stress on the par­ ent’s m ental attitude and its importance for the child’s psychology. O ne easily overlooks the enormous power of imitation in children. Parents too easily content themselves with the belief that a thing hidden from the child cannot influence it. They forget that infantile 1 [New York, 1920; London, 1921. By Elida Evans, an American child special­ ist. T he foreword appears to have been w ritten in English.]

im itation is less concerned with action than with the parent’s state of m ind from which the action emanates. I have frequently ob­ served children who were particularly influenced by certain uncon­ scious tendencies of the parents, and, in such cases, I have often advised the treatm ent of the m other rather than of the child. Through the enlightenm ent of the parents, their wrong influences can at least be avoided, and thus m uch can be done for the preven­ tion of later neuroses in the children. 1794 T he author particularly insists upon the im portance of watching the manifestations of the sexual instinct in childhood. Anyone con­ cerned with the education of abnorm al children will confirm the existence and the frequency of sexual symptoms in these children. Despite the fact th a t sexual activity does not belong to the infantile period, it frequently manifests itself in a symptomatic way, as a symptom of abnorm al development. An abnorm al development does not provide sufficient opportunity for the normal display of the child’s energies. Thus, the norm al outlet being blocked, the energy accumulates and forcibly seeks an abnorm al outlet in premature and perverted sexual interests and activities. Infantile sexuality is the most frequent symptom of a m orbid psychological attitude. In my view, it is wrong to consider sexual phenom ena in early child­ hood as the expression of an organic disposition; most of the cases are due to an environm ent unsuited to the child’s psychological nature. T he attitude of the child towards life is certainly determined by the inherited disposition, but only to a certain extent; on the other side it is the result of the im m ediate parental influences and of education. W hile the inherited disposition cannot be changed, these latter influences can be improved by suitable methods, and thus the original unfavourable disposition can be overcome. Mrs. Evans’ book shows the way, and how to treat even the most intricate cases. October i g i g

F O R E W O R D T O H A R D IN G : “T H E WAY O F A LL W O M EN ” 1 795

I t is a pleasure to comply with the author’s wish that I should write an introduction to her book. I have read her work with the greatest interest, and am gratified to find that it does not come into the category of those sententious books, bristling with pre­ judices, which expatiate on the psychology of women with gushing eloquence, and finally overflow in a sentimental hymn to “holy m otherhood.” Such books have another unpleasant characteristic: they never speak of things as they are, but only as they should be, and instead of taking the problem of the feminine psyche seri­ ously, they conveniently gloss over all the dark and disagreeable truths w ith advice th at is as ineffectual as it is patently good. Such books are not always written by men—if they were they might be excusable— b u t many are written by women who seem to know as little about feminine feelings as men do. 796 It is a foregone conclusion among the initiated that men under­ stand nothing of women’s psychology as it actually is, but it is aston­ ishing to find th a t women know nothing of themselves either. How­ ever, we are only surprised as long as we naively and optimistically imagine th a t m ankind understands anything fundamental about the psyche. This is indeed one of the most difficult tasks the investi­ gating m ind can set itself. T he latest developments in psychology show w ith ever-increasing clarity not only that there are no simple formulas from which the world of the psyche might be derived, but that we have never yet succeeded in defining the field of psychic experience w ith sufficient exactitude. Despite the immense surface area, scientific psychology has not even begun to break down the m ountain of prejudices th at persistently block the way to the psyche as it really is. Psychology is the youngest of the sciences and is suffering from all those childhood ailments which afflicted the ado­ lescence of other sciences in the late Middle Ages. There still exist psychologies which limit the field of psychic experience to the con1 [New Y ork a n d L o n d o n , 1933. T h e forew ord, w ritte n in G erm an , was trans. for th e book by C a ry F . Baynes. T h e p resen t version is som ew hat revised. F o r E sth e r H a rd in g , see su p ra, p ar. 1125, n. 1.]

scio u sn ess a n d its c o n te n ts , o r u n d e r s ta n d th e p sy c h e as a p u re ly r e a c tiv e p h e n o m e n o n w ith o u t a n y tr a c e o f a u to n o m y . T h e fa c t of a n u n c o n s c io u s p sy c h e h a s n o t y e t g a in e d u n d is p u te d a c c e p ta n c e , d e s p ite a n o v e rw h e lm in g m a ss of e m p iric a l m a te r ia l w h ic h pro v es b e y o n d a ll d o u b t t h a t th e r e c a n b e n o p sy c h o lo g y of consciousness w ith o u t a r e c o g n itio n o f th e u n c o n sc io u s. L a c k in g th is fo u n d a tio n , it is im p o ssib le to d e a l w ith a p sy c h o lo g ic a l d a tu m th a t is in an y w a y c o m p le x , a n d th e a c tu a l p sy c h e w e h a v e to d e a l w ith in real life is c o m p le x ity itself. C o n s e q u e n tly , a p sy c h o lo g y of w o m a n c a n ­ n o t b e w r itte n w ith o u t a n a d e q u a te k n o w le d g e o f th e u n c o n sc io u s b a c k g r o u n d of th e m in d . 1797 D r a w in g o n h e r r ic h p s y c h o th e r a p e u tic e x p e rie n c e , D r. H a r d in g h a s s k e tc h e d a p ic tu r e o f th e fe m in in e p sy ch e w h ic h , in sc o p e a n d th o ro u g h n e s s , f a r su rp a s s e s p re v io u s w o rk s in th is field. H e r p re se n ­ t a tio n is re fre s h in g ly fre e f r o m p r e ju d ic e a n d r e m a r k a b le f o r th e lo v e o f t r u t h it d isp la y s. H e r a r g u m e n ts n e v e r lose th em se lv es in d e a d th e o rie s a n d f a n a tic a l fa d s , w h ic h u n f o r tu n a te ly a re so fre ­ q u e n tly m e t w ith in th is field o f w o rk , a n d sh e h a s su c c e e d e d in p e n e tr a tin g w ith th e lig h t o f k n o w le d g e in to c ra n n ie s a n d d e p th s w h e re b e fo re d a rk n e ss p re v a ile d . O n ly o n e h a lf of fe m in in e p sy c h o l­ o g y c a n b e g r a s p e d w ith th e a id of b io lo g ic a l a n d so cial c o n ce p ts, a n d in th is b o o k it b e c o m e s c le a r t h a t w o m a n possesses a p e c u lia r s p ir itu a lity v e ry s tr a n g e to m a n , to w h ic h D r. H a r d in g h a s d e v o te d a s p e c ia l c h a p te r . W ith o u t a k n o w le d g e o f th e u n c o n sc io u s this n e w a s p e c t, so e sse n tia l fo r a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e psy ch o lo g y of w o m a n , c o u ld n e v e r h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t o u t w ith s u c h cla rity a n d c o m p le te n e ss. T h e fru c tify in g in flu e n c e o f th e p sy c h o lo g y of th e u n c o n s c io u s is also e v id e n t in m a n y o th e r p la c e s in th e b o o k . A t a tim e w h e n th e d iv o rc e r a t e h a s b ro k e n a ll re c o rd s, w h e n '7 9 8 t h e r e la tio n of th e sexes h a s b e c o m e a p e rp le x in g p ro b le m , a b o o k lik e th is seem s to m e o f th e g re a te s t h e lp . T o b e s u re , it does n o t p ro v id e th e o n e t h in g e v e ry b o d y e x p e c ts— a g e n e ra lly a c c e p ta b le re c ip e fo r so lv in g th is d r e a d f u l ta n g le of q u e s tio n s in a sim p le a n d p r a c tic a l w a y , so t h a t w e n e e d r a c k o u r b ra in s a b o u t it n o lo n g er. O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e b o o k c o n ta in s a n a m p le sto re o f w h a t w e a c tu a lly n e e d v e ry b a d ly , a n d t h a t is u n d e r s ta n d in g — u n d e r s ta n d in g of p sy c h ic fa c ts a n d c o n d itio n s w ith th e h e lp o f w h ic h w e c a n o rie n t o u rse lv e s in th e c o m p lic a te d s itu a tio n s o f life. *799 W h y a f te r all d o w e h a v e a p sy c h o lo g y ? W h y is it t h a t w e a re e sp e c ia lly in te re s te d in p sy c h o lo g y ju s t n o w ? T h e a n s w e r is th a t e v e ry o n e is in d e s p e ra te n e e d of it. H u m a n ity seem s to h a v e re a c h e d

a point where the concepts of the past are no longer adequate, and we begin to realize that our nearest and dearest are actually strangers to us, whose language we no longer understand. It is be­ ginning to daw n on us that the people living on the other side of the m ountain are not made up exclusively of red-headed devils who are responsible for all the evil on this side of the mountain. A little of this uneasy suspicion has filtered through into the relations between sexes; not everyone is utterly convinced that everything good is in “me” and everything evil in “you.” Already we can find super-moderns who ask themselves in all seriousness whether there may not be something wrong with us, whether perhaps we are too unconscious, too antiquated, and whether this may not be the rea­ son why when confronted with difficulties in sexual relationships we still continue to employ with disastrous results the methods of the M iddle Ages if not those of the caveman. There are indeed people who have read with horror the Pope’s Encyclical on Chris­ tian m arriage,2 and yet must admit that for cavemen our so-called “ Christian” m arriage is a cultural step forward. Although we are still far from having overcome our prehistoric mentality, which en­ joys its most signal triumphs just in the sphere of sex, where man is m ade most vividly aware of his mammalian nature, certain ethical refinements have nevertheless crept in which permit anyone with ten to fifteen centuries of Christian education behind him to progress towards a slightly higher level. O n this level the spirit— from the biological point of view an incomprehensible psychic phenomenon— plays a not unimportant role psychologically. It had a weighty word to say on the subject of Christian marriage, and it still participates vigorously in the dis­ cussion whenever marriage is doubted and depreciated. It appears in a negative capacity as counsel for the instincts, and in a positive one as the defender of hum an dignity. Small wonder, then, that a wild and confusing conflict breaks out between man as an instinc­ tual creature of nature and m an as a spiritual and cultural being. The worst thing about it is that the one is forever trying violently to suppress the other in order to bring about a so-called harmonious solution of the conflict. Unfortunately, too many people still believe in this procedure, which is all-powered in politics; there are only a few here and there who condemn it as barbaric and would like to set up in its place a just compromise whereby each side of m an’s nature is given a hearing. 2 [C asti C onnu bii of P ius X I, 31 D ec. 1930.]

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But unhappily, in the problem between the sexes, no one can bring about a compromise by himself alone; it can only be achieved in relation to the other sex. Hence the need for psychology! On this level, psychology becomes a kind of special pleading— or rather, a method of relationship. It guarantees real knowledge of the other sex instead of arbitrary opinions, which are the source of the incur­ able misunderstandings now underm ining in increasing numbers the marriages of our time. As a weighty contribution to this striving for a deeper knowledge of hum an nature and for a clarification of the confusion in the relations between the sexes, Dr. H arding’s book is heartily to be welcomed. February igga

D E P T H PSY C H O LO G Y AND SELF-K N O W LED G E1 Is d e p t h p s y c h o l o g y a n e w w a y to self-knowledge? 1803

1804

Yes, depth psychology must be termed a new way, because in all the methods practised up to now no account was taken of the existence of the unconscious. Thus a new factor entered our field of vision, which has seriously complicated and fundamentally altered the situation. Formerly, the fact had not been reckoned with that m an is a “twofold” being— a being with a conscious side which he knows, and an unconscious side of which he knows noth­ ing but which need be no secret to his fellows. How often one makes all sorts of mistakes without being conscious of them in the least, while they are borne in upon others all the more painfully! M an lives as a creature whose one hand doesn’t know what the other is doing. T he recognition that we have to allow for the exis­ tence of an unconscious is a fact of revolutionary importance. Con­ science as an ethical authority extends only as far as consciousness extends. W hen a man lacks self-knowledge he can do the most astonishing or terrible things without calling himself to account and without ever suspecting w hat he is doing. Unconscious actions are always taken for granted and are therefore not critically evaluated. One is then surprised at the incomprehensible reactions of one’s neighbours, whom one holds to be responsible; that is, one fails to see w hat one does oneself and seeks in others the cause of all the consequences that follow from one’s own actions. M arriages furnish an instructive example of how easily one sees the mote in another’s eye but not the beam in one’s own. Of far greater, indeed truly monstrous, proportions are the projections of war propaganda, when the lamentably bad manners of civil life are exalted into a principle. O ur unwillingness to see our own faults and the projection of them on to others is the source of most quar1 [W ritten in an sw er to questions from D r. Jo la n d e Jacobi. P ublished in D U : Schw eizerische M o n a tssc h rift (Z u ric h ), I I I :9 (S ept. 1 9 4 3 ), a n d in an E nglish trans. by a n u n k n o w n h a n d in H orizon (L o n d o n ), V I I I :4 8 (D ec. 1943)· T h is tran s. is re p ro d u c e d h e re in revised form . I t w as previously pub lish ed in S p rin g , 1969.]

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rels, a n d the strongest g u arantee th a t injustice, anim osity, an d perse­ cution will not easily die out. W hen one rem ains unconscious of oneself one is frequently u naw are of one’s ow n conflicts; indeed the existence of unconscious conflicts is actually held to be impossi­ ble. T h ere are m any m arriages in w hich the partners skirt round every possible conflict w ith the greatest caution, the one actually im agining himself to be im m une from such things, while the other is filled to the neck w ith laboriously repressed complexes and almost choked by them . Such a situation often has injurious effects on the children too. W e know th a t children often have dream s dealing w ith the unconfessed problem s of their parents. These problems weigh upon the children because the parents, being themselves un­ conscious of them , have never attem pted to come to grips with their ow n difficulties, a n d this creates som ething like a poisoning of the atm osphere. F or this reason the neuroses of childhood depend to a considerable degree upon the p arents’ conflicts. H o w is d e p th psyc h o lo g y distinguished fr o m the previous m ethods of psychological research? W h e r e does it coalesce w ith other disciplinesP

>8°5

Psychology up till now took no account of the m otivation of conscious contents due to the existence of the unconscious. Once th e unconscious is included in the calculation, everything suddenly gets a double bottom , as it were. W e have to look at everything from two sides, w hereas the old psychology was satisfied w ith the contents of consciousness. T h u s the old m ethod of explaining the appearance of psychogenic (psychologically caused) symptoms could rest content w ith the supposition th a t they were auto-sug­ gested figm ents of the im agination. T h e m odern explanation, which lets the unconscious psyche of the p atien t have its say, investigates his dream s, fantasies, a n d complexes, i.e., th a t segm ent of his Iifehistory w hich is responsible for the form ation of the symptoms. N o one questions today th at neurotic sym ptom s are produced by processes in th e unconscious. T h e conscious realization of the uncon­ scious causative factors therefore has a definite th erapeutic value. Psychogenic sym ptom s are products of the unconscious. These symp­ tom also include various opinions and convictions w hich, though they m ay be uttered consciously enough, nevertheless are deter­ m ined in reality by unconscious m otives. T h u s a too im portunate a n d one-sided assertion of principles can often be traced back to an unconscious failure to live up to them . I knew someone, for instance, w ho, on every occasion, suitable or not, p a ra d e d his princi-

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pie of honesty an d truthfulness before the public. As I soon dis­ covered, he suffered from a rath er too lively im agination, which now an d th en seduced him into gross lies. T he whole question of tru th therefore occasioned in him a not undeserved “sentim ent d ’incom pletude,” w hich in tu rn m oved him to exceptionally loud ethi­ cal protestations, no small p a rt of whose aim was to beget in himself a conviction of honesty. W ith th e recognition th at every conscious process rests in p art upon an unconscious one and m ay represent it symbolically, our previous views of psychic causality are radically called into question. Direct causal sequences in consciousness appear doubtful, and every experience of psychic contents urgently requires them to be supple­ m ented by their unconscious aspect. Although depth psychology is a discipline in itself, it lurks invisibly, thanks to the fact of the unconscious, in the background of all other disciplines. Just as the discovery of radioactivity overthrew the old physics and necessitated a revision of m any scientific concepts, so all disciplines th at are in any way concerned w ith the realm of the psychic are broadened out and a t the same tim e rem oulded by depth psychology. It raises new problem s for philosophy; it greatly enriches pedagogics and still m ore the study of h u m an character; it also poses new problems for crim inology, especially as regards crim inal m otives; for medicine it opens u p an unsuspected store of fresh insights and possibilities through the discovery of the interdependence of bodily and psychic processes a n d the inclusion of the neurotic factor; and it has richly fecundated, less closely related sciences such as mythology, ethnol­ ogy, etc. Are the various schools of depth psychology similar in their aims? T h e difference betw een the principal schools of depth psychol­ ogy up to date are based upon as m any different aspects of the uncon­ scious. T h e unconscious possesses a biological, a physiological, a m ythical, a religious aspect, and so on. This m eans th a t the most varied conceptions are not only possible but even necessary. Each has its ow n justification, though none to the exclusion of others, for the unconscious is a highly complex phenom enon to which one single concept can never do justice. O ne cannot judge a person from a m oral standpoint only, for example, but has to regard him from this standpoint too! C ertain contents of the unconscious can be understood as strivings for power, others as the expression of sexual o r other drives, while yet others allow no explanation in terms of biological drives under any circumstances.

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H as “analytical psychology ,” i.e., the Jungian school of depth psy­ chology, definite guiding principles? I should prefer not to use the term “ guiding principles” in this connection. Ju st because of the extrem e variety an d complexity of the aspects of the unconscious an d its possible m eanings, every “guiding principle” works as an a rb itrary assum ption, as an actual prejudice th a t tries to an ticipate its irrational m anifestations, though these cannot be determ ined in advance, and perhaps force them into an unsuitable m ould. O ne m ust avoid all assum ptions so far as possible in order to grasp the pure m anifestation itself. T his must carry its own in terp retatio n w ith it, to such an extent th at its signifi­ cance is im m ediately evident from the n a tu re of the phenom enon an d is n ot forced upon it by the observer. H e m ust, in fact, accustom himself to be guided m ore by th e m aterial th an by his own opinions, how ever well founded they m ay a p p e ar to him . Every item of psychic experience presents itself in an individual form , even though its deeper content m ay be collective. O n e can never determ ine in advance, however, w hich of its principal aspects lies concealed be­ hind the individual form . “ G uiding principles” are therefore admis­ sible a t m ost as w orking hypotheses, a n d this only in the realm of scientific research. T h e practical m aterial is best accepted mente vacua (w ith o u t any preconceived theories). W h a t are the principal tools of analytical psychology? Does the interpretation of dreams occupy a central place? T h e analytical situation has a fourfold aspect: (a) T h e patient gives m e in his ow n w ords a picture of the situation as he consciously sees it. ( b ) His dream s give m e a com pensating picture of the un­ conscious aspect of it. [c) T h e relational situation in w hich the p atien t is placed vis-a-vis the analyst adds an objective side to the tw o other subjective ones. (d ) W orking th ro u g h the m aterial col­ lected u n d e r a, b, a n d c fills out the total picture of the psychological situation. T h e necessity of w orking th rough it arises from the fact th a t the total picture often stands in th e liveliest contrast to the views of th e ego-personality a n d therefore leads to all sorts of intel­ lectual a n d em otional reactions a n d problem s, w hich in their turn clam our for solution a n d answ er. Since the final goal of the under­ taking can only consist in restoring the original wholeness of the personality in a viable form , one can n o t dispense w ith a knowledge of the unconscious. T h e purest p ro d u ct of th e unconscious is the dream . T h e dream points directly to th e unconscious, for it “ hap­ pens” a n d we have not invented it. It brings us unfalsified m aterial.

W hat has passed through consciousness is already sifted and re­ modelled. As we can deduce from the lava ejected by a volcano the constitution of the strata from which it comes, so we can draw deductions as to the unconscious situation from the contents of dreams. Only dream material plus conscious material reveals the picture of the whole man. And only in this way can we find out who our antagonist is. 1810 Although dreams disclose the unconscious to us with perhaps the nearest approach to faithfulness we can attain, we also come upon its traces in every form of creative activity, such as music and poetry, and in all other forms of art. It appears in all manifesta­ tions of a spontaneous and creative kind, the further these are re­ moved from everything mechanical, technical, and intellectual. As well as from dreams we can therefore draw conclusions from such things as drawings in which patients are encouraged to reveal their inner images. Although obviously the personality of the patient holds the centre of our attention, and introspection is an indispens­ able instrum ent of our work in common, yet this is anything rather than brooding. Brooding is a sterile activity which runs round in a circle and never reaches a reasonable goal. It is not work but a weakness, even a vice. O n the other hand, if you feel out of sorts, you can legitimately make yourself an object of serious investigation, just as you can earnestly search your conscience without lapsing into m oral weakness. Anyone who is in bad odour with himself and feels in need of improvement, anyone who in brief wishes to “grow,” must take counsel with himself. Unless you change yourself inwardly too, outward changes in the situation are worthless or even harmful. It is not enough to jum p up, puff yourself out, and shout: “I take the responsibility!” Not only mankind but fate itself would like to know who promises to take this weighty step and whether it is someone who can take the responsibility. We all know that any­ one can say so. It is not the position that makes the man, but the man who does his work. Therefore self-searching, with the help of one or more persons, is— or rather should be— the essential condi­ tion for taking on a higher responsibility, even if it is only that of realizing the meaning of individual life in the best possible form and to the fullest possible degree. Nature always does that, but without responsibility, for this is the fated and divinely allotted task of man. Is not an im portant milestone in the development of self-knowledge, which has increased the difficulties of the “way to onself,” to be

found, in the R e f o r m a t i o n a n d in the loss of confession for Protes­ tants, a n d so for millions of p e o p le ? H a s no t self-searching become keener a n d d ee p er because of the loss of th e dialogue that the C ath­ olic has w ith his confessor, a n d the loss of absolution?

T h e difficulties have indeed becom e enorm ously greater, as evi­ denced by the increased prevalence of com plexes am ong Protes­ tants, w hich has been statistically established. But these increased difficulties constitute— if the P rotestant will really face and grapple w ith them — an exceptionally advantageous basis for self-knowledge. T hey can, how ever, just as easily lead, precisely because a confessor is lacking, either to sterile brooding or to thoughtless superficiality. M ost people need someone to confess to, otherw ise the basis of experience is not sufficiently real. T hey do not “ h e a r” themselves, cannot contrast them selves w ith som ething different, and thus they have no outside “ control.” E verything flows inw ards and is answ ered only by oneself, not by another, som eone different. It makes an enorm ous difference w hether I confess m y guilt only to myself or to an o th er person. T his being throw n back upon them ­ selves often leads P rotestants to spiritual arrogance and to isolation in their own ego. A lthough analytical psychology guards against being considered a substitute for confession, in practice it m ust often function willy-nilly as such. T h e re are so m any Catholics who no longer go to confession, and still m ore P rotestants w ho do not even know w h at confession is, th a t it is not surprising some of them yield to their need of com m unication a n d share their burdens with a n analyst in a w ay w hich could alm ost be called confession. The difference, how ever, is considerable, inasm uch as the doctor is no priest, no theological and m oral authority, b u t, at best, a sym pa­ thetically listening confidant w ith some experience of life and know ledge of h u m an n atu re. T h e re is no adm onition to repentance unless the p atien t does it himself, no penance unless— as is almost th e rule— he has got him self in a thorough mess, an d no absolution unless G od has m ercy on him . Psychology is adm ittedly only a m akeshift, b u t a t the present tim e a necessary one. W ere it not a necessity it w ould have collapsed long ago from inner emptiness. I t meets a need th a t unquestionably exists. D oes a k n o w le d g e o f th e “ oth er side,” th a t is, one’s o w n unconscious side, brin g relief, release? D oes n o t self-kn ow led ge rath er increase th e tension b etw ee n w h a t one is a n d w h a t one w o u ld like to be?

Being able to talk things over freely can in itself be a great

relief. In general, working with the unconscious brings an increase of tension at first, because it activates the opposites in the psyche by m aking them conscious. This entirely depends, though, on the situation from which one starts. The carefree optimist falls into a depression because he has now become conscious of the situation he is in. O n the other hand, the pressure on the inward brooding person is released. The initial situation decides whether a release or increase of pressure will result. Through self-searching in analysis people suddenly become aware of their real limitations. How often a woman has previously felt herself a snow-white dove and had no suspicion of the devil concealed within h e r! W ithout this knowl­ edge she can neither be healed nor attain wholeness. For one person deeper knowledge of himself is a punishment, for another a blessing, In general, every act of conscious realization means a tensing of opposites. It is in order to avoid this tension that people repress their conflicts. But if they become conscious of them, they get into a corresponding state of tension. This supplies in turn the driving power for a solution of the problems they are faced with. 1813

Doesn’t a systematic preoccupation with oneself lead to egocentricity? A t first glance, from an external and superficial point of view, it does make one egocentric. But I consider this justifiable up a point. One m ust occupy oneself with oneself; otherwise one does not grow, otherwise one can never develop! One must plant a garden and give it increasing attention and care if one wants vegetables; other­ wise only weeds flourish. “Egocentric” has an unpleasant undertone of pathological egoism. But as I have said, occupation with and meditation on one’s own being is an absolutely legitimate, even necessary activity if one strives after a real alteration and improve­ ment of the situation. Outwardly changing the situation, doing something else, forgetting w hat one was, alters nothing essential· Indeed, even when a bad man does good, he is nevertheless not good but suffers from a good symptom without being altered in character. How many drinkers, for example, have turned teetotalers without being freed from their psychic alcoholism! And only too soon they succumbed again to their vice. There are essentially bad natures that actually specialize in being good and, if they chance to become some kind of educator, the results are catastrophic. A systematic preoccupation with oneself serves a purpose. It is work and achievement. Often, in fact, it is much better to educate oneself first before one educates others. It is by no means certain that the

m an w ith good intentions is u n d e r all circum stances a good m an. If he is not, then his best intentions will lead to ruin as daily experi­ ence proves. D o e sn ’t an exa ct k n o w le d g e o f o n e’s o w n n a tu re w ith all its co n tra ­ dictions a n d absurdities, m a k e one unsure? D o e sn ’t it w ea ken selfco n fid en ce a n d so lessen th e a b ility to su rv iv e in th e b a ttle o f life?

M uch too often people have a pathetic cocksureness w hich leads them into n o thing but foolishness. It is better to be unsure because one then becomes m ore m odest, m ore hum ble. It is tru e th a t an inferiority com plex always harbours w ithin it the danger of out­ doing itself and com pensating the supposed lack by a flight into the opposite. W herever an inferiority com plex exists, there is good reason for it. T h e re actually is an inferiority of some kind, though not precisely w here one is persuaded it is. M odesty and hum ility are not the signs of an inferiority com plex. T hey are highly estim a­ ble, indeed adm irable, virtues a n d not complexes. T hey prove that their fo rtunate possessor is not a presum ptuous fool, b u t knows his own lim itations, an d will therefore never stum ble beyond the bounds of hum anity, dazzled an d intoxicated by his im agined great­ ness. T h e people w ho fancy they are sure of themselves are the ones w ho are truly unsure. O u r life is unsure, an d therefore a feeling of unsureness is m uch n ea re r to the tru th th an the illusion and the bluff of sureness. In the long ru n it is the better-adapted m an who trium phs, not the w rongly self-confident, who is at the m ercy of dangers from w ithout an d w ithin. M easure not by money or pow er! Peace of soul m eans m ore. C an d e p th p sych o lo g y assist social a d a p ta tio n a n d increase the ca p a city fo r h u m a n contacts? 1815

T h e increased self-knowledge w hich d e p th psychology necessi­ tates also creates greater possibilities of co m m u n ic a tio n : you can in terp ret yourself in the analytical dialogue an d learn th ro u g h selfknow ledge to u n d erstan d others. In th a t way you becom e more just an d m ore tolerant. Above all, you can rem edy your own mis­ takes, an d this is probably th e best chance of m aking a proper a d a p ta tio n to society. N aturally you can also m ake w rong use of self-knowledge, just as any other knowledge. H a s self-kn o w led g e a healing, lib era tin g effect?

