Circumpolar Health Atlas 9781442660908

Table of contents :
Table of Contents
Foreword
Preface
Part One: The Circumpolar World
1. Introduction
2. Lands and Seas
3. Changing Climate
4. Plants and Animals
Part Two: Circumpolar Peoples
5. Cultures and Languages
6. Origins and Prehistory
7. History and Politics
8. Population and Settlements
9. Society and Economy
Part Three: Health Status
10. General Health
11. Children and Youth
12. Reproductive Health
13. Infectious Diseases
14. Cancer
15. Cardiovascular Diseases
16. Diabetes and Obesity
17. Injuries and Violence
18. Mental Health
Part Four: Health Determinants
19. Genetic Susceptibility
20. Cold and Dark
21. Living Conditions
22. Environmental Quality
23. Nutrition and Physical Activity
24. Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Use
Part Five: Health Systems
25. Governance and Organization
26. Financing and Expenditures
27. Programs and Services
28. Education and Research
Appendices
Bibliography
Credits

Citation preview

Circumpolar Health Atlas This is an atlas about the health of the diverse populations who inhabit the circumpolar regions in the northern hemisphere. It uses maps, charts, tables, and images to describe and explain visually the major health patterns and related issues. It is intended to provide health researchers, service providers, and policy makers working in the North and for the North with a broad and multidisciplinary understanding of northern conditions to put health into its proper context. The atlas is in five Parts. Part One provides a general overview of the physical features of the lands and seas, climate patterns, and the flora and fauna, all of which influence human settlement and development, and thus the people’s health. Part Two focuses on the diverse cultures and languages of the peoples, their origins and genetic relationships, archaeological evidence of their early settlements and migrations, more recent historical and political development, population trends, the towns and villages they inhabit, and the social and economic conditions under which they live. Part Three is about health conditions, with specific focus on the health of children and youth; reproductive health; infectious diseases; chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and obesity; injuries and violence; and mental health. Part Four covers different types of health determinants, their distribution and how they may be causally associated with specific health conditions: genetic susceptibility; the cold and dark environment; living conditions; diet, nutrition and physical activity; and smoking, alcohol and substance use. Part Five describes health systems and their policies, resources, and services. It concludes with education and research, which are potential strategies for improving health.

T. Kue Young is professor and TransCanada Chair at the Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto Rajiv Rawat is the director of communications and technology at the Institute for Circumpolar Health Research, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories Winfried Dallmann is a research scientist at the Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø, Norway Susan Chatwood is the scientific and executive director of the Institute for Circumpolar Health Research, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories and assistant professor in the Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto Peter Bjerregaard is professor of Arctic medicine at the National Institute of Public Health and University of Southern Denmark, Copenhagen and Department of Health, Government of Greenland, Nuuk, Greenland

This page intentionally left blank

Circumpolar Health Atlas SENIOR EDITOR T. Kue Young Associate Editors Rajiv Rawat Winfried Dallmann Susan Chatwood Peter Bjerregaard

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS Toronto Buffalo London

© University of Toronto Press 2012 Toronto Buffalo London www.utppublishing.com Printed in the U.S.A. ISBN 978-1-4426-4456-4 ∞ Printed on acid-free paper

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Circumpolar health atlas / senior editor, T. Kue Young ; associate editors, Rajiv Rawat, ... [et al.]. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4426-4456-4 1. Public health--Arctic regions--Maps. 2. Medical geography--Arctic regions--Maps. 3. Medical care--Arctic regions--Maps. 4. Arctic regions--Population--Maps. 5. Physical geography--Arctic regions--Maps. 6. Atlases-- I. Young, T. Kue II. Rawat, Rajiv RC957.3.C57 2012

614.4’21130223

C2011-906789-7

University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council.

University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Canada Book Fund for its publishing activities.

Table of Contents

Foreword

vii



Preface

ix

P a r t O n e : T h e C i r c u m po l a r W o r l d 1. Introduction

2

2. Lands and Seas

7

3. Changing Climate

16

4. Plants and Animals

21

P a r t T wo : C i r c u m po l a r P e op l e s 5. Cultures and Languages

34

6. Origins and Prehistory

46

7. History and Politics

51

8. Population and Settlements

64

9. Society and Economy

74

Part Three: Health Status 10. General Health

86

11. Children and Youth

89

12. Reproductive Health

93

13. Infectious Diseases

96

vi

14. Cancer

101

15. Cardiovascular Diseases

104

16. Diabetes and Obesity

107

17. Injuries and Violence

111

18. Mental Health and Suicide

116

Par t Four: Health Determinants 19. Genetic Susceptibility

122

20. Cold and Dark

126

21. Living Conditions

130

22. Environmental Quality

136

23. Nutrition and Physical Activity

142

24. Smoking, Alcohol, and Substance Use

148

Part Five: Health Systems 25. Governance and Organization

154

26. Financing and Expenditures

158

27. Programs and Services

161

28. Education and Research

166

A pp e n d i c e s

Bibliography

170



Credits

173

Foreword

T

he Nuuk Declaration on Arctic Health signed in February 2011 by representatives of the Member States of the Arctic Council emphasizes the need for increased circumpolar sharing of knowledge to address common health challenges and strengthened collaboration in health monitoring. The Circumpolar Health Atlas is a concrete realization of this commitment. It lays the foundation for circumpolar cooperation as it illustrates the similarities and differences among the circumpolar countries and regions. It is a valuable tool for health planners and decision makers across the Arctic and will help us identify best practices and solutions to common problems. It is also a beautifully made book and an enjoyable introduction to the Arctic, its nature and peoples, and not the least its human health issues. I congratulate the editors for their vision and recommend the Atlas to readers all over the Arctic, and indeed the rest of the world.

Agathe Fontain Peqqissutsimut Naalakkersuisoq Minister of Health Government of Greenland

This page intentionally left blank

Preface

T

he seed for this atlas was planted when my long-term colleague Peter Bjerregaard and I were editing the book Health Transitions in Arctic Populations (also published by the University of Toronto Press) as a contribution to the International Polar Year.

We included ten coloured maps in the centre of the book which we considered essential as geographical guide posts in following the text. While many graphs and tables were sprinkled throughout the book, there was not a single photograph used as an illustration. Health Transitions in Arctic Populations was fine as a data-studded academic treatise, but it lacked appeal for the general public. A different kind of book on circumpolar health was needed. The Circumpolar Health Atlas uses maps, charts, tables, and images to describe and explain the many issues of circumpolar health to the general reader. Even health workers who are already familiar with, or have worked in one or more of the northern regions, will find much new information in these pages, as will health workers who have not yet travelled there and those who are in contact with their circumpolar colleagues. For the complete stranger to the North, this book could be an informative guide to the many aspects in the Arctic that have a direct and indirect influence on human health, such as geography, history, economics, archaeology, anthropology, and biology. For individuals already working somewhere in one of the northern regions – including health care professionals, policymakers, administrators, researchers and teachers, whether in government agencies or non-governmental organizations – there is much that will be of interest. In collecting visual materials for this atlas, we tried to achieve a balance among geographical regions and different topics. Personal preferences certainly came into play, and we may not have satisfied all our readers in our ultimate choices. We accessed multiple sources, from NASA to historical archives. Along with many of our friends, relatives, and colleagues, we contributed photographs from our extensive personal collections. We also have bought the rights to some spectacular images from professional photographers. As the many pages of credits and documentation attest, no stone was left unturned in our search to find the “perfect” illustration for a particular idea and issue.

Much of the text is based on the original chapters in Health Transitions in Arctic Populations, rewritten, considerably shortened, and updated. We thank the original contributors for the underlying research. The amount of text has been kept to a minimum, and we have not intended to undertake a comprehensive literature review. There are no citations within the text, a deliberate decision taken to make this atlas appealing to the non-academic reader. However, a list of the works consulted in the preparation of the atlas and the sources for specific data cited are provided. For those who wish to pursue a specific topic in depth, please refer to the comprehensive bibliography in Health Transitions in Arctic Populations. Our team of editors worked hard, admittedly in fits and starts. Rajiv Rawat is the artist among us whose talents are evident in the graphic design and layout of the atlas. Winfried Dallmann drew and redrew most of the maps. Susan Chatwood and Peter Bjerregaard contributed to the conceptualization, writing, and editing of this project. Beth McAuley and her assistant Nina Hoeschele were meticulous in copyediting the text and captions. We are indebted to acquisitions editor Daniel Quinlan at the University of Toronto Press for taking an interest in our proposal and shepherding it through the approval and production process. Production manager Ani Deyirmenjian provided invaluable advice on the technical aspects of the layout and artwork. The production of this atlas benefitted from financial support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research through the award of the five-year team grant in circumpolar health research (CTP-79853) to Kue Young. In addition to supporting the operation of a series of research projects, its knowledge dissemination component permits works such as this atlas to be researched and produced. For the editors, The Circumpolar Health Atlas has been a labour of love, and we hope that we have created not just a scientific book, but also a work of art! Kue Young Senior Editor

This page intentionally left blank

Part One The Circumpolar World Land of the midnight sun – North of the Arctic Circle, the sun never sets below the horizon in the summer for 24 continuous hours at least one day a year. On the Arctic Circle itself, this day falls on the summer solstice [June 21]. Conversely, the sun never rises above the horizon on the winter solstice [Dec 21], and further north, there is continuous darkness for 24 hours at least a day a year. In reality, the midnight sun can be seen south of the Arctic Circle due to atmospheric refraction. The Arctic Circle itself is not fixed, as it moves with changes to the Earth’s axial tilt, and is currently drifting northwards by about 15 metres per year. [Accent Alaska]

2

1. Introduction Organization The atlas is organized in five Parts: Part One provides a general overview of the geography of the Arctic – the physical features of the lands and seas, climate patterns, and its flora and fauna, all of which influence human settlement and development, and thus the people’s health.

Fig. 1.1 – Aurora borealis in the night sky Named after the Roman goddess of the dawn, the aurora borealis (also called northern lights or polar lights) is visible in many parts of the Northern Hemisphere. It is a diffuse, coloured light caused by ions from the solar wind originating in the Sun colliding with oxygen and nitrogen atoms in the ionosphere (the upper atmosphere, above 100 km). The colours (green, red, or blue) depend on the altitude where collision occurs and the type of atoms involved. [J.Strang/USAF]

T

his is an atlas about the health of the diverse populations who inhabit the circumpolar regions in the northern hemisphere. As an atlas, it uses maps, charts, tables, and images to describe and explain visually the major health patterns and related issues. As the editors, we would like to make it clear to the readers that we define and conceptualize “health” very broadly, and it is also our conviction that health researchers, service providers, and policymakers working in the North and for the North need a broad and multidisciplinary understanding of northern conditions to put health into its proper context.

Part Two focuses on the human dimension – the diverse cultures and languages of the peoples, their origins and genetic relationships, archaeological evidence of their early settlements and migrations, more recent historical and political development, population trends, the towns and villages they inhabit, and the social and economic conditions under which they live. Part Three looks at diseases or health outcomes. After reviewing the overall health status indicators, the focus is specifically directed on the health of children and youth, reproductive health, infectious diseases, chronic diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and obesity, injuries and violence, and mental health. Part Four covers different types of health determinants, their distribution, and how they may be causally associated with specific diseases and health conditions. Included in the discussion are genetic susceptibility, the cold and dark environment, living conditions, diet, nutrition and physical activity, and smoking, alcohol and substance use.

Fig. 1.2 – Finding north in the night sky From the Great and Little Dipper one can locate Polaris, the North Star, with the naked eye. The Hubble Telescope reveals that Polaris is a triple star system, composed of Polaris A, Ab, and B. [NASA]

Part Five describes health systems – what policies are in place, how many resources are available, and how services are organized and delivered. It concludes with education and research, both as a component of the health system, and also as potential strategies for improving health.

Defining Circumpolar In this atlas, we use the terms circumpolar and Arctic interchangeably. Table 1.1 provides a glossary of various “northern” terms. We are interested in the vast geographical region which stretches across the “top” of the world. Its precise borders, however, are difficult to define. The Arctic Circle, at 66º34’N, is an imaginary line on the map, serving as a marker of solar radiation, encircling the “land of the midnight sun” (Figs. 1.1, 1.2). Geographers have used a

3 Table 1.1 – A glossary of “northern” terms Arctic

From the Greek arktos, for bear, referring to the constellation Ursa Major. The North Star or Polaris, in Ursa Minor, is directly above the North Pole.

Polar

It means “of the pole,” but which pole? The Geographic Poles are at the ends of the Earth’s axis of rotation, joined by an imaginary line that runs through the planet’s centre. The True North is at 90oN, where all longitudes converge. O

The Magnetic Poles or dip poles are where the Earth’s magnetic field points vertically downward, or 90º dip. The ends of a compass needle point to the magnetic poles. Their locations are constantly changing due to the magnetic changes in the Earth’s core. When first located by James Ross in 1831, the North Magnetic Pole was on Boothia Peninsula; in 2005 it was at 82.7ºN, 114.4ºW, west of the Sverdrup Islands. The Geomagnetic Poles: Think of the Earth as a giant magnet with two poles, where the magnetic field intersects the Earth’s surface. The North Geomagnetic Pole is now off the northwest coast of Greenland, at 79.7ºN 71.8ºW. Boreal

From the Greek boréas, the north wind. It is used in terms such as “boreal forest” and “aurora borealis” (northern lights)

Nordic

This is just another way to say “northern” but it is generally used in referring to the “Nordic” countries or Scandinavia or the people living there.

variety of markers to delimit the extent of the arctic region, including the treeline, the 10ºC July isotherm, and the line of continuous permafrost. These do not serve a purpose in our atlas. As most health statistics are collected by government agencies, they are usually aggregated by administrative divisions. For an atlas about health, it is therefore convenient to define our boundaries based on such divisions (Table 1.2, Fig. 1.3, 1.5).

WESTERN HEMISPHERE The whole of Alaska, Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands are included. Northern Canada in this atlas is defined as the three northern territories of Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. It should be noted that the Inuit homelands of Nunavik in northern Québec and Nunatsiavut in Labrador are often included as part of the Canadian Arctic.

SCANDINAVIA As a geographic term, “Scandinavia” has different meanings and usages. In its broadest sense, it encompasses all the Nordic countries and their dependent territories. More narrowly, it refers to only Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The term “Fennoscandia” is often used to refer to the contiguous countries of Norway, Sweden, and Finland. The northernmost “counties” in Norway (fylke), Sweden (län), and Finland (lääni) constitute the northern regions of those countries. In 2010, Finland abolished the lääni and replaced it with the regional state administrative agency (aluehallintovirasto or AVI). There was little change to the boundaries in the northern regions of Oulu (now called Pohjois-Suomi) and Lappi.

80

o

70

o

60

o

y Drawn b

RUSSIA The Russian North (Rossiyskiy Sever) stretches across the Eurasian landmass. “Siberia” (Sibir) tends to be used by people outside Russia to refer to all of Russia east of the Ural Mountains. Within Russia, Siberia has a more restricted meaning geographically, one which excludes the Far East. The Russian Federation is composed of different types of administrative divisions called federal “subjects” (subekty), including republic, kray, oblast, autonomous okrug, and federal city, each with varying degrees of autonomy.

Winfri

nn lma . Dal ed K

Fig. 1.3 – The circumpolar world “Arctic States”, as defined by membership in the intergovernmental Arctic Council, include the United States, Canada, Denmark with its self-governing territories of Greenland and Faroe Islands, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and the Russian Federation. [W. Dallmann]

4 Table 1.2 – Circumpolar countries and regions We anglicize and simplify the names of Russian regions by dropping their adjectival endings (e.g., Magadan Oblast from Magadanskaya oblast). Russian Evenkiyskiy and Chukotskiy refer to Evenkia and Chukotka places and not to the Evenk and Chukchi people. We use Evenkia and Chukotka for these AOs instead of the more correct Evenkian and Chukotkan AO. Chukot AO is sometimes used but is incorrect as there is no such place or people called “Chukot”. For AOs named after the dominant indigenous people in the region such as Nenets, Koryak, and Khanty-Mansi, these names will be used. Yamalo-Nenets refer to Yamal the place and Nenets the people. Note that Nenets is not the plural form and there is no such word as Nenet.

[Ak] Alaska

[Yk] Yukon

[Nt] Northwest Territories

[Nu] Nunavut

[Gl] Greenland

[Fo] Faroe Islands

[Is] Iceland

[Nd] Nordland

[Tr] Troms

[Fm] Finnmark

[Vb] Västerbotten

[Nb] Norrbotten

[Ou] Oulu

[La] Lappi

[Mu] Murmansk (AO)

[Ka] Kareliya Republic

[Ar] Arkhangelsk Oblast

[Ne] Nenets AO

[Ko] Komi Republic

[Yn] Yamalo-Nenets AO

[Ta] Taymyr (AO)

[Ev] Evenkia AO

[Sk] Sakha Republic

[Ma] Magadan Oblast

[Ky] Koryak AO

[Ck] Chukotka AO

[Km] Khanty-Mansi AO

Fig.1.4 – Flags and coats of arms of circumpolar regions

Abbrev

Name used in Atlas

US

United States of America

Ak

Alaska

CA

Canada

Yk

Yukon

territory

Nt

Northwest Territories

territory territory

Nu

Nunavut

DK

Denmark

Name in national official language

Status

Note

state

Territoires du Nord-Ouest in French

Danmark

Gl

Greenland

selvstyre

Kalaallit Nunaat

“self-rule” territory

Fo

Faroe Islands

hjemmestyre

Føroyar

“home-rule” territory

IS

Iceland

Ísland

NO

Norway

Nd

Nordland

fylke

Nordland fylke

Norge

Tr

Troms

fylke

Troms fylke

known as Romsa in Sami

Fm

Finnmark

fylke

Finnmark fylke

known as Finnmárku in Sami

SE

Sweden

Vb

Västerbotten

län

Västerbottens län

Sverige

Nb

Norrbotten

län

Norrbottens län

FI

Finland

Suomi

Ou

Oulu

lääni

Oulun lääni

known as Uleåborg in Swedish

La

Lappi

lääni

Lapin lääni

known as Lappland in Swedish

oblast

Murmanskaya oblast

RU

Russian Federation

Mu

Murmansk Oblast

Rossiyskaya Federatsiya

Ka

Kareliya Republic

republic

Respublika Kareliya

Ar

Arkhangelsk Oblast

oblast

Arkhangel’skaya oblast

includes also Nenets AO

Ne

Nenets AO

autonomous okrug

Nenetskiy avtonomnyy okrug

part of Arkhangelsk Oblast

Ko

Komi Republic

republic

Respublika Komi

Yn

Yamalo-Nenets AO

autonomous okrug

Yamalo-Nenetskiy avtonomnyy okrug

Km

Khanty-Mansi AO

autonomous okrug

Khanty-Mansiyskiy avtonomnyy okrug

also known as Yugra also known as Dolgan-Nenets AO

Ta

Taymyr AO

autonomous okrug

Taymyrskiy avtonomnyy okrug

Ev

Evenkia AO

autonomous okrug

Evenkiyskiy avtonomnyy okrug

Sk

Sakha Republic

republic

Respublika Sakha

Ma

Magadan Oblast

oblast

Magadanskaya oblast

Ky

Koryak AO

autonomous okrug

Koryakskiy avtonomnyy okrug

Ck

Chukotka AO

autonomous okrug

Chukotskiy avtonomnyy okrug

also known as Yakutiya

5 Fig. 1.5 – Circumpolar regions The atlas defines circumpolar regions based on political and administrative divisions in existence in the circumpolar countries during the first decade of the 21st century. The key to the 2-letter regional codes can be found in Table 1.2. [W. Dallmann]

80

o

70

o

60

o

ri y W i nf Drawn b

nn lma . Dal ed K

6

Arctic Eurasia

Arctic North America Fig. 1.7 – The Arctic at night This image of the Earth at night shows the most urbanized areas. Much of the Arctic tundra and taiga remain “in the dark”, with the exception of northern Fennoscandia where bright city lights extend northwards past the Arctic Circle. The Prudhoe Bay oil field in the North Slope of Alaska is brightly lit. A thin line along the southern fringe of Siberia marks the Trans-Siberian Railway. [NASA] Fig. 1.6 – The Arctic seen from space This Arctic mosaic is composed from several passes of the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite on June 28, 2010. [NASA]

Arctic from Space There is no better way to appreciate the expanse and majesty of the Arctic than to look at it from space (Fig.1.6). The remoteness and sparse distribution of population centres is starkly evident in satellite images of the world at night (Fig.1.7). Satellite images are used extensively in this atlas as they provide a truly circumpolar perspective.

An autonomous okrug (AO), with the exception of Chukotka, is generally a part of some higher level unit such as an oblast or a kray, and usually represents the traditional territory of some indigenous ethnic group. Statistical data are usually available for these AO separately. As of 1 January 2007, Taymyr, Evenkia, and Koryak AOs ceased to exist as distinct federal subjects, and were fully absorbed into the Krasnoyarsk kray and the Kamchatka kray, although some statistics continue to be produced for these former AOs. The flags or coats of arms of the circumpolar regional governments are shown in Fig. 1.4.

Although it is a country, Iceland is considered a region when compared with the other subnational regions. Greenland and, to a lesser extent, the Faroe Islands, are not quite fully independent countries, and they are listed as “regions.” It is customary to compare them with Denmark, although in statistical terms, their data are rarely included with Denmark’s. In all, the Arctic regions included in this atlas encompass 17 million square kilometres, sustaining a sparsely distributed population that had reached just under 10 million by the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century.

7

2. Lands and Seas

T

he physical features of the Arctic lands are varied. There are plains, plateaus, mountains, hills and valleys, traversed by rivers and dotted with lakes. Its long coast line is indented by fjords and the majestic glaciers plunge dramatically into the sea (Fig. 2.1). As the map of physical regions (Fig. 2.2) shows, there is remarkable symmetry between Eurasia and North America at their northernmost margins.

Pacific Ocean

Chukchi Sea

Wrangel Island

Victoria Island

idg e

Baffin Bay

Ri

d

nti

Norwegian Sea

c

Faroe Islands

Mi

d

North Atlantic Ocean 80

o

70

n Le

Mid-Siberian Plateau

Taymyr

Yenisey R.

Kara Sea

West Siberian Basin

Yamal

Novaya Zemlya

Ob R.

Pe

ch o

Ura lM

ou nta ins East European D v i n a R. Platform Fenno-Scandian Shield ra

Kola

ndi

la

oy

East Siberian Platform

Barents Sea

Sca

At

8000-9000

Svalbard

Greenland Sea

ge

Labrador Sea

7000-8000

Verk h

Severnaya Zemlya

n avian

Greenlandic Shield

6000-7000

Laptev Sea

Iceland

o

In

YanaIndigirka Basin

Franz Josef Land

ait Str

.

Kolyma R. Basin digir k a

East Siberian Sea

os ov R

on m Lo

Ellesmere Island

Baffin Island

vis Da

Ko l y m a R

Arctic Ocean

Queen

Islands

5000-6000

New-Siberian Islands

CANADA BASIN

Elizabeth

Labrador

3000-4000

s k R a n ge

Yu

Alaska

Banks Island

Canadian Shield

2000-3000

an

MacKe nzie R.

Hudson Bay

1000-2000

3000

600- 700

Kusko

metres above sea level

k o R. n

Elevations

8

Fig. 2.3 – The Bering Strait

Fig. 2.4 – Clouds over the Aleutian Islands [Accent Alaska]

The 90-km wide strait separates Asia (Chukotka Peninsula) and North America (Seward Peninsula). St Lawrence Island is visible to the south.

Diversity of landscapes

[NASA]

Starting with Alaska and moving from west to east across the circumpolar world, we first encounter the windswept, treeless islands out on the Bering Sea. The Big and Little Diomedes are separated by the International Dateline and also the United States–Russia border (Fig. 2.3). The Aleutian Islands is a chain of over 300 small volcanic mountains, jutting into the Bering Sea from the Alaska Peninsula (Fig. 2.4). The westernmost group, the Commander Islands, is within Russian territory. Alaska spans some 20º of latitude (52º– 72ºN) and offers a diversity of landscapes, from the mountainous archipelago with deep, narrow fjord-like inlets of the “panhandle” (Fig. 2.5), to the thirty-five mountain ranges (notably the Chugach and Kenai Mountains, Brooks Range, and Alaska Range), glacial lakes and hills of the interior, to the flat tundra of the north and northwest. Alaska and much of the Yukon are within

Fig. 2.5 – College Fjord, Prince William Sound [V. Dorward]

Fig. 2.6 – Mount McKinley, Denali National Park [V. Dorward]

the North American Cordillera, a complex of mountains, plateaus, and valleys that make up the northward extension of the Rockies. Here can be found Mount McKinley (Fig. 2.6), which, at 6,200 metres, is North America’s highest peak. Canada’s highest peak, Mount Logan at 6,000 metres, is across the border in the Yukon.

the east it slopes gradually into the low-lying mountains of Finnmark and Lapland and the lowlands of Sweden.

