Civil Engineering Technology 9788190457545

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First Edition, 2007

ISBN 978 81 904575 4 5

© All rights reserved.

Published by: Global Media 1819, Bhagirath Palace, Chandni Chowk, Delhi-110 006 Email: [email protected]

Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Urban Planning 3. Regional Planning 4. Urban Renewal 5. Design Engineer 6. Labour 7. Volunteer 8. Wage Slavery 9. Budget 10. Construction Site Safety 11. Tender 12. Real Property 13. Municipality 14. Building Code and Fire Safety 15. Drawing 16. Building Engineering 17. Thin-Shell Structure 18. Construction Worker 19. Architectural Engineering 20. Natural Building

Civil engineering

The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland. In modern usage, civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, as they are related to earth, water, or civilization and their processes. Most civil engineering today deals with power plants, bridges, roads, railways, structures, water supply, irrigation, environment, sewer, flood control, transportation and traffic. In essence, civil engineering may be regarded as the profession that makes the world a more agreeable place in which to live. Engineering has developed from observations of the ways natural and constructed systems react and from the development of empirical equations that provide bases for design. Civil engineering is the broadest of the engineering fields, partly because it is the oldest of all engineering fields. In fact, engineering was once divided into only two fields - military and civil. Civil engineering is still an umbrella term, comprised of many related specialities.

History

Civil engineering was defined to distinguish it from military engineering. Within the US, government funding and organization is still part of the United States Army as the Corps of Engineers.

Sub-disciplines of civil engineering General engineering General civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage (flood control), pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply and land (real property) divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community/neighborhood consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineers can also be referred to as municipal engineers, though this term is usually reserved for engineers employed by a municipality.

Structural engineering Structural engineering In the field of civil engineering, structural engineering is concerned with structural design and structural analysis of structural components of buildings and nonbuilding structures. This involves calculating the stresses and forces that affect or arise within a structure. Major design concerns are building structures resistant to wind and seismic forces and seismically retrofitting existing structures.

Fire protection engineering Fire protection engineering Fire protection engineering, also called 'fire safety engineering' is the practice of application of science and engineering principles and experience to protect people and their environments from the destructive effects of fire. The underlying branches of science are fire science, fire dynamics and chemistry. Fire protection engineers, often civil engineers by training, typically design safeguards that aid in fighting fires, such as

alarm, sprinkler, and smoke control systems. They are also involved at the design stage where structural design work is being done, and they provide expert advice on materials choices and in the protection of structural members. They are also employed as fire investigators, including such very large-scale cases as the analysis of the collapse mechanism of the World Trade Centre. NASA uses fire protection engineers on its space program to ensure safety.

Geotechnical engineering Geotechnical engineering The main subject of the field of geotechnical engineering is concerned with foundations, soil properties, soil mechanics, compression and swelling of soils, seepage, slopes, embankments, retaining walls, ground and rock anchors, use of synthetic tensile materials in soil structures, soil structure interaction, and soil dynamics.

Transportation engineering Transport engineering Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, urban engineering, queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.

Environmental engineering

Wastewater treatment is a critical activity in environmental engineering, a sub-discipline of civil engineering. Environmental engineering Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, sewage treatment, and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers can be involved with pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process. Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering.

Hydraulic engineering Hydraulic engineering Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water distribution systems, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.

Water resources engineering

Water resources engineering Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, geology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.

Construction engineering Construction engineering Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business-like in nature: drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and closely-monitoring prices of necessary supplies.

Materials science Materials science Civil engineering also includes elements of materials science. Engineering materials with broad application in civil engineering include concrete, aluminum, and steel.

Surveying Surveying Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Civil engineers are trained in the methods of surveying and may seek Professional Land Surveyor status.

Careers

In the United States, there is no one typical career path for Civil Engineers. Most engineering graduates start with jobs of low responsibility, and as they prove their competence, are given more and more responsible tasks, but within each subfield of civil engineering, and even within different segments of the market within each branch, the details of a career path can vary. In some fields and in some firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of more senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers end up performing the more routine tasks of analysis or design. More senior engineers can move into doing more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering. Salaries for Civil Engineers in the United States have typically been lower than those for other fields of engineering, but entry-level salaries are higher than those in most nonengineering fields outside IT. A popular misconception is that civil engineering is far from the exciting frontiers in mathematics and computer science. In reality, much of what is now computer science was driven by civil engineering, where structural and network analysis problems required parallel computations and development of advanced algorithms.

Education and Licensure

The Institution of Civil Engineers headquarters in London. Prior to becoming a practicing esngineer, civil engineers generally complete tertiary (college or higher) educational requirements, followed by several years of practical experience. Each country, state, or province individually regulates civil engineering practice:

In the U.S., one must become a licensed Professional Engineer to do any civil engineering work affecting the public or to legally represent oneself as a civil engineer. Licensure requirements vary slightly by state, but in all cases entail passing two licensure exams, the Fundamentals of Engineering exam and the Principles and Practice exam (commonly called the PE), and completing a state-mandated number of years of work under the supervision of a licensed Professional Engineer. In addition, an educational requirement must often be met. All states accept a four year Bachelor of Science (BS) or Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) degree in Civil Engineering, from an ABET-accredited program, for their educational requirement. The acceptability of degrees in other fields varies by state; some states allow a person to substitute additional years of supervised work experience for the degree requirement. Although the American Society of Civil Engineers encourages states to raise the educational requirement to a graduate degree, advanced degrees are currently optional for civil engineers in the United States. Graduate study may lead either to a Master of Engineering, which is a Professional Master's degree, or to a Master of Science degree followed by a PhD in civil engineering or a subdiscipline. Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas, has the largest civil engineering department in the U.S. (2006) with 1,081 undergraduate students enrolled in that major alone. This does not include the 125 Texas A&M undergraduates majoring in ocean engineering, which overlaps heavily with (and descended from) civil engineering. In the United Kingdom current graduates require a MSc, MEng or BEng (Hons) in order to become chartered through the Institution of Civil Engineers. The Institution also allows entrants with substantial experience to apply without this level of formal academic achievement. In practice, most civil engineers in the United Kingdom work without chartered status. Unlike in many other European countries, the term 'Engineer' is not legally protected within the United Kingdom. In Australia and New Zealand, requirements are typically a four year Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree which includes 800 hours (20 weeks) of work experience. International engineering agreements are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders. In general, these agreements require both educational competencies and professional experiential competencies.

Urban planning

Urban planning is concerned with the ordering and design of settlements, from the smallest towns to the world's largest cities. Urban, city, or town planning is the discipline of land use planning which deals with the physical, social, and economic development of metropolitan regions, municipalities and neighborhoods. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level. Historically, urban development was more often a haphazard, incremental event than a deliberate planned process. In the nineteenth century, urban planning became influenced by the newly formalised disciplines of architecture and civil engineering, which began to codify both rational and stylistic approaches to solving city problems through physical design. However since the 1960's the domain of urban planning has expanded to include economic development planning, community social planning and environmental planning, as part of what is known as the rational planning model. In the 20th century, part of the task of urban planning became urban renewal, and reinvigorating inner cities by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities, some with much long-term infrastructural decay.

History

Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro.

Tenochtitlan, looking east. From the mural painting at the National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City. Painted in 1930 by Dr Atl. Examples of deliberately planned, or at least managed cities and settlments permeate antiquity: By 2600 BC, some Harappan settlements of the Indus Valley civilization had grown into cities containing thousands of people. Some of these cities appear to have been built based on a well-developed plan. The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were paved and laid out at right angles (and aligned north, south, east or west) in a grid pattern with a hierarchy of streets (commercial boulevards to small residential alleyways), somewhat comparable to that of present day New York. The houses were protected from noise, odours, and thieves, and had their own wells, and sanitation. And the cities had drainage, large granaries, water tanks, and well-developed urban sanitation

The Greek Hippodamus (c. 408 BC) is often considered the father of city planning in the West, for his design of Miletus. The ancient Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defence and civil convenience. The basic plan is a central plaza with city services, surrounded by a compact grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defence. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away sewage, even in sieges Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of these schemes, as in Turin. Muslims are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and hima and the more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise), although modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne. Many cities in Latin American civilizations also engineered urban planning in their cities including sewage systems and running water. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was the capital of the Aztec empire, built on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the Federal District in central Mexico. At its height, Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world, with close to 250,000 inhabitants. During the last two centuries in the Western world (Western Europe, North America, Japan and Australasia) planning and architecture can be said to have gone through various stages of general consensus. Firstly there was the industrialised city of the 19th Century, where control of building was largely held by businesses and the wealthy elite. Around the turn of the 20th Century there began to be a movement for providing people, and factory workers in particular, with healthier environments. The concept of garden cities arose and some model towns were built, such as Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City the world's first garden cities, in Hertfordshire, UK. However, these were principally small scale in size, typically dealing with only a few thousand residents. It wasn't until the 1920s when modernism began to surface. A modernist city was to be a sort of efficient, workable utopia. There were plans for large scale rebuilding of cities, such as Paris in France, though nothing major happened until the devastation caused by the Second World War. After this, some modernist buildings and communities were built. However they were cheaply constructed and became notorious for their social problems.

Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform tower blocks ended in many countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than making everything uniform and perfect, planning now concentrates on individualism and diversity in society and the economy. This is the post-modernist era.

Planning and aesthetics

Towns and cities have been planned with aesthetics in mind, here in Bristol (England), 18th century private sector development was designed to appear attractive. In developed countries there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in the environment, such as signposts, signs, and hoardings. Other issues that generate strong debate amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density and planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate. Successful urban planning considers character, of "home" and "sense of place", local identity, respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding of the "urban grain" or "townscape," pedestrians and other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, such as flood zones. Some argue that the medieval piazza and arcade are the most widely appreciated elements of successful urban design, as demonstrated by the Italian cities of Siena and Bologna.

While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch, planners are important in managing the growth of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged using the contemporary term, smart growth. There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains.

Cells Some of the most successful planned cities consist of cells that include park-space, commerce and housing, and then repeat the cell. Usually cells are separated by streets. Often each cell has unique monuments and gardening in the park, and unique gates or boundary markers for the edges of the cell. The commercial areas naturally become diverse. These differences help instill a sense of place, while the similarities of the cells make each place in the city familiar.

Planning and safety

Ronda in Spain is surrounded by steep sloping land on all but one side

Historically within the Middle East, Europe and the rest of the Old World settlements were located on higher ground (for defence) and close to fresh water sources. Cities have often grown onto coastal and flood plains at risk of floods and storm surges. Urban planners must consider these threats. If the dangers can be localised then the affected regions can be made into parkland or Greenbelt, often with the added benefit of open space provision. Extreme weather, flood, or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure emergency evacuation routes and emergency operations centres. These are relatively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Many cities will also have planned, built safety features, such as levees, retaining walls, and shelters. In recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practicing the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently to "design-out crime" and to consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianisation" as ways of making urban life more pleasant. City planning tries to control criminality with structures designed from theories such as socio-architecture or environmental determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful design in place of functionalism. Oscar Newman’s defensible space theory cites the modernist housing projects of the 1960s as an example environmental determinism, where large blocks of flats are surrounded by shared and disassociated public areas which is harder to identify with for the residents. As those on lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and because no individual feels personally responsible, there was a general deterioration of public space leading to a sense of alienation and social disorder Jane Jacobs is another notable environmental determinist and is associated with the "eyes on the street" concept. By improving ‘natural surveillance’ of shared land and facilities of nearby residents by literally increasing the number of people who can see it, and

increasing the familiarity of residents, as a collective, residents can more easily detect undesirable or criminal behaviour. The "broken-windows" theory believes that small indicators of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay. Anticipating decay, people likewise fail to maintain their own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment causes crime, rather than crime causing abandonment. Some planning methods might help an elite group to control ordinary citizens. Haussmann's renovation of Paris created a system of wide boulevards which prevented the construction of barricades in the streets and eased the movement of military troops. In Rome (Italy), the Fascists in the 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the elegant town. Other social theories point out that in Britain and most countries since the 18th century, the transformation of societies from rural agriculture to industry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market.

Planning and reconstruction

The overall area plan for the reconstruction of Kabul's Old City area, the proposed Kabul - City of Light Development.

Areas devastated by war or invasion represent a unique challenge to urban planners: the area of development is not one for simple modification, nor is it a "blank slate". Buildings, roads, services and basic infrastructure like power, water and sewerage are often severely compromised and need to be evaluated to determine what, if anything, can be salvaged for re-incorporation. There is also the problem of population; more often than not, people are also still living in these areas, displaced but not removed, and their issues need to be addressed. Historic areas and religious or social centers also need to be preserved and re-integrated into the new city plan. A prime example of this is the capital city of Kabul, Afghanistan, which after decades of civil war and occupation has regions that have literally been reduced to rubble. Despite this, the indigenous population continues to live in the area, constructing makeshift homes and shops out of whatever can be salvaged. Any reconstruction plan proposed, such as Hisham Ashkouri's City of Light Development, needs to be sensitive to the needs of this community and its existing culture, businesses and needs.

A Private Sector Based Baghdad Renaissance Plan, designed by architect Hisham Ashkouri for central Baghdad. Urban Reconstruction Development plans must also work with government agencies as well as private interests to develop workable designs. Another prime example is Baghdad, Iraq, which was invaded in 2003 and is still under occupation. Private investments such as the Baghdad Renaissance Plan, while viable financially, are unable to move forward due to instability in the region.

Planning and transport

Very densely built-up areas require high capacity urban transit, urban planners must consider these factors in long term plans.

Although an important factor, there is a complex relationship between urban densities and car use. There is a direct, well-researched connection between the density of an urban environment, and the need to travel within it . Good quality transport is often followed by development. Development beyond a certain density can quickly overcrowd transport. Good planning attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transportation. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-story apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and four-lane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks further away. Densities can be measured in several ways. A common method, used is the Floor area ratio, using the floor area of buildings divided by the land area. Ratios below 1.5 could be

consdered low density, and plot ratios above five very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most city centres are well above five. Walk-up apartments with basement garages can easily achieve a density of three. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or more. City authorities may try to encourage lower densities to reduce infrastructure costs, though some observers note that low densities may not accommodate enough population to provide adequate demand or funding for that infrastructure. In the UK, recent years have seen a concerted effort to increase the density of residential development in order to better achieve sustainable development. Increasing development density has the advantage of making mass transport systems, district heating and other community facilities (schools, health centres, etc) more viable. However critics of this approach dub the densification of development as 'town cramming' and claim that it lowers quality of life and restricts market led choice. Problems can often occur at residential densities between about two and five. These densities can cause traffic jams for automobiles, yet are too low to be commercially served by trains or light rail systems. The conventional solution is to use buses, but these and light rail systems may fail where automobiles and excess road network capacity are both available, achieving less than 1% ridership. The Lewis-Mogridge Position claims that increasing road space is not an effective way of relieving traffic jams as latent or induced demand invariably emerges to restore a socially-tolerable level of congestion. Some theoreticians speculate that personal rapid transit (PRT) might coax people from their automobiles, and yet effectively serve intermediate densities, but this has not been demonstrated.

Planning and suburbanization

Very low density suburban development in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States In some countries declining satisfaction with the urban environment is held to blame for continuing migration to smaller towns and rural areas (so-called urban exodus). Successful urban planning supported Regional planning can bring benefits to a much larger hinterland or city resgion and help to reduce both congestion along transport routes and the wastage of energy implied by excessive commuting.

Planning and the environment Environmental protection and conservation are of upmost importance to many planning systems across the world. Not only are the specific effects of development to be mitigated, but attempts are made to minimise the overall effect of development on the local and global environment. In Europe this is commonly done through Sustainability Appraisal. Arcology seeks to unify the fields of ecology and architecture, especially landscape architecture, to achieve a harmonious environment for all living things. On a small scale, the eco-village theory has become popular, as it emphasizes a traditional 100-140 person scale for communities. In most advanced urban or village planning models, local context is critical. In many, gardening assumes a central role not only in agriculture but in the daily life of citizens. A series of related movements including green anarchism, eco-anarchism, eco-feminism and Slow Food have put this in a political context as part of a focus on smaller systems of resource extraction, and waste disposal, ideally as part of living machines which do such

recycling automatically, just as nature does. The modern theory of natural capital emphasizes this as the primary difference between natural and infrastructural capital, and seeks an economic basis for rationalizing a move back towards smaller village units. A common form of planning that leads to suburban sprawl is single use zoning. An urban planner is likely to use a number of Quantitative tools to forecast impacts of development on a variety of environmental concerns including roadway air dispersion models to predict air quality impacts of urban highways and roadway noise models to predict noise pollution effects of urban highways. The Phase I Environmental Site Assessment can be an important tool to the urban planner by identifying early in the planning process any geographic areas or parcels which have toxic constraints.

Actors in the planning process The traditional planning process focussed on top-down processes where the town planner created the plans. He or she is usually skilled in either surveying, engineering or architecture, bringing to the town planning process ideals based around these disciplines. They typically worked for national or local governments. Changes to the planning process over past decades have witnessed the metamorphosis of the role of the urban planner in the planning process. Calls championing for more democratic planning processes have played a huge role in allowing the public to make important decisions as part of the planning process. Community organizers and social workers are now very involved in planning from the grassroots level. Developers too have played huge roles in influencing the way development occurs, particularly through project-based planning. Many recent developments were results of large and small-scale developers who purchased land, designed the district and constructed the development from scratch. The Melbourne Docklands, for example, was largely an intiative pushed by private developers who sought to redevelop the waterfront into a high-end residential and commercial district.

