Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment 9819902150, 9789819902156

Table of contents :
Foreword
The Responsible City
Preface
About This Book
Message by Dr. Malti Goel
Contents
About the Author
1 An Agenda for Resilient, Green and Sustainable Built Environment
1.1 Circular Metabolism
1.2 Climate and Disaster Resilience
1.3 Clean Air
1.4 Clean Water
1.5 Clean Transport and Connectivity
1.6 Clean Energy
1.7 Conservation of Cultural and Natural Heritage
2 Climate Change, Carbon Emissions and Built Environment
2.1 Sustainable Urbanism
2.2 Health and Environmental Management
3 Air Quality and Pollution Control
3.1 Sources of Air Pollution
3.2 National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)
3.3 Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)
3.4 Clean Air and Sustainable Development Goals
3.5 Strategic Planning for Clean Air
3.6 Air Monitoring Data and Inventory
3.7 Density/FAR Optimisation and Mixed-Use
3.8 Accessibility for All
3.9 Traffic Calming
3.10 Zero-Polluting Industries and Renewable Power
3.11 Phasing Out Fossil Fuels
3.12 Dust Control
3.13 Green Buildings
3.14 Landscape as Sink of Air Pollution
4 Urbanism and Circular Systems
4.1 National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF)
4.2 The Built Environment
4.3 Circular Systems
4.4 Reducing the Urban Footprint
4.5 Restoration, Redevelopment and Regeneration
4.6 Recycling, Readjustment, Rezoning and Repurposing
4.7 Remote Sensing and Digital Planning
4.8 Rehabilitation of Slums and Regularisation of Unauthorised Colonies
4.9 Land Pooling and Management
4.10 LADM Framework
4.11 Participatory Planning
5 Sustainable Transport
5.1 7 Cs of Sustainable Mobility
5.2 Transport Planning
5.3 Public-Transit Options
5.4 Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)
5.5 Restructuring Urban Form
5.6 Classification of Urban Roads
5.7 Urban Street Design Guidelines
5.8 Footpath and Pedestrian Level of Service
5.9 Cycle Tracks
5.10 Traffic Calming and Noise Control
5.11 Barrier-Free and Safe Access
5.12 Cargo Transportation and Logistics
5.13 Intelligent Transport System (ITS)
6 Sustainable Energy: One Sun-One World-One Grid
6.1 Alternative Technologies for Sustainable Energy
6.2 National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency
6.3 Electric Vehicles
6.4 Energy Storage
6.5 Solar Cities
6.6 Renewable Energy
6.7 Energy Efficiency
6.8 Energy-Efficient Urban Structure
6.9 Sustainable Energy and Buildings
6.10 Passive Building Design
6.11 Building Envelope and Surface to Volume Ratio
6.12 Intelligent Building
6.13 Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning
6.14 Earth-Air Tunnel
6.15 Evaporative Cooling
6.16 Passive Downdraught Cooling
6.17 Solar Water Heating and Cooking
6.18 Parabolic Trough
6.19 Smart Micro-grid and Ecodistricts
7 Water Conservation, Efficiency and Recycling
7.1 Water Conservation, Efficiency and Recycling
7.2 Water Quality
7.3 Water Supply Standards
7.4 Watershed Development
7.5 Strategy for Storm Water Management
7.6 Rain Garden and Bioswales
7.7 Rainwater Harvesting
7.8 Recycling of Wastewater
7.9 Root Zone Treatment System (RZTS)
7.10 Effective Micro-organism (EM)
7.11 Waste Stabilisation Ponds (WSP)
7.12 Sustainable Water Management
7.13 Leveraging the Community
8 Biodiversity, Greens and Cultural Spaces
8.1 Landscape and Environment
8.2 Hierarchy of Open Spaces
8.3 Landscape Design
8.4 Cooling and Shading by Vegetation
8.5 Controlling Pollution and Heat Island Effect
8.6 Land, Water and Greenways
8.7 Xeriscaping
8.8 Vertical Garden and Urban Farming
8.9 Cultural Spaces
9 Environmental Services
9.1 Service Level Benchmarking (SLB)
9.2 Sustainable Urban Drainage
9.3 Concept of Biodrainage and Zero Runoff
9.4 Retention Systems
9.5 Waste Management
9.6 Waste Management Rules
9.7 Composting Option
9.8 Resource Recovery from Construction and Demolition Waste
9.9 Smart Solutions
9.10 Environmental Health and Safety (EHS)
10 Housing for All and Sustainable Construction
10.1 Slum Population
10.2 Slum Rehabilitation Norms
10.3 Kathputli In Situ Slum Rehabilitation Project
10.4 Slum Rehabilitation Scheme (SRS) in Mumbai
10.5 Resettlement of Slums Under Mumbai Urban Transport Project
10.6 Community Driven Housing
10.7 Space Sharing Models
10.8 Rental Housing
10.9 Land as a Resource
10.10 Inclusive and Adequate Housing
10.11 Digital Land Records and Property Transactions
10.12 Tenure Rights
10.13 Compact and Dense Housing
10.14 Green Building and Resources
10.15 Building Resources Pyramid
10.16 Mainstreaming Sustainability
10.17 Optimising Housing Costs
10.18 Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) and Building Information Modelling (BIM)
10.19 Circular Economy and Sustainable Construction
10.20 Emerging Technologies
10.21 Precast Building Systems
10.22 Large-Panel Systems
10.23 Frame Systems
10.24 Slab-Column System with Shear Wall
10.25 Self-healing Concrete
10.26 Rapid Wall
10.27 Modular Plug-in Units
10.28 Solar Mapping and Net-Zero Energy
10.29 Wind Energy
11 Reimagining the City
11.1 UN Conference of the Parties (COP26 and COP27)
11.2 Environment and Urban Development
11.3 Spatial Analytics
11.4 Observation, Abstraction and Analysis
Bibliography

Citation preview

Green Energy and Technology

Ashok Kumar Jain

Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment

Green Energy and Technology

Climate change, environmental impact and the limited natural resources urge scientific research and novel technical solutions. The monograph series Green Energy and Technology serves as a publishing platform for scientific and technological approaches to “green”—i.e. environmentally friendly and sustainable—technologies. While a focus lies on energy and power supply, it also covers “green” solutions in industrial engineering and engineering design. Green Energy and Technology addresses researchers, advanced students, technical consultants as well as decision makers in industries and politics. Hence, the level of presentation spans from instructional to highly technical. **Indexed in Scopus**. **Indexed in Ei Compendex**.

Ashok Kumar Jain

Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment Foreword by Prof. Christopher Charles Benninger Message by Dr. Malti Goel

Ashok Kumar Jain New Delhi, India

ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic) Green Energy and Technology ISBN 978-981-99-0215-6 ISBN 978-981-99-0216-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0216-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

The Responsible City The author of Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment brings into play profound personal attributes that no other urban thinker in Asia holds. He is India’s most experienced urban planner and policy-maker, nurtured through his years in public service, culminating as the Commissioner of Planning in the Delhi Development Authority, where over the years he dealt with detailed microlevel plans, campus and neighbourhood plans, urban district planning and policy decisions impacting on entire cities and their urban regions. He has enriched this saga of experience, with the devoted curiosity of a true guru, with unbound intellectual energy and passion, sharing his thoughts through his years of writing. From the time I founded the School of Planning at CEPT in 1971, until now he has been a mentor and guide. When I came to India in 1968 October, I met incredible people like Achyut Kanvinde, Balkrishna Doshi and Vikram Sarabhai. At age 25, they were curious to know why a student of Jose Luis Sert and Kevin Lynch would leave Harvard and MIT venturing into India. Dr. Sarabhai asked me pointedly: ‘What would you do to make Indian cities better places to live in?’ I have been trying to answer that question over the elapsing decades, thinking about the issues of sustainability, of equality of access to services and facilities and of congenial inclusiveness. Rather than asking questions, Sri. A. K. Jain catalysed my thinking with new possibilities, interesting options and in the current book straightforward answers. Since 1960s, our cities have further deteriorated leaving the ancient ‘walled cities’ in ruin; seeing the air polluted beyond breathable limits; watching people drink water from plastic bottles, which were unknown in India upon my arrival. Transport has decayed, pushing thousands of pedestrians and cyclists off the roads by a minuscule elite who can afford personal vehicles! While the urban population has exploded, the proportion of open space created per capita for recreation and greenery has rapidly declined. v

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The book Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment owns up to the responsibility of fixing integrated urban systems in an organic, yet correctly technical manner. The book emerges as a ‘manual for urban planning and management’ that every urbanist should read and understand. It is a textbook for political leaders, for urban planners in government and private practice and for students in secondary schools, colleges and advanced centres of learning. What is most important is that anyone can let the pages fall open anywhere, and one will immediately be attracted into A. K. Jain’s world of thinking and ideas, and they too will start pondering and imagining better human settlements and environments for humanity in which to live and grow. Prof. Christopher Charles Benninger M.Arch. (Harvard); M. C. P. (MIT), Chairman and Principal Architect CCBA Designs Pvt. Ltd. Pune, India

Preface

The world is passing through rapid socio-economic transformation leading to increasing carbon footprints, climate change and disasters. There are conflicts between the built environment and sustainability with ever-increasing pollution, transport, energy and water consumption. Climate change has become an imminent reality with a rise in global temperatures, changes in rainfall, floods, droughts, air pollution and water shortages. With increasing traffic, wastes, fossil fuel usage, carbon footprints and air-conditioning, it is projected that the ambient temperature can increase by 3 °C by 2100, which would adversely affect population’s health and productivity and decline the agriculture yield. This would mean a two-thirds increase in number of days with maximum temperature crossing 35 °C and more, and a billion people around the world are exposed to heat stress, water stress and desertification. Mitigating climate risks has become a basic imperative of development. At the United Nations Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow (November 2021), PM Narendra Modi put forward the need to scale up clean technologies and formation of the International Solar Alliance (ISA). Under the ISA, One Sun One World One Grid envisions an interconnected transnational solar energy grid. India with abundant sunshine has a target to meet 50% of its energy requirement (500 gigabytes) by 2030 from solar energy. This will reduce the carbon intensity of India’s economy by 45% and net-zero emission level by 2070. This simultaneously needs creating energy transmission, distribution and storage infrastructure, scaling up and financing decarbonising industrial processes, irrigation systems, regenerating degraded farming, forests agriculture and wastelands. The COP26 deliberated upon reducing the use of fossil fuels and coal by new sources, such as green hydrogen, green metals, carbon capture, solid-state batteries, electric fuels, heat pumps, electric and hydrogen powered transport and next-generation solar PV. At the COP27 (2022, Sharm El-Sheikh), India launched its Long-term Low Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS). It focuses on transition towards expending renewable energy, strengthening power grid and energy conservation, rational use of fossil fuel, nuclear energy, green hydrogen, fuel cells and biofuels for low carbon growth.

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India has also led the formation of a global Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and Clean Energy Ministerial Industrial Deep Decarbonisation Initiative (IDDI). These initiatives involve participatory processes, citizens, farmers, trade and industry, professionals, builders, financiers, institutional, NGOs, etc. besides the state governments and public sector. Buildings account for 40% of carbon emissions and 50% of all extracted materials. The built environment is endangering, as an estimated 1.6 billion urban dwellers who will be exposed to extreme high temperature by 2050, and over 800 million people will be vulnerable to sea level rise and coastal flooding. As committed at the COP26 by 2050, all new and existing assets must be net zero across the whole life cycle, and resilience to be built into cities and buildings to adapt to climate impacts. In this context, it is necessary relooking at the repertoire and processes of urban development and built environment which should shift from fossil fuel era to the circular concepts of planning and design. Leapfrogging in the areas of Fourth Industrial Revolution and digital processes would help in making the built environment resilient, pollution free and carbon negative by adopting the concepts of net zero and carbon neutral development, industries and businesses. In this pursuit, the key is to adopt an integrated approach towards conservation of the natural resources, including the services like drainage, water supply, air, sewerage, solid waste management, transportation and energy. This needs recalibrating urbanism and construction to hit net-zero emission deadline by shifting cleaner fuels, renewable energy and green technologies. Cities have a metabolism which percolates through urban systems—soil, air, materials, minerals, metals, water, agriculture and industrial products before returning to the biosphere in a degraded form. It usually only operates as an inefficient and wasteful linear input–output system. These are turning inherently renewable systems—soils, forests, rivers and space into non-renewable systems. This ego-based development needs to be replaced by an ecomodel. The ego-minded is contrary to the basic principles of ecology and in the planning of built environment.

Ego Versus Eco Model

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There is a need to undergo a profound paradigm shift as stated by Barry Commoner in Closing Circle (1971): • Everything is connected to everything else. There is one ecosphere for all living organism, and what affects one affects all. • Everything must go somewhere. There is no ‘waste’ in nature, and there is no ‘away’ to which it can be thrown. • Nature knows best. The absence of a particular substance from nature is often a sign that it is incompatible with the chemistry of life. • Nothing comes from nothing. Exploitation of nature always carries ecological costs, and these costs are significant. The built environment with circular metabolism can give as much to the nature as it takes out, thus reducing their ecological impact and carbon emissions by passive design with the sun, wind, water, earth and space. The sustainable built environment synthesises both the traditional culture and forms, as well as modern technology. For example, courtyard house and aerodynamic gliders which use the minimum amount of material to maximum affect can both work in harmony and maintain a passive design balance. Sustainable development is giving birth to new models of design, planning and engineering, where the nature (sun, wind, water and earth) integrates with technology (nanotechnology, renewables, biotechnology, ecoefficiency, etc.) to create an efficient, comfortable and climate resilient built environment. The IPCC report (2022) points out that growing concentration of people and activities is an opportunity to increase resource efficiency and decarbonise at scale. For the same level of consumption, a city dweller often needs less energy because of economy of scale and sharing of infrastructure and services. The economic benefits of cutting carbon pollution outweigh the costs of climate inaction. The IPCC report states that economic payback from reducing air pollution alone would be on the same order of magnitude as the investments needed to slash emissions, potentially even larger. Carbon neutral buildings, energy and transport can make the city energy efficient, smart and reduce emissions. Common utility ducts carrying electricity, cable water, sanitation and other services minimise damage from traffic, road repairs, rains, etc. Trigeneration energy systems combining power, dual piping for recycled water and wastewater reduction are necessary elements for green infrastructure. Water saving toilets and taps, and recycled wastewater for satellite controlled micro-irrigation can cut water and power consumption. Energy can also be extracted from liquid and solid wastes. Three bin recycling with separate bins for trash, recyclable and compost can be transported by an underground pneumatic system. Biotechnology, enzyme-based STP, bioremedial treatment, sludge gas/energy recovery, vermi-culture, fossilisation and composting options can be explored for waste treatment. Swales, porous paving, biodrainage and storm surge gates in river, drains and canals and zero runoff drainage conserve water and save

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human settlements from floods. Rooftop solar panels generate electricity instead of power plants and also reduce city’s heat build-up. Rooftop vegetation, insulation and superinsulated glazing can ensure the building’s thermal performance. Smart glass technology and cool air draughts in subterranean clay pipes save on air-conditioning and energy. These help in obviating the ecological footprints, formation of heat islands and outdoor and indoor pollution, while addressing to a wide range of human needs and sustainability issues. The book Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment covers a wide range of topics which relate to climate change and carbon emissions, air quality and pollution control, urbanism, land and circular economy, sustainable transport, energy, water, biodiversity and greenery, environmental services, housing and construction, converging with reimagining the city, compact, walkable and cool. It conserves land, nature, wildlife, mangroves and trees, which provide thermal comfort, reduce pollution and sequester carbon. Reducing greenhouse gas emission and mitigating climate change involve minimising use of fossil fuels by using hydrogenic, electrical and biofuel transport, renewable energy, recycling building, construction and liquid wastes, and using sustainable, low-energy construction materials. The IPCC suggests a compact and walkable urban area, with housing, shops and offices located close together; green and blue networks are essential for a sustainable landscape. The urban forests, tree-lined streets, green roofs or facades, parks and waterways help absorbing carbon and reduce the effects of urban heat island. Basins, grass verges and waterways can help to mitigate flooding and recharge the groundwater table. The old cities should retrofit their existing building stock, energy system and transport systems. These must resist the urge to sprawl and promote mixed land use, which can help them to become low or net-zero emission. Several examples, simple flowing language and more than 148 visuals, give a practical orientation to the book. The book aims to motivate the architects, engineers, consultants, builders and planners to respond to the challenges of sustainability in built environment. The preparation of such a book involves drawing from the many fountains. These include the Centre for Science and Environment, UN Habitat, Nairobi, Delhi Development Authority, The Energy Research Institute, Council on Energy, Environment and Water, Development Alternatives, Climate Change Research Institute, Association for Settlements and Housing Activities (ASHA) and Clean Air 9. ArchitectPlanner Prof. Christopher Benninger has been my mentor and inspiration who has a unique understanding and experience of the built environment. As reflected in his foreword, he is crystal clear about the issues of sustainable development vis-à-vis climate change and low carbon environment. I am grateful to Dr. Malti Goel (Climate Change Research Institute) for her support and message. She motivated me to write this book and facilitated its publication by the prestigious Springer Nature. Thanks to Herald N. Rostvik and Sun-Lab Publishers, Stavanger, Norway, for kindly allowing me to use his figures from the book The Sunshine Revolution (1992). I am grateful to my coordinates (Mr. Bal Krishan, Editor), Yojana and Niti Ayog (Dr. Suman Bery and Mr. Parmeshwar Iyer), ITPI Journal (Dr. D. S. Meshram, President) and Shelter

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(Dr. Akshaya Sen, Editor) for granting permission to reproduce brief extracts from my articles published in these journals. My acknowledgement to various researchers, NGOs, architects, engineers and planners whose works in public domain/open source have been cited in this book, including the World Bank, Aga Khan Trust for Culture, Delhi Urban Art Commission, NASSCOM, McKinsey Global, Delhi School of Planning and Architecture, ITPI and Delhi Municipal Corporation. The press releases and the websites of the Niti Aayog, Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, Ministry of Environment and Climate Change, Ministry of Transport and Highways and other government departments have been the sources of useful information. Some of the figures have been downloaded from the open-access sources, Wikipedia, Google and Creative Commons. Wherever possible, the sources have been acknowledged. Any error or omission may kindly be pointed out for correction in the subsequent edition of the book. I have learnt from various studies and have tried to acknowledge their authors, wherever known. Although my name appears on the cover of the book, behind the scenes many people, both known and unknown, have contributed a great deal in making of the book. Saying thank you to them seems a poor reward for all their support and help. Springer Nature, especially, Sathya Subramaniam, Priya Vyas and Manju Ramanathan, deserve a special mention for converting an unwieldy manuscript into a presentable book. New Delhi, India

Ashok Kumar Jain

About This Book

India is passing through rapid socio-economic transformation leading to increasing carbon footprints, heat, climate change and disasters. There are conflicts among spatial planning and sustainability with ever-increasing pollution and consumption of natural resources. Climate change has become an imminent reality with a rise in global temperatures, changes in rainfall, floods, droughts, air pollution and water shortages. With increasing traffic, wastes and stubble incineration, fossil fuel usage, carbon footprints and growing air-conditioning with urban footprints and ambient temperature are increasing. At the United Nations Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow, November 2021 and (COP27) in Sharm-El-Sheikh, in Egypt, November 2022, the need to restrict the climate change below 1.5 °C has been reiterated. This requires replacing the use of fossil fuels and coal by new sources, such as green hydrogen, green metals, carbon capture, solid-state batteries, electric fuels, heat pumps, electric and hydrogen powered transport and solar PV. This needs relooking at the processes of urban development which should shift from fossil fuel era to the circular concepts and conservation of natural resources. Leapfrogging in the digital processes can help in making the built environment resilient, pollution free, low carbon and green. The book Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment by Ashok Kumar Jain in 11 chapters covers a wide range of topics relating to climate change which converge into a pathway towards mainstreaming sustainability in the built environment. He underlines the need for optimum use of land and natural resources, lifestyle for the environment and new partnerships for a resilient, low carbon habitat.

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Message by Dr. Malti Goel

Low carbon cities have become a global agenda in the 21st century. Shifting weather patterns, frequent disasters, floods, heat waves, threatening food production, rising sea levels and increasing risk of submergence in coastal areas, and the threat of infectious diseases all are causing enormous distress to humanity. As a result, cities face a disproportionate burden from anthropogenic climate change, and climate action is imperative for the planet’s sustainability. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), urban areas account for 67–76% of global energy use and 71–76% of global CO2 emissions. Buildings in India account for 40% use of energy, 30% of raw material, 20% of water and 20% of land. They contribute about one-fifth of the CO2 emissions. As the share of the urban population rises, India will be home to seven mega-cities with a population above 10 million and 56 million plus cities by 2030. With the emerging sustainability issues, climate change, air and water pollution, disasters and pandemics like COVID-19, it is necessary to rethink the planning process and urban development approaches. The book Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment by Shri A. K. Jain aims to develop a pragmatic approach to SDG 11: (Sustainable Cities and Communities) and its linkage with xv

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SDG 13: (Climate Action). What is most interesting about the book is that it draws a new perspective on urban development, which is sustainable and integrated, while solving the current problems of climate change, air and water pollution and energy infrastructure services. The author suggests the seven Cs of urban development strategies as circular metabolism, climate and disaster resilience, clean air, clean water, clean transport, clean energy and cultural conservation. The Climate Change Research Institute (CCRI) has been deeply involved with scientific research on climate change, mentoring and developing human resources. Knowing Shri A. K. Jain, who has a rare quality of forging his vast practical experience with academics, it is gratifying that his intellectual discourse draws attention to various challenges for taking climate action relating to the built environment. The book is a fantastic encounter for the planners, engineers and developers engaged with achieving Sustainable Development Goals. It is a matter of great satisfaction and credibility to the CCRI and its researchers that Springer Nature is publishing the book. It will be a valuable addition to the list of seminal books on the subject. Prof. Dr. Malti Goel President Climate Change Research Institute Former Adviser and Scientist ‘G’ Ministry of Science and Technology India

Contents

1

An Agenda for Resilient, Green and Sustainable Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Circular Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Climate and Disaster Resilience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Clean Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Clean Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Clean Transport and Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Clean Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Conservation of Cultural and Natural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 2 4 8 8 11 13 14

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Climate Change, Carbon Emissions and Built Environment . . . . . . . 2.1 Sustainable Urbanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Health and Environmental Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Air Quality and Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Sources of Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Clean Air and Sustainable Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Strategic Planning for Clean Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Air Monitoring Data and Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Density/FAR Optimisation and Mixed-Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Accessibility for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Traffic Calming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Zero-Polluting Industries and Renewable Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11 Phasing Out Fossil Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12 Dust Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13 Green Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.14 Landscape as Sink of Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

31 31 34 35 36 36 37 37 39 40 41 41 42 42 42

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Contents

Urbanism and Circular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 The Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Circular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Reducing the Urban Footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Restoration, Redevelopment and Regeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Recycling, Readjustment, Rezoning and Repurposing . . . . . . . . 4.7 Remote Sensing and Digital Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Rehabilitation of Slums and Regularisation of Unauthorised Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 Land Pooling and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10 LADM Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11 Participatory Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45 46 47 48 48 51 51 53

5

Sustainable Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 7 Cs of Sustainable Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Transport Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Public-Transit Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Restructuring Urban Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Classification of Urban Roads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Urban Street Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Footpath and Pedestrian Level of Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 Cycle Tracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Traffic Calming and Noise Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.11 Barrier-Free and Safe Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.12 Cargo Transportation and Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.13 Intelligent Transport System (ITS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

65 65 67 75 78 80 81 82 83 85 85 86 87 88

6

Sustainable Energy: One Sun-One World-One Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Alternative Technologies for Sustainable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Energy Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Solar Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 Energy-Efficient Urban Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Sustainable Energy and Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.10 Passive Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.11 Building Envelope and Surface to Volume Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.12 Intelligent Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.13 Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14 Earth-Air Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.15 Evaporative Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.16 Passive Downdraught Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91 92 95 96 96 97 98 100 105 107 110 111 111 113 114 116 116

53 54 57 60

Contents

6.17 6.18 6.19

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Solar Water Heating and Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Parabolic Trough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Smart Micro-grid and Ecodistricts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

7

Water Conservation, Efficiency and Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Water Conservation, Efficiency and Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Water Supply Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Watershed Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Strategy for Storm Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Rain Garden and Bioswales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Rainwater Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 Recycling of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 Root Zone Treatment System (RZTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10 Effective Micro-organism (EM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11 Waste Stabilisation Ponds (WSP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12 Sustainable Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13 Leveraging the Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

125 125 127 129 129 134 135 136 139 140 145 145 146 147

8

Biodiversity, Greens and Cultural Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Landscape and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Hierarchy of Open Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Landscape Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Cooling and Shading by Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Controlling Pollution and Heat Island Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Land, Water and Greenways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 Xeriscaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.8 Vertical Garden and Urban Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.9 Cultural Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

149 150 153 156 156 159 161 162 164 165

9

Environmental Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Service Level Benchmarking (SLB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Sustainable Urban Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Concept of Biodrainage and Zero Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Retention Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Waste Management Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 Composting Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 Resource Recovery from Construction and Demolition Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.9 Smart Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.10 Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

169 170 174 176 177 178 179 182 182 183 183

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Contents

10 Housing for All and Sustainable Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Slum Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Slum Rehabilitation Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Kathputli In Situ Slum Rehabilitation Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Slum Rehabilitation Scheme (SRS) in Mumbai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Resettlement of Slums Under Mumbai Urban Transport Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Community Driven Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.7 Space Sharing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.8 Rental Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.9 Land as a Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.10 Inclusive and Adequate Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.11 Digital Land Records and Property Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.12 Tenure Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.13 Compact and Dense Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.14 Green Building and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.15 Building Resources Pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.16 Mainstreaming Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.17 Optimising Housing Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.18 Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) and Building Information Modelling (BIM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.19 Circular Economy and Sustainable Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.20 Emerging Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.21 Precast Building Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.22 Large-Panel Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.23 Frame Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.24 Slab-Column System with Shear Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.25 Self-healing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.26 Rapid Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.27 Modular Plug-in Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.28 Solar Mapping and Net-Zero Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.29 Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

185 188 192 198 199

11 Reimagining the City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 UN Conference of the Parties (COP26 and COP27) . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Environment and Urban Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Spatial Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Observation, Abstraction and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

229 229 230 231 233

200 201 202 202 203 203 205 205 206 206 207 208 212 213 215 215 216 217 219 219 221 222 224 225 225

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

About the Author

Ashok Kumar Jain worked as Commissioner (Planning), Delhi Development Authority and as a member of the Committee of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs on the DDA (2015). He was as a member of UN Habitat (2007–2012). Author of several books, he is visiting faculty in planning and architecture. He was awarded 2nd Urban Professional Award 2014 at World Urban Forum in Medellin, Colombia and IBC Lifetime Achievement Award (2016). The Indian Institute of Architects (Northern Chapter) honoured him as a Living Legend (2022) for his contribution in the field of architecture, and Smart Habitat Foundation felicitated him with Lifetime Achievement Award in Urban Planning (2022).

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Chapter 1

An Agenda for Resilient, Green and Sustainable Built Environment

The sustainable development aims to promote harmony among human beings and nature, striving for a balance between economic goals, human (social, cultural, liveability and health) and environmental needs. Sustainable built environment comprises places and buildings for of living, work and recreation, connected and served by urban transport, facilities and services, viz. energy, water, sanitation, drainage, greenery and open spaces. Carbon footprint is the total set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions mainly from the energy, industries, transport, solid and liquid wastes and agriculture and forestry. Linked with it is the phenomenon of climate change and disasters, which impact health, infrastructure services, housing and livelihoods. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014 WG III), urban areas account for 67–76% of global energy use and 71–76% CO2 emissions. With the emerging issues of sustainability, climate change, air and water pollution, disasters and pandemics, it is necessary to rethink the approaches of planning and urban development. The Sustainable Development Goals (2030 Agenda) cover 17 goals and 169 targets. Goal 11 of the SDGs focuses on making cities and communities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Goal number 13 of SDGs calls for combating climate change and its impacts. The paradigm of development has not to be just economic but align with humane, environmental, cultural and socio-economic inclusion. This implies that the city provides housing, water, sanitation, electricity and jobs to all in a sustainable environment that resonates with the local culture, climate and ecology. These challenges need a new framework and process of planning, design and development of the built environment, which is low carbon and climate resilient. It can be conceptualised in terms of the following 7Cs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Circular metabolism Climate and disaster resilience Clean air Clean water Clean transport and connectivity

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Jain, Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0216-3_1

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6. Clean energy 7. Conservation of cultural and natural heritage.

