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Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
PREFACE
COINS IN COMPLEX ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS - A SOURCE-CRITICAL SURVEY
MEDIEVAL COINS IN RECENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS IN SWEDEN
WHAT FACTORS GOVERN THE NUMBER OF COINS FOUND ON AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE?
IN WHICH PERIODS OF THE MIDDLE AGES ARE DANISH COIN FINDS REPRESENTATIVE OF DANISH MONETARY CIRCULATION?
ROMAN DENARII AND IRON-AGE DENMARK
TRADE, COINS AND FOREIGN INFLUENCES DURING PRE-VIKING AND VIKING-AGE RIBE
THE FUNCTION OF SILVER IN THE VIKING AGE: Discussion of methods and results
THE COINLESS HOARD
MEDIEVAL COINS AND THE DATING OF FINNISH CASTLES AND CHURCHES
COINS IN CHURCHES: A MEANS OF PAYMENT? Part one
COINS IN CHURCHES: A MEANS OF PAYMENT? Part two
MONETIZATION IN MEDIEVAL SWEDEN, AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACH
COINS AND THEIR FUNCTION IN THE SOCIETY OF MEDIEVAL OSLO
THE DEVELOPMENT FROM A SUBSISTENCE TO A MONETARY ECONOMY

Citation preview

MEDIEVAL ARCHAEOLOGY RESEARCH GROUP PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIRST MEETING AT ISEGRAN, NORWAY 1988

Coins and Archaeology edited by

H. Clarke and E. Schia

BAR International Series 5 5 6 1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S556, 1989: 'Coins and Archaeology'

©

The Individual Authors, 1989

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547037 paperback ISBN 9781407348520 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547037 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

PREFACE He len C larke

I

CO INS I N CO MPLEX ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXTS A SOURCE-CR ITICAL SURVEY A xe l C hr istophersen

1

MEDIEVAL CO INS FROM RECENT ARCHAEOLOG ICAL EXCAVATI ONS I N SWEDEN L ars R ed in

9

WHAT FACTORS GOVERN THE NU MBER OF CO INS FOUND ON AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL S ITE? Mark B lackburn

1 5

I N WH ICH PERIODS OF THE MIDDLE AGES ARE DAN ISH CO IN F I NDS REPRESENTATIVE OF DAN ISH MONETARY C IRCULATION? J orgen S teen J ensen

2 5

RO MAN DENAR II AND I RON-AGE DEN MARK S vend N ie lsen

2 9

TRADE , CO INS AND FOREIGN I NFLUENCES DUR I NG PRE-V IKING AND V IK ING-AGE R IBE L ene B . F randsen

3 7

THE FUNCT ION OF S ILVER I N THE V IK ING AGE D iscuss ion o f methods a nd r esu lts i n l i terature B irg itta Härdh

4 3

THE COINLESS HOARD J ames Graham-Campbe l l

5 3

MEDIEVAL CO INS AND THE DATING OF F INN ISH CASTLES AND CHURCHES J uss i-Pekka T aav itsa inen

6 3

CO I NS I N CHURCHES : A means o f p ayment? K ar in B erg

P art o ne 7 7

CO I NS I N CHURCHES : A means o f p ayment? I nger He lene V ibe Mu l ler

P art t wo 8 3

M ONETIZAT I ON I N MED IEVAL SWEDEN : AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACH Henr ik K lackenberg

9 1

CO I NS AND THEIR FUNCTION I N THE SOC IETY OF MEDIEVAL OSLO E r ik S chia

1 01

THE DEVELOP MENT FRO M A SUBSISTENCE TO A M ONETARY ECONO MY J an B aart

11

MAP

1 26

PREFACE

H e l e nC l a r k e T he p apers i n t h is v o lume were p resented a t t he F irst S ympos ium o f t he Med ieva l A rchaeo logy R esearch G roup A .D .750-1500 ( MARG ) , h e ld a t t he Un ivers ity o f O s lo O ldsaksam l ing 's f ie ld -centre o f I segran , F redr ikstad , Norway , 2 1-24 March 1 988 . T he g roup i s t he b ra inch i ld o f t he f ive a rchaeo log ists who n ow f orm i t s S teer ing C omm ittee , a nd s prang f rom a h eated d iscuss ion h e ld o ver a d inner t ab le i n Gdansk when a l l f ive were p art ic ipat ing i n a n i nternat iona l c onference o n t he a rchaeol ogy o f Hanseat ic t owns . I t h ad , t herefore , i nforma l a nd f ortu itous b eg inn ings a nd i t i s b oth p leas ing a nd s urpr is ing t hat what b egan i n s uch a way h as c ome t o f ru it ion , b oth i n t he f orm o f as ympos ium a nd i n t he p ub l icat ion o f i t s r esu lts . T he ma in a ims o f t he g roup were f ormu lated a nd r ema in a s b e low : t o i mprove t he t heoret ica l b as is o f med ieva l a rchaeo logy I t o f oster n ew t houghts a nd i deas , p art icu lar ly f rom y ounger members o f t he a rchaeo log ica l p rofess ion I I t o d eve lop i nternat iona l c o-operat ion b etween med ieva l a rchaeol og ists i n n orthern a nd western E urope . I t was d ec ided t hat o ne o f t he means whereby t hese a ims c ou ld b e a ch ieved wou ld b e t o h o ld s ympos ia o n s pec if ic a nd c lear ly d ef ined t hemes , a nd t o p ub l ish t he p roceed ings . T he s ympos ia s hou ld b e l im ited t o as ma l l n umber o f s pec ia l ly i nv ited p art ic ipants a nd s hou ld e ncourage f ree a nd w ide-rang ing d iscuss ion o f t he t op ics c overed . T hus , t he p apers i n t h is p resent v o lume a re l im ited i n n umber y et r epresent t he c ontr ibut ions o f v irtua l ly e veryone who a ttended t he F irst S ympos ium . T he p apers a re a lso s hort , a s t he t ime d evoted t o f orma l l ectures was d e l iberate ly l im ited t o g ive s uff ic ient t ime f or d iscuss ion o f t he ir c ontents . T h is f ormu la p roved t o b e e xtreme ly s uccessfu l d ur ing t he s ympos ium a nd w i l l b e a dhered t o f or f uture meet ings , t he n ext o f wh ich i s s chedu led f or March 1 990 . T he t heme f or t he f i rst s ympos ium was CO INS AND ARCHAEOLOGY . I t was n ot i n tended t o b e c oncerned p r imar i ly w ith t he n icet ies o f n um ismat ics , b ut r ather t o e xam ine t he s ign if icance o f c o ins f or t he i nterpretat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes , a nd f or w ider a spects o f med ieva l e conom ic a nd s oc ia l d eve lopment . T hus , t he ma jor ity o f p art ic ipants were a rchaeo log ists whose work b r ings t hem i n to c ontact w ith p rob lems a r is ing f rom t he p resence o f c o ins i n t he ir e xcavat ions o r t he ir more g enera l r esearch . S evera l n um ismat ists were a lso i nv ited t o a ttend a nd p resent p apers o r e xpress o p in ions , b ut i t must b e emphas ized t hat t he meet ing , a nd h ence t he p apers p ub l ished h ere , was n ot a n um ismat ic c ongress . A s a rchaeo log ists we a re n ot p resum ing t o p reach t o n um ismat ists , r ather we a re t ry ing t o p resent s ome o f t he p rob lems wh ich a r ise f rom t he d iscovery o f c o ins i n a rchaeo log ica l c ontexts . C erta in s pec if ic a spects o f t he ma in t heme were s e lected f or l ectures a nd d i scuss ion , t he p apers i n t h is v o lume b e ing g rouped a ccord ing t o t hose a spects . T he f i rst p apers h ere e xam ine t he r epresentat iveness o f c o ins o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . Two a rchaeo log ists , A xe l C hr istophersen a nd L ars R ed in , d iscuss t h is w ith r eference t o Norway a nd Sweden , a nd t hey a re f o l lowed b y t he v iews o f t wo n um ismat ists , Mark B lackburn a nd J orgen S teen J ensen who d ea l w ith e v idence f rom E ng land a nd Denmark r espect ive ly . T he t heme i s t hen g iven a s l ight ly d ifferent

11

s lant i n t he p aper b y S vend N ie lsen whose a rchaeo log ica l work h as l a rge ly b een c onf ined t o t he R oman i ron a ge i n Denmark , ap er iod s tr ict ly o ut o f t he p urv iew o f MARG where t he c oncentrat ion i s o n t he y ears f rom A .D . 7 50 t o 1 500 . T he s econd t heme o f t he s ympos ium t o b e p resented i n t h is v o lume c oncerns t he u ses o f c o ins a nd t he ir s ign if icance s pec if ica l ly i n t he p re-V ik ing a nd V ik ing a ge . L ena F randsen d escr ibes t he most r ecent e xcavat ions i n R ibe , Denmark , where a r emarkab le n umber o f e ighth-century s ceattas h ave b een f ound i n e ar ly u rban c ontexts , a nd d iscusses t he ir s ign if icance f or t he i n terpretat ion o f R ibe a s a n i nternat iona l t rad ing c entre i n t he p er iod . B irg itta Härdh e xpands t he t heme o f t he u se o f c o ins b y i nc lud ing i n h er p aper t he o ccurrence o f n on-m inted s i lver i n t he V ik ing a ge , a nd J ames G raham-Cambe l l e xpands t h is s t i l l f urther b y c oncent rat ing o n V ik ing -age h oards c onta in ing a n a bundance o f n on-m inted s i lver b ut n o c o ins . T hen f o l lows a g roup o f p apers i n wh ich t he p resence o f c o ins i n s evera l a rchaeo log ica l c ontexts a re d iscussed . T he s ign if icance o f f inds o f c o ins i n F inn ish c ast les a nd c hurches i s d ea lt w ith b y J uss i-Pekka T aav itsa inen , a nd t he c hurch t heme i s c ont inued i n t he p apers b y K ar in B erg a nd I nger He lene V ibe Mü l ler . T hese t hree p apers w i l l b e o f p art icu lar i n terest t o r eaders i n t he B r it ish I s les where c o ins a re n otab le b y t he ir a bsence f rom e xcavat ions o f med ieva l c hurches . T he r easons f or t h is f ormed t he s ub ject o f l i ve ly d ebate a t t he s ympos ium i t se lf . F ina l ly , c o ins a s s oc ia l a nd e conom ic i nd icators , a nd t he ir s ign if icance f or t he e st imat ion o f monet izat ion i n med ieva l s oc iet ies a re d ea lt w ith b y t hree p apers f rom Norway ( Er ik S ch ia ) , Sweden ( Henr ik K lackenberg ) , a nd t he Nether lands ( Jan B aart ) . A l l t hree a re a rchaeo log ica l a pproaches t o what m ight b e s een a s p r imar i ly n um ismat ic q uest ions , a nd e ncapsu late what t he o rgan izers o f t he s ympos ium h oped wou ld emerge f rom t h is meet ing . T he f i rst t wo a ims o f MARG a re e xemp l if ied b y t he p apers wh ich a re p resented h ere . T he t h ird a im , o f f urther ing i nternat iona l c o-operat ion , h as a lso b een a ch ieved . T he l anguage o f t he s ympos ium was E ng l ish , a nd t he a uthors s ubm itted t he ir p apers i n t hat l anguage , b ut t he p art ic ipants c ame f rom Denmark , F in land , G reat B r ita in , t he Nether lands , Norway , P o land , a nd Sweden . S uch a n i ntern at iona l g ather ing c an d o n oth ing b ut g ood i n t he f urtherance o f t he i n terchange o f i deas a nd t he g enera l u nderstand ing o f t he med ieva l a rchaeo logy o f E urope a s a who le . T he S teer ing C omm ittee o f MARG h opes t hat many more s ympos ia i n t he f uture w i l l b oth f u lf i l l a nd e xpand t he a ims f i rst p ropounded d ur ing t hat d inner i n Gdansk i n 1 986 .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T he S teer ing C omm ittee wou ld l i ke t o t hank a l l t he p art ic ipants i n t he F irst S ympos ium , a nd p art icu lar ly t hose whose p apers a re p ub l ished h ere . T hanks a re a lso d ue t o t he s taff o f t he I segran c entre who c ontr ibuted s o much t o t he c omfort o f o ur s tay , a nd t hus t o t he g reat s uccess o f t he o ccas ion . T he o pport un ity o f p ub l ish ing t hese p apers i n B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports i s a lso g reat ly a pprec iated . T he e d itors w ish t o e xpress t he ir e spec ia l t hanks t o T or i l l S orum who t yped a l l t he c ontr ibut ions wh ich a ppear h ere .

M A RG P A R T IC I P A N T S A TT H E I S EG R AN C O N F E R EN C E 2 1 2 4M A R CH 1 9 8 8

HANS ANDERSSON

L unds Un ivers itets H istor iska Museum , K rafts t org 1 , S -22350 L und , SWEDEN .

ANDERS ANDREN

L unds Un ivers itets H istor iske Museum , K rafts t org 1 , S -22350 L und , SWEDEN .

J AN BAART

Amsterdams H istor isch Museum , N ieuwe P r insengracht 1 9 , 1 . f loor , Amsterdam , HOLLAND .

KAR IN BERG

S k imuseet , K ongeve ien 5 , 0 390 O s lo 3 , NOR WAY .

MARK BLACKBURN

F acu lty o f H istory , West R oad C ambr idge CB3 9 EF , UN ITED K INGDO M .

ALEKSANDER BURSCHE

I nstytut A rcheo log i i , Un iwersytet Warszawsk i , u l . W idok 1 0 , P L-00-123 Warszawa , POLAND .

AXEL CHRISTOPHERSEN

R iksant ikvaren , U tgravn ingskontoret f or T rondhe im , K ongensgt . 8 5 . N -7012 T rondhe im , NOR WAY .

HELEN CLARKE ( Steer ing C omm ittee )

Dept . o f H istory , Med ieva l A rchaeo logy , Un ivers ity C o l lege L ondon , Gower S treet , L ondon WC1E 6 BT , UN ITED K INGDO M .

L ENE FRANDSEN

A nt ikvar isk S am l ing , Overdammen 1 0-12 , DK6760 R ibe , DEN MARK .

J AMES GRAHA M-CAMPBELL

Dept . o f H istory , Med ieva l A rchaeo logy , Un ivers ity C o l lege L ondon , Gower S treet , L ondon WC1E 6 BT , UNITED K INGDO M .

B IRGITTA HARDH

L unds Un ivers itets H istor iska Museum , K rafts t org 1 , S -22350 L und , SWEDEN .

HENRIK K LACKENBERG

L unds Un ivers itets H istor iska Museum , K rafts t org 1 , S -22357 L und , SWEDEN .

PETTER B . MOLAUG ( Steer ing C omm ittee )

R iksant ikvaren , U tgravn ingskontoret f or O s lo , O s logate 1 3 , N -0192 O s lo 1 , NOR WAY .

I NGER HELENE V IBE MÜLLER

Un ivers itetets O ldsaksam l ing , F redr iksgate 2 , N -0164 O s lo 1 , NOR WAY .

S IRI MYRVOLL ( Steer ing C omm ittee )

R iksant ikvaren , U tgravn ingskontoret f or B ergen , C .Sundtsgate 6 4 , N -5004 B ergen , NOR WAY .

SVEND N IELSEN

R igsant ikvarens A rk o log iske S ekretar iat , Nat iona lmuseet , F redr iksho lms K ana l 1 2 , DK-1220 K obenhavn K , DEN MARK .

B JORN POULSEN

Dansk C entra lb ib l iotek f or S yds lesv ig , DK6340 K rusä , DEN MARK .

L ARS REDIN ( Steer ing C omm ittee )

R iksant ikvar ieämbetet , B ox 5 405 , S -11484 S tockho lm , SWEDEN .

ERIK SCH IA ( Steer ing C omm ittee )

R iksant ikvaren , U tgravn ingskontoret f or O s lo , O s logate 1 3 , N -0192 O s lo 1 , NOR WAY .

J ORGEN STEEN J ENSEN

MOntsam l ingen , Nat iona lmuseet , F redr iksho lms K ana l 1 2 , DK1220 Kobenhavn K , DEN MARK .

J USSI-PEKKA TAAV ITSIA INEN

Muse iverket , B ox 9 13 , SF-00101 He ls ink i , F INLAND .

C O IN S I NC O M P L E XA R C H A EO LOG I C A L C O N T E X T S -AS O U R C E C R I T I C A L S U R V E Y AXEL CHR ISTOPHERSEN

The

aim o f

t his

affecting the

paper i s

to g ive a short

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The

discussion

t akes i ts

1 )

The u se of

coins by archaeologists

their pattern of 2 )

To

what

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d istribution i n

extent

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of

a nd s pace.

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i n t ime

t he original

A t otal

f rom the a s

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distribution

found in

source-critical variables c omplex archaeological

contexts.

f ollowing s tatements:

an historical

source

i s mainly based on

t ime and space.

analytically depends on

develop

survey of

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a rchaeological

an

archaeological

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be

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variables.

1 . I NTRODUCT ION C o ins a re a p r imary s ource f or o ur s oc ia l , e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l h istory . However , c o ins u sed a s a s ource f or r econstruct ion o f s oc ia l c ond it ions i n t he p ast , h ave i n my o p in ion a ttracted r e lat ive ly l i tt le i nterest among r esearchers o uts ide t he r anks o f n um ismat ists . Th is may b e b ecause t he c o ins c annot b e u t i l ized d irect ly , b e ing i n t he c ategory o f h istor ica l r ema ins t hat r equ ire p art icu lar u nderstand ing a nd a s pec ia l ized methodo logy . But r esearchers l i ke B o l in , Ma lmer , S awyer , G r ierson a nd o thers , h ave d emonstrated h ow t he c o in mater ia l may b e u sed t o r econstruct t he s oc ia l , p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic c ond it ions f rom wh ich t he c o in p roduct ion o r ig inated . L ike o ther f orms o f h istor ica l r ema ins , h owever , t he c o in mater ia l a lso h as i t s p rob lems o f r epresentat iveness . F rom d ifferent s tart ing p o ints a nd methods o f a na lys is t he r esearchers h ave d escr ibed d ifferent t ypes a nd d egrees o f t hese p rob lems . T h is i mpedes a ny methodo log ica l t reatment wh ich c an l ay c la im t o g enera l v a l id ity . I n t h is p aper t he p rob lems o f r epresentat iveness w i l l b e b ased o n c o ins a s a rchaeo log ica l s ource mater ia l . Iw i l l l im it t h is t o d ea l ing w ith n um ismat ic mater ia l t hat h as s urv ived i n as trat igraphic , c omp lete c ontext . T h is t ype o f mater ia l h as a p art icu lar v a lue a s a s ource o f i nformat ion , a t t he s ame t ime t here a re a lso s pec ia l p rob lems o f r epresentat iveness t hat may b e worthy o f s ystemat ic s tudy .

2 . REPRESENTAT IVENESS AND CO INS AS ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCE MATER IAL A l l s oc ia l s c iences d emand r epresentat iveness a s ar equ irement o f emp ir ica l b ase mater ia l . Not a l l d is ip l ines , h owever , h ave t he s ame p oss ib i l it ies f or d escr ib ing , l et a lone m ea sur ing , t he s ource-representat iveness . I n d isc ip l ines t hat f ormu late t he ir own a ssumpt ions , t hereby e xerc is ing d irect c ontro l o ver t he d ata c o l lect ion , r epresentat iveness c an b e measured s tat ist ica l ly . T he c r iter ion f or a ch iev ing r epresentat iveness i s when t he c haracter ist ics o f t he t arget p opu lat ion , t he r ea l o b ject o f a na lys is , c o inc ide w ith c haracter ist ics i n t he mass o f d ata f rom wh ich t he c oncrete work o f a na lys is o r ig inates ( j e . t he r andom s amp le ) ( W inter 1 973 :pp . 3 3f ) . T he t erm " character i st ics " i n t h is c ontext i s d ef ined a s t he n ature , amount a nd c ompos it ion o f t he d ata . I n o ther d isc ip l ines , l i ke a rchaeo logy a nd h istory , r epresentat iveness c annot ap r ior i b e p resumed f or t he mass o f d ata . I n t he p rocess o f t ransm iss ion o f h istor ica l d ata t here i s a l ready embod ied a f i rm f ramework f or t he s e lect ion a nd c o l lect ion o f d ata . T he s ource mater ia l f rom wh ich w e e xtract t he d ata , c annot b e c hosen a ccord ing t o p redeterm ined c r iter ia t hat g uarantee t he q ua l ity a nd r e levance o f t he d ata mass . R epresentat iveness c annot b e m easured i n t he s ame way a s i n o ther s oc ia l s c iences . S ince t he t ota l ity o f h istor ica l s ources i s u nknown , i t i s i mposs ib le t o s ay a nyth ing a bout t he c haracter ist ics t h is mater ia l h ad a t t he o utset . T herefore t here i s n o o b ject ive f oundat ion f or c ontro l o f t he c haracter ist ics o f t he t ransm itted s ource mater ia l . A rchaeo logy t herefore h as t o p repare i t s o wn b a s i s f or e va lua t ion o f

r epre senta t ivenes s .

S uch a b as is o f e va luat ion h as t o r est o n a s ystemat ic a na lys is o f t he r e levance o f t he d a ta i n t he l i ght o f t hat w h ich w e w i sh t o e xam ine . T h is may b e d one b y a" s ta tus a na ly s i s " c arr ied o ut t hrough a p redeterm ined c a ta logue o f f actors t hat h ave , o r may h ave , a ffected t he o r ig ina l c haracter ist ics o f t he s ource mater ia l i n d ifferent s tages o f t he t ransm iss ion p rocess . T h is method c annot g ive a n o b jec t ive c ontro l o f t he d eg ree o f r epresentat iveness b ecause t he o r ig ina l c haracter ist ics o f t he s ource mater ia l r ema in u nknown , b ut t he r esearcher w i l l b etter b e a b le t o a ppra ise t he i nterpretat ive i mp l icat ions s ystemat ica l ly .

3 . FACTORS THAT I NFLUENCE THE R EPRESENTAT IVENESS OF THE CO IN MATER IAL A s

p hys ica l r ema ins ,

t he c o in mater ia l p ossesses p art ly q ua l i ta t ive a nd

q uant i ta t ive c haracter ist ics . T he q ua l i ta t ive c haracter ist ics

p art ly

a re f i rst a nd f oremost r e lated t o t he s eparate o b ject : f orm , d ecorat ion , i n scr ipt ions , meta l c ompos it ion , we ight a nd s econdary a ttr ibutes l i ke s crape marks , s p l itt ing -up a nd g raff it i . T he q uant i ta t ive c haracter ist ics a re p r imar i ly l i nked t o t he measurab le r e lat ionsh ips b e tween o b jects : amount a nd d istr ibut ion i n t ime a nd s pace . I n a na lys is where c o ins a re p art o f t he s ource mater ia l , b oth t he q uant itat ive a nd q ua l itat ive c haracter ist ics o f t he mater ia l a re u sed . B ut a n i mportant b as ic p os it ion f or a na lys is o f " contex tua l" c o in m a ter ia l i s t he ir

amount a nd d istr ibut ion i n t ime a nd s pace . Our a b i l ity t o u t i l ize t he r ea l i n format ion p otent ia l o f t h is c o in mater ia l w i l l t herefore d epend o n o ur b e ing a b le t o e xpose t he f actor s t hat d etermine t he o r ig ina l h i stor ica l c ontext o f w hich t he c o in m ater ia l i s ap art , p lus t hat w hich h as i n f luenced t he mater ia l's c hrono log ica l a nd s pat ia l d istr ibut ion . T hese f actors c an b e c lass if ied a s h i stor ica l ly , p hys ica l ly a nd methodo log ica l ly c ond it ioned . 1 . B y " h istor ica l f actors" i s u nderstood t he c ontemporary c ond it ions t hat d eterm ined h ow t he c o in mater ia l b ecame a p art o f t he o r ig ina l a rchaeo log ica l c ontext . 2 . B y " phys ica l f actors " i s u nderstood t hose c ond it ions i n t he t ransm iss ion p er iod t hat h ave a ffected t he c o in mater ia l 's o r ig ina l c ontext a nd c haracter ist ics . 3 . B y " methodo log ica l f actors" i s u nderstood t hose c ond it ions t hat d ur ing t he e xam inat ion a nd d ocumentat ion p rocess h ave a ffected t he o r ig ina l c o in mater ia l . Wh i le t he h istor ica l f actors d eve lop a nd d eterm ine t he s ource mater ia l 's o r ig ina l c haracter ist ics a nd c ontextua l c onnect ions , t he o ther f actors i n d ifferent ways b reak d own a nd a dd i r re levant c haracter i st ics t o t he o r ig ina l s i tuat ion .

3 . 1 . H istor ica l f actors T he h istor ica l ly d eterm ined f actors a re l i nked t o t he way t he c o ins h ave b ecome ap art o f t he o r ig ina l c ontext . T h is i s o f c ruc ia l i mportance i n u nderstand ing more s ubstant ia l a spects o f t he c o ins ' v ar iab le f unct ions a nd f requency . A n i mportant b oundary c an b e d rawn b etween c o ins wh ich a re i n tent iona l ly d epos ited a nd t hose wh ich a re a ccidenta l ly l o st . A nother d ist inct ion c an b e made b etween c losed f inds a nd s cattered f i nds i n c ontext . C losed f i nds a re o ften i n tent iona l ly d epos ited , o ften a s o ffer ings o r h oards . However , t here a re a lso c losed f i nds wh ich may b e c haracter ized a s s cattered f i nds . An e xcavat ion i n T rondhe im p roduced a c lump o f a bout 2 0 t r iquetra p enn ies . T he c ontext , h owever , made i t r easonab ly t o a ssume t hat t he c o ins o r ig ina l ly l ay i n ap urse l ost i n t he r iver , f rom a b oat o r ab r idge . S cattered f i nds f rom a s trat igraph ic c ontext c an b e c o ins a cc identa l ly l o st , o r d e l iberate ly , p erhaps r i tua l ly , d epos ited . E xamp les o f t h is may b e f i nds f rom c hurch s i tes , o r c o ins p laced i n t he mouth o f t he d ead . B ut i n a ny c ase , i t i s t he f i nd-context w hich must f orm t he s tar t ing p o int f or a n e va luat ion o f r epresentat iveness . S cattered c o ins i n a n u rban c ontext f or e xamp le , a re p robab ly more s ub ject t o o ther e xterna l i nf luences , s uch a s a ct iv ity , c ommun icat ions a nd p opu lat ion d ens ity , t han s cattered c o ins i n , f or e xamp le a c hurch , a monastery o r a n a grar ian s ett lement where s uch e xterna l v ar iab les a re d ifferent a nd t herefore c reate o ther c ond i tions o f d epos it ion . T he h istor ica l ly d eterm ined c omb inat ion o f s hape a nd a ctua l u se o f c o ins a lso p lays a n i mportant r o le . I n ap er iod w ith t h in , s ma l l b racteates a nd t he ir f requent u se a s " genera l money" i n t rad ing t ransact ions , t he c hances o f i r retr ievab ly l os ing t hem i s g reater t han i n ap er iod w ith l arge , h eavy c o ins u sed a s s ome s ort o f " spec ia l money" .

3 .2 . P hys ica l f actors T hese c an b e d iv ided i n to 3 c ategor ies : a . t he p hys ica l -e nv ironmenta l f actors wh ich h ave worked u pon t he c o ins a f ter t he ir d epos it ion i n t he e arth b . t he c o ins ' own p hys ica l s pec if icat ions c . d isturbances o f t he o r ig ina l c ontext . O f t hose f actors r e lated t o a ) t he d egree o f a c id ity a nd p ermeat ion b y water a nd o xygen i n t he o ccupat ion l ayers c ompr ise i mportant d estruct ive a gents . A P h-va lue o f 6 .0-6 .5 s t imu lates a r ap id p rocess o f c orros ion . T he e ar ly - a nd h igh-med ieva l o ccupat ion l ayers i n Norweg ian med ieva l t owns a re h igh ly o rgan ic w ith a P h-va lue t hat o ften e xeeds 6 .5 , t hereby p rov id ing p oor c ond it ions f or t he p reservat ion o f c o ins . I t i s r easonab le t o a ssume t hat t h is h as i n f luenced t he q uant ity o f e ar ly c o ins f ound i n Norweg ian u rban c u lture l ayers . Occupat ion l ayers w ith a h igher n on-organ ic c ontent h ave l ower P h-va lue a nd ab as ic e nv ironment w ith g ood p otent ia l f or c o in p reservat ion . However , t he n ono rgan ic l ayers a re o ften more s ub ject t o p ermeat ion b y water a nd o xygen , a nd c onsequent ly t he p reservat ion p otent ia l i s s omewhat r educed . I n T rondhe im t he l a te- a nd p ost-med ieva l o ccupat ion l ayers a re o f j u st t h is c ompos it ion , a nd t he s ame i s t rue o f o ther med ieva l t own c entres i n S cand inav ia . A t t he s ame t ime , t he a ccumu lat ion o f o ccupat ion l ayers i s c ons iderab ly l e ss i n t h is p er iod . T h is may s uggest t hat o ther a ct iv it ies p redom inated i n t he t owns a t t he t ime , o r t hat c lean ing r egu lat ions were c hanged o r t ightened . S o e ven i f t he c o ins f rom t hese l ayers , a t l east i n T rondhe im , a re b etter p reserved , t he c hanged c i rcumstances o f t he d epos it ion a nd c ompos it ion o f t he l ayers make i t r easonab ly t o a ssume t hat t he o r ig ina l c haracter ist ics o f t he c o ins h ave a l so c hanged i n

r e la t ion t o b efore .

T h is c omp lex c ond it ion f or e va luat ing t he r epresentat iveness o f c o in m ater ia l f rom l a te- a nd p ost-med ieva l u rban s i tes , makes q uant if icat ion o ver t ime w i th in s i tes , a nd b e tween s i tes a n i n secure a ffa ir . T he o ccupat ion l ayers i n med ieva l c hurches a re a l so most ly n on-organ ic , b ut h ave i n a dd it ion b een p rotected a ga inst mo isture a nd c orros ion . T he p hys ica l e nv ironment s urround ing t he c o ins f rom s uch s i tes i s , a ccord ing ly , a pproach ing o pt ima l . T h is makes c ompar isons w ith c o ins f rom s i tes w ith b ad c ond it ions o f p reservat ion p rob lemat ic . F actors wh ich a re r e lated t o b ) t he c o ins ' own p hys ica l c haracter ist ics a re : t he c hange i n t he s i lver c ontent d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he med ieva l p er iod , t he we ight a nd t he t h ickness o f t he c o ins . S ince p rec ious meta ls a re l e ss p rone t o c orros ion t han o ther meta ls , t he r e lat ive p ur ity o f t he c o ins i s a n i mportant c orros ion f actor . T ogether w ith o ther p hys ica l c haracter ist ics , s uch a s l ow we ight , d ebased meta l may c ause c erta in c o in t ypes t o d isappear i n c ond it ions o f p oor p reservat ion . T h is a l so make q uant if icat ion b etween c erta in c o in t ypes o ver t ime v ery i n secure . A s a s hort e xamp le o f t he c onsequences f or i n terpretat ion , t he s t r ik ing p redom inance i n n umbers o f c o ins f ound o n c hurch s i tes , ( Berg 1 985 :249 ) i n c ontrast t o t hose f rom u rban c entres i n Norway , may b e n oted . Here t he s ystemat ic c omb inat ion o f o pt ima l v ersus m in ima l p reservat ion p otent ia l c an b e d rawn i n a s a n i mportant , i f n ot a d ec is ive , e xp lanat ion . A nother e xamp le i s t he a bsence o f 1 2th-century b racteates i n T rondhe im . O f a t ota l o f 1 04 d ated c o ins a ssemb led f rom t he l a st 1 6 y ears e xcavat ion , c over ing a round 7 000 s quare metres , t he b racteates c onst itute c .2% , wh i le , 11t h-century c o ins c onst itute 4 8% . C ond it ion o f p reservat ion a nd t he g rowth a nd c ompos it ion o f o ccupat ion l ayers a re l a rge ly u n iform t hroughout . Does t h is o bv ious r educt ion i n

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b racteates i n t he T rondhe im mater ia l r ef lect a d ec l ine o r r estr ict ion i n c ommerc ia l a c t iv ity i n N idaros/Trondhe im t hroughout t he 1 2th t o 1 4th c entur ies? C erta in ly n ot . T he r ea l p rob lem s eems r ather t o b e r e lated t o t he h uge amount o f l a te 1th-century c o ins . How c an t h is b e e xp la ined? A c loser l ook a t t he mater ia l s hows a v ery u neven d i str ibut ion o f t he t ota l amount o f med ieva l c o ins ( 104 f rom 1 2 e xcavat ions ) b oth i n t ime a nd s pace ( f ig .1) : 7 9 ,8% a re f ound i n as i te s i tua ted n ear t he r i ver N id , t he " L ibrary s i te" , wh i le t he o thers a re f ound s cattered a round w ith in t he who le med ieva l u rban a rea . I f w e n ow t ake a c loser l ook a t t he t ime-pattern d i str ibut ion o f t he c o ins , a part f rom t hose f rom t he L ibrary S ite , t he n umber o f c o ins ( as e xpected ) i ncreases i n t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c entur ies ( f ig .2 ) . B ut t h is i s n ot t he c ase i n t he L ibrary S ite m ater ia l , wh ich d ramat ica l ly d ecreases f rom t he 1 2th c entury ( f ig .3 ) . T he d om inat ing p art o f t he t ota l n umber o f c o ins f rom t h is a rea ( 83 ) a re H ara ld Härd räde t r iquetras f rom t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1th c entury . T hese

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c o ins , s o c ommon i n t he e ar ly o ccupat ion l eve ls a t t he L ibrary S ite ( 59% ) , a re v ery r are i n o ther e xcavated s i tes w ith in t he e ar ly o ccupat ion a rea o f T rondhe im ( 4 ,8% ) . T here i s , i n o ther words , ac ontrad ictory p attern i n t he L ibrary S ite c o in mater ia l , c ompared w ith t he c o ins f rom o ther s i tes i n med ieva l N idaros . T h is v ery s hort s urvey o f med ieva l c o ins f rom 1 2 r ecent e xcavat ions c an b e c onc luded b y ma inta in ing t hat t he e ar ly 1th-century c o ins f rom m ed ieva l T rondhe im a re s tr ict ly r e lated t o av ery l im i ted a rea o f t he e ar ly t own . T h is s ign if icant t ime/space d istr ibut ion p attern c annot b e s at isfactor ly e xp la in b y r eferr ing o n ly t o v ar ious p hys ica l f actors , b ecause t hey d o n ot c hange d rast ica l ly w ith in t he a ctua l a rea a nd o ccupat ion l ayer . A n e xp lanat ion s hou ld t herefore r ather i nc lude p roposa ls o n s pec if ic h i stor ica l f actors t hat c ou ld h ave a ffected t he c hanges i n t he a ctua l t ime/space d i str ibut ion p attern . O ne s uch o bv ious h istor ica l f actor t hat s hou ld b e t horough ly d i scussed h ere , i s ac hange i n t he f unct ion a nd u se o f c o ins i n e ar ly u rban c ommun i t ies .

3 .3 . Methodo log ica l f actors V ary ing d egrees o f d eve lopment w ith in t he t own c entres a nd t he c ountrys ide , t ogether w ith t he n ecess ity a nd e conom ic o pportun it ies f or r enovat ion o f m ed ieva l c hurches , a re f actors wh ich , t o v ar ious d egrees i n f luence t he r epresentat iveness o f t he d istr ibut ion p attern o f c o ins . T h is p rob lem a r ises most s t rong ly i n s pat ia l a na lyses o n t he macro l eve l , t hat i s w ith in a t own c entre , a r eg ion o r e ven b etween d i fferent c ountr ies . Methods o f e xcavat ion , o f c ourse , a lso h ave a b ear ing u pon t h is s ub ject , a nd i n a dd it ion a lso i n f luence t he p oss ib i l ity o f c ompar ing t he d i str ibut ion p attern o f c o ins b etween s i tes , o r e ven w i thin i nd iv idua l s i tes . L arge a reas , t ime , a nd e conom ic p ressures r estr ict e ffect ive e xcavat ion p rocedures a nd c an r esu lt i n s ome f i nds b e ing m issed . E xcavat ions w ith h eavy t oo ls , a nd a l ack o f s i ev ing , i n c omb inat ion w ith

g reasy o ccupat ion l ayers , c an o f c ourse r esu lt i n q u ite a h igh l o ss i n c ompar ison w ith e xcavat ions o n s ma l l s i tes where e xterna l c i rcumstances a l low " norma l " e xcavat ion p rocedure . I f , i n a dd it ion , t he o ccupat ion l ayers a re n on-organ ic , t he c ond it ions f or a l ow-percentage l o ss o f f i nd s a re g ood . C ompar i son o f c o ins f rom s i tes where s uch f actors h ave p art ia l ly , o r who l ly a cted u pon t he mater ia l 's c ompos it ion , must a t t he o utset r epresent g reat p rob lem s o f i n terpretat ion , b ecause t here a re d i fferent d egrees o f r epresentat iveness w ith in t he mater ia l . Is uspect t hat s uch p rob lems must a r ise when c ompar ing c o ins f rom med ieva l c hurch s i tes w ith t hose f rom u rban s i tes , o r , f or t hat matter , c o ins f rom a grar ian s ett lement s i tes .

4 . CONCLUS IONS T here a re many a nd d iverse f actors wh ich i nd iv idua l ly a nd i n c omb inat ion h ave c ond i t ioned t he c haracter ist ics o f t he s urv iv ing c o in mater ia l . T here a re many r easons t o b e l ieve t hat t he p rob lems o f r epresentat iveness a re g reat , a nd e ven g reater when t he a na ly s is i s c omparat ive a nd c overs a n e xtens ive t ime a nd s pat ia l p erspect ive , i nc lud ing v ar ious c o in-types a nd v ar ious t ypes o f s i tes . T he r epresentat iveness o f c o ins i s n ot a g iven q ua l ity a nd c annot b e e va luated a nd c ontro l led w ithout b e ing r e lated t o a s t rat igraph ic , c omp lex c on text . T he p oten t ia l o f t he n um ismat ic mater ia l must d epend o n f uture work b e ing c arr ied o ut i n a more method ica l way w ith p art icu lar r egard t o a rchaeo log ica l c ontex t a nd s trat igraphy . T he d eg ree o f r epresentat iveness must b e e xam ined a nd e xp la ined a ccord ing t o ac oa lescence o f t he v ar ious v ar iab les , w h ich i nd iv idua l ly o r i n c ommon , h ave a ffected t he amount a nd c ompos it ion o f t he m ater ia l . A n i mportant a nd most d i ff icu lt t ask i s t o s ort o ut w h ich a nd i n w hat w ay t he v ar iab les h ave i n f luenced t he c o ins a nd t he ir r e lat ion t o t he ir c ontext . T h is p aper h as ment ioned n o more t han a f ew v ar iab les a nd c omb inat ions . F urther w ork w i l l o bv ious ly r evea l af ar more c omp l icated " archaeo log ica l r ea l ity " .

L ITERATURE Berg,

K .

Hansson,

Mynter

1 985. A .

& Widell,

B .

1 985.

f ra

en

s tavkirke i G udbrandsdalen.

Myntcirkulation

i S käne u nder perioden

medeltidsarkeologi. Poulsen, Skaare,

B . K .

1 979. 1 976.

MOntbrug Coins

i Danmark

a nd Coinage

Lund vären 1 100-1300.

Hikuin 1 1,

1095-1319.

2 49-260.

C-uppsats

1 985. Fortid og Nutid,

i n viking-age Norway.

b nd.28.

i

M E D I E V A LC O IN S I NR E C E N T A R CH A EO L OG I C A L E X C A V A T ION S I NS W ED EN L ARS R ED IN

I n

Sweden

c oins

i n c hurches a nd

the

t han

question

t o g eological f requency c oin

s hould be

in cultural i s

layers

r aised:

conditions or

i s t o

cannot

t echnique. a c oncern

be

t his

d ue

t o

a spects

The

r eason

d ifferences

a spects?

towns.

explained a s

O ther

f or t he

are a rchaeologically more

f rom t owns.

f unctional

i n s ome Swedish medieval

frequency

e xcavation

f rom t he M iddle Ages

i n

by

i s

excavation

A c omparison

T he conclusion caused

f requently

f or this

i s

s hould be considered more

technique,

i s made of

t hat

variation

f ound

d iscussed

in

c oin

d ifferences a ccuracy

i n o f

c losely a nd t his

a rchaeologists.

T he a im o f t h is p aper i s t o make s ome o bservat ions o n t he p rob lem o f e x istence o r n on-ex istence o f c o ins i n e xcavated c u ltura l l ayers f rom t he M idd le A ges i n Sweden . T he f act t hat t h is i s sue i s r a ised h ere i s n ot a ltogether u nprovoked . Now a nd t hen med ieva l a rchaeo log ists i n Sweden g et t he s uggest ion - i n s ome c ases a lmost i n t he f orm o f a n a ccusat ion - f rom t he ir n um ismat ic c o l legues t hat t hey t he a rchaeo log ists - a re f i nd ing t oo f ew c o ins , p art icu lar ly when t hey a re d igg ing i n t own l ayers . R eferr ing t o t he f act t hat a l ot o f c o ins a ppear i n c hurch e xcavat ions i t i s s uggested , t hat a more d eve loped e xcavat ion t echn ique wou ld g ive t he s ame r esu lt i n t own e xcavat ions . T h is i s o f c ourse i mportant . I f we l o se v a luab le i nformat ions b y o ur b ad d igg ing , s ometh ing s hou ld o bv ious ly b e d one a bout i t . T here i s a nother a spect why t h is s hou ld b e g iven s ome c ons iderat ion . A rchaeo log ists l ove c o ins when t hey c ontr ibute t o ag ood d at ing . O therw ise t hey a re o n t he who le u n interested i n c o ins a nd a re h appy t o h and o ver t he q uest ion o f t he ir s ign if icance t o t he n um ismat ists . T h is i s p erhaps n ot s uch a g ood t h ing a fter a l l . I f c o ins r ef lect i mportant a spects i n t he d eve lopment o f med ieva l s oc iety , -a nd I d aresay t hey d o -t he p resence o r a bsence o f c o ins i n a med ieva l c ontext , s hou ld - a fter a l l -b e o f i n terest t o t he a rchaeo log ists . How i s i t t hen? D o a rchaeo log ists n eg lect c o ins when e xcavat ing i n an orma l u rban c ontext? Iw i l l t ry t o c ome t o t erms w ith t h is q uest ion b y c ompar ing c o in f requency i n s ome e xcavat ions i n med ieva l t owns . F rom t he p rov ince o f Ö stergöt land i n Sweden t here i s a v ery c omprehens ive s urvey o f e very f i nd o f med ieva l c o ins : h oards , c umu lat ive f inds , a nd s i ng le f i nds ( 1) . T he p rov ince o f Ö stergöt land was o f g reat i mportance i n Med ieva l Sweden a nd h as s i tes r epresent ing many d ifferent a spects o f med ieva l s oc iety : t owns , v ar ious k inds o f monaster ies a nd f r iar ies , c ast les , f ortresses a nd r ura l c ommun it ies ; t here h ave a lso b een s uff ic ient a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions t here t o a l low f or a d iscuss ion o f t he r e levance o f c o in f requency - t hat i s t he f requency o f c o ins f ound a rchaeo log ica l ly . F ig .1 h as b een c omp i led f rom t he a bove p ub l icat ion .

N umbe r o f c o ins

C hurches C as t l es C oun try &T owns

M onast e r ies

T own s : c u l t .l a y .

H oa rds

1- 5

6 -2 0

2 1 -1 00

1 0 1 -5 00 F ig.l. a nd

5 0 1-

Diagram

s ize

postmedieval t he l and,

of

number

o f m edieeal c oin

province o f

f inds

a nd i n

Östergöt-

Sweden.

I n t h is d iagram I h ave s eparated t he h oards a nd t reated c umu lat ive f i nds a nd s ing le f inds a s au n it . T h is i s b ecause h oards a re l i ke ly t o b e f ound a nd i dent if ied a s s uch , a lmost r egard less o f e xcavat ion t echn ique . T he f i nds f rom t he monaster ies d o , h owever , i nc lude s ome h oards . T he d iagram c lear ly i lustrates t hat t here a re more c o ins f ound i n c hurches ( churches i n t owns a nd i n t he c ountrys ide ) t han i n as ecu lar u rban s ett ing . T here i s ac lear t endency f or a ny s ing le e xcavat ion i n ac hurch t o c ontr ibute more c o ins t han a ny " norma l" t own e xcavat ion . I f we want t o f ind c o ins i n t he t owns , we s hou ld l ook f or t hem i n t he t own c hurches . C hurches i n t owns c ontr ibute more c o ins t han c hurches i n t he c ountrys ide , a nd t h is i s p erhaps n ot s o v ery s upr isi ng . T he g reatest n umber o f c o ins h as , h owever , b een f ound i n monaster ies ; i n t h is e xamp le f rom Ö stergöt land t he monaster ies c oncerned a re t wo C isterc ian h ouses , o ne B r ig itt ine a nd o ne Dom in ican n unnery . I t i s p oss ib le t o make o ne more o bservat ion . I wou ld c la im t hat a ny c hurch e xcavat ion i n Sweden w i l l p rov ide c o ins a t l east i f t he e xcavat ion r ea l ly t ouches l ayers u nderneath t he p resent f loor i n t he c entra l p arts o f t he c hurch . T h is s urvey o f c o in f inds i n c hurches g ives a v ery a ccurate p icture o f wh ich c hurches h ave b een t he s ub ject o f a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions . A s a c ontrast , i t i s n ot d iff icu lt t o n ame a n e xcavat ion i n a t own where n o c o in a t a l l h as b een f ound . I w i l l n ot p roduce a ny s o l id s tat ist ic t o b ack u p t h is s tatement , b ut b y u s ing t he Med ieva l T own p ro ject a nd i t s r eports , i t i s f a ir ly e asy t o c ontr ibute s ome f acts : i n t he t own S öderköp ing , f or i n stance , t here were a bout 4 0 a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions u p t o 1 978 o f wh ich o n ly 4 r eg istered a ny c umu lat ive f inds o f c o ins . T h is u neven d istr ibut ion o f c o ins f ound a t a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions c ou ld o f c ourse b e e xp la ined i n an umber o f ways : -A rchaeo log ists , who a re d ea l ing w ith c hurches a nd monaster ies a re m ore e ff ic ient i n f i nd ing s ma l l o b jects - c o ins - t han t he ir c o l leagues d igg ing i n t he t owns .

1 0

-T he l ayers u nder c hurch f l oors p reserve c o ins b etter t han t he n orma l t own l ayers . -C hurch l ayers a re e as ier t o h and le , wh ich makes i t e as ier f or t he e xcavator t o f i nd c o ins . -T here i s much l e ss c hance o f ad epos it ion o f c o ins i n ac hurch ( cumu lat ive o r n ot ) h av ing b een d i sturbed , t han a s im i lar d epos it ion i n an orma l u rban s ett ing . -I n t he M idd le A ges c o ins were more f requent ly h and led i n t he c hurches t han i n as ecu lar u rban s ett ing . -T he c o ins f ound i n c hurches r ef lect i n tent iona l d epos it ion , i n w h ich c ase f requent f i nds o f t hat k ind a re t o b e e xpected . None o f t hese e xp lanat ions c an b e d i scounted o ut o f h and . I myse lf f i nd i t v ery d i ff icu lt t o a ccept t he i dea t hat c hurch a rchaeo log ists a re more s k i l led t han t own a rchaeo log ists . N everthe less t he l ayers u nderneath a c hurch f l oor a re o bv ious ly b etter p rotected t han most o utdoor l ayers . A s t hey h ave r ema ined d r ier a nd w ith l e ss v ar iat ion o f h um id ity , t h is s hou ld f avour t he p reservat ion o f c o ins . C hurch l ayers a re n orma l ly v ery t h in , wh ich i n c omb inat ion w ith t he ir d ryness , make t hem e asy t o h and le , when u s ing a s i eve f or i n stance . T hese f acts , g ive f avourab le o dds f or a ny a rchaeo log ist who wants t o b e s uccessfu l i n f i nd ing c o ins . A re t hey t hen a s uff ic ient e xp lanat ion f or t he u neven d i str ibut ion o f c o ins i n f avour o f t he c hurches? I n a nswer ing t h is q uest ion w e h ave t o l ook more c lose ly i n to t he s i tuat ion i n t he t owns . I n Ö stergöt land i t i s , It h ink , u sefu l t o c ons ider t he t wo t owns o f S öderköp ing a nd L inköp ing . L inköp ing i s ad iocesan t own i n t he c entre o f t he p rov ince ; i t s o r ig in g oes b ack t o t he 1 2th c entury , e ven t hough i t s c haracter a s ad eve loped t own c an b e q uest ioned . S öderköp ing , c onnected w ith t he B a lt ic b y a r i ver , a l so o r ig inates f rom t he 1 2th c entury b ecom ing a n i mportant t rad ing c entre i n t he 1 3th c entury . S öderköp ing i s at own w ith a l ong a nd e stab l ished a rchaeo log ica l t rad it ion , more s o t han L inköp ing . Many a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions , s ome o f t hem l a rge , h ave b een c arr ied o ut i n S öderköp ing , a nd h ave p roduced i mportant a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or a na lys ing t he c hang ing s oc iety o f t he M idd le A ges . T oday S öderköp ing i s o ne o f t he b est i nvest igated m ed ieva l t owns i n Sweden . I n c ontrast t o t h is , L inköp ing i s a lmost u nknown a rchaeo log ica l ly . V ery f ew e xcavat ions h ave b een c arr ied o ut i n t h is t own a nd w ith t he e xcept ion o f ar ather r ecent o ne - f rom 1 987 - t hey h ave b een o f af a ir ly modest c haracter . S t i l l when i t c omes t o t he q uest ion o f c o ins , t he L inköp ing e xcavat ions h ave b een much more s uccessfu l t han t he o nes i n S öderköp ing ( f ig .2 ) . S öder-

L i n-

k öp ing

k bp ing

1-5

6 - 2 0

F ig.2.

D iagram

medieval coins,

o f n umber a nd s ize o f medieval a nd f ound a t

a rchaeological e xcavations

t owns o f Söderköping a nd L inköping,

Ö stergötland,

p ost-

2 1100

i n t he

S weden.

1 0 , d i u m 1

I n S öderköp ing 4 ( out o f more t han 4 0 ) a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions h ave p roduced c o ins . I n o ne c ase a h oard o f a bout 2 000 c o ins were f ound ; a nother h oard o f s ome 2 0 l ate c o ins a ppeared i n a n u noff ic ia l e xcavat ion ; 1 2 a ccumu lated c o ins were f ound i n a n e xcavat ion i n t he c entre o f t he t own ; t hen t here a re t wo e xcavat ions w ith j ust a f ew c o ins . T hat i s a l l o ne c an s ay a bout c o ins a nd a rchaeo logy i n S öderköp ing , i f t he c hurch e xcavat ions a re e xc luded . When i t c omes t o L inköp ing t he s i tuat ion i s q u ite d ifferent , w ith many more c o ins f ound . T here i s o ne e xcavat ion w ith 6 3 c o ins , o ne w ith 1 9 , o ne h as c ontr ib uted 1 7 a nd t here a re t wo e xcavated s i tes where o n ly a f ew c o ins were f ound . A l l t hose f inds a re c umu lat ive o nes ; t here a re n o h oards i nvo lved . We c an e xc lude t he a lternat ive t hat t he L inköp ing a rchaeo log ists were u s ing b etter d igg ing t echn ique , t han t he ir c o l leagues f rom S öderköp ing . I f a ny th ing , t he e xcavat ion i n t he l atter t own h as b een c arr ied o ut more p rofess iona l ly . A nother a pproach i s p erhaps more s uccessfu l -t he g eo log ica l o ne . T he s andy s o i l i n L inköp ing m ight b e ab etter p reserver o f c o ins t han t he wet c lay i n S öderköp ing . I t i s c erta in ly e as ier t o f i nd t hem i n s and t han i n c lay . T h is m ight e xp la in t he d ifference ; s t i l l , t here i s s ometh ing e lse t o c ons ider a s w e l l . Most c o ins f ound i n t he t wo t owns a re l a te a nd p ost med ieva l o nes , t hat i s f rom t he 1 4th-15th c entury o nwards . T h is i s ap er iod , when t he r e lat ive i mportance o f S öderköp ing d ec l ined i n f avour o f a nother t own - Norrköp ing . L inköp ing 's i mportance c ont inued . T h is matter o f c ompar ison i s o f c ourse u nsat isfactory . T he n umber o f c o ins f ound a t s pec if ic e xcavat ion must b e c ons idered i n r e lat ion t o t he s i ze o f t he e xcavated a rea a nd t he v o lume o f t he l ayers i nvest igated . A c orrect u nders tand ing o f what c o in f requency means must f urthermore b e b ased o n a n i n terp retat ion o f what k ind o f a ct iv ity was c arr ied o ut i n t he M idd le A ges a t t he i nvest igated a rea , o n l ength o f d epos it ion t ime e tc . W ith t hese r eservat ions d u ly p resented , Is t i l l t h ink t hat i t i s worthwh i le t o q uant ify t he d ifferences i n t he s imp le way o f f ig .3 ; i f i t d oes n ot s ay a nyth ing e l se , i t u nder l ines t he p rob lems o f mak ing a n i nterpretat ion o n t he b as is o f c o in f requency . F ig .3 s ummar izes s ome e xamp les f rom t owns i n a nother p rov ince o f Sweden : Upp land ( 2 ) . Genera l ly s peak ing , t he p icture o f l ow c o in f requency a ppears o nce more . S t i l l t here a re s ome v ar iat ions , wh ich i nc ident ly c an b e r e lated t o t he g eo log ica l s i tuat ion . S andbacken i n Uppsa la s hows a h igh f requency o f c o ins o ne c o in p er m3 - wh ich s hou ld s ay s ometh ing o f t he med ieva l a ct iv ity i n t h is

EXCAVATION

DATING

NUMBER OF

EXCAVATED

( century)

COINS

VOLUME

1 5th

5

COIN FREQUENCY 3 ( coin/m )

UPPSALA

Svalan

1 5th-17th

5 +(13)

K ransen

1 3th-17th

2

3 1 42 m 3 ( 400 m ) 3 ( 140 m ) 3 3 00 m 3 1 400 m

1 4th-15th

1 45

3 2 400 m

A tle S andbacken

1 4th

1 6th,

1 7

1 7th

3 m 3 ( lc/ 2 4 m ) 3 ( lc/ 8 m ) 3 1 c/ 6 0 m 3 1 c/700 m l c/

2 8

1 c/

3 1 6 m

S TOCKHOLM

Helgeandsholmen

F ig.3.

Table of

c oin

f requency o f

1 2

some

t own

e xcavations

i n Uppland,

Sweden.

b lock , b ut c an a l so b e r e la ted t o t he f act t hat t he c u lture l ayer r ested o n s and . T h is i s i n c ontrast t o t he o ther s i tes i n t h is t own , where t he s ubso i l i s c om p osed o f c lay . I n my v iew , t he e xamp les f rom Upp land i nd icate o ne f act : t he ma in r eason f or l ow c o in f requency i s n ot c are less d igg ing . I n t he K ransen e xcava t ion t here was a p o s it ive s earch f or c o ins . T he a rchaeo log ists f ound a l o t o f s ma l l t h ings ( d im inut ive f i shbones f or i n stance ) b ut v ery f ew , i n f act o n ly t wo , c o ins wh ich were a l so r ather l a te o nes . T he He lgeandsho lmen e xcavat ion i n S tockho lm must a l so b e ment ioned h ere . T h is e xcavat ion was a v ery b ig o ne , i n f act o ne o f t he b iggest a rchaeo log ica l p ro jec ts i n Sweden . I t a l so e n joyed t remendous p ub l ic ity a nd many f ru itfu l , methodo log ica l e xper iments were c arr ied o ut . T he v ery f act t hat s o many c o ins were f ound a nd c ou ld g ive p os it ive a nd p rec ise d at ing h as b een u sed a s a n a rgument , i n f avour o f t he t heory t hat r ef ined e xcavat ion t echn iques d i scover more c o ins . R eferr ing t o my t ab le i n f i g .3 I wou ld l i ke t o p ropose t hat t h is p ictu re i s i lusory . T he f requency o f c o ins was n ot p art icu lar ly h igh a t t he He lgeandsho lmen e xcavat ion . T he u sefu lness o f a ny s i ng le c ategory o f a rtefact d epend s o n t he who le c on text . I n t h is c ase , I wou ld s ay , t hat t he s i ze o f t he e xcavat ion i n i t se lf g uaranteed a mean ingfu l q uant ity o f c o ins , wh ich i n i t se lf a lso m ade a c omprehens ive i n terpretat ion p oss ib le . I w i l l p resent o ne l a st e xamp le , f rom S kanör-Fa lsterbo i n t he s outh o f Sweden . I n t he l a st d ecades many s ma l l b ut d eta i led e xcavat ions h ave b een c arr ied o ut h ere a nd o n t he who le a l o t o f c o ins h ave b een f ound . Two s i tes were p art icu lar ly s uccessfu l i n t hat r espect ( 3 ) . One o f t hem was s i tuated i n c lose p rox im ity t o t he c ast le o f S kanör , t he o ther l ay i n t he n e ighbourhood o f F a ls terbo c ast le . I n t hese t wo s i tes t he f requency o f c o ins w as a bout o ne c o in p er 3 -4m 3. A t o ther s i tes i n S kanör c o ins a re much f ewer : o ne c o in p er 1 5-20m 3 o r e ven l ess i s n orma l . T he o ther f i nds f rom t hese t wo s i tes m en t ioned a bove c ou ld b e c ons idered r a ther u nusua l i n t h is s ett ing : r emnants o f b eadmak ing , s i gnet r i ngs , u nusua l p ottery e tc . I n S kanör-Fa lsterbo t he g eo log ica l c ond it i on s a re t he s ame a l l o ver t he a rea - t he s ubso i l i s f i ne g raded s and . C ond it i ons f or e xcavat ions a re f avourab le a nd s ma l l a rtefacts s tand a g ood c hance o f b e ing f ound . T h is e xamp le f rom S kanör -Fa lsterbo i lustrates t he f act t hat t here a re m ore a spects t o c o in f requency t han c ond it ions o f p reservat ion a nd e xcavat ion t echn ique . T he p ast w h ich h as p roduced s ometh ing f or u s t o e xcavate a l so h ad a n i n f luence o n h ow many c o ins t here a re t o b e f ound . *

*

*

*

I n a n a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ion c o ins a re e asy t o m iss a nd s ome c o ins a re n ot f ound e ven w ith a c arefu l , modern t echn ique . T h is d oes n ot m ean , t hat t he c o ins w h ich h ave n ot b een f ound wou ld c hange t he o ver -a l l p icture o f c o in d i str ibut ion i n a ny s ubstant ia l w ay . B ut i t d oes mean t hat i t i s i mportant t o r emember what m ay b e l o st d ue t o b ad c ond it ions f or p reservat ion . N everthe less , t he most i mportant a spect t o k eep i n m ind when d i scuss ing t h is p rob lem i s t hat c o ins were n o t o r ig ina l ly d i str ibuted e ven ly o ver t he h ab itat ion a rea . I f we want t o a ch ieve a b etter u nder stand ing o f c o ins a s e v idence f or t he M idd le A ges we must c arry o ut a s ystemat ic a na lys is o f t he c ontext o f e xcavated l ayers - c o in p rod uc ing l ayers a s w e l l a s l ayers where n o c o ins h ave b een f ound . T hus c o ins a re a n a rcheo log ica l o b l igat ion - a nd a c ha l lenge .