Land use planning Land Use Planning is the term used for a branch of public policy which encompasses various disciplines which seek to order and regulate the use of land in an efficient way.

Despite confusing nomenclature, the essential function of planning remains the same whatever term is applied. The Canadian Planners Association offers a definition that; "[Land Use] Planning means the scientific, aesthetic, and orderly disposition of land, resources, facilities and services with a view to securing the physical, economic and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities" 1 See urban planning

Nomenclature In the English Speaking World, the terms ‘Land Use Planning’, ‘Town & Country Planning’, ‘Regional Planning’, ‘Town Planning’, ‘Urban Planning’, and ‘Urban Design’ are often used interchangeably, and will depend on the country in question. In Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and New Zealand, the term ‘Town Planning’ is common, although ‘Regional Planning’ and ‘Land Use Planning’ are also used. In the United States, the terms ‘Urban Planning’ and ‘Regional Planning’ are more commonly used.

Functions of ‘Land Use Planning’ At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and population as well as to protect the environment. Land Use Planning encompasses the following disciplines: • • • • • • • •

Architecture Environmental planning Landscape architecture Regional Planning Spatial planning Sustainable Development Transportation Planning Urban design

• • •

Urban planning Urban Renaissance Urban renewal

Architecture, urban design, urban planning, landscape architecture and urban renewal usually address the selection of physical layout, scale of development, aesthetics, costs of alternatives and selection of building materials and landscape species. Environmental planning usually impies the use of tools to forecast impacts of development decisions including roadway noise computer models, roadway air dispersion models and urban surface runoff computer models.

Regional planning Regional planning is a branch of land use planning and deals with the efficient placement of land use activities, infrastructure and settlement growth across a significantly larger area of land than an individual city or town. The related field of urban planning deals with the specific issues of city planning. Both concepts are encapsulated in spatial planning using a eurocentric definition.

Nomenclature Although the term ‘Regional planning’ is nearly universal in English speaking countries the areas covered and specific administrative set ups vary widely. In North America, regional planning may encompass more than one state (such as the RPA) or a larger conurbation or network of settlements. These areas are likely to cover a much larger areas than the Regional Assemblies of England. But both are equally ‘regional’ in nature.

Regional planning Regions require various land uses; protection of farmland, cities, industrial space, transportation hubs and infrastructure, military bases, and wilderness. Regional planning is the science of efficient placement of infrastructure and zoning for the sustainable growth of a region. Advocates for regional planning such as new urbanist Peter Calthorpe, promote the approach because it can address region-wide environmental, social, and economic issues which may necessarily require a regional focus. A ‘region’ in planning terms can be administrative or at least partially functional, and is likely to include a network of settlements and character areas. In most European countries, regional and national plans are ‘spatial’ directing certain levels of development to specific cities and towns in order to support and manage the region depending on specific needs, for example supporting or resisting, polycentrism.

Principles of regional planning Specific interventions and solutions will depend entirely on the needs of each region in each country, but generally speaking, regional planning at the macro level will seek to:

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Resist development in flood plains or along an earthquake faults. These areas may be utilised as parks, or unimproved farmland.

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Designate transportation corridors using hubs and spokes and considering major new infrastructure

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Some thought into the various ‘role’s settlements in the region may play, for example some may be administrative, with others based upon manufacturing or transport.

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Consider designating essential nuisance land uses locations, including waste disposal.

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Designate Green belt land or similar to resist settlement amalgamation and protect the environment.

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Set regional level ‘policy’ and zoning which encourages a mix of housing values and communities.

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Consider building codes, zoning laws and policies that encourage the best use of the land.

Urban renewal

Blight often stands side-by-side with new structures during urban renewal efforts. Note the reflection of the new construction in progress. Urban renewal (also called urban regeneration in British English) is a function of urban planning that in the United States reached its peak from the late 1940s through to the early 1970s. It has had a massive impact on the urban landscape and continues to the present day. It has also played an important role in cities worldwide, such as Saint John, New Brunswick, Darlinghurst, New South Wales, Glasgow, Scotland and Bilbao, Spain, as well as Canary Wharf, in London, and Cardiff Bay in Cardiff. Urban renewal is controversial, as it often implies the use of eminent domain law to enforce reclaiming private property for civic projects. While envisioned as a way to redevelop residential slums and blighted commercial areas, "renewal" often resulted in the creation of urban sprawl—vast areas being demolished and replaced by freeways and expressways, housing projects, and vacant lots—some of which remained vacant at the beginning of the 21st century. While renewal projects did revitalize many cities, it was often at a high cost to existing communities, and in many cases simply resulted in the destruction of vibrant—if rundown —neighborhoods. Urban renewal in its original form has been called a failure by many urban planners and civic leaders, and has since been reformulated with a focus on redevelopment of existing communities. However, many cities link the revitalization of the central business district and gentrification of residential neighborhoods to earlier urban renewal programs. Over time, urban renewal evolved into a policy based less on

destruction and more on renovation and investment, and today is an integral part of many local governments, often combined with small and big business incentives.

Background Although urban renewal goes back at least to the rebuilding of Rome by Augustus, modern attempts can be said to have started with late-19th century Paris and Baron Haussmann. By the end of the Second Empire, Paris was the cultural center of Europe and one of the world's most developed cities. Nevertheless, the physical infrastructure of the city was failing in the face of increasingly rapid growth—as the effects of the Industrial Revolution took hold and combined with the economic impacts of war and social upheaval. From the 1850s into the 1870s, Haussmann supervised a program which demolished large areas of slums and narrow, crooked medieval streets, replacing them with new neighborhoods, plazas and traffic circles, and the broad, tree-lined boulevards that are still the hallmark of Paris. His program also rebuilt other infrastructure and services in the city: railroad lines and stations, sewerage, street lighting, regular collection of garbage, and large parks. It also led to large numbers of the working class and the poor being forced to move to the suburban areas of Paris, effectively reserving large areas of the city for the middle and upper classes. Another major chapter in the history of urban renewal was the work of Robert Moses in the redevelopment of New York City and New York State from the 1930s into the 1970s. Moses directed the construction of new bridges, highways, housing projects, and public parks. Moses was a controversial figure, both for his single-minded zeal in pursuit of his projects and for his masterful political maneuvering to secure the power necessary to carry them out. Although his work was not as sweeping in its impact on New York City as Haussmann's was on Paris, Moses is responsible for the major traffic arteries of the city and for its largest parks, other than Central Park and Prospect Park.

Redlining and segregation Redlining began with the Housing Act of 1934 which established the Federal Housing Authority (FHA) to improve housing conditions and standards, and later led to the formation of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). While it was designed to develop housing for poor residents of urban areas, that act also required cities

to target specific areas and neighborhoods for different racial groups, and certain areas of cities were not eligible to receive loans at all. This meant that ethnic minorities could only secure mortgages in certain areas, and resulted in a large increase in the residential racial segregation on the United States. This was followed by the Housing Act of 1937, which created the U.S. Housing Agency and the nation's first public housing program—the Low Rent Public Housing Program. This was the beginning of the large public housing projects that later became one of the hallmarks of urban renewal in the United States: it provided funding to local governments to build new public housing, but required that slum housing be demolished prior to any construction.

Postwar problems and suburban growth In 1944, the GI Bill (officially the Serviceman's Readjustment Act) guaranteed Veterans Administration (VA) mortgages to veterans under favorable terms, which fueled suburbanization after the end of World War II, as places like Levittown, New York, Warren, Michigan, Greenbelt, Maryland, and the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles were transformed from farmland into cities occupied by tens of thousands of families in a few short years.

Housing Act of 1949 The Housing Act of 1949 marked a major move towards the wholesale demolition of urban slums. It provided a large amount of funding for slum clearance. Entire neighborhoods were torn down in anticipation of new, tax-generating developments coming in its place. It extended the provisions of previous housing acts by underwriting additional loans, but further restricted the types of loans that the government would guarantee. Loans for new housing would be made only for a single owner, effectively pricing those of more moderate means who could only afford to live in multifamily buildings out of the market, and most banks now practiced redlining. Appraisal manuals from the FHA instructed loan originators to avoid neighborhoods with "inharmonious racial groups"—recommending that cities and towns enact zoning ordinances that restricted area to Whites, and to enact covenants prohibiting African-American owners. Homes (and neighborhoods and entire cities) were now legally restricted to "individuals

of the Caucasian race." Discrimination in the housing was now the norm in all parts of the country—and housing values declined rapidly in minority neighborhoods.

Urban destruction Under the powerful influence of multimillionaire R.K. Mellon, Pittsburgh became the first major city to undertake a modern urban-renewal program in May 1950. Pittsburgh was famous around the world as one of the dirtiest and most economically depressed cities, and seemed ripe for urban renewal. A large section of downtown at the heart of the city was demolished, converted to parks, office buildings, and a sports arena and renamed the Golden Triangle in what was universally recognized as a major success. Other neighborhoods were also subjected to urban renewal, but with mixed results. Some areas did improve, while other areas, such as East Liberty and Lower Hill declined following ambitious projects that shifted traffic patterns, blocked streets to vehicular traffic, isolated or divided neighborhoods with highways, and removed large numbers of ethnic and minority residents. In 1956, the Federal-Aid Highway Act gave state and federal government complete control over new highways, and often they were routed directly through vibrant urban neighborhoods—isolating or destroying many—since the focus of the program was to bring traffic in and out of the central cores of cities as expeditiously as possible and nine out of every ten dollars spent came from the federal government. This resulted in a serious degradation of the tax bases of many cities, isolated entire neighborhoods, and meant that existing commercial districts were bypassed by the majority of commuters. Segregation continued to increase as communities were displaced and many African Americans and Latinos were left with no other option than moving into public housing while Whites moved to the suburbs in ever-greater numbers. In Boston, one of the country's oldest cities, almost a third of the old city was demolished—including the historic West End—to make way for a new highway, lowand moderate-income high-rises (which eventually became luxury housing), and new government and commercial buildings. Later, this would be seen a tragedy by many residents and urban planners, and one of the centerpieces of the redevelopment— Government Center—is still considered an example of the excesses of urban renewal.

Reactions against urban renewal

In 1961, Jane Jacobs published The Death and Life of Great American Cities, one of the first—and strongest—critiques of contemporary large-scale urban renewal. However, it would still be a few years before organized movements began to oppose urban renewal. In 1964, the Civil Rights Act removed racial deed restrictions on housing. This led to the beginnings of desegregation of residential neighborhoods, but redlining continued to mean that real estate agents continued to steer ethnic minorities to certain areas. The riots that swept cities across the country from 1965 to 1967 damaged or destroyed additional areas of major cities—most drastically in Detroit during the 12th Street Riot. By the 1970s many major cities developed opposition to the sweeping urban-renewal plans for their cities. In Boston, community activists halted construction of the proposed Southwest Expressway—but only after a three-mile long stretch of land had been cleared. In San Francisco, Joseph Alioto was the first mayor to publicly repudiate the policy of urban renewal, and with the backing of community groups, forced the state to end construction of highways through the heart of the city. Between 1956 and 1966, more than 12% of the people in Atlanta lost their homes to urban renewal, expressways, and a downtown building boom turned the city into the showcase of the New South in the 1970s and 1980s.

From "urban renewal" to "community development" Some of the policies around urban renewal began to change under President Lyndon Johnson and the War on Poverty, and in 1968, the Housing and Urban Development Act and The New Communities Act of 1968 guaranteed private financing for private entrepreneurs to plan and develop new communities. Subsequently, the Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 established the Community Development Block Grant program (CDBG) which began in earnest the focus on redevelopment of existing neighborhoods and properties, rather than demolition of substandard housing and economically depressed areas. Currently, a mix of renovation, selective demolition, commercial development, and tax incentives is most often used to revitalize urban neighborhoods. Though not without its critics—gentrification is still controversial, and often results in familiar patterns of poorer residents being priced out of urban areas into suburbs or more depressed areas of cities— urban renewal in its present form is generally regarded as a great improvement over the

policies of the middle part of the 20th century. Some programs, such as that administered by Fresh Ministries and Operation New Hope in Jacksonville, Florida attempt to develop communities, while at the same time combining highly favorable loan programs with financial literacy education so that poorer residents may still be able to afford their restored neighborhoods. Other programs, such as that in Castleford in the UK and known as The Castleford Project seek to establish a process of urban renewal which enables local citizens to have greater control and ownership of the direction of their community and the way in which it overcomes market failure. This supports important themes in urban renewal today, such as participation,sustainability and trust - and government acting as advocate and 'enabler', rather than an instrument of command and control. During the 1990s the concept of culture-led regeneration gained ground. Examples most often cited as successes include Temple Bar in Dublin where tourism was attracted to a bohemian 'cultural quarter', Barcelona where the 1992 Olympics provided a catalyst for infrastructure improvements and the redevelopment of the water front area, and Bilbao where the building of a new art museum was the focus for a new business district around the city's derelict dock area. The approach has become very popular in the UK due to the availability of lottery funding for capital projects and the vibrancy of the cultural and creative sectors. However, while the arrival of Tate Modern in the London borough of Southwark may be heralded as a catalyst to econmomc revival in its surrounding neighborhood, some civic authorities in the U.K. - for instance Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Gateshead have been accused of investing in cultural facilities at the cost of other programs and projects.

Long-term implications While urban renewal never lived up to the hopes of its original proponents, it has played an undeniably important role in cities throughout the United States, England, and many other nations. It has been hotly debated by politicians, urban planners, civic leaders, and current and former residents of the areas where urban renewal took place in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. It has brought economic and cultural development to many cities, but often at a great cost to low-income and minority communities living in them. It has also played a role in the economic devastation faced by many of the major industrial cities in the United States since the 1940s. Urban renewal continues to evolve as successes and failures are examined and new models of development and redevelopment are tested and implemented.

Construction

Cranes are essential in large construction projects, such as this skyscraper In project architecture and civil engineering, construction is the building or assembly of any infrastructure on a site. Although this may be thought of as a single activity, in fact construction is a feat of multitasking. Normally the job is managed by the construction manager, supervised by the project manager, design engineer or project architect. While these people work in offices, every construction project requires a large number of laborers, carpenters, and other skilled tradesmen to complete the physical task of construction. For the successful execution of a project effective planning is essential. Those involved with the design and execution of the infrastructure in question must consider the

environmental impact of the job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, site safety, availability of materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delays, preparing tender documents, etc.

Design engineer A design engineer is an engineer whose job is to produce a detailed design from a conceptual design, thereby bringing the real from the abstract on a day-to-day basis. The output of a design engineer is usually a set of drawings and specifications that should produce a working product with very little final adjustment needed. If significant rework is required in the construction, startup, or manufacturing phase, the design engineer did not do an acceptable job. This ability to foresee potential problems is a key skill for a design engineer. Flaws in the conceptual design that go uncaught by the design engineer or others will not surface until production or construction, so there is a potential for a design engineer to become a scapegoat for those problems. A design engineer would usually work on a newer and less proven design than a designer, since once the engineering principles are proven to be correct in a similar design, further engineering knowledge and skill is not generally needed to produce similar designs. Combining design and engineering into a single discipline, though arguably rare, is perhaps a lost praxis due to increasing division of work and specialization that is arguably necessary due to the increased complexity of technology in the present-day militaryindustrial complex model. However, current (1990s and on) trends in the engineering of complex systems are largely towards re-integration of work processes. For example, the notions of Integrated Product Teams and Concurrent Engineering place Design firmly within the scope of a wider engineering activity.

Design Science One notable Design Science 'guru' is Professor Eder from the Royal Military College of Canada who has published 'Engineering Design' Singapore. Mc Graw- Hill, 1991.Research is also performed in this area at the University of West Bohemia in Pilsen,Czech Republic mostly under the direction of Professor Stanislav Hosnedl and post-graduate researchers including Ctibor Stadler, in the specific field of applied engineering design science.

Prototyping and Modeling

Prototyping and modeling are major functions in the design process. They are used in combination with testing, including usability testing, in an iterative development of a design.

Engineer An engineer is someone who is trained or professionally engaged in a branch of engineering. Engineers use creativity, technology, and scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. People who work as engineers normally have an academic degree (or equivalent work experience) in one of the engineering disciplines..

Working as an engineer "Every technological product has to be designed and its fabrication overseen, and this is what engineers DO." Engineers and scientists are often confused in the minds of the general public. While scientists explore nature in order to discover general principles, engineers apply established principles drawn from mathematics and science in order to develop economical solutions to technical problems. The work of engineers is the link between perceived social needs and commercial applications. Engineers consider many factors when developing a new product. For example, in developing an industrial robot, engineers precisely specify the functional requirements; design and test the robot’s components; integrate the components to produce the final design; and evaluate the design's overall effectiveness, cost, reliability, and safety. This process applies to the development of many different products, such as chemicals, computers, engines, aircraft, and toys. In addition to design and development, many engineers work in testing, production, or maintenance. These engineers supervise production in factories, determine the causes of component failure, and test manufactured products to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost to complete projects. Some move into engineering management or into sales. In sales, an engineering background enables them to discuss technical aspects and assist in product planning, installation, and use. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects.