1.1 Circular Metabolism Urban India, comprising 7933 towns/cities having a population of about 400 million, is passing through rapid economic and social transformation and massive construction of mega projects. These are leading to increasing carbon footprints, climate change and disasters, which impact infrastructure services, housing and livelihoods. It is urgent to relook the repertoire and processes of urban planning and development which should shift to circular systems and recycling so as to conserve of natural resources. Urbanism with circular metabolism can give as much to the environment as it takes out, thus reducing the ecological impact. An ecological city and buildings are planned as a circular system to minimise the use of land, energy, water and carbon emissions (Fig. 1.1). It protects the natural environment using the minimum of mechanical systems and by passive design with the sun, wind, water, earth and space. Carbon neutral services and passive buildings can make the city energy efficient, smart and reduce greenhouse

Fig. 1.1 City as a system. Source Rogers, Cities for a Small Planet (1997) in UNESCO & MGIEP (2017) Textbook for Sustainable Development, A Guide to Embedding, UNESCO and Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education, Peace and Sustainability, New Delhi

1.1 Circular Metabolism

3

gas (GHG) emissions. Rooftop solar panels generate electricity and reduce city’s heat build-up. Rooftop vegetation, insulation and superinsulated glazing quadruple the building’s thermal performance. Smart glass technology and cool air draughts in clay pipes, 4 m below ground, save on air-conditioning and high energy costs. These help in obviating the ecological footprints, formation of heat islands and outdoor and indoor pollution, while addressing sustainability issues. Common utility ducts carrying electricity, water, cable television and broadband internet minimise damage from traffic, road repairs, rains, etc. Trigeneration energy systems combine power, cooling and heating, dual piping for recycled water and automated waste collection/utilisation and bundle ‘green infrastructure’ together. Water saving toilets with recycled wastewater cisterns and taps will save water. Satellite-controlled just-in-time micro-irrigation cuts water and power consumption. Solid waste extracted from sewage can produce electricity. Three-bin recycling with separate bins for trash, recyclable and compost can be transported and processed by an underground pneumatic system. Biotechnology, enzyme-based STP, bioremedial treatment, sludge gas/energy recovery, vermi-culture, fossilisation and composting options can be explored for waste treatment. Swales, porous paving, biodrainage and storm surge gates in river, drains and canals and zero runoff and sustainable drainage conserve water and save human settlements from floods. With the Covid-19 pandemic, the dimension of public health has assumed an important role in built environment. The health of a city depends upon integrity of land uses and safeguarding adequate open spaces and protect living and working areas from hazardous and polluting activities, such as industry, heavy traffic and wholesale trade. The land use plan and density pattern should strike a balance between the aspects of crowding, health and traffic generation, besides conserving the greenery and urban ecology. According to the recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO), 5 hospital beds are required per thousand population, whereas in 2011, the bed-persons ratio in Delhi was 2.55, which is required to be doubled. According to UN Habitat and World Health Organization for healthy and inclusive housing, the following seven criteria must be met: security of tenure, availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and cultural adequacy. The studies show that the blood pressure, obesity, gastrointestinal and cardiovascular diseases are reduced by half in the areas with parks and pavements, where people walk more, exercise and do regular physical activity outdoor. In terms of urban design, it is necessary to achieve harmonious balance between built and natural environment. It should also cater specially to women, children and the aged. New forms of work–life integration, mixed land use, 15 min as a minimum distance among residence, work and accessible network of parks/greens are necessary for a healthy built environment. The built environment cannot be sustainable without the women, who comprise nearly half of the population. They often face the ‘gender service gap’ in terms of security and access to energy, water and toilets. A sustainable city has to be gender sensitive with adequate, safe and affordable spaces for living and working. This

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implies gender equity in the built environment, based on the principles of organicity, non-accumulation and minimalism.

1.2 Climate and Disaster Resilience Resilience is defined as ‘the ability of a city as a socio-ecological infrastructural system and its components to absorb and recover from shocks whilst retaining the essential functions and adjust to stresses to reorganise, develop, and transform in order to adapt to socio-economic and environmental changes, over temporal and spatial scales’. According to the United Nations Framework on the Convention on Climate Change (2010), the predicted impacts of climate change in India include a surface air temperature rise up to 4 °C by 2100, up to 30% decline in yield in rain-fed areas for some crops and an increase in incidences of extreme events, such as droughts, floods and cyclones. Devastating floods, typhoons and hurricanes are being associated with climate change. According to the IPCC (2021), the global temperature rise should be restricted to 1.5 °C. Models predict an average increase in temperature from 2.3–4.8° for benchmark doubling of carbon dioxide scenario. Although per capita carbon emissions in India at 1.2 metric tonnes (mt) per capita/year is one of the lowest in the world, it is caught in a vicious cycle of climate change and carbon emissions is predicted to double within next 10 years (Fig. 1.2). Already in the urban areas, the people with cars and air-conditioners emit 4.5 mt of carbon dioxide/greenhouse gases per year, while the low-income people without car and air-conditioners emit an average of 1.1 mt of CO2 /GH gases. As per UN Climate Change Panel, a benchmark of 3.0 mt of carbon emission per capita per year should be the upper limit. The cornerstone of making a city resilient is to adopt an integrated approach towards ecology and the conservation of the natural resources. The composite urban environment includes the environmental infrastructure—greenery, water supply, air, sewerage, solid waste management, transportation and energy. It is necessary to strike a balance between conflicting demands—citizen freedom versus safeguarding Fig. 1.2 Vicious cycle of climate change. Source UN Habitat (2010)

1.2 Climate and Disaster Resilience

5

community interests, economic opportunity versus climate and disaster resilience, public services versus mandatory procedures. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Climate Change Report, WG III, 2014), the critical aspects of sustainable spatial planning comprise: • • • • •

Density, FAR optimisation, compact and integrated development Land use (mix of activities, population), inclusiveness Connectivity, walkability and traffic density Accessibility for all by public transit, cycle, walking More resilient, healthy environment, buildings and services.

Location is most important for the livelihoods of the informal sector workers who cannot afford to lose time and money in commuting. As a principle, the distance between work and living should be below 15 min by public transport, cycle or walk that is 10, 3 and 1 km, respectively. In view of recent work from home trend due to corona pandemic, it may be mandatory to provide at least half of the built space for work–life integration and mixed land use. This will save the need to commute (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4). The aim should be to minimise the greenfield development, rationalise densities and FAR and save building footprint and envelope area by a composite urban form.

Fig. 1.3 Density, land use, connectivity and accessibility for sustainable urbanism. Source IPCC (2014)

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1 An Agenda for Resilient, Green and Sustainable Built Environment

Fig. 1.4 Comparison of surface area, energy consumed and construction costs for eight housing units in different configurations. Source Presig et al. (1999) Okologische Baukampetenz in Dominique Gauzin -Muller (2002) Sustainable Architecture and Urbanism, Birkhauser, Basel

The strategy of green building needs to be interfaced with smart systems and services (Fig. 1.5). As the planet gets hotter, there has been an increase in heat-related deaths. India has experienced severe heat with power cuts making living hard, especially in congested areas, and for those who live in informal settlements or windowless homes. The

Fig. 1.5 Interfacing smart and green. Source Jain (2021) Housing and Community Planning, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi

1.2 Climate and Disaster Resilience

7

increased indoor temperature severely affects the productivity of women and homebased workers, resulting into reduced incomes. There is a need to work out heat mitigation plans for urban areas with appropriate and local cooling technologies, ventilation and cool roof. Ahmedabad is drafting a cool roof technology policy framework with Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation, Indian Institute of Public Health, Gandhinagar, and NRDC India. This involves low-income areas to learn about electricity consumption patterns and how building design and materials can generate less heat, e.g. tar roads could be replaced by concrete blocks. Ahmedabad’s action plan has set up drinking water fountains for the public, a cool roof initiative and early warning system for vulnerable population. Solar-reflective white paint over roof has been applied in existing housing and tenements that drops inside temperature by 3–4 °C. SEWA Trust has been helping the people in this task. Under the Heat Action Plan, Ahmedabad has made reflective rooftop mandatory for all municipal, commercial and government buildings. Buildings, roads and pavements made with reflective or permeable materials retain up to 20% less heat. A study found that porous bricks and concrete can lower the pavement surface temperature by 12 and 20 °C, respectively, and air temperature by 1 °C. Porous asphalt absorbs more water and is cooler. Double-glazed windows and two layered walls separated by an air gap can also insulate buildings from the solar heat and reduce energy consumption. (Source: Ketaki Desai, How a Touch of White is Helping the poor Stay Cool in a Heatwave, Times of India, May 1, 2022). Trees provide shade and moisture, and small parks can reduce city temperature by up to 10 °C. Covering exterior surfaces of a buildings and other structures with vegetation is also helpful. Vienna has launched a cool street initiative, and parks and streets have been redesigned to be cooler, using tree plantation and replacing asphalt with surfaces that reflect less heat. Mobile shade dispensers and stations offer drinking water and spray cooling. Paris has created a network of 100 cooling islands with parks and pools linked by walkways. Residents can locate them using smartphone app. Stuttgart (Germany) has created cool corridors, which help clean air flow throughout the city. Miami-Dade County, Florida, has installed cool pavements with tree canopies to increase shade cover. Medellin in Colombia has created 36 green corridors covering 36 ha along major roads and waterways. The corridors connect the suburbs and urban centres. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) says that temperatures have fallen by up to 4 °C. In 2007, Ljubljana, Slovenia’s Capital, pedestrianised more than 10 ha of the city centre, free of motorised vehicles, and pavements were made wider with bike sharing. Free electric taxis were made available for tourists, infirm and the elderly. (Source: UN Environment Programme, Media Report, How Cities are Learning to Fight Heat without ACs, Times of India, May 8, 2022).

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1.3 Clean Air Air quality in Indian cities is deteriorating due to indiscriminate use of fossil fuels and vehicular and industrial emissions. According to the surveys conducted by the CPCB, ambient air quality in more than 20 Indian cities has reached a very critical situation. Relatively high levels of suspended particulate matter, dust, SPM, SO2 , NO2 , CO2 and heavy metals, including lead content in the exhaust of automobiles have been observed (Central pollution Control Board 2018). The recent changes in the fuel-like electric and hydrogen powered vehicles, adoption of clean technologies, new emission norms, development of shared taxis, NMTs and mass rapid transport system can reduce the pollution levels due to vehicular emissions. Bill Gates has stated that ‘the world needs to use green cement and green steel in future to achieve zero emission. We must recognise that along with dynamism and growth, we need resilience and security- or else the next crisis could be the last’ (Bill Gates 2021, How to Avoid a Climate Disaster, p. 200). The public health depends largely on indoor and outdoor environment, which is free from microbial, allergy, toxins, dust and mites. The spaces should be comfortable with proper ventilation, sun and temperature control. Airshed planning, continuous ventilation, use of cooler and light shaded materials and water spray are some other methods to reduce air pollution. The following table indicates the actions required in various sectors under technology, citizen engagement and policy matrix for clean air (Table 1.1).

1.4 Clean Water Water scarcity has become a persisting problem in Indian cities. The average annual per capita water availability in the country has gone down from 5,236 m3 in 1951 to 1,800 m3 in 1991. Several cities in India have become water stressed. Only 18% of the renewable water resource is being recycled, while only 10% of the annual rainfall is being harvested in India. The issues of concern are increasing coliform levels and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in surface waters and increased concentration of nitrates in the groundwater. To overcome these problems, water sources need to be protected by interception, recycling and treatment of wastewater. Water resources can be augmented through recharging of groundwater and by rainwater harvesting (not only for building, but also roads, parks and parking areas) along with conservation of rivers and water bodies, water efficient taps/fittings, dual plumbing, curbing nonrevenue water and recycling of wastewater. Blockchain and SCADA system can help in 24 × 7 potable water supply (Figs. 1.6 and 1.7).

Technology

• Installing continuous emissions monitoring technology (CEMS) at manufacturing locations, placing more accountability on industrial polluters • Development of low-emission commercial and industrial vehicles processes and logistics • Optimise industrial infrastructure and promote industrial restructuring • Accelerate technological innovations

Manufacturing and industry

• Emission and fossil-free technology • Trigeneration • Renewable energy • Net-zero energy building • Use of gaseous fuels • Elimination of D.G. sets • Smart meters • Micro-grids

Energy • Development of low-emission public transport • Increase the use of electric cars/e-rickshaws • NMTs, pedestrians • Transport demand management • Transit-oriented development

Urban mobility

Table 1.1 Technology, citizen engagement and policy matrix for clean air

• Installing citywide air quality monitoring networks • Communicating air quality data through mobile apps

Environmental data • Green building technologies that produce as much energy as a building consumes • Cool roof • Net-zero energy building • Circular construction • Passive design, natural ventilation, • Indoor plants • Green rating • Dust control filters

(continued)

• Use of agriculture residue for power generation • Conversion of agri-waste material, biochar • Satellite surveillance • Gasification technology to convert biowaste into pellets/electricity

Building and construction Farming

1.4 Clean Water 9

• A cap-and-trade • Emission tracking emissions scheme for systems • Install clean energy industries • Ensuring compliance of production and supply industrial emissions with the standards • Enforcement • Institutional and legal review • Strengthened environment threshold and industrial layout • Clarify responsibilities of government, enterprises and civil society

• Renewal energy • Campaigns • Facilitates reduced energy consumption

Energy • Vayu Apps • EIA • Early warning system

Environmental data

• Building support for • Actionable use of tighter controls on environmental data • Publicising and vehicular emissions • Increased use of electric campaigning for action vehicles • Graded Response Plan

• Providing N-99 pollution masks to traffic policemen, municipal workers, street vendors, etc • Initiating a public campaign for carpooling and ridesharing

Urban mobility

Source Jain (2021) Environment, Urbanisation and Development, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi

Policy

Citizen engagement • Applying public pressure on polluting industries • Promote citizen engagement in environmental management • Disclosure of air pollution data

Manufacturing and industry

Table 1.1 (continued)

• Facilitating the widespread use of a green rating for a building’s energy consumption and produced emissions

• Green building movement • Incentives for GRIHA rating • Promote citizen participation

• Schemes for proper management of agricultural waste and waste-to-energy schemes • Blockchain, smart digital processes

• Incentives for recycling of agriculture wastes and stubble • Vermi- composting • Biomethane gas • Fuel pallets • Thermal conversion

Building and construction Farming

10 1 An Agenda for Resilient, Green and Sustainable Built Environment

1.5 Clean Transport and Connectivity

11

Fig. 1.6 Rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling: in most of the regions in India, water is a critical problem. By rainwater harvesting, wastewater recycling, primary treatment and checking of leakages, the problem can be mitigated to a great extent. Source Jain (2009) Low Carbon CitiesPolicies, Planning and Practice, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi

Fig. 1.7 Dual plumbing for wastewater recycling. Source Anon (2001) Total Water Management for Communities, Ion Exchange (India) Ltd. Mumbai

1.5 Clean Transport and Connectivity Urban transport contributes nearly two-thirds of the total suspended particulate matter and 18 per cent of carbon emissions. Prime Minister Narendra Modi, while inaugurating the Global Mobility Summit in September 2018, encapsulated 7Cs

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1 An Agenda for Resilient, Green and Sustainable Built Environment

of mobility—common, connected, convenient, congestion free, charged, clean and cutting-edge. He underlined the need to use clean energy for transport as a powerful weapon against climate change, along with pollution-free clean drive. He championed the idea of clean kilometres which could be achieved through biofuels, electric charging and hybrid electric vehicles. Clean transport underlines the importance of public transit rather than private vehicles (Source: PIB 2018). The MOHUA has issued the Metro Rail Policy (2017) and Transit Oriented Development Policy (2017), which provide guidelines for preparing comprehensive proposals for promoting urban public transit with private sector participation. The concept of walk to work should be the basis of urban structure and city size. For integrated transport system, it may be necessary to provide integrated transit corridors (ITC) integrating BRT, metro and trains together with pedestrian and cycle lanes (Fig. 1.8). These can be flanked by public, semi-public and high-density developments. Metro, trains, subway and primary roads can run underground for easy bike and pedestrian traffic on the grade. River/water transport and ropeways can be explored which are almost pollutionfree and cost-effective. Multi-modal integration, last mile connectivity and egovernance are the pillars of sustainable urban mobility. Besides controlling growth of private vehicles, it is necessary to explore parking space in stilts, multi-level puzzle/skeleton structures, on roofs and underground spaces. Seamless multi-modal public transport system would work better by adoption of single ticketing and restructuring of land uses by transit-oriented development. Subterranean parking garages with charging facilities near commuter destinations reduce the need for ground parking. Digital parking meters tell mobile phone when a space opens up, reducing traffic caused by drivers trolling for space.

Fig. 1.8 Elements of integrated transit corridor: footpaths, cycle tracks, carriageway, stormwater drainage, bus rapid transit system, bus stop, street vendor, pedestrian crossing, underground utilities, street furniture, median, service lane, traffic calming, parking, landscaping and streetlights. Source DUAC/Ghosal (2014) Punjabi Bagh Ward No. 103, New Delhi

1.6 Clean Energy

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The concepts of cordon pricing, minimum occupancy vehicles, ceiling on new registration of private vehicles and establishment of a Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority are necessary for sustainable and clean urban transport.

1.6 Clean Energy Energy scenario in India is characterised by its increasing demand, which is growing at the rate of about three times the population growth rate. At the United Nations Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow (November 2021) Indian delegation led by PM Narendra Modi put forward the need to scale up clean technologies and formation of the International Solar Alliance (ISA). The One Sun-One World-One Grid envisions an interconnected transnational solar energy grid. The COP26 agreed to reduce the use of fossil fuels and coal by new sources, such as green hydrogen, green metals, carbon capture, solid-state batteries, electric fuels, heat pumps and next-generation solar PV. PM Modi informed that India’s non-fossil fuel energy will be raised to 500 GW by 2030, and 50% of the power requirement will be met by renewable energy. India will achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 by clean technologies, like electric batteries, ethanol blending in gasoline, hydrogen, solar photovoltaic and other renewables (PIB 2021). Low carbon energy can be derived from renewable sources, such as biofuels, wind, hydrogen, thermal, nuclear, tidal and solar power needs storage, generation and distribution network, for which various options should be assessed, keeping in view the cost, feasibility and efficiency (Fig. 1.9). The concept of energy efficiency, renewable energy and Zero-fossil Energy Development (ZED) can reduce the energy demand and consequential pollution. Smart micro-grids, Distributed Energy Systems (DES), micro-districts and anchor micro-grids should be linked with renewable energy network and energy efficiency. The energy guzzling air-conditioning can be avoided by innovative methods like net-zero energy design, variable refrigerant volume (VRV) system, earth-air tunnel (EAT) and thermal storage. By HVAC and EAT systems inside temperature of a building can be maintained within 27 °C during summer and 19–24 °C during winter. Lower ambient lighting with bionic controls and integration of natural light with highperformance glazing combined with light sensors can save energy use in a building. Optimum glazing design can also help to reduce glare. Synchronised lighting and bionic climate control systems can be designed to match building loads and schedules, which are segmented into multiple zones to allow intelligent controllability. Green roof, light-coloured finishes and insulation also help to reduce energy demand.

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Fig. 1.9 Energy storage, generation and distribution options. Source Jain (2021) Environment, Urbanisation and Development, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi

1.7 Conservation of Cultural and Natural Heritage The built environment is composed of both natural and cultural elements. The natural environment includes land, air, water, plants and animal life. It is also about continuity of local culture, caring, sharing and living in balance with the natural environment. A clean and varied natural environment is valuable both for self and for its importance to the quality of human life. The cultural environment includes the tangible and non-tangible heritage, housing, historic areas, parks, arts and architecture. These give identity to built environment and sense of pride to the citizens. As such, it is important to plan and design in a manner that conserves the heritage resources of a city, including its parks, forests, biodiversity, water resources and rivers. The open space systems and parks can be categorised on the basis of pedestrian and vehicular access, which can have a hierarchy of 9 levels from tot-lot/ housing park to regional park and national forest (Fig. 1.10). Urban India is passing through rapid economic and social transformation, leading to increasing carbon footprints, climate change, increasing pollution, energy and water consumption. It is necessary to relook the processes of planning, design and urban development which are resilient, green and low carbon.

1.7 Conservation of Cultural and Natural Heritage

15

Fig. 1.10 Hierarchy of open space system based on urban access. Source Jain (2018) City Planning for a Changing India, Bookwell Publishers, New Delhi

Chapter 2

Climate Change, Carbon Emissions and Built Environment

Climate change has become an imminent reality with a rise in global temperatures, changes in rainfall, floods, droughts and intense heat waves. A drastic increase in atmospheric concentrations of water vapours, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrooxide and other greenhouse gases helps trap heat near the earth’s surface. With increasing emissions, fossil fuel usage, urban growth and growing air-conditioning demand, it is projected that by the year 2100, the urban heat would get ambient summer temperatures, affecting the population’s health and productivity. In view of these threats, the Sustainable Development Goals were adopted by the United Nations, comprising 193 countries in September 2015. These aim to control the pollution of land, water and air and reduce the carbon emission and effluents from the transport, industries, construction and power generation. The cities and villages are becoming more vulnerable to natural disasters—floods, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, avalanche and forest fires. As much as 40 million hectares of land in India has been identified as flood prone. About 57% of area of the country is vulnerable to seismic activity. About 68% of total sown area in India is drought prone, affecting approximately 50 million people. India’s coastline of 7500 km is exposed to tropical cyclones and tsunami. According to the initial report of the United Nations Framework on the Convention on Climate Change, the predicted impacts of climate change in India include rise in a surface air temperature up to 30% decline in agriculture yield in rain-fed areas and an increase in incidences of extreme events, such as droughts, floods, cyclones, urban heat islands, earthquakes and changes in microclimate. Buildings in India account for 40% of energy use, 30% of raw material use, 20% of water use and 20% of land use. They generate 30 and 20% of solid waste and liquid effluents, respectively. The building sector is responsible for 24% of India’s CO2 emissions, contributing to climate change, warming and poor air quality. It also impacts the availability of water, recurring floods and drainage. The concept of sustainable development revolves around integrating three aspects of sustainability—social, environmental and economic. The 2030 Agenda covers 17

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Jain, Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0216-3_2

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Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets. The process of sustainable development involves integrating people, prosperity, peace, partnerships and planet. The pursuit of sustainable development requires striking a balance between economic goals, human needs (social, cultural, liveability and health) and environmental integrity. It involves human interventions in natural system to the extent of carrying capacity of an area that can be sustained for a given length of time without depletion of the resources or breakdown of the natural systems. Sustainability is all embracing—the ecology, landscape, cultural processes, geography, geology, hydrology, vegetation and climate. The urban process, including consumption, food production, energy and waste management, needs to be based on the principle of circular metabolism and recycling to ensure the integrity of the natural resources. This implies that development should be based on preserving the green areas, conserve fertile land and protect groundwater recharge areas. The Challenges of Built Environment: A major challenge of development relates to protecting the rights of the poor, informal sector, women and vulnerable communities. This means inclusive development, which provides housing, water, sanitation, electricity and jobs to all, together with sustainable and safe environment, education and healthcare facilities. The solutions have to emerge from the voices of people and engage with the local culture, climate and ecology. This makes it clear that to achieve sustainability, certain basic changes have to be made in the planning and development of the cities. The use of energy and carbonintensive technologies must be minimised. The basic idea of sustainability is to reduce the use of natural resources and ecological footprint by decoupling economic growth and environmental sustainability. Technology’s role ought to change given recent advances in building and urban design, analysis, materials, systems, construction and operations that help mitigate climate change. The products, systems and solutions should conform to net-zero energy standards. For adaptation to the climate change, thrift supplants consumption and follows the dictum of doing more with less. The sustainability is contingent upon an integrated approach towards urban growth, conservation of biodiversity and natural resources (land, air, water, forests, etc.), land use, site planning, micro-climatic design, natural ventilation and lighting, greenery, infrastructure services, transport, fuels, pollution control and waste management. A clean and varied natural environment is valuable for the quality of human life. The cultural environment includes the tangible and non-tangible heritage, historic areas, infrastructure, parks, arts and architecture. The ways in which we maintain and develop the environment have profound effects on the liveability, health and well-being of the population. The urban service networks integrate the built and natural environment. Urban services with circular metabolism can give as much to the environment as they take out, thus reducing the ecological impact. An ecological city and the buildings respect the nature so as to minimise the use of energy and carbon emissions. The natural environment can be protected by minimising the use mechanical systems and design with nature—the sun, wind, water, earth and space. Ecological design

2 Climate Change, Carbon Emissions and Built Environment

19

requires understanding the environment as a functioning natural system and its interdependence with the built environment. As such, the buildings and cities need to be designed and built on the principles of resource and energy efficiency with healthy and green materials. Green building, urbanism and infrastructure services require an integrated, multi-disciplinary approach that optimises their costs and environmental performance. The challenge is to reestablish the uterine relationship between nature and man, between human consumption and production. The ecological cycle needs to be revived by a sustainable model, encompassing the energy, environmental and technological systems (Table 2.1). Climate change adaptation is the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects. In human systems, adaptation seeks to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. In some natural systems, human interventions may facilitate adjustment to expected climate and its effects. Cities face significant impacts from climate change, which have potentially serious consequences for human health, livelihoods and assets, especially for the urban poor, informal settlements and other vulnerable groups. Cities around the world have begun to plan for climate change by developing climate plans or incorporating climate considerations into existing plans, policies and projects. Climate change impacts many sectors: land use, housing, transportation, public health, water supply and sanitation, solid waste, food security, energy, etc. Climate Change Mitigation: Climate change mitigation is action to reduce the net amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere and thus help to slow down the process of climate change resulting from human activities. Cities are responsible for at least 75% of greenhouse gas emissions. Seventy-five per cent of global energy consumption occurs in cities, and roughly half of this comes from burning fossil fuels in cities for urban transport. As such, it is necessary to design their cities according to compact and mixed-use models in order to mitigate climate change. For instance, investing in non-motorised transportation can serve to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while, at the same time, generate adaptation benefits by reducing health problems caused by traffic congestion and pollution. Without the so-called greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour, earth would be too cold to inhabit. These gases in earth’s atmosphere absorb and emit heat energy, creating the greenhouse effect that keeps our planets temperature liveable. Water vapour is the most plentiful greenhouse gas on the planet, accounting for about 60 per cent of the current greenhouse effect. Even ozone helps trap some of the heat that makes life on earth possible, but the ‘ozone hole’ is a separate issue not directly related to global warming. Since the industrial revolution, people have burned vast amounts of coal, petroleum and other fossil fuels to create heat and power. This releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, and as a result more, heat is trapped in earth’s atmosphere instead of radiating out into space.