The Interior Plains extend northward through the Mackenzie River valley and across the Great Plains of the continent. The Arctic Archipelago (Fig. 2.7) contains coastal plains, plateaus, and mountains (Fig. 2.8). The Canadian Shield consists of ancient Precambrian rocks, which have been smoothed and moulded by glacial erosions (Fig. 2.9), and covers much of Nunavut, the eastern Northwest Territories, and Greenland. The Scandinavian Mountains or the Fells are often referred to as the “keel” of Fennoscandia (Fig. 2.10). The keel forms the border between Norway and Sweden. To the west, it plunges precipitously into the fjords along the coast of the Norwegian Sea (Fig. 2.11). To

The European North of Russia extends from the Kola Peninsula and Kareliya in the west, across the Vychegda Lowland and Pechora Basin to the Urals in the east, with its northern shores washed by the White, Barents, and Kara Seas. Much of the land is low lying and swampy, with tundra in the north and taiga in the south. The swampy flat plain of West Siberia extends from the Ural Mountains to the Yenisey River. Beyond, the Central Siberian Plateau descends to the north into the Northern Siberian Lowlands. Northeast Siberia is a huge system of mountain ranges (such as the Verkhoyansk and Cherskiy) and highlands (such as the Kolyma and Chukotka). To the north, between the mountains and the Arctic Ocean, lies the Yana-Indigirka and the Kolyma Lowlands.

9

Fig. 2.8 – Baffin Island, Nunavut (a) A glacier sweeps past the jagged granite mountain peaks of Auyuittuq National Park. The flat-topped Mount Thor soars vertically to 1,675 metres above the valley floor. [K. Minich] (b) Glaciers have incised the valley floors below sea level, creating narrow, deep fjords such as Gibbs Fjord with its sheer vertical walls. [M. Fortier, ArcticNet]

Fig. 2.9 – Outcrop of bedrock on the Canadian Shield

Fig. 2.7 – The Arctic Archipelago of northern Canada [NASA]

Although shot in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, this photograph could have been taken anywhere within the vast Canadian Shield. [V. Dorward]

10 Fig. 2.11 – Atlantic coast of northern Norway

(a) Overlooking the Lofoten Islands. [M. Haverkamp/Wiki]

Fig. 2.10 – Northern Fennoscandia and the Kola Peninsula In May, the ice is gone from most lakes, although snow can still be seen along the coastline. [NASA] (b) Nordkapp, the northernmost point of Europe. [Y. Zhang/Wiki]

11 Fig. 2.13 – Lena River Delta

Fig. 2.12 – Rivers of Alaska

The 4,472 km-long Lena River flows into the Arctic Ocean and drains a basin covering 2,500,000 sq. km. Its delta is 400 km wide. [NASA]

(a) The Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta in southwestern Alaska, where a national wildlife refuge has been established. [K. Young]

Rivers and lakes Several major rivers course through northern Canada, such as the Mackenzie and Coppermine Rivers that drain into the Arctic Ocean. The Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers empty into the Pacific Ocean off Alaska and form one of the largest deltas in the world, one which is mainly tundra (Fig. 2.12).

(b) Healey Canyon and the Nenana River, which is a tributary of the Tanana River and drains into the Yukon River in the Alaskan interior. [K. Young]

The western Canadian Arctic is dotted by wetlands and several large lakes, notably Great Bear and Great Slave, which are part of the chain of lakes that extends southeastward to the Great Lakes. In Arctic Russia, several major rivers drain into the Arctic Ocean – the Northern Dvina, Mezen, Pinega, and Pechora Rivers in European Russia, and the Ob, Yenisey, Lena, Indigirka,

and Kolyma Rivers in Siberia (Fig. 2.13). Important travel routes throughout history, they continue today to be important transportation arteries that traverse huge northern expanses.

Volcanoes and Earthquakes Some of Earth’s more seismically active places are located within Arctic regions (Fig. 2.14). The collision of the earth crust’s tectonic plates created the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the great majority of the Earth’s earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. In the north, it encom-

12

Fig. 2.14 – Alaska earthquake zone

Fig. 2.15 – Eruption of Eyjafjall Volcano, Iceland

The Easter earthquake struck Anchorage in 1964 . [Alaska State Library]

Thick ash poured from the volcano, with a concentrated plume over a more diffuse cloud of ash. The volcano emitted ash in puffs that reached over 8 kilometres into the atmosphere. [NASA]

passes the coastal regions of Kamchatka and Chukotka, the Aleutian Islands, and southcentral Alaska. In 1964, North America’s strongest earthquake, registering 9.2 on the Richter scale, and the ensuing tsunami devastated the City of Anchorage.

erupted for the first time since 1821. The dense clouds of volcanic ash that were released into the atmosphere brought air traffic across much of Europe to a standstill (Fig. 2.15).

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge runs right across Iceland, where the Eurasian plate and North American plate have been drifting apart. Iceland also sits on top of a volcanic hotspot, accounting for the large number of active volcanoes in the country, the most volatile of which is Hekla. In March 2010, the Eyjafjall volcano

Mention “Arctic” and most people think of ice. Those portions of our Earth consisting of frozen water constitute the cryosphere. It includes ice on land – snow cover, glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps, frozen lakes and rivers, and permafrost underground – and ice on the seas – sea ice and icebergs (Fig. 2.16 – Fig. 2.20).

An Icy World

The Arctic cryosphere has witnessed dramatic changes in recent decades, with the retreating and thinning of sea ice, melting of glaciers and the Greenland ice sheet, thawing of the permafrost, and depleting snow cover. Such changes seriously affect solar radiation, ocean circulation, and sea level, the habitats of marine and terrestrial animals, coastal erosion, and the intensity of river flow. They also affect human activities such as navigation, power generation, and community infrastructure. These changes can range from the local to the global.

13

Fig. 2.16 – The Greenland ice sheet Over 80 per cent of Greenland’s area is covered by the ice sheet, which is as thick as 3,500 metres in some places. It is one of two remaining ice sheets from the Pleistocene Ice Age (the other is in Antarctica). An ice sheet extends greater than 50,000 square kilometres whereas the area of an ice cap is smaller. [NASA]

Fig. 2.17 – Snow-covered Fennoscandia Much of Fennoscandia is still covered in snow in March. The Gulf of Bothnia between Finland and Sweden and the Kara Sea in Russia are encased in landfast sea ice. [NASA]

‘

‘

Fig. 2.18 – Iceland’s snow cover Much of Iceland’s snow and ice disappears between January (left) and September (right), leaving behind the glaciers, the largest of which is Vatnajökull, which actually sits on top of two volcanoes. [NASA]

14

(b) Iceberg towering over ship in Disko Bay. [S. Chatwood]

(a) Glacier calving icebergs in Kenai Fjords National Park, Alaska. [GeoEye]

Fig. 2.19 – Icebergs Icebergs originate from glaciers or ice caps and are composed of frozen fresh water. Sea ice is frozen sea water. Icebergs come in different sizes – from “growlers” that are higher than 1 metre and longer than 5 metres to the very large ones that exceed 75 metres in height and 200 metres in length. They also come in many shapes – tubular, dome, pinnacle, wedge, and so on. Typically, only a small portion of the iceberg appears above water, with as much as 85% of it being submerged.

(c) Icebergs float past Disko Bay, Greenland. West Greenland is the source of the majority of icebergs in the North Atlantic. [P. Bjerregaard]

15 Fig. 2.20 – Sea ice Sea ice may be annual, which forms in the winter and melts in the following summer, or multiyear, which remains frozen year after year, even during the summer.

(a) Spring in the western Canadian Arctic: Sea ice in the Beaufort Sea has started to break up. Open water separates the land from the dense pack of sea ice. Ice still fringes much of the land, but it is thinning. The Mackenzie River flows ice-free to a broad partially frozen delta. One large forest fire can be seen in the southwest. [NASA]

(b) Various types of sea ice congregate along the east coast of Greenland in late March. Clinging to the shore is landfast sea ice, impervious to ocean currents. Further away from land are large round pieces of multiyear sea ice that were carried to this location by the East Greenland Current. Ocean currents can smooth ice fragments into round shapes. Even farther out to sea are much smaller fragments of ice being swirled by the small surface currents. [NASA]

16

3. Changing Climate

C

limate is a statistical concept that summarizes a variety of weather data such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, and wind over long periods of time. The World Meteorological Organization uses a thirty-year period (e.g., 1961–1990) to define “climate normals” for a specific locality. Climate is relevant to health because it constitutes part of the physical environment to which all human beings are exposed.

Fig. 3.1 – The climate of circumpolar regions

Köppen-Geiger climate classification ET EF Dwd Dwc Dwb

This is extracted from the World Map of Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification. The main climates are: A – equatorial or tropical; B – arid; C – temperate; D – cold or snow or continental; E – polar, of which C, D, and E are present in circumpolar regions. Within each type are subtypes based on precipitation: s (dry summer), w (dry winter), f (fully humid); and on temperature: a (hot summer); b (warm summer); c (cold summer); d (very cold winter). There are two subtypes of polar climate T (tundra) and F (frost) based on maximum temperatures. [W. Dallmann, based on Kottek et al. (2006)]

Climatic variation exists due to mountain barriers, proximity to open waters, extent of surface snow and ice cover, and the duration of daylight and darkness. Despite the image of the Arctic as a white expanse, precipitation is generally low, and the high Arctic is in fact a polar desert. Fig. 3.2 lists the mean January and July temperatures of the circumpolar regions, adjusted for the size of the population experiencing that climate.

5 o

80

o

70

o

60

Drawn by

Winfr

. Dal ied K

Сfc Сfb BSk

Arctic boundary Arctic circle

Current Patterns The type of climate experienced in circumpolar regions, as defined in this atlas, goes beyond what is usually considered as Arctic or polar and includes continental and even temperate climate. A popular climate classification system, known as the Köppen-Geiger system, is based on temperature and precipitation and correlates with the distribution of native vegetation (Fig. 3.1).

Dsc Dfd Dfc Dfb Dfa

n lma

n

17 January Mean (ºC)

15.6

15 14.8

-10.2

-10.9

14.5

12.5 12.2 12.0

13.7

14.1

12.5

16.1 16.5 12.7 12.1

12.2

-8.6

-10.1 -12.8

-11.5

-13.5

-12.7

o

80

-18.0

-18.7

o

-24.6 -29.5

Fig. 3.2 – Mean January and July temperature in circumpolar regions From Young and Mäkinen (2010). Weighted by population of municipality in which a weather station is located.

Winter temperatures decrease as one moves eastwards across Siberia and reach their lowest in the northeast, where temperatures as low as –70ºC have been recorded (Fig. 3.3). Ocean currents have a major influence on regional climate patterns because they shift the delivery of heat and moisture (Fig. 3.4). Thanks to the Gulf Stream that sweeps up along the Norwegian coast, the climate in northern Scandinavia is generally warmer than it is other places and regions located at the same latitude. Across the Atlantic, the Irminger Current is responsible for keeping the water open all year round along the west coast of Greenland and as far north as 67º.

Chukotka AO

-14.6

-21.7 -22.1 -27.3

Koryak AO

Sakha Republic

Magadan Oblast

Taymyr AO

Evenkia AO

Khanty-Mansi AO

Yamalo-Nenets AO

Nenets AO

-11.5

-17.5 -20.0

Komi Republic

Kareliya Republic

Oulu

Lappi

Norrbotten

Västerbotten

-4.2

Arkhangelsk Oblast

-3.2

Troms

Iceland

-0.7

16.3 16.2 17.0

15.5

9.1

3.4 Faroe Islands

6.7 Greenland

Nunavut

Yukon

Northwest Territories

Alaska

8.1

15.6

Murmansk Oblast

10.3 10.5

Finnmark

14.3

Nordland

14.1

July Mean (ºC)

70

-23.4

-29.3

o

60

-33.5 Drawn by

-37.9

Winfr

ied K

. Dal

nn l ma

Mean January temperatures Data source: Earth System Atlas http://earthsystematlas.sr.unh.edu/

6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8

-12

-16

-20

-24

-28

-32

-36

-40

-44

-48

Fig. 3.3 – Mean January temperatures: circumpolar regions [W. Dallmann]

Fig. 3.4 – Surface ocean currents in the Arctic [AMAP]

-52 ° C

18 Geological Time Scale Pliocene Year (Ma)

Pleistocene Epoch

Holocene

Epoch

Early

Middle

Late

1.8

0.78

0.13

0.0118

IG [E]

G [W]

2.6

Epoch BP

Climate Change 130

Year (ka)

LGM Year (ka)

24

21

18

107

S [OD]

IS [B]

S [od]

IS [A]

S [YD]

15

14.5

13.7

12.8

11.8

AD 1000

AD

Fig. 3.5 – Glacial-interglacial cycles during past 600,000 years

Ice Ages

Based on the concentration of air trapped in ice cores from Antarctica, deuterium (D, black) serves as a proxy measure of local temperatures, which correlate with the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2, red), methane (CH4, blue), and nitrous oxide (NO2, green). Shaded areas represent interglacial warm periods. Data on benthic 18O (grey) from marine records are included to show global ice volume fluctuation. [IPCC-4]

During the Earth’s long geological history, its climate underwent many periods of cold and warm. “Ice Age” is a popular term referring to the period when the Earth was cold and was marked by the presence of large continental ice sheets. Within each ice age there were cooler periods (glacials) alternating with warmer periods (interglacials), and differences in global mean temperatures were as large as 4oC to 7oC. From the human perspective, it is the most “recent” ice age that is of interest. It took place during the Pleistocene Epoch of the geological time scale, which began 1.8 million years BP (Before Present, which is set at 1950). It was during the Pleistocene that the permanent ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica were established. The Pleistocene was followed by the Holocene, which started around 12,000 years BP. Global temperature fluctuations during the last

IG 11.8

MWP

LIA

1450

1850

BP

IG BP

1950

Legend: warmer

BP = Before Present [1950]

cooler

IG = Interglacial

E

Eemian

LGM

Last Glacial Maximum

G = Glacial

W

Wisconsinan [N. America]

MWP

Medieval Warm Period

Weichselian [Europe]

LIA

Little Ice Age

IS= Interstadial S = Stadial

B

Bølling

A

Allerød

OD

Oldest Dryas

od

Older Dryas

YD

Younger Dryas

Fig. 3.6 – Climate change during the past 130,000 years

600,000 years, deduced from analyses of gases trapped in the ice cores of Antarctica, is shown in Fig. 3.5. Fig. 3.6 schematically expands the time since the Late Pleistocene 130,000 years BP. During the Wisconsinan (in North America) or Weichselian (in Eurasia) glaciation, the earth experienced the Last Glacial Maximum

(LGM), which lasted from about 24,000 to 21,000 years BP. During this period, the continental ice sheets were at their maximum, covering almost half of Europe and all of Canada. Subsequent to the LGM, there were minor excursions of the ice sheets that were called stadials (when they advanced) and interstadials (when they retreated).

19 20 18 March

16

Mean extent (million sq. km)

14 12 10 8

September

6 4 2

Temperature trends were reconstructed based on analyses of “paleoclimate archives” in glacier ice, tree rings, and lake sediments. Four of the five warmest decades during the 2,000-year period occurred between 1950 and 2000. [Reproduced from Kaufman et al. (2009)]

Global climate is largely a matter of balancing radiation among (a) incoming solar radiation, which is affected by changes to the planet’s orbits; (b) the proportion that is absorbed and reflected back, affected by cloud cover, aerosols, or land cover; and (c) the long-wave energy radiated back to space, which can be altered by changes in greenhouse gas concentrations.

Warming Trends The epoch we are now in, the Holocene, is an interglacial one. It is marked by a relatively warmer period called the Medieval Warm Period (from AD 1000 to 1450), followed by the Little Ice Age that lasted till about 1850. These historical climate changes played a significant role in the migrations and settlement of the Arctic by the Inuit and the Norse. However, it is evident that since the 1950s, there has been

a steep warming trend, which is likely the result of human activities (Fig. 3.7). While climate change has been a constant part of the Earth’s history, what is of concern is that the recent rate of change has been much more rapid. The warming Arctic has local, regional, and global significance. Over the next 100 years, the Earth’s average temperature is projected to increase significantly, glaciers and inland ice will melt, the extent of the permafrost will decrease, the extent of sea ice will be reduced (Fig. 3.8), the levels of the oceans will rise, and the weather will be more extreme. In terms of how this will affect human life and well-being in the North, it is possible that we will see an increase in the risk of emerging infectious diseases, the introduction of insect vectors and animal reservoirs novel to the Arctic. In addi-

2010/11

2009/10

2008/09

2007/08

2006/07

2005/06

2004/05

2003/04

2002/03

2001/02

2000/01

1999/00

Fig. 3.7 – Temperature trends in the Arctic over the past 2,000 years

1979-2000

0

Fig. 3.8 – Reduction in Arctic sea ice a) Sea ice reaches its maximum in March and melts in the summer, reaching its minimum in September. Extent is the total area in which ice concentration is at least 15 per cent. Since 1978, NASA satellites have monitored sea ice growth and retreat, and they have detected an overall decline in Arctic sea ice since 1999–2000, compared to the “baseline” period of 1979–2000. It reached its lowest extent during the summer of 2007. Cycles of natural variability and greenhouse gas emissions (and the resulting rise in global temperatures) likely contributed to the greater reduction of Arctic sea ice. Some models forecast an ice-free Arctic for at least part of the year before the end of the twenty-first century. [Based on data from NASA]

tion, low-lying areas may be flooded, and the melting permafrost could destroy parts of the infrastructure, such as homes, service facilities, and transportation networks (Fig. 3.9). The retreat of shore bound sea ice could make hunting dangerous if not impossible, species survival may be threatened, and thinner ice may result in increased drowning. Worldwide climate warming has the potential to increase transport of contaminants into, and in some cases, out of the Arctic. Local knowledge provides poor guidance due to the rapidly changing conditions.

20

February Average (1985–2000)

February 2008 Sea Ice Age (years) 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Fig. 3.8 – Reduction in Arctic sea ice (continued) b) The age, area, and thickness of sea ice has also undergone dramatic change in the first decade of the 21st century. In comparison with the end of 20th century, ice cover has declined from 50-60 percent to less than 30 percent, while the remaining ice is also much younger. [NASA] (c) Coastal erosion in Shishmaref, Alaska has received international coverage, including a 2008 Dutch documentary film, book, and photo exhibition by Jan Louter, Melle Van Essen, and Dana Lixenberg [J. Louter]

Fig. 3.9 – Effects of a warming Arctic (a) Low-lying communities such as Tuktoyatuk, Northwest Territories, are at risk of flooding from rising sea levels. [S. McDonald]

(b) Melting of permafrost in Wainwright, Alaska, led to ground subsidence. The man’s ice cellar was destroyed. [E. Loring]

21

4. Plants and Animals

T

he circumpolar regions vary in biodiversity. From the temperate rainforest in southeastern Alaska, it decreases progressively northwards through the boreal forest (taiga) to the tundra. While the number of species is small compared to more southerly biomes, individual species may be present in large numbers, and there are seasonal bursts of high productivity. Within one locality, there is also considerable year-toyear fluctuation. Table 4.1 provides a taxonomic guide to selected mammals and birds for the amateur Arctic naturalist.

Mammals The major Arctic mammals include different species of seals and whales, polar bears, muskoxen, caribou/reindeer, walruses, Arctic foxes, hares, and wolves (Figs. 4.1–4.3). Domesticated reindeer are widely distributed and have been husbanded by indigenous peoples in northern Eurasia for centuries. Whales are unequivocally marine mammals who have adapted to a life immersed in the water, as are seals and walruses whose evolution included the development of flippers for swimming and who also spend much time (that includes breeding) on ice floes. It is arguable whether polar bears are marine mammals, as they venture far inland even though they spend much of their lives on sea ice. Marine mammals have an advantage over their terrestrial counterparts in that sea water, which never gets below -2ºC, is balmy compared to the cold air temperature on land, but they do face the problem of needing air to breathe. Leads (long cracks leading to open water) and polynyas (large bodies of open water) are thus critical to their survival in the winter pack ice. Polynyas, especially those that are open all winter

Fig. 4.1 – Terrestrial mammals (a) Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus): The species has a truly circumpolar distribution and can range as far south as the “bottom” of Hudson Bay. Long a symbol or icon of the Arctic, its endangered status is hotly contested between Inuit hunters and wildlife scientists. [S. Chatwood]

22 Table 4.1 – Taxonomic guide for the amateur Arctic naturalist: (a) Mammals

Order Carnivora

Family Ursideae

polar bear

Ursus arctos U. arctos horribilis U. arctos middendorffi

Kodiak bear

Ursus americanus

black bear

Alopex lagopus

Arctic fox

Vulpes vulpes

Genus/species/subspecies

Common name

brown bear

Castoridae

Castor canadensis

beaver

grizzly bear

Cricetidae

Dicrostonyx torquatus

Arctic collared lemming

Dicrostonyx hudsonius

Ungava lemming

Lemmus sibiricus

Siberian brown lemming

Clethrionomys rutilus

northern red-backed vole

red fox

Microtus pennsylvanicus

meadow vole

Canis lupus

grey wolf

Microtus oeconomus

tundra vole

Lynx lynx

Eurasian lynx

Ondatra zibethicus

muskrat

Lynx canadensis

Canadian lynx

Ovibos moschatus

muskox

Mustela erminea

ermine

Ovis dallis

Dall’s sheep

Mustela nivalis

least weasel

Ovis nivicola

snow sheep

Mustela vison

American mink

Rangifer tarandus

caribou, reindeer

Martes zibellina

sable

R. tarandus groenlandicus

barren-ground caribou

Gulo gulo

wolverine

R. tarandus granti

woodland caribou

Enhydra lutris

sea otter

R. tarandus pearyi

Peary caribou

Odobenidae

Odobenus rosmarus

walrus

R. tarandus platyrhynchus

Svalbad reindeer

Phocidae

Erignathus barbatus

bearded seal

Alces alces

moose

Pusa hispida

ringed seal

Megaptera novaeangliae

humpback

Phoca groenlandica

harp seal

Phoca vitulina

harbour seal

Balaenoptera musculus

blue whale

Cystophora cristata

hooded seal

Balaenoptera physalus

fin whale

Otariidae

Eumetopias jubatus

Steller’s sea lion

Balaenidae

Balaena mysticetus

bowhead whale

Leporidae

Lepus articus

Arctic hare

Delphinidae

Orcinus orca

killer whale

Lepus othus

Alaskan hare

Globicephala melas

long-finned pilot whale

Lepus americanus

snowshoe hare

Lagenorhynchus albirostris

white-beaked dolphin

Lepus timidus

mountain hare

Monodon monoceros

narwhal

Sorex cinereus

American masked shrew

Delphinapterus leucas

beluga

Sorex caecutians

Eurasian masked shrew

Physeteridae

Physeter macrocephalus

sperm whale

Sorex tundrensis

tundra shrew

Phocoenidae

Phocoena phocoena

harbour porpoise

Soricidae

Rodentia

Family

Arctic ground squirrel

Mustelidae

Soricomorpha

Ursus maritimus

Order

Spermophilus parryii

Felidae

Lagomorpha

Common name

Sciuridae

Canidae

Super family Pinnipedia

Genus/species/subspecies

Artiodactyla [eventoed ungulates]

Bovidae

Cervidae

Cetacea Suborder Mysticeti [baleen whales]

Cetacea Suborder Odontoceti [toothed whales]

Balaenopteridae

Monodontidae

23 Table 4.1 – Taxonomic guide for the amateur Arctic naturalist: (b) Birds Order Gaviiformes

Family Gaviidae [loons]

Genus/species/subspecies

Common name

Gavia immer

common loon

Gavia adamsii

yellow-billed loon

Gavia artica

arctic loon

Gavia pacifica

pacific loon

Gavia stellata

red-throated loon

Order Charadriiformes

Family

Genus/species/subspecies

Common name

Charadriidae [plovers]