Engineers use computers extensively to produce and analyze designs; to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates; and to generate specifications for parts. Many engineers also use computers to monitor product quality and control process efficiency.

"Engineer" as a title In some countries of Continental Europe the title is limited by law to people with an engineering degree, and the use of the title by others (even persons with much work experience) is illegal. Laws exist in all U.S. states and in Canada which limit the use of several engineer titles, particularly the title of "Professional Engineer", and often also titles indicating a specific, regulated branch of engineering, such as "civil engineer" or "mechanical engineer". Most U.S. states do not restrict unlicensed persons from calling themselves an "engineer" or indicating branches or specialties not covered by the licensing acts, though the legal situation regarding the title of "engineer" in Canada is unsettled. (See Professional Engineer for more details). The word "technologist" is sometimes used synonymously as it derives from the prefix techno- and the suffix -ologist, hence, someone who studies technology. This applies particularly to those European countries with laws regulating the use of the title "engineer", since the term "technologist" is not regulated. However in Canada, as well as some Latin countries, the term "technologist" is a somewhat lower certification at a level between technician and engineer.

Other meanings In Britain, an engineer can also mean a technician or a person that mends or operates machinery. In the U.S., the term "engineer" is also used to denote an operator of an engine of some sort, e.g., a railroad engineer denotes the operator of a locomotive, a ship's engineer denotes the operator of the steam engine on a steamship, and a stationary engineer is normally responsible for a stationary steam engine. Occasionally "title inflation" results in non-engineers holding jobs with "engineer" in the job title, but aside from "sanitation engineer" for "garbageman" in big cities in the U.S., this is not common.

The term "field engineer" is often used to describe installers of electronic (or other complex) equipment. The term "engineer" may also be used to describe holders of some forms of professional certification, such as (but not limited to) Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer, Certified Novell Engineer, Red Hat Certified Engineer and so on. In Canada, the usage of the term "engineer" to describe holders of professional certification is not legally permitted. The Canadian Council of Professional Engineers mounted an extended campaign to get Microsoft to renounce use of the word "engineer" in the title of their certification. A 2001 reader survey by Microsoft Certified Professional magazine found that over half of respondents supported changing the name of the MCSE to remove the word "engineer". Yet another kind of engineer is a military engineer, who is member of any branch of the armed forces responsible for the design and construction and the also the destruction of offensive, defensive and logistical structures for warfare. This term is used in military units throughout the world and has been used since ancient times, extended in modern terms to include the laying and disarming of minefields and booby traps.

Design Design, usually considered in the context of the applied arts, engineering, architecture, and other such creative endeavours, is used as both a noun and a verb. "Design" as a verb refers to the process of originating and developing a plan for a new object (machine, building, product, etc.). As a noun, "design" is used both for the final plan or proposal (a drawing, model, or other description), or the result of implementing that plan or proposal (the object produced). Designing normally requires considering aesthetic, functional, and many other aspects of an object, which usually requires considerable research, thought, modeling, interactive adjustment, and re-design. Design as a process can take many forms depending on the object being designed and the individual or individuals participating.

In philosophy, the abstract noun "design" refers to pattern, or to purpose/purposefulness (or teleology). Design is thus contrasted with purposelessness, randomness, or lack of complexity.

A Definition of the Design Process According to video game developer Dino Dini in a talk given at the 2005 Game Design and Technology Workshop held by Liverpool JM Univeristy, design underpins every form of creation from objects such as chairs to the way we plan and execute our lives. For this reason it is useful to seek out some common structure that can be applied to any kind of design, whether this be for video games, consumer products or one's own personal life. For such an important concept, the question "What is Design?" appears to yield answers with limited usefulness. Dino Dini states that the design process can be defined as "The management of constraints". He identifies two kinds of constraint, negotiable and nonnegotiable. The first step in the design process is the identification, classification and selection of constraints. The process of design then proceeds from here by manipulating design variables so as to satisfy the non-negotiable constraints and optimising those which are negotiable. It is possible for a set of non-negotiable constraints to be in conflict resulting in a design with no solution; in this case the non-negotiable constraints must be revised. For example, take the design of a chair. A chair must support a certain weight to be useful, and this is a non-negotiable constraint. The cost of producing the chair might be another. The choice of materials and the aesthetic qualities of the chair might be negotiable. Dino Dini theorises that poor designs occur as a result of mismanaged constraints, something he claims can be seen in the way the video game industry makes "Must be Fun" a negotiable constraint where he believes it should be non-negotiable. It should be pointed out that "The Management of Constraints" should not be confused with Constraint Management which is a term used in connection with Theory of Constraints.

Design versus Production The relationship between design and production is one of planning and executing. In theory, the plan should anticipate and compensate for potential problems in the execution

process. Design involves problem-solving and creativity. In contrast, production involves a routine or pre-planned process. Design and production are intertwined in many creative professional careers, meaning problem-solving is part of execution and the reverse. As the cost of rearrangement increases, the need for separating design from production increases as well. For example, a high-budget project, like a skyscraper, requires separating (design) architecture from (production) construction. A Low-budget project, like a locally printed office party invitation flyer, can be rearranged and printed dozens of times at the low cost of a few sheets of paper, a few drops of ink, and less than one hour's pay of a desktop publisher. This is not to say that production never involves problem-solving or creativity, nor design always involves creativity. Designs are rarely perfect and are sometimes repetitive. The imperfection of a design may task a production position (e.g. production artist, construction worker) with utilizing creativity or problem-solving skills to compensate for what was overlooked in the design process. Likewise, a design may be a simple repetition (copy) of a known preexisting solution, requiring minimal, if any, creativity or problemsolving skills from the

Project architect The specific tasks of a project architect (PA) are usually associated with architectural design, construction materials & methods and the production of construction documents (floor plans, elevations, etc.). Other responsibilities range from client relations to zoning and building code management, material specifications and maintaining quality control by checking and making revisions to shop drawings. The PA usually works in concert with a Project Manager (PM) who is responsible for the budget and the whole architectural design team including all consultants (engineers, cost estimators, interior designers, landscape architects). The project architect can also assume the role of the PM in a small studio, but typically, the project architect is only responsible for the design management of a building project, assisted by interns and other staff. The project architect is not necessarily registered as an architect, and does not often sign contracts, construction documents or payment applications, which are legally signed and sealed by the owner or a partner of the architectural office. This liability is covered by the firm, and the legal responsibility for

any architectural design errors and omissions ultimately falls on the owner or partner in an architectural firm who signs the documents.

Labour (economics) In classical economics and all micro-economics labour (or labor) is a measure of the work done by human beings and is one of three factors of production, the others being land and capital. There are macro-economic system theories which have created a concept called human capital (referring to the skills that workers possess, not necessarily their actual work), although there are also counterposing macro-economic system theories that think human capital is a contradiction in terms.

Compensation and measurement Wage is a basic compensation for labour, and the compensation for labour per period of time is referred to as the wage rate. The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Other frequently used terms include: • • • • •

wage = payment per unit of time (typically an hour) earnings = payment accrued over a period (typically a week, a month, or a year) total compensation = earnings + other benefits for labour income = total compensation + unearned income economic rent = total compensation - opportunity cost

Economists measure labour in terms of hours worked, total wages, or efficiency.

Marxian economics In Marxian economics, the aim of labour economics is to provide insight and guidance for the optimal allocation of cooperative human labour. However, this optimality is not simply viewed as a "technical variable" as in micro-economics, because workers are not simply a "factor of production", but human beings who organize themselves and each other. Forms of labour cooperation can be oppressive, irrational and exploitative, or they can be beneficial, rational, or effective. That is to say, labour economics has a political dimension insofar as different workers and employers have different interests. There is a workers' point of view and an employer's point of view.

Marxian economists argue that the reason why labour economics receives little attention is because it has become viewed as a management issue. But this may hide that a particular form of organizing labour has little to do with economic efficiency, and more with getting a high income from an activity. Marxian economists believe that ultimately the most desirable form of labour organization in the workplace is where workers manage themselves collectively, and elect managers where necessary; too much management is inefficient, it just means that people get high incomes for doing very little, capitalizing on specialized knowledge or qualifications.

Types of labour • • • • • • • •

brain worker free-work manual labour slavery unfree labour volunteer wage slavery wage labour

Brain worker Brain workers are workers who perform mental work for the achievement of a monetary reward. Teachers teach students and get the monetary reward.

Manual labour Manual labor (or manual labour) is physical work done with the hands, especially in an unskilled job such as fruit and vegetable picking, road building, or any other field where the work may be considered physically arduous, and which has as a profitable objective, usually the production of goods.

"Work" by Ford Madox Brown In ancient times the status of manual laborers was low, as most physical tasks were done by slaves. This continued into the feudal period. This modest position is still reflected in such professional designations as ranch hand or stage hand, where 'hand' (a pars pro toto for pair of hands, or rather for their their owner) means an employee working in the named context. However, certain skilled laborers were seen as artisans, well-paid and could aspire to become influential citizens, especially via professional corporations. It was sometimes referred to as "pick and shovel work." The phrase hard labor has even become a legal euphemism for penal labor, i.e. a custodial sentence during which the convict is not only confined but also put to manual work; such work may be productive, as on a prison farm, or intrinsically senseless, as with a Treadwheel, the only purpose being the (punishing, therapeutical..) effect of the punishment on the convict. Beginning with the Industrial Revolution, though, the introduction of reliable machinery further lowered the status of laborers. The reduction in status led to the worldwide labor movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries, leading to the formation of trade unions. Further technological progress leads to an increasing segment of manual labour (generally using machinery) requiring more training or even theoretical insight.

Unfree labour

Unfree labour is a generic or collective term for those work relations, especially in modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will by the threat of destitution, detention, violence (including death), or other extreme hardship to themselves, or to members of their families. Many of these forms of work may be covered by the term forced labour, although this tends to imply forms based on violence. Unfree labour includes all forms of slavery. (Although serfdom is technically a form of unfree labour, the term "serf" is usually used only in relation to pre-modern societies, under feudal political systems.)

Convict labourers in Australia, 1926

Payment for unfree labor If payment occurs, it may be in one or more of the following forms: it does not exceed subsistence or barely exceeds it; is in goods which are not desirable and/or cannot be exchanged or are difficult to exchange; or the payment is wholly or mostly comprised by cancellation of a debt or liability that was itself coerced, or belongs to someone else. Unfree labor is often more easily instituted and enforced on migrant workers, who have travelled far from their homelands and who are easily identified because of their physical, ethnic or cultural differences to the general population, since they are unable or unlikely to report their conditions to the authorities. According to the labor theory of value (as used by the classical economists), under capitalism, workers never keep all of the wealth they create, as some of it goes to the profit of capitalists. By contrast, according to the subjective theory of value (as used by neoclassical economists), the wages offered necessarily represent the marginal wealth generated by the labor, and any profit (or loss) is due to other inputs provided, such as arbitrage, time value of money, or risk. It is argued by supporters of certain theories of distributive justice that any occasion on which a worker is able to turn down employment and look elsewhere is "free labor".

Unfree vs. free labour

By contrast, "free labour" is a situation which a worker is able to leave at any time, if they see fit. In practice, however, many nominally free labourers, in some historical periods and/or countries, face significant constraints on their ability to leave their jobs, and may not receive payment which is above the level of subsistence. For these reasons, some scholars prefer to see "free labour" and "unfree labour" as extreme points on a continuum, rather than being sharply distinct entities. Because of this, some people refer to the condition of the working class as "wage slavery". Others may feel that such terms trivialise the experiences of real slaves.

Forms of unfree labour Slavery Slavery The archetypal and best-known form of unfree labour is chattel slavery, in which individual workers are legally owned throughout their lives, and may be bought, sold or otherwise exchanged by owners, while never or rarely receiving any personal benefit from their labour. Slavery was common in many ancient societies, including ancient Greece, ancient Rome, ancient Israel, ancient China, as well as many societies in Africa and the Americas. Being sold into slavery was a common fate of populations conquered in wars. Perhaps the most prominent example of chattel slavery has been the enslavement of many millions of black people in Africa or forcefully transplanted to the Americas, Asia or Europe where their status as slaves would usually be inherited by their descendants. The term slavery is often applied to situations which do not meet the above definitions, but which are other, closely-related forms of unfree labour, such as debt slavery (although not all repayment of debts through labour constitutes unfree labour), or the work of Indigenous Australians in northern Australia on sheep or cattle stations (ranches), from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. In the latter case, workers were rarely or never paid, and were restricted by regulations and/or police intervention to regions around their places of work. According to Kevin Bales, in Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy (1999), there are now an estimated 27 Million slaves in the world.

Bonded labour A more common form in modern society is indenture, or bonded labour, under which workers sign contracts to work for a specific period of time, for which they are paid only with accommodation and sustenance, or these essentials in addition to limited benefits such as cancellation of a debt, or transportation to a desired country. (Debt bondage or debt slavery is a well-known form of indenture; this is sometimes known as peonage in the USA. However, the word peon is used more generally in Latin American history, and may in some cases imply free labour.) In some cases, indentured workers may receive small cash payments or other benefits. Indenture is still common in developing countries and was perhaps the dominant formal and official form of labour in early modern colonial societies, during the 17th century and 18th century. However, it should be stressed that indenture is often only a formal legal category, and in practice employers sometimes find it difficult or impossible to coerce indentured workers, unless the letter of the law is reinforced by law enforcement systems, threats by crime syndicates (snakeheads) that supply workers (usually illegal aliens), and/or by full acceptance by workers, as a traditional practice. There are also some traditional forms of bonded labour such as the Chukri System in India and Bangladesh that are illegal, yet nontheless still practiced widely.

Penal labour Penal labour Prison labour Convict or prison labour is another classic form of unfree labour. The forced labour of convicts has often been regarded with lack of sympathy, because of the social stigma attached to people regarded as "common criminals". In some countries and historical periods, however, prison labour has been forced upon people who have been: victims of prejudice, convicted of political crimes, convicted of "victimless crimes", or people who committed theft or related offences because they lacked any other means of subsistence — categories of people who typically call for compassion. The British colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868 are probably the best examples of convict labour, as described above: during that period, Australia received thousands of convict labourers, many of whom had received harsh sentences for minor misdemeanours in Britain or Ireland.

Labour camps

Prisoner labor at the construction of Belomorkanal, 1931-1933 Labour camp Another historically significant example of forced labour was that of political prisoners, people from conquered or occupied countries, and prisoners of war, especially during the 20th century. The best-known example of this are the concentration camp system run by Nazi Germany in Europe during World War II, the Gulag camps run by the Soviet Union, and the forced labour used by the military of the Empire of Japan, especially during the Pacific War (such as the Death Railway).

Truck system Truck system A truck system, in the specific sense in which the term is used by labour historians, refers to an unpopular or even exploitative form of payment associated with small, isolated and/or rural communities, in which workers or self-employed small producers are paid in either: goods, a form of payment known as truck wages, or; tokens, private currency or direct credit, to be used at a company store, owned by their employers. A specific kind of truck system, in which credit advances are made against future work is known in the U.S. as debt bondage. Many scholars have suggested that employers use such systems to exploit workers and/or indebt them. This could occur, for example, if employers were able to pay workers with goods which had a market value below the level of subsistence, or by selling items to workers at inflated prices. Others argue that truck wages, at least in some cases, were a convenient way for isolated communities to operate, when official currency was scarce. By the early 20th century, truck systems were widely seen, in industrialised countries, as exploitative; perhaps the most well-known example of this view was a 1947 U.S. hit song "Sixteen Tons". Many governments around the world enacted legislation (often known as

a Truck Act) to outlaw truck systems and require payment in cash. However, it is still common for employers to provide compensation, with the approval or requirement of the government, in non-cash benefits such as health care.

Serfs Serfs are sometimes referred to as unfree labourers, although they are generally not referenced with this term in academic journals. They meet the definition in that they were bound to the land and required permission to move. They usually fared far better than most other unfree labourers in that they have the exclusive use of some land and/or means of production, legal or strongly traditional human rights, economic security, and free time to a much greater extent than slaves, indenturees, and many wage labourers. In the Middle Ages, some serfs were able to escape to a city, beyond the reach of a feudal lord.

Trafficking Trafficking in human beings Trafficking is a term to define the recruiting, harboring, obtaining and transportation of a person by use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjecting them to involuntary acts, such as acts related to commercial sexual exploitation (including prostitution) or involuntary labour.

The present situation The International Labour Organization estimates that: • • • •

12.3 million people are victims of forced labour more than 2.4 million have been trafficked 9.8 million are exploited by private agents 2.5 million are forced to work by the state or by rebel military groups

The profits from forced trafficked labour are estimated to be in excess of $30 billion dollars.

Volunteer

One Brick volunteers help at a soup kitchen.

Volunteers fit new windows at The Sumac Centre in Nottingham, UK A volunteer is a person who serves in a community primarily because he chooses to do so. Many serve through a non-profit organization – sometimes referred to as formal volunteering, but a significant number also serve less formally, either individually or as part of a group. Because these informal volunteers are much harder to identify, they may not be included in research and statistics on volunteering. Beyond personal choice, a number of factors exist around individual motivation and around the rewards for doing service within the community. There is in most cases a range of opinions about the point at which this service changes from volunteering to something else.

Motivations and Rewards - Why do we volunteer?