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Table 2.1 Conventional model versus sustainable models Conventional model

Sustainable model

The urban system • Urban-concentrated industrial complexes

• Regionally dispersed industrial complexes

• Manufacturing oriented

• Community oriented

• Short-term economic growth emphasised

• Long-term development emphasised

• Commodity oriented

• Conservation oriented

• Consumption driven

• Balance sought between consumption and conservation

• Resources seen as inputs to production system

• Resources seen as limited, vulnerable requiring stewardship

• Resource-intensive governed by economic priorities

• Resource conserving—governed by multiple priorities

• Economic costs are primary

• Economic costs balanced by social/environmental costs

The energy system • Fossil fuel based

• Renewable energy

• Energy abundance and cheap supplies emphasised

• Conservation and renewability emphasised

• Diversify sources of supply

• Reduce energy intensity

• Market-based prices not reflecting social/environmental costs

• Social environmental costs based prices

• Technology focused

• Conservation focused

• Efficiency in economic production emphasised

• Efficiency in end-uses emphasised

• Scale economies and technological centralisation emphasised

• Modularity and technological decentralisation sought

The environmental system • Human dominates the environment

• Human and environment are seen as mutually dependent

• Environment as an abundant source of commodities

• Exhaustibility of natural resources recognised

• Environmental impact external to economic choice

• Environmental impact internal to economic choice

• Rehabilitation oriented

• Prevention oriented

The technology system • Large-scale economies sought

• Moderate-scale economies preferred

• Centralised system emphasised

• Decentralised system emphasised

• Infrastructure-driven technology choices

• Users-driven technology choices

• Technology decision governed by economic costs

• Technology decision governed by socio-economic costs (continued)

2.1 Sustainable Urbanism

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Table 2.1 (continued) Conventional model

Sustainable model

• Environmental impact ignored

• Environment-sensitive design promoted

Source Adapted from Byrne et al. (1992) “Energy and environmental sustainability in East and South-East Asia”, in IEEE Technology and Society, Vol. 10, No. 4, page 26. Environment and Urbanization, Vol. 6, No.1, April 1994

The relationship between earth’s water cycle and global warming creates a feedback loop. Warmer temperatures cause more evaporation from land and oceans, which in turn contributes to warmer temperatures (Table 2.2). Climate change has a variety of potential implications for urban areas. In terms of exposure, a key risk relates to changes in the frequency and intensity of heavy rain, storms, droughts, heat waves, wildfire and other hazard events. The urban centres more at risk are those where these events are already widespread (Table 2.3). Sustainable Buildings and Construction (SBC): The concept Sustainable Buildings and Construction refers to the sustainability performance of buildings along their entire life cycle, including design, materials production, transport, construction, use and maintenance, renovation, deconstruction and recycling. The concept seeks to optimise the performance and reduce negative impacts regarding use of materials, energy, water and land, as well as to indoor air quality and comfort, and generation of waste, wastewater and air emissions, including greenhouse gases, particulates and other pollutants. The concept applies to new and existing buildings regardless of their location. Sustainable construction envisages use of fewer virgin materials, less energy in construction and building use, less pollution and less waste; ‘whole life’ approach to design, construction and use; and providing safe places.

2.1 Sustainable Urbanism The cornerstone of making a city sustainable is to adopt an integrated approach towards ecology and the conservation of the natural resources The built environment includes the environmental infrastructure—water supply, sewerage, solid waste disposal and transportation network. Planning attempts to interface the regional, physical, environmental, transport, social, legal, management, financial and other aspects into a composite whole. It should strike a balance between conflicting demands—citizen freedom versus safeguarding community interests, commercial opportunity versus environmental sustainability and public service versus mandatory procedures. Most important is to develop a vision and ideas as the basis of urban planning. This requires a radical transformation of the planning and development of the infrastructure systems, land, water, biodiversity, energy and resource

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Table 2.2 Climatic change—possible and potential impacts on cities Climate change

Impact

Urban planning consequences

Increased temperatures Groundwater depletion and water Distress migration to cities/towns shortage drought degraded air due to droughts in rural areas quality (smog) Interruption of food supply networks and higher food prices Potential energy price increases Exaggerated urban heat island effect Increased energy demands for cooling Need for higher and/or additional wastewater treatment Population health impacts (e.g. increased mortality during heat waves, decreased access to food/nutrition) Increased precipitation

Increased risk of landslides or mudslides on hazard slopes

Interruption of food supply networks Property damage (homes and businesses) Disruption of livelihoods and city/town economies Damage to infrastructure not designed to standards of occurrences being experienced in urban and rural areas Displacement and population movement from informal settlements built on steep slope hazard lands, etc More favourable breeding grounds for pathogens (e.g. mosquitoes and malaria) Population health impacts (increased incidences of waterborne diseases like cholera)

Sea level rise

Coastal flooding

Displacement and population movement from property damage

Saltwater intrusion into groundwater

Damage to infrastructure not designed to standards of occurrences being experienced

Supplies in coastal area

Increased disruption of livelihoods and urban economies Population health impacts (injuries, increased mortality and illness) (continued)

2.2 Health and Environmental Management

23

Table 2.2 (continued) Climate change

Impact

Urban planning consequences

Increased storm surge hazard

Interruption of food supply networks Increased risk of landslides or mudslides on hazard slopes

Source Adapted from Developing Local Climate Change Plans, UN-HABITAT/International Institute for Environment & Development (2010) and Willbanks et al. (2007)

management. The spatial scale of environmental issues needs to be segregated at global/city/community and local/household levels. Land is a non-renewable resource, which is consumed to accommodate the growing population. Once converted to use for habitation, it becomes non-retrievable. A study of the present land use pattern in India indicates shortfall in land under forests and pasture. Lands under agricultural use have been and are increasingly getting converted and annexed for uses like expansion of settlements for human habitation. The rate of urbanisation in India shows that an additional 2–3 million hectares would be required for human settlements during the last 20 years. Sacrificing agricultural land for habitation implies reduction of land for producing food for the ever-growing population. Thus, agricultural lands and the lands that sustain biodiversity, water and groundwater, besides the fragile, sensitive areas and coastal zones need protection and conservation. Land for development needs to be judiciously utilised for various uses according to the inherent capacity and suitability for the particular land use. Energy scenario in India is characterised by increasing demand for energy growing at the rate of about three times in the last two decades making the country the fifth largest energy consumer. The post-independence era has experienced a shift in the bias towards commercial energy sources, which is slated to be the predominant energy source in future. Coal, oil and gas are the primary commercial sources with coal dominating the energy supply of the country. The actual production of coal is the highest as compared to other primary energy sources. However, higher reserve–production ratios of oil and gas over decades show that the rate of growth in production is higher than that of the production of coal. Power generation capacity has also increased in order to meet the rising demands. The energy consumption sectors include industrial, transport, commercial, agriculture and domestic sectors, which involve increased oil imports.

2.2 Health and Environmental Management The objective of sustainable development is to provide a healthy living environment to the citizens and to manage the resources in a sustainable manner. Major issues that need to be tackled in an environmental management plan are as follows:

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Table 2.3 Projected impacts on urban areas of changes in extreme weather and climate events Climate phenomena

Major projected impacts

Warmer and fewer cold days and nights

Reduced energy demand for heating

Warmer and more frequent hot days and nights Increased demand for cooling over most land areas Declining air quality in cities Warmer temperatures

Reduced disruption to transport due to snow, ice effects on winter tourism Changes in permafrost, damages to buildings and infrastructures

Warm spells/heat waves. Frequency increases over most land areas

Reduction in quality of life for people in warm areas without air-conditioning; impacts on elderly, very young and poor including, significant loss of life

Heavy precipitation events. Frequency increases over most areas

Disruption of settlements, commerce, transport and societies due to flooding

Increases in energy usage for air-conditioning

Pressures on infrastructures, potentials for use of rain in hydropower generation Significant loss of human life, injuries; loss of and damage to property Areas affected by drought increases

Water shortages Reduced hydropower generation potentials Potential for population migration

Intense tropical cyclone activity increases

Disruption by flood and high winds Disruption of public water supply Withdrawal of risk coverage in vulnerable areas Significant loss of human life, injuries; loss of and damage to property Potentials for population migration

Increased incidence of extreme high sea level (excludes tsunamis)

Costs of coastal protection versus costs of land use relocation Decreased freshwater availability due to saltwater intrusion Significant loss of human life, injuries; loss of and damage to property Potential for movement of population and infrastructure

Source IPCC (2014)

2.2 Health and Environmental Management

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• • • • •

Conservation of green areas, fertile land, forests, geology and hydrology Rejuvenation of rivers and water bodies, groundwater augmentation Pollution prevention (water, air, noise, land) Management of pollution sources (industries, transport, households) Provision of efficient sustainable infrastructure (energy, water supply, sewage, sanitation, liquid and solid waste management, etc.) • Provision of compatible land uses and compact and smart growth. An environmental management plan covers the aspects of air, noise, surface water, groundwater and green spaces, which are dealt with in an integrated manner. As the term ecology connotes the spacing and placing of people and institution and their interdependency, the raison-de-etre of environmental planning is to create a healthy, liveable, equitable and sustainable environment. Environment impact assessment requires reducing negative environmental impacts arising from the extraction of natural resources, water, pollution due to industries, power generation, transportation, mining or agriculture, land degradation, production of wastes and emissions. These impacts can be estimated by life cycle analysis (LCA) in combination with various input–output techniques. Impact decoupling means that negative environmental impacts decline while value is added in economic terms. Technological systems aim to protect the environment which use the resources in a sustainable manner and recycle their wastes to generate low or no waste. Technological systems include knowhow, procedures, goods and services and equipment as well as organisational and managerial procedures. Technological systems involve infrastructure services, such as intelligent services and geographic information system (GIS), integrating data for capturing, managing, analysing and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. Building Information Modelling (BIM) provides computerised layers of information, planned details of the structure containing everything from 3D drawing and planning documents, service plans and controls to the specifications of building materials, components, light fitting and fixtures. BIM is an integrated, collaborative process that enables engineers, architects, contractors and clients to work from a single, digital project model and share reliable, coordinated information at every stage of a project life cycle. During recent times, the purpose of automation and BIM has been shifting from increasing productivity and reducing costs to increasing sustainability, energy efficiency, quality and flexibility of the building. These systems yield better speed, accuracy and customisation (Fig. 2.1). BIM tools can simulate the entire construction sequence beforehand addressing sustainability issues and reducing waste by choosing the best option. Global positioning systems are increasingly being used on construction sites, aiding the operators to build, lay underground services to cut exactly by satellite guided tools. GPS devices, for example can be attached to equipment grading the road. A GPS-linked computer indicates whether the grading is being done in the right place, or it is too deep. By BIM ‘on-site’ virtual system, pipe work installed in a building can be inspected by a worker. Before installation, a contractor digitally tags every pipe,

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2 Climate Change, Carbon Emissions and Built Environment

Fig. 2.1 Building Information Modelling (BIM). Source Jain (2022) Architecture Past, Present and Future, Delta Books, New Delhi

and electrical cables are computer tagged, which provides an augmented version of reality through 3D glasses that recognises the tags and displays exactly where a misplaced cable or pipe could be relaying data back to a central control unit. Fourth Industrial Revolution: Whereas the businesses and industries are transformed by Fourth Industrial Revolution and new technologies, such as combinatorial and discrete optimisation, algorithms, complexity theory, artificial intelligence, big data and the ubiquitous cloud, the construction is still one of the most inefficient and fragmented sectors. Mathematical algorithm is a process of addressing a problem in a finite number of steps. It can be an articulation of a strategic plan for solving a problem. Algorithms are expressed in terms of mathematical equations which define the rules of the model. The emerging technologies, such as automatic guided vehicles (AGVs), robotics drive units (RDUs) and adaptive environment-reconfiguring machines, have shaken the foundations of design and architecture. The new computation simulation methods favour the emergence of carbon neutral and flexible building blocks, which are efficient, economical and unwasteful. It needs a transition from the era of fossil fuels to green, carbon negative buildings and cities by digital and parametric design and construction. Digital fabrication uses design-to-fabrication workflows to enable a faster construction process, minimise resources and material-specific design solutions. It integrates design, simulation and digital fabrication to create complex, customised products using ubiquitous manufacturing hardware. Digital manufacturing has facilitated opportunities of surface patterning and the fabrication of off-site building components, removing the constraints of standardisation in the construction industry. Material feedback allows adjusting the digital fabrication in order to negotiate material properties and to calibrate a precise relation between the whole and the individual units of construction. Infrastructure and communication technology (ICT)-enabled infrastructure services focus on intelligent computing infrastructure with cutting-edge advances

2.2 Health and Environmental Management

27

in cyber–physical systems and innovation support. Since a city is composed of numerous buildings, these also need to be smart, net zero energy and water and green. Integration of major systems on a common network helps optimise use assignment and space configurations, minimising the urban footprint and underperforming space. The ICT can also help in the integration of citizen participation, governance and online consultation over plans and programmes of infrastructure development. Smart Energy: The term ‘smart energy’ denotes integrated, scalable system through the distribution and transmission systems and use of renewable sources. A smarter energy system is instrumented, with sensors and controls embedded into the fabric of its operations; it is interconnected, enabling the two-way flow of information, including pricing. It is intelligent, using analytics and automation to turn data into insights and to manage resources more efficiently. Smart energy systems can help the enormous energy saving, operating costs and reduce the need to build more capacity. These also help to anticipate, detect and respond to problems quickly; empower consumers; and help integrate electric vehicles and energy from renewable sources. Smart grids also stand to be more resistant to attacks and natural disasters. A nextgeneration grid that anticipates, detects and responds to problems quickly has the potential to reduce wide-area outages to near zero. Consumers empowered with better information can make smarter choices about how they use energy. By integrating energy from renewable sources like solar and wind onto the grid, overall impact on the environment can be curtailed, and cities can be more self-sufficient in energy. Smart utilities aim at high-quality water supply, drainage, sewerage and waste management in catering to growing population. For water supply, the ICT solutions, such as SCADA system, enable enhanced efficiency and transparency. Similar benefits are available in respect of solid waste management and other utilities. ICT-controlled three-bin recycling adopts separate bins for trash, recyclables and compost. Collection charges drop as trash drops. Satellite-controlled park and lawn micro-irrigation system cuts water consumption and pumping power. Smart Mobility: Intelligent transport solutions can provide seamless, safer, efficient and effective management of public transport systems. Similar results are also visible by use of IT in the planning and management of transport infrastructure and services like taxis, autos, goods transport, signalling system, signage, transport simulation, etc. Intelligent Community Frameworks: Community facilities such as health, education, recreational and other neighbourhood services need to be planned to the highest standards of leadership in energy and environmental design (LEEDS) that saves energy, materials and emissions. A smart neighbourhood strives to achieve infrastructure efficiency, conservation of water, energy and natural resources. Smart cities and green buildings can give energy and water saving up to onethird, reduce carbon emissions, provide higher efficiency and comfort with lesser energy and water consumption. The cities and buildings have not only to be comfortable, green and efficient, but also intelligent and integrated. More than 100 smart city projects have been initiated during 2014–2022 in various Indian states, which include a network of cities on Delhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor and GIFT City

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Gandhinagar. Various state governments are preparing the blueprints for smart cities, Amravati, the new Capital for Andhra Pradesh, being the latest. Superinsulated windows quadruple the thermal performance of double panes and can be made from the glass in existing windows. Sensor-controlled photovoltaic cell, smart glass, passive climate design, earth-air tunnel, PEDC, etc. can significantly save on air-conditioning and high energy cost. ICT-enabled key services and specifics are shown in the Table 2.4: ICT-enabled e-governance: ICT can enable coordination, monitoring and egovernance, together with sharing information among the various departments, private sector utilities, residents and other stakeholders. In any city, there are more than 100 citizen services that require engagement with civic authorities for enquiries, registration, form submissions, payments, grievances, etc. The availability of egateway for citizen service delivery has attracted much attention in municipal governance and is bringing out a silent revolution in many city corporations, breaking away the barriers of distance, class and gender. GIS enables citizens to take photographs on mobile and send an SMS to the administration. So far, e-governance services have been mostly delivered individually, and there has not been significant effort at integration. Utilising the ICT infrastructure for delivering integrated services through web and mobile platforms will metamorphose e-governance. The dashboard will capture and address the complaint and even escalate the matter to higher authorities, if unaddressed. Mumbai has 60 layered features of GIS mapping which are geo-referenced. Aamchi Mumbai (My Mumbai) provides e-services, which are transparent, timebound and integrated with related modules like property, town planning, trade and market licence, water billing, etc. It reduces processing time for service delivery and is convenient due to single touch point services. It has yielded an image overhaul of ULB with better and corruption-free services.

Table 2.4 ICT-enabled key services and specifics 1

ICT-enabled key services

Implementation specifics

Energy

• Common digital platform • Energy networks, smart grids, smart meters, smart buildings • Renewable energy • Electric vehicles, green hydrogen • Power quality monitoring • Energy conservation, storage and efficiency • Bionic controls, passive evaporative draught cooling, earth-air tunnel • Intelligent management/maintenance, MIS (continued)

2.2 Health and Environmental Management

29

Table 2.4 (continued) 2

ICT-enabled key services

Implementation specifics

Public utilities

• Common digital platform • Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) • ERP solutions • Intelligent water and sewerage networks with minimum losses and leakages • Intelligent metering, billing and payment • Waste recycling • Plug the non-revenue water (NRW) losses • Identifying leaks using non-invasive techniques and advanced analytics by managing the pressure in the network at pumps and valves, which reduce energy consumption

3

Smart mobility

• Transit-oriented development • Real-time congestion information • Simulation modelling and analysis • Smart cards, driverless vehicles • Smart signals, traffic controls, variable signage, mobile-enabled real-time maps/routes, way finding, etc • ICT-enabled traffic control, vehicle safety, communication, dynamic regional network modelling, multi-modal integration • Safety and security, accident monitoring, forensic analysis • Infrastructure integration, smart city pole • Digital taxi/car/bus/auto pools • Maintenance, MIS and management

4

Intelligent community frameworks

• Digital intelligent community planning • Networked education, health, recreation and other facilities • Digital data on residential types, WFH, hostels, night shelter, social rental housing, etc

5

Smart city and green buildings

• CAD- and CAM-enabled EPC management • Integrated digital planning, conservation of land, natural resources, heritage and environment • GIS, GPS, remote sensing, total station/drone/satellite surveys, photogrammetry • Big data analytics, ERP solutions (continued)

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2 Climate Change, Carbon Emissions and Built Environment

Table 2.4 (continued) ICT-enabled key services

Implementation specifics • EIA, heritage/transport impact analysis, experience simulation, concept generating matrix, morphological synthesis, LiFE platform, digital ledger and dashboard • Environmental management • Smart building, parametric design, morphotectonic strategies, animation, simulation, algorithm and equations, 3D modelling, digital fabrication, morphogenic geometry, biomimicry, adaptive systems, NURBS curves and surfaces, spline topology, Voronoi, genetic computation, fuzzy logic, robotics, etc • Building Information Modelling • Digital land information system, digital mapping, SDI, geo-portal, GIS-based property records, plans and transactions • Online building plan approval and clearances

6

Land management

• Digital blockchain • Land administration digital model (LADM) • Accommodation reservation, transferable development rights, etc

7

Disaster management

• Early warning system, emergency aid, rescue, relief, repair, restoration and reconstruction, medical aid, life support • Intelligent and integrated digital control and command centre

8

Telecom networks

• Broadband development, home automation, internet access, • ICT support and training • Public security system and safety • Consolidated billing • Business incubation centre, climate street, electronic trade office, city administration, technology and innovation centre • Geo-portal, mobile-based supervision and control

9

Assets management

Source Author

• Digital property records, e-transactions, e-registration, e-taxation

Chapter 3

Air Quality and Pollution Control

Air pollution is the presence of contaminants or pollutant substances in the air that do not disperse properly and interfere with human health or welfare or produce other harmful environmental effects. Air pollutants may include forms of matter of almost any natural or artificial composition capable of being airborne. They may consist of solid particles, liquid droplets or gases, or combinations of these forms. Urban air pollution is linked to up to 1.6 million premature deaths and prenatal deaths each year. Urban air pollution is estimated to cost approximately 1% of GDP (source: Lancet Commission on pollution and health, 2019). About 77% population of India is exposed to ambient PM2.5 above 40 µg/m3 , which is the recommended limit by the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (CPCB 2018). The mean ambient particulate matter PM2.5 annual exposure of 90 µg/m3 in India is one of the highest in the world. Air pollution stands out as the most disturbing aspect of environmental damage and health risks. As per the Central Pollution Control Board, most of the top polluted cities are in North India, with Delhi at 14th rank, having severe levels of PM2.5 and PM10 (Table 3.1). According to Environment Pollution Control Authority (EPCA), the severity of air pollution is categorised as moderate, poor, very poor, severe, severe+ or emergency, which is based on the levels of PM2.5 and PM10 in the air. (Table 3.2).

3.1 Sources of Air Pollution Air pollution is a multi-headed problem which emanates from various sources. These need to be documented and analysed to work out the solutions tailored to such sources (Table 3.3). The major sources of air pollution are urban transport, dust from construction and demolition activity, the use of ‘dirty’ fuels such as diesel, use of coal for industries and electricity generation, use of wood and coal for cooking, industrial pollution, ozone-depleting air-conditioners and burning of agriculture and urban wastes. While © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Jain, Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0216-3_3

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Table 3.1 Most polluted cities in India Rank

City

AQI

Condition

State

1

Jind

448

Severe

Haryana

2

Baghpat

440

Severe

Uttar Pradesh

3

Ghaziabad

440

Severe

Uttar Pradesh

4

Hapur

436

Severe

Uttar Pradesh

5

Lucknow

435

Severe

Uttar Pradesh

6

Moradabad

434

Severe

Uttar Pradesh

7

Noida

430

Severe

Uttar Pradesh

8

Greater Noida

428

Severe

Uttar Pradesh

9

Kanpur

427

Severe

Uttar Pradesh

10

Sirsa

426

Severe

Haryana

14

Delhi

407

Severe

Delhi

As on 4th Nov. during 24 h (4 pm–4 pm) Source CPCB (2018)

Table 3.2 Severity measure of air quality Moderate

When PM2.5 is between 60 and 90 µg/m3 or PM10 is between 10 and 250 µg/m3

Poor

When PM2.5 is between 91 and 120 µg/m3 or PM 10 is between 251 and 350 µg/m3

Very poor

When PM2.5 is between 121 and 250 µg/m3 or PM 10 is between 351 and 430 µg/m3

Severe

When PM2.5 level is above 250 or PM10 is level above 430 µg/m3

Severe+ or emergency

When PM2.5 levels cross 300 µg/m3 or PM10 levels cross 500 µg/m3 (five times above the standard and persists for 48 h or more)

Source EPCA Jain (2019) Spatial Planning for Clean Air, ITPI Journal, July–September

primary particles like SO2 and NO2 are directly released into the atmosphere from sources, such as industries and vehicles and secondary particles, such as sulphates, nitrates and organic aerosols are formed from these primary particles through reaction by solar radiation, relative humidity and presence of metals. A consequence of rapid motorisation in India, especially in large cities like Delhi, is visible by air pollution. Its impact on the natural and the built environment (noise, pollution, traffic accidents, community severance) are discernible all over. The fast growth of private vehicles is seen as a most intractable source of carbon emissions. Environmental footprints of urban transport include the amount of resources (including embedded energy) used in their production, amount of waste produced by their disposal and continued use of fossil fuels. In Delhi, 72% of emissions (suspended particulate matter) are from motorised vehicles. Of these, the private vehicles, which

3.1 Sources of Air Pollution Table 3.3 Sources of air pollution

33 Source category Types of sources Area sources

• • • • • • • • • • •

Domestic cooking Bakeries Crematoria Hotels and restaurants Open eat-outs Open burning (refuse/biomass/tyre, etc., burning) Paved and unpaved roads Construction/demolition/alteration activities for buildings Roads, flyovers Waste incinerators DG Sets

Point sources

• Large-scale industries and power plants • Medium-scale industries • Small-scale industries (36 industrial estates)

Line sources

• 2-Wheelers (scooters, motorcycles, mopeds) • 3-Wheelers (CNG) • 4-Wheelers (gasoline, diesel, CNG) • LCVs (light commercial vehicles) • Trucks (trucks, min-trucks, multi-axle trucks) • Buses (diesel, CNG)

Source Jain (2019) Spatial Planning for Clean Air, ITPI Journal, July–September

are 90% of total motorised transport, carry 31% of vehicular trips responsible for 90% of emissions. Violent traffic and transport impact the health and safety of the people. With less than 1% of the world’s vehicle population, India accounts for 6% of world’s road accidents and 10% of world’s road fatalities. More than 1.41,000 people die in road accidents, and more than 1 million fatal road accidents happen every year. Studies show that road transportation needs 4–5 times the energy that is needed by a train. The energy used by a car to carry a passenger over one kilometre is 3–4 times that of a bus. Greenhouse gas emission per passenger of public transport (bus, rail and trams) is about one-twelfth that of a car. Although Non-Motorised Transport (NMT) including walking is ideal from the point of view of emissions, in terms of kilometres travelled, these cover only 1–2% of the total kilometres travelled, even if the proportion of trips are as high as 40%. It implies that rail-based public transport, bus, cycle and walking provide a greener transportation by reduction in use of fossil fuels and air pollution. A compact and smart city with mixed land use, cleaner, fast and low-energy public transport provides sustainable mobility. In terms of capacity,

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costs and emissions, walking is most competitive, economical and environmentally sustainable mode of mobility. Regulating the air pollution from different stakeholders is difficult because its impact is geographically dispersed, often across the States and jurisdictional lines. For instance, around half of Delhi’s air pollution during the months of October and November is attributed to the burning of agricultural waste in neighbouring states. This means that apart from localised solutions to the air pollution, the Delhi Government must also coordinate with the governments of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand to control this external source of pollution. The central conflict in the effort to control air pollution is the balancing of effective environmental policies against robust economic growth, much of which is driven by mass consumption and unsustainable technologies. The CNG buses are costlier than the unregulated, heavily polluting private buses. Likewise, the use of ‘dirty’ fuels such as wood and coal is much more polluting than using a costlier LPG stove or induction cooker. The policy-makers find it hard to curtail carbon inefficient consumption because doing so would prove unpopular with the masses. However, such a notion ignores the economic cost of rising air pollution, something that still needs extensive research to be conducted for it to be properly quantified. Air pollution is not a standalone factor but is a product of several aspects of sustainability, such as mobility, recreational, greenery, solid waste management, energy and infrastructure services.

3.2 National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) The Government of India have launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) and Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP). The incidences of episodic air pollution in India, especially in Delhi NCR, in recent years have led to the preparation of comprehensive National Clean Air Programme (NCAP). It seeks to have efficient data management and dissemination, public outreach and timely measures for prevention and mitigation of air pollution. The Government is executing the National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP), which consists of 691 manual operating stations covering 303 cities/towns. Under NAMP, four air pollutants, viz. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2 ), Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2 /NOx ), Suspended Particulate Matter (PM10 ) and Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5 ), have been identified for regular monitoring at all the locations. In addition, there are 101 real-time Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS) in 57 cities monitoring 8 pollutants, viz. PM10 , PM2.5 , SO2 , NOx , ammonia (NH3 ), CO, ozone (O3 ) and benzene. The monitoring is being carried out with the help of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB); State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB); Pollution Control Committees (PCC) and National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) define the ambient air quality with reference to various pollutants notified by the Central Pollution Control Board

3.3 Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

35

under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. Major objectives of NAAQS are (i) to indicate necessary air quality levels and appropriate margins required to ensure the protection of vegetation, health and property, (ii) to provide a uniform yardstick for assessment of air quality at the national level and (iii) to indicate the extent and need of monitoring programme. National Air Quality Index (AQI) comprises six categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor and Severe. Each of these categories is decided based on ambient concentration values of air pollutants and their likely health impacts. For eight pollutants (PM10 , PM2.5 , NO2 , SO2 , CO, O3 , NH3 and Pb), National Ambient Air Quality Standards have been prescribed. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has issued a comprehensive set of directions for implementation of 42 measures to mitigate air pollution comprising action which includes control and mitigation measures related to vehicular emissions, resuspension of road dust and other fugitive emissions, biomass/municipal solid waste burning, industrial pollution, construction and demolition activities. These were issued initially for implementation in the NCR but have now been extended to other States in India. Vehicles have been identified as major source of pollution. In this regard, Bharat Stage IV (BS-IV) norms have been launched for mandatory implementation since 1 April 2017 and BS-VI since 1 April 2020. Other measures include use of cleaner/alternative gaseous fuels, like CNG, LPG and ethanol blending in petrol in order to reduce vehicle exhaust emissions, promotion of public transport, Pollution Under Control Certificate, lane discipline, vehicle maintenance, etc. It is estimated that a 5% blending can save around 1.8 million barrels of crude oil. The renewable ethanol content, which is a by-product of the sugar industry, is expected to result in a net reduction in the emission of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC). Ethanol itself burns cleaner and burns more completely than petrol it is blended into. In India, ethanol is mainly derived by sugarcane molasses, which is a by-product in the conversion of sugar cane juice to sugar.

