Coalescence of Styles: The Ethnic Heritage of St John River Valley Regional Furniture, 1763-1851 9780773568471

Table of contents :
Contents
Plates
Figures
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 St John River Valley Material Culture: Objects as Indicators of Cultural Regions, 1763–1851
2 The Upper St John River Valley: Acadian, French Canadian, and American Influences in the Madawaska Settlements, 1785–1851
3 Anglos and Americans in the Lower St John River Valley: Early-Comers, Loyalist Generations, and Purveyors of "Yankee Clap-Trap Furniture," 1763–1851
4 Scots and Irish in the Lower St John River Valley: Scottish Furniture-Making Traditions and the Impact of Irish Immigrant Artisans, 1815–1851
5 Valley Material Culture and the Coalescence of Regional Styles
Appendices
1 Population of Saint John and the Madawaska Settlements, 1824–1851
2 Lists of Artisans, 1851 Census and Earlier
3 Household Inventory: The Hon. George Sproule of Fredericton, 1818
4 List of Tools Purchased by James Anderson, Jr (New Brunswick) from Alexander Mathieson (Scotland) in 1837
Notes
Glossary
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
P
Q
R
S
T
V
W
Bibliography
Credits of Plates and Figures, by Collection
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y

Citation preview

Coalescence of Styles The Ethnic Heritage of St John River Valley Regional Furniture, 1763-1851

Unique nuances and styles often develop because of interactions between groups of people. By studying furniture produced and decorated by Mi'kmaq, Acadians, French Canadians, Americans, English, Scots, and Irish, Jane Cook shows that their diverse styles merged to create two distinct traditions of furniture making in different parts of the St John River Valley. From the mid-eighteenth century on, cultural life in the northern valley of the St John River blended the traditions of Acadian and French Canadian settlers with those of American immigrants. In the southern valley, Mi'kmaq interacted with American newcomers and loyalist settlers, while the later influx of Scottish and Irish immigrants introduced more layers of cultural traditions. Using an impressively diverse combination of artifacts, artwork, maps, and primary literature from over sixty museum collections and archives, Cook addresses the experiences of immigrants and artisans and their influence on the cultural boundaries along one of eastern North America's most important rivers. She moves beyond a mere catalogue of objects to provide an important comparative analysis of material heritage, showing how furniture embodied the lifestyles of differing groups of settlers. JANE L. COOK is a visiting assistant professor at the McGill Institute for the Study of Canada and research associate at both Kings Landing Historical Settlement and the McCord Museum of Canadian History.

McGill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History SERIES ONE: Donald Harman Akenson, Editor 1 Irish Migrants in the Canadas A New Approach Bruce S. Elliott 2 Critical Years in Immigration Canada and Australia Compared Freda Hawkins (Second edition, 1991) 3 Italians in Toronto Development of a National Identity, 1875-1935 John E. Zucchi 4 Linguistics and Poetics of Latvian Folk Songs Essays in Honour of the Sesquicentennial of the Birth of Kr. Barons Vaira Vikis-Freibergs 5 Johan Schrøder's Travels in Canada, 1863 Orm Overland 6 Class, Ethnicity, and Social Inequality Christopher McAll 7 The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict The Maori, the British, and the New Zealand Wars James Belich 8 White Canada Forever Popular Attitudes and Public Policy toward Orientals in British Columbia W. Peter Ward (Second edition, 1990) 9 The People of Glengarry Highlanders in Transition, 1745-1820 Marianne McLean

10 Vancouver's Chinatown Racial Discourse in Canada, 1875-1980 Kay J. Anderson 11 Best Left as Indians Native-White Relations in the Yukon Territory, 1840-1973 Ken Coates 12 Such Hardworking People Italian Immigrants in Postwar Toronto Franca lacovetta 13 The Little Slaves of the Harp Italian Child Street Musicians in Nineteenth-Century Paris, London, and New York John E. Zucchi 14 The Light of Nature and the Law of God Antislavery in Ontario, 1833-1877 Allan P. Stouffer 15 Drum Songs Glimpses of Dene History Kerry Abel 16 Louis Rosenberg Canada's Jews Edited by Morton Weinfeld 17 A New Lease on Life Landlords, Tenants, and Immigrants in Ireland and Canada Catharine Anne Wilson 18 In Search of Paradise The Odyssey of an Italian Family Susan Gabori 19 Ethnicity in the Mainstream Three Studies of English Canadian Culture in Ontario Pauline Greenhill

20 Patriots and Proletarians The Politicization of Hungarian Immigrants in Canada, 1923-1939 Carmela Patrias

23 Search Out the Land The Jews and the Growth of Equality in British Colonial America, 1740-1867 Sheldon J. Godfrey and Judith C. Godfrey

21 The Four Quarters of the Night The Life-Journey of an Emigrant Sikh Tara Singh Bains and Hugh Johnston

24 The Development of Elites in Acadian New Brunswick, 1861-1881 Sheila M. Andrew

22 Resistance and Pluralism A Cultural History of Guyana, 1838-1900 Brian L. Moore

25 Journey to Vaja Reconstructing the World of . a Hungarian-Jewish Family Elaine Kalman Naves

SERIES TWO: John Zucchi, Editor Inside Ethnic Families Three Generations of PortugueseCanadians Edite Noivo A House of Words Jewish Writing, Identity, and Memory Norman Ravvin Oatmeal and the Catechism Scottish Gaelic Settlers in Quebec Margaret Bennett With Scarcely a Ripple Anglo-Canadian Migration into the United States and Western Canada, 1880-1920 Randy William Widdis

Creating Societies Immigrant Lives in Canada Dirk Hoerder Social Discredit Anti-Semitism, Social Credit, and the Jewish Response Janine Stingel Coalescences of Styles The Ethnic Heritage of St John River Valley Furniture, 1763-1851 Jane L. Cook

This page intentionally left blank

COALESCENCE OF STYLES The Ethnic Heritage of St John River Valley Regional Furniture, 1763-1851 J A N E L. C O O K

McGill-Queen's University Press Montreal & Kingston • London • Ithaca

McGill-Queen's University Press 2001 ISBN 0-7735-2056-2

Legal deposit first quarter 2001 Bibliotheque nationale du Quebec Printed in Canada on acid-free paper This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of Canada, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press acknowledges the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Book Publishing Industry Development Program (BPIDP) for our publishing activities. We also acknowledge the support of the Canada Council for the Arts for our publishing program.

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Cook, Jane Leigh, 1959Coalescence of styles : the ethnic heritage of St. John River Valley regional furniture, 1763-1851 (McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7735-2O56-2

1. Furniture - Saint John River Valley (Me. and N.B.) - History. 2. Furniture making - Saint John River Valley (Me. and N.B.) History. 3. Saint John River Valley (Me. and N.B.) - History. 4. New Brunswick - Population - Ethnic groups - History. 1.Title. NK2442.N46c66 2001 749.211'55 C99-901652-0 Typeset in Minion 10.5/13 by Caractera inc.

For David and for Betty and Phil Cook

This page intentionally left blank

Contents

Plates xi Figures xv Preface

xvii

Acknowledgments

xix

1 St John River Valley Material Culture: Objects as Indicators of Cultural Regions, 1763-1851 3 2 The Upper St John River Valley: Acadian, French Canadian, and American Influences in the Madawaska Settlements, 1785-1851 23 3 Anglos and Americans in the Lower St John River Valley: Early-Comers, Loyalist Generations, and Purveyors of "Yankee Clap-Trap Furniture," 1763-1851 59 4 Scots and Irish in the Lower St John River Valley: Scottish FurnitureMaking Traditions and the Impact of Irish Immigrant Artisans, 1815-1851 112 5 Valley Material Culture and the Coalescence of Regional Styles 151 Appendices 1 Population of Saint John and the Madawaska Settlements, 1824-1851 173 2 Lists of Artisans, 1851 Census and Earlier 174 3 Household Inventory: The Hon. George Sproule of Fredericton, 1818 177 4 List of Tools Purchased by James Anderson, Jr (New Brunswick) from Alexander Mathieson (Scotland) in 1837 184

IX

Contents

Notes 187 Glossary 233 Bibliography 245 Credits of Plates and Figures, by Collection Index 269

x

265

Plates

1 View of the Great Conflagration, Saint John, 1837 15 2 Honoré Beaulieu in his rocking chair 23 3 Grand Falls of the River St. John

24

4 Maliseet rosary 26 5 American and French Canadian homesteads, Madawaska River, ca 1870 34 6 River St. John's from Forks of Madawaska, 1839 35 7 The Fred-Eloi-Albert House in Madawaska, ca 1845 36 8 A Madawaska Settlement cupboard and earlier French Canadian styles 41 9 Madawaskan six-board chest

42

10 Acadian and French Canadian chairs and a Madawaskan rocking chair 11 Variations in table leg turnings

46

12 John Hall's Empire designs for a chest of drawers and a Madawaskan interpretation 47 13 Madawaska Settlement carpenter Joseph Audibert dit la Jeunesse's tool list 50 14 Features of Madawaskan chairs 51 15 Other forms of Madawaskan furniture 16 Double-purpose chair-table

55

XI

54

44

Plates

17 Early-comer furniture: a slant-front desk from the Pickard family of Maugerville 62 18 Drop-leaf table, six-board chest, and tavern table 63 19 Desk-on-stand from the Hanford family 64 20 Wingback easy chair from the Maugerville area 65 21 Loyalist furniture: dining table of Lt-Col. Beverley Robinson, Jr. 67 22 Drop-leaf table used in the Abraham Close household 23 Lt-Col. Hewlett's two-part dining table

68

69

24 Vernacular sofa of the Rev. James Scovil of Kingston Peninsula 70 25 Sophisticated hooded cradle and Queen Anne Dutch-style side chair 71 26 Side table that descended through an African-American household near Fredericton 73 27 Elaborately carved footstool, wall pipe box, and drawer front detail 75 28 Military men and their furniture 77 29 Edward Winslow's early Windsor comb-back armchair built in the Philadelphia style 79 30 Jeremiah Brundage's arrow-back Windsor armchair 79 31 The Garrison family in 1815 80 32 Loyalist child's vernacular Windsor chair 81 33 Interior of a Wigwam, Fredericton

82

34 Indian Dance at Government House, Fredericton, N.B., 1835 83 35 Sewing box given to Mrs Benedict Arnold in 1791 84 36 A View of the City & Harbour of St John, New Brunswick, N.A., 1815 85 37 Loyalist mimics: Benedict Arnold's cabriole (or stuffed-back) chairs 86 38 Variations on Hepplewhite's shield-back chair design no. 9 88 39 Imported English Victorian papier mache tilt-top stand with a view of Government House, Fredericton, ca 1840 91 40 New valley culture personified in Jonathan Odell's possessions 92

Plates

41 Virginia loyalist John Saunders, his property, and sofa

94

42 Spring Hill, Chief Justice Ludlow's loyalist manor, 1807 95 43 American influence: Baltimore style and New York components in Thomas Hay's chairs 101 44 Furniture of loyalist descendants: a chest of drawers and washstand 102 45 Mass-produced American import: a Torrington, Connecticut, mantle clock 105 46 Mass-produced New Brunswick fancy chairs 107 47 View of St John, New Brunswick, 1816 113 48 Scottish immigrant cabinetmakers: business notice of Alexander Lawrence and sofa 115 49 Portrait and shop label of the Scottish-born cabinetmaker Thomas Nisbet 116 50 Regal Scottish fashions: a painting of Queen Victoria's Balmoral Castle bedroom, a New Brunswick sofa and sofa table 118 51 Scottish influence on New Brunswick chairs 120 52 Thomas Nisbet's birch, mahogany, and tiger maple chest of drawers, ca 1820 121 53 Thomas Nisbet's butler's desk, ca 1825 122 54 Scottish and Saint John furniture: detail of a Scottish domestic interior and Thomas Nisbet's bird's-eye maple sewing stand 124-5 55 International exchange of designs: variations on a theme of parlour chair legs 127 56 "Scotch Chest" design and examples of chests with variations 129 57 Irish features on New Brunswick dressers 135 58 Folding bed, attributed to Irish influence by Michael Bird 137 59 Shell or fan motifs on a clock, Saint John gravestone, desk, and County Mayo food press 139 60 Design embellishments: rope turning, ebonizing, and an example of a gravestone head featuring a thistle 140

xiii

Plates

61 Shamrocks, clover, acorns, and maple decorations on a Fredericton pedestal stand 141 62 Ferry stools 143 63 Mr Ge° Smith, Aged 23 and an example of Irish chair maker John Dunn's fancy chairs 146-7

xiv

Figures

1 1827 map, Sketch of the Great Valley of the Rr Saint John 2

4

Plan detail of the upper St John River valley, showing the Madawaska Settlements Settlements 55

3 Maliseet living along the St John River, 1841 25 4 Migration paths into the Madawaska Settlements 29 5 Map of French sources of mid-eighteenth-century settlers 31 6 Map of the Great River St John & Waters, 1784-1787 61 7 Voyages to Saint John from American ports, 1815-1845

99

8 Maps showing Scottish names for rivers and territories 114 9 Origins of cabinetmakers in Saint John, 1851 131 10 Origins of immigrants in Saint John, 1851 131 11 Voyages to Saint John from Irish Ports, 1815-1845 133 12 Voyages to Saint John from Scottish Ports, 1815-1845 133 13 Location of valley regions 153

xv

This page intentionally left blank

Prefacee

Interest in furniture studies has been a passion of mine for the past fifteen years. I was first introduced to the field as a postgraduate student at Wake Forest University. Brad Rauschenberg piqued my interest by showing me southern furniture at the Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts (MESDA) in Old Salem, North Carolina. He followed up by plying me with assorted entertainments at the Rose and Thistle. The majority of furniture that I encountered never looked quite as fine as that which I had left behind in the country estates of England. Yet as I began to look at eighteenth-century "high-style" wares from Charleston, South Carolina, I became fascinated by the richness in designs. As a newcomer, I wondered what contributions furniture makers arriving from abroad had made to coastal Charleston society in centuries past. What had the likes of Scottish immigrant Thomas Elfe brought to America and how had furniture styles changed according to market, place, and heritage? During my research at MESDA I contacted museums far and wide in search of examples of Charleston furniture, and I found a fine chest in the collections of the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, little knowing that I would end up decades later living and working with furniture in the same city. On the way north I stopped off at the New-York Historical Society and Old Sturbridge Village, where my horizons broadened thanks to Donna Baron, Jim Bump, David Colglazier, John Curtis, Francie Downing, Jessica Nicoll, Henry Peach, and Frank White. A research appointment at Kings Landing Historical Settlement led to a slight panic as I realized that, having lived in both Carolinas and then Philadelphia, New York, Massachusetts, Nova Scotia, and Quebec, I was moving in a beeline to the North Pole. When I discovered that there was a hotel with furniture and even fireplaces made solely from ice somewhere not too far from the said pole, my panic solidified. Thankfully, Des Morton and Conrad Graham saved me by dragging me west to the vrai metropolis of the

xvii

Prefacee universe, Montreal, where I now research and teach through the McGill Institute for the Study of Canada and the McCord Museum of Canadian History. Here today I find myself entangled within three linguistic cultures, Mohawk, French, and English, and with two learning environments, the university and the museum. Having lived in three countries (or four, depending on one's position regarding Quebec), my fascination with cultural differences and how we interpret them continues. My interest in culture is not only related to the Anglo-American-Euro-centric historical realm. Thanks to Conrad Graham at the McCord Museum of Canadian History, I am now beginning to explore First Nations' furniture-making traditions. Who borrowed designs from which cultures? Is the only true Canadian furniture a Native-newcomer hybrid? And so questions about furniture are never far from my mind. Let's face it, furniture is a part of everyone's life. At home and office, on planes and trains, seats have our names on them. They encapsulate us, embrace us, embody our values, and announce our fashion, our social status, speaking to new generations and through continental divides. Approaches to the meaning of furniture vary wildly. Even now I recall my graduation from admiring the formal Chippendale-style furniture of Charleston to the much more interesting and revealing ruggedly worked vernacular wares of country Canada. Some might argue that this is a devolutionary rather than evolutionary process. Not I. Somewhere along the way, the work back home in England on vernacular wares by Bill Cotton and the late Christopher Gilbert proved intriguing. Single-room dwellings with central fireplaces, settles, an assortment of chairs, walls covered with shelves, religious relics, travel souvenirs, drying herbs, and fresh-caught foul garnered my imagination, reaching out and welcoming me into domestic interiors of the lower and middling sort. Here I find embedded in building materials solace, spirit, sagacity - evidence of an alternate cultural life. The writings of Henry Classie, Gerald Pocius, and Robert Blair St George are "implicated" here. In moving to new areas in North America I have first come to know a region by its furniture. Historical documents read later only supported what the furniture had already revealed. My interest in eighteenth- and earlynineteenth-century eastern North American furniture and its origins, as well as immigrant-affected cultural histories, have culminated in this book.

xviii

Acknowledgmentss

The completion of material history research is dependent on the support of many institutions and individuals in providing finances, object resources, and intellectual support. Kings Landing Historical Settlement board and staff provided all assistance possible. Former director Gregg Finley was instrumental in setting up the initial research facilities; he proclaimed "Eureka" when the task appeared near completion, and continued to offer editorial expertise throughout the preparation of the final manuscript. Expert curatorial insights into artifacts were offered by Kings Landing Historical Settlement's chief curator, Darrel Butler, and fellow curatorial research associate, Tim Dilworth. Both enthused about New Brunswick furniture and their makers, furnishing refreshing perceptions regarding provincial heritages. They made it a pleasure to undertake research in the valley. Special thanks go to Tim for sharing his newspaper clippings on New Brunswick cabinetmakers and for introducing me to aspects of the Nisbets and their wares; and hurrah for Bob Dallison, current director of Kings Landing, for his ongoing support. Individuals outside Kings Landing Historical Settlement aided and abetted forays in pursuit of Atlantic Canadian furniture. Special thanks go to Walter Peddle, curator emeritus, Newfoundland Museum, for a personal tour of Bonavista Peninsula furniture. Rusty McClelland accompanied me on sorties around Moncton and proved extremely knowledgeable about Atlantic Canadian country antiques and their dealers. Her editorial reading of the first draft of the manuscript proved invaluable. Furniture conservator Alastair Fox identified wood types and assisted me during trips to Fredericton, St Andrews, and Caraquet. Of particular interest was the access granted by Frank and Dorothy Dearborn of New Brunswick to the Huia G. Ryder Estate research papers for the purpose of cataloguing, and for special permission to photograph their collection; thanks also to dealers and collectors Les and Pierrette Dumond, and Donald Cyr in Lille, Maine, for sharing their expertise and private collections with me; also dealers Clay Benson and June O'Neil, who

xix

Acknowledgments

permitted the reproduction of photographs. Thanks to Harold Warburton of Cheshire for directing me to off-the-beaten-path Scottish furniture collections. Thanks go to Bob Guthrie who brought his Glair chair to show me and to Beth Kirby for allowing me to use images of her nineteenth-century sofa. David Jones, in the Department of Art History at the University of St Andrews in Scotland, provided illustrations of Scottish furniture. Joan E. Graham, my great-aunt, shared her English Windsors with me. Researchers in England and Ireland, David Knell and Claudia Kinmonth, also shared detailed information on the chairs with which they were familiar. Dr Kinmonth graciously read the final draft of the chapter relating to Irish furniture. Artist Lionel Corriveau helped in redrawing my draft maps. Museum professionals have been generous with assistance in locating artifacts and related research materials. Most provided photographic opportunities in collections, and all provided valuable curatorial time and expertise. I would like to thank in particular the boards and staff of the following historic sites for access to their collections: Mellerstain; the American Museum in Britain, Bath, England (Judith Elsdon); Temple Newsam House; Leeds Museums and Art Galleries, England (the late Christopher Gilbert); the Maine State Museum, Augusta, Maine (Edwin A. Churchill); Donna Keith Baron at Old Sturbridge Village and Webb-Deane-Stevens Historic Houses; Canadian Heritage/Parks Canada (Wayne P. Kerr); the Canadian Museum of Civilization, Hull, Que. (Louis Campeau, Peter Rider, Jean Soubliere); the McCord Museum of Canadian History, Montreal, Que. (Marilyn Aitkens, Conrad Graham, Nora Hague, Brenda Klinkow, Moira McCaffrey); the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ont. (Jackie Spafford, Donald B. Webster, Nicola Woods); the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Ont. (France Duhamel); the Moncton Museum, Moncton, N.B.; Acadian Odyssey National Historic Site, Fort Beausejour, N.B. (S.C. Ridlington); the Beaverbrook Art Gallery, Fredericton, N.B. (Tom Smart, Rachel Brodie); le Village Historique Acadien, Caraquet, N.B. (Roger Boucher); New Brunswick Heritage Collection Centre, Prince William, N.B. (Bob Guthrie, Janice Allen-Scott); the Heritage Branch of the Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Culture, Province of New Brunswick (Wayne Burley); the New Brunswick Museum, Saint John, N.B. (Alastair Fox, Gary Hughes, Peter Laroque, M.A. MacDonald, Jim Michaud); the York-Sunbury Historical Society Museum, Fredericton, N.B. (Kate Mossman, Antoinette Duplessis, Nancy Cooper); the Ross Memorial Museum, St Andrews, N.B. (Margot Magee Sackett, Irene Ritch, C. Ruth Spicer); le Musee acadien a 1'Universite de Moncton, Moncton, N.B.; and the Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax, N.S. (Marie Elwood, Scott Robson). Other sources of research information include special collections, privately held or in university libraries and archives. I would like to thank Her Majesty the Queen for permission to reproduce a sketch of an interior room at Balmoral Castle (Rachel Boom, Royal Library, Windsor Castle Collections). XX