NOTES 1 .

Malmer,

B .

a nd Wisehn,

L andskapsinventeringen 2 .

Based on

S tockholms hantverk

Medeltid

( Stockholm);

medeltida

J -H.

( Riksantikvarieämbetet,

Myntkabinettet, Pers.

c omm.

Myntfynd

f rom:

L .:

( Sveriges

L .

1 982:

Helgeandsholmen, V .:

S andbacken,

( Riksantikvarieämbetet,

Rapport

UV

1 978:30);

( Riksantikvarieämbetet,

Ersgärd,

G .

a nd Svedberg,

Rapport UV

Arkeologisk undersökning 1 975,

S tockholm. Lars

f rän Ö stergötland.

Dahlbäck,

Ersgärd,

uppsalakvarter

a nd H illbom,

medeltida uppsalakvarter

3 .

1 982.

i nformation obtained s tröm

i e tt

Gustafsson,

I .

Mynthistoria.

1 ).

S tockholm.

Mogren,

Rapport,

M .

1000

The

i

1984:9);

Kv Atle,

Uppsala,

a nd P ählsson,

UV 1 983:1);

ä r

Bebyggelse och

I .:

Uppland,

Svalan,

Registry of

e tt

Kungliga

HA T F A C TO R S G O V E R NT H E N UM B E RO FC O IN S F O UN D O NA N A R C H A E O LOG I C A L S I T E ? MARK B LACKBURN

This

paper considers

f rom

excavations.

a re identified: t he coins, t ions h istory r ally,

of

the

exchange).

p robable

t he

r ate o f t o

t echniques.

d ate of

l oss

t otal

t he construction o f

was

small t he

t han

t he nature a nd extent

t he

f loors,

o f

d ate of

Secondary are

two:

a nd t he e fficiency

f inds

i t

i s

s triking.

of

important F inally,

t o i t

a monetary e conomy e stablished i n o f

transacby

coinage in c irculation

i n modern t imes

f inds t imes

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A rchaeo log ists a re o n ly t oo we l l aware t hat t he r ate a t wh ich c o ins a re d iscovered c an v ary d ramat ica l ly f rom p er iod t o p er iod a nd f rom s i te t o s i te . One o f t he p urposes o f t h is c onference h as b een t o e xp lore t he s ign if icance o f t hese p atterns f or t he e conom ic a nd s oc ia l h istory o f p art icu lar s i tes i n t he M idd le Ages . When d id c o inage b eg in t o b e u sed i n t ransact ions o n t he s i te? Do f luctuat ions i n t he c o in f inds r ef lect c hanges i n t he p rosper ity o f t he s i te? How r epresentat ive a re t hey o f t he t own o r r eg ion g enera l ly? C o ins c an b e more c lose ly d ated t han most o ther a rtefacts a nd t hey a re n orma l ly we l l r ecorded i n a rchaeo log ica l r eports , s o t hey wou ld a ppear t o b e i dea l mater ia l f or c omparat ive a na lys is . However , o n f urther c ons iderat ion t he ir i n terpretat ion i s n ot a s s tra ightforward a s we m ight i mag ine . T here a re many v ar iab les t hat c an a ffect t he n umber o f c o ins f ound a nd we n eed t o k now wh ich o f t hese a re b e ing t es ted i n a ny c ompar ison t hat i s made . A l l t oo o ften t he d ifferences o bserved b etween s i tes o r b etween p er iods c ou ld b e a ccounted f or i n s evera l ways , a nd t he c onc lus ions a re n ot a s u namb iguous a s o ne m ight h ope . S ome o f t he o pt ions c an b e l im ited t hrough a n u nderstand ing o f t he e conom ic a nd monetary h istory o f t he r eg ion , b ut i t i s f requent ly t he c ase t hat more n um ismat ic r esearch i s n eeded b efore t he r e levant p rob lems c an b e a ddressed . T hat i s n ot t o s ay t hat t he c o in f i nds f rom e xcavat ions h ave n oth ing u sefu l t o t e l l u s -o n t he c ontrary t hey a re a p r ime s ource o f e v idence - b ut t he q uest ions a sked o f t hem n eed t o b e c arefu l ly c omposed a nd t he a nswers r ea l ist ica l ly a ssessed . Num ismat ists , when c ons ider ing g roups o f s ing le f i nds , a re o ften p r imar i ly c oncerned w ith t he ir c ompos it ions i n t erms o f t he c o inages a nd m ints r epresented a nd t he l i ght t h is s heds o n c ircu lat ion p atterns . F or t he a rchaeo log ists a t t h is c onference t he i nterest o f c o in f i nds l ay more i n t he ir a bso lute n umbers a nd t he w ay t h is v ar ies f rom s i te t o s i te a nd p er iod t o p er iod , a c oncern n o d oubt h e ightened b y t he d ebate a s t o h ow l a te i n t he M idd le A ges a market e conomy d eve loped i n t he v ar ious r eg ions o f S cand inav ia . T h is p aper , b y an um ismat ist ,

1 5

i s r estr icted t o ag enera l c ons iderat ion o f t he r ate a t wh ich c o in f i nds o ccur o n s i tes , d raw ing ma in ly o n E ng l ish e xamp les w ith w h ich t he w r iter i s most f am i l iar . *

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T he f actors i n f luenc ing t he n umber o f c o ins f ound o n a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te f a l l i n to t wo g roups : t hose r e lat ing t o t he o r ig ina l l o ss ( pr imary f actors ) a nd t hose a ffect ing t he c hance o f s urv iva l a nd r ecovery i n modern t imes ( s econdary f actors ) . T he l a tter w i l l b e d ea lt w ith f i rst a nd o n ly b r ief ly , s ince t hey h ave b een c ons idered b y s evera l c ontr ibutors t o t h is c onference . T hey a re e ssent ia l ly t wo : s evere c orros ion r esu lt ing i n t he d estruct ion o f t he c o ins , a nd t he e ff ic iency o f d ifferent a rchaeo log ica l t echn iques i n f i nd ing c o ins i n e xcavat ions . B oth o f t hese , where t hey o perate , w i l l t end t o r educe t he n umber o f c o ins r ecorded f rom a s i te , a nd b oth w i l l b e s e lect ive , a ffect ing t he s ma l ler d enom inat ions more , t hus i n troduc ing b ias i n to t he s amp le . T he e xtent t o wh ich c o ins may d is integrate i n t he s o i l i s l arge ly u nknown . Num ismat ists h and l ing e xcavat ion a nd meta l-detector f i nds a re u sed t o s ee ing o ccas iona l med ieva l c o ins t hat a re h eav i ly c orroded , s omet imes t o t he e xtent t hat t he f l ans a re p erforated a t t he ir t h innest p arts , a nd o ne c an i mag ine t hat o ther p ieces may h ave d eter iorated o ne s tage f urther l eav ing n oth ing o f s i gn if icance t o b e r ecovered . However , p ure ly c hem ica l d is integrat ion a pp l ies ma in ly t o t he t h inner c o ins a nd p art icu lar ly t hose made o f b i l lon ( i .e . s i lver a l loys l e ss t han 5 0% f i ne ) o r b ase meta l . C o ins o f g ood s i lver a nd h eav ier we ight s uch a s t hose o f t he V ik ing A ge a re n ot a ffected b y c orros ion t o a nyth ing l i ke t he s ame d egree . B ut e ven t hese c an s uffer f ragmentat ion a nd d is integrat ion g iven p art icu lar s o i l c ond it ions c omb ined w ith p hys ica l d isturbance o f t he g round i n wh ich t hey l ay . F or e xamp le , ar ecent h oard o f n inth-century p enn ies o f f i ne ( c .90% ) s i lver f rom A shdon i n e astern E ng land was f ound i n ad ec iduous wood land i n t op s o i l w ith a h igh o rgan ic c ontent ( B lackburn 1 985 ) . T h is h ad made t he c o ins e xtreme ly b r itt le . T hey h ad s ubsequent ly b een d ispersed t hrough t he s o i l o ver s evera l metres , p robab ly t hrough management o f t he wood - p lant ing a nd g rubb ing u p t rees -a nd many o f t hem h ad b een b roken i n to s ma l l p ieces . I t i s e st imated t hat w e h ave r ecovered t he r ema ins o f s ome 7 0 c o ins o f wh ich o n ly 1 2 a re i n tact a nd f or t he ma jor ity l e ss t han a q uarter o f t he c o in s urv ives . T he m iss ing p o rt ions , a nd p erhaps o ther e nt ire c o ins , must h ave s imp ly c rumb led i n to d ust r a ther t han f a i led t o b e f ound , f or t he e xcavat ion was most e ff ic ient ly p erformed b y a n e xper ienced ( amateur ) meta l-detector u ser , w ith p rofess iona l a dv ice , t ak ing more t han 1 00 h ours t o e xcavate a nd c heck t he s po i l . T he 1 866 S lethe i h oard f rom Hä land , Norway ( Skaare 1 976 :148-9 , n o .82 ) , must h ave s uffered i n a s im i lar w ay f or i t c onta ined a l a rge n umber o f f rag i le a nd f ragmentary s i lver p ence o f t he e leventh c entury t hat h ad b een c orroded a nd b roken i n t he g round , n ot d e l iberate ly p roduced a s V ik ing h acks i lver . S uch h oards a re r are , b ut i f s ome c an b e a ffected i n t h is way , i nd iv idua l c o ins a re l i ke ly t o b e e ven more v u lnerab le t o d estruct ion . However , o n as i te where t h is i s o ccurr ing o ne wou ld e xpect t o f i nd c o ins a nd o ther a rtefacts i n t he p rocess o f d is in tegrat ion , p erforated b y c orros ion o r f ragmented , o r where i t h as g one a s tage f u rther a nd r emoved a l l c o ins t hen o ther meta lwork s hou ld a lso b e a bsent f rom t he s i te . I f o n t he o ther h and meta lwork i s p resent i n r easonab le c ond it ion t hen c orros ion i s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een a s ign if icant f actor i n c o in s urv iva l . A s ystemat ic s tudy o f t he p rob lem o f c o in c orros ion a nd d is integrat ion wou ld b e most we lcome . I t h as a d i rect b ear ing o n o ur i n terpretat ion o f t he f i nd mater ia l , a nd wh i le q uant if icat ion o f t he n umber o f c o ins d estroyed may n ever b e f eas ib le , i t wou ld b e v a luab le t o d eterm ine t he c ond it ions u nder wh ich i t c an o ccur a nd t he t ypes o f c o in most l i ke ly t o b e a ffected . T he o ther f actor a ffect ing r ecovery - t he e ff ic iency o f d ifferent e xcavat ion

1 6

t echn iques - i s a matter f or a rchaeo log ists t o i nvest igate . L ike c orros ion , i t i s p erhaps a p rob lem t hat t hose i n terpret ing c o in f i nds w i l l h ave t o l i ve w ith , f or wh i le e ffect ive methods o f r ecovery s uch a s s i ev ing o r t he u se o f meta l d etectors d o e x ist , t here w i l l a lways b e s i tes o n wh ich t he e ffort a nd e xpense i s n ot t hought j ust if ied o r p ract ica l . However , e xcavators when mak ing d ec is ions a bout t he t echn iques t o b e u sed s hou ld b e aware o f t he d anger o f t he ir m iss ing c erta in c lasses o f f i nd , a nd t hey s hou ld r ef lect t h is i n t he ir f i na l e xcavat ion r eports s o t hat i t c an b e t aken i n to a ccount when i n terpret ing t he c o in f i nds . I t i s a n a dvantage where a l a rge a rea h as t o b e e xcavated a t s peed , i f s amp les f rom d i fferent p arts o f t he s i te c an b e i nvest igated more c arefu l ly t o d eterm ine whether s i gn if icant ly more c o ins a nd a rtefacts c ou ld b e f ound . A lthough t here i s more t o b e l earnt a bout t he way i n wh ich c orros ion a nd d iffer ing e xcavat ion t echn iques a ffect t he r ate o f c o in d iscovery , i t wou ld b e a larm ist t o t h ink t hat t hey a re s o s ign if icant a s t o n u l l ify o ur a ttempts t o a na lyse t he c o in f i nds . On s ome s i tes t hese f actors may h ave h ad a d ramat ic e ffect i n r educ ing t he n umber o f f i nds , p art icu lar ly o f t he s ma l ler d enom inat ions . B ut u nder most c ond it ions c orros ion o ught n ot t o b e a ma jor p rob lem , a nd o n most s i tes t hat h ave b een f u l ly e xcavated r ather t han s amp led o ne c an e xpect t hat a r easonab ly h igh p roport ion o f t he c o ins h ave b een r ecovered . I n g enera l where t here a re s ign if icant v ar iat ions i n t he n umber o f c o ins d iscovered we s hou ld l ook t o t he c i rcumstances a ffect ing t he ir l o ss a nd t o t he monetary c l imate a t t he t ime , a nd i t i s t o t hese p r imary f actors t hat I s ha l l n ow t urn . *

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T he f i rst p o int t o b e made i s t hat c o ins u n l ike most o ther a rchaeo log ica l a rtefacts were u sua l ly l o st r ather t han d e l iberate ly t hrown away . I nstances o f c o ins b e ing r e jected f rom c urrency - e .g . f orger ies o r , i n c erta in c i rcumstances , f ore ign c o ins - a re r are , a nd where r ecogn ized o ught n ot t o b e i nc luded i n a s tat ist ica l a na lys is o f c o in f i nds . E qua l ly , d e l iberate d epos its s uch a s g rave f i nds a nd o ther o ffer ings s hou ld b e t reated s eparate ly f rom c asua l l o sses f rom c i rcu lat ion . C o ins d ropped i n ad omest ic s ett ing a re more l i ke ly t o h ave b een r ecovered b y t he ir owners t han t hose l o st i n ap ub l ic p lace where i t may b e l e ss e asy t o s earch f or t hem . T he n ature o f t he f l oor w i l l a l so h ave i n f luenced t he c hance o f t he ir b e ing r efound . T hey wou ld h ave b een e as i ly s een o n as tone o r we l l c leaned c lay s urface , b ut o n a wooden f l oor t hey m ight h ave f a l len i n to c racks b etween p lanks , a nd o ne o f r ough e arth o r c overed i n s t raw o r s and wou ld h ave r ead i ly c oncea led t hem . S ome o f t he most p roduct ive s i tes f or c o in f i nds a re r ubb ish p its o r d umps , t he c o ins h av ing p resumab ly b een g athered u p w ith d ebr is f rom t he g round . T he B i l l ingsgate s i te i n L ondon i s a c lass ic e xamp le , r epresent ing a med ieva l waterfront t hat was c onstructed f rom t he c i ty 's r efuse t hat was r i ch i n m ed ieva l c o in f i nds ( Stott f orthcom ing ) , a nd a t Danek irk i n J ut land t he f i rst s i gn if icant g roup o f " sceattas" f rom S cand inav ia was f ound i n a n e ighth-century s pread o f d ebr is f rom t he s ett lement ( Bend ixen 1 974 ) . T he s i ze o f t he c o in wou ld a lso h ave i n f luenced h ow e as i ly i t c ou ld b e r ecovered , a nd t he v a lue h ow much e ffort i t s owner m ight h ave e xerted i n s earch ing f or i t . T hen a s n ow s ma l l c hange was most e as i ly l o st , a l though i n t he m ed ieva l p er iod t he s ma l lest d enom inat ions were worth c ons iderab ly more t han t hose o f t oday a nd wou ld n ot h ave b een r ead i ly n eg lected . I t f o l lows t hat o ne s hou ld n ot a ssume t hat i s o lated f i nds a re r epresentat ive o f t he c o inage t hat was i n c i rcu lat ion , a ny more t han a re t he h oards wh ich o ften c onta in a p redom inance o f l a rger d enom inat ions . F or e xamp le , e xcavat ion f i nds f rom Y ork l o st d ur ing t he p er iod 1 350-1550 c ons ist o f 1g roat ( = 4p ence ) , 2h a lfgroats , a nd 3 4 p enn ies ( i nc lud ing 1 0 p enn ies s t ruck b efore 1 350 b ut l o st l a ter ; P ine e t a l . 1 986 :59-

1 7

6 4 ) . Here t he l a rger s i lver a nd g o ld d enom inat ions were g ross ly u nderr epresented c ompared w ith t he ir p roport ions i n t he E ng l ish money s upp ly g enera l ly . What i s d iff icu lt t o a ssess i s t he e xtent t o wh ich t h is l ow r epresentat ion r ef lects t he f act t hat t hey were l e ss o ften u sed i n e veryday t ransact ions r ather t han t hat more c are was t aken n ot t o l o se t hem . T he a bsence o f h a lfpence a nd f arth ings i s a lso a t f i rst s ight s urpr is ing , b ut a s we s ha l l s ee t hey were i n s hort s upp ly a nd t o j udge f rom o ther s i tes o ne w ou ld n ot e xpect t o f i nd more t han 3o r 4f ract iona l c o ins among 3 7 f i nds . T he u nusua l A ttenborough h oard d epos ited c . 1420 c onta ined c o ins i n r ather c omparab le p roport ions ( 15 g roats , 5 6 h a lfgroats , 9 65 p ence , a nd 6 6 h a lfpence ; A rch iba ld 1 969 ) , a nd t he T err ington S t C lement h oard d epos ited c . 1425 i s e ven more d om inated b y p ence ( 1 g roat , 3 h a lf g roats , a nd 1 85 p ence ; C arson 1 947 ) . I f a s h as b een s uggested t hese h oards r epresent a s amp le o f e veryday " currency " , i t e ncourages o ne t o t h ink t hat b ias a ga inst l a rger d enom inat ions among l o sses was n ot a s ign if icant f actor . However , o ne must r emember t hat e very h oard r epresents a g roup o f c o ins b rought t ogether i n a p art icu lar way f or a p art icu lar p urpose , a nd o ne m ight we l l a sk what i s meant b y at yp ica l s amp le o f c urrency - d oes i t i n f act e x ist? D ifferent p eop le wou ld h ave h e ld t he ir money i n d ifferent f orms . T o t ake a modern a na logy , t he c ompos it ion o f t he c ash i n my p ockets i s r ather d i fferent f rom t hat n orma l ly c arr ied b y my w ife , a nd t he " f loat" h e ld b y an ewsagent w i l l d iffer f rom t hat o f as hopkeeper s e l l ing TVs a nd v ideos . C o ins c an b e l o st a lmost a nywhere - t hrough h o les i n p urses o r p ockets , i n a n u nexpected f a l l , e tc . -b ut t he g reatest r i sk must c ome a t t he p o int a t wh ich t hey a re b e ing u sed i n t ransact ions , whether f or c ommerce i n t he market p lace o r a s o ffer ings i n c hurch . I t i s n ot s urpr is ing t hat i n u rban s ett ings t he e xcavat ions w ith t he h ighest d ens ity o f c o in f i nds a re f requent ly t hose f or wh ich t here i s e v idence o f c ommerc ia l a ct iv ity s uch a s meta l , g lass , o r l eather work ing . S omet imes t hese a re i n s eparate t enements a s a t C oppergate i n Y ork ( P ine e t a l . 1 986 :15-29 ) o r F laxengate i n L inco ln ( B lackburn , C o lyer , a nd Do l ley 1 983 ) , wh i le i n o thers i t a ppears t o h ave b een i n a n o pen market a s a t R ibe ( Frandsen 's p aper i n t h is v o l .) . A t Wood Quay i n D ub l in , a l though t here was n o e v idence o f manufactur ing , t he t enements were a d jacent t o t he h arbour a nd i t i s t hought t hat t hey were o ccup ied b y merchants ( Wa l lace 1 986 :211-12 ) . C o in l o ss w i l l t herefore h ave b een i n f luenced b y t he v o lume o f c o inage i n u se a nd t he n umber o f t ransact ions made o n ap art icu lar s i te . G iven a r ea l ly l a rge s amp le t here s hou ld b e ar easonab le c orre lat ion b etween c o in f i nds a nd monetary a ct iv ity ( prov ided o ther f actors a re e qua l ) , b ut o n most med ieva l s i tes w ith a f ew d ozen c o in f i nds t he c orre lat ion w i l l a t b est b e v ery a pprox imate ( cf . H inton 1 986 :26 ) . I t o n ly r equ ires o ne t rader who i s c ons istent ly c lumsy , o r as i ng le e vent s uch a s as ta l l b e ing u pset o r ap urse b e ing s cattered , t o a ffect t he p attern o f f i nds d ramat ica l ly . When f i nds a re e xpressed s tat ist ica l ly i n t ab les o r h i stograms t here i s at emptat ion t o i n terpret q u ite s ma l l d i fferences i n t erms o f c hanges i n monetary a ct iv ity , b ut when t hey a re f rom a s i ng le s i te i t must b e r emembered t hat t hey p rov ide o n ly a v ery c rude g u ide a nd s w ings o f 2 5% o r e ven 5 0% b etween t wo p er iods may b e o f n o r ea l s i gn if icance . C ompar isons b etween i nd iv idua l s i tes c an b e h azardous , a nd o ne m ust b e c arefu l t o e nsure t hat t he c orrect q uest ions a re a sked o f t he f i nd e v idence . C onc lus ions a bout t he d egree o f c o in u se a re v a l id o n ly f or t he s i te i n q uest ion a nd c annot b e r egarded a s r epresentat ive o f t he t own o r r eg ion . T hus i n p r inc ip le o ne m ight c ompare t he f i nds f rom t he F laxengate a nd C oppergate s i tes t o d eterm ine wh ich s eems t o h ave e n joyed t he g reater u se o f c o in i n t he e leventh c entury . ( One s hou ld b e s at isf ied , o f c ourse , t hat t he s urv iva l a nd r ecovery r ates a re s im i lar , t hat t he f l oor c onstruct ions were c omparab le , a nd t hat a ny n ecessary a d justments h ave b een made f or d ifferences i n t he s i ze o f t he s i tes .)

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B ut o ne c annot v a l id ly e xtrapo late f rom t hat t o s ay whether L inco ln o r Y ork h ad t he l i ve l ier c ommerc ia l c entre o r t he g reater v o lume o f c o inage i n c i rcu lat ion . We s imp ly d o n ot k now what o ther a reas i n e ach c i ty m ight y ie ld i f e xcavated , a nd o ne i s o n n o s t ronger g round i f t he f i nds f rom a l l e xcavat ions a re ama lgamated ( w ith o r w ithout o ther s t ray f i nds ) f or t hey c annot b e a ssumed t o b e a n a dequate o r s uff ic ient ly r andom s amp le . T o t ake a n e xtreme e xamp le o f h ow m is lead ing c o in f i nd e v idence c ou ld b e i f u sed i n t h is way , e xcavat ions i n S outhampton h ave y ie lded more t han 2 00 e ighth- a nd n inth-century c o ins ( Metca lf 1 988 ) , many t imes more t han t he n umber f ound i n L ondon ( B idd le 1 984 ; Metca lf 1 986 :1-5 ) , y et t here i s c lear h istor ica l e v idence t o s how t hat L ondon was a ma jor , a nd p robab ly t he f oremost , c ommerc ia l c entre i n E ng land ( B idd le f orthcom ing ) . C ompar isons b etween p er iods c an b e e ven more d iff icu lt . One may b e a b le r ough ly t o r e late t he n umber o f c o ins f ound f rom d ifferent p er iods o n t he s ame s i te w ith c hanges i n t he monetary a ct iv ity t here . B ut f or t h is i n format ion t o b e o f a ny u se t o t he a rchaeo log ist o r h i stor ian , h e w i l l n eed t o k now whether t hese c hanges r epresent d ifferences i n t he n ature o r i ntens ity o f u se o f t he s i te wh ich may b e t oo s ub t le t o b e e v ident i n t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata - o r a lternat ive ly s ome u nder ly ing a lterat ion i n t he amount o f c o inage a va i lab le i n t he r eg ion . I n ac lass ic s tudy , R igo ld t abu lated t he f i nds f rom a h undred med ieva l s i tes i n E ng land , a nd d emonstrated h ow t he r ate o f c o in l o ss v ar ied c ons iderab ly f rom p er iod t o p er iod ( R igo ld 1 977) . He d iv ided t he s i tes b etween f our c lasses - r e l ig ious s i tes , f ort if ied a nd wea lth ier s ecu lar s i tes , p oorer s ecu lar s i tes , a nd u rban s i tes - a nd s im i lar t rends c ou ld b e s een i n e ach ( Tab le 1s hows t he a ggregate r esu lts ) .

Period

Gross

I

I I c .1053-

1 053

1 125?

f inds

IV

I II

c .973-

V

VI

VII

VIII

I X

1 125-

1 180-

1 247-

1 279-

1 351-

1 412-

1 464-

1 180

1 247

1 279

1 351

1 412

1 464

1 544

1 8

1 7

2 6

6 0

3 9

1 96

6 9

4 0

48

Adjustment

-

-

-

-

-

31

+ 11

4

+ 24

Net

1 8

1 7

2 6

6 0

3 9

1 65

8 0

3 6

7 2

2 .3

2 .4

4 .0

9 .0

1 3.0

2 3.6

1 3.3

7 .2

9 .0

6%

6 %

3 5%

3 3%

2 6%

2 1%

9 %

1 1%

1 0%

2 50-

6 75

f inds

F inds

per

Decade Fractions ( 1/2d and 1 /4d) E stimated s ilver

5 -50

currency

5 00-

4 00

3 00

1 000

( L'000)

Table

1 .

Note:

Coin

The

f inds

f igures

i ndicated below. were

not

pro rata

t hat t he

t o VIII

f rom

t he

s truck t he s ize

in

t otal of

s pecific

i n

t his

f or t he

f act

coins had r emained i n c irculation

f inds

of

t hose

e arlier periods. c irculation

hoard

t o

evidence

e arlier periods, s ize of

the

t he c urrency a re

i n England

Rigold i ncreased t he n umber o f

h ad remained i n

d ates

s ites

t able a re based o n Rigold' s

I n making adjustments

complete

a ssuming

VI

f rom a hundred medieval

a ssume

which

He

g ives

r esults,

t hat

t he

f inds

a ssumed t hat

a t hird of

in

t he coins

f luctuated w ithin e ach p eriod,

1 9

but

but

a t hird of

t he next

r ather d ifferent

with of

t he

1 351,

amendments

1 412

a ttributed to periods VII

period,

lost

r esults.

s ilver currency a re b ased on Metcalf

available.

but

recoinages

f rom earlier periods

a nd were l ost

t hat

( after Rigold 1 977).

1 981a,

he

IX

f ailed to

periods

i t would be to

by

r educe

t he c oins of but

in periods VII The

a nd 1 464

to

f airer

IX

were

comparative e stimates of

Mayhew 1 974

usually e stimates

a t

a nd

1 987.

o nly one or

The two

T he n umber o f f i nds p er d ecade r i ses p rogress ive ly a nd s ubstant ia l ly f rom t he m id-twe lfth t o t he m id-fourteenth c entury , f a l l ing b ack t hen t o al ower l eve l u nt i l t he s ixteenth c entury . C hanges i n t he p opu lat ion a nd i n u se o f money may h ave b een c ontr ibut ing f actors , b ut u ndoubted ly t he ma jor i nf luence i n t h is p attern i s t he amount o f c o inage i n c i rcu lat ion , f or i t b road ly m irrors t he way i n wh ich we b e l ieve t he money s upp ly i n E ng land e xpanded a nd c ontracted . Where s pec if ic e st imates f or t he s i ze o f t he E ng l ish s i lver c urrency a re a va i lab le ( Tab le 1 ) t he c orre lat ion w ith t he c o in f i nds i s r easonab ly c lose , b ear ing i n m ind b oth l im ited s i ze o f t he s amp le o f f i nds , a nd t he r ather w ide marg ins o f u ncerta inty i n t he c urrency e st imates . T h is s uggests t hat e ven i n t he e ar ly t h irteenth c entury when t he money s upp ly was a t i t s l a rgest i t was s t i l l s t imu lat ing t he e conomy a t al oca l l eve l r ather t han p i l ing u p a s as urp lus i n t reasur ies . I t f o l lows , t herefore , t hat when i n terpret ing t he c o ins f rom a n i nd iv idua l s i te , i t i s e ssent ia l t o l ook a t t he w ider monetary b ackground a nd i n p art icu lar a t t he c hang ing s ize o f t he c urrency . E st imates f or m int o utput , b ased o n d ocumentary e v idence o r d ie-stud ies a re a va i lab le f or a f a ir n umber o f c o inages , b ut wh i le t hese a re o ften r ef lected i n t he money s upp ly t hey s hou ld n ot b e c onfused w ith i t . T he s i ze o f t he c urrency w i l l b e d ependent n ot mere ly o n t he amount o f n ew c o inage b e ing s truck , b ut a l so o n t he amount b e ing e xported o r r em inted a nd o n h ow much f ore ign c o in i s e nter ing c i rcu lat ion . I n s ome c ases mode ls h ave b een c onstructed t o e st imate t he s i ze o f t he c urrency , a l though t hese o ften i nvo lve a g ood d ea l o f s pecu lat ion ( e .g . f or l a te A ng lo-Saxon c urrency , Metca lf 1 981a :63-5 ; f or A ng lo-Saxon c o inage i n t he Northern L ands , Metca lf 1 981b ) . Occas iona l ly t here i s d ocumentary e v idence , a s a t t he E ng l ish r eco inage o f 1 279 when a bout L 675 ,000 o f d omest ic s i lver was r em inted i n to E dward ian s ter l ings a nd t h is h as b een t aken a s r epresent ing t he s i ze o f t he o ld L ong C ross c o inage t hat was b e ing r ep laced ( Arch iba ld 1 977 ) . S omet imes t he e v idence o f h oards a nd d ocuments c an b e c omb ined , b ut o ften o ur o n ly g u ide t o t he r e lat ive s i ze o f t he c urrency f rom p er iod t o p er iod i s a n i mpress ion g a ined f rom t he n umber o f s i ng le f i nds f rom t he r eg ion g enera l ly , b ased o n s tud ies s uch a s t hat b y R igo ld . Where l oca l e st imates f or t he money s upp ly a re n ot a va i lab le i t may h e lp t o l ook a t g enera l monetary t rends i n E urope ( Spuf f ord 1 988 ) . F or much o f t he t we lfth c entury , f or e xamp le , t here was a s hortage o f s i lver , l ead ing i n most c ountr ies t o af a l l i n c o in o utput a nd a r educt ion i n t he s i ze a nd we ight o f t he p enny - t hen t he u n iversa l d enom inat ion . B y c ontrast t he l a ter t h irteenth a nd e ar ly f ourteenth c entur ies were t imes o f m arked e xpans ion o f t he s i lver c o inages i n E urope , b ut a s t he n ew m ines b egan t o b e worked o ut a nd e x ist ing s tocks o f s i lver r educed b y n atura l wastage o r d ra ined t o t he E ast t here f o l lowed a nother s i lver f am ine i n t he l a te f ourteenth a nd f i fteenth c entur ies . Many m ints were c losed f or s evera l d ecades a nd c ountr ies t hat n orma l ly f orbade t he c ircu lat ion o f f ore ign c o in , s uch a s E ng land a nd t he S cand inav ian c ountr ies , a ccepted i t d ur ing t h is p er iod ( the many a rt ic les o n l a te med ieva l c o in c i rcu lat ion a re s ummar ized i n S pufford 1 988 , b ut s ee a lso p apers i n S teen J ensen ( ed .) 1 981 a nd Day ( ed .) 1 984 ) . A s we h ave s een , t he s i ng le f i nds a re d om inated b y c o ins o f l ower v a lue , a nd i t i s n ecessary t o l ook n ot j ust a t t he t ota l v o lume o f c o inage b ut a t i t s c ompos it ion i n t erms o f d i fferent d enom inat ions . T he p r inc ipa l d enom inat ion t hroughout most o f E urope f rom t he l a te s eventh u nt i l t he t h irteenth o r f ourteenth c entur ies was t he s i lver p enny . I t t ook v ar ious f orms , i nc lud ing t he t h in u n iface b racteates i n c entra l E urope a nd S cand inav ia a nd t he s ma l l b ase d enar i o f n orth I ta ly , t he we ight a nd f i neness h av ing d ec l ined t o v ary ing d egrees i n d i fferent r eg ions . Ha lfpenn ies ( obo ls ) a nd f arth ings w ere s t ruck , o r p roduced b y c utt ing p enn ies , i n v ary ing n umbers f rom t he e ighth c entury , a l though t hey o n ly b ecame c ommon i n most c ountr ies i n t he t we lfth c entury . Mu lt ip les o f t he

2 0

p enny ( gross i , g ros , G roschen , g roats ) were i n troduced f i rst i n n orthern I ta ly i n t he e ar ly t h irteenth c entury , i n F rance , t he L ow C ountr ies , n orthern S pa in , a nd s outhern Germany i n t he l a ter t h irteenth c entury , i n B ohem ia , Hungary , E ng land , n orthern Germany , a nd e ventua l ly S cand inav ia d ur ing t he f ourteenth c entury . S ince t he e ar ly M idd le A ges l a rge p ayments a nd i nternat iona l t ransact ions h ad o ften b een s at isf ied i n s i lver b ars , b ut f rom t he l ater t h irteenth c entury i n I ta ly a nd f rom t he f ourteenth c entury e lsewhere t hese were r ep laced b y g o ld a s t he p r inc ipa l means o f e xchange . A t much t he s ame t ime i n t he more c ommerc ia l ly a dvanced c ountr ies , s uch a s I ta ly , t he L ow C ountr ies , F rance a nd E ng land , b i l ls o f e xchange a nd c red it t ransfers b etween b anks d eve loped a s a s tandard means o f p ayment i n i nternat iona l t ransact ions . T he n eed f or money was q u ite d ifferent i n u rban a nd i n r ura l s oc iet ies ( Spufford 1 988 :382-7) . I n t he g reat c it ies a nd t owns wages , a ssessed a t d ay - o r p iece-rates , were p a id r egu lar ly t hroughout t he y ear , a nd s ma l l c hange was i n d emand f or d a i ly n eeds s uch a s b read , meat , b eer , o r w ine p urchased i n s ma l l q uant it ies . I n E ng land i n t he 1 280s a b u i ld ing l abourer 's wage was 1 1 /2 p ence s ter l ing a d ay , a nd b read c ost a f arth ing f or a s ma l l l oaf o r ah a lfpenny f or a l arge o ne . I n I ta ly 5 0 y ears l a ter a workman e arned a bout 2 o r 3g ross i p er d ay ( 1 g rosso = 3 0 d ebased d enar i ) , wh i le a l oaf o f b read c ost 4 d enar i , ap ound o f mutton 7d enar i , a nd a b oy 's h a ir c ut 4 d enar i ( Spufford 1 988 :235-8 ) . I n t he c ountrys ide , when i t e n joyed a monet ized e conomy , t he f low o f c o in was s easona l , a rr iv ing i n v ast q uant it ies a fter t he h arvests when a nnua l wages a nd a ccounts were s ett led a nd ma jor p urchases made . S o f ar a s t he s tate was c oncerned , t he p r imary f unct ion o f money was t o s erv ice i nternat iona l a nd r eg iona l t rade , t he p ayment o f wages i n t he more u rban ized s oc iet ies , a nd , most i mportant ly , t he p ayment o f t axes . T he n eed t o p rov ide s ma l l c hange was r are ly a p r ior ity o f g overnments u nt i l q u ite modern t imes . I t was more c ost ly , a nd a t t imes u neconom ic , f or m int-masters t o p roduce t he s ma l ler d enom inat ions , a nd a lthough c erta in m in imum q uant it ies were o ften s pec if ied i n t he ir c ontracts t hese were r are ly a dequate . T he s hortage o f s i lver b u l l ion i n t he l a te f ourteenth a nd f i fteenth c entur ies p art icu lar ly a ffected t he s upp ly o f s ma l l c hange . A s t he money s upp ly c ontracted s o i t b ecame t op-heavy w ith a p redom inance i n v a lue o f g o ld a nd l a rger s i lver d enom inat ions . R igo ld 's s tudy ( Tab le 1 ) s hows t hat i n E ng land t he p roport ions o f h a lfpence a nd f arth ings among s i te f i nds d ec l ines f rom o ver 2 0% t o a round 1 0% . I n o ther p arts o f E urope t he n eed f or s ma l l c hange was met w ith s o-ca l led " b lack money" , s ma l l c o ins s t ruck i n b ase b i l lon w ith a s l i tt le a s o ne p art s i lver t o 9 5 p arts c opper , b ut e ven t h is b ecame s carce d ur ing t he b u l l ion c r is is o f t he 1 450s a nd ' 60s ( Spufford 1 988 :360-2 ) . *

*

*

*

A l l a rchaeo log ists a re aware t hat when u s ing c o in f i nds a s d at ing e v idence f or t he s trat if ied l ayers i n wh ich t hey o ccur i t i s t he p robab le d ate o f d epos it ion o r l oss t hat i s i mportant , n ot t he d ate o f s tr ik ing ( wh ich p rov ides o n ly a t erminus p ost q ue rn ) . T he s ame i s t rue when i nterpret ing c o in f i nds a s e v idence o f e conom ic a ct iv ity . A t c erta in p er iods med ieva l c o ins r ema ined i n c i rcu lat ion f or 1 00 y ears o r more , a nd t hey wou ld h ave b een l ost f rom c urrency a t r andom i r respect ive o f t he ir a ge . F or e very f i nd i t i s t herefore n ecessary t o d eterm ine b oth i t s d ate o f i s sue a nd i t s l i ke ly p er iod o f c ircu lat ion , a nd e xcavat ion r eports s hou ld p rov ide e st imates o f t hese f or e very c o in f ound , a s f or e xamp le i n A rch iba ld 's e xce l lent r eport o f l a te med ieva l c o ins f rom t he Y ork e xcavat ions ( P ine e t a l . 1 986 :58-72 ) . C o ins may h ave b een t aken o ut o f c ircu lat ion b y a f orma l r eco inage , b y a d ebasement o r we ight r educt ion , o r b y g radua l wastage f rom c urrency t hrough a

2 1

c omb inat ion o f l o ss , h oard ing , a nd e xport . T he c i rcu lat ion p er iods c an u sua l ly b e d educed f a ir ly e as i ly f rom t he c ompos it ion o f c o in h oards , p rov ided t hat s teps a re t aken t o e xc lude t hose w ith a s av ings e lement o r o ther b ias . I n E ng land , f or e xamp le , t here were c omp lete r eco inages i n 180 , 1 247 , 1 279 , b ut t hen n ot u nt i l 1 695 s o t hat i n t heory a p enny o f E dward I ( 1272-1307) r ema ined l ega l t ender i n to t he s eventeenth c entury . I n p ract ice t he h oards s how t hat a s er ies o f we ight r educt ions r esu lted i n t he c l ipp ing o f o lder c o ins t o a ccord w ith t he c urrent we ight s tandard , a nd t he f i na l a bandonment o f t he s ter l ing s i lver s tandard ( 92 .5% f ine ) i n 1 542 d rove t he med ieva l c o inage o ut o f c i rcu lat ion . T he we ight o f a l a te med ieva l c o in i n E ng land t herefore p rov ides a n a pprox imate g u ide t o i t s d ate o f l oss ( Arch iba ld 1 974 :262-4 ) . On t he C ont inent d ebasement c ommenced a t a much e ar l ier d ate , a lthough s omet imes t h is r esu lted n ot i n t he w ithdrawa l o f t he o ld f i ner c o ins f rom c urrency , b ut i n t he ir r eva luat ion i n t erms o f t he l oca l money o f a ccount . T he e ffect o n t he c urrency t hus d iffers f rom l oca l ity t o l oca l ity , b ut a ga in i t s hou ld b e r ef lected i n t he h oards . When a na lys ing c o in f i nds , t hen , i t i s n ot s uff ic ient t o t abu late o r d raw h istograms o f t hem a ccord ing t o t he ir d ate o f s t r ik ing . I dea l ly e ach c o in s hou ld b e a ttr ibuted t o a mean d ate o f p robab le l o ss , b ut t he a ssessment o f t h is i s n ot e asy a s i t r equ ires a k now ledge o f t he wastage r ate o ver t he p er iod p r ior t o a ny c o inage r eform wh ich i s n ot u sua l ly a va i lab le . A s a n a pprox imat ion o ne m ight a ttr ibute t he f i nd t o t he y ear m id -way o r , p erhaps b etter , at h ird o f t he way b etween i t s s t r ik ing a nd r emova l f rom c urrency . A lternat ive ly , c o ins f rom e ach d iscrete c i rcu lat ion p er iod c an b e g rouped a nd a h i stogram d rawn w ith b ars o f u nequa l w idth , i n wh ich c ase t he h e ight o f e ach b ar s hou ld r epresent n ot t he t ota l n umber o f c o ins f rom t hat p er iod b ut t he a verage n umber p er y ear o r d ecade ( i .e . n umber o f c o ins d iv ided b y l ength o f c i rcu lat ion p er iod ) . T h is s econd method ( wh ich i s t hat u sed i n R igo ld 's s tudy ) may g ive a l e ss d eta i led a na lys is o f t he f i nds , b ut i t p robab ly r ef lects t he i nherent l im itat ions o f t he e v idence more f a ir ly a nd i t a vo ids t he p rob lem t hat a h i stogram p lotted a ccord ing t o d ate o f i s sue w i l l o ften s how t he p attern o f m int o utput r ather t han c o in l oss . *

*

*

A n umber o f s peakers a t t h is c onference h ave s ought t o u se t he f i nds f rom u rban a nd c hurch e xcavat ions t o s how when a monetary e conomy was e stab l ished i n t he l oca l ity . T he t erm " monetary e conomy " i n troduces p rob lems o f d ef in it ion . T o most p eop le " money" means c o ins o r b anknotes , b ut i n s o-ca l led p r im it ive s oc iet ies many o ther o b jects - f rom c ows t o c owry s he l ls - h ave h ad f unct ions s uff ic ient ly s im i lar t o c o inage t o b e i nc luded i n t he t erm b y a nthropo log ists a nd e conom ic h istor ians ( the mean ing o f " money" h as b een much d ebated , e .g . s ee Da lton 1 965 , C odere 1 968 , G r ierson 1 977) . B efore t he i n troduct ion o f c o inage t o a r eg ion , i t was c ommon f or s i lver b u l l ion t o b e u sed a s a med ium o f e xchange . I n V ik ing-Age S cand inav ia h acks i lver a nd f ore ign c o in f rom v ar ious s ources w ere u sed i n c omb inat ion , t he c o in b e ing t reated a s b u l l ion a nd measured b y w e ight ( see Härdh 's p aper i n t h is v o lume ) . T owards t he e nd o f t he t enth c entury t here was a g row ing p reference f or t he u se o f c o in a nd l oca l m ints were o pened t o c onvert t he b u l l ion i n to c o ins o f west E uropean t ype . However , e ven t hese w ere s t i l l t o b e we ighed i n t ransact ions , t o j udge f rom t he ir w ide we ight d istr ibut ions ( B lackburn 1 981) . On ly a fter t he m id-e leventh c entury d id t he S cand inav ian c ountr ies e stab l ish s uff ic ient ly u n iform a nd we l l-regu lated c urrenc ies t hat c o ins wou ld h ave p assed g enera l ly b y t a le . One s hou ld a dd , h owever , t hat e xc lus iv ity o f t he c urrency i s n ot n ecessar i ly a measure o f e conom ic s oph ist icat ion o r w idespread monetary a ct iv ity . I n t he l a ter M idd le A ges t he L ow C ountr ies was o ne o f t he most c ommerc ia l ly d eve loped a reas o f E urope , y et t here were many d ifferent m int ing a uthor it ies i s su ing c o ins

2 2

c onform ing t o av ar iety o f d i fferent monetary s ystems t hat c i rcu lated s ide b y s ide . T hey were a ccepted e ssent ia l ly a t t he ir i n tr ins ic v a lues , wh ich were c onverted w ith t he a id o f c omp l icated t ab les i n to t he l oca l money o f a ccount ( Spufford 1 988 :411-14 ) . A s ubs istence o r n atura l e conomy , a market e conomy b ased o n b arter , a nd a market e conomy u s ing money a re n ot mutua l ly e xc lus ive . B arter a nd money may b oth b e u sed i n t he s ame market p lace , i ndeed i n t he s ame t ransact ions , wh i le a t t he s ame t ime o ther s ect ions o f t he s oc iety may b e u s ing n on-commerc ia l a rrangements f or d i str ibut ing t he ir g oods a nd s erv ices . When a s tate s tr ikes c o ins i t i s a n i nd icat ion t hat i t i s u s ing money , b ut i n it ia l ly t hat may b e f or l im ited p urposes s uch a s t he p ayment o f f i nes a nd c ompensat ion o r f or t he p urchase o f l and a nd l uxur ies , a s we may s uppose was t he c ase i n s eventh-century E ng land . T he e xtent t o wh ich c o in c ou ld b e u sed more g enera l ly w i l l d epend o n t he s upp ly a nd o n t he v a lue o f t he d enom inat ions . T he Merov ing ian g o ld t rem iss is was u nsu itab le f or s ma l l t ransact ions ; i n R ome i n 4 52 a t rem iss is b ought 3 0kg o f meat . A C aro l ing ian o r V ik ing-Age p enny was s t i l l ac ons iderab le s um , worth a f i fth o f a s heep i n t enth-century E ng land , b ut b y t he t h irteenth c entury t he E ng l ish h a lfpenny wou ld o n ly h ave b ought a l oaf o f b read . T hus money c ou ld b e u sed a t many l eve ls o f s oc iety , a nd c ommerc ia l t ransact ions c ou ld b e r eckoned i n monetary u n its e ven t hough t here was i nsuff ic ient c ash a va i lab le t o make t he p ayments i n s pec ie . R ather t han a sk ing when a monetary e conomy was e stab l ished , i t i s more r e levant t o l ook a t t he d eg ree o f monet izat ion , i . e . where money was u sed , a t wh ich l eve ls o f s oc iety , a nd f or what p urposes . I n c ons ider ing t hese q uest ions t he s i te f i nds w i l l b e a n i mportant b ut b y n o means t he o n ly s ource o f e v idence , f or o ne w i l l a lso n eed t o l ook a t t he p attern o f m int ing , a t t he h oards , a nd a t a ny r e levant d ocumentary a nd l i terary r ecords .

L ITERATURE Archibald,

M . M.

1 969.

The A ttenborough, 3 8,

1 974.

I f

E nglish medieval ed .

J .Casey

Reprinted, 1 977.

Wastage

coins

a nd

with

Oxford, K .

1 974.

T he 7 ,

B iddle,

M .

1 984.

" f orthcoming.

M . A.S.

1 981.

f rom currency:

L ondon on

t he

A c ity i n

transition.

S trand.

M . D.Lobel,

R . A.G.

1 947.

( BAR i n

British

t he

Long Cross ed.

a nd

t he Archaeologist,

4 ),

London

a nd t he recoinage of N . J. Mayhew

c oin-treasure

Oxford, 1 988,

2 34-71.

2 64-301.

1 279.

( BAR British

f rom Denmark.

Popular Archaeology,

Edwardian

series

Medieval

( BAR

hoard 1 984.

a nd Dolley.

3 6),

S candinavia

A medieval

hoard

o f

1 983.

t he

s eries

d ie-chain

ed.

1 22).

2 3-7. I ,

9 th-century coins C ircular 1 985,

Early Medieval

reappraised.

M . A.S. Blackburn

Oxford, i n

and

425-47.

t he Ashdon

( Steventon

4 3-4.

Coins

The Archaeology o f L incoln

f rom Terrington S t. Clement, 6 7 , 1 83.

N umismatic Chronicle

2 3

Cross

t he Northern L ands,

Numismatic

M .

London

c h.3.

I nternational

c .700-1100.

July 1 984,

The Historic Towns Atlas:

Oxford,

A preliminary a ccount

C .

Coins s eries

2 nd edition,

A S candinavian Crux/Intermediate Small

S hire, C arson,

d ating evidence.

( 1279-1344),

f irst-Merovingian

E nd) Colyer,

Journal

1 67-86.

D . M. Metcalf 1 985.

a s

R . Reece

V iking-Age Coinage in

I f

British Numismatic

8 5-101.

e d. B lackburn.

1 966 hoard.

r evisions,

Monetary Affairs

B endixen,

Notts.,

5 0-83.

f rom Lincoln 6 :1,

a nd

London.

near King's Lynn.

i ts

Codere,

H .

1 968.

Money-exchange systems

Dalton,

G .

1 965.

Primitive money.

Day,

( ed.)

J .

Grierson, Hinton,

1 984.

P .

1 977.

D . A.

1 986.

E tudes

and commercial

Monetary History, Mayhew,

N . J.

1 974.

D . M.

J ournal

Money a nd prices

1 981a.

4 4,

1 981b.

S ome

i n

e t

a l.

S . E.

1 977.

recoinage of

f rom Henry I I

1464-71.

to Edward

Journal

t he Northern Lands,

I nternational

series

S ome

t hrymsas

f inds

of

5 6,

British

III.

Agricultural

The Coins

Small

S tatistical

M . A.S. Oxford,

2 .

a nalysis

of

r ates.

B lackburn

t he V iking-Age

Viking-Age Coinage

a nd D . M.

M etcalf

( BAR

3 29-82.

a nd s ceattas

a nd Pottery

I ),

Post-Roman-Coins

i n E ngland.

British

Numismatic

f rom H amwic,

Southampton,

ed.

P .

Andrews

1 7-59.

f rom York Excavations

1 971-81

( The Archaeology o f

London.

c hange

Affairs

ed.

1 22),

part

5 2-90.

1 -15.

The c oins.

1 986.

5 1,

a nd t he i nterpretation o f wastage

York 1 8:1), Rigold,

Anglo-Saxon

11-26.

1 21-32.

( Southampton F inds E . J. E.,

Lille.

University of L ondon.

Leicester,

t he Yorkist

5 57-77.

6 2-73.

twentieth-century runes.

Journal 1 988.

3 ,

Continuity a nd c hange i n English monetary history c . 973-1086,

c oin hoards

1 986.

Man 2 4 4-65.

in Anglo-Saxon England. B lackburn.

in England

British Numismatic

e l

c entres

ed. M. A.S.

H istory Review 3 5, Metcalf,

Creighton Lecture,

The monetary background to Numismatic

1 987.

6 7,

d ' histoire monetaire XIIe-XIXe s iecles.

The Origins of Money. Coins

and a theory o f money.

American Anthropologist

i n

t he

l ight

( 1279-1344),

o f medieval s ite-finds.

ed.

N . J.

Mayhew

Edwardian Monetary

( BAR British

series 3 6),

Oxford,

5 9-80. Skaare,

K .

Spufford, S teen

1 976. P .

J ensen,

Coins

1 988. J .

( ed.)

a nd Coinage i n Viking-Age Norway.

Money a nd i ts Use 1 981.

Coinage

i n Medieval

E urope.

a nd Monetary C irculation

( Nordisk Numismatisk Arsskrift S tott,

P . E. F.

( forthcoming).

The Coins.

Environmental Archaeological Wallace,

P . F.

1 986.

A spects of

S tudies, S ociety,

The E nglish presence ed.

M . A.S.

B lackburn,

Bergen

and Tromso.

i n

t he Baltic Area

c .1350-1500

1 981).

Saxon

ed.

O slo,

C ambridge.

A .

s pecial

a nd N orman London: Vince

Finds

a nd

a nd

Middlesex

p aper).

i n Viking Dublin. Leicester,

( London

A nglo-Saxon Monetary H istory,

2 01-21.

I NU l I C HP E R IO D S O FT H E M I DD L EA G E S A R E D A N I SH C O IN F I N D S R E P R E S EN T A T I V E O FD A N I SH M ON E T A R YC I R C U L A T ION ? J ORGEN STEEN J ENSEN

T he

author

t he

importance of

T hese

d iscusses the various

f inds

have

a cquisitions Royal

t his way. A ll

Four out

types

p eriod

become

resulting

Collection

o f

c .1290

types of

t he new type of

important

f rom t he

of Coins of

a nd is

wants not

numismatics

f inds

a nd underlines

i n Denmark

a nd Medals

u sing metal

e specially

l aw of Danefe a s well

a s

s ince t he

f ound in

c .1330,

a nd i t

i s

to underline t hat

f ully e laborated.

a rgued t hat

t he m iddle

h is modest

I ts

a im i s

d etectors.

c .1977.

New

of

d iscovered

t he i n

t he same way.

f inds have a very s trong representation of Danish coins t ill

e specially

r egisters

are now dominated by coins

s even new hoards were

t he Danish society i n t his period o f f inally

c oin

f inds made by amateurs

f rom

t he

the degree of monetization of

ages was very high.

paper was

t o present

The

presented with s hort some of

a uthor notice

t he possibilities o f

today.

May I f i rst o f a l l t hank y ou f or t he o pportun ity t o c ome a s a n um ismat ist a nd p resent my p o ints o f v iew a t t h is s ympos ium . My c ontr ibut ion i s a t as omewhat s hort n ot ice , s o i s n ot a f u l ly e laborated p resentat ion , r ather i t i s a s ketch o f s ome i deas wh ich may p erhaps b e u sefu l . My b ackground i s i n t he R oya l C o l lect ion o f C o ins a nd Meda ls a t t he Dan ish Nat iona l Museum i n C openhagen . S ince t he e ar ly 1 9th c entury t he Museum h as r eg istered a l l Dan ish c o in f inds . A s Denmark i s a r ather s ma l l c ountry w ith a g ood t rad it ion o f f r iend ly r e lat ions b etween t he Museum a nd t he f inders , we a re c erta in t hat a l l c o in f i nds - a t l east a l l i mportant o nes - a re s ent i n . We h ave n o k now ledge o f c o in h oards b e ing d ispersed t o o ther c ountr ies . T he l ega l f oundat ion i s t he l aw a bout D ane fa, wh ich g oes b ack t o t he m idd le a ges - a l l t reasure f ound i n t he e arth , wh ich d oes n ot b e long t o an amed p erson , b e longs t o t he K ing l ) . C o ins a re s pec ia l ly ment ioned i n t he t ext , wh ich was r ev ised i nto modern l anguage i n t he l aw a bout museums i n 1 984 2 ) . T he f i nder g ets s ome c ompensat ion , i . e . t he meta l v a lue p lus a n h onorar ium , b ut n ot t he c ommerc ia l v a lue . Hard ly a y ear p asses b y w ithout a n ew Dan ish c o in h oard , a nd f rom t he 1 980s I n eed ment ion o n ly t he f o l low ing f rom t he p reh istor ic a nd med ieva l p er iods . T he e numerat ion i s i n c hrono log ica l o rder . 1 . T he Smorenge h oard , B ornho lm , c .500 d enar i i +1s o l idus , d epos ited a fter 4 67 ( pre l im inary p ub l icat ion b y Margrethe Watt & A nne K romann i n Nat (ona lmuseets A rbe jdsmark 1 984 , p p .29-41) . 2 . T he Gudme h oard o f c .288 R oman s i l iquae , f ound d ur ing a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions . P ub l ished b y A nne K romann i n R iv ista I ta l iana d i N um i smatica , v o l .90 , M i lano 1 988 , p p .239-261 . 3 . T he G jerr i ld h oard . C a .71 d irhems a nd ( espec ia l ly ) f ragments o f d irhems , most ly f rom t he S aman ids a nd s truck i n T ashkent a nd S amarkand . T he

2 5

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

d epos it ion o f t he h oard i s p re l im inar i ly d ated t o a fter 9 53/54 . P re l im inary p ub l icat ions i n A rk o log iske u nder soge lser i D anmark 1 986 , C openhagen 1 987 , p .175 ; P au l ine A s ingh , S ku lk n r .4 ,1988 , p p .4-8 ; K irsten B end ixen , C ommentat iones Num i smat icae G er t u nd V era Hatz z um 4 .Januar 1 988 d argebracht , Hamburg 1 988 , p .45 . T he Haagerup h oard , a n a ddendum o f c .68 c o ins t o t he h oard o f c .1400 c o ins f ound 1 943 , d epos ited c . 1050 ( G .Ga lster , Nord i sh Numi smat i sh A r sshr if t 1 944 , p p .93-157 ) . F ound 1 987 b y amateurs u s ing meta l d etectors . T he L undby h oard . C .238 Dan ish , Norweg ian , German a nd E ng l ish c o ins ( as we l l a s n on-monetary s i lver a nd g o ld ) d epos ited s outh o f A a lborg v ery n ear t he y ear 100 . F ound 1 980 b y a n amateur u s ing a meta l d etector . P re l im inary p ub l icat ions b y K irsten B end ixen & J orgen S teen J ensen i n t he T ransact ions o f t he I nternat iona l Numi smat ic C ongress i n L ondon 1 986 ( i n p ress ) . T he S kafterup h oard , c .4 ,385 Dan ish c o ins a nd c .322 s ter l ings , d epos ited c .1290 , f ound 1 987 i n a c eram ic p ot b y a man d igg ing h is g arden . ( The c o ins a re s t i l l i n t he T echn ica l Department o f t he Nat iona l Museum ) . T he Hunderup h oard , s evera l h undreds Dan ish c o ins , d epos ited c . 1320 , f ound b y a n amateur u s ing a meta l d etector i n t he Hunderup wood , s outh o f Odense . T he f i nd was s omewhat d estroyed b y w i ld a n ima ls ( mo les? ) , a nd t he c o ins were b rought i n s evera l i nsta lments 1 986-1987 ( i nc lud ing f rom a rchaeo log ica l i nvest igat ions ) , a nd r ema in t o b e s tud ied ( pre l im inary p ub l icat ion i n A rk&o log i ske U ndersoge lser i D anmark 1 986 , C openhagen 1 987 , p .171) .