3.3 Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) The Government has notified a Graded Response Action Plan for Delhi and NCR, comprising the graded measures for each source of air pollution. It also gives a health advisory for each level of AQI. The plan has been framed keeping in view the key pollution sources in Delhi and National Capital Region (NCR). While major sources of pollution-vehicles, road dust, biomass burning, construction, power plants and industries remain continuous throughout all seasons, the episodic pollution from stubble burning, increase in biomass burning, etc., varies across seasons. During winter, the relative share of air pollution from the vehicles, biomass burning, solid waste burning, firecrackers, stubble burning, construction and secondary particles increase. During summer, the influence of road dust, fly ash, vehicles, biomass

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3 Air Quality and Pollution Control

burning, etc., is high. The Graded Response Action Plan includes appropriate measures for each source of pollution. The measures are graded from public health emergency level to Very Poor, Poor and Moderate AQI. The responsibility of implementing the GRAP lies with the Environment Pollution Control Authority (EPCA).

3.4 Clean Air and Sustainable Development Goals In order to arrest air pollution, the following agenda of sustainable development goals (2030) can be adapted: i.

Double the rate of improvement of energy efficiency in India’s metropolitan cities ii. Double the emission reduction from energy production iii. Halve the number of deaths per 100,000 persons caused by air pollution iv. Halve the number of health complications per 100,000 caused by air pollution. Based on the identification of major sources of air pollution and analysis of ambient air quality, various scenarios of emission control from point sources and area sources need to be worked out for next 5 years.

3.5 Strategic Planning for Clean Air According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, urban areas account for more than half of global primary energy use and energy-related CO2 emissions. They account for 67–76% of global energy use and similar amount of CO2 emissions. Infrastructure and urban form are interlinked and shape the land use, transport choice and housing and affect the sustainability and efficiency of city. This needs adopting a low carbon (thus low emissions) urban form and structure. The critical aspects of low carbon urban form for clean air comprise the following: • • • • • • • • •

Density/FAR optimisation and linked with mixed land use Connectivity, walkability and transport Accessibility for all Traffic calming Zero-polluting industries and renewable power Phasing out biomass fuels Dust control Green buildings Landscape as sink of air pollution. These strategies need real-time data and inventory as its basis.

3.7 Density/FAR Optimisation and Mixed-Use

37

3.6 Air Monitoring Data and Inventory There is little information about the real-time pollution levels in the immediate vicinity that are affecting the people’s health. Even in a large city like Delhi, the government has only 26 air pollution monitoring stations which provide local data on pollution levels. The information on air pollution is often ad-hoc and inadequate. Lack of Continuous Emissions Monitoring (CEM) equipment means that stakeholders are unable to identify the sources, diagnose and enforce that are worsening the problem. Air quality data is significant to gaining a thorough understanding of local air pollution. Recent technological advancements have made it possible to gather data, with new low-cost monitoring devices and advanced methods of collating and analysing it. This helps to gain a robust understanding of pollution levels, their causes and effect. Nowadays, smart electricity poles with sensors are available to monitor pollution parameters along with light, CCTV, wi-fi, etc. The New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) has been using them in New Delhi. Citywide air quality monitoring networks and data from these can provide consumers with a continuous feed of air quality in their area (Fig. 3.1). The Google plans to map street by street air pollution that will be available to the common man. The active sensors will measure CO2 , CO, NOx, NO2 , ozone and particulate matter. Continuous Emission Monitoring (CEM) and Air quality data can be used to identify major components, sources, quantification and projects. It can also help the government to apply monetary incentives and penalties for polluting companies. State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) can provide tax benefits and ease other regulations on emission-efficient industries while penalising inefficient ones. At the central level, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) can also use this data to introduce a cap-and-trade system, instead of the existing ‘command-and-control’ regulations. The data can be used to analyse the issues, sources and project various options and actively schedule to assign the responsibilities and project management, including timelines and monitoring. The critical pathways towards clean air include the following:

3.7 Density/FAR Optimisation and Mixed-Use Compact, high-density, mixed-use development near public transportation infrastructure provides housing, employment, entertainment and civic functions within walking distance of the transit system. Pedestrian-oriented design encourages people and workers to use their cars less and ride public transit more. It aims to: • Reduce/discourage private vehicle dependency and induce public transport use— through policy measures, design interventions and enforcement.

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3 Air Quality and Pollution Control

Fig. 3.1 Intelligent smart pole. Source http://www.elkoep.com/smartpole

• Provide public transit access to the maximum number of people through densification and enhanced connectivity. City-level integrated plans for reducing need to travel involve maximising densities in order to facilitate maximum number of people walking or cycling or use NMT or feeder services to access public transit facility. Higher the density, lower the perkilometre infrastructure cost. A balanced mix of jobs and housing along mass transit corridors coupled with caps on parking supply, higher housing affordability through design and technology options, improved efficiency and equity are necessary for pollution control. It is being increasingly realised that the structural solutions, like flyovers built at enormous cost, provide only a temporary relief and fail to keep pace with the growth of traffic. For a synergy between land use and public transport system, it is necessary

3.8 Accessibility for All

39

to restructure the city by Transit Oriented Development, higher density, FAR and mixed land use for a compact and smart growth. Connectivity, Walkability and Transport: Prime Minister Narendra Modi while inaugurating the Global Mobility summit in September 2018 encapsulated 7 Cs of mobility—common, connected, convenient, congestion-free, charged, clean and cutting-edge. He underlined the need to use clean energy for transport as a powerful weapon against climate change. This means a pollution-free clean drive leading to clean air and better living standards. He championed the idea of clean kilometres which could be achieved through biofuel, electric or solar charging and electric vehicles (PIB 2018). The installation of engine optimisation and exhaust gas recirculation technologies and promoting rail and waterways for public transport and freight can reduce black carbon emissions by 90%. Some other critical areas to reduce emission from transport include: • Development and spread of low emission public transport, commercial and private vehicles • To increase the use of electric cars, e-rickshaws and e-buses • Initiating a consumer campaign for car-pooling and ridesharing • Building support for tighter controls on vehicular emissions and stricter compliance with PUC norms • Providing N-99 pollution masks to traffic policemen, rag pickers, street vendors, sanitary workers, construction workers, students, etc.

3.8 Accessibility for All Informal and intermediate modes of transport, which include 3-wheelers, vans, pickups, rickshaws, manual thelas and rehri, etc., cater to about 30–60% of passengers and goods movement in the cities like Delhi. As compared to small truck, the autos and rickshaws are substantially cheaper, which by multiple trips deliver as much as a 5-tonne truck in a day. Courier services, perishables, such as milk, vegetables, fruits, groceries and other short-haul deliveries are increasingly being made by auto-rickshaw, van or tricycle, These reach in the narrow lanes and congested areas where public authorities do not allow trucks/public carriers during day time and also during frequent VVIP visits, processions, ceremonies, etc. The urban form plays an important role in the safe urban mobility by accommodating all modes to travel, including walking, wheelchair, cycling, public transit and people by a safe, efficient and attractive road network, with generous footpaths and trees. Safe and accessible cities are compact, walkable and sustainable, which provide comfortable, safe, affordable, reliable and non-polluting public travel modes. Most of the local facilities are reachable by a convenient 5-min (400–500 m) walking, with dedicated paths for walking and cycling. Neighbourhood facilities, shops, schools,

40

3 Air Quality and Pollution Control

parks, clubs and city centres are located along the pedestrian, cycle and public transport corridors. The strategy for non-polluting and safe mobility covers the following: • Reduce need to travel by Transit-Oriented Development and Travel Demand Management • Improvement of public transport, sidewalks, cycle tracks, NMVs underpasses and overpasses • Safety-oriented planning and engineering specifications, norms and practice • Upgrading of traffic control—multi-functional and sophisticated signal control and ITS • Drivers’ licence regime • Work Zone Safety • Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). It is necessary to provide barrier-free, wide and safer pedestrian corridors at grade while the motorised vehicles move up and down. The walkways also need to cater to wheelchair users that require avoidance of steps and provision of curb ramps. Such facility should be provided on all major roads, national and state highways, in front of village abadi, cattle grazing fields, transport nodes (Railway Stations, Metro Stations, Bus Terminals, etc.), and also forests and wildlife areas.

3.9 Traffic Calming The need for traffic calming has become urgent in India. This involves reducing speeds, noise and volumes by various measures such as no horn zoning, traffic circles at intersections, raised crosswalks and partial street closures to discourage short-cut traffic through residential neighbourhoods. Traffic calming is necessary in residential zones and also in the areas fronting university, college, schools, hospitals, etc. Traffic calming/noise control measures involve notifying No Horn Zones, constitution of area-wise noise control circles, preparation of Noise Monitoring and Control Plan (NMCP), hybrid electric vehicles, speed breaker/hump, landscape and noise buffers and rubberised road surface. Public transport has to be disabled and wheelchair friendly with tactile flooring, low floor buses with footboard at level with the platform and proper street lighting for the safety and security of pedestrians. A dedicated bicycle lane has to be built along every road. The signage, maps, variable message signs, pedestrian crossings, integrated fare collection systems, protection systems and communication are important elements of safe mobility.

3.11 Phasing Out Fossil Fuels

41

3.10 Zero-Polluting Industries and Renewable Power Industries and power have a crucial role in shaping India’s path to combating air pollution. Cement and steel are the building blocks of modern infrastructure, and the two industries account for roughly 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions. These industries need to shrink their environmental footprint by following measures: • Strengthening of enforcement and emissions monitoring • Scaling up of Emissions Trading Schemes • The development and installation of emission-free technologies, especially in the power and brick-making industries • Installing continuous emissions monitoring technology (CEMS) at manufacturing locations and placing more accountability on industrial polluters • Introduction of gaseous fuels and enforcement of stringent SO2 /NOx /PM2.5 standards for industries using solid fuels • Elimination of DG set usage by provision of 24 × 7 electricity and by innovative tail pipe control technologies • Use of agricultural stubble/residue in power plants and industries to replace high ash coal and open burning in fields. Innovations at local level are important. Chakr Innovations Pvt. Ltd. proposed a technology that coupled with exhaust pipe of diesel engines absorbs PM emissions and converts the captured particulate matter into black ink and paints. In this project, the goal was to test the effectiveness of Chakr’s device in reducing PM emissions and assess if this technology is a cost-effective way of reducing diesel genset pollution. Another project, Charvesting, deploys charvesters that recycle rice straws into biochar with clean emissions using the biochar reactors. It helps farmers to comply with existing air pollution laws at minimal cost and effort, increase soil productivity and restore depleted land.

3.11 Phasing Out Fossil Fuels Air pollution is caused by burning of fossil fuels, especially for cooking, wastes, etc. This can be mitigated by the following measures: • Boosting of PNG Supply Network and clean-cooking stoves that use PNG/LPG or solar energy • The implementation of gasification technologies to help convert waste into biomass pellets or electricity.

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3.12 Dust Control Dust is a major contributor to urban air pollution. It is necessary to adopt wallto-wall paving of roads, green cover, trees and shrubs and the vacuum sweeping of roads. Dust particles can be controlled by screens, filters, flagging machines, vacuum cleaning, humidification, sprinkling of water and artificial rain.

3.13 Green Buildings The polluting agents found indoors are chemicals such as cleaning products, volatile organic compounds, dust, infectious agents, fragrances, cooking fumes and smoke. Mould spores and various other particulate matters and toxic gases are the biggest pollutant found in the air. A humidity level of 65% or more, along with a temperature ranging between 10 and 32 °C, makes a suitable environment for the mould spores to grow indoors. Mould growth can be prevented by increasing natural ventilation, covering cold surfaces like water pipes with insulation, increasing the air temperature and keeping all hard surfaces clean by washing or wiping with detergent or other disinfectants. Proliferation of low carbon and green building technologies that produce as much energy as a building consumes can help in controlling the air pollution and wider use of green rating, such as GRIHA, can help reduce the building’s energy consumption and emissions. Passive design of buildings can reduce the need of air-conditioning. For a comprehensive approach, it is necessary to prepare energy efficiency and low carbon neighbourhood plans. Green Roof Mahila Housing SEWA Trust, in collaboration with Tata Centre for Development and Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago, India unit, has deployed cool roofing solution in a Delhi slum which attempts to lower indoor temperatures and energy consumption for cooling.

3.14 Landscape as Sink of Air Pollution The plants remove toxic pollutants from environment by the process of phytovolatilisation (pollutant is released in volatile or gaseous form), phytoextraction (pollutant is accumulated in harvestable parts of tissue like leaf surface), phytodegradation (pollutant is broken down into simpler molecular form), phytostimulation (organic pollutants from soil are broken down ensuring oxygen to the rooms) and phytostabilisation (pollutant is immobilised in soil). The indoor environments also reflect outdoor air quality and pollution. As such, it is necessary to sustain existing trees and increase number of healthy trees, which will reduce and regulate pollution levels. Evergreen trees with smaller, rough and

3.14 Landscape as Sink of Air Pollution

43

variegated leaves are more efficient in trapping air pollutants than longer and smooth leaves. The strategic pathways towards clean air start with digital, real-time documentation of various sources of air pollution. These are the basis of the preparation of pollution control plans at district, municipal and local levels. Low carbon urban systems require alternatives such as zero net energy buildings, blockchain technology and smart utilities. All these involve Big Data Analytics, Supervising Control Data Acquisition Systems (SCADA), ERP solutions, GIS-integrated Digital Control/Command Centres and Satellite Surveillance.

Chapter 4

Urbanism and Circular Systems

According to the Census 2011, India’s urban population of 377 million in 2011 is poised to increase to 600 million by 2031. The urban growth is a major challenge for India’s economic, social, and ecological sustainability. With differential geographics, urbanism poses complex issue at policy, strategic and operation level. According to the Census 2011, India has 7936 cities and towns, of which 3893 are statutory (with a municipal body), and 4043 are census towns/urban agglomerations. Only 52 of statutory cities and towns and 76% of census towns/UA do not have a master plan. This results in deficiencies in their integrated development, physical and social infrastructure services (such as water supply, energy, sanitation, drainage, communication, greenery/parks, education, health, security), housing, transportation, and environmental sustainability. The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, defines functions and fiscal autonomy for municipal bodies. The constitution’s 12th schedule devolved 18 functions like town planning, land use regulations, water supply, roads, sanitation, solid waste management, etc., to local bodies. However, the state government continue to hold over most of the power and revenue. Central Schemes have not been able to devolve power to the States and urban local bodies. A national consultation of 21 cities by NGO Praja (2021) reveals how state governments are usurping the roles of urban local bodies. The multiplicity of departments and handling of the municipal functions by the state government is rampant. In Mumbai, BMC controls only 9 of 18 functions assigned to it under the 12th schedule (Praja Dialogue, Urban Reforms needed in Maharashtra, August 2021, Issue 129). In Delhi, the MCD controls only 4 functions. The GST (goods and services tax) has been a big blow in the financial status of urban local bodies with their taxes like octroi, entry tax and advertisement tax taken out, making them dependent on budgetary transfers. Property tax remains stagnant due to vote bank politics and low collection efficiency. The issues are closely linked with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030, Conference of Parties (COP, 26th Glasgow 2021) and Cop27 (Sharm-el-Sheikh, Egypt, 2022), the Paris Agreement on Climate Change and the New Urban Agenda © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Jain, Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0216-3_4

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(NUA). In response to these challenges, India has launching six missions: Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT); Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)—Housing for All (Urban); Smart Cities Mission (SCM); Swatch Bharat Mission (SBM); Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Deen Dayal Antodaya Yojana—National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM), along with other schemes and reforms.

4.1 National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF) National Urban Policy Framework (NUPF 2020) outlines the approach towards urban planning in India. The NUPF envisions ‘urban areas with distinct identity providing ease of living, responsive governance, sustainable environment, rapid economic growth and livelihood opportunities for citizens. NUPF envisages that the States and ULBs adopt the following core principles of Outcome-based Funding: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Integrated: One City—One Programme—One Fund People-centric: Citizens First-Project Next Collaborative: Promotes Partnership between Centre-State-Local Governments Inclusive: Open to all States and Cities Demand Driven: States and Cities Decide the Outcomes they want to achieve Based on End Results: Promotes ‘Function’ Over ‘Form’ Equitable: Uses Objective Formulae to Determine Funding Encourages Commercial Financing: Raise More, Gain More Objective: Promotes Independent Performance Evaluation Data Driven: Supports Evidence-based Decision Making Transparent: Public Disclosure and Citizen Engagement Fosters Innovation: Do More with less Builds Capacity: Promotes Learning by Doing Reorients GoI’s Role: Shifts from Driver to Facilitator.

The NUPF follows a ‘loose fit, light touch’ approach, which is applied to the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Urban Planning Urban Economy Physical Infrastructure Social Infrastructure Housing and Affordability Transportation and Mobility Urban Finance Urban Governance Urbanisation and Information System Environmental Sustainability.

4.2 The Built Environment

47

Source http://www.iica.nic.in/Articles/NUPF_Final_Oct%202020.pdf The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) has initiated urban reforms, which include modernisation of building byelaws, transit-oriented development (TOD), transferable development rights (TDR), preparation of local area plans and town planning schemes, and creation of sponge cities by integrating blue and green infrastructure. Under the National Transit Oriented Development Policy (2015), the States will get funds for implementing the policy which aims at promoting public transport and high-intensity development around transit corridors and nodes. The TDR aims to provide essential infrastructure in urban areas where land acquisition for public purposes is costly and difficult.

4.2 The Built Environment The built environment exists in an ecological sphere comprising air, soil, water, urban matrix, energy, services, etc. It manifests a close interaction between natural and the built environment. As such, the buildings and cities need to be designed and built on the principles of sustainable resources, water and energy efficiency with green materials and infrastructure services (Fig. 4.1). According to the Amos Rapaport, ‘built environment has various purposes to shelter people, their activities and possessions from the elements, from human and animal enemies, and from supernatural powers, to establish places to create a humanised, safe area in a profane a potentially dangerous world, to stress social identity and indicate status and so on. Thus, origin of architecture are best understood if one takes a wider view and consider socio-cultural factors, in the broadest sense, to be more important than the climate, technology, materials, and economy. In any situation, it is

HABITAT ENVIRONMENT

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Land

Green areas Hills, low-lying areas, forests

Water quality and River water bodies groundwater

BUILT ENVIRONMENT Air

Air Quality Emission, Noise, Pollution.

Infrastructural Services infrastructur Water supply, Sewage, Energy, Drainage, Waste disposal, Transport Network & Systems,

Land Use and Urban Form

Land Land Uses, Mixed Land use, Compact and Smart Growth

Fig. 4.1 Components of Urban Environment. Source Jain (2021) Environment, Urbanisation and Development, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi

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interplay of all these factors that best explains the form of buildings. No single explanation will suffice because buildings—even apparently humble dwellings- are more than material objects or structures. They are institutions, basic cultural phenomenon. People think environment before they build them. Thought orders, space, time, activities, status, roles and behaviour. But giving physical expressions to ideas is valuable. Encoding ideas makes them mnemonics, ideas help behaviour by reminding peoples how to act, how to behave, and what is expected of them. It is important to stress that all built environments – buildings, settlements, and landscapes—are one way of ordering the world by making ordering system visible. The essential steps, therefore, is the ordering or organising of the environment’ (Ching and Francis 1997, A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, Van Nostrand, New York). Every building is a part of urban system and has a footprint. This involves planning and development in its ecological context that has been termed as ‘ecoculture’ by Abel Chris (Table 4.1): The concept of ecoculture in built environment aims to adopt circular systems, reduce the footprints and synthesise restorative redevelopment and regeneration.

4.3 Circular Systems There is an unprecedented challenge to re-establish the uterine relationship between nature and man, between consumption and production. The ecological cycle, which has been disrupted by indiscriminate economic and physical demands of development, needs to be revived. Looking at the damage which our cities and development have inflicted upon the environment, one of the prime agenda is to explore the possibility of creating a circular system, which is ecologically balanced with low carbon footprint and harmony (Fig. 4.2). The processes of urban planning and development should shift to circular systems and recycling to conserve natural resources. It gives as much to the environment as it takes out, thus reducing the ecological impact. An ecological city and buildings are planned as a circular system to minimise the use of land, energy, water and carbon emissions (Fig. 4.3). It protects the natural environment using the minimum of mechanical systems and by passive design with the sun, wind, water, earth and space. Carbon–neutral services and passive buildings can make the city energy efficient and smart and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

4.4 Reducing the Urban Footprint In order to reduce the urban footprint, it is necessary to optimise the density and Floor Area Ratio (FAR) for compact and dense development, while enhancing the open spaces, infrastructure services and transportation networks. This involves mainstreaming sustainability of land, services and construction in the following ways:

4.4 Reducing the Urban Footprint

49

Table 4.1 Evolving ecoculture in built environment Traditional culture

Colonial culture Consumer culture

Eco culture

Technological era

Preindustrial (craft based)

Early industrial Late industrial (machine based) (automation and information based)

Post-industrial (computer and network based)

Cultural differentiation

Homogeneous (highly integrated and localised)

Heterogeneous (exposure to secondary cultures)

Homogeneous (West is best)

Haterogeneous (based on reciprocal cultural exchanges

Global but slow (Sea and Overland)

Global and speedy (air Global and and instantaneous telecommunication) (near universal network access)

External Limited and communication slow (local trade and migration) Level of innovations

Traditional Sporadic leaps governs all (when officially (rate of change sanctioned) difficult to record)

Continuous but centralised (concentration of research and benefits in North)

Continuous and decentralised (global dissemination of research and benefits)

Social roles

Specialised and stable (life-long)

Specialised but changeable (promotion/ overseas posting, etc.)

Specialised but changeable (promotions, redundancy/retraining, etc.)

Multiple roles based on changing skills and continuous education/training

Decision structure

Generally hierarchic and patriarchic with notable exceptions (i.e. Malay, peasant society)

Hierarchic and patriarchic (dependent relations between colonies and metropolitan Centre)

Corporate and patriarchic (modified by democratic and market-led systems (dominated by short-term goals)

Participatory with mix of global and local ‘bottom-up’ structures based on gender equality and sustainable goals

Production systems

Autonomous, self-sufficient (small surplus) and labour intensive

Centralised (large surplus for export) with both capital- and labour-intensive sectors

Centralised mass production (capital and energy intensive) for mass consumption

Decentralised, flexible manufacturing systems (intermediate to advance technologies)

Settlement pattern

Rural and village based

Urban and rural (sharp differentiation between cities and country)

Predominantly urban or suburban in the North and Urban/rural in South

Predominantly urban or ‘exurban’ based on balanced public/private transportation (continued)

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Table 4.1 (continued)

Built forms

Traditional culture

Colonial culture Consumer culture

Eco culture

Isomorphic with social form and climate

Mixed of Ambiguous/flexible functional and forms independent of hybrid forms climate (product of cultural exchange) partly shaped by climate

Customised for place, purpose and climate

Source Abel (1997) Architecture and Identity, Architectural Press, Oxford

Fig. 4.2 Elements of Sustainable Society. Jain (2021) Environment Urbanisation and Development, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi

• Dense, compact and mixed-use development, upgradation of services and facilitating redevelopment of low-density, dilapidated brownfields • Maximising greens, trees, vegetation and public areas • Minimising roads, service lines (water, sewer, electricity, drainage, etc.), parking and paved area • Minimising envelope surface area by compact urban form • Reducing costs of land development by optimising densities and FAR

4.6 Recycling, Readjustment, Rezoning and Repurposing

51

Fig. 4.3 Circular metabolism. Source Author

• Reducing energy consumption and construction cost • Enhancing creation of jobs, conservation of heritage and local culture. By compact, dense development and mixed land use the cost of development, land required and need to travel can be curtailed. Not only the buildings but cities need to be based on circular concepts of renewal, recycling and reengineering that aim at net-zero water, energy and land consumption. This involves ecosensitive restoration, redevelopment and regeneration of land and buildings.

4.5 Restoration, Redevelopment and Regeneration Often a question is raised, whether to go for greenfield development or renewal of existing cities. This needs to be seen in the context of potential of jobs, land, economics and ecological and social aspects. New cities take a long time and heavy investments to become livable. Naya Raipur started 20 years ago is still a ghost town. Amravati, the new capital of Andhra Pradesh, is facing various hurdles in its development. Broad differences between greenfield development and brownfield redevelopment are shown in Table 4.2. The densification and urban restructuring can lead to travel reduction, economy of services and conservation of agricultural areas. The densities of Indian cities can be selectively doubled along public transit corridors, excluding the archaeological, heritage and conservation zones. The focus has to be on redevelopment of the brownfields, infrastructure services, transportation, public greens and facilities (Fig. 4.4).

4.6 Recycling, Readjustment, Rezoning and Repurposing Lands under agricultural use are being increasingly getting converted and annexed for uses like expansion of highways, airports and habitation. The rate of conversion shows that an additional 2–3 million hectares would be required for human settlements

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Table 4.2 Comparison between Greenfield and Brownfield development Greenfield development

Brownfield redevelopment

• Costly and time-consuming land acquisition • No land acquisition involved • Huge footprint of buildings

• Minimum footprint added

• Freedom to plan and design

• Compromise with planning norms and regularisation of unplanned development

• Services to be laid de-novo

• Services upgradation

• Disruption of community, jobs and economy

• Minimum dislocation of people and jobs, social, community and cultural relationships continue

• Financial investments

• Less expensive, private and community investments, self-financing

• Provision of open spaces, parking and roads • Lack of open spaces, parking and wider roads • Usually PPP, no community engagement

• Redevelopment with community participation and engagement

• White elephant and ghost town syndrome

• Lively and vibrant

Source Author

Fig. 4.4 Redevelopment of Kidwai Nagar, New Delhi. Source NBCC

during next 10 years. Sacrificing agricultural land for habitation implies reduction of land for producing food for the ever-growing population. Agricultural land sustains biodiversity, water quality and groundwater recharge, fragile areas, sensitive areas, coastal zones, etc., which need protection and conservation. Land both agriculture and built-up needs to be judiciously utilised, recycled, readjusted, rezoned and repurposed

4.8 Rehabilitation of Slums and Regularisation of Unauthorised Colonies

53

according to the inherent sustainability and its ecological suitability for the particular land use. The development of greenways along natural water drainage corridors and harvesting of rainwater in balancing lakes and ponds can be a new frontier in urban development. The water bodies, greenery and open space in windward direction and cooler surface materials (roads, parking, buildings, roofs, etc.) can help in mitigating the effects of urban heat island.

4.7 Remote Sensing and Digital Planning Lack of digital Land Information System is a major hurdle in planning and implementation. There is a need to adopt information communication technologies (ICT)based digital ledgers for data management, Land Admin Domain Model (LADM), geographic information system (GIS), electronic data capture, web-based applications, satellite/Total Station/Drone surveys, national spatial data infrastructure (NSDI) and e-governance. For efficient and sustainable urbanism, intelligent and smart systems, viz. Big Data Analytics, Supervising Control Data Acquisition Systems (SCADA), ERP solutions, GIS, Integrated Digital Control/Command Centres and Satellite Surveillance need to be used for planning and development. The technological solutions must be based on public engagement and the adoption of Remote Sensing in real time for pollution control, water supply, energy, construction and land management. A digital ledger is a geographically distributed database that is shared and synchronised across a network of the participants. It has a blockchain structure where the data is stored in blocks, linked and secured by cryptography for handling identities, contracts and assets. The blockchain is an electronic transaction system. It is based on a hash algorithm that converts data into a block. Digital Blockchain system for land registration is indispensable for land management in order to expedite property transactions and curb the frauds and power of attorney transactions.

4.8 Rehabilitation of Slums and Regularisation of Unauthorised Colonies About half of the urban population lives in the slums and informal settlements, jhuggi-jhompri (hutment) clusters, unauthorised colonies, villages and unplanned settlements. For regularisation and grant of in situ ownership rights in the illegal colonies, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MOHUA) vide its notification dated 29 October 2019 has enacted the NCT of Delhi (Recognition of Property Rights of Residents in Unauthorised Colonies) Regulations, 2019. Their regularisation and upgradation aim at improving the quality of life of the residents by participatory planning, better facilities, safe structures, accessible roads and services.

