Climate Change and Managed Ecosystems 0849330971, 9780849330971, 2005028910

Table of contents :
Front cover
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Editors
CONTRIBUTORS
Contents
Part I
Climate Change and Ecosystems
1
Interaction between Climate Change and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Managed Ecosystems in Canada
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Past and Future Climate Change
1.3 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Agriculture, Forestry, and Wetland Ecosystems
1.4 Climate Change in Relation to Agriculture, Forestry, and Wetlands
1.4.1 Agricultural Ecosystems
1.4.2 Forest Ecosystems
1.4.3 Wetland/Peatland Ecosystems
1.5 Purpose of This Book
1.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
2
The Science of Changing Climates
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Changing Climates - The Past
2.2.1 Reconstructing and Observing Past Climates
2.2.1.1 Paleo Records
2.2.1.2 Recent Climate Observations Using Instrumentation
2.2.2 Major Climate Regimes of the Past 420,000 Years
2.2.3 Climates of the 20th Century
2.2.3.1 Temperature Trends
2.2.3.2 Precipitation Trends
2.2.3.3 Other Climate-Related Trends
2.3 Causes of Past Climate Change
2.3.1 Climate System Energy Balance
2.3.1.1 Incoming Solar Energy
2.3.1.2 Outgoing Heat Radiation
2.3.2 Past Climate Forcings
2.3.2.1 Natural Climate Forcing Factors
2.3.2.2 Human Interference with the Climate System
2.3.3 Simulating Climate Forcings upon a Dynamic System
2.3.4 Attributing Recent Climate Change
2.4 Projected Climate Change for the Next Century
2.4.1 Future Climate Forcing Scenarios
2.4.2 Climate Model Projections
2.4.2.1 Temperature
2.4.2.2 Projected Changes in Precipitation
2.4.2.3 Permafrost
2.4.2.4 Severe Weather
2.4.2.5 Risks of Large-Scale Abrupt Changes in Climate
2.5 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
3
Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture, Forestry, and Wetlands
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Adapting to a Changing Climate
3.3 Projected Climate Changes for Canada
3.4 Observed Trends in Canada
3.5 Projected Impacts of Climate Change and Potential Adaptation Strategies
3.5.1 Forestry
3.5.1.1 Moisture Stress and Drought
3.5.1.2 Insects
3.5.1.3 Forest Fires
3.5.2 Agriculture
3.5.2.1 Crop Growth and Yields
3.5.2.2 Livestock and Forage Production
3.5.2.3 Drought
3.5.2.4 Agricultural Water Supply
3.5.2.5 Soil Erosion
3.5.3 Wetland Ecosystems
3.5.3.1 Evaporation Exceeds Precipitation
3.5.3.2 Altered Water Level Regime
3.5.3.3 Permafrost Melt
3.6 Summary and Conclusion
References
Part II
Managed Ecosystems - State of Knowledge
4
Anthropogenic Changes and the Global Carbon Cycle
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Global Carbon Cycle
4.2.1 Carbon Pools
4.2.2 Carbon Exchange
4.3 Land Use and Land-Use Change
4.4 CO2 Fertilization
4.5 NOX Fertilization and Ozone
4.6 Land Degradation
4.7 Soil Erosion
4.8 Wetland Drainage
4.9 Conclusion
References
5
Plant/Soil Interface and Climate Change: Carbon Sequestration from the Production Perspective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Soil-Plant-Atmosphere and Climate Change