I t i s , o f c ourse , o bv ious , t hat a s ma l l s e lect ion o f y ears , s ay 7 o r 8i n t he l i fe o f a n i nst itut ion wh ich i s more t han 2 00 y ears o ld , g ives n o t rue i mpress ion o f t he r epresentat iveness o f Dan ish med ieva l h oards f or monetary c i rcu lat ion . B ut i t i nd icates a t l east t he g reat i mportance o f t he amateur meta l-detector u sers o f t o-day ( cf . h oards 2 , 4 , 5a nd 7 ) . A na lys is must b e f ounded o n t he c omp lete mater ia l . I n r ecent y ears a g roup o f med ieva l a rchaeo log ists , h istor ians a nd n um ismat ists f rom t he Dan ish N at iona l Museum , i nsp ired b y t he S tate A nt iquary O laf O lsen h as b een c o l lect ing t h is mater ia l w ith a v iew t o p repar ing a c ata logue o f D ani sh med ieva l h oards c .1050c .1550 . T he e stab l ish ing o f mater ia l f or t he c ata logue i s i n t he f i na l p er iod , b ut i t may b e t oo e ar ly t o d raw a ny d ef in ite c onc lus ions . I t s eems o bv ious t hat t he n umber o f h oards p eaks i n t he m idd le o f t he 11t h c entury , a nd i n t he l ong p er iod f rom t he l ate 1 3th c entury t o t he e ar ly 1 5th c entury . No l ess t han c .175 h oards d ate f rom t he p er iod c .1280-c .1425 . T h is l ong p er iod h as t o b e s ubd iv ided i n to s evera l m inor p er iods . 1 . T he l a st d ecades o f t he o ld Dan ish monetary s ystem c . 1280-c .1330 , s oc a l led " C iv i l War c o ins" , c .75 h oards . 2 . T he p er iod , when t he Dan ish s tate h ad c eased t o e x ist ( 1332-1340 ) a nd t he s ubsequent r econstruct ion , wh ich , h owever , d id n ot i nc lude t he monetary s ystem , c .1330-1370 . I nstead F rench G ros t ourno is , E ng l ish ( and c ont inenta l ) s ter l ings a s we l l a s s ma l l North German b racteates were i n a lmost e xc lus ive u se , c .35 h oards . 3 . T he p er iod o f t he German w itten h oards , c .1370-c .1405 , c .30 h oards . 4 . T he r enewed Dan ish c o inage , c .1405-c .1425 , c .35 h oards . ( NB . A l l f igures a re a pprox imate ) .

s uch

F inds f rom c hurch f loors a re a Nord ic s pec ia l ity , p robab ly b ecause t here a re s trong l i nks b etween t he c hurch a nd t he s tate i n t hose c ountr ies . T he

2 6

e cc les iast ica l a uthor it ies f i nd i t q u ite r easonab le ( as i ndeed i t i s ) t hat t he f i nds s hou ld b e d e l ivered t o t he p ub l ic museum ( a p o int o f v iew wh ich i s n ot a lways s hared b y s uch a uthor it ies i n c ountr ies where c hurch a nd s tate a re s eparated ) . I n Denmark s uch f i nds c u lm inated i n t he f i rst y ears a fter 1 952 . I n t h is y ear t he Nat iona l Museum , w h ich i s ac onsu ltant t o t he M in istry o f E cc les iast ica l A ffa irs i n a l l matters c oncern ing h i stor ica l ly i mportant c hurches , r em inded t he r espons ib le b od ies f rom i nd iv idua l c hurches ( often t hrough t he a rch itects ) t hat t hey s hou ld s i eve a l l s o i l e xcavated d ur ing c hurch r estorat ions a nd t he i n sta l lat i on o f n ew e qu ipment f or c entra l h eat ing . T he h arvest was i mpress ive , more t han 1 0 ,000 c o ins were f ound d ur ing t he n ext 3 0 y ears , h a lf o f wh ich were med ieva l . Now t he g reat i n f lux o f c o ins f rom s uch t ypes o f f i nds h as n ear ly s topped 3 ) . One o f t he r easons i s t hat i t i s n ow r ea l ized t hat t he e arth b eneath c hurches i s t oo i mportant a nd m ay y ie ld t oo much i n format ion f or i t t o b e wasted h aphazard ly i n s i eves , a nd , b es ides , t he t ime o f t he e normous l oca l h eat ing i n sta l lat ions h as more o r l e ss e nded . I nstead we h ave h ad a n ew t ype o f f i nds f rom c . 1977 - t hose d i scovered b y meta l d etector s . Many amateurs a re u s ing s uch d ev ices a nd t he l oca l museums h ave o ften e stab l ished c lose c ontacts w ith t hem . I n t h is way t he Nat iona l Museum g ets a n i ncreas ing amount o f d etector-found c o ins , a nd s omet ime we s uspect t hat t he who le o f Denmark a bounds i n o ld c o ins . One o f t he s urpr is ing i n stances i s i n T aarnborg n ear K orsor , where u p t o c .2 ,000 c o ins f rom t he d ecades a round 1 300 were f ound w ith in a r ather r estr icted a rea . T hey c an h ard ly b e a h oard , b ut s imp ly a re c o ins l o st a t a market p lace , wh ich must h ave h ad a c ons iderab le i mportance i n t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c entur ies - p erhaps a t own where t here was a n e xchange f or t he p rov inc ia l c o inages? T h is u psurge o f f i nds h as b rought p rob lems o f s pace t o t he Museum b ut i t h as a lso b een o ne o f t he most e xc it ing t h ings i n my p rofess iona l c areer . Ik now o f n o o ther c ountry where s uch a n umber o f amateurs l aw-ab id ing ly g ive u p t he ir f inds f or a n om ina l r ecompense a nd t hus e nr ich t he s ource mater ia l f rom t he p ast 4) . I m ust , o f c ourse , a dd t hat i t i s f orb idden t o u se meta l d etectors o n o b jects o f k nown a rchaeo log ica l i mportance u nder p rotect ion o f t he l aw ( churches , c hurchy ards , c ast les , s i tes e tc .) , b ut y ou w i l l u nderstand t hat u nknown s i tes ( s uch a s T aarnborg ) may b e d etected . T he l a st g roup o f c o ins a re t hose f ound d ur ing p rofess iona l a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions . S uch f i nds t end t o b e l e ss n umerous c ompared t o t he o ther c ateg or ies , a nd we o ften h ave c ons iderab le d i ff icu lt ies i n c lean ing t hese c o ins wh ich may b e h eav i ly c orroded , e spec ia l ly when f ound i n u rban l ayers . T hey may b e i mportant f or t he a rchaeo log ist a s a means o f d at ing , a nd c ontro l led c i rcums tances o f d i scovery i n s t rat if ied c ontexts may a lso b e i mportant i n u nders tand ing t he l eve l o f e conom ic a ct iv it ies i n ag iven p er iod , b ut f rom a n um ismat ic p o int o f v iew I must a dd , n ot i n tend ing t o b e p rovocat ive , t hat o n t he who le t hey h ave b een l e ss c onc lus ive t han o ther g roups o f f i nds . Now , l e t me a dd a t o nce t hat t h is i s s omewhat e xaggerated , f or t here i s o ne i mportant e xcept ion . T he b eg in ing o f t he u se o f c o inage i n Denmark h ad t o b e r ewr itten when t he e xcavat ions a t Dank irke s tarted s ome t wenty y ears a go , l a ter f o l lowed b y t he e xcavat ions i n n earby R ibe . A c ons iderab le n umber o f s ceattas were f ound a nd s ubsequent ly p ub l ished b y K irsten B end ixen 5 ) . T he f i nds a re s o n umerous t hat i t i s d i scussed whether c erta in s er ies o f s ceattas may p oss ib ly h ave b een s t ruck i n S outhern D enmark i n t he 8 th c entury . B ut t o r eturn t o t he q uest ion wh ich i s p ut i n t he t i t le o f t h is s hort c ontr ib ut ion , t hen my b est b id f or a p er iod i n wh ich h oards , c hurch f i nds , amateur meta l-detector f i nds a nd a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions i n c hurches a nd t owns a l l a gree t hat t here w as a n e xcept iona l ly l a rge q uant ity o f c o ins , i s t he p er iod

2 7

b etween c . 1290 a nd c . 1330 . T he amount o f mater ia l i s o verwhe lm ing , s ome o f t he n umer ica l ly b iggest h oards i n Denmark a re f rom t h is p er iod . One o f t he r easons f or t he g reat amount o f money i s t he l ow mater ia l v a lue o f t he i nd iv idua l c o ins ( the ir s i lver c ontent was o ften + 1 0% ) . T he c o ins were o ften s t ruck i n av ery h aphazard manner a nd t he ir p reservat ion i s b ad , s o q u ite o ften a c o in c an o n ly b e a ttr ibuted t o t h is p er iod , n ot t o o ne o f t he n umerous t ypes . T he b ad s tate o f p reservat ion makes d ie s tud ies a r ather u ntempt ing o ccupat ion ( I h ave n ever h eard o f a ny o ne t ry ing i t ) , b ut I t h ink o ne c an s afe ly a ssume t hat t he d egree o f monet izat ion o f t he s oc iety was v ery h igh . T he f u l l i mpact o f t h is c onc lus ion h as n ot y et b een r ea l ized , b ut i t i s o bv ious t hat many c o ins must h ave p assed t hrough t he h ands o f merchants . When t he Dan ish s tate c o l lapsed a t t he d eath o f C hr istopher I i n 1 332 t he n at iona l c o inage s oon c eased t o e x ist ( except i n t he p rov ince o f S can ia where t he m int o f t he a rchb ishop i n L und was s t i l l o perat ing f or a nother g enerat ion ) . I f t he Danes were t o c ont inue t o u se money t hey h ad o n ly o ne r esort , t he f ore ign s i lver c urrency , t he meta l v a lue o f e ach d enar was , h owever , much h igher t han t hat o f t he o ld Dan ish d enars . T he s tory o f t h is r eva luat ion may b e o uts ide t he s cope o f my i mprov ized c ontr ibut ion . My a im was t o i nd icate i n af ew words t he p oss ib i l it ies o f n um ismat ics f or c ast ing n ew l i ght o n c erta in a spects o f t he p ast .

NOTES 1 .

Cf.

t he

i ntroduction

i n English by Mogens Orsnes

i n P .V.Glob

( ed.)

Danefe,

Copenhagen

1 980,

pp.18-21. 2 .

Lov nr.

3 .

S urvey of

2 91

a f

6 .juni

1 984

t his material

by K irsten Bedixen,

om museer.

by Fritze L indahl

i bid.

1 972,

i n Nordisk Numismatisk Arsskrift

pp.49-70,

a nd by t he a uthor

i n H ikuin

1 963,

3 ,

1 977,

pp.50-60, pp.295-302

( all with s ummaries). 4 .

S urvey

by

Copenhagen 5 .

t he 1 988,

K irsten Bendixen

a uthor

i n

pp.223-230 i n Mogens

Festskrift

( with Bencard

t ul O laf O lsen pa

6 0-ars

d agen

den

7 .juni

1 988,

s ummary). ( ed.),

Ribe Excavations,

1 970-1976,

vol.1,

E sbjerg

1 981,

( vol.1985,

pp.3-

pp.63-101. 6 .

D iscussion 1 0,

i n Nordisk Numismatisk Unions

vol.1986,

pp.110-120)

K irsten Bendixen,

ibid.

Medlemsblad b etween D . M.

a nd Brita Malmer & Kenneth

1 986,

pp.72-74.

J onsson

Metcalf

( vol.1986,

pp.66-71);

cf.

a lso

R O M A ND E NA R I I A N D I R O N A G E D E NM A R K SVEND N IELSEN

Roman d enarii up

i s

the

f ound i n D enmark

point

of

and t he archaeological

d eparture i n

t his

when t rying to e lucidate t he social F inds able a s

f rom certain t hat

o f

some k ind o f

a medium o f

c ally,

and

t hese

s ites

i t

F inally,

d enarii

t herefore a lso possible

coins which may,

moreover,

context

Thus,

p laces t here,

h ave been

i n

f or

or t he with

f rom g raves t o e stimate

i n which t hey

turn

s ome hoards may be helpful

a nd e conomic background

s upposed t o be market

coin e conomy d id exist

exchange. i s

article.

t heir d eposition.

l ike make i t

prob-

t he denarii being u sed

can be dated a rchaeologit he c hronological position

c irculation

d uring much o f

t he

I ron Age.

T here may b e s evera l r easons why I s hou ld n ot g ive t h is l ecture o n R oman d enar i i a nd I ron A ge e conomy . F or i n stance , o n ly o nce d ur ing a n e xcavat ion h ave I c ome a cross a d enar ius , a nd when d iscuss ing c omp l icated e conom ic q uest ions w ith in p reh istory I o ften f ee l al i tt le u p Queer S treet . I n t he p resent c ase t h is h as t o d o w ith t he f act t hat t here a re s o many p henomena wh ich h ave t o b e c ons idered : b oth n um ismat ics a nd a rchaeo logy a nd t he r ecent t heoret ica l d iscuss ions w ith in e conom ic a nthropo logy . I t i s n ot p oss ib le h ere t o e nter i n to d eta i ls o f t heoret ica l d iscuss ions a bout " pr im it ive e conomy" , n or i s i t p oss ib le t o l ook i n g reat d eta i l a t t he n um ismat ic e v idence wh ich i s a va i lab le . T h is h as b een d one i n s evera l p apers b y A nne K romann f rom t he R oya l C o l lect ion o f C o ins a nd Meda ls a t t he Nat iona l Museum , a nd s he h as a lso k ind ly f urn ished me w ith much i nformat ion a bout t he d enar i i . T hus t he p resent p aper o n ly i n tends t o b e a s hort s upp lementary n ote t o ap aper wh ich a ppeared i n A arboger f or n ord isk O ldkynd ighed o g H istor ie 1 986 ( N ie lsen 1 987 ) . A c onven ient p o int o f d eparture when d ea l ing w ith t he d enar i i i s t o l ook a t t he a rchaeo log ica l c ontexts i n wh ich t hey a ppear a nd a lso c ons ider t he ir d istr ib ut ion i n g enera l . F o l low ing t h is s imp le d ev ice i t i s a ctua l ly p oss ib le t o s ay a g ood d ea l a bout t he r o le t hat t hese c o ins p layed i n I ron A ge c ommun it ies . T he f inds o f d enar i i may b e g rouped i n t he f o l low ing way :

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 .

S tray f i nds G rave f i nds B og f inds I so lated h oards F inds f rom I ron A ge v i l lages F inds f rom B ornho lm F inds f rom market p laces a nd h arbours F inds f rom t he G udme a rea

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1 . STRAY F INDS O f t he a bout 2 ,200 d enar i i wh ich a re k nown t o h ave b een f ound i n D enmark o n ly as ma l l p art a re s tray f inds ; t hey o ccur f a ir ly e ven ly d istr ibuted a l l o ver t he c ountry . T hey a re o f l i tt le h e lp i n e luc idat ing t he t heme u nder d iscuss ion h ere , b ut i t i s worth r emember ing t hat s t ray f i nds o f d enar i i h ave o ften t urned o ut t o c ome f rom a s ett lement .

2 . GRAVE F INDS I n Denmark t here a re 1 5 g raves f rom t he R oman I ron Age c onta in ing R oman c o ins ( Lund Hansen 1 987 :229 ; S teen-Jensen 1 987 :170 ) . T he c o ins a re s omet imes u sed a s j ewe l lery s ince t he c o ins may b e p ierced o r h ave a s uspens ion l oop . T races o f r eceptac les i n wh ich t he c o ins were k ept a re a lso k nown . T he p os it ion o f c o ins i n g raves i s o f c ruc ia l i mportance when d iscuss ing whether t hey were C haron 's o bu l i , b ut i n s evera l c ases t he ir p os it ion c annot b e e stab l ished . I n o ne g rave a d enar ius was f ound b y t he mouth o f t he d eceased a nd i n t wo o ther c ases p ieces o f g o ld were f ound i n t he mouth . T hus i t c an b e c onc luded t hat t he C haron 's o bu lus c ustom was k nown b ut was v ery s e ldom p ract ised i n Denmark ; t he C ont inenta l mater ia l h as t o b e s tud ied i n o rder t o g et a n i mpress ion o f t h is c ustom ( Goreck i 1 976 :241) .

3 . BOG F INDS Denar i i h ave c ome t o l i ght i n Dan ish b ogs o ver t he c entur ies , o ften i n c onnect ion w ith p eat d igg ing . T hus o ne o f t he l a rgest f i nds o f d enar i i e ver f ound i n Denmark was d iscovered i n R ämose , western Z ea land i n 1 782 ( Bre itenste in 1 946 :29ff ) a nd o thers c ou ld b e ment ioned . Unfortunate ly , i nformat ion a bout t he f ind c ontexts i s o ften s o s canty t hat i t i s d iff icu lt t o f i nd o ut why t he c o ins were d epos ited . T here i s , h owever , ag roup o f b og f i nds where d enar i i a re f ound t ogether w ith weapon a nd warr iors e qu ipment t hought t o b e s acr if ied war b ooty . T he most r ecent f ind o f t h is c ategory i s t hat f rom I l lerup i n e astern c entra l J y l land where a bout 2 00 d enar i i were f ound , s ome o f t hem s i tuated i n g roups s uggest ing t hat t hey w ere o r ig ina l ly c onta ined i n ap urse . T hanks t o t he f i bu lae f ound i t i s p oss ib le t o d ate t h is d epos it ion t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he t h ird c entury ( I lk j r a nd L onstrup 1 983 :113 ) . A s A nne K romann h as p o inted o ut ( Kromann p ersona l c ommun icat ion ) , h owever , t he c o ins b e longed t o d efeated i ntruders a nd c annot , t herefore , e n l ight en l oca l e conom ic c ond it ions i n J y l land . We h ave t o awa it t he f ina l p ub l icat ion b efore t h is a nd o ther q uest ions c an b e d iscussed o n as ound b as is .

4 . I SOLATED HOARDS Hoards c onta in ing d enar i i may a lso t urn u p w ithout b e ing a ssoc iated w ith o ther f inds o r s tructures . S omet imes d ug d own b y ab ig s tone , t hey s eem t o i nd icate t hat t he owner i n tended r etr ieve t he c o ins o n s ome o ccas ion ( Bre itenste in 1 946 :2ff ) .

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5 . F INDS FRO M I RON AGE V ILLAGES C o ins a nd h oards o f c o ins a re v ery s e ldom f ound o n t yp ica l Dan ish v i l lages f rom t he R oman I ron A ge . E ven d ur ing t he l a st d ecades when l a rge-sca le i nvest igat ions h ave t aken p lace o n many v i l lages t hroughout Denmark , p art icu lar ly i n J ut land , c o ins h ave s e ldom b een f ound . I t may o f c ourse b e a rgued t hat t h is h as t o d o w ith t he e xcavat ion t echn ique emp loyed , where t he t op s o i l i s s tr ipped away u s ing l arge mach ines . A dm itted ly , t h is i s n ot t he b est way t o f ind c o ins , b ut a t l east s ome o ught t o h ave c ome t o l i ght i f t hey h ad b een t here , a nd e xtens ive c ontro l , i n s ome c ases u s ing meta l d etectors , h as s e ldom l ed t o t he f ind ing o f c o ins . T he a bsence o f c o ins o n t hese s i tes may b e e xp la ined i n q u ite a nother way : t hese a re i n land v i l lages wh ich were a lmost o r c omp lete ly s e lf-suff ic ient . I f e conom ic c ontacts d id t ake p lace w ith t he o uts ide wor ld o n r are o ccas ions , t he t ransact ions wou ld b e b y e xchange w ithout t he u se o f c o ins , t hat i s , t h is was a s ubs ist ence e conomy s uch a s i s a lso k nown t o h ave e x isted i n many a reas e ven i n h istor ica l t imes .

6 . BORNHOL M T h is i s land o ccup ies r ather a s pec ia l p os it ion w ith r egard t o R oman c o ins i n Denmark s ince a h igh p roport ion o f t he t ota l n umber o f c o ins h as b een f ound o n t h is s ma l l i s land . Many o f t he d enar i i h ave b een f ound o n s ett lements , f or i nstance t he h oard f rom Smorenge wh ich c onta ined n o l e ss t han 5 00 d enar i i r ang ing f rom V espas ianus t o S ept im ius S everus a s we l l a s o ne s o l idus s truck f or A nthem ius ( 467-72 ) . T h is l ast c o in i s most i mportant f rom a c hrono log ica l p o int o f v iew , i nform ing u s t hat t he h oard c annot h ave b een c oncea led u nt i l t he c lose o f t he 5 th c entury a t t he e ar l iest ( Kromann a nd Watt 1 983 :34 ) . T he many c o ins o n B ornho lm may b e c ompared w ith t he s i tuat ion o n Got land where R oman c o ins h ave t urned u p i n l a rge q uant it ies . I n r ecent y ears t here h ave b een s ystemat ic i nvest igat ions o n t he o ld f ind s pots a nd i t h as b een p oss ib le t o s how t hat t he c o ins v ery o ften o ccurred o n I ron Age s i tes o r were c oncea led u nder t he h ouses ( Ostergren 1 981 :45 ) .

7 . CO INS FOUND ON MARKET P LACES AND HARBOURS S o f ar t he d iscuss ion a bout t he p resence o r a bsence o f R oman d enar i i o n s ett lements h as b een c oncen trated o n v i l lages , t hat i s , t yp ica l a grar ian c ommun it ies wh ich c omp lete ly d om inated t he s ett lement p attern d ur ing t he I ron A ge i n Denmark . Y et , t here i s q u ite a nother k ind o f s i te where d enar i i d o o ccur : s i tes wh ich a re t hought t o b e market p laces , o r h arbours . On ly t wo s uch s i tes a re k nown f rom t he R oman I ron A ge a t p resent . One o f t hem i s Dank irke i n s outh-west J ut land s i tuated a bout 3 km i n land f rom t he c oast o f t he North S ea . T he most i mportant f inds t o s how t hat t h is was a " commerc ia l " s i te a re we ights , a nd s herds o f R oman o r west-European g lass . T he amount o f g lass i s s o l arge t hat i t h as b een s uggested t hat g lass v esse ls were s tored a t D ank irke u nt i l awa it ing f urther d istr ibut ion ( Näsman 1 984 :123 ) . B ut t he d enar i i f ound t here a lso i nd icate c ommerc ia l a ct iv it ies . A lmost 4 0 d enar i i were f ound a nd s evera l t urned u p i n a n o ccupat ion l ayer wh ich c an b e d ated t o t he l a te R oman I ron Age ( Thorv i ldsen 1 972 :59 ) . T he o ther " commerc ia l" s i te i s L undeborg o n t he s outh e astern c oast o f F ünen , d i scovered i n 1 986 . On t he c oast , p art o f a n o ccupat ion d epos it c onta ined t races

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o f s ma l l h uts o r h ouses a s we l l a s many o b jects s uch a s whetstones , i ron t oo ls a nd i ron n a i ls f or s h ip-bu i ld ing . T here were a lso l a rge q uant it ies o f p otsherds a nd a n ima l b ones , a nd i t c an b e s hown t hat s evera l c rafts were c arr ied o ut . Go ld , s i lver , b ronze , amber a nd a nt ler were a l l worked t here , a nd c ompared w ith o ther Dan ish I ron Age s i tes i t i s o bv ious t hat a ct iv it ies o ther t han j ust a grar ian o nes t ook p lace . T h is i s a lso s uggested b y i mported g lass , s ome we ights a nd 1 7 R oman d enar i i f rom t he l a te R oman I ron A ge . S o f ar o n ly p re l im inary r eports a re a va i lab le f rom t h is a ston ish ing s i te where e xcavat ion i s s t i l l c ont inu ing ( Thomsen 1 988 :17ff ) .

8 . GUD ME , A CENTRAL P LACE T he Gudme s ett lement l i es i n land , j ust b eh ind L undeborg . No d oubt L undeborg was ag ateway c ommun ity s easona l ly i nhab ited t o s erve t he Gudme a rea . R ecent e xcavat ions h ave s hown t hat Gudme i t se lf c ons ists o f ac ons iderab le n umber o f s i tes f rom l arge p arts o f t he I ron Age ( Thrane 1 987 :1ff ) . A h uge mass o f m eta l o b jects i nc lud ing g o ld , s i lver a nd c o ins h ave b een d iscovered u s ing meta l d etectors . S o f ar 1 76 d enar i i h ave b een f ound , ag ood p roport ion o f wh ich a re c l ipped , d amaged o r worn b eyond r ecogn it ion , a nd i t i s o bv ious t hat t hey must h ave b een i n c ircul a t ion f or a l ong t ime b efore b e ing l ost o r b ur ied . Unfortunate ly , t he f i nd c ircumstances o f t he c o ins d o n ot t e l l u s much s i nce t hey were mos t ly f ound s cattered i n t he t op s o i l ( Kromann 1 987 :61ff ) . I t i s a t p resent d iff icu lt t o j udge what r o le t hese c o ins p layed i n t he e conomy o r , f or t hat matter , what was t he r o le o f t he Gudme a rea . I t may h ave b een a p o l it ica l o r e ven r e l ig ious c entre wh ich t ook o ver t h is r o le f rom t he c ommun it ies o n Z ea land . T h is c an b e i nferred f rom t he d istr ibut ion o f R oman i mports ( Lund Hansen 1 987 :127ff ) wh ich c hanged g eograph ica l ly d ur ing t he R oman I ron Age . T h is a lso s uggests t hat t he p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic s i tuat ion was n ot a s tab le o ne d ur ing t h is p er iod . I t c an a lso b e c onc luded t hat t here was a k ind o f ah ierarch ica l s ett lement p attern . A s ment ioned a bove , most o f t he Dan ish s i tes were p ure ly a grar ian v i l lages w ithout c o ins . T hen t here a re s uch s i tes a s L undeborg a nd Dank irke where t rad ing a ct iv it ies t ook p lace a nd where c o ins a re f ound . F ina l ly , t here i s a l arge c entre l i ke t he o ne a t Gudme .

I RON AGE ECONO MY L et u s n ow t ry t o t ake a c loser l ook a t t he r o le t he d enar i i may h ave p layed w ith in t hese c ommun it ies s upposed t o h ave c ons isted o f c h iefdoms . I t c an b e s een t hat d enar i i most ly t urn u p i n r i ch g raves a nd t h is i s a f i rst i nd icat ion t o s how t hat c o ins were o n ly a va i lab le a bove a c erta in s oc ia l l eve l . I t i s a lso o bv ious f rom what h as a lready b een s a id t hat e ven w ith in a s ma l l g eograph ica l a rea l i ke Denmark c o ins d id n ot p lay t he s ame p art e verywhere . Hoard ing s eems t o h ave a n i mportant r o le i n s ome a reas s uch a s o n B ornho lm , a nd much c ou ld b e s a id a bout t h is p henomenon wh ich h as b een c onnected p art icul ar ly w ith r e l ig ious c ustoms , o r war a nd u nrest . Y et , t here may b e o ther e v idence t o e xp la in t he p resence o f h oards , a s d iscussed b y S arvas ( 1967 :25ff ; 1 969 :145ff ) . F or i nstance , S arvas h as s hown t hat t here a re e xamp les f rom t he Swed ish-F inn ish r ea lm i n t he 1 8th c entury where t here a re more h oards f rom t imes o f p eace t han t imes o f war ; t hus t he t hes is p ut f o rward b y B o l in e spec ia l ly

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( Bo l in 1 926 :209 ) h as t o b e mod if ied . A ccord ing t o S arvas , h oards were t yp ica l ly most o ften c oncea led i n r ura l a reas where t he c o ins were v a lued b ecause o f t he ir meta l c ontent a nd n ot u sed a s a med ium o f e xchange . I n s uch a reas f ar away f rom where t he c o in h ad b een s t ruck , a s ubs istence e conomy was p reva i l ing a nd t he u se o f money c onsequent ly was v ery l im ited . E ven a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is c entury h oard ing o f c o ins t ook p lace i n i sol ated a reas o f e astern F in land where a modern money e conomy h ad n ot y et p enet rated a nd a s ubs istence e conomy was s t i l l c urrent . S urp lus p roduct ion , when c onverted i nto c o ins , was c oncea led b e low g round o r h idden i n t he f orest ( Sarvas 1 981) . T h is s eems a n e xce l lent e xamp le t o i lustrate t hat h oard ing m ight a lso t ake p lace d ur ing t imes o f p eace . C ons ider ing t h is f act , Is ee n o r eason why h oards o f d enar i i , e spec ia l ly o n B ornho lm a nd Got land s hou ld n ot i n s ome c ases b e e xp la ined i n t he s ame way . Ma lmer , f o l low ing S arvas , h as d iscussed t he h oards e spec ia l ly o n Got land a nd c onc ludes t hat c o ins a re much more o ften h oarded i n p r im it ive c ommun it ies t han i n t hose w ith as trong c entra l p ower ( Ma lmer 1 973 :132 ) . L ind ( 1979 :5) a lso c ons iders t he d enar l i f ound i n Sweden a long t hese l i nes a nd d oes n ot b e l ieve t hat t he c o ins were u sed a s a med ium o f e xchange . R ather , h e t h inks t hat many d enar i i wou ld g ive t he owner a h igh s tatus w ith in a c ommun ity where t hey were v a lued f or t he ir meta l c ontent . A s b oth S arvas a nd Ma lmer h ave p o inted o ut , we s t i l l h ave much t o l earn a bout h oard ing o f c o ins , a nd a s a lready h inted a t u sefu l i nformat ion a bout " pr im it ive e conomy" c an b e o bta ined b oth f rom a nthropo log ica l r esearch a nd r ecent t heoret ic a l d i scuss ions among a rchaeo log ists a nd a nthropo log ists . W ith in P reh istory i t i s n ecessary t o c ons ider s uch c oncept ions a s money - o r c o in e conomy f rom a t heoret ica l p o int o f v iew . A s Ih ave t r ied t o s how ( N ie lsen 1 987 :149 ) i t i s n ecessary t o o perate w ith s evera l l eve ls i n o rder t o u nderstand h ow t he c o ins were u sed :

P r imary c o in e conomy T he c o ins a re s truck b y a c entra l p ower a nd u sed i n a ccordance w ith t he a im o f t he i s sue w ith in t he a rea wh ich i s c ontro l led e conom ica l ly a nd p o l it ica l ly . A market e conomy i s p reva i l ing . U rban ized a reas i n t he R oman Emp ire a re t yp ica l e xamp les o f t h is e conomy .

S econdary c o in e conomy T he c o ins a re c ircu lat ing a s " fore ign c urrency" i n a n a rea wh ich i s n ot c ontro l led p o l it ica l ly o r e conom ica l ly b y t he i s suer o f t he c o ins . T he c o ins a re o ccas iona l ly u sed a s a mean o f p ayment a nd a med ium o f e xchange . A market e conomy may b e p resent , b ut a s ubs istence e conomy i s d om inat ing . T h is wou ld c orrespond t o s ome s i tuat ions w ith in t he R oman I ron Age i n Denmark .

S ubs istence e conomy F ore ign c o ins may a ppear b ut t hey a re n ot , o r s e ldom , u sed a s a med ium o f e xchange o r a s p ayment . T h is k ind o f e conomy i s t yp ica l o f most Dan ish I ron A ge v i l lages a nd s uch a reas a s B ornho lm a nd Got land . T hough s ystem

i t i t

i s c erta in ly d iff icu lt t o a rr ive a t e xact d ef in it ions w ith in s uch a i s a bso lute ly n ecessary t o s tress t hese d ifferences . W ith in R oman

3 3

money p o l icy t wo p arts must b e c ons idered , t he i s suer o f t he c o ins a nd t he u ser , a nd i t was p oss ib le f or t he s tate t o c arry t hrough a n e conom ic p o l icy wh ich m ight s evere ly a ffect t he e conom ic c ond it ions o f t rade a nd t he p ayment o f t axes a nd r ent . T h is v iew i s n ot a ltered b y t he f act t hat o uts ide u rban ized a reas , I mper ia l R ome was d om inated b y as ubs istence e conomy ( F in ley 1 973 :106f ) . Much more c ou ld b e s a id a bout t he d enar ius a nd a nc ient e conomy , n ot l east a r is ing f rom t he many a rt ic les f o l low ing i n t he wake o f F in ley 's b ook o r f rom w r itten s ources . S t i l l , i t i s o bv ious t hat s outhern S cand inav ia w as l i tt le a ffected b y t he e conomy w ith in t he R oman Emp ire . On ly s uch d ec is ive e vents , a s f or i n stance t he r i se o f t he p roduct ion o f l uxury g oods i n t he P rov inces , t he d ebasement d ur ing S ept im ius S everus , a nd t he c hange f rom a s i lver t o ag o ld s tandard i n t he f ourth c entury , a re r ef lected i n t he a rchaeo log ica l m ater ia l .

THE CHRONOLOGY OF RO MAN DENAR II F ina l ly , l e t u s c ons ider s ome c hrono log ica l q uest ions c onnected w ith t he p resence o f t he d enar i i i n s outhern S cand inav ia s uch a s : When were t he c o ins i mported? How l ong were t he c o ins i n c i rcu lat ion? When were t he c o ins c oncea led? When t ry ing t o a nswer t hese q uest ions I s ha l l n ot emp loy u sua l n um ismat ic methods s uch a s t he wear o f t he c o ins o r t he c ompos it ion o f t he h oards . T h is h as s o o ften b een d one , a nd s t i l l o ne g ets n o more t han a t erm inus p ost q uem d at ing . I nstead , t he many n ew f i nds o f d enar i i w i l l b e u sed s i nce i t i s i n t h is way o ften p oss ib le t o d ate t he c o ins a rchaeo log ica l ly . A s t o t he f i rst q uest ion , when t he c o ins were i mported , o ne t h ing i s s ure . T he c o ins must h ave l e ft t he Emp ire b efore t he d ebasement d ur ing t he r e ign o f S ept im ius S everus c .AD 2 00 ( Chantra ine 1 985 :412 ) . O therw ise t hey wou ld r ap id ly h ave b een w ithdrawn o r me lted d own a ccord ing t o G resham 's l aw . T h is d oes n ot mean t hat t he d enar i i e xported b efore t h is t ime t rave l led n orth a t o nce ; t hey m ay h ave c i rcu lated f or a c erta in t ime i n t he " f i lter z one" o f German ia l i bera b efore r each ing s outhern S cand inav ia . S ome d enar i i f ound i n Denmark wh ich c an b e d ated a rchaeo log ica l ly s how t hat t hey were i mported a nd b ur ied a t a n e ar ly d ate . T h is i s t he c ase w ith a d enar ius s truck f or C rassus f ound a t Dank irke i n ah ouse wh ich c an b e d ated t o t he 1 s t c entury AD ( Hansen 1 985 :230f ) . T he s ame i s t he c ase w ith t he d enar i i f ound a t G inderup ( Ba l l ing 1 962 :6ff ) ; t hey t oo were b ur ied i n t he R oman I ron A ge . T he c hrono log ica l e v idence f rom t he g raves l i sted b y L und H ansen ( 1987 :229 ) i s a lso i mportant s i nce i t s hows t hat many o f t he c o ins were b ur ied i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 3 rd c entury o r a t l east b efore AD 4 00 . T he f i nds f rom Dank irke a nd L undeborg a lso s how t hat d enar i i were i n c i rcu lat ion o n t hese s i tes b efore AD 4 00 . T hus i t i s n ot p oss ib le j ust t o make o ut a c ase o f al a te a rr iva l o f t he d enar i i i n Denmark . S ome o f t he c o ins were i n f act i mported f a ir ly s oon a fter t he d ate when t hey were s truck a nd t hey d id n ot c i rcu late l ong . On t he o ther h and t here i s a l so g ood e v idence f rom B ornho lm , t he Smorenge h oard , t hat d enar i i were h oarded a t t he c lose o f t he 5 th c entury o r m aybe e ven l a ter . Two g raves f rom t h is i s land , h owever , s how t hat d enar i i were a l ready c i rcu lat ing i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury . F ina l ly t he Gudme a rea i lustrates a p rob lem o f i t s own . T he d enar i i f ound h ere were p robab ly i mported v ia L undeborg d ur ing t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c entury . T hey

3 4

may h ave b een i n c ircu lat ion i n t h is a rea f or c entur ies b efore b e ing l ost o r c oncea led . Denar i i were a lso i n c ircu lat ion o n Got land a t a l ate d ate , a nd i n s evera l c ases l a te s o l id i h ave b een f ound t ogether w ith v ery worn d enar i i , s how ing t hat t hese c o ins were n ot b ur ied u nt i l t he 5 th c entury o r e ven l ater (Westermark 1 983 :39 ) . T he d enar i i s o f ar d ea lt w ith a re , a s i t were , " externa l c o ins" ( Bo l in 1 958 :244 ) s ince t hey a lmost e xc lus ive ly c ons ist o f s pec imens w ith h igh s i lver c ontent , f rom t he i st a nd e spec ia l ly t he 2 nd c entury AD . I n t he I ron Age c ommun it ies o f s outhern S cand inav ia i t i s i n terest ing t o o bserve t hat n ot e ven w ith in t h is s ma l l g eograph ica l a rea d id t hese d enar i i p lay t he s ame r o le , n or were t hey d ea lt w ith i n t he s ame way . T here a re a lso c hrono log ica l d ifferences . T h is means t hat o ne h as t o c ons ider t hese c o ins f rom a r eg iona l p o int o f v iew a nd t here h as t o b e a c lose c o l laborat ion b etween n um ismat ists a nd a rchaeo log ists .

L ITERATURE Balling. Bolin,

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av r omerska mynt

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f ria G ermanien.

a nd Currency in t he Roman Empire

t o

3 00 A .D.

De romerske MOntfund f ra d en s jellandske Ogruppe.

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Arsskrift. Chantraine,

H .

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r ömischen Fundmünzen

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Z eit

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Philologisch-Historische K lasse, M .I.

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Fragmenter a f

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i n Göttingen.

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Untersuchungen

Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften

Finley,

f ür d ie

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d er

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Skanderborg

i n O stjutland

6 1.

e n bronzebesläet

pragtvogn

f ra Dankirke.

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nordisk O ldkyndighed og H istorie 1 984. Kromann,

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1 987.

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I nstituts

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S tudien.

f ür Frühmittelalterforschung der Universität

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Münster.

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L .

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av

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r omerska

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Nat. mus.

d enarer

i Sverige.

Arb.

mark.

Svenska

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i

Rom.

Arskrönika. Lund Hansen,

U .

1 987.

Römischer Import Reich und dem

i m Norden.

Warenaustausch

f reien Germanien.

zwischen

dem

Nordiske Fortidsminder.

Römischen Serie B .

Bind 1 0. Malmer,

M .P.

1 973.

En

korologisk

myntfynd. Nielsen,

S .

1 987.

a spekt

Honos

Denarerne

pa

t olkningen

E lla K ivikoski.

f ra romersk

j ernalder

nordisk O ldkyndighed og H istorie Näsman,

U .

1 984.

Glas och handel g las

Sarvas,

I f

a v d en

O land,

f olkvandringstid.

Sverige.

A un

1 967.

De

"

1 969.

De svenska myntskatterna

"

1 981.

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LAGOM.

zum 6 0. Geburtstag am 2 0. November

1 979.

J .

1 987.

Den

kgl.

MOnt-

f rän

1 700-talet.

f ran

AarbOger

f or

1 986.

P .

S teen Jensen,

f inska myntskatterna

j ärnälderns

- f unktion og udbredelse.

i s enromersk t id o ch

f rän Eketorp-II,

g otländska

SMYA 7 5.

s tudie kring

Nordisk n umismatisk Arsskrift.

1 700-talet.

og Medaillesamling.

En

5 .

Nordisk n umismatisk Arsskrift

F estschrift

f ür Peter Berghaus

Arkeologiske udgravninger i D anmark

1 986 Thomsen,

P . O.

Thorvildsen, Thrane,

H .

1 988. E .

1 972.

1 987.

Lundeborg. Dankirke. Das

Arbog

f or Svendborg og Omegns-Museum 1 987.

Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark.

G udme-problem und d ie G udme-Untersuchung.

der Völkerwanderungs und d er Merowingerzeit l iche

S tudien.

J ahrbuch

Universität Münster. Westermark,

U .

1 983.

Solidi

f ound i n

d es

2 1.

I nstituts

Fragen

a uf

d er Besiedlung i n

Fünen.

Frühmittelalter-

f ür Frühmittelalterforschung d er

B and.

Sweden a nd D enmark

a fter

1 967.

Numismatiska Meddelanden

XXXIII. Ostergren,

M .

1 981.

Gotländska

f ynd av s olidi

platserna.

RAGU.

Arkeologiska

o ch

d enarer

E n undersökning av f ynd-

Riksantikvarieämbetets Gotlands Undersökningar.

S krifter nr.l.

T R A D E , C O IN S A N D F O R E IGN I N F LU EN C E S D U R ING P R E V I K ING A N D V I K ING A G E R I B E L ENE B . F RANDSEN

Excavations r ural T his

and

a t Nicolajgade 8 , i ndustrial

paper pays

l evels,

Ribe,

o ccupation

in

particular a ttention to

discussing their

i mportance

f or

puzzling relationship between s ceattas c entury D enmark

Berdal in

t he

brooches, 8 th

a nd

1 986

f rom t he late

revealed well-stratified traces 7 th

to t he e arly

t he

3 4

t he

c hronology of

s ceattas

f ound in

i ndustrial t he h itherto

excavations

f or political

of

c enturies.

t he

t he s ite,

f ound in earlier Ribe

their s ignificance

9 th

a nd

9 th

conditions

i n

c entury.

T he s ub ject o f my p aper i s t rade d ur ing t he l ate German ic I ron Age a nd t he e ar ly V ik ing A ge w ith s pec ia l r eference t o R ibe . My s tart ing p o int i s an ew e xcavat ion i n R ibe 's o ldest l ayers c arr ied o ut i n N ico la jgade 8 , i n 1 986 , i n t he s ame a rea where l a rge-sca le e xcavat ions were c arr ied o ut i n t he 1 970s ( F ig .1) . T he ma jor r esu lts o f t hese e xcavat ions a re b r ief ly a s M .Bencard d escr ibed . " The mater ia l i s r e lated p redom inant ly t o t rade a nd c raft a ct iv it ies . D esp ite t he p resence o f o ccupat ion l ayers t hat a re u nusua l ly t h ick f or t he p er iod , n o r ea l b u i ld ing h ave b een f ound . . . . T he d at ing o f t he o ccupat ion l ayers d epends t o ag reat d egree u pon t he c o ins . . . ,t he l ayers s eem t o f a l l w ith in t he p er iod 7 25-800 , a s c onf irmed b y d endrochrono logy , a s we l l a s b y t hermo lum inescence t est . T h is d at ing s eems a cceptab le i n r e lat ion t o t he a rt ifacts i n g enera l" ( Bencard 1 984 :11) .

F ig.l.

Map o f Ribe,

showing

excavations:

3 7

1 .

Kunstmuseets

have,

2 .

Dommerhaven,

1 974.

3 .

Nicolajgade

8 ,

1 975.

1 986.

B ut M .Bencard a nd H .Br inch Madsen ( pub l isher o f t he meta l-work ing e v idence ) h ave a q uest ion wh ich n one o f t hem a nswer . T he s ame l eve l i n wh ich t he c o ins were f ound - t he s o-ca l led s ceattas ( second s er ies W/ M m inted a bout 7 20-755 ) , a l so c onta ined waste f rom t he p roduct ion o f B erda l b rooches , at ype wh ich i s t rad it iona l ly d ated t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 9 th c entury a nd n orma l ly t aken a s a s ure i nd icat ion f or a d at ing t o t he V ik ing A ge . What was w rong? I s t he a bso lute d at ing 7 20-755 o f t he Wodan/monster s ceattas w rong , o r d o t he B erda l b rooches n ot d ate f rom V ik ing A ge a t a l l -o r i n f act d id t he V ik ing Age a ctua l ly s tart h a lf t o a who le c entury b efore we b e l ieve? One o f t he a ims o f t he n ew e xcavat ion , b es ides b e ing a r escue e xcavat ion b efore b u i ld ing a ct iv it ies i n t he a rea , was t o t ry t o s o lve t he p rob lems o f c hrono logy a nd t ry t o f i gure o ut h ow t he t rad ing p lace d eve loped . A rchaeo log ists h ave o ften b een c r it ic ized f or u s ing c o ins a s a k ey t o d at ing . S o I t h ink i t w i l l b e w iser f or me , i n t h is c onnect ion , t o s tart w ith t he s t rat igraphy , r e lat ive c hrono logy a nd t he d at ing o f t he a rt ifacts . A p re l im inary r eport , ma in ly a bout t he s t rat igraphy a nd t he d eve lopment o f t he l oca l p ottery , i s i n p ress ( Frandsen 8 . 1 J ensen 1 987 ) . S o h ere I w i l l c oncentrate o n d atab le a rt ifacts , ma in ly i mported g oods , wh ich c an h e lp t o d ate t he p hases w ith o r w ithout s ceattas . T he most i mportant t h ing a bout t he 1 986 e xcavat ion i s t he v ery g ood s t rat igraphy a nd o ur g reat l uck , f or t he s i te o n ly 9 0m 2 i n a rea w as s i tuated e xact ly i n t he m idd le o f at enement . T h is means t hat we h ave t he t h ick a nd c ont inua l a ccumu lat ion a round t he f i rep laces a nd workshops i n t he m idd le o f t he s i te ; 2 -3m f rom t he m idd le t he l ayers g et t h inner a nd a ctua l ly s top b efore t he s ma l l d itch wh ich f ormed t he b oundary o f t he n ext workshop t enement . I t was c omp l icated t o f o l low t he n atura l d epos it , t he l ayers i ncrease a nd d ecrease a nd a re o ften c ut t hrough b y p its a nd l a ter d i sturbances . L uck i ly , n ow a nd t hen a s and l ayer c over ing t he who le p lot made a k ind o f z ero ing i n t he a ccumu lat ion o f l ayers . B y u s ing t he Harr is matr ix i t h as b een p oss ib le t o d i st ingu ish 9 p hases . T he f i rst p hase i s t he s o-ca l led s ett lement l ayer wh ich c onta ined o n ly p ottery , a n ima l b ones a nd l oom we ights , t h ings t yp ica l o f a ny I ron A ge v i l lage . A bove t he s ett lement l ayer l i es a c u lture l ayer c omposed o f workshop f l oors , h earths a nd r efuse f rom v ar ious workp lace a ct iv it ies : f or e xamp le , b ronze c as t ing , b ead mak ing , c omb mak ing a nd amber work ing . F or c hrono log ica l r easons t he t h ick a ccumu lat ion o f workshop d epos it i s s p l it i n to 1 -6 h or izons . T he s equence e nded w ith t he l a st f i l l ing o f t he d i tch b etween t he p lots . A bove t h is t he p r imary c u lture l ayer was c ut o ff i n h istor ica l t imes ( f ig .2 ) . B y f o l low ing t he d eve lopment o f t he l oca l p ottery f rom h or izon t o h or izon , i t was s een t hat t he c hange i n s ty le was t oo s i gn if icant t o h ave h appened i n t he s hort m int ing p er iod o f t he Wodan/monster s ceattas . T he p er iod i s more l i ke ly t o h ave l a sted f or a bout o ne h undred y ears . T here i s much e v idence o f t rade i n R ibe . F irst o f a l l t here was l a rge-sca le manufacture o f a rt ifacts wh ich p roduced a s urp lus , s o t here must h ave b een c ontact w ith a n a rea o f c onsumpt ion : s econd ly t here a re a g reat q uant it ies o f i mported g oods , s uch a s F rank ish a nd A ng lo-Saxon g lass , p ottery , q uernstones o f b asa lt , h onestones e tc . T he i mported q uernstones a nd h onestones t e l l u s t hat t he o b jects o f t rade were n ot e xc lus ive ly l uxury i t ems . T he q uernstones o f l ava f rom t he E ife l m ount a ins n ear Mayern were i mported t hroughout t he o ccupat ion a t R ibe , s o t here i s n o c hrono log ica l v a lue i n t he ir d i str ibut ion h ere . We f i nd f ragments o f b asa lt e verywhere i n t he V ik ing A ge s ett lements a round R ibe , where t h is s ort o f q uern must h ave b een h igh ly a pprec iated , e spec ia l ly i n t he marsh a reas where s tones a re r are . Honestones f or s harpen ing i r on t oo ls a re n umerous o n t he s i te , b ut m any o f t hem a re o f u n ident if ied s orts o f s tone ( some a re s ure ly i mported , b ut w e d on 't

3 8

D isturbed

l ayer

• •

Horizon

6 Ditch

5 4

2

2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 Settlement

F ig.2.

S chematic

d istribution of

section

D itch layer

s howing

t he

principal

s tratigraphy

of

Nicolajgade

8

a nd

t he

t he s ceattas.

k now f rom where ) a nd o thers a re made o f n atura l s tones c o l lected n earby . S ome h onestones a re made o f E idsborg s ch ist b ut t hey a l l s eemed t o c ome f rom l ater d isturbance i n t he l ayers . It h ink we c an c onc lude t hat o ur s equence o f workshop l ayers were d epos ited b efore t he Norweg ian e xport o f E idsborg h onestones t o R ibe b egan . T he s ame s eem t o b e t he c ase w ith t he s oapstone v esse ls . We h ave o n ly f ound o ne s ma l l p iece i n ay ounger d isturbance . I n Hedeby t he f i rst s oapstone v esse l s howed u p a round 8 50 ( Res i 1 979 :111) . T here must h ave b een a n i mport o f r aw mater ia l f or t he c raftsmen , b ut we a re n ot s ure a bout t he f orm t hat i t t ook . S ome p ieces o f meta l waste h ave b een f ound , b ut i t i s l i tt le c ompared t o a l l t he o ther e v idence o f b ronze c ast ing : mou lds , t uyeres a nd c ruc ib les . I t s eems t hat t he c raftsmen were v ery c arefu l n ot t o l eave a nyth ing u sefu l b eh ind t hem . No d oubt t wo h eavy b ronze i ngots were l ost a cc identa l ly . T h is s hows t hat c lean r aw mater ia l was i mported a nd t hat p roduct ion was n ot o n ly b ased o n r euse o f o ld o b jects . T he mou lds s how t hat t he t h ings manufactured o n t he s pot were o f S cand inav ian s ty le . T he s trat igraph ica l d istr ibut ion o f mou lds w ith o rnament s hows c lear ly t hat O rsnes s ty le D p redates t he B erda l b rooches . A part f rom t he p ottery , t he most n umerous o b jects a re g lass , most ly b eads a nd waste f rom b ead p roduct ion , b ut a lso s herds f rom v esse ls . A l l t he g lass f or b ead mak ing was i mported , most ly a s c lear b lue r aw g lass o r a s c o loured t esserae . T he g lass r ods , u nf in ished a nd waste p roducts , i nd icate t he t ypes o f g lass b eads wh ich were made h ere , a nd wh ich c ome f rom o uts ide . S ure i mports a re t he s egmented b eads w ith g o ld f o i l , a nd t he " Augenmosa ik b eads" . T he l a tter a re o f most c hrono log ica l v a lue , b ecause t hey a re n ot k nown u nt i l t he l ast t h ird o f t he 8 th c entury . T he " Augenmosa ik b eads" i n h or izon 4 mean t hat t he l ayers i n h or izon 4c annot h ave b een d epos ited b efore 7 60-770 . O ther i mported g oods a re s ma l l b rown o r b lack b eads w ith y e l low s pots , we l l-known f rom R hen ish R e iheng räber , d ated 6 30-680 ( Koch 1 977 ) . I n N ico la jgade 8 t hey o ccurred o n ly i n t he o ldest l ayer , h or izon 1 . S cattered e verywhere i n t he c u lture l ayer a re s ma l l p ieces o f b roken g lass v esse ls . I t i s v ery d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine t he t ypes . F ragments f rom r et ice l la b eakers , p a lm c ups a nd f unne l b eakers , a l l t yp ica l o f t he 7 -8 c entury a re t he most c ommon , s o t he c hrono log ica l v a lue i s n ot s pec if ic . I t i s i n terest ing t hat we c an f o l low t he d eve lopment f rom p r imary p a lms c ups a t t he l owest l eve ls t o f unne l b eakers a t t he t op .

3 9

T he f ore ign p ottery h as n ot y et b een a na lysed , t here a re s evera l d ifferent k inds , e as iest t o d ist ingu ish b e ing B adorf ware w ith r o l led s tamp , i mported f rom t he m idd le R h in land . Here we o n ly h ave i t a t t he t op : h or izon 6 a nd d i tch 2 , t he c ommon d at ing o f t h is k ind o f B adorf ware i s a bout 7 80-880 ( Steuer 1 974 :107) . B y p utt ing a l l t he s ma l l b its o f d at ing i n format ion t ogether , we h ave a c hrono log ica l f ramework i n o ur s equence d iagram . T he a ccumu lat ion o f t he workshop l ayers s tarts a round 7 20 . I t i s d i ff icu lt t o p rove , b ut i t s eems r easonab le t o p resume t hat o ur s ett lement l ayer i s c onnected w ith a we l l a nd t races o f p lough ing a t t he s i te i n Dommerhaven e xcavated i n 1 974 o n t he o ppos ite s ide o f N ico la jgade . T hose t races were a lso i n terpreted a s s ome k ind o f f arm ing a ct iv ity b efore t he d eve lopment o f t he r ea l t rad ing s i te . T he we l l i s d ated b y d endrochrono logy t o 7 10 . T he f i l l ing o f d itch 2 a t N ico la jgade t ook p lace i n t he f i rst p art o f t he t he 9 th c entury a nd i s t he l a st a ct ion we c an f o l low . A bove t hat l eve l e veryth ing i s d isturbed . Mou lds f or B erda l b rooches a re c haracter ist ic o f d i tch 2 . We a lso k now t hat h or izon 4 c ou ld n ot h ave b een d epos ited b efore 7 60 . Now we must s ee h ow t he s ceattas f i t i n to t h is f ramework . I n N ico la jgade , 3 4 s ceattas were f ound , wh ich a dded t o t he s ceattas f ound i n e ar l ier e xcavat ions means t hat we n ow h ave 6 6 f rom R ibe . Why h ave s o many s ceattas b een f ound i n R ibe? T he e xtent o f t he 1 986 s i te was o n ly 9 0m 2 a nd o n ly 5 5m 2 were we l l p reserved c u lture l ayers , a max imum o f i m , t h ick . F ind ing 3 4 s ceattas i n s uch a s ma l l a rea r esu lts p art ly f rom t he c arefu lness o f d igg ing , b ut i t must ma in ly b e d ue t o t he c haracter o f t he s i te . I t wou ld b e most u nusua l t o f i nd s o many c o ins s cattered o n af armyard . T he s ceattas s upport t he i n terp retat ion o f t he s i te a s at rad ing p lace , s ome k ind o f a market , where n umerous c o ins c hanged h ands . Ii mag ine a market d ay i n R ibe i n t he 8 th c entury a s av ery h ect ic a ffa ir , w ith a n a tmosphere o f b ust le a nd e xc itement . T he a rea was u npaved a nd muddy , g arbage a nd r ott ing f ood e verywhere , j ust a p lace where c o ins wou ld b e l o st a nd d iff icu lt t o r ecover . T he f i rst s ceattas f rom R ibe h ave b een p ub l ished b y K irsten B end ixen , who h as a lso v ery k ind ly p rom ised t o make f urther s tud ies a nd a c ata logue o f t hese 3 4 . Among t he 3 4 s ceattas t here i s o ne Maastr icht a nd o ne c erta in p orcup ine . T he r est s eem t o b e Wodan/monsters . F igure 2 s how t he d i str ibut ion o f t he s ceattas i n t he h or izons . T here i s n one i n t he s ett lement ( f arm ) l ayer n or i n t he b ottom o f h or izon 1 , b ut i n t he m idd le o f h or izon 1 t here was s ome k ind o f a " boom" . D itch 1 was f i l led b efore h or izon 2 s o a l l t ogether t here a re 1 3 s ceattas i n t he l ower l eve l . A t t he t op where d i tch 2 i s t he l a test f eature t here a re n one a t a l l . I n Hor izons 6 t here a re o n ly 3 , o ne o f t hem a Maastr icht t ype w ith a r ound h o le a t t he e dge . I t must b e r easonab le t o p resume t hat t ransform ing a c o in i n to a n o rnament means t hat i t s o r ig ina l f unct ion was c hanged , s o i t d oes n ot r ea l ly c ount i n t he d iscuss ion a bout t he l ength o f t ime s ceattas were i n u se i n R ibe . T he t wo s ceattas f rom d isturbed l ayers d o n ot c ount e i ther . F rom t he r est we c an c onc lude t hat we h ave s ome k ind o f a " sceatta b oom " s hort ly a fter t he f oundat ion o f t he t rad ing p lace . T here a re s t i l l ag reat many i n h or izon 2 , b ut t hen t he amount d ecreases a nd d isappears b efore t he i n fi l o f d itch 2 . I t i s i mportant t o n ot ice t hat t here a re s t i l l s ceattas i n Hor izons 4 , 5 a nd 6 , wh ich were a l l d epos ited a fter 7 60-770 ; t h is means t hat s ceattas c i rcu lated f or a q uarter t o h a lf a c entury a fter t he n orma l d at ing ( 720-755 ) o f t he ir m int ing p er iod . T he e ar l ier c onfus ion a bout B erda l b rooches a nd s ceattas i n t he s ame l eve l c an b e e xp la ined i n t wo ways . T hey were i n t he s ame l eve l , b ut n ot i n t he s ame h or izon . I f t he s t rat igraphy were c omparab le t o N ico la jgade 8 , t he l eve l i s n ot i mportant . When we c ompare t he f i nd d i str ibut ion f rom d itch 2 a nd workshop h or izons t here i s waste f rom B erda l p roduct ion i n d i tch 2 i n al ower l eve l t han i n t he workshops h or izon 3 -6 . b ut t he d epos it i n d i tch 2 i s l a ter . T he c onc lus ion f rom t h is e xcavat ion must b e t hat s ceattas p re-date B erda l b rooches .

4 0

T he o ther e xp lanat ion i s , t hat a v ery f ew s ceattas were s t i l l a va i lab le a round 8 00 . T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he p eop le o f R ibe a cqu ired t he s ceattas f rom F r is ians a nd A ng lo-Saxons who f ounded t h is c o inage i n t he l a te 7 th c entury . I t s eems t hat t hey l i ked a nd t rusted t he s ceattas s o much t hat t hey n ever a ccepted t he n ew c o ins wh ich c ame i nto c ircu lat ion a fter P ep in 's c o in r eform o f c .755 . L ater , c .800 , t he Wodan/monster s ceatta was t he mode l f or t he Dan ish m int a t Hedeby . What was u sed a s means o f p ayment when t he s upp ly o f s ceattas f rom F r ies land b egan t o d ec l ine a fter t he c o in r eform? 1 ) T he " k ing " i n R ibe may h ave m inted h is own s ceattas . 2 ) T he s hortage o f c o ins may h ave b een o vercome b y u s ing h ack s i lver . T he f i rst e xp lanat ion c ou ld e xp la in why t here a re s o many s ceattas i n R ibe , i t r ema ins t o b e p roved . A s f or t he s econd , Ic an a dd t hat t he f ew l ead we ights wh ich we f ound i n N ico la jgade 8 a l l c ome f rom t he u pper l ayer , where t he s ceattas were f ew . T o s um u p , t he c ontext o f t he s ceattas f ound i n N ico la jgade 8 , i s v ery i mportant . T he ir we l l d ocumented d istr ibut ion i n d ifferent p hases s hows h ow t he n umbers c hanged t hrough t ime a nd i s o f g reat c hrono log ica l s ign if icance . T he g reat c oncentrat ion o f s ceattas i n R ibe a nd o n o ther t rad ing s i tes , s uch a s , f or e xamp le , Dorestad , Domburg , Hamw ic a nd I psw ich s hows t he s ceattas ' c lose c onnect ion w ith l ong d istance t rade . S ceattas h ave a lso b een f ound i n o ther c ontexts i n western E urope , f or e xamp le i n g raves , h oards a nd s ett lements a nd t he ir i nterpretat ion i n t hese c ontexts g ive f urther i n format ion a bout t he f unct ion o f s ceattas . B ut t he S cand inav ian f inds o f s ceattas s o f ar ( f rom Ahus , He lgö , Gudme , Dank irke , R ibe , Hedeby S üds ied lung ) a l l c ome f rom v ery s pec ia l s i tes w ith c lose i n ternat iona l c onnect ions . T he s ceattas must h ave h ad a f unct ion i n l ong d istance t rade where t hey c i rcu lated i n t he s phere o f t rade a nd c raft a ct iv it ies ; t hey p robab ly p layed n o p art i n as ubs istence e conomy . T he a pperance o f t he s ceattas i n R ibe i n t he 8 th c entury c ou ld b e t he c ons equence o f as trong o rgan isat ion , h ere s hown b y t he s tr ict ly d ef ined workshop t enements a nd t he h igh l eve l o f p roduct ion . T here a re a lso s igns o f g row ing e conom ic a nd p o l it ica l s trength o uts ide R ibe - we a re n ot f ar f rom t he f i rst s tage o f s tate f ormat ion . T he p ower o f t he k ing o f Denmark , a s o f o ther c h iefs , must b e measured b y h is a b i l ity t o d efend h is t err itory a nd/or a ttack h is e nem ies . T he g rowth o f m i l itary p ower i s c lear ly s hown b y t he b u i ld ing o f t he f i rst s ect ion o f Danev irke i n 7 37 a nd t he K anhave c ana l i n 7 26 ( Andersen 1 985 ) . T he we l l d ocumented u se o f h ack s i lver i n V ik ing A ge Denmark ( Härdh ) s hows t hat t he s ceattas i n R ibe n ot were t he b eg inn ing o f a monopo ly o f s i lver c o inage . More l i ke ly t hey m irror t he f l uctuat ions o f t rade -f ore ign i nf luences b e ing a ccepted b y t he l oca l p ower a s v ery u sefu l f or t rade a nd p erhaps f or b u i ld ing u p a s trong o rgan isat ion . B ut i t d id n ot l a st f orever a nd t he s ceattas l ost t he ir i mportance . R ibe may a lso h ave l o st i t s i mportance w ith t he g rowth o f Hedeby when Denmark a cqu ired a nother t rad ing c entre , i n t h is c ase w ith i t s own m int .