Acknowledgments

Public holdings providing images and artifacts for research include the National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh; the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland/National Monuments Record of Scotland, Edinburgh, Scotland (Ian Gow, Veronica Steele); the Scottish Record Office, Edinburgh, Scotland; the Borders Region Archive and Local History Centre, Selkirk, Scotland (Rosamund Brown, Alan Carter); Victoria and Albert Museum Library, London; the Raymond H. Fogler Library at the University of Maine at Orono (Muriel Sanford); Maine State Archives and Library, Augusta, Maine; Madawaska Public Library, Madawaska, Maine (Mme Theriault); Madawaska Historical Society (Mrs Geraldine Chasse, Mrs Norma Berube, Mrs Cecile Pozzuto); the Acadian Archives/Archives acadiennes at the University of Maine at Fort Kent (Lisa Ornstein); the Maine Historical Society Collections, Portland, Maine (Nicholas Noyes, Holly HurdForsyth); the Winterthur Museum and Library, Wilmington, Delaware (Jennifer ]Munsen); Laval University Social Sciences Library, Laval, Que.; the library of 1'Universite du Quebec a Rimouski (Regional Collection); the National Gallery of Canada Research Library, Ottawa, Ont. (Murray Waddington); the National Archives of Canada: Cartography Division (Pat Mclntyre), Documentary Art and Photography Division (Gilbert Gignac), Historical Resources Branch (Kate O'Rourke), Records and Consultation Unit (Jean Matheson), and History section (Patricia Kennedy). Andre Doiron and Ruth Grattan at the Provincial Archives of New Brunswick were most helpful, as was Garry D. Shutlak at the Public Archives of Nova Scotia. Other sources include the Royal Ontario Museum Decorative Arts Library, Toronto, Ont.; the Queen Elizabeth II Library at the Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, Nfld; the Harriet Irving Library at the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton (Kathryn Hilder); Department of Natural Resources and Energy, Land Records at the Hugh John Flemming Forestry Centre, Fredericton, N.B.; the Legislative Building Library, Fredericton, N.B.; the MicmacMaliseet Institute, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton; Special Collections Dalhousie University Libraries, Halifax, N.S. (Karen Smith); Acadia University Library, Wolfville, N.S. (Edith Haliburton); Nova Scotia College of Art and Design Library, Halifax, N.S.; St Mary's University Library, Halifax, N.S.; and St Francis-Xavier University Library, Antigonish, N.S. At Dalhousie University, all thanks go to Michael Cross, who first introduced me to the more intriguing aspects of Canadian history and later threw the occasional bone to encourage publishing. David Sutherland provided a rapid and critical read of an early draft of the manuscript. Professors Jack Crowley and Donald B. Webster also encouraged publication. I would like to thank Kathryn Brammall, Brams, Colin and Alessandra Duncan, Alison Forrest, Manchester Ben Gato, Sarah Harrison Grove, Janet Guildford, Gail Hogan, Elizabeth Irving-Waddleton, Corinna Kinchin, Jim Legere, Brian Lewis, Tina Loo, David Marcogliese, Debbie Marcogliese, Rusty xxi

Acknowledgments

McClelland, Sharon McGladdery, Lena Measures, Paul Moreau, Paula Morgan, Suzanne Morton, Allan Patten, Patricia Potvin, Rodel, Danny Samson, Shirl and Al Shostak, David Sinclair, Fran Smith, and Susan Whitehouse for stimulating my thought processes, providing friendship, supplying moral support, and succeeding in making me laugh at seemingly inopportune moments. Research was funded by the Killam Foundation, the Department of Multiculturalism and Citizenship Canada, and Dalhousie University's Office of Research and Development. I am grateful also to the Canadian Museums Association and Department of Communications for a Museum Assistance Program bursary to attend an Orientation Program at the National Gallery of Canada, which facilitated subsequent studies in Ottawa, Toronto, and Montreal. A loophole in the funding process, however, places the cost for permission to reproduce copyrighted images on the author. Continuing this practice will lead to fewer productions of lavishly illustrated texts. It was Desmond Morton, director of the McGill Institute for the Study of Canada, who set deadlines and challenged me to complete the manuscript. Without Des I would still be languishing, waiting for the right time to publish the ever-elusive perfect book. Conrad Graham, curator of Decorative Arts at the McCord Museum of Canadian History, has done everything in his power to make the writing process a joy, offering insights into material history while encouraging new explorations into indigenous furniture-making traditions by his postdoctoral fellow. At McGill-Queen's University Press I am indebted indeed to series editor John Zucchi, who vociferously supported the publication of this manuscript. Philip J. Cercone and Joan McGilvray introduced me to the martial arts of acquiring funding and other assorted niceties relating to the publishing world. Carlotta Lemieux, as editor extraordinaire, deserves special praise for reviewing the final text. Steven Rourke's talents are well illustrated. Special thanks go to the Aid to Scholarly Publishing Program, Humanities and Social Sciences Federation of Canada, for providing funds to support this publication. And, of course, Betty, Phil, Neil, and Kay Cook of Cheshire have always supported my endeavours. Jim and Joan Marcogliese kindly offered their homes for use during research trips to Montreal, Ottawa, and northern New England. I hope that Ben, Andrew, Kate, Tony, and Alessa grow up with an appreciation of history, art, museums, and international travel. Last but by no means least, my husband David Marcogliese tolerated long separations over both distance and time, helped with the editing and photography, and, most surprisingly, survived in great spirits the trial of living with somebody during the turmoil of writing. Perhaps it was his constant telling of "worm" stories that held everything together or, maybe, it was his plying me with Palais Noisette cakes from the Patisserie de la Gare.

xxii

Coalescence of Styles

This page intentionally left blank

CHAPTER

ONE

St John River Valley Material Culture: Objects as Indicators of Cultural Regions, 1763-1851

Groups of colonists from different ethnic origins settled the St John River valley between the mid-eighteenth and mid-nineteenth centuries. The different heritages of these diverse ethnic groups blended, leading to the evolution of distinct cultural regions within the valley. This is a historical study of the early days of permanent settlement and of the forces shaping these regional identities. The cultural interactions that occurred may be delineated by regionally produced three-dimensional objects. In this study, furniture reveals the interrelationship between different ethnic groups found within identifiable regions in the St John River valley. Furthermore, a methodology is introduced that investigates objects as delineators of valley cultural regions. The St John River is the fourth-longest waterway flowing from Canadian territory into the Atlantic Ocean.1 It courses over 670 kilometres (around 415 miles) from its source in northern Maine to its outlet on the north shore of the Bay of Fundy (fig. i). From the riverhead it turns northeast through the undulating rises of Madawaska County, where the Madawaska River joins it from the north (fig. 2). Their combined waters flow southeast, descending as a blue ribbon, plummeting and rippling through assorted falls. Finally, it meanders to its mouth near the Reversing Falls in the vicinity of Saint John. The water basin, site of centuries of settlement, covers 55,400 square kilometres (or nearly 21,392 square miles).2 Geographic features of North America's east coast typically are named in the mother tongue of the first European explorers to encounter them. New Brunswick's longest river has an anglicized name, residents having adopted the English translation of the French name for the river. However, according to a 1623 chart presented to Scottish grantee Sir William Alexander, the surveyor proclaimed today's St John River to be the New World's "River Clyde" (fig. 8a). Farther back in the century, the French explorers Samuel de Champlain and Pierre Du Gua de Monts had christened the waterway Riviere St-Jean for the patron saint whose feast day it was on 24 June 1604, when

3

Coalescence of Styles

Figure i. Sketch of the Great Valley of the Rr St John Exhibiting the Situation & Extent of the Territory in Dispute between the British & American Governments (1827), by W. Henderson Esq., engraved by James Smillie, Jr. The Madawaska Settlements are to the north of Grand Falls (McCord Museum of Canadian History)

they "discovered" the river. Riviere St-Jean in turn masked the Maliseet name Oo-lahs-took, meaning "beautiful" or "goodly river." The changing nomenclature indicates the ebb and flow of arrivals from different linguistic origins and their comparative cultural dominance.3 Today, the river crosses provincial and international boundaries flowing through both Canadian and U.S. territory. The areas bordering the valley supplied the first non-Native group of migrants into the valley. In the late eighteenth century, Maine, Lower Canada, and New Brunswick were borderland sources for pioneering colonists arriving in the valley.4 Thus, a mixture of settlers arrived from dissimilar sources and backgrounds over a broad period of time. The aim of this study is to assess how these different newcomer groups interacted, contributing to the formation of recognizably

4

St John River Valley Material Culture

Figure 2. A detail of an untitled plan of the upper St John River valley in the vicinity of the Madawaska, or French, Settlements (north is at right). This sketch, attributed to Montresor, delineates Maliseet and French settlers' territory at the confluence of the St John and Madawaska (top right) rivers (McCord Museum of Canadian History)

distinct regional cultures. In essence, objects that were shaped by valley residents and found in their homes embody signs of interaction between these peoples. As time passed and new settler groups established themselves within the valley, a coalescence of different styles reveals itself. By 1851, northern valley objects differed from products found in the south. This is because the geographic dispersal of different settler groups and a concomitant amalgamation of their diverse inheritances led to alterations in valley material heritages. Extant artifacts do not merely reflect these changes in cultural history legacies; they embody them. The authors in W. David Kingery's anthropological compilation, Learning from Things, interpret artifacts as material

5

Coalescence of Styles

metaphors for cultural history. The expert reading of specific signs or metaphors inherently carried within objects leads us to a better understanding of history. Jean Baudrillard, studying the semiotics or sign systems of materials, considers that the function of objects is to reveal "historicalness." The specific role of objects is to "signify time." A powerful emotional evocation of different groups' pasts is encapsulated within these objects. Fundamentally, meaning derives from the "immemorialization, in the concrete form of an object, of a former being."5 Thus, objects encapsulate significant historical changes in the ethnic composition of St John River valley regions. The handmade objects studied here represent historical change codified in wood. A study of valley artifacts thus offers insights into typicality, continuity, and change, because objects are produced as a natural reflex of cultural interaction. In 1982 A. Gregg Finley, a historian of Canadian material culture, attempted to bring to notice the paucity of methodological approaches in the field of eastern Canadian artifact study. According to his statement in opening a conference roundtable session, material culture strongly depicts the identity of the Atlantic region, but although this culture has been under examination for some time, there is no "clearly defined and sophisticated methodology for the study of objects."6 Therefore, the present project commenced without formal guidelines to follow. A tabula rasa, or "clean slate," was slowly etched upon and histories unfolded. This is therefore an empirical study; experience was gained, and a methodology evolved. Research was then facilitated by the introduction of a new methodology that involves an in-depth investigation of artifacts as well as historical documentation. A summary of the resultant process of investigation, in the broadest of terms, is as follows. Furniture is located in local, regional, national, and international collections. These artifacts are inspected and catalogued in detail. These catalogues are compared with one another and with descriptions of similar objects produced in settler-origin areas. A literature search leads to a database of pertinent research documentation that may assist in interpreting the histories of objects and their makers, the settlement of ethnic groups, and the formation of regional societies. Investigation parameters based on the artifacts and documents are set. The geographical area is defined, as is the time frame. Specific ethnic groups and their furniture are selected for more detailed study from within this geographical boundary. The historical data are interwoven with the catalogued objects. The data are jointly assessed for their contribution to understanding cultural life. This procedure emphasizes the primary role of objects but acknowledges the importance of documentary evidence in supporting research. The authentication of objects is a prerequisite to study. This is a natural part of what the curator knows as the museum acquisitions process. The words of antiques connoisseur Donald B. Webster, curator emeritus at the

6

St John River Valley Material Culture

Royal Ontario Museum, should resonate here. He points out that practitioners of furniture making can fake virtually anything. The objects in this text have therefore undergone as close a scrutiny as possible, if not by this researcher then by others. With no theoretical framework initially available, the first step of this investigation involved the selection of objects and their authentication. The specific artifacts considered are items of furniture. Furniture was selected for detailed research because it was used in the majority of settler homes. Valley immigrants of all ethnic backgrounds, all stages of life, and all social positions used furniture from the first days of settlement onwards. Moreover, the valley provides a natural bounty of raw materials for regional furniture production. Some settlers had the inherent ability to make furniture, given that simple knives might be all that were needed to whittle out chair legs from wood. While a study of other decorative arts, such as textiles, might reveal different ethnic design styles, not all residents had access to raw materials and the skills and equipment needed to produce cloth. Ceramics might have been investigated, but few individuals had the turning skills, clay deposits, and kilns required to make pottery. In practice, pottery and porcelain were more likely to have been imported than made this side of the ocean and therefore are unrepresentative of the ingeniousness and imagination of regional producers. Similarly, skilled silver, metal, and glass workers were scarce. The few who plied their trades likely lacked both the capital and the market needed to have a major impact on regional culture, especially in the early days and among the northern peoples. Furniture was therefore chosen as the primary decorative form for study because it was made throughout the valley during the entire period of study. Also, it readily provides multiple expressions of ethnic group interaction in its blending of different forms, styles, designs, and construction techniques. Objects were located by using databases and through consultation with museum curators, dealers, collectors, and valley residents. Furniture redistributed across Canada was located using the Canadian Heritage Information Network Pictorial and Artifact Retrieval Information System (CHIN-PARIS), which listed holdings of member heritage institutions.7 Property associated with buildings in the valley is distributed across the province of New Brunswick and beyond. While the buildings, generally, have not been removed from the province, some of them have been relocated at the Village Historique Acadien in Caraquet and at Kings Landing Historical Settlement in Prince William, both in New Brunswick. This occurred following construction of the Mactaquac Dam and the subsequent flooding of the valley to the north of Fredericton more than twenty-five years ago. Additional research reveals that New Brunswick furniture can also be found much farther afield - in Ontario, Quebec, Scotland, England, and New England, for example.

7

Coalescence of Styles

Approximately seventy-five sites comprising reconstructed villages, museums, historic sites, art galleries, and private collections located throughout eastern North America and Western Europe provided resources for this study. However, the furniture illustrated here originates primarily from public collections. Accordingly, those interested in pursuing further investigations may readily consult these objects. One of the first objects considered was a late-eighteenth-century sewing box produced in Saint John for Mrs Benedict Arnold, nee Peggy Shippen (see plate 35). This item is intriguing in that its designs and materials adopt both Native and newcomer traditions. Interior birchbark containers (Native) appear within this bird's-eye maple box (newcomer). Whether or not a Mi'kmaw woman or an immigrant decorated this box is unknown. However, the maker or makers of this item acknowledged more than one cultural identity, as Ruth B. Phillips recently reconfirmed.8 From these objects, an investigation of other furniture from the valley began. Were there other examples that embodied such cultural exchange, and could this exchange be used to delineate cultural regions? Following the expansion of studies to include numerous artifacts, boundaries were placed on the research. Delineation of geographic locations, a chronology for study, and selection of ethnic groups ensued. Two localities along the river were selected for research. In the upper valley, settlers moved alongside the Maliseet at the confluence of the St John and Madawaska rivers. Homesteading of the Madawaska Settlements in the upper St John River valley began after the initial 1785 arrivals of Acadian and French Canadian settler groups. Following the War of 1812, American logging entrepreneurs added to their number, particularly in the northern reaches of the settlements. Subsequently, French Canadian labourers moved down from the south shore of the St Lawrence River to work in the resultant lumber industry. Their buildings were raised along the St John River to the north of the Madawaska River, south into the Green River, and as far away as the Grand Falls. This centre for northern settlement stands in contrast to the south. Here, "early-comer" settlers arriving from Massachusetts in the 17608 established homes in what became known as Maugerville. Within a couple of decades, disbanded troops and opportunists were allocated lands scattered throughout the southern valley following the American Revolutionary War. In the early decades of the nineteenth century, primarily after the lifting of emigration restrictions at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Lowland Scots moved into the southern valley. By mid-century, Irish newcomers augmented their number. In the south, the geographical frame is focused on the area between the provincial political seat at Fredericton and the commercial port of Saint John. These two centres of activity were selected for several reasons. The time frame of their settlement and development coincided. Initial settler groups in the valley consisted of dislodged or transplanted groups from North America, 8

St John River Valley Material Culture

not immigrants arriving directly from Europe. This facilitated a study of the effects of previous cultural lifestyles in the New World prior to resettlement in the St John River valley. In effect, a filtering of European features of material life had occurred before these settlers reached their valley homes. Both the French Settlements and the lower St John River valley communities later received immigrants directly from international sources. These immigrants, in turn, significantly altered the material culture landscape of their chosen destinations and gave the valley regions much of their distinctiveness. While Saint John functioned as a major port for international traders, the Madawaska Settlements never became an important worldwide economic focal point, and thus their histories developed in very different ways. It should be noted, however, that the rate of population expansion in both the northern and southern communities was similar, reflecting the successful development of both locations. One explanation for the difference between the number of residents in each area lies in the fact that Saint John had an initial settlement of tens of thousands of people, while the Madawaska Settlements began with fewer than a hundred settlers (see appendix i). However, ethnicity always played a significant role in shaping lifestyles and objects in both the lower St John River valley and the Madawaska Settlements. The period of investigation is bounded by the arrivals of the first American group in 1763 at what became Maugerville, in the southern valley, and the 1851 New Brunswick census. Until the eighteenth century, the river was not inhabited by settler groups whose descendants remained in the same locality. This study focuses on the first century of permanent non-Native-group settlement along the river. By the mid-nineteenth century, furniture produced within the valley had lost much of its originality. Mass-production industries were flooding the market with ubiquitous wares as part of the overall homogenization of North American furniture production and technological innovations largely took individualistic enterprise out of the trade and reduced the visibility of ethnic interaction that had been inherent in the handmade furniture of previous decades. This study therefore terminates with the midnineteenth-century New Brunswick census, by which time the cultural interaction of settler groups had already led to the formation of visible regional identities in the material arts. During the period of study, a number of different groups settled alongside the indigenous Maliseet and Mi'kmaq in the valley. Among their number were Acadians, French Canadians, Americans, English, Scots, and Irish. There were also Germans, Dutch, and African-Americans living in the valley. However, the contribution of the latter to valley furniture heritages is limited or remains unknown. Material evidence reveals that rather than one ethnic group totally predominating in life in the valley, there was interaction between different groups in specifically definable regions. Within these regions different traces 9

Coalescence of Styles

of origin ta ethne-, or foreign nations, are still found in the everyday things of life. These ethnic groups, or "races" as they were called in the midnineteenth-century census, comprise peoples with distinct national lineage in the Italian sense of the word razza. Each race descends from a shared ancestral stock, inheriting common sets of characteristics from each of its familial lines. An assortment of ethnic traits identifies different racial characteristics. Each individual group that arrived in the valley is defined by the sharing of common and distinct cultural traditions. Life in the New World, however, led to the reshaping of past experiences and customs and, over time, established residents, recent newcomers, and their descendants altered the valley's material culture landscape. With the boundaries to the study thus set, a systematic investigation of extant materials was begun. Once the furniture was located, the findings had to be documented and a new and updated database created. In association with the curator of collections and registrar Donna Keith Baron, I had developed this system of categorization in the mid-1980s in order to classify Old Sturbridge Village furniture collections. The same system was used to catalogue each furniture item. Once an item was accepted for study, the taxonomic classification of authenticated furniture commenced. Furniture type (e.g., chair) and subtypes (e.g., rocking) were recorded. In addition, the collection, accession number, and location of each item were noted. The catalogues then included references to style period (e.g., Regency), design inspiration (e.g., Hepplewhite), material (e.g., bird's-eye maple), dimensions (in inches - the unit of the time), finish (e.g., paint), where the item was produced or used (e.g., Saint John, parlour), maker (e.g., Thomas Hay), mark (e.g., shop label), provenance or history of use (e.g., descended through Ward Chipman's family), oral tradition associated with the item, approximate production date (e.g., ca 1825-30), and construction technique (e.g., mortiseand-tenon joint). These catalogues also include detailed overall descriptions of the furniture. Each item is described from left to right, top to bottom, and front to back of the piece. Finally, special features are described for use in later cross-referencing. These catalogues itemizing seating and case furniture list related sources of information such as exhibition or survey catalogues, other secondary publications, and conservators' reports, as well as unpublished curatorial acquisitions, research, and photographic records. New and detailed photography was undertaken whenever permitted. References to museum records such as research files and archived correspondence are noted wherever possible. Apart from the three-dimensional objects themselves, artwork and maps were also consulted. As part of our visual cultural heritage, these items reveal certain aspects of colonial life. They are integrated in the text in order to highlight findings, linking object with history in many instances.