1816

R epentance, confession, a n d purification from sin have always been the conditions of salvation. So far as analysis helps confession, it can be said to bring ab o u t a kind of renew al. A gain an d again

we find that patients dream of the analysis as of a refreshing and purifying bath, or their dreams and visions present symbols of re­ birth, which show unmistakably that knowledge of their uncon­ scious and its meaningful integration in their psychic life give them renewed vitality, and do indeed appear to them as a deliverance from otherwise unavoidable disaster or from entanglement in the skeins of fate. H o w does th e integration of the unconscious express itself in the actual psychic situation?

1817

This question can be answered only in a very general sense. Individuality is so varied that in each single case the integration of the unconscious takes place in a different and unforeseen way. One could describe this only with the help of concrete examples. The hum an personality is incomplete so long as we take simply the ego, the conscious, into account. It becomes complete only when supplemented by the unconscious. Therefore knowledge of the un­ conscious is indispensable for every true self-investigation. Through its integration, the centre of the personality is displaced from the limited ego into the more comprehensive self, into that centre which embraces both realms, the conscious and the unconscious, and unites them with each other. This self is the mid-point about which the true personality turns. It has therefore been since remotest times the goal of every m ethod of development based upon the principle of self-knowledge, as, for example, Indian yoga proves. From the Indian standpoint our psychology looks like a “dialectical” yoga. I must remark, however, that the yogi has quite definite notions as to the goal to be reached and does everything to attain this postulated goal. W ith us, intellectualism, rationalism, and volun­ tarism are such dangerous psychic forces that psychotherapy must whenever possible avoid setting itself any such goal. If the goal of wholeness and of realizing his originally intended personality should grow naturally in the patient, we may sympathetically assist him towards it. If it does not grow of itself, it cannot be implanted without remaining a perm anent foreign body. Therefore we re­ nounce such artifices when nature herself is clearly not working to this end. As a medical art, equipped only with human tools, our psychotherapy does not presume to preach salvation or a way thereto, for th at does not lie within its power.

F O R E W O R D T O S P IE R : “T H E HANDS O F C H IL D R E N ” 1

819

Chirology is an art which dates back to very ancient times. T he ancient physicians never hesitated to make use of such auxiliary techniques as chiromancy and astrology for diagnostic purposes, as is shown, for instance, by the little book w ritten by Dr. Goclenius,2 who lived at the end of the sixteenth century in W urzburg. T h e rise of the n atural sciences and hence of rationalism in the eighteenth century brought these ancient arts, which could look back on a thousand or more years of history, into disrepute, and led to the rejection of everything that, on the one hand, defied rational explanation and verification by experiment or, on the other, m ade too exclusive a claim on intuition. O n account of the uncer­ tainty and paucity of scientific knowledge in the M iddle Ages, even the most conscientious thinkers were in danger of applying their intuition more to the promotion of supersitition than of science. Thus all early, and particularly medieval, treatises on palmistry are an inextricable tangle of empiricism and fantasy. To establish a scientific m ethod and to obtain reliable results it was necessary, first of all, to make a clean sweep of all these irrational procedures. In the twentieth century, after two hundred years of intensive scien­ tific progress, we can risk resurrecting these almost forgotten arts which have lingered on in semi-obscurity and can test them in the light of m odern knowledge for possible truths. T he view of modern biology th a t m an is a totality, supported by a host of observations and researches, does not exclude the possi­ bility th a t hands, those organs so intimately connected with the psyche, m ight reveal by their shape and functioning the psychic peculiarities of the individual and thus furnish eloquent and intelli­ gible clues to his character. M odern science is steadily abandoning 1 [Translated from a German M S by V ictor Grove for the English trans. o f Julius Spier, T h e H a n ds of Children: A n In troduction to Psycho-chirology (L ondon, 1 9 4 4 ); 2nd edn., 1955, w ith an appendix, “T h e H ands of the M entally D iseased,” by H erta Levi. T h e trans. has been revised.] 2 [R odolphus G oclenius, Uranoscopiae1 chiroscopiae, metoposcopiae et opthalmoscopiae contem platio (Frankfurt, 1 6 0 8 ).

1820

1821

the m edieval conception of the dichotomy of body and m ind, and just as the body is now seen to be something neither purely m echani­ cal n o r chem ical, so the m ind seems to be but another aspect of the living body. Conclusions draw n from one as to the nature of the other seem therefore to be within the realm of scientific possibility. I have h a d several opportunities of observing M r. Spier at work, and m ust adm it th a t the results he has obtained have m ade a lasting impression on m e. His m ethod, though predom inantly intuitive, is based on w ide practical experience. Experiences of this nature can be rationalized to a large extent, th at is to say they adm it of a rational explanation once they have happened. A part from rou­ tine, how ever, the m an n er in which they are obtained depends at all decisive points on a finely differentiated, creative intuition which is in itself a special talent. H ence persons with nothing but an aver­ age intelligence can hardly be expected to m aster the m ethod. T here is, nevertheless, a definite possibility th a t people who are intuitively gifted will be able to obtain similar results provided they are p rop­ erly ta u g h t a n d trained. Intuition is not by any means an isolated gift b u t a regular function w hich is capable of being developed. Like the functions of seeing and hearing it has a specific field of experience a n d a specific range of knowledge based upon this. T h e findings presented in this book are of fundam ental im por­ tance for psychologists, doctors, and teachers. Spier’s chirology is a valuable contribution to the study of hum an character in its widest sense.

F O R E W O R D T O T H E H EB R EW E D IT IO N O F JU N G : “PSY C H O LO G Y A ND E D U C A T IO N ” 1 1822

1823

1824

I have before me the H ebrew edition of my essays on psychology and education.2 Not knowing this language, I am unable to appre­ ciate the merits of the translation, so I can only bid it welcome as a “firstling” that is unique in my experience. As the study of the child psyche and the question of education may fairly be said to occupy a privileged position today, it does not seem inappropriate th at the contributions of analytical psychol­ ogy should receive some attention. I have never m ade the child psyche an object of special research, b u t have merely collected ex­ periences from my psychotherapeutic practice. These do however give rise to a num ber of interesting observations, firstly in regard to adults who have not yet rid themselves of their disturbing infan­ tilism, secondly in regard to the complex relations between parents and children, and thirdly in regard to the children themselves. T he complex psychology of the child and in particular the psychic disorders of children are m ore often than not causally con­ nected with the psychology of the parents, and in most cases one would do well to pay more attention to the faulty attitude of parents and educators than to the child’s psyche, which in itself would func­ tion correctly if it were not disturbed by the harm ful influence of the parents. T he most im portant question next to the education of the child is the education of the educator. I hope these essays will prove stim ulating in this respect, which is the one I would recommend to the especial consideration of the reader. 1 [T el-A viv, 1958. Trans, here from the original German M S.] 2 [“Psychic Conflicts in a C hild,” “A nalytical Psychology and E ducation,” and “T h e G ifted C hild” (C .W ., vol. 17) , the contents of P sychologie u n d Erziehung

( 1 9 4 6 ).]

ADDENDA

FOREWORD TO "PSYCHOLOGISCHE ABHANDLUNGEN," VOLUME P

1825

The Psychologische Abhandlungen (Psychological Papers) comprise the works of my friends and pupils as well as other colleagues, and also my own contributions to psychology. In accordance with the character of our psychological interests, this series will include not only works in the area of psychopathology, but also investigations of a general psychological nature. The present state of psychology seems to make it advisable that schools or movements have their own organs of publication; in this way a troublesome scattering of works among many different periodicals can be avoided, and mutuality of outlook can achieve suitable expression through publication in one consistent place. Kusnacht-Zurich, May 1914

The Editor: C. G. JUNG

[(Translated by L. R.) Leipzig and Vienna: Deuticke, 1914· The volume contained papers by Josef Lang, J. Vodoz, Hans Schmid, and C. Schneiter. The series was not used again until 1928, when Jung published tJ ber die Energetik der Seele as vol. II (Zurich: Rascher, henceforward). This and the succeeding volumes were devoted to Jung's writings, sometimes with contributions by colleagues: III (193 I ), See/enprob/eme der Gegenwart, with a contribution by W. M. Kranefeldt; IV (1934), Wirklichkeit der Seele, with contributions by Hugo Rosenthal, Emma Jung, and W. M. Kranefeldt; V (1944), PSJlchologie und Alchemie; VI (1948), Symbolik des Geistes, with a contribution by R. Scharf; VlI (1950), Gestaltungen des Unbewussten, with a contribution by Aniela Jaffe; VIII (1951), Aion, with a contribution by M.-L. von Franz; IX (1954), Von den WUTzein des Bewusstseins; X-XII (1955-:5?), Mysterium Coniunctionis, with a contribution by M.-L. von Franz (= an editIon of Aurora Consurgens, constituting vol. XII).J

1

ADDRESS AT THE PRESENTATION OF THE JUNG CODEX1

M r . President, M r . M inister, viri magnifici, Ladies a n d Gentlem en!

826

It gives me much pleasure to accept this precious gift in the name of our Institute. For this I thank you, and also for the surpris­ ing and undeserved honour you have done me in baptising the Codex with my name. I would like to express my special thanks both to Mr. Page, who through generous financial assistance made the purchase of the papyrus possible, and to Dr. Meier, who through unflagging efforts has given it a home. 82 7 Dr. M eier has asked m e to say a few words to you about the psychological significance of Gnostic texts. O f the four tracts con1 [(T ranslation revised and augm ented by L. R .) T h e text of this address given above, pars. 1514-1517 (q .v .), was obtained by the E ditors from th e Jung archives at K iisnacht in the early 1960’« and was assigned to R.F.C . H ull for translation on the assum ption th a t it represented the text th a t Ju n g read at the convocation in Zurich, 15 Nov. 1953. In 1975, w hen the present vol. was in page proof, a considerably augm ented version was published (in G erm an) by Professor Gilles Q uispel as an appendix to the volume C. G. Jung: een mens voor deze tijd (R o tte rd am ), consisting of essays (in D u tch ) on Ju n g ’s work by Q uispel ( “Ju n g and Gnosis” ), C. Aalders, and J. H . Plok'ker. Q uispel had obtained this text of the Address some years earlier from one of the persons who h ad arranged the convocation. Subsequently, Professor C. A. M eier pro­ vided an even fuller version of Ju n g ’s actual remarks, and th a t is translated here (the added m aterial being indicated by a vertical line in the left m argin). Ju n g had first w ritten the shorter version, then h ad expanded it p rio r to the occasion, b u t the shorter version had been circulated. George H . Page, of Switzerland, donated funds th a t enabled the Jung Institute to purchase the Codex from the estate of A lbert Eid, a Belgian dealer in antiquities who h ad acquired it in Egypt. Professor M eier, then director of the Institute, had played the leading role in tracing and negotiating for the Codex. I n accordance w ith th e original agreem ent, th e C odex was eventually given to the C optic M useum in Cairo.]

tained in this codcx, I should like to single out especially the Evivfi~ gelium Veritatis, an im portant Valentinian text that affords us some insight into the mentality of the second century a .d . “The Gospel of T ru th is less a gospel than a highly interesting commen­ tary on the Christian message. It belongs therefore to the series of numerous “phenom ena of assimilation,” its purpose being to assimi­ late this strange and hardly understandable message to the Hellenistic-Egyptian world of thought. It is evident that the author was appealing to the intellectual understanding of his reader, as if in remembrance of the words: “We preach Christ crucified,’unto the Jews a stumbling-block, and unto the Greeks foolishness” (I Cor. 1.23). For him Christ was primarily a metaphysical figure, a lightbringer, who went forth from the Father in order to illuminate the stupidity, darkness, and unconsciousness of mankind and to lead the individual back to his origins through self-knowledge. This deliver­ ance from agnosia relates the text to the accounts which Hippolytus, in his Elenchos, has left of the Gnostics, and of the Naassenes and Peratics in particular. There we also find most of what I call the “phenom ena of assimilation.” By this term I mean to delineate those specifically psychic reactions aroused by the impact that the figure and message of Christ had on the pagan world, most promi­ nently those allegories and symbols such as fish, snake, lion, peacock, etc., characteristic of the first Christian centuries, but also those much more extensive amplifications due to Gnosticism, which clearly were m eant to illuminate and render more comprehensible the metaphysical role of the Saviour. For the modem mind this accu­ mulation of symbols, parables, and synonyms has just the opposite effect, since it only deepens the darkness and entangles the lightbringer in a network of barely intelligible analogies. Gnostic amplification, as we encounter it in Hippolytus, has a character in p art hymn-like, in part dream-like, which one invari­ ably finds where an aroused imagination is trying to clarify an as yet still unconscious content. These are, on the one hand, intellec­ tual, philosophical— or rather, theosophical—speculations, and, on the other, analogies, synonyms, and symbols whose psychological nature is immediately convincing. The phenomenon of assimilation mainly represents the reaction of the psychic matrix, i.e., the uncon­ scious, which becomes agitated and responds with archetypal images, thereby dem onstrating to what degree the message has penetrated into the depths of the psyche and how the unconscious interprets the phenom enon of Christ.

i8*9

I t is n o t likely th a t the G nostic attem pts at elucidation m et with success in the p ag an w orld, quite aside from the fact th a t the C h u rch very soon opposed them an d w henever possible suppressed them . Luckily d u rin g this process some of the best pieces (to judge by their content) were preserved for posterity, so th a t today we are in a position to see in w h at way the C hristian message was taken up by th e unconscious of th a t age. These assim ilation phenom ena are naturally of especial significance for psychologists an d psychia­ trists, w ho are professionally concerned w ith the psychic back­ ground, a n d this is the reason w hy o u r In stitu te is so interested in acquiring an d translating au th en tic Gnostic texts. i 83° A lthough suppressed and forgotten, the process of assimilation th a t began w ith Gnosticism continued all th ro u g h the M iddle Ages, and it can still be observed in m odern tim es w henever individual consciousness is confronted w ith its ow n shadow , or the inferior p a rt of the personality. T his aspect .of h u m an personality, w hich is m ost often repressed owing to its incom patibility w ith one’s selfim age, does n ot consist only of inferior characteristics b ut represents the entire unconcious; th a t is, it is alm ost always the first form in w hich unconsciousness brings itself to the atten tio n of consciousness. F re u d ’s psychology occupied itself exclusively, so to speak, w ith this aspect. B ehind the shadow , how ever, th e deeper layers of the u n ­ conscious com e forw ard, those w hich, so far as we are able to ascer­ tain , consist of archetypal, som etim es instinctive, structures, so-called “ pattern s of b ehaviour.” U n d e r th e influence of extraordinary psychic situations, especially life crises, these archetypal form s or im ages m ay spontaneously invade consciousness, in th e case of sick persons just as in the case of healthy ones. T h e general rule, how ­ ever, is th a t m odern m an needs expert help to becom e conscious of his darkness, because in m ost cases he has long since forgotten this basic problem of C hristianity: th e m oral a n d intellectual agnosia of th e m erely n a tu ra l m an . C hristianity, considered as a psychologi­ cal phenom enon, contributed a great deal to the developm ent of consciousness, a n d w herever this dialectical process has not come to a standstill we find new evidence of assim ilation. E ven in m edi­ eval Ju d aism a parallel process took place over th e centuries, inde­ pendently of the C hristian one, in the K ab b ala. Its nearest analogy in th e C hristian sphere was philosophical alchem y, whose psycholo­ gical affinities w ith Gnosticism can easily be dem onstrated. l83i T h e u rg en t therapeutic necessity of confronting the individual w ith his ow n d ark side is a secular continuation of the Christian

development of consciousness and leads to phenomena of assimila­ tion similar to those found in Gnosticism, the Kabbala, and Herme­ tic philosophy. 1832 T he reactions of the matrix that we observe these days are not only comparable, both in form and in content, with Gnostic and medieval symbols, but presumably are also of the same sort, and have the same purpose as well, in that they make the figure of Hyios tou anthropou, Son of M an, the innermost concern of the indivi­ dual, and also expand it into a magnitude comparable with that of the Indian purusha-atman, the anima mundi. At this time, how­ ever, I would prefer not to go any further into these modern ten­ dencies, which indeed were developing among the Gnostics. 1833 Since comparison with these earlier historical stages is of the greatest im portance in interpreting the modern phenomena, the discovery of authentic Gnostic texts is, especially for the direction our research is taking, of the greatest interest, all the more so in that it is not only of a theoretical but also of a practical nature. If we seek genuine psychological understanding of the human being of our own time, we must know his spiritual history absolutely. We cannot reduce him to mere biological data, since he is not by nature merely biological but is a product also of spiritual presuppositions. 1834 I must unfortunately content myself with these bare outlines in attem pting to explain our interest in a Gnostic text. Further proof of our interest in Gnosticism and detailed explanations may be found in a num ber of studies that have already been published.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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INDEX

I N D E X OF T I T L E S

T he titles of articles in this volume are here listed alphabetically, with begining page num ber, except for reviews, abstracts, forewords, etc., which are readily located in the main index under the name of the subject author. Abstracts of the Psychological Works of Swiss Authors, 398 Adaptation, Individuation, Collectiv­ ity, 449 Address at the Presentation of the Jung Codex, 671, 828 Address on the Occasion of the Founding of the C. G. Jung Insti­ tute, 471 Alchemy and Psychology, 751 Analytical Psychology: Theory and Practice, I Answers to Questions on Freud, 438 A pproaching the Unconscious, 183 Astrological Experiment, An, 494

Foreword to the First Volume of Studies from the C. G. Jung Insti­ tute, 487 Future of Parapsychology, The, 510 Human Nature Does Not Yield Easily to Idealistic Advice, 634 Hypothesis of the Collective Uncon­ scious, The, 515 If Christ Walked the Earth Today, 638 Individuation and Collectivity, 452 Is There a Freudian Type of Poetry?,

7¾

Is There a True Bilingualism?, 789 Concept of Ambivalence, The, 443 Concerning Answer to Job, 662 Contributions to Symbolism, 446 Crim e and the Soul, 343 Definition of Demonism, The, 648 D epth Psychology, 477 D epth Psychology and Self-Knowl­ edge, 811

Jung and Religious Belief, 702 Letters on Synchronicity, 502 M an and His Symbols, 183 Marginalia on Contemporary Events, 591

Effect of Technology on the Hum an Psyche, The, 614

Memorial to J. S., 757 Miraculous Fast of Brother Klaus, The, 660 Munich, A Radio Talk in, 553

Faust and Alchemy, 748 Foreword to a Catalogue on Alchemy, 747

On Dementia Praecox, 335 On the Discourses of the Buddha, 697

O n Flying Saucers, 626 O n H allucination, 461 On the H ungarian Uprising, 636 On Pictures in Psychiatric Diagnosis, 802 On the Psychoanalytic T reatm ent of Nervous Disorders, 430 O n Psychodiagnostics, 637 O n the Psychology of the Negro, 552 On Resurrection, 692 O n the Rosarium Philosophorum, 797 O n Spiritualistic Phenomena, 293 On the T ale of the O tter, 762 Preface to an Indian Journal of Psy­ chotherapy, 801 Present Status of Applied Psychol­ ogy, T he, 333 Press Com m unique on Visiting the U nited States, 564 Psychology and N ational Problems, 566 Psychology and Spiritualism , 312

Q uestion of M edical The, 347

Intervention,

R adio T alk in M unich, A, 553 Religion and Psychology: A Reply to M artin Buber, 663 R eport on America, 551 R eturn to the Simple Life, 582 Reviews of Psychiatric Literature, 374 Rules of Life, The, 625 Significance of F reud’s Theory for Neurology and Psychiatry, The, 388 Symbolic Life, The, 265 Symbols and the Interpretation of Dreams, 183 Tavistock Lectures, The, 1 Techniques of A ttitude Change Con­ ducive to W orld Peace, 606 Two Letters on Psychoanalysis, 427 W hy I Am N ot a Catholic, 645

INDEX

A A a ld e rs, C ., 82¾¾ a b a isse m e n t d u n ive a u m e n ta l, 67, 74, 79, 222, 335; in sch izo p h re n ia , 351 a b d o m e n , c ra b as re p re se n ta tio n of, 92

A begg, L ily : O sta sien d e n k t anders, J . ’s fo re w o rd , 6 5 4 -5 5 A b ra h a m a n d Isa a c , 688 A b ra h a m I b n E zra, 675 A b ra h a m , K a rl, 3g8& n, 423&71, 485 a b so lu tio n , 287; a n d cu re, 273 A by ssinians, 46 ac tiv e im a g in a tio n , 6, 169, 170, 172, 5 3 0 -3 1 , 799, 80 0 ; a rc h e ty p a l m otifs in, 653; a n d d re a m -se rie s, 174, 176 A d a m , a n d C h ris t, 231, 280 A d a m K a d m o n , 280 A d a m sk i, G e o rg e : F ly in g Sa u cers H a v e L a n d e d , 627η a d a p t a t i o n : in an aly sis, 450, 451; e n ­ erg etics of, 450; p sy ch o lo g ical, 4 4 9 52 A d le r, A lfr e d /A d le ria n , 6, 62, 1 2 4 26, 128, 423&71, 5 1 7 , 534; confes­ sion, 126; on “g u id in g fictio n s,” 4 8 1 ; o n m a s c u lin e p ro te st, 481; on p o w e r-d riv e , 480; p sy c h o lo g y / sch o o l o f psy ch o lo g y , 125, 127, 4 2 3 η , 480; th eo ry , 6 1 ; ed. (w ith S te k e l), Z e n tr a lb la tt ftir P sych o ­ a n a lyse, 425&Π. A d le r, G e rh a rd , 474, 773; E n td e c k u n g d e r S e e le , \α η η \ J . ’s fo rew o rd , 5 1 7 ; S tu d ie s in A n a ly tic a l P sych o l­

ogy, 474η; J . ’s fo rew o rd , 523, 524 adolescence, 233 a d u m b ra tio , 234 advice, idealistic, 634 A erial P h en o m en a R e se a rc h O rg a n i­ z atio n (A P R O ) , 626η, 632; B u lle ­ tin , 632 aesthetics, 341 a ffe c t( s ) , 23, 43; b lo ck in g of, 478; e m o tio n as, 25; infectiousness of, 596; influence of, on psyche, 375; a n d in te lle c tu a l feelings, d istin ­ guished, 375; a n d invasions, 32; Ja m es-L an g e th eo ry of, 25, 27 affectivity, 375 A frica, 46; “ going n a tiv e ” in, 148; J . ’s jo u rn e y to, 554- 57, 623 A frica, C e n tral, 15 A frica, E ast, E lgonyi trib e in, see Elgonyi A frica, S o u th , rock-carvings in, 39η A g ad ir, M orocco, 5 6 6 &« agnosia, 671, 672, 826 agnosticism , 734 a g o ra p h o b ia, 365 A g rip p a von N e ttesh eim , C ornelius, 784 A ion, god, 121, 122 aischrologia, 121 &n A ksakow , A. N .: A n im ism u s u n d S p iritism u s, 293η A lb ertu s M ag n u s, 678; D e m irabilis m u n d i, 511 a lc h e m is t( s ) /a lc h e m y , 120, 167, 280, 286, 546; a rt of, “ req u ires th e w hole m a n ,” 619; B yzantine, 211;

alch e m ist( s ) /a lc h e m y ( co n t. ) : an d chem istry, 40, 747; F au st and, 748-50; forew ord by J. to a ca ta­ logue on, 747; G erm an, i r ; G nos­ ticism and, 652, 672; G reek, 751; J . ’s rediscovery of, 211; L atin , 232, 678; n a tu ra l philosophy of, 649; philosophical, philosophy of, 742; an d p re-C h ristian rites, 270; an d psychology, 751-53; psychology of, 678; sp iritu al discipline of, 707; sym bolism of, 747, 751; trin itarian an d q u a te rn a ria n standpoints, 473; R . W ilhelm and, 472 alcoholic “ cured by Jesus,” 242, 272 A ldrich, C harles R ob erts: T h e P rim ­ itive M in d a nd M o d ern C iviliza­ tion, J . ’s forew ord, 561-63 A lexander th e G reat, 221, 222 A lexandria, 121s A lexandros, 108, 109 Alfonso X , K in g of C astile: Clavis sapientiae, 799 A lfred the G reat, K ing, 282 alie n ist(s ), see p sy c h ia trist(s) A llah, as m onad, 715 A llenby, A m y I.: “A Psychological S tudy of th e O rigins of M o n o th e­ ism ” (u n p u b l.), J . ’s forew ord, 6 5 6 60 A llendy, R ., 765η altar, 234 altruism , abnorm al, 612 am bivalence, 443, 444 A m erica/A m erican s, 10, 14, 96, 139, 149; com m erce an d in d u stry in, 575; E uropean im m ig ran ts in, 465; J . ’s jo u rn ey to, 214, 551 &n; N egro com plex in, 551; p rim itiv e layer in, 47, 148; self-control in, 552; sexual repression in, 551; sp iritu a l­ ism in, 293, 294; university “psy­ chologies,” 127; unrest in, 275; w o­ m a n p atien t, 147; w om en’s colleges in, 147 A m erican Indians, 552η; N avaho sand-paintings an d yaibichy dances, 516; Pueblo, 247; ·— , an d F a th e r

Sun, 247, 274, 288; — , on th in k ­ ing, 10; — , san d -p ain tin g s of, 123; ■ S outh, 205 A m ita y u r D hya n a S u tra , 739 A m m ianus M arceliinus, 296 am nesia, in fan tile, 258, 259 am plificatio n , 83, 84 A nabaptists, 593 anaesthesia, cutaneous an d sensory,

388 a n a l: com plex, 433, 434; fantasy, 436 analysis: a d a p ta tio n in, 450, 451; d an g er of, fo r analyst, 153; of pupil, 251; as quickened m a tu ra ­ tion, 172; an d re tu rn to a church, 285; training, 485 a n a ly st(s) : analysis of, 140; c h a l­ lenges to, 492; neurotic, 149; n ot a superm an, 217; ow n psychic p ro b ­ lem s of, 493; an d p atien t, as p a r t­ ners, 493; p a tie n ts’ resistance to, 220; an d p a tie n ts’ sexual fantasy about, 144; perso n ality of, and transference, 143; projections into, 140, 161; prov o catio n by, 151; as saviour, 165; “snake’s eyes” of, 142 analytical psychology, 523, 563, 608, 814; see also d e p th psychology A natom ical In stitu te, 214 A ndreae, Jo h a n n V alen tin , 748 angels in hell, 22g, 233 A ngelus Silesius, 688, 739 anger, 26 A ngola, 39η a n im a ( J . ’s c o n c e p t), 72n, 189, 190, 3 5 1. 484. 538; as archetype, of d i­ vine m others, 731; -figure, in schizo­ p h re n ic ’s p ain tin g , 179; m otif, 545, 546; as p ersonification: of collec­ tive unconscious, 89; of inferior functions, 89; p ro jec tio n on to, 749 anim a m u n d i, 591 a n im a l(s ) : cloacal, 433, 434; in dream -series of eight-year-old girl, 229; in dream s, sym bolize sym pa­ th etic system , 92, 95; em otional m anifestations in, 234; founding, 233; an d “in te llig en t” acts of com-

INDEX

pensation, 657; magnetism, 294, 295, 340; psyche in, 235; sense of smell in, 326; symbols of evangelists, 185; taboo to Church, gg A N I M A L S (separate species) : beetle, in dream, 94, 95 bull: '"father of the snake," 444; in Gilgamesh epos, 106, 107; in M i t h r a s legend, 444 cat, Egyptian sculpture of, 142 catfish, 33?z cockroach, 706