Pluvialis dominica

lesser golden plover

Pluvialis squatarola

black-bellied plover

Laridae [gulls]

Larus hyperboreus

glaucous gull

Larus argentatus

herring gull

Sternidae [terns]

Sterna paradisaea

arctic tern

Procellariformes

Procellariidae [petrels]

Fulmarius gracilis

northern fulmar

Stercorariidae [skuas]

Stercorarius longicaudus

long-tailed jaegar

Anseriformes

Anatidae [waterfowl]

Cygnus columbianus

tundra swan

Uria lomvia

thick-billed murre

Cygnus cygnus

whooper swan

Alcidae [murres and guillemots]

Uria aalge

common murre

Anser caerulescens

snow goose

Fratercula corniculata

horned puffin

Anser albifrons

greater white-fronted goose

Cephus grylle

black guillemot

Branta canadensis

Canada goose

Alle alle

dovekie

Branta bernicla

Brant goose

Scolopacidae [sandpipers]

Calidris bairdii

Baird’s sandpiper

Anas platyrhynchos

mallard

Gruiformes

Gruidae [cranes]

Grus canadensis

sandhill crane

Anas acuta

northern pintail

Falconiformes

rough-legged hawk

green-winged teal

Accipitridae [eagles and hawks]

Buteo lagopus

Anas crecca

Aquila chrysaetos

golden eagle

Aythya marila

greater scaup

Haliaeetus leucocephalus

bald eagle

Somateria mollissima

common eider

Falco rusticolus

gyrfalcon

Somateria spectabilis

king eider

Falco peregrinus

peregrine falcon

Clangula hyemalis

long-tailed duck

Plectrophenax nivalis

snow bunting

Histrionicus histrionicus

harlequin duck

Calcarius pictus

Smith’s longspur

Melanitta fusca

velvet scoter

Fringillidae

Carduelis flammea

redpoll

Mergus serrator

red-breasted merganser

Alaudidae

Eremophila alpestris

horned lark

Bubo scandiacus

snowy owl

Muscicapidae

Oenanthe oenanthe

northern wheatear

Asio flammeus

short-eared owl

Surnia ulula

northern hawk-owl

Laniidae

Lanius excubitor

northern shrike

Lagopus muta

rock ptarmigan

Motacillidae

Motacilla flava

yellow wagtail

Lagopus lagopus

willow grouse

Phylloscopidae

Phylloscopus borealis

arctic warbler

Stringiformes

Galliformes

Strigidae [owls]

Phasianidae [grouse]

Falconidae [falcons]

Passeriformes [perching birds]

Emberizidae

24

(c) Caribou migrations: Herds numbering in the thousands can cover several thousand kilometres. Shown here is the George River herd in northern Labrador. [E. Loring] (d) Caribou or Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus): This member of the deer family is called caribou in North America and reindeer in Eurasia. Circumpolar in distribution, there are many subspecies, such as the barren ground caribou (R. tarandus groelandicus) in the Canadian tundra and western Greenland, and the distinctively shortlegged Svalbard reindeer (R. tarandus platyrhynchus). [V. Dorward]

Fig. 4.1 – Terrestrial mammals (continued) (b) Brown Bear (Ursus arctos): Widely distributed across northern Eurasia and North America, the many subspecies of the brown bear include the much feared grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) in Alaska and northern Canada and the salmon-fed Kodiak bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi) in coastal Alaska. Brown bears are not to be confused with the black bear (Ursus americanus). Fur colour is a poor guide to species identification despite their common names being based on colours. [V. Dorward]

and in the same place year after year, are rich feeding grounds for whales, polar bears, walruses, and seals. The North Water polynya in Baffin Bay has been known to whalers since the seventeenth century. In the taiga, mammals range in size from

moose, deer, brown and black bears, woodland caribou/reindeer, to the smaller furbearers such as lynxes, wolves, wolverines, foxes, hares, muskrats, beavers, and minks. Some species such as sable are found only in Eurasia and not North America.

25

(e) Moose (Alces alces): In Europe the moose is called elk. Confusingly, in North America there is also an animal called “elk” (Cervus canadensis), which is also called “wapiti.” The antlers characteristic of male moose are termed “palmate.” A dweller in the boreal forest, the moose is among the largest terrestrial mammals in North America and Europe. [K. Young]

(f) Muskox (Ovibos machatus): A contemporary of the woolly mammoth during the Pleistocene, the muskox is found today in northern Greenland, the Arctic Islands, and parts of mainland Nunavut. Its rich and soft wool (called qiviut) is highly prized. In the face of predators such as wolves, a herd would form a defensive circle. [V. Dorward]

(h) Dall Sheep (Ovis dalli) : Famous for their display of surefootedness on steep mountain slopes and ridges, the Dall sheep are found in parts of Alaska and the Yukon. Both sexes have horns, but the males are thick and curved into almost a full circle pointing forward. The brownish coloured and similarly horned snow sheep (Ovis nivicola) are found in eastern Siberia. [V. Dorward]

Fig. 4.2 – Marine mammals: Cetaceans (a) Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae): These baleen whales have huge plates of keratinous baleen hanging from the roof of the mouth like a comb, which filter out plankton and fish. They are migratory and breed in winter in tropical waters – seen here frolicking in Nuuk Fjord, Greenland. [P. Bjerregaard]

(g) Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus): In the southern part of its range in Greenland and Arctic Canada, the Arctic hare is white only in the winter. Further north it can be white year round. Other hares with white winter coats can be found elsewhere in the Arctic – the Alaskan hare (Lepus othus) in Alaska and the mountain hare in Eurasia (Lepus timidus). [W. Dallmann]

(b) Humpback whales “bubble net” feeding off the coast of Juneau, Alaska: This is a group effort that involves swimming in a shrinking circle around a school of fish while blowing bubbles, then surfacing with mouth agape. [V. Dorward]

26 Fig. 4.2 – Marine mammals: Cetaceans (continued) (c) Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas): A pod of beluga whales swimming in Resolute Bay, Nunavut. Belugas and narwhals (Monodon monoceros) are toothed whales and permanent residents of the Arctic Ocean. [K. Young] (d) Orca (Orcinus orca): Also known as killer whale, the orca is a member of the dolphin family, which belongs to the toothed whales with the beluga and narwhal. The orca has a worldwide distribution, It preys on fish, seals, other whales, and, even occasionally, birds. [V. Dorward]

Fig. 4.3 – Marine mammals: Pinnipeds The pinnipeds include the true seals (or earless seals), walruses, and eared seals (including sea lions and fur seals). Pinnipeds and whales evolved from terrestrial ancestors which adapted to marine life.

(a) Steller’s Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubatus): Also called the northern sea lion, the Steller’s sea lion is an eared seal found living in the waters of the Bering Sea along the coast of Kamchatka through the Aleutian Islands to Alaska. In recent decades there has been a drastic population decline and the species is heading towards extinction; the cause for this is uncertain. [V. Dorward]

(b) Bearded Seal (Erignathus barbatus): (left) [W. Dallmann] (c) Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus): (above) [S. Kazlowski/ArcticNet]

27

(b) Horned Puffin (Fratercula corniculata): The horned puffin breeds in colonies on rocky islands off the coast of Siberia and Alaska and feeds by diving for fish. [V. Dorward] Fig. 4.4 – Birds (a) Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus): The bald eagle is the national bird of the United States and its numbers are abundant in Alaska, but in the Lower 48 it once faced extinction. In 2007, it was removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife because its numbers had recovered from hunting and the thinning effect of DDT on its eggshells. [V. Dorward]

(d) Snowy Owl (Bubo scandiacus): The snowy owl nests on the ground and feeds on small rodents. The young lose their black feathers as they age. [T.Gosselin/ArcticNet]

Birds About 100 species of birds breed in the Arctic (Fig. 4.4), but only a few live there year round (e.g., gyrfalcon, raven, snowy owl, and certain species of gull, ptarmigan, murre, and guillemot). Most others are temporary residents, staying there only during their breeding season. T h e flocks of migrating geese and ducks herald the changing seasons each year. While food abounds in the short summer, it is dormant or unavailable in the winter. Polynyas are therefore important for seabirds. Migratory birds are dependent on an adequate food supply both at their stopovers and on arrival in the Arctic. Timing is critical because chicks need to hatch when food is most abundant and to grow strong enough for the flight south before food supplies dwindle.

(c) Common Murre (Uria aalge): Also called the common guillemot, this member of the auk family is widely distributed along the northern Pacific and Atlantic coasts. They breed in dense colonies but make no nests. [T. Ikäheimo]

(e) Whooper Swan (Cygnus Cygnus): The national bird of Finland, the whooper swan is widely distributed in Eurasia where wetlands in the taiga provide its breeding habitat. [A. Trepte/Wiki]

(f) Gyrfalcon (Falcon rusticolus) [O. Larsen/Wiki]

(g) Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) [J. Haugseth/Wiki]

28

(b) Arctic Char (Salvelinus alpinus): A member of the salmon family, the Arctic char spends part of its life in the sea and part in freshwater, although some populations live entirely in freshwater. It has the northernmost range of any freshwater fish. Unlike the Pacific salmon, it spawns repeatedly over several years. Here they are stored in a community freezer in Tuktoyatuk, Northwest Territories. Arctic char is closely related to lake trout (S. namaycush), which live exclusively in freshwater. [S. McDonald]

Fig. 4.5 – Fish (a) Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka): Sockeye salmon is also called red salmon. Like all salmon, it is born in freshwater, spends much of its life in the sea, but returns to the same stream to spawn. Pacific salmon spawns only once, and then dies shortly afterwards. Other species include chum [O. keta], coho [O. kisutch], pink [O. gorbuscha], and Chinook, also called king [O. tshawytscha]. Some salmon travel far and wide in the North Pacific and the Arctic Ocean to the Lena River in Siberia and the Mackenzie River and Bathurst Inlet in Canada. [K. Young]

Fish Fish such as lake trout, whitefish, and Arctic grayling can be found in rivers and lakes, and species such as Arctic char move seasonally from the sea into freshwater areas. These are all members of the salmon family. Other freshwater fish include burbot, sturgeon, and northern pike. Marine species include salmon, cod, halibut, capelin, and herring found off the coasts of Alaska, Greenland, and Eurasia (Fig. 4.5).

Fig. 4.6 – Invertebrates (a) Moon Jellyfish (Aurelia aurita): (above) [K. Young] (b) Copepod: (right) Copepods are a subclass of the small crustaceans that form an important part of the marine food web. They can be planktonic (drifting in sea water) or benthic (living on the sea floor). [G. Darnis/ArcticNet]

29

Nutrients and detritus in water

Nutrients and detritus in snow and ice

Phytoplankton Pelagic invertebrates

Benthic algae, kelp

Epontic algae

Nutrients and detritus in sediments

Benthic invertebrates

Zooplankton

Bowhead whale

Capelin, small pelagic fish Epontic fauna Waterfowl, Whitefish

Demersal fish

Arctic cod

Walrus

Greenland halibut

Arctic char

Fig. 4.7 – Phytoplankton bloom off Iceland The annual North Atlantic phytoplankton bloom consists of millions of microscopic plantlike organisms called phytoplankton that move from the south to the north, peaking in late spring. Phytoplankton is an important part of the food web. It is consumed by zooplankton, which is the staple of marine mammals such as whales. [NASA]

The Food Web Other “lower” forms of life from unicellular organisms to invertebrates (Fig. 4.6 and Fig. 4.7) are important because they form important links in the food web. Food chains are schematic representations of the prey–predator relationships among species, with humans invariably occupying the top spot. A series of related chains constitute a web. Different webs exist for different types of ecosystems; for example, the terrestrial, lacustrine, and marine web (Fig. 4.8). Food webs are important to human health because of

Atlantic cod

Ringed seal

their role in the dissemination and bioaccumulation of environmental contaminants. Lower species such as shrimp and crab are also important economically, and they are harvested in regions such as Greenland. Insects may well be the bane of human residents and travellers in the Arctic, but they are essential parts of the ecosystem, serving a role as pollinators and providing food for birds. They have developed unique adaptations to the cold temperatures, strong winds, and short summer seasons.

White whale

Narwhal

Killer whale

Humans

Bearded seal

Polar bear

Hooded seal, harp seal

Arctic fox

Fig. 4.8 – Generalized marine food web [AMAP]

Seabirds, gulls

Glaucous gull

30

Vegetation The treeline demarcating the treeless tundra from the boreal forest, or taiga, is not so much a line as a transitional zone. As one travels poleward, trees become progressively smaller and smaller, and are more widely scattered, until there are none (Fig. 4.9). The soil is dry, thin, and poor in much of the Arctic, and permafrost – perennially frozen ground – can be found widely at varying depths, preventing adequate drainage. Except in the high Arctic Islands where there is only bare rock and gravel, some vegetation, mostly lichens, moss, grass and sedges, and small vascular plants covers large areas, much of it under snow cover during most of the year (Fig. 4.10). In the short summer growing season under continuous daylight, blooming flowers enrich the

Fig. 4.10 – Mosses and lichens on a rocky outcrop

Fig. 4.9 – Vegetation and land cover [UNEP/GRIDA]

Both moss and lichen lack roots and can thrive in areas with little soil cover (such as bare rock) in extreme environments such as the Arctic. Mosses are primitive green plants capable of photosynthesis. Lichens consist of a fungus and a green alga or cyanobactrium that live together in symbiosis. [V. Dorward]

31 landscape with a variety of colours (Fig. 4.11). Even in the High Arctic desert, there are oases where local topography favours plant growth. In the valley of Lake Hazen in northern Ellesmere Island, at 82ºN, over 110 species of flowering plants have been identified. Plant life is an important food source for the herbivores that form a critical link in the Arctic’s food web. The floral emblems of various circumpolar regions are shown in Fig. 4.12. (b) Labrador Tea (Ledum groenlandicum): Labrador tea’s strongly aromatic evergreen leaves are used in beverages and as medicines by the indigenous people of the Arctic. [V. Dorward]

(d) Arctic Poppy (Papaver radicatum): Several species of the Arctic poppy grow in the circumpolar region: the Iceland poppy, Lapland poppy, and Svalbard poppy. Although the flowers are typically yellow, white flowers are also common, especially in cloudy and foggy areas. [K. Hansen/Wiki]

(c) Wild Sweet Pea (Hedysarum mackenzii): Sweetly scented, the roots of the wild sweet pea are poisonous. It is closely related to bear root (H. alpinum), which has edible roots and is a favourite of grizzly bears. [V. Dorward]

(e) Arctic Cotton Grass (Eriophorum spp): Arctic cotton grass is a sedge rather than a grass. Several species grow in the Arctic, including those with a single “head” of cotton at the top of each stalk such as the E. vaginatum and the many-headed E. angustifolium. [S. McDonald]

(f) Kamchatcha Lily (Fritillaria camschatcensis): Grown in eastern Siberia, Kamchatka, and Alaska, it is also called chocolate lily for the colour of its flowers and not its foul smell. [T. Ikäheimo]

(g) In Finnish Lapland: the burst of colours in early autumn signals the “ruska” season. [K. Young] Fig.4.11 – Plant life (a) Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium): This pioneer species quickly colonizes burnt or cleared forest areas, and is among the first to appear in the glacial till. [V. Dorward]

32 Fig. 4.12 – Floral emblems of circumpolar regions

Iceland and Northwest Territories White dryad (Dryas octopetala) [M. Haferkamp/Wiki]

Norbotten Arctic raspberry (Rubus articus) [Käyttäjä/Wiki]

Finnmark Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) [Philipum/Wiki]

Troms Globe flower (Trollius europaeus) [BerndH/Wiki]

Fig. 4.13 – A boreal forest sunset in northern Canada [K. Young]

Alaska Forget-me-not (Myosotis alpestris) [Tigerente/Wiki]

Västerbotten King Karl’s spire (Pedicularis sceptrumcarolinum) [T. Meyer/Wiki]

Nunavut and Nordland Purple saxifrage (Saxifrage oppositifolia) [M. Haferkamp/Wiki]

The boreal forest is dominated by coniferous trees (such as spruce, pines, fir, and larch), and also hardwoods such as birch, alder, willow, and aspen (Fig. 4.13). Most but not all confers are also evergreen, that is, they do not shed their leaves in winter. Larch (also called tamarack) is the exception, with its needles turning golden in the late summer and falling off in the autumn. Local drainage and soil texture determine the predominant tree species. Some genera have several distinct species, each occupying different regions of the taiga. With warming climate, there is a gradual

Yukon Fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) [Kallerna/Wiki]

northward movement of the treeline and the appearance in the north of species more typical of southern climes. As the whole of Alaska is defined as a circumpolar region, the temperate rainforest in southeastern Alaska offers yet another type of ground vegetation. This rainforest consists primarily of coniferous trees (especially Sitka spruce and western hemlock within Alaska), and extends along the coast southwards into British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest states.

Part Two Circumpolar Peoples

Yakut girls cooking pishkij, Verhoyansk, Sakha Republic [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

34

5. Cultures and Languages

T

he population of circumpolar regions belongs to many different ethnic and cultural groups (Fig. 5.1). Many groups consider themselves to be indigenous, while others came as settlers and colonizers from other lands. Today, the ethnic diversity of the circumpolar regions is further enhanced by increasing immigration from all over the world to the Arctic states, including their most northern regions (Fig. 5.2).

Aleuts Aleuts

Aleuts

Evens Koryaks Alutiiq Central Koryaks Kereks Alaskan Yupik Alutiiq Chukchi Evens Dena’ina Siberian Yupik Tanacross Eyak Ahtna U.Kuskokwim Evens Tutchone Deg Hit’an Chukchi Yukagirs Tlingit Tagish Tanana Holikachuk Inuit Evens Tlingit Sakha Hän Koyukon (Iñupiat) Yuka- (Yakuts) Gwich'in girs Kaska Evens Sakha Slavey (Yakuts) Dogrib Chipewyan

Inuit (Inuvialuit)

Uralic Finno-Ugric branch Samoyedic branch Altaic Turkic branch Tungusic branch Chukotko-Kamchatkan

Isolated languages (Ketic and Yukagir) Eskimo-Aleut Inuit group (of Eskimo br.) Yupik group (of Eskimo br.) Aleut branch Na-Dene Athabascan branch Eyak branch Tlingit branch

Arctic circle Arctic boundary compiled by: W.K. Dallmann, Norwegian Polar Institute P. Schweitzer, University of Alaska Fairbanks

Evenks

Evenks Dolgans Evenks Nganasans Dolgans Enets Kets

Inuit 80

o

Komi Mansi Nenets Komi

Inuit (Kalaallit) 70

Icelanders

o

Sami Sami Norwegians Finns Sami Karelians

Finns Sami Swedes Norweo 60 gians Swedes

Faroese

Kets

Selkups Nenets Selkups Nenets Nenets Khanty Khanty Khanty Nenets

Language families Indo-European Germanic branch

Sakha (Yakuts)

Evenks

Fig. 5.1 – Ethnic groups in the circumpolar region Inuit

Evenks

Inuit

Inuit

Note: Languages spoken exclusively outside the Arctic boundary are not shown. [W. Dallman]

Evenks

35 Fig. 5.2 – Portraits of circumpolar peoples today

(a) Siberian Yupik in Provideniya, Chukotka. [K. Young]

(b) Researchers of an education institute in Yakutsk, Sakha Republic, wearing Yukagir national dress. [T. Burtseva]

(e) Ketil Lenert Hansen, researcher at the Sami Centre for Health Research in Tromsø, with his son in Sami national dress. The Sami costume is specific for the wearer’s home region, and its cut varies according to the individual’s sex, age, marital status, and socio-economic position in the community. Some families (or “siida”) also have characteristic decorations. [K. Hansen] (c) Elderly Chukchi woman in Anadyr, Chukotka. [K. Young]

(d) Chukchi traditional dancers in Anadyr, Chukotka. [K. Young]

36

(f) Nenets women of the Voskhod reindeer herding cooperative, near the village of Oma, Nenets AO. [Yasavey]

(g) Nenets reindeer herders relaxing inside a tent. [ZV. Ravna]

(i) Choir in Umeå wearing Swedish national dress in National Day celebration. [K.Young]

(h) Inupiat women in Wainwright, Alaska. [E. Loring]

(j) Dene Drummers at the Dene National Assembly, Fort Good Hope, Northwest Territories [H. Blackett/ICHR]

37

(k) Elderly Evenk woman, near Evensk, Magadan Oblast. [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

(l) Khanty woman sewing reindeer skin boots, Yamalo-Nenets AO. [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

38

Language Families The world’s languages can be grouped into families, although linguists and anthropologists do not completely agree on their classification and nomenclature. Table 5.1 presents one approach. In Arctic North America, the Eskimo-Aleut family extends from Greenland to Alaska and across the Bering Strait to Chukotka. The Na-Dene family comprises the Athapaskan languages spoken in Alaska and northern Canada (Fig. 5.3), as well as Haida and Tlingit. In the easternmost area of Asiatic Russia is the Chukotko-Kamchatkan family, with two branches: one comprises Chuckchi and Koryak, and the other comprises Itelmen, which is spoken in Kamchatka. The Altaic family covers much of the Far East and Central Asia, and is divided into three branches: a Turkic branch, which is a large conglomerate of some thirty languages across the steppes, from Turkey to the Arctic, including Yakut and Dolgan; a Mongolian branch, which includes Buryat; and a Tungusic branch, to which the Even and Evenk belong. Situated astride the Ural Mountains dividing Europe from Asia is the Uralic family. It can be further divided into Samoyed (which includes Nenets, Enets, Nganasan, and Selkups); Finnic, to which Finnish, Sami (Fig. 5.4), Komi, and Udmurt (as well as Estonian) belong; and Ugric, which includes Khanty and Mansi (and also Hungarian). The Russian and Scandinavian languages are all members of the vast Indo-European family of languages, which include English and French, two of the colonizing languages of Arctic North

Family Eskimo-Aleut

Intermediate branches Aleut Eskimo

Na-Dene

North Alaskan [esi], Northwest Alaska [esk], Eastern Canadian [ike], Western Canadian [ikt], Greenlandic [kal]

Yupik

Pacific Gulf [ems], Central [esu], Central Siberian [ess], Naukan [ynk]

Haida

Northern Haida [hdn] Tlingit [tli] Eyak

Eyak [eya]

Athapaskan

Koyukon [koy], Holikachuk [hoy], Ingalik [ing], Tanaina [tfn], Ahtena [aht], Upper Kuskokwim [kuu], Upper Tanana [tau], Lower Tanana [taa], Han [haa], Gwich’in [gwi], Northern Tutchone [ttm], Southern Tutchone [tce], North Slavey [scs], South Slavey [xsl], Dogrib [dgr]

North

Swedish [swe], Danish [dan], Norwegian [nor], Icelandic [isl], Faroese [fao]

West

English [eng]

German [deu]

Italic

Romance

French [fra]

Italian [ita], Spanish [spa], Romanian [ron]

Slavic

East

Russian [rus]

Ukrainian [ukr], Belarusan [bel]

Germanic

Baltic

Uralic

Other examples

Aleut [ale] Inuit

Tlingit AthapaskanEyak

IndoEuropean

Circumpolar languages

Latvian [lav], Lithuanian [lit]

South

Serbian [srp], Croatian [hrv], Bulgarian [bul]

West

Polish [pol], Czech [ces], Slovak [slk]

Finnic

Finnish [fin], Kven [fkv], Karelian [krl], Veps [vep]

Ugric

Estonian [est] Hungarian [hun]

Samoyedic

Tundra Enets [enh], Nganasan [nio], Selkup [sel], Nenets [yrk]

Permian

Komi-Permyak [koi], Komi-Zyrian [kpv], Udmurt [udm]

Sami

Western Apache [apw], Navajo [nav], Sarcee [srs]

Eastern

Kildin [sjd], Inari [smn], Skolt [sms], Ter [sjt]

Southern

Ume [sju]

Western

Pite [sje], North Sami [sme], Lule [smj], South Sami [sma]

Khanty

Khanty [kca]

Mansi

Mansi [mns]

Table 5.1 – Languages of the circumpolar regions Notes: The languages include both indigenous and national languages. The 3-letter codes for languages are used in the ISO Draft Standard 639-3. [Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 2009]

39 Family Altaic

Intermediate branches Mongolian Tungusic

Turkic

Circumpolar languages Buryat [bxr]

Northern

Even [eve], Evenk [evn], Negidal [neg]

Southern

Nanai [gld], Oroki [oaa], Ulchi [ulc], Orochi [oac], Udege [ude]

Northern

Northern Altai (Telengit, Teleut) [atv], Shor [cjs], Dolgan [dlg], Yakut [sah], Tuva (Soyot) [tyv]

Mongolian [khk]

Manchu [mnc]

Eastern

Northern Uzbek [uzn]

Southern

Turkish [tur]

Western

Kazakh [kaz], Kirghiz [kir]

Yukaghir

Northern [ykg], Southern [yux]

Yeniseian

Ket [ket]

ChukotkoKamchatkan

Other examples

Northern

Chukchi [ckt], Koryak [kpy], Kerek [krk], Alyutor [alr]

Southern

Itelmen (Kamchadal) [itl]

1. Southern 2. Ume 3. Pite 4. Lule 5. Northern 6. Skolt 7. Inari 8. Kildin 9. Ter.

Fig. 5.4 – Traditional territories of Sami languages

Fig. 5.3 – Distribution of Northern Athapaskan languages [Arctic Athabascan Council]

Darker areas indicate municipalities where Sami languages are officially recognized. The Ume, Pite and Ter languages (2, 3, and 9, respectively) are close to extinction. Northern Sami is spoken by the largest number of people. [Misha]

Fig.5.5 – Official languages of the Northwest Territories With its eleven official languages – the two national official languages of English and French, plus nine indigenous languages– the Government of the Northwest Territories takes multiculturalism and linguistic diversity seriously. [GNWT]

40 Table 5.2 – Alphabets of circumpolar languages (a) Latin-derived – some letters are rarely used or used only in loan words or proper names. [Wikipedia] (b) Russian Cyrillic and romanization – other systems include GOST 7.79 and ALA-LC.