10

St John River Valley Material Culture

The catalogue information was collated and integrated with findings acquired during the historical research. An assortment of historical documents in archives, museum research libraries, university rare-book rooms, government databases, and personal collections (see acknowledgments) were consulted. They included shipping records and customs dockets, censuses, travelogues, design books, newspaper advertisements, probates, personal diaries, religious correspondence, promotional emigrant literature, cabinetmakers' journals, store account books, government correspondence and surveys, maps, city directories and almanacs, price books, and petitions, all of which are used as source material for understanding past cultural lifestyles. Contemporary diaries, personal letters, and other documents reveal attitudes among ethnic groups and provide a historical framework for investigation. Shipping records determine which external ports played a significant role in Saint John's business life and in supplying domestic household wares to New Brunswick. Census returns reveal families' ethnic origins and intermarriage, their current location, household composition, professional occupations, and business attachments.9 Travelogues disclose contemporary impressions of valley life and usually describe dissimilar or unfamiliar lifestyles encountered by visitors. Other contemporary literature discussed includes design publications. These tomes illustrate the British and American metropolitan origins of furniture styles. Foreign-published design sources inspired some of the valley's furniture makers. Unfortunately, no known contemporary designs formulated by Canadian designers in the valley exist, in either published or manuscript format. Style periods under discussion refer mainly to British conventions (for example, Chippendale, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, Smee, or Queen Anne, Georgian, Regency, and Victorian styles). In some instances, references are made to American styles such as the American Colonial, Federal, and Empire periods. The two systems of style categorization (American and British) often overlap in time. In addition, French stylistic traditions are considered, since they are influential in assessing upper valley material heritage. The naming of style periods as well as furniture parts and construction terminology differs between countries and even between cataloguers trained in the same country. Yet a fundamental grasp of terminology and definitions helps the interpretation of written texts, including auction house catalogues (see the glossary at the end of this book and Gloag's Complete Dictionary of Furniture).10 It should be emphasized, however, that such terminology is not standardized. What may be a "chair post" for one individual may be a "leg" or "back" for someone else; what may be "Colonial" era production to the Americans may prove to be "Georgian" to the English and even "Louis XIV" to the French. In fact, no universal international nomenclature exists. Here,

11

Coalescence of Styles

a mixture of American, British, and French terminology is used - whichever is more appropriate in relation to the specific piece under discussion. Newspapers are a further source of information about furniture and cultural life. The Canadian Heritage Information Network supports a database called the Atlantic Canada Newspaper Survey (CHIN-ACNS). It contains more than 16,000 newspaper references to Saint John for the period 1815-45, primarily extracted from the New Brunswick Courier. They include advertisements from city artisans and store owners, notices of shipping arrivals, and other information pertaining to the importation of household goods. Business relationships and genealogical information also were extracted from the CHIN-ACNS. Tim Dilworth, fellow curatorial research associate at Kings Landing Historical Settlement, generously permitted the review of assorted newspaper gleanings compiled over years of research. Other sources of newspaper extracts include holdings at the Provincial Archives of New Brunswick, the New Brunswick Museum, and the Loyalist Collection at the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. Unfortunately, there were no newspapers printed in the northern settlements during this period. Information for this region derives from other sources, such as store ledgers, personal journals, travelogues, religious correspondence, and censuses. Some material historians make lengthy use of probate inventories to facilitate their studies.11 However, the research here has not relied extensively on such resources, though appendix 3, the detailed probate inventory account of surveyor George Sproule's property, proves revealing. Inventories of southern valley households were examined for material content, but by themselves they say little about ethnic group interaction. They do indicate in detail who owned what among the colonial gentry, but probate records of the less wealthy tend to be frustrating more than illuminating. These persons usually had their possessions referred to en masse as, for example, "one bundle of furniture" or "a lot of household furnishings." Accordingly, it is impossible to use these inventories to interpret style, origin, form, spatial placement, wood types, or construction features relating to individual items. Essentially, the inventories disclose only the fact that furniture was owned. Ultimately, this study uses only a handful of detailed and representative southern valley inventories of wealthy householders; it relies more heavily on a hands-on approach to interpreting extant artifacts. This approach was also chosen because although hundreds of inventories were consulted, the property of upper St John River valley residents is not on record. No inventories or official reckoning of the contents of Madawaska Settlement interiors are available for study.12 This may be because the records were removed from the area or because they have been lost over time, or perhaps they never existed. The only descriptions of households in the Madawaska

12

St John River Valley Material Culture

Settlements appear in survey lists, but they focus on the buildings themselves their location, spatial placement, and ownership. Because of this lack of newspapers and inventories, as well as shipping records, the approach used in chapter 2 (on the upper St John River valley) is necessarily different from that in chapters 3 and 4 (on the lower St John River valley). Architecture in the northern valley was more thoroughly researched because of the availability of building surveys. Travelogues and religious correspondence also could be used to better effect. In the south, a much greater supply of documentation in more diverse formats was used. After the various research resources had been consulted, the resultant information was processed. Clues left in both artifacts and documents were sifted through to extrapolate meaning from the accumulated morass of information. First of all, the objects themselves were considered. From the catalogues, features of furniture form were noted, but no one feature was considered more important than another. It is important to state that in this study high-style or aesthetically sophisticated pieces carry no more or no less weight than a vernacular or utilitarian object. This is not an esoteric study that tries to establish the power structure governing aesthetic judgments in order to define discriminating tastes. High-style and low-style furniture items are treated as equals. If a vernacular chair from the northern valley has a sloped arm, this does not make it more important than a southern valley chair with a Hepplewhite-style arm. These items are different, yet both incorporate attributes associated with different settler groups: the sloped arm of French Canada and the scrolled arm of English origin. These differences are considered for their importance to the study at hand rather than as means of distinguishing between elite and minion, rich and poor, city and country. In addition, when considering the object, the relative importance of joinery skills versus decoration is not overtly emphasized. Nevertheless, together such component features contribute to the furniture's overall appearance. In the upper valley there were few joiners. Individuals might have only carpenter training and a restricted number of tools to hand (see appendix 4). The resultant furniture is rustic and utilitarian, but not without character. Stylistic attributes are important (such as decorated surfaces that are carved or scrolled) because they call attention to form.13 It is difficult to speak of an object without first describing its physical form and style. Indeed, valley furniture-making traditions consist of a combination of form and spirit - or, put another way, result from the ways decorative shapes are incorporated and combined in order to create a distinctive regional product.14 The particular decorative embellishments associated with each specific settler group are discussed in the ensuing chapters.

13

Coalescence of Styles

In relation to furniture, it was key to consider in greater depth the specific components of design and the way they are interwoven in the creation of a stylish final product. Details in embellishment change the most visibly. Thus, furniture best reveals St John River valley cultural history through an analysis of form, in the exchange of design details, in style continuity, and in the impulses motivating change. Hence, it is essential to consider the multiple incorporation or layering of different artifact designs or components in each item. These constitute evidence of the subtle yet tangible exchanges of styles among different settler groups. Features of design and construction were analysed and explained in relationship to the lifestyles of the people using the furniture in question. For example, the utilitarian nature of furniture made by farmer-labourers is a feature of early northern valley wares. On the other hand, although sophisticated mahogany wares are traditionally associated with the early southern loyalist entrepreneurial and political elite, both high-style and vernacular wares made from valley woods were in fact used. When analysing the objects, catalogues were used as the basis for comparison between St John River valley furniture and its counterparts originating in geographical areas supplying settlers to the valley. Northern valley furniture was compared with that from France, New France, Acadia, and the eastern United States - the origins of the ethnic groups in the Madawaska Settlements. Lower valley furniture was compared with American, English, Scottish, and Irish examples. In order to distinguish design origins, a dossier of comparable furniture was compiled. These examples differentiate valley furniture from products made elsewhere. As the valley received settlers from different ethnic backgrounds, furniture products within the valley may be separated from those of neighbouring segments of British North America and the United States. The extent to which other regions are unique is not addressed, however. Furniture studies of adjacent regions must be more thorough before meaningful comparison is possible. As yet, these regions outside the valley are not well defined, and furniture traits essentially remain unanalysed with respect to the firm delineation of boundaries. The process of interpreting and interweaving furniture with documents is restricted by the amount of resources that have survived intact, despite the ravages of time. Both objects and records have been lost to climatic events and other perils. Items have been lost, misplaced, or taken or sold out of the province. Losses are recorded in diverse sources. For example, a nineteenth-century soldier's journal records the trials of a New Brunswick farmer who "was removing with his furniture in his sledge on the ice road ... when he perceived that the ice had drifted and that he was already floating in deep water."15

14

St John River Valley Material Culture

Plate i. While flames ravage buildings, furniture is stockpiled on a Saint John wharf. The existing St John River valley furniture survived the perils of fire, climate, and season. Lithograph entitled View of the Great Conflagration That Took Place on the Night of Saturday, the 14th Day of January 1837. Drawn by William Henry Wentworth from an original sketch taken by witness Thomas H. Wentworth (1781-1849). Lithography by Thos. Moores of Boston (Beaverbrook Art Gallery)

Innumerable fires (plate i) also brought about destruction or led to the damage of furniture. Captain R.G.A. Levinge was quick to point out that "St John was burnt every four or five years."16 A fire that broke out in 1822 created pandemonium: "No language can describe the horrible scene which the town presented at this moment. The streets full of baggage and goods, of every description, - the shrieks of women and children were heard every where, men were employed in throwing beddings, clothes, and furniture, out at the windows, - beds were torn, feathers were flying through the fire and smoke, - waggons, loaded with baggage were forcing their way through the cloud."17 A fire fifteen years later consumed 115 houses and stores comprising one-thir of the business section of Saint John. The blaze engulfed Prince William Street, where the Scottish immigrant cabinetmaker Thomas Nisbet, Sr, had opened shop.18 In August 1839 the city experienced another fire, at which time more than 200 buildings became a pyre. Then there was the fire of i84i.19 "To the ladies it appeared the greatest possible fun, throwing beds, wardrobes, and all their finery out of the windows."20 This study relies on the artifacts and documents that have survived such calamitous events. This study relates a past history from extant objects - an unfolding tale of ethnic group immigrants, where they came from, why they moved, what they brought with them to their new settlements, and how they moulded the

15

Coalescence of Styles

surrounding cultural landscape. But it also focuses on change and differences - that migrants were augmented by new immigrants, that unskilled furniture makers existed alongside skilled cabinetmakers, that cultural origins and heritages were diverse, that valley material heritage altered at different points of time, and how it did so. Initially, I approached this study from an empirical perspective: through experience, knowledge was gained. The process of discovery was helped by considering the observations of previous authors on valley material life. Suffice it to say, the existing literature on the topic of eastern Canadian material culture and furniture history, and the way it relates to immigration history and regional identity formation, is extremely limited and of varying merit. This study redresses imbalances in old works and addresses topics not hitherto considered. The former Kings Landing Historical Settlement curator, the late Charles Foss, clearly enjoyed producing his coffee-table book, Cabinetmakers of the Eastern Seaboard, but several items of furniture were misidentified or placed in the wrong time period with unjustifiable provenance, and captions of illustrations are confused. Donald B. Webster, curator emeritus at the Royal Ontario Museum, was more successful in his English-Canadian Furniture of the Georgian Period. His photography of furniture and his slightly more indepth and wider-ranging consideration of eastern Canadian museum holdings proves interesting. Of great use are the brief articles and the book featuring New Brunswick furniture by the New Brunswick Museum researcher Huia G. Ryder. Produced in the mid-1960s and beyond, Ryder's work provided the most valuable base for my research. Her publications primarily consist of compilations of cabinetmakers' biographical information, which are often helpfully accompanied by illustrations of contemporary furniture wares. (For a brief listing of furniture makers in the valley, consult appendix 2). Apart from New Brunswick furniture studies, no work addressing French influences on Canadian furniture should fail to mention the writing of Jean Palardy. His "Larousse Gastronomique" of French Canadian furniture, Les meubles anciens du Canada francais, sits on the shelves of every furniture connoisseur in North America. While this work clearly needs updating, Palardy's pioneering investigation of Quebecois inheritances remains a valuable contribution to the field. Surprisingly, perhaps, no comparable work exists for the Acadians' furniture heritage. This study seeks to separate and reconsider both French Canadian and Acadian furniture stylistic attributes within a region where both groups interacted. The purpose of these furniture studies has been to create systematic and informative listings of furniture makers and their products, grouping furniture according to county of use or form of production.21 While the shortcomings

16

St John River Valley Material Culture

of these works are known within the field, researchers in the past decade have been writing more in-depth assessments while updating by using newly accumulated data.22 In the 19808 and 19908 researchers of New Brunswick's diverse range of material artifacts began a more encompassing consideration of historical events, settlement, and society. Yet in terms of chronology, few researchers have considered the long term. For example, modern and effective investigative work by the New Brunswick Museum researcher M.A. MacDonald features the furniture of early-comers from the 17608 to the early i/Sos.23 The University of New Brunswick historian Ann Gorman Condon restricts her studies to the first-generation American loyalist elite from the mid-i/Sos to the turn of the century.24 In essence, neither author considers the dimension of legacy - the cultural traits passed on from generation to generation. The elements of continuity and change are thus neglected. As ethnic folklorist Stephen Stern re-emphasized in his consideration of the contributions of Linda Degh's folk narrative studies, the process of cultural adjustment requires observation of transgenerational expression, from the immigrant to the North American-born ethnic.25 This study looks at how various ethnic groups came to terms with one another in the St John River valley, over several generations of settlement. Furniture historians have been sharply divided between those studying high-style productions and those favouring vernacular wares. It was not until the 19808, notably in Great Britain and the United States, that it became fashionable to study country furniture. Such furniture was produced for people with limited budgets or for the elite who required wares for back rooms and servants' use. In England, Bill Cotton and the late Christopher Gilbert devoted serious scholarly attention to vernacular furniture. They formed the Regional Furniture Society to pursue studies and generate greater interest. David Jones continues to explore Scottish country furniture, David Knell studies English examples, while Claudia Kinmonth researches Irish traditions. In Canada, Walter Peddle recently published work and mounted an exhibition on Newfoundland vernacular furniture that had links with the West Country of England. In addition, Donald B. Webster and John Fleming have contributed their knowledge regarding early French Canadian furniture.26 And Michael Bird was the first to attempt a survey of this nation's country productions. T.W. Acheson's pioneering study of early-nineteenth-century Saint John society introduced more complex themes, including discourses on social rank, economics, politics, and - more pertinent to the work at hand discussions of mechanics and ethnic groups.27 However, he has never contemplated using furniture to illustrate his points, nor has he expanded studies into the upper valley. In the northern valley, university researcher Beatrice Craig successfully analysed the interplay among settlers, addressing questions

17

Coalescence of Styles

of family formation as well as the role of ethnicity in shaping the history of the Madawaska Settlements.28 Ed Churchill, at the Maine State Museum, pioneered furniture research in the region. Interesting publications and exhibitions on the topic of Maine furniture are now resulting from these studies. Yet no single work has focused on Madawaskan material history before 1851, and certainly no scholar has considered the inherent differences between northern and southern valley material traditions.29 While such contributions as the above are noted, the work at hand is unusual in that it considers both high-style and country furniture in the same study. Few researchers integrate such a broad range of furniture classes. Many study either one end of the spectrum or the other, as if vernacular wares exist in a world totally independent and unrelated to their high-style counterparts. A definitive work relating to the entire province of New Brunswick's diverse furniture heritage still remains to be written. This study focuses only on the St John River valley, including forays into areas that are now part of Quebec and Maine. While certain aspects of valley history have already been told (as in Charlotte Gourlay Robinson's Pioneer Profiles of New Brunswick Settlers), the focus of such works is usually from the perspective of serious local amateurs. This study is more formal, but it relies to some extent on these interesting anecdotal histories. Most previous studies of ethnic groups in Atlantic Canada have focused on one settler group as it migrated into territory already inhabited by indigenous peoples or as it settled alongside established immigrant groups. A single study of acculturation among Irish newcomers does consider material traditions brought to the New World - namely, John J. Mannion's examination of the lifestyles of three different communities in New Brunswick and Newfoundland. Furniture designs are incorporated into Mannion's analysis, but both the larger Irish contribution to shaping western New Brunswick valley life and the impact of several cultures mingling together in one region are not addressed.30 Research into the interaction of more than one ethnic group in the shaping of material culture in the St John River valley has not previously been attempted. Nor have Acadian influences been separated from French Canadian experiences with respect to furniture.31 This study considers the heritages of many different ethnic groups, their interaction, and the resultant changing cultures over time. In the United States, some comparative analysis of the roots of material culture has been undertaken. Israeli researcher Mechal Sobel investigated the Chesapeake culture that resulted from black-white interaction. Her significant work was published in the late ipSos.32 By studying Virginian material history, including both musical instruments and architecture, Sobel showed how black and white inheritances had interplayed in the American south. No comparable research exists in Canada.

18

St John River Valley Material Culture

The most fascinating of modern object studies is the collection Style, Society, and Person (1995). This work consists of archaeological and other ethnographical perspectives brought together and edited by anthropologists Christopher Carr and Jill E. Neitzel. The contributors recognize that material style exists and that it is of paramount importance. Without style there is no culture. A study of cultural history must therefore involve the history of style. But unfortunately none of the authors in the Carr and Neitzel collection considers furniture history. In this present study, history and objects are examined in order to understand how indigenous and migrating peoples have shaped regional cultural identities over time. At the root of this understanding is an investigation of the material heritage of the valley. For it was not merely the importation of ideas but the imprint of Canadian geography - not merely the limitation of identities but the amalgamation of cultures; and not merely the creation of an enviable nation but the formation of distinct societies - that is significant in understanding the cultural development of the St John River valley regions. All this is embodied in the furniture found in the valley. In the upper St John River valley settlers created a distinctive multicultural landscape made up of inheritance and innovation. Chapter 2 (on the upper St John River valley) shows how the Maliseet interacted with incoming French Canadian and Acadian groups, but only ephemerally. Francophone groups settling both shores of the northern reaches of the St John River quickly became the dominant regional force. Traditions among newcomers blended, so that the buildings raised and the interiors decorated became embodiments of a hybrid culture. Birchbark wrappings and slat-back chairs graced exterior and interior landscapes. The hegemony of the French in this region was not threatened until Americans seeking profits from lumbering moved north. They came primarily from the Kennebec River following the termination of the War of 1812. American furniture styles and frame buildings were introduced into the Madawaska Settlements and were gradually adopted by the established culture. French traditions were reinforced in the material life of the area as more French Canadians arrived in pursuit of work in the lumber industry. By 1851, ethnic interaction had significantly redefined the cultural identity of the region so that a new category in the census was created - for the "Madawaskan." Residents in the northern valley developed a certain degree of cohesion, self-consciousness, and a strong sense of place and belonging. Chapter 3 (the lower St John River valley) discusses the interaction of different ethnic groups in the southern valley. Here, anglophones predominated. The investigation begins by considering the Massachusetts immigrants who established a community at Maugerville in the 17605. The influence of these settlers is examined in the context of introducing New England furniture styles into the southern valley. By 1815, the American influence had

19

Coalescence of Styles

waned and other ethnic groups were beginning to assert themselves in the lower St John River valley. Despite this, the influence of New Brunswick's American neighbours continued throughout the early nineteenth century. English traditions also continued to reach the burgeoning British colonial port of Saint John. This process is discussed in chapter 4. Scottish cabinetmakers arriving in the city after the Napoleonic Wars found themselves dealing with a community that continued to embrace American furnituremaking traditions. The behaviour of Lowland Scottish immigrant cabinetmakers is considered as their repertoire of designs was altered in order to cater to existing regional norms. The Scots also introduced new furniture forms and design styles, which became popular in the southern valley. In the 18408, Irish immigrants began to dominate the furniture trade of Saint John. They began to embrace American mass-production chair-making techniques and were renowned for their decorative painting skills. By 1851, the city had a range of ethnic groups working in the cabinet- and chairmaking industries. The furniture wares produced embody a melange of styles derived from diverse immigrant cultural sources. The meanings inherent in these material artifacts transcend the differences of linguistic groups and religious beliefs, as well as nativistic antagonism. In this way it is necessary to reassess the importance of historical events and the way they shaped the development of valley society. As Henry Classic has pointed out, heritage is not easily definable but is needed to wean historians from their obsession with rupture, including riots and war.33 The massive and steady continuation of everyday life ploughs through fleeting extremes, violence and disorder, ultimately providing a more stable continuity. Thus, in chapter 5, the implications of the study are discussed in terms of a reconsideration of historical events. For instance, southern New Brunswick's early history has long been intertwined with the loyalist experience, and examples of loyalist furniture have been discussed in detail. By contrast, this study stresses the American rather than loyalist influence of early furniture design in the southern valley. Here, an attempt has been made to prevent the character of lower valley furniture from being lost within the mythology eulogizing the contribution of the early American loyalist elites. Also discussed more fully here is a revision of what defines loyalist furniture - a prerequisite to understanding the impact of loyalist cultures. The argument put forward is that New Brunswick's American loyalist-era furniture, defined as furniture brought to New Brunswick at the termination of the American Revolutionary War or commissioned shortly thereafter, basically derives from a common American stock. Accordingly, it is impossible to distinguish between loyalist (pro-British) and revolutionary (pro-independent) American colonial furniture. Moreover, other ethnic groups altered the appearance of furniture made in the valley so that the wares commissioned

20

St John River Valley Material Culture

by second- and third-generation loyalists no longer resembled those produced in the late eighteenth century. A more appropriate definition of what constitutes loyalist furniture is offered. This overall American influence is then placed within the context of a continuum of the different ethnic-related styles that shaped southern New Brunswick's material heritage. It is important to consider the impact of English immigrants who arrived during the loyalist diaspora, especially in light of the subsequent establishment of an international British-controlled coastal port at Saint John. English design styles were incorporated in the furniture produced in this predominantly American loyalist city. In the discussion that ensues, it is argued that there was no truly high-style furniture production in the valley. Indeed, restrained decoration and sobriety is the common feature of all valley furniture. The possible reasons for this are discussed in detail in chapter 5. This study challenges many of the traditional historical theories of how the American Revolutionary War reshaped what later became the Maritime region of Canada and what distinguished British North America from the independent United States. David VJ. Bell, in his Harvard dissertation, suggested that Canada developed as a "non-nation" because American loyalist settlers were forever seeking approval from the nation that evolved south of the border.34 Ann Gorman Condon perpetuated this theme in her description of American loyalists who allegedly could only dream of being the "envy of the American States."35 Yet in the southern St John River valley, it is apparent that furniture produced for this loyalist market remained extremely diverse.36 A range of forms appeared that have designs inherited from both the United States and Great Britain. English immigration to British North America ensured that British styles were introduced alongside those of the Americans. Bell's approaches to "negative" identity formation and Condon's emphasis on southern influences are reconsidered in chapter 5. This revisionist critique emphasizes cultural adaptation within the valley, leading to the development of strong regional identities derived from the presence and interaction of different ethnic groups. It is useful to note here that in the final instance objects should be considered in terms of their association with our current value systems. Furniture that is valued is linked to important persons, places, and events. In the 19908, furniture connected with a loyalist heritage, with known cabinetmakers (such as Thomas Nisbet, Sr), or with the furnishing of Fredericton's recently revamped Government House, are all considered important. Attitudes to the past are shaped by modern-day life. In addition, today, within a national context, issues related to multiculturalism, ethnicity, diversity, identity, and regionalism are important. This makes the recent study of past objects more meaningful and justifiable in a