5.2.1 Precipitation
5.2.2 Temperature
5.2.3 Solar Radiation
5.2.4 Carbon Dioxide
5.2.5 Interaction
5.3 Carbon Sequestration
5.3.1 Photosynthesis
5.3.2 Crop Biomass
5.3.3 Roots
5.4 Uncertainty in Measurement of Climate Change Effects
5.4.1 Controlled Environments
5.4.2 Sunlit Chambers
5.4.3 Free-Air CO2 Enrichment
5.4.4 Experimental Case Study
5.4.5 Crop Simulation Models
5.5 Climate Change Impact
5.5.1 Modeling Case Study
5.6 Issues and Future Directions
5.6.1 Management Decisions and Potential Impact
5.6.2 Uncertainty in Benefits
5.6.3 Research Gaps
5.6.4 Stakeholders
5.7 Summary and Conclusions
References
6
Carbon Dynamics in Agricultural Soils
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Soil as Moderator of Earth’s Climate
6.2.1 Soils and the Global Carbon Cycle
6.2.2 Soil Carbon Dynamics
6.3 Soil Carbon Sequestration
6.3.1 Aggregation
6.3.2 Illuviation
6.3.3 Secondary Carbonates
6.4 Technological Options of Carbon Sequestration in Agricultural Soils
6.5 Rates of Soil Carbon Sequestration
6.5.1 Measurement Issues Related to Soil Carbon Storage
6.6 Conclusions
References
7
Plant Species Diversity: Management Implications for Temperate Pasture Production
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Pasture Biodiversity
7.2.1 Plant Species Diversity in Pastures
7.2.2 Plant Diversity and Pasture Ecosystem Function
7.3 Evidence for Diversity Effects in Pastureland
7.3.1 Complex Forage Mixtures and Primary Productivity
7.3.2 Grazing Animal Productivity on Diverse Pasture Mixtures
7.3.3 Ecosystem Stability
7.3.4 Invasion by Exotic Species (Weeds and Pests)
7.3.5 Diversity and Nutrient Cycling in Forage Plant Communities
7.3.6 Mechanisms to Explain Diversity Effects in Forage Plant Communities
7.4 Conclusions and Recommendations
References
8
Net Ecosystem Carbon Dioxide Exchange over a Temperate, Short-Season Grassland: Transition from Cereal to Perennial Forage
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Methods
8.2.1 Net Ecosystem CO2 Exchange
8.2.2 Soil CO2 Flux
8.3 Results and Discussion
8.3.1 Climate
8.3.2 BREB CO2 Flux
8.3.2.1 Initial Growth Period
8.3.2.2 Regrowth
8.3.2.3 Grazing
8.3.2.4 Dormant Period
8.3.2.5 Spring
8.3.2.6 Diurnal CO2 Flux
8.3.3 Soil Respiration
8.3.4 Ecosystem Sink or Source
8.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
9
Forests in the Global Carbon Cycle: Implications of Climate Change
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Climate Change and the Global Carbon Cycle
9.3 Human Perturbations to the Global Carbon Cycle
9.4 Forest Sources and Sinks at the Stand and Landscape Scale
9.5 Land-Based Carbon Sink and Its Future
9.6 Mitigation Opportunities
9.6.1 Forest Management to Increase or Maintain Terrestrial Ecosystem Carbon
9.6.2 Managing Products and Services Derived from Forests for C Benefits
9.6.3 Forest Products as a Manageable Carbon Pool
9.6.4 Use of Forest Biomass for Bioenergy
9.7 Conclusions: The Global Forest Sector and the Global Carbon Cycle
Acknowledgments
References
10
Peatlands: Canada’s Past and Future Carbon Legacy
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Limitations on Carbon Sequestration in Boreal Peatlands