Basic Modern Latin

Extended Letters

upper

A-Z

Á

À

Â

Ä

Å

Æ

Č

Ç

Đ

Ð

É

È

Ê

Ë

Í

Ì

lower

a-z

á

à

â

ä

å

æ

č

ç

đ

ð

é

è

ê

ë

í

ì

Å

Æ

À

Â

Ä

Å

Æ

É

È

Ê

Ë

Danish

all 26

English

all 26

Faroese

except C,Q,W,X,Z

Finnish

all 26

French

all 26

Greenlandic

except B,C,D,W,X,Y,Z

Icelandic

except C,Q,W,Z

Á

Northern Sami

except Q,W,X,Y

Á

Norwegian

all 26

Á

Swedish

all 26

Á

Á

Ç

Æ Ä À

Ð

Å

Â

Æ Å

Ç

É Ð

Č Â

Å Ä

È

Ê

Ë

Æ Æ

À

Í

É

Í

Đ

Æ

Å

É

È

É

È

Ê

Í

Ì

Extended Letters upper

Î

Ï

Ŋ

Ó

Ò

Ô

Ö

Ø

Œ

Š

Ŧ

Þ

Ú

Ù

Û

Ü

Ý

Ỳ

Ŷ

Ÿ

Ž

lower

î

ï

ŋ

ó

ò

ô

ö

ø

œ

š

ŧ

þ

ú

ù

û

ü

ý

ỳ

ŷ

ÿ

ž

Î

Ï

Ô

Ö

Û

Ü

Ø

Danishi English

Ó Ó

Faroese

Ø

Î

Ï

Ž

Œ

Ù

Û

Ü

Ÿ

Ø Ó

Icelandic

Ö

Þ

Ŋ

Northern Sami Swedish

Ý

Š

Ô

Greenlandic

Norwegian

Ú

Ö

Finnish French

Œ

Î

Š Ó

Ò

Ô

Ø Ö

America. Not included in Table 5.1 are many of the world’s languages that are spoken by new immigrants in Arctic communities today. All the circumpolar languages have written scripts, most of which are based on the Latin or Cyrillic alphabet (Table 5.2). The languages of many indigenous peoples were entirely oral

Ú

Ý

Ŧ

Ž Ú

Ù

Û

Ü

Ý

Ỳ

Ŷ

Ü

before contact and colonization. In the midnineteenth century the Moravian missionary Samuel Kleinschmidt devised a Greenlandic orthography and compiled a grammar book. During the 1870s, the Anglican missionary Edmund Peck adapted the syllabics system that had been invented for the Cree language

Cyrillic А а Б б В в Г г Д д Е е Ё ё Ж ж З з И и Й й К к Л л М м Н н О о П п Р р С с Т т У у Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Ш ш Щ щ Ъ ъ Ы ы Ь ь Э э Ю ю Я я

ISO 9:1995 A a B b V v G g D d E e Ë ë Ž ž Z z I i J j K k L l M m N n O o P p R r S s T t U u F f H h C c Č č Š š Ŝ ŝ ʺ Y y ʹ È è Û û Â â

Other system

Yo Zh

yo zh

Ĭ

ĭ

Kh TS Ch Sh Shh,Shch

kh ts ch sh shh, shch

Yu, Iu Ya, Ia

yu, iu уа, ia

to Inuktitut in the eastern Canadian Arctic (Fig. 5.6). Elsewhere in Canada, Alaska, and Greenland, the scripts of Inuit languages use the Latin alphabet, whereas in Russia, indigenous languages use the Cyrillic writing system. Further development of scripts for indigenous languages were proscribed under Stalin.

41 Symmetric Forms ᐱ

ᐃ IᐊA-

ᐅ ᐁ Ai-

ᑎ

Pi-

U-

ᐸ Pa-

ᐦ -H

ᕕ Vi-

Ti-

ᐳ ᐯ Pai-

ᑐ

ᑕ Ta-

Pu-

Tu-

ᑌ Tai-

ᑉ -P

ᕆ Riᕗ

ᕙ Va-

Vu-

ᕓ Vai-

ᑦ -T

ᕈ

ᕋ

Ra-

Ru-

ᕃ Rai-

ᕝ -V

Many minority languages are under threat of extinction. Notable exceptions are the various Inuit languages and northern Sami. These languages continue to be widely spoken and official policies exist to strengthen their teaching in schools and everyday use (Fig. 5.7).

ᕐ -R

Fig.5.7 – Indigenous languages in daily life

“a” syllabic form in superscript denotes final vowel-less consonants. The “ai” syllabic form is only used in Nunavik. In Nunavut, the same vowel sound is written by combining an “a” syllabic form with an “i” initial vowel form: Ai = ᐊᐃ

Pai = ᐸᐃ

Vai = ᕙᐃ

Placing a dot over the syllabic form extends the vowel sound: Paa = ᐹ Pii = ᐲ Puu = ᐴ

Asymmetric Forms ᑭ

ᑫ

ᒋ

ᑯ

ᒐ

Kai-

Ki-

ᑲ

Ka-

Ku-

ᒉ

Gai-

Gi-

ᒍ

Ga-

ᒃ -K

Gu-

ᒥ ᒪ

Ma-

ᒡ -G

ᓯ ᓴ

Sa-

Ji-

ᓱ

ᔭ

ᓀ

ᓕ

ᓓ

ᒧ

ᓇ

ᓄ

ᓚ

ᓗ

Na-

ᙯ

ᖃ

ᖁ

Qai-

Qu-

ᒋ

Ngi-

Nu-

ᖠ

ᖠ

ᔪ

ᖤ

ᖢ

Ju-

Łi-

Lai-

Li-

La-

Lu-

ᓪ -L

ᔦ

Jai-

Łai-

Ła-

ᔾ -J

ᕿ

ᖅ -Q

Nai-

ᓐ -N

Ja-

ᔅ -S

Qa-

Ni-

Mu-

ᔨ

Sai-

Su-

Qi-

ᓂ

ᒻ -M

ᓭ

Si-

ᒣ

Mai-

Mi-

Łu-

ᖦ- Ł

ᒉ

ᙱ ᖖᒉ

ᒍ

ᙵ ᖖᒍ

Ngai-

ᒐ

Nga-

Ngu-NG

Nngi-

Nnga-

Nngai-

Nngu-

ᖖ -NNG

Fig.5.6 – Inuktitut syllabary [R. Rawat/ICHR]

(a) Bilingual (Inuktitut and English) traffic sign in Gjoa Haven, Nunavut. [K. Young]

(b) Aili Keskitalo, president of the Norwegian Sami parliament (2005–7), reading the Sami newspaper Ávvir. [Norske Samers Riksforbund]

42 Indigenous population (%) 1 2 3 4 5

80

Sk

Ev

Km Fm Tr

Fig.5.9 – From the archives: Dene in northern Canada [Glenbow Archives] (a) Inland Tlingit dressed for potlatch in Teslin Lake, Yukon, 1915.

Fo

1

. ied K Winfr Drawn by

Fig. 5.8 – Proportion of indigenous people in the population of circumpolar regions [W. Dallmann]

man Dall

n

Indigenous Peoples There are many indigenous peoples in the circumpolar regions, including some groups such as the Sami, Inuit, Dene, Aleut, and Evenk whose territories extend across two or more nation states. There is not one universally accepted definition of indigenous peoples, not even in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Characteristics of indigenous peoples include the following:

» they usually live within (or maintain attachments to) geographically distinct ancestral territories; these territories were occupied before the embracing nation states’ boundaries were defined; » they tend to maintain distinct social, economic, and political institutions within their territories; » they typically aspire to remain distinct culturally, geographically, and institutionally rather than assimilate fully into national society; and » they self-identify as indigenous or tribal.

Some countries have legislations that define and recognize specific groups as indigenous. The Constitution of Canada identifies First

Nations (or “Indians”), Inuit, and Métis as “Aboriginal.” In the United States, a variety of treaties and agreements define “American Indians and Alaska Natives.” Beginning in the 1920s, the Soviet government accorded various ethnic groups with a population less than 50,000 the status of “numerically small peoples (korennye malochislennye narody) of the North, Siberia, and the Far East.” At the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, there were twentysix such groups in Russia. By 2005 the number had grown to forty-one. Excluded are nonSlavic national minorities such as the Yakuts, Buryats, and Komi, which have populations in the hundreds of thousands and form their own republics, although the governments of

43

(b) Dene family, Northwest Territories, circa 1905.

these republics are typically dominated by Russians. The distinction between “national minorities” and “indigenous peoples” is also made in countries such as Norway, where the Finnish-speaking Kvens are considered to be a minority but not an indigenous group. While ethnic identity is included in the Canadian, American, and Russian censuses, such information is not recorded in the population registries of the Nordic countries. An accurate estimate of the population size of indigenous peoples in all the circumpolar regions is thus not available. Indigenous peoples account for more than 85 per cent of the population in Greenland and Nunavut, but make up only a small proportion in the Nordic countries, with the exception of Finnmark (Fig. 5.8).

Traditional Subsistence Circumpolar indigenous peoples traditionally engaged in subsistence activities that were based mainly on animal resources. Several broad patterns can be recognized. 1. Maritime hunters (e.g., Inuit/Eskimos, coastal Chukchi, Koryaks) engaged in seasonal seal and walrus hunting on ice and in whale hunting from boats. 2. Taiga hunters and fishermen (e.g., Dene, Yukagirs, Evenks, Evens, Enets, Khanty, Mansi, and Kets) based their livelihood on large game hunting and on fishing in rivers and lakes.

3. Reindeer herders (e.g., Yukagirs, Nganasans, Evens) tended large reindeer herds that numbered in the hundreds and thousands. Some groups (Sami, Nenets, Enets) made seasonal trips from the taiga zone to the tundra and back, while others (Chukchi, Koryaks) left the tundra for the sea coast in the summer. Large-scale reindeer herding developed throughout northern Eurasia, although it probably originated independently in different areas.

(c) Gwich’in woman, Old Crow, Yukon, 1927.

44 Fig.5.11 – From the archives: Inuit in northern Canada [Library and Archives Canada]

Fig.5.10 – From an old Sami family album, 1895 Ketil Hansen’s grandmother Inga Andersdottir Svonni (second from right), being held by her mother Ellen Olsdattir Sarri, was two years old when this photo was taken in Hinnøya, in northern Norway. [K.Hansen]

(a) Inuit men, Erik Cove, Québec, 1904.

(b) Inuit men with crew of CGS Arctic, Baffin Island, 1906.

(c) Three Copper Inuit Women, 1913-1918.

(d) Inuit at Bernard Harbour, N.W.T., 1927.

The lifestyles of indigenous peoples have changed substantially from a century or so ago (Fig. 5.9–Fig.5.11), and the pace of social and economic change has accelerated since the 1950s. Some “traditional” activities are still practised widely, depending on the locality, although this is often for the cultural value of the activity rather than for any economic gains (Fig. 5.12, Fig. 5.13). Despite considerable improvements, indigenous peoples in many circumpolar regions still suffer considerable disparities in their living conditions when compared to their non-indigenous people in the country.

45 Fig. 5.12 – Contemporary Inuit whaling and hunting

(a) Bowhead hunt in Barrow, Alaska. [Accent Alaska]

(b) Hunter with narwhal in Clyde River, Nunavut. [E. Loring]

(c) Caribou hunting in Rankin Inlet, Nunavut. [E. Loring]

Fig. 5.13 – Reindeer herding in Eurasia

(a) Chukchi reindeer herders in Chukotka. [E. Shubnikov]

(b) Nenets reindeer herding camp on the tundra. [Yasavey]

(c) Norwegian Sami herders. [K. Hansen]

46

6. Origins and Prehistory

T

hrough statistical analyses of genetic markers, it is possible to show the genetic relationships among the diverse peoples in circumpolar regions. However, extensive intermarriage and adoption of the languages and cultures of neighbouring groups over long periods of time can obscure such relationships.

Greenland Inuit Alaskan Inupiat Canadian Inuit Northern Dene Reindeer Chukchi Mongol-Tungu Nenets Nganasan Coastal Chukchi

Genetic Relationships Genetic “distances” measure the degree to which populations share genetic variation. By analyzing so-called classical markers such as blood groups, red cell enzymes, serum proteins, white cell antigens, and immunoglobulins, it is possible to construct a genetic “tree.” One such tree, based on sixty genes, shows the relationship between sixteen Eurasian and North American Arctic groups (Fig. 6.1). Some linguistically close groups are pooled; for example, Even, Evenk, and Buryat are pooled into a “MongolTungu” group, and the Yakut, Dolgan, Tuva, and Altai into a “North Turkic” group. Different trees will result if a different mix of populations or different sets of genetic markers are studied. Modern genomics enables the study of polymorphisms at the DNA level (variation in genetic sequences). By focusing on the rates and patterns of mutations on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA, inherited by children from their mothers) and the non-recombinant region of the Y chromosome (NRY, passed on from father to son), it is possible to reconstruct human

Siberian Yupik Koryak Swedish Sami Norwegian Sami Finnish Sami North Turkic 0.11

0.10

0.05

0

Genetic distance

Fig. 6.1 – Genetic relationships among circumpolar peoples based on classical genetic markers [Adapted from Cavalli-Sforza et al. (1994)]

evolution, especially the prehistoric migrations of populations. Fig. 6.2 shows the distribution of various mtDNA haplogroups among circumpolar peoples. Existing mtDNA and NRY studies have indicated that the Sami had received little genetic flow from Asiatic Siberian peoples. There is no evidence from mtDNA analyses that the Norse had contributed to the Greenlandic gene pool on the maternal side. On the other hand, a study of NRY has shown a high degree

of Scandinavian admixture, as much as 60 per cent, most likely from male Danish colonists rather than the Norse. For indigenous peoples of North America, their Asiatic origin is widely accepted, based on the accumulated genetic evidence from living and past Siberian and North American populations. However, there is still considerable debate on the number and timing of the waves of migrations and their likely routes.

47

Out of Africa, Into the Arctic The settlement of the Arctic is part of the story of modern Homo sapiens who migrated “out of Africa” some 60,000 years ago. By 45,000 years BP, they had reached Europe. During the next 20,000 years much of Eurasia was colonized, as far north as 60ºN in Siberia and the Urals. Successful occupation of the Arctic required anatomical and physiological adaptation, dietary changes, and technological innovation, particularly in clothing and shelter. The colonization occurred in a series of thrusts and retreats coinciding with climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene Ice Age, which opened and closed habitats. Around 20,000 years BP, (Before Present, set at 1950) with the end of the cold peak of the Last Glacial Maximum, humans were able to maintain a sustained presence above the Arctic Circle. In the west, as the massive Fennoscandia icesheet began to retreat around 12,000 years BP, people moved into southern Scandinavia. By 10,000 years BP, the coasts of western Norway and southern Sweden were occupied as far as 63ºN. Between 10,000 and 7,000 years BP, the Komsa culture thrived on the coast of Finnmark above 70ºN and extended eastward to the Kola Peninsula. In Siberia, the Dyuktai culture flourished about 15,000 years BP around the middle Lena Basin, associated with developing the distinctive “microblade” technology (Fig. 6.3). Around 12,000 years BP, the Sumnagan culture appeared and quickly spread across Siberia and into the tundra. By 10,000 years BP, human settlement extended from Chukotka in the east to the Taymyr Penin-

Aleuts A

Aluttig

D

Koryaks

Siberian Yupik

D A

G

D A

D

Haida

A

A

Alaska Yupik

G D C

C

Y

Nivkhs G

A D

Fig. 6.2 – Distribution of mtDNA haplogroups among circumpolar peoples

D

Itelmens

Chukchi

A

Alaska Inupiat

C G

C

C

Evens

Yukaghirs

C

A

Evenks

Dogrib D C D

A

Nganasans

Nunavut Inuit

C

Selkups Sámi A

Greenland Inuit

V

U

U H U

Norwegians U

H

Icelanders

U

K

H

H U T H

Finns

Karelians

T

U H

Russians

Studies on mtDNA and NRY rely on the identification of mutations on segments of DNA called haplotypes that are transmitted together. Such haplotypes can be assigned into haplogroups, which correspond to genetic lineages of people who can trace their common origin to the time those mutations occurred and were perpetuated in subsequent generations. The homogeneity of Inuit/Inupiat groups from Alaska to Greenland is evident, among whom the frequency for haplogroup A exceeds 90 per cent. Haplogroup A is also predominant among two Na-Dene groups, but less so among Aleuts and Yupiks in the Bering Sea region. Apart from the Siberian Yupik and Chukchi, there are few similarities between present populations of the Old and New World. It is also evident that the Sami are more European than Siberian in origin. [W. Dallmann]

H

Swedes

Danes

Fig. 6.3 – Microblade, a versatile technology Microblades are small sharp stone flakes chipped off from stone “cores” that could be fixed into grooves of a bone or an antler and used as weapons or tools. This technology was first developed some 15,000 years ago and widely disseminated in northeast Asia, and later was carried into the Americas. The specimen shown is from the Rice Ridge archaeological site on Kodiak Island, Alaska, and is dated to 4000 BC. [Alutiiq Museum/Smithsonian]

48 13,000 years B.P.

12,000 years B.P.

BERINGIA

outer coast ice free

corridor open but impassable

11,500 years B.P.

10,500 years B.P. Beringia breached

Date

year BP

AD 1500

500

AD 1000

1000

AD 500

NE Siberia

N Alaska

Central Arctic

Thule

Thule

Thule

Thule

1500

Punuk

Birnirk

Late Dorset

Late Dorset

AD 1 BC

2000

Ipiutak

Middle

Middle

500 BC

2500

Old Bering Sea

Norton

Early Dorset

Early Dorset

1000 BC

3000

1500 BC

3500

Pre-Dorset

Pre-Dorset

2000 BC

4000

2500 BC

4500

Choris

Neolithic cultures

Denbigh Flint Complex

ice free corridor

High Arctic

Thule

Greenland

Thule

Late Dorset

Late Dorset

Early Dorset

Independence II

Independence I

Saqqaq

Arctic Small Tool tradition Paleo-Eskimo cultures Drawn by W.K. Dallmann, Norwegian Polar Institute

Fig. 6.4 – Beringia and the ice-free corridor [W. Dallmann, based on Meltzer (2009)]

Eastern Arctic

Greenlandic Norse

Fig. 6.5 Paleo-Eskimo and Neo-Eskimo archaeological traditions and cultures [Based on McGhee (1996)]

sula in the west.

dated as 12,000 years BP.

Across Beringia

From Beringia, further movement to the east was blocked by the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheets, which remained a solid mass until around 12,000 years BP. At that time an ice-free corridor opened between the ice sheets and allowed movement southward. This led to the initial peopling of the Americas. An alternative coastal route was feasible earlier, perhaps around 17,000 years BP (Fig. 6.4).

Around 60,000 years BP, the sea level of the Bering Sea was as much as 120 metres below today’s level, exposing the Beringia land bridge. Humans likely occupied Beringia around 15,000 years BP and migrated into North America. Much earlier migrations (by tens of thousands of years) have been proposed. Mammoth bones with signs of human modification have been found in Old Crow Flats and the Bluefish Caves in the Yukon. Some have claimed that these bones are 25,000 to 42,000 years old, but these claims have not been generally accepted. The oldest confirmed site of human occupation is Swan Point in Alaska,

Neo-Eskimo cultures

Humans were probably camping along the Nenana and Tanana river valleys in central Alaska by 12,000 years BP. Between 11,000 and 10,000 years BP, by which time the Beringia land bridge had been completely submerged, a coastal, marine hunting-based culture known

as the American Paleo-Arctic tradition developed around Kotzebue Sound. In the Alaska interior different archaeological traditions and complexes coexisted, which subsisted on freshwater resources and caribou hunting; these were known as the Denali complex, Nenana complex, and Northern Paleo-Indian tradition. Archaeologists assign names to “traditions,” “complexes,” and “cultures” based on the remains found in different sites that reflect a common way of life. The Northern Paleo-Indian tradition is very similar to sites found in southern North America and may represent people who had moved back north in the wake of deglacia-

49

Fig. 6.6 – Paleo-Eskimo migrations

Fig. 6.7 – Neo-Eskimo migrations [W. Dallmann, based on McGhee (1996)]

The Arctic Small Tools tradition originated from northeastern Siberian Neolithic cultures. It was not directly linked to the earlier Paleo-Arctic tradition in the same region. It gave rise to Paleo-Eskimo cultures (such as the Dorset) across the Arctic from about 4,500 years ago. [W. Dallmann, based on McGhee (1996)]



tion.

Indians became evident.

Emerging Historic Cultures

In Alaska the maritime-based Arctic Small Tool tradition emerged in the northwest coast around 4,500 years BP. It rapidly spread across the Arctic and developed into different PaleoEskimo cultures (Fig. 6.5). The Dorset culture extended from the central Arctic to Greenland and was adept at winter hunting, including hunting seals in ice holes. It thrived between 3,000 and 1,000 years BP, at which time it was replaced by the Thule culture, with which it coexisted for a short time in some localities.

Global warming about 7,000 years ago ushered in the Neolithic or Late Stone Age in Eurasia. The development of marine-based subsistence promoted the colonization of the Arctic from Norway to Chukotka. Around 2,000 years BP, northern Europe entered the Iron Age. Reindeer herding and plant cultivation were practised. Culturally, the identity of the local populations became recognizable, for example, as Sami and Nenets. In interior Alaska, from 1,500 years BP the archaeological link to present-day Athapaskan

The Thule, the direct forebears of today’s Inuit, was a Neo-Eskimo culture that had sprung up

1: Original homeland. 2: Initial eastward push, about AD 1000.

3: Expansion into maritime regions, AD 1000–1200? 4: Occupation of remaining areas, AD 1200–1500?

from the Bering Sea coast and had developed innovations such as hunting large sea mammals in open water using skin boats (Fig. 6.6– 6.7). The movements of people and the rise and demise of cultures in the Arctic over tens of thousands of years demonstrated how the physical environment, especially climate change, and the various physiological, behavioural, social, and cultural changes allowed these people to adapt to, and survive in, one of the most challenging habitats on the planet.