21

Notes to pages 149-52 New Brunswick Almanac and Review for 1849,127, for a list of woods imported into Saint John having American, Canadian, and British origins. 173 Monro, New Brunswick, 97. 174 Donald B. Webster is aware of some English furniture that does have bird'seye maple primary wood. In one example, a chest made from a combination of this wood and oak (as a secondary wood) clearly indicates English manufacture (Webster, English-Canadian Furniture, 46; conversation with the author, 27 August 1996). 175 Decoratively carved New Brunswick pine was used for the dining-room ceiling in Alnwick Castle. See Alnwick Castle. 176 Hind et al, Eighty Years' Progress. Butternut, basswood, and alder mixtures were found on islands and intervales bordering the river. Indigenous basswood, also called limetree or white wood, although not very abundant, was used for furniture in the lower St John River valley in chair seats, the easternmost range of this wood being the St John River (Cunningham and Prince, Tamped Clay, 69). Nisbet, Sr, imported white wood from New York (Customs House Records, Duties Collected, i833a, no. 121-50, PANE, RS23, EI). 177 Monro, New Brunswick, 100. 178 Hind et al, Eighty Years' Progress, 569-70. Another wood used in interior finishing of rooms was the common poplar, which grew all over the province of New Brunswick (Monro, New Brunswick, 100). 179 "50,000 feet" (New Brunswick Courier, 30 December 1848). See also New Brunswick Courier, 2 November 1850. 180 Hind et al., Eighty Years Progress, 570. 181 "An inventory of the goods and chattels belonging to the estate of the late Alexander Mitchell Esq. deceased as appraised by Jackson and James Adams." Died 15 September 1886 (York County Probate Court: Record Books, 1846-87, PANE, RS75, microfilm F6213). M. Huia Ryder states that Mitchell worked in Fredericton between 1830 and 1865 (Ryder, Antique Furniture by New Brunswick Craftsmen, 167). CHAPTER

1 2 3 4

FIVE

Cook, "Boundaries of Ethnic Identity." Hatheway, History of New Brunswick, 75. Deetz, In Small Things Forgotten, 10. European source regions for immigrants to North America are discussed in chapter 8 of Meinig, The Shaping of America, 43-55. Meinig illustrates the "Northwest European Culture Hearth" in his text. 5 We would not expect to see, for example, the painted hanging cupboards familiar to the Mennonites of the western provinces gracing a wall in a New

227

Notes to pages 152-60

6 7 8 9 10

11 12

13

14 15 16 17

18 19 20

Brunswick residence, because regional identity is linked to the ethnic cultures of people raised in its own geographical confine. Monro, New Brunswick, 162. Classic, Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern United States, 34. See the glossary for an explanation of furniture terminology. Beavan, Life in the Backwoods, 14. Levinge, Echoes, 1:123. Wigwams and framed houses more usually existed side by side. For example, in Tobique there were eleven framed houses and twelve large wigwams, according to a report submitted to the lieutenant governor on 12 August 1841 (referred to in a letter by Moses H. Perley, a copy of which is held in the Delancey/Robinson Collection; see Wills and Estates, NA, MG24, L6). According to George T. Shattuck, visitor to the St Croix River Indian Reservation in 1833, the situation there was similar. Framed houses were being erected next to bark-covered log cabins (Davis, An International Community on the St. Croix, 15). Saint John, 29-30. Condon states that the Scottish disbanded soldier "could not understand the historical connotations that mahogany held for the Loyalist exiles" because the Scots had no American experience. Yet it is evident from Scots cabinetmakers - for example, the Mitchells of Scotch Settlement, N.B. - that mahogany was a wood they did not hesitate to employ (see the collections of KLHS for examples of the Mitchells' work). Indeed, Scots furniture makers quickly adopted American fashions in order to gain a market needed for the sale of their wares. See Condon, "Loyalist Style," 25. Gmelch, "Quebec Hebridean Settlements," 3. The traditional culture of the group continues to exist in a fragmented way as a symbol of ethnic identity, rather than as a total way of life. Webster, "Furniture," 57. Dough trays with three sides used in New Brunswick also derived from Scottish bannock-bread tray designs. Consult the appendix in Wright's Loyalists of New Brunswick, 253-346. Donald B. Webster believes that "the undeveloped economy of these Atlantic colonies, for example, could not accommodate truly opulent furniture of the type being made in the older and wealthier American seaboard cities, so it was not produced" (Webster, "Furniture," 59). Bushman, "American High-Style and Vernacular Cultures," 347. In reality, therefore, Atlantic Canadian furniture does not reflect the grandeur of contemporary American high-style wares (Webster, "Furniture," 57). Fairbanks and Trent, New England Begins, i:xvii-xx, and Trent, "The Concept of Mannerism," 3:368-79. This work is contrary to the findings of Ann Gorman Condon, who claimed that one of the hallmarks of Puritan leadership was simplicity (Condon, "Loyalist Style," 22).

228

Notes to pages 160-5 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

31 32

33

34 35 36 37

38 39 40 41 42

Fairbanks and Trent, New England Begins, 1126. [Hodge], "Mr. Hodge's Report," 66. See Puig, "The Early Furniture of the Mississippi River Valley," 152. Bushman, "American High-Style and Vernacular Cultures," 370. Ibid. See Glassie, Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern United States, 33. A feature of renaissance revival included carvings of winged young boys. Hayward, World Furniture, 129. Ibid., plate 754. Webster, "Furniture," 57, and "Identification of English-Canadian Furniture," 166,175. B.C. Waddington, a Saint John merchant, imported brass escutcheons on the ship Ward from Liverpool, for sale in his Prince William Street store in the heart of the city's cabinetmaking quarter (New Brunswick Courier, 3 August 1839). For a variety of bail-plate escutcheons available in the United States, consult Fennimore, "Brass Hardware" and "Stamped Hardware." Barkley, "The Loyalist Tradition in New Brunswick." See Foss, Cabinetmakers of the Eastern Seaboard. Richard Vroom's photographs used in Foss's text have been deposited in the Art and Photography Division of the National Archives of Canada, Ottawa. Neil MacKinnon painted a less rosy and more realistic Nova Scotian loyalist history, which considered different loyalist social backgrounds and the "Nova Scarcity" initially confronted in early settlement days (MacKinnon, This Unfriendly Soil and "Nova Scotia Loyalists"). Yet in order to instill envy of their southern neighbours, it was necessary to adopt American style. Wise, "God's Peculiar Peoples," 36, 41-2, and Condon, Envy of the American States, 173-200. Condon, Envy of the American States, 11. "Despite local variations, the objects are stylistically united by their emphasis on sinuous line and glittering surface" (Condon, "Loyalist Style," 24). See also page 21. Andrew Gregg, Fredericton, N.B., 1856 Probate, York County Record Books, PANB, RS75, 0214 (microfilm F1342). It should be noted that wood types varied according to function and placement of the object, whether used in public or private spaces. Condon, "Loyalist Style," 25. Campbell, Travels in the Interior, 251. James Snowdon also brings up the subject of Campbell and this traveller's claim that those who could not even afford mahogany did so because of a reaffirmation of "proud colonialism." This perpetuates the Condon myth. In reality, not all furniture that was well made and stylish was constructed from

229

Notes to pages 165-8

43 44

45 46

47

48

49 50 51

52

53

54

mahogany, as extant colonial furniture reveals (Snowdon, "Regional Variations," 165). Campbell, Travels in the Interior, 251-2. See Hill, Some Loyalists, 11-13. George Heriot (1766-1844) captured the house in an 1807 watercolour. The painting is in the collection of the ROM, Ace. no. 950.31Webster, "Canadian Georgian," 88. Webster, "Identification of English-Canadian Furniture," 167. Solid mahogany furniture was soon to wane in popularity as early-nineteenth-century products began to be made from pine secondary woods finished in mahogany veneer. Webster, "Furniture," 56. The fact remains that more mahogany appeared in New Brunswick than was accounted for in customs records. Webster believes that there was a smuggling trade, but it is more likely that the wood arrived as ballast from ships originating in the Caribbean. It was certainly more difficult to smuggle mahogany than rum, because its size and weight created problems in concealing and transporting it. The level of demand for smuggled mahogany and for purchases of fine furniture made from this wood is not easily ascertainable. Local materials also included plaster-of-paris mounds, like those shown to Campbell while travelling through the Kennebecasis valley. These resources provided materials for whitening and finishing buildings (Campbell, Travels in the Interior, 273). Baillie, An Account of the Province of New Brunswick, 49-50. Condon, "Loyalist Style," 21. Ibid., 23. Bliss purchased Benedict Arnold's house in Saint John in 1791 and obtained a Frederiction home, which he sold later to another former Massachusetts resident, Ward Chipman. It was later furnished fit for royalty, as the Prince of Wales used Chipman's house during his visit in 1860 (Hill, Some Loyalists, 153,160). James Snowdon claims that as Planters began to produce household objects in Nova Scotia, regional diversity linked to the origins of settlers in Massachusetts and Rhode Island persisted in the continuation of antiquated designs. Yet the furniture produced in later decades by second and third generations is "often stylistically scaled down - even from the provincial New England prototypes upon which it was based." Such changes can be seen as adaptations to Nova Scotian mores and mentalities (Snowdon, "Regional Variations," 161-3). For a brief discussion of the decline in the provision of services by master craftsmen for their apprentices and the replacement of personal by impersonal modes of production, consult Scherzer, Unbounded Community, 4,10. An early example of this, the purchase of chair parts manufactured in Burlington, Vermont, and in Rochester, New York, for incorporation into

230

Notes to pages 168-9 Ontario manufacturers' Jacques and Hay's finished chairs is discussed in McCleary, "Canadian Furniture Inch by Inch." In another case, a slat-back chair made by G.P. Walter and Company of Bowmanville, Ontario, is compared with one made by the Heywood Chair Manufacturing Company of Gardner, Massachusetts, which operated in the second half of the nineteenth century. The two chairs are virtually identical. See Mclntyre, "What Is a Canadian Chair?" 55 Personal communication, A. Gregg Finley to author, 10 November 1997. Consult Finley and Wiggington, On Earth as It Is in Heaven, and Finley, "Gothic Revival and the Victorian Church." 56 Beavan, Life in the Backwoods, 45.

231

This page intentionally left blank

Glossary

armoire: French large case cupboard arrow-backed Windsor. See Windsor, arrow-backed assemblage-a-tourillons: French Canadian term for rounded STRETCHERS or legs THROUGH-TENONED and wedged through exposed surface terminus babiche seat. See seat, babiche back slat. See slat-back backsplash: vertical board placed at rear (and sometimes sides) of sideboards or WASHSTANDS, designed to protect wall from water splashes; may have scrolledshaping to top edges and corners back-splat. See splat, back- or central bamboo-turning: turned STRETCHER or POST in the shape of bamboo canes; may have scored indentations or be more elaborately incurved between scores to resemble real cane banding: flat VENEERS in wide strips often applied around drawers, MITRED and glued in position base mouldings. See mouldings, base bead mouldings. See mouldings, bead bed, trundle or truckle: a diminutive plain bedframe on rollers, often with roped base, which slides under a larger bed and may be extracted from the foot of the bed outwards or, less frequently, from the side of the bed sideways; early rollers did not pivot, rendering the trundle bed less manageable; trundle refers to the rollers and truckle of a wheeled bed, often used by children blind-pegged joint. See joint, blind-pegged box-stretcher. See stretcher, boxbrander-back chair. See chair, brander-back breadboard-cleated joint. See joint, breadboard cleated buffet, deux-corps. See buffet, two-tiered/buffet deux-corps buffet, low: short case derived from French designs; can be a sideboard or cupboard buffet, two-tiered/buffet deux-corps: tall two-case sideboard or cupboard made in the French tradition 233

Glossary butt joint. See joint, butt cabriole chair. See chair, cabriole cabriole leg. See leg, cabriole caisson: French term for box or case; on French Canadian furniture, caissons were mouldings in the shape of rectangular boxes applied to STILES and RAILS Carbery settle. See settle, Carbery card table. See table, card central back-splat. See splat, back- or central chair, brander-back: traditional Scottish chair consisting of parallel vertical SLATS in the shape of branders or fire gridirons; usually five narrow SLATS are seen tenoned between top CREST RAIL and lower back RAIL chair, cabriole: "cabriole" means the stuffed-back seat and arms of an upholstered chair; not to be confused with CABRIOLE LEGS, which are cyma-scrolled and named for goats' legs chair, chicken-coop: a common chair often used in the kitchen, its back being divided in half horizontally; the top half is filled with SPINDLES spanning the distance between mid-RAiL and CREST RAIL; named for the wooden coops used to transport or house chicken chair, corner: usually an armchair with diamond or square seat; the legs are positioned to the right, left, mid-front, and mid-rear; the front leg is often more elaborate; many corner chairs have CROSS-STRETCHER supports below and two decorative BACK-SPLATS

chair, easy or wingback: upholstered chair, often with only feet and stretchers without material covering; high-backed with side wings and outcurved armrests chair, fancy: often decorated with paint applied freehand or through stencils; wooden fancy chairs consist of SPINDLES and POSTS with deep CREST RAILS, similar to some types of WINDSORS chair, Sligo: traditional Irish County Sligo seat, three-legged; rear-board leg extends upwards to form back; two FRONT POSTS whittled; seat may be formed of three boards in a triangle; front board wider than sides, single board spans mid frontrail to rear board post; TENONED construction chair-table. See table, chair- or hutchchair, wingback. See chair, easy or wingback chamfering: the shaping of squared POSTS into octagonal profiles; corners of the squared POSTS are cut into with a curved motion or are systematically angled; it appears on Madawaska Settlement chairs and, less frequently, tables chest, six-board: a case with four boards comprising the sides, plus a top board or lid and a baseboard or bottom chicken-coop chair. See chair, chicken-coop chintz: calico cloth with stiffened glaze dye finish from India, first introduced in the mid-seventeenth century; derives from the Hindu chint, meaning "varied coloured cloth"

234

Glossary chip-carved: edges of boards are chipped into (with tools), creating an angular gouged edge; tools may also be used to carve decorative designs, such as circles, on boards; St John River valley pipe racks were so carved claw-and-squat-ball feet. See feet, claw-and-squat-ball comb-backed Windsor. See Windsor, comb-backed corner chair. See chair, corner cornice: top moulding or finishing to large case pieces and beds, usually consisting of an overhanging protrusion of boards, plain or scroll-moulded; cornices usually have front and side decoration only, the rear of the furniture piece being pushed flush to the wall cow-horn stretcher. See stretcher, cow-horn cradle, hooded: extended side and end boards at one end of cradle, joined by boards to form hood; protects child from drafts, direct sunlight; cradle can be placed on rockers on the floor or suspended by supports from the ceiling creepies: low stools used in country homes, kitchens, and barns; three-legged and not upholstered; also known as a cutty stool, or Scotch stool; originally used as substitution for pews in Scotland crest: on a chair, uppermost connector between REAR POSTS, usually a SLAT or SPINDLE crest, cyma-scrolled: shaped S-curved top edge to chair-top SLAT-BACK crest rail. See rail, crest crest, tablet: flattened oblong in the shape of a tablet which protrudes above top edge to SLAT-BACK chair; Scottish kitchen chairs have tablets on mid-RAiLS in chair backs cross-rail. See rail, crosscross-stretcher. See stretcher, crosscrotch-veneer. See veneer, crotchcyma-scrolled skirt. See skirt, cyma-scrolled damask: type of textile covering, originally made in Damascus in a plum colour in the twelfth century; used for upholstery demi-lune: half-moon shaping in FIERCE-CUT work or carving, as well as shape given to card tables; also referred to as D-ends on dining tables desk-on-stand: two separate cases with the slope desk resting on top of a stand; usually the stand has four legs, but it can be made from solid wooden boards, especially in the case of tall accountants' desks desk, slant-front: medium-sized case whose front slants or slopes backward when closed and falls forward onto leaf supports when opened, revealing a compartmentalized interior with writing area; the lower case usually has four graduating drawers; also called slope-front desk draw-knifed or spoke-shaven: SPINDLES and STRETCHERS can be whittled from wood using a double-handled blade or spoke-shave; coopers' and wheelmakers' tools were often used (see the stretchers on Madawaskan chairs) drop-leaf table. See table, drop-leaf

235

Glossary drop-pendant: a pendant or extension that falls below the level of a skirt on a table or large case piece, for example; usually comprises part of the central decoration on a FALLEN-ARCH skirt (see the Maugerville furniture) Dutch-pad feet. See feet, Dutch-pad easy or Wingback chair. See chair, easy or wingback ebonizing: the art of blackening wood to resemble ebony; used to highlight turnings (see the furniture of Thomas Nisbet, Sr) escutcheon: an article of hardware applied for the purpose of opening or carrying; can have a locking device and is then called a key-plate escutcheon fallen-arch skirt. See skirt, fallen-arch fancy chair. See chair, fancy faux-graining. See graining, fauxfeathering: a decorative technique in carving; appears as chevronlike design on the ring turnings of Thomas Nisbet, Sr feet, claw-and-squat-ball: a talonlike foot grasping a flattened ball; the ball does not have to be squat but is featured thus on many items of New England furniture, particularly in the Boston area feet, Dutch-pad or raised-pad: featured most commonly on Queen Anne furniture; a CABRIOLE or slightly cyma-shaped leg descends to a round foot extension, which sits on a slightly smaller disc or pad; called Dutch-pad foot by New York furniture makers; also referred to as club-foot outside America feet, "flamusse" turned or "miche": French Burgundy-style foot found on armoires; a narrow turning descends to an octagonal flattened pie or loaf shape feet, "miche" turned. See feet, "flamusse" turned or "miche" feet, raised-pad. See feet, Dutch-pad feet, sledge: PLiNTH-board extensions on sides of case pieces such as dressers or CHAIR-TABLES; found on Irish dressers and St John River valley CHAIR-TABLES; used to stabilize furniture on uneven floors; resemble runners on sledges but are flat fiddle-cut rail. See rail, fiddle-cut finial: decorative carved ornament; on chairs, they are the shaped and turned rearPOST extensions above the CREST RAIL fische hinge. See hinge, fische flag-seat. See seat, flag"flamusse" turned feet. See feet, "flamusse" turned fluting: vertical carving applied to STILES and legs; narrow tubes are gouged from the surface (in contrast to REEDING, which raises the tube above the surface to form convex ridges); usually a minimum of four flutes appear on the object (see the legs on the tables of Thomas Nisbet, Sr) frieze: RAIL or cross-member, appearing on top front or top front and sides of large case pieces; can be PIERCE-CUT or carved; the opposite of a flat board at the base of a piece, which is referred to as a SKIRT front post. See post, front

236

Glossary

fylfot: decorative motif similar to a counterclockwise swastika, but has bulbous swirled ends; carved or painted on St John River valley stools and pipe boxes; associated with European (primarily Germanic/Teutonic) heritage gadrooning: crinkle-carving to seat or SKIRT RAIL bottom edge; appears on New York CARD TABLES and armchairs in particular; direction of carving on left side is a slash, which reverses to a back-slash at midpoint of the SKIRT galette: pancake-shaped motif applied as moulding or carved into case pieces; originated in France; can appear as multiple rings graduating in size gateleg table. See table, gateleg graining, faux-: false or fake wood grain; painting technique used to make inexpensive woods resemble expensive woods (e.g., pine painted to resemble rosewood); involves the layering of different paints combed into realistic patterns H-stretcher. See stretcher, Hheadboard, pillared: bed headboard; central top edge has a fallen pillar or roll; also appears on WASHSTAND BACKSPLASHES hinge, rat-tailed: French-style hardware; hand-worked metal insert is shaped like a rat's tail; hangs through metal slot hinge receptacles; a door-pivot mechanism hinge, fische: type of hinge often in an H or H-L format hooded cradle. See cradle, hooded hoop-backed Windsor. See Windsor, hoop-backed hutch-table. See table, chair- or hutchimmeubles: French term referring to built-in, non-movable property, as opposed to meubles, which are not fixed in place joint, blind-pegged: a joint with small pegs inserted in round mortises in a manner that renders the peg seam invisible; Madawaskan board seats are joined in this manner joint, bread-board cleated: flat board surface; narrow boards are placed at 90 degrees and butted/nailed in place; resembles breadboard construction (e.g., New England tavern and trestle tables) joint, butt: two boards placed flush to each other at right angles; one board end is concealed by the other, whose end is revealed; the most primitive of joints; usually nailed in place but can also be glued joint, mortise-and-tenon: two wooden members shaped to fit together; one member has an extension of wood (as in the base of a T) while the other has an identicalsized indented receptacle; sometimes the T extension protrudes from the receptacle board and may be wedged in place; this is referred to as THROUGH-TENONING (see Madawaskan chair stretchers) joint, splined: an invisible joint between two wooden members; often the spline consists of a flattened wooden rectangle, which slots into depressions or MORTISES created for the purpose; similar to BLIND-PEGGING joint, through-tenon. See joint, mortise-and-tenon klismos: fashionable Greek styling to chair legs; the front legs appear flat at their sides while their side profile reveals concave scrolling; rear legs are not usually as