L ITERATURE Andersen, Bencard,

H . M .

Bendixen,

K .

1 985.

Vandt

1 984.

Ribe e xcavation

1 984.

S ceattas ed M .

Frandsen,

L . B.

& J ensen

s ig hele Danmark.

a nd o ther c oin

B encard,

S .

Skalk

1 970-76.

1 987.

1 985,

Vo1.2. f inds,

2 .

E sbjerg. i n

R ibe excavations

Pre-Viking a nd Early V iking Age Ribe.

Nicolajsgade,

1 970-76.

Vol.'

E sbjerg.

1 985-86.

Excavations

Journal of Danish Archaeology,

vol.6,

a t

pp.175-189.

Odense. Härdh, Koch,

B . U .

Madsen, Resi,

The 1 977.

H .Brinck.

H . G.

S teuer,

1 979.

H . G.

1 974.

f unction o f

s ilver i n

Das Reihengräberfeld bei Metal-casting,

the Viking Age. S chretzheim.

Ribe excavations

D ie Specksteinfund a us Haithabu. D ie s üdsiedlung von Haithabu. Nordseeküstenbereich u nd Haithabu

6 .

I n

t his vol.

Berlin.

1 970-76.

Vol.2.

Berichte über

S tudien z ur

ed. d ie

M .Bencard,

E sbjerg.

a usgrabung i n Haithabu.

f rühmittelalterlichen Keramik im

i n S chlesvig-Holstein.

D ie ausgrabungen

i n

T H E F U N C T ION O FS I L V E R I NT H E V I K ING A G E D i s c u s s i o no fm e t h o d s a n dr e s u l t s B IRG ITTA HARDH

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S i lver h oards c onst itute a c haracter ist ic f eature o f s urv iva ls f rom t he V ik ing Age o ver v ast a reas o f Northern E urope . T here h ave b een many a ttempts t o e xp la in t he p henomenon a nd e luc idate t he r o le o f s i lver i n t he V ik ing A ge . T he d ebate h as c entred o n : 1 . R easons f or b ury ing t he s i lver : t he ma in e xp lanat ions h ave b een f or r e l ig ious r easons o r war . 2 . How t he s i lver w as o bta ined : t he ma in e xp lanat ions h ere h ave b een b y p iracy o r t rade . 3 . S ome s cho lars h ave c oncentrated o n t he l oca l f unct ion o f t he s i lver . T hose who h ave c ons idered t he matter h ave i n terpreted i t i n e conom ic t erms . *

*

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T he l i terature o n t h is s ub ject g ives t he i mpress ion t hat t here was o n ly o ne d om inat ing h ypothes is a t a ny o ne t ime . I n 1 900 , O scar A lmgren p resented t he v iew t hat p rec ious meta ls were b ur ied i n t he e arth a ccord ing t o t he s o-ca l led Od in 's l aw , d escr ibed b y S norr i i n t he " Yng l ingasaga" , t hat i s , a nyone who b ur ies wea lth w i l l e n joy i t a fter d eath ( A lmgren 1 900 :231f ) . S une L indqv ist e ven s a id t hat i t was p oss ib le t o t race v ar iat ions i n r e l ig ious b e l ief i n d ifferent a reas i n S cand inav ia f rom v ar iat ions i n t he n umber o f h oards ( L indqv ist 1 920 :71ff ) . T he s ame i deas were t hen r epeated o ver a nd o ver a ga in t hroughout t he t went ies b y a lmost e veryone who worked w ith s i lver h oards , f or e xamp le , S eger ( 1928 ) a nd K oss inna ( 1929 ) . I n c ontrast , P .Hauberg , i n h is work o n D an ish c o ins , s tated t hat f ore ign c o ins r eached Denmark a s a r esu lt o f t rade ( Hauberg 1 900 :9ff ) . T he n ext i mportant e xp lanat ion was p ut f orward i n 1 926 w ith S ture B o l in 's

4 3

t hes is : h oards mean war , " the more h oards t he m ore u nrest a nd d evastat ion" ( Bo l in 1 926 :209 ) . T h is e xp lanat ion was s o s t r ik ing t hat f or s ome d ecades f urther d i scuss ion o n t he i mp l icat ion o f t he f i nds s eemed t o b e s uperf luous . A t yp ica l r epresentat ive o f t h is i s R oar S kovmand ( 1942 ) i n h i s b ook , De d ans l ze s kattefund . He a lso u ses t he f requency o f t he c o in h oards f or p o l it ica l i nterpretat ions ; f or i n stance h e s uggests t hat t he i ncrease i n t he n umber o f h oards c .950-980 i lustrates Hara ld B luetooth 's s t rugg le f or s upremacy , t he many f i nds i n S käne a round 9 90 i nd icate t he b att le a t S vo lder b etween S ven T veskägg a nd O lav T ryggvasson , wh i le t he s ma l l i ncrease o f h oards i n S kane 1 020-1030 i nd icate t he b att le a t He lgeä . T he p eak , a round 1 050 , i s s een i n c onnect ion w ith t he c ompet it ion f or p ower a fter t he d eath o f K nut t he G reat ( Skovmand 1 942 :188ff ) . However , a s l ong a s t he e xp lanat ions o n ly c oncerned t he p henomenon o f h oard ing a s s uch , t he h ypotheses r ema ined v ague a nd g enera l . T he h oards t hemse lves r epresented wea lth , t he r eason f or t he ir c oncea lment c ou ld v ary . S igurd G r ieg 's work o n t he Norweg ian h oards , p ub l ished i n 1 929 , d enoted a n ew , a nd i n t h is r espect v ery e ar ly , a pproach t o t he p rob lem . G r ieg ma inta ined t hat t he c i rcumstances o f t he f i nds , a s we l l a s t he s t ructure o f t he h oards , i s a d eterm in ing f actor f or t he ir i n terpretat ion . F inds i n water a nd marshy s urround ings a re p robab ly o ffer ings , whereas f i nds c lose t o b ig s tones a nd t he l i ke a re c oncea led t reasures , t o b e r ecovered b y t he ir owners . A ccord ing t o G r ieg , h ack s i lver must a lways b e c ons idered a s money ( Gr ieg 1 929 :288f ) . T he s ame a tt itude , w ith m inor r ev is ions , was a dopted b y Marten S tenberger , i n S chatzfunde G ot lands d er W ikingerze i t ( 1958 ) i n w h ich h e ma inta ined t hat h oards were f i rst a nd f oremost wea lth , i n tended t o b e r ecovered b y t he owner a nd a l so t hat u nrest was p robab ly t he ma in r eason f or b ury ing t he s i lver . Moreover , S tenberger d emonstrated a c lose c onnect ion b etween t he h oards a nd V ik ing A ge s ett lement o n Got land , o bservat ions t hat h ave b een c onf irmed b y t he i nvest igat ions o f t he l a st f ew y ears c arr ied o ut b y RAGU a nd Ma jvor O stergren ( Stenberger 1 958 :13ff , 3 07ff , 3 61ff , O stergren 1 986 ) . F rom t he f i ft ies o nwards a n e conom ic v iew d eve loped , l a rge ly d ue t o t he f act t hat a n umber o f n um ismat ists h ave s tud ied t he c ompos it ion o f t he h oards . Now , t he s i lver i s r egarded a s a means o f p ayment a nd i t s f unct ion w ith in t he B a lt ic a rea i s s t ressed . A s e ar ly a s 1 948 Wa lter Hävern ick s tated t hat t he m ixed c ompos it ion o f t he h oards was t he r esu lt o f t he c i rcu lat ion o f t he s i lver , s ee ing t hem p r imar i ly a s e v idence f or i n tens ive t rade ( Hävern ick 1 948 :350f ) . T he P o l ish h oards were p ub l ished ma in ly i n t he s i xt ies a nd R yzard K iersnowsk i , S tan is laus S uchodo lsk i a nd S tan is laus T abaczy f isk i , among o thers , c ontr ibuted s i gn if icant ly b y b r ing ing t he a spect o f f ragmentat ion i n to t he p icture , s o t hat b oth l oca l a nd f ore ign t rade a nd t he r ate o f c i rcu lat ion c ou ld b e d i scussed more s ystemat ica l ly . T he a uthors b e l ieved t hat t he s i lver h oards m irror t he e conom ic s i tuat ion w ith in t he l oca l a rea a t t he t ime o f t he c oncea lment ( Tabaczy f isk i 1 958 ( 1960 ) ; K iersnowsk i 1 961 ; S uchodo lsk i 1 972 ) . T h is e conom ica l ly - i n f luenced i n terpretat ion o f t he h oards was a lmost t he o n ly o ne a dhered t o i n t he s i xt ies a nd l a ter b y s cho lars s uch a s L i l lemor L undström ( 1973) , B r ita Ma lmer (1983a , 1 983b , 1 985) a nd myse lf ( Härdh 1 976a , 1 977 ) . T o Gert Hatz ( 1974 ) t he t horough m ix ing o f c o in t ypes i n t he h oards a ppeared o f v i ta l s ign if icance . T he m ix ing , n ot o n ly o f E ng l ish , A rab ic a nd o ther c o ins w ith t he German o nes , b ut a lso t he v ar ious German i s sues among t hemse lves , s hows t hat t h is p rocess was c arr ied o ut o uts ide G ermany , p robab ly a l l o ver t he B a lt ic a rea . A ccord ing t o Hatz , i t t est if ies , t o a n i n tens ive c i rcu lat ion a nd m ix ing i n t he a reas o f h oard ing ( Hatz 1 974 :183 ) . Hatz a l so d ea ls w ith t he p rob lem i n a more l og ica l a nd s ystemat ic way t han d o s evera l o ther a uthors a s h e s eparates t he t wo c oncepts " Schatzb i ldung " a nd " Schatzvergrabung " , o ften c onfused i n o lder p ub l icat ions . Hatz a l so g ives t he most c omprehens ive r ev iew o ver t he d i scuss ion

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u p t o 1 974 ( Hatz 1 974 :143ff ) . T he d om inat ing e conom ic t rend h as , i n t he e ight ies , b een b roken b y af ew works , a ga in f ocus ing o n r a id ing , p iracy a nd d epos it ion f or r e l ig ious r easons . P eter S awyer ( 1962 ) a rgued s t rong ly f or t he i n f low o f s i lver t o S cand inav ia a s ar esu lt o f t rade . B irka was a t rad ing-p lace , t he e x istence o f wh ich was d ue t o t he e astern t rade t hrough t he Gu lf o f F in land a nd a long t he V o lga , a nd i t s d ec l ine was e xp la ined b y t he b reak i n c onnect ions b etween t he B a lt ic a nd t he V o lga a rea ( Sawyer 1 962 , 1 971 :181ff ) . He h as r ecent ly ( 1982 ) c hanged h i s o p in ion , a s t he w r itten s ources d o n ot s peak i n f avour o f t rade . He n ow b e l ieves t hat a more s at isfactory e xp lanat ion wou ld b e t hat t he s i lver was i mported a s a r esu lt o f p lunder ing o r t r ibutes . T he d ec l ine i n o r ienta l s i lver i n S cand inav ia wou ld t hen r ef lect b etter d efences i n t he e ast wh ich f orced t he V ik ings t o l ook e l sewhere f or s upp l ies , i . e . t o Western E urope ( Sawyer 1 982 :124 ) . A nders C ar lsson ( 1983 ) f ounded s ome o f h is a rguments a bout s i lver o n S awyer 's h ypothes is a nd q u ite r ecent ly , L ena T hunmark-NyMn ( 1986 ) d emonstrated a d ifference i n t he c i rcumstances o f t he f i nds b etween e ar l ier a nd l a ter Got land ic h oards , b e l iev ing t hat t he e ar l ier were b ur ied f or r e l ig ious r easons . T hese t wo a uthors w i l l b e d i scussed f urther b e low . *

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S o , t he e conom ic i n terpretat ion h as p r imar i ly c oncerned t he f unct ion o f t he s i lver w ith in t he a reas where i t was d iscovered , a nd n ot s o much t he mechan isms b y wh ich t he s i lver was b rought t here . T he h ypotheses o n t he l oca l f unct ion o f t he s i lver b ased o n a n a na lys is o f t he f i nds t hemse lves , t he ir c ompos it ion a nd t he c haracter o f t he s i lver s eem t o me t o b e more r e l iab le t han h ypotheses a bout l ong -d istance t rade a nd p iracy , wh ich a re b ased o n av ar iety o f s ources , o ften d i ff icu lt t o c heck . T he q uest ion a bout h ow a nd why t he s i lver was o r ig ina l ly b rought t o S cand inav ia a nd o ther a reas a round t he B a lt ic c ou ld a l so b e s o lved b y a na lys ing t he c ompos it ion o f t he h oards . I t i s q u ite o bv ious t hat , f or e xamp le , Hatz 's h ypothes is o n t rade , f ounded o n e v idence f rom G erman c o ins i n S cand inav ian f i nds , i s more c onv inc ing t han S awyer 's o p in ion o n r a id ing a nd p iracy . I t must b e r emembered t hough , t hat t he s i lver m ight h ave b een a cqu ired f rom d ifferent a reas b y d i fferent methods . T he p ub l icat ion o f t he Swed ish c o ins f rom t he V ik ing A ge w i l l g radua l ly p rov ide u s w ith a s tat ist ica l ly r emarkab le mater ia l . T he 2 10 ,000 V ik ing A ge c o ins k nown t o h ave b een f ound i n Sweden may t hen b e s tud ied , f or e xamp le , b y c ompar ing t he p roport ions o f c o in t ypes i n h oards f rom d i fferent p er iods a nd d i fferent a reas . S pec ia l s tud ies o n p eck ing a nd f ragmentat ion o f t he c o ins a re a l so p rom is ing ( Corpus Nummorum ; Ma lmer f or e x . 1 983a , 1 983b , 1 986 ) . Unt i l t hen we w i l l h ave t o c ontent o urse lves w ith r esu lts d er ived f rom a s ma l ler a nd more e as i ly manageab le p art o f t he h oards , i . e . t he n on-m inted s i lver , a l though s ome s pec ia l s tud ies o f t he c o ins c onf irm t he r esu lts o bta ined f rom t he h ack-s i lver . V ery much i n sp ired b y t he s tud ies c arr ied o ut b y t he P o l ish s cho lars i n t he l a te f i ft ies a nd s i xt ies , L .Lundström a nd myse lf h ave worked o n t he s i lver w ith s pec ia l r egard t o i t s f ragmentat ion . S uchodo lsk i , i n c lose c o-operat ion w ith K iersnowsk i , e xpressed t he v iew t hat i n e conom ica l ly a dvanced a reas t he s i lver w as h oarded t o al e sser d egree . T hus , a reas w ith f ew h oards were more a dvanced t han a reas w ith m any . F urthermore , t he f ragmentat ion o f t he s i lver s hows t he i ncreas ing d emand f or s ma l l u n its a s a means o f p ayment . T he more f ragments a nd t he l i ghter t hey a re , t he q u icker t he ir c i rcu lat ion ( Suchodo lsk i 1 971 :22 ,cf : K iersnowsk i 1 961) . I n h er t hes is , L undström c ompared Got land ic h oards w ith h oards f rom t he

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Swed ish ma in land . I t i s q u ite c lear t hat ma in land h oards c onta in a l a rger n umber o f s ma l ler p ieces o f s i lver t han d o t he Got land ic h oards . T he s i lver was t hus c ut u p much more o n t he ma in land t han o n Got land ; a ccord ing t o S uchodo lsk i 's h ypothes is , t h is i nd icates t hat s i lver was u sed more f requent ly i n l oca l t ransact ions o n t he ma in land ( Lundström 1 973 :26ff ) . My own s tud ies o n s outh Sweden h ave s hown a s i tuat ion w ith h igh ly f ragmented s i lver , t he p ieces o ften we igh ing l e ss t han l g . Hoards f rom p resent-day Denmark c ons ist o f s i lver t hat i s a t l east a s f ragmented a s i n S käne a nd i n t h is r espect s outhern S cand inav ia c lose ly r esemb les t he west S lavon ic a rea . T h is r eg ion t hen m ight h ave b een e conom ica l ly f a ir ly a dvanced i n t he V ik ing Age , a t l east i n c ompar ison t o Got land ( Härdh 1 976a :132ff ; c f . L undström 1 973 :33) . T here a re o ther s tud ies t o c onf irm t hat s i lver d id n ot c i rcu late o n a l a rge s ca le i n Got land . L ena T hunmark h as a na lysed s tamp-ornamented Got land ic a rmr i ngs a nd d emonstrated t hat r i ngs d ecorated w ith t he s ame s tamp h ave u sua l ly b een f ound i n t he s ame o r a d jacent p ar ishes . T hus , t hey h ave n ot b een moved f ar f rom t he ir p lace o f manufacture ( Thunmark 1 974 :25 ) . I n 1 973 Mats Ma lmer made what h e c a l led a c horo log ica l s tudy o f Got land ic c o in-f inds . A ccord ing t o h im , t he p ercentua l d istr ibut ion o f d i fferent k inds o f c o ins i n n orth , m idd le a nd s outh Got land r espect ive ly , i nd icate t hat t he c o ins d id n ot c ircu late o nce t hey h ad r eached Got land . He u ses t he O lof S kötkonung c o ins t o i lustrate t h is ; t hey c ompr ise a n e ar l ier g roup c oncentrated i n m idd le Got land , a nd a l a ter g roup r estr icted t o t he s outhern p art o f t he i s land . Ma lmer b e l ieves t hat t he i mport o f t he c o ins o ccurred o n af ew o ccas ions a nd t hat t he d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins s hows where t he i mporters l i ved . T he c o ins w ere n ot s pread o ver t he i s land , b ut r ema ined ma in ly i n t he a reas i n to wh ich t hey were f i rst b rought ( Ma lmer 1 973) . T he r eg iona l v ar iat ion o f t he V ik ing A ge h oards s hown t hrough t he f ragmentat ion o f t he n on-m inted s i lver h as , i n r ecent t imes , b een c onf irmed b y t he much more a bundant c o ins . I n 1 985 B . Ma lmer p ub l ished a s tudy b ased o n c o ins n ow a ccess ib le t hrough t he C orpus i n wh ich s he c ompares Got land a nd t he ma in land p rov ince o f O stergöt land . A t ota l o f 2 ,233 V ik ing A ge c o ins r ecorded f rom O stergöt land a re c ompared w ith a s amp le o f n ear ly 3 7 ,000 Got land ic c o ins . T hey s how t hat O stergöt land h as , p roport iona l ly , al a rger s hare o f I s lam ic c o ins t han d oes Got land , where l a te Western c o ins d om inate . C hrono log ica l ly most o f t he c o ins i n O stergöt land b e long t o t he 9 th a nd 1 0th c entur ies , i . e . b efore t he g reat i mport o f c o ins f rom t he West . I t i s a lso n ot iceab le , t hat whereas t he Got land ic c o ins ma in ly d er ive f rom h oards , q u ite a l o t o f t he O stergöt land c o ins were f ound i n g raves , c hurches o r a s s t ray-f inds . T hus , t he O stergöt land f i nds d iffer c ons iderab ly f rom t he Got land ic o nes . B es ide d ifferences i n c o in-compos it ion a nd f i nd-c ircumstances , t he d egree o f f ragmentat ion o f t he c o ins i s a l so d i fferent . F or e xamp le , 3 5% o f t he I s lam ic c o ins f rom Got land a re f ragmented . T he c orrespond ing f i gure f or O stergöt land i s 9 1% . Obv ious ly , t he s i lver h ad n ot t he s ame f unct ion i n t he t wo a reas . T he e v idence s uggests t hat s i lver was u sed t o a much g reater e xtent , i . e . c ircu lated , i n O stergöt land t han o n Got land ( Ma lmer 1 985 ) . S ome y ears a go , I made a s ma l l s tudy o f V ik ing A ge n eck-r ings . T hese r i ngs c ons ist o f s evera l r ods t w isted t ogether a nd w ith d ifferent t ypes o f c lasps , u sua l ly w ith s tamp-decorated p lates . I a na lysed r i ngs f rom f our r eg ions : p resent-day Denmark , S käne , Norway a nd Got land . T he r i ngs d iffered t ypo log ica l ly i n t he f our r eg ions a nd were o bv ious ly made a ccord ing t o l oca l t rad it ions . Maybe more i n terest ing i n t h is c onnect ion i s t he o bservat ion t hat t he r i ng s a lso v ar ied i n we ight b etween t he r eg ions . T he h eav iest r i ngs h ave b een f ound i n Norway . E spec ia l ly i n western Norway , t here i s ag roup o f r i ngs , magn if icent i n q ua l ity a nd v ery h eavy , o ften a s h eavy a s 5 00 g rams .

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T he a verage we ight o f t he Norweg ian r i ngs i s 1 52 .0g . T he Got land r i ngs a re l i ghter a t 1 00 .5g , whereas t he l i ghtest r i ngs o f a l l a re t o b e f ound i n Denmark , 5 6 .0g a verage we ight . T he S can lan r i ngs a re s im i lar t o t he Dan ish r i ngs a l though t he ir a verage we ight i s s l ight ly h igher . T he Norweg ian r i ngs a re t hus o n a n a verage t hree t imes a s h eavy a s t he Dan ish o nes , w ith t he Got land ic r i ng s f a l l ing s omewhere b etween . A c ompar ison o f t he r i ngs w ith t he f ragmentat ion o f h ack-s i lver i n t he f our r eg ions i n q uest ion i s v ery s t r ik ing . T he l i ghtest r i ngs o ccur i n r eg ions where t he s i lver o b jects a re most h igh ly f ragmentated , f i rst a nd f oremost i n Denmark b ut a lso i n S käne . Western Norway i n p art icu lar , h as a lmost n o h ack-s i lver a t a l l . My o p in ion i s t hat i n a reas where s i lver was l a rge ly u sed a s means o f p ayment , t here was n o d es ire o r p oss ib i l ity t o i nvest a l a rge amount o f s i lver i n o ne s i ng le p iece o f j ewe l lery wh ich wou ld a nyway h ave t o b e c ut u p s oon . I n a reas where s i lver was n ot r egu lar ly u sed a s money i t was , o n t he o ther h and , p oss ib le f or a p erson t o amass a l l h is/her f ortune i n o ne b ig n eck-r ing , o f e xqu is ite q ua l ity a nd d ef in ite ly a ssoc iated w ith h igh s tatus ( Härdh 1 975 ) . T he c ons iderab le v ar iat ions i n we ight w ith in c erta in g roups o f j ewe l lery , s trengthens t he o p in ion t hat s i lver h ad n ot t he s ame e conom ic r o le i n a l l p arts o f t he v ast a rea where t he s i lver-hoards o ccur . A nders C ar lsson , i n h is t hes is o n t he a n ima l-head s haped b rooches f rom Got land , p resents a n i n terest ing d i scuss ion o n t he r o le o f t he s i lver . He ma int a ins , q u ite h ypothet ica l ly , t hat t he Got land ic h oards k nown a t p resent r epresent o n ly 5 o r 1 0% o f t he h oards o nce c o l lected a nd f orgotten . S evera l t housand h oards wou ld t hen h ave r ema ined c oncea led a t t he e nd o f t he V ik ing A ge . F or Got land C ar lsson ment ions f i gures l i ke 4 ,000-8 ,000 h oards . I f t he n umber o f f arms o n V ik ing A ge Got land i s r i ght ly e st imated , t here wou ld h ave b een 3 -6 f orgotten h oards t o e ach f arm . T h is i s , b y t he way , i n a ccordance w ith t he r ecent ly p ub l ished f i nds f rom L umme lunda a nd Gannarve ( Thunmark-NyMn 1 983 ; O stergren 1 986 ) . A part f rom t hese t wo f i nds , h i s mode l s eems t o b e r ather h ypothet ica l , b ut C ar lsson i nd icates t hat i t i s s t rengthened b y S awyer 's o p in ion t hat s i lver was c o l lected f i rst a nd f oremost b y p lunder ing a broad . T h is wou ld e xp la in why t he s i lver r ema ined i n t he e arth . T he owner s imp ly went o n w ith h i s a ct iv it ies a nd u sua l ly e nded u p b y b e ing k i l led . C ar lsson t h inks i t was t he y ounger s ons , who d id n ot i nher it t he f am i ly f arm , who h ad t o s eek i ncome e l sewhere . T he s i lver w as n ot p art o f t he f am i ly 's p roperty , b ut o f t he s on 's i nd iv idua l f ortune a nd t h is may e xp la in why i t was l e ft u nnot iced i n t he e arth ( Car lsson 1 983 :34ff , 17ff ) . C ar lsson 's h ypothes is o ffers a n e xp lanat ion why t he Got land ic s i lver s eems t o h ave b een s o i nact ive o nce i t h ad r eached Got land , a l though t he o b ject ions a ga inst S awyer 's h ypothes is r ema in . I t i s more u ncerta in whether t he s ame e xp lanat ion c an b e t ransferred t o t he ma in land f i nds . It h ink t here i s n ow s o much e v idence t o s how t hat we c annot s imp ly t ransfer r esu lts f rom o ne a rea t o a nother . *

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F ar t oo many s tud ies h ave t reated V ik ing A ge e conom ics a s au n iform c oncept . T here a re , h owever , s t rong i nd icat ions o f b oth r eg iona l v ar iat ions a nd o f c hanges o ver t ime . Aga in I wou ld l i ke t o c hoose my e xamp les f rom s outhern Sweden , a l though i t i s p oss ib le t o f i nd p ara l le ls i n o ther a reas . W ith a p o int o f d eparture i n t he c o ins o f t he h oards , Ih ave d iv ided t he h oards i n to f our g roups a rranged c hrono log ica l ly ;

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1 . V ery e ar ly f i nds , 9 th c entury . F or e xamp le t he Hä l jarp f ind ( Härdh 1 976b , n r .130) . B oth t he o rnaments a nd t he c o ins a re o f western E uropean o r ig in . T he h oard m ight h ave b een a ccumu lated o n o ne s i ng le o ccas ion . A s f urther c haracter ist ics , i t may a l so b e p o inted o ut t hat t he o b jects a re ma in ly u ndamaged a nd t hat t hey a re o f e xce l lent q ua l ity . A f i nd o f t he s ame t ype , o n ly more s p lend id , i s t he we l l-known Norweg ian g o ld f i nd f rom Hon , B uskerud ( Gr ieg 1 929 :182ff ) . A lso t he e ar ly h oards c ons ist ing e nt ire ly o r ma in ly o f r i ng -ornaments o f e astern o r ig in c ou ld b e i nc luded i n t he g roup : t yp ica l ly t he h oards f rom A sarve , Hemse , Got land a nd f rom Duesm inde , L o l land ( Stenberger 1 947 , n r .291 ; Munksgaard 1 969 ) . T he a lmost t ota l a bsence o f f ragmentat ion i s c haracter ist ic o f t he g roup , a s i s t he f act t hat t he f i nds may h ave b een b rought t o S cand inav ia o n as i ng le o ccas ion , p robab ly t hrough mechan isms o ther t han t rade . 2 . T he n ext g roup a re f i nds d om inated b y A rab ic c o ins . I n s outhern Sweden t hey b e long t o c .900-970 . I n a dd it ion t o c o ins , t hese c ompr ise j ewe l lery ma in ly o f l oca l manufacture : n eck- a nd a rm-r ings , f i l igree b rooches e tc . An e xamp le f rom m id-Sweden i s t he f i nd f rom B jörkö . I n s outh S cand inav ia f ragmentat ion s tarts a t t h is p er iod w ith t he s i lver b e ing v ery f ragmented i n s ome f i nds a l though t he f ragmentat ion i s u neven , b ig p ieces b e ing m ixed w ith v ery s ma l l o nes ( e .g . Härdh 1 976b , n r .42 ) . 3 . T he t h ird g roup i s d om inated b y Western c o ins , am ixture o f E ng l ish a nd German i s sues t ogether w ith A rab ic , B ohem ian , I ta l ian , Hungar ian , B yzant ine a nd s o o n . I n s outh Sweden a nd Denmark t hey d ate f rom 9 71-1040 , t he p er iod o f t he r ea l h acks i lver h oards . T he f ragments a re e xtreme ly s ma l l , 0 . 1-0 .4g b e ing u sua l . T he t horough m ixture i s a lso t yp ica l , b oth j ewe l lery a nd c o ins c om ing f rom g eograph ica l ly w ide ly s eparated a reas ( f or e x . Härdh 1 976b n r .35 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 1 28 ; Härdh & J onsson 1 986 ) . T he c o ins a nd t he u nm inted s i lver s eem t o c ome f rom d iscrete a reas a nd t h is a ga in i s a n i nd icat ion o f more o r l e ss monetar ized a reas i n n orthern E urope ( Härdh & J onsson 1 986 :f ig .pp .12-13 ) . T he f ragmentat ion s eems t o r each i t s p eak a round 1 000 . A fter t he f i rst d ecades o f t he 1th c entury u nm inted s i lver i n t he h oards f rom s outhern Sweden g radua l ly d ecreases . 4 . A fter 1 040 , i nd igenous , i . e . D an ish , c o ins w ith i n scr ipt ions , make u p a n i mportant p art o f t he c o ins i n t he s outhern Swed ish a nd Dan ish h oards . T he h acks i lver g radua l ly d isappears ( Härdh 1 976a , 1 977 ) . T he d eve lopment o ut l ined h ere s hows a s ystem i n wh ich s i lver p lays a n i ncreas ing ly i mportant r o le i n e xchange , s een i n t he a cce lerat ing f ragmentat ion . S i lver i s more r egu lar ly u sed i n e xchange . T he m ixture o f c o ins a nd h ack s i lver i n t he h oards i nd icates c i rcu lat ion . G radua l ly t he c o ins b ecome more i mportant . F ore ign c o ins d om inate f i rst a s ap ract ica l a nd s ma l l u n it o f q ua l ity -guaranteed s i lver , t hen t he l oca l ly -struck c o ins t ake o ver . F inds o f s i ng le c o ins a re s omet imes r egarded a s e v idence o f c o in c ircu lat ion . F rands Herschend ( 1979 ) p o inted o ut t hat A rab ic c o ins a re f ar more o ften f ound a s s t ray f i nds o n Got land t han a re t he more a bundant Western c o ins . T he s ame s tate o f t h ings may a lso b e s een i n s outhern Sweden where f i nds o f s i ng le c o ins c ompr ise 3 G erman , 3E ng l ish a nd 1 6 A rab ic c o ins ( Härdh 1 976b ) . Herschend b e l ieves t hat A rab ic c o ins c i rcu lated more f ree ly , q ua l ify ing h i s s tatement b y d emonstrat ing t hat t hey a re more o ften f ragmented t han Western c o ins . B ut Herschend h as n ot c ons idered t he f act t hat d i rhams a re u sua l ly a bout t hree t imes a s h eavy a s western p enn ies , i f n ot more . A t h ird o f ad irham wou ld t hen c orrespond t o t he we ight o f a who le Western c o in .

4 8

K iersnowsk i a lso h as made a n i mportant o bservat ion o n t he v a lue o f s i lver . He s uggests t hat t he e ffort t o o bta in o r ienta l s i lver was s o g reat , t hat i n t he 8 -10th c entur ies s i lver was f a ir ly e xpens ive i n n orthern E urope . T h is i s q u ite d i fferent f rom t he Western s i lver o f t he 11t h c entury when i t was o bta ined f rom c loser s ources i n t he Hartz mounta ins ( K iersnowsk i 1 961 :42f ) . T hus 9 th c entury A rab ic c o ins f ound s i ng ly , o r h oards o f j ust a f ew c o ins , r epresent a v a lue c om p arab le t o c ons iderab ly l a rger h oards f rom t he l a te 1 0th o r 1th c entury . T hus , s tray-f inds may v ery we l l p rove t hat s i lver was u sed i n e xchange t o s ome e xtent , b ut we must a lso b e we l l aware t hat t he c ircumstances c hanged t hrough t ime . *

*

*

*

R ecent ly , L ena T hunmark-Ny l& i h as t r ied t o e luc idate t he c hange i n r e l ig ion o n Got land b y a na lys ing t he c i rcumstances i n wh ich t he h oards were f ound . S he h as d emonstrated t hat e ar l ier h oards were o ften c oncea led u nder s ma l l s tones , whereas f i nds f rom t he l a te V ik ing A ge h ave more o ften b een d iscovered c lose t o b ig s tones . T he l a tter were p robab ly i n tended t o b e r etr ieved whereas t he e ar l ier h oards were b ur ied f or e ver . A ga in Od in 's l aw i s b rought i n f or e xp lanat ion : t he e ar l ier h oards b e ing p r ivate o ffer ings , t he l a ter h oards b e ing f am i ly t reasures ( Thunmark-NyMn 1 986 :24 ) . I f t h is i s s o , i t m ight s how a c hange i n r e l ig ious a tt itudes a nd a l so i nd icate t hat s i lver h ad b y t hen a qu ired e conom ic i mportance . T hunmark-Ny l6n 's d i scuss ion o n d at ing i s worthy o f r emark . S he r i ght ly c r it ic izes t he method g enera l ly u sed t o d ate h oards whereby t he d ate o f d epos it ion i s a rr ived a t b y a dd ing t en y ears t o t he d ate o f t he l a test c o in , a rgu ing t hat i t i s i mportant t o c ons ider t he t erm inus p ost q uem ( t .p .q .) . T he s i lver i s b rought t o Got land , i t r ema ins c oncea led w ith i t s owner , maybe f or d ecades . Dur ing t h is p er iod i t i s a ct ive ly d epos ited , s i lver c an b e a dded o r t aken o ut . I f t he owner d ies w ithout a nyone k now ing o f h is d epot , t he s i lver b ecomes p ass ive ly d epos ited . Noth ing more h appens t o t he c ompos it ion o f t he h oard . T hunmark-Ny l& I ma inta ins t hat t he t . p .g . s hou ld b e t he t ime when t he s i lver was i mported ( Thunmark-NyMn 1 986 :30f ) . B ut t h is e xp lanat ion a lso i mp l ies t hat t he s i lver was n ot much u sed d ur ing t he s o-ca l led a ct ive p hase o f t he h oard ing e i ther . I n a reas where s i lver was u sed r egu lar ly b y t he owner , t . p .q . must i nd icate t he t ime t he h oard b ecomes f orgotten . T he f act t hat l a te h oards , w ith many d ifferent t ypes o f c o ins ( for e xamp le E ng l ish , German a nd Dan ish c o ins ) u sua l ly h ave a t . p .q . w ith in a v ery s hort t ime-span s peaks i n f avour o f af a ir ly r egu lar i nf lux a nd a r egu lar c i rcu lat ion a nd m ix ing o f t he c o in-types . T he q uest ion r ema ins where i n t he B a lt ic a rea d id t h is c i rcu lat ion t ake p lace? *

*

*

*

T here a re t hus many i nd icat ions t o s how t hat S cand inav ia i n t he V ik ing A ge was d iv ided i n to r eg ions w ith v ary ing d egrees o f e conom ic d eve lopment . A l l t he s ame , t he h oards , i n s ome r eg ions a nyway , s how c hanges o ver t ime , wh ich m ight b e i n terpreted a s g radua l s teps t owards a d eve loped monetary e conomy . T he s tages s hown i n s outhern S cand inav ia h ave c lose p ara l le ls e l sewhere , i n t he west S lavon ian a rea f or e xamp le .

L ITERATURE Almgren,

O .

1 900.

Ur Herjeadalens

f olketro

1 .

En

s en kvarlefva

Svenska Fornminnesföreningens Tidskrift Bolin,

S .

1 926.

Carlsson,

A .

Fynden

1 983.

av r omerska mynt

S .

1 929.

G .

S tockholm.

archaelogy 5 . q ui

in S uecia reperti

f ound i n Sweden.

Ed.B.

s kattefund.

Handel und Verkehr

P .

1 900.

Herschend,

F .

Om vad s ilvermynt ideartikel.

Hardh,

B .

Catalogue of

1 975.

coins

f rom t he V iking

S tockholm.

Universitetets oldsaksamlings

s krifter

I I.

i n der

Lund.

Myntforhold og Udmyntninger i D anmark

1 979.

t ro.

S tockholm s tudies

zwischen dem Deutschen Reich und S chweden

s päten Wikingerzeit. Hauberg,

s unt.

Malmer.

f orntida

Lund.

i n

Vikingetidens

1 974.

f ria Germanien.

spännen och gotländsk vikingatid.

Age

Hatz,

en

D jurhuvudformade

Corpus Nummorum Saeculorum IX-XI

Grieg,

i det

a f

1 0.

i ndtil

1 146.

K jObenhavn.

f ran Gotlands vikingatid kan vara u ttryck

Fornvännen

f ör

- e n

7 4.

Gewundene u nd g eflochtene Halsringe i n S kandinavischen f unden der Wikingerzeit.

Meddelanden

S ilberhort-

f ran Lunds Universitets

Historiska Museum 1 973-1974. 1 976a.

1 1

Wikingerzeitliche Depotfunde a us Acta Archaeologica Lundensia.

1 976b.

Wikingerzeitliche Depotfunde

a us

Acta Archaeologica Lundensia. 1 978.

1 1

Trade

1

& Jonsson,

1 1

K .

1 986.

Fyndet

Report Hävernick.

W .

K iersnowski,

1 948. R .

1 961.

G .

1 929.

i c hiffonjen.

f inds

Wikinger und Wäringer.

Mannus

S norres

1 973.

Bitsilver och b etalningsringar.

uppgifter om hednatidens

Archaeology 2 . 1 983a.

Hur

1 983b.

Om myntfynd,

g utarna

1 973.

s ilvret.

Munksgaard,

E .

S awyer,

P .

1 972.

The Age o f

"

1 982.

K ings

Seger,

H .

S kovmand,

1 928. R .

M .

S uchdolski,

S .

1 947.

a spekt

pa

S .

a v d en

S HM.

g otländska

S tockholm. Hus,

j ärnalderns

7 5.

D uesminde og K aerbyholm.

AarbOger.

London.

d anske

S kattefund

d er

s pät-slawischen

Altschlesien 2 . i ndtil

AarbOger. d er Wikingerzeit

I .

1 958.

D ie

S chatzfunde Gotlands

d er Wikingerzeit

I I.

1 972

D ie Anfänge d er Münzprägung i n

5 0

S tockholm. Nordisk

1 971.

a rcheologiczne

g otländskt

S tockholm.

S kandinavien u nd Polen.

Z bädan n ad wczesnosrediowiecznymi

S tämplar pa

Z eit.

f ra V ikingetiden og den eldste Middelalder

S chatzfunde Gotlands

1 974.

1 5.

t he B altic Area d uring t he Viking

D ie

1 958.

Fornvännen

i n North-European

London.

Numismatische Kommission L .

i n

t olkningen

t he V ikings.

a nd Vikings.

Polskie b adania

Thunmark,

g rayskick.

a nd Papers

Gutar o ch vikingar.

f ra eldre vikingetid.

Numismatisk Arsskrift TabaczyAski,

Warszawa.

( 1962).

omkring 1 150. S tenberger,

gravar o ch Theses

F inska Fornminnesföreningens T idskrift

To s kattefund

De

early medieval Poland.

d odatkowy.

Visby.

D ie S chlesischen S ilberfunde

1 942.

4 3.

Reykjavik.

Acta Visbyensia VII.

En korologisk

2

f ran

Vol.2.

myntcirculation och bebyggelse under vikingatiden.

Circulation o f monetary s ilver

myntfynd. 1 969.

Medelanden

N .S.

S tockholm.

a nvände

O rd och bebyggelse.

M .P.

Lund.

2 1.

1 920.

Malmer,

Fornvännen

Rok V - Z eszyt

S .

Age.

9 .

t he Viking Age.

a nd t he problem of money hoarding i n

L .

1 985.

Lund.

S eries nr.27.

Lundström,

B .

6 .

L unds Universitets Historiska Museum,

Lindqvist,

Malmer,

i n 4o , N0

N0

Katalog und Tafeln,

H istoriska Museum 1 977-1978.

Polish Numismatic News. Kossina,

i n

Probleme und Analysen.

8o minore,

S üdschweden.

Om vikingatidens myntcirkulation. Coin

i n

S er.

a nd Money i n S candinavia

L unds Universitets

S üdschweden.

Ser.

2 .

s karbami PAN.

I KHM.

s rebrnymi German

w ielkopolski.

t ranslation.

d er L änder i n d er B undesrebublik,

v ikingasilver.

1 960,

H amburg.

Gotländskt Arkiv XLVI.

Thunmark-Nylen,

L .

1 983.

B urge i Lummelunda S HM

"

I f

Ostergren,

M .

1 986.

1 986.

- g ärdsplats

och

s kattplats.

Gutar och vikingar.

S tockholm

Hedningar,

kristna och s ilverskatter.

S ilverskatter och boningshus.

Gotländskt

Arkiv

Rapport RAGU 1 986:1.

5 8.

Visby.

T H E C OM E S S H O A R D J AMES GRAHA M-CA MPBELL

Viking Age hoards; a

s ilver hoards m ay be d ivided i nto

and coinless

c ombination

hoards,

of

hoards.

a nd

economy is Ireland i s

s elected f or

i n c ontent

on

to be a chieved.

t hat

a nd e conomy.

( c.872)

a nd

f urther work

Cuerdale

i s

c oinless

nature

s ociety

S candinavia may be

ingots

t he c oin-dated hoards

used t o i ntroduce

the

of

( c.905) i n

categories: the most a nd/or

i f

A brief

a f ull

s urvey of

f or

c ontents

be

hack-silver.

u nderstanding of coinless

r egarded a s

a nd thus

a nd c ontents

of

i n England i ndicate t han has

been

hoards

Coinless

I t

t he mixed hoards s ome

suggested in

s ilver-

i n

Britain

i s

with

proposed

or

i n

must

t he

material,

" active"

t heir role

t hat

mixed

t o pure hack-silver,

comparative purposes.

hoards might t heir

date

coin hoards;

complex consisting o f

t he problems presented by this

c ited

T he nature

e arlier

three

hoard i s

f rom c omplete ornaments

S candinavian e xamples

d iscussion

d epending

" mixed"

coins w ith ornaments,

which range

be s tudied a longside based

The

" passive" Viking

f rom

coinless t he p ast,

Age

Croydon

hoards

i n

a lthough

required.

I NTRODUCTION A c onference o n " Co ins a nd A rchaeo logy" i n t he med ieva l p er iod n eeded t o r eca l l a t a ny r ate f or t he V ik ing Age - t he f ate o f t he many c o ins t hat were t reated a s n o more t han l umps o f b u l l ion , r ecyc led i nto o rnaments o r i ngots . Hence t he emphas is o f t h is c ontr ibut ion i s o n c o in less s i lver h oards a nd t he ir s ign if icance , a lthough c o in h oards a nd m ixed h oards a re n ot a ltogether n eg lected . T he c hrono log ica l a nd g eograph ica l s cope o f t he d ata u t i l ised i s f or t he most p art t he V ik ing Age i n B r ita in a nd I re land , f or c omparat ive p urposes w ith t he S cand inav ian mater ia l d i scussed a bove b y B irg itta Härdh .

THE I RISH DATA ( I ) A n i mportant a rt ic le r ecent ly p ub l ished b y M ichae l K enny ( 1987 ) h as b rought t he h oard e v idence f or I re land u p t o d ate . H is t ota l o f V ik ing Age c o in h oards s tands a t 8 0 -a n i mpress ive c orpus , e xcept t hat ( as h e i s c arefu l t o p o int o ut ) t hey a re most ly s ma l l i n s ize : A pprox imate ly 4 5% o f a l l V ik ing -age c o in h oards i n I re land a re o f t h irty c o ins o r l ess . A pprox imate ly 3 7% a re o f f i fteen c o ins o r l ess . A lmost 3 0% a re o f t en c o ins o r l e ss . I f f or c omparat ive p urposes o ne measures t he c o in h oards i n b u l l ion t erms a ga inst t he i ngots , o b jects a nd h ack-s i lver wh ich a lso a ppear i n V ik ing -age h oards , t he r esu lts c erta in ly g ive f ood f or t hought . C o ins , q u ite s imp ly , a re s hown t o b e v ery i n s ign if icant , b oth a s a n e lement i n m ixed h oards a nd a s a n e lement c ontr ibut ing t o t he o vera l l s i lver wea lth o f t he p er iod . ( Kenny 1 987 :517 ) . K enny u nder l ines h is p o int b y o bserv ing t hat " the e nt ire V ik ing-age c o in h oards

5 3

o f I re land c ou ld p robab ly b e p oured i n to t he t wo i ngots f rom t he Dysart 2 h oard , wh ich we igh o ver 3 k i logrammes e ach" ( Kenny 1 987 :518 ) . D r . M ichae l R yan h as k ind ly i n formed me t hat t hree f urther i ngots h ave c ome t o l i ght f rom t h is f i nd , o ne o f f our h oards d iscovered i n r ecent y ears i n t he Dysart a rea , o n t he w estern s hore o f L ough E nne l l , C o . Westmeath ( Ryan e t a t . 1 984 ) . E ven s o , Dysart 2 f ades i n to i n s ign if icance a s ac o in less h oard a longs ide t hat f rom n earby C arr ick , t he s i te o f a n I r ish r oya l r es idence o n t he o ther s ide o f t he l ake ; t h is c ons ists o f 6 0 mass ive i ngots , we igh ing a lmost 3 2kg i n t ota l . I n c ontrast , Dysart 4 , t he o ne t yp ica l S cand inav ian-type m ixed h oard amongst t hese n ew V ik ing A ge f i nds f rom t he v ic in ity o f L ough E nne l l , w ith i t s s ma l l i ngots , h ack-s i lver a nd c o ins , we ighs l e ss t han o ne k i logram . I t s 4 5 c o ins a nd c o in f ragments t ogether r epresent l e ss t han 4 % o f t h is t ota l we ight , a lthough t hey make p oss ib le t he d at ing o f i t s d epos it ion t o c .905-10 . T o t he 8 0 c o in ( i nc lud ing m ixed ) h oards k nown f rom V ik ing Age I r e land t here must n ow b e a dded a pprox imate ly 4 0 c o in less h oards - h a lf a s many a ga in - t o g ive a t ota l o f c . 120 s i lver h oards . T h is i s r emarkab le i n c ompar ison w ith t he r est o f B r ita in a nd most o f S cand inav ia ( be ing o n ly s urpassed o n Got land ) , a l though i t must b e r emembered t hat t he V ik ing A ge i n I re land i s c ons idered t o h ave e xtended a s l a te a s 170 . T he I r ish e v idence t hus s erves t o h igh l ight t he i mportance o f s i lver b u l l ion a nd t he c o in less h oard f or t he s tudy o f t he e conom ic d eve lopment o f t he V ik ing wor ld .

C LASSIFICAT ION AND I NTERPRETAT ION I t i s o bv ious t hat a c o in less h oard c ons ist ing e xc lus ive ly o f c omp lete o rnaments h as t o b e c lass if ied a nd i n terpreted d i fferent ly f rom a c o in less h ack-s i lver h oard . I n a c ommerc ia l s ense , t he f ormer m ight b e c lass if ied a s a " pass ive" h oard , f or i t s s i lver c ontent was c lear ly n ot i n tended f or e veryday c i rcu lat ion , h av ing b een c onverted i n to a rtefacts t hat c onferred s tatus , whether t o p atron , d onor o r r ec ip ient . T he s imp lest f orm o f p ass ive h oard c ons ists o f t he t wo o r t hree d i fferent o rnaments t hat a wea lthy V ik ing m ight h ave b een wear ing ( or c arry ing ) w hen d anger t hreatened a nd t he ir r ap id c oncea lment b ecame n ecessary , w ith s ubsequent e vents ( capt iv ity o r d eath ) p revent ing r ecovery . S ome s uch s cenar io must l i e b eh ind t he d epos it ion t ogether o f af i ne n eck-r ing a nd a l a rge p enannu lar b rooch a t O rton S car i n Westmor land , h idden b etween r ocks i n t he r emoter c ountrys ide o f n orthwest E ng land . A s a S cand inav ian e xamp le , o ne c an p o int t o t he Hatteberg h oard f rom Horda land i n Norway , c ons ist ing l i kew ise o f s i lver n eck-r ing a nd p enannu lar b rooch , b ut w ith t he a dd it ion o f ag o ld a rm-r ing - a g roup o f a rtefacts p resumab ly r epresent ing t he p ersona l o rnaments o f o ne m an . A more c omp lex v ers ion o f t he p ass ive h oard i s p rov ided b y t hat i n w h ich more t han o ne e xamp le o f a ny i t em i s r epresented - s uch a s t he f our g o ld f i nger-r ings f rom a f i e ld n ear t he L och o f S tenness i n O rkney , o r t he Hordum h oard f rom S käne w ith i t s s i lver a rm-r ings . A l l s uch o b jects m ight o f c ourse h ave b een worn b y o ne i nd iv idua l -o r h ave b een u sed b y s evera l members o f o ne f am i ly - b ut a nother e xp lanat ion c ou ld b e t hat s ome s uch h oards were d epos i ted a s o ffer ings . I f s o , t hey a re a l l t he more t o b e c ons idered " pass ive" i n c ommerc ia l t erms , e ven i f " act ive" i n r i tua l o nes . Y et more c omp lex i s ah oard s uch a s t hat f rom V u lu i n S or-Tronde lag , w ith i t s f i ve s i lver n eck-r ings , f our g o ld a rm -r ings a nd o ne l a rge s i lver b rooch - f or a l l t he o rnaments a re c omp lete a nd i n g ood c ond it ion . I t h as a t ota l we ight o f 2 .5kg

5 4

wh ich i s s im i lar t o t hat o f t he we l l-known a nd e ven more c omp lex Norweg ian h oard f rom Hon i n B uskerud - a nd more c ost ly , f or i t s c ontents a re l arge ly o f g o ld . T h is c lass if icat ion o f t he Hon t reasure a s ap ass ive c o in less h oard m ight a t f i rst s i ght s eem c ontrad ictory g iven t hat i t i s r enowned ( among a rt-h istor ians i n p art icu lar ) a s b e ing t he o n ly S cand inav ian h oard f rom t he V ik ing Age t o c omb ine e xc lus ive ly 9 th-century c o ins w ith d ecorated o b jects . B ut a l l t he c o ins i n t hat h oard h ave b een c onverted i n to p endants , t reated a s d ecorat ive d iscs , a nd t hus r endered " pass ive" b y b e ing r emoved f rom c ircu lat ion . I n a dd it ion , i t s hou ld b e n oted t hat t here i s n o t rue h ack-s i lver ( or g o ld ) i n t he h oard , f or t he o n ly c utu p f ragments o f o rnaments a re o nes t hat h ave a lso b een t urned i nto p endants i n t he s ame manner a s t he c o ins . I n t he c lass if icat ion b e ing p roposed h ere i t i s t he p resence o f h ack-s i lver a nd/or i ngots t hat i nd icates a n " act ive" c o in less h oard , f or s i lver b u l l ion w i l l h ave b een s o r endered f or c ommerc ia l p urposes a nd n ot f or r easons o f s tatus . Two c lose ly c omparab le e xamp les o f s uch h oards , t o i lustrate t h is c ategory f rom I re land a nd Norway , a re t hat f rom n ear R aphoe i n C o . Donega l ( cons ist ing o f s ix c omp lete a rm -r ings , f our i ngots a nd o ne p iece o f h ack-s i lver ) a nd t hat f rom B os trand i n Nord land ( compr is ing e leven a rm-r ings a nd f our h ack-s i lver f rag ments ) . T he v ar ious c ommon c omponents i n t hese t wo h oards s uggest t o me t hat t hey were d epos ited a t much t he s ame t ime , a nd t hat a l l o r most o f t he l a tter i s l i ke ly t o h ave o r ig inated i n I re land ( Graham -Campbe l l 1 988 ) . T hese t wo c o in less h oards , w ith t he ir n umerous c omp lete a rm-r ings a nd m in ima l i ngot/hack-s i lver c omponent , r a ise t he q uest ion a s t o what e xtent a rm-r ings were b e ing u sed i n t he V ik ing West a s a means o f p ayment - a s af orm o f " spec ia lp urpose money" . T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he S cand inav ians i n I re land d eve loped a d ist inct ive a rm-r ing t ype d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he 9 th c entury , b eg inn ing a t a p er iod when I r ish c o in h oards were a v irtua l ly u nknown p henomenon ( GrahamC ampbe l l 1 976b :51-3 ) . T hese s o-ca l led " H iberno-V ik ing" a rm-r ings ( of wh ich a pprox imate ly 1 00 h ave b een f ound i n I re land ) h ave n ow b een s tud ied i n d eta i l b y Mr . J ohn S heehan , a lthough h is work i s n ot y et p ub l ished ( Sheehan 1 985) . He h as d emonstrated h ow c o ins were me lted d own t o b e c ast i n to s tandard i ngots a nd t hen h ammered f l at i nto p la in b ands o f c haracter ist ic s hape , b efore b e ing d ecorated w ith s tamped o rnament . T he i ngots a ppear t o h ave b een c ast t o v ar iat ions o n a t arget u n it o f 2 6 .15gm wh ich d iffers o n ly 0 .45gm f rom t he d om inant we ight-un it i n Dub l in ( 26 .6gm ) , a s e stab l ished b y D r . P atr ick Wa l lace f rom h is s tudy o f 2 50 e xcavated s ca le-we ights ( Wa l lace 1 987 :206-7 ; s ee n ow a lso K ruse 1 988 ) . S uch r i ngs were c lear ly n ever i n tended t o b e ap rec ise f orm o f p ayment , a s i s a lso e v ident w ith t he l a ter " r ing -money" c urrency a dopted i n t he E ar ldom o f O rkney where , u n l ike i n I re land w ith i t s i mportant 1th-century H iberno-Norse c o inage , t he t rans it ion t o a c o in-us ing e conomy was n ever made ( see b e low ) . T he d ist inct ion d rawn h ere b etween " act ive" a nd " pass ive" c o in less h oards i s n ot i ntended t o b e ah ard a nd f ast o ne - a s i s s uggested b y t he h oard o f f ive s uch c omp lete H iberno-V ik ing a rm-r ings f ound o n t he i s land o f A ng lesey , o ff t he n orth-west c oast o f Wa les ( Boon 1 986 ) . T h is m ight b e c lass if ied a s a n " i ntermed iate" c o in less h oard - p laced i n a s ort o f " pend ing" c ategory - f or i f i t s c ontents s eem u n l ike ly t o h ave b een worn t ogether b y o ne i nd iv idua l , t he r i ngs were r ead i ly a va i lab le e ither f or u se a s s tatus o b jects/spec ia l-purpose money o r f or c onvers ion i n to h ack-s i lver . S uch a l so i s t he c ase w ith t he V u lu h oard d escr ibed a bove . B ut t hen a l l " pass ive" c o in less h oards m ight a t a ny t ime h ave b een r endered c ommerc ia l ly " act ive" b y t he ir owners , when n ecess ity r equ ired a s tatus o rnament t o b e c ut i nto p ieces f or p ayments t o b e made .

CHRONOLOGY T he d at ing o f c o in less h oards i nev itab ly p resents p rob lems , d epend ing - a s i t must - o n c omparat ive methods . T here a re , h owever , s ound a rguments f or d at ing t he d epos it ion o f s ome s uch S cand inav ian f inds e ar l ier t han h as b een s uggested i n t he p ast . F or i nstance , t he Norweg ian h oard f ound a t T orv ik , More o g R omsda l , s hou ld most p robab ly b e d ated t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he 9 th c entury when i t s c ontents a re c ompared w ith t hose o f t wo Dan ish m ixed h oards , b oth o f wh ich i nc lude A rab ic c o ins t erm inat ing i n t he 8 40s - t hat f rom R antrum i n S ch lesw ig a nd t hat f rom S onder K irkeby o n F a lster - d esp ite t he f act t hat Munksgaard h as d ated t he d epos it ion o f t he l a tter t o c .900 ( Munksgaard 1 962 :105 ) . I t s eems t hat t he f act o f t he e ar l iest m ixed h ack-s i lver h oards i n S cand inav ia b e ing o therw ise o f 1 0th-century d ate h as r esu lted i n ak ind o f magnet ic a ttract ion f or a l l c o in less h oards , g iv ing r i se t o d ates f or s ome wh ich c ou ld we l l b e many y ears t oo l ate p erhaps e ven s evera l d ecades . T he e v idence o f t wo S cand inav ian-type m ixed h oards f rom E ng land may b e u sed t o s upport t h is s uggest ion .