50 Fig. 6.8 – Arctic archaeological sites

(a) Pteroglyphs in Alta Fjord, Finnmark, have been dated to between 4200 BC to AD 200. With over 6,000 rock paintings, the area is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. [S. Bernhoft]

(b) Remains of a Thule house, near Resolute Bay, Nunavut. The walls were made of whale bones. [S. McDonald]

(c) Recreation of Viking settlement dating to 1000 AD at L’Anse aux Meadows on the northernmost tip of Newfoundland. [D. Kereluk/ Wiki]

Fig. 6.9 – Paleo-Eskimo and Neo-Eskimo artifacts

(a) Blade from Pre-/Early Dorset, Northwest Territories. [CMC]

(b) Harpoon head from Old Bering Sea culture, Alaska. [UAMN]

(c) Snow goggle from Punuk culture, Alaska. [UAMN]

51

7. History and Politics

T

he recorded history of the circumpolar regions is interwoven with the history of the nation-states to which they belong, or used to belong. Tables 7.1 and 7.2 provide a chronology of the major historical events in the circumpolar countries and their northern regions. For most regions, history over the past millennium was marked by exploration, trade, colonization, and de-colonization, although proceeding at different paces.

The Vikings Cometh The seafaring Vikings or Norse from presentday Norway travelled far and wide across the North Atlantic. They settled the Faroe Islands and Iceland in the ninth century AD and Greenland in the tenth century (Fig. 7.1). They established two main settlements on the west coast of Greenland, with about 1,400 people living in each of them. From Greenland, the Norse made forays into the North American continent. Archaeological evidence exists to show that there were interactions between the Norse and the Inuit. For a few years Greenland was home to the Dorset culture, the Thule Inuit, and the Norse. The Norse settlements lost contact with Iceland during the early fifteenth century, and probably died out by AD 1500. The onset of the Little Ice Age around 1450–1500 likely put tremendous stress on what was still a medieval European farming-based society.

Before the 10th century Greenland

10th, 11th centuries 986: Norse Eirik the Red lands early 1100s: Einar Sokkason becomes first resident bishop

12th, 13th centuries 1200s: Thule Inuit cross Davis Strait

14th, 15th centuries 14th-15th century: Norse settlements die out with onset of “Little Ice Age” 1408: Last recorded event of Norse settlement c.1500: Thule culture reaches southern tip

Iceland

874: Norse chieftain Ingófur Arnason founds settlement

930: Althing (parliament and court) established 1000: Christianity adopted

Faroes

9th century: Norse settle Faroe Islands

1262: Under Norwegian Crown, replaces Commonwealth form of government

999: Sigmundur Brestirson introduces Christianity

under rule of Denmark-Norway

under rule of Denmark-Norway

1035: King of Norway takes possession of island Fennoscandia

8th-11th century: Norse raid and trade with much of Europe

Fennoscandia (North)

Norse round North Cape in 9th century

Russia

c.878: Founding of Kievan Rus, unified state of Eastern Slavs

Russia (European North)

10th century: Novgorod citystate founded

Vikings sail north to White Sea

Finland under Swedish rule from mid-13th century

1349–50: Black Death

Norwegians settle in Finmark

14th century: Norwegians in Vardø levy toll on maritime trade with Russia

Mongols threaten Novgorod, southern Russia under the Golden Horde

1478: Novgorod falls to Ivan III of Muscovy

12–15th centuries: Novgorod expands northeastwards

1353: Russian settlement in Kholmogory 100 km upstream on Dvina

1136: Monastery at mouth of Dvina River Russia (Siberia) North America

c.800: Mississippian culture emerges and flourishes

1001: Leif Ericsson’s landfall in Baffin (?); Norse settlement in Newfoundland

Table 7.1 – Major historical events in circumpolar countries and their northern regions

1397: Kalmar Union under Eric of Denmark

1480: Ivan expels Mongols from Russia

1491: Gold and silver mining in lower Pechora River

Mongol domination

1490: Golden Horde breaks up, Siberian Khanate established

c. 1142: Earliest proposed date for formation of Haudenoshaunee Confederacy (most likely founded from 1450 to 1600)

c.1400: Mississippian settlement of Cahokia abandoned 1492: Columbus reaches Western Hemisphere 1497: Cabot explores Gulf of St Lawrence

52 16th, 17th centuries Greenland

Danish King Christian IV claims Greenland

18th century 1721: Hans Egede arrives 1774: Royal Greenland Trading Co (KGH) established; acts as virtual civilian government in W. Greenland

Iceland

1783: Laki volcano erupts; Mist Hardships; massive famine

19th century 1814: Transfer from Norway to Denmark 1888: Hansen and Sverdrup cross ice sheet east to west at 64ºN 1894: E. Greenland Danish colony, KGH monopoly extended 1814: Transfer to Denmark; Jón Sigurðsson leads independence movement; massive emigration to N. America 1874: Home Rule

Faroes

1814: Transfer from Norway to Denmark 1816: Granted county status

Fennoscandia

1523: Breakup of Kalmar Union 1530s: Lutheran Reformation

1700–21: Great Northern War; Russia (allied with Denmark-Norway) defeats Sweden

1809: Finland under Russian rule as autonomous Grand Duchy 1814: Norway ceded to Sweden after Napoleonic War 1866: Severe famine in Finland

1554–7: Sweden vs Russia War 17th century: Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) and constant wars between Denmark-Norway and Sweden Fennoscandia (North)

1542: Sweden claims all unsettled land in north for Crown

1751: Lapp Codicil granted free movement of herds between Norway and Sweden

1840s: Lars Levi Laestadius religious movement among Sami

Russia

1533–84: Reign of Ivan the Terrible

1703: St Petersburg founded

1812: Napoleon’s invasion fails

1613: Romanov dynasty begins

1762–96: Reign of Catherine the Great

1854–6: Crimean War lost to Britain and France

1607: King Carl IX titles himself “King of the Lapps”

1861: Emancipation of serfs

1682–1725: Reign of Peter the Great Russia (European North)

1582: Czar appoints military governor (voyevoda) for Kola region; Arkhangelsk (1584) and Syktyvkar (1586) founded; Russia controls North from Kola to lower Ob by 1600

1721: Sweden annexes Kareliya

1825: Archimandrite Veniamin sets out from Arkhangelsk to baptize Nenets

First half of 18th century: Chukchi mounts resistance to Russians; Russia consolidates control east of Urals, extensive explorations of Arctic coast and islands

1822, 1892: Special laws governing indigenous peoples

1756-63: Seven Years’ War; Britain gains control of Canada

1867: Confederation

1697: Oil found in Komi region Russia (Siberia)

1581: Yermak leads Cossacks across Urals; Mansurov establishes fortress on bank of Ob (1586) 1598: Siberian Khanate vanquished; Russians reaches Lena R (1622); Sea of Okhotsk (1639); and acquire whole of Siberia (1690)

Canada

Canada (North)

1534-42: Cartier sails up St Lawrence River 1608: Champlain founds Quebec

1870: Red River Rebellion by Métis

1663: New France established

1885: Completion of Canadian Pacific Railway

1670: Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) founded with base at Churchill aimed at trade with subarctic Indians

Hearne (1771) and Mackenzie (1789) explore overland to Arctic coast

19th century: Intensive explorations for Northwest Passage 1870: HBC sells Rupert’s Land to Canada 1897: Klondike Gold Rush; Yukon a separate territory (1898); Treaty 8 (1899)

United States

1607: Virginia colony founded

1775-1783: Revolutionary War and Independence

1620: Pilgrim Fathers land

1831-1838: Trail of Tears 1846-8: Mexican-American War 1861-5: Civil War

Alaska

1743: Russians begin hunting in Aleutian Islands

Tlingit destroy Russian post at Sitka (1802) and Yakutat (1805);

1784: Trading post on Kodiak Island

1824–45: Veniaminov builds missions and schools; develops Aleut and Tlingit alphabet; RAC establishes post at mouth of Yukon River (1833); Zagoskin explores interior (1840)

1799: Russian American Co. (RAC) under Baranov granted fur trade monopoly

1867: Alaska Purchase

53 1900–39 Greenland

1933: Norway’s territorial claim on East Greenland rejected by International Court

WWII 1939–45 US built airbases; secret German weather stations discovered

1945–1979 1953: County status amended Danish Constitution

1980–present 2009: Self-Rule implemented

1979: Home Rule Iceland

1918: Independent but part of Danish realm

1940: Occupied by British, later by U.S.

1970s: Fishing dispute with UK

2008–9: Financial crisis

1944: Republic declared Faroes

1940: Occupied by British

1946: Referendum narrowly favours independence 1948: Home Rule

Fennoscandia

1905: Norway independent of Sweden 1917: Finland declares independence from Russia; Civil War follows

Fennoscandia (North)

Russia

Strong “Norwegianization” pressures on Sami 1920: Multinational Svalbard Treaty grants Norway sovereignty but shared mining interests 1917: Bolshevik Revolution 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk; Civil War 1922: USSR formed 1924: Stalin gains power; famines, collectivization, and purges (1930s)

Russia (European North) Russia (Siberia)

1916: Murmansk founded; Kareliya (1923) and Komi (1931) autonomous republics; Nenets (1929) and Khanty-Mansi (1930) n. okrugs

Denmark and Norway occupied by Germany; Sweden stays neutral; Finland invaded by USSR in Winter War; Finland allied to Germany and fought USSR in Continuation War

Cold War: Finland treads softly next to USSR – “Finlandization” 

1944-1945: Lapland War; Germans scorch Lapland and Finnmark

1979: Alta protest

1989: Sami Parliaments established in Karasjok (1989), Kiruna (1993), and Inari (1996) 1939: Non-aggression pact with Germany; invasion of Poland; conflict with Finland (1939-1940); re-occupation of Baltic states (1940) 1941-1945: Great Patriotic War

Murmansk and Arkhangelsk major ports for Allied supply during WWII; Komi, Sami and Nenets form Red Army “reindeer battalions”

1955: Warsaw Pact signed with E. European allies

1979–89: War in Afghanistan

1956: Invasion of Hungary

1986–7: Gorbachev proposes policies of glasnost and perestroika

1962: Cuban missle crisis 1968: Invasion of Czechoslovakia

1931: Statute of Westminister: legislative independence from UK 

Canadian forces in North Atlantic (1939-); Italy (1943); France (1944)

1949: Newfoundland officially joins Canada

1910s and 1920s: Trading posts established across Arctic coast; Imperial Oil begins drilling in Norman Wells

1942: Alaska Highway built; U.S. build airbase in Frobisher Bay

1950s: Relocation of Inuit to High Arctic

1970: October Crisis state of emergency

Late 1950s: Distant Early Warning Line 1967: Yellowknife becomes capital of NWT

1921: Treaty 11 (Mackenzie Valley)

1977: MacKenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry

1930s: Eastern Arctic Patrol United States

1912: Territorial status

1980, 1995: Quebec votes to stay in Canada after two referendums Comprehensive land claims process – Inuvialuit (1984); Gwich’in (1992); Sahtu (1993); Nunavut (1993); Tlicho (2003) 1999: Nunavut established

1941: Pearl Harbor; American entry into War

1949: NATO formed

1990: First Gulf War

1944: Normandy Invasion

1950-3: Korean War

1945: Atomic bombing of Japan

1965-1975: Escalation and war in Indochina

2001: September 11 terrorist attacks; War in Afghanistan

1960s: Civil Rights movement United States (Alaska)

1990: RAIPON (organization of indigenous peoples) formed 2007: Evenkia, Taymyr and Koryak AO abolished

1930: Yamalo-Nenets and Chukotka n. okrugs

Canada (North)

1991: USSR dissolved

Kola Peninsula heavily militarized; oil and gas developments in Nenets AO since 1970s 1980s: Massive oil and gas developments; Novyy Urengoy in Yamalo-Nenets AO hub of 6 pipleines 

1922: Yakutiya autonomous republic 1924–35: Committee of the North established

Canada

Sami flag and anthem (1986) and national day (1993) proclaimed

1942: Two Aleutian Islands briefly occupied by Japan; Alaska Highway built

1959: Alaska becomes 49th state 1964: Easter earthquake 1971: Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act 1977: Trans-Alaska Pipeline

2003: Second Gulf War 1983: Alaska Native Review Commission reviews ANCSA 1989: Exxon Valdez oil spill

54 Fig. 7.1 – The Norse presence in North America

Table 7.2 – Nordic integration and separation

Year

Denmark

Iceland

Norway

Sweden

Finland

Mergers: on again, off again 10th–13th century: Emergence of centralized states and Christianization

1250

Mid-13th century: Swedish king establishes rule over Finland

1300

1262: Iceland comes under Norwegian Crown

1350

1319: Union of Swedish and Norwegian Crowns under Magnus VII

1400

Olaf IV king of both Norway and Denmark (1379–89); Albert of Mecklenberg rules Sweden (1364–89)

1450

1397: Kalmar Union 1523: Breakup of Kalmar Union by King Gustav I of Sweden

(a) Norse explorations and migrations in the North Atlantic. [Dallmann, based on McGhee (2005)] 1550

1536: Denmark annexes Norway; constant wars between Sweden and Denmark-Norway, Russia, and various Baltic states 1563–70: Northern Seven Years War 1655–60: 2nd Northern War 1675–79: Scanian War 1700–21: Great Northern War 1801–14: Napoleonic Wars

(b) Wood carving of figurine found in Inuit house on Baffin Island (circa AD 1250–1300) in the style of the period suggestive of a person wearing a long European robe with what could be a crucifix on the chest. [CMC]

1800

1809: Finland ceded to Russia as autonomous Grand Duchy

1850

1814: Treaty of Kiel, Norway ceded to Sweden but retained its own constitution

1900

 

1905: Norway independent 1917: Finland independent 1918: Iceland independent within Danish realm; republic in 1944

EU

1973-

No

No

1995-

1995-

NATO

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Currency

DKK

ISK

NOK

SEK

EUR

Monarch

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

No

In post–Second World War Europe, the Nordic countries have pursued different political paths, while maintaining close cooperation and amicable relationships.

55

New World Explorations The “discovery” of the Americas by Christopher Columbus in 1492 ushered in a new era of European exploration. European knowledge of the Arctic was patchy and fanciful (Fig. 7.2). Beginning in the late sixteenth century, European explorers sailed into the Arctic Ocean in search of the Northwest Passage, although whalers had visited Arctic waters even earlier. A host of explorers are today remembered by various bays, straits, islands, and other geographical features in the Arctic (Table 7.3). The Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) was granted a royal charter in 1670 with exclusive trading rights in the vast northern hinterland. HBC traders also led significant explorations. The search for ill-fated Franklin expedition in the mid to late nineteenth century generated much valuable knowledge of the Arctic (Fig. 7.3, Fig. 7.4). Concurrent with the search for the Northwest Passage was the search for the Northeast Passage (also called the Northern Sea Route) by Russian and Nordic explorers (Fig. 7.5). Various attempts to reach the North Pole also generated knowledge about the Arctic Ocean and its various archipelagoes.

Colonization and Settlement Northern Canada In northern Canada, the hunting life of indigenous peoples remained largely intact after contact with Europeans. However by the 1860s, Roman Catholic and Anglican missionaries had arrived in the north and openly competed for the allegiance of various communities.

Fig. 7.2 – Mercator map of the Arctic, 1595 The Septentrionalium Terrarum descriptio by Flemish cartographer Gerardus Mercator was the first printed map of the northern hemisphere from the North Pole to 60ºN and indicated a sea route across the top of North America. The North Pole is a massive magnetic rock surrounded by four islands, with waters between them flowing northward into the centre of the Earth. The map also shows the then-recent discoveries of Frobisher and Davis. [Library and Archives Canada]

56 1770–1 1778

James Cook’s 3rd voyage passes through Bering Str in search of western entrance of NWP; killed in Hawaii in 1779

1789

Alexander Mackenzie canoes down river, since named after him, to the Arctic Ocean

1818

John Ross seeks entrance to NWP in Baffin Bay; believes Lancaster Sound an inlet blocked by non-existent Croker Mt

1819–20 1821

Fig. 7.3 – HMS Investigator caught in the ice off Banks Island, August 1851 Launched to search for Franklin, the HMS Investigator, commanded by Robert M’Clure, was trapped in ice for three winters, and abandoned in June 1853. The crew traversed the Northwest Passage by small boats and sledge and were rescued by HMS Resolute. In June 2010, the well-preserved wreckage was found in Mercy Bay by Parks Canada marine archaeologists using sonar. [ [Library and Archives Canada]

Fig. 7.4 – Commemorative bust of Roald Amundsen The hamlet of Gjoa Haven, named after Amundsen’s ship, commemorated Amundsen’s stay for two winters with the installation of a bust and the opening of a small museum. [S. Chatwood]

Table 7.3 – Chronology of Arctic explorations Ch = channel; Is = island(s); L = lake; M = mountain; NWP = Northwest Passage; NEP = Northeast Passage; Pn = peninsula; Pt = point; R = river; Str = strait Northwest Passage 1576–8

Martin Frobisher (x3) to Baffin Is and Hudson Str, brings home fool’s gold and Inuit hostages

1585–7

John Davies (x3) to west of Greenland

Samuel Hearne and Chipewyan chief Matonabbee trek across barren lands, down Coppermine R to Arctic Ocean

Edward Parry sails through Lancaster Sound into Parry Ch, named the Parry Is group, winters in Melville Is but could not exit channel; turns around after sighting Banks Is John Franklin travels from Cumberland House to Great Slave L, down Coppermine R and explores coast eastward

1821–3

Parry unable to sail through Fury and Hecla Str, potential entrance to NWP; hikes overland to its western end

1824–5

Parry’s 3rd try but no further west than Somerset Is, abandons one ship on Fury Beach

1825–6

Franklin’s land expedition: builds Fort Franklin on Great Bear L; down Mackenzie R; west to Pt Franklin on Chukchi Sea

1825

Frederick Beechey sails through Bering Str, reachs Pt Barrow; fails to rendezvous with Franklin coming from east

1829–33

John Ross and James Clark Ross enter Gulf of Boothia but find no exit to west; spend 4 winters stuck in ice; JCR explores Boothia Pn and locates North Magnetic Pole

1837–9

Thomas Simpson and Peter Warren Dease explore coast past Simpson Str; build Fort Providence on Great Bear L

1846–51

John Rae, HBC doctor, make extensive explorations; travels light and Inuit style

1845–8

Franklin sets sail, winter on Beechey Is, dies 1847; crew abandon ship, leave note on King William Is and disappear

1848–69

Massive search efforts for Franklin; all fail, but gain valuable geographical knowledge

1851–2

Joseph-René Bellot finds strait separating Somerset Is and Boothia Pn, northernmost point of North American mainland

1850–3

Robert M’Clure searchs from west, recognizes M’Clure Str as western exit of NWP; stuck in ice but rescued by Belcher; first to transit NWP from west to east, albeit on different ships

1610

Henry Hudson sails into Hudson Bay, believes to be Pacific; crew mutinies in 1611 and sets him adrift with son

1852–4

Edward Belcher leads 5 ships, eventually abandoned 4

1616

William Baffin and Robert Bylot explore Baffin Bay, Smith, Jones, and Lancaster Sounds

1853–4

1619

Jens Munk crosses Hudson Bay to mouth of Churchill R; overwinters but crew decimated by scurvy

John Rae meets Inuit in SW Boothia Pn with souvenirs from Franklin’s crew and accounts of dying sailors and cannibalism; ostracized in England for besmirching honour of Englishmen

1631

Thomas James (with letter to Emperor of Japan) winters in James Bay

1857–9

Leopold M’Clintock sledges on King William Is and finds note by Franklin’s crew with account of Franklin’s death and their plan to trek south to mainland

1631

Luke Foxe explores vicinity of Foxe Ch, Basin, and Peninsula

1903–6

Roald Amundsen with 6 crew enter Lancaster Sound, down Peel Sound and Franklin Str; spend 2 years at Gjoa Haven; continue westward but stuck off Mackenzie Delta; sledge to Eagle River, Alaska, to telegraph news of successful NWP transit; pass Bering Str and end voyage at Nome.

1741–2

Christopher Middleton explores Hudson Bay, Wager Bay, Repulse Bay, and Rankin Inlet; suspected of trying to hide discovery of NWP

57 Northeast Passage

North Pole and High Arctic

1553

Hugh Willoughby sails into Barents Sea but dies

1553

Richard Chancellor reaches mouth of Dvina R in White Sea and travels overland to Moscow

1594

Willem Barentsz rounds top of Novaya Zemlya

1596

Barentsz reached Spitsbergen, dies near Novaya Zemlya 1597

1648

Semen Dezhnev sails from mouth of Kolyma R. through Bering Str to mouth of Anadyr R.

1871

Charles Hall reaches Hall Basin at 82ºN; dies under suspicious circumstances; crew stranded on ice floe and adrift for 6 months before rescue off Labrador

1690–2

Maksim Mukhoplev discovers New Siberian Is

1875

George Nares explores northern Ellesmere Is, winters at Alert; sledges past 83ºN on ice

1725–8

Peter the Great sends Vitus Bering overland to Kamchatka; sails through Strait and back; finds St Lawrence and Diomede Is but does not sight Alaska

1879

George DeLong tries to reach Pole from Bering Str, ends up drifting off north coast of Siberia

1730s

Great Northern Expedition to map entire northern coast and search for rumoured “Great Land” in Arctic Ocean

1881–4

Aldophus Greely, U.S. Army Signal Corp, part of first International Polar Year; establishes Fort Conger on Ellesmere; extreme hardship, 6 of 25 survived

Dmitri Laptev maps coast of Laptev Sea between Lena and Kolyma R

1893–6

Fridtjof Nansen and Otto Sverdrup deliberately drift boat stuck on ice from north of New Siberian Is towards Greenland through Pole; Nansen sledges as far as 86ºN but retreats towards Franz Josef Land; Sverdrup stays on boat and drifts towards Svalbard; both arrive back at Tromsø within a day of each other

1739–41

1827

Edward Parry and James Clarke Ross attempts to sail towards Pole from Spitsbergen, reaches 82ºN

1852

Edward Inglefield, while on Franklin search, explores Smith Sound route to Pole

1853–5

Elisha Kent Kane passes 80ºN – Kane Basin and Humboldt Glacier; arduous trip back by boat and on foot to Upernavik

1741

Second Kamchatka Expedition: Vitus Bering explors North Pacific; dies in shipwreck

1742

Semen Chelyuskin reaches northernmost tip of Asia in Taymyr Peninsula; Cape now named after him

1891–1906

1765

Vasiliy Chichagov attempts to sail over the Pole from Spitsbergen to Bering Str but stopped by ice at 80ºN

Robert Peary explores northern Greenland and Ellesmere; 3 unsuccessful tries to reach Pole

1899–1900

1816

Otto von Kotzebue finds Kotzebue Sound in Alaska

Sverdrup discovers Axel Heiberg Is and others west of Ellesmere, group now called Sverdrup Is

1820

Ferdinand Wrangel surveys NE coast of Siberia but misses the island that now bears his name

1908–9

Contested priority claims by Robert Peary and Frederick Cook to have reached Pole; both may have been bogus

1867

Thomas Long, American whaler, discovers island which he named after Wrangel, while others name strait after him

1872–4

Karl Weyprecht discovers Franz Josef Land east of Svalbard while ship drifts with ice for a year

1878-79

Adolf Nordenskiöld first to complete NEP, from Tromsø through Bering Str to Yokohama

1913

Arctic Hydrographic Expedition discovers Severnaya Zemlya off the Taymyr Pn, the last “new” land

The HBC sold its land holdings to the newly established Canadian state in 1870, which became the Northwest Territories (NWT). Britain retained control of the Arctic Islands, but transferred them to Canada a decade later. The NWT shrunk in size as new provinces were carved out of it (Fig. 7.6). Yukon became a territory in 1898. The Canadian government entered into treaties with various First Nations as the country expanded. Some Dene groups signed Treaty 8 in 1899 and Treaty 11 in 1921 (Fig. 7.7). The North was deemed unsuitable for agriculture, so the federal government was reluctant to conclude treaties until the incursion of mining prospectors in the Northwest during the late nineteenth century following the Klondike Gold Rush and the discovery of oil at Fort Norman in 1920.