444, 827; on cross as allegory of Christ, 722; in dream of Toledo cathedral, 112, 113; eyes of, and hero's eyes, 92; in Gilgamesh epic, 107; healing, 116; as historical castration animal, 436; horned, 229, 232; as libido symbol, 444; mercurialis, 232, 722; in paradise, 690, 709, 715, 722' primitives and, 125; python at Delphi, 117; quadricornutus/ four-horned, 232; represents cerebrospinal system, 91; in schizophrenic's painting, 179; serpens oculatus, in vision of Ignatius Loyola, 683; Shakti as, 120; train's movement and, 82, 87; as winter symbol, 122 snail, shell of, as proof of existence

cow and calf, in dream, 556, 557 crab, represents abdomen, 92 crab-lizard, in dream, 82, 86, 87, 90-94 d o g " C l e v e r Hans," 377&n dove, sacred to Church, gg d r a g o n : in cave, 117, 120, 123; motif, 38, 91, 92; link with snake, 1 1 7 , 232 fish: aeon of (astrology), 718; as historical symbol, 434, 827; Ichthys, Christ as, 115, 157; sacred, to early Church, 99 insects, symbiotic functions of, 234 lamb, sacred in early Church, 99 lion, 827; as libido symbol, 444 mastodon, in dream, 65?!, 66, 91 mice, in catatonic patient's fantasy,

433

monster: motif, 38; symbol of, 102 namazu, 33?i oxen, in dream of Archelaos, 108 parrots, araras, 205 peacock, 827 platypus, 248 ram, and Isaac, 674 rats, in catatonic patient's fantasy,

433

ravens, two, 749 rhinoceros, with tick-birds, salamander, 33 scarab, 506 serpent/snake: -bite, cure Egypt, 102, 103; biting in stele of Priapus, 444; 1 1 6 - 1 8 , 123; as Christ

3g&n

for, in phallus in cave, symbol,

of God, 591 uroboros, 522 wasp, 518 weaver bird, 535, 541 whale, 38 worm, poisonous, in myth of Isis and Ra, 102, 103 yucca moth, 535 animism, 595 animus, "J2n, 89, 484, 536; incubators, 147 L'Annee psychologique, 406^ Anthropos, 122; Christ and, 743; as monad, 715; and unconscious Godimage, 669 Antichrist, 685, 691 antimony: truth as, 619; Y H W H as, 690 antiquity: dreams in, 107, m , 236, 237; medicine in, 102 anxiety: equivalents of, 390; hysteria, 390; neurosis, 278, 279, 390; neurotic, and sexuality, 390, 391 Aosta, 115 aphasia, 376 apocatastasis, 231 Apollo, 117, 120 apperception, 12, 186, 370; fantastic, 371; state of, 371

859

INDEX apraxia, 383 A p u l e i u s : Golden Ass, 444 aqua gratiae, J05 aqua permanens, 270; and baptismal water, 591 arbor philosophica, and tree of Cross,

59

1

arcane substance, 591 Archelaos, R o m a n governor of Palestine, 108, 109 a r c h e t y p e ( s ) , 37, 38, 236, 529, 574.; as a priori forms of representation, 497, 657; autonomy of, 244, 742; choice of, 677, 678; of collective unconscious, 464; constellation of, 658, 677; in d r e a m symbolism, 2 2 7 - 4 3 ; emotional value of, 260; etymology of, 22871; existence of, denied, 259, 260; — , establishing, 673-78; fascination of, 238; as formal aspect of instinct, 533, 5 4 1 ; and G e r m a n y , 576; and history, 163, 164; identification with, 153, 578; as image, 706; — , and emotion, 257; and individuation, 486; inherited instinctual patterns of behaviour, 483, 518, 5 4 1 , 607, 657, 658; as inherited tendency to f o r m mythological motifs, 228; not inherited idea, 22g, 470, 483, 518; initiative of, 238; intervention of, 161; as living matter, 257; of lover in a remote land, 159; numinosity of, 238, 259, 260, 485, 518, 5 4 1 , 658; and organic illness, 103, 133, 134; in practical experience, 257; and projection, 141, 152, 153, 156; specific energy of, 238; spontaneous activity of, 485; timelessness/eternity of, 695; unconscious, 508 Areopagus, 112 Aristophanes: The Frogs, 1 1 7 Arnaldus de V i l l a n o v a , 797 art/artists: difficulty in thinking, 169; galleries, 274; inspiration and invasion, 34, 35; modern, and neurosis, 766 Artemidoros of Daldis, 237

artifex, and lapis, 722&n Artis auriferae, 753n; "Rosinus ad S a r r a t a n t a m , " 800 ascetics, and dreams of temptation, 656 Asia, Europe as peninsula of, 67 Asklepios, 1 1 6 Assagioli, Roberto, 39871 assimilation: and Gnosticism, 672, 826; of irrational ideas, 356; of lost contents, 259; phenomena of, 671, 672, 677, 826-27; work of, 259 association ( s ) : categories/classification of, 74; familial patterns of, 475; free, 82, 84, 187, 188, 190-92, 478; method, 6 association experiments/tests, 48-56,

' 9 . 353. 4 > 47 I > 4 ; 1

o6

8 a

a n d

c o m

"

plexes, see c o m p l e x ( e s ) s.v.; and Freudian unconscious, 61; and hysterics, 410; participation in, 77; potentialities of, 4 7 5 ; respiration in, 6 3 - 6 5 ; and schizophrenia, 54, 353; vowel sequences in, 401 Ast the Shepherd, 339 Astarte, 677 Asterios, Bishop, 120, 12 ire astrology: Jung's experiment, 4 9 4 501; and statistics, 494; and synchronicity, 497, 504, 506; unconscious, 179 ataxia-abasia, 371 atheism, 733, 734 Athens, 92, 118, 120 Athos, M o u n t , 681 A t m a n / a t m a n , 280, 694, 828; E l i j a h as, 675 atom bomb, 615, 666 atomic age, 736 Atonement, D a y of, 688 Atrides, curse of, 599 attention, oscillating, 196 Attis cult, 554

a t t i t u d e ( s ) : change of, 608-10, 613; mental and moral, 607, 608; of understanding, rational and irrational, 508

860

INDEX

Augustine, St., 10, 37, 288; In Johannis Evang., ion, 2881 Augustus, 108

Bavarian Board of Physicians, 307 Baynes, Cary F. (trans, into English): The / Ching, or Book of Changes, 69 n Baynes, Helton Godwin, 168, 62312; Analytical Psychology and the English Mind, J.'s foreword, 623-24; Germany Possessed, 623; Mythology of the Soul, 474, 613a, 623 Bechterew, W. von: Psyche und

austerity, o p t i m i s m of, 584 A u s t r a l i a n s , p r i m i t i v e , 4 1 , 282 Austria,

569

autocrotic insulation, 149 automatic wiring, 302, 304 automatisms, 244 autonomy, conscious, 74 Autopator, 653 autosuggestion, 302 Avalon. A r t h u r : The Serpent 578 n

Leben, J.'s review, 385 Beckcr, T h . : Einfiihrung in die Psychiatrie, J.'s review, 386 Beit, Hedwig von (H. von Roques), 474; Gegensatz und Erneuerung im Mdrchen, 474n- Symbolik des Marchens, 474n belief, and illusion, 247 Belilios, A. D., 287 belly, thinking thoughts in, i o Bender, Hans, 494ft Bendit, L. J., 34 Benedictines, and psychotherapy, 269 benedictio fontis, 158, 270 Bennet, E. A., 3, 31, 176, 179 Benoit, Pierre, 545; L'Atlantide, 201 Bergson, Henri, 121 Berkeley, George, 772 Berlin, 58 Bern Winter Meeting of Swiss Psychiatrists, 1910, 4431 Bernese Alps, 170 Berneuchener movement, in Germany, 285&n Beroalde de Verville, see under Colonna Berthelot, Mareellin: Collections des

Power,

B Baal, 677 Babinski, Joseph, 400 B a b y l o n : Creation M y t h , 105; GiJgamesh Epic, i05&n, 106, 107; — , Eabani in, 764; — , Enkidu in, 105-7; — , H u m b a b a in, 106, n o ; rite of temple prostitution in, 159; '"whore o f , " patient's nickname, 146 Bacon, Roger, 678 Ballet, Gilbert; Swedenbvrg: Hisloire d'un visionnaire au XVIII siecle, 299 n B a n e r j e e , S a m i r a n , 801 baptism: font/piscina, 116, 117, 158; —, benedictio fontis, 158, 270; as initiation, 116, 156; as mysteria, 1 1 5 ; symbolism of, 158; water in, and aqua permanens, 591 Bardo existence, 95 Barker, M a r y , 3, 4 Barmen, Pomerania, 296 Barth, K a r l , 739&n Basel: leprosery, 87; Societe de PsychoJogie, 3 Basil the Great, 709 Basil ides (Gnostic), 727 Basilides of Alexandria, 663^1 Basler Nachrichten, 293?! Baudouin, (Louis) Charles, 765* '

anciens alchimistes grecs, 753M Bertine, Eleanor: Human Relationships, J.'s foreword, 534-36 Bethlehem, massacre of innocents, 274 Betty, medium, see White, Betty bewitchings, 328 Beyond, the, 315

673^, 861h

Bezzola, D u m e n g ; " Z u r Analyse psychotraumatischer Symptome," J.'s abstract, 398

INDEX Symptomatologie von Psychosen," 399; and J., " K o m p l e x e und Krankheitsursache bei D e m e n t i a p r a e c o x , " J.'s abstract, 399; Die Psychoanalyse Freuds, 429; " S e x uelle Abnormitaten der K i n d e r , " J.'s abstract, 400; " O b e r die Bedeutung von Assoziationsversuchen," J.'s abstract, 406-7 blindness: hysterical, 298; of St. Paul, 298 " b l o n d beast," 163 b o d y : evolution of embryonic, 258; and mind, relation between, 33, 34, 65; as personification of shadow of ego, 23 Boegner, M . , 685 Boehme, Jacob, 516, 7 3 2 - 3 9 Bollingen, J.'s " T o w e r " at, 79871 Bolshevism, 715

BIBLE:

Old Testament: Daniel, 109; Kings, First Book of, 673; K i n g s , Second Book of, 673, 675; Z a c h a r i a h , 67771 N e w T e s t a m e n t : A c t s of the A p o s tles, 231; Corinthians, First Epistle to, 231, 671, 692, 69372, 758, 826; Hebrews, 705; John, Gospel of, 67971, 686, 693; L u k e , 648, 693, 716; M a r k , 648, 673, 692; M a t t h e w , Gospel of, 280M; Philippians, 718 n; Revelation, Book o f / A p o c a l y p s e , 232, 685, 686, 688&ra, 718, 727, 742; T h e s salonians, First Epistle to, 6g8 Apocrypha/Pseudepigrapha: Acts of John, 735; James, M . R . : The Apocryphal New Testament, 73571 Bibliotheca chemica curiosa, ed. M a n g e t , 75371 bilingualism, 789 Binet, A l f r e d , 341; ed., L'Annee psychologique, 406n Binswanger, L u d w i g , 423&71; " t i b e r das V e r h a l t e n des psychogalvanischen Phanomens beim Assoziations-experiment," 411 biography, psychological, 471 Bion, W i l f r e d R . , 29, 65, 66 birth-chamber: baptismal font as, i 5 8 ; Egyptian, 157 bladder disturbances, 374 Blanke, Fritz: Bruder Klaus von Flue, 660n; J.'s letter to, 66on Bleikeller, in Bremen, 214 Bleuler, ( P a u l ) Eugen, 314, 334, 375&717Z, 39271, 481; co-director of Jahrbuch, 39271; on depth psychology, 4 7 7 ; unpublished p a p e r on ambivalence, 44372; Affektivitat, Suggestibilitat, Paranoia, J.'s abstract, 399-400; — , J.'s review, 3 7 5 - 7 6 ; "Bewusstsein und Assoziation," J.'s abstract, 408, 409; " F r e u d s c h e M e c h a n i s m e n in der

Bolte, R i c h a r d : "Assoziationsversuche als diagnostiches Hilfsmittel," J.'s abstract, 400 b o m b ( s ) : atom, 615, 666; hydrogen, 260, 541, 630, 734; stratospheric, 603 Boniface V I I I , Pope, 99 bonitas Dei, 732, 733 Borobudur, 178 Bosch, Hieronymus, 530 Boss, M e d a r d , 347&n, 348 Bourget, P a u l : L'Etape, 88 Bousset, W i l h e l m : " D i e Himmelreise der Seele," 676 b o w l ( s ) : golden, in d r e a m of T o l e d o cathedral, 112, 113, 118, 121, 166; in schizophrenic patient's picture, 176 brain: anatomy, 376; at birth, 4 1 ; meaning of, 350; mythology, 464; w a v e ( E i n f a l l ) , 461 Braunau, 575 breaking lines, 177 Bremen, 214 Brethren of the Free Spirit, 678 Breuer, Josef, 187, 388, 5 1 5 ; on hysterical symptoms, 478

862

INDEX

Brill, A b r a h a m A., 423&n British and American Society for Psychical Research, 317 British Anthropological Society, 68 British Broadcasting Corporation, 744 British Medical Journal, 65, 664 British Museum, 67, 121 British Union of Fascists ("Black-

Bumke, Oswald: Landldufige Irrturaer in der Beurteilung von Geisteskranken, J.'s review, 383 Burckhardt, Jacob, 780 Burgholzli Mental Hospital, Zurich,

shirts"), 575 n Broglie, Louis Victor de, 33, 3471 Bronze Age, 39 brooding, 815, 816 brother and sister, hierosgamos of, 748 Brother Klaus/Nicholas von der Flue, 99&n; fast of, 660-61; vision of, 683 Browne, Leonard F., 96 Brunner, Cornelia: "Die Anima als Schicksalsproblem des Mannes," J.'s foreword, 543-47 Bruno de Jesus-Marie, Pere, J.'s letter to, 673-78; ed. Slie le prophete, 67371 Bruns, L . : Die Hysterie im Kindesalter, J.'s review, 374-75 Brunton, Charles, 94 Bubastis, 121 Buber, Martin, 681; Die Erzdhlungen der Chassidim, 675; "Reliund modernes Denken," gion 66371; J.'s reply, 663-70; Tales of the Hasidim, 675n Buchman, Frank, 739 Biichner, L u d w i g : Kraft und Stoff, 603&JI Buddha, 178, 181, 3 1 1 ; Pali Canon, 697", 739 Buddhahood, attainment of, 650 Buddhism/Buddhists, 246, 261, 262, 667, 697-99, 703; Mahayana, 739; — , mandala, 717; and suffering, 697; Zen, koans in, 234 Budge, E. A . Wallis: Egyptian Literature, 103 n Bulletin or Korrespondenzblatt der internationalen psychoanalytischen Vereinigung, 423n

353n> 3 6 i n Burgundy, Duke of, 87 Byzantine alchemy, 211 C Caesar, as god, 165, 581, 694, 695 Cahen (Cahen-Salabelle), Roland, ed. and trans., J.'s essays in L'homme a la decouverte de son ame, 3, 5898m Cairo, tombs of Khalifs in, 315 Camps, P. W. L., 130 Canaanite deities, 677 cancer/carcinoma, 321; phobia, 206, 242 candle, plunged into font, 158 Capron, E. W . : Modern Spiritualism, Its Facts and Fanaticisms, 29371 cardiac disorder, 357 Carmel: Elijah and, 674, 675, 677, 678; pagan sanctuary on, 674 Carus, C . G., 439, 515, 560, 77:, 775 Cassini, Jacques Dominique, comte de Thury, 296 ("Professor Thury") Castalia, Fountain of, 116, 117 Castel, William, 297 castration: complex, see complex s.v.; motif, 434, 436; — , teleological significance, 436; as numinous mutilation, 348; as treatment for transvestism, 347, 348 catalepsy: crimes committed in state of, 345; hypnoid, 325; psychology of, 418, 419 catastrophe, 316 catatonia: akinetic motility psychosis, 378, 382; cerebral localizations, 382; consciousness of, 371; and hypnotic states, 377 cathartic method, 378, 398, 402 cathedrals, Gothic, 114; see also Chartres; Toledo

863

Catherine of Alexandria, St., 781 Catholic Church, 246, 263; and analysis, 271; benedictio fontis, 158, 270; and cure, 273; and dogma of infallibility, 283; and H oly Spirit, 680; m arriage rite in, 157; and m eaningful life, 275; quaternity in, 712, 714; and sex­ uality, 742; and spiritualism, 294; as therapeutic institution, 162 Catholicism : J .’s reasons for not joining, 645-47; and truth, 646 Catholics, 246; less subject to neuro­ sis, 267, 269; as patients, 162 causality, 499, 500; law of, 647; re­ lativeness of, 68; W estern concept of, 655 Caux, see M oral Re-A rm am ent M ovement cave: descent into, 38, 113, 120; dragon in, 117, 120, 123; serpent in, 116-18, 123 Cecrops, 92, 118 centre: of consciousness, see ego s.v.; non-ego, 167, 173, 178 cerebrospinal system, serpent as, 91 cerebrum, origin of, 9 chakra, 578; manipura, see manipura Chalewsky, Fanny: “H eilung eines hysterischen Bellens durch Psycho­ analyse,” 400 Charcot, Jean M artin, 370, 374 charisma, faith as, 603, 646 C hartres cathedral, 115, 116 c h ild (re n ): and archetypal images, 232; born in the East, 145; and collective unconscious, 95; crimi­ nal, 96; drawings by, 516; dreams of, 40, 229, 362, 363, 368; — , archetypal, 95; ethereal, 95; -god, 688; parents make neuroses of, 133, 358, 485; -substitution, 658; uncon­ scious in, 130 childhood: early, unconscious, 8, ro; memories about, 199; and neurosis in later life, 420; sexuality in, 806 childishness, Western, 245 C hildren’s Crusades, 593

C hina/C hinese, 45, 46, 69, 148, 162; Book of Wisdom, 131; literature, 68; loss of old culture, 743; mind, 69; philosophy, 119, 516, 553 chirology, 820 Chladni, Ernst Florens Friedrich, 307&n choreic affections, hysterical, 374 C hrist/Jesus, 638; as archetype, 730, 73 b 737; astrological assimilation of, 673; beyond good and evil, 720, 721; as brother, 280; in child­ hood, 682; as complexio oppositorum, 722, 731, 737; crucifixion of, 688, 734; death of, 444; and devil/Satan, 682, 687, 689; — , as opposites, 689; and Elijah, 673, 674, 677; evil and, 723; executed w ith criminals, 97, 684; and figtree, 646; as Fish/Ichthys, 115, 157, 673; and healing the sick, 6og; as Holy Spirit, 686, 687, 689; im itatio Christi, 123, 689; as inno­ cent victim, 718, 741; as lightbringer, 671, 826; and myth of God-man, 247; nam e of, not to be m entioned, 115; opposites contained in, 731; passion of, in alchemy, and arcane substance, 591; and projections, 695, 730; the Re­ deemer, 97, 231; and Redeemer archetype, 743; resurrection of, 591, 692-96; as rider on white horse, 577; sacrifice of, 275, 276; sayings of, 122, 619; self as, 722, 725> 731—33> 737> 738 ; sources for, 732; as totality, 123; and tree, 239; and unjust steward, 727; and virgin birth, 717, 718; within, 280 C hristian: dogma, tru th of, 288; and unconscious, 262 Christianity, 703; and development of consciousness, 672; devitaliza­ tion of, 736; dualism of, 689, 6go; and end of the world, 246; eso­ teric meaning of, 267, 280; expan­ sion of, 607; H itler and, 576; im potence of, 593Sm; philosophy,

699; problem of, 127; and psychic change, 602; and R om an Im perium , 576; and technological prog­ ress, 584 C hristian Science, 341 C hristm as tree, 235, 239 C hristocentrism , 689 C h u rch : C atholic, see Catholic C hurch; fanatical sects in, 154; an d fear of G od, 683; and mass education, 603 c h u rc h (e s), robbed of m agical im ­ ages, 274 C hu rch of E ngland: H oly C om m u­ nion in, 281; a real church, 281 C hurches, Free, 283 C hu rch Fathers, 726; Greek, 231 circle: magic, 123, 178, iyg; sym bol of, 515; as symbol of “ all-round” m an, 280 circulus quad.ra.tus, 577 circum am bulatio, 178, 179 circum cision, 674 cistern, in dream , 112, 113, 119 city: as synonym for self, 122; walk round circum ference, 178 civilization, 208 C ivitas D ei, 574 clairvoyance, 295, 296, 304, 306 C laparede, E d o u a rd : “ Classification et plan des m ethodes psychologiques,” 42 m ; “Q uelques m ots sur la definition de l’hysterie,” 420η; J .’s abstract, 400 C lausura, 272 Clavis sapientiae, 799 C lem ent of R om e, 682 clergy, as directeur de conscience, 284 Cockin, F. A., 744η C ode N apoleon, 273 Codices and M S S : Bezae, 619, 720n, 727; Ju n g C odex (Evangelium V erita tis), 671 &n, 826-28, Lucca: H ild eg ard of Bingen, 516; O xford: B odleian L ibrary, Bruce 96 ( Codex B rucianus), i22&n cognitio sui ipsius, 732

cognition, 27, 186; mystic powers of, 306; mythological stage of, 435; theory of, 60 collectivity: Christian, 683; individ­ uation and, 452-54 Colonna, Francesco: H ypnerotomachia Poliphili, 474, 545, 759&n, 760Sm, 780; trans. Beroalde de Verville, Le Tableau des riches inventions, containing Recueil steganographique, 760rt, 780; see also Fierz-David1 L inda colour, as oscillations, 9 Communism, 573, 574, 579, 580, 735; an archaic pattern of life, 541 Com munist use of language, 203 Com munistic state, as substitute for God, 694, 695 com m unity: and divine experience, 725; individual and, 585-88, 739 com parative method, see m ethod s.v. com pensation: archetypal, 520; Eli­ ja h as, 677; feminine, 520; goal of, 475

com plem entarity, 472 com plex(es), 188, 515; in association experiments, 71, 353; autonomous, 73) 238, 532, 533; castration, 57, 58, 61; among Catholics, 268, 269; consciousness of, 73, 74; -constella­ tion type, 407; in demonism, 648; dream s and, 72, 82, 190, 191; ego as, see ego s.v.; father, 278, 279; feeling-toned, 376, 388, 482; as fragm entary personalities, 72, 73; incest, 58, 84, 126; -indicators, 482; inferiority, 144, 221, 222; among Jews, 268; money, 49; personal, 238; personification of, 72; power, 125-27; am ong Protestants, 268; psychic functional, and their ex­ ecutive organs, 383; psychology, 562; of representations, 388; sa­ viour, 152-55, 161; social, 238; split-off, 168; theory, 482; tor­ menting, 444 complexio oppositorum: C hrist as, 722, 73 r, 737; G od/D eity as, 682,

complexio oppositorum ( cont.): 725, 726, 737; Holy Spirit as, 689; star of David as, 716 compulsion neurosis, 128-30 conation, 27, 712 concentration camp, 5gg&«, 602; see also M aidenek conceptio im m aculata, see M ary concretism, 693; bolshevistic, 695 confession, religious, 223, 269, 271; analytical psychology and, 816; public, 242 confessionalism, 645 conflict, and neurosis, 283, 284 coniunctio oppositorum, 719 conscience: exploration of, 244; and neurosis, 616 conscious m ind: lopsidedness of, 190; in m ania, 351; narrowness of, 9, 316; onesideness of, 316 consciousness: alterations of, 302; beginning of, 133; and the “Be­ yond,” 315; clouding of, 305; col­ lective, of our tim e, 6; daw n of, 95; definition of, 11; developm ent of, I93> 658; — in Buddhism, 699; differentiation of, 156; dim m ing of, 328; dissociability of, 197; dis­ sociation of, 194, 621; eclipse of, 32, 197; ectopsychic contents of, 36; ego and, see ego s.v.; em anci­ pation of, 733; emptiness of, 371; evolution of, 522; exclusive belief in, 243; experim ental state of, 194; extension of, 259, 316; and feeling, 10; fringe of, 2 i, 205, 209, 223; functions and, see function(s) s.v.; an interm ittent phenomenon, 8; in ­ vasion of, by strange contents, 355; localization(s) of, 9, 11, 578; and loss of num inous symbols, 254, 255; lowered threshold of, 351; not the whole psyche, 262, 340; onesided­ ness of, 621; and physical world, 8, 9; in prim itives, 10, 316; psyche and, 193, 262, 340, 519; psychol­ ogy of, 7; reflective, origin of, 236; restricted/narrow , 9; subjective, en­

tanglem ent in, 262; as surface or skin, 8; and unconscious, see un­ conscious and consciousness; and union w ith “ O rthos,” 316; unity of, 72, 195; value of, 316; Western, 245

consensus: gentium , 276; omnium, 247 contagion, mental, 26, 75, 138 contam ination through m utual un­ consciousness, 141, 149 contradictio in adiecto, 714 conversion, and hysterical symptom, 431

Coptic Museum (C airo ), 826η Coptic treatise (Codex Brucianus), 122 Corbin, H enry: Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ib n ‘Arabi, 545η Correspondenz-Blatt fiir Schweizer Arzte, 37471 Cosmopolitan, 638n Cox, D avid: J .’s letters/answers to, 719-44; Jung and St. Paul, 70271 Cram er, A .: Gerichtliche Psychiatrie, J .’s review, 386 creatio continua, 721 creation: cruel aspect of, 732; of world, m yth of, 231 creed, as sym bolum , 719 C retan monuments, 185 Crichton-M iller, Hugh, I, 134, 135; H ugh Crichton-M iller, *877-^959, J .’s foreword, 639-41 crime, inner urge to, 344 c rim in al(s): children, 96; dual per­ sonality of, 343; soul of, 345; use of association tests, 49, 51, 63 criticism, higher, 740, 741 Croix de Feu, 575η Crookes, Sir W illiam , 299, 301, 306, 307, 314; “Notes of an Enquiry into the Phenom ena called Spiri­ tual, during the years 1870-73,” 300η; Quarterly Journal of Sci­ ence, 299 cross: of Christ, 683; four arms of, 123; of functions, 17; and swastika,

analogy, 576; as symbol, 244-45, 257; tree of, and arbor philosophica, 591; as union of opposites, 735; see also crucifixion C ro ttet, R o b e rt: M o n d w a ld 1 J . ’s forew ord, 782-83 crow d, em otion in, 138 crucifixion: of thieves, w ith Christ, 97; on w heel, 38-39; see also cross crypt, 115, 116 cryptom nesia, 15, 200, 201 cul de Paris, 571 c u ltu re : contem porary, pathological n a tu re of, 658; essence of, 583; F re u d ’s theory of, 479 C um ont, F ran z: T extes et m o n u ­ m ents, 676 cur a a n im a ru m / care of souls, 246 curses, C h ristian ity and, 646 C usanus, N icholas, 682, 725 C ustance, Jo h n : W isdom , M adness, and F olly, 667; J .’s forew ord, 349-352 C ybele cult, 554 C yrillic script, 188