Each person's motivations will be unique - but will often be a combination of the following: Altruism – voluntering for the benefit of others. Most people argue that there are no purely altruistic volunteers – altruism is a common motivation but never the only motivation for sustained commitment to serve – there is always some aspect of personal gain or satisfaction Quality of life – serving community because doing service makes ones own life better is perhaps the most significant motivation for volunteering. It is often mixed with a good dose of altruism. Included here would be the benefits people get from being with other people, staying active, and above all having a sense of the value of ourselves in society that may not be as clear in other areas of life. Giving Back – many people have in some way benefited from the work of an organization, or more generally, and volunteer to give back. A sense of duty – some see participation in community as a responsibility that comes with citizenship – in this case they may not describe themselves as volunteers Financial - Being motivated by finances is not generally included within the definition of volunteering. Some organizations are able to pay the expenses of a volunteer, others provide what is essentially a stipend or honorarium. Generally speaking, the higher the stipend, the more difficult it is to claim that a service is volunteering. Career Experience - Volunteering offers experiences that can add to career prospects.

Recognition The year 2001 was the International Year of the Volunteer, as designated by the United Nations. Every 5 December is International Volunteer Day, also designated by the United Nations. 2005 was the United Kingdom Year of the Volunteer.

Common terms International volunteer - a person who volunteers outside of his or her own country, usually related in some way to a development program.

Online volunteer (virtual volunteer, cyber service, telementor, e-volunteer, cyber volunteer) - a person who contributes time and effort with an organization through an online connection, rather than or in addition to onsite service. The practice was first researched and detailed by the Virtual Volunteering Project . Online volunteers do a variety of tasks, such as translating documents, proofreading books, editing or preparing proposals, designing logos, researching information, developing strategic plans, reviewing budgets, creating web pages, designing flash presentations, moderating online discussion groups and managing other online volunteers. Online volunteers may support organizations in their own community, or entirely remotely. ICT volunteer - someone who uses Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as a central part of his or her service, or, who advocates for ICT access for under-serviced communities. MMORPG Volunteer - Often MMORPGs have Volunteers "Vols" who are unpaid staff that will moderate the game. A Volunteer can perform simple operations such as banning a player from the game, or silencing an abusive player. Volunteers are often used to lighten the workload for the GMs (Game Masters) who usually contribute mainly towards the server based operations (such as server maintenance).

Statistics and Trends For extensive statistics, regularly updated, on volunteering in the USA, see the Independent Sector and the Points of Light Foundation, and in Canada, Volunteer Canada

"Mandatory volunteering" - Mandatory Community Service Community service "Mandatory Volunteering" is term in informal usage to include various forms of community service in which the primary motivator is external to the individual - when people are mandated to serve by one authority or another - examples include (1) a high school student being required to provide so many hours of community service to a nonprofit organization in order to graduate, (2) a high school or college student engaged

in service learning, using a volunteering experience to apply skills learned in the classroom and to meet a requirement to pass the class, or (3) a person convicted of a misdemeanor being required to provide such community service as part of his or her sentence. Some organizations require members to provide a certain number of community services as well. In recent years, mandated community service has been on the rise, driven by increasingly cash strapped (and perhaps more humanitarian) correctional systems, and by moves to encourage the notion of 'active citizenship' in youth. Many in the voluntary sector argue that they are expected, often with no additional funding, to pick up these functions from justice and educational systems. Controversy exists around the terminology used - 'Mandatory volunteering' is seen as oxymoronic, since definitions of volunteering overwhelmingly include the element of free choice to act. Many opponents of the term also see a threat to the spirit of volunteering if it becomes contaminated with notions of force and punishment. Ironically, there is some indication that the term originated in the voluntary sector itself - the sector now most keen to clarify the difference between volunteering and mandated activity. A term that allows clearer definition is "Mandatory Community Service". Controversy also exists around some aspects of mandated community service. The effects of forcing some people to serve - on both their future commitment to community and the commitments of others - are largely unknown. Many managers of volunteers note that managing those on mandatory programs is different to managing volunteers, not least because motivation is a key underlying theme in volunteer management, but also because some MCS programming requires elements that may not exist at all in a volunteer program - policing and reporting being notable examples. (Although it is by no means a universal sentiment, this quote reflects the strength of one persons reaction: Suellen Carlson, the Director of Volunteers, at Lutheran Social Services in New York. "I no longer do someone else's job for them. The judge will have to find another way to punish someone other than punishing me in the process. I don't want to chase anyone, get nasty phone calls from someone who has to get in so many hours by a certain time (usually within the next couple of days). I am not interested in surly teenagers who are only putting in their time (and, whose mother has usually made the first call).")

Linking websites and agencies Some organizations provide the links between organizations that need volunteers, and the individuals who wish to volunteer, and may have little or no role in arranging the volunteer program. For example, in the field of international development and development charities, Global Hand provides a register of volunteers as well as donors of goods and services; The Taproot Foundation provides teams of Marketing, Information Technology, and Human Resources consultants on specialized "Service Grants"; RedR-IHE maintains a register of experienced professionals, including engineers, who are willing to volunteer; Engineers Without Borders (in some countries at least) also links its members with other NGO's rather than running separate projects. Some of these such as Travel to Teachand The Global Volunteer Networklink volunteers and organizations globally; some are more local in scope, such as One Brick in North America, SEEK Volunteer in Australia, or Volunteer Now in New Zealand; and then there are those like iVolunteer in India or ThaiExperience in Thailand which focus on volunteer placement in one country while recruiting volunteers globally; An there is a free global network of non-commercial volunteer organisations at independentvolunteer.org. Aura's House provides volunteers and donors the ability to participate in projects around the world from Africa, Central American, India and more. Aura's House sets up rotating online fundraising projects. Charity Guide lists volunteering opportunities by topic such as poverty and environment, with links to relevant organizations. Suggestions ranging from 15 minute individual "acts of kindness" through to volunteer vacations in the volunteer's area of interest.

Wage slavery Wage slavery is a term used to refer to a condition in which a person is legally (de jure) voluntarily employed but practically (de facto) a slave. It is used to express disapproval of a condition where a person feels compelled to work in return for payment of a wage. In colloquial terms, this may refer to people that make a cult of work (the extreme case is dying of karoshi), or those who require one to work to be socially acceptable. In terms used by critics of capitalism, wage slavery is the condition where a person must sell his or her labor power, submitting to the authority of an employer merely to subsist. Different sources seem to have different ideas about what practical conditions would qualify a worker as a wage slave. For example: wage slave can denote a worker who has no choice in who they work for, or in the type of job they can get; either due to economic and geographic circumstances, or due to personal lack of competence or education.

Wage slavery in capitalist society Wage slavery as a concept is a criticism of capitalism, defined as a condition when a capitalist minority of the population controls all of the necessary non-human components of production (capital and land) that other people (workers) use to produce goods. This sort of criticism is generally associated with socialist criticisms of capitalism, but has also been expressed by some proponents of liberalism, like Henry George (), Silvio Gesell and Thomas Paine (), as well as the Distributist school of thought within the Roman Catholic Church. Criticism of capitalism on these grounds is connected to the belief that one should have freedom to work without a boss or obligation. The use of the term "wage slavery" is also a rhetorical device to draw parallels between modern work and the historical institution of slavery, specifically to chattel slavery wherein one person owns another person as property. The concept of wage slavery suggests that even where the conditions of chattel slavery do not apply, wage earners may live in conditions which are practically identical with the conditions of those under chattel slavery. A key difference between wage slavery and chattel slavery recognized by Karl Marx was that the individual laborers can in some cases refuse to work for a specific employer and

cannot (legally) be subjected to corporal punishment by that employer. To Marx, wage slavery was a class condition, not an individual situation. This class situation rested on 1. the concentration of ownership in few hands; 2. the lack of direct access by workers to the means of production and consumption goods; and 3. the existence of the reserve army of unemployed workers. Furthermore, in Marx's view, this situation was ultimately due to the existence of private property and the state. Marx recognized that some working people could escape wage slavery and become capitalists, if only in small numbers. But to him, the profits received by the capitalists were dependent on the work done by the working class, so that too much upward mobility would lead to the downfall of capitalism, unless it was balanced by downward mobility out of the capitalist class. This suggests that even if the faces of the "wage slaves" change, the category remains. A common analogy is that even if some slaves can win their freedom (as it was sometimes possible in ancient societies like Rome, for example), that doesn't justify slavery. Critics of capitalism may view the working class to be slaves if employers have unrestricted power to fire individual workers; this is especially true if they can blacklist them from other employment (such blacklisting of suspected communists was instituted by employers during the McCarthy Era in the United States in Hollywood and other sectors). The "at will" employment arrangement means that a worker may be fired (or quit) for any reason. If a worker fears losing his or her job more than the employer fears losing a particular worker, then the employer can govern the personal life of the worker. For example, a worker may be fired based on his or her sexual orientation, unless protected by an enforceable anti-discrimination law. In an unrestrained form, this power even extends to basic civil liberties, such as the right to worship freely or to express political opinions. (In the United States, employees have no legal right to express political opinions while on the job.) This power could also undermine the right to vote; fear of this factor was a significant motivator for instituting the secret ballot. Instances of wage slavery that show the most similarity to chattel slavery occur in societies where educational opportunities are limited, unionization is violently suppressed, and property may be arbitrarily confiscated. By connection of global trade

networks, these harsh instances of wage slavery are connected to and affect societies with stronger traditions of freedom and few noticeable effects of supposed wage slavery. Extreme critics of capitalism argue that the same basic relationships are present in all capitalist societies, even if their impact is lessened by various traditions such as state accountability to the people and the establishment of a mixed economy. A mixed economy can permit some private control based upon ownership, but also supposedly exerts social control of capital through state ownership of certain industries or regulation of private economic relationships. Some proponents of neoliberalism advocate that the state only own those industries that are truly public goods while at the same allowing the rest of the economy to remain capitalist. Extreme proponents of capitalism advocate that everything, even industries that are essential to life, should be private property, bought and sold on the free market. Critics of capitalism also assert that capitalist economic systems have a tendency to commodify the very things that should be most freely available in society—especially one that is technologically advanced. The result is that the market settles on producing products that are the minimum quality the market will support, as opposed to the maximum quality possible with available resources. A pronounced lack of leisure time is commonly the focal point of such an argument.

Wage labour Wage labour is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer in which the worker sells their labour under a contract (employment), and the employer buys it, often in a labour market.[Quote from source requested on talk page to verify interpretation of source] The products of labour become the employer's property. A wage labourer is a person whose primary means of income is to sell labour in this way. Wage labour has existed in one form or another for thousands of years in many different kinds of societies. However, under capitalism, it transforms more and more labour into wage labour, so that wage labour becomes the main source of income for most people. The phrase is also sometimes used to mean the labour done for an employer in exchange for a wage.

Forms of wage labour

The most common form of wage labour nowadays is a contract in which a free worker sells his labour for a predetermined time (e.g. a few months or a year), in return for a money-wage or salary. But wage labour takes many more different forms, and many different kinds of contracts and forms of remuneration are possible. Economic history shows a great variety of ways in which labour is traded and exchanged. The differences show up in the form of: •

employment status: a worker could be employed full-time, part-time, or on a casual basis. He could be employed for example temporarily for a specific project only, or on a permanent basis. Part-time wage labour could combine with parttime self-employment. The worker could be employed also as an apprentice.

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civil (legal) status: the worker could for example be a free citizen, an indentured labourer, the subject of forced labour (including some prison or army labour); a worker could be assigned by the political authorities to a task, he could be a semislave or a serf bound to the land who is hired out part of the time. So the labour might be performed on a more or less voluntary basis, or on a a more or less involuntary basis, in which there are many gradations. method of payment(remuneration or compensation). The work done could be paid "in cash" (a money-wage) or "in kind" (through receiving goods and/or services), or in the form of "piece rates" where the wage is directly dependent on how much the worker produces, in terms of goods and services. In some cases, the worker might be paid in the form of credit used to buy goods and services, or in the form of stock options or shares in an enterprise. method of hiring: the worker might engage in a labour-contract on his own initiative, or he might hire out his labour as part of a group. But he may also hire out his labour via an intermediary (such as an employment agency) to a third party. In this case, he is paid by the intermediary, but works for a third party which pays the intermediary. In some cases, labour is subcontracted several times, with several intermediaries. Another possibility is that the worker is assigned or posted to a job by a political authority, or that an agency hires out a worker to an enterprise together with means of production.

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Critique of wage labour

Wage labour under capitalism is often criticised, such as by socialists and most anarchists. They see wage labour as a major, if not defining, aspect of capitalism. In Marxist terminology, wage labour is defined as "the mode of production where the worker sells their labour power as a commodity", (and a wage labourer is one who sells their labour power.) Most criticism focuses on the argument that under wage labour, exploitation occurs. The employer who buys this labour power, owns the labour process and can sell the products to make profit. On the other hand, the worker sells their creative energy and their liberty for a given period, and are alienated from their own labour, as well as its products. Opponents of capitalism compare wage labour to slavery (see wage slavery). For example, Karl Marx said "The slave, together with his labour-power, was sold to his owner once for all... The [wage] labourer, on the other hand, sells his very self, and that by fractions... He [belongs] to the capitalist class; and it is for him... to find a buyer in this capitalist class."

Environmental impact assessment An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the likely human environmental health impact, risk to ecological health, and changes to nature's services that a project may have. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-makers consider environmental impacts before deciding whether to proceed with new projects.

Overview The US Environmental Protection Agency pioneered the use of pathway analysis to determine the likely human health impact of environmental factors. The technology for performing such analysis is properly labelled environmental science. The principal phenomena or pathways of impact are: soil contamination impacts, air pollution impacts, noise health effects, ecology impacts including endangered species assessment, geological hazards assessment and water pollution impacts. Pathway analysis and The Natural Step definitions later became the basis of the global ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards and the more recent ISO 19011 accounting standard; however, these ISO standards are not in common use in the U.S. and most other countries. After an EIA analysis, the Precautionary Principle and Polluter Pays may be applied to prevent, limit, or require strict liability or insurance coverages to a project, based on its likely harms. Environmental impact analysis is sometimes controversial and contested. Related analysis of social impacts is achieved by Social impact assessment. Analysis of business impacts is achieved by Context analysis. Design impacts are assessed in relation to Context theory.

EIA around the world

EU

The EIA Directive on Environmental Impact Assessment of the effects of projects on the environment was introduced in 1985 and was amended in 1997. The directive was amended again in 2003 following the 1998 signature by the EU of the Aarhus Convention on public participation in environmental matters. The issue was enlarged to the assessment of plans and programmes by the so called SEA-Directive in 2001 which is now in force and establishes a mix of mandatory and discretionary procedures for assessing environmental impacts.

New Zealand In New Zealand, EIA is usually referred to as Assessment of Environmental Effects (AEE). The first use of EIA's dates back to a Cabinet minute passed in 1974 called Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures. This had no legal force and only related to the activities of government departments. When the Resource Management Act was passed in 1991, an EIA was required as part of a resource consent application. Section 88 of the Act spells this out.

United States Under United States environmental law an EIA is referred to as the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), and originated in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), enacted in the United States in 1969. Certain actions of federal agencies must be preceded by an EIS. Contrary to a widespread misconception, NEPA does not prohibit the federal government or its licensees/permittees from harming the environment, nor does it specify any penalty if the EIS turns out to be inaccurate, intentionally or otherwise. NEPA merely requires that plausible statements as to the prospective impacts be disclosed in advance. It is only a procedural requirement. Usually, an agency will release a Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS) for comment. Interested parties and the general public have the opportunity to comment on the draft, after which the agency will approve the Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS). Occasionally, the agency will later release a Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (SEIS).

The adequacy of an EIS can be challenged in court. Major proposed projects have been blocked because of an agency's failure to prepare an acceptable EIS. One prominent example was the Westway landfill and highway development in and along the Hudson River in New York City . Another prominent case involved the Sierra Club suing the Nevada Department of Transportation over its denial of Sierra Club's request to issue a supplemental EIS addressing air emissions of particulate matter and hazardous air pollutants in the case of widening US Highway 95 through Las Vegas. The case reached the 9th Circuit Court of the United States, which led to construction on the highway being halted until the court's final decision. The case was settled prior to the court's final decision. Several US state governments that have adopted "little NEPA's," i.e., state laws imposing EIS requirements for particular state actions and some of those state laws refer the required environmental impact studies as Environmental Impact Reports or Environmental Impact Assessments. For example, the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) requires an Environmental Impact Report (EIR). These various state rquirements are yielding voluminous data not just upon impacts of individual projects, but also to elucidate scientific areas that had not been sufficiently researched. For example, in a seemingly routine Environmental Impact Report for the city of Monterey, California, information came to light that led to the official federal endangered species listing of Hickman's potentilla, a rare coastal wildflower.

Budget Budget generally refers to a list of all planned expenses and revenues. A budget is an important concept in microeconomics, which uses a budget line to illustrate the trade-offs between two or more goods.

Personal or family budget A personal budget is among the most important concepts of personal finance. In a personal or family budget all sources of income (inflows) are identified and expenses (outflows) are planned with the intent of matching outflows to inflows. There are a wide variety of personal budgeting methods and tools that can be employed to help individuals

and families with the budgeting process. Also the level of planned finance available to a person, corporation or government, as set by a certain person.

Government budget The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the intended revenues and expenditures of that government. In the United States, the federal budget is prepared by the Office of Management and Budget, and submitted to Congress for consideration. Invariably, Congress makes many and substantial changes. Nearly all American states are required to have balanced budgets, but the federal government is allowed to run deficits. In the UK the budget is prepared by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the second most important member of the government, and must be passed by Parliament. The Parliament seldom makes changes to the budget.