1912, 1916–18

Knud Rasmussen 1st and 2nd Thule Expedition to northern Greenland; disproves Pearyland an island

Fig. 7.5 – The Northwest and Northeast Passages [UNEP/GRIDA]

Northwest Passage Northern Sea Route

58 1870

Canadian Provinces Northwest Territories Other British Possessions

1898

Canadian Provinces Northwest Territories Yukon Newfoundland

Historical Treaties of Canada

Arctic Islands

POST-CONFEDERATION TREATIES Numbered Treaties Williams Treaties PRE-CONFEDERATION TREATIES Peace and Friendship Treaties

Newfoundland

Yukon

British Columbia

Treaty 11 1921

Newfoundland

Northwest

Upper Canada Treaties Province of Canada Treaties

Northwest

Territories

Nova Scotia

PEI

Manitoba

Ontario

British Columbia

Territories

Quebec New Brunswick

PEI Quebec Manitoba

1912

Canadian Provinces Northwest Territories Yukon Newfoundland

Vancouver Island Treaties

Ontario

Nova Scotia

Treaty 8 1899

New Brunswick

1999

Canadian Provinces Northwest Territories Yukon Nunavut

1908 Treaty 10 1906

Treaty 5

1889

1875

1929-30

Treaty 6 1876

Pre-Confederation Vancouver Island Treaties 14 Treaties – 1850-54

Treaty 7 1877

Treaty 9 1905

Treaty 4 1874

Treaty 3 1873 Treaty 2 Treaty 1 1871 1871

Yukon

Northwest Territories

British Columbia Alberta

Newfoundland

Quebec

Manitoba

Saskatchewan

PEI

Ontario

Fig. 7.6 – Territorial expansion and evolution of Canada’s northern territories [W.Dallmann]

New Brunswick

Nova Scotia

Yukon

Northwest Territories

British Columbia Alberta

Robinson-Superior 1850 Manitoulin Island Treaty 1862

Nunavut Newfoundland

Quebec

Manitoba

Saskatchewan

PEI

Ontario New Brunswick

Nova Scotia

Peace and Friendship Treaties Treaty Boundary Upper Canada Treaties

Treaty Adhesion

Treaty 8 involved the Slaveys, Dogribs, and Yellowknives south of Great Slave Lake in present-day Northwest Territories (as well as First Nations in British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan). Treaty 11 covered the Mackenzie River valley region. [INAC]

East Greenland (Tunu) was colonized by the late nineteenth century and North Greenland (Avannaarsua) by the early twentieth century. Denmark adopted a protectionist policy towards Greenland and controlled all traffic with the outside world.

Shortly after the conclusion of these treaties, an influenza epidemic swept through the Mackenzie river valley in 1928, claiming the lives of many elders and profoundly shaking the social stability of the Dene.

F e nn o s c a n d i a

In 1721, the Norwegian missionary Hans Egede (Fig. 7.9) arrived in Greenland and established Godthåb (now Nuuk). Other settlements were established along the west coast.

Williams Treaties 1923

Fig. 7.7 – Land area covered by Treaties 8 and 11

In exchange for the title to their lands, Aboriginal groups were promised hunting and trapping rights, annual payments, various forms of assistance, and the setting up of Indian reserves. None of the territory occupied by the Dene in Yukon and the Inuit was ceded to Canada by a treaty.

Greenland

Robinson-Huron 1850

During the fourteenth and fifteenth century, northern Fennoscandia attracted traders from the south and from Russia in search of furs and fish. With diffuse national borders in the north, the Sami were often taxed by two or more jurisdictions. Due to diminishing resources in the south, farmers were encouraged to move north, creating conflicts with and displacing the Sami who were forced to move to

the coast. Northern Scandinavia, especially Finnmark, also became strategically important in the geopolitical struggle with Russia over access to the sea and the region’s wealth in minerals, fish, and timber. The border between Norway and Sweden was fixed by the treaty of 1751. The treaty’s Lapp Codicil gave the Sami the right to move freely across the border with their herds while being taxed in only one country, and secured them certain rights in both countries. However, national borders were generally ignored by the Sami. When Finland came under Russian rule in 1809, the Sami in Finnmark were not allowed to use the winter grazing grounds in Finnish Lapland, and in 1889 Russia closed the border between Finland and Sweden for

59

Fig. 7.8 – Statue of Hans Egede in Nuuk Egede (1686–1758) intended to convert the presumed Catholic Norse inhabitants to Lutheranism, but found Inuit instead. He is revered as the founder and national saint of Greenland. [K. Young]

the movement of herds. Land rights remain the main issue of contention well into the twenty-first century. The Sami continue to face increased pressure for cultural and linguistic assimilation.

Russian Siberia Alaska

and

The Russian conquest of Siberia began when the Cossack known as Yermak Timofeyevich led an expedition beyond the Urals in 1581 (Fig. 7.10). Ultimately, the Tartars and other peoples were brought under the control of the Moscovite state.

In the seventeenth century, Russian control expanded rapidly to the east and northeast of Siberia. The ethnic map of Siberia changed considerably as a result of military campaigns and the migration of people to thinly populated areas fleeing from the yasak (tribute) collectors. The Chukchis were never subjugated militarily, but engaged in trade with the Russians by the end of the eighteenth century. In the late eighteenth century, Russian promyshlenniki (fur hunters) conscripted and exploited Aleut and Eskimos in Alaska, and almost exterminated the sea otter. The first settlement was established in 1784 on Kodiak Island. In 1799, a monopoly in the fur trade was granted to the Russian American Company. Russian influence and interest in Alaska dwindled in the nineteenth century. In 1867, Czar

Alexander II sold Alaska to the United States for $7.2 million. The U.S. government initially did not show much interest in Alaska either, and for years Alaska was referred to as Seward’s Folly, after Secretary of State William Seward who negotiated its purchase. Alaska was granted territorial status in 1912. The U.S. government pursued a policy of assimilation towards Alaska Natives through schools and missions. The gold rush – the most famous one being the Klondike (1897–8) – brought in miners and prospectors. In Siberia during the nineteenth century, special laws were passed to preserve the indigenous peoples’ well-being and way of life and to protect them against arbitrary local authorities and fur traders, but these were rarely observed by government officials.

Fig. 7.9 – Yermak’s Conquest of Siberia Oil painting by Vasily Ivanovich Surikov, 1895, in the Russian Museum, St Petersburg

60

Fig. 7.10 – Soviet government poster targeting shamans and kulaks, 1931 This poster exhorts people to elect workers and not shamans or kulaks to the local Soviet (committee). Under Stalin’s policy of forced collectivization in the 1930s, Arctic reindeer herders were branded kulaks (rich peasants) because they “owned” thousands of reindeers. Indigenous shamans were also targeted. The policy resulted in the breakdown of indigenous social systems. [G. Khoroshevky]

Fig. 7.11 – The Blood Road, 1942-1945

Fig. 7.12 – Evacuation of Finnmark, 1944

Thousands of Soviet and Yugoslav prisoners of war perished through starvation, disease, exhaustion, beatings, and mass executions in the attempt to build an Arctic highway through the Saltfjell mountain range in northern Norway. [Salten Museum]

The Germans adopted a scorched earth policy as they retreated from Finnish Lapland and northern Norway. Much of the population was evacuated. Rovaniemi in Finland and many Norwegian towns were burned to the ground. [Lofoten Krigsminne Museum]

In 1924, during the early years of the Soviet era, the Committee for Aid to Peoples of Far North Areas (or Committee of the North) was created, mainly on the initiative of ethnographer Vladimir G. Bogoraz, with the goal of studying, promoting and protecting the cultures of northern indigenous peoples. The Committee improved living conditions, education standards, and language preservation.

1935. By the 1940s the overwhelming majority of reindeer herds belonged to collective farms (kolkhoz), undermining traditional social structures and economy.

In 1929, private trade was forbidden and a state monopoly for northern resource development was established. Shamans were also the targets of campaigns to discourage traditional beliefs in favour of modern education (Fig. 7.10). The Committee of the North was politically divided and unable to resist these measures or soften their consequences. It was disbanded and some of its members were “liquidated” in

In 1929, “national okrugs” and lower-level “national rayons” were established to administer areas where indigenous peoples predominated. However, real power resided in the central ministries that controlled development.

The North at War The Second World War changed the North. In Europe, the Germans occupied both Denmark and Norway, the latter under Vidkun Quisling, a former defence minister. Sweden was able to maintain its neutrality. Finland thwarted an invasion by the Soviets in 1939. It allied itself

61

Fig. 7.13 – Construction of the Alaska Highway, 1942 African-American GIs provided the muscle for the construction of this 2,237-km long “highway” under arduous conditions, completing it in seven months. The highway was part of the war effort to link Alaska, through the Yukon and British Columbia, to the Lower 48 and took on urgency as Japan invaded two of the westernmost Aleutian Islands. It connected a series of airfields that ferried aircraft to aid the Soviet Union. [UAF Archives]

with Germany and fought the USSR, but eventually made peace with the latter. In northern Norway, the Germans imported 100,000 mostly Soviet and Yugoslav prisoners of war as slave labour to create a system of interconnected road and rail networks up to Kirkenes on the Russian frontier (Fig. 7.11). The worst of the work camps was found in Beisfjord in Nordland county where mortality exceeded 80 per cent. By war’s end, the Germans retreated southward, leaving a trail of destruction in both Finnish Lapland and Finnmark (Fig. 7.12).

The Japanese occupied and were then driven out of two of the Aleutian Islands in 1942. Many Aleuts were relocated to temporary camps in southeast Alaska for the duration of the war, and endured severe hardships. While not directly touched by the war, the rest of the Arctic acquired strategic importance. A chain of landing strips in Alaska and northern Canada provided a transportation link to Europe. The Alaska Highway was also built through the southern Yukon (Fig. 7.13). In Greenland, the Americans built air bases at Kangerlussuaq (Søndre Strømfjord) and Narsarsuaq, which ended the island’s long isolation.

Post-War Developments After the war, radical transformations in the lives of the people occurred across the circumpolar North.

Alaska witnessed a considerable influx of newcomers with new oil and gas developments. In 1959, it became the 49th state (Fig. 7.14). The Trans-Alaska Pipeline from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez was opened in 1977. Oil royalties fuelled much of the state’s economy. In 1989 the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, resulting in an unprecedented environmental disaster. In Greenland a commission was established to suggest reforms and future development. In 1953, it became a county (amt) of Denmark. Extensive infrastructural development transformed a hunting society into a modern society based on the wage economy. Profound social changes accompanied the influx of Danes, whose share of the population increased from less than 3 per cent in the1940s to almost 20 per cent in the 1970s.

Fig. 7.14 – Alaska achieved statehood, 1959 Governor Michael Stepovich and congressional supporters celebrated the passage of the Alaska Statehood Bill by the U.S. Senate in 1959, holding up the new flag with 49 stars. [Alaska State Library]

62 terning them in residential schools continued throughout much of the 20th century. Language, customs, diet, and spiritual beliefs were discouraged or uprooted by church authorities who ran the 40 schools that operated in northern Canada (Fig. 7.15). Physical, emotional, and sexual abuse characterized the experiences of many individuals who passed through these institutions. The practice finally ended in 1996, followed by a formal apology in parliament and the formation of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission as part of a legal settlement in 2008.

Fig. 7.15 – Roman Catholic Indian residential school study time, Fort Resolution, Northwest Territories [Library and Archives Canada]

Before the Second World War, the Canadian North was neglected as a barren wasteland with little economic potential. In the 1950s, the pace of change began to intensify. New towns were developed, and the government actively encouraged sedentary settlement so that health, education, and social services could be administered and delivered more easily. Mining activities introduced large numbers of migrant workers from the south. The Cold War hastened the modernization with the construction of radar stations and airstrips (the Distant Early Warning or DEW line, along the 70th parallel). Meanwhile, Canadian attempts to assert sovereignty over the High Arctic led to the relocation of several Inuit communities to more northerly climes, resulting in extreme privation for the families involved. The aggressive assimilation policy of removing Aboriginal children from their parents and in-

Almost in parallel, Soviet ideology also required the cultural integration of diverse ethnic groups into a new modern “Soviet people.” In Siberia, campaigns were launched to enlarge settlements, merge ethnic groups, and discourage the “backward” nomadic way of life. These policies resulted in impoverishment and the loss of traditional livelihoods across the North. Industrial developments by state enterprises sharply increased in the mid-1950s. Uncontrolled natural resources development ignored land rights of indigenous peoples or the negative effects on the environment. Few northern indigenous shared in the economic benefits, although a notable few achieved artistic, athletic, and professional renown.

Towards SelfDetermination In the 1970s, many young Greenlanders began to agitate for greater autonomy. Home Rule (Hjemmestyre) was formally introduced in 1979, with a gradual transfer of responsibility for most public sectors, excluding foreign

affairs, defence, and finance. In 2009, Greenland achieved Self-Rule (Selvstyre), which is close to complete independence. However, its economy continues to be heavily subsidized by Denmark. In Canada, it was not until 1967 that the seat of the NWT government was moved to Yellowknife from Ottawa. The territorial council became fully elected in 1975. In the 1970s a proposal to build a natural gas pipeline in the Mackenzie Valley sparked widespread opposition by indigenous and environmentalist groups. A public inquiry recommended delaying construction until after the settling of land claims. Meanwhile, the Dene experienced a cultural and political renaissance. Since the 1980s, a series of comprehensive land claims have been settled between the Canadian government and various Aboriginal groups (Table 7.4). These agreements generally involve the creation of regional corporations responsible for economic development and for the management and investment of cash settlements. The indigenous people also gained legal title, surface and subsurface mining rights, and exclusive hunting and fishing rights to specific parts of the settlement area. In 1999, Canada’s newest territory Nunavut was born. Statehood in Alaska soon led to conflict over the selection of “vacant, unappropriated or unreserved” lands by the state, lands which were also claimed by Alaska Natives. The discovery of oil in the North Slope in the late 1960s added an element of urgency to the need to settle land disputes. In 1966, the Alaska Federation of Natives was formed, which took the lead in negotiations with the state, leading up to the Alaska

63 Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. In return for agreeing to the extinguishment of all claims of Aboriginal title, Alaska Natives were given direct ownership over 10 per cent of the area of the state and $962.5 million in cash compensation. The land and cash would be channelled through regional Native (for-profit) corporations and smaller village corporations (Fig. 7.17). With the disintegration of the USSR in 1991, northern indigenous people became politically assertive and organized. The economic chaos and collapse of state-run enterprises (including reindeer herding collectives) led to a sharp deterioration in the health and wellbeing of the people. The economy began to recover in some areas in the early 2000s. In Scandinavia, the 1960s and 1970s witnessed the awakening of Sami activism and struggle for political rights. In 1979, the hydroelectric power project in Alta, Norway, which dammed and flooded traditional Sami lands, ignited Sami protests. Since then, progress has been made. The establishment of primarily consultative and advisory Sami parliaments in all three countries (Fig. 7.18) safeguard the interests of the Sami in different areas, such as protecting their languages and the use of land and water for reindeer herding. There were symbolic milestones in the proclamation of the Sami anthem and flag in 1986, and the establishment of Sami National Day (February 6) in 1993. The interest in old traditions, Sami languages, and cultural heritage has increased, not least among many young Sami and urbanized Sami.

Table 7.4 – Comprehensive land claim agreements in the Canadian North

Russia

Arctic Slope Regional Corp.

Northwest Territories and Nunavut 1984

Inuvialuit Final Agreement

1992

Gwich’in Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement

1993

Nunavut Land Claims Agreement

1993

Sahtu Dene and Métis Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement

2003

Nana Regional Corp.

U

a s ssi Ru State Bering Straits ed Native Corp. nit

Callista Corp.

Cook Inlet Region Inc. Bristol Bay Native Corp.

Aleut Corp.

Canada

Doyon Ltd.

AHTNA Inc. Chugach Alaska Corp. Sealaska Corp.

Koniag Inc.

Tlicho Land Claims and Self-Government Agreement 200 km

Yukon 1993

Umbrella Final Agreement

Individual and separate Final Agreement and SelfGovernment Agreement with: 1993

Champagne and Aishihik First Nation Nacho Nyak Dun First Nation Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation Teslin Tlingit Council

1997

Little Salmon/Carmacks First Nation Selkirk First Nation

1998

Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in

2002

Ta'an Kwach'an Council

2003

Kluane First Nation

2005

Carcross/Tagish First Nation Kwanlin Dun First Nation

Fig. 7.16 – Alaska Native regional corporations [W. Dallmann] Fig. 7.17 – Interior of Sami Parliament in Karasjok, Norway The Sámediggi opened in 1989. It holds elections once every four years and has responsibilities delegated to it by the national authorities to promote and protect the political rights, culture, and language of the Sami people. There are similar Sami parliaments in Inari, Finland (established 1996) and Kiruna, Sweden (established 1993). [K.Young]

64

8. Population and Settlements Population Size

60000

Population

50000

Greenland

40000 30000 20000

Born outside Greenland

2010

2000

1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

1921

1911

0

1901

10000

Born in Greenland

180000 160000

Population

140000

Chukotka

120000

Secular Trends

100000 80000 60000 40000 20000

Indigenous

Fig. 8.1 – Population trend in Greenland 1901–2010 [P. Bjerregaard] Fig. 8.2 – Population trend in Chukotka, 1926–2010 Based on Russian census data for 1926, 1939, 1959, 1970, 1979, and 1989, as reported in Bogavalensky and Siggner (2004); updated by 2002 Census data and 2010 estimate from Rosstat; population of indigenous people from 2002 to 2010 extrapolated.

I

10 20

02 20

89 19

79 19

70 19

59 19

39 19

26

0

19

Circumpolar regions differ in the size of their populations (Table 8.1) and their share of the total national populations. Alaska and the northern territories of Canada constitute less than 0.5 per cent of the total population of the U.S. and Canada, respectively. Greenland’s population is only 1 per cent that of Denmark’s. In contrast, a much higher proportion of the population of Norway (10 per cent), Sweden (6 per cent), Finland (12 per cent), and Russia (5 per cent) reside in their northern regions.

Non-indigenous

n assessing the health of a population, knowledge of the size, composition, and growth of the population itself is required. An accurate enumeration of the population provides the denominator for the rates and proportions that constitute many health indicators. Analyses of the population also help to identify “vulnerable” subgroups such as the elderly, children, and pregnant women who may have special health care needs.

Populations increased in the 1950s across the circumpolar North, but peaked in northern Finland in the 1960s, northern Norway in the 1980s, and northern Sweden and Russia in the 1990s. In northern Canada, Alaska, and Greenland populations continue to grow. Table 8.1 shows the trend in population from 1990 to 2009. Whereas Alaska, northern Canada, and Iceland witnessed substantial growth, many northern Russian regions suffered depopulation, with some losing more than half their populations within twenty years. In only Yamalo-Nenets AO and Khanty-Mansi AO, both of which experienced large scale oil and gas development, have the populations increased. The indigenous population in the Russian North has remained stable; as a result, their share of the total population in the regions has increased.

The increase in Greenland’s population since the early twentieth century is shown in Fig. 8.1. The proportion of the population not born in Greenland has declined from a peak of almost 20 per cent in 1975 to less than 12 per cent in the first decade of the twenty-first century. The population of Chukotka experienced substantial growth since the 1930s, but the population crashed after the demise of the Soviet Union, with the massive out-migration of the non-indigenous population (Fig. 8.2). Between 1960 and 1970, the growth rate of the non-Native population in Alaska was almost twice that of Alaska Natives, due to the high immigration to the state. Since 1990, the situation has been reversed, with the growth rate of the Native population more than twice that of the non-Native population.

Population Density Population densities are shown in Fig. 8.3, and vary from 0.02 in Nunavut to 35 in the Faroe Islands. Within sparsely populated regions, populations are not evenly distributed. Greenland’s inhabitants are concentrated on the southcentral west coast, with only 6 per cent living on the east coast and less than 2 per cent in the Far North. Within each region, the largest city tends to account for a high proportion of the total regional population, from 20 per cent to 70 per cent. Urbanization is widely observed across the Arctic.

65 % change

% change 1990

2000

2009

2009/1990

4,986,431

5,176,209

5,338,871

7.1

Oulu

442,004

457,573

473,543

7.1

21.8

Lappi

200,324

193,060

183,856

-8.2

33,653

21.2

N. Finland

642,328

650,633

657,399

2.3

40,480

43,439

16.4

Russian Federation

147,969,414

146,596,870

141,915,638

-4.1

21,580

27,498

32,183

49.1

Murmansk Oblast

1,190,127

931,969

839,413

-29.5

86,684

98,409

109,275

26.1

Kareliya Republic

791,589

732,138

685,889

-13.4

5,140,939

5,337,344

5,519,441

7.4

Arkhangelsk Oblast

1,572,231

1,379,726

1,258,422

-20

Greenland

55,589

56,176

56,323

1.3

Nenets AO

51,830

41,053

42,184

-18.6

Faroe Islands

47,559

45,749

48,676

2.3

Komi Republic

1,244,388

1,050,377

954,807

-23.3

Iceland

254,788

281,154

319,246

25.3

Yamalo-Nenets AO

488,869

497,282

544,911

11.5

Norway

4,241,473

4,490,967

4,828,726

13.8

Khanty-Mansi AO

1,273,585

1,371,548

1,529,213

20.1

Nordland

239,468

238,702

235,826

-1.5

Taymyr AO

51,316

38,257

36,852

-28.2

Troms

146,705

151,469

156,024

6.4

Evenkia AO

24,148

18,241

16,391

-32.1

Finnmark

74,369

74,073

72,674

-2.3

Sakha Republic

1,115,232

959,993

949,630

-14.8

N. Norway

460,542

464,244

464,523

0.9

Magadan Oblast

387,401

197,960

162,097

-58.2

8,558,835

8,872,110

9,298,515

8.6

Koryak AO

37,666

26,238

20,724

-45

Västerbotten

251,054

256,177

258,180

2.8

Chukotka AO

160,096

59,574

49,046

-69.4

Norrbotten

263,289

257,168

249,348

-5.3

N. Russia

8,336,644

7,263,303

7,047,392

-15.5

N. Sweden

514,343

513,345

507,528

-1.3

All Northern Regions

10,951,766

10,000,512

9,908,834

-9.5

Country/Region

1990

2000

2009

2009/1990

249,622,814

282,171,957

307,006,550

23

553,290

627,499

698,473

26.2

27,697,530

30,685,730

33,739,859

Yukon

27,774

30,431

Northwest Territories

37,330

Nunavut N. Canada

United States Alaska Canada

Denmark

Sweden

Table 8.1 – Trend in mean annual population 1990–2009

Country/Region Finland

66 USA (Alaska), 2004

Population density (persons/km 2 ) 1 2 3 4 5

85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

< 0.1 0.1-0.9 1.0-4.9 5.0-20.0 >20.0

Yk

5

Sk

4

3

85-89 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

Females

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

Males

5

5

46

3

2

Yn

5

4

3

85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

Females

2

1

0

5

i ed K Winfr Drawn by

. Dal

nn l ma

1

2

Fig. 8.3 – Population density [W. Dallmann]

Age-Sex Structure

Fig. 8.4 – Population pyramids of selected countries and regions [AMAP]

Fig. 8.4 compares the age-sex pyramids of various countries and regions. In general, the population of northern Fennoscandia tends not to differ substantially from its respective national population, and it is characterized by a high proportion of the elderly (65+), between 14 per cent and 18 per cent, which is higher than any other circumpolar region. Compared to the Canadian population, the population of the northern territories is more youthful. The proportion of the population under the age of fifteen is particularly large

4

3

3

4

5

1

0

1

4

5

5

46 3

2

5%

4%

3%

2%

1%

0%

1%

85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

2

Percentage of total population

3

4

5

4

3

85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

3%

4% 5%

1

0

1

The population of Greenland is composed of a broad-based upper half similar to the shape of the pyramid in developing countries, positioned on top of a more barrel-shaped column similar to the pyramid in industrialized countries. The shift between the two patterns oc-

2

3

4

5

6

Males

5

4

3

Females

2

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

4

5

Northern Russian, 2002

2

Percentage of total population

in the predominantly Inuit Nunavut (36 per cent). The proportion of the elderly is substantially lower in the North, even among the nonAboriginal population, reflecting the transient nature of many residents who migrate to the North for occupational reasons.

1

Percentage of total population

85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

Females

2

0

Norway, 2004

2%

Males

5

1

Percentage of total population

Percentage of total population

Females

2

3

Finland, 2004

Males

5

2

Females

Sweden, 2004

Fo

1

Males

Percentage of total population

85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

0

Females

Faroe Islands, 2004

Males

Ko

1

Males

Percentage of total population

Iceland, 2004

Ev

85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

Females

Percentage of total population

85+ 80-84 75-79 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4

Greenland, 2004

Arctic Canada, 2004

Males

3

4

5

Males

5

4

3

Females

2

1

0

1

2

3

Percentage of total population of 14 regions

curs around the age of forty-five, equivalent to the birth cohorts of 1965–70. Similar to other indigenous populations, the Alaska Native population is also a young one. In 2000, its median age was twenty-four years, compared to a national one of thirty-five years. The Alaska all-races population is also young, and it occupies an intermediate position between that of the Alaska Native and the U.S. all-races population in terms of the proportion of children and the elderly.