D dagger, in dream of T o led o cath e­ d ra l, 112-13, 118, 121, 166 d aim onia, psychic, 664 d am n atio n , eternity of, 690, 693, 727 D an a, M a rth a , 692« dances, yaibichy, of N avaho, 516 D an te an d Beatrice, 545η D arshana, 265 D arw in, C harles, 213 D av e n p o rt brothers, m edium s, 299 D avie, T . M ., 133; “ C om m ents upon a C ase of ‘P eriventricular E pi­ lepsy’,” 65η d ead, retu rn of, 328 D e a d Sea, 108 d e a th : fear of, 107; as goal, 757; philosophy and, 315; p reparation for, 234, 315; spectre of, 246;

symbolic, as salvation, 735; un­ known approach of, 234 Deesse Raison, 261 deities, see god(s) Delphi, 117; oracle at, 239 delusional ideas: and archetypal motifs, 652; understanding of, 651 delusions, and mythological motifs, 354 D em ant, V. A., 704; T h e Religious Prospect, 704n dem entia praecox, see schizophrenia D em eter, 120, 12m dem iurge, Gnostic, 622 dem ocracy, 572-74, 580, 695 D em ocritus, pseudo, 270, 751 d em on( s ) : autochthonous, 5 g i; m eta­ phorical, 666; possession by, 593; psychic powers em bodied in, 587, 593; 594; 599, 601 dem onism, 648; of nature, 593 dem otivation, 370 Deo concedente, 722 depression, 32 depth psychology, 616, 811-13, 818; J .’s encyclopedia article on, 477-86 descensus ad inferos, 38 descent, double, 658 Dessoir, M ax, 341; Das D o p p el-Ich, 34m determ ination, principle of, 430 deus absconditus, 678, 680, 682 “ deus ultionum ,” 684 Devas, angel (S a n sk rit)/d ev il (Per­ sian ), 444 d evil/S atan , 680; C hrist and, see C hrist r.r1.; eternity of, 690; as fourth m em ber of quatem ity, 712, 732; as left hand of God, 682; as son of God, 687, 689, 6go, 709, 710; — , benS E lohim , 716 D harm a, 261 diagnosis, and paintings of patients, 181 dialectical discussion w ith uncon­ scious, 664, 667 diaphragm , seat of psychic activity, 10

Dicks, Henry V., 26, 168 dictator (sh ip ), 318, 580, 581 Dieterich, Albrecht, 42; Eine M ithrasliturgie, 42n differentiation, 621 Diocletian, 116 Dionysus, 117, 12m directeur de conscience, 269, 284 discontinuity, principle of, 504, 505 diseases, as disturbed norm al p ro ­ cesses, 6 disorientation, worldwide, 254 dissociability of psyche, 195, 664 dissociation, 309; between conscious and unconscious, 607; of conscious­ ness, 194, 621; in hysteria, 100; of m odern mind, 243; neurotic, 167, 209, 608, 690; in schizophrenia, see schizophrenia s.v.; worldwide, 254 divination, experiments in, 296 divining rod, 295, 296, 302 divorce rate, 582 doctor: and faith, 669; and incur­ able disease, 697; intuition in, 16; as saviour, 577; as sorcerer, 577 dogmas: as spiritual structures, 668; tru th of, 271 Dorn, G erard, 232n, 67 6n, 651; “D e transm utatione m etallorum ” in T heatrum chem icum , 676 Dost, M ax: Kurzer Abriss der Psychologie, Psychiatrie und gerichtlichen Psychiatrie, J .’s review, 384 dram a, and rebirth m otif, 525 d ream (s), 68; affects in, 364-65; of Africans, 557, 629; analyst’s, of patient, 144, 146, anticipatory, 15, 237; in antiquity, 107, 112, 236; archetypal, of children, see child­ r e n ) s.v. dream s; archetypal con­ tents of, 104, 227-43, 259; “big,” 85> i93> 484. 55¾ -books, Arabic, 556; censorship in, 366, 367; of children, see child (ren) j.y.; on collective level, h i ; com­ pensating function, n o , 207, 220, 227, 233, 608, 656, 657; and com­ plexes, see com plex(es) s.a.; com­

position, 366; condensation in, 364, 368; and context, 110, 213, 608; of convenience, 363; and creative process, 787; and diagnosis of physical disorder, 65&«, 66 (see also below organic); displacement in, 365, 368; and distortion, 84-86; -elements, 364-66; fagade, 366; fear in, 367, 368; feelings in, 364; Freud on, 361-68; functional meaning of, 187; of Germans, col­ lective, 573; in girl, w ith progres­ sive m uscular atrophy, 66; God speaks through, 262 (see also below sent by G o d ); as guardian of sleep, 222, 363, 367, 368; histori­ cal, 110; -images, 187, igr, 204, 206, 222, 228, 363, 366; —, con­ text of, 213, 220, 227; and im ­ m ortality, 288; instigator, 365; is its own interpretation, 83, 248, language of, 203-15, 227, 279, 285; and language of nature, 255; latent and manifest content, 362-65, 368; in later stages of analyses, 104; localized “down below,” 11; mean­ ing of, 657; -motifs, 207, 210, 231; mythological, i n ; of Negroes, 37, 38, 40; new thoughts in, 198; and “nothing b u t” explanation, 192; obsessive, 227; organic representa­ tions in, 66 (see also above and diagnosis) ; of personal exaltation, 224; picture-language of, 204; precatastrophal, 475; of primitives, see prim itive(s) s.n.; and prognos­ tication of the future, 236, 237; and recollection of prehistoric world, 258; recurrent, 210, 211, 227; re­ ligious meaning of, 700, 701; re­ placed by objectivation of images, 172; repression in, 366, 367; scene changes in, 90; and self­ regulating psychic system, 110; “sent by God ”/som nia a Deo missa, 193, 263, 286 (see also above God speaks through); -series, 40, 78, 174-76, 229, 236; sexual allu-

sions in, 249; significance of, 185— 95,· as source of n a tu ra l symbols, 217; -statem ent, m anifest, 190; as statem ents ab o u t the unconscious, 313; sublim inal, 210, 222, 223; sym bols/sym bolism in, 40, 186, 190, 223, 248, 653; sym bol-produc­ ing fu n ctio n of, 257; teleological explanation of, 368; telepathic, 656; theories of, 361; -thought, 364, 367, 656; in transference, 148; tw o aspects of, 259; universal lan­ guage in, h i ; w aking, 367; wish-, 3^31 367; w ish-fulfilm ent theory, 188, 479; -work, 362, 365, 366 d rea m -a n aly sis/in terp retatio n , 6, 40, 77-96, 814, 815; and archetypal im age, 102; before F reud, 190; and causal-reductive m ethod, 478; com ­ plexes in, 73; as confrontation of two m inds, 217; an d feelings, 364, 365; in co m p eten t application of, 210; an d individuality of dream er, 250; in te rp re tatio n of one’s own dream s, 109; intricacies of, 7; and intuitive attitu d e , 547; and m utual d ream of in te rp re te r and dream er, 251; and self-awareness of in ter­ p reter, 250; an d types problem , Q16-43 d ream s: instances (in order of ap ­ pearan ce in th e te x t) : N egro’s, of m an crucified on wheel, 38; lubri­ catin g m achinery, and drainage of pond, w ith m astodon, 65¾, 66; p a ­ tien t w earing black coat, in sm all Swiss village, w ith form er class­ m ates, 79; d rea m er is late for a conference, an d misses his train looking for his portfolio— the train is derailed, 79-81; a peasant w om an is told of a great w alk p lan n ed — a m onstrous crab-lizard ap p ears an d is killed, 8 6 /; a rolling w heel w hich burns (5-year-old’s d re a m ), 94; beetle th a t pinches (5year-old’s d re a m ), 94, 95; Arche869

laos’, of oxen eating ears of wheat, 108; G laphyra’s, of m urdered hus­ band, 10 8 - iog; N ebuchadnezzar’s, of hewn tree, 109; R om an senator’s daughter’s, of M inerva, 111; Soph­ ocles’, of Herakles’ vessel, h i , 112; cistern beneath Toledo cathedral, w ith serpent guarding golden bowl, 112-15, 117—r9> 122, 123, 166; J . ’s, of devalued patient as woman in castle tower, 146; custom-house a t frontier (three dream s), 150; M r X tries to jum p on dream er’s back (J .’s own d ream ), 204; p rej­ udiced and stubborn woman is in­ vited into a cowshed, 207; stepping off a m ountain into the air, 207; discovery of wing or guest house containing old library (J .’s own d re a m ), 211; A house w ith histori­ cal layers with prehistoric tomb be­ neath the lowest (J .’s own d ream ), 213-15; m an w ith exalted opinion of himself dream s of drunken tram ps, 221; intelligent w om an’s dream of dishonest intriguer as “sister” or shadow, 221; the lead­ ing horseman clears a ditch and his com panions fall in (dream t by two separate patients, one young, one o ld ), 225; eight-year old girl’s series of “uncanny” dreams, 229-34, 239; related by Artemidorus of D aldis, of m an who dream t his fath er died in flames, 237; patien t’s dream th at ill doc­ tor perished in a great fire, 237; Jas size of a god, in cornfield, hold­ ing patient in his arms, 278; J .’s dream of pretty girl w ith father complex, 278; dream er (J. himself) is a small m an w ith a beard, with no glasses, and is no longer young, 443; A frican chief’s dream of cow and calf, 556, 557; eagle circling over concentration cam p, 677n; dy­ ing m an ’s, of his own sarcophagus,

758

INDEX Dreyfus, — , M . D . , 385 D r o m a r d , G.; " D e la dissociation de la m i m i q u e chez les alienes," 42 m drugs, 598 Druses, 674, 678 d u a l i s m : and Christianity, 709, 7 3 1 ; M a n i c h a e a n , 726 Dubois, Paul, 214, 4311," Die Einbildung als Krankheitsursache, J.'s review, 380 D u c e , the ( M u s s o l i n i ) , 165 Dudu and Suleika (Nietzsche), 546&n D u k e University, 313 D u m a s , G . : " Q u ' e s t - c e que la psychologie p a t h o l o g i q u e ? , " 421 n D u n s Scotus, Johannes: Super universalibus Porphyrii, 9n duree creatrice (Bergson), 121 Diirr, — , Prof., 333 Dussaud, R e n e : Notes du mythologie syrienne, 67671 duty, conflict of, 620 dyad, Persian deity as, 7 1 5

E E a s t / E a s t e r n / O r i e n t a l , 173; aim of detachment, 166; European's f e a r of, 530; and G o l d e n A g e , 245; m a n d a l a in, 123, 178; m i n d , 69, 233- philosophy(-ies), 69, 95, 232; religions, 213, 232; symbolism, 67; — , of greeting, 20; therapy, 103; thinking, 68; w h i t e m a n in, 145; w i l l to p o w e r of, 244 East and W e s t : m i n d of, 68-69; psychology of, 654, 655 Easter, 158; coloured eggs at, 235 Eberschweiler, A . : " U n t e r s u c h u n g e n iiber die sprachliche K o m p o n e n t e der Assoziation," J.'s abstract, 401 echolalia, 377 E c k h a r t , Meister, 280, 600; trans. C . de B . Evans, 6oon eclecticism, 669 ecstasy, 304

Works,

Ecstatic Virgins of the Tyrol, The / Die Tyroler ekstatischen Jungfrauen . . . ( a n o n . ) , 2 g 5 & « ectoplasm, 660 ectopsyche, 12, 43 educated m a n as leader of the people, 603 education: Christian, 602&n; for f u l l e r consciousness, 605 Edwards, H . M . , 287 e g o : is centre of consciousness, n ; is a c o m p l e x , 1 1 ; - c o m p l e x , 43, 45, 72, 73; -consciousness, 621; — , in demonism, 648; consciousness and, 8, 1 1 ; constituents of, 1 1 ; and cross of functions, 17; dark side of, 22; in Freud's theory, 480; -personality, 202; realization of, 8; shadowworld of, 23; and unconscious, 1 5 9 60, 664 egocentricity and meditation, 8 1 7 egotism, 612 E g y p t / E g y p t i a n s , rog; cat sculpture, 142; Christianity in, 69471; Essene sect in, 108; Horus, see Horus; Isis mysteries in, see Isis s.v.; and snake-bite, treatment for, 102, 103; symbolism, 173; temples, 157 Ehrenfels, Christian v o n : Grundbegriffe der Ethik, J.'s review, 383; Sexualethik, J.'s review, 384 Eid, Albert, Estate, 82671 Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule, see Z u r i c h s.v. Einfall, 15, 172 Einstein, Albert, 67, 49971 Electra c o m p l e x , 535 electrocardiogram experiments, 2gn electrons, 3471 El-Elyon, 677 Eleusinian mysteries, 239, 270 Eleusis, 120 Elgonyi tribe, East A f r i c a , 240, 554; and dreams, 192, 286; and selelteni (ghosts), 318; sun worship of, 240 Eliade, M i r c e a , 253, 529; Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy, 253 n

870

E lijah: in alchemy, 676&rc; as angel, 674, 675; ascension of, 676; and Elisha, 673, 674; as “hairy” man, 673; as m ythical/archetypal figure, 673-78; two souls of, 674; walking on water, 673 Elimelekh of Lizhensk: “Elijah,” 675 n Ellenberger, H enri F.: The Discovery of the Unconscious, 374η, 427η Ellis, Havelock, 380 Em m erich, K atherina, 295 em otion(s), 23-26; contagious, 138 (see also contagion); and feeling, differentiated, 26, 27, 29, 219; Ossianic, 294; overwhelming, 138; of patients, 140; and symbol, 249 empiricism, 463; J .’s, 666-68; and philosophy, 770, 771 enantiodrom ia, 711 Encyclopedia Hebraica, 75in Encyclopedia of Islam , 676 Encyclopedia Judaica, 675 endogamy, 486 endopsyche, Γ2, 43 energetics of adaptation, 450 energic conception of psyche, 314 energic tension, 222 energy: emotional, of numinous phe­ nom ena, 254; and opposites, 727; and psyche, relation, 385; psychic, 459; specific, of functions, 16 engineers, and philosophy, 615 England, 13, 14, 41, 49, 130, 161, 185; theosophy in, 554 England, Canon H., 281, 283 Enkidu, see Babylon s.v. Gilgamesh Epic Enlightenm ent, 595 Ennemoser, Joseph, 340&71 Enoch: and Elijah, 675; and Ilyas, 676 Epidaurus, 116 epidem ic, psychic/m ental, 46, 290, 485, 590, 604, 659; demonism as, 648; and insanity, 607 epilepsy: prodrom al symptoms of,

95; as repression of criminal in­ stinct, 344 Epiphanius, St., 714; Panarium, 653n Eranos-Jahrbuch, 28571 Eranos lectures/Tagung, 67n, 529 Erechtheus, 118 Eschenmayer, K arl August, 340&71 Eschle, Franz C. R.: Grundziige der Psychiatrie, J .’s review, 379-80 Eskimos, Polar, 286 Essenes, 108 E.T.H., see Zurich s.v. Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule e th ic (s): differentiation of, 620; “new,” 619, 622; “old,” 618-20 ethical problem, 617, 618; and psy­ chology, 616, 617 etymology (-ies): archetype, 228η; “invent,” 239 Europe: history of, 81; a peninsula of Asia, 67 Evangelium Veritatis, see Codices and M SS: Jung Codex Evans, E lida: The Problem of the Nervous Child, J.’s foreword, 805-6 Evans-Wentz, W. Y.: The Tibetan Book of the Dead, 9571 Eve, “hidden in the body,” i8g evil: as non-existence, 709, 726; as positive factor, 708 Exercitia Spiritualia, see Ignatius Loyola existence, criterion of, 703 existentialism, 347 exogamy of our culture, 486 expiation for guilt of individuation, 45 L 453 extra ecclesiam, 276; nulla salus, 284 extra-sensory perception (E SP): ex­ periments, 504; phenomena and archetypes, 500 extraversion, 483, 534; types, 217 Ezekiel, vision of, 185, 205

F fairytales, 38, i n , 230, 649, 657; J. s foreword to “The Tale of the O tter,” 762-64 S7 I

INDEX faith, 683; charisma of, 646; and consolation, 698; knowledge by, 668; and projection, 723, 730; and thought, 254 f a m i l y (-ies) : murder, 386; research into, 74; romance, 480 fanaticism, 154, 600 fantasy ( - i e s ) : and active imagination, differentiated, 1 7 1 ; creative, 212; localized " d o w n b e l o w , " 1 1 ; positive aspect of, 527 Fascism, 164, 165, 574, 579, 580 fasting of Brother K l a u s , 660, 661 fate, dreams and, 657 father: c o m p l e x , see c o m p l e x ( e s ) ; doctor as, 5 7 7 ; fixation, 277; -image, and group formations, 570; — projection of, 159-60, 277, 5 7 7 ; -transference, 160, 277 Father: of A l l , 255; " d e v o i d of consciousness" (in G n o s t i c i s m ) , 653; paradoxical nature of, 688, 690; Sun, 247, 274, 288 Faust, see Goethe Fechner, T h e o d o r , 477 "fedeli d ' a m o r e , " 545 Federal Polytechnic, see Z u r i c h s.v. Eidgenossische T e c h n i s c h e H o c h schule feeling(s) : and affects, 26, 2 i g ; emotion and, see emotion s.v.-, f u n c tion, 1 2 - 1 4 , 1 6 - 1 7 , 43. 48, 88; — , of evaluation/value, 25, 30, 2ig; — , rational, 29, 219; lesion of, 3 5 7 ; type, 18, 26, 1 3 9 - 4 ° ; -values, 13, 17 f e e l i n g - t o n e ( d ) , 13; and idea, 608 feeling-toned complex, 376, 405, 4 7 1 ;; repressed, 388, 482 felix culpa, 7 1 0 Feminine, Eternal, 106 feminine psychology, 808 fertility of the earth, 120-21 Fichte, J. H., 771 Fierz, Jiirg, 6i6ra Fierz, M a r k u s : J.'s letters to, synchronicity, 5 0 2 - 7 Fierz-David, L i n d a : The Dream

onL

Poliphilo, 474, 54572, 76071; J.'s foreword, 75971, 780-81 filioque clause, 687 filius macrocosmi, 722, 742 filius philosophorum, 722 fire and water, in star of D a v i d , F l a m m a r i o n , C a m i l l e , 314 Flinker, M a r t i n , 78971; Almanac, 78gn Flournoy, Theodore, 471, 515; " A u t o m a t i s m e t^leologique antisuicide," 420; Des Indes a la Plankte Mars, J.'s abstract, 401; " N o u v e l l e s observations sur un cas de somnambulisme avec glossolaiie," J.'s abstract, 401 flower(s), 5 9 1 ; blue, 775 F l u d d , Robert, polemics with K e p l e r , 473 flying saucers, see U f o s Folia neuro-biologica, 420&W fonction du reel, see Janet F o r d h a m , F r i e d a : Introduction to Jung's Psychology, J.'s foreword, 489-90 F o r d h a m , M i c h a e l , 506; J.'s letter to, on synchronicity, 508-9; New Developments in Analytical Psychology> J-' s foreword, 4 9 1 - 9 3 Forel, August(e) Henri, 34 i & i , 387&71; Ethische und rechtliche Konflikte im Sexualleben in- und ausserhalb der Ehe, J.'s review, 387 forgetting, definition of, 198 Forster-Nietzsche, Elizabeth, 201 Foucart, P. F . : Les Mysteres d'Eleusis, 12 in f o u r : corners, in child's dream, 229, 232; dimensions, 28, 58-59 F o x f a m i l y , Hydesville ( N e w Y o r k ) , 293 F r a n c e / F r e n c h , 52, 579; and Germ a n y / G e r m a n s , 46, 47, 48; language, 14, 219; psychologists, 9, 12, 138, 143 France,

Anatole,

394;

land, 337n, 781; The

of

394n 872

Penguin White

IsStone,

INDEX Francis of Assisi, St., gg Franco, Francisco, 5 8 i & n Frank, L u d w i g : " Z u r Psychoanalyse," J.'s abstract, 402-3 F r a n k f u r t a. M . , Saalburg near, 117 Franz, Marie-Louise von, 183, 474&71, 82571 Frazer, Sir James G . : The Golden. Bough, 561, 562 Frederick the Great, clock of, 211 free association, see association(s) s.v. freedom, 580, 581; as emotion, 310, 311 Freeman, John, 183 Frei, G e b h a r d , 475; Probleme der Parapsychologie: Gesammelte Aufsatze, 47571 Freia, 444 frequency, 314, 3 1 5 Freud, Sigmund, 6, 132, 199, 337, 342, 354; 3 8 o > 38I, 392; 471, 5 1 7 , 534. 773; and A d l e r , 125-26, 127; on ambivalence in language, 443; J.'s answers to questions on, 43840; on archaic remnants, 206, 227, 535; biological point of view, 440; on castration complex, 6r; causalreductive m e t h o d of, 481; and causes of psychosis, 381; on censor, 222, 366, 367, 479, 480; on counter transference, 140; credulity of, 440; on death-instinct, 479; on determination, 430; on dream-interpretation, 84, 85, 187, 377; on egoideal, 480; on ego-instinct, 479; on hysteria, 369, 372, 375, 381, 388; on Id, 61, 62, 128, 131, 480; on incest-wish, 91; and instincts, 658; on introverted type, 218; and Jung: analysis of Jung's dream, 2 1 3 - 1 5 ; — , collaboration, 125, 354; — , loss of friendship, 214; — , disagreement, 125, 483; on Leonardo da V i n c i , 658; materialism of, 440; and memories, 258; negative, reductive attitude of, 479; neurosis theory of, 425, 652; and "nothing b u t " explanation, 277, 479; and ob-

jective side, 160; on obsessional neurosis, 388; on Oedipus complex, 535> 658; one-sidedness of his views, 438; on pleasure principle, 479; on pre-conscious, 57; on primitive mind, 562; and psychoanalysis, 478; psychology, 126; and religion, 635; on repression, 188, 478, 479; scientific materialism of, 479; sectarianism of, 523; and sex, exclusive interest, 215; and shadow, 828; static view of, 62; on subconscious, 377; on super-ego, 480; three-dimensional, 59; totem and taboo theory, 440; on transference, 136, 141, 151, 544; on unconscious, 10, 61, 62, 124, 127, 128, 263, 515 WORKS: "Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis," 42871; "Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria," 38271; The Freud/Jung Letters, see Jung: WORKS; The Interpretation of Dreams, 354, 3 6 m ; "Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis," 433 n ; " O n Dreams," 36171; J.'s report, 361-68; " A n Outline of Psychoanalysis," 53571; preface to Stekel, Nervose Angstzustande und ihre Behandlung, 39072; (with Breuer) Studies on Hysteria, 378&n, 430; " T h r e e Essays on the Theory of Sexuality," 38271; Totem and Taboo, 562; Uber Psychoanalyse, 428; Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens, J.'s review, 381-82 Freudlicher, — , 29 Freundlich, Jakob: Deutsches Archiv fur klinische Medizin, 2971 Frey-Rohn, Liliane, 495 Fribourg, Bishop of, 270 Frobenius, Leo, 476 Froboese-Thiele, Felicia: Traurne— eine Quelle religioser Erfahrung, J.'s foreword, 700-701 Fromm, Erich, 63471, 702, 703; Psychoanalysis and Religion, 70271 Fiihrer, see Hitler function(s):

873

collective,

453;

con-

f u n c tio n (s ) ( c o n t.) : scious, su b jectiv e c o m p o n e n ts of, 22; in consciousness, 12, 36; cross of, 17; d iffe re n tia te d , 351; ecto p sy ch ic, 12; e n d o p sy c h ic , 2 r , 22, 37; fo u r, 28, 43, 57, 9 7 -9 8 , 122, 483, 712; in fe rio r, 1 9 -2 1 , 98, 732; psy­ ch o lo g ical, 16; ra tio n a l, 13; o f re ­ ligious sym bols, 2 4 4 -5 2 ; su b je c tiv e c o m p o n e n ts of, 43; th in k in g , 1 2 14, 16, 17, 43, 219; -ty p es, fo u r, 219. 471, 5 3 4 F iirst, E m m a : “ S ta tistisc h e U n te rsu c h u n g e n iib er W o rta sso z ia tio n e n ,” J . ’s a b s tra c t, 4 1 0 - ix F iirth , first G e rm a n ra ilw a y to , 308η fu tu re : h isto ric , 281; u n co n scio u s c o n c e rn w ith , 236

G G am e, M a rg a re t, 3, 4 G a n se r’s sy m p to m , 415, 4 1 6 gas, poison, 567 G a u l, 108 G a y o t d e P ita v a l, F ra n g o is, 397& n G e b e r (J a b i r ib n H a y y a n ) 747 G e m iltlic h k e it, 48 g en itals, su sp en sio n by, 445, 446 G eorge, S t., 676 G e r m a n y /G e r m a n ( s ) , 4 8 , 161, 164, 5 % 5 7 3 , 5 7 4 . 5 9 6 = 5 9 7 , 600; a n d collectiv e g u ilt, 715; F ra n c e a n d , see F ra n c e s.v.; in fe rio rity c o m p le x of, 604, 605, 607; la n g u ag e , 14, 15, 30, 87, 136, 176; n a tio n a l c h a ra c ­ te r of, 603; N azis in, see N azism ; p h ilo so p h y , 62; a n d p re ju d ic e , 241; p rim itiv ity of, 254; psy ch o lo g y , see psy ch o lo g y s.v.; se n tim e n ta lity of, 4 7 , 152; so u th e rn , 121; S.S. in , 580, 601; a n d tr ia d ic m a n d a la s, 715; see also N a tio n a l S o cialism G erry , Peggy, 692η G erster, G eo rg , 626η g hosts, 319, 328; e x p la n a tio n of, 326; p rim itiv e fe a r of, 318, 319; sel-

e lte n i, E lg o n y i a n d , 318; stories, 318, 319, 3 2 6 -2 8 ; as sym bol, 328 G ilb e rt, J . A llen , 7 6 7n; “ T h e C u rse o f In te lle c t” (u n p u b lis h e d ) , J . ’s p re fa ce , 767 G ilg am esh , see B ab y lo n s.v. G ilg am esh E p ic G illi, G e r tr u d : D e r d u n k le B ru d e r, J . ’s fo rew o rd , 7 7 6 -7 8 ; “ C . G . J u n g in se in e r H a n d s c h rift,” 776n G la p h y ra , i o o - x o i G la u b e r, J o h a n n : D e E lia A rtista , 676 G lo v e r, A .S.B ., 589η , 673η, 679η G lo v e r, E d w a r d : F re u d or J u n g , 706 gnosis, 730; of e m p iric a l m e th o d , 669 G n o siu s, D o m in ic u s : H e r m e tis T rism e g is ti T ra c ta tu s vere A u re u s de L a p id e p h ilo so p h ic i secreto , 189/1 G n o sticism , 280, 621, 6 5 1 -5 3 , 663; a n d a ssim ilatio n , 672, 827; a n d c o l­ lec tiv e u n co n scio u s, 652, 664; a n d evil, 727; fa th e r in , “ d e v o id o f c o n ­ sciousness,” 653; a n d H o ly G h o st as fe m in in e , 99 ; in J o h n ’s G o sp el, 652, 686, 727; J u n g c o n sid e re d as, 663, 664, 666, 727, 728, 730; m o ­ ra lity , 720; “p h ilo so p h o u m e n a ” of, 668; p sy ch o lo g ical sig n ifican ce of, 67Γ, 8 2 6 -2 8 ; a n d sh a d o w (o f C h r is t) , c u t off, 716, 722 G o clen iu s, R o d o lp h u s : U ra n o sco p ia e, ch iro sco p ia e, m e to p o sco p ia e, 820& n G o d : as B eg etter, 156; b e lie f in , J u n g ’s ow n, 706; c h ild of, 279; c o m p e n sa tin g , 678; as c o m p le x io o p p o sito ru m , see c o m p le x io o p p o sito ru m ; d e v il a n d , see d ev il s.v.; evil p rin c ip le in , 709, 710, 712, 713, 723; fe a r of, 206, 279; fe m i­ n in e c o u n te rp a rt, 733; a n d G o d ­ h e a d , 715; h e lp o f th e lo n ely , 286; in c a rn a tio n of, 687; m e ta p h y sic a l, 668; o f O ld a n d N ew T e s ta m e n ts , 679, 680, 729; th e o n e w h o m a d e th e su n (S t. A u g u stin e ), 10, 288; p n e u m a of, 689; self as, 621; sp eak s