Corporate budget The budget of a company is compiled annually. A finished budget usually requires considerable effort and can be seen as a financial plan for the new financial year. While traditionally the Finance department compiles the company's budget, modern software allows hundreds or even thousands of people in the various departments (operations, human resources, IT etc) to contribute their expected revenues and expenses to the final budget. If the actual numbers delivered through the financial year turn out to be close to the budget, this will demonstrate that the company understands their business and has been successfully driving it in the direction they had planned. On the other hand, if the actuals diverge wildly from the budget, this sends out an 'out of control' signal and the share price could suffer as a result.

Construction site safety

A site-safety sign at a highway overpass construction site describing the mandatory safety procedures and equipment. Construction is the most dangerous land based work sector (the fishing industry is more dangerous). In the European Union, the fatal accident rate is nearly 13 workers per 100,000 as against 5 per 100,000 for the all sector average (Source: Eurostat). The problem is not that the hazards and risks are unknown, it is that they are very difficult to control in a constantly changing work environment.

Nature of hazards Hazards to construction workers The two biggest safety hazards on site are falls from height and vehicles, but there are many more (electricity and being buried while working in excavations being two more examples). Some of the main health hazards on site are asbestos, solvents, noise, and manual handling activities.

Hazards to non-workers Many construction sites cannot completely exclude non-workers. Road construction sites must often allow traffic to pass through. This places non-workers at some degree of risk.

This sign and advisory plate (62.5 MPH) penetrated the windshield and roof of a car in a side-impact test crash. A safer sign would have stiffer uprights, no advisory plate and the flashing light would be moved to the point of the sign to spread the impact force. Road construction sites are blocked-off and traffic is redirected. The sites and vehicles are protected by signs and barricades. However, sometimes even these signs and barricades can be a hazard to vehicle traffic. For example, improperly designed barricades can cause cars that strike them to roll over or even be thrown into the air. Even a simple safety sign can penetrate the windshield or roof of a car if hit from certain angles.

Construction delay Construction delays are delays in progress compared to the baseline construction schedule. Construction delays in residential and light construction are often the result of miscommunication between contractors, subcontractors, and property owners. These types of misunderstandings and unrealistic expectations are usually avoided through the use of detailed critical path schedules, which specify the work, and timetable to be used, but most importantly, the logical sequence of events which must occur for a project to be completed. Delays in construction projects are frequently expensive, since there is usually a construction loan involved which charges interest, management staff dedicated

to the project whose costs are time dependent, and ongoing inflation in wage and material prices. However, in more complex projects, problems will arise that are not foreseen in the original contract, and so other legal construction forms are subsequently used, such as change orders, lien waivers, and addendums.

Vernacular architecture Vernacular architecture is a term used to categorize a method of construction which uses immediately available resources to address immediate needs. As such, it is often dismissed as crude and unrefined.

1848 Duncan House, Cooksville, Wisconsin The term is derived from the Latin vernaculus, meaning "native," and therefore refers to all architecture which is indigenous to a specific place (not imported or copied from elsewhere). As this represents the majority of historical construction (and much continuing practice in developing countries), it is often confused with "traditional" architecture. Vernacular architecture may, through time, be adopted and refined into culturally accepted solutions, but only through repetition may it be become "traditional." Through such processes vernacular architecture can provide highly sophisticated adaptation to both the environment and to user's needs. Once regarded as obsolete, vernacular architecture is now the subject of serious academic study, and is increasingly considered a potential component of sustainable development for its quality of adaptation to the local environment. An early work was Bernard Rudofsky's 1964 book Architecture Without Architects: a short introduction to nonpedigreed architecture, based on his MoMA exhibition. The book was a revolutionary reminder of the legitimacy and "hard-won knowledge" inherent in vernacular buildings, from Polish salt-caves to gigantic Syrian water wheels to Moroccan desert fortresses, and was considered iconoclastic at the time. The most comprehensive work is the "Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World" published in 1997 by Paul Oliver of the Oxford Institute for Sustainable Development. Oliver has argued that

vernacular architecture will be necessary in the future to "ensure sustainability in both cultural and economic terms beyond the short term." Christopher Alexander, in his book A Pattern Language, attempted to identify adaptive features of traditional architecture that apply across cultures. Howard Davis's book The Culture of Building details the culture that enabled several vernacular traditions.

Aalto's Viipuri Municipal Library (1933-35), the first manifestation of regional modernism. Some extend the term to include any architecture outside the academic mainstream. The term "commercial vernacular," popularized in the late 1960s by the publication of Robert Venturi's "Learning from Las Vegas," refers to 20th century American suburban tract and commercial architecture. Unlike traditional vernacular, however, the design and construction of these types of buildings is remote from their eventual users, and does not represent long cultural traditions. Those who study "traditional" vernacular architecture hold that these characteristics define a more useful and fundamental partition of architecture into vernacular and non-vernacular, rather than academic acceptance of architecture. An architect whose work exemplifies the modern take on vernacular architecture would be Samuel Mockbee, whose pioneering work with Rural Studio is well-regarded and widely discussed amongst practicing architects and academics alike.

Real property Real property is a legal term encompassing real estate and ownership interests in real estate (immovable property). It is a type of property differentiated from personal property. This article discusses the ownership of land using the interpretation of real property as a legal term used in Anglo-American common law jurisdictions. Other legal geopolitical systems of government have different legal interpretations concerning the ownership of land. Terminology varies in these systems, as well: for instance, heritable property in Scotland; immovable property in Canada, United States, India, Malta, Cyprus, most of Europe including Russia, also South America, Malaysia, South Africa, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and many other countries and continents; and immobilier in France.

Historical background History of the word In law, the word real means relating to a thing (from Latin res, matter or thing), as distinguished from a person. Thus the law broadly distinguishes between [real property] (land and anything affixed to it) and [personal property] (everything else, e.g., clothing, furniture, money). The conceptual difference was between immovable property, which would transfer title along with the land, and movable property, which a person would retain title to. (The word is not derived from the notion of land having historically been "royal" property. The word royal — and its Spanish cognate real — come from the unrelated Latin word rex, meaning king.) In modern legal systems derived from English common law, classification of property as real or personal may vary somewhat according to jurisdiction or, even within jurisdictions, according to purpose, as in defining whether and how the property may be taxed.

British interpretation WARNING: The following text was originally obtained from the 1911 edition of Encyclopædia Britannica. While it has been modified by various editors, it may not be

entirely accurate according to a strict interpretation of applicable law today, especially after the major reforms in the 1925 legislation. (In 1911 the encyclopedia was a British publication and heavily weighted to a British interpretation of information in that day.)

Land Relationship to Owner Real property is not just the ownership of property and buildings, it includes many legal relationships between owners of immovable property (real estate) that are purely conceptual such as the easement, where a neighboring property may have some right on your property, right-of-way, or the right to pass over a property, and incorporeal heridiments such as profit a prendre. Real property can also be held in various ways. In some jurisdictions real property is held absolutely, in England it may still be considered to be carved out of Crown's ownership of all property in the realm. Such distinctions are important in terms of the law of escheat or when property reverts to the state because it lacks an owner or has been abandoned.

Definitions An important area of real immovable property are the definitions of estates in land. These are various interests that may limit the ownership rights one has over the land. The most common and perhaps most absolute type of estate is the fee simple which signifies that the owner has the right to dispose of the property as she/he sees fit. Other estates include the life estate where the owner's rights to the property cease at their death and fee tail estates where the property at the time of death passes to the heirs of the body (i.e. children, grandchildren, descendants) of the owner of the estate before he died.

Estate law Estates may also be held jointly as joint tenants with rights of survivorship or as tenants in common. The difference in these two types of joint ownership of an estate in land is basically the inheritability of the estate. In joint tenancy (or in marriage this is sometimes called tenancy of the entirety) the surviving tenant (or tenants) become the sole owner (or owners) of the estate. Nothing passes to the heirs of the deceased tenant. In some jurisdictions the magic words "with right of survivorship" must be used or the tenancy will assumed to be tenants in common. Tenants in common will have a heritable portion

of the estate in proportion to their ownership interest which is presumed to be equal amongst tenants unless otherwise stated in the transfer deed. There are other types of estates in land that are used to prevent the alienation of land (also used in the law of trusts). Generally these are called future interests, an example being the rule against perpetuities. See also the Rule in Shelley's Case. Real property may not only be owned it may be leased in which the possession of the property is given to the tenant for a limited period of time. Such leases are also called estates such as an estate for years, a periodic tenancy or an estate at will. Real property may also be owned jointly through the device of the condominium or cooperative.

Economic aspects of real property Because real immovable property is essential for industry or other activity requiring a lot of fixed physical capital, economics is very concerned with real immovable property and rules regarding its valuation and disposition, and obligations accrueing to its owners. In economic terms, real property consists of some natural capital (or land, one of the factors of production especially in agriculture), and infrastructural capital (the buildings, water and power lines, and other improvements necessary to make immovable property useful for some human purpose). Other fixed physical assets, indistinguishable economically from infrastructure, such as machines, may be stored on immovable property and may require natural or infrastructural attributes (such as running water for a turbine or an isolated location to allow loud noise emissions) hard to duplicate even nearby.

U.S. interpretation In the United States, each state has its own real immovable property law. All states except Louisiana rely on variations of common law for the basis of their real immovable property laws. Louisiana's laws are derived from Napoleonic Code but have adopted some of the common law terms over the years.

Types of ownership interests Real property (immovable property) can refer to the real estate itself, or to various types of ownership interests in real estate, including: •

Fee simple or freehold: The most common interest or right in real estate and provides the owner the right to use the real estate for any lawful purpose and sell the interest when and to whom the owner wishes.

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Life estate: An interest in real estate (immovable property) which is granted to a life tenant until that person dies. During the life estate, the life tenant has the right to use the real estate for any lawful purpose, but may not sell the interest.

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Estate for years: Similar to a life estate but term is a specified number of years.

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Leasehold: The right to possess and use real estate (immovable property) pursuant to the terms of a lease.

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Reversion: The right to possess the fee interest in real estate (immovable property) after the expiration of a life estate, estate for years, or leasehold.

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Concurrent or co-tenancy: The ownership of an interest in real property (immovable property) by more than one party. Rights of any single party may be limited in various ways depending on the jurisdiction and type of concurrency.

Note that it is possible for a property deed (the legal document used to transfer title) to further restrict these general ownership rights.

Municipality A municipality is an administrative entity composed of a clearly defined territory and its population and commonly referring to a city, town, or village, or a small grouping of them. A municipality is typically governed by a mayor and a city council or municipal council. Municipalities are not necessarily the same as townships. A municipality is a generalpurpose district, as opposed to a special-purpose district. In most countries, a municipality is the smallest administrative subdivision to have its own democratically elected representative leadership. In some countries, municipalities are referred to as "communes" (for example, French commune or Spanish comuna). The term derives from the medieval commune. Note that the word has absolutely no implication of communism. But the word "communism" derives from the word "commune" because of its striving towards a commune-like society.

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In Algeria, a municipality (commune) is part of a daïra, which is part of a wilaya In Australia, a municipality is a city or shire and is a subdivision of a state In Austria, a municipality (Gemeinde) is part of a district (Bezirk), which is in turn part of a state (Bundesland). In Belgium, a municipality (gemeente/commune) is either part of a province (provincie/province) or of the Brussels-Capital Region In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a municipality (općina or opština) is o part of a canton (kanton) o a subdivision (grouped in regions) In Brazil, a municipality (município) is part of a state (estado) In Canada, a municipality is a city, town, township, county, or regional municipality which has been incorporated by statute by the legislatures of the Provinces and territories of Canada. It is also a specific designation for certain municipalities in Quebec , Nova Scotia and Ontario. Certain areas of

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Saskatchewan and Manitoba are designated as rural municipalities, while equivalent areas in Alberta are designated as municipal districts. In Chile, a municipality (comuna) is part of a province (provincia). In Colombia, a municipality (municipio) is part of a department (departamento). It also subdivided into Corregimientos and Veredas. In Croatia, a municipality (općina) is part of a county (županija) In the Czech Republic, a municipality (obec) is part of a district (okres) In Denmark, a municipality (kommune) is part of a county (amt) In Estonia, a municipality (omavalitsus) is the smallest division. In Finland, a municipality (kunta) co-operates with municipalities nearby in a subregion (seutukunta) and region (maakunta); a region belongs to a province (lääni)

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of the state. A municipality can freely call itself a "city" (kaupunki). In France, a municipality (commune) is part of a department (département) which is part of a region (région) In Germany, a municipality (Gemeinde) is part of a district (Kreis). Larger entities of the same level are called towns (Stadt). In Greece, a municipality is either an urban demoi or rural koinotetes which is then part of a prefecture (nomos) and then a larger region known as a periphery. In Haiti, a municipality (commune) is part of an arrondissement, which is part of a department (département). In Hungary, a municipality (települési önkormányzat) is part of a county (megye). In Italy, a comune is part of a province (provincia) which is part of a region (regione). The term "municipality" is reserved for subdivisions of larger communes (in particular, the commune of Rome). In Japan, a municipality is the sphere of government within the prefectures, the sub-division of the state. In Jersey, a municipality refers to the honorary officials elected to run each of the 12 Parishes into which it is subdivided. In Luxembourg, communes are the lowest divisions. In Mexico, a municipality (municipio) is a subdivision of a state (estado) and a borogh (delegación) is a subdivision of the Federal District (see municipalities of Mexico and Boroughs of the Mexican Federal District). In the Netherlands, a municipality (gemeente) is part of a province (provincie). Every part of mainland New Zealand is part of either a "city" (mostly urban) or a "district" (mostly rural). The term "municipality" has become rare in New Zealand since about 1979 and has no legal status.

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In Nicaragua, a municipality (municipio) is subdivision of a department (departamento) or of one of the two Autonomous Regions, Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte and Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur. In Norway, a municipality (kommune) is part of a county (fylke) In the Philippines, a municipality (bayan) is part of a province (lalawigan) and is composed of barangays. In Poland, a municipality (gmina) is a part of a county (powiat). In Portugal, a municipality (município) is subdivision of a district (distritos). In Puerto Rico, a municipality (municipio) is a city. Each municipality has an elected mayor. In Romania, a municipality (municipiu) is a town or a city ranked by law at this level. A commune is the lowest subdivision of a county. In Serbia, a municipality (opština) is part of a county (okrug) In Slovakia, a municipality (obec) is part of a district (okres). There are 2 891 municipalities in the state. In South Africa, district municipalities and metropolitan municipalities are subdivisions of the provinces, and local municipalities are subdivisions of district municipalities. In Sweden, a municipality (kommun) is part of a county (län). In Switzerland, a municipality (commune/Gemeinde/comune) is part of a canton (canton/Kanton/cantone) and defined by cantonal law. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a municipality is governed by official political borders, such as that of the Greater Belfast area in Northern Ireland. As is the same for the Greater London area and not just the City of London. The term municipality and the word municipal in general is not commonly heard. Greater x area would be the most common in useage. In the United States, the entities that have status as a municipality vary from state to state. Cities, towns, boroughs, or villages are common terms for municipalities. Townships, counties, and parishes are not generally considered to be municipalities, although there are exceptions. In some states, towns have a nonmunicipal status similar to townships. In Venezuela, a municipality (municipio) is part of a state, as well as a subdivison of the Capital District (estado).

First-level entities and other forms of municipalities

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In the People's Republic of China, a direct-controlled municipality ( in pinyin: zhíxiáshì) is a city with equal status to a province: Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing (see Municipality of China) In the Republic of China on Taiwan, a municipality ( in Wade-Giles: chihsia-shih) is a city with equal status to a province: Taipei and Kaohsiung. (see Municipality of China) In Macedonia, 84 municipalities (opštini; singular: opština) were established in 2004, reduced from 123 created in 1996. In Portugal, a municipality (município/concelho) is the primary local administrative unit. Although it is a part of a district (distrito) for certain national administrative purposes, the municipality is not subordinate to the district and

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decentralization is doing away with the districts. A municipality contains one or more freguesias. In Puerto Rico, there are no first order administrative divisions, and the municipalities (municipio) serves as second-order, but first level, administrative divisions. In Montenegro, a municipality (opština) is the topmost regional division Municipalities of Libya, some very large. In Slovenia, a municipality (občina) is the primary local administrative unit. There are 193 of them, 11 of which have a special "Urban" status with additional autonomy. In Spain, a municipality (municipio) is the primary local administrative unit. It is a part of a province (provincia) for all national administrative purposes. A municipality contains one or more parroquias. In the Galicia region, the municipalities are called concellos.

Building code A building code is a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable level of safety for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. The main purpose of the building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a particular jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate authority. Building codes are generally intended to be applied by architects and engineers, but are also used for various purposes by safety inspectors, real estate developers, contractors and subcontractors, manufacturers of building products and materials, insurance companies, facility managers, tenants, and other categories of users. There are often additional codes or sections of the same building code that have more specific requirements that apply to dwellings and special construction objects such as canopies, signs, pedestrian walkways, parking lots, radio and television antennas.