237

Glossary curvacious and the concave scroll faces the opposite direction; front edges may be moulded or REEDED for additional effect knee block: small wooden support blocks, glued or nailed in place behind knees, on chairs, tables, etc.; sometimes shaped to follow leg outline; acts as a joint reinforcement ladder-back. See slat-back lady's work table. See table, lady's work leg, cabriole: having bandy legs, like a goat (capra, meaning "goat" in Latin); fashionable eighteenth-century shaping of legs adhering to Hogarth's line of beauty (the cyma curve) looking glass: mirror low buffet. See buffet, low lum drawer: lum (meaning chimney-pot hat) drawer; appears in a central position in top row of drawers in traditional SCOTCH CHESTS "miche" turned feet. See feet, "flamusse" turned or "miche" mitre: right-angled meeting of two boards or VENEERS; one end of each board or veneer is cut at forty-five degrees; mitred veneers can be seen at corners of mirrors and drawers (see John Hall's designs) mortise-and-tenon joint. See joint, mortise-and-tenon mouldings, base: planed, shaped moulding to bottom boards or SKIRTS of cases mouldings, bead: planed moulding groove in shape of a raised DEMI-LUNE or bead, applied to delicately highlight drawer edges, for example mouldings, top. See cornice pad-feet. See feet, Dutch-pad or raised-pad panelling: boards inset into raised frame consisting of two vertical side STILES and two horizontal top and bottom RAILS, tenoned together to form a rectangular frame; inside edges are RABBETED to receive inner panel boards; traditionally made by joiners paterae: rounded or ovular flattened ornamentation, often inlaid with shells or flowers; appear on SKIRTS, SLAT-BACKS, and clock cases, for example pedestal stand. See stand, pedestal pediment, swan-necked: front crowning of a case piece, shaped with two swanlike necks facing each other; found on clocks, tall case pieces, and doorways, for example piece-sur-piece: French technique of laying squared logs on top of each other to form the sides of buildings; logs may be 12 inches square and 20-60 feet long, their interstices stuffed with horsehair, straw, and/or clay to prevent loss of heat from the interior pier table. See table, pier pierce-cut: various through-cut designs pierced into wooden CROSS-MEMBERS, or RAILS, decorative embellishment on Irish dresser CORNICES and Madawaskan chair SLATS

238

Glossary pillared headboard. See headboard, pillared plinth skirt. See skirt, plinth post, rear: back leg; usually refers to chairs; consists of FINIAL, POST, and foot; may be shaped - splayed, canted, turned or squared, incised or chamfered; usually descends from FINIAL top to foot post, front: front leg; usually refers to chairs; includes arm supports, post, and foot; may be shaped like REAR POSTS but are always shorter than rear posts post, thumbnail: round-turned REAR POST on a chair, which splays backwards slightly; the front edge is flattened above elbow level so that the post resembles a thumbnail; appears on fancy and common chairs primary wood: predominant wood used in case pieces, usually a hardwood (e.g., mahogany); usually constitutes side, front, and top boards, as well as drawer fronts provenance: source, history of ownership; may include house location, usage, and oral history quoin: a wedge or locking shaped extension from the tops of walls on a house, supporting the roof; in French tradition it may refer to the support connecting ski-slope roofs and walls rabbeted: rectangular-shaped groove invariably created by planes; can be used for drawer or panel joints to hold boards on line and in position; or used independently for other purposes, such as holding plates in place on dresser shelves rail: a horizontal cross-member between two components rail, crest: the highest RAIL on an item of furniture; it may be the same shape as the rails below, but it invariably is more decoratively carved; on chairs it is the topmost rail, or SLAT, spanning the REAR POSTS rail, cross-: a RAIL or board that spans the distance between two other component pieces; usually refers to horizontals, such as SLATS and SKIRTS (verticals are referred to as STILES); any cross-member, flat or turned rail, fiddle-cut: flat-board CROSS-RAIL with edges mimicking the shape of a fiddle, or violin; appears on Irish dressers as borders to storage-shelf areas rail, support: alternative name for CROSS-RAIL or STILE, used as integral support to case item; may be in interior of case raised-pad feet. See feet, Dutch-pad rat-tailed hinge. See hinge, rat-tailed rear post. See post, rear reeded: carvings of raised DEMI-LUNE profiles, as opposed to sunken intaglio FLUTING; may appear in groups on pedestals, STILES, and legs, for instance; a single reed may be referred to as a cock-bead rod-backed Windsor. See Windsor, rod-backed rolled seat. See seat, rolled rondels: round carvings or mouldings applied to wooden members; they appear as decorations on sofa armrests, for example; can also be shaped as rectangles or diamonds, in which case they are called appliques or tablets

239

Glossary rope-twist. See split rope-twist saddled-seat. See seat, saddled Scotch chair: traditional Scottish chair form popular in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries; invariably has turned FRONT POSTS, out-curved REAR POSTS, wooden TRAPEZOIDAL SEAT, yoke-back, and single SLAT; also popular in Ireland and New Brunswick Scotch Chest: a chest with four levels of graduated drawers; the upper level is divided into three sections of equal width; the left and right sections are divided into two narrow drawers, while the central single drawer accommodates a hat and is known as a LUM drawer; in Canada this is also referred to as a bonnet chest scroll-cut: cyma-shaped or curvilinear shaping of cross-member used as decorative technique; machine technology advances led to its greater use and popularity in the American Empire period (see John Hall's chest designs) seat, babiche: babiche, or processed leather thongs, are woven in the same manner as webbing on snowshoes; applied between seat STRETCHERS, the thongs provide sturdy seating; particularly popular among the Montagnais in Quebec seat, flag-: TRAPEZOIDAL SEAT woven with twisted straw or reed grass; final appearance is shaped with four triangles meeting at the centre of the seat; it needed replacement more frequently than other seat coverings seat, rolled: scrolled front edge to the seats of FANCY and WINDSOR chair; an additional wooden member might be added to the seat front rather than shaping the pre-existing seat board; used in conjunction with SEAT SADDLING to produce a more comfortable seat seat, saddled: shaping of top edge of wooden seat; resembles the contoured shape of a flattened saddle; more comfortable because the seat is shaped to body contours; the process of shaping is called saddling seat slat. See slat, seat seat, trapezoidal: rectangular straight-sided seat; the front edge is wider than the rear, while the sides are equal to each other in length; the seat is symmetrical; the most common shape of board seat on Madawaskan chairs secondary wood: wood used for the less important components of a case piece; usually a softwood (e.g., pine); can be used for rear boards and drawer sides/bottoms; an inexpensive less showy wood used on hidden parts of the furniture; may also be used as a primary wood, when it is often painted or stained to resemble other woods (FAUX-GRAINED) settle, Carbery: a high-backed wooden long seat or bench with a falling central section; the fallen section acts as a table; form associated with Carbery, Ireland shouldering: shaping of REAR POST into shoulder above seat level; on Scottish chairs refers to inside edge of POST; post above this level may differ in contoured shape from that below (for example, may be squared in profile below seat level and rounded at the back above seat level) sideboard, stage-top: a sideboard table with a rear vertical extension of drawers or a platform placed flush to the case below; in Scottish examples this platform or stage

240

Glossary spans the entire width of the sideboard; similar to Charleston, South Carolina, examples skirt: flat board at the base of a piece skirt, cyma-scrolled: a CROSS-RAIL or board spanning legs or feet, shaped in curves and reverse curves, bifurcated at centre with SCROLLING in a mirror-image to left and right; can be found on tables, chairs, and cases skirt, fallen-arch: SKIRT shaped with elongated arch; centre of SKIRT arch may descend to a drop-FiNiAL or DROP-PENDANT; popular in William and Mary period skirt, plinth: the flat-faced baseboards of a case piece resting flush to the floor; comprises three boards (two side and one front) MITRED at the corners and nailed or pegged in position; plinth skirting boards are plain in profile but are often curved into the case along their top edges skirt, table: a CROSS-RAIL that is TENONed to leg blocks; the lower edge of the SKIRT may or may not be shaped slant-front desk. See desk, slant-front slat-back: a horizontal cross-member, or RAIL, spanning REAR POSTS on chairs, as opposed to a BACK-SPLAT, which is a vertical cross-member; also referred to as a ladder-back when more than two back slats appear; SLATS may be shaped at top or bottom and/or FIERCE-CUT; other decorations include carving and stencilling; common chair form in the Madawaska Settlements slat, seat: a horizontal cross-member, or RAIL, spanning REAR POSTS on chairs at the seat level; especially common on Madawaska Settlement chairs sledge feet. See feet, sledge slip-seat: may be trapezoidal or balloon-shaped and upholstered over a webbed fabricspanned wooden frame; the frame slips onto four RABBETED, seat board supports sofa table. See table, sofa spandrel: a decorative motif that spans the right-angles of joined members or provides continuity and elaboration of design on flattened surfaces; seen on Justin Spahn's Fredericton clock case as carved fans and on Chinese furniture as bamboo-shaping between seat RAIL and FRONT POST spindle: a round-turned or SPOKE-SHAVEN elongated pole; can be shaped into BAMBOO canes, scored and otherwise ornamented; spindle is usually thicker in the middle than at the joints with (in the case of chairs) SEATS, SLATS, and/or CREST RAILS; often appears in groups of five, seven, or, less frequently, nine on WINDSOR CHAIR backs; also appears in shortened versions on CHICKEN-COOP CHAIR backs splashboard. See backsplash splat, back- or central: vertical cross-member on chairs; invariably more decorative than SLAT-BACKS, which are horizontal cross-members; can be shaped as urns; they appear in the centre of chair backs as a single vertical member or can be flanked by SPINDLES splined joint. See joint, splined split rope-twist: carved decoration on case STILES and sofa CRESTS; wood post is turned or carved to resemble rope, then split in two and applied; popular in the

241

Glossary Regency period and after; Thomas Nisbet, Sr, employed skilled carvers to make them spoke-shaven. See draw-knifed or spoke-shaven spoon slot: on Irish dressers, the right-hand front edge of the top of the top plateshelf has through-cuts to accommodate spoons; popular in Newfoundland and Cape Breton, but not in the St John River valley stage-topp sideboard. See sideboard, stage-topp stand, pedestal: a stand resting on a central columnar PEDIMENT or pedestal; pedestal is usually turned but on more elaborate examples may be shaped in forms such as lyres step-down Windsor. See Windsor, step-down stiles: the side vertical support-members of case pieces (referred to as POSTS on chairs); can be REEDED, FLUTED, or SCROLLED in shape stretcher: a wooden horizontal member (usually rounded, turned, or SPOKESHAVED) that stretches between two vertical members stretcher, box-: four stretchers spanning four legs to form a square or box; different stretchers must not enter the post at the same position but must be staggered above and below each other; double box-stretcher refers to two sets of four STRETCHERS stacked one over the other stretcher, cross-: any horizontal STRETCHER that spans and joins together two vertical members stretcher, cow-horn: two FRONT POSTS joined by a concave SPINDLE STRETCHER, held in position by two short straight spindles placed at a 45 degree angle to their respective REAR POSTS; the resultant stretcher appears like the top of a cow's head with two horns protruding; popular in English Windsor chairs stretcher, H-: an alternative formation to BOX-STRETCHERS; the H-stretcher consists of three CROSS-STRETCHERS; two of the STRETCHERS run from FRONT POSTS to REAR POSTS and are joined forward of centre by a stretcher placed at 90 degrees; often this H-shaping is reinforced by a high front-stretcher stringing: a type of fine single-line inlay, as opposed to BANDING, which is a broader inlay made from VENEER or wooden strips; stringing of lightwoods against darkwoods is used to create an illusion of greater delicacy; can be found on the sewing tables of Thomas Nisbet, Sr sugan: type of Irish woven marram-grass rope seat similar to the FLAG-SEAT support rail. See rail, support swan-necked pediment. See pediment, swan-necked table, card: fold-top or twist-top card tables were often made in sets of two and could each accommodate four people; the interior of the twist mechanism or a small drawer acts as storage for cards and gambling chips; the top of the table may have receptacles for gambling chips and candlesticks table, chair- or hutch-: a convertible item of furniture, used as a table when the chairback was lowered into position resting on the chair arms; the base of the chair

242

Glossary could be used as a storage drawer; a hutch-table consists of a storage box below a tilting top, useful in dwellings with limited space; Henry Thoreau noted their use in the St John River valley table, drop-leaf: a table that has one or two wooden leaf extensions that can be raised or lowered as necessary; the leaves can be narrow, as in Pembroke tables, or wide as in dining tables table, gateleg: a DROP-LEAF TABLE with rounded or squared leafs that rest on extended swinging gatelegs; "gateleg" refers to the motion of opening and closing the leaf supports as well as to the multiple turnings resembling gateposts; waned from fashion long before the end of the eighteenth century table, lady's work: a multipurpose utilitarian stand primarily used for sewing; the tabletop lifts to reveal sewing-tool compartments or a writing/paper and pen storage area; a sewing table could also have a sliding basket for storing fabric when not being worked on; gender-specific usage table, pier: an open side table with backboard between top and base which may have a mirror; often has two front columns supporting a marble top table, sofa: table designed to be placed in front of a sofa; may have two false and two real drawers, two drop-leafs and an elaborate pedestal base; Queen Victoria had one in Balmoral Castle facing a sofa at the foot of her bed table skirt. See skirt, table tablet crest. See crest, tablet through-tenon. See joint, through-tenon thumbnail post. See post, thumbnail trapezoidal seat. See seat, trapezoidal truckle bed. See bed, trundle or truckle trundle bed. See bed, trundle or truckle two-tiered buffet. See buffet, two-tiered vaisseliers: French term for dressers or large cupboards veneer, crotch-: a thin strip of wood cut from a joint between the main trunk and a branch of a tree, at its crotch; is feather- or flame-patterned in appearance; can be used to cover large cases made from cheaper SECONDARY WOODS such as pine boards washstand: a small table or stand typically in two tiers, the top section may comprise a three-sided SPLASHBOARD surrounding a top with a circular hole through-cut to accommodate a basin; a drawer may be placed at a lower level upon which sits a ewer for holding water; some washstands have towel racks at the side wheel-splat. See Windsor, wheel-splat window sash: a frame for window panes Windsor, arrow-backed: chair with SPINDLES having arrow shaping wherein two of the four flights are flattened; usually the back consists of one to five arrows; Windsors are said to have first been used in Berkshire, England, although some attribute the form's design to Benjamin Franklin

243

Glossary Windsor, comb-backed: a Windsor chair usually with arms; the central SPINDLES in the back protrude through the rear of the arm rail to form a tall back, capped with a cockscomb-shaped flattened CREST RAIL Windsor, continuous-arm: a Windsor chair with arms formed by a continuation of the rear hoop; the armrests are on short SPINDLES Windsor, hoop-backed: a Windsor chair without arms; the back is inverted U-shaped or hoop-shaped with a flattened front edge and rounded rear edge; it is penetrated by SPINDLES forming the back of the chair; if the hoop does not penetrate the seat but flares forwards to form armrests, it is called a CONTINOUS-ARM WINDSOR Windsor, rod-backed: a Windsor chair with vertical REAR POSTS and CREST RAIL joined in the shape of a rectangle; the POSTS are MITRED at the top corners to accommodate the crest rail; the back is spanned by vertical SPINDLES Windsor, step-down: a Windsor chair with a CREST RAIL which has its top edge raised in the central section to resemble a tablet or rectangle, another smaller tablet may be found centred over that one, the resulting steps at the top edges of the tablets lead to the appellation "step-down" Windsor, wheel-splat: a Windsor chair of English design having a central SPLAT carrying a wheel motif; not seen in the St John River valley wingback or easy chair. See chair, easy or wingback

244

Bibliography

U N P U B L I S H E DD

MATERIAL

Audibert, Joseph. Journal and Papers. 1842-1855. AA, MCC, 93-00028 (for a list of abbreviations, see pages 187-8) Barker, Noah. "Report of the Commissioner on Claims of Settlers on Proprietors' Lands in the County of Aroostook: Made in the Pursuance of Resolve of 27 February 1873." 10 January 1874. MSA, A26, Ro8, 3-8 Barker, Noah, and Benjamin Vickery. "Exploration of Township No. 18, 4th Range." Land Office Field Notes. 14 November 1843. MSA, 2117-0105, box 3, folder 2 Bell, David Victor John. "Nation and Non-Nation: A New Analysis of the Loyalists and the American Revolution." PH D dissertation, Harvard University, 1969 Bliss Family of Springfield, Massachusetts, and Fredericton, New Brunswick. Papers, 1742-1822.17 November 1795 to 8 March 1797. PANE, microfilm F362 Butler, Darrel. "Everything in the Furniture Line at J.W. Moore and Son's: A Case Study in Material History." Masters thesis, University of New Brunswick, 1991 - "The Loyalist Brochure." 3 May 1995. Curatorial Research Files. KLHS Campbell, Robert. "A Map of the Great River St. John and Waters (the first ever published) from the Bay of Fundy, up to St. Anns or Frederick's Town; Being Little Known by White People, until 1783: Settled by the American Loyalists, then Part of Nova Scotia, now Called New Brunswick. From an Actual Survey, Made in the Years 1784,85,86, and 87, by Robert Campbell Surveyor. Capt. of the 4Oth Company of St. John's Loyalists." NA, NMC Canada. ACNS database. 1815-45. CHIN Coffin, George W. Journal. 3 September - 24 October 1825. MSA, A2i, R2o, 4-9 Cook, Jane L. "Boundaries of Ethnic Identity: Furniture Designs of the Upper versus the Lower Saint John River Valley, New Brunswick prior to 1851." Paper presented at the Boundaries Conference, Centre of Canadian Studies, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, 6 May 1996

245

Bibliography — "First Nations' and Eastern Canadian Furniture-Making Traditions." SSHRC postdoctoral research at the McCord Museum of Canadian History and the McGill Institute for the Study of Canada, 1998-2000 - "Furniture, the American Revolution, and Nation-Building, 1760-1815." Research in progress, 1999 - "A Georgian Heritage: Charlestown Artisans and Chippendale Furniture in the Revolutionary Period (1729-1785)." Master's thesis, Wake Forest University, 1985 - "History Is Bunk and Objects Are Junk: New Ways of Seeing for the Cultural Historian." Paper presented to the Montreal History Group May Day Conference, Montreal, 30 April 1999 — "New England Influences on Lower St John River Valley Furniture: Immigrant Styles and 'Yankee Clap-trap' Imports, 1763-1851." Paper presented to the Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife: "Rural New England Furniture: People, Place, and Production." Deerfield, Mass., 27 June 1998 Cotton, Bernard D. "Manx Furniture Heritage." Paper presented at the Regional Furniture Society Weekend Conference on the occasion of the opening of the Manx Museum's "Manx Furniture" exhibition, Isle of Man, 7 May 1993. Collection of B.D. Cotton, Glos., England Craig, Beatrice C. Papers and Family Reconstitution Files. AA — "Family, Kinship, and Community Formation on the Canadian-American Border: Madawaska, 1785-1842." PH D dissertation, University of Maine at Orono, 1983 Customs House Records. Duties Collected under Acts for Year Ending 5 January 1832 and 1833, Port of Saint John. PANE, RS23, EI, i833a, nos. 1-170; i833c; 18343, nos. i188; 1834C Deane and Kavanagh Report. MSA, Manuscripts Delancey/Robinson Collection, Wills and Estates, 1790-1839. NA, MG24, L6, vol. i, file 6. De Peyster Correspondence and Accounts. Lawrence Collection. Ward Chipman, Sr and Jr. Papers. NA, MG23, DI, vol. 15, ser. i, 68-9 Dilworth, Timothy. Papers. New Brunswick Cabinetmakers' Advertisements. Collection of Timothy Dilworth. Fredericton "Domestic Manufactures." British American Cultivator. PANS, Out-of-Province Newspapers, reel i. Dufour Store Ledger. 2 vols. 1844-48. Madns, Regional Studies Section of the Madawaska Public Library. Photocopy. Elections-Saint John: Voters Lists, 1785-1861. PANE, microfilm F370 Field, Richard Henning. "The Material Lives of Lunenburg German Merchants and Yeomen: The Evidence Based on Probate Inventories, 1760-1830." PH D dissertation, Dalhousie University, 1991 Freeman Certificates. Saint John. 1795-1870. NBM/PANB, microfilm F1452 [Hebert] Ebert, Simon. Land Petition Records. 1824. PANE Holland, Park. "Early Description of the Settlements." MSA, A2i, R2O, 6-9

246

Bibliography Hoyt Diary. Norton, New Brunswick. NBM/PANB, microfilm Fn Jefferys, Thomas. "Explanation for the New Map of Nova Scotia and Cape Britain, with the Adjacent Parts of New England and Canada Composed from a Great Number of Actual Surveys; and Other Materials regulated by many new Astronomical Observations of the Longitude as Well as Latitude; with an Explanation." 1755. Printed in London. NA, PRO, microfiche 112/200/1755 Map of New Brunswick (untitled) from Surveys by Captain Dugald Campbell. NBM, microfilm map 29800 "Map of the 20 Patentees of the Council of New England, 1623." NA, NMC, H3/9OO/ 1623-24 New Brunswick Customs House Records, Saint John. 1784-96, 1800, 1801, 1806-16. PANE, RG3, RS23, Ei, boxes i and 2 - Papers of the House of Assembly of New Brunswick. PANE, 1839,1843 "Petition of Samuel Storey and 23 others." 21 February 1826. PANS, RG5, ser. p, vol. 121, no. 29 "Petition of Sundry Mechanics of the City of Saint John Praying that Further Duties May Be Imposed on Certain Articles Imported from Foreign Countries as a Protection to the Manufactures of the Province." 23 February 1827. PANE, RG4, 535, pe 87 "Petition of Wm. Scovil, Noah Disbrow, Charles Ward, Henry Gilbert, George Bond and 289 Others, Merchants, Traders, Manufacturers and Other, of the City and County of Saint John, Praying Protection to Their Various Interests, in the Regulation and Adjustment of Any New Scale of Duties on Imports into the Province." 22 February 1843. PANE, RS24,1843, file 6, pe 143 Pryke, Sebastian. "The Eighteenth Century Furniture Trade in Edinburgh: A Study Based on Documentary Sources." Paper prepared for the School of Art History, University of St Andrew's, 1995. RCAHMS manuscript collection Ryder, Huia. Papers. Private Collection, New Brunswick Sproule, George, and Thomas Baillie, Surveyors. "Tracts of Land granted between River Verte and Madawaska." NA, NMC44O, H3/24O/Edmundston (1826) Vroom, Richard. Photographic Collection. NA, Documentary Art and Photography Division. Negatives and black and white photographs Winslow, Edward. Papers. Includes "List of Refugees," 1775. PANE, M145, 37,1695-1783 York County Probate Court: Record Books: PANE, RS75. Microfilms F6212,1794-1846; F6213,1846-1887 PUBLISHED