INDEX

through dreams and visions, 262, 263; as summum bonum, 688, 726, 733> 736> 737; a symbol of symbols, 283; is terrible, 289; two aspects/ambivalence/paradox of, 682-84, 686, 688, 690, 691, 709, 710, 740, 741; two sons of, 689; as unknown primal cause, 646; will of, 719, 720, 724, 725, 737 g o d ( s ) : dying, 239; — , and resurrected, 694; psychopompic, 122; of Spring, sacrifice of, 446; sun-, 121; turned into philosophical ideas, 316; unconscious need for, 278 god-almightiness, 728 Godet, E., see Jung: WORKS S.V. Phenomenes occultes godfather and godmother, 156, 157 Godhead, priest in, 274 God-image, 706; amoral, 743; archaic, 155; archetypal, 659, 667, 743; as autonomous psychic content, 666; evolution of, 741; in man, 690; as symbol of the self, 659; two sides of, 682; in the unconscious, 669 Godlikeness, 646 god-man, 238, 239, 247; Christ as, 693, 695; disappearance of, into unconscious, 261 Goerwitz, E. F., see under Kant, I. Goethe, J. W. von, 30; Egmont, Klarchen's song, 44671; Faust, 241, 318, 546, 58771; — , Aegean festival, 748, 749; — , and alchemy, 74850; — , axiom of Maria in, 749; — , Mephistopheles, 748, 749 gold, 118 Goldbrunner, Josef, 707, 708; viduation, 707 Golden Age, 245;

Indi-

good and evil, 620, 689, 708, 709, 716, 731; beyond good and evil, 731; — , Christ as, see Christ; in quaternity, 717; relative, 717, 733 good and ousia, identification, 709

goodness, an individual acquisition, 601 Gorres, Johan Joseph von, 294; Die christliche Mystik, 294; Emanuel Swedenborg, seine Visionen und sein Verhaltnis zur Kirche, 294 gospel, everlasting/evangelium aeternum, 688&n "Gospel of T r u t h " (Gnostic), 671, 826 Graham, Billy, 63871 Grail, Holy, 678, 742, 798; and spear, 118, 120 graphology, 77 Gray, Sidney, 3 Great War, 46, 69, 163 Greece/Greek: essence and spirit of, 239; gods, 248; language, 82; medicine in, 103; mythology, 40, 118, 472; philosophy, 214 greed: egotism and, 612 Grenfell, Bernard P., and Arthur S. Hunt: N e w Sayings of Jesus and Fragment of a Lost Gospel, 122n Grimm brothers (Jacob, W i l h e l m ) : Fairy Tales, 103 Groddeck, Georg, 480 group ( s ) : formations, 570, 571; and psychotherapeutic method, 609, 610 Guild of Pastoral Psychology (London), 265 Guillaume de Digulleville, 99; Pelerinage de I'ame de Jesus Christ, 99 guilt, in individuation, 451, 453 Gurney, Edmund, F.W.H. Myers, and Frank Podmore: Phantasms of the Living, 296 H Hades, 109 Hadfield, J. A., 1, 25, 36, 169 Haggard, H. Rider: anima motif in,

545> 54 ; 6

S h e

>

2 0 I

> 545> 5 4

6

Hall, G. Stanley, 172 hallucinations, 298, 389, 461; hypnagogic, 325; olfactory, 321, 326; verbal, 312; see also voices

875

INDEX

Haloa festival, 12in Hamelin, Pied Piper of, 593 hands, and character, 820 Hans, Clever, 377&n Harding, M . Esther, 474; Psychic Energy, J.'s foreword, 469-70; The Way of All Women, 474n; — , J.'s foreword, 807-10; Woman's Mysteries, 47471; — , J.'s foreword, 5 1 8 20 Harling, Ann, 283 Harrison, Jane E.: Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, 12 m Hartenberg, P.: "Principe d'une physiognomic scientifique," 42 m Hartmann, Eduard von, 62, 439, 560, 771; on "divine Absolute," 477, 515 Harvard Psychological Clinic, 26971 Harvard University, 5648m Hasidic, 279, 675 Hastings, James: Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, 648 Hauffe, Friederike, clairvoyante of Prevorst, 294, 295 haunted house, 320-26, 328 Havet, J., 60671 head, abstract existence of, 310 healing the "split," 253-64 heart: and memory, 310; thinking in, 10 hebephrenic fantasies, 389 Hecate, 122 Hegel, G.W.F., 515, 772 Helena, and Simon Magus, 545 Helios, and Elias/Elijah, 674 hellebore, lapis as, 722 Hellpach, Willy: Grundlinien einer Psychologie der Hysterie, J.'s review, 369-73 Helsdingen, R . J. van: "Beelden uit het onbewuste," J.'s foreword, 530, 53i Helvetius: "Vitulus aureus," in Musaeum hermeticum, 676 Hendy, B. D., 33 Hephaestus, 749

Heraclitus, on enantiodromia, 711 Herakles, 112 heresy, 669 heretics, religious geniuses as, 684 Hermann, — : "Gefiihlsbetonte K o m plexe in Seelenleben des Kindes, im Alltagsleben und im Wahnsinn," J.'s abstract, 403 Hermas: The Shepherd, 115, 116 Hermes Trismegistus: as idris, 676; Tractatus aureus, 286 Hermetic philosophy, 232, 672, 690, 75 1 j 828 hero: as archetype, 232; and conquest of death, 694; -dragon conflict, 105, h i , 231, 238; and dual mother motif, 658; identical with dragon, 92; identification with, 238; motif, 38, gr, g2; myth, 102, 238 Herod the Great, 777 Herodotus, 121&71 Herrnhuter Briidergemeinde, 68in hetaira, transformation into, 674, 677 Heyer, Gustav R., 517, 773; The Organism of the Mind, iqju; Der Organismus der Seele, 794; •—, J.'s review, 793; Praktische Seelenheilkunde, J.'s review, 794-96 Heyer, Lucy, 796 hierosgamos: 120, 121M; of Homunculus and Galatea, 749; of Spiritus Sanctus and baptismal water, 158 Hilarius, 296 Hildegard of Bingen: Codex Lucca, 516; visions of, 516 Hillman, James, ed.: Studies in Jungian Thought, 48771 Himalayas, 153 Hindu(-ism), 97, 185, 667; lingam, 249, 250; literature, 67, 68; psychology, 11 Hippolytus, 730, 827; Elenchos, 65371, 671, 827 Hitler, Adolf/the Fiihrer, 544, 576, 578, 595, 596, 602, 604, 605; as hysteric, 596, 604; as incarnation,

876

575; like M oham m ed, 281; and pseudologia phantastica, 604; psy­ chological effect of, 607 H itlerism , 164 H itschm ann, E d u a rd : Freuds N eurosenlehre, J , ’s review, 422 H oare, Sir Sam uel, later V iscount T em plew ood, 576&n H oche, A lfred E., 386; H and b u ch der gerichtlichen P sychiatrie, 386n H offm an, M ichael L., 438&n H offm ann, E rnst T h eo d o r W ilhelm : “T h e G olden P o t,” 327&n, 525Stn H oly C om m union, 273, 281 H oly G h o st/S p irit, 679-91; as C h rist’s father, see C hrist s.v.; as com plexio oppositorum , 689; as fem inine, in G nosticism , 99; iden­ tification w ith, 735; invocation of, 681; as psychic experience, 690; as revolutionary, 685; as transcen­ dental fact, 682; two aspects of, 685; an d union of gpposites, 68g, 691 H oly R o m an E m pire, 576 H om e, M r., spiritualistic m edium , 299, 300 H om eric age, 10 hom o interior, C hrist as, 695 hom o sapiens, 215 hom osexuality and law in G erm any, 382 H onegger, Jo h an n Jakob, 426¾/!. H opkins, W ., 289, 2go H orst, G eorg C onrad, 340&n H orton, — , 680, 685, 686 H orus, 185; four sons of, 717, 732 Hosea, 685, 720, 724 H ottentots, 158 Howe, E ric G raham , 27, 28, 58-60, 62 H ubert, H enri, and M . M a u ss: M elanges d’histoire des religions, 38&n H ull, R .F.C ., 183, 449η h um an m ind, m edical ap p ro ach to,

hum anities and psychology of n eu ro ­ ses, 357 H um baba, see Babylon s.v. G ilgam esh Epic H um e, D avid, 772 H ungarian uprising, 636 H unt, A rth u r S., see under G ren­ fell, B. P. H uxley, Aldous, 638« hydrogen bom b, see b o m b (s) hygiene, psychic, 310 H yious tou a n th ro p o u /S o n of M an, 828 H yliaster, see Paracelsus hypnosis, 295, 303, 379; m ovem ent, 377; an d rap p o rt, 143, 144; and suggestion m ethod, 699 hypnotic: m ethods of treatm en t, 215, 378; sleep, 379 hypnotism , 339, 340, 515; forensic significance of, 378; form s and techniques of, 377; mass, 601 hypothesis, fu lfilm en t/liv in g of, 280, 281 hysteria, 58; aetiology, 374; anaes­ thesia in, 388; an d association tests, 353; in childhood, 374; com plex in, 410; differential diagnosis, 374; dissociation in, 100; am ong m edium s, 302; a “ m etaphysical problem ,” 465; psychic sym ptom s in, 374; psychogenesis, 374, 388; psychology of, 369; riddle of, 369; root phenom ena of, 372; sexual tra u m a theory, 478; sociological an d historical aspects, 372; theory, 370; treatm en t for, 375 hysterical: anaesthesia, 187; choreic affections, 374; disturbance of sensation, 371; hyperaesthesias, 371; intellect, 371; pain, 27; painapraxia, 371; paralysis, 371, 374; psychogenesis of sym ptom , 388, 478 hysterics: analysis of, 430, 431; and lies, 197; spontaneous phenom ena in, 303

I Ia m b lic h u s: V ita Pythagorica1 674 Ibsen, H en rik : L a d y fro m the Sea, 159

I C hing1 trans. W ilhelm /B aynes, 69n Ichthys/fish, C hrist as, see C hrist icons, 181 “ Id ,” see F reu d s.u. id e a ( s ) : association of, 354; as en­ tity, 3°9; fligh t of, 3 5 1; as golden vessels, 310; m ythological, essen­ tially real, 309; as phenom enon, 309; symbolic, 248, 249; uncon­ scious, 303; universal, 309-11 identity, psychic, ig4& n, 205 idols, reason for, 181 Idris, 676 Ig natius L oyola: E xercitia Spiritualia, 681, 686, 707&«; vision of serpens oculatus, 683 im a g e( s ) : parental, 156, 157, 159; p rim ordial, 39, 228 im agination: active, see active im ag­ ination; a priori categories of, 38; pathological effects of, 380 Im a g o : Z eitsch rift fiir A n w en d u n g der Psychoanalyse auf die Geisteswissenschaften, 425n im itatio C hristi1 see C h rist/Jesu s s.u. im itation, 452, 453 “im itative illnesses,” 377 im m ortality, 288, 309, 310; m agic herb of, 107; psychology of belief in, 309; and realization of self, 694; of soul, 319 im ps, com plexes as, 532 incarnation, 669; further, 734; in­ com pleteness of, 729, 734; and in­ dividuation, 719; as integration of unconscious, 736 incest: com plex, see com plex s.u.; am ong H ottentots, 158; wish, 91, 94 In d ia, 45, 68; castes in, 157; and loss of old culture, 743; perform ance of rites in, 273; see also H in d u (-ism ) In d ia n Journal of Psychotherapy, J . ’s forew ord, 801

indiv id u al: change to goodness in, 601, 602; collectivization of, 216; an d group form ation, 571; need for change in, 261 individuality, 453, 493 individuation, 123, 366, 351, 618, 675, 690, 701, 705; and a d a p ta ­ tion, 451, 452; an d collectivity, 452-54; a d ialectical process, 665; drive to, 505; g u ilt in, 451, 452; inescapable, 727; in terp retatio n of symbols in, 259; as life in G od, 719; and problem of opposites, 493; as sa lv atio n /red em p tio n , 736; union of conscious an d unconscious in, 622 Indom alaysia, 530 In d ra , 443 infans m ercurialis, 591 infection, m oral and m ental, 245 inflation, 573; psychotherapist and,

154 influx divinus, 735 in itia tio n ( s ) : an d baptism , 116, 156; doctrines tau g h t at, 233, 234; rites, 157 insanity, 337, 350, 379; see also psychosis; schizophrenia insight, scientific, 544 insom nia, J . ’s own, 322, 323 in s tin c t(s ): anim al, 234; atrophy of, 659; language of, 209; loss of, 658; lost contact w ith consciousness,

244 In stitu te of M ed ical Psychology (T h e T avistock C lin ic ), J . ’s lec­ tures to, 3, 566η insulation, autoerotic, 149 integration: ethical aspect of, 621; of personality, 617; of unconscious contents, 606, 613, 618 intellect: incapable of und erstan d in g ritu al, 271; m urderous, 279; and neurosis, 284 in te lle c tu a l(s), 328; ratio n alist, 262 intelligence testing, 384 intercessio: divina, 157; sacerdotis,

*57

INDEX

International Congress for Psychiatry, Amsterdam, 1907, J.'s report, 404-5_ International Journal of Parapsychology, 510 International Psychoanalytic Association, 423&n, 606n interpretation, and emotional value, 260 introjection, 725 introspection, 241 introversion, 38, 217, 483, 534; in dementia praecox, 417, 418 intuition, 14-16, 43, 56; as fourth dimension, 28; and interpretation of symbols, 251; irrational, 219; and nose, link, 326, 327; as perception, 15, 219; in physics, 251; subliminal, 326 intuitive type, 19 invasion(s), 43; and affects, 32, 33; and artistic inspiration, 34; as endopsychic factor, 24 invent, etymology of, 239 inventions, and mythological anticipations, 39 invisibles, 312, 3 1 4 - 1 6 ions/ionization, and mediums, 660 Irenaeus, 716; Adversus haereses, 716n Irminger, H., 645« Iron Curtain, 244-45 Ishtar, in Gilgamesh Epic, 106-7 Isis: cult, 554; as feminine intercession, 734; mysteries, 121; and Ra, 102, 103 n Islam, 607, 667; and Elijah (Ilyas), 675; and Elijah ( K h i d r / a l - K h a d i r ) , see Khidr; new, 281 Isserlin, M a x : "Die diagnostische Bedeutung der Assoziationversuche," 403 Italy, i 6 r , 569; conquest of Ethiopia, 57671; tiled roofs, 118 Ixion, 40, 95

J J. S., J.'s memorial to, 757 Jacob, in fight with angel, 705

Jacob, St., lazar-house (leprosery), and battle of 1444, 87, 91, 102 Jacobi, Jolande, 455, 474, 60671, 811 re; Com plex/Archetype/Symbol, 96re, 229n, 47471; — , J.'s foreword, 532-33; Paracelsus: Selected Writings, J.'s foreword, 784, 785; The Psychology of C. G. Jung, 455, 47471, 61371; — , J.'s foreword, 4 6 7 68 Jaffe, Aniela, 327, 82571; Apparitions and Precognition, 327&?t; — , J.'s foreword, 327-29; "Bilder und Symbole aus E . T . A . Hoffmanns Marchen Der Goldene Topf,"

3 7"> 5 2 5 2

& w

Jahrbuch filr psychoanalytische und psycho pathologische Forschungen (ed. Jung), 12571, 129, 392&71, 39871, 436, 5517E James, William, 25&71, 205, 209; on unconscious psyche, 477; Varieties of Religious Experience, 577 James-Lange theory of affect, 25, 33 Janet, Pierre, 67, 74, 187, 222, 244, 34 1 > 388, 439, 471, 477, 515, 773; fonction du reel, 12, 520; on "idees fixes," 477; on obsessions, 477; on "partie superieure" and "partie inferieure" of a function, 477; " L e renversement d'orientation ou l'allochirie des representations," 421 Japanese: and earthquakes, 33 Sen; Government, 69 Java, 145, 178 Jena, 287 Jerusalem, 107 Jesuit(s) : and psychotherapy, 269, 287; theologian, 729, 740 Jews, 162, 246, 665; complexes in, see complexes s.v.; and consultation of rabbi for psychological troubles, 268; in Germany, 573, 600, 605; and tradition of Elias, 231; see also Judaism Joachim of Flora, 678, 688&rc Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, 299

879

Job, 680, 741; G o d /Y ah w eh of, 669, 718, 719, 721, 742; an d individua­ tion, 718 Jo h n the Baptist, St., 108, 673 Jo h n Chrysostom , 674¾?! Jo h n the Evangelist, St., “ G nostic” gospel of, 652, 686 Jo n ah , and w hale, 592, 674 Jones, E rnest, 399η, 485 Jo rd an , Pascual, 473 Josephus, Flavius, 107, 777; D e bello J u d a ic o /T h e Jewish War, 107n, 694«. 777« Ju d a ism : G od in, 703; m edieval, and K abbala, 672, 828; see also Jew s Ju d a s of G alilee, 777, 778; d eath of,

[9] [10]

[11]

693 J UNO, C a r l G u s t a v : I N s u m m a r y (in order of presentation, n um b ere d for reference): W idow w ith hysteria, wrongly diagnosed as sarcom atosis of the spinal cord.— 58 M a n aged 40 suffering from vertigo, w ith dream -series.— 78-82, 86-94, 96 G irl of 10 w ith m ythological dream s, w ho gave h er fath e r a book of them for C hristm as an d died a year later.— 96, 229-34, 239> 259 Schizophrenic w om an w ho p ain ted pictures to objectify h e r condition.— 100-101 Y oung F ren ch m an whose de­ pression began follow ing jo u r­ ney to S pain an d dream of T oledo cathedral.— 112-23, 166 Y oung m an w ith com pulsion neurosis, living off a w om an’s savings, who w rote analysis of his case.— 128-30 W om an doctor aged 58 whose previous analyst h a d shown no em otions.— 139 M an w ho bought E gyptian

cases

[12]

[1]

[13]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

sculpture of cat, illustrating p ro jectio n of fem inine im ­ age.— 141-42 L ady forced to com e to con­ su ltatio n by transference.— 143 G irl of 24, born in Jav a. Be­ fore her three attem p ts to start analysis she h ad three dream s of a customs house a t the frontier. J u n g ’s own dream of h er in castle tow er show ed his m isplaced d evaluation of her (sister of Case 3 0 ).— 145-46, 150, 5 3 m A m erican w om an analyst th reaten ed by her p atien t w ith a revolver, unable to accept h er feelings as a w om an.— 147 Y oung artist w ho h a d diffi­ culty in using active im agina­ tion.— 169-71 U niversity scientist who d ran k and was lonely; he recorded his own dream -series illu strat­ ing archetypal sym bolism .— 173-76, 285&nn, 538, 540 W om an in stupor, w ho re­ m em bered events u n d er hyp­ nosis.— 197 Professor of philosophy an d psychology w ith cancer p h o ­ bia.— 206, 242 M an trying to “get above him self” whose d ream fore­ shadows his d eath in m o u n ­ tain accident.— 207 W om an whose dream s fore­ shadow ed attac k on her by sexual pervert.·— 208 M an whose cause of neurosis was circum vented for ten years.— 224-25 Professor who h ad vision re­ p eated in old w oodcut.— 229, 540

[20] A lcoholic cured tem porarily by O xford G roup, sent to Ju n g after relapse.·— 242, 272

INDEX

[21] W o m a n of the nobility who discussed her analysis with a Jesuit father-confessor.—269 [22] Catholic lady from Rome who was helped back into full confession by Jung, after overinvolvement with father-confessor.—271-72 [23] W o m a n student of philosophy with father-transference to Jung.—277 [24] Jewish girl with anxiety neurosis.—278-79 [25] Somnambulistic girl.—309, 482 [26] Boy aged 9 who stabbed his sister after a "little m a n " appeared to h i m . — 3 4 3 - 4 4 [27] M a n who murdered his family; his wife, a member of a religious sect, instilled the criminal impulse into h i m . — 344-45 [28] 35-year-old female hysteric with respiratory disturbances. —430-31 [29] 34-year-old female neurotic with fantasy of man suspended by genitals.—446 [30] Woman, later treated by van Helsdingen, whose paintings reflect her childhood divided between Indomalaysia and Holland (sister of Case 10). —530-31 [31] Seven-year-old son of unhappy marriage who put pictures of mandalas round his bed.—538 WORKS : " T h e Aims of Psychotherapy," i66n; Aion, 8971, 1 2 m , 673, 678, 682n, 688n, 68971, 69271, 7 1 m , 71671, 718, 732?i, 73671, 74271, 82571; Alchemical Studies, 68 n; "Answer to Job," 68 in, 68gn, 7027i, 705, 711&71, 717, 725, 729, 740; The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, 3771, 4271; 881

"Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious," 68371; "Associations d'idees familiales," 420; Aufsatze zur Zeitgeschichte, 5 9 i n ; "Beitrage zur Symbolik," untraced lecture at Weimar Congress, Rank's abstract, 44671; "Blick in die Verbrecherseele," 343n; "Brother K l a u s , " 39n, 9971, 6 8 3 ^ " A Case of Hysterical Stupor in a Prisoner in Detention," 41577; Civilization in Transition, 4771; Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology, 45971; " C o m m e n tary on ' T h e Secret of the Golden Flower'," i66n, 17971; " T h e Complications of American Psychology," 46571, 55 2 W ; "Concerning M a n d a l a Symbolism," 14571, 1791, 525", 5 3 8 " , 5 7 7 " ; "Concerning Psychoanalysis," 427n; "Concerning Rebirth," 5 2 5 ^ 5 5 6 n , 67571; " T h e Content of the Psychoses," 354n; Contributions to Analytical Psychology, 45gn, 623n; Diagnostische Assoziationsstudien, 398, 400; " D r e a m Symbols of the Process of Individuation," 6jn; Essays on Contemporary Events, 59 m ; Experimental Researches, 48n; "Ein Fall von hysterischem Stupor bei einer Untersuchungsgefangenen," 415; " T h e Familial Constellations," 74n; "Flying Saucers: A Modern M y t h , " 63 m , 715n; Foreword to White's God and the Unconscious, 474; The Freud/ Jung Letters, 3 3 3 " " , 335", 339", 375", 3 7 6 " , 377 nn, 380 n, 3 8 m , 383™, 38671, 3^7", 388n, 3 9 2 ^ 398^ 4o6n, 42on, 422n, 4237m, 426n, 427n, 430n, 441, 443", 5 5 1 " , 552", 7 6 1 " ; "Further Investigations on the Galvanic Phenomenon and Respiration in Normal and Insane Individuals" (with Ricksher), 2771; "General Aspects of D r e a m Psychology," 78n, 4 5 9 ^ Gestaltungen des Unbewussten, 327n, 8 2 5 ^ "Herisau lecture," 441;

INDEX JUNG, CARL G U S T A V : WORKS ( c o n t . ) :

L'Homme a la decouverte de son ame, 123?!, 61 372; "Instinct and the Unconscious," 459", 535"; The Interpretation of Nature and the Psyche (with P a u l i ) , 47372; Letters, ed. G . Adler, 285FT, 3 I 2 W > 494n> 5° 2 N > 5 6 m , 61672, 67371, 67971, 70277, 76271, 76771, 77377, 78877, 78977; Man and His Symbols (with von Franz et al.), 183; Memories, Dreams, Reflections, 21477, 27872, 361, 55472, 79871; " M i n d and Earth," 55272; Ein Moderner Mythus, 631; Modern Man in Search of a Soul, 58971; Mysterium Coniunctionis, 54571, 650, 68377, 82571; Naturerklarung und Psyche (with P a u l i ) , 49471; " N e w Paths in Psychology," 42777; " L e nuove vedute della psicologia criminale," 4 1 1 ; " O n the Importance of the Unconscious in Psychopathology," 7071; " O n the N a ture of Dreams," 7877, 460; " O n the Nature of the Psyche," 50171, 68371, 70571; " O n the Practical Use of D r e a m Analysis," 7871; " O n Psychic Energy," 45977; " O n the Psychogenesis of Schizophrenia," 6977; " O n Psychological Understanding," 7071; " O n the Psychology and Pathology of So-called Occult Phenomena," 30977; Paracelsica, 75377; "Paracelsus as a Spiritual Phenomenon," 46277; Phenomenes occultes, trans. E. Godet and Y . L e L a y , 30971; " T h e Phenomenology of the Spirit in Fairytales," 649, 73277; " T h e Philosophical T r e e , " 529, 67771; The Practice of Psychotherapy, 66n; II problema dell'inconscio nella psicologia moderna, trans. A . V i t a and G. Bollea, 55971; The Process of Individuation, joyn; Psychiatric Studies, 200n; " A Psychological A p p r o a c h to the D o g m a of the T r i n i t y , " 649, 71177; " T h e Psychological Diagnosis of Evi882

dence," 30777; "Psychological Factors Determining H u m a n Behaviour," 564&7Z; " T h e Psychological Foundations of Belief in Spirits," 30977; 45977; Psychological Types, 1277, 1377, 1477, 1777, 4377, 8971, 11577, 166n, 61377, 623&71, 690, 704, 76177; Die Psychologie der Vbertragung, 61371, 75377; Psychologie und Alchemie, 82577; Psychologie und Erziehung, 61377; "Psychologie und Spiritismus," 31277; Psychologische Abhandlungen, 459, 525,

5 9. 55 > 5 , . 4 9 > 825; Die psy2

8

62

6

chologische Diagnose des Tatbestandes, 4 1 1 ; Psychology and Alchemy,

1 177, 6777, 9977, I 2 177, 12277,

16771, 1 7 m , 17471, 17577, 28577, 5 i 6 n , 53877, 71 177, 72 277, 77577, 79877, 79977; "Psychology and Literature," 39n, 52577; Psychology and Religion, u n , 3971, 61371; " T h e Psychology of Dementia Praecox," 349, 354, 37677, 406; " T h e Psychology of Dictatorship," 56677; " T h e Psychology of Eastern Meditation," 65077, 73972; " T h e Psychology of the Transference," 15472, 650, 74877, 79777, 79877, 80077; Psychology of the Unconscious, 3872, 355, 45977, 55222, 69772, 724; "Psychophysical Investigations with the Galvanometer and Pneumograph in N o r m a l and Insane Individuals" (with Peterson), 2777; "Psychotherapy T o d a y , " 26977; " T h e Reaction-time R a t i o in the Association Experiment," 303; " T h e Realities of Practical Psychotherapy," im, 53in< 5781; " T h e Relations between the Ego and the Unconscious," 61377; " A R e v i e w of the C o m p l e x T h e o r y , " 460; " R i c h a r d W i l h e l m : In M e m o r i a m , " 5 5 3 1 ; " T h e R o l e of the Unconscious," 16377, 46577, 573«; The Secret of the Golden Flower (with Wilh e l m ) , 75377; Seelenprobleme der

INDEX Gegenwart, 825n; forewords, 5 5 8 60; VII Sermones ad Mortuos, 66371; " T h e Significance of the Father in the Destiny of the Individual," 74n; " T h e Soul and D e a t h , " 30971; " T h e Spirit Mercurius," 649, 7327m; The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, 4271, iogn; " T h e Structure of the Unconscious," 4497;; Studies in Word Association, 4871; " A Study in the Process of Individuation," i66?i, 52571, 57771; Symbolik des Geistes, 75371, 82571; Symbols of Transformation, ion, 3877, 4277, 9 m , 105ft, 1 1 1 2 1 7 2 , 355, 441, 4461, 724; "Synchronicity: A n Acausal Connecting Principle," 34n, 477«, 49471, 5 1 1 ; " T h e T h e o r y of Psychoanalysis," 436n, 5 3 5 n ; " T h e Therapeutic V a l u e of Abreaction," 6971; " T h e Transcendent Function," 449", 6gon; "Transformation Symbolism in the Mass," 735«; " T r a u m s y m b o l e des Individuationsprozesses," 6jn; Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, 49n, 72n, 89n, 15571, i6on, i66n, 2 77 n > 579 n > 62371, 719; Uber die Energetik der Seele, 82571; Uber psychische Energetik und das Wesen der Traume, 613n; Uber die Psychologie des Unbewussten, 6 i 3 n ; " V e r s u c h einer Darstellung der psychoanalytischen T h e o r i e , " 436n; " V o n den Wurzeln des Bewusstseins," 82571; Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido, 354n, 459, 5 5 2 , 56271, 69771; Wirklichkeit der Seele, 825n; " W o t a n , " i64n, 577 n, 6oon; " Z u r Umerziehung des deutschen V o l k e s , " 599n; ed., see also Jahrbuch fur psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen Jung C o d e x , see CODICES Jung, C . G., Institute for Analytical Psychology, Zurich, 6o6&n; J.'s ad-

dress at founding of, 4 7 1 - 7 6 ; address on presentation of J. C o d e x , 671 826&M; foreword to first volume of Studies, 487-88 Jung, E m m a , 768, 825n; " E i n Beitrag zum Problem des Animus"/trans. Cary F. Baynes, " O n the Nature of the Animus," 768n Jupiter, planet, 67 jus primae noctis, 159 justification by faith, 719 "Just So Story," 230, 504, 506