Types of building codes The practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes may vary widely from country to country. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasigovernmental standards organizations and then enforced across the country by the central government. Such codes are known as the national building codes (in a sense they enjoy a mandatory nation-wide application). In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, a system of model building codes is used. Model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, and administrative orders. When referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as adoption by reference. When an adopting authority decides to delete, add, or revise any portions of the model code being adopted, it is usually required by the model code developer to

follow a formal adoption procedure in which those modifications can be documented for legal purposes. There are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. For example, at some point in time all major cities in the United States had their own building codes as part of their municipal codes. Since having its own building code can be very expensive for a municipality, many have decided to adopt model codes instead. Only the cities of New York and Chicago continue to use the building codes they developed on their own; yet these codes also include multiple references to model codes, such as the National Electrical Code. Additionally, New York City is currently working to modify and apply the International Building Code for the city in a massive Model Code Program. Because of copyright law, one must obtain a copy of the local code and separately any model code it references.

Scope Building codes generally include: • •

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Structural safety: buildings should be strong enough to resist internally and externally applied forces without collapsing; Fire safety: includes requirements to prevent the fire spread to/from neighbours, provide warning of occupants, and safe exiting of building, limitation on fire spread, and provisions for fire suppression/fire fighting; Health requirements: adequate washrooms, adequate air circulation, and plumbing materials.

Some building codes sometimes include requirements for: • •

Noise mitigation to protect building occupants from noise pollution (see Noise regulation) Accessibility: requirements to ensure that a building is accessible for persons in wheelchairs or having other disabilities.

Building codes generally do not include:

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Aesthetics: Any regulation of the aesthetics of buildings are usually included in zoning by-laws; Traffic convenience: Limitations on traffic flow are usually either in zoning or other municipal by-laws; Building Use: the safe use of a building is generally in the Fire code; or Required upgrades for existing building: unless the building is being renovated the building code usually does not apply.

Building codes include: • • • •

specifications on components; allowable installation methodologies; minimum and maximum room and exit sizes and location; qualification of individuals or corporations doing the work.

Any high structure can be an obstacle for aircraft, and must therefore often be marked. These requirements are usually a combination of prescriptive requirements that spell out exactly how something is to be done, and performance requirements which just outline what the required level of performance is and leave it up to the designer how this is achieved. Historically they are very reactive in that when a problem occurs the building codes change to ensure that the problem never happens again. In recent years there has been a move amongst most of the building codes to move to more performance requirements and less prescriptive requirements. Traditionally building codes were generally long complex interrelated sets of rules. They generally included reference to hundreds of other codes, standards and guidelines that specify the details of the component or system design, specify testing requirements for components, or outline good engineering practice. These detailed codes required a great deal of specialization to interpret, and also greatly constrained change and innovation in building design. In recent years several countries, beginning with Australia, have moved to much shorter objective based buildings codes. Rather than prescribing specific details, objective codes lists a series of objectives all buildings must meet while leaving open how these objectives will be met. When applying for a building permit the designers must demonstrate how they meet each objective.

History Building codes have a long history. What is generally accepted as the first building code was in the Code of Hammurabi which specified: •

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229. If a builder build a house for some one, and does not construct it properly, and the house which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death. 230. If it kill the son of the owner the son of that builder shall be put to death. 231. If it kill a slave of the owner, then he shall pay slave for slave to the owner of the house. 232. If it ruin goods, he shall make compensation for all that has been ruined, and inasmuch as he did not construct properly this house which he built and it fell, he shall re-erect the house from his own means. 233. If a builder build a house for some one, even though he has not yet completed it; if then the walls seem toppling, the builder must make the walls solid from his own means.

Fire safety

Inadequate fire safety can be destructive and deadly. Fire safety is a component of Building Safety. It concerns safety measures to prevent the effects of fires and is the result of proper use of fire protection measures. Some elements include: •

Having built a facility in accordance with the version of the local building code that was in effect at the time a building permit was applied for.

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Maintaining a facility and conducting oneself in accordance with the provisions of the fire code, from the moment that the building was occupied. This is based on thorough knowledge of the code by the owner and ensuring that the occupants and operators of the building are fully aware of the currently applicable regulations, including supplementary documents that may be applicable, which are referenced in the fire code, such as, as an example, NFPA13 or NFPA96. Examples of such lawful conduct include, but are not limited to, the following: o Not exceeding the maximum occupancy listing for any part of the building (Making sure that an area isn't so full of people that they can't all get out quickly in an emergency). o

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Maintaining proper fire exits and proper signage of them (e.g., exit signs pointing to them that can function in a power failure) Placing and maintaining fire extinguishers and fire alarms in easily accessible places. Properly storing/using, and/or banning of flammable materials that may be needed inside the building for storage or operational requirements (such as solvents in spray booths). Routinely inspecting public buildings for violations, issuing Orders To Comply and, potentially, prosecuting or closing buildings that are not in compliance, until the violations are corrected or condemning it in extreme cases. Installing and maintaining fire alarm control panels for quick detection and warning of fire. Obtaining and maintaining a complete inventory of firestops.

Ensuring that all spray fireproofing remains undamaged. o Maintaining a high level of training and awareness of occupants and users of the building to avoid obvious mistakes, such as the propping open of fire doors. o Conduct Fire drills at regular intervals throughout the year o

The Fire code (also Fire prevention code or Fire safety code) is a model code adopted on a regional basis and enforced by fire prevention officers within municipal fire departments. It is a lawful set of rules prescribing minimum requirements to prevent fire and explosion hazards arising from storage, handling, or use of dangerous materials, or from other specific hazardous conditions. The fire code complements the building code. In the event of changes to fire safety provisions within a building, or a change of

occupancy, the fire code typically references the building code, which can result in a requirement upon the owner to apply for a building permit to ensure proper review and lawful execution of contemplated changes that can have an effect upon fire safety and/or structural integrity. The building code includes construction requirements to minimise fire spread, enable suppression and detection and to provide for safe and rapid evacuation in the event of a fire. Although both codes address similar issues, the fire code is aimed primarily at preventing fires in the first place, including outside of buildings, and that necessary training and equipment will be on hand and the design basis of the building, which includes a basic plan set out by the architect is not compromised. The fire code also addresses inspection and maintenance requirements of various fire protection equipment in order to maintain optimal active fire protection and passive fire protection measures, with the aim of preserving stringent bounding. A typical fire safety code includes administrative sections about the rule-making and enforcement process, and other substantive sections dealing with fire suppression equipment, particular hazards such as containers and transportation for combustible materials, and specific rules for hazardous occupancies, industrial processes, and exhibitions. Each section may lay out the requirements for obtaining permits, and specific precautions required to remain in compliance with a permit. For example, a fireworks exhibition may require an application to be filed by a regionally licensed pyrotechnician, providing the information necessary for the issuing authority to determine whether the safety requirements can be met. Furthermore, once a permit is issued, the same authority (or another delegated authority) may inspect the site and monitor the safety during the exhibition, with the power to halt unapproved operations, or where unforeseen hazards arise. Here is a list of some typical fire and explosion issues to be dealt with in a fire safety code: • • •

fireworks, explosives, mortars and cannons, model rockets (licenses for manufacture, storage, transportation, sale, use) certification for servicing, placement, and inspecing fire extinguishing equipment general storage and handling of flammable liquids, solids, gases (tanks, personnel training, markings, equipment)

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limitations on locations and quantities of flammables (e.g., 10 litres of gasoline inside a residential dwelling) specific uses and specific flammables (e.g., dry cleaning, gasoline distribution, explosive dusts, pesticides, space heaters, plastics manufacturing) permits and limitations in various building occupancies (assembly hall, hospital, school, theatre, elderly care, prisons, warehouses, etc) locations that require a smoke detector, sprinkler system, fire extinguisher, or other specific equipment or procedures removal of interior and exterior obstructions to emergency exits or firefighters and removal of hazardous materials permits and limitations in special outdoor applications (tents, asphalt kettles, bonfires, etc) other hazards (flammable decorations, welding, smoking, bulk matches, tire yards) Electrical safety code Fuel gas fitting code

Fire protection Fire protection is the prevention and reduction of the hazards associated with fires. It involves the study of the behaviour, compartmentalisation, suppression and investigation of fire and its related emergencies as well as the research and development, production, testing and application of mitigating systems. In structures, be they land-based, offshore or even ships, the owners and operators are responsible to maintain their facilities in accordance with a design-basis that is rooted in laws, including the local building code and fire code, which are enforced by the Authority Having Jurisdiction. Buildings must be constructed in accordance with the version of the building code that is in effect when an application for a building permit is made. Building inspectors check on compliance of a building under construction with the building code. Once construction is complete, a building must be maintained in accordance with the current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of a local fire department. In the event of fire emergencies, Firefighters, fire investigators, and other fire prevention personnel called to mitigate, investigate and learn from the damage of a fire. Lessons learned from fires are applied to the authoring of both building codes and fire codes.

Goals Fire protection has three major goals: • •

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Life safety (minimum standard in fire and building codes) Property protection (typically an insurance requirement, or a regulatory requirement where the protection of building components is necessary to enable life safety) Continuity of operations (typically an insurance requirement or an item of selfmotivation for building owners - not a regulatory issue). Interruption of operations due to fire damage can be very costly. For instance, a nuclear reactor may cost .

about one million US dollars per day, if it is not making power that is being sold.

Components Structural fire protection (in land-based buildings, offshore construction or onboard ships) is typically achieved via three means: •

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Passive fire protection (use of integral, fire-resistance rated wall and floor assemblies that are used to form fire compartments intended to limit the spread of fire, or occupancy separations, or firewalls, to keep fires, high temperatures and flue gases within the fire compartment of origin, thus enabling firefighting and evacuation) Active fire protection (manual and automatic detection and suppression of fires , as in finding the fire (Fire alarm) and/or extinguishing it) Education (ensuring that building owners and operators have copies and a working understanding of the applicable building and fire codes, having a purpose-designed fire safety plan and ensuring that building occupants, operators and emergency personnel know the building, its means of Active fire protection and Passive fire protection, its weak spots and strengths to ensure the highest possible level of safety)

Common items to check for to avoid systemic problems If any one of the three components of Fire Protection fail, the fire safety plan can be immediately and severely compromised. For example, if the firestop systems in a structure were inoperable, a significant part of the fire safety plan would not work in the

event of a fire. Since the overall plan depends on all pieces, it is important to see that each item is in fact functional. Likewise, if there were a sprinkler system or an alarm system, but it's down for lack of knowledgeable maintenance, or if building occupants prop open a fire door and then run a carpet through, the likelihood of damage and casualties is markedly increased. It is vital for everyone to realise that fire protection within a structure is a system that relies on all of its components. There are many things that can and often do go wrong prior to and during the construction of a building. What happens afterwards, however, can also be substantially hazardous, to the point of entirely defeating the fire protection plan that was put in place during the design-phase of a building. Common operator errors include, but are not limited to, the following: failure to regularly clean grease ducts in commercial kitchens (usually every 3 - 6 months), re-entering firestops without proper repairs, damaging and removing spray fireproofing from structural steel elements, changing of the use or occupancy of parts of a building. Any changes that affect the overall fire protection plan, however small they may appear to the layman, legally require the owner to either gain the approval of the fire prevention officer at the municipal fire department or to apply for a building permit with the local, municipal building department. The permit fee is intended to cover the time and expenses for the Authority Having Jurisdiction to evaluate the contemplated change against applicable code requirements. Failure to obtain such approvals make the owner vulnerable to charges of negligence and culpability in a court of law.

Questions for inspectors These two questions can be used as a litmus test for a building, offshore construction or ship owner's degree of due diligence: • •

"How many firestops are there in your building/ship, where are they and where do you keep copies of the certification listings that cover each opening?" "Where is your local copy of the current fire code and the construction code(s) that were in effect when you applied for the permit(s)."

The correct responses are the precise number of firestops and a reference to a set of drawings that shows each one with a number and hyperlink or paper reference to the certification listings and the location of the two documents.

The former question tests the owner's knowledge of his or her structure's fire protection and continued compliance with the code by bringing up the example of a common deficiency: the firestopping of existing and new openings in wall and/or floor assemblies required to have a fire-resistance rating. Answers to the latter question expose an owner's ability to keep the fire protection system set up correctly under normal operations and remedial work. The documents are necessary as nobody (including members of an Authority Having Jurisdiction), can be expected to know an entire code by heart. Both fire codes and building codes will refer to one another (to avoid duplication of text). Examples for remedial work are plumbing work (a new toilet for instance, which could cause the need for a dozen new firestops to be made and breaches of fire barriers), electrical work (say a new recepticle in a wall, which necessitates a conduit and cable), new doors, changing the use of a room, etc. These materials need to be known by the operators and staff of the building as any routine, seemingly small act, can defeat the overall fire protection plan, which forms the design basis for the building. For example, the installation of some piece of equipment in the building such as a water pump. Depending on where this is installed, it could be construed as a change in occupancy, which in turn requires a building permit to ensure compliance with regulations. Likewise, added piping or cable to run the equipment might necessitate the breaching of a fire-resistance rated wall or floor, where now a firestop is required, which would also necessitate a building permit. If no application for a building permit is made, the Authority Having Jurisdiction is unaware of the change and if the change is not immediately apparent to a fire prevention officer, nobody is the wiser but the owner is culpable. It is important to remember that even when a fire prevention officer who conducts an inspection does not find anything amiss, this does not mean that the building is in full compliance with the fire code. There is a limit to the amount of searching and disturbing that a fire prevention officer is legally allowed, financed by the municipality, and able to do. For instance, an inspector may only be given one hour to inspect a school, which would not be enough time for an in-depth check. An inspector may be limited to a quick check on fire extinguishers and maintenance records of the sprinkler system. The written OK given after an inspection is only an "OK" for the parts inspected, which may not include things overlooked which severely breach the code. A passed inspection does not absolve a building owner of their responsibility to maintain the entire facility in compliance with the fire code, nor does it give them carte blanche that everything is OK with the Authority Having Jurisdi

Drawing Drawing also refers to a method of producing wire, bars, or tubes. Drawing is the act of defining (or delineating) the outlines of a figure against a background, using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers. Digital tools which simulate the effects of these are also used. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman.

Definitions Drawing is distinct from "painting", in which delineated areas are "filled in" with a color, or pattern. The terms "drawing" and "painting" are often confused, because the same tool can perform both tasks. But the operations are distinct, as the designers of graphics software applications recognized when they distinguished "path" and "fill" tools. These distinctions are often ignored. Hence, the terms have lost clarity.

Subject matter

My mother knitting, 1993, crayon on paper, by Frans Koppelaar

Most drawings are representational, depicting objects or scenes which the artist views, remembers, or imagines. They may be realistic to the point of lifelike resemblance (e.g. traditional portraits), looser approximations of reality (e.g. sketches), highly stylized (e.g. cartoons, caricatures), or abstract (e.g. automatic drawing, entoptic graphomania).

Media The medium is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastel, Conté, silverpoint), or water-based (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencil, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink.

Materials Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade for practice up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sometimes sold as individual sheets. Papers can vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper will hold the drawing material better. Thus a more coarse material is useful for producing deeper contrast. For pen and ink work, typing paper is often used for practice drawings, but heavier paper holds up better. Bristol board makes a hard surface that is especially good for ink or fine detailed graphite drawing. Coldpressed watercolor paper is sometimes favored for ink drawing due to its texture. Tracing vellum is often used for experimenting on top of a pencil drawing, prior to committing a technique to the final page. Various tools are routinely used in the process of drawing. These include a pencil sharpener, sandpaper, kneaded eraser, blending stumps, and chamois. Other tools that sometimes prove useful are tracing paper, a circle compass, ruler, frisket film, fixative, and drafting tape. The use of an easel or slanted table reduces the distorting effects of perspective.

Aspects of the drawing process Applying media

Prior to working on an image, the artist will likely want to gain an understanding of how the various media will work. The different drawing implements can be tried on practice sheets to see what type of pattern they create, and how to apply the implement in order to produce varying tones.

Line drawing in sanguine by Leonardo da Vinci The stroke of the drawing implement can be used to control the appearance of the image. Ink drawings typically use hatching, which consists of groups of parallel lines. Crosshatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, is used to form lighter tones, and by controlling the density of the breaks a graduation of tone can be achieved. Finally stippling, or random placement of dots on a page, can also be used to produce a texture or shade. Sketch drawings use similar techniques, although with pencils and drawing sticks continuous variations in tone can be achieved. For best results the lines in a sketch are typically drawn to follow the contour curves of the surface, thus producing a depth effect. When drawing hair, the lines of the sketch follow the direction of the hair growth.

Typically a drawing will be filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A righthanded artist will want to draw from left to right in order to avoid smearing the image. Sometimes the artist will want to leave a section of the image blank while filling in the remainder of the picture. A frisket can be used for this purpose. The shape of the area to be preserved is cut out of the frisket, and the resulting shape is then applied to the drawing surface. This will protect the surface from receiving any stray marks before it is ready to be filled in. Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This will hold loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevent it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can negatively affect the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.

Tone Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows, and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image. Blending uses an implement to move the drawing material on the paper so as to hide the original drawing strokes. This can only be done when drawing with a material such as graphite or charcoal that is not permanently attached once applied. When shading and blending is needed, the artist can employ a combination of a tortillon blending stump, chamois or soft tissue, and a specialized putty-rubber eraser. The chamois cloth in particular is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. There are a number of methods for producing texture in the picture. In addition to choosing a suitable paper, the type of drawing material and the drawing technique will result in different textures. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is draw next to a contrasting texture. Thus a coarse texture placed next to a smoothly blended area will appear more notable. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones in close proximity. A light edge next to a dark background will stand out to the eye, and almost appear to float above the surface.