MATERIAL

Acheson, T.W. "The Irish Community in Saint John, 1815-1850." In New Ireland Remembered: Historical Essays on the Irish in New Brunswick, ed. P.M. Toner, 2754. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1989 - "The Maritimes and 'Empire Canada.'" In Canada and the Burden of Unity, ed. David Jay Bercuson, 87-114. Toronto: Macmillan 1977

247

Bibliography — Saint John: The Making of a Colonial Urban Community. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1985 Adams, Annmarie. Review of A History of Canadian Architecture, by Harold Kalman. Canadian Historical Review 78, no. 3 (September 1997): 525-8 Akenson, Donald Harman. Small Differences: Irish Catholics and Irish Protestants, 1815-1922. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press 1988 Albert, Thomas. Histoire du Madawaska entre I'Acadie, le Quebec, et I'Amerique d'apres les recherches historiques de Patrick Therriault, et les notes manuscrites de Prudent L. Mercure. Ed. Adrien Berube, Benoit Berube, and Georgette Desjardins. 1920. Reprint, Quebec: Societe historique du Madawaska, in association with Hurtubise 1982 Alnwick Castle: Home of the Duke of Northumberland. Derby: English Life Publications 1990 Arsenault, Bona. History of the Acadians. Trans. Brian M. Upton and John G. Mclaughlin (Le conseil de la viefrancaise en Amerique). Quebec: L'Action Sociale 1966 Arts of French Canada of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, The. Stratford, Ont: Stratford Shakespearian Festival 1961 Atkinson, Christopher W. A Guide to New Brunswick, British North America, &c. 2d ed. Edinburgh: Anderson and Bryce 1843 Atlas of Plates Illustrating the Geology of the State of Maine, accompanying the First Report of the Geology of the State of Maine. Augusta, Maine: 1837 Baillie, Thomas. An Account of the Province of New Brunswick; Including a Description of the Settlements, Institutions, Soil and Climate of That Important Province with Advice to Emigrants. London: J.G. and F. Rivington 1832 Bailyn, Bernard. Voyagers to the West: A Passage in the Peopling of America on the Eve of the Revolution. 1986. Reprint, Toronto: Random House 1988 Bamford, Francis. A Dictionary of Edinburgh Wrights and Furniture Makers, 1660-1840. London: Furniture History Society 1983 Barkley, Murray. "The Loyalist Tradition in New Brunswick: The Growth and Evolution of an Historical Myth, 1825-1914." Acadiensis 4, no. 2 (Spring 1975): 3-45 Bates, Elizabeth Bidwell, and Jonathan L. Fairbanks. American Furniture: 1620 to the Present. New York: Richard Marek 1981 Baudrillard, Jean. The System of Objects. Trans. James Benedict (Le systeme des objets. Paris: Editions Gallimard 1968). London: Verso 1996 Beavan, Frances. Sketches and Tales Illustrative of Life in the Backwoods of New Brunswick, North America, Gleaned from Actual Observation and Experience during a Residence of Seven Years in That Interesting Colony. 1845. Reprint, St Stephen, N.B.: Print'N Press 1980 Bell, David Graham. Early Loyalist Saint John: The Origin of New Brunswick Politics, 1783-1786. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1983 Bennett, Arnold. Journals. Ed. Newman Flower. London: Cassell 1932-33 Bird, Michael S. Canadian Country Furniture. Toronto: Stoddart 1994 - "Cultural Crossovers: Seven Quebec Chests of Drawers." Upper Canadian, NovemberDecember 1995,10-11

248

Bibliography - "A Spirit of Exuberance: Germanic Decorative Arts in Nova Scotia and Ontario." Canadian Antiques and Art Review i, no. i (September 1979): 16-23 Bird, Michael S., and Terry Kobayashi. "The Discovery of Thomas MacDonald: Canada's Elusive Portrait Painter." Clarion 13 (Winter 1988): 37-43 - A Splendid Harvest: Germanic Folk and Decorative Arts in Canada. Toronto: Van Nostrand Reinhold 1981 Boucher, Roger. "Le mobilier acadien." Canadian Antiques and Art Review i, no. 10 (July-August 1980): 32-5 Bouchette, Joseph. Description topographique de la province du Bas-Canada, avec des remarques sur le Haul-Canada et sur les relations des deux provinces avec les Etats Unis de VAmerique. 1815. Reprint, Montreal: Editions Elysee 1978 Brears, Peter. North Country Folk Art. Edinburgh: John Donald 1989 Bumsted, J.M. The People's Clearance: Highland Emigration to British North America, 1770-1815. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press 1982 - The Scots in Canada. Canada's Ethnic Groups, vol. i. Ottawa: Canadian Historical Association 1982 - "Scottish Emigration to the Maritimes, 1770-1815: A New Look at an Old Theme." Acadiensis 10, no. 2 (Spring 1981): 65-85 Bunting, William Franklin. History of St. John's Lodge, F. and A. M. of Saint John, New Brunswick: Together with Sketches of All Masonic Bodies in New Brunswick, from A.D. 1784 to A.D. 1894. Saint John: J. and A. McMillan 1895 Burnet, Jean. Multiculturalism in Canada. Canadian Studies Resource Guide. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada 1988 Burton, E. Milby. Charleston Furniture: 1700-1825. 1955. Reprint, Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press 1980 Bushman, Richard L. "American High-Style and Vernacular Cultures." In Colonial British America: Essays in the New History of the Early Modern Era, ed. Jack P. Greene and J.R. Pole, 345-83. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press 1984 Butler, Joseph T. Field Guide to American Antique Furniture: A Unique Visual System for Identifying the Style of Virtually Any Piece of American Furniture. New York: Henry Holt 1985 Cadigan, Sean. "Artisans in a Merchant Town: Saint John's, Newfoundland, 17701816." Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, n.s., 4 (1993): 95-119 Campbell, Patrick. Travels in the Interior Inhabited Parts of British North America in the Years 1791 and 1792. 1793. Reprint, Champlain Society Publications, vol. 23, edited with an introduction by H.H. Langton. Toronto: Champlain Society 1937 Carragher, Fionnuala. "Irish Cradles: An Introductory Look." Regional Furniture 6 (1993): 52-62 Carter, Seth M., Morrill N. Drew, and George H. Smith. Report of Commissioners Appointed under Resolve Approved March loth 1887 to Investigate Land of the Settlers in the Madawaska Territory. Augusta, Maine: Burleigh and Flynt 1888 Charter of the City of Saint John, in the Province of New-Brunswick, The. 30 April 1785. New Brunswick: Lewis and Ryan 1785 249

Bibliography Churchill, Edwin A. Simple Forms and Vivid Colors: Maine Painted Furniture, 18001850. Maine State Museum's exhibition, 8 July 1983 - 28 February 1984. Augusta, Maine: Maine State Museum 1983 Churchill, Edwin A., and Sheila McDonald. "Reflections of Their World: The Furniture of the Upper Saint John River Valley, 1820-1930." In Perspectives on American Furniture, ed. Gerald W.R. Ward, 63-91. New York: W.W. Norton 1988 Collins, Charles W. The Acadians ofMadawaska, Maine. New England Catholic Historical Society Publications, no. 3. Boston, Mass.: Thomas A. Whalen 1902 Condon, Ann Gorman. "The Celestial World of Jonathan Odell: Symbolic Unities within a Disparate Artifact Collection." In Living in a Material World: Canadian and American Approaches to Material Culture, ed. Gerald L. Pocius, 92-123. St John's: Institute of Social and Economic Research 1991 - The Envy of the American States: The Loyalist Dream for New Brunswick. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1984 - "Loyalist Style and the Culture of the Atlantic Seaboard." Material History Bulletin 25 (Spring 1987): 21-8 - "Marching to a Different Drummer: The Political Philosophy of the American Loyalists." In Red, White and True Blue: The Loyalists in the Revolution, ed. Esmond Wright, 1-18. New York: Institute of United States Studies in association with AMS Press 1976 "Connecticut Cabinet-Makers. Checklist up to 1820: Part i." Connecticut Historical Society Bulletin 32, no. 4 (October 1967): 97-144 Conrad, Margaret, ed. Intimate Relations: Family and Planter Nova Scotia, 1759-1800. Fredericton: Acadiensis Press 1995 - Making Adjustments: Change and Continuity in Planter Nova Scotia, 1759-1800. Fredericton: Acadiensis Press 1991 - They Planted Well: New England Planters in Maritime Canada. Fredericton: Acadiensis Press 1988 Constantine, Albert J., Jr. Know Your Woods: A Complete Guide to Trees, Woods, and Veneers. Rev. ed. by Harry J. Hobbs. New York: Scribner's 1975 Cook, Jane L. "Along the Connecticut Coast and Up the Connecticut Valley." Visitor 27, no. 3 (Fall 1987): 7-9 - "Bringing the Outside In: Women and the Transformation of the Middle-Class Maritime Canadian Interior, 1830-1860." Material History Review 38 (Fall 1993): 36-49 - "Mi'kmaq Quillwork Furniture." Material History Review 38 (Fall 1993): 94-5 - Review of Canadian Country Furniture, by Michael S. Bird. Material History Review 44 (Fall 1996): 132-3 - Review of Canadian Country Furniture, by Michael S. Bird. Regional Furniture Society Newsletter 24, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 5-6 - Review of The Painted Furniture of French Canada, 1700-1840, by John Fleming. Regional Furniture Society Newsletter 24, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 6-7

250

Bibliography Cooney, Robert. A Compendious History of the Northern Part of the Province of New Brunswick and of the District of Gaspe in Lower Canada. Halifax: J. Howe 1832 Corkhill, Thomas. The Complete Dictionary of Wood. New York: Stein and Day 1982 Cotton, Bernard D. The English Regional Chair. 1990. Reprint, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Antique Collectors' Club 1991 - "Irish Vernacular Furniture." Regional Furniture 3 (1989): 1-26 Cotton, Bernard, and Walter Peddle. Routes: Exploring the British Origins of Newfoundland Outport Furniture Design. A Travelling Exhibition of the Newfoundland Museum. Saint John's: Dunbar Studios 1995 Craig, Beatrice C. "Early French Migrations to Northern Maine, 1785-1850." Maine Historical Society Quarterly 25 (Spring 1986): 230-47 - "Le developpement agricole dans la haute vallee de la riviere Saint-Jean en 1860." Journal of the Canadian Historical Association, ns, 3 (1992): 13-26 Crowell, Ivan-H. "Caracteristiques propres des meubles acadiens." L'Evangeline, 2 February 1966 - "The Maritime Acadian Style of Furniture." Les cahiers de la Societe historique acadienne 11 (March 1966): 23-7 Cunningham, Robert, and John B. Prince. Tamped Clay and Saltmarsh Hay: Artifacts of New Brunswick. Fredericton: Brunswick Press 1976 Gushing, J. Elizabeth, Teresa Casey, and Monica Robertson. A Chronicle of Irish Emigration to Saint John, New Brunswick, 1847. Saint John: New Brunswick Museum 1979 Davis, Harold A. An International Community on the St. Croix, 1604-1930. Orono, Maine: University Press 1950 Deane, John G., and Edward Kavanagh. "Report of Messrs. Deane and Kavanagh, 1831." Collections of the New Brunswick Historical Society 3, no. 9 (1914): 386-462 de Breffny, Brian, ed. Ireland: A Cultural Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson 1983

- The Irish World: The History and Cultural Achievements of the Irish People. London: Thames and Hudson 1977 Deetz, James. In Small Things Forgotten: The Archaeology of Early American Life. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press in association with Doubleday 1977 de Ricci, Seymour. Louis XVI Furniture. London: Heinemann n.d. Deveau, J. Alphonse. Along the Shores of Saint Mary's Bay: The History of a Unique Community. Vol. i, The First Hundred Years. Church Point, N.S.: Imprimerie de 1'Universite de Sainte-Anne 1977 Diderot, Denis. A Diderot Pictorial Encyclopedia of Trades and Industry: Manufacturing and the Technical Arts in Plates Selected from Encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des Metiers. 1751-65. 2 vols. Reprint, New York: Dover Publications 1959 Dilworth, Timothy. "The Labels of Thomas Nisbet." Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991): 70-72

251

Bibliography - "Thomas Nisbet: A Reappraisal of His Life and Work." Material History Bulletin 15 (Summer 1982): 77-82 - "Thomas Nisbet's Furniture: Distinctive Style, Design and Workmanship." Material History Bulletin 24 (Fall 1986): 13-15 Dionne, Raoul. La colonisation acadienne an Nouveau-Brunswick, 1760-1860: Donnees sur les concessions de terres. Moncton: Chaire d'etudes acadiennes, Universite du Moncton 1989 Dobson, Henry, and Barbara Dobson. The Early Furniture of Ontario and the Atlantic Provinces: A Record of the Pieces Assembled for the Country Heritage Loan Exhibition from Private Collections across Canada. Toronto: M.F. Feheley 1974 Dubay, Guy. Chez Nous: The Saint John Valley. Augusta, Maine: Maine State Museum

1983 Duncan, K.J. "Patterns of Settlement in the East." In The Scottish Tradition in Canada, ed. W. Stanford Reid, 49-75. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart in association with the Multiculturalism Program, Department of the Secretary of State, and Supply and Services Canada 1976 Dunning, Phil. "The Evolution of the Windsor: English, American, Canadian." Canadian Antiques Collector 9 (March-April 1974): 12-16 Dupont, Jean-Claude. Histoire populaire de I'Acadie. Ottawa: Lemeac 1979 Elliott, Bruce S. Irish Migrants in the Canadas: A New Approach. Montreal: McGillQueen's University Press 1988 Ennals, Peter, and Deryck Holdsworth, "Vernacular Architecture and the Cultural Landscape of the Maritime Provinces: A Reconnaissance." In The Acadiensis Reader, ed. Philip Buckner, 1:335-55. Fredericton: Acadiensis Press 1987 Erickson, Vincent O. "Maliseet-Passamaquoddy." In Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger, 125-6. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution 1978 Errington, Lindsay. David Wilkie, 1785-1841. Vol. 10 of Scottish Masters. Eindhoven, Netherlands: National Galleries of Scotland 1988 Evans, Nancy Goyne. American Windsor Chairs. New York: Hudson Hills Press in association with the Winterthur Museum 1996 - "Design Sources for Windsor Furniture. Part 2: The Early Nineteenth Century." Magazine Antiques 133, no. 5 (May 1988): 1128-43 Everet, Charles A., and James S. Beek. Census of the Province of New Brunswick, 1861, Laid before the Provincial Parliament, 14 March 1862, and Published by Order of the Provincial Government. Saint John: George W. Day 1862 Fairbanks, Jonathan L., and Robert E Trent, eds. New England Begins: The Seventeenth Century. Vol. i, Introduction, Migration and Settlement, and vol. 3, Style. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts 1982 - "New England Begins: The Seventeenth Century, An Exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, May 5 - August 22, 1982." Magazine Antiques 121, no. 5 (May 1982): 1126-9

252

Bibliography Fales, Dean A., Jr. American Painted Furniture, 1660-1880. 1979. Reprint, New York: Bonanza Books 1986 Fennimore, Donald L. "Brass Hardware on American Furniture." Part i, "Cast Hardware, 1750-1850." Magazine Antiques 139, no. 5 (May 1991): 948-55. Part 2: "Stamped Hardware." Ibid., 140, no. 7 (July 1991): 80-91 Finlay, Ian. Scottish Crafts. London: Harrap 1948 Finley, A. Gregg. "Collectors, Dealers, and Museums: Private Initiative and Public Responsibility." Material History Bulletin 15 (1982): 95-6 - "The Gothic Revival and the Victorian Church in New Brunswick: Toward a Strategy for Material Culture Research." Material History Review 32 (Fall 1990): 1-16 - The Loyalists: A Catalogue Featuring Selected Pieces of Loyalist History from the Collections of the New Brunswick Museum. Saint John: New Brunswick Museum 1975 - "The Loyalists: Bicentennial Exhibition at the New Brunswick Museum." Canadian Collector 18, no. 5 (September-October 1983): 30-4 Finley, A. Gregg, and Lynn Wigginton. On Earth as It Is in Heaven: Gothic Revival Churches of Victorian New Brunswick. Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions 1995 [Fisher, Peter.] The First History of New Brunswick; as Originally Published in 1825; with a few Additional Explanatory Notes; Now Re-printed Jointly by the Government of New Brunswick and William Shives Fisher. 1825. Reprint, Saint John: New Brunswick Historical Society 1921 - Notitia of New-Brunswick for 1836, and Extending into 1837; Comprising Historical, Geographical, Statistical, and Commercial Notices of the Province. Saint John: Henry Chubb 1838 - Sketches of New Brunswick; Containing an Account of the First Settlement of the Province, with a Brief Description of the Country, Climate, Productions, Inhabitants, Government, Rivers, Towns, Settlements, Public Institutions, Trade, Revenue, Population, & c. Saint John: Chubb and Sons 1825 Fleming, John A. "The Anglo-American Influence on French-Canadian Furniture after 1760." Magazine Antiques 148, no. 8 (August 1995): 192-9 - The Painted Furniture of French Canada, 1700-1840. Camden East, Ont.: Camden House 1994 Foss, Charles. Cabinetmakers of the Eastern Seaboard: A Study of Early Canadian Furniture. Toronto: M.F. Feheley 1977 - "Two New Brunswick Craftsmen." Canadian Antiques Collector 10, no. 3 (May-June 1975): 29-33 Francklin, Michael. Letter to James White, Esq. Windsor, 8 December 1778. In "Selections from Papers and Correspondence of James White, 1762-1783," ed. W.O. Raymond. Collections of the New Brunswick Historical Society i, no. 3 (1897): 322-3 Ganong, William F. Crucial Maps in the Early Cartography and Place-Nomenclature of the Atlantic Coast of Canada. Reprint, Royal Society of Canada Special Publications, no. 7, with an introduction and commentary by Theodore E. Layng. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1964

253

Bibliography - "A Monograph of Historic Sites in the Province of New Brunswick." Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. Contributions to the History of New Brunswick, no. 4.1899. Reprinted as Historic Sites in the Province of New Brunswick. St Stephen, N.B.: Print'N Press 1983 - "On Raised Peat-Bogs in New Brunswick." Reprint, Botanical Gazette, May 1891. (Also on microfiche, CIHM 28318) Gesner, Abraham. New Brunswick: With Notes for Emigrants Comprehending the Early History, an Account of the Indians, Settlement, Topography, Statistics ... and Contemplated Railways of that Province. London: Simmonds and Ward 1847 - Report on the Geological Survey of the Province of New-Brunswick: With a Topographical Account of the Public Lands and Districts Explored in 1842. Saint John 1843 Gilbert, Christopher. "The Amos Catton Pattern Book." Regional Furniture 5 (1991): 60-8 - English Vernacular Furniture, 1/50-1900. New Haven: Yale University Press 1991 Classic, Henry. Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the Eastern United States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1968 - "Tradition." Journal of American Folklore 108 (Fall 1995): 395-412 Gloag, John. A Complete Dictionary of Furniture. 1952. Rev. and exp. by Clive Edwards, Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press 1991 Gmelch, Sharon Bohn. "A Social History of the Quebec Hebridean Settlements." In Cultural Retention and Demographic Change: Studies of the Hebridean Scots in the Eastern Townships of Quebec, ed. Laurel Doucette, 5-44. National Museum of Man Mercury Series, Canadian Centre for Folk Culture Studies, no. 34. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada 1980 Gordon, Arthur Hamilton. Wilderness Journeys in New Brunswick, 1862-1863. Saint John: J. and A. McMillan 1864 Gow, Ian. The Scottish Interior: Georgian and Victorian Decor. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 1992 Gow, Ian, and Alistair Rowan, eds. Scottish Country Houses, 1600-1914. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press 1995 Gowans, Alan. Building Canada: An Architectural History of Canadian Life. Rev. and exp. edition of Looking at Architecture in Canada. 1958, Toronto: Oxford University Press 1966 - Images of American Living: Four Centuries of Architecture and Furniture as Cultural Expression. Philadelphia: Lippincott 1964 Grant, I.F. Highland Folk Ways. Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1961. Reprint, Edinburgh: Birlinn 1997 Greenlaw, Barry A. New England Furniture at Williamsburg. Williamsburg, Va: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation 1975 Gubbins, Joseph. Gubbins' New Brunswick Journals of 1811 and 1813. Ed. Howard Temperley. New Brunswick Heritage Publications, no. i. Fredericton: Kings Landing Corporation 1980