ENGLAND : CROYDON AND CUERDALE T he e ar l iest r e l iab ly c o in-dated V ik ing h oard c onta in ing s i lver o b jects i n a dd it ion t o c o ins i s t he m ixed h oard d epos ited c .872 a t C roydon i n S urrey , t o t he s outh o f L ondon . N icho las B rooks a nd myse lf h ave a rgued t hat i t s d epos it ion i s b est e xp la ined i n r e lat ion t o t he u se o f L ondon i n t hat y ear a s ab ase f or t he s o-ca l led " Great A rmy" o f Danes ( Brooks a nd G raham -Campbe l l 1 986 ) . T he C roydon h oard i s a c lass ic b u l l ion h oard d isp lay ing i t s " act ive" n ature n ot o n ly i n t he m isce l laneous n ature o f i t s c o ins , t he p resence o f i ngots a nd t he a bsence o f c omp lete o rnaments ( represented o n ly b y h ack-s i lver ) , b ut a lso b y t he f act t hat s ome o f i t s c omponents d isp lay t he c haracter ist ic n ick ing t hat b ecomes s uch a marked f eature i n t he h igh ly f ragmented h ack-s i lver h oards t hat p recede " the b reak-through t o i nd igenous m int ing " , d escr ibed b y B irg itta Härdh . " Ind igenous m int ing " s tarted w ith in t he f i rst g enerat ion o f S cand inav ian s ett lement i n E ng land . I t s we l l-estab l ished p ract ice i s c lear ly d emonstrated b y t he p resence o f l arge n umbers o f h igh-qua l ity " V ik ing" i s sues i n t he g reat C uerda le h oard , d epos ited c .905 , n ear P reston i n L ancash ire ( Graham -Campbe l l 1 987) . T he c ontents o f t h is c lass ic m ixed h oard i nc luded p erhaps a s m any a s 7 ,500 c o ins o f wh ich o ver 3 ,000 ( the l argest g roup ) a re Northumbr ian V ik ing a nd we l l o ver 1 ,800 a re o f E ast A ng l ian V ik ing o r ig in . T he e xcept iona l i mportance o f t he C uerda le h oard f or n um ismat ic s tud ies h as l ead t o i t s a rchaeo log ica l i mportance b e ing n eg lected a nd i t s b u l l ion c ontents h ave n ever b een a dequate ly l i sted , l et a lone p ub l ished i n d eta i l . T h is work i s n ow i n p rogress , b ut h as t aken t ime g iven t hat t he h oard c onta ined a bout 1 , 100 i t ems o f n on-num ismat ic s i lver . T hese must h ave amounted t o o ver 3 0kg i n we ight wh ich , when a dded t o t he we ight o f t he c o ins o f b etween 1 0 a nd 1 0 .5kg , g ives a t ota l we ight o f s i lver f or t he C uerda le h oard i n e xcess o f 4 0kg . T h is i s , a s i s we l l k nown , f ive t imes h eav ier t han a ny o ther S cand inav ian-type V ik ing A ge h oard r ecorded f rom t he B r it ish I s les o r S cand inav ia . I t i s , h owever , n ot o n ly s ize a nd c omp lex ity t hat make t he C uerda le t reasure s o i mportant f or h oard s tud ies , b ut a lso t he p rec ise d ate o f i t s d epos i t ion , c a lcu lab le f rom t he g reat q uant ity o f c o ins , many o f w h ich a re i n m int c ond it ion . Num ismat ists n ow s eem t o b e o f o ne m ind t hat t he h oard was c losed w ith in a y ear o r t wo ( at t he most ) o f 9 05 - a c oup le o f y ears l a ter t han t he p rev ious ly a ccepted d ate o f c .903 , a rr ived a t b y t he l a te M ichae l Do l ley . I t i s t hus c lear t hat t he g reat ma jor ity o f t he C uerda le h ack-s i lver , h eav i ly n icked d ur ing

5 6

c ircu lat ion , was d er ived f rom o rnaments p roduced b efore t he e nd o f t he 9 th c entury . T hese i nc lude s ome t ypes t hat d o n ot a ppear i n c o in-dated h oards i n S cand inav ia b efore t he m id t o l a te 1 0th c entury . T he C uerda le h oard h as t herefore a n i mportant r o le t o p lay i n a rtefact c hrono logy , w ith p art icu lar i mp l icat ions f or t he d at ing o f c o in less h oards w ith in t he p er iod 8 50-950 , b efore m ixed h oards b ecome a bundant , a s n oted a bove . H istor ica l ly , t he p rec ise d ate f or t he d epos it ion o f C uerda le p laces t h is e vent f i rm ly w ith in t he e ar l iest y ears o f S cand inav ian s ett lement i n n orth-west E ng land - a nd o n ly s ome t hree y ears a fter t he e xpu ls ion b y t he I r ish o f t he V ik ings f rom Dub l in . T h is h e lps t o e xp la in i t s m ixture o f H iberno-V ik ing b u l l ion ( and much e lse b es ides ) w ith s o many Dane law c o ins , a lthough t he d eta i led i nterpretat ion o f s uch a mass ive h ack-s i lver h oard s t i l l p resents many p rob lems . Does i t r epresent t he r esources o f t he Dub l in f l eet i n e x i le , mak ing i t s b ase o n t he e stuary o f t he R iver R ibb le? O r i s i t , a s Dav id W i lson h as r ecent ly s uggested t o me , t he p roceeds a ccumu lated b y a c h iefta in f rom t he s a le o f l and t o h is f o l lowers i n t h is n ew ly -conquered a rea? C omments a nd s uggest ions wou ld b e g ratefu l ly r ece ived .

THE I R ISH DATA ( I I) Once t he V ik ings r e-estab l ished t hemse lves s uccessfu l ly i n I re land a nd Dub l in b egan t o f lour ish a s a t rue t own , f rom t he 9 20s o r 9 30s ( Wa l lace 1 986 ; 1 987) , t he h oard e v idence i nd icates a g radua l move away f rom a h ack-s i lver o r p ure ly b u l l ion e conomy t o o ne i n wh ich c o in - A ng lo-Saxon c o in - was r eta ined f or c ircu lat ion ( F ig .1) . T he c omp lex h oard d ec l ines i n s ign if icance d ur ing t he 1 0th c entury a nd t he c o in h oard b ecomes t he n orm , e spec ia l ly i n t he 11t h c entury f o l low ing t he c ommencement o f m int ing i n Dub l in ( w ith t he i nst itut ion o f t he H iberno-Norse c o inage i n c .997 ) . T o p ursue t he t heme o f c o in less h oards i n t he West , i t i s n ecessary t o t urn f rom t he K ingdom o f Dub l in t o t he E ar ldom o f O rkney where t he t rans it ion t o a c o in-us ing e conomy ( as b e low ) n ever s eems t o h ave t aken p lace d ur ing t he V ik ing A ge ( F ig .2 ) .

SCOTLAND AND " R ING-MONEY" T he o bv ious s tart ing p o int f or a ny c ons iderat ion o f V ik ing A ge h oards f rom t he Northern I s les o f S cot land must b e t he S ka i l l h oard f rom t he west s ide o f O rkney Ma in land . T h is i s a n 8 kg h oard , e qu iva lent t herefore t o t he l argest k nown f rom V ik ing Age S cand inav ia , a nd i t i s p resumab ly t o b e i n terpreted a s f am i ly wea lth o r e state c ap ita l -p erhaps e ven n orma l ly k ept b ur ied f or s afety . I t i s a c lass ic e xamp le o f a c omp lex h oard c onta in ing many f i ne s tatus o rnaments , a s we l l a s h ack-s i lver a nd a f ew c o ins ( represent ing l ess t han 0 .4% o f t he h oard b y we ight ) , d at ing i t s d epos it ion t o c .950 . F or p resent p urposes , t he most n otab le f eature o f t he c ontents o f t he S ka i l l h oard i s n ot t he most o bv ious ly a ttract ive -t he f ine ly o rnamented b rooches - b ut t he p la in a nd s imp le a rm -r ings o f p enannu lar f orm ( 36 i n n umber , i nc lud ing f ragments ) wh ich h ave b ecome k nown a s " r ing-money " . T here a re t wo r easons why i t c an b e s uggested t hat t h is s o-ca l led " r ing money" d id i ndeed f unct ion a s c urrency i n V ik ing A ge S cot land . I n t he f i rst p lace , t hese r i ngs f orm t he ma jor e lement i n a l l c omp lex h oards f rom S cand inav ian S cot land d ur ing t he p er iod 9 50-1050 , o ccurr ing a lso i n c o in less h oards a nd a s

5 7

1 5 I r e land : S i l ve r c o in h o a rd s

1 0—

5-

. • • , . • . . . . . . . . 0-

5— M ixed h o a rds

p n

0— 8 00

8 50

9 0 0

9 50

1 0 00

1 0 50

100

9 00

9 50

1 0 00

1 0 50

1 00

S co t land : S i l ve rc o in h o a rd s

5

0

5— M ixed h oa rd s

0— 8 50

8 00 Figs

1

S cotland

Notes

& 2 .

Deposition of V iking Age c oin hoards

( 800-1100)

( Figs

by d ecades:

1 & 2 ).

( i)

coin hoards by Blackburn Co.

Waterford,

( information

hoard

The

d ata

of

The

or e arly 1 9th-century

c .1000

only t hree

bullion;

coin hoards

a nd

1 a nd 2 are

( no.195)

i s

a newly-discovered

( 1988)

not

S cotland).

5 8

t aken

mixed,

National Museum of

f rom S cotland

has

a nd mixed hoards

b een

f rom

( 1)

Ireland

a nd

( 2)

( ii).

with one correction

f inds which m ight

i ncluding a n Hiberno-Norse coin, Museum o f

( 1986),

f rom Raghnall 0 F loinn,

( ii)

( i)

f or F igures

a nd Pagan

1 8th-

now lost)

s ee Notes

( Fig.2)

( Fig.1)

c ontaining

f rom the c heck-list i n

t hat

t he

" ring-money"

o f

K nockmaon, f ragments

Ireland). not

s hown

consequently have mixed hoard i ncluded

d irectly

a s mixed are poorly

a lso

f rom Lews

( information

c ontained Castle,

r ecorded

( unreported

S tornoway,

f rom Alison

Sheridan,

a nd

Lewis, Royal

s ing le-f inds -i nc lud ing o ne f rom t he s ett lement s i te a t J ar lshof o n S het land . I n o ther words , t hey b ecame t he s tandard f orm o f s i lver a rtefact i n L ate V ik ing P er iod S cot land ( i n wh ich r espect t hey a re t o b e c ompared a nd c ontrasted w ith t he e ar l ier p henomenon o f t he more mass ive H iberno-V ik ing r i ngs i n I re land ) . S econd ly , t hey d o a ppear t o h ave b een manufactured w ith t arget we ights i n m ind , b ased o n a n o unce c a lcu lated b y R ichard Warner ( 1976 ) , a s au n it o f 2 4gm . However , a s w ith t he H iberno-V ik ing r i ngs , t he i n tent ion was c lear ly n ot a bso lute p rec is ion s o t hat we igh ing wou ld h ave b een c ommon ly r equ ired . I t i s q u ite c lear t herefore t hat S cand inav ian S cot land r ema ined i n ab u l l ion e conomy , d esp ite t he d eve lopment i n I re land o f i t s H iberno-Norse c o inage . M ichae l Do l ley s uggested t hat t he e xtreme r ar ity o f H iberno-Norse c o ins i n S cot land was e v idence f or a b reak i n r e lat ions b etween t he t wo a reas . However , i t n ow s eems r easonab le t o s uggest t hat H iberno-Norse c o ins p rov ided o ne o f t he ma in s ources o f s i lver f or t he p roduct ion o f " r ing -money " i n S cot land where t he ir r ar ity ( as a lso o f o ther c o ins ) may c onsequent ly b e a ccounted f or b y t he ir h av ing b een me lted d own . I ndeed , " r ing-money" h as b een f ound i n s ma l l q uant it ies i n b oth I re land a nd t he I s le o f Man , i n L ate V ik ing P er iod c o in-hoards a nd a s o ccas iona l s ing le-f inds ( w ith a c o in less Manx h oard o f f our ) , i lustrat ing t he l i nks t hat were i ndeed ma inta ined b etween S cand inav ian S cot land a nd t he I r ish S ea -l i nks t hat c ame t o p o l it ica l p rom inence t owards t he e nd o f t he V ik ing A ge w ith t he c reat ion o f t he K ingdom o f Man a nd t he I s les .

CONCLUSIONS E ven i f c o in less h oards l ack t he c hrono log ica l p rec is ion o f c o in a nd m ixed h oards , i t s hou ld b e c lear t hat t hey must n ot b e n eg lected i n a ny mean ingfu l s tudy o f t he s i lver-based e conomy o f t he V ik ing A ge . I ndeed , i t i s i mportant t o a vo id t he d anger o f b e ing mesmer ised b y t he l a rge n umber o f c o in-dated M idd le a nd L ate V ik ing P er iod h oards i n to t h ink ing t hat f ew ( i f a ny ) s i lver h oards were b e ing d epos ited a round t he North S ea i n t he 9 th c entury . I t i s t o b e h oped t hat t he f u l l p ub l icat ion o f t he C uerda le b u l l ion , p lanned f or 1 990 o n t he 1 50th a nn iversary o f i t s d iscovery , w i l l o pen u p t he p oss ib i l ity o f a n ew e va luat ion o f t he c o in less h oard a s ap henomenon i n t he e conomy o f b oth S cand inav ia a nd t he western V ik ing wor ld ( Graham -Campbe l l , f orthcom ing ) .

REFERENCES Details ( with

of

t he hoards

a nd o ther

Denmark:

S kovmand 1 942;

Norway:

Grieg 1 929;

S .

f inds

r eferred to

a bove will

be

f ound

in

t he

f ollowing

works

f urther r eferences):

Sweden:

Munksgaard 1 962;

1 969.

S kaare 1 976.

Härdh 1 976.

England:

VA IV;

I reland:

VA I II;

Brooks

a nd Graham-Campbell

Dolley 1 966;

Kenny 1 987;

1 986;

Graham-Campbell

Graham-Campbell

I sle of Man:

VA IV;

Graham-Campbell

1 983.

S cotland:

VA I I;

Graham-Campbell

1 976a.

Wales:

VA IV;

Boon

Graham-Campbell

1 976b;

Ryan

e t

1 987.

a l.

1 984;

Sheehan

1 985;

1 988.

1 986.

For British a nd Irish c oin hoards,

see

a lso B lackburn a nd Pagan

1 986.

L ITERATURE B lackburn,

M .

( ed.)

1 986.

Anglo-Saxon Monetary H istory:

E ssays

i n Memory of

Michael

Dolley.

Leicester. Blackburn,

M .

a nd P agan,

H .

1 986.

A r evised c heck-list

c .500-1100. Boon,

G .

Brooks,

1 986. N .

Welsh Hoards,

and Graham-Campbell.

R .H. M.

1 966.

Graham-Campbell,

J .

S urrey.

S cotland. ( 1975-76), 1 976b.

f rom

the B ritish

I sles,

2 91-313.

Cardiff, t he Viking-age

I n B lackburn

The Viking-age s ilver

c oin hoards 1 986,

Reflections on

The H iberno-Norse Coins 1 976a.

of

( ed.)

1 979-1981.

J . 1986-.

Croydon, Dolley,

I n B lackburn

i n

( ed.)

1 986,

t he British Museum.

a nd gold hoards of

Proceedings of

s ilver h oard

f rom

9 1-110. London.

Scandinavian c haracter

t he Society of Antiquaries

o f

f rom

S cotland 1 07

1 14-35.

The Viking-age

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Seventh Viking Congress,

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B . Almqvist

I n Proceedings o f

a nd

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t he

( eds),

3 9-74.

Dublin. 1 983.

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1 987.

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t he I sle of Man,

Some a rchaeological

C .

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o f e t

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P .

Wallace

( forthcoming).

S .

1 929.

S tudies ( eds),

Man.

5 3-80.

In T he Viking Age London.

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Metcalf

( ed.),

f rom near Raphoe,

Co. G .

Donegal.

I n

MacNiocaill

a nd

Galway.

a nd I reland i n t he British Museum.

V ikingetidens

B ritish

Oxford.

i n Memory of Tom Delaney, 1 02-11.

I n Coinage

329-44.

The C uerdale Hoard a nd Related Viking Age S ilver

Britain Grieg,

1 80,

A Viking-age s ilver hoard Keimelia:

I sle of ( eds),

r eflections on t he Cuerdale hoard.

i n Ninth-Century Northumbria,

1 988.

t he a l.

s kattefund.

Universitetets

f rom

London.

O ldsaksamlings

S krifter 2 ,

1 77-311. Härdh,

B .

1 976.

W ikingerzeitliche Depotfunde L undensia,

Kenny,

M .

1 987.

Kruse,

S .

1 988.

The

s eries

g eographical

Proceedings o f I ngots

Archaeology 2 0:2,

a us

u nits

S üdschweden.

a nd s eries

d istribution of

t he Royal

a nd weight

6 0

i n 4 , 9 ,

i n

8

Acta Archaeologica minore,

I rish Viking-age

I rish Academy 8 7C,

5 07-25.

i n Viking Age s ilver hoards.

2 85-301.

6 .

coin h oards.

World

Munksgaard ,

E .

1962.

Skattefundet h istorie

"

1 969.

f ra Duesminde.

1 962,

To s kattefund

AarbOger

f or nordisk o ldkyndighed og

9 4-112. f ra &ldre vikingetid,

Duesminde og K&rbyholm.

f or n ordisk o ldkyndighed og h istorie Ryan,

M .

e t

al.

1 984.

S ix s ilver Ennell,

Sheehan,

J .

1985.

Viking Age MA t hesis

Shetelig, Skaare,

H .

K .

Skovmand,

( ed.)

1976. R .

1942.

1 940.

Wallace,

Coins

1986.

t he Viking period Peritia

S ilver Arm-Rings

3 ,

AarbOger

5 2-62.

f rom t he vicinity of Lough

3 34-81.

f rom I reland.

University College Galway,

( unpublished).

a nd Coinage

in Great

Britain

a nd I reland,

in Viking-Age Norway.

I -V.

Oslo.

O slo.

De d anske s kattefund

f ra v ikingetiden og d en &ldste middelalder

i ndtil omkring 1 150.

AarbOger

f or nordisk oldkyndighed og h istorie

1 -275.

See S hetelig P .

of

Westmeath.

Viking Antiquities

1 942, VA I I-IV.

f inds

Co.

1 969,

( ed.)

1 940.

The English presence

i n Viking Dublin.

In B lackburn

( ed.)

1 986,

2 01-21. "

1987.

The e conomy a nd commerce of Viking Age Dublin. zu H andel Mittelzeit,

und Verkehr d er vor-

und Nordeuropa,

K .

Düwel

Wissenschaften Folge, Warner,

R .

1976.

a l.

Der Handel

( eds),

2 00-45.

d er K arolinger-

Abhandlungen

Z eit

i n

und W ikinger-

der Akademie

in Göttingen Philologisch-Historische K lasse,

d er

Dritte

1 56.

S cottish t he

e t

IV:

I n Untersuchungen

und f rühgeschichtlichen

s ilver

a rm-rings:

a n

S ociety o f Antiquaries o f

a nalysis

o f weights.

S cotland 1 07

Proceedings

( 1975-76),

1 36-43.

o f

I \ E D I E V A L C O IN S A N D T H E D A T ING O FF I NN I SH C A S T L E S A N D C H U R C H E S J USSI-PEKKA TAAV ITSA INEN

The

paper begins with a d iscussion of

medieval

h istory

o f F inland.

administration of medieval Research so in c astles logy.

i s

The

e conomical

c astles

research a nd t he

a rchaeology i n Finland i s

The main emphasis

understandable in t he l ight

and the history of

of

f ew available written sources

history of

f ar has made very l ittle use of

a nd churches.

This

the

A short

the

on

t he

a ntiquarian

a lso presented. f ull potential of

coins

f ound

in these s tudies has been on chronoof

the

f ew available written

sources

administration. a nd c ulture historical potential of

a nd churches

t he coins

i n t he

c ontext

i s briefly d iscussed.

I . I NTRODUCT ION " Num ismat ics i s a n i ndependent d isc ip l ine w ith i t s own methods . T here a re n o s hortcuts f or o uts iders ; i dent ify ing c o ins , l i ke e veryth ing e l se , must b e l earned f rom t he s tart . T h is e spec ia l ly a pp l ies t o med ieva l c o ins" ( Ma lmer 1 986 :121) . T he p aper b eg ins w ith a n o verv iew o f t he a va i lab le s ources o n t he med ieva l h istory o f F in land , wh ich i s f o l lowed b y ab r ief r ev iew o f t he h i story o f r esearch a nd a nt iquar ian a dm in istrat ion o f med ieva l a rchaeo logy i n F in land . T hese s ect ions d emonstrate t hat , w ith a f ew d ifferences , n um ismat ic q uest ions i n F in land a re l a rge ly s im i lar t o t hose i n t he r est o f S cand inav ia .

2 . SOURCES ON THE MEDIEVAL H ISTORY OF F INLAND A t ota l o f 6 6 o r ig ina l m ed ieva l d ocuments a nd 2 23 c op ies o f d ocuments h ave b een p reserved i n F in land , where t he med ieva l p er iod i s d ef ined a s c . 1150-1530 . T h is d oes n ot i nc lude c op ies , e xcerpts a nd ment ions i n j ud ic iary r ecords ( so-ca l led j udgement b ooks ) . T he n umber i s n ot l a rge , b ut t he a dvantage o f h av ing o n ly a l im ited n umber o f s ources i s t hat t hey h ave b een p ub l ished ( Hausen 1 890 , 1 9101 935) . P ub l icat ions i nc lude t he o r ig ina l F inn ish mater ia l , c op ies , a nd a l a rge v ar iety o f o ther k inds o f s ource mater ia l , i nformat ion f rom c hron ic les , t exts o f f unerary i n scr ipt ions a nd c hurch b e l ls e tc . T he p r inted s ources a l so i nc lude t hose f ore ign d ocuments o n med ieva l F in land a nd t he F inns k nown a t t he t ime o f p ub l icat ion , ma in ly f rom s ource p ub l icat ions o f t he B a lt ic c ountr ies . T he c hrono log ica l d istr ibut ion o f t he s ources i n F in l ands Mede lt idsurkunder i s s hown i n d iagram 1 ( f ig .1) . I t r evea ls t he s ma l l n umber o f w r itten s ources , e spec ia l ly o n t he e ar l ier med ieva l p er iod . A lthough t he i lustrat ion d oes n ot d irect ly d emonstrate t he c hrono log ica l a nd g eograph ica l u nevenness o f t he mater ia l , t hese a spects must b e b orn i n m ind . Understandab ly , many o f t he s ources a re o pen t o v ary ing i n terpretat ions a nd t he ir u se r equ ires c aut ion a nd s ource-cr it ic ism . I t i s a lso o bv ious t hat t h is s i tuat ion h as d irect b ear ing o n t he s tudy o f med ieva l

6 3

2 560-

2 0@e-

1 500-

M O-

5 00-

1 200 1 250

1 300 1 350

1 400 1 450

1 500 1 530

Fig.l.

The medieval

sources

Finland

according

FMU.

t o

b u i ld ings . T he d ate o f c onstruct ion a nd t he t erm inus p ost q ue r n c an o n ly b e e stab l ished o n t he b as is o f d ocumentary s ources .

of

s e ldom

2 . ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE STUDY OF ARCH ITECTURAL H ISTORY R esearch i n med ieva l a rchaeo logy i s a l ong -estab l ished p ursu it i n F in land . T he p ioneers o f a nt iquar ian r esearch a nd monument p rotect ion i n F in land s aw t he s ign if icance o f med ieva l a rchaeo logy a nd worked f ree ly i n t he s pheres o f p reh istory , h istory , h istory o f mater ia l c u lture , a rt h istory a nd e thnography . When t he A nt iquar ian S oc iety o f F in land s tarted t o d raw u p r eg iona l i nventor ies o f a nt iqu it ies i n 1 876 t he a rtefacts a nd i n format ion g athered c overed a l l p er iods f rom p agan t o modern t imes . T he med ieva l p er iod was a lso a ccepted a s as ub ject f or a rchaeo log ica l b ib l iography a s " i t d ea lt w ith b order l ine p er iods , t he mater ia l f or wh ich c an b e p rov ided b y d ocuments , r ema ins i n t he g round o r works o f a rt" ( Ta l lgren 1 916 ) . T he a bove a tt itude c an b e s een i n p ract ica l a nt iquar ian work a nd s tudy , a lthough e xcavat ion t echn iques a nd d ocumentat ion were n ot s ub jects o f s uff ic ient c oncern a t t he t ime . F or e xamp le , s ma l ler f i nds i nc lud ing c o ins , were c o l lected d ur ing Hausen 's e xcavat ions o f K uus isto ( Sw . K ustö ) c ast le i n 1 877 a nd 1 879 , a n umber o f y ears b efore t he f ound ing o f t he A rchaeo log ica l C omm iss ion i n 1 884 .

6 4

A round t he t urn o f t he c entury t here was d iscuss ion o f t he r o le o f a rtefacts , e spec ia l ly c o ins , i n d at ing ( R inne 1 902 , Högman 1 907 ) . A s a n e xamp le o f a tt itudes o f t he p er iod we may q uote J uhan i R inne 's a rt ic le o n t he s i ft ing o f l ayers f rom T urku c ast le wh ich e xpress t he e ar ly i nterest o f s cho lars i n f inds , b ut a lso t he l ack o f s uff ic ient a ttent ion t o t he ir s pec ia l n ature : " The r etr ieved o b jects , i n t hemse lves i nterest ing a dd it ions t o o ur h itherto f ew med ieva l f inds , a re o f e ven g reater s ign if icance i n s o f ar a s t hey c an b e o f d ec is ive i mportance n ot o n ly i n q uest ion o f a rch itectura l t echn ique b ut a lso i n d at ing t he c onstruct ion o f b u i ld ings o r p arts o f s uch o r f or o ther p urposes" ( R inne 1 902 :52 ) . " No d oubt many o ther o bservat ions i mportant f or d at ing wou ld h ave b een made i f a l l o f t he s o i l a nd s and r emoved f rom t he r ooms o f t he c ast le i n e ar l ier r epa irs a s we l l wou ld h ave b een s i fted w ith t he r equ ired e xpert ise . I t i s t o b e h oped t hat f uture i nvest igat ions o f a l l s o i l a nd s and r emoved f rom t he c ast le w i l l b r ing t o l i ght n ew mater ia l o n t he a ge o f t he c ast le" ( R inne 1 902 :53) L et u s n ow t urn t o t he 1 970s a nd s ee h ow t he work o f t he f ound ing g enerat ion b ore f ru it . T h is c an b e s een i n ad iscuss ion o n d at ing methods i n a rch itectura l h istory b etween t he a rt h i stor ians Henr ik L i l ius a nd K nut D rake , t wo p rom inent modern a uthor it ies i n t he f i e ld ( L i l ius 1 971a ; D rake 1 971; L i l ius 1 971b ; D rake 1 972 ) . L i l ius r ev iews a l l t he more c ommon methods u sed i n F in land a nd Sweden f or t he d at ing o f med ieva l b u i ld ings . S pace d oes n ot p erm it a r ev iew o f t he who le d iscuss ion s o Is ha l l c oncentrate o n t he most c ommon method o f s o-ca l led s ty le h istory wh ich i s most s harp ly c r it ic ized b y L i l ius . A ccord ing t o L i l ius , a c r it ica l a pproach t o t h is method wou ld b e t he ma in way t o r enew t he d at ing methods o f s tud ies i n m ed ieva l a rch itecture . L i l ius r e jects t he s tart ing -po int o f a Darw in ist t heory o f a n o rgan ic l i fe o f a s ty le a nd t he f i ct ive a ssumpt ion o f a p ure s ty le . He a lso t akes i s sue o n t he c la im t hat b u i ld ings c an b e d ated o n s ty l ist ic-h istor ica l g rounds . L i l ius a rgues t hat t he u se o f t h is method e nta i ls t he d anger o f c ircu lar r eason ing , a nd d emonstrates h is c ase w ith a n i mage o f t hree c oncentr ic c irc les . T he i nner o ne c onta ins b u i ld ings t hat c an b e d ated u nequ ivoca l ly , i . e . o n t he b as is o f d ocumentary e v idence . T he s econd c irc le c onta ins b u i ld ings t hat c an b e d ated w ith t he a id o f t he a bove . T h is i s a s econd-degree d at ing e mp loy ing t he s ty l ist ic-h istor ica l method w ith a l l i t s l im i tat ions . A ccord ing t o L i l ius , i t i s f orgotten t hat s econd-degree d at ings a re h ypotheses wh ich d o n ot p rov ide f or f urther a rgument , i . e . t he d at ing o f b u i ld ings i n t he t h ird c i rc le , a nd t hat a c r it ica l r ev iew o f d at ings s hows t hat a c ons iderab le n umber o f t hem b e long i n t he t h ird c irc le a nd d o n ot s tand u p t o e p istomo log ica l c r it ique . L i l ius a nd D rake a greed o n t he u nre l iab i l ity o f t he most c entra l method o f d at ing . D rake ( 1972 :54 ) a lso n otes t hat t he b oundar ies o f r ea l ity , p robab i l ity a nd a ssumpt ion h ave b een c rossed i n many c ases a nd s uggests i n a l l ma jor s tud ies t here s hou ld b e c o-operat ion o f s pec ia l ists i n v ar ious f i e lds work ing a s ag roup . Both L i l ius a nd D rake a ppear t o b e l ieve s trong ly i n t he b enef its o f n atura ls c ient if ic methods i n a rt-h istor ica l r esearch a nd t hat d at ing p rob lems s hou ld s oon b e a b le t o b e s o lved b y l aborator ies . An i n terest ing f eature , c lear ly d ifferent f rom t he s i tuat ion e lsewhere i n t he N ord ic c ountr ies , i s t he f act t hat i n F in land a rt h istor ians were t he f i rst t o v o ice s trong c r it ic ism o f a rt-h istor ica l methods ( cf . t he d iscuss ion i n Norway ; B erg 1 981 a nd Haug l id 1 984 ) . T he c ho ice o f t he f orum f or d iscuss ion H i stor ia l l inen A ikakausk ir ia , aj ourna l f or p rofess iona ls h istor ians - may b e t he r eason why i t h as n ot y et a ffected t he a tt itudes o f a rt h istor ians a nd h as l a rge ly g one u nnot iced b y a rchaeo log ists . The a bove d iscuss ion c onta ins much t hat i s u sefu l t o a rchaeo log ists who i n t he ir s tud ies o f a rtefacts o ften r e ly o n d at ings b ased o n s ty l ist ic c ompar isons .

6 5

On t he o ther h and , a rchaeo log ists who must d ate e xcavat ions o n t he b as is o f t he ir f i nds a re l e ft w ith t he q uest ion o f whether s uch methods c ou ld n ot b e a pp l ied t o e x ist ing h istor ica l b u i ld ings o r t he ir r u ins . F inds f rom e xcavat ions , e spec ia l ly c o ins a fford ing r e lat ive ly p rec ise d at ings f ree f rom t he l im itat ions o f t he s ty l ist ic-h istor ica l method , may o ffer d ec is ive h e lp i n d at ing p rob lems p rec ise ly i n t he way o ut l ined b y R inne a t t he t urn o f t he c entury . However , n e ither L i l ius n or D rake make a ny ment ion a t a l l o f f i nds f rom s o i l l ayers a nd f i l l . One wou ld h ave e xpected a r eference t o s uch a b ody o f m ater ia l i n t he d iscuss ion o n t he c hrono log ica l s ign if icance o f t he f i xtures a nd a rtefacts i n c hurches . I t i s s urpr is ing t o n ote t hat R inne 's i deas w ere s o f ar f orgotten t hat t he s ign if icance o f c o in o r a rtefact d at ing was n ot r emembered e ven i n t heory i n t he e ar ly 1 970s . We s hou ld n ot f orget , h owever , t hat f i e ld work i s u sua l ly c arr ied o ut i n e xtreme ly d iff icu lt c i rcumstances a nd a ccord ing t o t i ght s chedu les . F inn ish a nt iquar ian l eg is lat ion d oes n ot p rotect t he c u ltura l l ayers u nder t he f l oors o f c hurches a nd f or t h is r eason i t h as b een p oss ib le f or t hose r espons ib le f or b u i ld ing t o p revent e xam inat ion o f t he l ayers . E ven J uhan i R inne a ppears t o h ave h ad p rob lems i n p ract is ing what h e p reached when d i rect ing r estorat ion work a t t he C athedra l o f T urku . A lthough p reva i l ing c ond it ions h ave o ften m ade i t i mposs ib le t o c arry o ut p rec ise a nd d eta i led e xcavat ions , t hey d o n ot s uff ice t o e xp la in why t he i mportance o f s tudy ing c o in f i nds s eems t o h ave e scaped t he t heoret ic ians o f a rch itectura l h i story i n F in land . T he ma in r eason c an p erhaps b e f ound i n t he d eve lopment a nd d i fferent iat ion o f a nt iquar ian a dm in istrat ion i n t he f ormer A rchaeo log ica l C omm iss ion ( present-day Nat iona l B oard o f A nt iqu it ies ) r espons ib le f or t he r estorat ion o f c ast les a nd c hurches . R esources r ema ined l im ited a nd s pec ia l ists c ou ld c oncentrate o n t he ir own t asks u nd isturbed b y o thers . A ccord ing ly , t he s i tuat ion d id n ot g ive r i se t o d i scuss ion o r e xchange o f v iews c ross ing t he b oundar ies o f s c ient if ic d isc ip l ines o r f i e lds o f e xpert ise . T he b u i ld ings a nd mater ia l c u lture o f t he M idd le A ges r ema ined t he d oma in o f a rt h istor ians a nd e thnographers . T he a rchaeo log ica l b ib l iography n o l onger i nc luded med ieva l t op ics . I n s tud ies o f c ast les a nd c hurches , h owever , a rtefacts were r etr ieved more o r l e ss h aphazard ly - t he 1 950s c an b e s een a s ap art icu lar ly l ow p er iod i n t he a rchaeo log ica l s tudy o f med ieva l c hurches . I n s ome c ases h igh ly d eta i led a nd p rec ise work was c arr ied o ut ( e .g . T ap io 1 966 ) , b ut e ven w here t he f i nds were r etr ieved b y s i ft ing t he ir r e lat ionsh ip t o t he o vera l l c ontext w as n ot u nderstood , o r a t l east t h is was n ot d i scussed i n a ny way i n t he p ub l ished s tud ies ( on t he h i story o f c hurch a rchaeo logy s ee K napas 1 983 ; H iekkanen 1 988 ) . E xcept ions t o t he a bove c an b e f ound i n t he A land I s lands , h owever . H ere t he f i nds f rom c hurch e xcavat ions were r etr ieved w ith t he h ighest p oss ib le d egree o f p rec is ion b y methods i nc lud ing t he u se o f s i eves , a nd t he ir i mportance was s t rong ly s t ressed ( Dre i jer 1 965 ) . T here h ave a l so b een p ub l icat ions o f c o in f i nds ( Jonsson & L agerkv ist 1 974 ) . On t he o ther h and , l oca l t rad it ion c la ims t hat t h is emphas is o n t he a rchaeo logy o f a rtefacts l ed t o s er ious e rrors i n t he s o-ca l led b u i ld ing-archaeo log ica l s tudy o f a rch itectura l r ema ins . I n t h is c onnect ion , h owever , we s ha l l n ot dwe l l o n t he A land I s lands w ith i t s s pec ia l p rob lems . T he s i tuat ion o f t h is a utonomous p rov ince was a na logous t o t hat o f ma in land F in land i n t he l a te 1 9th c entury ; n at ion-bu i ld ing was i n p rogress a nd i t was o f i mportance t o f i nd d ates a s o ld a s p oss ib le f or a l l k inds o f p henomena . I n t he 1 970s , h owever , c hanges o ccurred . P ekka S arvas , an um ismat ist a nd a rchaeo log ist , when c o l lect ing mater ia l f or h i s s tudy o n med ieva l c o in f i nds p rompted d i scuss ion o n h i stor ica l a rchaeo logy a nd e xcavat ions , e spec ia l ly i n c onnect ion w ith t he r estorat ion o f c ast les a nd c hurches ( Sarvas 1 977a) . A t t he s ame t ime , h i stor ians a l so o bserved t hat t he o n ly n ew s ources a va i lab le f or med ieva l h i story c an o n ly b e o bta ined b y a rchaeo log ica l m eans ( HFT 1 977 ) .

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T h is d iscuss ion h as c ome t o b ear f ru it . T he Department o f Monuments a nd S ites o f t he Nat iona l B oard o f A nt iqu it ies wh ich i s r espons ib le f or r estorat ion h as a n a rchaeo log ist i n i t s emp loy who i s r espons ib le f or t he a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions o f c hurches . A rchaeo log ica l a spects a re b e ing more a nd more a pprec iated i n r estorat ion p ro jects . C o-operat ion b etween a rchaeo log ists , a rch itectura l h istor ians a nd n um ismat ists , e spec ia l ly i n t he 1 980s , h as l ed t o t he s ign if icant r esu lts wh ich w i l l b e d iscussed b e low . T here h as b een d ef in ite p rogress i n s o f ar a s we h ave b een a b le t o r eturn t o t he i deas p ut f orward a t t he t urn o f t he c entury .

3 . THE CASTLE OF KUUSISTO My own i nvo lvement w ith t he s ub ject a t h and was i n t he 1 970s when I u ndertook a s tudy o f t he e xcavated f i nds f rom t he c ast le o f K uus isto wh ich o r ig ina l ly b e long t o t he b ishops o f t he d iocese o f T urku . T he a ctua l r esearch work was c omp leted i n 1 975 , b ut t he r esu lts were p ub l ished i n 1 980 ( Taav itsa inen 1 980 ) . T he p urpose o f t he s tudy was t o d ate i n a r out ine a rchaeo log ica l manner t he s i te w ith t he a id o f a rtefacts f ound i n i t a nd t o c ompare t h is d at ing w ith p reserved h istor ica l s ources . A p ract ica l a im was a lso t o r a ise d oubts among e xperts i n a rch itectura l h istory o f t he o ne-s ided u se o f s ty l ist ic-h istor ica l c r iter ia a nd t o d emonstrate t hat mater ia l a lready i n museum c o l lect ions a nd f orgotten b y r esearchers c ou ld o ffer n ew p erspect ives f or t he s tudy o f h istor ica l b u i ld ings . Ia lso w ished t o g enerate i nterest among f uture r estorat ion e xperts i n t he c hrono log ica l p otent ia l o f a rchaeo log ica l f inds , a s d emonstrated b y P ekka S arvas . T he r u ins o f t he c ast le o f K uus isto were f i rst r evea led b y R e inho ld Hausen i n 1 877 a nd t he work was c ont inued i n 1 879 . T he e xcavat ion o f t he c ast le was c omp leted i n 1 891 a nd 1 893 . A nt iquar ian measures f o l low ing t he e xcavat ion o f t he r u ins h ave c oncentrated o n p revent ing t he ir f urther d estruct ion . R epa irs were c arr ied o ut a lmost y ear ly a round t he t urn o f t he c entury . More e xtens ive work was u ndertaken a ga in i n 1 938 , b ut o n ly m inor r epa irs were c arr ied o ut i n t he 1 940s a nd 1 950s . I n 1 959 , e xtens ive s tud ies a nd e xcavat ions were b egun a nd a l ong -term p lan f or t he s i te was d rawn u p . S ince t he l ate 1 960s h owever i t h as b een i mposs ib le t o f o l low t he p lan . T here i s l i tt le i n format ion a va i lab le e spec ia l ly o n t he o lder f i nds . F or e xamp le , c o ins a re r ecorded o n ly a s c om ing f rom t he c ast le o f K uus isto ; t h is g reat ly l im its t he ir f urther u se i n r esearch . I t must a lso b e n oted t hat t he c o ins a re f rom t he 1 9th-century e xcavat ions ; t hey a re a bsent f rom l a ter e xcavat ions , p oss ib ly a s ar esu lt o f n ot s i ft ing t he l ayers . B r ief ly s tated , c urrent v iews ma inta in t hat t he c ast le o f K uus isto was a s ma l l f ort if icat ion o f t imber i n t he 1 3th c entury . A fter 1 317 t he c onstruct ion as tone c ast le b egan . T he w ings a nd o uter c ast le were e rected i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he 1 5th c entury a nd a round t h is t ime t he t erm c astrum i nstead o f c ur ia b egan t o b e u sed o f t he c ast le . T he c ast le was t orn d own i n 1 528 b y o rder o f K ing G ustavus V asa ( Hausen 1 881 a nd 1 883 ; R inne 1 904 ; Gardberg 1 952 a nd 1 978 ) . I t h as b een s tressed , h owever , t hat t he a bove d iv is ion i n to b u i ld ing p hases must r ema in h ypothet ica l a s l ong a s we d o n ot h ave d eta i led s tud ies a t o ur d isposa l ( Gardberg 1 978 :46) . F igure 2 s hows t he c o ins f ound a t K uus isto , a rranged a ccord ing t o t he ir d ate o f m int ing . T he o ldest c o ins a re a urtuas o f E r ik o f P ommern ( 1396-1439 ) , most p robab ly s truck a fter 1 405 ( Lagerkv ist 1 970 :112 ) . F rom t hese t imes o nwards t here i s a n u nbroken s er ies o f c o ins u nt i l t he e nd o f med ieva l t imes . T he t ab le a lso m ent ions h istor ica l s ources r eferr ing t o K uus isto . Most o f

6 7

1 300

1 350

1 400

S wed ish c o ins

1 450

1 500

1 528

. . .• . • •

D an ish c o ins +++++

G o t land c o ins o ther c o ins

C ustu , Kwsto C ur ia

e p iscop i K us tu

C as tro N os tra K us to C hron ic le s ources

5 3

I[ mU h u I 1 300

F ig.2.

The c oins

, 1 400

1 350

of Kuusisto.

6 8

1 450

1 500

1 528

t hese a re l etters d ated a t K uus isto . S eparate ment ion must a lso b e made o f a n u ncerta in c hron ic le s ource ( 1317 , 1 412 ; Ga l lAn 1 981 :80) . T he t ab le a lso d emonstrates t he f ragmentary n ature o f s ource mater ia l o f a med ieva l s i te a s t yp ica l a s K uus isto . T he d iagram s hows h ow we l l t he f i rst r eference t o Kuus isto a s a c astrum i n a d ocument d ated 1 419-1429 ( Ga l l& I 1 981 :79-80) a grees w ith t he c o ins . T he c o ins a nd t he n ew t erm f or t he c ast le s uggest t hat c onstruct ion o f a s tone b u i ld ing o n t he p resent s i te b egan a s l a te a s t he f i rst q uarter o f t he 1 5th c entury l. T he c hange o f t erm was a lso o bserved b y Hans H i ldebrand ( 1883-1884 ) whose i nterpretat ion was t hat t he f ort if icat ion c ou ld n ot b e o lder t han t he s econd o r t h ird d ecade o f t he 1 5th c entury . H i ldebrand s tressed t hat t h is d at ing c orresponded a lso t o c ond it ions i n t he western r eg ions o f t he K ingdom o f Sweden a t t he t ime . T he a rchb ishop 's c ast le o f A lmarest Het i s f i rst ment ioned i n 1 388 . T ynne ls 1 5 b e long ing t o t he b ishop o f S trengnäs was b u i lt i n t he l atter p art o f t he r e ign o f K ing A lbrekt . T he f i rst d ocumentary r eference t o t he c ast le o f R ön 1 5 , o f t he b ishops o f L inköp ing , i s f rom 1 421 . B y c omb in ing t he c o in f i nds a nd t he a va i lab le h istor ica l s ources a nd r ev iew ing t hem i n t he o vera l l p o l it ica l p erspect ive o f t he t ime o ur p resent s tud ies s eem t o i nd icate , t hough n ot w ith a ny a bso lute c erta inty , t hat t he c ast le was b u i lt i n t he 1 5th a nd n ot t he 1 4th c entury . O ther f inds o f a rtefacts f rom t he c ast le - when n ot o f g enera l med ieva l t ypes - c an a lso b e d ated t o t he 1 5th a nd 1 6th c entur ies . T he c eram ic f i nds a re d om inated b y r ed ware w ith i n terna l g laze o n wh ich c ame i n to u se i n t he 1 4th c entury a t t he e ar l iest ( B lomqv ist 1 951 :168-169) . T he K uus isto f inds a lso d emonstrate t he p rob lem o f t he l ong -term c ircu lat ion o f c o ins wh ich i s a c entra l f actor i n d at ing . T he c ons iderab le p roport ion o f Dan ish c o ins a t K uus isto a fter t he m id-15th c entury i s a lso i nterest ing . T hese c o ins n umber 6 6 , wh i le t here a re 2 3 Swed ish c o ins a nd 1 3 s h i l l ings o f S ören Norby . Dan ish c o ins d o n ot f orm t he ma jor ity o f a ny o ther s er ies o f F inn ish c o in f inds d esp ite t he f act t hat C hr ist ian I a nd Hans were Un ion k ings . T he r eason f or t h is may b e f ound i n t he c apture o f K uus isto b y S ören Norby , a nd h is s hort-term f i efdom o f t he r eg ion ( 1522-23) a s ment ioned i n h istor ica l s ources . C ou ld t h is e vent e xp la in t he l arge n umber o f c o ins o f C hr ist ian I ( 1448-81) a nd Hans ( 1481-1513) s truck b efore t he f i efdom o f S ören Norby? Two e xp lanat ions a re p oss ib le : 1 . T here were p o l it ica l a nd t rade r e lat ion b etween K uus isto a nd Denmark a s e ar ly a s t he m id-15th c entury o f wh ich n o w r itten s ources h ave b een p reserved . 2 . T he c o ins were i n c ircu lat ion f or a l ong t ime . T he l atter e xp lanat ion s eems t o b e t he most p laus ib le o ne , a s t he h v ids were o f p oor q ua l ity s i lver a nd went o ut o f u se a t av ery s low r ate , b e ing u sed a s l a te a s t he e ar ly 1 7th c entury ( Steen J ensen 1 973 :80-82 ) . T he h v ids , h owever , d o n ot p rov ide a l ate d ate f or t he c ast le , a s we k now t hat i t was t orn d own i n 1 528 . On t he o ther h and , t he h v ids d emonstrate a p rob lem c entra l t o c hrono log ica l i n terpretat ion a nd s ource-cr it ic ism i n g enera l , v iz , t he p oss ib le s kewed r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he d ate o f m int ing o f a c o in a nd i t s p er iod o f c ircu lat ion . E xperts i n a rch itectura l h i story , h owever , h ave n ot b een r eady t o a ccept t he d at ing o f t he c ast le o f K uus isto i nd icated b y f i nds o f c o ins a nd o ther o b jects . C .J .Gardberg ( 1987 :47 ) h as s uggested t hat t he c o ins may b e f rom t he o uter p arts o f t he c ast le a nd t hat t he s tones a nd f i l l o f t he r u ins o f t he ma in c ast le were c leared i n t he 1 870s a nd u sed f or t he p aved c ourtyard . T he l ayers o f t he ma in c ast le h ave n ot b een e xcavated f rom u nder t he p av ing o f t he y ard . R inne n otes

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t hat Hausen 's f ie ldwork a t t he c ast le d id n ot s ucceed i n u ncover ing a l l o f t he r u ins a nd t hat t h is was p oss ib le o n ly i n t he work c arr ied o ut i n t he 1 890s ( R inne 1 904 :42-43) . E xcavat ions a t b oth s tages d id r evea l c o ins , h owever . A lthough t he p aved c ourtyard was n ot e xcavated , t he f i e ldwork o f t he 1 890s must h ave i nc luded t he c lear ing o f r ooms o f what was o r ig ina l ly t he o ldest p art o f t he ma in c ast le . I n o ther c ast les i n F in land , c o ins h ave b een f ound u nder t he f loor . Dur ing t he p ast t wo s ummers f i e ldwork h as b een c arr ied o ut a ga in a t K uus isto w ith f inds o f c o ins . S o f ar , t he d eta i led e xcavat ions h ave n ot s ucceeded i n r evea l ing mater ia l o lder t han t hat f ound b efore , b ut t he a ssumed ly o ldest l ayers h ave n ot y et b een e xcavated ( Lasse L aaksonen , p ers .comm .) . F uture e xcavat ions may y et s o lve t he p rob lem o f t he a ge o f t he c ast le .

4 . CO IN-DAT INGS OF CHURCHES F inds o f c o ins f rom c hurches h ave a lso b ecome a s ub ject o f i n terest i n p rob lems o f c hrono logy a nd d at ing o f c hurch b u i ld ings . I n t he f o l low ing , t hree s tud ies o f c hurches w i l l b e p resented . Two o f t he c hurches h ave b een p rev ious ly d ated o n s ty l ist ic-h istor ica l g rounds a nd o ne o n t he b as is o f h istor ica l s ources . A l l a re t yp ica l r ura l s tone c hurches o f wh ich t here a re c .75 i n F in land . Our f i rst e xamp le i s t he s tone c hurch o f E spoo i n t he p rov ince o f Uus imaa i n S outhern F in land . I nd irect h istor ica l s ources h ave s uggested t he 1 430s a s t he t ime o f c onstruct ion o f t he n ave ( Sarvas 1 982 ) , b ut s ty l ist ic-h istor ica l g rounds s uggest t he l a te 1 400s a s t he t ime o f c onstruct ion ( see e .g . D rake 1 958 ; S in isa lo 1 987 :86 ) . R estorat ion b egun i n 1 981 a lso i nc luded a d eta i led a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ion o f t he c hurch i n wh ich 5 48 c o ins , 1 8 o f med ieva l d ate , were f ound , among o ther mater ia l . A ccord ing t o t he d irector o f t he e xcavat ion c o ins were f ound i n a l l l ayers , b ut c hrono log ica l d ifferences c ou ld n ot b e o bserved b etween c o ins f ound n ear t he s urface a nd t hose f rom l ower l eve ls . T he l ayers were s o m ixed t hat e ven s tat ist ica l means c ou ld n ot e stab l ish s trat igraphy . T he e xcavat ion d id n ot r evea l a ny a rch itectura l f eatures t hat c ou ld h ave h e lped i n d at ing t he n ave , d at ing b e ing c onf ined t o t he c o ins wh ich h ave b een a na lysed b y P ekka S arvas . T he o ldest c o in was s t ruck i n t he 1 410s-1420s a nd t he c hrono log ica l ly l a ter o nes were f rom 1 426-1441 a nd 1 430-1450 r espect ive ly ( f ig .3 ) . T hus , t he t ime o f c onstruct ion o f t he n ave o f t he c hurch c an b e e st imated t o h ave b een i n t he p er iod f rom t he 1 420s t o t he 1 440s , wh ich s uppor ts t he d at ing o n t he b as is o f h istor ica l s ources ( H iekkanen 1 988 ; S arvas 1 982 ) . T he s tone c hurch o f B irg itta i n L empää lä i n t he p rov ince o f S atakunta was t he s ub ject o f d eta i led s tudy a nd e xcavat ion i n 1 983 . T he c hurch h as b een d ated t o t he e ar ly 1 6th c entury o n t he b as is o f s ty l ist ic c ompar isons o f a rch itectura l e lements , a p reserved t r iumpha l c ruc if ix a nd f rescoes . I n t h is c ase , a lso r esearch d id n ot r evea l a ny a rch itectura l e lements t o p rov ide e xact d at ings , b ut 1 5 med ieva l c o ins were f ound . T hree o f t hese were s truck i n t he e ar ly 1 5th c entury , a lthough t he ir e xact p er iod o f u se i s n ot k nown ( 2 b racteates Ma lmer K rHY Ic ( ? ) , c .1410, NM C o in C ab inet 8 4033 :2-3 ; Ma lmer 1 980 : a nd a T a l l inn s h i l l ing p ost 1 424 , 8 4033 :24 ) . T he f ourth c o in ( Ma lmer K rAY I , 8 40334 ) was m inted i n t he p er iod f rom 1 430 t o 1 470 o r l a ter . A lthough t hese f our c o ins g ive a g enera l i nd icat ion o f t he d ate o f t he c hurch , a more p rec ise d ate i s p rov ided b y a t ota l o f t en c o ins f rom c . 1470 t o 1 500 ( 9 s pec imens Ma lmer K rHY II le , 8 4033 :5-13 ; 1s pec imen Ma lmer t HY I V , 8 4033 :17 ; f ig .4 ) . A ccord ing t o H iekkanen ( 1986 :93-94 ) t hese c o ins a re e xtreme ly c onv inc ing e v idence f or t he a bovement ioned a rch itectura l a nd a rt-h istor ica l d at ing o f t he b u i ld ing o f t he n ave . I n c ases where t he t ime o f m int ing a nd c ircu lat ion o f t he c o ins p ose p rob lems

7 0

H iekkanen a ppears t o r e ly o n t he s tat ist ica l mass o f t he mater ia l . E xcavat ion o f t he s acr isty wh ich was o lder t han t he n ave r evea led a c o in d at ing f rom c .1370-1380 ( Ma lmer K r Ilä Ih , 8 4033 :1) , a n u ncerta in i nd icat ion o f t he t ime o f c onstruct ion o f t he o ldest p art o f t he s acr isty . S tud ies c arr ied o ut i n 1 983 s how t hat t he s acr isty was r a ised when t he n ave was b u i lt . T h is i s i nd icated b y a h or izonta l wa l ll ine i n t he n orth wa l l , a nd a b r ick a rch , p oss ib ly t he r ema ins o f a r osette o rnament s im i lar t o t hose f ound i n t he g ab les o f t he n aves o f t he c hurches o f U lv i la , T yrvää a nd Hu itt inen , a nd t he g ab le o f t he s acr isty i n Messuky lä ( H iekkanen 1 986 :94 ) . T he c hrono log ica l d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins r a ises t he q uest ion o f whether t he c hrono log ica l i nterpretat ion o f t he c o ins was i n f luenced b y p rev ious v iews o n t he a ge o f t he n ave . C ou ld t he b u i ld ing o f t he c hurch b e s een a s a c ont inuat ion o f t he s acr isty , o n wh ich work was b egun i n t he l a te 1 4th c entury? I t i s n ot i mposs ib le t o i n terpret t he c o in f i nds i n t h is way . A n a lternat ive wou ld b e a wooden c hurch j o ined t o t he s acr isty . Desp ite e fforts , t he e xcavat ion d id n ot r evea l a ny t races o r r ema ins o f s uch a b u i ld ing , n or d oes t he c hrono log ica l d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins g ive s upport t o t h is a lternat ive . D ifferent i nterpretat ions must , h owever , b e d iscussed , e spec ia l ly a s H iekkanen s tresses t he f act t hat t he v ar ious s tages o f c onstruct ion m ixed t he l ayers o f t he c hurch . H iekkanen a lso t akes a d ef in ite s ource-cr it ica l p os it ion i n u nder l in ing t hat we must t ake i nto a ccount t he empty ing o f t he l ayers u nder t he f loor a nd i t s e ffect o n t he r epresentat iveness o f t he c o ins . I n c onnect ion w ith p reh istor ic a rtefacts f ound u nder t he f loor , H iekkanen s tates t hat t hey c ou ld h ave b een d epos ited a long w ith e arth a nd s o i l b rought i n to t he c hurch a s f i l l f or g raves a nd f eatures d ug o ut i n t he d ifferent s tages o f c onstruct ion ( H iekkanen 1 986 :99-100) . Our t h ird e xamp le i s f rom t he p rov ince o f Häme . T he c hurch o f S t . J ames i n R enko h as p rev ious ly b een d ated t o t he l a te med ieva l p er iod . T he c hurch f e l l i nto d isrepa ir i n t he 1 7th c entury a nd i t s r u ins were r ebu i lt i n t he 1 8th c entury i n o ctagona l f orm . I t h as b een c onv inc ing ly a rgued t hat t he c hurch p lan o f e longated o ctagona l s hape was a dopted i n F in land a t t hat t ime . T he f i rst e xamp le o f t he t ype was a t imber c hurch b u i lt a t K o ivu laht i i n 1 691-1693 a nd t he l a st s uch c hurches were b u i lt a t He ino la i n 1 807-1811 a nd K isko i n 1 8 10 . I n 1 984 a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions o f t he c hurch o f R enko were c arr ied o ut . A s i n t he a bove-ment ioned c ases , t he c hurch o f R enko d id n ot r evea l a ny d eta i ls o r f eatures t hat p erm itted a p rec ise d ate f or c onstruct ion o n t he b as is o f a rch itectura l c ompar isons . On t he o ther h and , t he e xcavat ions d id n ot s how t hat t he c hurch h ad s ubsequent ly b een c hanged i n to o ctagona l f orm ( H iekkanen 1 987 ) . Med ieva l c o ins o ffer t he o n ly a va i lab le means o f d at ing . A t ota l o f 4 7 c o ins were f ound i n t he s i fted l ayers o f t he c hurch . None o f t hese a re o f t he 1 4th c entury . Near ly h a lf o f t he 1 5th c entury c o ins s pan t he who le c entury . On t he o ther h and , t he m int ing p er iods o f t he o ther c o ins s hown i n t he d iagram a re s o l im ited t hat t he b u i ld ing o f t he c hurch c an b e d ated t o t he p er iod f rom 1 430 t o 1 470/1480 , a t wh ich s tage t he g round-p lan was a lready i n t he f orm o f a l ong o ctagon . T h is i s e xcept iona l a s most n aves o f med ieva l c hurches i n F in land a re u n iform ly r egu lar w ith e xcept ions t o t he r ectangu lar f orm b e ing t he f ive-s ided n ave a nd t hree-s ided west e nd o f t he c hurch o f Nous ia inen , t he f ive-s ided c hance l o f t he t h ird s tage o f t he C athedra l o f T urku a nd t he s even-s ided o ne t hat was b u i lt t o r ep lace i t . T he o ctagona l A l l S a ints ' C hape l was b u i lt o n t he e ast s ide o f t he l atter i n 1 471 . H iekkanen ment ions t hat t he l atter a nd t he c hurch o f R enko h ave a n i n terest ing , a lthough u ncerta in b iograph ica l c onnect ion . T he c hape l was c omm iss ioned b y Dean Maunu S ärk i laht i who was c lose ly i nvo lved w ith K nut P osse , l ord o f t he c ast le o f Häme ( Sw . T avastehus ) f rom 1 474 t o 1 490 . He was a lso a ct ive ly i nvo lved i n t he b u i ld ing o f c hurches i n t he p rov ince o f Häme . S ärk i laht i a nd P osse were i n terred i n t he s ame g rave i n t he wa l l o f A l l S a ints ' C hape l i n T urku . T hese p ersona l c ontacts d emonstrated b y h istor ica l s ources may

7 1

n arrow t he r ange o f d at ings i nd icated b y t he c o ins . T he f loor-p lan i s e xcept iona l e ven i n c ompar ison w ith a reas o uts ide F in land . H iekkanen k nows o f o n ly o ne f ore ign p ara l le l , t he c hurch o f S ch lutup i n N .Germany wh ich i n i t se lf i s e xcept iona l2 ( H iekkanen 1 987) . A lthough t he f o l low ing e xamp le d oes n ot b e long t o t he c ontexts d iscussed h ere , i t must a lso b e ment ioned t hat c o ins h ave a lso b een u sed f or d at ing f eatures o f t own p lans . M .H iekkanen h as d ated t he T own Ha l l S quare ( F i . S uurtor i , R aat ihuoneenteor i ) o f R aumo t o a fter 1 550 a nd n ot t o t he 1 400s a s p rev ious ly a ssumed . T he g rounds f or t h is n ew d at ing were c o ins f ound i n t he a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions o f t he s quare a nd h istor ica l-topograph ica l d ata ( H iekkanen 1 983 :45 ) .