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Instead of promoting a single development model for improving housing and living conditions, a range of options can be assessed and considered: 1. Repairs, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting of the housing is a way of upgrading the physical environment and basic services in existing communities. Besides improving the physical conditions and quality of life, the physical improvements can act as a springboard for income generation, social welfare, etc. 2. Relocation: The advantage of the relocation strategy is that it usually comes with housing security through land use rights and outright ownership of some kind of long-term land lease. But relocation sites are often far from existing communities, job opportunities, support structures and schools. Community members who want to keep their old jobs or attend the same schools must bear the burden of additional travelling time and expense and must adapt themselves to a new environment. In cases of relocation, communities face the cost of reconstructing their houses at the new site and their social network is severed. However, tenure security and new buildings tend to be big incentives to invest in relocation projects. 3. Resharing of Land: Land sharing is an urban improvement strategy which mutually benefits both the landowner and the community living on that land. By land resharing, the community gets secure tenure via long-term leasehold, and the people can design and develop/redevelop construct their housing, services and facilities. 4. Reconstruction: In this strategy, existing communities are rebuilt on the same land or nearby. The security of land tenure provides the community an incentive to invest in their housing. Although the reconstruction option involves making considerable physical changes and adaptations, the strategy allows people to continue living in the same area and to remain close to their places of work, which is a crucial compensation. 5. Reblocking: Reblocking is a systematic way of improving the infrastructure and physical conditions in existing communities by making adjustments to instal sewers, drains, walkways, parking and roads in such a way that ensures the continuity of the community. Communities can develop their housing gradually at their own pace. When communities opt for reblocking, some houses may have to be moved and partially or entirely reconstructed to improve access or some lanes may have to be widened and realigned to enable power, drainage lines, water supply systems or sewers to be laid. Reblocking can bring illegal colonies into formal planning framework for composite development, together with land tenure security (Figs. 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9).

4.9 Land Pooling and Management Geo-spatial land tools are applied for land mapping. These comprise geo-spatial technologies, smart sketch maps, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), automated feature extraction and mapping by geo-cloud services. Land data acquisition is done by the delineation of cadastral boundaries through UAV data. The geo-spatial data

4.9 Land Pooling and Management

55

Fig. 4.5 Rezoning and Repurposing by mixed land use. Source www.npr.org

Fig. 4.6 Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting. Source Aga Khan Trust for Culture

can be digitised and geo-referenced to provide the layers of physical attributes for environment planning and urban design (Fig. 4.10). Digital Ledgers and Blockchain: A digital ledger is a geographically distributed database that is shared and synchronised across a network of the participants. It has a blockchain structure where the data is stored in blocks, linked and secured by cryptography for handling identities, contracts and assets. The blockchain is an electronic transaction system. It is based on a hash algorithm that converts data into a block.

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Fig. 4.7 Proposed Redevelopment of Sita Ram Bazar. Times of India (30 December 2019)/North MCD

There are three types of blockchains: public, consortium and private blockchain. A public blockchain allows anyone in a network to be involved in the process of adding blocks. A consortium blockchain requires participants to be from an organisation. Every user receives a unique public key and a unique private key. These two keys can be used for privacy and authentication. Thus, a blockchain is a chain of digital signatures that are joined together in clusters with a specific block. Broadly, land registrations are title-based and deed-based systems. In the deedbased system of registration, a deed or a transaction of land is registered. This deed is proof of a land transaction but not the legal right. As such, a transferee must trace the ownership of the land back to its root and establish if the transferor is a rightful claimant. The title-based system gives the legal land right to the rightful claimant of the property. Deed and title-based systems of land registration are the result of centuries of optimising land administration systems. The deed-based system is vulnerable to fraud where the chain of transactions is broken. The title-based system aims to curb such frauds. Digital Blockchain system for land registration is indispensable for land pooling schemes in order to curb the frauds and power of attorney transactions, which are very common in urban and rural zones (Fig. 4.11).

4.10 LADM Framework

57

Fig. 4.8 Proposed Redevelopment of Kashmere Gate. Source DUAC/Lal (2015)

4.10 LADM Framework The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) is an International Standard (IS) of the International Organisation for Standardization, as ISO 19152. It covers basic information related to components of land administration and includes agreements on administrative and spatial data, land rights and source documents (e.g. deeds or survey plans), and forms of tenures—customary tenure, government land and privately held land. As such, LADM is capable of depicting the Land Administration System and different forms of land grabbing. The LADM defines the Spatial Units and different forms of property (commonly held, public or private). The differentiation is valid for converting private lands for public use (roads, infra services, facilities, parks,

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Fig. 4.9 Slum Resettlement under Mumbai Urban Transport Project (MUTP). Source World Bank/MUTP

Fig. 4.10 Comprehensive digitised and geo-referenced surveys and a systematic investigation of ‘ecodeterminants’ help in environmental planning and design. Source Jain (2022) Spatial Analytics for Resilient and Low Carbon Urban India, My Coordinates, March 2022

etc.) by taking over contiguous parcels of lands and readjustment of ownerships of remaining private lands (say 60% of original extent). The LADM assigns the class and contains the Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (Annex F of ISO 2012), which can be the basis of land adjustment and registration. For land pooling two specialised classes, one for public-based Infrastructure Reserve and the other for

4.10 LADM Framework

Fig. 4.11 Land Pooling Procedure (DDA). Source Delhi Development Authority, 2018

59

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4 Urbanism and Circular Systems

Fig. 4.12 Joint Development—land pooling, readjustment and infrastructure services by the government/ULB, construction by the developers. Source Matthews et al. (2018) State Led Alternative Mechanism to Acquire, Plan and Service Land for Urbanization in India, WRI India

Land Registration with ownership rights and restrictions are registered for each case (Fig. 4.12).

4.11 Participatory Planning The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA) came into force in 1992. It provides constitutional sanction to establish democracy at the grassroots level. This initiative was undertaken in response to a growing recognition that the development initiatives of the preceding decades had not delivered, that the extent of rural poverty was still much too large, and thus the existing structure of government needed to be reformed. The primary changes envisaged under the 73rd CAA include: • The Gram Sabha or village assembly as a deliberative body for decentralised governance (Panchayati Raj System) • A uniform three-tier structure of Panchayats at village (Gram Panchayat—GP), intermediate (Panchayat Samiti—PS) and district (Zilla Parishad—ZP) levels • To promote bottom-up planning, the District Planning Committee DPC in every district is to be accorded constitutional status.

4.11 Participatory Planning

61

The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (also referred to as the Nagarpalika Act) for decentralisation of urban local governance came into force in 1993. One of the requirements under the 74th Amendment is the formation of Ward Committees in municipal corporations in cities with a population of more than three lakhs (300,000), and making them responsible for the planning and implementation of local services. Key tasks to be accomplished by urban local bodies (ULBs) under the 74th CAA are, inter alia: • • • • • • • • • •

Urban planning, including town planning Regulation of land use and construction of building Planning for economic and social development Roads and bridges Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposes Public health, sanitation conservancy and solid waste management Urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects Slum improvement and upgradation Urban poverty alleviation Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects, and formation of District Planning Committee.

Participatory approaches involve an adequate and equal opportunity for people, including women to participate in the decision-making. Participatory planning involves preparation of local plans in consultation with the citizens. Planning can be seen as a matrix or intersection between the 3 levels of planning, i.e. policy, strategic and action planning, and 5 spatial scales as given below: i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Regional/subregional City Zone/Subzone/Sector Ward/Local area Projects.

It is usually divided into 3 interconnected phases—long term, short term and annual. Long-term plans are usually the vision and policy plans, short term are strategic plans (usually for 5 years) and project Plans are operational, action plans (Fig. 4.13) and local plans (Fig. 4.14). The State of Kerala launched the participatory planning process through formation of the District Planning Committees (DPCs) which have undertaken the task of integration of the Panchayat Plan (rural areas) and also the plans of municipalities and municipal corporations (urban areas). This is a bold attempt to take the planning process to the grassroots level with maximum involvement of the masses. It is known as People’s Plan Campaign. The citizens are encouraged to actively participate in identifying local problems and finding solutions. The adoption of local area planning

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Fig. 4.13 Matrix of levels and spatial planning. Shaded area shows the predominant interventions. Source Jain (2017) Urban Transformation, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi

Fig. 4.14 The 74th CAA empowers the Urban Local Bodies for participatory planning at the local levels/wards with a population of approximately 50,000. Source Author

Master Plan

74th Constitutional Amendment

Municipal Corporation Act

Local Area Plan

allows the communities within a given constituency to link together, survey their problems as a group, and then enter into a collaborative process their municipal governments and with other concerned organisations to jointly develop programmes which resolve their problems, such as adequate supply of water, sewerage, public toilets, transportation, schools, security (police, fire, emergencies, etc.), parks and sports.

4.11 Participatory Planning

63

The Local Area Plan acts as a link between Master Plan/Zonal Plan and the planning of local area/ward. The governance and investments through local planning enjoin a state-citizen partnership and make the municipal bodies and ward councillors accountable to the people and responsible for implementation.

Chapter 5

Sustainable Transport

Rapid motorisation in India, especially in large cities, is visible by frequent traffic congestion, parking problems, air pollution, noise, traffic accidents and increasing time spent on commuting. Its impact on the natural and the built environment are discernible all over. The fast growth of private vehicles is seen as a most intractable source of carbon emissions. Environmental footprints of urban transport include the number of resources (including embedded energy) used in their production, amount of waste produced by their disposal and continued use of fossil fuels. In Delhi, 72% of emissions (suspended particulate matter) are from motorised vehicles. Of these, the private vehicles, which are 90% of total motorised transport, carry only 31% of vehicular trips, but are responsible for 90% of emissions (Jain 2014). Violent traffic and transport impact the health and safety of the people. With less than 1% of the world’s vehicle population, India accounts for 6% of world’s road accidents and 10% of world’s road fatalities. More than 1.41 lakh people die in road accidents and more than 1 million fatal road accidents happen every year, and the victims are mostly pedestrians or cyclists. There is hardly any dedicated space on the roads, though 30– 40% of citizens walk or cycle to work. Urban transport services are hardly accessible to all, especially the elderly, children, women and disabled. Sustainable Transport aims to provide safe mobility consistent with human and ecosystem health, which is affordable, operates efficiently and economically and offers choice of transport mode. It limits emissions, noise and wastes, and minimises the use of fossil fuels, resources and land.

5.1 7 Cs of Sustainable Mobility Prime Minister Narendra Modi, while inaugurating the Global Mobility Summit in September 2018, encapsulated 7 Cs of mobility—common, connected, convenient, congestion-free, charged, clean and cutting-edge. He underlined the need to use clean energy for transport as a powerful weapon against climate change. This © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Jain, Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0216-3_5

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means a pollution-free clean drive leading to clean air and better living standards. He championed the idea of clean kilometres which could be achieved through biofuels, electric or solar charging and electric vehicles (PIB 2018). Studies show that road transportation needs 4–5 times the energy that is needed by a train. The energy used by a car to carry a passenger over one kilometre is 3–4 times that of a bus. Greenhouse gas emission per passenger of public transport (bus, rail and trams) is about one-twelfth that of a car. Although NMT (including walking) is ideal from the point of view of emissions, in terms of kilometres travelled, these cover only 1–2% of the total kilometres travelled, even if the proportion of trips are as high as 40%. It implies that rail-based public transport, bus, cycle and walking provide a greener and more sustainable transportation, which helps in reduction in use of fossil fuels and conservation of natural resources (Table 5.1). The urban structure plays a vital role in making public transport viable and reducing the need to travel. The World Development Report (2009) of the World Bank cites the example of Atlanta and Barcelona. Atlanta has a metro network of 74 km while Barcelona has 99 km. These may seem comparable but per capita CO2 emission for Atlanta is 10 times that of Barcelona. The difference is mostly explained by Barcelona being more compact while its American rival is spread out. As a result, less than 4% of Atlanta’s population lives within reasonable walking distances of a metro station compared to 60% for Barcelona. If Atlanta now tries to give its citizen the same accessibility, it will have to build 2800 new metro stations and 3400 km of new tracks (World Bank 2009). The lesson learnt is that public transport, land use and walkability are interlinked and need to be planned together. The study by Table 5.1 Environmental sustainability of different modes of transport Air pollution

Noise

Ugliness

Unsafe

Walking

5

5

5

3

Cycling

5

5

4

2

Car

1

2

2

2

Tram

5

3

3

3

Light rail (LR), surface

5

3

3

4

Rapid rail (RR), surface

5

2

2

4

Rapid rail (RR), elevated

5

1–2

2

5

Rapid rail, tube

5

5

5

5

Bus, mixed traffic

1–2

3

4

3

Bus, reserved lane

3

3

4

3

Legend 1 = very bad, 2 = bad, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = very good Source Vuchie (1981), ‘Urban Public Transportation Systems and Technology’, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, cited by Raman Parti and Surjit S Katoch, Efficient Transportation Planning and System Integration for Healthy Environment of Large Cities, Proceedings of International Conference on Energy and Environment March 19–21, 2009

5.2 Transport Planning

67

Fig. 5.1 Newman and Kenworthy’s hyperbola ‘Urban density and transport-related energy consumption’ shows a high correlation between urban density and intra-urban transport-related energy consumption per capita. Source Newman and Kenworthy (1999), Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Independence, The Centre for Resource Economics, Washington DC, USA

Newman and Kenworthy (1999) indicates that energy consumption in the transportation increased with reduction in urban densities. Sprawling developments are mainly responsible for traffic jams, congestion, accidents and air pollution (Fig. 5.1). Charles Correa developed the plan of New Bombay (Mumbai) along the MRT corridor, which he called the string, along with a series of new cities, the beads, in the region. The junction of transport nodes constitutes the regional transport and business node. The Master Plan of Delhi is based on poly-nodal, poly-nuclear concept in the organisation of Districts, Communities and Neighbourhoods. However, in actual practice there had been a centrifugal, centripetal transport network with gridlocks all over (Figs. 5.2 and 5.3). The growth of large cities had been usually concentric, leading to congestion in the central areas and numerous intersections. The building of flyovers/grade separators provides only temporary relief to the perennial congestion. Often it is not possible to restructure the city completely, but mixed land use, compact and smart development, transit-oriented development, carpools, efficient public transport and taxies, improving road capacity and using Intelligent Transport Systems Management can provide solutions to these problems. Dense and compact urban planning can effectively reduce the vehicle kilometre travelled and trip length which results in lesser accidents, pollution and noise. Density is highly correlated with modal distribution and the intensity of automobile use, as shown in Table 5.2.

5.2 Transport Planning The concepts of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), Travel Demand Management (TDM) and Corridor Development are the basis of walk to work, compact and transport planning, which establish a close relationship among the residential,

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Fig. 5.2 The five-tier commercial centres in the Master Plan of Delhi were based on the concept of poly-nodal, poly-nuclear hierarchy of Districts, Communities and Neighbourhoods. However, there had been a centrifugal, centripetal transport pattern and gridlocks. Source Jain (2012) Sustainable Urban Transport and Systems, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi

employment and service locations. For integration of land use and transport planning, mixed land use helps in minimising the need to travel. A walkable community provides a fundamental building block in creating a sustainable urban form. As such, a city comprises a network of overlapping communities, each focused on a local centre, within which people can access on foot most of the facilities and services for day-to-day living. Each of these communities is defined by the walking catchment or ‘ped-shed’, which is generally around 300–500 m, or a 5- to 8-min walk. Walkability is about making it possible for the average citizen to be able to lead his/her life by relying largely on walking for day-to-day activities. This needs urban design consideration, such as density, mixed use, street life, pedestrian crossings, tree shade, public places and so on. All these parameters are important in their own right but walkability is a simple way to encapsulate this philosophy of integrated transport and urban planning (Fig. 5.4). Organisation of land use, circulation pattern and decisions regarding density, Floor Area Ratio and other controls should be around the public transport system to reduce the need of personal vehicles. The area hierarchy starts with walking, non-motorised transport (NMTs), bikes and public transport, while private cars are relegated at the end (Fig. 5.5). In terms of capacity, costs and emissions, walking is most competitive, economical and environmentally sustainable. Residents in a well-designed neighbourhood with good walkability, mixed land use, connected streets and local services tend to drive 20–30% less than residents in automobile-dependent areas vehicle travel reduction may be even greater, if urbanism is coordinated with TDM strategies, such as transit improvements, car sharing, road pricing, parking, management and commuter trip reduction programmes. This can provide a variety of economic, social and environment benefits, such as reduced traffic congestion, parking costs, accident risk,

5.2 Transport Planning Fig. 5.3 New Bombay (Mumbai) concept plan developed by Charles Correa. Source Frampton and Kenneth (1996) Charles Correa, Perennial Press, Mumbai

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Table 5.2 City typology based on average urban density and transport Urban density

Low >25 persons/ha

Medium 50–100 persons/ha

High 10,000

5000–10,000

55,000 North American and Australian cities

3,500–20,000 European cities

100,000)

384

475

Number of UAs/cities (population > 1 million)

35

53

Total slum population of India (in million)

52.37

65.49

Absolute change in slum population, 2001–11 (in million)

–

13.12

Decadal growth of slum population, 2001–11 (%)

–

25.1

Slum population to India’s total population (%)

5.09

5.41

Slum population to India’s total urban population (%)

18.3

17.4

Number of slum households in India (in million)

10.15

13.92

Absolute change in number of slum households, 2001–11(in million)

–

3.77

Decadal growth of slum households, 2001–11 (%)

–

37.1

Number of Indian towns reporting slums

1,743

2,613

Source Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India, 2011

UN-Habitat’s Slum Indicators UN-Habitat has developed a household level definition of a slum household in order to be able to use existing household level surveys and censuses to identify slum dwellers among the urban population. A slum household is a household that lacks any one of the following five elements: Access to improved water: access to sufficient amount of water for family use, at an affordable price, available to household members without being subject to extreme effort; Access to improved sanitation: access to an excreta disposal system, either in the form of a private toilet or a public toilet shared with a reasonable number of people; Security of tenure: evidence of documentation to prove secure tenure status or defacto or perceived protection from evictions; Durability of housing: permanent and safe structure in non-hazardous location and. Sufficient living area : not more than two people sharing the same room. Source: UN-Habitat (2003). Most poor people suffer from a growing sense of frustration, as their lives, families and their hopes for future disintegrate. Millions of people lack secure and adequate

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shelter and basic sustenance, which keeps growing with the population growth, urbanisation, and mounting pressures of economy and competition. Participatory learning with the target groups provides useful clues towards adopting a ‘needs-based approach’. The needs of the poor population can be categorised in the following priorities: 1. Survival and livelihood: freedom from hunger and malnutrition, food security, employment and credit facility 2. Supportive: shelter, drinking water supply, power, transport and sanitation 3. Transformational: education, literacy, skill development, environmental upgradation and access to information 4. Empowerment: equal access to resources, including land, finance and services, justice, participation in decision making, etc. (Fig. 10.2).

Fig. 10.2 Slum cluster, with no municipal services, average dwelling size 10 to 20 sm. Source Patwari et al. (2010), learning from Delhi-Dispersed initiatives in urban landscape, Ashgate, Surrey

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To establish links between housing and poverty reduction, it is necessary to start with the following measures to address the livelihood and shelter issue of the informal, organised sector and their livelihoods: • In situ slum rehabilitation, land reservation for slum rehabilitation, low-cost rental housing, night shelters, dormitories, hostels, orphanages, etc. • Provision of basic services like toilets, water points, dustbin, streetlights, etc. In the informal settlements and markets • Earmarking of space for street vendors, informal shops, hawking zones, weekly markets trade, workshops, repair shops, waste recycling facilities for kabari, rag pickers, etc. • Provision for Aadhar/identity cards, bank accounts, credit and micro-saving, insurance facilities • Involvement of CBOs/NGOs for collective rehabilitation/redevelopment and to act as the link between the community and local agency/authorities • Skill development, education, literacy, healthcare and other community facilities. These involve some basic changes in attitudes, planning, governance and infrastructure services that deliver equitable access and opportunities of development to the poor. Collective Community Rehabilitation: To make a city without slums, an eight point programme has been proposed in the Master Plan for Delhi 2021, as given below: i.

Resettlement, whether in the form of in situ upgradation or relocation, should be based mainly on built up accommodation of around 25 sqm with common areas and facilities, rather than on the model of horizontal plotted development. ii. The concept of land as a resource should be adopted to develop such accommodation with private sector participation and investment, to the extent possible. iii. Incentives by way of higher FAR, part commercial use of the land and if necessary and feasible. Transfer of Development Rights should be provided. iv. A cooperative resettlement model with adequate safeguards should be adopted with tenure rights being provided through the institution of cooperative societies. v. The provision of accommodation should be based on cost, with suitable arrangements for funding/financing keeping in view the aspect of affordability and capacity to pay. vi. In cases of relocation, the sites should be identified with a view to develop relatively small clusters in a manner that they can be integrated with the overall planned development of the area, particularly keeping in view the availability of employment avenues in the vicinity. Very large resettlement sites could lead to a phenomenon of planned slums. vii. Suitable arrangement for temporary transit accommodation for families to be rehabilitated should be made. This may preferably be near or at the same site, and the utilisation of these may be synchronised with the phases of implementation of the scheme of in situ upgradation.

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viii. Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) and Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) should be closely involved in the resettlement process.

10.2 Slum Rehabilitation Norms The following norms with site-specific relaxations may be adopted for the preparation of slum rehabilitation. i. ii. iii.

Minimum plot size 2000 sqm (facing a min. Road of 9 m) Density—600 to 900 units per hectare The scheme should be designed in a composite manner with an overall maximum far of 400 iv. Mixed land use/commercial component up to 10% of permissible far. v. Specific situations may require clubbing of scattered squatters with jj sites in the neighbourhood to work out an overall comprehensive scheme. vi. The minimum component of the land area for rehabilitation of squatters has to be 60% and maximum area for remunerative use has to be 40%. vii. Area of dwelling unit for rehabilitation shall be around 25 to 30 sq.m. viii. Common parking is to be provided which can be relaxed wherever required, except for the parking for remunerative purposes. ix. No restriction on ground coverage (except setbacks) x. There is no restriction on the height, subject to clearance of the fire department, civil aviation department and structural safety. The development control norms facilitate both the options—walk-up (5 storeys) or multi-storeyed apartments in order to achieve the full permissible density and floor area ratio. xi. Schemes/designs should be compatible for disabled. To make Slum & JJ Rehabilitation self-starting, the concept of land as a resource with private sector participation and investment has been adopted, which provides incentives of higher FAR and density, part commercial use of the land and Transfer of Development Rights. (Delhi Development Authority, Master Plan for Delhi 2021). The housing authorities have taken up various schemes for redensification, redevelopment and renewal of slum areas, such as Bhendi Bazar in Mumbai and Kidwai Nagar in New Delhi (2018). The Delhi Development Authority and the slum wing of MCD undertook large-scale resettlement schemes for squatters and slum dwellers, whereby small house sites (18 to 25 sq. yd.) were developed during 1961–91(Fig. 10.3). In the Arunbakam Site and Services Project, designed by Christopher Benninger and implemented by the Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, every house is an expression of the lifestyle of its dwellers, shaping the house according to personal preference, but within an organisational framework (Fig. 10.4). Renowned architect Charles Correa, in his Belapur housing scheme at Navi Mumbai, devised a system of social organisation. The organisation of the community revolves around a system of open space, which gradually builds up from a small

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Fig. 10.3 Ambedkar Nagar, New Delhi Site and Services/Resettlement Scheme (1977). The initial horizontal approach has gradually transformed to high density walk-ups. Source DDA

Fig. 10.4 Site and services project in Arumbakam, Chennai metropolitan development authority. Source CMDA

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Fig. 10.5 Belapur artists community, (Architect Charles Correa). Source Kenneth (1996) Charles Correa, Perennial Press, Mumbai

courtyard of 8 × 8 m size for seven dwellings, to 12 × 12 m for 21 families, 20 × 20 m for 63 families and onwards. The simple house can be built by the local artisans and by self-help, which allow the alterations and flexibility (Fig. 10.5). The celebrated architect Doshi, in his Aranya township at Indore, refined the concept of site and services. The concept is based upon maximisation of scarce resources and stimulating the self-help element among the low-income families. To correspond with the economic growth of the families, the housing design adopts the principle of an incremental prototype. The most innovative aspect of the project is an alternative system of the services. The service core and slots have been predesigned, which connect with the main lines running on alternate streets. The space for the service core is so planned that it allows alterations and modifications in the house, if required, later a versatile system for sewerage has been evolved which is based on local services, without dependence upon the city systems. For maximising the common walls and minimising the foundations, the service core is grouped into fours over suspended platforms. Simple on-site precast elements and components encourage the self-build spirit (Figs. 10.6 and 10.7). The concept of self-help housing is based upon the use of local materials, appropriate technology and building systems. The architects like Laurie Baker, Anil Laul and agencies like the HUDCO have done commendable work in this field (Figs. 10.8 and 10.9). Traditional methods and materials have been interrelated with sustainable,

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Fig. 10.6 Aranya Township, Indore (Architect Doshi). Source Vaastu Shilpa Foundation, Ahmedabad

less expensive and innovative building systems. Such efforts have also resurrected the vaults, domes, arches and many such traditional elements of building. These can be built by the people by self-help, built with local building materials. These facilitate growth and improvements along with the family’s needs and resources. Such houses are simple to build, honest with building materials, comfortable for the climate and economical. These are not the final and finished products but facilitate growth and improvements along with the family’s needs and resources. The key to success of low-cost housing and slum rehabilitation is the adoption of local, participatory, rapid assessment, which allows the communities within a constituency to link together, survey their housing and livelihood problems and then enter into a collaborative process with the municipal government and other concerned organisations/service agencies to jointly develop options and programmes which resolve their problems. A GIS-based inventory and total station survey of all potential lands for housing and slum redevelopment should be prepared. After identification of potential sites, it is necessary to assign suitable land use for such sites and provide proper services and linkages. The plans of housing renewal and resettlement should be based on the

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Fig. 10.7 Self-help housing at Aranya Township, Indore, which grows according to household’s resources, needs and priorities (Architect Doshi). Source Vastu Shilpa Foundation, Ahmedabad

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Fig. 10.8 Cluster built with funicular shell and thrift beams (Architect: Anil Laul). Source Architect Anil Laul and Associates

assessment of ground realities, existing land use, land ownership, land values, socioeconomic characteristics and physical conditions of the settlement. Based on the inventory, the community can access the land and funds for the infrastructure development and the construction of dwelling units. The criteria for selection of specific strategy of relocation or in situ upgradation have to be based on certain indicators, which is differentiated according to type of slum, habitation and its population. The Table 10.4 indicates various types of shelter and possible approaches: In order to prevent growth of slums, mandatory reservation of EWS housing in all group housing schemes to the extent of minimum 15% of permissible FAR or 35% of dwelling units is necessary. The city should ensure housing for urban poor to the extent of 50–55% of the total. This requires provision of infrastructure services and facilities on differential norms and procedures. By infill development and composite redevelopment of isolated plots, the provision of housing can be enhanced, without need for fresh land and new infrastructure development.