K K a b b a l a , 652, 672, 736, 828 Kankeleit, O t t o : Das Unbewusste als Keimstatte des Schopferischen, J.'s foreword and contribution, 78687 K a n t , Immanuel, 7, 62, 213, 29g, 318, 772; Anthropologic in pragmatischer Hinsicht, 7n; and anthropology, 515; Critique of Pure Reason, 706; Dreams of a Spirit-Seer, trans. E. F. Goerwitz, 2g7n, 3 i 8 n ; on Swedenborg, 297-99; psychology of, 379 K a r d e c , A l l a n : Buch der Medien, 304 katabasis, 38, 120 Katzaroff, D i m i t r e : "Experiences sur le role de la recitation comme facteur de la memorisation," 421?! Kepler, Johann: astronomy of, and archetypal triad, 473 Keplerbund, 427-29 Kerenyi, K a r l , 472, 485, 529 Kerner, Justinus, 201, 294, 340, 775; Blatter aus Prevorst, 200&n; Die Geschichte des Thomas Ignaz Martin, 299n; The Somnambulant Tables/Die somnambulen Tische, 296&M kerygmatics, 602 Kesselring, M a x , 427-29 key: in dream of Toledo, 122; and mysteries, 121

883

Keyhoe, D onald E., 626η; J . ’s letter to, 632-33; F lying Saucers from O uter Space, 627ft K eyserlin g, C ount H erm ann, 663; “Begegnungen m it d er P sychoana­ lyse,” 663 n K h id r/A l-K h a d ir, 556; E lijah and,

675-77 K h u n ra th , H einrich, 751 K ingdom of G od, on earth, 245 K irsch, Jam es, 692η K itchin, Derek, 265, 287 K leist, K a rl: U ntersuchungen zur K enntnis der psychom otorischen Bewegungsstorungen bei Geistkranken, J . ’s review, 382 K napp, A lbert, 376; D ie polyneuritischen Psychosen, J .’s review, 378 K oenig-Fachsenf eld, O lga von: W andlungen des T raum problem s von der R o m a n tik bis zur Gegenwart, J .’s forew ord, 773-75 K olb, Eugen, 604 K opp, H erm a n n : D ie A lch em ie in alterer u n d neuerer Z eit, 676 K orrespondenzblatt der internationalen psychoanalytischen Vereinigung (B u lle tin ), 423ft K raepelin, Em il, 379; diagnostics of, 385

K rafft-Ebing, R ich ard von: case of servant-girl aged 24 w ith halluci­ nations, 298; L ehrbuch der Psychiatrie/T e x tb o o k of Insanity, 298ft K ranefeldt, W . M ., 517, 768, 773, 825η; " ‘Ewige A nalyse’,” 768ft; “D er G egensatz von Sinn und R hythm us in seelischen Gescheh en ,” 768ft; “ ‘K om plex’ und Mythos,” 558ft; Secret W ays of the M in d , 127ft, 517η K retschm er, Ernst, 639 “K reuzlingen episode,” in F re u d / Ju n g relationship, 430ft K un d a lin i, see yoga s.v. K iinkel, Fritz, 312ft

L labour cam ps in Russia, 665 L abour P arty, 579 L achat, Pere W illiam : J .’s letter to, 6 7 9 -9 1; L a R ecep tio n et Paction du Saint-E sprit dans la vie person­ n e l s et com m unautaire, 679ft L adam e, — : “L ’Association des idees et son utilisation com m e m ethode d ’exam en dans Ies m aladies m entales,” 412; review of J . ’s P sychol­ ogic der D em en tia praecox, 412 L aforgue, R ene, 673ft lam aism , m andalas of, 181, 516, 578 Lang, Josef, 825ft Lange, C. G., 25ft Lange, W ilhelm , 336; H olderlin: eine Pathographie, 336ft language, history of, 443 Lao-tzu: “high stands on low,” 233; T ao-te-ching, 539ft lapis: as alexipharm acum , 722; and artifex, 722&ra; exilis, 798; noster, 775; philosophorum , symbolism of, 753; sem el factus, 722 L a R ocque, Frangois de, 575ft Laszlo, V iolet S. d e: Psyche and S ym b o l, J .’s forew ord, 537-42 L atin spirit, 47 League of N ations, 578 “ least of your b reth ren ,” 280 Le Bon, G ustave: T h e C row d: A S tu d y o f the Popular M in d , 138, 648 Leibniz, G. W ., 62, 771; N ouvea u x Essais sur V entendem ent hum ain, g re; “petites perceptions,” 305, 4 7 7 . 515

Leipzig, 78re, 86, 87, 89, 94 Le Lay, Yves, see Ju n g , C. G., w o r k s : Phenom enes occultes L em aitre, A .: “U n nouveau cycle som nam bulique de M ile. S m ith ,” 42171

Leo, zodiacal sign, 121 Leroy, E .-B ernard: “ Escroquerie et hypnose,” 421ft

INDEX

Leslie, Desmond, 627n Levi, Herta, 820n levitation, 300 Levy-Bruhl, Lucien: How Natives Think, 42n; on "l'etat prelogique," 562; on participation mystique, 42, 194&77,

205;

see

also

representa-

tions collectives Lexicon der Paedogogik, 477n liberation, 635 libido: and adaptation, 450; -fixations, 480; Freud's concept, 480; infantile fixation of, 124; lion and snake as symbols of, 444 Liebeault, Auguste Ambroise, 340&n Liepmann, H. K., 376 life: after death, 287, 288, 294; banal, 274; divine drama of, 274, 275; meaningful, 275; meaning of, 246, 263; rules of, 625; second half of, 315, 485; symbolic, 282; too rational, 274 light, wave and particle theory of,

33> 34"-

light-bringer, Christ as, 671, 826 lightning, 628 lingam as symbol, 249, 250 Lippmann, E. O . von: Enstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, 747 Lipps, Theodor, 477 Locke, John, 9n Lodge, Sir Oliver, 314 Lowenfeld, Leopold, 378&n; Homosexualitat und Strafgesetz, J.'s review, 382; Der Hypnotismus: Handbuch der Lehre von der Hypnose und der Suggestion, 378&n; and H. Kurella, eds., Grenzfragen des Nerven- und Seelenlebens, 36m Logos, 121, 731 Lombard, Emile: "Essai d'une classification des phenomenes de glossolalie," 42on Lomer, George: Liebe und Psychose, J.'s review, 380 London, 70 loneliness, 276 lotus (padma), 578

Louis X I V , 574 love, and transference, 143 lubricum illud genusf'thax sex," 714&71 Lucifer, 732 lucus a non lucendo, 318 Luff, Mary C., 32 Luke, Gospel of, 13371 Lullius, Raymundus/Lull,

238, 747, 797

slippery

Ramon,

lumen de lumine, 723 Luna, 180 Lutherans in Sweden, 281 lying/lies: doctor's telling of, 620; pathological/pseudologia phantastica, 596, 604

M Mabbott, J. D., 74471 McCarthyism, 631 MacDonald, Ramsay, 579&n McDougall, William, 6g&77 Maclntyre, Alasdair, 74477 Mackenzie, Marion, 132 macula peccati, 687, 718, 723, 729 Madeleine, Mme., 377&n Maeder, Alphonse: " A propos des symboles," 414; "Contributions a la psychopathologie de la vie quotidienne," J.'s abstract, 412; "Essai d'interpretation de quelques reves," 413; "Nouvelles contributions a la psychopathologie de la vie quotidienne," J.'s abstract, 412, 4 2 m ; "Die Symbolik in den Legenden, Marchen, Gebrauchen und Traumen," J.'s abstract, 413; Une voie nouvelle en psychologie, J.'s abstract, 413, 414 magic: sexual, 92; today, 328 magnetism, animal, see animal s.v. Mahaim Clinic, Cery, 761 Mahatmas, 153 Mahayana, mandala, 717, 739 Maidenek, concentration camp at,

599

885

&re

male and female: as opposites, 714, 716; principle, 118-20, 122 Malinine, M., with H. C. Puech and G. Quispel, eds., Evangelium Veritatis, 67in Malinowski, Bronislaw, 5 6 m m an: archaic, 228; dehumanization of, 593; governed by demon, 594; isolated in cosmos, 255; “is what he eats,” 598; modern, 205, 256; original, 280; scientific and inven­ tive m ind of, 260; as totality, 317 mana, 240, 241, 715 M andaean(s), 676 m an d ala(s), 178, 179, 537, 538, 577, 578; healing purpose of, 123; and individuation, 719; Lamaic, see Lam aism ; M ahayana, 717; motif, 67η; of Rhodesia, prehistoric, 516; as rotating figure, 578; swastika as, 578; symbolism of, 178, 515; — , and God-image, 659; trinity and triad in, 714, 716 Manget, J. J.: Bibliotheca chemica curiosa, 733n manic depression, 31, 351, 375, 385 M anichaean dualism, 726 manipura chakra, 67, 95 mankind, as one individual, 244 M ann, Thomas, 697η M arduk, spring-god in Babylonian myth, 105 M aria, axiom of, and proportio sesquitertia, 476 Marie, A.: “Sur quelques troubles fonctionnels de l’audition chez cer­ tains debiles m entaux,” 4 2 in M ark, St., 247 marriage: Christian, 157, 809; com­ pensatory character of, 476; cross­ cousin, 473; heavenly, 299; horo­ scopes, 495, 502, 503; psychology of, 77; quaternio, 473 Marseilles, 113η M arti, Fritz, 429&71 M artin, P. W., 606n M artin, Thom as Ignaz, 299; Die Geschichte des Thom as Ignaz M ar­

tin, by J. Kerner, 299η Mary, M other of God: Assumption of, 689, 713, 714, 742; Assumptio Beatae Virginis, 714, 731; as bride in bridal-chamber, 681 &n, 742n; as Co-Redemptrix, 714, 731; Im ­ m aculate Conception/conceptio immaculata, 714, 738; and M arianic movement, 714; as omnium gratiarum mediatrix, 689; Protes­ tant view of, 687; as virgo terra, 689 M ary Magdalene, 692 Mass, the: Host in, and M ithras cult, 270; as living mystery, 270; miracle of, 276 m ass(es): conversions, 602; danger of, 590; evil and, 601; hypnotism, 601; individual in, and unconscious compensation, 476; -mindedness, 605; phenomenon, demonic fea­ tures in, 601; politics and, 564; psychology of, 161, 571, 586, 605; psychosis, 607; suggestion, 595, 596, 601, 602 M ater Magna, 554 materialism, 603η, 733, 734; and psy­ chology, 523; scientific, 314, 463, 734; and spiritual devastation, 583 m atriarchal symbolism, 521 m atter, physical, 255 M atthew, Book of, 231 m aturation, analysis as, 172 M atuta, goddess of death, 91 Mauss, M., see under Hubert, H. Maya, 464, 670 M ead, G.R.S.: The Gnostic John the Baptizer, 694η mechanization, 370 M echtild of Magdeburg, 444 medicina catholica, 699; lapis as, 722 m edicine: ancient Egyptian, see Egypt s.v.; ancient Greek, see Greek s.v.; and borrowing from other sciences, 357, 358; lack of psychological understanding, 355 medicine-man, 285, 286, 570; ability to “smell,” 325; on dreams, 557

mediums, 294, 299, 301, 304-7, 313; controls, 312; hysterical symptoms among, 302; see also W hite, Betty megalomania, 144 megaphone oratory, 601 Mehlich, Rose: J. H. Fichtes Seelenlehre und ihre Beziehung zur Gegenwart, J .’s foreword, 770-72 Meier, C. A., 472, 671, 826&n; Antike Inkubation und moderne Psychotherapie, 487n Meir, Rabbi, 674 melancholia, 31 Mellon, Paul and M ary, Collection, 747« melothesiae, n n m em ory(-ies): as function, 22; heal­ ing effect of, 258; infantile, recol­ lection of, 259 Menninger, Karl, 634η mental disease/disturbance, 353; so­ cial definition of, 35 Menzel, reflection theory of, 628 Mephistopheles, see Goethe: Faust Mercurius, 752; and Elijah legend, 676, 677; Kyllenios, 749; as M e­ phistopheles, 748; and Mithras, 676; and serpens mercurialis, 232, 722; and transformation, 748 Merlin, 742 Mesmer, Franz Anton, 295, 339, 340 mesmerism, 294, 339, 340 Mesolithic Age, 39 Mesopotamia, 109 Messina earthquake, 92&71 m etaphysical: assertions, dishonesty °U 737, 738; principle, amorality of, 733 metaphysics: and archetypes, 519; and science, 707, 708 meteors/meteorites, 307&n method: analytical, 608; causal-re­ ductive, 478; comparative, 7; sci­ entific, 309; statistical, 319; teach­ ing of, 251 M etral, M ,: “Experiences scolaires sur la memoire de l’orthographe,” 42 on

Meyer, E.: Die Ursachen der Geisteskrankheiten, J .’s review, 381 Meyer, K onrad Ferdinand, 336η; periodic melancholia of, 336; see also under Sadger Michelsen, Johann: 429; Ein Wort an geistigen Adel deutscher N ation, 429η microbes, 262 microcosm, man as, 695, 696 M iddle Ages, 67, 232; art in, 173; dreams in, 66, 112, 236; and jus primae noctis, 159; mythological world of, 593; secret traditions in, 115, 120; Weltanschauung of, 115 M idrash, 688 Mieg, Joannes Fridericus: De raptu Eliae, 674 migration, and dissemination of mythological symbols, 553 M iller, Emanuel, 102 m ind: archetypal, 45; basic conform­ ity of, 42; between death and birth, 95; growth to consciousness of, 241; history and phenomenology of, 356; not born a tabula rasa, 540; original, 258, 259; structure of, 36 Minerva, goddess, 111 miracle-stories, in Gospel, 693 M ishmar, The Daily Guardian, 604 misoneism, 192, 194 M ithras/M ithraism : Aion (key god) in, 121; bells in, 270; bread stamped w ith cross/divided into four, 270; and Christianity, 115, 117; and Elijah myth, 676, 677; killing of bull in, 444; liturgy, star in, 695; Roman army and, 554; Sol and, 676; Tauroktonos, 117; w ater/ springs in, 117, 270 M oebius/M obius, Paul Julius, 336&n, 388; on hysterical symptom, 375, 388 M oham m ed(-ans), 289 Moleschott, Jacob, 598 M oll, Albert, 341 &n; Der Hypnotismus, m it Einschluss der Haupt-

Moll, Albert ( cont.) : punkte der Psychotherapie und des Occultismus, J ,’s review, 377, 378 monad, Anthropos as, 715 Monakow, Constantin von, 333&n monasteries, 282 money: devaluation of, 576; dilution of, 573; fictitious character of, 567; hollowing out of, 573; the State and, 572-4 Monogenes, 122 moon: conjunction, in marriage horo­ scopes, 495, 496, 498, 499, 502-7; as symbol of unconscious, 180 Moorish Kingdom, 114 moral law as psychic fact, 619 m orality: and greed, 612; in large organizations, 571; relativity of, 713; sexual, and psychoanalysis, 394* 395; social v. individual, 383 M oral Re-Armam ent movement, Caux centre, 681 &re, 683 Morgan, D. Gian, 283-85 Morienus Romanus, 750 Sen; “De transm utatione m etallorum ,” in Artis auriferae, 750n Moroney, M. J., 507n Moser, Fanny: O kkultism us: Tauschungen und Tatsache, 317«; Spuk: Irrlaube oder Wahrglaube?, 317; - , J .’s foreword, 317-26 Moses, 205; and Elijah, parallels, 674 Moses ben Leon, 675 Moses Cordovero, 675 Mosley, Sir Oswald, 575&n mother-dragon, 91, 105 m other: dual, motif of, 658; earth-, 484; and feeling function, 89; fig­ ures, three, 732; fixation, 277; -love, crushing weight of, 338; sig­ nificance of, in life of K. F. Meyer, 33 7, 338; terrible, 91 M other: all-compassionate, 276; E arth, 255; of God, as arch-saint, 99; Great, 239, 255; —, sacrifice to, 446

m otif: of hostile brothers, 228; mytho­ logical, see myth s.v. motivation, and psychotherapy: of patient, 609, 613; of teacher, 610, 611 m ountain: climbing, and dream, 207; sickness, 78, 79, 88, 89, 96 movement (s), automatic, 303-5 mulier taceat in ecclesia, 742 M uller, H erm ann: “Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Hypermesis Gravi­ darum ,” J.’s abstract, 414; “Ein Fall von induzierten Irresein nebst anschliessenden Erorterungen,” 414 mulungu, 240 mungu, 240 M urray, Henry A .: “Conclusions” to Explorations in Personality, 269n M iirren, advertisement for, 170 Mussolini, Benito /11 Duce, 127, 165, 576 , 578 , 579

m utilation, numinous, 348 Myers, F.H.W ., 477 mysteria of early Christianity, 115 mysterium: iniquitatis, 690; tremendum, 270 mystery (-ies): ancient, 120, 122; as expression of psychological condi­ tion, 270 mystical experiences, 577 mysticism, 98; medieval, 280 mystics, and experience of archetypes,

98

m yth(s), 38; and collective uncon­ scious, 487; as m ental therapy, 238; motifs, 38, 39, 228, 515; and mythologizing factor, 592; reinter­ pretation of, 736; as symbols that happened, 247 mythologem, theological preaching as, 682 mythology, 41, 91, 354; ambivalence in, 443; archetypal motifs in, 658; Greek, see Greek s.v.; opposites in, 443, 444; a psychic phenomenon of the present, 327; Scandinavian, 92; truth of, 328

N Naassenes, 671, 827 Nacke, Paul: Ueber Familienmord durch Geisteskranke, J .’s review, 386 Nagel, Hildegard, 645η, 654η Nageli, — , (Freiburg im Breisgau), 296 Nag H am adi, U pper Egypt, 671η. Nagy, Peter: trans. into Hungarian of Jung’s On the Psychology of the Unconscious, J .’s foreword, 455-56 namazu, 33n Napoleon I, 221, 222 Napoleon I I I , 299 n a d o n (s ): in collective misery, 577; psychology of, 571 N ational Industrial Recovery Act (U .S.A .), 575n National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena (N IC A P ), 626η; J .’s statem ent to, 631, 632 nationalism, 567 N ational Recovery Administration (U .S.A .), 575&n N ational Socialism /N azi(sm ), 165, 289, 574. 594. 7 I5 Nature, 156; conquest of, 261; de­ deification of, 593, 602; demands death, 275; demonism of, 593, 594; de-psychization of, 591, 593-95; m an and, 255, 260; populated with monstrous machines, 260; -spirit,

649 Navaho, see American Indians: N orth N azi(s), see National Socialism Neanderthalensis, 214 N ear East, symbolism of dying god in, 239 Nebuchadnezzar, dream of, 109, n o negativism, 371 N egro(es), 35, 46, 47, 148; dreams of, 37- 4°, 552&n; myth, 119; psy­ choses of, 552; religion of, 552; thoughts “in the belly,” 10; and white man, idealization of, 552

Neiditsch, Jeanne, 398η Nekyia, 38, 107 Nelken, Jan, 433η; “Analytische Beobachtungen fiber Phantasien eines Schizophrenen,” J.’s comment on Tausk’s criticism, 433-37 neo-paganism, 569, 576, 647 Nerval, Gerard de (pseudonym of Gerard L abrunie), 545; J .’s lecture on, 779 nervous system, of analyst, 154 Neue Preussische Zeitung, 296 Neue Ziircher Zeitung, J .’s letters in, 427η Neumann, Erich, 474, 485, 529; A m or and Psyche, 668; D epth Psy­ chology and a N ew Ethic, J .’s fore­ word, 616-20; The Origins and History of Consciousness, 474n; J .’s foreword, 474-75 Neumann, K arl E ugen: Die Reden Gotamo Buddhos, J.’s comment on, 697& 71

Neumann, Therese, see Therese of Konnersreuth neuralgia, 374 neurology (-ists), 341; Freud’s theories and, 388 neurosis, 24, 340; adaptation process in, 449; as attem pt at self-cure, 168, 169; childhood as origin of, in later life, 420; compulsion, see compulsion; definition, 167; as ex­ pression of affections of whole man, 357; a moral problem, 617; psycho­ genic nature of, 380; psychological conception of, 341, 390; psychology and therapy of, 357, 358; reason for, 274; sexual theory of, 388, 402, 438; structure of, 665; symbolic value of, 652; a terra incognita, 354; as transitory phase, 284 neurotic( s ) : behaviour of, 197; com­ plexes in, 353; isolation of, 105; symptoms, 187 New Mexico, J .’s visit to, 123, 554 New York Tim es, 438, 564η Nicholas of Cusa, 682

Nicholas von der Fliie, see Brother Klaus Niehus-Jung, M arianne, 566η Nietzsche, Friedrich W ilhelm, 31, 1 9 9 , 233 . 394 > 395 . 463 . 49 2 , 54 6 . 560, 634, 721; and “blond beast,” 573; D udu and Suleika, 546¾^; Genealogy of Morals, Freud’s work compared to, 439; madness of, 620; and Superman, 600; Thus Spake Zarathustra, 31, 202, 546(¾^, 578; — , and Kerner, parallel, 200, 201 nihil est in intellectu . . . , 9 Nile, 121 nirdvandva, 620, 720 Nirvana, 667 Nonconformists, 283 norm ality: mental and moral con­ flicts of, 606; and neurosis, close­ ness of, 251 “nothing but” : Freud’s explanation, 277; people as, 274 nuclear deterrent, 245 num bers: archetypes and, 497, 498; as autonomous entities, 497, 498; as mythological entities, 203; in table-tilting experiment, 305, 306; see also four; thirteen; three numina, flight of, 261 numinosity: of cultural symbols, 253; destruction of, 254; loss of, 254; of words, 257 Nurem berg: first German railway from, 308η; see also Psychoanalytic Congresses s.v. Second

O obedience, prim ordial instinct of, 721 object: and subject, see subject; and withdrawal of projection, 668 objectivation of impersonal images, 166, 173, 179 observation, sources of error in, 307 Observer (L ondon), 5 8 m obsession(s), 206; psychotherapy of, 362

obsessional neurosis, 388 O ccam ’s Razor, 371 n occult phenomena, 293-329, 378 Odin, 443 Odyssey, 38 Oedipus complex, 479 olfactory organ, degeneration of, in man, 325, 326 Olympiodorus, 751 one-sidedness, 6; of conscious mind, 316, 621; of Western attitude, 655 operations, cosmetic, 347 opposites, 245; ' balancing of, 620; collision of, 620; conflict of: cruci­ fixion as, 688; — , and individua­ tion, 727; — , in norm al people, 607; cooperation of, 719; divine, 689; functions as, 18; inner con.frontation of, 351; pairs of, see below, problem of, and Assump­ tion of Mary, 714; structure of, 351; suspension between, 689; sym­ bolism of, 351; system of, in mania, 351; union of, see below·, wrenched apart, in Germans, 600 opposites, pairs of: contained in one word, 443; instances, 245, 443, 444, 719 (see also Christ s.v. and devil; good and evil; male and fe­ male; right and left); and symbols, 226 opposites, union of, 118, 119, 122; and enantiodromia, 711; and Holy Spirit, 689, 691; in man, 689, 734; in symbol, 259; in transcendent function, 690 opus alchym icum /alchem iczl, 591; as creation of world, repeated, 721, 722; as hierosgamos, 748 opus divinum, 721 opus nostrum, 171 organ-inferiority, 481 organic disease, and archetypal sym­ bols, 103, 133, 134 Oriental, see East/E astern Origen, 231, 688 O rphic cult, 117 Orthodox Church, 281, 282

INDEX

Orthos, 315, 316 Osiris, 694&n; and Horus, 239 O x f o r d Group M o v e m e n t , 162, 272, 739 Oxyrhynchus sayings of Jesus, 122

Paris, 47, 52 parousia, 681, 691, 693 Parsifal, 742 participation mystique, see LevyBruhl Pascal, Constanza: " L e s Maladies mentales de Robert S c h u m a n n , "

P

42171

Passover, feast of, 674 pathography, 336 pathology, psychosexual, 380, 381 p a t i e n t ( s ) : in auto-erotic insulation, 146; face to face with therapist, 139, language of, 225, 276; own need for knowledge, 470 Patricius and Hilarius, soothsayers,

padma (lotus), 578 Page, George H., 826&W paintings/drawings, by patients: in psychiatric diagnosis, 802; value of, 5 3 ° Paleolithic Age, 39 paleontology, 214 Palestine, 108 Pali Canon, see B u d d h a s.v. palmistry, 820 Pammeter, 788 pantokrator, 6g4 Papal Bull: Summis desiderantes,

296

607

papyrus, Gnostic, in C o p t i c (Jung C o d e x ) , 6 7 i & n , 826 Paracelsus, 751, 784, 785; " D e tinctura physicorum," 676; De vita longa, ed. A d a m v. Bodenstein, 67671;

on

Hyliaster,

462-64;

Sammtliche Werke, ed. K . Sudhoff, 784&71; and scientific medicine, 462 paraesthesia, 389 paralysis: and unconscious memory, 303; of the will, 329 paranoia, 379 parapraxes, 479 parapsychological experiences, 317, 660, 69471

parapsychological phenomena: Jung's own, 322; sources of, 319; truth of, 329 parapsychology, 320, 326, 327; future of, 5 1 0 , 5 1 1 parents: influence of, in childhood neurosis/hysteria, 374, 485, 805, 806, 822; liberation from, 156, 157; psychic situation of, 358, 611

Patristic literature, 283 patterns of behaviour, 828 Paul, St., 247, 280, 298, 695, 696, 727; and cursing, 646; JewishGnostic presuppositions of, 652; on resurrection of Christ, 692, 693; vision of Christ, 705 Pauli, W o l f g a n g , 28571, 473; " T h e Influence of Archetypal Ideas on the Scientific Theories of Kepler," Peale, N o r m a n Vincent, 63877 473 re pendulum, automatic, 295, 296, 302 penis: amputation of, 347; and lingam symbolism, 249, 250 penitence, 719 Peratics, 671, 827 perception: olfactory, 325; unconscious, 28, 313 perineum, 11 Pernety, A . J.: Dictionnaire mythohermetique, 751 perpetuum mobile, 174 Perry, John W e i r : The Self in Psychotic Process, J.'s foreword, 3 5 3 56 persecution, and secret love, 600 Persian religion, 117 persona, 49, 579&71; of public figure, 579; and unconscious, 453 personality: activated portions of the

891I

INDEX

personality ( c o n t . ) : unconscious as, 312; archaic, in ourselves, 20; centre of, 179; fragmentary, 73, 100; future, 22; magic, 155; splinter-, 309 personification of unconscious contents, 312 Peter, St., 122, 692 Peter of T o l e d o , 796 Peterson, Frederick, 27n "petites perceptions," see Leibniz petitio principii, 689 petra scandali, 744 Pfister, O s k a r : " E i n Fall von psychoanalytischer Seelsorge und Seelenheilung," 414; "Psychoanalytische Seelsorge und experimentelle M o r alpadagogik," 414; "Wahnvorstellung und Schulerselbstmord," 414 Pharaoh, 104; twice-born, 157 pharmakon athanasias, 107 phenomenology, 289 Philo Judaeus, 652 &n philosophy: Chinese, see China/ Chinese s.v.; medieval, 174; and psychology, 87, 355, 6 1 7 ; spiritualistic, 315