5 . CO INS I N ARCH ITECTURAL-H ISTOR ICAL DAT ING - SU MMARY T he a bove e xamp les d emonstrate c lear ly t he u se a nd c entra l s ign if icance o f c o in f inds i n d ev is ing c hrono log ies , e ssent ia l f or t he s tudy o f c hurches a nd c ast les . T hey h ave d emonstrated t he c ongruence o f c o ins d at ings w ith h istor ica l s ources a nd s ty l ist ic-h istor ica l d at ings a nd t he o pportun ity t hey p rov ide o f r ei n terpret ing w r itten s ources a nd e ven g iv ing t ota l ly u nexpected r esu lts . Desp ite t hese a dvantages , c o in d at ings a re n ot a lways t he f i na l s o lut ion t o c hrono log ica l p rob lems . A rchaeo log ica l f inds a nd r ema ins c an b e s een a s h istor ica l mater ia l b oth c omp lement ing w r itten s ources a nd a s p r imary s ources i n t he ir own r ight ( Sarvas 1 977b :358 ) . A t t he s ame t ime t he e xamp les c ited a bove d emonstrate t he s ource c r it ica l p rob lems o f u s ing c o in d ata ; t he p oss ib le i ncons istenc ies b etween t he p er iod o f m int ing a nd t he p er iod o f c ircu lat ion , a nd e spec ia l ly t he e ffects o f l ater c onstruct ion a nd b u i ld ing o n t he r epresentat iveness o f c o in f inds . T he c hurches o f E spoo ( 18 med ieva l c o in f inds ) , L empää lä ( 15 c o ins ) a nd R enko ( 47 c o ins ) a re a l l g ood e xamp les o f t he l a tter p rob lem . T he s ma l lest c hurch c onta ined o ver t w ice t he n umber o f c o ins f ound i n a l l o f t he l arger o nes ; t h is i s ag ood e xamp le o f t he n egat ive e ffects o f a bandonment a nd l im ited c onstruct ion o n t he r epresentat iveness o f t he c o ins . C ommon t o a l l o f t he e xamp les o f r esearch d iscussed a bove i s t he f act t hat c o ins - a nd e xc lus ive ly med ieva l c o ins - were ma in ly u sed a s ac hrono log ica l a id . I t i s t o b e h oped t hat t he r ev iew o f t he a va i lab le s ources a nd t he h i story o f med ieva l a rchaeo logy a nd a nt iquar ian a dm in istrat ion h as made t h is a pproach u nderstandab le . I n s o f ar a s I am a b le t o i nterpret t he mot ivat ion o f t he r esearchers c oncerned , Ib e l ieve t he ir p ract ica l a im was t o d emonstrate t o t he a uthor it ies r espons ib le f or t he r estorat ion o f c hurches a nd c ast les t he p otent ia l o f c o ins i n s o lv ing d at ing p rob lems . T hus , a rchaeo log ists h ave w ished t o t ake u p t he s ame c ause a s Henr ik L i l ius , q uoted e xtens ive ly a bove , who c la imed t hat " i t i s h igh t ime t o b eg in a d iscuss ion o n t he t heoret ica l l eve l o f t h is i s sue ( dat ing methods ) . I t c ou ld , f or e xamp le , b eg in w ith a n i nvest igat ion o f wh ich o f o ur med ieva l monuments h ave b een d ated b y c ircu lar r eason ing a nd wh ich c an s tand u p t o s c ient if ic c r it ic ism ." ( L i l ius 1 971 :62 ) . A c r it ica l r ev iew o f e ar l ier d at ings a nd t he u se o f u nstud ied mater ia ls a lready i n museum c o l lect ions a s we l l a s c oncern f or t he c arefu l s tudy a nd e xcavat ion o f c hurches a nd c ast les i n t he f uture , a l l s ign ify t hat a " sc ient if ic" s tudy o f med ieva l a rch itecture t hat t akes i n to a ccount a l l p oss ib le s ource mater ia ls i s f ina l ly g ett ing u nder way i n F in land .

7 2

6 . FURTHER POTENT IAL OF CO IN F INDS T he s ign if icance o f c o ins i s n ot l im ited t o t he ir c hrono log ica l v a lue . Obv ious ly ac o in d ate c annot e xp la in a c ast le o r c hurch i n s oc io-econom ic t erms o r ac hurch a s a r e l ig ious p henomenon . C o ins a re r e lated n ot o n ly t o t he f i nds c ontext b ut t hrough i t t o t he ir who le e nv ironment a nd i t s e conom ic a nd c u ltura l r e lat ions . T hus , ar equ irement o f r esearch i s a n o vera l l i nvest igat ion o f c o in f inds ; t h is i s i n p rogress i n F in land . T he c o inage s uggests a d iv is ion o f t he c ountry i n to d ifferent e conom ic r eg ions , i . e . i t f orms d ifferent r eg iona l a nd e conom ic p atterns a ga inst wh ich t he c ast le o r c hurch u nder s tudy c an b e c ompared . T he r eg ions may a lso d emonstrate p atterns o f p o l it ica l a nd e conom ic r e lat ions . P oss ib ly t he p atterns o f t he s tate a nd c hurch c ast les may n ot o n ly d iffer f rom e ach o ther b ut a lso f rom t hose o f c o in f inds i n t owns o r t hat o f t he m ites o f t he p ar ish ioners f ound i n c hurches . T he s i tuat ion b ecomes e spec ia l ly i nterest ing when t he i deo log ica l ly p repared w r itten s ources a nd t he c o in f inds c ontrad ict e ach o ther . T he most c ha l leng ing t asks o f h istor ica l a rchaeo logy a re t o s earch f or a nd i nterpret t hese c ontrad ict ions . F ina l ly , I s ha l l p resent t hree s tud ies t ak ing i n to a ccount f actors o f c o ins o ther t han t he ir c hrono log ica l d imens ion ; t h is i s sue was t ouched u pon i n c onnect ion w ith t he c ast le o f K uus isto . I n 1 979 P entt i K o ivunen p ub l ished t he med ieva l c o ins f rom t he B ishops ' Manor o f K oro inen ( tota l : 2 87 c o ins ) . T h is mater ia l was c o l lected i n e xtens ive e xcavat ions c arr ied o ut b etween 1 898 a nd 1 902 ( Ko ivunen 1 979 ) . I n t he f i na l t hree y ears t he e xcavat ions were s uperv ised b y J uhan i R inne who a pp l ied f i e ld methods t hat were a lmost u p t o modern s tandards . T he e xcavat ion was c arr ied o ut i n s quares a nd l ayers , a nd f o l lowed f eatures a nd s tructures . T he a rtefacts were c o l lected a ccord ing ly a nd t he most i mportant o nes , s uch a s t he c o ins , were p lotted ( Ko ivunen 1 979 :9 ) . However , R inne d id n ot c arry o ut a ny f urther s tud ies o f t h is mater ia l a nd i t was p resented o n ly a s as ummary i n w ith h is s tudy o n t he C athedra l o f T urku ( R inne 1 941 :30-58 ) . K o ivunen u sed c o ins t o d ate t he a rch itectura l r ema ins a nd t hrough t hem d emonstrated t he e x istence o f a n e ar l ier c hurch i n s ide t he wa l ls o f t he p resent c hurch o f K oro inen . T he p erspect ive o f n um ismat ic h istory was a lso s tressed a nd K o ivunen d iscussed t he e conom ic r e lat ions r ef lected b y t he c o ins . T h is s tudy b y a n a rchaeo log ist h as r ece ived s harp n um ismat ic c r it ic ism ( Sarvas 1 979 ; K o ivunen-Sarvas 1 980 ) , p o int ing o ut , f or e xamp le , e rrors i n t he i dent if icat ion o f c o ins . A s t he r emarks i n S arvas 's a nd B . Ma lmer 's ( 1980 ) s tudy o n l a te med ieva l p enn ies i n Sweden h ave a b ear ing o n K o ivunen 's d at ings , Is ha l l n ot q uote h is r esu lts i n a ny f urther d eta i l . Neverthe less , t he d iscuss ion c lear ly s hows t he d ec is ive i mportance o f med ieva l c o in mater ia l f or t he s tudy o f t he e conom ic h istory o f t he p er iod . A nother e xamp le i s t he a bove-ment ioned c hurch o f E spoo , t he c o in f i nds o f wh ich were p ub l ished b y P ekka S arvas i n ab r ief b ut i n terest ing a rt ic le ( Sarvas 1 982 ) . T h is a na lys is was t he b as is o f H iekkanen 's f urther s tud ies i n h is h istory o f t he c hurch o f E spoo ( H iekkanen 1 988 ) . T h is s tudy t akes i n to a ccount n ot o n ly t he med ieva l c o ins , b ut a l l t he c o ins f rom t he c hurch f rom t he e ar ly 1 5th c entury t o 1 971 . T he c o ins a re d iscussed a s a s ource f or e conom ic h istory a nd o ne ma in o bservat ion i s t he s ign if icance o f L ivon ian c o ins i n med ieva l t imes , n ot o n ly i n t he f i nds f rom E spoo ( 62 .5% ) , b ut a lso t hroughout t he s outhern c oasta l r eg ion o f F in land . T he c o in less p er iod f rom 1 540 t o 1 570 i s a lso d iscussed . T h is c annot b e e xp la ined a s a monetary h istor ica l p henomenon , a s t here a re c o ins o f t h is p er iod f rom o ther c hurches i n t he p rov ince o f Uus imaa . S o f ar t here i s n o e xp lanat ion f or t h is l ack o f c o ins . I n t he l ate 1 6th c entury a nd t he 1 7th a nd 1 8th c entur ies t he p roport ions o f f ore ign a nd Swed ish c o inage c hange c omp lete ly . O f t he 4 88 c o ins o f t h is p er iod

7 3

o n ly 2 1 ( i .e . s l ight ly more t han 4 % ) were m inted e l sewhere t han i n Sweden . O f t hese , 1 9 a re R uss ian r ef lect ing " a s e ldom d iscussed f eature o f t he n um ismat ic h i story o f F in land - t he o ff ic ia l o r s em i-off ic ia l u se o f R uss ian c urrency i n t he o ccupat ion y ears o f t he c a l led G reat T error ( 1710-21) a nd t he L i tt le T error ( 1741-43) ." I n c ompar ing t he c ompos it ion o f med ieva l a nd modern c o in f inds i t c an b e s een t hat t he s tate d id n ot e xtend i t s i n f luence i n to a l l a reas a nd t hat t he " i nternat iona l" med ieva l c o in f i nds r ef lect t he " mu lt i-po lar ity" o f s oc iety a t t he t ime , wh i le t he c o ins o f modern t imes f orm a c losed p attern r ef lect ing c entra l ized g overnment a nd mercant i l ist ic p o l ic ies . S arvas a nd H iekkanen a l so d i scuss h ow a nd why c o ins were d epos ited b eneath t he f l oor o f t he c hurch ( on t he i n terpretat ion o f c o in f i nds i n c hurches , s ee a l so V ar jo la 1 980 :120 .121) a nd t he c hrono log ica l d i fferences i n t he f requenc ies o f o ffer ing/ los ing c o ins a re n oted . H iekkanen a l so d iscusses c hanges i n t he d i str ibut ion o f c o ins w ith in t he c hurch , b ut a s t h is i s a n i s o lated c ase h e d oes n ot p rov ide a ny f i na l a nswers t o t he p rob lems r a ised i n t h is c onnect ion . I n a dd it ion t o t he ir c hrono log ica l , e conom ic , s oc ia l-h istor ica l a nd p o l it ica l s ign if icance f or t he s tudy o f c ast les a nd c hurches , c o ins a re a lso o f i mportance i n s tudy ing c hanges i n c eremon ia l c ustoms a nd r e l ig ious b ehav iour r e lated t o c hurches . Money i s ap art o f a l l h uman a ct iv ity a nd i t s s tudy c oncerns t he h uman it ies i n a l l t he ir v ar iety . T he c ross-cu ltura l n ature o f o ur s ub ject i s f urther u nder l ined b y af ree ly-trans lated C roat ian p roverb : "W ithout money o ne c an g o n owhere , n ot e ven t o c hurch ."

NOTES 1 .

I t

i s not

surprising t hat

H ausen

a nd Rinne d id not

concentrate on

t he

c hange o f

t he c astle a s

t he coins were originally d efined a nd identified a ccording t o

the

year of

minting

Tab. XII:57,58). current

2 .

d ating must

Hiekkanen

Häme.

The

r evealed

d ifferent

d oes

of

t hey t he

s tages of

crown bracteate

d atings

be c hecked

of

i s

covered r uins

i n

coin

type

t ypes

f rom t ime t o

not mention

f loor-plan

t hat

excavations

t he

The

t he t he

t he

r uins f orm o f

f ound a t a re

g iven

t erm

f or

a s

1 355

( Schive

1 865

identification

a nd

t ime.

o f a n

r emains o f

t he medieval

c huch of

e longated octagon. a nother

a re necessary i n order

construction.

Kuusisto i s

c ontinually c hanging a nd

t he

Schive's work where

c hurch

o f

S t. Laurentius Excavations rectangular

t o verify t hese observations

a t o f

f orm. and t o

Koski t he

i n

r uins F urther

d ate

t he

L ITERATURE Berg,

K arin.

1 981.

Myntfunn

f ra Höre K irke

Fortidsminnesmerkers B lomqvist, Drake,

Ragnar.

Knut. "

1 951.

Lerpotter.

Kulturen

1958.

Esbo kyrka under

1971.

Keskustelua

i Valdres.

Bevaring.

Keskiajan

Ekenäs.

rakennushistoriallisista a joituksista.

arkkitehtuurin

Aikakauskirja Dreijer, Gallen,

Matts. J an

1 965.

Kyrkogolvet

l1981.

- e n

s kattkammare.

K ustö

1 978).

l innan kaivauslöydöt

1

Hausen,

Roar.

r uiner.

H iekkanen,

Keskiajan

Om s tavkirkers

r akennustaide.

K ustö s lott

I -II.

Raumo.

1 986.

Archaeology o f

I n

1 883-1884.

F inds

Fennoscandia

Fornminnes-

Konsthistoriska

P etterson.

t aide

1 .

betydning.

s tone c hurch of

s läktled t ill

a rchaeologica

s läktled.

I II. - Rengon

k irkon pohjakaava.

Arkeologi

i

Helsinki.

E sbo

h istoria

I II.

K uustö

s lott,

a rkeologisk beskriftning a f Reinhold Hausen 1 883.

Kongl.

a kademiens mänadsblad. HTF 1 977.

i n

a nd h istorical

Kyrka.

( In press).

B idrag t ill F inlands

s tatsmedel,

V iking 47.

Lempäälä

f rom prehistorical

- k irjoituksia Antero S inisalolle.

Villmanstrand. Hans.

F inska

Helsingfors.

f ormam octangularem exstructum

Fran

H istorisk

2 .

t he Medieval

F inland.

Muistomerkki 1 988.

a boensis.

Medeltidsstaden

t imes.

f rän Kustö

1 979).

Helsingfors.

F inlands medeltidsurkunder

1 983.

S uomen

Myntfunnenes

Registrum e cclesiae

S atakunta,

H ildebrand,

Ars

d atering.

1 910-1935.

1 987.

3 .

2 .

t illägnad Lars

1 890.

Markus.

Rapporter

f örsta byggnadsskede.

Festskrift

1 987.

1 883.

f ör t illägnad

J ussi-Pekka Taavitsainen,

H istoriska s evärdheter.

K ustö b iskopsborgs

1 881,

Festskrift

f ör F inland 1 /1981.

1 984.

Reinhold.

C . J. Gardberg:

( Föreningen

( Utgrävningsfynd

( Abo h istoriska museum,

s tudier 4 .

Hauglid,

( A r eview of)

Konsthistoriska s tudier 4 .

f öreningens vägledningar N :o 1 978.

1 965.

f örsta byggnadsskede.

T idskrift 1 952.

O lof

K ustö biskopsborgs

Lars Pettersson Helsingfors

C . J.

S :t

biskopsborg.

s lott).

H istoriallinen

1 /1972.

konsthistoria.

Gardberg,

2 /1971.

a joitusongelmista.

När byggdes Kustö

Kuusiston

t u l Norske

1 981.

1 951.

f er n sekler.

H istoriallinen Aikakauskirja 1972.

Foreningen

Arbok

H istorisk T idsskrift

V itterhets

Tolfte

( 4

h istorisk-

p l.)

u tgiven

a f

H istorie o ch Antiqvitets

argangen

1 883.

f ör F inland 4 /1977.

H istoria och

a rkeologi. Högman,

Volter.

J onsson,

1 907.

Rauman kaupungin h istoria

Kenneth & Lagerqvist,

Lars 0 .

1 974.

Odling K napas,

Marja Terttu.

1 983.

Pentti.

1 979.

f rän

I vuoteen

1 641.

F inströms kyrka,

Helsinki. Aland.

A lands

3 5.

Kyrkoarkeologi H ikuin

K oivunen,

Mynten

i F inland.

En

f orskningshistorisk översikt.

9 .

Medeltida myntfynd

i Korois.

Abo s tads

h istoriska museums

ä rsskrift. " & Sarvas,

P ekka.

1 980.

Myntfynden

i Korois.

H istorisk T idskrift

f ör F inland

1 /1980. L agerqvist,

Lars O .

1 970.

Svenska mynt

under vikingatid o ch medeltid

g otländska mynt

( ca.1140-1565).

h andboksserie nr.4.

7 5

( ca.995-1521)

Numismatiska bokförlagets

s amt

L ilius,

Henrik.

1 971a.

Rakennushistoriallisen t utkimuksen o f)

Knut

Drake,

a joitusongelmat.

D ie Burg H ämeenlinna

Baugeschichtliche Untersuchung. t yksen Aikakauskirja

6 8,

H ki

( A r eview

im Mittelalter.

E ine

S uomen Muinaismuistoyhdis-

1 968.

S iv.

1 75.

H istoriallinen

Aikakauskirja 1 /1971. 1 971b.

Keskustelua keskiajan mista.

Malmer,

Brita.

1 980.

a rkkitehtuutirsta

Historiallinen A ikakauskirja

Den senmedeltida penningen i Sverige. Historie och Antikvitets a kademien.

1 986. Paloposki, Rinne,

Toivo J .

Juhani.

Myntfynd i kyrkor. 1 971.

Suomen historian

1 902.

s en a joitusongel-

Kungl.

Vitterhets

Antikvariska serien 3 1.

Hikuin 1 2.

l ähteet.

Sällningsarbetena

j a

3 /1971.

Forssa.

i Abo s lott

och

d eras

resultat.

F inskt

Museum 1902. e l

1 904.

I t

Kuusiston

l innan rauniot.

nähtävyyksiä 1 941.

Turun

t uomiokirkko keskiaikana

historia. S arvas,

Pekka.

1 977a.

Eräs

K uvallinen matkaopas.

S uomen

1 . I .

Tuomiokirkon

r akennus-

Turku.

r ahaharvinaisuus.

Museoviraston s isäinen

t iedotuslehti

1 /1977. 1 977b.

Om h istorisk

arkeologi.

H istorisk T idsskrift

f ör F inland

4 /1977. 1 979.

E tt

a rbete om myntfynden p ä Korois

Tidskrift 1 982. S chive,

C .I.

S inisalo, S teen

1 865.

Antero.

J ensen,

1 987.

JOrgen.

Espoon k irkon

r ahalöydöt.

Norges Mynter

i Middelalderen.

Myöhäiskeskiaikaiset

1 973.

J ussi-Pekka.

1 980.

A . M.

1 916.

S uomen

H istorisk

t iedotuslehti

2 /1982.

Christiania.

k ivikirkot.

Ars

S uomen

t aide

1 .

Nordisk Numismatisk

1 972.

U tgrävnings

f ynd

kaivauslöydöt) Tallgren,

S MY:n

MOntfund i danske k irkers p engeblokke. Arskrift

Taavitsainen,

b iskopsgärd.

f ör F inland 3 /1979.

Abo

f rän

K ustö

s tads

h istoriska museum.

s lott.

a rkeologinen b ibliografia.

b ibliografiaan

I .

L isiä

( Kuusiston

l innan

Rapporter

3 .

Suomen h istorialliseen

S uomen M uinaismuistoyhdistyksen

Aikakauskirja XXVII:4. Tapio,

O lavi.

1 966.

Varhaisia

esinelöytöjä Tyrvään vanhankirkon

Suomen Museo Varjola,

Pirjo.

1 980.

1 966.

Vainajan matkavarusteista.

K otiseutu 4 /1980.

kaivauksista.

C O IN S I NC H U R CH E S : AM E AN S O FP A YM EN T ? P a r t o n e KAR IN B ERG

The

crucial

what

can

point with c oins

coins

t ell

which

type was

b ution

and c irculation.

o f

c oinage I n

a s

in

u s?

t he soil

beneath

s tave-churches: c onditions

of

e specially t he u nder

the

of

t heir expression of

a t

a ny g iven moment.

Furthermore, have been i n

the

c hurch

materials

question where

3 )

t he middle

used, Coins

Apart

f rom

d ating,

can

d iscern

We c an s tudy t heir

d istri-

content,

we

t hey have been u sed to e stimate

a s

the extent

a ges. are d iscussed:

f loors been d isturbed.

f loors.

d ate.

t heir metal

t he p aper t hree main problems

the

the

i s

t he basis of

c irculation

i t might

this part

On

1 )

How much h as

2 )

The

f loor i n the Norwegian

t he opening o f

t he

f loor boards

a s ource of

t he c oins were

f ound,

c ultural

a nd

t he

and c hurch h istory,

a nd how d id t he coins

e nd up

f loor.

C o ins a nd c o in-f inds a re a n i mportant a rchaeo log ica l a nd h istor ica l r eference wh ich , c ompared t o w r itten e v idence , c an p rov ide n ew k now ledge a bout o ur p ast , n ot mere ly i n t he monetary f ie ld b ut a lso p ure ly c u ltura l ly . A pprox imate ly 10 n um ismat ic c hurch f inds o f s ome 1 8 ,000 c o ins h ave s o f ar b een r ecorded i n Norway . T h is n umber h as i ncreased c ons iderab ly d ur ing t he p ast 1 0 y ears . E xtens ive a rchaeo log ica l a ct iv ity h as b een c arr ied o ut o n b eha lf o f t he Norweg ian C entra l O ff ice o f H istor ic Monuments . Work i s c arr ied o ut a ccord ing t o a p r ior ity l i st b ased o n wh ich c hurches s hou ld b e p rotected f rom d ecay c aused b y d amp , i n c omb inat ion w ith t he c ongregat ions ' w ish f or modern f loors w ith e lectr ic h eat ing . T he e xcavat ion methods a re b e ing i mproved : a ) s i ev ing o f a l l t he s o i l s ed iment i s n ow c ompu lsory , a nd t he s i eve i s more f ine-meshed t han b efore . b ) E ach c hurch i s d iv ided i nto a c o-ord inate s ystem wh ich i s u sed t o i nd icate t he s pot where e ach i tem i s f ound . S uch p lott ing i s a n i mportant s tart ing -po int f or s tudy ing a nd d at ing t he c hurch a nd i t s p er iods o f c onstruct ion . I t a lso i ncreases o ur k now ledge o f r i tua l c eremon ies c onnected w ith t he a ltar , t he b apt istry e tc . b efore t he R eformat ion i n 1 536 , s i nce t he ma jor ity o f c o ins d ate f rom t h is p er iod . What g ives n um ismat ics a n ear ly u n ique p os it ion a s a n a ux i l l iary b ranch o f s c ience? I t i s i mp l ic it i n t he c o in a s s uch . I n c ontrast t o s ome o f t he a rchaeo log ica l a rt ifacts wh ich , d ue t o t he ir f ragmentary c ond it ion , c annot b e i dent if ied , t he c o in b enef its f rom i t s f unct ion a s a mean o f p ayment ; t h is f unct ion i s c lear ly d ef ined . I n a dd it ion , i t d isp lays e v idence wh ich r evea ls a t what t ime i t was p roduced . A nd t he c ruc ia l p o int w ith c o ins i s t he ir e xpress ion o f d ate . A part f rom t he d at ing , what c an c o ins t e l l u s? On t he b as is o f t he ir meta l c ontent , we c an d i scern wh ich t ype was i n c i rcu lat ion a t a ny g iven moment . We c an s tudy t he ir d istr ibut ion a nd c ircu lat ion . F urthermore , t hey h ave b een u sed t o e st imate t he e xtent o f c o inage a s i t m ight h ave b een i n t he m idd le a ges .

7 7

THE CO MPOSITION OF THE F INDS We c an d ist ingu ish t wo g roups o f o b jects d epos ited i n t he c hurch s ubso i l f oundat ions :

a nd

1 ) Ob jects r e lat ing t o f i tt ings , f urn ish ings a nd c hurch c eremon ies . 2 ) P ersona l e qu ipment , u tens i ls , v ar ious t oo ls , weapons a nd c o ins . On c loser i nspect ion , c erta in f eatures a re d om inant . T he f ind 's e ar l iest a nd l a test c o in s how a l arge c hrono log ica l s pan . I n o ther words , t he c o ins were d epos ited o ver s evera l c entur ies . F urthermore , t he c ompos it ion o f t he f i nds s hows a ma jor ity o f Norweg ian c o ins , t he b u lk s truck i n t he M idd le A ges . T hese t i ny b racteates a re r e lat ive ly we l l p reserved , p art ly d ue t o f avourab le c ond it ions o f p reservat ion i n t he d ry s o i l u nder t he c hurches . T hey d id n ot c ircul a te t hroughout l ong p er iods , b ut were d epos ited wh i le c urrent . I n s hort , t hey a re r epresentat ive o f t he p er iod i n wh ich t hey were s truck . We s tudy t he c o ins c lose ly , b oth a s i nd iv idua l a rt ifacts a nd a s g roups i n h oards i n r e lat ion t o o ther a rchaeo log ica l o b jects a nd we c onstant ly c ompare o ur r esu lts w ith h istor ic a l d eve lopments i n g enera l . T he c ompos it ion o f t he f inds r ough ly g ives a n um ismat ic " p icture" a s f o l lows . We h ave f ew c o ins f rom t he 1t h c entury , e ven f ewer/none f rom t he 1 2th c entury , a r i ch h arvest f rom t he h igh M idd le Ages a nd a d ecrease i n t he l a ter M idd le Ages . T he n umber o f c o ins s truck a fter t he R eformat ion i s r e lat ive ly s ma l l . I t w i l l b r ing u s t oo f ar t o p robe i n to t he p rob lems o f c ause a nd e ffect . Neverthe less , we must b r ief ly p o int o ut c erta in r e lat ionsh ips wh ich p art ly e xp la in why a n umber o f c o ins f ound t he ir way t hrough t he s ma l l o pen ings b etween t he wooden f loor b oards . E xterna l f actors s uch a s c iv i l wars d ur ing t he 1 2th c entury , a n i ncreas ing p opu lat ion a t t he s umm it o f t he H igh M idd le A ges w ith a n a ugmentat ion o f c o inage , i n c ontrast t o t he u n ion p er iod ( Norway/Sweden ) o f t he L ate M idd le A ges w ith a n i ncreased i mport o f f ore ign c urrency . P lagues e spec ia l ly t he i mpact b y t he B lack Death - i n t he p opu lat ion a lso i nf luenced t he f requency o f a ttendance i n t he c hurches where t he c o ins were l ost . T he R eformat ion i s i n i t se lf a c lue . A c hange i nto l arger d enom inat ions ( mark a nd s k i l l ing ) a lso t ook p lace . We must n ot f orget t o b ear i n m ind t he s i ze o f t he c o ins ( the d iameter ) w ith a v iew t o t he f loor b e ing u sed a s a " sav ings c hest" .

PROBLE M 1 How much h as t he s o i l b eneath t he c hurch f loors b een d isturbed? T he t erm ino logy a nd d escr ipt ions u sed b y a rchaeo log ists h ave n ot a lways b een c lear a nd c ons istent . T hose words most o ften a pp l ied a re s urface l ayer ( top s o i l a nd t herefore t he most r ecent ) a nd d i sturbed l ayer ( deeper a nd o lder ) . T he f inds o f a rchaeo log ica l o b jects h ave t herefore b een r egarded a s s tray f i nds a nd a s a means o f r e lat ive d at ing . C o ins f ound b e low p ost-ho les , a rrangements o f s tones e tc . c an , h owever , b e u sed a s a means o f a bso lute d at ing ( term inus p ost q uem ) , a s a t Hore s tave c hurch i n V a ldres ( f ig .1) . T he p rob lem c ons ists i n t he s o i l h av ing b een more o r l e ss d isturbed i n c onnect ion w ith e xtens ions , r epa irs a nd b ur ia ls t hroughout t he a ges . T o c ounteract t h is t he a rchaeo log ists must u se s ma l l u n its wh i le e xcavat ing ( max .1 m 2) , i nd icat ing t he e xact p os it ion a s t o where i n t he l ayer c o ins a nd o ther d atab le mater ia ls were f ound . I n t hat way i t i s p oss ib le t o d ate t he v ar ious s trat igraph ic l ayers s o t hat t hey c an b e c ompared w ith t he d ifferent s tages o f

7 8

Fig.l.

The

graves

f rom before c . A. D.1100.

c . A.D.1100. 1 822. shows the

d ifferent

Open

Shaded t he

historical

l ines

areas

a re

existing a rea of

1 1th.

t he building of HOre c hurch.

d otted l ines

show a r econstruction of t he r emaining p art t he c hurch,

c oin of Magnus Olaysson was

f rom t he

s tages o f The

century was

f ound.

o f

a nd

t he c hurch built t he c hurch

extended i n The

f illed c ircles

1 822.

l etter B marks

The crosses

indicate t he

c . A. D.1180

f rom c . A.D.1180.

f rom

a nd pulled down i n The unbroken

The l etter A marks t he post

i ndicate

c hurch

t he

hole where

grave

l ine

i n which

the Danish

c oin

f ound.

c onstruct ion o f t he c hurches . A nd l i kew ise i t i s p oss ib le t o e xam ine more c lose ly t he a lterat ion i n t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , b oth q uant ity a nd t ype . L ook ing a t t he c oncentrat ions o f c o ins i n c erta in p arts o f t he c hurch , we may a ssume t hat t he s o i l i n a s pec if ic a rea h as n ot b een d isturbed . I f , o n t he o ther h and , t he s o i l i n wh ich t he c oncentrat ions h ave b een f ound , b een d isturbed , y ou may o n t he c ontrary a ssume t hat t he n umber o f c o ins i n t he a rea h as b een l arger .

PROBLE M 2 T he f loor . 1 ) T he mater ia ls u sed . T he f loors i n Norweg ian c hurches were u sua l ly made o f wood , s tone f loors i n n e ighbour ing c ountr ies .

i n c ontrast t o t he

2 ) Open ings . When wooden f loor b oards d ry , l a rge o r s ma l l g aps o pen u p b etween t he f l oor b oards . C hang ing c l imate a nd r e lat ive h um id ity w i l l i nf luence t he s ize o f t he o pen ings . 3 ) T he c ond it ions o f t he f loors . T he c ond it ions o f t he f l oor c an t o a c erta in e xtent e xp la in t he d egree o f l o sses b eneath t he wooden f l oor . A fter t he l apse o f s ome g enerat ions i t was c ommon t o r ep lace t he f l oor b oards . I n t he c ourse o f t ime t he f loors were t arred t o k eep o ut t he c o ld a nd d amp . I n t he c ontext o f monetary h istory , i t i s i n terest ing t o e xam ine whether t here was a c onnect ion b etween p er iods o f f ew h oards a nd n ew f l oors . Our p rob lem i s t he l ack o f r e l iab le s ources t e l l ing u s when a nd where

7 9

t he f loor-boards were c hanged a nd t arred . 4 ) Hatches t o g et r id o f waste . We k now t hat h atches were c ut i n t he f l oor b oards i nto wh ich g arbage was s wept . A re t here c oncentrat ions o f c o ins u nderneath? T he a nswer i s n egat ive . T he c hurch s ervant o r s omeone e lse wou ld p robab ly h ave s aved s uch v a luab le o b jects f rom a d ark e x istence b eneath t he f loor .

PROBLE M 3 C o ins a s as ource o f c u ltura l a nd c hurch h istory . A ) T he u se o f d istr ibut ion maps t e l ls u s w here t he c o ins were f ound . R ingebu s tave c hurch i s u sed a s a n e xamp le h ere . T he ma in r eason f or t h is c ho ice i s b ecause i t was t he s cene o f t he most r ecent l arge e xcavat ion o f a c hurch c arr ied o ut b y t he Norweg ian C entra l O ff ice o f H istor ic Monuments ; t h is s hou ld g uarantee a we l l f ounded d ocumentat ion o f h oards a nd a rchaeo log ica l s tructures . T he l arge n umber o f c o ins ( 892 ) d iscovered t here a lso g ives u s e xtreme ly u sefu l e v idence . ( The l argest n umber o f c o ins e ver f ound i n o ne s ing le h oard i n a c hurch i s L om w ith 2 ,245 c o ins ) . L ook ing a t t he map ( f ig .2 ) t he f o l low ing c an b e e stab l ished : -b u lk o f c o ins a re i n t he n ave -b u lk o f c o ins a re o n t he s outhern s ide , t he " ma le s ector" -l arger a nd s ma l ler c oncentrat ions o f c o ins , o f wh ich t he l a rgest a re a ) s outh o f t he western e ntrance b ) i n f ront o f t he e ntrance t o t he c hance l

• • •

•

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t . ••

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.

•

• x• • ••. •

• • •

e• •. v

•

•

•

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•••

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•

%

•

•

•e

coins

a nd X coins

•

x

f ound i n Ringebu

f rom a fter 1 537.

8 0

1 1b

A

•

>'

•

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•

e

•

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x

•

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D istribution map of

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t he Medieval Ages

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•

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s tave-church.

The

symbol

• marks

c oins

f rom

E xp lanat ions f or t hese a re i n d eta i l p ub l ished e lsewhere ( Berg 1 985 :257-259 ) . T he most i mportant f acts , h owever , a re a s f o l lows : a ) T he c oncentrat ion o f c o ins s outh o f t he western e ntrance - t he ma jor ity f rom t he M idd le Ages - a re l i nked w ith t he b apt istry o r p erhaps w ith a c o l lect ion b ox o r " fatt igbosse" , c a l led " Lafrans f att igbosse" s i tuated i n t h is p lace . b ) T he c oncentrat ion o f c o ins i n f ront o f t he c hance l a rch i s l i nked w ith s ecu lar o ffer ings o n t he l ayman 's a ltar . S tänga c hurch o n Got land s hows t hat t he t r iumpha l c ruc if ix i n t he a pex o f t he c hance l a rch c ou ld r est d irect ly o n ap i l lar wh ich was a lso u sed a s as av ing 's c hest . B ) How d id t he c o ins e nd u p u nder t he c hurch f loor? Two ma in t heor ies h ave b een p ut f orward : -T he t heory o f o ffer ing . T he c o ins a re s een a s s ma l l , p r ivate o ffer ings h igher p owers t o o bta in s a lvat ion . -T he t heory o f l oss . C o ins were l o st a nd f e l l t hrough t he o pen ings b etween t he f loor b oards .

t o

Ob ject ions c an b e p ut f orward t o b oth t heor ies . F or t he f i rst o ne , we s hou ld e xpect a l arger n umber o f c o ins , p rov ided p r ivate o ffer ings were c ommon . T here a re n o r ecords o f p r ivate o ffer ings i n e ar ly s ources , w r itten o r o ra l . T he c lergymen must h ave f e lt i t a s a s p ir itua l f ight a ga inst s uperst it ion a nd mag ic when members o f t he c ongregat ion p ut c o ins i n to a n o pen ing i n t he f loor i nstead o f u s ing t he a ltar a s ap lace o f o ffer ing . Nor i s i t h ard t o r a ise o b ject ions a ga inst t he t heory o f l oss . I f t here was l i tt le money i n c ircu lat ion i n Med ieva l Norway , s ure ly p eop le wou ld b e e xtreme ly c aut ious w ith t he c o ins a t t he ir d isposa l a nd a lso t he n umber o f l ost c o ins c ou ld n ot h ave b een v ery l a rge . T h is t heory c an , h owever , b e s upported b y t he n ature o f t he c o ins , i . e . t he ir s i ze a nd we ight . T hese t iny p ieces o f meta l , w ith a n a verage we ight o f a bout 1 /10g wou ld h ard ly h ave b een h eard when f a l l ing t o t he f loor i n a d ark c hurch f u l l o f p eop le . I n t h is s i tuat ion I t h ink t hat b oth t heor ies a re p laus ib le . On t he o ne h and , I b e l ieve t hat many c o ins were l o st when o ffer ings were p ut i n c o l lect ing b oxes . I t d oes n ot s eem u n l ike ly t hat c o ins were l o st s omet imes b ecause o f t he s hape , s i ze a nd mater ia l o f t he c o l lect ion b ox . S ome o f t hem m ight h ave b ecome l eaky a nd c racked , s o t hat c o ins s omet imes f e l l o ut a nd what a n e ffort i t must h ave b een f or a c o ld h and t o p ut c o ins , p art icu lar ly t i ny b racteates , i nto t he o pen ing o f t he o ffer ing b ag . On t he o ther h and , s ome c o ins must h ave b een p ut d e l iberate ly i n to t he o pen ings o f t he f l oor b oards , a s ak ind o f mag ic . C lear e v idence o f t h is was f ound i n Uvda l s tave c hurch i n 1 978 ; a 1 563 d an ish s k i l l ing o f F reder ik I was t ucked i n as ma l l p iece o f c loth . S evera l i nvest igat ions h ave b een c arr ied o ut o n o ther g roups o f f i nds a nd t he ir r e lat ion t o mag ic a nd r e l ig ious b e l iefs t hroughout t he c entur ies . U s ing t he e v idence f rom E idskog c hurch i n Hedmark , i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he a rchaeo log ica l f i nds were more d irect ly l i nked t o c hurch b u i ld ings i n p reR eformat ion a ge t han i n l a ter p er iods , when t hey more r ef lect mag icl ike b e l iefs . C an t he s ame t h ing b e s a id a bout c o ins? F or t h is we d o n ot h ave s uff ic ient e v idence . On t he c ontrary , i t i s n ot u n l ike ly t hat a g ood p roport ion o f med ieva l c o ins s hou ld b e s een a s p r ivate o ffer ings . We must b ear i n m ind t hat t he o ff ic ia l r e l ig ion o f t he s tate was o n ly a f ew c entur ies o ld a nd i t i s a n o pen q uest ion h ow r ooted i t was i n p eop les ' m inds , e spec ia l ly f or t hose l i v ing i n r ura l a reas . Nature was t he ma in f oundat ion o f l i fe , a nd p eop le l i ved a ccord ing ly . Sma l l wonder t hat t h is d ependence o n f ert i l ity i n a ny a spect o f l i fe r evea led o ther f orms o f r e l ig ious r e lat ions a nd s uperst it ious c oncepts .

8 1

L ITERATURE Anker,

Peter. I t

I t

Berg,

Karin.

1 970.

The Art

1977.

Dateringsproblemet

1 978.

S tavkirkenes

1 981.

of

Myntfunn

S candinavia.

London.

i s tavkirkeforskningen.

datering.

HT,

f ra HOre kirke

Karin.

Blom,

Grethe Authan.

Bugge,

BO,

1 985.

Anders.

Olay.

1 888.

1 973-76. 1 977.

1 1

Holst,

K irkebygninger og deres u tstyr.

Hans.

J ensenius,

1 953.

J .

Robberstad, C . J.

S kaare,

KolbjOrn.

f olketru.

Norske S tavkirker I -II. Om d ateringsproblemet

9 00-arsskrift.

1 970.

Norsk u tmynting pa M Myntene

1 978.

Mynt

i Norge.

f ortids-

page 2 49-260.

G jOvik.

page

p age

2 25.

1 91-199. Kra.

Oslo.

i s tavkirkeforskningen. i Norge.

NNA.

FNFB-ärbok.

f ra Lom k irke.

1 03-141.

Oslo.

Nordisk Kultur XXIII.

FNFB-ärbok.

i Middelalderen.

1 978.

1 959.

H ikuin.

1 387.

page

HT.

page 4 33-443.

1 -32.

Hemgrenda.

Rettsreglar um Fund. Norges Mynter

page

t u l norske

Norges K irkebygninger i Middelalderen og Nutiden.

Ringebu s tavkirke.

1 963.

1 865.

Carsten.

Valdres

Numismatiske k irkefunn

1 983.

Knut.

S chive,

Svarstad,

i Valdres.

nr.2,

6 9-84.

i Norge i nntil

K irkene

Kyrkjefunn og

Foreningen

page

s tavkirke i Gudbrandsdalen.

og privilegier

1 934.

Lorentz.

Roar.

f ra e n

Kongemakt

1 923.

1 978.

Dietrichson, Hauglid,

Mynter 1 967.

Arbok.

HT,

2 16-219.

i Valdres.

minnesmerkers bevaring, Berg,

page

p age 1 35-143.

Kra.

on H äkonssons FNFB-arbok.

t id. page

NNA.

page

1 13-131.

O slo.

Mynter i g amle s tavkirker.

Forskningsnytt,

nr.3.

5 -37.

C O IN S I NC H U R CH E S : AM E A N S O FP A YM EN T ? P a r t t w o I NGER HELENE V IBE WILLER

T his

part

c hurch

of

o n material w hich

the paper d eals with problems of

building a nd t he c hurch f rom 2 7

amounts

t o

excavated a nd

1 4,912

c oins.

t he presence of Christian c ontext,

t he

b uilding on t ransition f rom

Lom,

t rated

f rom pagan d ated

beside

a nd the were

s ites

t o

a ltars

of

t he

coins

a nd

s ame

s econd half t he

c hancel

coins were

o f

t he

1 2th

built.

Most

of

total

images,

number o f

archaeological

e arliest

later,

a re

d eposited

to

c hurch a t

t he

a ccumulated c oins

s uggest

r epresenting o fferings

t he b ased

coincide with

grave-coins

the

century and

t o

s tudy i s

The

the

The presence of

tradition o f worship of t radition,

t he

i ntroduced a s

c ustoms.

arch.

c oins

The

f rom excavated s ites

a nd t he dating of

t o Christian burial t he

context.

a ny c hurch was

s ituation, t hat

relationship of

non-excavated churches,

Pre-1150

i ndicate

popular medieval

part

2 0

t he

a f unctional

graves before

s tratigraphic t he

s ite a s

t hat

t he

c oncenmaterial t he c oins

objects

o f

d evotion.

C o ins f orm o ne o f t he l argest a nd most r egu lar c ategor ies o f o b jects f ound b eneath Norweg ian med ieva l c hurches . C onsequent ly , c o ins may h ave b een p art o f t he f unct iona l c ontext r epresented b y t he c hurch o r t he s i te o n wh ich t he c hurch was b u i lt . T he e stab l ish ing o f l i nks t o c ontextua l a spects , o f wh ich t he c o ins a re t he p hys ica l man ifestat ions , i s t he ma in t heme o f t h is p art o f t he p aper . E xcavat ions i n 2 7 c hurches f rom 1 953 t o 1 986 h ave p roduced 1 2 ,814 c o ins , w ith t he g reatest n umber f rom a s ing le s i te b e ing 2 243 . T he a verage n umber i s s omewhat l ower w ith o n ly f our s i tes h av ing l e ss t han 1 00 c o ins . 1 4 c hurches , o r a bout o ne h a lf o f t he s i tes , h ave 1 00 t o 5 00 c o ins , a nd t he r ema in ing s even c hurches , a bout o ne q uarter o f t he s i tes , h ave 5 00 t o 1 000 c o ins . F ig .1 1. T he n umber o f c o ins , f ound i n 2 0 c hurches f rom t he e nd o f 1 8th c entury t o a bout 1 940 , amounts t o 2 098 , s how ing t hat e ven a cc ident ia l ly c o l lected n um ismat ic mater ia l f rom c hurch s i tes i n s ome c ases r esu lts i n s evera l h undred , i n o ne c ase n ear ly 6 00 c o ins . F ig .2 2. T he p roport ion o f med ieva l c o ins f rom e xcavated c hurches v ar ies f rom 2 4 ,44 t o 9 7 ,55% . T hree o f t he s i tes h ave 2 4 ,44-27 ,79% , a nd f our s i tes 3 3 ,89-48 ,87% , t hat i s o ne q uarter t o o ne h a lf o f t he ir c o ins a re med ieva l . T he p roport ion f rom 2 0 s i tes v ar ies f rom 7 2 ,96 t o 9 7 ,55% , t hat i s t hree-quarters o r more o f t he c o ins o r ig inate f rom t he M idd le A ges . T he s i tuat ion i s e ven more p ronounced i n t he n on-excavated c hurches where t he ma in p art o f t he c o ins a re med ieva l . C o ins p rev ious t o 150 a re f ound i n n ine e xcavated c hurches , t he e ar l iest c o in b e ing f rom t he e nd o f t he 1 0th c entury . C o ins f rom t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 2th c entury a re p resent i n 1 6 c hurches , i nc lud ing t hose w ith c o ins f rom a n e ar l ier p er iod , wh i le c o ins f rom t he r ema in ing 1 c hurches d ate f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 3th c entury o r l a ter . T he c o ins d at ing b ack t o t he t ime b efore 150 a re f ew , most o f t he c hurches h av ing b etween o ne a nd s ix c o ins . T h is t endency i s e ven s tronger i n t he g roup o f n on-excavated c hurches , o f wh ich most h ave n o c o ins a t a l l p r ior t o 150 . F rom t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 2th c entury t here i s a d i st inct i ncrease i n t he n umber o f c o ins a nd t he ir p resence b ecomes a more

8 3

C hurch

s ite

number part Mere,

NT

R ingebu, L om,

0

0

U rnes,

SF

H ore,

0

K insarvik, B e,

H .

T

K aupanger, U vdal, A l,

SF

S econd to

9 91-997

1 8

- 1 099-1112

h alf

o f

1 2th

c entury

Number

1 537 4 88

1 183-1202

5 79

8 4.43

8 92

7 8.14

1 016-1035

- 1 1th c ent.

2

1 167-1196

6 95

2 243

9 5.50

1 020-1040

- 1 1th c ent.

6

1 177-1202

2 136

1 20

9 5.00

1 035-1042

- 1 065-1080

3 65

8 8.77

1 042-1047

4 20

2 6.90

1 055-1065

- 2 .half o f 1 1th c ent. - 1 065-1080

8 77

7 7.19

1 065-1080

1 428

9 4.46

1 065-1080

6

1 177-1202

1 08

2 1 4

1 177-1202 1 177-1202

3 22 9 9

1

1 180-1200

6 76

- 1 130-1150

2

1 177-1202

1 426

1 100-1130

2

1 177-1202

3 74

1 177-1202

9 30

2 49

7 9.12

1 177-1202

1 97

3 31

9 5.52

1 177-1202

3 15

SF

1 89

8 5.52

1 177-1202

1 61

O slo

2 14

9 7.55

1 177-1202

2 09

2 21

9 9.55

1 177-1202

2 20

7 89

8 8.97

1 182-1202

1 33

4 8.87

1 217-1263

3 9

9 4.49

1 217-1263

3 7

5 14

7 2.96

1 217-1263

3 75 4 05

B

k .,

H valer,

B

0

8

V in e,

Number

7 7.11

J oranger,

M ore,

1 150

9 6.77

V

T orpo

t o

9 61

H emsedal,

M ariak.

1 0th c entury

%

4 85

B

a

B erg,

i n

o f

E nd

Medieval

Total

T

A lstahaug,

N

7 02 6 5

D onnes,

N

5 27

7 6.85

1 217-1263

R einli,

0

6 6

4 5.45

1 217-1263

3 0

9 2

9 2.24

1 217-1263

8 5

4 72

4 5.74

b eg.of

2 51

8 0.13

1 220-1260

1 80

3 3.89

1 263-1280

6 1

1 36

2 7.79

1 280-1299

3 8

4 1

2 4.44

1 319-1355

1 0

V ike,

B

E idskog,

H

S tange, N es,

H

B

O lden,

SF

T rondenes,

T

F ig.

C hurch

part

number

S andeid, S ander,

F lä ,

A trä,

G ärä,

1 177-1202

1

SF

V

4 89

7

1 217-1263

1 28

5 2

8 2.27

1 177-1202

4 3

1 7

8 2.35

1 177-1202

1 38

7 6.81

1 4 1 217-1263

1 06

6 4

1 00

1 217-1263

6 4

3 5

1 00

1 217-1263

3 5

2 2

1 00

1 217-1263

2 2

9 6.86

1 217-1263

1 85

6 6.00

1 217-1263

9 9

6

3 0

6 4

1 220-1260

1 00

1 263-1280

1 00 8 8.89

9

T

7 3 65

1 177-1202

6 4 R

N umber

7 7.76

1 50

T

1 2th c entury

1 65

3 91

O laysk. T onsberg, Mel,

6

1 130-1150

AA

o f

1 217-1263

1 102-1130

0

H oyland,

h alf

8 3.31 7

2 04

1 537

SF 5 96

SF

Tonjum,

t o

1 177-1202

R

A rdal,

S econd

1

T

S ole,

N umber

2

T

Hylestad,

1 0th c entury

1 103-1130

V

R odenes,

o f 1 150

1 103-1130

0

E idsborg,

t o

7

5 1

Hoyjord,

E nd %

2 16

e xcavated 1 953-1986.

9 1.20

4 1

B

H edal,

i n

f rom c hurches

3 99

R V

H opperstad,

Coins

M edieval

Total

s ite

1 .

1 3th c ent.

1 00

8

1 280-1299

3 0

1 280-1299

4 2

1 280-1299

1 1

V ikor,Kvam,H

1 1

1 00

1 280-1299

1 4

B amle,

1 4

, 1 00

1 219-1355

1 4

R oldal,

4 3

H

V .

F ig.

2 .

9 7.77

Coins

f ound i n

c hurches

8 4

f rom e nd o f

1 7th

c entury to a bout

1940.

r egu lar p henomenon i n most o f t he c hurches , c onst itut ing a c ont inuous s er ies u p t o t he 1 8th o r 1 9th c entury . T he c hrono log ica l d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins i nd ic ates s porad ic d epos it ion , i f a ny , u nt i l t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 2th c entury . T he c ont inuous s er ies o f c o ins p resumab ly r ef lects s ome u se r e lated t o t he e x ist ing c hurch b u i ld ing whereas c o ins d at ing b ack t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1th o r e ven t o t he 1 0th c entury a re u sua l ly u nre lated t o a ny c hurch b u i ld ing a nd may , t herefore , b e p art o f s ome o ther t rad it ion . Two 1th-century c o ins h ave b een f ound a t t he s tave c hurch o f Hore . One , d ated 1 042-47 was i n ag rave , b y t he j aw o f t he d ead ( Berg 1 981 :77) , f ig .3 . T he g rave was p art o f ag roup o f a t l east 2 1 p redat ing t he wooden c hurch ( Jensen ius 1 980 :2 ) . T he t races o f c off ins , t he c ons istent o r ientat ion a nd t he s ubsequent c hurch i nd icate t hat t he g raves were C hr ist ian a nd p art o f a c hurchyard . T he c o in g ives a n a pprox imate d ate b oth f or t he e stab l ishment o f t he c hurchyard , a nd f or t he d epos it ion o f c o ins i n C hr ist ian g raves , a t rad it ion d iscussed e l sewhere ( V ibe Mü l ler 1 984 :69 ) . T he s econd c o in , f rom t he l a te 1th c entury , was f ound i n o ne o f t he p ost-ho les o f t he f i rst c hurch , t hus s uggest ing t he t ime o f i t s e rect ion ( Berg 1 981 :76 ) . T he e x istence o f a c hurchyard o n t he s i te w ithout t races o f a ny c orrespond ing b u i ld ing a nd , t he c ontext a nd d at ing o f t he f i rst c o in , h owever , i mp ly t hat t he o ther c o in i s more l i ke ly t o b e long t o t he c hurchyard p hase , p oss ib ly o r ig inat ing f rom a g rave d estroyed b y t he b u i ld ing o f t he c hurch . T he c o ins d ated 1 055-1065 a nd 1 065-1080 f rom K insarv ik c hurch were f ound p acked a round t he p ost-ho les o f t he o ldest c hurch b u i ld ing ( Chr ist ie 1 962 :54 ) , t he a rchaeo log ica l c ontext o f t wo c o ins d ated 100-1130 f rom Uvda l c hurch b e ing t he s ame ( Chr ist ie 1 981 :397 ) , wh i le o ne c o in f rom a bout t he m idd le o f t he 11t h c entury f rom U rnes c hurch was f ound b eneath a l ayer o f s tones c onnected w ith t he c onstruct ion o f t he e ar l iest p ost-ho le b u i ld ing ( Chr ist ie 1 959 :71) . A s t he s t rat igraph ic a nd c hrono log ica l r e lat ionsh ip o f t he c o ins t o t he s ucceed ing b u i ld ings a re s im i lar t o t hese o f Hore , t he c o ins may o r ig inate f rom a n e ar l ier c ontext . C hr ist ian g raves p redat ing a ny k nown b u i ld ing were d ocumented a t U rnes ( Chr ist ie 1 959 :56 ) , t hus i nd icat ing a c hurchyard o n t he s i te , s o t he c o ins may o r ig ina l ly h ave b e longed t o s ome o f t he g raves .

-

T1 k

if -

e .

' . k --" "

-

d

' = - -- 0

,

57 ' ,, w, , -er , 9 -, , . , : „ . „ . , , ,, I , .. , - e •. I l „ v f . . • e

. _ .

k . . .„

4 1 '1 5 1J

n

‘ r

i

( 3

A

7 1

Ve -

4 e r • "'

l

\ ,

1

e

f l h --

>r-: 4 1 > e-r—

. •

,

c--

, tj--- r1. —

F ig.

3 .

1 100,

HOre

shaded

c hurch. a reas

Dotted l ines t he

r econstructed p art.

Unbroken

g raves

t he

previous

d ated 1 042-1045, B erg

t o a nd

t he

a nd

r emaining p art l ine

s hows

•

f illed c ircles o f

t he present

c hurch b uilding of

about

8 5

c hurch

1 100,

l etter B t he post-hole with

1 981:77.

i ndicate

t he building o f

t he

t he

t he c hurch building

a bout

1 180,

b uilding o f

a nd 1 822.

l etter A t he

coin

d ated t o

open

Crosses

g rave w ith

t he

f rom about l ines

1 1th

t he

i ndicate t he

c oin

c entury.

A fter

T he e xcavat ion i n t he s tave c hurch o f L om r evea led a c oup le o f C hr ist ian g raves l y ing i n t he western p art o f t he n ave , t he ir p os it ion b e ing s trat igraph ica l ly e ar l ier t han t he p ost-ho le c hurch , t he p redecessor o f t he s tave c hurch ( Chr ist ie 1 978 :110) . S ix c o ins f rom t he 1th c entury , o f wh ich o ne i s d ated t o a bout 1 020-1040 a nd a nother t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c entury , were f ound e ast o f t he g raves ( Skaare 1 978 :120 ,124 ) , s uggest ing a c hurchyard t o t he s outh o f t he p resent c hurch . T he d ate o f t he p ost-ho le c hurch i s n ot d iscussed b y t he e xcavator , b ut i t s s uccessor i s t hought t o h ave b een b u i lt a t t he e nd o f t he 1 2th c entury ( Chr ist ie 1 978 :103 ) . T he c hrono log ica l d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins , t herefore , may r ef lect t he p er iod o f t he f i rst b u i ld ing i nc lud ing t hat o f t he c hurchyard . T he p resence o f C hr ist ian g raves w ithout t races o f a ny c orrespond ing b u i ld ing were a lso d ocumented d ur ing t he e xcavat ion i n R ingebu , t hree g raves b e ing s i tuated e ast o f t he n ave o f t he p resent c hurch ( Skre 1 985 :45 ) . A c oup le o f c o ins d ated t o t he 1th c entury , were f ound s outh o f t he g raves ( Berg 1 981 :60) . I n B o c hurch a t l east f ive C hr ist ian g raves , l y ing b e low a nd e ast o f t he p ost h o le c hurch , were p art o f a c hurchyard , t he western l im it o f wh ich may h ave b een b y t he c hance l o f t he s ucceed ing b u i ld ing ( Skre 1 987 :58 ) . F ina l ly , s ome C hr ist ian g raves o r ientated d ifferent ly f rom t hose b e long ing t o t he l ater c hurch a nd s trat igraph ica l ly e ar l ier , were f ound a t t he west e nd o f t he p resent s tone c hurch o f Mare ( L i en 1 969 :8 ) . T he e ar l iest c hurch a t R ingebu a nd t he f i rst s pec if ica l ly i dent if ied C hr ist ian c hurch a t Mare d ate f rom t he 1th c entury ( Skre :1985 :59 ; L i en 1 969 :9 ) ; t he f i rst c hurch o f B o b e longs t o t he e nd o f t he 1th c entury , wh i le t he s ke let ons o f i t s p re-church p er iod a re g enera l ly d ated t o t he 1th c entury ( Skre 1 987 :65) , a nd t he p os it ion o f o ne o f t he s ke letons f rom t he c hurchyard a t R ingebu i nd icates a d ate o f 1 000-1150 ( Skre 1 985 :58 ) . One c o in f rom B o d ated t o 1 065-1080 ( Skaare 1 986 :28 ) , o ne c o in f rom R ingebu t o 1 016-1035 , a nother o ne t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c entury ( Berg 1 983 :51) , a nd t he o ldest c o in f rom Mare t o 9 91-997 ( Skaare 1 976 :171) , i nd icate a s i tuat ion s omewhat s im i lar t o t hat o f K insarv ik a nd U rnes ; t he d at ing o f t he c o in f rom Me ere , h owever , r e lat ing i t t o a c hurchyard s i tuat ion . T races o f C hr ist ian g raves t o t he n orth o f t he p resent c hurch o f K aupanger a re t hought t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he e ar l iest p ost-ho le b u i ld ing , d ated t o t he 11t h c entury ( Chr ist ie 1 969 :131 ; L idbn 1 969 :68 ) . T he r ad iocarbon d at ing o f o ne o f t he s ke letons t o 9 70 + - 8 0 , t hat i s t he d ead b e ing b ur ied 1 050 a t t he l a test ( L i en 1 969 :72 ) , may i nd icate t he p resence o f ac hurchyard o n t he s i te a t t he t ime o f t he c onstruct ion o f t he f i rst c hurch , a nd t he e ar l iest c o in , d ated 1 0651 080 ( Skaare 1 969 :118 ) may o r ig inate f rom a p re-church c ontext . T he t endency o f c o ins d ated b efore 150 t o a ppear o n s i tes where t he c hurch i s s econdary t o t he c hurchyard , p lus t he ir s trat igraph ic o r c hrono log ica l c i rcums tances , s uggest t hat t he c o ins b e long t o t he p er iod b efore t he f i rst b u i ld ing o r t o i t s e ar ly p hase . T hus , t he c o ins were p robab ly o r ig ina l ly " grave c o ins" d epos ited when t he c hurchyards were e stab l ished a t t he t rans it ion t o C hr ist ian b ur ia l c ustoms . C o ins , c over ing t he p er iod f rom 9 83-1003 t o a bout 1 065-1080 ( Skaare 1 976 :144-145 ,162 ) , f ound i n p agan g raves , s how t hat d ifferent b ur ia l c ustoms e x isted s imu ltaneous ly t o t he e nd o f t he 1 t h c entury . C o ins i n C hr ist ian g raves , h owever , c an b e f ound u p t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 9th c entury ( V ibe Mi l l ler 1 984 :69 ) . T he c hurch o f M eere was b u i lt o n ap re-Chr ist ian s i te ( L i en 1 969 :9 ) , t he c hurches o f R ingebu a nd Hore o n o r c lose t o p re-Chr ist ian c emeter ies , t hat o f Hore b e ing i n u se u nt i l t he V ik ing a ge ( Skre 1 985 :53 ; Hougen 1 959 :204-205 ) . T he p resence o f c hurch s i tes o n p agan c emeter ies i s a f a ir ly c ommon Norweg ian p henomenon , t he c ont inu ity i n t he b ur ia l f unct ion o f t he s i te p resumab ly b e ing t he c onnect ing l i nk w ith t he c hurch b u i ld ing .3 T he u se o f c o ins i n C hr ist ian g raves , t herefore , may b e o n ly o ne o f s evera l f eatures t aken o ver

8 6

a t t he t ime o f t rans it ion f rom p agan t o C hr ist ian b ur ia l c ustoms . More c o ins h ave b een f ound i n L om t han i n a ny o ther Norweg ian c hurch . F urthermore , t hey f orm a n ear ly c ont inuous s er ies o f c o ins f rom t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 2th t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 0th c entury . T here a re 2 245 c o ins i n a l l , o f wh ich 4 39 d ate f rom t he e ar l iest p art o f t he p er iod ( 1177-1102 ) , 8 47 f rom 1 216-1263 , 4 41 f rom 1 263 t o a bout 1 320 , 2 06 f rom a bout 1 320 t o t he e nd o f t he 1 4th c entury , 6 1 f rom t he 1 5th c entury t he R eformat ion 1 537 , a nd f ina l ly 9 5 c o ins f rom t he R eformat ion t o 1 945 ( Skaare 1 978 :113-117 ) . T he c hrono log ica l d istr ib ut ion o f t he c o ins w ith in t he p er iod g ives t he a verage n umber o f 1 7 .5 c o ins p er y ear i n t he f i rst p art , i ncreas ing t o a bout 1 8 p er y ear d ur ing t he 1 3th c entury , t hence g radua l ly d ecreas ing t o a bout 7 .6 a nd 2 .6 c o ins p er y ear d ur ing t he l ast p art o f t he 1 3th a nd t he f o l low ing c entury , f ina l ly t o 0 .4 a nd 0 .2 c o ins p er y ear f rom a bout 1 400 t o t he R eformat ion a nd l ater . 2 150 c o ins were l ocated t o s pec if ic p arts o f t he c hurch , o f wh ich 1 350 c o ins ( 62 ,959 6 ) were f ound i n t he e astern p art o f t he n ave , 3 43 c o ins ( 15 ,95% ) i n t he e astern p art o f t he c hance l a nd i n t he a pse , a nd 1 79 c o ins ( 8 ,339 6 ) i n t he western p art o f t he n ave . T he r ema in ing 2 78 c o ins ( 12 ,95% ) were f ound i n t he n orthern a nd s outhern p arts o f t he n ave , t he b ur ia l a rea i n t he c ross ing o f t he c hurch , a nd i n t he l a ter v estry a nd w ings . 8 02 c o ins ( 37 ,30% ) f rom t he e astern p art o f t he n ave were c oncentrated i n t he n orthern a rea , 2 95 c o ins ( 13 ,72% ) i n t he s outhern a rea , wh i le 1 05 c o ins ( 4 ,88% ) f rom t he western p art o f t he n ave were i n i t s n orthern a rea .4 T he e xcavat ion i n 1 972 r evea led t he f oundat ion o f a ltars o n b oth s ides o f t he c hance l a rch ( Chr ist ie 1 978 :107 ) . T he t opograph ica l d istr ibut ion t hus p o ints t o c o ins ma in ly b e ing c oncentrated i n a reas c lose t o t he a ltars a nd i n f ront o f t he c hance l a rch . T hree c o ins were f ound i n a f oundat ion b eam o f t he c hance l a rch , h av ing b een d e l iberate ly d epos ited ( Skaare 1 978 :125) . A p i lgr im b adge h ad b een p laced i n t he f oundat ion o f t he a ltar t o t he s outh ( Chr ist ie 1 978 :107) . A s t he c oncentrat ions o f c o ins c o inc ide w ith t he d epos its o f o b jects i t i s p robab le t hat t hey were a lso i n tent iona l ly d epos ited u nder t he f l oor . T hus t he c o ins i n t hese c oncentrat ion ( 78 .90% o f t he t ota l f rom t he c hurch ) may r epresent t he m in imum o f d epos it ions . T he v enerat ion o f i mages , e spec ia l ly o f Mary a nd t he s a ints , was a n i mportant p art o f p opu lar r e l ig ious l i fe i n t he m idd le a ges ( Raastad 1 961 :323) . A s t he p r inc ipa l r epresentat ions were a ttached t o a ltars a nd t he wa l l a bove t he c hance l a rch , t he p os it ions o f t he c o ins s uggest t hat t he p a int ings a nd s cu lptures were a lso t he r ec ip ients o f d epos ited mater ia l , wh ich t hus r epresents o ffer ings t o t he o b ject o f d evot ion . T he a ccumu lated f i nds i n s evera l c hurches o n Got land a re c oncentrated b y t he a ltars o f t he V irg in Mary a nd S t .O lav ( Arw idsson 1 965 :56 ) , t he a ltar o f Mary u sua l ly b e ing t hat t o t he n orth o f t he c hance l a rch ( C inth io 1 966 :387) . T he d ed icat ion o f L om c hurch t o Mary , J ohn t he B apt ist a nd S t .O lav s uggests t hat t he s i tuat ion o f t he a ltar may h ave b een s im i lar t here , w ith t he l arger c oncentrat ion o f c o ins i n t he n orth r ef lect ing t he g reat a ffect ion f or Mary , Mother o f C hr ist . I n R ingebu c hurch , t he c o ins were ma in ly c oncentrated i n f ront o f t he c hance l a rch a nd i n t he s outhern a nd s outh western p art o f t he n ave ( Berg 1 983 :60 ) . I n S tange c hurch , 3 3 c o ins d ated 1 220-1360 , were f ound b eh ind t he a ltar i n a d epress ion t hought t o b e t he s ymbo l ic g rave o f as a int ( Skre 1 987 :27 ) . T he d ifferent iat ion i n t opograph ica l d istr ibut ion , t herefore , may v ary a ccord ing t o t he l ocat ion o f t he v enerated o b ject . T he d epos it ion o f c o ins i n s pr ings d ed icated t o S t .O lav o r s ome o ther s a int i s d ocumented u p t o t he 1 9th c entury . F inds f rom s pr ings a lso i nc lude p ins , b uttons a nd o ther s ma l l meta l o b jects , t he c ompos it ion b e ing s im i lar b oth t o t he a ccumu lat ions b y t he a ltars o f S t .O lav a nd Mary i n t he Got land ic c hurches ( Arw idsson 1 965 :56 ) , a nd t o t he Norweg ian e xamp les .5 C o ins may h ave b een

8 7

r egarded a s meta l o b jects , t he ir v a lue a s c urrency b e ing s econdary t o t hat o f t he ir mater ia l . T he u se o f c o ins a nd o ther meta l o b jects a s o ffer ing b oth a t o utdoor s i tes a nd w ith in c hurches s uggests t hat t hey s erved a s im i lar p urpose . T he c u lt o f s pr ings h as a p re-Chr ist ian o r ig in ( Arw idsson 1 965 :56 ) a nd t he o ffer ings t o s a ints i n c hurches may r epresent t he C hr ist ian izat ion o f a n e x ist ing p ract ice c onsequent ly i nd icat ing t he p resence o f r e levant o b jects o f d evot ion . T he p resence o f c o in c oncentrat ions i n c hurches f rom t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 2th c entury o nwards , t herefore , may r ef lect t he t ime when i mages o f s a ints a nd r e lated f igures b ecame a n orma l f eature o f t he ir i n ter ior f urn ish ings .