67 150°

160°

170°E

160°

150°

Chukchi Sea

60°

tra it

55° 50°N

Noorvik Tanana

Nome Unalakleet

n Yuko

Fort Yukon

CANADA

Fairbanks Nenana

McGrath Wasilla Palmer k s Valdez Ku Anchorage St.Marys Aniak Cordova Kenai Bethel Seward Bering Sea Homer Nunivak I. Naknek Gulf of Alaska Dillingham St.Paul Bristol Bay Alaska Kodiak PenPribilof I.s Kodiak I. insula

I s l a n d s Atka I.

180°

Pacific Ocean 160°

0

150°

Fig. 8.5 – Location of population centres [W. Dallmann] (a) Alaska

The indigenous population of the Russian North is predominantly rural. In the 2002 Census, only 28 per cent of indigenous people within the territories of their primary residence was classified as urban, a proportion similar to that of the total USSR population in the late 1930s, compared to 73 per cent in the Russian Federation in 2002.

Juneau Sitka

Petersburg Ketchikan

Unimak I.

Unalaska Umnak I. Unalaska I. 170°W

Haines

50°N

le ut i a n

170°E

A

A L A S K A (U.S.A.)

55°

Attu I.

Beaufort Sea e Bay dho Pru

Wainwright

Point Hope Kotzebue

gS r in Be Gambell St.Lawrence I. Alakanuk

120°

w

FEDERATION

Barrow

Ar cti cC irc le

130°

ok

RUSSIAN

140°

60°

The “settler” and indigenous populations tend to live in distinct communities. In northern Canada, the non-indigenous peoples are concentrated in the cities and large towns, accounting for 40 per cent in Inuvik and Iqaluit to over 80 per cent in Whitehorse and Yellowknife. The majority (more than 60 per cent) of Alaska Natives live in small remote communities, ranging in population from 50 to 5,000. Approximately 85 per cent of the non-Native population lives in larger population centres.

170°W

Arctic Ocean

Cities, Towns, and Villages Regional maps showing the location of population centres are provided in Fig. 8.5. There are few large cities in northern Canada or Greenland, with none having a population over 25,000. These regions lie above 60ºN. On this latitude in northern Europe can be found the metropolises of Oslo, Helsinki, and St Petersburg. Even in the northern Scandinavian regions, the largest cities range from 50,000 to 140,000. Even larger cities can be found in the Russian North, with Arkhangelsk having a population over 350,000, and several others in the 250,000–300,000 range. Anchorage is the only North American city (280,000) that is comparable in size.

180°

65°

In comparison with the whole population of Russia, the population of northern natives is considerably younger. The proportion of children under fifteen years of age among northern natives is almost twice that in the country, while the proportion of those aged forty-five and over is only half that observed in all of Russia.

A pictorial tour of the cities and villages of the Arctic is provided by Fig. 8.6 and Fig. 8.7, with a peek inside the tents of reindeer herders’ camps (Fig. 8.8). The increasingly multicultural nature of much of the North is reflected in new types of businesses and places of worship that have been established by immigrants from around the world (Fig. 8.9).

200

400 140°

600 km

68 FIg. 8.5 (b) Canada 75° 0

80°

200

400

600

85°

85°

km

80°

75°

70°

Alert

Greenland

Arctic Ocean

(DENMARK)

Ellesmere Island

65°

70°

Grise Fiord Queen Baffin Bay

Elizabeth Islands Resolute

Beaufort Sea

ic

Ci rc

le

Alaska

Tsiigehtchic

(U.S.A.)

Dawson

Yukon Mayo Territory

60°

Carmacks

Whitehorse Watson Lake

140°W 55°N

Fort Simpson Fort Liard

Gameti Wha Ti Behchoko

Iqaluit

Northwest Territories

Cape Dorset

Kimmirut

Coral Harbor Baker Lake

Wekweti

Chesterfield Inlet Kivalliq

Rankin Inlet Whale Cove Arviat

Lutselk’e

Yellowknife

Ft. Providence

Cambridge Bay

Bathurst Inlet

Deline Tulita Wrigley

Tungsten

Melville Peninsula Kugaaruk Repulse Bay Gjoa Haven

Taloyoak

Ft.Resolution Hay River Fort Smith

Hudson Bay

70°W

Teslin

Kugluktuk

Kitikmeot

Pangnirtung

Igloolik Hall Beach

55°N

Ross River

Fort Good Hope

zie

Carcross

Yukon

Haines Junction

Victoria Island

Fort McPherson

Norman Wells

Baffin Island

Nunavut Paulatuk

n cKe Ma

Beaver Creek

Qikiqtani

Ulukhaktok

Aklavik Inuvik

Qikiqtarjuaq

60°

Old Crow

Tuktoyaktuk

Clyde River

Arctic Bay

Banks Island

Sachs Harbour

65°

Ar ct

Pond Inlet

Sanikiluaq

Pacific

C A N A D A

Ocean 130°

120°

110°

100°

90°

80°W

69 FIg. 8.5

(d) Fennoscandia

(c) North Atlantic (Greenland and Iceland)

80°

60°

Ellesmere Island

40°

20°W

0°

10°E

20°

10°E

80°N

Arctic Ocean

SVALBARD

75°

Station Nord Longyearbyen

100

200

300 km

Troms

75°

North Greenland Greenland Sea

Harstad

Norwegian Sea

Kautokeino Inari

Målselv

Murmansk Ivalo

RUSS

Reykjavík

Paamiut

Raufarhöfn Seyðisfjörður Akureyri Eskifjörður

Selfoss

40°

30°

FAROE ISLANDS

(DENMARK)

0 20°

200

400

60°N

Nanortalik

North Atlantic Ocean

Umeå

Bot

Trondheim

Tórshavn

Höfn

Vestmannaeyjar

Ivittuut

Narsarsuaq Qaqortoq Narsaq

SWEDEN

Húsavík

Gulf of

Tasiilaq

Ísafjörður

Oulu

Västerbotten

NORWAY

FINLAND Tampere

600 km 10°W

N

Maniitsoq

Kemi

Luleå

Oulu

65°

e ircl ic C Arct

Kangerlussuaq

West Greenland

Mosjøen 65°N

East Greenland Ittoqqortoormiit

10°E

20°

30°

65°N

Kangaatsiaq

Ilulissat Qasigiannguit

Rovaniemi

Jokkmokk

TIO

Aasiaat

Norrbotten

Mo i Rana

ERA

Qeqertarsuaq

Jan Mayen (NORWAY)

Nordland

hn ia

(DENMARK)

Lappi

Gällivare

FED

70°

70°

Arctic Circle

IAN

Bodø

GREENLAND

Uummannaq

65°

Kirkenes

Kiruna

Upernavik

60°N

Vardø

Karasjok

Tromsø

Baffin Bay

Nuuk

Barents Sea

Finnmark Hammerfest Lakselv Alta

Qaanaaq

Sisimiut

30°

70°

0

(NORWAY)

20°

70°

80°N

70 FIg. 8.5 (e) Northern Russian Federation

75°

80°

Evenk (Krasno i AO yarsk Kray)

Bilyuisk Nyurba

tka AO

Ch uko

M

Palana Tigil

Magadan

PetropavlovskKamchatskiy

Yakutsk Ust-Maya

Olekminsk

Sea of Okhotsk

Chagda Aldan

Tomsk

Neryungri Berkakit

150° 45°N

60°E

Seymchan Yagodnoe Spornoe

) TIA KU ( YA

Ossora

Evensk Omsukchan

50°

45°N

Korf

Novosibirsk

ST AN

Krasnoyarsk

200 400 600 km

drawn by W.K.Dallmann, Norwegian Polar Institute

CHINA 70°E

80°

160°

0

c ti Ar

IC UBL REP A H SAK Le n Sangar

Yessey

Baykit Omsk

l irc C c

ag ad an

O Verkhoyansk

Norilsk Snezhnogorsk

y

40° 55°

LI UB

-N Nadym Tazovskiy en et s AO Urengoy

Nizhneyansk

Tiksi

Tura

KA ZA KH

Koryak AO

Khantanga

Dudinka

Novyy Port

Bering Sea

Markovo

Bilibino

Srednekolymsk

Salekhard

Yen ise

EP IR

50°

East Siberian Sea Novosibirskie ostrova

Anadyr

170°E

AO

M KO

50°

Pevek

T (Kra aymyr AO snoya rsk Kray)

an si AO Khanty-Mansiysk Ob Nefte- Surgut yugansk

Provideniya

Laptev Sea

Kara Sea

Vorkuta

Ya ma lo

(U.S.A)

Egvekinot

Dikson

Ob

ra it

180°

O Sverdlovsk

60° Alaska

Beringovskiy

Novaya Zemlya

ts ne Ne

k els

Perm

an ty -M

65°

Wrangel Island

Arctic Ocean Severnaya Zemlya

g han Ark

Kh

70°

St

Murmansk

Inta C Pechora

75°

Chukchi Sea

Franz Josef Land

Nikel

Ukhta

80°

Svalbard (NORWAY)

Apatity Lovozero KARELIYA St.PetersREPUBLIC White Murmansk O Sea burg Barents Sea Petrozavodsk Severodvinsk Arkhangelsk Kargopol Mezen Vologda Naryan-Mar Velsk

Syktyvkar

85°

Uelen

NORWAY

Monchegorsk

85°

170°W

Stockholm

Tallin FINLAND Helsinki

30°

70°

SWEDEN

e

65°

g r in Be

20°

60°N

90°

100°

110°

120°

130°

140°

71 Fig. 8.6 – Cities

(a) Skyline of Anchorage, the largest city in Alaska, with the Chugach Mountains in the background. [K. Young]

(b) Main business area of Nuuk, capital city of Greenland. [P. Bjerregaard]

(c) Tromsø (Romsa in Northern Sami), is the largest city and administrative, educational, and cultural centre of Troms county, Norway. Its location made it the ideal staging port for Arctic expeditions. [K. Young]

(d) Old house in traditional style, Umeå, Sweden. [K. Young]

(e) Soviet-era apartments in Anadyr, Chukotka, are brightened by murals. [K. Young]

(f) The old and new co-exist in Magadan city, Russia. [W. Dallmann]

72 Fig. 8.7 – Villages

(a) Two inukshuks overlook the village of Ulukhatok, on Victoria Island, Northwest Territories. [K. Young]

(b) Modern townhouses in Pond Inlet, Nunavut, face the snow-covered mountains on Bylot Island. [M. Fortier/ArcticNet]

(c) An iceberg lurks behind a house in Qeqertaq, Greenland. [P. Bjerregaard]

(d) Manitsoq, Greenland. [P. Bjerregaard]

(e) Karasjok, or Kárášjohka, is in the Sami heartland of Finnmark, Norway, where the Sami parliament is located. [K. Young]

(f) Ola, a village in Magadan Oblast. [W. Dallmann]

73 Fig. 8.8 – Reindeer herders’ camps

(a) A Dolgan family eating inside their balok, a portable tent built on sled runners, Taymyr AO. [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

(b) Evenk herders relaxing inside tent near Kusur, Sakha Republic. [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

(c) Nenets woman cooking inside tent, Nenets AO. [ZV. Ravna]

Fig. 8.9 – Changing face of the North

(a) The Midnight Sun Mosque in Inuvik, Northwest Territories, Canada, was prefabricated in Winnipeg and transported by truck and river barge over 4,000 kilometres. [K. Young]

(b) The African and Afro-Caribbean community in Yellowknife share a traditional feast at a biannual cultural night. [J. Scollard]

(c) Charoen Porn Thai restaurant in Nuuk, Greenland. [K. Young]

74

9. Society and Economy

S

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita 1 < 10,000 2 10,000+ 3 20,000+ 4 30,000+ 5 40,000+ 6 >50,000 Ak Yk Sk

Ev

Gross Domestic Product

Yn Km Fm Tr Nd Vb Fo

3

Drawn by

Winfr

ied K

. Dal

ome circumpolar regions are economic powerhouses while others are poverty-stricken. The land is rich in natural resources, and their exploitation has contributed to enormous economic growth in some regions. Within regions, substantial socio-economic disparities exist, particularly between indigenous and non-indigenous populations, more so in some regions than others.

nn l ma

Fig. 9.1 – Per capita gross domestic product in USD-PPP Different countries use different currencies, and cross-national comparisons require the conversion to some common standard. While the U.S. dollar at market exchange rates (MER) is often used, economists construct “purchasing power parity” (PPP) to adjust for price differences, which may vary considerably among countries, and this conversion is more reflective of the true production volumes of the regions. Note that Arctic-regional PPP-factors have not been developed, and it is the PPP-factors of the national economies that are used, which could be a potential source of bias, especially if price levels are different among regions within countries. [W. Dallmann]

The GDP (or gross regional product when referring to regions) is a well-established economic indicator that measures the goods and services produced within a region within a time period. The per capita GDP provides comparison across regions with different populations (Fig. 9.1). Table 9.1 shows that the GDP of most regions accounts for only a small percentage of their respective national GDP, except in Russia. With only 5 per cent of the national population, Arctic Russia generated 15 per cent of the country’s GDP. Per capita GDP of most northern regions tend to be higher than their countries as a whole, especially regions where there are large-scale oil and gas developments. The highest annual growth rates are found in Russian regions

linked to oil and gas development, such as the Khanty-Mansi, Yamalo-Nenets, Evenkia, and Nenets AO. However, it is also in Russia where regions with negative growth rate are found. The GDP has shortcomings as a measure of economic well-being, especially its failure to account for income distribution within the population. For northern regions, there are additional problems: » A sizable proportion of the workforce consists of seasonal workers from outside the region, and many firms are owned by non-residents and their profits leave the region. The GDP thus does not reflect the true income accruing to the residents of the region. On the other hand, a region such as Alaska generates billions of dollars of investment income outside the state which is not captured by the state’s GDP. » Many regions are subsidized by the national governments. Such spending are included in the GDP, yet does not strengthen the regional economy. » Subsistence activities, especially by indigenous people, may not be counted at all, or inconsistently valued. » Northern economies that are dependent on a few natural resources (e.g., oil and gas) may be subject to substantial year-to-year variation due to market price fluctuations.

75

%

USD-PPP per capita

Ratio

Ave % change per year

%

USD-PPP per capita

Ratio

Ave % change per year

11,483,817

100

38,810

1

2.3

Finland

131,049

100

24,980

1

2.5

35,829

0.3

53,520

1.4

1.6

Oulu

3,932

3

22,820

0.9

4.3

1,055,290

100

32,660

1

2.5

Lappi

105,46

8

21,130

0.8

0.1

Yukon

1,165

0.1

37,460

1.1

1.7

Northern Finland

14,478

11

22,340

0.9

2.8

Northwest Territories

3,289

0.3

77,030

2.4

8.1

Russian Federation

1,413,299

100

9,870

1

6.1

875

0.1

29,170

0.9

3.1

Murmansk Oblast

11,140

0.8

12,890

1.3

3.2

5,329

0.5

51,340

1.6

5.6

Kareliya Republic

5,992

0.4

8.58

0.9

4.2

153,987

100

27,880

1

1.3

Arkhangelsk Oblast

13,379

0.9

10.36

1

4.6

1,199

0.8

21100

0.8

1.1

- Nenets AO

3,500

0.2

82.93

8.4

10.2

992

0.6

20,580

0.7

1.1

Komi Republic

13,583

1

13.79

1.4

5.8

Iceland

8,946

100

30,240

1

4.3

Yamalo-Nenets AO

34,997

2.5

65.91

6.7

11.6

Norway

195,919

100

42,380

1

2.2

Khanty-Mansi AO

111,601

7.9

75.51

7.6

9.9

Nordland

5,881

3

24,830

0.6

1.6

Taymyr AO

426

0

10.91

1.1

4.9

Troms

3,919

2

25,660

0.6

2

Evenkia AO

232

0

13.65

1.4

18

Finnmark

1,759

0.9

24,070

0.6

1.4

Sakha Republic

14,539

1

15.3

1.6

0.6

11,559

5.9

24,990

0.6

1.7

Magadan Oblast

2,024

0.1

11.77

1.2

-2

258,367

100

28,610

1

2.6

Koryak AO

414

0

18.01

1.8

-2

Västerbotten

6,961

2.7

25,020

0.9

3.8

Chukotka AO

1,002

0.1

19.65

2

8.1

Norrbotten

6429

2.5

27,620

1

3.3

Northern Russia

209,331

14.8

29.49

3

7.9

13,390

5.2

26,310

0.9

3.5

All Northern Regions

301,054

21.3

30.43

3.1

6.1

Country/Region United States Alaska Canada

Nunavut Northern Canada Denmark Greenland Faroe Islands

Northern Norway Sweden

Northern Sweden

USD-PPP (millions)

Country/Region

USD-PPP (millions)

Table 9.1 – Gross domestic product of circumpolar countries and regions in USD-PPP Notes: Based on 2005 data; Denmark data includes Greenland and Faroe Islands. % = region GDP/country GDP * 100%; ratio = region per capita GDP/country per capita GDP; average % change per year refers to 2000-5 period. Source: Data from Econor II (Glomsrød and Aslaksen 2009).

76

Alaska

Northern Canada

Greenland

Faroes

Iceland

Northern Norway

Northern Sweden

Northern Finland

Northern Russia

Agriculture

0.1

0.1

4.0

0.5

1.4

0.7

0.5

1.5

Forestry

0.0

0.3

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.2

2.5

3.2

Fishing

0.6

0.0

7.1

14.4

4.7

5.0

0.0

0.1

0.6

23.9

7.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.0

0.0

50.2

4.0

19.5

6.2

0.0

0.1

0.9

7.5

0.8

6.7

28.5

27.6

17.3

14.8

6.2

6.8

10.4

5.6

58.8

Fish processing

1.1

0.0

4.5

7.0

2.0

2.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Other food products

0.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.5

1.4

0.9

1.0

0.4

Wood and paper products

0.1

0.0

0.3

0.0

0.3

0.4

3.3

6.8

1.0

Coal, oil, and chemical products

0.7

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.9

2.0

Basic metals

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

1.4

3.0

4.6

1.0

Other manufacturing

0.6

0.5

0.6

4.1

5.4

3.2

7.8

11.8

0.8

Electricity, gas, and water supply

1.0

1.5

2.8

1.7

3.2

6.3

6.9

2.3

3.0

Construction

5.4

8.0

7.5

6.8

9.6

6.9

5.4

6.8

5.0

Secondary production

9.1

10.0

15.6

19.5

23.0

21.6

27.3

34.2

13.1

19.7

15.7

10.3

6.1

5.7

9.6

6.1

5.7

2.1

6.2

11.5

20.0

18.4

14.9

24.6

19.6

16.8

40.

Other services

36.6

35.3

36.8

41.2

50.1

37.4

36.6

37.7

22.1

Services

62.4

62.5

67.1

65.6

70.8

71.5

62.3

60.2

28.2

1.3

Oil and gas extraction Other mining/quarrying Primary production

Public administration and defence Education, health, and social services

Table 9.2 – Value added (% of GDP) by main industry

The Northern Economy

[Econor II, based on 2005 data]

The relative sizes of different industries are compared in Table 9.2. The modern economy of circumpolar regions is predominantly resource-based (Fig. 9.2), although in many regions there is a mix of the traditional and the

new (Fig. 9.3). Across the North, there is an ongoing struggle between different levels of governments, Natives and non-Natives, and environmentalists and developers over the balance between resource development and protection of the fragile Arctic environment.

Oil and gas (Fig. 9.4) dominate the economy of Alaska and Arctic Russia. Oil wealth allows Alaska to not levy a state income tax. The Alaska Permanent Fund, established in the 1970s from royalties, issues periodic pay-outs to residents. Norway’s oil production is mostly in the

77 Fig. 9.2 – Value added (% of GDP) in natural resource-based industries [Econor II]

Fig. 9.3 – The regional economy of Magadan Oblast [W. Dallmann]

Percent of GDP (%) 20

30

40

50

REP. SAKHA (YAKUTIA)

60

70

80

90

CHUKOTKA AUT. OKRUG

100

Alaska N. Canada

R U S S I A

lo n R

iver

Magadan

Moscow

SREDNEKANSK

O

10

KORYAK A.O.

0

mo

VerkhneParen

i ve

Greenland

r Balygychan

Gizhiga

Koly m

aR

Faroes

SEVERO-EVENSK

M A G A D A N

SUSUMANSK

Iceland

R E G I O N

Evensk

Topolyovka

YAGODNINSK Susuman

N. Norway

OMSUKCHANSK Yagodnoe

TENKINSK

N. Sweden

Sinegorye

Scale:

KHASYNSK

Ust-Omchug

Takhtoyamsk

Fish

Other food

Energy

Minerals

Wood

Non-resource based

KHABAROVSK REGION

N. Finland N. Russia

OLSK Palatka

OLSK

100 km reindeer husbandry

Tauisk

M. MAGADAN

Gadlya Ola

Yamsk

hunting and river fishing coastal fishing indigenous village other towns and villages mine regional boundary district boundary

Fig. 9.4 – The oil and gas industry

(a) The oil drilling vessel Kulluk moored in the Beaufort Sea east of Tuktoyatuk, in service during the 1980s, was rescued from the scrapyard in 2000 and refurbished for exploratory drilling in the disputed waters between Alaska and the Yukon. [M. Fortier/ArcticNet]

(b) Oil drilling in the tundra, Nenets AO – vehicle tracks scouring land that was once reindeer pasture [Yasavey]

(c) Caribou herd grazing near pipeline in Alaska. [Accent Alaska]

78 Fig. 9.5 – Mining then and now

(a) Diavik open-pit diamond mine, Lac des Gras, Northwest Territories. [Diavik]

(b) Remnant of coal-mining in Longyearbyen, the largest community in Svalbard. A company town for much of the twentieth century, it now has a more diversified economy, including tourism and scientific research, although coal still plays an important role. [K. Young]

(c) Giant Mine near Yellowknife – a gold mine which closed in 2004. [V. Dorward]

Fig. 9.6 – Fishing

(a) Fishing fleet moored in Seward, Alaska. [K. Young]

(b) Selkup fishermen unloading catch, Bistrinka, Yamalo-Nenets AO. [Alexander/ ArcticPhoto]

(c) Drying stockfish in Lofoten Islands, Norway. [Ellen/Wiki]

79 North Sea and other fields further to the south of its Arctic regions. In northern Canada, mining (Fig. 9.5), especially diamonds, is a major contributor to its economy, while oil and gas production has declined since 2000. Greenland may possess considerable oil reserves and explorations are underway on its west coast. Under Self-Rule, it will share resource revenues with Denmark according to a formula, while it is being “weaned off ” Danish subsidies. Fish and other edible species from the sea (such as shrimps) are other resources that sustain the economy of Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands. Fishing remains important in coastal Norway but insignificant in northern Sweden or Finland. The health of the fishing industry (Fig. 9.6) is dependent on both the volume of the catch and the market price. For climatic reasons, agriculture does not play a major role in the economy of most northern regions (Fig. 9.7). Forestry and the pulp and paper industry (Fig. 9.8) are important in northern Finland and Sweden. Hydroelectric power generation is well developed in northern Sweden and Norway, where most major rivers have been dammed (Fig. 9.9). Northern Finland has a strong manufacturing sector and is a world leader in mobile phone technology, centred at Oulu, where close industry–academic partnerships have been successful incubators for advanced technology development (Fig. 9.10). The manufacturing sector in northern Scandinavia has benefited from better infrastructure, especially road and rail transportation, and shorter distances to markets.