Pius X I I , P o p e : Apostolic Constitution, 681 w, 74271 Plato, 280, 3 1 5 Pleroma, 670 Plokker, J. H., 82671 pneuma, 155 poetry, Freudian type of, 765, 766 Poimen, Shepherd, in vision of Hermas, 1 1 6 poisonings, 381 Poldinger, W a l t e r : " Z u r Bedeutung bildernischen Gestaltens in der psychiatrischen Diagnostik," 80271 Polia, 545 Poliphilo, see under Colonna politeness, archaic, 20 political economy, 355 politics, 564, 565, 567 poltergeists, 294 Polynesians, 240 Pompey, 554 Pope: private blessing for J., 2 7 1 , 272; see also Boniface V I I I ; Pius X I ; Pius X I I population, over-, 260, 261 Porphyry, 117 Portugal, 554

Philp, H . L . : Jung and the Problem of Evil, extracts, 702-19 phlegmone, 237 Phocaeans, 113&71 Phorkyade, 749 physics, microphysics, and complex psychology, 472, 473 Pieron, H . : " L a Theorie des emotions et les donnees actuelles de la physiologie," 42 m Pilcz, A l e x a n d e r : Lehrbuch der speziellen Psychiatrie fur Studierende und Aerzte, J.'s review, 384 pioneer work, 521 Pirke Eliezer, 674 piscina, 116, 1 1 7 "Pitch-birds"JPechvogel, 23 Pithecanthropus, 214 Pius, R o m a n bishop, 1 1 6 Pius X I , Pope, 759n; E n c y c l i c a l : Casti Connubii, 759&n, 809&71

possession, 599; demonic, 228; states ° f , 374 Pototsky, — : " D i e Verwertbarkeit des Assoziationsversuches fiir die Beurteilung der traumatischen Neurosen," J.'s abstract, 4 1 4 power complex, see complex (es) s.v. powers, supreme, 733, 734 prayer, 681, 682 prejudices, positive or negative, 253 Priapus, stele of, in V e r o n a , 444 Price, Harry, 575&n; An Account of Some Further Experiments with Willy Schneider, 57577; The Phenomena of Rudi Schneider, 57571 priests: Catholic, trained as psychotherapists, 287; vs. doctor, consulted for psychological trouble, 268; as sacrifice, 274 primitive(s) : anger in, 24; consciousness in, 10, 316; and dreams, 85,

892

INDEX m . 192, i93» 285, 286, 556, 557; and initiation rites, 157; and intuition, 15; loss of numinosity in, 254; meaning of ceremonies, 240; and monotony, 614; and pain, 104; politeness of, 20; psyche unsynthesized in, 194; psychology, 11, 42,

'59. *92) 354= 553-56, 5 2 , 5 3 ; 6

6

and sexual intercourse, 128; and snake, 125; soul among, 24; storytellers, 247, 248; superstitions of, 241; thinking of, 10, 204 primitivity in inner world of man, 256 privatio boni, 682, 689, 709, 710, 712, 714, 715, 726 progress, age of, 583 projection, 136, 137; of archaic personality, 5 7 7 ; of archetypes, see archetype(s) .r.u.; and Christ, see Christ; in dream-analysis, 220; of emotional contents, 138; of fatherimage, 159, 160, 277, 5 7 7 ; impersonal, 155, 160, 161; integration of, 316; mutual, 140; mythological forms of, 577; of personal images, 160; an unconscious mechanism, 137, J 3 8 ; withdrawal of, 593, 668; prophecy, 295, 296, 298; and hallucination, 461 prophets, frenzy of, 596 proportio sesquitertia/ratio of 3 : 1 ,

473, 476

prostitution, 384 Protestantism, 7 1 1 ; and care of souls, 602; G o d in, 729; and integration of psychological experience, 732; ritual life of, 273; splitting of into new denominations, 273; uncertainty of, 273 Protestants, 231, 246, 263, 714; and H o l y Spirit, 680; neurosis among, 284; as patients, 162; — , complexes among, see complexes s.v.; and self-knowledge, 816 Provencal, 115 Provence, 1 1 7

providentia Dei, 684 Przywara, Erich, 689; Deus semper maior, 68977 pseudologia phantastica, 596, 604 psychanalysis, 388; see also psychoanalysis psyche, 34771; American, 316; basic function of, 166; and biological causality, 466; "comparative anato m y " of, 228; and consciousness, see consciousness s.v.; dissociability of, 195, 664; and geographical locality, 465; as historical structure, 356; and loss of moral and spiritual values, 255; man's greatest danger, 320; man's greatest instrument, 263; and matter, 314; not a tabula rasa, 235; not atom, is primary, 349; as object and subject, 7, 126; objective, 665, 763; of patient, 349, 355; phenomenology °f> 3°9; prehistoric, identity with, 259; primitive, loss of, 258; primordial, 1 1 1 ; reality of, 351, 665, 666; relation to physiology and biology, 385; study of, 5; and sympathetic system, 464; theological devaluation of, 731; and time and space, 287; unconscious, 7, 36, 78, 193; undervaluation of, 263 psychiatrist/alienist, 349, 350, 352; and patients' psychology, 356; and psychological aspect of his cases, 356 psychiatry, 354, 355, 367, 368, 372, 373, 375; a n d documentary evidence, 350; Freud's importance for, 388; German, 403; judicial, 386 psychic reality, 351 "psychic smells," 326 psychoanalysis: and empirical evidence, 424; goal of, 395; and morality, 395; " w i l d , " 425 psychoanalytic training, need for, 424 Psychoanalytic Congresses: First, Salzburg, 33577, 392; Second, Nur-

893

Psychoanalytic Congresses (cont.): emberg, 423&n, 426, 55 m ; Third, W eimar, 423η, 446η psychodiagnostics, 637 psychogalvanic effect, 26, 27 psychography/autom atic writing, 302, 304=

337

psychoid(s), 683, 705; factor, 508 psychological institute, Bern, 333 psychologism, 559, 705, 729 psychology/psychologist (s ): aca­ demic, 249, 460, 559; of the ages, 133; analytical, 563; of ancient Egyptians, 103; chaos in, 127; col­ lective, 163; comparative, 539; compartment, 153, 242; of con­ sciousness, 7; empirical, 309, 561, 569, 664; — , and Holy Spirit, 690; English, 9; exile, 282; experi­ mental, 307; and factor of value, 260; and feeling, 14; four-dimen­ sional, 59; French, see F ran ce/ French r.y.; German, 12; Hindu, see H indu s.v.; introspective, 67; medical, 6; medieval, 163; modern, 7» I03. 3 i6 > 599. 610, 617; na­ tional and racial, 565; and national problems, 566-81; needs widening of its horizon, 320; normal, 375; objective, 125; pathological, 353, 354; philosophical, 242; and phi­ losophy, 773-75; practical, 19; primitive, see primitive (s) s.v.; public interest in, 610; as real life adventure, 249; the science of the future, 589; of the statement,

355; psychology of, 349, 651; see also insanity; schizophrenia psychosomatic medicine, 355, 357 psychosynthesis, 398, 399 psychotherapists: physical illness among, 154; priests trained as, 287 psychotherapy, 223, 390; aims of, 316; a craft, 126; description of, 606; as dialectical discussion with the unconscious, 664, 667; and emotions of patient, 138; goal of, 819; hypnotic, 378 puberty, 233; rites, 157 Pueblo Indians, see American In ­ dians s.v. purusha, 828; Elijah as, 675 Pythagoras, 674 Pythagoreans, 203

Q quaternity: alchemical, 717; C ath­ olic, 712, 714; devil/Satan asfourth member, 712, 732; divine, 232; and Godhead, 715; and shadow, 714; as symbol of psychic totality, 473; totality as, 688, 713; T rin ­ ity and, 688; as unity, 713 Quest, the, 285, 289 quinarius/ quinio/ quincunx, 712, 713 Quisling, Vidkun, 604 Quispel, Gilles, 651 Sm, 67in, 826η; “Tragic Christianity,” J .’s fore­ word to, 651-53

307

psychopath, H itler as, 605 psychopathology, 6, 353, 376 psychophysical parallelism, 34, 65 psychosis, 353, 383; aetiology of, 381; affective, 365 (see also manicdepression) ; autochthonous de­ scriptions, 350; classification of, 379. 386; and collective uncon• scious, 484; confusional, 32; m o­ tility, see catatonia; mythological fragments in, 259; outbreak of,

R races, study of, 47 racial inheritance, 37 radioactivity, 541 Rahner, Hugo, 485 railways, βθ 8&η Rank, O tto, 446n, 485, 55m ; ed. Im ago, 425n rapport between doctor and patient,

144, 168, 224, 225 Rasm ussen, K nud , 286; Across A rctic A m erica, 286n rationalism , 273, 705; m aterialistic, 743; an d superstition, com plem en­ tary, 318 rationality, 318 R avenna, 761 reaction tim e, prolongation of, 49 redeem er, 38, 743 reductio in p rim a m figuram , 84, 85 reduction to infantile m aterial, 435,

436 Rees, J. R., 135 regression, 431, 5 7o&n; infantile, 159; into history, 574; national, 573 R eibm ayer, A lb e rt: D ie E ntw icklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies, J .’s review, 385-86 R eich h ard t, M .: L eitfa d en zur psychiatrischen K lin ik , J . ’s review, 378-79 R eith, M arian, 692« relativism , 7 relativity, theory of, 68 relativization of m oral values, 233 religio m e d id , 641 religion, 167; an absolute experience, 289; anaem ia of, 261; archetypes and, 519; com parative, 354; and creed, distinction, 724, 725; cul­ tu ra l symbols in, 253; Fascism as, 165; future, 277; as m ental hy­ giene, 698; “ psychologizing” of, 659; psychology of, 474, 476; as psychotherapeutic systems, 162, 519, 658, 699; and science, con­ flict, 289; symbols in, 212; w orld, 246 religious: conversion, 259; develop­ m ent, 267 R enaissance, 545, 736 R e n i d ’A njou, 545, 759 reparation, of the collective, 452 representations, “d im ,” 7 representations collectives (Levy-

B ru h l), 201, 228, 233, 238, 253; origins of, 240; of religions, 728; symbols as, 212 repression, 188, 478, 479 respectability, 684 R evault d ’AIlones, G .: “!/E x p lic a ­ tion physiologique de !e m o tio n ,” 421 re revelation, new, 267 R heinau S anatorium (C an to n Z u r­ ic h ), 417 R hine, J. B., 319, 473, 499, 500, 504; N e w Frontiers of the M in d , 313re; T h e R each of the M in d , 313"

R hodesia: prehistoric sun-w heel m andalas of, 39&71, 516 R ichet, A lfred, 314 R ickert, H einrich, 771 &re R icksher, C harles, 27re right an d left, in Jo h n (A cts of P e te r), 735&n R iklin, Franz, 429; J .’s abstracts: “A nalytische U ntersuchungen der S ym ptom e u n d Assoziationen eines FalIes von H ysterie,” 416-17; “ B eitrag zur Psychologie d er kataIeptischen Z ustan d e bei K ata to n ie ,” 418-19; “D ie diagnostische Bedeutung von Assoziationsversuchen bei H ysterischen,” 417; “H eb u n g epileptischer A m nesien d u rch H ypnose,” 415; “K asuistische Beitrage zur K enntnis hysterischer Assoziationsphanom ene,” 410; “ Psychologie und Sexualsym bolik der M a rc h en ,” 419; “t)b e r Gefangnispsychosen,” 419; “ D ber V ersetzungsbesserungen,” 417; W unscherfiillung und S ym b o lik im M archen, 419; “Z u r Psychologie hysterischer D am m erzustande u n d des G anserschen Sym ptom s,” 415; — unpublished lecture on o m nip­ otence of thoughts, 445η R ippon, T . S., 287 rite de sortie, 595 R itschl, A lbrecht, 739&re

INDEX ritual: of life, 273; psychology of, 271 Robert I, the Wise, 797 Roberts, W i l l i a m A., 634; "Analysis and Faith," 634.T1 R o m a n C a t h o l i c Church, see C a t h olic C h u r c h R o m a n t i c Movement, 294, 7 7 1 , 772,

775

R o m e / R o m a n ( s ) : Mithraeum, 1 1 7 ; pestilence in, 116; psychic change in, 554; Senate, 1 1 1 ; Tarpeian rock, 117 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 575&n Roques, H e d w i g von, see Beit Rosarium philosophorum, 797-800 rose, mystic, 759 Rosenbach, — , 379 Rosencreutz, Christian: Chymische Hochzeit, 748 Rosenthal, Hugo, 768, 8251; " D e r Typengegensatz in der jiidischen Religionsgeschichte," 768n "Rosinus ad Sarratantam," 800 Ross, T . A., 129 Rothe, Frau, 302 R o u m a , Georges: " U n cas de mythomanie, Contribution a l'etude du mensonge et de la fabulation chez 1'enfant," 42 m Ruach, Elohim, 592, 687 Russia, 188, 569, 580; Freudian psychology in, 3g8n; primitivity of,

254

S

Saalburg, 1 1 7 Sachs, H a n n s : ed. Imago, 425n sacrifice: of Christ, 275, 276; of god of spring, 446; of phallus, in ancient cults, 446; priest as, see priest; problem of, 434, 436 sacrificial symbols in Negroes' dreams, 552&n sacrificium intellectus, 728 Sadger, Isidor: Konrad Ferdinand

Meyer, Eine pathographisch-psychologische Studie, J.'s review, 336-38 St. Moritz, i 2 g Salpetriere school, 5 1 5 Salzburg, see Psychoanalytic C o n gresses s.v. First samadhi, 620 Samyutta-Nikaya, 311 n San Clemente Church, R o m e , 117 Sanskrit, 67, 82, 178 Sans Souci, 211 Saoshyant, 676 sarcomatosis, case of, 58 sarcophagus, vision of, 758 Satan, see devil/Satan saviour: complex, see complex s.v.; expectation, 161 sayings of Jesus, see Christ s.v. Scandinavian mythology, 92 scapegoats, g7 Schaer, Hans, 474; Erlosungsvorstellungen und ihre psychologischen Aspekte, 47471; Religion and the Cure of Souls in Jung's Psychol-

474™

°gy> Scharf ( - K l u g e r ) , R i w k a h , 82571; " D i e Gestalt Satans i m Alten Testament"/Satan in the Old Testament, 649&n, 71 i n Schelling, F.W.J, v o n : on "eternal unconscious," 477, 5 1 5 Schemer, K . A., 361 Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 314 Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, 30; in servant-girl's hallucinations, 298 schizophrenia/dementia praecox, 335, 353-55; and association experiment, 54, 353; and collective contents of the unconscious, 483; complexes in, 72; and cure, 101; and demonism, 648; diagnosis of, 385; dissociation in, 100; ego split in, 1 1 ; fantasies in, and historical parallels, 446; Freud's theory and, 388, 389; hallucinations in, 389; and hysteria, 406; neologisms, 349;

organic factor in, 335; paintings in, 176, 177; patient’s vision, 41; per­ sonality changes in, 12; psychology of, 354; regional variations in di­ agnosis, 384; splinter-complexes in, 482; unconscious in, 353; unculti­ vated deserts of, 371; world in state of, 254 Schleich, C arl Ludwig: Those Were Good Days, 462η; Die W under der Seele, J .’s foreword, 462-66 Schloss, Jerome, J .’s memorial, 757 Schmaltz, Gustav: K om plexe Psychologie und korperliches S ym p ­ tom , J .’s foreword, 357-58; Ostliche Weisheit und westliche Psychotherapie, 664¾ Schmid-Guisan, Hans, 825η; J .’s In M em oriam , 760-61; Tag und N acht, 761; — , J .’s foreword, 759 - 6 °

Schmitz, Oskar A. H .: M archen aus dem Unbewussten, J .’s foreword, 762-64 Schneider brothers, 575 Schneiter, C., 825η Schnyder, — : Definition et nature de I’hysterie, J .’s abstract, 419 scholasticism, 463 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 168, 213, 515, 560, 788; on sanctity, 294; on “un­ conscious will,” 477; Parerga und Paralipomena, 294; T he W orld as W ill and Idea, 294η Schreber, Daniel P aul: M emoirs of M y Nervous Illness, 667-68 Schrenck-Notzing, Albert von, 341 &n Schubert, G otthilf H einrich von, 361 Schulinus (Johann H einrich SchueIin ): De Elia corvorum alumno, 674 Schumann, — , Professor, 333 Schurer, E m il: “Z ur Vorstellung von der Besessenheit im Neuen Testa­ m ent,” 648 Schwarzwald, — : “Beitrag zur Psychopathologie der hysterischen

Dammerzustande und Automatismen,” J .’s abstract, 420 Schweitzer, Albert, 680-82, 697η Schweizer Gesellschaft fiir Psychia­ tric, 461η Schweizerischer Beobachter, 327 Schweizer Lexikon, J .’s article in, 648η science: authority of, 466; as power for good or ill, 598, 599; psychic consequences of, 594, 595; and re­ ligious experience, 289, 738 scintilla, self as, 725, 734 seances, educated people and, 319 Seif, Leonhard, 423&71 sejunction theory (W ernicke), 376 self: as archetype, 484, 694, 725, 734; city as synonym for, 122; E lijah as, 675; in four dimensions, 60; -interest, 587; -knowledge, 588, 818, 819; loss of, 24; realiza­ tion of, 694, 695; seeks conscious­ ness, 721; symbols of, and symbols of Deity, 719; theological aspect of, 659; as totality of man, 719 sensation: extinction of, 370, 371; function, 12-14, 16-18, 28,43, 2 I9> type, 18, 19 sense-perceptions, subliminal, 199 sensitiveness, intensification of, 50 Serrano, Miguel: T he Visits of the Queen of Sheba, J.’s foreword, 788 sex: and neurosis, 128; pathology of, 380 sexual: concretism, 434; ethics, 384; misdemeanours, 393; morality, n a t­ ural/cultural, 384; mysteries, 445 sexuality: biological conception of, 429; and neurosis, 388 shadow, 280, 484, 620; assimilation of, 708, 710; compensatory signif­ icance of, 617; confrontation with, 728; destructive, 254; in Gnosti­ cism, 716; integration of, 619; and Iron Curtain, 245; living one’s own, 23; loss of, 23; our own, 245; projection of, 160; -side, 24, 221; in Trinity, 716, 741; -world, 21

Shakti, 120 shamanism, 253&Λ, 648 Shaw, George Bernard: M an and S u ­ perman, 164&n Shiva, 120, 181 Shunamite, 675 Sicily, see Messina sight, second, 328 Silberer, Herbert, 435; Problems of M ysticism and Its Symbolism, 753” ! “Ober die Symbolbildung,” 435” ; “Von den Kategorien der Symbolik,” 435η similia similibus curantur, 6 Simon the Essene, 108, 109 Simon Magus, 108, 545 simulation, 375 sin, original/peccatum originate, 687 Sisyphus, labour of, 601 Skolts, Lappish, of Finland, 783 sleep: magnetic, 295; “waking,” 295 Socialism, 573, 579 society, individual’s separation from, 453 Society for Freudian Researches, Z u­ rich, 334 Society for Psychotherapy, 639, 640 Soho, 70 Sol, and Luna, 120 sola fide, 738 somnabulism(-ists), 295, 296, 317, 340, 374; hallucinations in, 461 Son, as interm ediary between Father and Holy Spirit, 688 Son of M an, 829 soothsaying, 296 Sophia, 689 Sophocles, 111, 112; Sophoclis Fabulae, ed. Pearson, 112” Sorbonne, 52 sorcerer, 156 sorcery, 328 Sorokin, Pitirim A., 638η soul: bush-, 194, 205; and collective function, 454; cure of, 602, 669; daily need of, 274; existence of, after death, 309; language of, 284;

lonely, 276; loss of, 46, 194, 195, 277; paradoxical, 689; part-, 309; problem of, 558; spiritual develop­ ment of, 689; vision of, rising from sarcophagus, 758; world-, 464; — , sparks of, 591 sound, as oscillations, 9 Southwark, Bishop of (Richard Par­ sons), 281-84, 289 space and tim e: an illusion, 287; as limiting factors, 315; and psychic totality, 695; relativation of, 313, 3 ^ . 473> 475) 5 1 L 696; uncon­ scious independent of, 315 Spain, 112, 116, 122, 554, 579 speech, modern, 255 Spencer-Brown, G., 496; “Statistical Significance in Psychical Re­ search,” 496¾ Speyr, — von, Professor, 444” Spier, Julius: The Hands of Chil­ dren, J .’s foreword, 820-21 sp irit(s): aim of, 314; archetype, 649; communicating with, 293, 313; of the departed, as personified un­ conscious content, 314; existence of, 313; God as, 155; happiness in, 583, 584; and m atter, split be­ tween, 733; as psychic phenomena, 312 spiritism, 293η; see also spiritualism spiritualism, 73, 293-307, 312, 648; American, 299, 3x4; compensatory significance of, 314; dual nature of, 293; and ionization investigation, 660; physical phenomena in, 306; primitive projection in, 316; reality of phenomena in, 307, 319; a re­ ligious belief, 293 spiritualists, 302, 306, 308 spiritus, 155 Spiritus Sanctus, 158; see also Holy Ghost spittle, magical effect of, 240 springs of water, 117 Stalin, Joseph, 575 star: over Bethlehem, 576; of David,

716; red, of Russia, 576 S tate: belief in, 744; as ghost, 5 7 2 76; 579> 58°; as highest authority, 695; personification of, 578 Stein, P h ilip p : “T atbestandsdiagnostische V ersuche bei U ntersuchungsgefangenen,” J .’s abstract, 41 r Steiner, R udolf, 681 Stekel, W ilhelm , 390η; Nervose A ngstzustande u n d ihre B ehandlung, J .’s review, 390, 3 g i; ed. w ith A. A dler, Z entralblatt fiir Psycho­ analyse, 425 n Stella m atutina, 226 Stenia festival, 12m Stern, W illiam , 307Szn Stoll, O tto : Suggestion u n d H ypnotism us in der V olkerpsychologie, 648 Strack, H . L., and P aul B illerbeck: K o m m e n ta r zu m N euen T esta ­ m en t, 675 Strauss, E. B., 29, 57, 58, 60, 62, 63,

J33> J34 subject an d object: of equal im p o r­ tance, 611; oneness of, 42; psyche as, 7 sublim inality, 222 suffering, 697-99 Sufism, 545η. suggestibility, 370-72; during sleep (M o ll), 377 suggestion, 605; definition of, 377; u n d er hypnosis, 699; an d masses, 610; m ethod, 295; therapy, 340, 603 suicide, 260 S u m m is desiderantes, P ap al Bull, 607 S um m um Bonum , 721; as C h rist’s fa ­ ther, 717; and dark side, 734; G od as, see God; T h re e /trin ity as, 712; victim s of, 725 sun: F ather, 247, 274, 288; -god, 121; -image, archetypal, 39; -wheel, 39, 95, 186; -—, in paleolithic (?) R hodesian rock-draw ings, 39 &n; w orshippers: Elgonyi, 240; — ,

Pueblo Indians, 10 Sunday R eferee, 343n Superm an, 578, 579, 600 superstition, 327; of m odern m an, 241 Suprem e Being, 246 S u tra s: A m itayur D h y an a S utra, 739 Suttie, Ian, 60-62 Swahili, 240 sw astik a(s), 569, 576; as m andala,

578 Sw edenborg, E m anuel, 297&n, 299 Sw itzerland/Sw iss, 161; at b attle of St. Jacob, 87; dialect, 23; and free­ dom , 580; frontier, in dream , 150; and G reat W ar, 46; and harvest blessing, 178; journey from , in dream , 86; n atio n al c h a ra c te r/te m ­ peram ent, 127, 328, 585-87, 596; village, in d ream , 79 sword, ancient, in dream , 113 Sylvester, St., 117 sy m b o l(s): in te rp re tatio n of, 225; n atu ra l vs. cultural, 253; as n atu ra l products, 211; religious, 244-52, 827; and reunion of opposites, 259; an d sign, differentiated, 212 sym bolic life, need for, 273, 274 sym bolism : o f collective unconscious, 38; of m anners, 20; m ythological, 240; O riental, 67; study of, 264; taking refuge in, 282 sym bolum , 719 sym pathetic system, 134, 464; anim al symbols of, 179 sym ptom , definition of, 568 synchronicity, 34, 69, 319, 491, 655, 696; an d archetypes, 500, 501, 508; and astrology, 497, 504, 506; J .’s letter to Fierz on, 502-7; and statistical m aterial, 494 syncretism : H ellenistic-A siatic, 554; Jewish, 652

table-turning, 294-96, 299, 302, 304 T abor, transfiguration on, 674

INDEX

Tacitus: Historiae, 674 Tagus river, 112 Talmud, 83, 248 Tantalus Club, 445 Tantra chakra, 578 Tantric(-ism), 95, 120; J.'s seminar on, 707 &n; mandala in, 578; philosophy, 553; Yoga, 11, 516 Tao, 6g, ng, 667, 717; and Christ, contrasted, 737; as dyadic monad, 715; and opposites, cooperation of, 719; as self, 720 Taoist, 68 Tao-te-ching (Lao-tzu), 539?! Tarpeian rock, 117 Tausk, Victor, 433-37, 433 n Tavistock Clinic, see Institute of Medical Psychology Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, 6o6n teacher, and shadow, 485 team-spirit, 585-87 technology, effect of, on psyche, 614, 615 telepathic phenomena, 15 temenos, 123, 178, 179 Temple, Frederick, Archbishop, 679 temple: in magic circle, 178; prostitution rite in Babylon, 159 Terence: Heauton Timorumenos, 45n tertium comparationis, 364, 653 Tertullian: De praescriptione hereticorum, 676 tetrad, G o d as, 715 Tetrarch of Palestine, 108 Thayer, Ellen, 65471 Theatrum chemicum, 753n theologoumenon, 743 theology: and the practical man, 268; and primordial images, 716; and psychology, 354, 716, 742, 743 Theosebeia, 545 theosophy, 554; primitive projection in, 316 Therapeutai, 108 therapist, character of, 439; see also analyst; doctor

Therese of Konnersreuth (Therese Neumann), 66o&n Thesmophoria, 1 2 m thinking: in the belly, 10; function, 12, 13, 16, 17, 43, 219; in the heart, 10; mechanistic, 316; of primitives, 10; subliminal, 461; type, see type s.v.; see also thought (s) thirteen, 256 Thomas Aquinas, St., 688; Summa theologica, 68872 Thomist philosophy, 475 Thompson, R . Campbell: The Epic of Gilgamish, 10571 thought(s): a late discovery, 241; -patterns, collective, 234; see also thinking three plus one, 713, 732, 741; ratio/ • proportio sesquitertia, 473, 476 Thury, Professor, see Cassini Tiamat, dragon in Babylonian myth, 105 Tibetan philosophy, 95 Tifereth, 738 time machine, 28 time and space, see space and time timelessness, and realization of. self, 694 Tiresias, 38 Toledo, i 2 i , 122; cathedral, 1 1 2 - 1 5 Toletum, 114 tongue, slips of, 532 totalitarianism, 596, 659 totality: Eastern apperception of, 655; as four, 715; image of, 9; of man, 122; psychic, and quaternity symbol, 473; as three, 715 tractability, 371, 372 trance: and demonism, 648; speaking in, 302, 304 transcendence, prayer and, 681 transcendent function, 690 transference, i34-37> 472> 492> 577; aetiology of, 143; in alchemy, 753; to animals, 141; and archetypes, 164, 486; collapse of, 142; as compensation, r 68; counter-, 140, 142,