In most drawing mediums, but especially in ink, realistic renditions of an object or structure avoid outlining the form and features. Otherwise the image may resemble a paint-by-numbers figure from a coloring book. Instead the shape of the structure is portrayed almost entirely through tones and shading, including contrast with the background.

Layout Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the actual subject. A straight drawing implement held horizontally or vertically can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A proportional divider can be used to scale a photograph up or down. A photograph automatically shows a scene with correct perspective for the location of the camera. It follows that an artist wishing tp paint a picture of the scene with true perspective needs only to draw an accurate copy of the photograph. If his painting is to be of a different size from that of the photograph he must accurately scale it up or down. This may easily be done by using a proportional divider, sometimes called a Variscaler, set to give the scaling ratio which is required to fit the scene on to his painting support. A grid can be used to produce a more accurate portrayal of a photograph. The image is subdivided into equally spaced horizontal and vertical lines. A scaled version of these lines is drawn lightly on the paper, and the outlines of the significant features are copied onto the drawing. A similar approach when using an easel is to mount a small, heavy paper frame through which the artist can view the scene. The image on the paper is then scaled in reference to this frame.

Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the Encyclopédie. When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive shapes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive shapes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.

Perspective

Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. The parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, will follow lines that eventually converge at infinity. Typically this point of convergence will be along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures will all typically converge at a vanishing point.

Two point perspective drawing. When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a "two-point perspective". Converging the vertical lines to a point in the sky then produces a "three-point perspective". Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart will appear slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the amount of contrast of more distant objects, and also by making the colors more pale. This will reproduce the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground.

Artistry The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit. The artist plans the placement of elements in the art in order to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the

focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating. The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features. When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed. A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearance of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a wellcrafted study can be a piece of art onto itself, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.

History People have made drawings since prehistoric times. This art form first gained widespread popularity among European artists during the 1400's, when paper became generally available. Since that time, each century has produced artists who have created great drawings. Masters of drawing in the 1400's and 1500's included Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Michelangelo, and Raphael. During the 1600's, Claude, Nicolas Poussin, Rembrandt, and Peter Paul Rubens created important drawings. In the 1700's, great drawings were produced by Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Francisco Goya, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, and Antoine Watteau. The masters of drawing during the 1800's included Paul Cézanne, Jacques Louis David, Edgar Degas, Theodore Gericault, Jean Ingres, Odilon Redon, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and Vincent Van Gogh. Great drawings in the 1900's have been created by Max Beckmann, Willem De Kooning, Jean Dubuffet, Arshile Gorky, Paul Klee, Oscar Kokoschka, Jules Pascin, Pablo Picasso, and Jackson Pollock.

Interior design Interior design is the process of shaping the experience of interior space, through the manipulation of spatial volume as well as surface treatment. Not to be confused with interior decoration, interior design draws on aspects of environmental psychology, architecture, product design and furniture design in addition to traditional decoration. An interior designer is a person who is considered an expert in the field of interior design or one who designs interiors as part of their job. Interior design is a creative practice that analyzes programmatic information, establishes a conceptual direction, refines the design direction, and produces graphic communication and construction documents. In some jurisdictions, interior designers must be licensed to practice.

The Profession The following definition was decided upon and is endorsed by the Council for Interior Design Accreditation (The Council) (formerly known as FIDER), the National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ) and major interior design associations (IIDA, ASID) of North America. "The professional interior designer is qualified by education, experience, and examination to enhance the function and quality of interior spaces for the purpose of improving the quality of life, increasing productivity, and protecting the health, safety, and welfare of the public. The professional interior designer: • • • • • •

analyzes client's needs, goals, and life safety requirements integrates findings with knowledge of interior design formulates preliminary design concepts that are aesthetic, appropriate, and functional, and in accordance with codes and standards develops and presents final design recommendations through appropriate presentation media must by law, after presentation form, get a certified contractor to do the job, as it is against the law to do the work themselves, unless they are certified. prepares and administers bids and contract documents as the client's agent

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reviews and evaluates design solutions during implementation and upon completion."

There is a distinct difference between interior decorating and interior design. Interior decorating is generally focused on finishes, such as wallpaper, paint, window coverings, and furnishings. Interior design involves manipulating the architectural integrity of the interior space as well as the creation of a lifestyle experience through the study of human behavior.

Specializations There are several different areas that an interior designer may specialize in. These include residential, retail, corporate, hospitality, healthcare, or institutional design. Within each area there can be further niche expertise. This can include restaurants and cafeterias (where food is prepared and served), stores and offices (where the public can enter), medical facilities (where disease control is a concern). In some states and countries, these specializations may require additional certification. Interior designers may possess environmental expertise contributing to sustainable design solutions, and may take an examination to achieve(LEED) professional accreditation. Some residential designers have an expertise in Kitchen and Bath design. The National Kitchen & Bath Association (NKBA) administers certification to these designers.

Styles Essential parts of all design styles are concept, color, proportion, balance, ergonomics, and function of design. Although all styles differentiate their usage of each of these, they are all an integral part of the overall look and feel of a room or space. Designers incorporate the seven elements of design to create and enhance style: form, mass, shape, line, color, texture and pattern.

Building engineering Building engineering: a discipline for the modern era Building engineering, commonly known in the US as architectural engineering, is an emerging engineering discipline that concerns with the planning, design, construction, operation, renovation, and maintenance of buildings, as well as with their impacts on the surrounding environment. As building construction projects are increasingly large and complex, the discipline requires pertinent knowledge integrated from traditional wellestablished disciplines: • • • • • • •

Civil engineering for building structures and foundation; Mechanical engineering for Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning system (HVAC), and for mechanical service systems; Physics for building science, lighting and acoustics. Electrical engineering for power distribution, control, and electrical systems; Chemistry and biology for indoor air quality; Architecture for form, function, building codes and specifications; Economics for project management.

Building engineers are trained in all phases of the life cycle of a building and develop an appreciation of the building as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components. Technical problems are identified and appropriate solutions found to improve the performance of the building in areas such as: • • • • •

Energy efficiency, passive solar engineering, lighting and acoustics; Construction management; HVAC and control systems; Indoor air quality; Advanced building materials; building envelope; Earthquake resistance, wind effects on buildings, computer-aided design.

The building engineer may work as a consulting engineer, design engineer, project manager, construction manager, cost engineer, facility manager, conservation-utility director, HVAC engineer and operation manager, and process engineer, or in research and development among other career possibilities.

Specializations in Building Engineering •

Building Indoor Environment covers the environmental aspects in the design, analysis and operation of energy-efficient, healthy and comfortable buildings. Fields of specialization include: thermal comfort, air quality, lighting, acoustics, HVAC and control systems.

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Building Envelope is an application area which draws from all areas of building engineering, especially building science and indoor environment. It focuses on the analysis and design of building envelopes, including durability, heat and moisture transfer and interaction with the indoor environment.

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Building science focuses on the analysis and control of the physical phenomena affecting the performance of building materials and building enclosure systems.

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Building Structure area concerns with the principles of structural mechanics, material behavior and their applications to the analysis and design of steel, reinforced concrete and timber building structures. Fields of specialization include: wind and seismic effects on buildings.

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Construction Management includes construction techniques, construction processes, planning, scheduling; project tracking and control, labor and industrial relations, and legal issues in construction.

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Computer Aided Engineering is an exciting area in Engineering. Even though computers have become ubiquitous in the architecture-engineering-construction industry, their present use is mostly limited to drafting, analysis, member sizing, cost estimation, and construction management. Computers have tremendous untapped potentials in the field of Building Engineering.

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Energy Efficiency is also an application area which draws from the building science and building environment areas. It includes analysis, design, and control of energy-efficient or low-energy buildings, HVAC systems, solar energy utilization and intelligent buildings.

Education Building engineers would normally have an accredited academic degree with a concentration in building engineering from a recognized university. The completed degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Applied Science depending upon the university. The length of study is between three to four years and the program consists of basics of engineering and sciences (technical drawing, engineering mechanics, mechanics of materials, thermodynamics, mathematics, computer programming, surveying), subjects in building engineering sciences (structural analysis and design, soil mechanics, building engineering systems, the aural and visual environment, building envelope design, building economics, construction management, thermal environment and building service systems). Elective courses towards the end of the program allow students to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Some building engineers may wish to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of Engineering, an Engineer's degree, or a Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering. The Master and Engineer's degree may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to academia.

Foundation (architecture) A foundation is a structure that transmits loads from a building or road to the underlying ground. A footing is a slab element that acts as the foundation, transferring loads from the superstructure to the ground.

The campanille of the Pisa Duomo leans due to a faulty foundation Most foundations extend underground, and the foundations of large buildings often penetrate to the bedrock. One common type of foundation consists of walls that extend below the frost line and transfer the weight to wider footings. Other kinds of foundations include Slab-on-grade foundations, pier and beam foundations and piles. The primary dangers to a foundation are movement and uneven support. Change in ground water table is a common cause of foundation failure. Also flowing water can remove supporting soil from underneath a bridge foundation and freezing water can heave the supporting soil in one direction and then in the other direction when it thaws. Changes in soil moisture can cause 'reactive' clay soil to swell and shrink. This swelling can vary across the footing due to seasonal changes or the effects of vegetation removing moisture. The variation in swell can cause a footing sitting on the reactive foundation soil to distort, cracking the structure over it. This is a particular problem for house footings in semi-arid climates such as South Australia, Southwestern USA, Israel, and South Africa where wet winters are followed by hot dry summers. Raft slabs with inherent stiffness have been developed in Australia with capabilities to resist this movement. When heavy structures are built in arctic areas where the ground is permanently frozen, special refrigeration units must be used to keep the pressure of the structure from melting the supporting soil.

Thin-shell structure

The world's first double curvature lattice steel Shell by V.G.Shukhov (during construction), Vyksa near Nizhny Novgorod, 1897 Thin-shell structures can be defined as curved structures capable of transmitting loads in more than two directions to supports. Loads applied to shell surfaces are carried to the ground by the development of compressive, tensile, and shear stresses acting in the inplane direction of the surface. Thin shell structures are uniquely suited to carrying distributed loads and find wide application as roof structures in building.

Notable Projects

Swiss Re "Gherkin", with a lattice shell by Norman Foster and Ken Shuttleworth, London. • • • • • • •

Eero Saarinen, TWA Flight Center Building of John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York Eero Saarinen, Washington Dulles International Airport Norman Fsoster, Queen Elizabeth II Great Court, British Museum, London Norman Foster and Ken Shuttleworth, Swiss Re "Gherkin", London Millennium Dome, London Jørn Utzon, Sydney Opera House Nagoya Dome, Nagoya, Japan

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Frank Gehry, DG Bank building, Berlin Ville Hara, Lattice lookout tower, Helsinki, Finland Le Corbusier, Iannis Xenakis, «Poème électronique» Philips Pavilion, Brussels Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin

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Kresge Auditorium, Cambridge Ingalls Rink, Yale University Denver International Airport, Denver Lambert-St. Louis International Airport, St. Louis Gyo Obata, the McDonnell Planetarium in St. Louis Georgia Dome, Atlanta

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Dorton Arena, Raleigh

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Imperial War Museum, Duxford Centre Pierre Charbonneau, Montreal Hyperbolic roof Olympic Stadium, Munich, Munich Hyperbolic paraboloid roof Pengrowth Saddledome, Calgary Aquatoll lattice thin-shell Dos Hermanas Velodrome Roof Berlin Central Station Dortmund Opera House Kingdome, Seattle L'Oceanogràfic, Valencia Payson Multipurpose Center, Payson, Arizona Planetarium, Carl-Zeiss-Promenade, Jena, Germany Putrajaya Convention Center, Malaysia

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Swiss Air Force Museum, Zurich, Swiss Weald and Downland Museum, Chichester, England Vela - Milan Trade Fair, Milan, Italy

Megaproject A megaproject is a very large investment project. Altshuler and Luberoff (2003) define megaprojects as "initiatives that are physical, very expensive, and public." On his website on megaprojects, Bent Flyvbjerg defines megaprojects as typically costing in excess of US$1 billion and attracting high levels of public attention because of substantial impacts on communities, environment, and budgets.

Megaprojects include bridges, tunnels, motorways, railways, airports, seaports, power plants, dams, water projects, oil and gas extraction projects, public buildings, information technology systems, aerospace projects, and weapons systems.

Examples Some examples of megaprojects are: • • • • • • • • • • • •

Bay Area Rapid Transit System, San Francisco Bay Area, California, USA Big Dig, Boston, Massachusetts, USA Channel tunnel between France and the UK Denver International Airport, Denver, Colorado, USA. East Bay Municipal Utility District wet weather overflow project, Oakland, California, USA Hacienda Business Park, Pleasanton, California, USA Jacob K. Javits Convention Center, New York City, USA KH-11 reconnaissance satellite Panama Canal Expansion Proposal, Panama San Diego-Tijuana wastewater treatment plant, USA-Mexico Suvarnabhumi Airport, Thailand Three Gorges Dam, China

Construction worker Construction workers are employed in the construction industry and work predominately on construction sites as opposed to being office based and are typically engaged in aspects of the industry other than design or finance. The term includes general construction workers, also referred to as labourers and members of specialist trades such as electricians, carpenters and plumbers.

Construction trades •

Bricklayer, a tradesman who lays bricks to construct brickwork. The term also refers to personnel who use blocks to construct blockwork walls and other forms of masonry.

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Carpenter, a skilled craftsman who performs carpentry -- a wide range of woodworking that includes constructing buildings, furniture, and other objects out of wood. The work generally involves significant manual labor and work outdoors, particularly in rough carpentry.

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Concrete finisher, a tradesman who works with concrete, which includes placing, finishing, protecting and repairing concrete in construction projects.

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A heavy equipment operator drives and operates engineering vehicles used in engineering and construction projects.

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Electrician, a tradesman specializing in electrical wiring of buildings and related equipment. Electricians may be employed in the construction of new buildings or maintenance of existing electrical infrastructure.

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Painter and decorator, a tradesman responsible for the painting and decorating of buildings, and is also known as a decorator or house painter.

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Plasterer, a tradesman who works with plaster, such as forming a layer of plaster on an interior wall or plaster decorative moldings on ceilings or walls.

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Plumber, a tradesman who specialises in installing and maintaining systems used for plumbing, heating, drainage, potable (drinking) water or industrial process plant piping.

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Steel fixer, a tradesman who positions and secures reinforcing bars and mesh used to reinforce concrete on construction projects.

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Steel erector, a tradesman who installs structural steel frames of building and engineering projects. The components would usually have been prefabricated, including all welded joints. Structural steel installation is usually crane assisted and utilizes mobile elevated work platforms or scissor lifts as the structure progresses. The work is executed in team using powered and hand tools to bolt the steelwork together.

Training

Construction workers placing rebar and fixing formwork at sewage pump station near Sacramento There are several routes to the different careers within the construction industry. Craft industries offer jobs where employees train while they work through apprenticeships and other training schemes. Tradesmen in countries such as Germany are required to fulfill a formal apprenticeship (usually three years) to work professionally in a trade such as carpentry. Upon graduation from the apprenticeship, he or she is known as a journeyman. Up through the 19th and even the early 20th century, the journeyman traveled to another region of the country to

learn the building styles and techniques of that area before (usually) returning home. In modern times, journeymen are not required to travel, and the term refers more to a level of proficiency and skill. In the U.S. union recognized trades have organized skills tests for official journeyman status, but uncertified tradesmen may be called journeymen based on their skill level, years of experience, or simply because they support themselves in the trade, and not due to any certification or formal education. After working as a journeyman for a specified period, a tradesman may go on to study or test as a master craftsman. In some countries, such as Germany or Japan, this is a process requiring extensive knowledge and skill to achieve master certification. In others, it can be a loosely used term to describe a skilled carpenter. In the U.K. prospective some tradesmen will learn the profession through apprenticeships or a traineeship that will last 3 to 4 years. There are City and Guilds courses available that combine college based theory training with practical learning. Graduate roles in the construction industry are filled by people with at least a foundation degree in subjects such as civil engineering, building and construction management. Graduates often receive specialised positions and gain qualifications such as chartered status.

Construction site safety Construction site safety

A construction worker with column reinforcement steel. Hazards to construction workers The construction industry is the most dangerous land based civilian work sector (the fishing industry is more dangerous). In the European Union, the fatal accident rate is nearly 13 workers per 100,000 as against 5 per 100,000 for the all sector average (Source: Eurostat). The problem is not that the hazards and risks are unknown, it is that they are very difficult to control in a constantly changing work environment. The two biggest safety hazards on site are falls from height and vehicles, but there are many more (electricity and being buried while working in excavations being two more examples). Some of the main health hazards on site are asbestos, solvents, noise, and manual handling activities. Applicable laws Under European Union Law, there are European Union Directives in place to protect workers, notably Directive 89/391 (the Framework Directive) and Directive 92/57 (the Temporary and Mobile Sites Directive). This legislation is transposed into the Member States and places requirements on employers (and others) to assess and protect workers health and safety.