NOTES 1 .

The

1 987,

s urvey

i s based on Berg 1 981,

Svarstad

1 956

f rom Lom 1 880, 1 879

( Holst

2 .

The

coins

l ists of

B =Buskerud,

T =Telemark,

survey

i s

Vibe Müller

based on Holst

4 .

The

5 .

terms

About

coins, i n

f ront

1 988,

1 20 metal

of

t he

1 955,

S kaare

1 976,

1 978,

i n Universitetets Myntkabinett,

1 08

coins

f rom Kaupanger

1 862

a nd

1 985,

1 986,

O slo. 1 0 c oins

35

S kre c oins

f rom Mere

i ncluded. N =Nordland,

NT=Nord-TrOndelag,

0 =Oppland,

S F=Sogn

og

1 955

a nd S kaare

R =Rogaland,

1 986.

v =Vestfold.

unpl.

are b ased on

8 9 of which

1 902,

a re not

H =Hordaland,

Holst

f inds

0 =Ostfold.

Abbreviations AA=Aust-Agder,

3 .

1 983,

coin

f rom Urnes

1 955:5,20,22-23,26)

Abbreviations F jordane.

1 16

and

t he

objects

a rchaeological

f rom Lom were

i n t he north

c hancel

a rch.

documentations o f

f ound i n

e astern part

o f

t he s ame

t he nave,

1 0

t he

a rea i n

c oin

a s t he

f inds.

t he consentrations s outh

eastern p art,

of

t he

and 1 8

L ITERATURE Arwidsson, B erg,

G .

K .

1965.

Källa.

1 981.

Christie,

K ulturhistorisk

minnesmerkers

Arbok 1 981:69-84.

H .

Urnes

s tavkirke

Foreningen 1962.

t il

r estaurering.

Arbok 1 961:47-112.

1969.

K irkebygging i misjonstiden.

1978.

Lom k irke.

S .

D ietrichson,

L .

Foreningen

Norges

Nordman,C. A.,

1 888.

B .

Jensenius,

k irker.

Saxtorp, N. M.

Buskerud 1 , 1 966.

i o ldtiden.

i Norge.

J .

S ikring av e n s tavkirke. s Okelse.

Vern og virke

Vibe.

1 984.

De g lemte

Arbeidene

Skaare,

J .

1 961.

K .

1968.

"

1 969.

1 953:1-29.

1 1:105-232.

i H Ore

1 979.

Arkeologisk under-

1 979:1-6.

U tgravningene u nder k irken. Arbok

Foreningen

t il

1 968:59-78.

Helgener.

Norwegian Archaeological Review 1 969,

dOde.

a rkeologisk Raasted,

Kulturhistorisk

From P agan S anctuary t o C hristian C hurch The Excavation of Mere Church i n Trondelag.

I .H.

O slo.

Nordisk Numismatisk Arsskrift

norske Fortidsminnesmerkes B ewaring.

Müller,

1 :131-136.

Mariafremstillinger.

Valdres Bygdebok

Kaupanger s tavkirke.

1 969.

norske Fortids-

Kristiania.

Valdres

1969.

K irkespeilet

k irken. 1 958:49-74.

S ammenlignende Fortegnelse over Norges K irkebygninger i Middelalderen

1 959

H .-E.

Foreningen t il

under Arbok

t il norske Fortidsminnesmerkers Bevaring.

Numismatiske k irkefunn

1 980.

Bevaring.

f or nordisk middelalder. XI:386-394.

og Nutiden. 1 955.

4 9-63

1 978:101-112. 1 981.

Leksikon

Liden,

Bevaring.

X :54-57.

norske Fortids-

u tgravninger

norske Fortidsminnesmerkers

"

Lange,B.,

Heimgrenda:

b elyst ved

"

Cinthio,E.,

Hougen,

f orlOper

Kinsarvik kirke og d ens

Arbok

H .

S tavkirke.

Foreningen t il

minnesmerkers

" and Christie,

Holst,

Bevaring.

Myntene f ra Ringebu

"

f or nordisk middelalder.

i Valdres.

1 983. 1959.

l eksikon

Myntfunn f ra HOre k irke

s erie

1 984,

2 :3-32.

s elskab,

museet.

Rapport

1 :49-79. f or nordisk m iddelalder,

VI:322-327.

Nordisk Numismatisk

1 967:183-185.

Bevaring .

"

1976.

Coins a nd Coinage

"

1978.

Myntene

f ra

Bewaring.

n orske videnskabers

Universitetets Myntkabinett,

Kaupanger s tavkirke. merkers

kgl.

Kulturhistorisk l eksikon

Arsberättelser. Arsskrift

Det

Myntfunnene.

Arbok

i n V iking-Age Norway.

Lom k irke.

Arbok

"

1 985.

Norske

"

1986.

Om myntfunnene

f unn

Foreningen

t il

norske Fortidsminnes-

1 968:117-124.

F oreningen

t il

O slo-Bergen-Troms0.

norske Fortidsminnesmerkers

1 978:113-130.

av svenske mynter preget i Bo

g amle k irke.

f Or

1 319.

H ikuin

Telemark h istorie.

1 1:237-248.

T idsskrift

f or

Telemark H istorielag Nr.7-1986:28-38. Skre,

D .

1 985.

I nnberetning om den a rkeologiske undersokelsene

"

1 987.

I nnberetning

1 987.

U tgravninger

d elen

1 985.

av d e bygningsarkeologiske

s tavkirke 1 980-1981.

f ra Riksantikvarens

BO g amle k irke "

i Ringebu

Unpl.

bygningsarkeologiske undersOkelse

i

Unpl.

i S tange k irkes

kor.

G ammalt

f rä

S tange og Romedal

1 987:9-27. Svarstad,

C .

1 956.

Myntfunnene

f ra Torpo k irke.

Nordisk Numismatisk Unions Medlemsblad

Nr.2:68-69. "

1 962.

Myntfunnet merkers

"

1 962.

Myntfunnene merkers

f ra K insarvik k irke.

B evaring.

f ra Urnes

B evaring.

Foreningen

t il

norske Fortidsminnes-

Arbok 1 961:113-116. s tavkirke.

Arbok

Foreningen

1 961:117-120.

t il

norske Fortidsminnes-

M ON E T I Z A T ION I NM E D I E V A L S W ED EN , A NA R C H A EO LOG I C A LA P P R O A CH HENR IK K LACKENBERG

I n

S candinavian medieval archaeology a nd numismatics,

f ound

in

t he

a rgued

that

c hurch

f loor)

a majority o f

are a well

t he

o f o fferings:

the coins were

b ut

t he

d ropped on

r egistered province

in

s econd medieval

s ociety). half

of

i ntended

was m edieval

represented.

d iscussion o f monetization l ate

f ound in church f or

t he

Sweden

This ( i.e.

a n

of

2 00

g ives

c oins

i s

t he unwanted r esult

c hurch

a

a rticle i t

f inds

g ood

c oined metal

t he

i mportant

( i. e.

t his

i ncluding F inland);

material

treatment

c entury a s

f inds

I n

t he offertory c hest

About

t he process when

A s tatistical

t he 1 3th

( i.e.

source

f loors

a ltar,

f loor a nd c onsequently lost.

i n what i s

c oins

c hurch

known phenomenon.

c hurch

period

f inds f or

e tc.,

have been

a lmost b asis

s tarts

i s

t o

every f or

a

c ircu-

i ndicates monetization

t he i n

Sweden.

I NTRODUCT ION Med ieva l a rchaeo log ists a nd n um ismat ists i n S cand inav ia h ave l ong k nown t hat c o ins w i l l b e f ound when a c hurch f loor i s e xcavated ( Steen J ensen 1 977 ; Ma lmer 1 986 ) . T h is i s t rue f or a l l t ypes o f med ieva l c hurches , b oth c athedra ls a nd r ura l p ar ish c hurches . I n n um ismat ic l i terature t h is p henomenon e ven h as a n ame o f i t s own , " church f i nds" ( Sw . k yrkfynd ) . T h is s pec ia l c ategory o f c o in f inds h as g iven r i se t o a n e xtens ive d iscuss ion o f t he c auses f or t he d epos it ion . I t h as b een s uggested , f or e xamp le , t hat t he c o ins c ome f rom g raves i n t he c hurch f l oor , t hat t hey were d ropped o r o ffered t hrough c racks i n t he f l oor ( Berg 1 985 :255) . T he l a test , b ut l east c red ib le e xp lanat ion , i s t hat t he c o ins were d ropped i n c onnect ion w ith " Sunday t rad ing " , t hat i s d ur ing b uy ing a nd s e l l ing i n t he c hurch . ( Sawyer 1 984 :69-71) . E ven t hough n um ismat ists h ave n ot y et p rov ided a n a ltogether c onv inc ing e xp lanat ion t he c hurch f i nds h ave b een u sed f or a n umber o f more a dvanced s tud ies o n c o in c ircu lat ion , d emography , e conom ic a ct iv ity a nd s o f orth ( e .g . S imensen 1 986 ) . My c r it ica l a tt itude d oes n ot mean t hat I b e l ieve c hurch f i nds t o b e u nsu itab le f or s uch a na lyses ; o n t he c ontrary I t h ink t hat t h is c ategory o f f i nds h as many q ua l it ies wh ich c ou ld b e o f g reat i mportance f or a na lys ing med ieva l s oc iety . What I want t o emphas ize i s t he n eed f or a more t horough a na lys is o f t he c ontext o f c hurch f i nds b efore p roceed ing w ith a dvanced s tud ies . I n t h is p aper I h ope t o e xpress my v iew b oth o n t he n ature o f c hurch f i nds a nd t he ir c ontr ibut ion t o ad iscuss ion o f more g enera l p henomena , s uch a s monetary e conomy . B efore mov ing o n t o t he c hurch f i nds , h owever , i t i s n ecessary t o c ons ider t he d ef in it ion o f s ome i mportant t erms , n otab ly " monetary e conomy " .

MONETARY ECONO MY I n a s tr ict e conom ic-h istor ica l s ense , t here was n o monetary e conomy i n Sweden o r e ven i n l arge p arts o f E urope i n t he m idd le a ges ( Heckscher 1 969 :66 ; B raude l 1 982 :393 ) . T h is i s t rue a s l ong a s t he d ef in it ion o f monetary e conomy s tresses t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he v o lume o f p ayments i n money a nd o f p ayments i n k ind . Not u nt i l t he p roport ion o f p ayments i n money i s t he l a rger o ne a re w e e nt it led t o s peak o f a monetary e conomy a ccord ing t o t h is e conom ic-h istor ica l v iew ( cf . B loch 1 939 ; P ostan 1 944 ) . B ut , a s Marc B loch p o inted o ut l ong a go , t h is c an b e c a l led a p seudo-d i lemma . A l l t hrough t he M idd le A ges l a rge p ayments i n k ind e x isted s ide b y s ide w ith p ayments i n money . More i n terest ing p o ints emerge when q uest ions a re a sked a bout t he f unct ion o f t he c o ins t hat o bv ious ly e x isted . I n my o p in ion , t he e conom ic-anthropo log ica l c oncept o f " spec ia l p urpose money" , a s o pposed t o t he modern " genera l p urpose money " , c an h e lp u s b etter t o u nderstand t he r o le o f c o ins i n a med ieva l c ontext ( Po lany i 1 971; G r ierson 1 978 ) . I s ha l l n ot g o a ny more d eep ly i nto t hese c omp lex q uest ions h ere , mere ly c onc lud ing t h is b r ief t heoret ica l s ect ion b y p ropos ing t hat t he t erm " monet izat ion" s hou ld b e u sed f or t he p rocess when c o ined meta l s tarts t o c ircu late i n as oc iety . T h is i s t o b e d ist ingu ished f rom t he t erm " monetary e conomy " wh ich h as a w ider mean ing . T he p o int i s , t hat monet izat ion d oes n ot i mmed iate ly i mp ly monetary e conomy , s imp ly t he c i rcu lat ion o f c o ins . T he t rans it ion t o a monetary e conomy must b e r egarded a s ap rocess r unn ing o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime .

CHURCH F INDS : QUANT ITAT IVE ASPECTS L et u s n ow r eturn t o t he c hurch f i nds . W ith t he h e lp o f a c omputer I h ave made a c ata logue o f a l l k nown c umu lat ive c o in f i nds i n t he r ura l p ar ish c hurches o f med ieva l Sweden ( i .e . i nc lud ing F in land ) . T h is c ata logue i nc ludes d ata o n t he a ge o f t he c hurch ( accord ing t o a rt h istory ) , a nd t he q ua l ity a nd l ocat ion o f e xcavat ions i n t he c hurch b u i ld ings . T he c o ins a re r eg istered w ith a 5 0 y ear i nterva l . T he q uant ity , q ua l ity a nd r epresentat iveness o f t he c .200 f i nds w i l l b e d iscussed a nd s ome h istograms o f t he c hrono logy o f monet izat ion i n med ieva l Sweden p resented . B y t he t erm q uant ity I mean t he n umber o f c hurch f inds a nd t he ir d istr ibut ion . T he d iagram i n f igure 1 h as b een made t o s how t h is a nd a lso t o s how t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he t ota l n umber o f r ura l p ar ish c hurches a nd t he n umber o f c hurches t hat h ave b een e xcavated a nd t hereby y ie lded c o in f i nds . T he f igure r ef lects s evera l d ifferent t h ings . I n a way t he s i ze o f t he c irc les i s a d emograph ic measure : t he s outhern p arts o f t he k ingdom were more d ens ly p opu lated , b ut t he e xtreme ly l arge n umber o f p ar ish c hurches i n , f or e xamp le , t he p rov ince o f V ästergöt land i s p robab ly a lso a r esu lt o f a d ifferent p ar ish o rgan izat ion . T he map a lso d emonstrates t hat c hurch f i nds h ave b een made i n v irtua l ly e very p rov ince i n med ieva l Sweden w ith t he f ewest i n t he p er iphera l p rov inces . I n a bso lute n umbers t he s outhern p arts o f t he k ingdom a re much r icher i n c hurch f i nds t han a re t he n orthern o r e astern p arts , b ut i n r e lat ive f i gures t he d ifference i s n ot s o g reat ( see b e low ) . T he s i ze o f t he s ector w ith in e ach c irc le i s a measure o f a rchaeo log ica l a ct iv ity . I n t he s outhern p rov inces o f V ästergöt land a nd Smä land , f or i n s tance , v ery many c hurches h ave a ttracted a rchaeo log ists . " A rchaeo log ists p refer i s lands" i s a nother s tatement t hat c ou ld b e b ased o n t he d iagram ; a lmost a l l t he c hurches o n t he A land i s lands , a bout h a lf o f t he c hurches o n G ot land , a nd a bout o ne t h ird

9 2

0

. 05 0

F igure

1 .

t he t otal

>5 0 1 00 < 2 00

f inds

i n medieval

rural parish churches

excavated c hurches

( i.e.

Sweden.

i n e ach province. c hurch

>5 00

>2 00 < 300

f inds),

The

s ize of

t he

c ircles

i ndicates

The

size of

t he

s ectors

i ndicates

while

the

f igures

g ive

t he a bsolute

numbers.

o f t he c hurches o n Ö land h ave b een e xcavated a nd t hereby h ave p roduced c hurch f i nds . F rom a q uant itat ive p o int o f v iew my g enera l c onc lus ion i s t hat t he c hurch f i nds a re d istr ibuted a l l o ver t he med ieva l k ingdom a nd r epresent s ome 5 -10% o f t he t ota l n umber o f p ar ish c hurches . S ome o f t he p er iphera l p rov inces o f t he k ingdom a re , h owever , o ften r epresented b y n o more t han a s i ng le c hurch f i nd .

9 3

CHURCH F INDS : QUAL ITAT IVE ASPECTS B y t he t erm q ua l ity I mean t he q ua l ity o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a nd h ow t h is r ecord c an b e u sed i n a n a na lys is . My c ata logue i nc ludes a q ua l itat ive c lass if ic at ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord : A ) when a s ystem o f c oord inates h as b een u sed ; B ) when t he r ecord o n ly a l lows u s l ocate t he c o ins t o c erta in p laces , s uch a s t he c hance l o r t he n ave ; C ) when t here i s n o r ecord o f where i n t he c hurch t he c o ins were f ound . Unfortunate ly , many o f t he f i nds a re b ad ly r ecorded . F igures 2 -4 p resent s ome e xamp les o f we l l r ecorded c hurch e xcavat ions ( c lass A ) . I f a ny g enera l p atterns emerge f rom we l l r ecorded e xcavat ions , i t may b e p oss ib le t o a pp ly t he c onc lus ions t o b ad ly r ecorded e xcavat ions a lso . Nedre U l lerud c hurch ( f ig .2 ) i n t he p rov ince o f V ärm land was e xcavated i n 1 949 a nd 1 958 ; 2 58 med ieva l c o ins were f ound ( K je l l in 1 959 ; Ma lmer 1 980 , f ind 8 5 ) . T he e xcavat ion d emonstrated t hat a r omanesque c hurch was r ep laced

0 •1

1 0M

• 2- 5

• 6- 1 0

4 1, 1- 1 5

ID 1 6

-2 0

•

• •

e

• •

F igures i n

t he

( below).

2 & 3 .

Distribution of medieval

province Coins

o f Värmland

( above)

per square meter.

c oins

The d ash-dot

9 4

•

•

•

•

••

•

•

f ound a t

a nd Dverstorp

-2 5

• • •

•

2 1

t he

c hurch

l ines mark

•

excavation of Nedre Ullerud i n t he

province

t he boundaries

o f

o f t he

c hurch

Västergötland excavation.

a bout 1 630 b y ab igger b u i ld ing t o t he n orth . T he r ema ins o f t he med ieva l c hurch were f urther d amaged i n 1 759 when t he p resent c hurch was e rected . T he d istr ib ut ion o f t he med ieva l c o ins s hows t hat t he o verwhe lm ing ma jor ity o f c o ins were f ound w ith in t he med ieva l c hurch , w ith a c oncentrat ion i n t he c hance l . T he r u ined Dverstorp c hurch ( f ig .3 ) i n t he p rov ince o f V ästergöt land i s o ne o f many s ma l l p ar ish c hurches i n t h is p rov ince d eserted a fter t he r eformat ion . T he r ema ins were e xcavated i n 1 973 , w ith 7 2 med ieva l c o ins b e ing f ound p redom inant ly i n t he c hance l ( S igs jö 1 974 ; Ma lmer 1 980 f ind 1 3) . T hus , t h is i s s im i lar t o t he p rev ious e xamp le . T he t h ird e xamp le i s K um la c hurch ( f ig .4 ) i n t he p rov ince o f Närke . I t was e xcavated i n 1 971 a nd t he b u i ld ing t urned o ut t o h ave a c omp l icated h istory ( Bonn ier & U l Mn 1 976 ; Ma lmer 1 980 , f i nd 7 3 ) . A r omanesque c hurch w ith a west t ower w as i n t he 1 3th c entury e n larged w ith t ransepts a nd a n e xtens ion t o t he e ast . About 1 470 a s econd a is le was a dded t o t he s outh . Dur ing t he e xcavat ion o f t he t ower , t he s outh t ransept a nd t he western p art o f t he n ave 9 5 med ieva l c o ins were f ound , h eav i ly c oncentrated i n t he t ower . S ince t he c hance l was n ot e xcavated n oth ing c an b e s a id a bout c o in f inds a t t he e ast e nd o f t he c hurch . T hese t hree e xamp les h ave d emonstrated t hat t he c o ins were n ot d istr ibuted i n a r andom p attern w ith in t he c hurch . I n t wo o ut o f t he t hree c ases a c oncentrat ion i n t he c hance l c ou ld b e o bserved ; i n t he t h ird c ase t he c hance l was n ot e xcavated . I n t h is c hurch - K um la - t here was a n e qu iva lent c oncentrat ion o f c o in f i nds i n t he west t ower . I n Nedre U l lerud a nd Dverstorp c hurches t here was a lso a s l ighter c oncentrat ion o f c o in f i nds a t t he e astern e nd o f t he n ave .

r .

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Distribution Närke.

Coins

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•

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•

medieval

1 6-20

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•

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9 5

2 1- 2 5

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OFFER INGS 8 z OFFERTORY CHESTS T hese a rchaeo log ica l o bservat ions mot ivate a c lo ser l ook a t l i turg ica l p ract ices w ith in t he med ieva l c hurch . O ffer ings a lready h ad a n i mportant r o le i n t he f i rst c entur ies o f C hr ist ian ity a nd when t he c hurch was e stab l ished i n Sweden i n t he M idd le Ages t he i dea o f o ffer ings t o t he c hurch , t he p r iest a nd t he p oor was i ncorporated i n e cc les iast ica l a nd s ecu lar l aws . T he methods o f mak ing o ffer ings a re e v idence f rom t he L at in t erms , o b lat iones a d a ltare , a d m anus p resb iter i , a d t runcum ( Edsman 1 967 ) . T he s tatutes o f 1 514 o f t he b ishop o f L inköp ing a re a lso v ery e n l ightn ing . T he b ishop n otes s even o ffertory d ays e ach y ear , when t he p easant a nd h is w ife were t o o ffer o ne p enny e ach . A l l who t ook t he B lessed S acrament a t E aster were t o o ffer o ne p enny o n t he a ltar a nd o ne i n to t he h ands o f t he p r iest ( HH 8 :1 ,66 ) . T here i s a lso w r itten e v idence f or o ffertory c hests . I n 1 213 P ope I nnocent I I o rdered what i n L at in i s c a l led a t runcus c oncavus t o b e p laced i n a l l Swed ish a nd Dan ish c hurches i n o rder t o c o l lect money f or a c rusade a nd c hests a nd t runks f or t he s ame p urpose a re ment ioned a ga in i n ap apa l d ecree o f 1 308 ( DS 1 47 8 z 1 588 ) . O ffertory c hests a re r ecorded i n d ocumentary s ources f rom s evera l Swed ish p rov inces d ur ing t he l ast c entury o f t he M idd le Ages . A f ew o f t hese med ieva l o ffertory c hests a nd t runks h ave b een p reserved ( f ig .5 ) ( Skov 8 z B erg 1 968 ) . A nother i t em u sed f or c o l lect ion o f c o ins i n c hurches was t he c o l lect ion b ox , wh ich i s a lso ment ioned i n Swed ish l ate med ieva l e cc les iast ica l r ecords . A f ew h ave b een p reserved , among t hem , t he o ne o n f igure 6 w ith a n i mage o f t he Madonna ( Rydbeck 1 963) . A t t he r eformat ion t he l i turg ica l r o le o f o ffer ings d im in ished o r c eased i n s ome a spects . T hus o ffertory c hests i n f ront o f p ictures o f s a ints were o ff ic ia l ly p roh ib ited i n 1 544 ( Rose 1 1 1 966 :73 ) , a l though e thno log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s how t hat , p opu lar b e l iefs made t he i dea o f o ffer ings l i ve f or c entur ies ( Edsman 1 967 :525) .

•

•

-7 1

;1 1 ,

Figures

5

Collection 13:th

• •

& 6 . box

Offertory from Everlöv

trunk

f rom Gamla Uppsala

church

in

church

t he province of

century.

9 6

Skäne

in

the

province

( right).

Both

of

Uppland

are d ated

( left). to

t he

CHURCH F INDS 8 z OFFER INGS : CONCLUSIONS T he d istr ibut ion o f c o ins i n t he c hurches ( f igs .2-4 ) a nd t he e x istence o f o ffer ings h ave c onv inced me t hat t he ma in e xp lanat ion f or c o ins f ound i n c hurch f loors i s t hat t hey were d ropped i n c onnect ion w ith d ifferent t ypes o f o ffer ings . I t m ight b e d escr ibed a s " l iturg ica l wastage" . T he c o ins were i n tended t o b e g iven a s o ffer ings , b ut a f ew - f ew i n c ompar ison w ith what o r ig ina l ly c ircu lated i n t he c hurch ( Petersson 1 948 :237) - were d ropped a nd l ost . O f c ourse , t h is i s n ot t he s o le e xp lanat ion f or a l l c o ins f ound i n c hurch f loors , b ut I b e l ieve t hat i t i s t he most p laus ib le o ne f or a ma jor ity o f c o ins . C o in f inds c oncentrated i n t he c hance l a nd e astern p art o f t he n ave , a s o bserved i n t he Nedre U l lerud a nd Dverstorp e xamp les ( f igs .2 a nd 3 ) , c an v ery we l l b e e xp la ined b y l ocat ion o f t he a ltars . T he c oncentrat ion o f c o in f inds t o t he f loor o f t he west t ower , a s i n t he K um la e xamp le ( f ig .4 ) , c an b e e xp la ined b y t he l ocat ion o f a n o ffertory c hest c lose t o t he e ntrance ; a n o ffertory c hest n amed a fter a l oca l s a int i s ment ioned i n w r itten s ources ( Bonn ier & U l lbn 1 976 :24 ,36 ) . T herefore , c o ins f ound i n t he f loor o f ap ar ish c hurch were most p robab ly l ost b y t he p easants when mak ing o ffer ings . T h is i mp l ies t hat c hurch f inds must r ef lect i n s ome way t he u se o f c o ins among t he p easants . I n o ther words , c hurch f inds p rov ide a b as is f or a d iscuss ion o f t he monet izat ion o f med ieva l s oc iety .

MONET IZATION : CHRONOLOGY C hurch f inds p rov ide t he d ata f or many d ifferent f orms o f a na lys is . T he a spect t o b e p ursued h ere i s monet izat ion , t hat i s , when a nd why t he u se o f c o ins b ecame g enera l ly a ccepted i n m ed ieva l Sweden . T he q uant ity , q ua l ity a nd r epresentat iven ess o f t he c hurch f i nds make t hem o ne o f t he b est s ources a va i lab le , b ut I s ha l l c onf ine my p aper t o s ome o bservat ions o n c hrono logy . T he t wo h istograms i n f igures 7 a nd 8 a re b ased o n 1 53 c hurch f inds f rom a l l med ieva l Sweden a part f rom Got land . T hey a re o f c ourse o f ap re l im inary n ature , n ot , f or e xamp le , c orrected a ga inst o ther d ata s uch a s t he a ge o f t he c hurch . F REQUENCY A 3 5 -

3 0 -

F REQUENCY A 3 0

2 5 -

2 5

2 0 -

2 0

-

1 5

1 0 -

1 0

5

1

T IME

150 1 2001 200 I1 250

1 250- [13001 300 1 350

F igures

7

f inds.

Gotland not

p eriod w ith

& 8 .

The

5 coins

1 350I 4 00

1 400I 4 50

1 4501 520

c hronology o f monetization i ncluded.

5 0 year periods,

or more.

9 7

150 - 1 1 2001 200 1 250

i n medieval o ldest

1 2501 300

S weden

I 1 3001 350

a s

period with

1 3501 400

1

1 400 1 4501 450 I 1 520

r eflected

i n

1 c oin or more

1 53

>T IME

c hurch

a nd oldest

T he h istogram i n f igure 7 may b e i n terpreted a s f o l lows : c o ins were u sed b y t he p easants b efore 1 200 , b ut t here was a s ign if icant i ncrease i n t he ir u se i n t he 1 3th c entury , e spec ia l ly d ur ing i t s s econd h a lf . I n f igure 8 t he h istogram p resents a d ifferent way o f d emonstrat ing a n i ncrease i n t he v o lume o f c o in c ircu lat ion . T he n umber 5 ( co ins ) i s a rb itrar i ly c hosen ; h owever , ac ho ice o f t he n umber 1 0 d oes n ot c hange t he t rend . T h is h is togram g ives a s l ight ly d iffer ent p icture : t he i ncrease d ur ing t he e nd o f 1 3th c entury i s t he s ame , b ut c ont inues u nt i l t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 4th c entury when i t p eaks . T h is l a te i ncrease i n v o lume may r ef lect t he i nf lat ion c o inage o f t he l a ter p art o f t he r e ign o f K ing Magnus E r iksson ( 1319-1363 )(Lagerqv ist 1 970 :91-93 ) . T he r eg iona l c hrono logy wh ich wou ld emerge f rom a s im i lar s tudy o f e ach p rov ince wou ld i lustrate i nterest ing d ifferences b etween c entre a nd p er iphery . Another p o int o f i n terest i s t he c hang ing c ompos it ion o f c ircu lat ing c o ins a t d ifferent t imes a nd i n d ifferent r eg ions . T he c hurch f inds g ive u s a g ood o pportun ity f or s uch a na lys is ( e .g . Ma lmer 1 982 ) , b ut much work r ema ins t o b e d one . A c onv inc ing h istor ica l e xp lanat ion o f t he v ar iat ions s hown b y t hese c hrono log ica l h istograms , w i l l o n ly b e a rr ived a t when c omb ined w ith e v idence f rom o ther d isc ip l ines , b ut i t i s s tr ik ing t hat t he i ncrease d ur ing t he l a te 1 3th c entury wh ich t hey s how , c o inc ides w ith t he g enera l t ransformat ion o f Swed ish s oc iety d ur ing t he s ame p er iod ( Rosen 1 969 :123-131) . I t i s ap er iod when t he r oya l a dm in istrat ion a cqu ired a f i rmer g r ip o n t he c ountry , r ef lected i n many ways , i nc lud ing t he e stab l ishment o f an ew t ax t o b e p a id i n money . Is uggest t hat t h is was a lso t he p er iod when c o ins r ea l ly made t he ir way i nto t he l i ves o f t he p easants .

ACKNO WLEDG MENTS I thank

Helen

( figs.1-4,

7 -8).

C larke

f or

l inguistic

The manuscript

was

corrections

f inished

i n

a nd Christina B orstam

S eptember

1 988.

f or

t he

l ine

drawings

L ITERATURE Berg,

K .

Bloch,

1 985.

M .

Mynter

1 939.

f ra e n

d ' histoire Bonnier,

A . C.

Braudel,

F .

DS

C -M.

Grierson,

P .

Heckscher, HH

& Ullen,

1 982.

M .

1 976.

Kumla kyrkor.

H .

Lagerqvist,

( 1:st

S tockholm 1 829,

1 837.

Offer.

The origins of money.

1 969.

Kulturhistoriskt

Svenskt

handlingar 8 .

French

l exikon

1 1. Annales

arbete och l iv.

6 :th

ed.

1 66). ed.

i n

S tockholm. 1 979).

S tockholm.

f ör nordisk medeltid XII.

Research in

e conomic

Malmö.

a nthropology 1 .

S tockholm.

S tockholm 1 879.

1 959.

Nedre Ulleruds kyrkor.

L .

Svenska mynt

1 970.

Hikuin

- un pseudo-dilemme.

( Sveriges kyrkor

s trukturer.

1 978.

E .

i Gudbrandsdalen.

I .

1 967.

= H istoriska

K jellin,

s ociale

Vardagslivets

= D iplomatarium S uecanum I -II.

Edsman,

s tavkirke

Economie-nature ou e conomie-argent

Karlstad.

under vikingtid och medeltid samt

gotländska mynt.

S tockholm. Malmer,

B .

1980.

Den s enmedeltida penningen

"

1982.

Monetary c irculation

i Sverige.

of Three Major Church-Finds. " Petersson

1 986.

Myntfynd i kyrkor.

( Malmer),

M .

1 948.

S :t

Jörgen

S tockholm.

i n South-Eastern

H ikuin

i Ahus.

Sweden c .1350-1500

i n

Nordisk Numismatisk Arsskrift

t he Light 1 981.

1 2.

Meddelanden

f rän Lunds Universitets Historiska

Museum 1 948. Polanyi,

K .

1 971.

The S emantics G .

Postan,

M . M.

Rosell,

I .

1 944.

Dalton

The

1 966.

r ise o f

Rosen,

J .

Rydbeck,

1969 M .

Enköpings-Näs,

Archaic

a nd Modern E conomies.

The Economic H istory Review XIV. och Teda

kyrkor

i Uppland.

( Sveriges

kyrkor

S tockholm.

Svensk h istoria

1 963.

Primitive,

Boston.

a money e conomy.

Svinnegarns, 1 11).

of Money-Uses.

( ed.).

Kollekttavla.

1 .

3 :rd ed.

S tockholm.

K ulturhistoriskt

l exikon

f ör nordisk medeltid VIII.

Malmö. S awyer,

P .

1 984.

E arly Fairs H istory.

S igsjO,

R .

S imensen,

1 974. C . J.

Dverstorps

1 986.

Hvilken

a nd Markets

i n England a nd S candinavia.

The Market

i n

London. kyrka

u tgrävd.

i nformasjon

D imbobygden

g ir myntfunn

g jort

1 974. i norske k irker?

Nordisk

Numismatisk Unions Medlemsblad 1 986:2. S kov ,

E .

S teen

J ensen,

& Berg, J .

G .

1 968.

1 977.

P engeblok.

K ulturhistoriskt

K irkegulvsmOnter.

H ikuin

3 .

l exikon

f ör nordisk medeltid XIII.

Malmö.

C O IN S A N D T H E I R F U N C T ION I NT H E S O C I E T YO FM E D I E V A L O S LO ER IK SCH IA

Using a ll

coins

f ound i n

t he deposits of Medieval

over the

town but

a lso

a f ew hoards,

the

both vertical

a nd horizontal.

The a im i s

o f

d ifferent

contexts

coins

i n

medieval

urban

e conomic

system

social

society. f rom

a

f or various

available so

non-monetary t o

i n

c entury,

a lso c asting-counters occur.

l ate-medieval

mainly s ingle

to investigate

a nd

a ccelerating when

t he

The d ata

Oslo,

a uthor a nalyses

period a nd not

was

completed

f unctions

t ime

the

a

spread

distribution

t he changing periods of

f ar i ndicate that

a monetary one

f inds

t heir

s low

until

in

change

the i n

process. t he

1 7th

THE PROBLE M T he ma in q uest ion t o b e a na lysed h ere i s t he f unct ion o f c o ins i n t he c ontext o f a med ieva l u rban s oc iety , f or wh ich O s lo h as b een c hosen a s t he e xamp le . T he a im i s t o o bta in a b etter i dea o f t he u se o f c o ins i n t he t own a s r ef lected i n t he n umber o f c o ins f rom a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions . C hanges i n t he q uant ity o f c o in-f inds f rom v ar ious med ieva l p er iods m ight b e e xp la ined b y a c hang ing f unct ion o f t he c o ins . T h is a ga in m ight b e c orre lated t o a n e conomy g radua l ly e vo lv ing i nto a more a nd more money -based s oc iety . I s ha l l t herefore u se t he c o ins f ound i n med ieva l O s lo , t o s ee what i nd icat ions t h is mater ia l w i l l g ive f or t he q uest ion o f h ow monetary t he e conomy was i n t he d ifferent p er iods o f t he t own 's h istory , f rom i t s b eg inn ings i n t he 11t h c entury u nt i l 1 624 when t he t own was d estroyed a nd r ebu i lt o n t he o ther s ide o f t he b ay . F or t h is a na lys is I s ha l l n ot e va luate t he s ource-cr it ica l o b ject ions f or u s ing a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l s uch a s t h is . T h is d oes n ot mean t hat I am n ot aware o f v ar ious p rob lems c onnected w ith methods o f e xcavat ion a nd t he c ond it ions wh ich a ffect t he p reservat ion o f a l l c o ins , e ither l arge o r s ma l l . P rob lems s uch a s p reservat ion a nd t he i nterpretat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l d ata a re d iscussed e lsewhere i n t h is v o lume a nd w i l l n ot b e p ursued f urther h ere . Nor s ha l l I d iscuss t he r epresentat iv ity o f t he mater ia l f rom O s lo , a s t he p urpose o f t he p resent a rt ic le i s : 1 ) T o p resent a method f or a s oc io-econom ic i n terpretat ion o f c o ins a nd o ther o b jects , a nd 2 ) T o s ee what t he a va i lab le d ata i nd icate f or t he p rocess o f monetar izat ion i n O s lo ( assum ing t hat t he mater ia l i s r epresentat ive ) . T he s tart ing p o int f or i n terpretat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l d ata i n a c ontext l i ke t h is i s t hat a s oc iety b ased o n b arter e conomy - w ith d irect e xchange o f g oods - d oes n ot n eed c o ins a s a med ium o f p ayment , wh i le a s oc iety b ased o n market e conomy i s more d ependent o n s uch a med ium . S o , i f c o ins a re f ound a rchaeo log ica l ly f rom a s oc iety b ased o n b arter e conomy t he ir f unct ion c annot h ave b een a s a med ium o f p ayment , b ut r ather a s o ne o f s evera l s ymbo ls u sed b y t he r u ler . T hus r u lers m inted c o ins w ith t he ma in p urpose o f s how ing t o t he ir s ub jects who was i n p ower . I n t h is c ase t he f unct ion o f c o ins i s c lear ly n ot a monetary o ne .

1 01

B ut t hen t he q uest ion a r ises whether i t i s p oss ib le t o r ecogn ize t hese t wo d ifferent e conom ic s ystems a nd s oc iet ies f rom t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata . A s a s tart ing p o int f or s uch a na lyses t he f o l low ing c r iter ia m ight b e o f v a lue : A ) A n on-monetary s oc iety , b ased o n b arter e conomy , c an b e a rchaeo log ica l ly r ecogn ized b y : 1 ) T ota l l ack o r ar e lat ive ly l im ited q uant ity o f c o ins . 2 ) T hese c o ins were o ften c ut i n to h a lf a nd q uarter p ieces , a s t he v a lue o f t he meta l was more i mportant t han t he c o in i t se lf . 3 ) T he c o ins f ound a re u sua l ly o f m ixed n at iona l it ies , a s an at iona l s tandard o f c o inage h ad n ot y et b een e stab l ished a nd a ga in b ecause t he v a lue o f t he c o in was measured b y t he v a lue o f t he meta l . 4 ) T he q uant ity o f b a lances a nd we ights i s r e lat ive ly h igh b ecause o f t he n eed f or a s ystem o f measur ing/we igh ing f i ne meta ls . 5 ) Most o f t he c o ins a re t o b e f ound i n h oards , o ften t ogether w ith o ther o b jects made o f f i ne meta ls . B ) A monetary-soc iety b ased o n market e conomy c an b e r ecogn ized a rchaeo log ica l ly b y : 1 ) A r e lat ive ly h igh q uant ity o f c o ins . 2 ) T he c o ins a re o n ly r are ly o r n ever c ut i n to s ma l ler p ieces . 3 ) A l a rge p roport ion o f t he c o ins a re o f an at iona l o r ig in a s a r esu lt o f e stab l ish ing a n at iona l s tandard o f c o inage . 4 ) B a lances a nd we ights f or we igh ing o f f i ne meta ls a re o n ly r are ly f ound a rchaeo log ica l ly , p erhaps t o s ome e xtent b e ing r ep laced b y t he p ost-med ieva l c ast ing -counters . I f t hese c r iter ia a re c orrect t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata a nd t he ir c ontext s hou ld b e a b le t o i nd icate t he p er iod o f c hange f rom t he o ne e conom ic s ystem t o t he o ther . W ith t hese c r iter ia a s as tart ing p o int I w i l l t urn t o t he mater ia l f ound i n t he med ieva l t own o f O s lo a nd t ry t o e va luate i t , f i rst b y l ook ing a t t he s pread o f c o ins a nd o ther o b jects i n t ime , a nd s econd ly b y e xam in ing i n what p art o f t he t own a nd i n what f unct iona l c ontexts t he d ata were f ound .

THE MATER IAL T he s ources t o b e u sed f or t h is a na lys is a re a rchaeo log ica l f i nds f rom e xcav at ions c arr ied o ut s i nce t he l a st c entury . T h is mater ia l h as o bv ious d i sadvant ages a s t he q ua l ity o f t he e xcavat ions i s r ather v ar iab le . T he q uant ity o f c o ins f ound i s n ot v ery h igh - o n ly 2 58 - a nd t he ma jor ity a re s i ng le f i nds s pread a l l o ver t he t own'. T here a re , h owever , s ome c oncentrat ions o f more o r l e ss i dent ic a l c o ins wh ich most p robab le a re t he r ema ins o f h oards : f or i n stance , 4 0 c o ins most ly E ng l ish a nd a f ew S cott ish f rom t he 1 4th c entury - f ound i n 1 908 e ast o f S t .C lemens c hurch a nd c lose t o t he R iver A lna ( Gr ieg 1 933 :359 ) . S uch a f i nd w i l l c reate s tat ist ica l p rob lems when m ixed w ith s i ng le c o ins , a nd must t herefore b e t reated i n as pec ia l manner .

1 )

The number of

catalogue l ished worked byen.

i n

coins

f rom medieval-Oslo a nd their identification

" Middelalderske Byfund f ra Bergen og O slo"

catalogue in Riksantikvarens out

by KolbjOrn S kaare,

a rchives o f

a nd Vol.3

O slo".

1 02

i n

t he c oins

t he series

i s based upon

by S igurd Grieg, f ound i n t he

a s well

t he published a s

royal manor

a n

unpub-

1 961-1963,

" De Arkeologiske Utgravninger

i Gamle-

When a rrang ing t hese f inds i n as tat ist ica l way i t i s a lso n ecessary t o p er iod ize t he t ime i n q uest ion . T h is i s o f c ourse a d iff icu lt t ask , b ut c an b e d one b y f ocus ing o n v ar ious c r iter ia . Here I w i l l u se t he r esu lts f rom t he r ecent e xcavat ions i n Gam lebyen , where a d iv is ion i n to f our p er iods i s b ased o n t he b u i ld ing p attern a nd t he d egree o f t he b u i ld ing d ens ity , a s c an b e s een f rom t he d iagram i n f ig .1 ( Sch ia 1 987a :180 ) . T he c hang ing d ens ity o f t he b u i ld ing p attern i s p robab ly c orre lated w ith t he s i ze o f t he p opu lat ion f or t he t ime i n q uest ion . F or t he d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins , h owever , i t i s n ecessary t o d iv ide p er iod I I i nto t wo s ub-per iods ; p er iod III A l a st ing f rom 1 223 t o 1 352 , a nd p er iod I IB f rom 1 352 u nt i l 1 523 . T h is s ub-d iv is ion c an a lso b e s een i n t he d iag ram o f t he d ens ity o f t he b u i ld ing p attern . When a rrang ing t he d ata i nto s uch p er iods , f or a na lys ing t he d istr ibut ion o ver t ime , we must o f c ourse a lso c ons ider h ow many y ears t he d ifferent p er iods l asted . I t i s t herefore e ssent ia l t o u se a c oeff ic ient where t h is v ar iab le i s i nc luded . T he c oeff ic ient i s t he a verage n umber o f c o ins p er 1 0 y ears f or e ach p er iod a s c an b e s een f rom t he d iagram i n f ig .2 . T he d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins i s , h owever , b etter s een f rom a s catter p lot ( f ig .3 ) , where t he t h in c ontour l i ne s hows t he c oeff ic ient f or t he t ota l n umber o f c o ins f rom O s lo . B ut h ere we a re i mmed iate ly f aced w ith a p rob lem . How r epres entat ive i s t h is a nd i s i t p os ib le t o c ompare a l l t he c o ins i n t he mater ia l? T he a nswer t o t h is q uest ion i s n egat ive .

P ER IOD

P HASE

Y EARS 1 624

I A

1 523?

4A 1 352? 5A

F ig.l. o f

H istogram s howing t he

t he

T his

m iddle ages

i s

b ased

excavations

in

f elt",

1 987)

i nto

S chia

pattern

9A

periods.

MA

r ecent

MA

( "SOndre

1 2A

d ivision

1 3A -0

on

MA

t he

Gamlebyen

f our periods

building

i nto

upon

where i s

a

based

and

1 223 ?

d ivision

t he

t he degree

of

b uilding d ensity.

137 ?

MB-C

ca . 1025 1 0%

2 0%

30%

40%

( c o r

M J

F ig.2. o f t he

Table

coins,

showing t he

l ength

c oefficient

of value

n umber

periods

a nd

( index).

1 03

50%

60%

T I M E o r P E R I O D

Y E A R SF

/ o

9 , 2

P E R I O D

y MA

w m

P E R I O D

3 1 N : 9

1 5 2 3 1 4 2 9

P a l O P

Zs

1 3 5 2 , -/ 5 2 3

/ 7

' , 5

P E Z1 0 D

I TA

9 6

an -/ 3 52

/ 29

3 4

P E R I OD

1 E

0

P RO D

I

./ 0 2 S - 0 7 8c

1 1

1 3 7

-/ 2 3

3

c ,/ 0 0

° a s

I N D E X

F ig.3.

S catter

c oins,

a ccording

l ine). c oins

The

s howing

t o t he

dotted l ine

f rom t he

omitted,

p lot

s hows

royal manor

while

t he

I

I C

M CA

1 18

O B 1 L i T * C O I NS

1 1 0 i )

C O IN5

i

B3 l i

arrows

s how

7

W E IG 1N HT 5S c

IAc wo mi : I r (s 5

n r i n h

—

P [ }10 1h ) I

,

( 1 ,

CO INS

0

' , ( 3 2 : ,4 2 ‘

5

C O INS

2 .

B A L A N C I S 3

o f

( contour

d istribution

with

1 4th c entury hoard the

s ize

i n

t rends t he

of

t own,

t he with

PERI ODS

T IME OF PE RI O D

e A R S

I N D [ X

ÄR TA IA T ED

Fig.4.

Table

s howing the d istribution o f

coins

f rom

t he

1 d 2 1 -1 6 7 5

5 1

2 0mt

5 , 1

s tredet,

f elt" w ith

a ccording t o

BE

r M I V U

6

d istribution

d ecline.

" SOndre

l [ ing lU il

the

a nd t he

a ssumed c hanges of population a l ate-medieval

t he

coefficient values

1 5 2 3 1 L 2 Y

1 0 1

' N SW

1 3 5 2 -1 5 2 3

1 7

3 ' 1 2 42 o ( )l i :

1 2 3 . 1 3 5 2

1 2 i

7 0n

1 5 1 -1 2 2 3

8 6

m . 1 0 2 5 1 1 , 1 1

c i . 1 0

1 , 8

t he

s ite

( period

" Mindets I -IV)

a c oefficient

t he

length of

c hanging s ize of

t he

t omt"/

a nd

Revier-

value

( index)

t he p eriods

a nd

s ite excavated.

, 0 0 :1 6

9 1 5 1 42 0 , 6 ,2 . z 0

7 0 21 10 1 3

I ment ioned e ar l ier t hat t here i s a t l east o ne p oss ib le c o in h oard , wh ich o ught t o b e om itted f rom t he d iagram a nd t o b e c ounted a s a s ing le c o in . T he n ext p rob lem i s t hat t he c o ins a re f rom v ar ious c ontexts i n t he t own : c hurches , monaster ies , p a laces o f t he k ing a nd b ishop , a nd a lso f rom t he o rd inary dwe l l ing s o f t he t ownspeop le . O f s pec ia l i mportance h ere a re t he e xcavat ions i n t he r oya l manor wh ich p roduced 5 6 c o ins . B ecause o f t he k ing 's i nf luence , h is s pec ia l p rest ige , a nd t he p oss ib le u se o f c o ins a s a r oya l s ymbo l , t h is mater ia l h as a lso b een om itted f rom t he s catter p lot , t he r esu lt b e ing s hown b y a d otted l i ne o n t he p lot ( f ig .3) . T he a rrows a re i nd icators o f t he t rends o f t he a ssumed c hanges i n t he s i ze o f t he p opu lat ion . A nd a s c an e as i ly b e s een , t he d istr ibut ion t rend o f t he n umber o f c o ins c annot h ave b een i nf luenced b y t he s i ze o f t he p opu lat ion . S o i f t he mater ia l i s r epresentat ive t he i ncrease o f c o ins must h ave h ad a nother c ause t han p opu lat ion g rowth . W ithout d raw ing a ny c onc lus ions f rom t h is d iagram n ow , Iw i l l t urn t o t he mater ia l f ound i n t hree modern e xcavat ions i n O s lo c arr ied o ut a fter 1 970 : "M indets t omt" ( L i en 1 977) a nd " Sondre f e lt" ( Sch ia 1 987 ) i n Gam lebyen a nd " Rev ierstredet" f rom C hr ist ian ia ( Myrvo l l 1 981) , u s ing t h is e v idence t o t est t he

1 04

F ig. 5.

S catter plot

l ine)

a nd

coefficient values. f elt". houses

The s haded which

s howing

t he d istribution of

weights/balances

i s

All a rea

( dotted l ine)

f rom t he s ites a t

" Mindets

t he bottom s hows

a ssumed t o be

r elated t o

coins

a ccording

the t he

t omt"/

( contour t o

d ensity o f s ize

the

" SOndre

of

5 , 1-

t he t he

population.

2 . 0-

1 . 0-

0 , 1

1 £ 0 ,

J O ts

E

5 0 t

2 0 %

r epresentat iveness o f a l l t he c o ins f ound i n O s lo . I n a dd it ion t o c o ins I w i l l a lso e xam ine t he d istr ibut ion o f f ragments f rom b a lances a nd we ights u sed f or f ine meta ls . T he p urpose o f t h is i s t o s tudy t he c orre lat ion b etween t he t wo g roups o f o b jects , a ccord ing t o t he f ourth c r iter ia i n t he mode l . T he mater ia l f rom t hese e xcavat ions h as - w ith o ne e xcept ion o n ly - b een f ound w ithout s i ev ing . T h is i s o f c ourse a n i mportant f actor when e va luat ing t he r epresentat iveness o f t he c o ins a nd e spec ia l ly when c ompar ing t hem w ith c hurch e xcavat ions . T he s i eved a rea ( 9 .5m 2) a t " Sondre f e lt" p roduced n o c o ins , h owever . A t a nother more r ecent ly e xcavated s i te i n O s lo - " Nordre f e lt" - 1 0% o f t he a rea was s i eved i n r andom s amp l ing a nd n o more t han t hree c o ins were f ound . E va luat ion o f t he d istr ibut ion o f a rchaeo log ica l f inds f rom "M indets t omt" , " Sondre f e lt" a nd " Rev ierstredet" d emands a c ons iderat ion o f t he amount o f c u lt ure l ayers e xcavated i n e ach o f t he f our p er iods ment ioned a bove , a s t he n umber o f c o ins f ound i s r e lated t o t he s i ze o f t he e xcavat ion . T he c oeff ic ient t o b e u sed o n t hese d ata i s t herefore d eterm ined b y t he n umber o f o b jects , t he a verage s i ze o f t he e xcavated a rea f or t he d ifferent p er iods a nd h ow many y ears t he p er iods l a sted , a s c an b e s een f rom t he d iagram i n f ig .4 . T he t rend o f t he m ater ia l i s c learer i n t he s catter p lot ( f ig .5 ) where t he c o in d istr ibut ion i s more o r l ess t he o ppos ite o f t he we ights a nd b a lances ( Fa 9rden 1 989 ) , s hown a s ad otted l i ne . T h is m ight i nd icate t hat c o ins b ecame more i mportant a s t he u se o f we ights/ba lances b ecame l ess c ommon , b ut i t i s a lso e v ident t hat t he n umber o f we ights/ba lances s hows a more o r l e ss s im i lar d istr ibut ion p attern t o t he d iagram o f d ens ity o f t he b u i ld ings . T he n umber o f we ights/ba lances , may t herefore h ave b een i n f luenced b y t he s i ze o f t he p opu lat ion . T he d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een s im i lar ly i n f luenced , a s t he ir n umber i ncreases wh i le t he s i ze o f t he p opu lat ion d ecreases . C onsequent ly t he i ncrease i n t he n umber o f c o ins m ust h ave h ad a nother c ause .