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Fig. 10.9 Laurie Baker followed the principle of ‘less is more’ and ‘small is beautiful’ in the organisation of space. Source Bhatia 1991, Laurie Baker Life, Work and Writings, Viking, HUDCO, New Delhi

10.3 Kathputli In Situ Slum Rehabilitation Project The Kathputli Colony in the West Delhi is inhabited by the puppeteers, street artists, snake charmers and magicians. The area is located near Shadipur and had come up on public land in 1950s, when the wandering artists settled at the vacant land near railway tracks, which was then on the western fringe of the city. The Kathputli Project covers 5.22 hectares of land and is to provide 3,000 to 4,000 economically weaker section (EWS) flats (36 sm each) for squatter families, mainly comprising the community of puppeteers and performers. Planned under the public–private partnership, the project

10.4 Slum Rehabilitation Scheme (SRS) in Mumbai

199

Table 10.4 Shelter types and possible approach S. No Type

Approach

1

Rundown walk-ups in core areas

Cooperating: Reconstructing at site with municipal support with transit accommodation provided during construction with ownership of constructed units through soft loans/subsidised rentals

2

Pavement/doorstep dwellers, squatters in core areas (generally new entrants to the city as individuals)

Sanitation through night shelters, pay and use toilets, health facilities; when households formed, a few could be rehabilitated in site and services schemes; otherwise, they move as renters in spontaneous colonies in core areas

3

Spontaneous slum clusters in core and Granting tenure rights and sanitisation of intermediate areas in marginal environments (paving, street lighting, lands—single/double storeyed construction drainage, individual ablution facilities, potable water) or gradual reconstruction/upgrading

4

Spontaneous colonies in peri-urban areas (generally new migrants), single storeyed improvised shelter

Sanitation and granting tenurial rights over a period of time

5

Site and service schemes serviced, plots with wet core sometimes with a roof

Reduced evolutionary space standards

6

Built units in 4 to 5 storeyed walk-ups in Regular public housing peri-urban areas or 8–16 storeyed blocks in central areas on subsidised rentals

Source Ribeiro/AMDA (2000)

was first announced in 2009 but was delayed due to many hurdles. Part of the land would be used to build residential and commercial segment for market sale in order to subsidise the EWS flats (Fig. 10.10).

10.4 Slum Rehabilitation Scheme (SRS) in Mumbai The Government of Maharashtra’s Slum Rehabilitation Scheme is based on ‘public– private partnership’ (PPP), which aims to address the primary issue of right of slum dwellers to decent housing, tenure rights and means of livelihood. On-site rehabilitation gives the slum dwellers access to basic civic amenities, besides promoting neighbourhood improvement. The slum dwellers are also required to provide maintenance charges, which is collected upfront. The slum dwellers are extended with other benefits, such as reduced stamp duty, property tax and water user charges. The Slum Rehabilitation Scheme of the Government of Maharashtra provides leasehold rights and rehousing for slum dwellers at a highly subsidised rate.

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Fig. 10.10 Kathputli in situ slum rehabilitation project, New Delhi. Source DDA, 2010

10.5 Resettlement of Slums Under Mumbai Urban Transport Project Mumbai is home to some 20 million people, of which 7 million live in 3,000 slums, built on public lands, roads, airports, stations, markets, etc. In 2002, the MHADA embarked the Mumbai Urban Transport Project (MUTP) with the help of the World Bank which aims to improve the transport services in the city. The project required large-scale resettlement of slums, commercial establishments, public facilities, as well as cultural and religious structures. These included about 100,000 people or 17,500 households, some 1800 shops, more than 100 religious and cultural properties, which existed on railway lands, public and private lands and roads. There was a variety of such occupiers-legal landowners in multi-storey buildings, ‘pagdi’ holders, tenants

10.6 Community Driven Housing

201

and lessees, as well as squatters without title. Almost ninety-five of these not have legal title. The project required relocation of utilities, including undergroundwater and electricity pipelines, telephone cables, drains and few large transmission towers. Resettling of 100,000 people required finding several resettlement sites in Mumbai and mobilising huge financial resources to build free housing of 225sq.ft. each. Affected shopkeepers and land owners were also allowed to buy additional floor area up to 525 sq.ft. in proportion to their loss.

10.6 Community Driven Housing This poses a need to reexamine the supply driven approach towards housing, which is often without the participation of the dwellers. The public–private model is largely focused on greenfield development and marginalises the poor. This makes us to rethink about a new paradigm, which is gender sensitive, community led, participatory and local. This can be termed as the third option. This option does not exclude private sectors but energise the collective community sector (Fig. 10.11).

Collective/ Community Private

Cooperatives CBO NGO Advocacy Groups Professional Associations

Business Community Parastatal/Real Estate Developers Investors

Governmentt Municipal Government State Government National Government Multi-Lateral Aid Agencies Housing and Slum Redevelopment Boards

Fig. 10.11 Collective community sector as third option to public–private binary. Source Author

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10.7 Space Sharing Models Emerging space sharing models can plug the demand–supply gap for meeting housing and renting requirements. These disruptions warrant a change in the approach towards shelter. This requires adoption of the new housing models, such as comodels of working, shared living, mixed use, flexible spaces, B&B accommodation, collective communities and student hostels. Virtual business platforms, digital platforms and prop-tech for start-ups and REITS and INVITS can be the important alternative sources for financing housing sector.

10.8 Rental Housing As many poor families cannot afford even to pay the subsidised down payment, it is necessary to lay thrust on rental housing review the rental legislation, the tenure system and adopt rental housing strategies. Another advantage of rental housing is that it avoids the tendency to encroach the common areas and community spaces, together with non-engineered structural alterations in the housing which endanger them. As a rule, about half of the social housing units should be available on a rental basis, convertible to ownership after 10 years. This will give the occupier an incentive to improve his or her life. The funding pattern can be four layered. The Government of India can contribute 50%. The state governments and local bodies can contribute one-third. The families can contribute the remaining one-sixth. Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) and incentive Floor Space Index (FSI) can be useful tools. Smart cards should be issued to EWS/LIG and slum families so that benefits reach those who have genuine need. Keeping in view, the barriers in rental housing the Government of India have formulated Draught National Urban Rental Housing Policy (2018). It suggests various policies, administrative and legal measures and financial incentives to promote rental housing. The following can be the key triggers for rental housing: • Rental Housing Policy needs to be more closely integrated with the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana and focuses on EWS/LIG, informal sector, workers, women and aged. • For a city-wide spread of social housing, provision of one-third to one-half number of such units has to be rental. The developer shall hand over such housing units to the government against reimbursement of cost of construction. Non-profit associations or RWAs may manage such properties. • Bonus FSI, as done by MMRDA, can incentivize the development of rental housing. Models such as Rental Housing Vouchers given to homeless, destitute, aged, women, etc., and Low-income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) of the

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203

US, which gives rebate in income tax against investment in low-income rental housing, can have multiplier effects. • Smart cards should be issued to EWS/LIG an the slum families so that benefits reach those who have genuine need.

10.9 Land as a Resource The incentives like allotment of government land for social housing, additional FAR, development rights, commercial component, etc., can making social housing schemes bankable. One such project is the Shukhobrishti housing developed in an area covering 60 ha at Rajarahat, approximately 25 km from Central Kolkata. The housing project consists of 20,000 flats for 100,000 population with 12,000 lower income group flats in G + 4 walk-up structures and 8,000 MIG flats in G + 14 multi-storey structure. The project was awarded to the developer Sapoorji Pallonji by Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA). The initial selling price for LIG (30 sqm, 1 BHK) was Rs. 4 lakh and 8 lakh for 44.5 sqm (2 BHK) MIG apartment. The developer was awarded 20 ha land by the government to develop commercial use in return to the residential development. A density of 300 dwelling units per ha was achieved. There had been no restriction on height. Homes are sold nearly half of the market price on a freehold basis without any restrictive covenants on the titles. As a result, homes are now available in secondary market at approximately double the original price (Fig. 10.12).

10.10 Inclusive and Adequate Housing According to UN-Habitat (Habitat III Issues Paper, 2015), adequate housing must provide more than four walls and a roof. A number of conditions must be met before particular forms of shelter can be considered to constitute ‘adequate housing’. These elements are as follows: • Security of tenure: housing is not adequate if its occupants do not have a degree of tenure security which guarantees legal protection against forced evictions, harassment and other threats. • Availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure: housing is not adequate if its occupants do not have safe drinking water, adequate sanitation, energy for cooking, heating, lighting, food storage or refuse disposal. • Affordability: housing is not adequate if its cost threatens or compromises the occupants’ enjoyment of other human rights. • Habitability: housing is not adequate if it does not guarantee physical safety or provide adequate space, as well as protection against the cold, damp, heat, rain, wind, other threats to health and structural hazards.

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Fig. 10.12 Shukhobrishti at Rajarahat New Town, Kolkata, developed by Shapoorji Pallonji in association with the KMDA and West Bengal Housing Infrastructure Development Corporation (WBHIDCO). The project covers 150 acres of land in Rajarahat and has 20,000 dwelling units: 10,444 (LIG) apartment with carpet area of 320 sq.ft., 3840 MIG apartments of 480 sq.ft. and balance 5716 apartments, each having an area of 690 sq.ft. Source WBHIDCO, Kolkata

• Accessibility: housing is not adequate if the specific needs of disadvantaged and marginalised groups are not taken into account. • Location: housing is not adequate if it is cut off from employment opportunities, healthcare services, schools, childcare centres and other social facilities, or if located in polluted or dangerous areas. • Cultural adequacy: housing is not adequate if it does not respect and take into account the expression of cultural identity. Many migrants, labourers, casual workers, beggars, etc., in the city do not have shelter and live on pavements near their jobs. For them, a regular dwelling unit on the ownership basis is unthinkable. Thus, the definition of shelter may include rental units, dormitories, hostels Dharmshala, lodge, transit camps and night shelters. As a human right, the city should provide housing to all, without leaving behind the informal, marginalised, homeless, migrant workers, students and elderly. These should be located near the railway stations, bus terminals, major markets and work centres. The housing policy should aim at providing inclusive and adequate shelter. Each housing and slum redevelopment plan should address specific local issues and provide flexible choices of in situ upgrading, relocation, land sharing or reblocking. The local area plan should network all the settlements, where the local stakeholders plan together. Uniform standards that are set too high can price poor

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205

households out of formal housing. It may be better to provide basic shelter in appropriate locations, even with limited space as dormitories, hostels, etc. The existing housing stock may serve residents where they have social connections and access to employment. The critical concerns in redevelopment of housing are water supply and power, which are under severe stress. These require strategic interventions as follows: i. Preparation of services plans ii. Mandatory adoption of wastewater recycling and renewable energy, water conservation and energy efficiency as per Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC) iii. Checking of leakages, thefts and transmission losses which can save about 15 to 20% of water and power iv. Enhancing organisational efficiency.

10.11 Digital Land Records and Property Transactions In order to streamline the land market and regulate the transactions, as well as to discourage encroachments on public lands, it is necessary to make property registration, mutation and transfer simple, transparent and quick. To bring in accountability in the real estate sector, rating of developers and projects and licencing of real estate agents/brokers/realtors need to be implemented, as mandated in the Real Estate Regulation Act, 2016. To deal with the problem of land titles, it is necessary to introduce the Torrens System of property title registration. This will curb litigation on the question of ownership and rights to land. It is also necessary to expedite procedures for project approval.

10.12 Tenure Rights The grant of ownership tenure in illegal settlements, slums and unauthorised colonies is essential to trigger a process of transforming the informal settlements as formal, improve the environment and mobilise the communities towards a process of selftriggered and participatory redevelopment. The ownership rights may be granted for a cluster comprising about 2000 sm, to allow its voluntary regularisation and redevelopment into group housing with enhanced FAR, density, mixed land use and one-third of area under greens (with underground parking and services). This is how Singapore, which used to be a dirty, fragmented and fractured city 30 years ago, has been transformed into a world class city. Similar strategy has been adopted in various other cities all over the world allowing the amalgamation and consolidation of smaller plots for their composite redevelopment.

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10.13 Compact and Dense Housing The Niti Aayog projects that per capita residential space in India should increase from the present 5.9 m2 to 35 sqm in 2047. This means a revision of spatial standards of housing along with an optimally compact and dense urban pattern. Even the poor now realise that a house is at least for 50 years and refuse to have pigeon-hole dwellings, as seen during last 5 years in response to Delhi Development Authority housing schemes. Prof. Richard Sennett of the MIT states that ‘on the whole density is a good thing. ‘Denser cities are more energy efficient’. London School of Economics in its study ‘experiencing density living in a denser London’ (March 2020) found that ‘surprisingly residents’ satisfaction with their housing has little relation with their aesthetic quality. The degree of density also does not correlate with how much they like their homes. Rather, a building’s internal design and comfort are most important’. Design should be based on existing site features. The main objective is to allocate and design. The optimum density is important for efficient use of land with minimum building footprint, especially for the projects of in situ rehabilitation of slums. In view of work from home trend, apropos of the Covid lockdown, it is necessary to adopt mixed use in place of single use zoning. The housing schemes need to be more inclusive and a catalyst in enhancing the relationship between city and street children, homeless, destitute and beggars. In practical terms, it may be mandatory that in all redevelopment schemes, including transit-oriented development (TOD), at least one-third of the bonus FAR be reserved for the slum dwellers, homeless, street children and informal sector workers in the EWS category. As most of unemployed and homeless belong to the informal sector, sufficient number of the shops, kiosks, open markets and vending spaces should be available on rental basis. This way the reduction of the length of service lines-water system, electricity, cables, sewerage, drains, roads and pathways can be economical and optimum.

10.14 Green Building and Resources A green building is defined as the one which is environmentally responsible and resource-efficient through its design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and demolition. It integrates the following: • Sustainable site planning and ecosystem-based neighbourhood model • Energy conservation and net-zero energy with natural ventilation and passive design • Reduced air and water pollution • Sustainable building materials with recycled and renewable contents and low emissions.

10.15 Building Resources Pyramid

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Fig. 10.13 Ecosystem model of neighbourhood. Source UN-Habitat and WHO (2020) Integrating Health in Urban and Territorial Planning & Barton and Grant (2006)

In view of Covid-19 pandemic, it is necessary that the housing development focuses on health, well-being and improved quality of life of the inhabitants. It needs to be planned in a wider framework of natural resources (air, water, soil, food, energy and climate), places (the built environment, buildings, streets), local activities (living, working, playing, learning, shopping) and community networks and people (Fig. 10.13). A healthy building is free from sick building syndrome (SBS) caused by microbial, allergy, toxins, dust and mites. According to the Covid-19 Guidelines for Airconditioning and Ventilation, issued by the CPWD (22.4.2020), room temperature should be set at 24 to 30 °C, humidity of 40% to70% with regular fresh air flow to inactivate aerosol droplet virus. As AC ducts are potential careers of virus and bacteria, the system should be self-cleansing and sensor controlled. In view of impending warming, air pollution and water shortage, it is time to conceive zero net-energy buildings, which use sustainable building materials and detox the air, work as bioreactors and energy generators. They provide water loops for its conservation and rainwater, provide space for pneumatic, underground scrapers for waste treatment. They multiply the space and promote urban agriculture, blurring the borders between urban and rural. The design of building adopts biomimicry, the emulation of nature’s model, processes and systems that is clean and organic. Like food pyramid, building materials pyramid can be a new way of building design, based on the use of materials with least environmental footprints.

10.15 Building Resources Pyramid It is projected that India produces 62 million tonnes of municipal waste annually. In the up-cycle scenarios, the building materials have to be sustainable, local, recycled, organic and affordable. Ways and means have to be promoted whereby the urban

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waste of one industry feeds another, described as circular economy. Such measures accord priority to efficient disposal and reuse of wastes and adopting zero waste. This involves a new design thinking based on reversible solutions, the reuse and recycling of building components and wastes. Life cycle analysis (LCA) and life cycle costs (LCCs) are the basis for absolute sustainability and green transition with the following principles: • • • •

Prioritise renewable, bio-based materials over non-renewable materials Avoid environmentally harmful materials and construction processes Use green energy sources Ensure that such resources are included in the standards, specifications, technologies and biological circuits and • Incorporate the social and cultural dimensions of green transition. Akin to the concept of food pyramid, the building materials pyramid shows the environmental impact of various materials (Fig. 10.14).

10.16 Mainstreaming Sustainability Design and sustainable green building are driven by the following key factors: • Depletion of fossil fuels and the consequent rise in energy costs • Environmental concerns about climate change due to increased emissions of greenhouse gases, primarily CO2 • Water scarcity due to change in global patterns of rainfall and increased consumption rates. The use of energy, water and other resources in a sustainable construction is dependent on. three factors: • Building design—built form and building fabric • Operation, building uses and maintenance—building services, water, lighting, maintenance and controls, occupancy pattern and waste management • Energy conservation and efficiency. Passive design strategies such as day lighting, natural ventilation and an appropriate building fabric should be integrated into the design to reduce energy consumption. Efficient building services for space and water heating should be accompanied with effective controls and management. Use of energy-efficient lighting and equipment, water saving fixtures and minimisation of waste during operation are other important areas of consideration (Fig. 10.15). For a building to be sustainable and use resources efficiently, it is important to ensure that the users are aware of the features and the controls provided. Finally with the increase in climate change impacts, sustainable construction should suffer less

10.16 Mainstreaming Sustainability

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Fig. 10.14 Building resources pyramid. Source Cinark (2019) Circular construction materials, architecture tectonics, Unwelt, Udgivet, Copenhagen, Denmark

from the impacts of a changing climate—be it hot summers, floods, storms, or rising sea levels. Construction is one of the largest industries in India. It involves generation of construction and demolition wastes. It is estimated that 350 L of water are consumed for 1 sq. m construction. Products like Rhino Brick (Hyderabad) are mincing 20% plastic shreds and 80% sand and dust to make bricks, ecobrick, large format hollow

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Fig. 10.15 Ten basic principles of green building design. Source Jain (2015) The idea of green building, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi

bricks and interlocking bricks. Paper and wood can be recycled to make tiles. Nondegradable plastic waste, like bottles, polyester bags, packings, etc., is converted into colourful tiles. Building waste needs to be disposed of and recycled as per the Construction and Demolition Waste Management Rules, 2016. Recycled products reduce the demand for new materials. Such materials include reused brick, steel, concrete, gypsum, sulphur, wood alternatives, reconstituted wooden pallets, combination of straw, bamboo, lime tiles wood waste and cement for wall, roof and positions, insulating felts and boards, blocks, etc. The C&D waste should be segregated at site and exclude the inert, chemical or hazardous wastes such as oil, paint, batteries and asbestos. Recyclable wastes, such as plastics, timber, steel, aluminium, bricks, wood and concrete, can be reused in building construction. There are several examples of successful use of C & D wastes in new buildings, e.g. Editt Tower, Singapore (Fig. 10.16) and New Moti Bagh Government Housing Complex, New Delhi. C & D waste has also been successfully used for paving of roads, footpath and landscaping. It is time to make it mandatory that all new constructions should use at least 25% of recycled materials. It is also necessary to think of the vertical waste scrapers in place of large overflowing landfill sites and their environmental hazards. Vertical

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Fig. 10.16 Concrete recycling, Editt Tower, Singapore. Source Hamzah and Ken, Ecology of the skyscrapers (2001), Bawttle McCarthy, Consulting Engineers

waste scrapers can act as green filter, air purifier, for O2 enrichment and SPM for recycling. The waste collection modules separate the leachate and treat, recycle and compost the wastes. The gasification process for organic wastes uses an oxygen starved high pressure and high-temperature environment to kill the virus and germs and to remove impurities before full combustion. The decomposition of organic wastes produces

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Fig. 10.17 The 18 Attributes of sustainable housing categorised under four criteria. Source Gupta et al. (2018). Mainstreaming sustainable social housing in India: findings and insights from the MaS-SHIP project, Oxford Brookes University, TERI, Development Alternatives and UN-Habitat, New Delhi

methane gas, which can be used as fuel. Containerised processing allows emission free composting on site. Target 11.1 of the Sustainable Development Goals 2030 seeks access for all to adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums. Mainstreaming Sustainable Social Housing in India project (MaS-SHIP) is a research project funded by the United Nations 10 Year Environment Framework Programme (10YEFP). It identifies the impacts and benefits of housing production for environment, economy and communities and provides a method for identifying the most optimal building materials and systems. The Fig. 10.17 indicates the attributes under 4 categories, viz. resource efficiency, operational performance, user acceptability and economic impacts.

10.17 Optimising Housing Costs It is necessary to optimise the housing development and construction to achieve quality, productivity and flexibility, together with reducing time and costs. There is a need to innovate in construction, efficiency, quality of service and sustained maintenance. This applies to standards and specifications, infrastructure, construction, maintenance, together with energy and environment concerns. According to McKinsey Global Institute, the critical housing cost reduction strategies at design and construction stage include the following:

10.18 Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) and Building Information …

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• Premanufacturing: build components off-site using industrial processes, deliver parts as needed • Planning optimisation: apply critical path management techniques to optimise plan implementation by realistic scheduling • In-site lean execution: use lean techniques to standardise procedures that eliminate waste in individual activities and improve construction flow balancing • Process step productivity: eliminate low value added activities and wasted time to optimise process efficiency • Despecification of structural design: avoid over-specification of non-value-added components • Standardisation of micro-design: identify substitutes and use design-to-cost to set specifications • Determine sourcing strategy for each category of construction activity, detail subcontractor management • Housing optimisation by volume increase through bundling, labour saving production, low-cost sourcing and capacity optimisation of housing agencies, including the public, private and community sectors • Technical optimisation: standardise and identify substitutes with advanced costing tools. Automated procedures can give precision to building construction and components and enable accuracy. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) for prefabricated components, viz. ceilings, walls, roofs, etc., are integral to the process of industrialised construction. The simulation of construction process enables better control of time, machine, expenditure and the manpower, which could be reduced at least by half to one-third in comparison with the conventional construction. It is necessary to adopt industrialised building systems for efficient and economical housing delivery.

10.18 Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) and Building Information Modelling (BIM) During recent times, the purpose of automation has been shifting from increasing productivity and reducing costs to broader issues, such as increasing sustainability, energy efficiency, quality and flexibility of the building. Automation and robotics are being used in prefabrication of building components and also for speed, accuracy and customisation. The flexible production system using robotic cells could execute various tasks, such as setting moulds, placing reinforcement bars or distributing concrete for various products, such as floor, roof, wall, beam and column. Computeraided manufacturing (CAM) and computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) are shifting construction process from manual to fully automated processes (Fig. 10.18).

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Fig. 10.18 End-to-end control of building design, manufacturing, construction and operations achieve targets at lower cost and time. Source Kattera, Key assemblies, and Curtis, Craig (2020) Architecture at Scale: reimagining one-off projects as building platforms, architectural design

As building design and construction are becoming more complicated with smart materials, services and digital networks, understanding and tracking various systems becomes crucial. Building Information Modelling (BIM) provides computerised layers of information, planned details of the structure containing everything from 3D drawing and planning documents, service plans and controls to the specifications of building materials, components, light fitting and fixtures. BIM is an integrated, collaborative process that enables engineers, architects, contractors and clients to work from a single, digital model and share reliable, coordinated information at every stage of a project life cycle. Digital fabrication uses design-to-fabrication workflows to enable a faster construction process, minimise resources, and material-specific design solutions. It integrates design, simulation and digital fabrication to create complex, customised products using ubiquitous manufacturing hardware. Digital manufacturing has facilitated opportunities of surface patterning and the fabrication of off-site building components, removing the constraints of standardisation in the construction industry. Material feedback allows adjusting the digital fabrication to negotiate material properties and to calibrate a precise relation between the whole and the individual units of construction.

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215

10.19 Circular Economy and Sustainable Construction The idea of circular economy is based on the continuity of raw materials, products and waste streams in a closed circular loop. It involves an energy centred approach towards design, materials and construction. Adoption of circular models for the building design and construction requires formulating guidelines, calculating resources, labour and material flows, their environmental footprint and impact and lifetime scenarios. The basic approach of circular construction is zero emissions and wastes by on-site recycling to save the environment. Life cycle analysis (LCA) and life cycle costs (LCCs) are the basis for absolute sustainability. The approach begins with the reduction of materials consumption, their recycling and reuse considering the following: • Prioritise renewable, bio-based materials over non-renewable materials, keeping in view their environmental impact • Avoid environmentally harmful materials and construction processes • Use green energy sources • Ensure that such resources are included in the standards, specifications, technologies and biological circuits • Incorporate the social and cultural dimensions of green transition. In view of the labour shortage after Covid-19, it is necessary to resort to automation, prefabrication/pre-engineered construction and computer-aided manufacturing. As a thumb-rule, manpower utilised in building construction can be reduced to half by these systems.

10.20 Emerging Technologies With ever-increasing need to build efficient, more sustainable and economical housing, various technologies are emerging, such as. • • • • • • • • • •

Welded wire fabric rapid wall panel system Glass fibre-reinforced gypsum panels EPS and wire-reinforced panel Light gauge steel frame structure with concrete panel Modular tunnel framework Steel frame modular building system Total open prefab system-engineered systems Speed floor system Gypsum units housing systems Fibre cement board with expanded polystyrene (EPS) blocks, light gauge steel studs and concrete • Light-weight interlocking sandwich panels with 4 mm facing sheets, thick fibre

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• Reinforced cement boards, aerated cement core and silicious and micaceous material aggregate • 3-S Prefab system with hollow structural components. Nowadays, there are plethora of alternative building materials such as blended cement, bricks from different waste materials, steel from recycled steel, replacement of partial sand component with stone dust, aggregates from different resources other than natural ones are being used extensively. With the increasing economic level, the consumers are more demanding and quality conscious. The building industry is facing global competition. The privatisation of construction activity is creating a competitive environment where it is the survival of the fittest. As such the concept of ‘total quality management’ (TQM) has become an indispensable aspect of building industry, both private and public sectors. Through a combination of quality systems, modern statistical techniques, the belief and commitment that customers have to be involved at various stages of the product/service delivery system and through continuous improvement programmes. TQM seeks to influence business competitiveness in the areas of cost reduction and adding value to consumer products and services. It is generally agreed that quality has to be management led, to cover all aspects of organisational systems. It is everybody’s responsibility; the emphasis has to be made on prevention rather than correction. The standard has to be right first time and every time; the effort has to be based on continuous improvement and control via quality costing. At the heart of any TQM, effort is the establishment of the customer–supplier chain, with the following attributes: • • • •

Customer satisfaction Common goals and objectives Integrated production process Equity without any distinction.

10.21 Precast Building Systems Depending on the load-bearing structure, precast systems are divided into the following categories: • • • •

Large-panel systems Frame systems Slab-column systems with walls Mixed systems.

In urban scenario, high density–low rise housing design should allow the adoption of one of the above options, or a combination, as demonstrated by Moshe Safdie in his housing design for Coldspring New Town (Fig. 10.19).

10.22 Large-Panel Systems

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Fig. 10.19 High density–low rise housing options for Coldspring New Town: crisscross panel system, optimum conventional construction and large-panel system (Architect Moshe Safdie). Source Community architect daily.blogspot.com

10.22 Large-Panel Systems The designation ‘large-panel system’ refers to multi-storey structures composed of large wall and floor concrete panels connected in the vertical and horizontal directions so that the wall panels enclose appropriate spaces for the rooms within a building. These panels form a boxlike structure. Both vertical and horizontal panels resist gravity load. Wall panels are usually one story high. Horizontal floor and roof panels span either as one-way or two-way slabs. When properly joined together, these horizontal elements act as diaphragms that transfer the lateral loads to the walls. Depending on layout, there are three basic configurations of large-panel buildings:

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Fig. 10.20 Readymade housing for disaster prone settlements. Source Jaggi, Readymade housing, Indian architect and builder, October 1991

• Cross-wall system. The main walls that resist gravity and lateral loads are placed in the short direction of the building. • Longitudinal-wall system. The walls resisting gravity and lateral loads are placed in the longitudinal direction; usually, there is only one longitudinal wall. • Two-way system. The walls are placed in both directions. Thickness of wall panels ranges from 120 mm for interior walls to 300 mm for exterior walls. Floor panel thickness is varies from 60 to 150 mm. Wall panel length is equal to the room length, typically on the order of 2.7 m to 3.6 m. In some cases, there

10.24 Slab-Column System with Shear Wall

219

are no exterior wall panels, and the facade walls are made of lightweight concrete. Readymade housing for disaster prone settlements can be built locally on site/with precast wall and roof panels economically and speedily (Fig. 10.20). Panel connections represent the key structural components in these systems. Based on their location within a building, these connections can be classified into vertical and horizontal joints. Vertical joints connect the vertical faces of adjoining wall panels and primarily resist vertical seismic shear forces. Horizontal joints connect the horizontal faces of the adjoining wall and floor panels and resist both gravity and seismic loads. Depending on the construction method, these joints can be classified as wet and dry. Wet joints are constructed with cast-in-place concrete poured between the precast panels. To ensure structural continuity, protruding reinforcing bars from the panels (dowels) are welded, looped or otherwise connected in the joint region before the concrete is placed. Dry joints are constructed by bolting or welding together steel plates or other steel inserts cast into the ends of the precast panels for this purpose. Wet joints more closely approximate cast-in-place construction, whereas the force transfer in structures with dry joints is accomplished at discrete points.