254

Bibliography Hachey, Paul A. The New Brunswick Landscape Print, 1760-1880. Saint John: Beaverbrook Art Gallery in association with the McMillan Press 1980 Hall, John. The Cabinet Makers' Assistant, Embracing the Most Modern Style of Cabinet Furniture . . . f o r the Use of Practical Men. Baltimore, Md: John Murphy 1840 Hannay, James. "The Maugerville Settlement, 1763-1824." Collections of the New Brunswick Historical Society i (1894): 63-88 Hansen, Marcus Lee. The Mingling of the Canadian and American Peoples. Vol. i, Historical. Completed and prepared by John Bartlett Brebner for the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of Economics and History. 1940. Reprint, New York: Arno Press and New York Times 1970 Harris, R. Cole. "The Emotional Structure of Canadian Regionalism." The Walter L. Gordon Lecture Series 1980-81. Vol. 5, The Challenges of Canada's Regional Diversity, 9-30. Toronto: Omnigraphics 1981 Harris, R. Cole, and John Warkentin. Canada before Confederation: A Study in Historical Geography. Toronto: Oxford University Press 1974 Hartz, Louis. Les Enfants de L'Europe: Essai Historique sur les Etats-Unis, I'Amerique latine, I'Afrique du Sud, Le Canada et I'Australie. Traduction par Gerard Durand. Paris: Editions du Seuil 1968 Hatheway, Calvin L. The history of New Brunswick, from its first settlement, containing a geographical description of the Province; &c. Fredericton: James P.A. Phillips 1846 Hayward, Helena, ed. World Furniture: An Illustrated History from Earliest Times. London: Hamlyn 1965 Heckscher, Morrison H., and Leslie Green Bowman. American Rococo, 1750-1775: Elegance in Ornament. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art 1992 Hepplewhite, George. The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Guide. 3d ed. 1794. Reprint, New York: Dover 1969 Hill, Isabel Louise. Some Loyalists and Others. 1976. Rev. ed., Fredericton 1977 Hind, H.Y., T.C. Keefer, J.G. Hodgins, Charles Robb, M.H. Perley, and William Murray. Eighty Years' Progress of British North America: Showing the Wonderful Development of its Natural Resources ... etc. etc. With a Large Amount of Statistical Information, from the Best and Latest Authorities. Toronto: L. Stebbins 1864 Hind, Jan Garrett. The Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts: A Collection of Southern Furniture, Paintings, Ceramics, Textiles and Metal Ware. Wins ton-Salem, N.C.: Old Salem 1979 [Hodge, James T] "Mr. Hodge's Report on the Allagash Section, from the Penobscot to the St. Lawrence Rivers." In Charles T. Jackson, Second Annual Report on the Geology of the Public Lands Belonging to the Two States of Maine and Massachusetts. Augusta, Maine: Luther Severence 1838 Hogarth, William. The Analysis of Beauty. London 1742 Holbrook, James. A Census of the Population of the Province of New Brunswick in the Year 1840, Compiled and Arranged from the Official Returns Made by the Respective

255

Bibliography Clerks of the Peace of Several Counties. Fredericton: James Holbrook and John Simpson 1841 Hope, Thomas. Household Furniture and Interior Decoration Executed from Designs by Thomas Hope. 1807. Reprinted as Regency Furniture and Interior Decoration: Classic Style Book of the Regency Period. New York: Dover 1971 Hornsby, Stephen J., Victor A. Konrad, and James J. Herlan. The Northeastern Borderlands: Four Centuries of Interaction. Fredericton: Acadiensis Press 1989 Houston, Cecil J., and William J. Smyth. Irish Emigration and Canadian Settlement: Patterns, Links, and Letters. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1990 - "New Brunswick Shipbuilding and Irish Shipping: The Commissioning of the Londonderry, 1838." Acadiensis 16, no. 2 (Spring 1987): 95-106 Hurst, Ronald L, and Jonathan Prown. Southern Furniture, 1680-1830: The Colonial Williamsburg Collection. Williamsburg, Va: Colonial Williamsburg in association with Harry N. Abrams 1997 Ingersoll, Daniel W., Jr, and Gordon Bronitsky, eds. Mirror and Metaphor: Material and Social Constructions of Reality. Lanham, Md: University Press of America 1987 Jack, I. Allen. History of St Andrew's Society of St John, N.B., Canada, 1798-1903. Saint John: J. and A. McMillan 1903 Jackson, Charles T. First Report on the Geology of the Public Lands in the State of Maine. Reprinted in Senate Papers 89 (March 1837). Boston, Mass.: Dutton and Wentworth

1837 - Second Annual Report on the Geology of the Public Lands Belonging to the Two States of Maine and Massachusetts. Augusta, Maine: Luther Severance 1838 Janneau, Guillaume. Le mobilier franc,ais: Les sieges. Paris: Vincent, Freal 1967 Jobe, Brock, and Myrna Kaye. New England Furniture: The Colonial Era. Selections from the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin 1984 Jones, David. "The Laburnum Tradition in Scotland." Regional Furniture 6 (1992): 1—9 - Looking at Scottish Furniture: A Documented Anthology, 15/0—1900. Glasgow: Crawford Centre for the Arts 1987 - "Scotch Chests." Regional Furniture 2 (1988): 38-47 - The Vernacular Chair in Fife. Cupar, Fife: Kirk Wynd Press 1996 Jones, Elwood. "The Loyalists and Canadian History." Journal of Canadian Studies 20, no. 3 (Fall 1985): 149-56 Kalman, Harold. A History of Canadian Architecture. 2 vols. Toronto: Oxford University Press 1994 Kettell, Russell Hawes. The Pine Furniture of Early New England. 1929. Reprint, New York: Dover 1975 Kingery, W. David, ed. Learning from Things: Method and Theory of Material Culture Studies. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Press 1996 Kinmonth, Claudia. Irish Country Furniture (1700-1950). New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press 1993

256

Bibliography Kirkconnell, Watson. "Scottish Place Names in Canada." In The Scottish Tradition in Canada, ed. W. Stanford Reid, 311-21. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart in association with the Multiculturalism Program, Department of the Secretary of State, and Supply and Services Canada 1976 Knell, David. English Country Furniture: The National and Regional Vernacular, 1500— 1900. London: Barrie and Jenkins 1992 Larocque, Peter. "Joseph Brown Comingo," NBM News, September-October 1989, 415 [Laterriere, Pierre de Sales, fils] A Political and Historical Account of Lower Canada; with Remarks on the Present Situation of the People, as Regards their Manners, Character, Religion, &c. &c. by a Canadian. London: William Marsh and Alfred Miller 1830 Lawrence, J.W. Foot-Prints; or, Incidents in Early History of New Brunswick. Saint John: J. and A. McMillan 1883 Learmont, David. The Georgian House. Edinburgh: Pillans and Wilson 1989 Lebreton, Clarence. "Material Culture in Acadia." In The Acadians of the Maritimes: Thematic Studies, ed. Jean Daigle, 429-75. Moncton: Centre d'etudes acadiennes 1982 Lenentine, Charlotte. Madawaska: A Chapter in Maine-New Brunswick Relations. Madawaska, Maine: Madawaska Historical Society 1975 Lessard, Michel. Objets anciens du Quebec: La vie domestique. Montreal: Editions de FHomme 1994 Lessard, Michel, and Huguette Marquis. Complete Guide to French-Canadian Antiques. Agincourt, Ont: Gage 1974 Lessard, Michel, and Gilles Vilandre. La maison traditionnelle au Quebec. Montreal: Editions de 1'Homme 1974 Levinge, R.G.A. Echoes from the Backwoods; or, Scenes from Transatlantic Life. Vol. i. London: J. and D.A. Darling 1849 Leyden, Susan Kathleen. Crimes and Controversies: Law and Society in Loyalist Saint John. Saint John: Saint John Law Society 1987 Loomes, Brian. White Dial Clocks: The Complete Guide. 2nd ed. North Pomfret, Vt: David and Charles 1981 Loughnan, Nicholas. Irish Country Furniture. Irish Heritage Series, no. 46. Dublin: Eason and Son 1984 Lucey, William L. "Madawaska on the River St. John: New England's Last Frontier." Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia 60, no. 3 (September 1949): 147-64 Lumsden, Ian G. Early Views of British North America. Fredericton: Beaverbrook Art Gallery 1994 McCleary, Kathy. "Canadian Furniture Inch by Inch: The Slat Back Chair, Canadian or American?" Upper Canadian, January-February 1993,18-19 MacDonald, M.A. "Artifact Survivals from Pre-Loyalist English-Speaking Settlers of New Brunswick." Material History Bulletin 26 (Fall 1987): 27-9

257

Bibliography - "Before the Loyalists: The Material Culture of New Brunswick's Early English Settlers." Material History Bulletin 28 (Fall 1988): 15-34 - Rebels and Royalists: The Lives and Material Culture of New Brunswick's Early English-Speaking Settlers, 1/58-1/83. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1990 McGee, H.F., ed. The Native Peoples of Atlantic Canada: A History of Ethnic Interaction. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1974 Mclntyre, J.A. "The Scot as Farmer and Artisan." In The Scottish Tradition in Canada, ed. W. Stanford Reid, 161-78. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart in association with the Multiculturalism Program, Department of the Secretary of State, and Supply and Services Canada 1976 Mclntyre, John. Review of Cabinetmakers of the Eastern Seaboard, by Charles Foss. Material History Bulletin 5 (Spring 1978): 50-5 - "What Is a Canadian Chair? Some Thoughts on Documentation and Definition." Canadian Collector 15, no. 2 (March-April 1980): 54-5 Mackay, Donald Cameron. Silversmiths and Related Craftsmen of the Atlantic Provinces. Halifax, N.S.: Petheric Press 1973 MacKinnon, Neil. "Nova Scotia Loyalists, 1783-1785." Social History 4 (November 1969): 17-48. - This Unfriendly Soil: The Loyalist Experience in Nova Scotia, 1783-1791. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press 1986 MacLaren, George. Antique Furniture by Nova Scotia Craftsmen. Montreal: McGrawHill Ryerson 1961 Maclaughlan, J.A., and John C. Allen. Letter to Sir William M.G. Colebrooke. Madawaska, 26 July 1845. In Journal of the Legislative Council of New Brunswick, 29 January-i4 April 1846, 591-4 MacMillan, David S. "The Scot as Businessman." In The Scottish Tradition in Canada, ed. W. Stanford Reid, 179-202. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart in association with the Multiculturalism Program, Department of the Secretary of State, and Supply and Services Canada 1976 MacNutt, W.S. New Brunswick: A History, 1784-1867. Toronto: Macmillan 1963 Maine Furniture Makers. Maine State Museum Checklist Series [1976] Mann, John. Travels in North America: Particularly in the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and New Brunswick, and in the States of Maine, Massachusets [sic], and New-York ... from 1816 to 1823. Glasgow: Andrew Young 1824 Mannion, John J. Irish Settlements in Eastern Canada: A Study of Cultural Transfer and Adaptation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1974 Marsh, James, ed. The Canadian Encyclopedia Plus. CD-ROM Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1996 Martin, Paul-Louis. La bercante quebecoise. Montreal: Editions du boreal express 1973 Maxwell, L.M.B. An Outline of the History of Central New Brunswick to the Time of Confederation. 1937. Reprint, Fredericton: York-Sunbury Historical Society 1984

258

Bibliography "Medical Men of Saint John in Its First Half Century." In "Selections from Papers and Correspondence of James White, 1762-1783," ed. W.O. Raymond. Collections of the New Brunswick Historical Society i, no. 3 (1897): 273-306 Meinig. D.W. The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on Five Hundred Years of History. Vol. i, Atlantic America, 1492-1800. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press 1986 Mellerstain. Derby: Pilgrim Press 1988 Minhinnick, Jeanne, and Philip Shackleton. "Early Furniture of Canada: The English and American Influence, 1760-1840." Canadian Antiques Collector 9, no. i (JanuaryFebruary 1974): 25-9 Monro, Alexander. New Brunswick: With a Brief Outline of Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island ... Intended to Convey Useful Information, as Well to Their Inhabitants, as to Emigrants, Strangers, and Travellers, and for the Use of Schools. Halifax: Richard Nugent 1855 Moore, Jacob B. The Cabinet-Maker's Guide: Or Rules and Instructions in the Art of Varnishing. 1827. Reprinted as The First American Furniture Finisher's Manual, with an introduction by Robert D. Mussey, Jr. New York: Dover 1987 Morisset, Gerard. L'architecture en Nouvelle-France. 1949. Reprint, Quebec: Editions du Pelican 1980 Mowat, Grace Helen. The Diverting History of a Loyalist Town: A Portrait of St. Andrews, New Brunswick. 1953. Reprint, Fredericton: University Press of New Brunswick 1990 Nase, Edith Rowena. Westfield: An Historical Sketch [1925] New Brunswick Almanac for 1843, The. Saint John: McAlpine 1842 New Brunswick Almanac and Register for the Year of Our Lord 1849, The. Saint John: H. Chubb 1848 New Brunswick Census of 1851: Saint John County, The. 2 vols. Fredericton: Saint John Branch of the New Brunswick Geneological Society in association with the Provincial Archives of New Brunswick 1982 New Brunswick, Government of. Journals of the House of Assembly. Fredericton: 1827-

39 New Brunswick Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture, Home Manufactures and Commerce throughout the Province. The Great Exhibition: New Brunswick Society for the Encouragement of Agriculture, Home Manufactures and Commerce throughout the Province. Fredericton [1852] Noble, R. Ross. "Highland Dressers and the Process of Innovation." Regional Furniture 6 (1992): 36-46 Nova Scotia Question: In Connection with the Relief of Highland and Other Destitution, by the Systematic Plantation of New Brunswick, The. Glasgow: James Hedderwick 1847 Osborne, Harold, ed. The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1985

259

Bibliography Pain, Howard. The Heritage of Upper Canadian Furniture. Toronto: Key Porter Books 1978 Palardy, Jean. "Architecture in Early Canada: The French Influence." Canadian Antiques Collector 9, no. i (January-February 1974): 30-3 - "Early Furniture: Les meubles anciens." Canadian Antiques Collector 9, no. 3 (MayJune 1974): 56-61 - "Early Furniture of Canada: The French Influence, 1660-1760." Canadian Antiques Collector 9, no. i (January-February 1974): 14-19 - Les meubles anciens du Canada francais. 1963. Reprint, Montreal: Cercle du Livre de France 1971 Palmer, Alcy M. "The Furnishings of the Loyalist House." In Saint John: Its Beginnings and Glimpses of the Early Days, 31-7. A bicentennial edition of the New Brunswick Historical Society, no. 22. Saint John: New Brunswick Historical Society 1984 Palmer, Howard. Patterns of Prejudice: A History of Nativism in Alberta. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1982 Paquet, Gilles, and Jean-Pierre Wallot. "Nouvelle France/Quebec/Canada: A World of Limited Identities." In Colonial Identity in the Atlantic World, 1500-1800, ed. Nicholas P. Canny and Anthony Pagden, 95-114. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1987 Partelow, J.R. "Population Returns and Other Statistics of the Province of New Brunswick for the Year 1851." Appendix to Journal of the House of Assembly of the Province of New Brunswick from the /th Day of January, to the/th day of April, 1852. Fredericton: John Simpson 1852 Peddle, Walter W. "Newfoundland Outport Furniture: Identifying Irish Regional Links." Material History Review 47 (Spring 1998): 57-61 - "A Note Concerning the Search for West Country English Influences on Newfoundland Outport Furniture." Newfoundland Quarterly 80 (Winter 1985): 10-14 - "Outport Tailor-Made Furniture." Newfoundland Quarterly 79, no. 2 (Fall 1983): 411 - "Roots: Newfoundland Outport Furniture." Upper Canadian, November-December 1990, 34-6 - The Traditional Furniture of Outport Newfoundland. St John's: Harry Cuff 1983 Pelly, Patricia, and Andrew Tod, eds. Elizabeth Grant of Rothiemurchas. The Highland Lady in Ireland: Journals 1840-1850. Reprint, Canongate Classics, vol. 41, Edinburgh: Canongate Press PLC 1991 Perley, M.H. A Hand-Book of Information for Emigrants to New-Brunswick. London: Edward Stanford 1857 Phillips, Ruth B. Trading Identities: The Souvenir in Native North American Art from the Northeast, 1700-1900. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press 1999 Pickvance, Ronald. Van Gogh in Aries. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art in association with Harry N. Abrams 1984

260

Bibliography Plessis, Joseph-Octave. "Le journal des visites pastorales de Mgr. Joseph Octave Plessis en Acadie, 1811,1812,1815." Les cahiers de la Societe historique acadienne 11 (March, June, and September 1980): 10-311 Pocius, Gerald. "Art." Journal of American Folklore 108 (Fall 1995): 413-31 Power, Thomas P., ed. The Irish in Atlantic Canada, 1780-1900. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1991 Puig, Francis J. "The Early Furniture of the Mississippi River Valley, 1760-1820." In The American Craftsman and the European Tradition, 1620—1820, ed. Francis J. Puig and Michael Conforti, 152-68. Minneapolis: Minneapolis Institute of the Arts 1989 Racicot, Lyn. Database Users' Guide. Version i. Ottawa: Canadian Heritage Information Network in association with the Department of Communications 1990 Rawlyk, George A. Nova Scotia's Massachusetts: A Study of Massachusetts-Nova Scotia Relations, 1630-1784. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press 1973 Reid, W. Stanford, ed. The Scottish Tradition in Canada. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart in association with the Multiculturalism Program, Department of the Secretary of State, and Supply and Services Canada 1976 Robinson, Charlotte Gourlay. Pioneer Profiles of New Brunswick Settlers. Belleville, Ont.: Mika 1980 Ryder, Huia G. Antique Furniture by New Brunswick Craftsmen. Toronto: McGrawHill Ryerson 1965 Saint John: Its Beginnings and Glimpses of the Early Days. A bicentennial edition of the New Brunswick Historical Society, no. 22. Saint John: New Brunswick Historical Society 1984 Sander, Penny J., ed. Elegant Embellishments: Furnishings from New England Homes, 1660—1860. Boston, Mass.: Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities 1982 Santore, Charles. The Windsor Style in America: The Definitive Pictorial Study of the History and Regional Characteristics of the Most Popular Furniture Form of EighteenthCentury America, 1730-1840 ... Vols. i and 2. Ed. Thomas M. Voss. Philadelphia: Courage Books 1997 Scherzer, Kenneth A. The Unbounded Community: Neighbourhood Life and Social Structure in a New York City, 1830-1875. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press 1992 See, Scott W. Riots in New Brunswick: Orange Nativism and Social Violence in the 1840$. The Social History of Canada, no. 48. Ed. Allan Greer and Craig Heron. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1993 Sheraton, Thomas. The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing-Book. 1791. Reprint, New York: Dover 1972 Shuttleworth, Earle G., Jr, and William D. Barry. "Walter Corey's Furniture Manufactory in Portland, Maine." Magazine Antiques 121, no. 5 (May 1982): 1199-205 Smith, Stuart A. "Architecture in New Brunswick: An Historical Survey." Canadian Antiques Collector 10, no. 3 (May-June 1975): 37-42

261

Bibliography - Loyalist Architecture of British North America. Canada's Visual History Series, vol. 43. Ottawa: National Museums of Canada in association with the National Film Board of Canada 1981 Snowdon, James. "Regional Variations in Nova Scotia Planter Furniture." In Intimate Relations: Family and Community in Planter Nova Scotia, 1759-1800, ed. Margaret Conrad, 157-66. Fredericton: Acadiensis Press 1995 Sobel, Mechal. The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in EighteenthCentury Virginia. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1987 Spray, William A. "Reception of the Irish in New Brunswick." In New Ireland Remembered: Historical Essays on the Irish in New Brunswick, ed. P.M. Toner, 9-26. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1989 Stern, Stephen. "Ethnic Folklore and the Folklore of Ethnicity." In Folklore, Culture, and the Immigrant Mind, ed. George E. Pozetta, 7-32. New York: Garland 1991 Talbott, Page. "Classical Furniture in Savannah, Georgia." Magazine Antiques 147, no. 5 (May 1995): 720-31 Teahan, John, ed. Irish Decorative Arts from the Collections of the National Museum of Ireland, 1550-1928. Dublin: Donnelly Documentation Services in association with the National Museum of Ireland and the Smithsonian Institution Travelling Exhibition Service 1990 [Thoreau, H.D.] The Illustrated Maine Woods with Photographs from the Gleason Collection. Ed. Joseph J. Moldenhauer. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press 1974 Thoreau, Henry David. Walden or, Life in the Woods and On the Duty of Civil Disobedience. New York: New American Library 1960 Thornton, Peter. Authentic Decor: The Domestic Interior, 1620-1920. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson 1984 Toner, P. M. "The Irish of New Brunswick at Mid-Century: The 1851 Census." In New Ireland Remembered: Historical Essays on the Irish in New Brunswick, ed. Toner, 106-32. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1988 - "The Origins of the New Brunswick Irish, 1851." Journal of Canadian Studies 23 (Spring-Summer 1988): 104-19 - ed. New Ireland Remembered: Historical Essays on the Irish in New Brunswick. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1988 Trent, Robert F. "The Concept of Mannerism." In New England Begins: The Seventeenth Century, ed. Jonathan L. Fairbanks and Robert F. Trent. Vol. 3, Style, 36879. Boston, Mass.: Museum of Fine Art 1982 Upton, L.F.S. "Indian Affairs in Colonial New Brunswick." Acadiensis 3, no. 1-2 (Spring 1974): 3-26 - Micmacs and Colonists: Indian-White Relations in the Maritimes, 1713—1867. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press 1979 Van den Hoonard, Will C. Silent Ethnicity: The Dutch of New Brunswick. Fredericton: New Ireland Press 1991

262

Bibliography Violette, Lawrence A. How the Acadians Came to Maine. Madawaska Historical Society 1951 Ward, Gerald W.R., Jr, and William N. Hosley, eds. The Great River: Art and Society of the Connecticut Valley, 1635-1820. The Wadsworth Atheneum's exhibition catalogue, 22 September 1985 - 6 January 1986. Hartford, Conn.: Wadsworth Atheneum