1 05

CONCLUSION T he f i rst d iagram , o f a l l t he c o ins ( f ig .3 ) , i s v ery s im i lar t o t hat o f t he t hree e xcavated s i tes ( f ig .5 ) , b ut t hat i s w ith t he mater ia l f rom t he r oya l manor om itted , a s s een i n t he d otted l i ne o n t he p lot . T h is i nd icates t hat t he mater ia l may b e r epresentat ive . T here a re , h owever , s ome m inor d ifferences , e spec ia l ly i n p er iod I IB , where c o ins s eem t o h ave b een more c ommon when t he t ota l mater ia l f rom O s lo i s a na lysed r ather t han i n t he d iagram o f t he r esu lts f rom t he modern e xcavat ions i n t he t own wh ich c oncentrated o n dwe l l ing a reas . T h is m ight b e e xp la ined b y t he f act t hat t he c o ins f rom O s lo a s a who le h ave b een f ound n ot o n ly i n a reas w ith wooden h ouses o ccup ied b y t he t ownspeop le , b ut a lso w ith in t he c ontext o f monumenta l s tone b u i ld ings s uch a s c hurches a nd monaster ies . T he u se , o r r ather t he a ccumu lat ion , o f c o ins i n monumenta l b u i ld ings may r esu lt f rom c auses a nd p rocesses d ifferent f rom t hose i n t he t enements a nd t he t ownyards ( Norw . : b ygärd ) . B oth d iagrams s how o ne c lear t rend : f ew c o ins f rom t he 1th c entury a nd n one f rom t he 1 2th c entury . Not u nt i l t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 3th c entury d o c o ins a ga in s tart t o a ppear i n t he a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l , b ut t here a re s t i l l r e lat ive ly f ew c o ins i n p er iod I IA . I t i s n ot u nt i l p er iod I V , t he 1 6th a nd e ar ly 1 7th c entury , t hat c o ins b eg in t o a ppear i n f a ir ly l arge n umbers . T h is t rend i s v ery we l l c onf irmed b y t he t h ird e xcavat ion f rom O s lo , " Rev ierstredet" , d ated b etween 1 624 a nd 1 680 . T he c oeff ic ient o f t he c o ins f rom t h is s i te i s v ery h igh when c ompared w ith t hose f rom "M indets t omt" a nd " Sondre f e lt " . A ccord ing t o t he f i r st c r i ter ion i n t he Mode l i t i s i mportant t o f ix t he p o int i n t ime where t here i s ad ist inct c hange f rom r e lat ive ly f ew t o r e lat ive ly many c o ins . T he s catter p lots s how c lear ly t hat t here a re v ery f ew c o ins i n p er iods I I IA , a nd f ar more i n p er iod I V . T he u ncerta inty l i es i n p er iod I IB , c aused b y t he d ifferences b etween t he t wo d iagrams . T he c onc lus ion must b e t hat t he c hange f rom a n on-monetary s ystem t o a monetary s ystem h ad t aken p lace b y p er iod I V a t t he l a test ( 16th .c ) , p erhaps r esu lt ing f rom a p rocess o f c hange i n p er iod I IB , t he l a te m idd le a ges . T he s econd c r i ter ion i n t he Mode l ( the c utt ing o f t he c o ins i n to s ma l l p ieces ) h as n ot y et b een a na lysed . T he t h i rd c r i ter ion ( i f t he c o ins a re o f m ixed n at iona l it ies o r i f t he ma jor ity o f t he c o ins a re o f an at iona l o r ig in ) c an b e s een f rom t he p ercentage d istr ibut ion i n f ig .6 . I t i s , h owever , d iff icu lt t o e xp la in t h is r ather

F ig.6. o f

ia

. gEV

Q-

sum ear

The

s catter p lot

national

r elation

t o

whole o f

O slo.

1 06

Norwegian t he

s hows or

t he percentage d istribution Norwegian/Danish

d istribution of

f oreign

c oins

c oins

i n

f rom

t he

c omp l icated d istr ibut ion a nd t he mater ia l m ight b e o f l i tt le v a lue f or o ur i nterpretat ions a lthough p er iod I i s c lear ly d om inated b y f ore ign c o ins wh i le " Rev ierstredet" a nd t he 1 7th c entury h ave n at iona l ( Norweg ian/Dan ish ) c o ins o n ly . T he c hang ing v a lues f or t he p er iods i n b etween t hese t wo e xtremes may b e e xp la ined b y t he c ompos it ion o f t he f i nds , t hat i s , t he p resence o f t he Norweg ian c o ins i n t he r oya l manor i n p er iod I IA a nd t he h oard o f most ly E ng l ish c o ins i n p er iod I IB . I f t hese a re om itted t he p ercentage d istr ibut ion o f Norweg ian a nd f ore ign c o ins i s t hen a s s hown i n f igure 7 w ith t he s urpr is ing r esu lt t hat t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween Norweg ian a nd f ore ign c o ins s eems t o b e more o r l ess t he s ame f or t he p er iods I IA , IIB a nd I V . I t i s a lso i n terest ing t o s ee t hat t he Norweg ian o r Norweg ian/Dan ish c o ins a re i n t he ma jor ity , t hus i nd icat ing t hat a n at iona l monetary e conomy may a fter a l l h ave b een i n e x istence a s e ar ly a s p er iod I IA t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 3th c entury a nd t he r e ign o f K ing Häkon V Magnusson . T he d egree o f monetar izat ion - a ccord ing t o t h is t h ird c r iter ion - must a lso h ave b een more o r l ess t he s ame t hroughout t he who le l a te med ieva l p er iod . F igure 7 i nd icates t hat monetar izat ion d id n ot r each a n ew l eve l u nt i l t he 1 7th c entury . T he f our th c r i ter ion ( the q uant ity o f we ights a nd b a lances ) i s we l l i lustrated b y p er iod I V where t here a re n o we ights a t a l l . T he p lot i n f ig .5 f urther i nd icates t hat t he e conom ic s ystem may h ave u ndergone s ome c hanges i n p er iod 1 1 1 3 a s t he n umber o f c o ins i ncreases wh i le t he n umber o f we ights d ec reases . B ut a s ment ioned e ar l ier t he n umber o f we ights may h ave b een i n f luenced b y t he s i ze o f t he p opu lat ion a t t he s i te . T he c hange wh ich may h ave o ccurred b efore p er iod I V i s t herefore u ncerta in when b ased u pon t h is c r iter ion . I n t h is c ontext , h owever , i t i s o f s pec ia l i n terest t hat t he c ast ing -counters ( r egnepenger ) , wh ich i n E urope were k nown a lready f rom t he 1 3th c entury , d oes n ot o ccur i n O s lo e ar l ier t han l a te 1 6th a nd 1 7th c entury d epos its . S uch c ast ing -counters were u sed b y t he merchants , when " ca lcu lat ing o n t he l i ne" ; a method p robab ly c lose ly r e lated t o a monetary e conomy ( see R onn ing 1 981 :216 ) a nd t o s ome d egree p robab ly r ep lac ing t he we ights a nd b a lances . T he f i f th c r i ter ion i s n ot v ery s u itab le f or t h is mater ia l , b ut , a s ment ioned a bove , t here i s o ne c o in h oard f rom t he 1 4th c . a nd o ne f rom t he 11t h c . f ound i n t he r oya l manor . T he a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l a va i lab le s o f ar i nd icates t hat t he p rocess o f c hange i n t he e conom ic s ystem - f rom a n on-monetary t o a monetary o ne - c annot h ave t aken p lace b efore p er iod III A , a nd p erhaps n ot e ven b efore p er iod IIB , t he l a te m idd le a ges . T he o n ly u ncerta inty i s c aused b y t he t h ird c r iter ion a nd t he

9 0

-

\ F ig.7.

T he

scatter plot

bution

o f

coins

royal hoard

m anor

s hows

f rom O slo,

in p eriod

( mostly English

t he percentage when

I IIA a nd

t he c oins

t he

a nd S cottish)

c oins i n

d istrif rom f rom

p eriod I IIB

t he t he a re

In

omitted.

1 07

j i

e v i-

r e lat ionsh ip b etween n at iona l a nd f ore ign c o ins ; t h is i nd icates t hat t he p rocess o f monetar izat ion r eached a n ew l eve l i n p er iod I IA . Unt i l more d ata a re a va i lab le h owever , i t s hou ld b e a ssumed t hat t he p rocess o f monetar izat ion r eached a n ew l eve l i n p er iod I IB , a nd p robab ly was c omp leted b y t he 1 7th c entury when t here was a t rue monetary e conomy . T he w r itten s ources a l so p rov ide s ome i n terest ing e v idence a bout t h is p rob lem ( Lunden 1 976 :366-368 , 1 978 :21 ,27ff ) . One o f t he Norweg ian l aws f rom b efore 1 274 - t he Gu lat ings l aw ( 223) - s tates t hat p ena lt ies s hou ld b e p a id i n g ra in , c att le , s heep , s h ip , g o ld o r b urnt s i lver , b ut n ot i n c o ins . A nd f rom B ergen we k now t hat h a lf o f t he t ownyard ( Norw :Bygärd ) B e l lagärd i n 1 312 was s o ld f or 9 0 o ld marks t o t he t ownman O rm S varte who i mmed iate ly p a id 6 0 marks w ith p roducts o f t he s o i l : 5 0 I ce land ic h ides , 2 5 I ce land ic h e-goat h ides , 1 8 Nord ic h e-goat h ides , 6g oat h ides , 4 5 Nord ic s heep h ides , 5 40 g lds ( Norw :a len ) f r ieze ( Norw :vadme l ) , 3b uckets ( Norw : lauper ) o f b utter a nd 3 marks b urnt s i lver . T he l a st 3 0 marks s hou ld l a ter b e p a id w ith " 1500 g lds f r ieze o r o ther money t hat w as e qua l ly g ood" . I n t he 1 4th c entury a s we l l a s t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury t he C rown , h owever , s evera l t imes d emanded t hat t he r oya l Norweg ian c o ins s hou ld b e a ccepted a s a med ium o f p ayment . B ut a r oya l s tatement s uch a s t h is c lear ly t e l ls u s t hat t he o ppos ite was t he f act , a nd t hat t he r oya l c o ins were n ot a ccepted . T here a re a lso s evera l d ocuments f rom t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c entury s how ing t hat e ven t he k ing r efused t o a ccept h is own c o ins a s a med ium o f p ayment when t axes a nd l and r ent was t o b e p a id . I n t h is c ontext i t i s o f p art icu lar i n terest t hat most o f t he c o ins f rom O s lo wh ich d ate f rom t he e nd o f t he 1 3th a nd e ar ly 1 4th c entury -t he t ime o f K ing Häkon V - h ave b een f ound i n t he r oya l manor . F rom w r itten d ocuments o f t he 1 4th a nd 1 5th c entury we a lso k now t hat l and was o ften measured i n money , b ut most ly p a id w ith p roducts o f t he s o i l ( Pers .comm . A rnved Nedkv itne ) . T he f unct ion o f c o ins i n med ieva l O s lo was , t herefore , p robab ly n ot monetary i n t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod a nd i n t he b eg inn ing o f t he h igh m idd le a ges . T he f ew 11t h-century c o ins s hou ld , t herefore b est b e i n terpreted a s a s ymbo l o f r oya l p rest ige i n ab arter e conomy . T h is i s a l so i nd icated b y t he f act t hat o n ly o ne o f t he 1th-century c o ins f ound s o f ar , was m inted i n Norway . T he t ota l l ack o f c o ins i n t he 1 2th c entury i s p robab ly a r esu lt o f t he s ame c ause : an on -monetary e conomy . T he 2 9 l a te 1 3th- a nd e ar ly 1 4th-century Norweg ian c o ins i n t he r oya l manor c an b e e xp la ined b oth a s ar oya l s ymbo l a nd a s a n a ttempt b y K ing Häkon V t o e stab l ish a n at iona l c o in s tandard w ith Norweg ian money a s a med ium o f p ay ment , most p robab ly w ithout g reat s uccess . U s ing a rchaeo log ica l a nd w r itten s ources i t i s r easonab le t o a ssume t hat t he c hange i n e conom ic s ystem f rom a n on-monetary t o a monetary o ne was a s l ow p rocess , a cce lerat ing i n t he l a te med ieva l p er iod a nd n ot c omp leted u nt i l t he l a te 1 6th o r 1 7th c entury , when c ast ing -counters a l so o ccur . B ut t he u ncerta int i es w ith in t he a va i lab le d ata mean t hat p resent c onc lus ions must r ema in t entat i ve . T he n eed f or more work i s o bv ious ; a l l Norweg ian t owns o ught t o b e b rought i n to s uch a s tudy , a nd t he methods o f a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions i n t owns s hou ld b e i mproved .

L ITERATURE Ferden,

Gerd,

1 989.

Metallgjenstander. Gamlebyen.

Grieg,

S igurd,

Liden,

H ans-Emil,

1 933. 1 977.

O slo,

Manuscript

Middelalderske byfund

f ra

Lunden,

Kare,

1 976.

Norge under Sverreetten,

Lunden,

Käre,

1 978.

Korn og kaup.

Sin ,

1 981.

Bergen og Oslo.

B jOrn,

1 981.

mellomalderen.

Universitetsforlaget.

Konstruksjoner

- f unksjon

Erik,

1 987a.

S chia,

Erik,

1 987b.

KolbjOrn,

1 963.

Skaare,

KolbjOrn,

1 966.

Reconstructing Townyards on

I nnberetning om myntfunn 1 961-63.

Myntklumpen 4 4.argang.

Skaare,

KolbjOrn,

1 987.

bind 3 .

j ordbruk pa Vestlandet

Oslo. i

Oslo-Bergen-Troms0. Fra Christianias Bygrunn.

Riksantikvarens

Ovre Ervik.

a rkeologiske u tgravninger

U tgravn.

tomt".

Oslo.

Ovre Ervik.

" SOndre

f ra

Oslo,

t he Periphery of Vol.20,

Kongsgärden,

Riksantikvarens

f ra Kongsgärden

f elt".

i Gamlebyen.

Norwegian Archaeological Review, Skaare,

" Mindets bd.l.

Fra Christianias Bygrunn.

Bebyggelsesrester og d atering. De

O slo,

Norges H istorie,

- d atering.

Skrifter nr.4.

Numismatiske g jenstander. S krifter nr.4.

Schia,

1 177-1319.

Oslo.

av f eltet

i Gamlebyen;

S tudiar over prisar og

Riksantikvarens Ronning,

" De Arkeologiske Utgravninger i

S tratigrafisk-topografisk beskrivelse De Arkeologiske u tgravninger

Myrvoll,

t o

bind 7 .

bd.3.

Ovre Ervik.

t he European Urban Culture.

no.2. Gamlebyen,

Oslo.

arkiv.

i Gamlebyen.

S t. Hallvard,

hefte

3 /4,

O slo.

Mynter og a ndre numismatiske I Gamlebyen,

O slo.

g jenstander.

Ovre Ervik.

De Arkeologiske U tgravninger

T H E D E V E L O PM EN T F R OM AS U B S I S T EN C E T O AM ON E T A R Y E C ONOM Y J AN M . BAART

A

f orm

of monetary e conomy developed i n Holland,

South-Holland c astella, a s

d uring

Roman

t imes.

municipium and a vicus.

t he provinces

The s ites where this

Outside t hese s ites

special purpose money in t he trade with

d uction o f money have had implications

t he native

d enarii

population.

f or t he organization of

Coins market

begun

to

emergences of

f unction

the Dutch c ities

in every d ay l ife.

d eveloped a

This process

e conomy a nd e specially with male specializations.

women within

a subsistence

e conomy a re t aken over by men in

i s

intro-

they were used

f unction a s originally currency.

t he

t here are coins

The

but

c .200-c.1250

purposes

with

t he

served

socio-economic

During t he period o f

century

a nd

were

t he

f or

a nd d id not

North-

a nd bronzes

s tructures. s pecial

of

took place

In

monetary connected

Tasks

the

1 3th

e conomy . with

carried out

a by

a monetary e conomy.

T h is c ontr ibut ion t o t he t heme o f c o ins a nd a rchaeo logy w i l l d ea l w ith t he s ub ject o f monetary e conomy . S uch a s ub ject i s v ery c omp lex a nd e xtens ive . T herefore i t s eems u sefu l t o s e lect o ne s pec if ic a spect wh ich i s b oth i n terest ing a nd r ecogn izab le w ith in t he a rchaeo log ica l d i sc ip l ine . I h ave d irected my r esearch t o t he t rans it ion f rom a s o-ca l led s ubs istence e conomy t o a monetary e conomy . I wou ld l i ke t o d iscuss t h is s ub ject f rom o ne s pec if ic r eg ion , n ame ly t he c ounty o f Ho l land , a nd w ith in t he p er iod 0 -1300 . A s t h is p rocess o ccurs o ver t he who le o f North-western E urope , b e i t e ar l ier o r l a ter , t he d iscuss ion a bout i t c an b e g enera l ized . T h is c an l ead t o a more b a lanced u nderstand ing o f t h is p henomenon i n t ime a s we l l a s f or r eg ion o r c ountr ies . T he c haracter ist ic o f as ubs istence e conomy i s t hat t he c ommun ity wh ich p roduces t he g oods a lso ma in ly c onsumes t hese g oods ( Hodges 1 981:144 ) . I n a monetary e conomy , o n t he o ther h and , g oods a re p roduced f or a market , a nd t he a im i s t he a ccumu lat ion o f a s much p roperty a s p oss ib le . Money i s a means t o t h is . T here a re t wo p er iods wh ich s how t he d eve lopment o f a monetary e conomy , t o w it t he s econd c entury a nd t he t h irteenth c entury . I t h as t o b e n oted t hat t here was n o p ure s ubs istence e conomy i n Ho l land i n t he M idd le A ges . L i fe was o rgan ized a ccord ing t o af euda l s ystem i n wh ich a s urp lus o f g oods , h owever s ma l l , h ad t o b e p roduced . S t i l l It h ink Ic an p resent t he c ontrast s o s harp ly b ecause most o f t he p roduct ive a ct iv it ies o f t hese c ommun it ies were d irected t owards i n terna l c onsumpt ion . T hese c ommun it ies were made u p o f f armers , c o lon ists who u ndertook t he c u lt iv at ion o f t he e nt ire b og o f Ho l land . T he c u lt ivat ion was c omp leted a round 1 200 a nd t he who le r eg ion was i nhab ited b y f armers who were t o s ome e xtent s e lfs uff ic ient o n t he ir i s o lated f arms . I n t he f o l low ing p er iod , a nd e ven e ar l ier o n as ma l l s ca le , ac lose p attern o f t owns d eve loped . A t t he s ame t ime a monetary e conomy d eve loped , wh ich c aused a c hange i n e veryday l i fe , o rgan izat ion o f l abour , r o les o f t he s exes , e ducat ion a nd h ous ing . T h is c hange c an b e a na lysed o n t he b as is o f a rchaeo log ica l d ata a nd h istor ica l s ources . T h is f orm o f monetary e conomy ment ioned a bove n eeds e xp la in ing . I t d iffered f rom t hat o f t he e ar ly M idd le A ges i n t hat i t was u sed n ot o n ly f or l ong -d istance a nd r eg iona l

11

t rade , b ut a lso a s s ma l l c hange i n d a i ly l i fe , a s p ayment f or a cqu ired g oods o r s erv ices r endered . T h is f orm o f monetary e conomy , t herefore , b rought a bout c hanges ma in ly i n t he s ector o f d a i ly l i fe . T hese c hanges c an b e f ound i n t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata . T he r ed istr ibut ion o f l abour b etween t he s exes was o ne r emarkab le a spect o f t h is p rocess . A ct iv it ies c arr ied o ut b y women , l i ke b rew ing , e xtract ing s a lt , g r ind ing c orn , b ak ing b read , weav ing , t each ing , mak ing p ottery , c ook ing , d ye ing a nd s o o n b ecame t he s pec ia l ists ' ma in t ask a nd were c arr ied o ut f or money . A t t he s ame t ime we s ee t he d omest icat ion o f women , emphas iz ing t he s egregat ion o f t he s exes . A s eparat ion a lso b ecame v is ib le i n t erms o f s pace : h ouses were d iv ided i n to p r ivate a nd p ub l ic p arts . A s im i lar s tra in d eve loped b etween t owns a nd c ountry . T he ma le s pec ia l ists i n t he t owns h ad , i n it ia l ly , t oo l im ited a market f or t he ir p roducts , a nd t hey t r ied t o monopo l ize p roduct ion t o t he d isadvantage o f t he p eop le i n t he c ountry s ide a nd t he f ema le p roducers i n t he t owns . Monetar izat ion o f d a i ly l i fe p layed a n i mportant r o le i n t h is p rocess a nd i s r ef lected i n t he p attern o f c o in f i nds . B efore d escr ib ing t h is p rocess i n d eta i l Iw i l l g ive s ome d ata a bout t he g eography o f t h is a rea . I n t he M idd le A ges , t he c ounty o f Ho l land was f ormed , r ough ly , b y t he p resent Dutch p rov inces o f North- a nd S outh-Ho l land . T he l andscape o f t he c ounty o f Ho l land was made u p o f s andy c oasta l d unes a nd a n e xtens ive b og a rea wh ich f ormed b eh ind t hem . T h is p rocess s tarted i n t he s i xth m i l lenn ium BC . F rom a bout 4 200 BC o nwards , t h is l andscape was i nhab ited . T he most a ccess ib le a nd s afest l ands were t he c oasta l d unes l y ing a long t he s ea i n p ara l le l s tr ips a lternat ing w ith b og ( Ha l lewas 1 984 :299-307 ) . T he o ther n atura l a pproaches t o t h is a rea a re t he r ivers R h ine a nd Meuse a nd t he I J . T he p er iod o f c o in f i nds t hat I want t o d iscuss s tarts i n t h is a rea a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst c entury AD a nd e nds a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury . Dur ing t he e nt ire p er iod , t he l ocat ion o f t he f inds i s d eterm ined b y t he l ands cape . T h is p attern c hanged i n t he c ourse o f t he 1 3th c entury , i nf luenced b y t he n ew ly d eve loped n etwork o f t owns ; t he e ar l ier t owns were s i tuated i n t he a rea a long t he d unes wh ich h ad l ong b een i nhab ited a nd t he l a ter t owns g rew u p i n t he b og a rea a long t he Z u iderzee . B efore t he c om ing o f t he R omans t h is r eg ion was w ithout c o ins . T he R omans c hanged t h is . T hey f ound t wo t r ibes i n Ho l land : t he F r is i i M inors i n North Ho l land , a nd t he " Cananefaten" i n S outh-Ho l land ( B loemers 1 983 :159-209 ) . Not much i s k nown a bout t he p o l it ica l o rgan isat ion i n t hese a reas . T here s eems t o h ave b een a t r iba l c h ief a nd , w ith h im , ac erta in d egree o f o rgan izat ion a nd s oc ia l s trat if icat ion . T he ir e conomy was ma in ly a s ubs istence e conomy i n w h ich , a s a rchaeo log ica l r esearch s hows , t here was s ome t raff ic o f g oods l i ke s a lt , p ottery a nd s tone . T he dwe l l ings , f arms , were i so lated o r i n v ery s ma l l g roups . I n o rder b etter t o i n terpret t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata , i nc lud ing t he c o ins , I h ave r ecent ly c arr ied o ut h istor ica l e thno-archaeo log ica l r esearch i n Nor th- a nd M idd le-Amer ica . T he s i tuat ion i n t hose r eg ions i s c omparab le : o n t he o ne h and t he I nd ian c ommun ity , l i v ing i n t he s tone/ iron-age , a nd o n t he o ther h and t he c onquerors , t he E uropeans , s uch a s t he Danes , Swedes , E ng l ish a nd Dutch . B ased o n t h is r esearch , I am t ry ing t o s et u p p arad igms t o i n terpret t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd w r itten d ata f rom t he R oman p er iod ( Baart 1 985 :89-99 ) . I n it ia l ly I made a n i nventory o f a l l t he R oman c o in f inds i n Ho l land . T h is i nventory was c omp leted i n 1 980 . T he f i nds g ive a g ood a nd r epresentat ive p icture o f t he c ircu lat ion o f c o ins i n t h is r eg ion ( van E s 1 960 ; B oersma 1 963 a nd 1 967) . T he p attern o f f i nds c o inc ides w ith t he ma in dwe l l ing a rea a long t he

12

d unes o n t he o ne h and a nd t he a ct iv it ies a long t he ma jor s t reams o n t he o ther : t he He l in ium , c onf luence o f t he Meuse a nd t he Waa l , a nd t he I J . T he c o in f i nds c an b e d iv ided i n to f i ve c ategor ies : t he u sua l ly l a rge a ssemb lages i n t he a rmy c amps , c aste l la , a nd t he u rban s ett lement , mun ic ip ium ; t he l e ss e xtens ive f i nds i n t he v i l lages , v ic i ; t he u sua l ly l im ited f i nds i n c ommun it ies c ons ist ing o f s evera l f arms a nd i s o lated h omesteads ; a nd f i na l ly t he n ot i ncons iderab le n umber o f s t ray f inds a long t he ma in t rad ing r outes . T he f inds a re d iv ided i n to t hree c ategor ies : p laces w ith o ne t o f our c o ins , w ith more t han f i ve c o ins , a nd h oards ( f ig .1) . I n t h is way t he t ypes o f f i nd s pots h ave b een b rought i n to r e l ief , i lum in at ing t he most i mportant a reas o f c i rcu lat ion : t he a rmy c amps , t he u rban s ett lement a nd t he ma in r oad , t he He l in ium . G eograph ica l ly , t here a re a lso c lear d ifferences . North-Ho l land h as f ewer f i nds a nd t he l a rger g roups o f f i nds a re f ew a nd f ar b etween . T he r eason f or

legenda

•

stray

f inds

< 5

stray

f inds

> 5

hoards

•

castella possible castella mint

o ld dunes/rivers towns Amsterdam/Rotterdam d isappeared surface Roman t imes and/or water marine

sediment

peat

1

LI Fig.l. 3 .

p leistocene provincial

F inds

of

boundary

Roman

Forum Hadriani,

4 .

coins

AD 0 -400

in North-

Rijswijk.

13

and South-Holland.

1 .

Velsen,

2 .

Valkenburg,

t h is i s t hat North-Ho l land f e l l o uts ide t he R oman f ront iers a nd S outh-Ho l land , f or t he g reater p art , w ith in . Moreover , i n t he l a tter p rov ince we f i nd c aste l la a long t he O ld R h ine a nd t he ma in waterway , t he He l in ium . T he s urvey o f t he t ota l o f s t ray f i nds p er p er iod ma in ly i lustrates t he d ifferences ( f ig .2 a nd 3 ) . A lthough t he ma in emphas is o f R oman c o in c i rcu lat ion l i es i n s ide t he f ront ier , i t i s c lear t hat t here a re R oman c o ins i n t he a rea o uts ide t he f ront ier , s pread o ver t he f our c entur ies o f R oman a ct iv it ies . When we l ook a t t he f i nds c hrono log ica l ly , af i rst p er iod o f c ontact c an b e d ef ined : f rom a round 0 t o AD47 , t he y ear t he f ront ier was e stab l ished . Two c aste l la were b u i lt d ur ing t h is p er iod , o n r ough ly t he s ame s pot i n V e lsen o n t he mouth o f t he I J . T hey d ate f rom c . AD 1 4 t o AD 2 8 a nd f rom AD 4 0 t o AD 5 0 ( More l 1 987 :169-177 ) . T hese c aste l la a cted a s o utposts c ontro l l ing t he a rea . I n t he a rea n ear t hese c aste l la s ome R oman a rtefacts h ave b een f ound i n t he n at ive f arms . A round t he c aste l la i n V e lsen t here a re t hree c o ins wh ich must b e c onnected w ith t hem . T ogether w ith t he e qua l ly r are f i nds o f s t r ips o f i ron a nd R oman p ottery i n t he n at ive f arms , a lso f rom t h is p er iod , t hey may b e c a l led f i nds o f c ontact w ith t he R omans . T hese a re c opper c o ins ( a s a nd d upond ius) , t he l owest d enom inat ions . I e ncountered a s im i lar p icture i n t he I roquo is v i l lages i n New Y ork S tate , where t he s econd p er iod o f c ontact y ie lded f i nds c ons ist ing o f t r inkets s uch a s p ottery , b eads , meta l u tens i ls a nd a f ew c o ins , wh ich h ave b een e xcavated r ecent ly ( Wray 1 985 :100-112 ; D .Rumr i l l , p ersona l c ommun icat ion ) . I wou ld l i ke t o i n terpret t he f ew c o ins f ound a round V e lsen 's c aste l la i n t he s ame way : t hey b e long t o t he s econd c aste l lum 4 0-50 AD . T hey were o b jects o f i n terest o r c ur ios it ies f or t he n at ive p opu lat ion , u sed i n t he e xchange o f g oods . T he R omans were i n terested i n f ood , s uch a s c att le , a nd h ides . A s u sua l i n t h is k ind o f p r im it ive t raff ic o f g oods , i t h as t he c haracter o f a monocu lture . T he b eg inn ing o f s uch t raff ic o f g oods c an b e p eacefu l , when t he n at ive p opu lat ion i s w i l l ing t o t rade . T hese s i tuat ions c an t urn i n to v io lent c onfrontat ions , h owe ver , when t he i nvader s tarts t o e xact t hese g oods a nd , n ot u ncommon ly , s erv ices . T he l a tter t ook p lace i n t he p er iod o f V e lsen I ( AD 1 4-28 ) . A t ax was i mposed o n t he F r is ians i n t he s hape o f s k ins a nd c att le , a nd c o l lected u nder p ressure ( van E s 1 981 :33) . T he c ommander 0 1 1en ius s tarted r i ots o n t h is a ccount , r i ots wh ich p robab ly l ed t o t he d estruct ion o f V e lsen I . T he c o in f i nds i n V e lsen I a nd I c ons ist c h ief ly o f c opper money f rom t he t imes o f t he c aste l la t hemse lves , s ome d enar i i f rom t he s ame p er iod a nd f rom t he R epub l ic , a nd a f ew g o ld c o ins . S o ld iers were p a id i n s o l id i a nd d enar i i . T he c opper money w i l l u ndoubted ly h ave b een u sed i n e veryday l i fe , f or i n stance t o p ay f or f ood o r a rt ic les l i ke s hoes . C raftsmen s uch a s s hoemakers worked i n t he c aste l la , a s f i nds o f l eather waste s how ( van D r ie l-Murray 1 987 :32-42 ) . S o ld iers a nd c raftsmen , o r maybe a c omb inat ion o f b oth , l i ved i n t hese c aste l la . T here was n o v icus i n t he n e ighbourhood a s y et . I n ar e lat ionsh ip b etween n at ive s ett lements a nd R oman c aste l la t he p rob lem i s u sua l ly t hat i n t he e xchange o f g oods t he n at ive p opu lat ion b eg ins t o s pec ia l ize i t s d emands t owards e ver more f unct iona l a nd v a luab le p roducts . T h is c an l ead t o f r ict ion . On t he o ther h and , t he o ccupy ing f orces i n t he c aste l la s uffered f rom a l ack o f r eady money b ecause o f t he ir r ather i s o lated p os it ion . I n V e lsen I a C e lt ic c o in was f ound , p o int ing t o t he f act e very p iece o f money was we lcome t hen . T he s econd p er iod , f rom AD 4 7 t o AD 2 35/284 , s hows t he h igh p o int i n t he R oman c ircu lat ion o f c o ins . T he c arefu l ly a nd e xtens ive ly e xcavated c aste l la o f V a lkenburg a nd Zwammerdam a re g ood e xamp les o f t h is c i rcu lat ion . V a lkenburg d iffers f rom Zwammerdam i n t hat t here we h ave a c ont inuous s er ies o f c o ins f rom A ugustus , T iber ius a nd C a l igu la ( f ig .4 ) . I n Zwammerdam t here a re n o c o ins f rom T iber ius , t he r eason

14

f inds

W.1, 6 16 1 M .

S tray

coins

in North-Holland.

S tray

f inds

of Roman

—Am

1 4 . 1 „ , 1 1 1 1

u m

15

of Roman

coins

in

South-Holland.

. 1 1

c n

t s )

l

9 3 '

i ag l ög ' ‘ x. 1 5 t ,a rö 20

;1 2 3

16 r : 56 '3

2

2

A 5 ;

e = z 1

2

1

e 2

d3

5

;

d d . Hadriani)

i1

i n t he castellum Valkenburg.

F le „

f inds

z e ! e e

Coin

I L

g Voorburg Arentsburg.

Municipium Cananefatium

0

b e ing t hat V a lkenburg d ates f rom s ome y ears b efore AD 4 7 . T he l ess c arefu l ly e xam ined p robab le c aste l la o f Woerden a nd L eyden s how a l ess c ons istent s er ies o f c o ins ; Woerden was s econdar i ly o ccup ied i n t he 4 th c entury . T he s er ies o f c o ins f rom t he c aste l la i nd icate t hat t here was a monetary e conomy t o s ome e xtent . T he v icus a round t he c aste l lum , h as g enera l ly r ece ived l e ss a ttent ion f rom a rchaeo log ists , a s t he s urvey o f c o in f i nds f rom t he v icus o f t he c aste l lum V a lkenburg s hows . I t may b e a ssumed t hat i n s ystemat ic l a rge-sca le d igs a p icture s im i lar t o t hat o f t he c aste l la wou ld emerge . T he u rban/reg iona l c entre o f t he c iv itas o f t he " Cananefaten" , t he F orum Had r ian i , l ay i n S outh-Ho l land ( f ig .5) . I t i s i n terest ing t o s ee t hat t h is l i tt le t own h as y ie lded a n e ven g reater n umber o f c o ins t han t he we l l-researched c aste l la o f V a lkenburg a nd Zwammerdam . On t he b as is o f t he e xtent o f c i rcu lat ion o f money i n t h is t own o ne may a ssume t hat a n umber o f s pec ia l ists c raftsmen a nd t rademen h ad f ound work h ere , o ffer ing t he ir p roducts a nd s erv ices f or p ayment i n c o in . Near t h is t own was t he o n ly c iv i l v icus t hat h as s o f ar b een t raced more o r l e ss c lear ly , a t Ockenburg/Loosdu inen ( f ig .6 ) . T h is v i l lage h as y ie lded a n ot i ncons iderab le s er ies o f c o ins . T he s equence f o l lows t he s ett lements o f s ome f arms , s uch a s t hat o f R i jsw i jk . T h is s ett lement a ppears t o h ave b een i nhab ited o r v is ited d ur ing t he e nt ire R oman p er iod u p t o t he 4 th c entury . E ven t h is v ery we l l-researched s ett lement h as p roduced o n ly f our c o ins , d at ing f rom t he 1 st , 2 nd a nd 4 th c entur ies ( B loemers 1 978 :302 ) . On

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Fig.6.

4 1

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2 1. 1 4

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2 1

Roman

coin

f inds

in

17

the village vicus

Ockenburg Loosduinen.

t he o ther h and , i n s ett lements s uch a s R i jsw i jk a nd K ethe l we h ave a ssemb lages o f p ottery i n wh ich s ome 4 0 t o 6 0% a re i mports o f R oman o r ig in . I n t he c aste l la , t he v icus n ear t he V a lkenburg c aste l lum , a nd t he t own F orum Hadr ian i t he p ercent age o f n at ive p ottery i s a lways l e ss t han 1 0% . A part f rom s t ray f i nds , d istr ibuted c h ief ly a long t he d unes a nd waterway s , wh ich p o int more t o t rade r outes , t he h oards p ose a f ew s pec if ic q uest ions . We c an d ist ingu ish t hree d i fferent k inds : o ne c ons ist ing o f s ome s ma l l c hange ; o ne o f s i lver money , a nd o ne v ery l a rge f i nd , c ons ist ing o f many h undred s o f c opper c o ins . T he h oards c ons ist ing o f af ew c opper c o ins r epresent l o st s ma l l c hange ; t he f i nd o uts ide t he f ront ier , c ons ist ing o f s i lver money , may r epresent t he e xchange v a lue o f at ransact ion w ith a merchant f rom w ith in t he f ront ier . T he l arge f i nd f rom t he Haar lemmermeer i s t he most i n tr igu ing . T h is f i nd , l o st a round 4 00 AD , h as b een i n terpreted a s t he p roperty o f at rader e n r oute t o E ng land w ith a l a rge c o l lect ion o f s ma l l c hange ( Evers 1 966 :31-40) . Now t hat more a nd more 4 th c entury c o ins a re b e ing f ound i n Ho l land , we may h ave t o r e interpret t h is . T he t ransport may h ave b een f or l oca l u se . Me lted c opper c ou ld s erve a s r aw mater ia l f or a b ronze-founder . T he i nventory o f t he 4 th c entury f i nds s hows a l im ited n umber o f f i nds . A f ew i mportant p laces l i ke t he He l in ium , t he o ld c aste l lum a t Woerden , t he r eg ion a round V e lsen a nd a c oup le o f c o ins i n t he f ormer c ap ita l F orum Hadr ian i a re t he s parse mementos o f b etter t imes . S umm ing u p , i n Ho l land w ith in t he f ront iers t here was a monetary e conomy i n t he R oman c aste l la , a nd i n t he c iv i l s ett lements o f s ome r enown , w ith s ome t races a lso i n t he s ma l lest s ett lements i n t he 2 nd a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he 3 rd c entury . We c an s ee a r ef lect ion o f t h is i n t he a rea o uts ide t he f ront iers , p o int ing t o a t l east o ccas iona l p art ic ipat ion a nd t o t he modest u se o f d enar i i f or c ommerc ia l p urposes . T he d eve lopment o f s uch a monetary e conomy must h ave h ad many i mp l icat ions f or t he o rgan isat ion o f s oc io-econom ic s t ructures . I wou ld e spec ia l ly l i ke t o p o int o ut t he n ecessary p resence o f s pec ia l ist merchants a nd c raftsmen who f ormed t he s oc ia l f ramework w ith in wh ich t h is o ut l ined c i rcu lat ion o f c o ins c ou ld d eve lop . T he f o l low ing s pec ia l isms c an b e t raced i n t he Nether lands i n t he R oman p er iod :

Metal

sector

smith

Food s ector

gold/silver smith

( ?)

b aker butcher

bronze-founder Services Leather

s ector

sector

t anner/shoemaker

i nn-keeper d octor s oldier

Building s ector

c arpenter mason

Trade s ector

s tone mason

t ravelling

painter s awyer

oarsman s kipper pedlar

J

merchant c orn merchant

I ndustrial

s ector miller brick/tilemaker potter s altmaker

Here t he c hange i n r o le b etween t he s exes , i n r espect t o t he d iv is ion o f work , h as t aken p lace . I n t he f orts , t he t owns , a nd t he v i l lages t he women n o l onger b aked t he b read , m i l led t he g ra in , t anned t he l eather , made t he s hoes , p repared t he c lay , s haped a nd f i red t he p ots , made t he s a lt o r l ooked a fter t he med ica l c are , b ut n ow ma le-spec ia l ists p erformed t hese t asks . A t t he s ame t ime t asks c arr ied o ut i nc identa l ly b y men , l i ke s o ld ier , s m ith , b utcher , merchant , s k ipper a nd o arsman , b egan t o b e p erformed p rofess iona l ly f or p ayment . A s t hese s pec ia l ists n o l onger s upp l ied t he ir own b as ic n eeds , a gr icu ltura l r eforms a l so b ecame n ecessary . T h is r esu lted i n l a rge-sca le a gr icu lture , t he d eve lopment o f v i l lae a nd p art ia l s pec ia l izat ion o n t he n at ive f arms . B es ides t he r eorgan i sat ion o f work , d emography i s as econd i mportant a spect . A fter a l l t here h ave t o b e e nough c onsumers . T he p opu lat ion o f t he f orts , t owns a nd v i l lages , i nc lud ing t he h inter land , met t hese c ond it ions . T h is p opu lat ion i s e st imated a t a t l east o ne t housand i nhab itants . J ust a s w ith t he l a te med ieva l t owns , t he m in imum f or t he d eve lopment o f a market , s pec ia l izat ions , a nd a market e conomy , s eems t o h ave b een a bout o ne t housand i nhab itants . T he 5 th c entury p resents a g ap . C o ins a re c omp lete ly a bsent i n o ur a rea , a l though t here h ave b een s ome g o ld f i nds i n t he p resent p rov ince o f F r ies land wh ich was e conom ica l ly more i mportant . Not u nt i l t he Merov ing ian p er iod , i n t he l a te 6 th a nd 7 th c entur ies , c o ins a re f ound a ga in a t r egu lar i n terva ls a long t he d unes , ma in ly g o lden t r ientes o f t he D orestad -type ( f ig .7) . T here a re a lso s ome f i nds o f t he D ronr i jp-type , o r ig inat ing i n F r ies land ( Po l 1 978 :144-155 ) a nd a h oard f rom V e lsen , a l ready k nown f rom t he R oman p er iod , c onta ins 1 7 B yzant ine s o l id i . A n i mportant s ett lement l ay i n t he s outh o f t h is a rea , o n t he Z ee land c oast a t t he empor ium o r ap ort o f t rade o f Domburg ; most o f t he c o ins f rom t h is p er iod were f ound h ere . T he s i ng le f i nds a long t he c oast o f Ho l land c an b e i n terpreted a s t he l oss o f v a luab le t rad ing c ap ita l , g ifts , d owr ies o r b ur ia l g i fts ( Hodges 1 981 :13-20 ; P o lany 1 957 :243-270 ) . A t a ny r ate , t hey d o n ot r epresent s ma l l c hange b e long ing t o e veryday l i fe . T he s i lver d enar i i c haracter ist ic o f t he C aro l ing ian p er iod , t urn u p i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 7 th c entury . I n t he c ourse o f t he 8 th c entury , F rank ish r u le was e stab l ished i n t h is r eg ion . T he s i lver d enar i i o f P ep in t he S hort , e spec ia l ly , a nd n ext t he h andsome d enar ius m inted u nder C har lemagne , h ad a g reat i nf luence o n t he c o inage o f n orth-west E urope . T he l a tter c o in was i m itated a t Ha ithabu ( van Ge lder 1 966 :14-17 ) . I h ave n o d istr ibu t ion map o f t he f i nds f rom Ho l land b ut t h is g ap c an b e f i l led b y f ig .8 wh ich s hows t he d istr ibut ion i n t h is r eg ion o f C aro l ing ian p otte ry i mports f rom G ermany : t h is g ives a s im i lar i mpress ion o f t rade a ct iv it ies a nd h ab itat ion ( f ig .8 ) ( van E s/Verwers 1 985 :221) . A ga in , t here a re f i nds a long t he d unes a nd r i vers , n ow w ith c oncentrat ions i n t he n ew c entres : Medemb l ik , K oudekerk a nd W it la . Medemb l ik , K oudekerk a nd W it la were e mpor ia l i ke Domburg . T h is i s t he p icture u nt i l t he e nd o f t he 9 th c entury . T he 1 0th c entury i s a nother g ap , a s i s t he 5 th c entury . A p er iod o f i n tens ive m int ing s tarted i n t he Nether lands a fter t he y ear 1 000 . T hese c o ins a re n ot r ea l ly f ound i n t he r eg ion u nder d iscuss ion , Ho l land , b ut t hey a re f ound i n n umerous h oards i n t he c ountr ies a round t he B a lt ic : Denmark , Sweden , F in land , R uss ia , P o land a nd E astern-Germany . T hese h oards a lso c onta in many E ng l ish c o ins wh ich must b e r e lated t o t he t axes p a id t o t he Danes ( van Ge lder 1 966 :17-19 ) . T he c o ins f rom t hese h oards m inted i n t he Nether land s hou ld r ather b e s een a s t he e xchange v a lue o f t rade g oods t ransported f rom e ast t o west . T he 1 2th c entury p resents a s im i lar p icture : f ew o r n o c o in f i nds . A s t he S cand inav ian h oards e nd i n t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 2th c entury , we h ave n o i n format i on f rom a broad e i ther . However , we k now f rom o ther s ources t hat a n i mportant r ec lamat ion p ro ject t ook p lace i n Ho l land d ur ing t h is p er iod when c o ins a re s o

19

F ig.8

Fig.7

l egenda

o ld dunes/rivers s tray

f inds < 5

t owns Amsterdam/Rotterdam

•

s tray

f inds

•

hoards

d isappeared s urface Roman t imes a nd/or water

•

c astella

o

possible c astella

•

mint

0

> 5

marine s ediment peat p leistocene provincial

Fig.7. 4 .

Fig.8. 1 .

Finds of Merovingian

Alkmaar,

5 .

Velsen,

F inds of

Medemblik,

2 .

6 .

c oins

6 /7th century.

Noordwijkerhout,

7 .

3 .

Witla.

1 20

Texel,

Voorburg,

Carolingian pottery 8 /9th century Koudekerk,

1 .

boundary

8 .

2 .

Callandsoog,

Europort,

( after van E s

9 .

3 .

Egmond a /d H oef,

Ouddorp.

and Verwers).

P orts

of

t rade:

f ew ; f rom t he 1 0th t o t he 1 3th c entury t he e nt ire b og a rea b eh ind t he d unes was d eve loped a nd c overed w ith f arms . T o c rown t h is p ro ject , a c lose n etwork o f t owns d eve loped f rom t he 1 2th c entury o nwards . Dordrecht , s i tuated o n a n i mportant waterway , was t he most i mportant o f t hese t owns . A s er ies o f t owns i n t he b og a rea a long t he Z u iderzee , p art o f t he North S ea , was a dded t o t h is i n t he 1 3th c entury , o f wh ich Amsterdam b ecame t he most i mportant . A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 4th c entury , Amsterdam e c l ipsed C aro l ing ian Medemb l ik . T h is c o inc idence o f a grar ian d eve lopment a nd u rban n etwork f ostered a p ermanent monetary e conomy i n Ho l land . T he p rocess was a s f o l lows : ag row ing u se o f money i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 3th c entury i n Ho l land , b oth i n t he d eve lop ing t owns a nd a round t he e cc les iast ic a l c entre o f t he B ened ict ine a bbey a t E gmond . However , t here i s o n ly o ne i mportant h oard : 2 000 c o ins , f ound n ear t h is a bbey , i n a t erp a t A vendorp . T he o bverse o f t he c o ins p ortrays a b ishop w ith s taff a nd t he r everse c arr ies a c ross . T he 1 3th c entury s hows a d eve lop ing monetary e conomy . T here a re t wo m ints . By f ar t he most i mportant o ne i s Dordrecht , a nd Medemb l ik was a dded a t t he e nd o f t he 1 3th c entury . T he c o ins s how t he n ames o f t he t owns , a s ymbo l o f t he i mport ant r o le o f t he t owns i n t he d eve lopment o f ad ifferent iated monetary e conomy . However , c o in f i nds were r are u nt i l r ecent ly ( f ig .9 ) . I mproved e xcavat ion t echn iques a nd t he u se o f s oph ist icated d etect ion e qu ipment h ave c hanged t hat o ver t he y ears . T he i nvest igat ion a t Dordrecht a lone h as y ie lded s ome d ozens o f c o ins f rom t he 1 3th c entury . A lthough Amsterdam was s t i l l o n ly a n i ns ign if icant s ett lement o f n o more t han 1 000 i nhab itants i n t h is p er iod , s ome c o ins h ave b een d iscovered i n t he l ast y ear i n t wo s eparate e xcavat ions ( Baart 1 984 :14-34 ) . However t he p icture i s s t i l l s parse , t he more s o when we k now t hat u nder F lor is V ( 1247-1296 ) a lone s ome 4 0 m i l l ion c o ins were m inted ( van Henge l 1 986 :28 ) . A t t he s ame t ime we c an d etect s ome d enom inat ions , a lthough t he p enny we igh ing a bout 0 .6 g rammes was b y f ar t he most i mportant . F or i n stance , t he f i rst 1 3th-century c o in f ound i n Amsterdam was a s o-ca l led b lack t ourno is ( Baart 1 988 :109 ) . T h is l i tt le c o in , m inted i n T ours , was worth h a lf a p enny a nd c onta ined c h ief ly c opper . I t i s s tr ik ing t hat t h is c o in h ad b een n a i led o n a n o b ject f or d ecorat ion . T he s i lver o bo lus , a lso worth h a lf a p enny , i s f ound o ccas iona l ly . A part f rom c o ins m inted i n Ho l land we f ind c o ins f rom C o logne , B rabant a nd E ng land . T hese r epresent r ough ly t he v a lue o f t wo Dutch p enn ies . I n t he c ourse o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he 1 3th c entury t he g roat i s a dded t o t hese , worth e ight Dutch p enn ies . T he v ar iety o f d enom inat ions b eg in t o l ook l i ke a r ea l c o in d ifferent iat ion wh ich wou ld h ave b een u sefu l i n monetary t ransact ions . I n a s ense we a re n ow b ack t o t he s i tuat ion o f t he 2 nd c entury i n Ho l land . S o f ar , most o f t he c o ins h ave b een f ound i n Dordrecht , t he most i mportant u rban c entre , w ith a n e st imated p opu lat ion o f 3 000 t o 5 000 p eop le . Dordrecht was a p ioneer i n t he d eve lopment o f a monetary e conomy r each ing i n to e veryday l i fe . T he s econd p lace w ith a c oncentrat ion o f c o ins i s E gmond , t he e cc les iast ica l c entre o f Ho l land . T he r est o f t he a rea o f d istr ibut ion i s s ma l l , w ith s i ng le f inds a long t he c oast t o Z ee land a nd s ome f i nds a long t he c oast o f t he Z u iderzee , t he c u lt ivated b og a rea . I t g oes w ithout s ay ing t hat t he c ountrys ide i n t h is p er iod s t i l l ma in ly t raded i n g oods w ithout money . F or i nstance , a round Amsterd am r ent was e xacted a nd p a id i n k ind u nt i l t he m idd le o f t he 1 4th c entury ( Besteman/Gu iran 1 987 :104 ) . T h is e xamp le i s r epresentat ive o f t he who le o f Ho l land . I n e xcavat ions i n Amsterdam , e arthenware s av ing b oxes a re f ound f rom t he s econd q uarter o f t he 1 4th c entury o nwards . F or e st imat ing s pend ing p ower i t i s u sefu l t o l ook a t t he o ldest k nown Dutch t own a ccounts , n ame ly t hose o f Dordrecht f rom t he y ears 1 284-1285 . F or e xamp les , f our p ottery j ugs , p robab ly i mports

1 21

l egenda

•

stray

f inds

< 5

stray

f inds

> 5

hoards

•

c astella possible castella mint

o ld dunes/rivers towns Amsterdam/Rotterdam d isappeared surface Roman times and/or water marine

sediment

peat p leistocene provincial

Fig.9.

Finds

4 .

Heemskerk,

11.

Medemblik.

of

13th 5 .

century coins

Amsterdam,

6 .

and mints.

Naarden,

7 .

1 .

Egmond Binnen,

Wassenaar,

8 .

Kijkduin,

boundary

2 .

Bakkum,

3 .

Castricum,

9 .

Aalburg,

1 0.

Dordrecht,

f rom S iegburg , were worth 6 p enn ies ; s i xteen wooden d i shes : o ne p enny ; ap a ir o f s hoes : 2 0 p enn ies a t o ne t ime , 1 5 p enn ies a t a nother t ime ( Dozy 1 891 :4-5 ) . T h is s hows t hat t he l o ss o f ap enny meant n o more t han t he l o ss o f a n e arthenware j ug ; t hat a h oard f rom j ust o uts ide t he t own o f Z ier ikszee c ons ist ing o f 3 00 p enn ies was worth a bout t wo p ewter j ugs ; a nd t he 2 000 c o ins f rom A vendorp were worth s ometh ing l i ke o ne h ead o f c att le . F ina l ly I wou ld l i ke t o p o int o ut t he i mportant c hange i n t he s oc io -econom ic s t ructure a ttendant o n t he i n troduct ion o f a monetary e conomy wh ich s tarted i n t he d eve lop ing t owns where many d i fferent p rofess ions o r s pec ia l izat ions a rose . P roduct ion o f many i t ems was s hared b y b oth men a nd women , e spec ia l ly o n t he i s o lated f arms o f t he r ather i naccess ib le Dutch b og a rea ( Baart 1 988 :89 ) . A l l t hese t asks were t ransferred , a lbe it i n ag radua l a nd v ar ied p rocess , i n to t he h ands o f ma le s pec ia l ists i n t he t owns . I n o rder t o make a l i v ing , i t w as

1 22

n ecessary f or a s pec ia l ist t o monopo l ize h is s pec ia l ity . I n d o ing t h is , t he ma le s pec ia l ist t r ied t o l im it t he work d one n ot o n ly b y women , b ut a lso g enera l ly i n t he c ountrys ide . Women a nd c h i ldren t ook o n an ew r o le . T hey were i nvo lved i n t he man 's b us iness . R u lers a nd t own c ounc i ls i s sued r egu lat ions t o a ccompany t h is p rocess . I n Amsterdam a p roh ib it ion f orbade c raftsmen 's g u i lds t o a ccept f ema le members ( de R oever 1 893 :65-116 ) . I n o rder t o g ive a n i mpress ion o f t he s oc iograph ica l s tructure o f t he d eve lop ing t owns , I h ave made a s urvey o f p rofess ions a nd c rafts f ound i n Dordrecht i n t he 1 3th c entury a nd i n Amsterdam i n t he 1 4th c entury , where o lder d ata i s v irtua l ly n on-ex istent ( t ab le 1 ) . I t i s i n terest ing t o n ote t hat f ema le c rafts a nd p rofess ions a re p ract ica l ly a bsent , w ith a f ew e xcept ions s uch a s t he s a lewoman o f h erbs a nd v egetab les i n Dordrecht a nd t he p rofess ion o f p rost itute u nder ma le s uperv is ion i n Amsterdam . Work t hat h ad b een c arr ied o ut b y women o n s e lf-suff ic ient f arms h ad n ow b een t aken o ver a lmost c omp lete ly b y ma le s pec ia l ists ; t he m i l ler , b aker , b rewer , s a ltmaker , c ook , d yer , weaver , s hoemaker , p otter , d octor a nd s choo lmaster . I n t h is p rocess , t echno log ica l i nnovat ions h ave t o b e c ons idered a s we l l ; f or i n stance t he d isappearance o f m i l lstones i n f avour o f w indm i l ls ; b read was n o l onger b aked o n t he f l oor , b ut i n o vens ; p ots were n o l onger s haped b y h and b ut o n a whee l ; a nd t he more c omp l icated b ut more e ff ic ient h or izonta l l oom r ep laced t he more p r im it ive u pr ight l oom . T hus t here was a n i mprovement i n t he means o f p roduct ion . T here were a lso c onsequences i n t he a grar ian s ector : t he f armer h ad t o f eed t he t ownspeop le a s we l l a s h imse lf . I n t he 1 3th a nd 1 4th c entur ies t he i mport o f g ra in , e spec ia l ly o f r ye f rom t he B a lt ic , g ot u nder way a nd i nstead o f u s ing a le p eop le b egan t o b rew w ith i mported , l a ter a l so l oca l ly g rown , h ops , wh ich r esu lted i n ab etter q ua l ity b eer . T hese i mprovements i n t he means o f p roduct ion d emanded l a rger i nvestments , o ther s k i l ls a nd a d i fferent menta l ity .

T ab le 1

Metal

sector

I

I I

smith

x

x

I

I I

x

x

knife-maker

x

-

axe-maker

-

x

mill-builder

-

x

o il-crusher

x

goldsmith

x

-

x

rope-maker

x

arbalest-maker

x

-

x

soap-boiler

x

-

salt-maker

x

-

potter

x

x (?)

Industrial

s ector

coppersmith/ brass-founder

x

x

x

x

bell-founder

-

x

baker

x

x

tanner/shoemaker

x

x

butcher

x

x

bag/pouch-maker

x

-

f ishmonger

x

brewer

x

x

g irth-maker

-

x

i nn-keeper

x

x

patten-maker

x

-

c heese-maker

-

x

belt-maker

x

x

mustard-maker

-

x

cook

-

x

t insmith

Leather sector

sheath-

Wood sector

Building sector

Textile sector

miller

Food sector

a nd

t urner

x

x

cooper

x

-

basket-weaver

x

Services

s ector

physican/doctor/ x

x

bearer

barber

x

x

musician

carpenter

x

x

x

x

s hipwright

x

x

( cow)herd

x

x

roofer

x

x

whore

x

mason

x

-

painter

x

-

merchant

x

x

s awyer

x

x

pedlar

x

x

paviour

-

x

s kipper

x

x

l oamspreader

x

-

f inancier/banker

-

x

g lazier

x

Government,

mayor

x

x

c lothier

-

x

administration,

s heriff

x

x

c utter/tailor

x

x

e tc.

weaver

x

x

Trade s ector

a lderman

x

x

s teward

x

x

f uller

x

-

b ailiff

dyer

x

x

master o f

f leecer

x

x

notary

shearer

x

-

broker/estate

x

c lerk/secretary

x

x

x

s choolmaster

x

x

messenger

x

x

beguine/nun/hermit x

x

l inenmaker s haftmaker

-

t he mint

agent

-

x

x

x

x

x

-

priest/monk/

I = Amsterdam 1 4th

c entury,

I I

= Dordrecht

1 3th

c entury.

LITERATURE "De Ontstaansgeschiedenis van de stad Amsterdam". In: M.Jonker, L.Noordergraaf, M.Wagenaar (eds.): Van stadskern tot stadsgewest. Stedebouwkundi e eschiedenis van Amsterdam, Amsterdam Historische Reeks, Grote Serie, I, Amsterdam. "Ho-De-No-Sau-Nee en de Nederlanders". New Netherlands Studies, 1985. Bulletin van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Oudheidkundige Bond, 84, 2/3, Utrecht. "De Materi�le Stadskultuur". In: De Hollandse Stad in de dertiende 1988. eeuw, Muiderberg, Stichting 'Comite Oud Muiderberg', Muiderberg. Besteman,J.C. and Guiran,A.J. 1983. ·"Het Middeleeuws Archeologisch Onderzoek in Assendelft: een vroege veenontginning in middeleeuws Kennemerland." In: R.W.Brandt, G.J.van der Horst and J.J.Stolp (eds.): De Zaanstreek, archeologisch Bekeken, Zaanstad. "Rijswijk (Z.H.) "De Bult", Eine Siedlung der Cananefaten". In: Bloemers, J.H.F. 1978. Nederlandse Oudheden, 8, Teil II, Amersfoort. "Acculturation in the Rhine/Meuse basin in the Roman Period: 1983. preliminary survey". In: Roel Brandt and Jan Slofstra (eds.): Roman and Native in the Low Countries, spheres of interaction, BAR International Series, 194, Oxford. "De Romeinse Muntvondsten in de Provincie Noord-Brabant". In: Boersma, J.S. 1963. Jaarboek voor Munt- en Penningkunde, 50. "The Roman Coins from the Province of Zeeland". In: Bulletin van 1967. de Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek, 17. "De Oudste Stadsrekeningen van Dordrecht 1284-1424". 's-Gravenhage. Dozy, C.M. 1891. Oriel-Murray, Carol van. 1987. "Roman Footwear: a mirror of fashion and society". In: Recent Research in Archaeological.Footwear, 8. "De Romeinse muntvondsten uit de drie Noordelijke Provincies; een Es, W.A.6 van. 19 0. periodisering der Relaties". Groningen. Es, W.A. van and Verwers, W.J.H. 1985. "Archeologie in het Kromme-Rijngebied: het ontstaan van een project". In: Maandblad van Oud-Utrecht, 58. "The Haarlemmermeer Hoard". In: Oudheidkundige Medelingen, 47, Evers, 6 6 J.H. 19 . Leiden. 66 . Gelder, H. Enno van. 19 "De Nederlandse Munten". Utrecht. Hallewas, D.P. 1984. "The interaction between man and his physical environment in the county of Holland between circa 1000 and 1300 AD: a dynamic relationship". In: Geologie en Mijnbouw, 63. "De munten van Holland in de 13de eeuw". Amsterdam. Hengel, C. van. 1986. Hodges, Richard. 1981. "Dark Age Economics. The origins of towns and trade A.O. 600-100". London. "The Early Roman Harbours". In: R.W.Brandt, W.Groenman-van Morel, J.M.A.W. 1987. Waateringe and S.E.van der Leeuw (eds.): Assendelfter Folder Papers, 1, Amsterdam. Pol, Arent. 1978. "De verspreidinggebieden van in Nederland geslagen Merovingische gouden munten der 7de eeuw". In: Westerheem 27, 3. "The Economy as Instituted Process". In: K.Polanyi, C.Arentsburg Polanyi, K. 1957. and H.W.Pearson (eds.): Trade Markets in the Early Empires, Glencoe. Roever, N. de. 1893. "De Amsterdamsche Gilden van Voorheen". In:Uit onze oude Amstelstad, 4. "The volume of Dutch trade goods received by Seneca Iroquois 1600Wray, Charles F. 1985. 1687 AD". In: New Netherlands Studies, Bulletin van de Koninklijke Nederlandse Oudheidkundige Bond, 84, 2/3, Utrecht.

Baart, J.M.

1984.

125

J ar lshof

° e l °

S tem less

l a p S ka

•O rton S car

Y ork • o Cuerda le

• L inco ln

a L ondon

E gmond •

S outhampton •

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