10.3 The Ecology of Boreal Peat Accumulation
10.3.1 Bog Accumulation
10.3.2 Poor Fen Accumulation
10.3.3 Rich Fen Accumulation
10.4 Northern Peatlands: Sinks or Sources of Carbon?
10.5 Potential Climatic Effects on Peatland Form and Vegetation
10.6 Permafrost Melting in the Boreal Forest
10.7 Global Climate Change vs. Cumulative Disturbance
10.8 Mitigation
Acknowledgments
References
11
Linking Biomass Energy to Biosphere Greenhouse Gas Management
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biosphere Solutions
11.2.1 Reduce Biosphere GHG Emissions
11.2.2 Sequester Atmospheric CO2
11.2.3 Complement Fossil Energy Streams
11.2.4 Adapt Our Biosphere to a Changing Atmosphere and Climate
11.3 The Bioenergy Challenge
11.4 Sustainable Sources of Biomass
11.4.1 Municipalities
11.4.2 Agriculture
11.4.3 Forestry
11.5 Case Study: Accessing Biomass from Disturbed Forest Sites
11.5.1 Option 1. Harvest Biomass for Fiber Markets
11.5.2 Option 2: Leave the Biomass to Decompose
11.5.3 Option 3: Harvest for Bioenergy
11.6 Case Study: Impact of Various Feedstock- to-Product Threads
11.6.1 Biopower
11.6.2 Bioethanol
11.6.3 Biodiesel
11.6.4 Conclusion
11.7 Socioeconomics of Biomass Energy
11.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
12
Ruminant Contributions to Methane and Global Warming - A New Zealand Perspective
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Relevance of Greenhouse Gases for New Zealand Producers
12.3 New Zealand GHG Inventory
12.3.1 Methane
12.3.2 Nitrous Oxides
12.4 Defining Mitigation
12.5 Methane Mitigation
12.6 Relationship between Diet Composition and Methanogenesis
12.7 Methane Emissions from Ruminants Fed Fresh Forages
12.7.1 New Zealand measurements
12.7.2 Pasture Methane Measurements outside New Zealand
12.8 Condensed Tannins and Methanogenesis
12.9 Animal Variation in Methanogenesis
12.10 Management to Mitigate Methane in Grazing Animals
12.11 Feed Additives
12.11.1 Oils
12.11.2 Ionophors
12.11.3 Removing the Protozoa (Defaunation)
12.12 Targeting Methanogens
12.12.1 Vaccine
12.13 Agronomy and Complementary Feeds
12.14 Nitrous Oxide Emissions and Abatement
12.14.1 Mitigation Options
12.14.2 Animal Management and Feeding
12.15 Whole-Farm Systems
12.16 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
13
Strategies for Reducing Enteric Methane Emissions in Forage-Based Beef Production Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Enteric Fermentation
13.3 Mechanisms by Which Methane Production May Be Reduced
13.4 Management Strategies Leading to a Reduction in Enteric Methane Emissions
13.4.1 Forage utilization
13.4.1.1 Quality
13.4.1.2 Species
13.4.1.3 Pasture Management
13.4.1.4 Forage Preservation and Processing
13.4.2 Feed Additives
13.4.3 Improved production efficiencies
13.5 A Systems-Based Approach to Management
13.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
14
Mitigating Environmental Pollution from Swine Production
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Environmental Impacts
14.3 Agronomic Considerations
14.3.1 Phosphorus
14.3.2 Nitrogen
14.4 Feed Formulation
14.4.1 Phosphorus
14.4.2 Nitrogen
14.4.3 Other Minerals
14.5 Feed Management
14.5.1 By-Product Feeds and Additives
14.6 Genetic Modifications
14.7 Odor Reduction
14.7.1 Nitrogen Manipulation
14.7.2 Adding Fermentable Carbohydrates
14.7.3 Microbial Manipulation
14.7.4 Physical Characteristics
14.8 Summary
References
15
Diet Manipulation to Control Odor and Gas Emissions from Swine Production
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Emissions from Pig Production
15.2.1 Odor
15.2.2 Ammonia
15.2.3 Hydrogen Sulfide
15.2.4 Greenhouse Gases
15.3 Diet Manipulation Strategies
15.3.1 Reducing Dietary Protein Content
15.3.1.1 Dietary Protein and Nutrient Excretion
15.3.1.2 Dietary Protein and Manure Odor
15.3.1.3 Dietary Protein and Manure pH
15.3.1.4 Dietary Protein and Manure H2S
15.3.1.5 Dietary Protein and CO2 Production
15.3.1.6 Dietary Protein and Enteric CH4 Production
15.3.1.7 Dietary Protein and CO2-Equivalent GHG Emissions
15.3.1.8 Dietary Protein and Manure N2O Emissions
15.3.2 Manipulation of Dietary Non-Starch Polysaccharide
15.3.2.1 Dietary NSP and Manure Odor
15.3.2.2 Dietary NSP and Manure NH3 Emissions
15.3.2.3 Dietary NSP and Enteric CH4 Production
15.3.2.4 Dietary NSP and Manure CH4
15.3.3 Other Dietary Manipulations
15.3.3.1 Improving Small Intestinal Digestion
15.3.3.2 Reducing Hindgut Fermentation
15.3.3.3 Metabolic Modification with Exogenous Hormones
15.3.3.4 Altering Manure Properties
15.4 Conclusions
References
Part III
Knowledge Gaps and Challenges
16
Identifying and Addressing Knowledge Gaps and Challenges Involving Greenhouse Gases in Agriculture Systems under Climate Change
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Climate Change Funding Initiative in Agriculture