1985 Webster, Donald B. CanFake: An Expert's Guide to the Tricks of the Canadian Antiques Trade. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1997 - "Canadian Georgian." Canadian Antique Collector i (1986): 88-93 - "Colonial Elegance: Canadian Furniture of the Georgian Period, Problems of Identification." Rotunda 10, no. 4 (Winter 1977/78): 12-21 - English-Canadian Furniture of the Georgian Period. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson 1979 - "Furniture and the Atlantic Canada Condition." Material History Bulletin 15 (Summer 1982): 53-60 - "The Identification of English-Canadian Furniture, 1780-1840." Magazine Antiques 115, no. i (January 1979): 164-79 - Rococo to Rustique: Early French-Canadian Furniture in the Royal Ontario Museum. Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum (in press) Whitehead, Ruth Holmes. Micmac Quillwork: Micmac Indian Techniques of Porcupine Quill Decoration, 1600-1950. Halifax: Nova Scotia Museum 1982 Winters, Robert E., Jr. North Carolina Furniture, 1700-1900. Raleigh, N.C.: North Carolina Museum of History Associates 1977 Wise, S.F. "God's Peculiar Peoples." In The Shield of Achilles: Aspects of Canada in the Victorian Age, ed. WL. Morton, 36-61. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart 1968 Wright, Esther Clark. The Loyalists of New Brunswick. 1955. Reprint, Yarmouth, N.S.: Sentinel Printing 1985 - Planters and Pioneers. Published by the author 1978 - The St John River and Its Tributaries. Published by the author 1966 Wynn, Graeme. "Ethnic Migrations and Atlantic Canada: Geographical Perspectives." Canadian Ethnic Studies 18, no. i (1986): 1-15 - "A Province Too Much Dependent on New England." Canadian Geographer 31, no. 2 (1987): 98-113 - "A Region of Scattered Settlements and Bounded Possibilities: Northeastern America, 1775-1800." Canadian Geographer 31, no. 4 (1987): 319-38 - Timber Colony: A Historical Geography of Early Nineteenth Century New Brunswick. Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1981 NEWSPAPERS City Gazette Colonial Gazette and General Advertizer

263

Bibliography Loyalist Morning Globe Morning News New Brunswick Courier New Brunswick Gazette New Brunswick Reporter New Brunswicker Royal Gazette Sentinel, Fredericton Temperance Telegraph Upper Canadian Weekly Chronicle Weekly Observer

264

Credits of Plates and Figures, by Collection

The Beaverbrook Art Gallery, Fredericton, New Brunswick: i (purchased with a Secretary of State Cultural Property Grant and funds from Mrs A. Murray Vaughan); 33 (purchased with a Minister of Communications Cultural Property Grant and funds from the Marguerite and Murray Vaughan Foundation and the Samuel Endowment); 39 (purchased with a Minister of Communications Cultural Property Grant and Funds from Dr and Mrs Jed Sutherland, Woodstock, N.B.); 4ic (purchased with funds from Mrs A. Murray Vaughan); 52 (purchased with a Minister of Communications Cultural Property Grant and funds from Dr and Mrs Jed Sutherland, Woodstock, N.B.); 633 (purchased with the assistance of the Tecolote Foundation and the Beaverbrook Canadian Foundation) Madawaska Historical Society Photo Collection, Madawaska, Maine: 2, 5, 7 Collections of Maine Historical Society, Portland, Maine: 3 Collections of the McCord Museum of Canadian History, Montreal, Quebec: 4, 34; figures i, 2, 8a National Archives of Canada, Ottawa: 6, P.J. Bainbrigge/NA, 0-49610; figure 6, Robert Campbell/NA, NMC254; figure 8b, NA, NMC8842; figure 13, NA, NMC2532O Author (photographs, sketches, and graphs): 8a, sketch after Palardy, Les meubles/ Musee de la province, Quebec; 8b, sketch after Palardy, Les meubles/Musee des Beaux-Arts, Montreal; 9a, sketch after Palardy, Les meuHes/Palardy Collection; 9b, sketch after Palardy, Les metres/Private collection; loc, na, i4d, i5b/c, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27b/c/d, 28d, 29, 30, 3je, 4ic, 43a/b, 44a, sob, 5ia/b, 53, 55b/c, 56a/b/c, 57a/ b/c, 58, 59b/d, 6oa/b/c, 61, 62b; figures 3, 7, 9-12, and 4, 5 with Lionel Corriveau Courtesy Maine State Museum, Augusta, Maine: 8c, 9c, lib, i4a/b, isa/d, 46c Canadian Heritage-Parks Canada, Fort Beausejour National Historic Site, Aulac, New Brunswick, John Clarence Webster Collection: loa Public Archives of Nova Scotia, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Furniture, Acadian: lob, photographer E.G.L. Wetmore Village Historique Acadien, Caraquet, New Brunswick.: IDC, na, i2b/d, i4c/e/f/g/h/i, i5b/c

265

Credits Courtesy Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario: lod, 42, 44b, 46a/b, 49b, 500, 54b Courtesy Mr and Mrs Dearborn, Kingston Peninsula, New Brunswick: nc, 403, 43a/b, 55 5i-2,148,153; and Irish designs, 144. See also French influence; Madawaska Settlement; St John River valley, settlement of the upper valley Acheson, T.W., 17,131,132 Adams, Lemuel, 88, 89 Adams, Thomas, 89 Admiral's House, 95 African Americans: and black-white interaction, 18; and furniture, 72, 73; and loyalists, 66; as settlers, 9; as slave labour, 93. See also South, the Agnew, James, 100, no Akenson, Donald Harman, 132 Albert, Vital, 41 Alexander, John, 113 Alexander, Sir William, 3 Allan, John C., 57 Allen, Lt-Col. Isaac, 76, 77 Allingham [Ellingham], Hamilton, 174

Allingham, John, 132 Alwington Manor, 95 American: artisans, no, 145, 157-8,175; buildings differentiated from Madawaska Settlement architecture, 33-7; competition, 96-8,103,105,10810 (see also home substitution; petitions); design details, 130,154 (see also decorative motifs); earlycomers, 8, 59, 62-5,155; estates, 93-6 (see also Beverley House); framed buildings, 35-6; furniture trade and imports, 98, 167; influence on furniture, 41, 45-6, 62-107,145 (see also furniture forms; furniture styles; national motifs); loyalists, 20, 45, 67, 97,109-11,163-5; loyalist versus revolutionary furniture, 166-7; secondgeneration loyalists, 21, 91, 97,100,102,167-8; settlement, 19-20, 32-3, 59-66. See also St John River valley: settlement of the lower valley; -, settlement of the upper valley Anderson, George, 89,175 Anderson, James, Jr, 123, 184-5 Anstruther, Scotland, 126 apprentices, 132,168

269

architecture. See buildings; churches; floor materials Argal [Argyle], Bay of, 114 Arnold, Benedict, 85, 86, 87, 158,166 Arnold, Mrs Benedict (Peggy Shippen), 8, 81-2, 84 Arnold, Rev. Oliver, 106,107 Arsenault, Bona, 28 artisans, 174-6. See also under specific trade or immigrant group artisans' wages, 96, 98,103 Ashburton-Webster Treaty (1842), 29, 33 Atkinson, Christopher, 35, 148 Audibert, Joseph, dit la Jeunesse, 49, 50,123,175 Ayr, Scotland, 113 babiche. See seating materials Bacon, James, 32 Baillie, Thomas, 90,166 Bailyn, Bernard, 33 Bainbrigge, P.J., 35 Baker Brook. See Mariumpticook Stream Baker, Enoch, 33 Baker, John, 32 Baker, Nathan, 32, 33 Ballard, John, 174 Balmaine, William, 144 Balmoral Castle, 117,118, 119

Index Baltimore: influence on furniture, 100,101,106; and trade with, 99 Barbour, Harris, 174 Barker, Noah, 36 Baron, Donna Keith, 10 Barony, the, 93, 95 Baudrillard, Jean, 6 Baxter, Robert, 89 Bayard, James, 174 Bay of Fundy. See Fundy, Bay of Bear, Louis, 155 Beatt(ea)y, Thomas, 72 Beatteay family, 138 Beaulieu, Honore, 23 Beaumont, Que., 28 Beavan, Mrs Frances: on birchbark for protecting dwellings, 154-5; on clocks, 104; on imported oaken bureau, 169; on Scottish idiosyncrasies, 134 Beek, J.S., 99 Belfast, Ireland, 131,133,134 Bell, David V.J., 21, no, 159 Belleisle, N.B., 66 Beverley House, New York, 67 birchbark: used in buildings, 25-6, 30; used in furniture, 81-2, 84,155 Bird, Michael: on Germanic form, 74; on moulded stiles in Irish fashion, 134; on Newfoundland table, 76; on press beds, 136,137 Birmingham, James, 70 Blacks. See African Americans; South,the Blackwood, Robert, 72 Bliss, Jonathan, 167 bog woods. See wood Boston, Mass.: chairs, 64, 65, 71, 74, 89; clock exports, 105; and economic axis, 168; imports from, 98, 99, 103,108; manufacturers, 109. See also Massachusetts influence; New England influence Boucher, Ignace, 49,175 Bouchette, Joseph, 31 Bourgoin, Hector, 42

Brebner, John Bartlett, 66 British culture, 93,164. See also England Brown, James, 174 Bruce and Burns, 119 Brundage, Jeremiah, 78, 79 Buck [Burke], John, 174 buildings: Acadian, 31; American, 33-7, 93-6; birchbark used in, 25-6, 30; Fred-Eloi Albert House, 36, 37; French Canadian builders and, 27-8, 34, 37, 38, 39; Madawaska Settlement builders and, 30-1, 34-6, 37-8; Maison Laurent Cyr, 31; relocation of, 7, 31 Bumsted, Jack, 112 Bunting, Charles, 174 Burnham, George, 174 Burns House, Scotland, 128 Burpee, Jonathan, 62, 63, 64 Burton, N.B., 60 Bushman, Richard L., 159, 161 Butternut Ridge, N.B., 149 Cacouna, Que., 30 Campbell, Capt. John, 81 Campbell, Patrick, 165 Campbell, Robert, 61 canals, 103,105. See also petitions cane. See seating materials Canonbie, Scotland, 126 Cap-St-Ignace, Que., 28 Carbery, Ireland, 142 Carew, John, 174 Carleton, Thomas, 28 Carleton County, N.B., 138 carpenters or charpentiers, 48-9,175-6 Carr, Christopher, and Jill E. Neitzel, 19 Carron Works, 38,145 Carse, Alexander, 124,142 Catholicism, 26. See also nativism Caulkins, Charles, 174 Celtic design influences, 75, 76, 142,144. See also Germanic design influences

270

chair manufactories, 105-6, 108 chairs: Acadian, 43, 44; arm, 44, 51, 86, 87, 88, 89,108, 138; bamboo-turned, 77, 80,146-7; brander-back chairs, 117,119,120; cabriole, 85, 86, 87,166; chicken-coop, 106,107; easy (wingback), 64, 65; fancy, 89,106,107,146-7; grandmother, 43, 44; Greek, 89,100,101; kitchen, 128; makerstamped, 107, 116; military, 77, 78; nurse's, 108; parlour, 126,127,128; rocking, 23, 44, 45, 9«; Scotch, 126,127,128; shield-back, 85, 86, 88; slat-back Madawaskan, 44, 45, 51, 52; Sligo, 142; siigan, 144; Windsor, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 89, 92, 93, 144,145,164; wingback, 64, 65; yoke-back, 120. See also chair manufactories; chair-tables; furniture forms; seating materials chair-tables, 53, 55, 56,136 Chamberlain, Abraham, 32 Champlain, Samuel de, 3 Charleston, S.C., 119 charpentiers. See carpenters or charpentiers Chasse, Sebastien, 48,175 Chesapeake Bay, 18, 72, 73 Chillis, Robert, 72 CHIN-ACNS (Canadian Heritage Information Network-Atlantic Canada Newspaper Survey database), 12; on voyages to Saint John from American ports, 98, 99; on Saint John and Connecticut trade, 105; on voyages to Saint John from Irish and Scottish ports, 133,134 CHIN-PARIS (Canadian Heritage Information Network-Pictorial and Artifact Retrieval Information System), 7

Index chintz. See seating materials Chipman, Elizabeth Hazen, 81,155 Chipman, Ward, 70 churches, 26, 69 Churchill, Edwin A., 18, 49, 57 Clarke, John, 132,174 Clarke and McAlpine, 109 Clavelle, Louis, 175 Clements, J. Balcome, 106, 107 Clerihue [Clarihan], Charles, 113,175 Clerke, Francis, 133 clock dials or wheels, and clocks, 100,104,105,139 clockmakers, no, 138. See also watchmakers Close, Abraham, 67, 68 Clyde River, N.B., 3,114 Clyde River, Scotland, 3,133 Cobbett [Corbett], William, 68 Coffin, George W, 32, 37 Coffin, Maj. John, 61, 77, 78 Colebrooke, Lt-Gov. Sir William McBean George, 90,104 Collins, Rev. Charles, 31-2 Collins, Samuel, 144,174 Comingo, Joseph Brown, 78, 80 Condon, Ann Gorman, 17, 21,163-7 Connecticut. See Hartford, Conn.; Torrington, Conn.; Watertown, Conn. Connecticut influence on furniture, 104-6. See also Kneeland, Samuel; New England influence Conway, N.B., 66 Corbitt [Corbett], Samuel, no, 132 Cork, Ireland, 131,133. See also Ireland, by county Cormier, Severin, 175 Cote, Caroline, 30 Cotton, Bernard (Bill) D., i/) 137> 142. See also Peddle, Walter F. Cox, Joseph, 99 Crabb, Joseph, 113

Craig, Beatrice, 17, 28-30, 56 Crookshank family, 74 cultivateurs or farmers, 48, 175-6 cultural blending: Acadian, Canadian, and Maliseet, 2, 5, 7,19-20, 22; blackwhite, 18; of French Canadian and Acadian, 57-8; in the lower St John River valley, 150,151-7,163; summary, 169-70 Cumberland, England, 89 Curry, James, 174 Dalzell, Samuel, 174 dance. See New Year's Day dance databases. See CHIN-ACNS; CHIN-PARIS Dayre, Anthony, 174 Deane, John G., 49, 57 decoration, sobriety of, 48, 121,123,142; factors influencing, 157-63. See also high style and vernacular decorative motifs: acorns, 141; caissons, 40, 41; chevrons, 142; chip-carving, 142; circles and demilunes, 142; clover, 141; compass lines, 74, 75; diamonds or lozenges, 40, 41, 42, 76,142; fauna, 76; flora, 76, 81, 84,142; fylfots or swastikas, 76,142; galettes, 40; geometric, 74, 76; harps, 141; hearts, 74, 75) 76,142; leaf and frond, 142; maple leaf, 141; pinwheels, 142; Prince of Wales feathers, 88, 89,141; rope-twist carvings, 138, 140; shamrocks, 141; shell or fan, 136-8,139; spirals, 142; stars, 74, 76,142; teardrops, 142; thistles, 140, 142. See also decoration, sobriety of; national motifs; paints and painting DeGant, Joseph, 78 Degh, Linda, 17 de Monts, Pierre Du Gua, 3

271

De Peyster, Mrs, 72 Deschene, Jerome, 30,175 Dilworth, Timothy, 12 Dionne, Cantin, 48,175 Douglas, N.B., 67 Drake, Peter, 174 Dublin, Ireland, 133,138,145. See also Ireland, by county Dufour store, 37 Dumfries, N.B., 93 Dumfries, Scotland, 128,133 Dumond, Les, 53 Dunn, John, 174; and apprentices, 132; and butternut, 149; and chairs, 144-6,147 Dupont, Jean-Claude, 38 Durant, Francois, 30 Durepos, Emilie, 30 Durepos, Jerimie, 30,175 Dutch influence, 9; and Celtic designs, 142; on furniture, 53, 62, 65, 71, 73-4; on New England societies, 160. See also Robinson, Lt-Col. Beverley, Jr Duval, George, 89 early-comers. See American, early-comers Eastport, Maine, 98, 99 ebenistes or detailers, 157 ebonizing, 123,140 Edinburgh, Scotland, 126, 128 eelgrass. See seating materials Ekoupag [Meductic], N.B., 25, 28 Elasaba. See Chipman, Elizabeth Elfe, Thomas, 119 Ellegood, Col. Jacob, 93 England. See Cumberland; Exmouth; Liverpool; London; Merseyside English: artisans, 89,131,158, 175; dressers, 134,135,136, 150; Hepplewhite chair style, 88, 89; immigrants, 21,131; influence on furniture, 59, 83,150,155-6, 161-2; papier mache table, 90, 91; Windsors, 80. See

Index also furniture styles, English; national motifs ethnicity. See race European imports, 89-90, 117 Exmouth, England, 90 Fairbanks, Jonathan L., 160 Fairbanks, Whitcomb, no, 1/6 Falkirk, Scotland, 126 ferry, 142,143 Field, Richard, 74 Fife, Scotland, 113 Finlay, Ian, 119,122,123,128 Finley, A. Gregg, 6,168 fires, furniture losses by, 15 First Nations and furniture: in the lower St John River valley, 8, 82-5; in the upper St John River valley, 38-9,153,154. See also Bear, Louis Fish River, 33 Fisher, Peter, 33, 50, 59 Fleming, John A., 17,148 Flemming, Joseph A., 72 Fletcher, Capt, 32 Flitcroft, Henry, 161-2 floor materials, 27. See also buildings Fort Kent, Maine, 33,160 Foss, Charles H., 16; and high-style furniture, 163; on sofa by loyalists, 119; on wingback chairs, 65 Foster, Stephen K., 98 Fowler, Captain Daniel, 72 France: Basque Country, Burgundy, HauteBretagne, 40; Champagne, 53; Normandy, 27, 53; as settler source, 31; southern France, 43; western France, 52 Francklin, Michael, 34 Fred-Eloi-Albert House, 36, 37 Fredericton, N.B., 28, 72, 73, 90, 91, 93, 94, 123, 141, 149 freemen, 96 French, Rev. Charles, 99 French Canadian: assemblage-a-tourillons, 148;

builders and buildings, 27-8, 34, 37, 38, 39; -, versus Acadian builders, 30; furniture, 39-40, 41-4; influence on furniture, 153-4- See also Madawaska Settlement; Palardy, Jean French influence: on Acadians, 31-2; on French Canadian interiors, 38-9; on furniture, 117; on furniture in the Madawaska Settlements, 40,161. See also France French settlement. See Madawaska Settlement French Shore, N.S., 43, 44 Frenchville, Maine, 42 Friesian influence, 142 Fundy, Bay of, 3, 32, 60, 61, 152 furniture: catalogues, 10; imports from America, 98-100,103; imports from England, 90, 96; label, 116; losses by fire, 15; losses by ice, 14; painted, 37-8 (see also paints and painting); quality, 108-9; and regional expression, 16970. See also furniture forms; furniture styles; high-style and vernacular; petitions furniture forms: beds and bedsteads, 38, 48, 56, 78, 137,164; benches and settles, 54,142; chests, 41, 42, 47, 53, 60, 63,102,121, 128; chests, Scotch, 128, 129,130; couches, daybeds, and sofas, 69, 70, 94, 96,115,116,117,118, 119,140; cradles, 71; cupboards or armoires, and buffets, 40, 41, 42, 47, 48, 54,130; desks: butler's, 122; -, knee-hole, 92,139; -, slant-front, 62; deskon-stand, 64; dowry chests, 138; dressers or vaisseliers, 134,135,136; food press, 139; globes,

272

90, 92; looking glasses or mirrors, 98, 99; military, 76, 77, 78; sewing boxes and work stands, 81, 84, 119,123,124,125; sideboards, 90, 91, 92; spinning wheels, 89; stands, 90, 91,125,141; stools or creepies, 75, 76,142,143; wall or pipe boxes, 74, 75, 76; washstands, 102. See also chairs; chair-tables; clock dials or wheels, and clocks; decoration, sobriety of; decorative motifs; furniture; furniture styles; national motifs; tables; Yankee clap-trap furniture furniture styles, 11-12,168; American: Empire, 46, 47, 48, 53, 91,100,102; -, Federal, 42, 46, 124,167; -, Hitchcock; -, Queen Anne, 62-3, 71, 74, 75; -, styles of John Hall, 161; -, William and Mary, 624; Canadian Georgian, 65; English: Adam, 90; -, Hepplewhite, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 166; -, Hope, 89; -, Regency, 42, 89,116-17, 161; -, Sheraton, 85, 86, 90,117,166; -, Victorian, 90,91,102,117,119; French: Louis XIII, 40; -, Louis XV, 42,161; -, Louis XVI, 85; Greek, 100-1. See also decorative motifs Gaels, 112 Gagetown, N.B., 60, 66 Galloway, Scotland, 113 Ganong, William P., 66 Garrison family, 78, 80 Gaspe, Que., 25, 29 Georgian House, Edinburgh, 128 Germanic design influences, 75,136; and German settlement, 73-4. See also Celtic design influences Gerrard, William, 72 Gesner, Abraham, 24, 32, 49

Index Gibson, Andrew, 174 Gilbeau, Jean, 38 Giles, James, 117 Glasgow, Scotland, 113,119, i33> 184-5 Classic, Henry, 20,152,161 Gordon, Arthur Hamilton, 27>37

Gordon, Scotland, 128 Government House, Fredericton, 81, 83, 90, 91,138 Grand Bay, N.B., 66 Grand Falls, 24,152,160 Grand Isle, Maine, 23 Grand Lake, Maine, 53 Grand Lake, N.B., 76,144 Grand River, 28 Grant, Elizabeth, 145 gravestones. See Saint John Loyalist Burial Ground Green, Daniel, 89 Greenock, Scotland, 123,133 Green River, 28, 52 Gregg, Andrew, 164-5 Grenier, Charles, 49,175 Griffin, Henry, 174 Grimross, N.B., 28, 66 Groses Cocques, 44 Grover, Stephen, 32 Gubbins, Lt Joseph, 95, 96 Guy, Edouard, 49,175 Haley, John, 174 Halse, William, 89,175 Hammond River, N.B., 66 Hampton Ferry, N.B., 109 Hancock, Samuel, 132,174 Hanford family, 64 Hansen, Marcus Lee, 66 hardware, 40, 90,1