10.23 Frame Systems Precast frames can be constructed using either linear elements or spatial beamcolumn subassemblies. Precast beam-column subassemblages have the advantage that the connecting faces between the subassemblages can be placed away from the critical frame regions; however, linear elements are generally preferred because of the difficulties associated with forming, handling and erecting spatial elements. The use of linear elements generally means placing the connecting faces at the beam-column junctions. The beams can be seated on corbels at the columns, for ease of construction and to aid the shear transfer from the beam to the column. The beam-column joints accomplished in this way are hinged. However, rigid beam-column connections are used in some cases, when the continuity of longitudinal reinforcement through the beam-column joint needs to be ensured.

10.24 Slab-Column System with Shear Wall These systems rely on shear walls to sustain lateral load effects, whereas the slabcolumn structure resists mainly gravity loads. There are two main systems in this category: • Lift-slab system with walls • Pres-stressed slab-column system

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Fig. 10.21 Structural systems (Carl Koch Systems). Source Jain (2019) Housing for All- Planning, Design, Financing and Management, Khanna Book Publishing, New Delhi

In the connections, the steel bars (dowels) that project from the edges of the slabs are welded to the dowels of the adjacent components, and transverse reinforcement bars are installed in place. The connections are then filled with concrete that is poured at the site (Fig. 10.21). Most buildings of this type have some kind of lateral load-resisting elements, mainly consisting of cast-in-place or precast shear walls, etc. In case lateral loadresisting elements (shear walls, etc.) are not present, the lateral load path depends on the ability of the slab-column connections to transfer bending moments. When the connections have been poorly constructed, this is not possible, and the lateral load path may be incomplete. However, properly constructed slab-column joints are capable of transferring moments as shown by full-scale vibration tests. Another type of precast system is a slab-column system that uses horizontal prestressing in two orthogonal directions to achieve continuity. The precast concrete column elements are 1 to 3 storeys high. The reinforced concrete floor slabs fit the clear span between columns. After erecting the slabs and columns of a story, the columns and floor slabs are prestressed by means of prestressing tendons that pass-through ducts in the columns at the floor level and along the gaps left between adjacent slabs. After prestressing, the gaps between the slabs are filled with in situ concrete and the tendons then become bonded with the spans. Seismic loads are resisted mainly by the

10.25 Self-healing Concrete

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shear walls (precast or cast-in-place) positioned between the columns at appropriate locations. In any structure equilibrium, resistance and stability are the basic prerequisites. In the past, the gravity was added to defeat gravity, resulting in massive masonry, compression structures, such as the pyramids. The new materials like steel and carbon fibre have brought higher values of tension capability of structure, reducing the consumption and weight of building materials. Pre-engineered building is based on the dictum of ‘less is more’ that is enclosing the given space with more flexibility and stability by using lesser materials. This implies the adoption of Newton’s laws in design of a structure, that is, counteract the pull and push forces by ranging them off against each other, a game of action and reaction. While the minimalist philosophy has permeated everywhere-computer, telephone and vehicles, buildings are still to witness this phenomenon. This is essential not only for economy, speed and quality of construction, but also for the reasons of ecological sustainability and inclusive growth. New and cost-effective technologies for foundation, walls and roofing include a range of conventional as well as modern, evolved materials and technologies, new or recycled waste materials (industrial, agriculture, building construction, etc.) (Table 10.5). These not only reduce the cost of building construction but also save energy and resources and are responsive to the environmental sustainability. These involve passive and active measures for green buildings (Table 10.6). Some of the sustainable technologies and services are given in Table 10.7. Metal alloys such as nickeltitanium can change form as directed. Superfibres, such as carbon and glass fibres, provide greater stiffness, strength, flexibility and economy, coping with higher tensile and compressive stresses achieved with the least amount of mass. Techno fabrics can incorporate micro-encapsulated phase change material for improved thermal insulation. Self-repairing building materials and concrete are emerging as the ideal materials for roof covering, external cladding or structural elements. Genetically modified bacterium knits together crack in concrete structures by producing special glue. The microbe, created by a team of researchers at the Newcastle University, has been programmed to seal fine cracks in the concrete. Once in contact with surface, it produces a mixture of calcium carbonate and a bacterial glue which combines with the filamentous bacterial cells to ‘knit’ the cracks together, ultimately hardening to the same strength as the surrounding concrete, the ‘bacila filla’.

10.25 Self-healing Concrete Victor Li, a professor of materials science at the University of Michigan in the US, has developed self-healing concrete that fills up the cracks and cavities by itself. Small amounts of hydrated cement form a tiny calcium carbonate ‘sear’, sealing the cracks within a concrete structure.

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Table 10.5 Sustainable, low-energy building materials Traditional/conventional

Modern/evolved

• Sun dried bricks • Precast cement concrete blocks, lintels, slab, modular elements • Cellular light-weight concrete blocks • Flyash sand lime bricks and paver blocks • Gypsum board, tiles, plaster, blocks, gypsum plaster fibre jute/sisal and glass fibre composites • Bamboo, bamboo-based particle board and ply board, bamboo matting, calcined phospho-gypsum wall panels • Ferro-cement roofing channels • Particle boards • Epoxy resin system, flooring, sealants, adhesives and admixtures • Ferro-cement boards for door and window shutters • Calcium silicate boards and tiles • Cement paint • Clay roofing tiles • Water, polyurethane and acrylic-based chemical admixtures for surface treatment • Laminatedwood,plastic components • Marble mosaic tiles • MDF boards and mouldings • Micro-concrete roofing tiles • Polymerised waterproof compound • Portland pozzolana • Cement flyash/calcined clay-based/portland slag cement • RCC door frames • Ready mix cement concrete • Rubber wood finger jointed board • Stone dust

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Bagasse board Bricks from coal washery rejects Building blocks from mine waste Burnt clay flyash bricks Coir cement board, compressed earth blocks EPS composites and door shutters Fibre flyash cement boards Fibre-reinforced concrete precast elements, wall panels, blocks, manhole covers Fibrous gypsum plaster boards Flyash cellular concrete, flyash cement brick, blocks Flyash lime cellular concrete Flyash lime gypsum brick, Rice husk ash bricks Jute fibre polyester Non-erodable mud plaster Polytiles Timber alternatives, such as poplar, rubber, eucalyptus Precast walling roofing components Prefab brick panel system

Source Building Materials & Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC), New Delhi

10.26 Rapid Wall In India, millions of tonnes of sulphur-gypsum wastes are produced as by-products of coal fired power stations and chemical fertiliser industries, disposal of which is a huge environmental problem. The rapid wall helps to overcome these problems by turning waste into rapid wall panels that can be manually erected and is energy efficient, aesthetically pleasing and is useful in construction where time and costs are key issues (Fig. 10.22).

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Table 10.6 Passive and active measures for green buildings Passive measures 1. TIM facade 2. Passive solar utilisation/evaporative cooling 3. Nature ventilation 4. Natural lighting (daylight quotient) 5. Cooling load reduction through storage masses (supported ventilation) 6. ‘Air well’ 7. Planted roof surface 8. Rainwater utilisation (grey water)

Active measures 9. Photovoltaic units 10. Solar collectors 1. Absorber surface 12. Wind generators 13. Low temperature heating 14. Cooling towers 15. Chilled ceiling 16. Chiller as heat pump (HP) 17. Absorption installation (‘refrigeration energy as heating energy’) 18. Combined heat and power station (CHP) 19. Filter installation for surface or groundwater heating (HP) 20. Ice water storage 21. Heat accumulator (storage) 22. Aquifer storage

Source Daniels (1994) The Technology of Ecological Buildings (p 43) Birkhauser, Verlag, Basel

Table 10.7 Some new materials and technologies

• Swales, biodrainage, porous paving, rainwater harvesting, waste water recycling, dual piping • Aerators for water fixtures • Waterless urinals and other water saving systems • Micro-irrigation systems, xeriscaping • Building integrated solar photovoltaic, wind energy, parabolic solar cookers • Green roof, vertical garden, urban farms • High CoP chillers • Wind towers/tunnels/chimney/high albedo materials • Geo-thermal systems • LED, CO2 sensors, intelligent, bionic sensors and controls • Building information systems • Rapid walls, precast, prefabricated component • Low emitting adhesives and sealants • Insulation products • High SRI coatings • High performance glass, intelligent, insulating windows • Certified wood, engineered timber product • Nanotechnology, nano-adhesives • Carbon negative cement and concrete Source Author

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Fig. 10.22 Rapid wall. Source Jain (2019) Housing for all- planning, design, financing and management, Khanna Book Publishing, New Delhi

10.27 Modular Plug-in Units Portable modular home units have been around for quite some time but have not been able to make an impact largely due to problems of costs, services, transportation, land and sprawl. If properly defined, they could have a modest carbon footprint compared with traditional, permanent housing. Brazilian architect Felipe Campolina has proposed high- density trailer parks in the sky. Steel framed skyscrapers provide a plug-in skeleton into which modular homes can be slotted as required. The homes would be built from standard 1.2 m × 2.4 m strand board panels and could telescope in and out for transportation or installation. Each one-bedroom unit would have thermo-acoustic insulation, water recycling, a combined heat and power unit and tempered glass windows. When the time comes to move house, residents could use a lift to lower their unit to ground level and ship it to a new location.

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225

10.28 Solar Mapping and Net-Zero Energy A demonstration house, built in Kamloops, Canada, generates its own power and features a host of energy-efficient elements. A rooftop array of solar photovoltaic panels has been installed in the house that generate power. A dual-purpose electricity metre has also been installed that tracks the amount of energy consumed as well as surplus power dispatched onto the grid when the home does not need it. The house features a lumber stud exterior wall that provides an insulation rating of R44 as compared to R12 for conventional fibreglass insulation and triple glazed windows with low-e coatings. A geo-thermal energy system in the house uses pipes extending about 66 m deep into the ground as an efficient means of heating and cooling. A hot water recovery system takes the hot water that goes down the drain while taking shower, doing dishes or any other activity, recovers that energy and stores it. Additional energy-efficient elements include 2.5 cm. thick recycled rubber shingles employed in living-room and a waterfall that balances interior humidity. A host of renewable resources has been used in the house such as cork flooring, bamboo cabinetry, recycled glass and concrete on all the countertops. An Australian couple has constructed a rotating house that can get proper light all day long by following the sun just at the touch of a button. The octagonal home is set on a turntable and spins around a central core of plumbing and electrical fittings. The property in New South Wales has of irregularly–shaped rooms which are more spacious than conventional houses and capture as much natural light as possible. The entire structure is powered by two electric engines not much bigger than a washing machine motor. The windows of buildings could also produce electricity with transparent solar cells or ‘smart energy’ glass. A US company Konarka has created a transparent photo voltaic cell that fits between two panes of a window. Although the costs are high, smart glass technology saves on air- conditioning and high-energy cost. This is being used for Boeing 787 Dream Jet plane and also in some high-speed trains in Germany.

10.29 Wind Energy High-altitude wind power has advantage over solar energy, which is not always available. Solar towers have reflecting mirrors that require frequent cleaning and maintenance. After sunset, batteries are required to store solar energy, adding to the cost. But space rowers can generate power in the giga-watt range and do not require a storage medium. Research by California State University and Carnegie Institute at Stanford estimates that there is enough wind energy at altitudes between 7 and 12 km, where the jet stream blow, to meet the global electricity demand a hundred times over. Due to their abundance and strength, jet stream winds to 15 km above the earth provide tremendous potential to generate wind energy by installing turbines.

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In 2009, scientists had proposed an inflatable tower up to 20 km tall, which can carry people and payload into space cheaper than rockets and space shuttles. They proposed 100 wind turbines on a 15 km pneumatic tower made of Kevlar, a synthetic fibre with high tensile strength. The main advantage of these insulating towers of strong polymer fabric is that electricity collected by the tower skin will not flow into the ground plane. The tower can be inflated with helium or ordinary air and would be able to sustain loads up to 270,000 tonnes. The estimated cost of a single tower with turbines, which can generate 20 GW of power is said to be a prohibitive $ 10 billion. India’s total demand at present is 200 GW and that can be a met by 10 such towers. A group of companies in Britain have come up with a radical proposal of floating windmills that will open up thousands of kilometres of coastline to zero-carbon power. Project deepwater was launched to research ways of overcoming the engineering problems that limit offshore turbines to water depths of 40 m or less. The floating turbines have the potential to open up vast amounts of power. The answer involves a windmill with a buoyant base held in place by cables attached to a steel and concrete disc on the seafloor. The deepwater turbine (300 m deep) would cost about the same as a normal single 3 MW turbine ($20 m). Green Building Rating tools provide third-party validation of the design and/or performance of a building. Certification systems are vital as they provide an independent assessment of the green performance of projects, increasingly a key consideration for owners, tenants, agents and capital providers. Certification systems have been particularly successful in raising awareness of green buildings, resulting in greater market demand and industry response. By defining what is considered ‘green’ in a particular market, rating tools are able to recognise and reward best practice and thereby help move the entire market beyond simple code compliance. In more mature green building markets, building codes often become more stringent as the baseline for what is considered standard performance—at least as defined by ratings tools—increases. Green building rating tools also help create demand for green buildings. There are currently 31 different certification systems currently supported by Green Building Councils; the most widely used examples include LEED, Green Star, GRIHA and BREEAM. The GRIHA systems evaluate 34 criteria from the site selection, planning, design, water, energy, building materials, all throughout the construction phase and building life cycle (Table 10.8). Ratings tools create a common language around green building by providing definitions and performance benchmarks, which can provide verification for capital providers and developers. They have expanded the understanding of green building beyond simply energy or water efficiency in operations. Areas of building design and operation that were previously overlooked, such as indoor environment quality and the life cycle of building materials, have gained more attention. Meeting a certification standard can be a means for contractual agreement between all players in the design and construction process for the public and private sectors towards a more sustainable, green and resilient built environment.

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Table 10.8 Green rating for integrated habitat assessment (GRIHA) Criteria

Points

Criteria 1

Site selection

1 Partly mandatory

Criteria 2

Preserve & protect landscape during construction/compensatory forestation

5 Partly mandatory

Criteria 3

Soil conservation (post construction)

4

Criteria 4

Design to include existing site features

2 Mandatory

Criteria 5

Reduce hard paving on site

2 Partly

Criteria 6

Enhance outdoor lighting system efficiency and use renewable energy system

3

Criteria 7

Plan utilities efficiently and optimise on-site circulation efficiency

3

Criteria 8

Provide minimum level of sanitation/safety facilities for construction workers

2 Mandatory

Criteria 9

Reduce air pollution during construction

Criteria 10 Reduce landscape water requirement

2 Mandatory 3

Criteria 11 Reduce building water use

2

Criteria 12 Efficient water use during construction

1

Criteria 13 Optimise building to reduce conventional energy demand

6 Mandatory

Criteria 14 Optimise energy performance of building within specified comfort

12

Criteria 15 Utilisation of flyash in building structure

6

Criteria 16 Reduce volume, weight and time of construction by adopting 4 efficient technology Criteria 17 Use low-energy material in interiors

4

Criteria 18 Renewable energy utilisation

5 Partly mandatory

Criteria 19 Renewable energy-based hot water system

3

Criteria 20 Waste water treatment

2

Criteria 21 Water recycle & reuse (including rainwater)

5

Criteria 22 Reduction in waste during construction

2

Criteria 23 Efficient waste segregation

2

Criteria 24 Storage and disposal of waste

2

Criteria 25 Resource recovery from waste

2

Criteria 26 Use of low VOC paints/adhesives/sealants

4

Criteria 27 Minimise ozone-depleting substances

3 Mandatory

Criteria 28 Ensure water quality

2 Mandatory

Criteria 29 Acceptable outdoor and indoor noise levels

2

Criteria 30 Tobacco and smoke control

1

Criteria 31 Universal accessibility

1

Criteria 32 Energy audit and validation

Mandatory (continued)

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Table 10.8 (continued) Criteria Criteria 33 Operations and maintenance protocol for electrical and mechanical equipment

Points 2 Mandatory

Total score

100

Criteria 34 Innovation (beyond 100)

4 104

Source TERI (2010) Green Rating of Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA), New Delhi

Chapter 11

Reimagining the City

In our hearts we know there is something maniacal about the way we are abusing the planetary environment. Theodore Roszak Man can hardly recognise the devil of his own creation. Albert Schweitzer ‘The control of nature’ is a phrase conceived in arrogance, born of the Neanderthal age of biology and convenience of man. Rachel Carson

Climate change with a rise in temperatures is resulting into larger carbon footprints and energy use. As a consequence, the frequency of droughts, floods, cyclones, pandemics, urban heat islands and pollution of air and water are discernible. This calls for rethinking the paradigms of urban development and the adoption of new tools to address the challenges of climate change, pollution and disasters.

11.1 UN Conference of the Parties (COP26 and COP27) The United Nations Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow (November 2021) deliberated upon various measures to limit global warming to 1.5 °C by the year 2100. Indian delegation led by PM Narendra Modi put forward the need to scale up clean technologies and renewable energy. Under the International Solar Alliance (ISA), One Sun One World One Grid envisions an interconnected transnational solar energy grid. The COP26 agreed to reduce the use of fossil fuels and coal by new sources, such as green hydrogen, green metals, carbon capture, solid-state batteries, electric fuels, heat pumps, electric and hydrogen powered transport and next-generation solar PV. PM Modi put forward his five-point agenda at the conference and informed that India’s non-fossil fuel energy will be raised from 160GW at present to 500 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 A. Jain, Climate Resilient, Green and Low Carbon Built Environment, Green Energy and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0216-3_11

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GW by 2030 and 50% of the power requirement will be met by renewable energy. Solar modules will reduce the carbon intensity of the economy to less than 45%. India is committed to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 by clean technologies, like electric transport, ethanol blending in gasoline, solar photovoltaic and batteries. These technologies would play a critical role in India’s decarbonisation. At the COP27 (2022, Sharm-el-Sheikh), India launched its long-term Low Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS). It focusses on transition towards expending renewable energy, strengthening power grid, energy conservation, rational use of fossil fuel, nuclear energy, green hydrogen, fuel cells and biofuels for low carbon growth. Discussions at COP27 encompassed the plans, financial deliberations, technological innovations, ideas and investments. Towards building a cleaner, safer and more productive path of development, it was emphasised to triple the flows of finances within five years by multilateral banks. India’s Lifestyle for the Environment (LiFE) mission was seen as a necessity to deal with climate change at local community level. India is central to climate mitigation, and its presidency of the G-20 will be an opportunity to deepen these ideas. India has also led the formation of a global Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and Clean Energy Ministerial Industrial Deep Decarbonisation Initiative (IDDI) to strike a mindful balance between development and environment.

11.2 Environment and Urban Development Urban India is passing through the Anthropocene, where humans have permeated everywhere and shape everything. The approaches of development, design and urban planning need to consider the social and cultural aspects and aims at minimising the carbon footprints and maximise the resilience. Carbon footprint is the total set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, mainly from energy, industries, transport, solid and liquid wastes, agriculture and forestry. Linked with it is the phenomenon of climate change and disasters, which impact health, infrastructure services, housing and livelihoods. These need to be resilient. Resilience is defined as ‘the ability of a city as a socio-ecological infrastructural system and its components to absorb and recover from shocks whilst retaining the essential functions and adjust to stresses to reorganise, develop, and transform in order to adapt to socio-economic and environmental changes, over temporal and spatial scales’. This implies certain basic changes in the planning and urban processes, which are resilient and reduce the use of natural resources and energy. These should conform to net-zero energy and water standards, thrift consumption and doing more with less. According to UNISDR, the Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)-related activities comprise planning regulations, plans and development activities; setting up institutional structures dedicated to DRR; constructing or enhancing hazard-mitigating infrastructures, along with education/awareness/training programmes.

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It needs relooking at cross-cultural realities and adoption of circular concepts of the resources and development. The trend of walk to work and work from home need reimagining the process of urban planning and design, and a shift from predigital, fossil fuel era to renewables, digital and circular systems. This needs leapfrogging in the areas of combinatorial and discrete optimisation by algorithms, 4D mapping, downloading, networking, artificial intelligence, big data analytics, the ubiquitous cloud and robotics. These tools aim to address the impending issues of pollution, energy and water shortages and make the buildings and cities green and carbon negative. As said by Sanjay Prakash ‘Cities show lifelike features, the whole system is more than the sum of its parts, just like living creatures, which are more than the sum of their cells and their interactions. No sub-system can be disaggregated because they all affect the overall system, change in the people of the city or in individual lives entails change in the city’s economy’. According to Aromar Revi, Rahul Mehrotra and Sanjay Prakash, who worked together on an international competition, ‘Goa 2100’, the following are the six key takeaways in urban design: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Use less with factor four technologies for sufficiency and equity Grow your own: Tap harvestable yield autonomously Build two-way network for security. Every consumer is also a producer Store renewable energy and resources Less transport using least lifecycle cost technologies E-xchange: Use intelligent wireless networks to enable real-time trade and delivery of goods.

Source Sanjay P (1992) Energy Conscious Architecture- An Endless Quest, Architecture + Design -9 (3)

11.3 Spatial Analytics Operationally useful and time bound information is the basis of the planning process. As such, it is important to identity appropriate indicators and their sources as integral elements of developing an interactive and flexible approach for information collection, rather than rigid statistical methods. This involves working out flexible check lists and semi-structured cross-examination of various sources of information. The salient features of such an approach are as follows: a. To collect digital information by new methods, such as satellite imagery, drone surveys, total station surveys, UAVs, National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI), National Resources Information System (NRIS), etc. b. To relate information and inputs with reflective observation, conceptualisation and experimentation c. To recognise the limitation of optimal ignorance and appropriate in precision

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Adoption of triangulation process for a three-dimensional perception Proxy indicators as an aid to information and perceptive understanding Quality control versus quantitative/statistical approach Use of GIS and digital tools Recognising the principle of ‘less is more’ (time/information/resources). As the basis of the planning, the following information is necessary:

i. ii. iii.

iv. v. vi.

Physical: such as land required, location, access, land ownership power and water, services, raw material and markets Environmental factors: such as pollution, EIA, carbon emissions and reduction, waste management, water recycling and energy efficiency Organisation, management and legal issues, such as laws, rules, regulations, labour, organisations involved, contracting, completion, regulatory system, political support and timelines Technology: level, import potential, skills, safety retrofitting, repair, maintenance, impact, etc. Finances and other resources, such as institutional finance, taxes, human resource, subsidies, cost benefit, market potential and pricing Service delivery: consumers, society, local community, jobs, etc.

Once the spatial and attribute data is generated in digital frame, their applications are many and varied. These include resource inventory and management, planning and monitoring, land records for taxation and ownership controls, facilities and services management, and environment impact assessment. Preparation of a digital plan using RS & GIS can be undertaken in different layers for resource management and implementation. The cadastre map for planning is usually drawn on Survey of India sheets and the satellite imageries. Various information are superimposed on it from the cadastral maps, revenue records, plans and schemes of government agencies, like the municipal government, service departments, Industrial Development Corporation, Public Works Department, Railways, National Highways Authority, etc. The existing land use map incorporating the land use from the satellite interpretation and revenue records is taken for ground verification. The amount of ground verification varies from 15 to 50%. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) provides interpreted satellite imageries, thematic data and other services for urban and regional planning to the government agencies. By utilising the Bhuvan portal, the planners can create new data layers for the non-conforming land uses to assess the deviation between the previous approved proposed land use plan and the existing situation. Since the mapping has been done on GIS, temporal variations from the latest remote sensing imageries can also be superimposed. Such data can be uploaded on Bhuvan portal for public viewing. Both attribute data and pictorial data can be collected from the field through the app and uploaded on a centralised data base.

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Synoptic & overall view sectoral study

Provider's perception

Synthesis

Consumer's Point of view

Ground reality area-case study

Fig. 11.1 Integration of synoptic/sectoral study with ground reality/area studies; and provider’s perception with consumer’s perception. Source Author

11.4 Observation, Abstraction and Analysis Understanding the issues of development needs integration of a synoptic or bird’s eye view with the ground realities, and providers’ perception with the consumer’s perception. This means a 360° observation, abstraction and analysis. Various methods and tools are employed in this task, such as interviews, direct inspection, multiple index survey, transect, proxy indicators and triangulation (Fig. 11.1). The interviews can be face-to-face or by internet or telephone. Face-to-face interviews are more accurate, but any sort of interviewing is expensive. Interviewers must be trained, and since one-shot surveys cannot hire full-time interviewers, staffing a survey is difficult. In these circumstances, survey research centres, often affiliated with universities, are frequently used for survey and research. The direct inspection of conditions or activities is employed in making traffic counts, land use surveys, housing quality studies and many other kinds of surveys where human communication is not required to elicit the information directly. A wellknown direct technique is participant-observation. The techniques were developed by anthropologists in the study of community life. The surveyor becomes a resident of the community and lives among the people, learning their way of life by participating in it. It has been very effectively used by some social scientists to investigate the urban problems. The choice of techniques rests primarily on two criteria, time and cost, both of which we always want to minimise but often reducing one results in increasing the other. This poses the need to strike a balance of the two. This means that each question should relate to its core purpose, such as the variations in the population being surveyed. This needs careful design and structuring the questions of a survey. A sample, properly chosen of some fraction of the whole, is usually adequate to estimate the information for the whole population. If the population to be surveyed is very large and the sampling proportion is small, then a test run will allow the adjustments in sample size or number of questions. It also helps to spot the ambiguous

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questions, areas of misinterpretation and poor layout of the form. When surveys are conducted, some system of monitoring is advisable to discourage improper practices. To assess the particular aspect or condition, such as poverty, the multiple index system can be adopted by means of a sieve map (or quantitatively by calculating average multiple index). This may help to determine the areas having worst (shown by incidences of all the bad factors), moderate (few bad factors) or fair (no bad factors) conditions. Average Multiple Index is calculated for different areas, which can be given different weight depending upon the gravity of a factor in contribution to condition of buildings, poverty or environment. Transect as a schematic device can be useful to obtain an overview of a particular area and its problems and issues. This is a diagrammatic illustration and record of major characteristics, events, profiles or issues. While conducting windscreen surveys, triangulation or reconnaissance, freehand transects can be prepared, which supplement the records. Proxy indicators are an alternative to unstructured observations. Information about these indicators may be readily available, which has to be applied on the basis of past experience, common sense and certain assumptions. For example, the growth in the number of banks in an area may indicate its economic base or a greater number of fast food restaurants may represent a youth dominated society or business. Accuracy, timeliness, reliability and cost-effectiveness are important qualities determining the usefulness of data for planning and formulation of policies. These factors should be kept in view while collecting the data. To collect quality information, the key informants should be selected carefully, so that those who are knowledgeable are approached. In addition to public agencies, other sources of information, viz. cooperatives, resident groups, women’s organisations, traders associations, etc. can also be useful to augment information obtained from primary and official sources. Secondary sources of data, such as reports and literature, can also provide useful information. The information should be triangulated and integrated— synoptic/sectoral data with local/ground level studies and provider’s perception with that of the consumers. Triangulation Triangulation is an important method to cross-check information obtained from different sources. Multi-disciplinary teams are useful in triangulation, so that the data and information can be cross-checked by observation, discussions and by interdisciplinary perspectives. This way, the reliability of information obtained through rapid surveys/appraisal can be enhanced. Exploration A preliminary visit can be very helpful to work out a handy semi-structured checklist and a framework of indicators for actual survey. Simultaneously, a semistructured questionnaire for interviews with people and organisations concerned can be prepared. The information thus obtained should be triangulated from time to time to make sense out of it. Information related to observations can be transformed into