900

150; as dialogue between partners, 493; dreams in, see dreams s.v.; erotic, 141; father, 160, 277; Freud on, 480, 486; heightened, 451, 452; as hindrance, 151; intensity of, 142, 152; m utual unconsciousness in, 149; neurosis, 480; as projection, 136-38, 151, 152, 155; teleological value of, 168; therapy of, 154, 160 transformation, in alchemy, 591 transubstantiation, 591 Transvaal, 39η transvestism, 347-48 traum a theory, 430 treasure, 166; in the depths, 118; in­ tegration of, 152; singular feeling as, 329; in transference, 143 treatm ent, reductive, 224 tre e (s): fig-tree, 646; of knowledge, 603; of Life, 675; symbol: and Christ, 239; — , of G reat Mother, 239

tremors, intended, 303 triad: and K epler’s astronomy, 473; lower/inferior, 713, 732 Trinity: as archetype, gg; devil/Satan as fourth in, see devil s.v.·, m an as part of, 687, 689; and M ary as fourth, 681, 687, 689, 712, 714; masculine, 99, 689, 714, 733, 741; and psychological viewpoint, 649; and quatem ity, 688; shadow of, 716, 741; as symbol, 714 Tripitaka, 730 Tripus aureus, 749 tru th : eschatological, 618; experience of, 558; how we know it, 288; rel­ ative or absolute, 703 Turbo, 748 twilight states, 302; hysterical, 415, 416 Tylor, E. B., 562 ty p e(s): attitude-, 471, 483; classifi­ cation into, 220; complex-constellation, 407; and dream-analysis, 217, 218; function-, 219, 471, 534; in­

tellectual, 20; predicate, 407; think­ ing, 17, 43, 56 typology, psychological, 471 typos (im print), 37 Die Tyroler ekstatischen Jungjrauen (anon.), 295η Tyrrell, G.N .M .: The Personality of M an, 3 1 3 7 1

U ίίδωρ Q elov (hudor theion), 591 Ufos/flying saucers, 626-33; and American Air Force, 627, 632, 633; extra-terrestrial origin of, 628, 629, 632; Flying Saucer Review, 626η; in history, 631; and parapsychological processes, 628, 630; as psychic phenomenon, 626, 630, 631; as symbols, 626 Ulysses, 38 Unam uno, Miguel de, 58i&n unconscious (the) : ambivalence/two aspects of, 682, 683; apprehension, 305, 306; capriciousness of, 306; and Christ-phenomenon, 828; com­ bination, 305; continuous, 9; as cre­ ative matrix of consciousness, 482; deliberations of, 237; depreciation of, 206; different conceptions of, 62, 124; discovery of, 317; as dust­ bin of the conscious mind, 206; empirical approach to, 477; energic charge of, 353; energy of, compared w ith consciousness, 314, 315; extent of, unknown, 316; goodwill of, 235; has no known limits, 738; has no time, 287; integration of, 695; in­ terventions of, 249; as land of dreams, 315; language of, 279, 285; localization of, 319; in manic state, 351; meaning of term, 8; message of, 207; neutrality of, 704; physi­ ological aspect of, 607; powers of, 665; powers of perception of, 326; problems, exteriorization of, 322; religious aspect of, 701; Satan as

unconscious (the) ( cont.): representative of, 732; in schizo­ phrenia, is dreamlike, 353; spectral world of, 318; and subliminal per­ ceptions, 313; symbolic language of, 356; symbol-producing, 262, 279; a treasure-house of lost mem­ ories, 313 unconscious, collective, 41, 482, 483; activation of, 161, 162, 164; and anima, see anim a s.v. personifica­ tion; archetypes and, 38; children’s awareness of, 95; contents of, 37; — , activated, 46; discovery of, 472; Elijah as, 675; in Germans, 573; and Gnosticism, 652, 664; and m u­ tation of dom inant ideas, 485; and nations, 577; patient’s, onslaught of, 153; and primitive psychology, 553) 554; processes of, 6; — , and mystics, 98; and psychosis, 484; regulating influence of, 486; sym­ bolism in, 38; as totality of arche­ types, 682 unconscious, personal, 37, 484, 515; contents of, 57, 58; is relative, 45,

58

unconscious and consciousness: col­ laboration, 235; consciousness arises from, 10; conscious surrounded by sea of unconscious, 315; compen­ sating, 621, 655, 657, 704; in Freud’s theory, 515; independent and opposed, 515; as nonsense and sense, 262; relative im portance of, 704; united, 120, 122 unconscious contents: autonomous, 515; emotionality of, 258; fascina­ tion of, 74; in Freud’s theory, 479; integration of, with consciousness, 606, 613, 618; origin of, 656; pro­ jection of, 316 unconscious m ind: and compensation of conscious attitude, 606; as m a­ trix of conscious mind, 607; prod­ ucts of, 8; storehouse of relics, 41; structure of, 6 unconscious processes, 36; compen­

satory function of, 482; exterioriza­ tion of, 319; investigation of, 7; teleological character of, 482 unconsciousness: in our civilization, 45; m utual, 140; through mutual contamination, see contamination s.v.; original condition of, 120; as treasure, 120 underworld: psychic, 254; and water, 117, 123 Unesco (U nited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza­ tion) : Second General Conference, 6o6n; J .’s m em orandum to, 60613; Royaumont Conference, 606η universe, unobstructed, 315 Urstein, M .: Die Dementia praecox und ihre Stellung zum manischdepressiven Irresein, J . ’s review, 385

Ursulines of London, 648 V Valens, Emperor, 296 Valentinus (Gnostic), 727, 826 value: feeling and, 13; idea of, 5; reactivation of, 453; subjective, of transference, 154, 160 Varendonck, J .: “Les ideals des enfants,” 42 m vase, in patient’s drawing, 176, 179 Venus, 444 Veraguth, Otto, 339&7I Verena, St., 444 Vespasian, 674 vessel, 121; as container, 176-78; ideas as, 310; motif, as archetypal image, 176 Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, 423&71, 42571 Vigouroux, A., and Juquelier, P .: “Contribution clinique a l’etude des delires du reve,” 42171 Virgil: Eclogue V, 16571 Virgin birth: in alchemy, 591; and rationalization, 271 virginity, secret of, 271

INDEX

Vischer, Friedrich Theodor, 619 Visigoths, 114 vision(s), 295, 298; collective, 626, 630; dying man's, of sarcophagus, 758; of female saints, 298; as morbid symptoms, 205; of Paul on road to Damascus, 298; of professor, repeated in old woodcut, 22g; and Resurrection, 693; of schizophrenic patient, 41; warning, 327 visionaries, 298 vita somnium breve, 233 vocation, prophetic experience of, 696 Vodoz, J., 825?! Vogt, Oskar, 34i&n Vogt, Ragnar, 377 voices, heard by the insane, 312 volition, 370, 375 Volkelt, J , 361 voyeurism, 394

W Wagner, Richard, 546; Flying Dutchman, 159; Parsifal, 118, 120, 742 Waldstein, Louis: Das Unbewusste Ich/The Subconscious Self, J.'s review, 339-42 Walser, Hans H . : " A n Early Psychoanalytical Tragedy," 4261 Walton, Robert C., 74471 wand, as dream symbol, 86, 92, 93 war: wish for, 274; World W a r I, 567, 568 water: divine, rite of, 270; healing, 749; and unconscious, 118; and underworld, 117, 123 Wehrlin, K . : "Uber die Assoziationen von Imbezillen und Idioten," J.'s abstract, 407, 408 Welfare State, 245 Welles, t>rson, 627n Wells, Herbert George: The Time Machine, 28; The War of the Worlds, 627&n Weltanschauung: Christian, 116; of Middle Ages, 115; need for, 698

Weltwoche, 625n, 626?! Wernicke, Carl, 378, 382; Grundriss der Psychiatrie in klinischen Vorlesungen, J.'s review, 376 West/western: Christian tradition in, 231; civilization, 245; consciousness, 245; and Iron Curtain, 244, 245; unease of, 254 wheel, as sun-symbol, 95, 186 White, Betty, medium, 3 1 3 - 1 6 White, Richard (of Basingstoke), 545 White, Stewart Edward, 31271; Across the Unknown, 31471; The Betty Book, 31477, 316; The Road I Know, 31471; The Unobstructed U niverse/U neingeschranktes Weltall,

312&77, 3 1 4 ; — , J.'s f o r e w o r d

to German trans., 3 1 2 - 1 6 White, Victor, 474, 710; God and the Unconscious, 47477, 708 White House, 219 wholeness, 621; meaning of, 123; of symbol-producing individual, 250; as unconscious fact, 686; unconscious tendency toward, 655 Whyte, Lancelot L a w : The Unconscious before Freud, 4Tjn Wickes, Frances G., 474; The Inner World of Childhood, 47477, 61377; Inner World of Man, 61372; Von der inneren Welt des Menschen, J.'s foreword, 527-28 Wilhelm, Richard, 68, 472, 485, 553&71; The Secret of the Golden Flower, 68ti, 553&n will: and control of functions, 16; free, 21, 658; fulfilment of, 281; -power, 17; — , of complexes, 72; to power, of the East, 244 Will cox, A. R . : The Rock Art of South Africa, qgn Wilmann, — , 385 wise old man archetype, 484 wish-fulfilment, dream as, 363, 367,

479

witch: burning of, 318; -craft, 591; -hunts, 485, 607; warlocks and worricows, 256 903

INDEX

Witcutt, W. P., 474; Catholic Thought and Modern Psychology, 47411; Return to Reality, 474n Wittels, Fritz: Die sexuelle Not, J.'s marginal notes on, 393-96 Wolff, Toni, 4; Einfilhrung in die Grundlagen der komplexen Psychologie, 474&n Wolfram von Eschenbach, 798 woman, masculine attitude in, 520 w o r d ( s ) : as fetish, 710; superstitious belief in, 625, 710 work therapy, 417 world: dehumanized, 255; principle, male or female, 254; Soul, 464; — , sparks of, 591; Teacher, new incarnation of, 267 Wotan, 749; and Germany, 576 Wreschner, Arthur, 333&71 Wright, Maurice B., 70 Wulffen, Erich: Der Sexualverbrecher, J.'s review, 397 Wundt, Wilhelm, -j8&n, 370, 477, 773; association experiments of, 471

Y Y a h w e h / Y H W H , 682, 690; active principle of, 687; consciousness of, 718; Elijah and, 677; as monad, 715; moral and immoral, 709; opposites unconscious in, 716; paradoxical, 690 Yellowlees, David, 124 Yoga, 120; Chinese, 516; consciousness in, 72; Indian and Chinese,

465; Kundalini,

120, 516; Tantric,

11. 5*5

yogi, 620

Z Zeitschrift fur angewandte logie und psychologische forschung,

PsychoSammel-

33371

Z e n : see Buddhism s.v. Zentralblatt filr Psychoanalyse,

4 5 > 55 2

& n

Zeus, 40 Ziegler, K . A. chemie, 74771 Zilboorg, Gregory, Zimmer, Heinrich, Zinzendorf, Count von,

42377,

I?l

(bookseller):

Al-

63477 472, 485, 529 Nikolaus Ludwig

681&77

zodiac, sign of Leo, 121 Zollner, Friedrich, 314 Zoroaster, 117 Zosimus of Panopolis, 545, 751 Zilrcher Student, 61477, 63777 Zurich, 49, 51, 67, 139, 301; branch of the International Psychoanalytic Association, 423, 424; Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule/Federal Polytechnic ( E . T . H . ) , 3, 5 1 5 7 7 , 61477, 615, 686ti, 707; Psychoanalytic Society, 55277; Psychological Club, 74871, 779n, 79771; school of psychoanalysis, 381, 43377, 434; — , abstracts of works, 398-421; University Psychiatric Clinic, 333; see also Burgholzli Mental Hospital Zwinglian Church, 273

904

T H E C O LL E C T E D WORKS OF

C. G. JUJVG

Jl

of the first com plete edition, in English, of the works of C. G. J u n g was undertak en by R outledge an d Kegan Paul, Ltd., in E ngland and by Bollingen F o u n d atio n in the U n ited States. T h e Am eri­ can edition is nu m b er X X in B ollingen Series, which since 1967 has been published by Princeton U niversity Press. T h e edition contains revised versions of works previously published, such as Psychology o f the U ncon­ scious, w hich is now e n titled Sym bols of Transform ation; works originally w ritten in English, such as Psychology and Religion; works not previously translated, such as A ion; and, in general, new translations of virtually all of Professor Ju n g ’s writings. P rior to his death, in 1961, the au th o r super­ vised the textual revision, which in some cases is extensive. Sir H erbert R ead (d. 1968), Dr. M ichael Fordham , an d Dr. G erhard A dler compose the E ditorial Com m ittee; the tran slato r is R . F. C. H u ll (except for Volume 2) an d W illiam M cG uire is executive editor. T h e price of th e volumes varies according to size; they are sold sepa­ rately, an d m ay also be o b tain ed o n stan d in g order. Several of the volumes are extensively illustrated. Each volum e contains an index a n d in most a bibliography; the final volum es will contain a com plete bibliography of Professor J u n g ’s w ritings an d a general in d ex to the en tire edition. In th e follow ing list, dates of original pub lication are given in p are n ­ theses (of o rig in al com position, in brackets). M u ltip le dates indicate revisions. h e p u b lic a tio n

*1. PSY C H IA T R IC STU D IES O n the Psychology an d Pathology of So-Called O ccult Phenom ena (1902) O n Hysterical M isreading (1904) C ryptom nesia (1905) O n M anic M ood D isorder (1903) A Case of H ysterical S tupor in a Prisoner in D etention (1902) O n Sim ulated Insanity (1903) A M edical O p in io n on a Case of Sim ulated Insanity (1904) A T h ird an d Final O pin io n on T w o C ontradictory Psychiatric Diag­ noses (1906) O n the Psychological Diagnosis of Facts (1905) f2. E X P E R IM E N T A L RESEARCHES T r a n s l a te d b y L e o p o l d S tein in c o ll a b o r a t io n w it h D ia n a R i v i e r e STUDIES IN W ORD A SSOCIATION

(1 9 0 4 -7 ,

1910)

T h e Associations of N orm al Subjects (by Ju n g and F. R iklin) An Analysis of the Associations of an Epileptic T h e R eaction-T im e R atio in the Association E xperim ent E xperim ental O bservations on the Faculty of \lem o ry Psychoanalysis and Association Experim ents T h e Psychological Diagnosis of Evidence Association, D ream , and' Hysterical Symptom T h e Psychopathological Significance of the Association E xperim ent D isturbances in R eproduction in the Association E xperim ent T h e Association M ethod T h e Family C onstellation PSY C H O PH Y SIC A L RESEARCHES (l 907-8) O n the Psychophysical R elations of the Association E xperim ent Psychophysical Investigations w ith the G alvanom eter and Pneum o­ graph in N orm al a n d Insane Individuals (by F. Peterson and Jung) F u rth e r Investigations on the G alvanic Phenom enon and R espiration in N orm al an d Insane Individuals (by C. R icksher and Jung) A ppendix: Statistical D etails of E nlistm ent (1906); New Aspects of C rim inal Psychology (1908); T h e Psychological M ethods of Investigation Used in the Psychiatric Clinic of the U niversity of Zurich (1910); O n the D octrine of Complexes ([1911] 1913); O n the Psychological Diagnosis of Evidence (1937) Published 1957; 2nd edn., 1970.

t Published 1973.

*Β· T H E PSYCHOGENESIS O F M E N T A L DISEASE T h e Psychology of D em entia Praecox (1907) T h e C o n ten t of the Psychoses (1908/1914) O n Psychological U n d e rs ta n d in g (1914) A C riticism o f B le u le r’s T h e o ry of S chizo p h ren ic N eg ativ ism (1911) O n th e Im p o rta n c e o f th e U n conscious in P sychopathology (1914) O n th e P ro b le m of Psychogenesis in M e n ta l D isease (1919)

M ental Disease an d the Psyche (1928) O n th e Psychogenesis of S ch izo p h ren ia

(1939)

R e c e n t T h o u g h ts o n S ch izo p h ren ia (1957)

Schizophrenia (1958) t4- FR E U D A N D PSYCHOANALYSIS F reu d ’s T h eo ry of H ysteria: A R eply to Aschaffenburg (1906) T h e F re u d ia n T h e o ry of H y ste ria (1908)

T h e Analysis of Dreams (1909) A C o n trib utio n to the Psychology of R u m o u r (1910-11) O n th e Significance of N u m b e r D ream s (1910-11) M o rto n P rin ce, “T h e M echanism a n d I n te r p r e ta tio n o f D ream s” : A C ritica l R eview (1911) O n th e C riticism of P sychoanalysis (1910)

C oncerning Psychoanalysis (1912) T h e T heory of Psychoanalysis (1913) G en e ra l A spects of P sychoanalysis (1913)

Psychoanalysis an d Neurosis (1916) Some C rucial Points in Psychoanalysis: A Correspondence betw een Dr. Ju n g an d Dr. Loy (1914) Prefaces to "C ollected Papers on A nalytical Psychology’’ (1916, 1917) T h e Significance of the F ath er in the Destiny of the Individual ( 1909/ *

949 )

In tro d u c tio n to K ranefeldt’s “Secret Ways of the M ind” (1930) F reud and Jung: C ontrasts (1929) +5. SYMBOLS O F T R A N S F O R M A T IO N

(1911-12/1952)

PART I

In tro d u ctio n T w o K inds of T h in k in g T h e M iller Fantasies: Anam nesis T h e H ym n of C reation T h e Song of the M oth •Published i960. f Published 1961. + Published 1956; 2nd edn., 1967. (65 plates, 43 text figures.)

(continued!)

5· (continued) P A R T II

Introduction T he Concept of Libido T h e Transform ation of Libido T h e Origin of the Hero Symbols of the M other and of Rebirth T h e Battle for Deliverance from the Mother T h e Dual M other T h e Sacrifice Epilogue Appendix: T h e Miller Fantasies •6. PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES (1921) Introduction T h e Problem of Types in the History of Classical and Medieval T hought Schiller’s Ideas on the Type Problem T h e Apollinian and the Dionysian T h e Type Problem in H um an Character T h e Type Problem in Poetry T h e T ype Problem in Psychopathology T h e Type Problem in Aesthetics T h e Type Problem in Modern Philosophy T he Type Problem in Biography General Description of the Types Definitions Epilogue Four Papers on Psychological Typology (1913, 1925, 1931» 1936) f7- T W O ESSAYS ON ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY On the Psychology of the Unconscious (1917/1926/1943) T he Relations between the Ego and the Unconscious (1928) Appendix: New Paths in Psychology (1912); T h e Structure of the Unconscious (1916) (new versions, with variants, 1966) +8. T H E STR U C TU R E AND DYNAMICS OF T H E PSYCHE On Psychic Energy (1928) T h e Transcendent Function ([19163/1957) A Review of the Complex Theory (1934) T h e Significance of Constitution and Heredity in Psychology (1929) • Published 1971. X Published i960; 2nd edn., 1969.

f Published 1953; 2nd edn., 1966.

Psychological Factors Determining H um an Behavior (1937) Instinct and the Unconscious (1919) T he Structure of the Psyche (1927/1931) On the N ature of the Psyche (1947/1954) General Aspects of Dream Psychology (1916/1948) On the Nature of Dreams (1945/1948) T h e Psychological Foundations of Belief in Spirits (1920/1948) Spirit and Life (1926) Basic Postulates of Analytical Psychology (1931) Analytical Psychology and Weltanschauung (1928/1931) T h e Real and the Surreal (1933) T h e Stages of Life (1930-1931) T h e Soul and Death (1934) Synchronicity: An Acausal Connecting Principle (1952) Appendix: On Synchronicity (1951) *9.

•9.

p a r t I. T H E ARCHETYPES AND T H E COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS Archetypes of the Collective Unconscious (1934/1954) T he Concept of the Collective Unconscious (1936) Concerning the Archetypes, with Special Reference to the Anima Concept (1936/1954) Psychological Aspects of the M other Archetype (1938/1954) C oncerningR ebirth (1940/1950) T h e Psychology of the Child Archetype (1940) T h e Psychological Aspects of the Kore (1941) T he Phenomenology of the Spirit in Fairytales (1945/1948) On the Psychology of the Trickster-Figure (1954) Conscious, Unconscious, and Individuation (1939) A Study in the Process of Individuation (1934/1950) Concerning M andala Symbolism (1950) Appendix: Mandalas (1955)

part

11. AION (1951)

RESEA RCH ES IN T O T H E P H E N O M E N O L O G Y O F T H E SELF

T h e Ego T he Shadow T h e Syzygy: Anima and Animus T h e Self Christ, a Symbol of the Self T h e Sign of the Fishes

(continued)

• Published 1959; and edn., 1968. (Part I: 79 plates, with sg in colour.)

g.

( continued) T h e P rophecies o f N o strad a m u s T h e H isto ric al Significance o f th e Fish T h e A m bivalence of th e F ish Sym bol T h e Fish in A lchem y T h e A lchem ical I n te r p r e ta tio n o f the Fish B ack g ro u n d to th e Psychology o f C h ristian A lchem ical Sym bolism G n o stic Sym bols of th e Self T h e S tru c tu re a n d D ynam ics o f th e Self C onclusion

*10. C IV IL IZ A T IO N IN T R A N S I T IO N T h e R o le of th e U n conscious (1918) M in d an d E a rth (1927/1931) A rchaic M a n (1931) T h e S p iritu a l P ro b le m of M o d ern M an (1928/1931) T h e L ove P ro b le m of a S tu d e n t (1928) W o m an in E u ro p e (1927) T h e M e an in g of Psychology fo r M o d ern M an (1933/1934) T h e S tate o f P sychotherapy T o d a y (1934) P reface a n d E p ilogue to “ Essays o n C o n te m p o ra ry E v en ts” (1946) W o ta n (1936) A fter th e C a ta stro p h e (1945) T h e F ig h t w ith th e Shadow (1946) T h e U nd isco v ered Self (P rese n t a n d F u tu re ) (1957) F lying Saucers: A M o d e rn M yth (1958) A Psychological V iew o f C onscience (1958) G ood an d Evil in A n aly tical Psychology (1959) In tro d u c tio n to W olff’s “S tudies in J u n g ia n Psychology” (1959) T h e Swiss L in e in th e E u ro p e a n S p ectru m (1928) R eview s of K eyserling’s “A m erica Set F ree" (1930) a n d “L a R e v o ­ lu tio n M o n d ia le ” (1934) T h e C o m p licatio n s of A m erican Psychology (1930) T h e D re am lik e W o rld of I n d ia (1939) W h a t I n d ia C an T e a c h U s (1939) A p p e n d ix : D ocu m en ts (1933-1938) f t 1. P SY C H O L O G Y A N D R E L IG IO N : W E S T A N D E A ST W ESTERN R EL IG IO N

Psychology a n d R e lig io n

(T h e T e r r y L ectures)

* Published 1964; 2nd edn., 1970. (8 plates.) f Published 1958; 2nd edn., 1969.

(1938/1940)

A Psychological A pproach to the Dogma of the T rin ity (1942/1948) T ran sfo rm atio n Symbolism in the Mass (1942/1954) Forew ords to W h ite ’s “God and the U nconscious” and W erblow sky’s "L ucifer an d Prom etheus” (1952) B rother Klaus (1953) Psychotherapists o r the Clergy (1932) Psychoanalysis an d the C ure of Souls (1928) Answer to J o b (1952) EASTERN R EL IG IO N

Psychological Com m entaries on “T h e T ib e ta n Book of the G reat L ib eratio n ” (1939/1954) and “T h e T ib e ta n Book of the D ead”

(! 935 / 1953) Yoga and the W est (1936) Forew ord to Suzuki’s “In tro d u ctio n to Zen B uddhism ” (1939) T h e Psychology of Eastern M editation (1943) T h e H oly M en of In d ia: In tro d u ctio n to Zimmer's “D er W eg zum Sel bst” (1944) Forew ord to the “I C hing” (1950) *12. PSYCHOLOGY AND A LCH EM Y (1944) Prefatory note to the English E dition ([1951?] added 1967) In tro d u ctio n to the Religious an d Psychological Problem s of Alchemy In d iv id u al D ream Symbolism in R elation to Alchemy (1936) Religious Ideas in Alchemy (1937) Epilogue f 13- A L C H E M IC A L STU D IES C om m entary on “T h e Secret of the G olden Flow er” (1929) T h e Visions of Zosimos (1938/1954) Paracelsus as a Spiritual Phenom enon (1942) T h e Spirit M ercurius (1943/1948) T h e Philosophical T re e (1945/1954) + 14. M Y STER IU M C O N IU N C T IO N IS (1955-56) AN IN Q U IR Y IN T O T H E SE PA R A T IO N AND SY NTHESIS O F PSY C H IC O PPO S IT E S IN A L C H E M Y

The The The R ex

C om ponents of the C oniunctio P aradoxa Personification of the Opposites and R egina

(continued)

* Published 1953; 2nd edn., completely revised, 1968. (270 illustrations.) ■(-Published 1968. (50 plates, 4 text figures.) J Published 1963; snd edn., 1970. (10 plates.)

14.

(c o n tin u ed ) A dam a n d Eve T h e C onjunction

*15. T H E S P IR IT IN MAN, A R T , A N D L IT E R A T U R E Paracelsus (1929) Paracelsus the Physician (1941) Sigm und F reud in H is H istorical Setting (1932) In M emory of Sigm und F reud (1939) R ich ard W ilhelm : In M em oriam (1930) O n the R elatio n of A nalytical Psychology to Poetry (1922) Psychology a n d L iteratu re (1930/1950) "Ulysses” : A M onologue (1932) Picasso (1932) f i 6 . T H E P R A C T IC E O F PSY C H O TH ER A PY GENERAL PROBLEMS O F PSYCHOTHERAPY

Principles of P ractical Psychotherapy (1935) W h at Is Psychotherapy? (1935) Some Aspects of M odern Psychotherapy (1930) T h e Aims o f Psychotherapy (1931) Problem s of M odern Psychotherapy (1929) Psychotherapy a n d a Philosophy of Life (1943) M edicine an d Psychotherapy (1945) Psychotherapy T o d ay (1945) F u n d am en tal Q uestions of Psychotherapy (1951) SPECIFIC PROBLEMS O F PSYCHOTHERAPY

T h e T h e ra p e u tic V alue o f A breaction (1921/1928) T h e Practical Use of Dream-Analysis (1934) T h e Psychology of the T ran sferen ce (1946) A ppendix: T h e R ealities of P ractical Psychotherapy ([1937] added, 1966) ¢17. T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F P E R SO N A L IT Y Psychic Confticts in a C hild (1910/1946) In tro d u ctio n to W ickes’s “Analyses d e r K inderseele” (1927/1931) C hild D evelopm ent an d E ducation (1928) A nalytical Psychology an d E ducation: T h re e Lectures (1926/1946) T h e G ifted C hild (1943) T h e Significance of th e Unconscious in In d iv id u al E ducation (1928) • Published 1966. f Published 1954: *nd edn., revised and augmented, 1966. + Published 1954.

(1 3

illustrations.)

T h e D evelopm ent of Personality (1954) M arriage as a Psychological R elationship (1925) 18. T H E SYMBOLIC L IFE Miscellaneous W ritings 19. B IB LIO G R A PH Y O F C. G. JU N G ’S W R IT IN G S 20. G EN ER A L IN D E X T O T H E C O L L E C T E D W ORKS

See also:

C. G. J U NG : L E T T E R S Selected and edited by G erhard Adler, in collaboration with Aniela JaflFe T ranslations from the G erm an by R.F.C. H ull. v o l. 1 : 1 9 0 6 -1 9 5 0 v o l . 2 : 1 9 5 1 -1 9 6 1

T H E F R E U D /JU N G L E T T E R S Edited by W illiam M cGuire, translated by R alp h M anheim an d R.F.C. H u ll