16.3 Biological Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks
16.4 The Alberta Greenhouse Gas Science Plan
16.4.1 Developing a Science Plan
16.4.2 What Is an Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Science Plan?
16.4.3 How Was the Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Science Plan Developed?
16.4.4 What Research Gaps Did the Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Science Plan Reveal?
16.4.5 Research Gaps That Address High Potential Practices
16.4.6 Developing a Strategic Roadmap
16.5 Expert Committee on Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Sequestration
16.6 BIOCAP Canada Foundation
16.7 Moving Forward
Acknowledgments
Reference
17
Knowledge Gaps and Challenges in Forest Ecosystems under Climate Change: A Look at the Temperate and Boreal Forests of North America
17.1 Introduction
17.2 A Short Review of Recent Advances
17.2.1 Carbon Budgets and Disturbances
17.2.2 Stand- and Tree-Level Processes
17.2.3 Landscape-Level Responses
17.3 Gaps in Knowledge
17.3.1 Propagating Error in Models
17.3.2 Interaction between Climate and Disturbance Regimes
17.3.3 Impact of Climate Change on Net Forest Growth and Carbon Stocks
17.3.4 Carbon Dynamics of Peatlands
17.3.5 Verification of Satellite-Based Estimates
17.4 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
18
Knowledge Gaps and Challenges in Wetlands under Climate Change in Canada
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Common Misconceptions
18.3 Wetland Classification and Inventory
18.4 Hydrological Landscape Modifications and Water Budget Fluctuations
18.5 Sedimentation and Water Quality Changes
18.6 Carbon Cycling and Climate
18.7 Invasive Species
18.8 Wetland Archival Records
18.9 Wetland Ecotechnology: The Way of the Future
18.10 Summary and Conclusions
References
Part IV
Economics and Policy Issues
19
Economics of Forest and Agricultural Carbon Sinks
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Economic Instruments to Address Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol Mechanism
19.3 Terrestrial Carbon Sinks: Issues
19.3.1 Additionality, Monitoring, and Leakages
19.3.2 Discounting Physical Carbon
19.3.3 Credit Trading
19.3.4 The Ephemeral Nature of Sinks
19.4 Prognosis for Forest Ecosystem Sinks
19.5 Prognosis for Agricultural Sinks
19.6 Conclusions
References
Part V
Summary and Recommendations
20
Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture, Forest, and Wetland Ecosystems: Synthesis and Summary
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Climate Change Is Real
20.3 Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture, Forest, and Wetland Ecosystems
20.4 What Is Next under Changing Climate?
References
21
Climate Change and Terrestrial Ecosystem Management: Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Knowledge Gaps and Research Priorities
21.2.1 The Climate System
21.2.2 Current Stocks and Fluxes
21.2.2.1 C Dynamics of Different Ecosystem Types
21.2.2.2 Major Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases
21.2.3 Future Importance of Disturbance
21.2.4 Ecosystem Response to Projected Changes
21.2.4.1 Agriculture and Forestry
21.2.4.2 Wetlands
21.2.5 Strategies/Technologies for Adaptation or Mitigation
21.2.5.1 Agricultural and Forest Ecosystems
21.2.5.2 Wetlands/Peatlands
21.2.6 Methodological and Interdisciplinary Issues
21.3 Conclusion
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
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T
U
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W
Y
Z

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