In the U.S. the Occupational Safety & Health Administration OSHA sets and enforces standards concerning workplace safety and health. Also the U.N. has the Safety and Health in Construction Convention, 1988. Personal Protective Equipment Personal protective equipment Construction workers are usually associated with wearing a hard hat, this along with steel-toe boots are the most common personal protective equipment worn. The standard use of high visibility jackets is also widespread. Additional personal protective equipment is required on the basis of a risk assessment, for example when dealing with situations involving hazardous substances, protective gloves and googles would be specified.

Construction worker donning a high-visibility fluorescent vest.

Architectural engineering An architectural engineer applies the skills of many engineering disciplines to the design, construction, operation, maintenance, and renovation of buildings while paying attention to their impacts on the surrounding environment. In countries such as Canada, the UK and Australia, architectural engineering is more commonly known as Building engineering, building systems engineering, or building services engineering. In some languages, such as Korean, "architect" is literally translated as "architectural engineer". With the establishment of a separate NCEES Professional Engineering registration examination in the 1990s, architectural engineering is now recognized as a distinct engineering discipline in the United States. But many practicing 'architectural engineers' hold degrees or registration in civil, mechanical, electrical, or another engineering field and become architectural engineers via experience. The number of architectural engineering degree programs is increasing, but demand far exceeds the availability in the U.S., especially on the East and West Coasts. Note that 'architectural engineering technology' is different from architectural engineering.

Difference from component disciplines What differentiates architectural engineering (abbreviated AE, ARE, AREN, or ARCE, for example) from its component disciplines is the effort to understand architecture, and to integrate of all the building systems and components. Civil engineers, for instance, can and do design the structural systems for buildings. However, the architectural engineer, with a specialization in structures, may better understand the goals of the architect as he or she designs the structural systems. The architectural engineer attempts to integrate a building's HVAC, plumbing, fire protection, electrical, lighting, transportation, and structural systems with the architectural design.

Difference from architecture A common confusion is the distinction between architecture and architectural engineering. In essence, architectural engineering is the engineering discipline for the analysis, design, and construction of building systems. Architects are directly responsible for the form and appearance of a building, including the way in which people use and experience the spaces of the building. Architects traditionally act as the leader of the

design team, and are thus known as the 'prime professional'. They coordinate the efforts of the various engineering and other design consultants for building projects. Before about 1975, architectural engineering graduates in the U.S. typically went to work as 'technical architects'. Since that time architectural engineering defined itself as consulting engineers for buildings. Architectural engineers thus concentrate on ensuring that "the buildings work", e.g., that they stand up, that the HVAC systems operate well, and that light and electrical power are delivered safely and as needed. By the 1950's, there were approximately 60 architectural engineering degree programs in the U.S. However, as architecture split from engineering -- most architecture programs were in engineering schools -- many architectural engineering programs lost institutional support. But from a low of eight programs in the early 1980's, and with the redefinition of the discipline as 'engineers for building systems', architectural engineering education is experiencing significant growth. Demand for admission to the programs, and quality of applicants, is very high. The academic honor society for architectural engineering is Phi Alpha Epsilon.

The Architectural Engineer Architectural engineers' roles can overlap with that of the architect and other project engineers. Like architects, they seek to achieve optimal designs within the overall constraints, except using primarily the tools of engineering rather than architecture. In most parts of the world, architectural engineers are not entitled to practice architecture unless they are also licensed as architects. In some juristictions, registered professional architectural engineers are limited, by virtue of the exams taken, to practicing one or more of the component areas of engineering practice such as mechanical (HVAC/plumbing/etc.), electrical, or structural. In recent years there has been increasing emphasis on sustainable and green design, including in engineered building systems. Architectural engineers increasingly seek LEED ((R) USGBC) Accredited Professional (LAP) status in addition to their Professional Engineering registration.

Some Potential Career Titles

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Consulting Engineer/Design Engineer/Designer. An Engineer, usually a Professional Engineer, or if early in his or her career, an Engineer-in-Training that designs and specifies building systems, analyses problems, or optimizes conditions, for example. Typically employed by, or owner of, a consulting engineering firm, but also commonly in an A/E (architectural and engineering services) firm.

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Plant/Facilities Engineer. The owner's management liaison person interacting with architects, contractors, and engineers in the design and construction of remodeling, additions, and new facilities. Manages and develops such programs within the plant as energy conservation, preventative maintenance, and retrofits.

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Sales/Applications Engineer. Provides technical advice and application of their representative products to the building industry's architects, engineers, and constructors.

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Construction Project Manager. Manages the construction of a building project. Responsibilities include the scheduling of labor trades, material, and equipment for the most economical and expeditious construction of buildings.

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Construction Estimator. The estimator is responsible for the takeoff material, type of labor, and equipment, and calculating the cost for the construction project plus preparing the necessary documents for the estimate.

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Structural Engineer. Analyzes, calculates, and selects systems and components for various structures. Graduates are employed within the building industry, but also in other structural areas.

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Electrical Systems Engineer. Designs and specifies electrical power, lighting, and communication systems for buildings. Employed in an electrical consulting design office or in electrical design-construction offices. Other responsibilities may be preparing specifications and cost estimates.

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Electrical Utility Engineer. Coordinates new building construction with building owners, design engineers, and contractors, and educates customers on conservation and cost saving opportunities while optimizing the loads on the utility.

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Building Inspector. Employed by a public agency. Responsible for the public interest to inspect building projects for code compliance.

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Fire Safety/Protection Engineer. Designs various types of fire protection systems within the building. Systems include sprinkler, chemical suppression, smoke control, and detection devices.

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Heating, Ventilating, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) Engineer. Designs the HVAC systems and prepares the specifications.

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Plumbing Engineer. Designs the potable water, process fluids, and wastewater systems for the buildings.

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Professor/Researcher. Teaches and performs research and service. Typically requires completion of a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in engineering degree.

Major specializations • • • • • • • • • • • •

Architecture Structural engineering Construction engineering Project management Green building Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) Plumbing and piping (hydronics) Fire protection engineering Acoustics, noise & vibration control Building power systems Lighting Building transportation systems

Subjects of interest • • • •

Building construction Energy efficiency, Energy conservation, or Energy demand management Renewable energy Solar energy

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Green buildings Intelligent buildings Autonomous buildings Indoor air quality

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Thermal comfort

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Typical coursework in bachelor degree programs Curricula vary considerably between universities, but the following are often present in ABET-accredited four- or five-year B.S. in architectural engineering degree programs in the U.S.: • • • • • • • • •

An introduction to architectural engineering Two courses in English Five courses in mathematics (calculus, differential equations, linear algebra, probability) Two courses in physics One course in chemistry One course in science (e.g., geology, environment, biology) Several courses in humanities/social sciences (e.g., architectural history, sociology) Two courses in architectural design Two courses in building materials and construction

Engineering science courses in: • • • • • • • • • •

Statics and dynamics Strength of materials Structural analysis Basic circuits Thermodynamics Fluid mechanics Heat transfer Engineering economics Computer programming Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD)

Engineering design courses in: • • • • • • •

Structures (e.g., steel, concrete, or wood design) Construction Power and lighting systems Plumbing and piping systems Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems Senior design project electives

Educational institutions offering bachelor's degrees in architectural engineering Institutions offering similar degrees not titled 'architectural engineering' can be found toward the end of the Building engineering article. In the United States: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Opisbo, CA Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS Milwaukee School of Engineering, Milwaukee, WI North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK Penn State University, State College, PA Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN Texas A&M University, Kingsville, TX University of Colorado at Boulder, Boulder, CO University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS University of Miami, Miami, FL University of Missouri at Rolla, Rolla, MO University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY

In Other Countries: • •

Cardiff University, Wales, UK King Fahd University, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

High School Preparation For enhanced success in an architectural engineering bachelor's degree program, at an institution with English instruction, completing at least the follow courses are recommended during a student's high school years: • •

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One English course each semester Mathematics each semester o Including geometry, algebra I and II, trigonometry, pre-calculus, and if possible, calculus. o Plan on completing calculus as well in college. At least one science course per semester, including physics and chemistry Typing or wordprocessing An art class that is all or part hand-sketching skills An introduction to drafting/CADD course, if available If available, mechanical, woodworking, and construction courses are also helpful

Natural building Natural building involves a range of building systems and materials that place major emphasis on sustainability. Ways of achieving sustainability through natural building focus on durability and the use of minimally-processed, plentiful or renewable natural materials, as well as those which, while recycled or salvaged, produce healthy living environments and maintain indoor air quality. "Natural building" is a general term, interpreted slightly differently by each of its typically self-directed practitioners. The basis of natural building is the need to lessen the environmental impacts of housing and other buildings, while promoting comfortable, healthy, aesthetically pleasing and spiritually uplifting structures. To be more sustainable, natural building uses primarily abundantly-available, renewable, reused or recycled materials. The use of rapidly renewable materials is increasingly a focus. An emphasis on building compactly and minimizing eco-footprint is common, as are on-site handling of energy acquisition, onsite water capture, alternate sewage treatment and water reuse.

Porch of a modern timber framed home

Materials The materials common to many types of natural building are clay and sand. When mixed with water and, usually, straw or another fiber, the mixture may form cob or adobe (clay blocks). Other materials commonly used in natural building are: earth (as rammed earth or earth bags), wood (cordwood or timber frame/post-and-beam), straw bales, rice-hulls, bamboo and rock. A wide variety of reused or recycled materials are common in natural

building, including urbanite (salvaged chunks of used concrete), tires, tirebales, discarded bottles and other recycled glass. Several other materials are increasingly avoided by many practitioners of this building approach, due to their major negative environmental or health impacts. These include unsustainably-harvested wood, toxic wood-preservatives, portland cement-based mixes, paints and other coatings which off-gas volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and some plastics, particularly polyvinyl chloride (PVC or "vinyl") and those containing harmful plasticizers or hormone-mimicking formulations.

Techniques Several of the major types of currently-popular natural building will be outlined below, along with the various techniques and materials commonly used. Many of these are traditional pre-industrial methods, techniques, and materials, now experiencing a resurgence of popularity and continuing up-dating, often stimulated by internet specialty discussion lists.

Adobe Adobe One of the oldest building methods, adobe is simply clay and sand mixed with water. Sometimes chopped straw or other fibers are added for strength. The mixture is then allowed to dry in the desired shape. Usually adobe is shaped into bricks that can be stacked to form walls. Various claims are made about the optimal proportions of clay and sand (or larger aggregate). Some say that the best adobe soil contains 15% - 30% clay to bind the material together. Others say equal proportions of clay and sand are best to prevent cracking or fragmenting of the bricks. Sometimes adobe is stabilized with a small amount of cement or asphalt emulsion to provide better weatherproofing. The blocks can either be poured into molds and dried, or pressed into blocks. Adobe colored with clay and polished with natural oil makes an attractive and resilient floor.

To protect the walls and reduce maintenance, adobe buildings usually have large overhanging eaves and sizeable foundations. Adobe can be plastered over with cob or lime-based mixes for both appearance and protection. Adobe has good thermal mass, meaning that it is slow to transmit heat or cold. It is not a good insulator, however, so insulation can be added (preferably on the outside), or a double wall built with airspace or insulation in between. The traditional thick, un-insulated adobe has proven to perform best in regions without harsh winters or where daily sun is predictably available during those cold periods.

Cob Cob (building)

Inside of a modern cob house. The term cob is used for a monolithic building system based on a mixture of clay, sand and straw, that uses no forms, bricks or wooden framework. Cob building was in use in England prior to the 13th century, spread to other countries with the world-wide dispersal of English colonists, fell out of favor after World War II, but is seeing a resurgence today. Similar forms of "mud" building have been used in many parts of the world for centuries, under a variety of names, and date from at least 10,000 years ago. Cob is one of the simplest and least expensive building techniques available, though typically very labor-intensive. Its other great advantage is its versatility. It can easily be shaped into any form. While cob building was falling out of favor in England by the late 19th century, thousands of cob structures have endured to the present (20,000 in Devon, alone). It is estimated that from one third to one half of the world's population lives in earthen dwellings today. Although typically associated with "low-rise" structures, in Yemen and

other Middle-Eastern countries, it has, for centuries, been used in "apartment" buildings of eight stories and more! Cob-like mixes are also used as plaster or filler in several methods of natural building using other materials, such as earth bags, timber frame, cordwood, and straw bales. Earth is thus a primary ingredient of natural building.

Earth bag Earthbag construction Earth is the most typical fill material used in bag-wall construction techniques. This building method utilizes stacked polypropylene or natural-fiber (burlap) bags filled with earth or other mixes, with or without a stabilizer such as portland cement, to form footings, foundations, walls and even valted or domed roofs. In recent years, building with earth bags has become one of the increasingly-practiced techniques in natural building. It facilitates self-contained, often free-form rammed-earth structures. Its growing popularity relates to its use of an abundant and readily available often siteavailable material (earth) in a potentially inexpensive building technique that is flexible, and easy to learn and use. However, because earth is a poor insulator, in more extreme climates other filler variations are now being explored, substituting pumice, rice-hulls or another material with better insulative value for all or part of the earth (see also Rice-hull bagwall construction)

Rammed Earth Rammed earth Rammed Earth is an earth based wall system made of compacted gravel, sand, and clay; that is extremely strong and durable. Quality rammed earth walls are dense, solid, and stone-like with great environmental benefits and superior low maintenance characteristics. As an option depending on climate or seismic concerns rigid insulation can be placed inside the wall as well as steel reinforcement. A truly beautiful material with a spectrum of color choices and textures the walls evoke feelings of security and

strength . Used for around 10,000 years in all types of buildings from low rise to highrise and from small huts to palaces rammed earth has a proven track record. Rammed earth walls are formed in place by pounding damp sub-soil(gravel, sand, and clay) into movable, reusable forms with manual or machine-powered tampers. A mixture of around 70% aggregate (gravel,sand) and 30% clay is optimal. Cement may be added if the mix requires it or pigmentation to achieve the desired color. Around 5-10 inches of mixed damp sub-soil are placed inside the forms and pounded to total compaction and the proces is repeated untill the desired height is achieved. What is left after the forms are removed is a beautiful environmental wall that is structural and can last over 1000 years.

Straw bale Straw bale construction

Straw bale construction in Santa Cruz, CA Although grasses and straw have been in use in a range of ways in building since prehistory around the world, their incorporation in machine-manufactured modular bales seems to date back to the early 20th century in the midwestern United States, particularly the sand-hills of Nebraska, where grass was plentiful and other building materials (even quality sods) were not. Straw bale building typically consists of stacking a series of rows of bales (often in running-bond) on a raised footing or foundation, with a moisture barrier between. Bale walls are often tied together with pins of bamboo, rebar, or wood (internal to the bales or on their faces), or with surface wire meshes, and then stuccoed or plastered, either with cementaceous mixes, lime-based formulations or earth/clay renders. Bale buildings can either have a strucural frame of other materials, with bales between (simply serving as insulation and stucco substrate), referred to as "infill",or the bales may

actually provide the support for openings and roof, referred to as "load-bearing" or "Nebraska-style", or a combination of framing and load-bearing may be employed, referred to a "hybrid" straw bale. Typically, bales created on farms with mobile machinery have been used ("field-bales"), but recently higher-density "recompressed" bales (or "straw-blocks") are increasing the loads that may be supported; where field bales might support around 600 pounds per linear foot of wall, the high density bales bear up to 4,000 lb./lin.ft. and more. And the basic bale-building method is now increasingly being extended to bound modules of other often-recycled materials, including tire-bales, as well as those of cardboard, paper, plastics and used carpeting, and to bag-contained "bales" of wood-chips, rice-hulls, etc.

Timber frame Timber frame

The completed frame of a modern timber frame home The essential elements of timber frame building—joined timbers, clay walls and thatch roofs were in place in Europe and Asia by the 9th century. It remained the common mode of house construction in northern cultures until the 19th century. Craftsmanship was, and is, an important value in timber frame building. The oldest timber frame structures (for example, the timber framed stave churches of Scandinavia) show both craftsmanship and a strong grasp of the technical aspects of structural design, as do such structures in Japan. Timber framing typically uses a "bent." A bent is a structural support, like a truss, consisting of two posts, a tie beam and two rafters. These are connected into a framework through joinery. To practice the craft, one must understand the basic structural aspects of the bent. This, along with a knowledge of joinery, are the basis of timber frame building.

Related ideas and strategies Other concepts, methods and strategies often (or sometimes) associated with natural building include: building "underground," earth sheltering, or berming, "green" or "living" planted roofs, thatched roofs and cement-free earthen floors, rubble-trench, or gabion foundations. To increase sustainability, various approaches to lower energy consumption are used in conjunction with natural building: on-site electric power generation by photovoltaics (PV), micro-hydro or wind generators (either with fully-independent systems referred to as "off-grid" or with "grid-tied" systems feeding into the public electric network), lowvoltage electric and avoidance of electro-magnetic and other possibly-harmful forms of radiation, "short-cycle" and "annualized" passive (and PV-assisted) solar space and water heating, biologic air purification by indoor plants, passive or air-to-air/heat-recovery ventilaton, solar or annualized cooling, insulated glazing and selective glazing films, night and cold-weather "movable" insulation, sun-shading. Other green building strategies that improve conservation of resources include: rain-water catchment, storage and purification; waste-water separation; biological waste-water purification and grey-water reuse; composting toilets, on-site snow/rain-water run-off management; permeable paving; native or low-water-use ("xeriscape") landscapes, and accommodation of alternative-fueled/powered and human-powered vehicles.