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Fig. 11.2 Force-field analysis. Source Davidson, Forbes (1990) IHS Rotterdam

abstractions, which should be crisp and clear so that it can be digested, codified, analysed and synthesised. Triage Triage is a useful method for assessing social, economic, institutional and technical performance of alternative options, systems or technology. It is particularly concerned with the technical aspects and design process and, therefore, is relevant for project planning and design. Under this method, various components of a system are given a score and a screening criteria is evolved. For this, the results of the system and performance are reviewed and scored as low, medium or high, as the case may be. Force-Field Analysis Force-field analysis is a well-established management tool. It allows the analysis of a problem, or an opportunity in a manner that helps to generate innovative but realistic actions. The actions generated may range from use of certain technology to manpower development and choice of partners in development. It has become an appropriate tool to develop innovative solutions to urban problems, such as better use of private sector participation to improve urban services (Fig. 11.2). Strategic Issues Many enterprises, whether infrastructure, industrial or business, end up in failures. While the success stories become the talk of the town and the media, no one knows what happened to other 90% of failures. It is common to blame the political system, interference, corruption or red tape for the failures and troubles, while the planning and management pitfalls are underplayed. However, ‘politics’ in a democratic set up is part of the management and cannot be wished away. It works both ways: political alignment and interventions can speed up the project or kill it. The fact is that initiating a large infrastructure project involves a complex cohort of risks, clearances and interventions, such as obtaining licences, loans, land, labour, technology, public services (like power, water), environment impact assessment, etc. In order to obviate the unforeseen problems, which may adversely delay or stall the project, it is necessary to make a detailed study of the strategic issues which are critical for smooth operation of the project. This helps to troubleshoot the critical

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problems that could be anticipated. Some of these can be nipped in the bud through initial planning and legal framework, rules and regulations, agreements, etc. Impact Analysis The purpose of impact analysis is to assess the impact of a particular service, project or facility. A preliminary impact analysis may be essential at the planning stage. For this, the intended or planned activity is placed at the centre, and its direct and indirect, positive and negative results are listed in the boxes around the activity. The arrows linking various boxes indicate the linkages, directions and causes. The effects may be comprehensive, which can be categorised under physical, environmental, social, economic, political, institutional, legal and other impacts. For example, the impact of intended regularisation of unauthorised colonies can be analysed by evolving a set of impact diagrams, such as given below: • Economic-How is the plan likely to impact economically? This includes its effects on employment and on business in the plan area and also at a broader level, e.g. the city or region. • Social-What will be the impact on social organisation? • Political- Is the plan likely to have political repercussions? • Environmental-What will be the environmental impact of the plans—both within the site and at a broader level? • Cultural-Are the plans sensitive to existing culture? Are they likely to have an impact? All these questions need to be answered both in terms of short-term and long-term impacts. Sustainability Analysis Sustainability is a key consideration in working out a policy and plans for urban development. For this at various stages, key areas involved in planning and implementation are listed, such as energy, water, building construction, waste management, greenery, noise, safety, etc. Against each, major issues are identified with their possible solutions. This allows assessing the proposal with the norms and exploration of possible options. SWOT Analysis Evaluating strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Often, we realise that strategy falls short of the plans. This may be due to ad-hoc decisions, political, societal, or legal pressures or financial constraints. The SWOT analysis aims to visualise various weaknesses and threats, for which preplanning may be necessary (Fig. 11.3). People, Objects, Environments, Messages and Services (POEMS) The POEMS framework is an observational research framework to make sense of the five elements, i.e. people, objects, environments, messages and services. These help

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Fig. 11.3 SWOT analysis. Source Jain AK (2022) Spatial Analytics for a Resilient and Low Carbon Urban India, My Coordinates, March

teams to think about context as systems of related elements by a note taking template to record and categorise the observations (notebooks, cameras, pens, recorders, etc.). Tree/Semi-lattice Diagramming The tree and semi-lattice diagrams are used to analyse the hierarchical nature and relationship among entities. In this, dots or circles represent entities, and lines show connections, hierarchy and understanding the differences for getting insight about the context. Venn Diagramming Venn diagramming is an effective method to analyse the overlaps between two or more clusters of entities. Venn diagrams use visualisation with overlapping circles. The interior of the circle represents the entities in the cluster, while the exterior represents entities that are not members of the cluster. Remote Research Uses online research tools, such as given below: • Experience simulation engages peoples in simulated experiences to understand what matters to them. • User response analyses to understand patterns and drive insight • ERAF system diagram to analyse entities, relations, attributes and flows

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• Strategy roadmap- Planning solutions for short-term, mid-term and long-term, integrating information, processes and workflows • Trend matrix summarises changes that leads to future direction. • Solution database involves organising the concepts and solutions in a searchable database. • Five human factors (physical, cognitive, cultural, social and emotional factors) are considered to synthesise the elements of remote research. • Behavioural prototype involves simulation to understand user behaviour. • Insight clustering matrix aims to understand the insights and showing their relations and hierarchies. Conceiving Holistic Concepts Shifting from parts to whole, the objective is to look holistically at the individual concepts. Specialised teams talk through different possible configurations, concepts and evaluate which of these are optimal for a given context. It involves interrelationship among various data, attributes and processes and seeks to balance knowledge, abstraction, creative thinking/ideation and practice/implementation. This may comprise the following tools: • • • • • •

Principles and opportunities Mind map Value hypothesis and ideation Concept generating mapping and scenario Concept metaphors and analogies Concept prototype, sorting, cataloguing and matrix.

Morphological Synthesis The concepts lead to a systematic synthesis of plans and strategies by a series of steps, such as given below: • • • • • • • •

Deep learning and artificial intelligent models Building information modelling (BIM) Concept-linking map Foresight scenario Solution diagramming, prototypes and evaluation Planning roadmap Action and strategic planning Assessment and monitoring of techno-legal constraints and resources.

It involves striking a balance between knowledge, observation, abstraction, planning and strategic implementation (Fig. 11.4). The strategic implementation is a systematic process of identifying the problem, setting the objective, developing options and action planning (Fig. 11.5). The process of action planning needs

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Fig. 11.4 Idealism and practice interface. Source Jain Ak (2022) Spatial Analytics for a Resilient and Low Carbon Urban India, My Coordinates, March

Fig. 11.5 Links to strategic planning. Source Forbes Davidson (1994) Action Planning, IHS Rotterdam

working out the resources, timelines, partnerships, communications and maintenance (Fig. 11.6). Usually, urban projects are implemented in a partnership mode that requires capacity building, legal backup and financial resources (Fig. 11.7). Urban Demography In India, the total number of towns and cities has increased from 5161 in 2001 to 7935 in 2011. There are 475 Class I cities (each with a population above 1 lakh) including 53 million plus cities. The million plus cities together constitute 42.63% of the total urban population, while the Class I cities (including million plus cities)

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Fig. 11.6 Process of action planning. Source Forbes Davidson (1994) Action Planning, IHS Rotterdam

have 70.20% of the total urban population. As per Census 2011, there are three megacities, viz. Greater Mumbai (18.4 million), Delhi (16.8 million) and Kolkata (14.1 million) which have crossed the 10 million population mark, while five cities, viz. Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Pune, have each attained more than 5 million population. From 377 million urban population in 2011, it is projected that by the year 2031, 600 million people will live in urban areas and 78 cities in India will become metropolitan million plus (Table 11.1). According to the Constitution of India spatial planning, land, housing, slum improvement, local self-government, physical and social infrastructure, urban transport are in state list. Environment and heritage protection, education, health, regional transport, bulk services, industrial growth and tourism are in concurrent list. The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts in 1992–93 empowered the urban local bodies to prepare district and local plans, and constitution of District Planning Committees and Metropolitan Planning Committees. However, many states did not abide by these provisions and perpetuated with conventional master planning. According to EFN Ribeiro, former Chief Planner, Govt. of India (2003) ‘The process of governance and investments through a spatial plan does not necessarily downplay the continual top down equation in developmental import through the tested equation. However, it enjoins a stronger central-state down-top process through an improved LSG-state partnership. It implies peoples’ involvement in the development process at neighbourhood, panchayats, ward and Zone/Sector/Borough levels in that upward order and a peoples’ understanding of investment frameworks,

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Fig. 11.7 Strategic planning in the development and implementation of partnerships. Source Plummer (2002) Focusing Partnerships to Municipal Capacity Building, Earthscan, UK Table 11.1 India’s urban trajectory

Year

2011

2031

Population

1210 million

1440 million

Urban Population

377 million (31.16%)

600 million

Cities and Towns

7935

–

Million + Cities

53

78

Housing Shortage

18.78 million units

30 to 40 million units

Slum Population

65.49 million

100 million

Source Census of India, 2011 & McKinsey Report, 2010

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disaggregated at the state/district/ metropolitan/taluk levels. In the metropolitan context the convergence area is the zone/sector/ward and where the fulcrum for sustainable growth is envisaged through the body of municipal ward councillors being accountable to the people’. Ribeiro further suggests that ‘the wards as LSG planning units and groups of wards could offer answers to several of the obligatory functions of LSG as indicated in the CAA schedules. It requires a major capacity building input. Ward plans at spatial scale with up-to-date base maps (1:5000 or larger), would be a major and refreshing canvas for not only the ward councillor but the entire ward community to understand and rally round for sustainable development with peoples’ participation’. As such, a five-tier planning framework, as given below, may be adopted (Fig. 11.8): i ii iii iv v

Regional/subregional development plans (for districts and subdistricts) City development plan Zonal development plan Local area plans (for wards) Community/Sectoral plans (for neighbourhood, villages, slum area, services such as water, energy, sanitation, drainage and transport).

These plans need to be prepared in a participatory manner and should be ICT enabled, focusing upon the key issues such as climate change, Sustainable Development Goals, air and water pollution, health and hygiene, urban transport, net zero,

Fig. 11.8 Typologies of plans for integrated development. Source Ribeiro (2003) Metropolitan Vision in the Context of Rapid Urbanisation, Paper presented in AMDA Seminar, New Delhi

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low carbon buildings, renewable energy, disaster resilience, conservation of natural resources and heritage, informal sector jobs and socio-economic equity. India’s Urban Missions Since 2014, the Government of India has launched several new urban missions, viz. Smart Cities Mission, Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT), Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana, Historic City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY) and Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM). These missions aim at low carbon urbanisation and the provision of core infrastructure services like water supply, sanitation and solid waste management, efficient urban transport, affordable housing for the poor, 24 × 7 power supply, IT connectivity, e-governance participatory planning and providing better education, healthcare, urban safety and smart services. These missions including 500 cities under AMRUT have adopted the techniques of geo-databases, GIS-based master plan formulation and capacity building. An MOU has been signed between National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Department of Space and Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs for geo-database creation. Climate Resilient and Low Carbon Planning Resilience comprises 6 Rs that is Robustness, Redundancy, Resourcefulness, Reformability, Recoverability and Rapidity. These are all interlinked through an area specific Disaster Resilience Strategy. The Asian Cities Climate Change Resilience Network (ACCCRN), launched by the Rockefeller Foundation in 2008, aims at catalysing attention, funding and action to strengthen cities’ resilience to climate change impacts. The plans for disaster resilience of pilot Indian cities, based on NDMA guidelines and Hyogo Convention Framework demonstrate effective processes and practices to address climate vulnerabilities using participatory local planning (Fig. 11.9). The three pillars of resilience building in a city system are the following: • Strengthening fragile system • Strengthening social agents • Strengthening institutions to support the above. The cornerstone of making a city resilient and low carbon is to adopt an integrated approach towards ecology, the conservation of the natural resources and sustainable urban development, including the services like drainage, water supply, air, sewerage, solid waste management, transportation and energy. The planning typology can be segregated as per the domain (government, development authorities, municipal government, PPP, etc.), levels (local, zonal, master plan, policy plan/regional plan), time frame (short, medium and long terms). At every stage, public and institutional participation is necessary together with sustainable, resilient and low carbon development. This involves the following: • Local economic promotion and jobs • Reducing urban footprint

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Fig. 11.9 Methodology and tools used for the vulnerability assessment in Gorakhpur. Source GEAG (2009) Vulnerable Analysis, Gorakhpur City

• • • • • • • • •

Biodiversity, greenery and amenity spaces Urban heat mitigation Water conservation and management Decentralised and intelligent services Air quality management Clean transport and transit-oriented development Green energy Green and resilient buildings LiFE- Lifestyle for the Environment.

These targets involve setting up of SMART goals which are specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time bound. The new paradigm also needs a basic change in the role of planners from a technical expert to facilitator, communicator and a catalyst of change (Figs. 11.10 and 11.11). The thrust on strategies and action planning requires working out new mode of partnerships, financing and resource optimisation (including human resource and time). In this digital age, all-round disruptions are happening. In India, the 20-year model of master planning adopted during the 1950s does not address the emerging problems of climate change, air and water pollution, public health, employment and disasters. It is also incongruent with the objectives of speed, scale and sustainability. It is

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Fig. 11.10 Hyrum Smith’s concept of SMART goals. Source Jain (2022) Spatial Analytics for a Resilient and Low Carbon Urban India, My Coordinates, March

Fig. 11.11 Changing role of planning professional. Source Jain (2022) Spatial Analytics for a Resilient and Low Carbon Urban India, My Coordinates, March

necessary that urban and regional plans are prepared for a five-year horizon, while their vision may extend to 20 years. Local Economic Promotion and Jobs In India, the cities generate the country’s 60% of GDP and 70% of the jobs. With Covid-19 pandemic, climate change and diminishing jobs, the factors of public health, creation of jobs, environmental sustainability and climate resilience have emerged as the key issues. A target of 10 million jobs in urban areas can be achieved in next five years by development of janta markets, workshops/ sheds, kiosks, shops, small offices, etc. At least 10% area of shopping/commercial centres may be reserved for the informal sector (street vendors, kiosks, fruit and vegetable stalls, etc.). The residential areas also need a higher level of mixed use and the rationalisation of FAR/FSI, height and densities. Reducing Urban Footprint The urban footprint can be reduced by optimum densities/floor area ratio to reduce consumption of land that leads to travel reduction, economy of services and conservation of agricultural areas. The Indian cities have an overall density of 100–240

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PPHa, which can be selectively doubled along public transit corridors, excluding the archaeological, heritage and conservation zones. The focus has to be on redevelopment of the brownfields, infrastructure services, transportation, public greens and facilities. The urban ecosystem must be compact and dense. The urban planning, governance, businesses and industries have been transformed by fourth industrial revolution. The urban processes need to be compatible to circular economy by adoption of new technologies, such as digital blockchain, combinatorial and discrete optimisation, algorithms, complexity theory, artificial intelligence, big data and the ubiquitous cloud. A digital ledger is a geographically distributed database that is shared and synchronised across a network of the participants. It has a blockchain structure where the data is stored in blocks, linked and secured by cryptography for handling identities, contracts and assets. The blockchain is an electronic transactions system. It is based on a hash algorithm that converts data into a block. Digital blockchain system for land management is indispensable for land pooling schemes in order to curb the frauds and power of attorney transactions, which are very common in urban and rural zones. The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM) is an International Standard (IS) of the International Organisation for Standardisation. It covers basic information related to components of land administration and includes agreements on administrative and spatial data, land rights and source documents (e.g. deeds or survey plans), and forms of tenures- customary tenure, government land and privately held land. The LADM assigns the class and contains the Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities, which are the basis of land adjustment and registration. Digital distributed ledger technology can simplify the complex and open to manipulation paperwork used for property records. As blockchain is immutable and not easily vulnerable to hacking, title records will become verifiable and simple in establish a clear chain of legal ownership. Sustainability and Livability Index To evaluate the livability quotient of the Indian cities, comprehensive assessment criteria comprising institutional, social, economic and physical factors have been developed by the MOHUA and NIUA. The data collated from 116 cities is weighted against 79 indicators covering approximately 13.4 crore people. Forty-five percent of the weightage of City Liveability Index has been assigned to physical services, viz. land use, housing, water, sanitation, energy and transportation, and 25% of the weightage is given each to social and institutional factors and 5% to the economic factors. This indicates a shift of focus from economy to physical, social and institutional aspects. In terms of planning, the principles of ecoefficiency/green design, restorative ecosystems, bioinspired design, reconciliatory design and regenerative development are assessed, including the adoption of passive and active strategies for adaptation and mitigation of environmental impacts (Fig. 11.12). This involves developing a comprehensive information system, digitised mapping, geo-portal, information on jobs, livelihoods, local economic and socio-cultural dimensions.

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Fig. 11.12 City Liveability Index developed by MOHUA (2018) comprises four pillars of development. Source MOHUA, 2018

Biodiversity, Greenery and Amenity Spaces A study of the present land use pattern in India indicates shortfall of land under forests and greens, while the lands under agricultural use are being increasingly converted for the highways, airports and settlements. It is estimated that an additional 2–3 million hectares would be required for human settlements during next 10 years. Sacrificing agricultural land for habitation implies reduction of land for producing food. The lands that sustain agriculture, biodiversity, surface water and groundwater, fragile and sensitive areas, coastal zones, etc. need protection and conservation. In a city, an overall area of 10 m2 of greens per capita should be reserved for public greens at city, zonal and local levels. A system of landscaped linkages connecting various parts of the city, water bodies and monuments can provide a sense of oasis and shelter from oppressive climate. Peripheral green belts can act as wind breakers, filters of SPM and dust storms. The green buffers with indigenous trees, land formations, mounds, embankments, etc. also provide effective barriers to transmission of noise. The development of greenways can be integrated with the water bodies, drainage corridors and harvesting ponds, reservoirs and by sediment traps in the catchment zones. In water-deficient, dry areas, the landscape can be in form of xeriscaping, which can reduce total water demand by as much as 50–90% by micro-just-in-time irrigation. Vertical gardens and urban farming can provide relief in dense areas. In built-up areas, reservation of open space can be done by adopting appropriate regulations for redevelopment. The Government of Maharashtra has notified the regulations for Provision of Amenity Spaces and Open Recreational Spaces under Unified Development Control and Promotion Regulations (UDCPR 2020). These

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provisions oblige that a minimum 10% of space is reserved and provided in plots more than 4000 m2 against additional FSI or TDR for garden, playground, and/or for a municipal school, hospital, fire brigade and housing for affected people. Urban Heat Mitigation In a dense built-up area, air rises over the warmer city and settles down in the cooler environs. The hot air dome and its effect on micro-climate may persist until wind or rain disperses it. Increased aerodynamics of built-up areas cause rapid deceleration of wind compared with open countryside. It has been calculated that wind velocity within a city is half of what it is over open land. At the town edge, it is reduced by a third. The mutations and reservation of greenery and open space in windward direction and cooler surface materials (roads, parking, buildings, roofs, etc.) help in mitigating the effects of urban heat island. Water Conservation and Management Water scarcity has become a persisting problem in Indian cities due to climate change, pollution of rivers, water bodies and massive construction. Several cities in India have become water stressed. Only 18% of the renewable water resource is being recycled, and only 10% of the annual rainfall is being harvested in India. The issues of concern are increasing coliform levels and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in surface waters and increased concentration of nitrates in the groundwater. To overcome these problems, water sources need to be protected by sanitation/sewerage interception and by recycling and treatment of wastewater. Water resources can be augmented through recharging of groundwater and by rainwater harvesting (not only in building, but also on roads, parks and parking areas) along with conservation of rivers and water bodies, water-efficient taps/fittings, dual plumbing, curbing nonrevenue water and recycling of wastewater. Blockchain and SCADA systems can help in a more efficient water supply of potable quality. Decentralised and Intelligent Services Surveys reveal that approximately 40% of urban population in India is not covered by sewerage, sanitation, drainage and solid waste disposal. Various alternative technologies, based on decentralised systems, can be explored. The use of IT, simulation, blockchain and automation can make the services smart and intelligent. The common method of land filling for solid waste disposal is an environmental disaster. Instead, decentralised systems based on 5 R strategy of reduce, refuse, reuse, recover and recycling should be explored. Three bins provide separate bins for trash, recyclable and compost. Collection charges drop as trash drops. Biotechnology, enzyme-based STP, bioremedial treatment, vessel system, sludge gas/energy recovery, vermi-culture, fossilisation and compositing options can be adopted for solid and liquid waste management. Underground pneumatic conveying systems can be adopted, which are more hygienic, economical and avoid movement of trucks for transportation of wastes. Common utility ducts or tunnels carrying electricity, water, sewerage, wastes, cables and broadband internet minimise damage from traffic, road repairs, rains, etc.

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A series of low carbon zones across the city with colocated trigeneration energy systems (combining power, cooling and heating), and automated, segregated waste collection and recycling can lead to bundling ‘green infrastructure’ together. Air Quality Management Air quality in Indian cities is deteriorating due to indiscriminate use of fossil fuels and vehicular and industrial emissions. According to the surveys conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), ambient air quality in more than 20 Indian cities has reached a very critical situation. Relatively high levels of suspended particulate matter, dust, SPM, SO2 , NO2 , CO2 and heavy metals, including lead content in the exhaust of automobiles and scooters, have been observed. The recent changes in the fuels like electric and hydrogen powered vehicles, adoption of clean technologies, new emission norms, development of shared taxis, non-motorised transport (NMTs) and mass rapid transport system can reduce the pollution levels due to vehicular emissions. Airshed planning, continuous ventilation, use of cooler and light-shaded surfaces/materials and water spray are some other methods to reduce air pollution. The use of prefabricated and recycled materials, including construction and demolition wastes in construction and repair of roads and buildings, can help in reducing air pollution and dust while promoting green roads and buildings. Air quality data is significant to gaining a thorough understanding of local air pollution. Recent technological advancements have made it possible to gather data, with low-cost monitoring devices and advanced methods of collating and analysing it. This helps to gain an understanding of pollution levels, their causes and effect. Nowadays, smart electricity poles with sensors are available to monitor pollution parameters along with light, CCTV, Wi-Fi, etc. The New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) has been using them in New Delhi. Citywide air quality monitoring networks can provide the data of air quality. The Google plans to map street by street air pollution that will be available to the common man. The active sensors will measure CO2 , CO, NOx, NO2 , ozone and particulate matter. CEMS and air quality data can be used to identify major components, sources, quantification and projects. It can also help the government to apply monetary incentives and penalties for polluting companies. This can also be used to introduce a cap-and-trade system, instead of the existing ‘commandand-control’ regulations. The data can be used to analyse the issues, sources and project various options and actively schedule to assign the responsibilities, project management, including timelines and monitoring. Clean Transport and Transit-Oriented Development The basis of the clean transport is the use of clean energy. This can be achieved through biofuels, electric charging and hybrid vehicles. With a view to conserve transport, the MOHUA has also issued the Metro Rail Policy (2017) and TransitOriented Development Policy (2017) which provide guidelines for promoting urban public transit with private sector participation. As urban transport contributes nearly two-thirds of the total suspended particulate matter and 18% of carbon emissions, it is necessary to provide sustainable modes

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of transit and Integrated Transit Corridors (ITC), integrating BRT, metro and trains together with pedestrian and cycle lanes. These can be flanked by public, semi-public, high-density developments. Metro, trains, subway and primary roads can run underground for easy bike and pedestrian traffic on the grade. Multi-modal integration, last mile connectivity and e-governance are the pillars of sustainable urban mobility. River/water transport and ropeways can be explored which are almost pollution free and cost-effective. Besides controlling growth of private vehicles, it is necessary to explore parking space in stilts, multi-level puzzle/skeleton structures, on roofs and in underground spaces. Seamless multimodal public transport system comprising bus rapid transit and rail-based mass transport system would work better by adoption of single ticketing and restructuring of land uses by transit-oriented development. Subterranean garages near commuter destination reduce the need for ground parking. Digital parking meters tell mobile phone when a space opens up, reducing traffic caused by drivers trolling for space. The concept of walk to work should be the basis of urban structure and city size. The concepts of cordon pricing, minimum occupancy vehicles, ceiling on new registration of private vehicles and establishment of a Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority can also contribute towards a sustainable and clean urban transport. Green Energy Energy scenario in India is characterised by its increasing demand, which has been growing at the rate of about three times the population growth rate in the last two decades. Low carbon energy can be derived from renewable sources, such as biofuels, wind, tidal and solar power. The concept of energy efficiency, renewable energy and Zero-fossil Energy Development (ZED) can reduce the energy demand and consequential pollution. The renewable energy not only helps in energy generation, but also in a pollution-free environment. Smart micro-grids, Distributed Energy Systems (DES), micro-districts and anchor micro-grids should be linked with renewable energy network and energy efficiency. The energy guzzling air-conditioning can be avoided by innovative methods like Net-Zero Energy Design, variable refrigerant volume (VRV) system, earth air tunnel (EAT) and thermal storage. By HVAC and EAT systems, inside temperature of a building can be maintained within 27 °C during summer and 19–24 °C during winter. Lower ambient lighting with bionic controls and integration of natural light with highperformance glazing combined with light sensors can save energy use in a building. Optimum glazing design can also help to reduce glare. Synchronised lighting and bionic climate control systems can be designed to match building loads and schedules, which are segmented into multiple zones to allow intelligent controllability. Green roof, light-coloured finishes and insulation can help to reduce energy demand. Green and Resilient Buildings A low carbon and green building aim to be resilient, sustainable and net zero. The heating, lighting, cooling, ventilation and powering of buildings are responsible for approximately 40% of the total energy use. As buildings are the largest energy users,

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incorporating energy storage into them will increase the resilience of the total energy distribution network and enable widespread use of renewable energy. By passive design, the building can be more climatically comfortable. It is necessary to specify building materials which are locally sourced and recycled from construction and demolition wastes that have low embodied energy and require less energy for production and transportation to the site. Such materials include carbon-negative cements, low carbon steel, fibre, gypsum, basalt, fibre composite bars and bamboo. Prefabricated and pre-engineering systems contribute immensely in lowering the carbon emissions and dust footprints, time and costs in construction. Building Information Modelling (BIM) can simulate the entire construction sequence beforehand addressing sustainability issues and reducing carbon emissions. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) are useful in reducing emissions, dust and GH gases. The simulation of construction process enables better control of time, machine, expenditure and the manpower and could reduce carbon emissions, costs and time by half to one-third. After the chronic pandemic, the trend is shifting towards healthy space and work from home (WFH). This emphasises upon open office, biophilic design with natural light, greenery, atrium and courtyard that bring everyone together. The biophilic design helps in better indoor air quality. The building has to be mandatorily conform to accessibility standards for people with disabilities. The space design must prioritise sustainability and health by way of light and ample ventilation. The air-conditioning and lighting systems can be bionic and energy efficient. A Power-Over-Ethernet (POE) lighting system enables smart lighting from a solar grid. LiFE—Lifestyle for the Environment India and the United Nations have initiated the LiFE or Lifestyle for the Environment mission (2022). This aims that living, production and consumption based on mindful deliberation, and not mindless and destructive consumption. Low carbon lifestyle is a cluster of habits, embedded in a social context and enabled by efficient infrastructures that minimises the use of natural resources and generation of emissions, wastes and pollution. Creating sustainable lifestyle requires a change in social norms and rethinking the ways of living based on the principles of organicity, non-accumulation (aparigraha), minimalism and slowing down. It is also about caring, sharing, recycling and living in balance with the natural environment. The reuse and repair culture needs to be promoted by provision of repair workshops in all the localities. Education, capacity building and participation of civil society are necessary to develop pragmatic and innovative practices of sustainable lifestyles. Low carbon urban strategies cannot work without involving the women, who comprise nearly half of the population and work every day in home and on fields. However, they often face the ‘gender service gap’ in terms of access to energy, water and toilets. A low carbon city has to be gender sensitive with adequate, safe and affordable spaces for living, working and vending by the women. A resilient and low carbon city promotes conservation of transport, energy and water and has net-zero carbon emissions. It produces surplus energy from renewable sources that compensates for all carbon emissions associated with the transport,

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construction, industries and buildings. Net-zero urban development creates an environmental benefit by decarbonisation. Such a city promotes creation of jobs, urban variety, gender equity, digital planning and governance, adoption of micro-climatic and passive design approach. Optimum use of land and natural resources, lifestyle for environment and new partnerships are critical elements of a resilient, low carbon habitat. The age of ecology is an opportunity to develop a new blending of art, culture, philosophy, technology and nature. The nature is fragile, primal, metamorphic and ambiguous, which is deeply connected with the life and biodiversity. The sustainable built environment aims to build the bridges that connect the nature with the people. This involves integrating a long-term, telescopic vision with microscopic detailing weaved with the people by technologies, planning, design, finance and institutions. A vision without a plan and how to get there would remain just a dream.

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