Fig..9.7 – Agriculture in the Matanuska-Susitna Valley

Fig. 9.8 – The Stora Enso pulp and paper mill in Oulu

Ringed by the Alaska Range, Talkeetna, and Chugach Mountains, the valley was the site of agricultural colonies established by the U.S. federal government during the 1930s. It is still the state’s most productive area, but agriculture never attained importance in the state’s economy. [K. Young]

[Estormiz/Wiki]

Fig. 9.9 – Alta river in Finnmark, Norway

Fig. 9.10 – Technopolis Linnanmaa in Oulu

A proposed hydroelectric power project over the Alta river system elicited mass civil disobedience from Sami and environmental activists in the 1970s and early 1980s. While the dam went ahead, the protests mobilized a generation of Sami to assert their cultural and political rights. [Glivi/Wiki]

This is a cluster of some 200 technology development companies working closely together with the Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT) and the University of Oulu. [Estormiz/Wiki]

80 Fig. 9.11 – Arctic transportation

(a) Bering Sea port – Provideniya in Chukotka. [K.Young]

(b) Lone fishing boat near an iceberg in Disko Bay, Greenland. [S. Chatwood]

(c) Ice road truckers delivering heavy machinery to the mines in the Northwest Territories. A warming trend can jeopardize this critical means of seasonal transportation. [Diavik]

(d) The Royal Arctic shipping line plies the coast of Greenland. [S. Chatwood]

(e) Tundra transportation using tracked vehicles, near Provideniya, Chukotka. [K. Young]

(f) Aeroflot helicopter service in Anadyr, Chukotka. The helicopter is an essential means of transportation of people and goods in Arctic Russia. [K. Young]

81 Fig. 9.13 – Hunting and trapping [S. McDonald]

(a) Caribou skin

Fig. 9.12 – Cruise ships in the Arctic Tourists attracted to the wildlife and scenery of the Arctic travel on cruise ships such as the ones here docked at Longyearbyen in Svalbard. [K. Young]

Shipping is important for some coastal communities, while air links are particularly critical for all remote regions (Fig. 9.11). The services industry is larger than either primary or secondary production in all regions except northern Russia. It accounts for the largest share of the economy in Iceland and northern Norway. Tourism is an emerging industry, and cruise ships ply the Arctic waters (Fig. 9.12). Iceland became the harbinger of the global economic crisis in late 2008 when its banking sector collapsed.

Certain activities engaged in primarily by indigenous peoples, such as hunting and trapping for fur and meat (Fig. 9.13) and handicrafts (Fig. 9.14), are important culturally although they are not substantial in economic terms other than for subsistence. Reindeer husbandry is the main source of income for indigenous peoples in several Russian regions.

(b) Muskox hide

Some northern regions benefit from substantial transfers and subsidies from the national government. In northern Canada, over 80 per cent of public revenues are derived from the federal government. Subsidies from Denmark amount to 10 per cent of public expenditures in the Faroe Islands and almost half in Greenland. (c) Seal skin

82

Fig. 9.14 – Indigenous people’s handicrafts

Socio-economic Status

Sculpture of reindeer herding from Magadan. [W. Dallmann]

As components of socio-economic status (SES), income, education, and employment are defined and measured differently in circumpolar countries and they have different contexts. UNESCO has devised an International Standard Classification of Education to facilitate comparisons across vastly different educational systems. Fig. 9.15 compares the proportion of adults who had attained only elementary education according to SLiCA. It can be seen that Canadian regions fare worse than Greenland or Chukotka. A circumpolar perspective on tertiary education is provided in Fig. 9.16. Within the North, indigenous peoples tend to fare worse in their SES than non-indigenous peoples, especially in Alaska, northern Canada, and Russia. While Alaska and Yukon report better SES than the national averages, the disparities relative to the country as a whole widen as the proportion of indigenous peoples increases. This situation reflects the in-migration of nonindigenous peoples seeking employment; those who are no longer employed or retired tend to leave the North. The disparities with the rest of Canada are worst in Nunavut, which has only a small proportion of non-indigenous peoples. The Canadian Department of Indian and Northern Affairs developed a composite index of community well-being (CWB) based on aggregate income, education, housing, and labour-

Total

22

ALASKA Bering Straits

12

Northwest

16

North Slope

12

CHUKOTKA Western

31

Eastern

16 39

Central 12

Anadyr GREENLAND

16

East 7

North

14

Disko Bay 9

Midwest 8

South CANADA

45

Nunavut

44

NWT 33

Labrador

47

Nunavik 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Percent of respondents (%)

Fig. 9.15 – Proportion of indigenous adults with only elementary education or less in selected regions [SLiCA]

45

50

83 force participation obtained from the census. In the Canadian North, the mean score was 62.0 for 31 Inuit communities, 66.2 for 35 Dene communities, and 81.6 for 15 predominantly non-Aboriginal communities. In the rest of Canada, the mean score was 74.2, (Fig. 9.17). In Greenland, there are income disparities between individuals born outside the country and native Greenlanders, and also between residents of Nuuk and other towns. Education levels continue to improve. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, the number of individuals with post-secondary education, including vocational, teacher’s training and university education, has tripled. The level of education is generally high in northern Norway, Sweden, and Finland, and higher for women than for men. The proportion of people with university education is lower in northern Scandinavia, particularly for men, than in the country as a whole. The unemployment rate shows a west-east gradient with the lowest rates in Norway and the highest in Finland. The average annual income is also highest in Norway and rather similar in Sweden and Finland. Modest disparities do exist between the northern regions and the national averages. Socio-economic data for the Sami people of the Nordic countries are not readily available.

In Norway, economic statistics are collected for the “Sami Settlement Areas,” which are inhabited by Sami (but not exclusively) and who are eligible for financial support from the Sami Development Fund (SUF), which is administered by the Sami parliament. Compared to Norway as a whole and to other northern non-SUF areas (mainly urban), the Sami areas report lower per capita income in all categories except for child allowance.

attained tertiary education (%) 1 2 3

20

Yk Sk

As part of a health study on Swedish Sami, the annual net income between 1970 and 2000 for Sami reindeer herders and non-herders were compared to that of a demographically matched non-Sami population, and of Sweden as a whole. Among men, there were small differences in the median net income between non-herding Sami and non-Sami, whereas the income for the reindeer-herding Sami men was considerably lower throughout this period. Among women, the differences among the four groups were small. Since the late 1980s, the net income of reindeer-herding Sami women has exceeded that of their men, mainly through wage employment. In terms of education, the proportion of women with tertiary education was highest among reindeer-herding Sami. Reindeer herding Sami men, on the other hand, reported the lowest proportion of tertiary education and the highest proportion of those with only primary education.

Ev

Yn

Ko

Fo

Drawn by

Winfr

90 82

80 70 60

62

66

77 62

74

40 30 20 10 0 First Other Nation

NORTHERN TERRITORIES

Inuit

First Other Nation ALL CANADA

. Dal

nn l ma

Fig. 9.16 – Proportion of adults who completed tertiary education [W. Dallmann] Fig. 9.17 – Distribution of communities by community well-being index [INAC]

57

50

Inuit

ie d K

All

This page intentionally left blank

Part Three Health Status

Traditional Dene beadwork on tanned moose hide by Janet Grandjambe of Fort Good Hope, Northwest Territories [H. Blackett]

86

10. General Health

T

his chapter introduces Part Three, which presents the spatial and temporal patterns of different diseases and health conditions in circumpolar populations.

partial picture of health. There is, however, no overall measure of morbidity. Some measures depend on contact with the health care system while others are based on self reports in a survey setting. Disease surveillance through special registries permits the determination of the incidence of selected diseases. Only a limited number of disease registries, usually the communicable diseases and some chronic diseases such as cancer, exist in circumpolar countries.

Sources of Data Health can be represented by an iceberg, to use an Arctic analogy. Above the water, representing the most severe consequences of ill health, is mortality. Circumpolar countries have welldeveloped statistical agencies with mortality databases that record the number and causes of deaths, and also some demographic information about the decedents.

Health surveys can collect information on health conditions that do not result in any kind of formal contact with the health care system. In addition, they can capture “positive” health, quality of life, and health practices and beliefs, among other things. There have been many health surveys in circumpolar countries. Some are large-scale national surveys, which include

As most sicknesses do not result in death, it is evident that mortality can only provide a Fig. 10.1 – Life expectancy at birth in circumpolar countries and regions [K. Young]

samples from the northern regions, while others are specifically designed for residents of the North, especially its indigenous peoples. These surveys range in complexity from those comprised only of interviews to comprehensive ones involving physical measures, clinical assessments, and laboratory tests. A multinational circumpolar effort called the Survey of Living Conditions in the Arctic (SLiCA), is based on interviews and covers the Inuit/Inupiat regions of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland, the Sami in Fennoscandia and the Kola Peninsula, and the indigenous people of Chukotka. A major problem with international comparisons is the standardization of concepts, definitions, methods, and data management. In this atlas, only data for which reasonable international comparability exists are presented in

50

54

55

58

58

62

65

64

70

71 65

58

55

58

60

60

70

71

71

72

67

72

72

72

74 59

60

65

60 50

Male Female

40 30 20

Ky

Ev

Ck

Ta

Ma

Gl-born

Ka

Ko

Ne

Gl

Mu

Sk

RU

Ar

Yn

Ak-Nat

Km

Nu

Yk

US

DK

Nt

Ak

Fo

Nb

Fm

Tr

FI

NO

CA

Nd

Ou

La

Vb

0

SE

10

IS

LE at birth (years)

73

74

69 64

70

74

75

80 76

80

81

69

75

75

76

81

82

82

81 75

76

77

78

83

83

83

83 76

78

76

78

83

83

83 78

78

83 75

76

83

83 79

79

80

80

83

90

87 “circumpolar” maps, charts, and tables. Where such comparability does not exist or when data are not available across all circumpolar regions, data on single regions, clusters of regions, or specific groups within regions are used instead.

Fig. 10.2 – Mortality rate from all

ASMR - all causes (per 100,000) 1 2 3 4 5

causes

< 650 650-999 1000-1499 1500-2000 >2000 Ma

Mortality Differentials A commonly used summary health indicator in international comparisons is life expectancy at birth (LE0), which is based on the mortality experience of a population. Among the circumpolar regions, the difference in LE0 between the regions with the highest (Iceland) and the lowest (Koryak AO in Russia) is thirty years in men and twenty-two years in women (Fig. 10.1). A similar pattern is observed in the all-cause mortality rate (Fig. 10.2).

Sk Nt

Ev

Km

Gl

Alaska’s LE0 is the same as that of the United States, but for Alaska Natives there is a drop of about five years. In Canada, there is a difference of eight years between the LE0 of Nunavut residents and the Canadian average, and less of a gap in the other two territories. Greenland’s LE0 is about ten years shorter than Denmark’s. In Fennoscandia, there is little difference between the northern and the national LE0.

Ar

Fo

1

Drawn by

80

MALE

Winfr

ied K

. Dal

nn l ma

FEMALE

70

1978-1979

60 LE at birth (years)

Russia is suffering an unprecedented health crisis. The national male LE0 is about sixty years, while some northern regions are even worse off. There is about a ten-year difference between the LE0 of Russian Arctic indigenous people and the national average, although the gap has narrowed since the 1970s, with the whole country having suffered reverses during the early 1990s (Fig. 10.3).

Ko

1988-1989

50

1998-2002

40 30

Note: Age-standardized mortality rates (ASMR) adjust for differences in the age distribution of the populations being compared by applying the observed age-specific mortality rates for each population to a “standard” population. This is called the “direct” method. In this atlas, unless otherwise specified, the standard population used is the European Standard Population published by Eurostat. It is a hypothetical population of 100,000 people with the following age distribution: Age group

Population

0–4

8,000

5–9

7,000

10–14

7,000

15–19

7,000

20–24

7,000

25–29

7,000

30–34

7,000

35–39

7,000

40–44

7,000

45–49

7,000

50–54

7,000

55–59

6,000

60–64

5,000

65–69

4,000

70–74

3,000

75–79

2,000

80–84

1,000

20

85+

1,000

10

Total

100,000

0

Indigenous

All Russia

Indigenous

All Russia

Fig. 10.3 – Rise and fall of life expectancy at birth among Russian indigenous peoples of the North [D. Bogoyavlesky]

[W. Dallmann]

88 80

0.95

Very Good 70

Excellent

Percent of respondents

60

US - United States CA - Canada

0.85

SE - Sweden

50

FI - Finland

0.80 40

IS - Iceland

0.75

30

DK - Denmark RU - Russia

0.70

20

0.65

10 0

Canada SWEDEN

Greenland

NORWAY

Chukotka

Alaska

0.60

Total Alaska (U.S.A)

Chukchi Sea

Svalbard (NORWAY)

FINLAND

Arctic Ocean Ck

Mu

Ka

East Siberian Sea

Barents Sea Ar

Bering Sea

Laptev Sea

Kara Sea

Ky

Ne

Ob

c ti Ar

Yn

Yen isey

Km Ob

Human Development Index no data < 0.7 0.7-0.75 0.75-0.78 0.78-0.8 >0.8

Ev

l irc

e

Ta

Ko

1 2 3 4 5

NO - Norway

0.90

Le n

cC

Ma

Sk

Sea of Okhotsk

0

200 400 600 km

Fig. 10.4 – Self-rated health among indigenous people in selected regions [SLiCA] Fig. 10.5 – Trends in the human development index of circumpolar countries [UNDP] Fig. 10.6 – Human development index in Arctic Russian regions [UNDP]

Self-Rated Health Overall health status can be assessed in a health survey by asking respondents to rate their own overall health, typically into categories of “excellent,” “very good,” “good,” “fair,” and “poor.” As a health indicator, self-rated health is inexpensive and simple to obtain. More importantly, it has been shown by many studies in a variety of populations to be a valid indicator of health, with the ability to predict future health outcomes such as mortality, mor-

1990

1995

2000

bidity, and use of health services. In providing answers, respondents may take into account their full array of health problems and symptoms, some of which are not yet medically detectable. Individuals who perceive their health to be poor may engage in behaviours and patterns of health care use (or non-use) which may adversely affect their health. Finally, selfrated health may also encompass the presence or absence of internal and external resources which affect their ability to cope with future illnesses. Some circumpolar data are available from SLiCA (Fig. 10.4). Overall, indigenous residents in Chukotka are least likely to report good or excellent health when compared to their counterparts in other regions. This is a consistent finding in most other health indicators collected by SLiCA.

Human Development Index To capture more broadly the level of well-being of a population, international agencies such as

2005

2010

the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) have created the “human development index,” which combines statistical measures of health, education, and standard of living. Health is represented by life expectancy at birth; education is a composite of the mean number of years of schooling of adults and school enrolment; and standard of living by the per capita gross national income. Since the 1980s circumpolar countries, excepting Russia, have consistently been at the top end of the range of countries in the world (Fig. 10.5). In 2010, Norway, the United States, Canada, and Sweden ranked within the top ten and Finland, Iceland, and Denmark within the top twenty, while Russia ranked sixty-fifth. Within Russia itself there is regional variation, with KhantyMansi AO and Yamalo-Nenets AO scoring highest, well above the national average (Fig. 10.6). In the following chapters, specific health problems affecting circumpolar regions are discussed in detail.

89

11. Children and Youth

R

elatively large numbers of children and youth in a society increase the need for services such as housing, education, health care, and employment.

As Fig. 11.1 shows, the youthfulness of the population varies across the circumpolar world. The highest proportions of the underfifteen population are found in Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, Greenland, and Alaska, all regions with a high proportion of indigenous people. In contrast, the percentages of the population under fifteen years of age among the northern regions of Norway, Sweden, and Finland are very similar to the percentages in their national populations. Children are a source of joy to their families and communities, and children grow up to become adults (Fig. 11.2). Maintaining the health of children is a priority in all circumpolar countries and regions.

Infancy The infant mortality rate (IMR) is a sensitive indicator not only of child health, but also of the overall health status of a population. It can be divided into the neonatal (day zero to day twenty-seven) and post-neonatal (day twentyeight up to the completion of the first year of life) periods. IMR varies from less than five per 1,000 live births in the Nordic countries to over ten in Nunavut and Greenland, and over twenty in some Russian regions. There is little difference between the northern regions of the

Fig. 11.1 – Proportion of population under 15 years of age

Fig. 11.2 – Children of the North 33

Nunavut 28

Alaska Natives 26

Born in Greenland 24

Greenland Northwest Territories

23

Evenki AO

23

Faroe Islands

22

Alaska

22 22

Sakha Republic

21

Iceland Taymyr AO

21

Nenets AO

21

United States

20

Koryak AO

20

Chukotka AO

20

Finnmark

20

Oulu

20

Yamalo-Nenets AO

20

Troms

19

Norway

19

Nordland

19

Denmark

18

(a) Siberian Yupik girls in Novoye Chaplino, Chukotka [K. Young]

18

Khanty-Mansi AO

18

Yukon Canada

17

Finland

17 17

Sweden

16

Västerbotten Lappi

16

Komi Republic

16

Magadan Oblast

16

Norrbotten

16

Arkhangelsk Oblast

15

Russia

15

Murmansk Oblast

14

Kareliya Republic

14 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Percent of population

(b) Khanty children watching TV inside winter herding tent, Yamalo-Nenets AO. [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

90 Fig. 11.2 – Children of the North (continued)

Infant mortality rate (IMR) 1 2 3 4 5

< 5.0 (per 1000) 5.0-9.9 10.0-14.9 15.0-20.0 > 20.0

Yk Sk

Ev

Yn

Ko

Fo

1

Winfr Drawn by

Fig. 11.3 – Infant mortality rate [W. Dallmann]

ied K

. Dal

nn l ma

Nordic countries and the rest of these countries (Fig. 11.3). There is a thirty-year time lag between the IMR of Greenland and Denmark (Fig. 11.4). Control of infectious diseases through the provision of safe drinking water and immunizations has contributed much to the dramatic decrease in post-neonatal mortality rates (PNMR). In the Nordic countries, Canada, and the United States, PNMR comprises about 30 per cent of infant deaths. The proportion is much higher for Alaska Natives and those in the northern territories of Canada, about 50– 60 per cent.

(c) Nganasan girl sitting on log at a camp by Kheta River, Taymyr AO [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

(d) Komi girl carrying firewood to winter camp, Yamalo-Nenets AO [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

While immunization schedules vary by country with regard to vaccines included and age groups targeted, most jurisdictions include diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, measles, mumps, rubella, and Haemophilus influenzae type B during the first year of life.

tices vary widely – often failing to distinguish whether infants are exclusively breastfed, when breastfeeding is initiated, and for how long is breastfeeding continued after birth.

Breastfeeding protects the infant from gastrointestinal, respiratory, and middle ear infections and appears also to enhance cognitive development. Breastfeeding rates in Scandinavia are very high, and there are little differences between rates in the northern regions and the national average. Internationally comparable data are difficult to obtain, as reporting prac-

While diseases such as middle ear infections are important in this age group (Fig. 11.5), children also develop chronic diseases such as cancer. Age-standardized cancer incidence rates for children and youths aged zero to nineteen years show that Greenland had the highest cancer incidence rate whereas northern Canada and Finland had the lowest rates.

Childhood

91

Childhood is also a vulnerable period for emotional, physical, or sexual abuse and emotional or physical neglect. Greenland has the highest reported prevalence of child abuse, but given that the definition of child abuse varies be-

tween jurisdictions, meaningful comparisons among countries are not possible.

120

Promoting the health of children also requires society to invest in interventions outside the health system, such as early childhood education, childcare, safe neighbourhoods, and accessible recreation facilities (Fig. 11.6).

100

Adolescence and Youth Many health risk behaviours that have a longlasting impact on adult health are initiated during adolescence and youth, such as smoking, alcohol use, and drug use. Comprehensive and comparable data for the circumpolar regions are lacking. Fig. 11.7 presents some key findings from the Youth Risk Behaviour Survey, a school-based survey of Alaskan children in Grades 9-12. In general, these findings do not differ substantially from national rates.

Infant deaths (per 1000 livebirths)

The two types of diabetes, type 1 and type 2, affect Arctic populations differently. Nordic countries are at high risk for childhood type 1 diabetes, and Finland has the world’s highest incidence. The rate continues to increase. However, within Finland itself, the highest risk areas are located in central Finland while Lapland is at relatively low risk. Meanwhile, type 2 diabetes is an increasingly serious problem among the indigenous people of North America. The increasingly lowering age of onset of the disease in childhood and adolescence among the First Nations population in southern Canada has not been observed in the Arctic.

Denmark 1925-1970 Greenland 1955-2000

80 60 40 20 0

1955 1925

1960 1930

1965 1935

1970 1940

1975 1945

1980 1950

(b) A skull from AD 1400 in Greenland, showing destruction of the external ear canal with bone-remodelling, which is seen in cholesteatoma due to chronic middle-ear infections. [P. Homøe]

1990 1960

1995 1965

2000 1970

Fig. 11.4 – Thirty-year lag in infant mortality rate between Greenland and Denmark [P. Bjerregaard]

Fig. 11.5 – Middle ear diseases

(a) Surgical team from the National Hospital in Copenhagen performing microscopic otosurgery in the Upernavik Hospital. [P. Homøe]

1985 1955

(c) Audiometry to detect hearing loss, a common complication of recurrent middle-ear infections in Inuit children. [K. Young]

92

7

Actually attempted suicide

Fig. 11.6 – Promoting child health

14 15

Considered suicide

MENTAL HEALTH

10

Ever drinker Current 26 24

Binge

36

70

45

ALCOHOL USE

50 50

Ever smoker Current Frequent

6

Inhalants 7 8

Cocaine

17

8

20

SMOKING

13 12 38

Ever had sex Used alcohol/drug before sex 5

20

7

12

38 38

18

Carried weapons 10 9 11 10

Drove while drunk Rarely/never used seat belts

48

SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR

15

22 SAFETY

Rarely/never used bicycle helmet

74 0

Fig. 11.7 – Youth risk behaviours in Alaska Note: Frequent smoking = smoked twenty times or more last month; binge drinking = five or more drinks within two hours during the past month; current smoker or drinker = at least once during the past month. [CDC-YRBS]

10

20

40

50

Percent of respondents

30

USA

60

70

80

(b) Young skiers in Yellowknife [S. Chatwood]

Alcohol abuse is one component of a cluster of youth risk behaviours that also includes the abuse of other substances and risky sexual behaviours. For example, solvent use includes sniffing of gasoline, glue, and aerosol propellants. Prenatal maternal or childhood solvent abuse can disrupt normal childhood nervous system development and acute high-dose exposures can cause death.

45

44

22

Did not use condom last time 4+ partners life time

(a) Playground in Naryan-Mar, Nenets AO [W. Dallmann]

DRUG USE

Marijuana

First sex < age 13

75

85 90

Alaska

Most smokers become addicted as teenagers. In Canada, the prevalence of smoking (either daily or occasionally) among teens aged twelve to nineteen is higher in the North than in the rest of the country. The Nunavut rate (about 45 per cent) is higher than anywhere else in the circumpolar North.

Adolescents and youths are particularly vulnerable to injuries, both intentional (suicide and assaults) and unintentional (accidents). Suicide rates are much higher among Alaskan and Canadian Arctic indigenous people and in residents of Greenland than the rates among Americans, Canadians, and Danes (see chapter 18). Most deaths resulting from unintentional injury occurs among adolescents and youths, among whom risk-taking behaviours tend to be more prevalent – particularly in males. Unintentional injury death rates are consistently higher among males than females.

(c) Inuvik boys in a sprint race at the Northwest Territories Track and Field Championships. [H. Blackett/ICHR]

93

12. Reproductive Health Fig. 12.1 – Mothers and children Total fertility rate (TFR) 1 2 3 4

< 1.5 1.5-1.99 2.0-2.5 >2.5

Yk Sk

Ev

Yn

Ko

Fo

(a) Maternal and child health poster in Chukotka. [K. Young]

W

omen in their childbearing ages (arbitrarily set at fifteen to forty-four for statistical purposes) account for some 17–25 per cent of the population of circumpolar regions, with the high end of the range found in regions with large indigenous populations. Maintaining the health of this demographic group is thus critical for the health of the

(b) Mother and child in sealskin amauti, Qeqertat, Greenland. [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

entire population, not just at the present time, but also for the next generation (Fig. 12.1).

Fertility Trends The total fertility rate (TFR) can be interpreted as the mean number of children that would be born alive to a woman during her lifetime if she were to progress through her childbear-

4

W Drawn by

d infrie

ing years experiencing the age-specific fertility rates (ASFR) of the population in a given year. A TFR of over 2.0 is needed if a population is to replace itself. In the Arctic, this was only achieved in Alaska, Nunavut, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Oulu, and Evenkia during the first decade of the twenty-first century (Fig. 12.2).

nn l l ma K. Da

Fig. 12.2 – Total fertility rate [W. Dallmann]

94 Fig. 12.4 – Age-specific fertility rates of selected circumpolar regions [K. Young]

60 250

Crude birth rate (per 1,000)

50

Alaska Native

40

Alaska Natives

200

Northwest Territories+Yukon Northern Fennoscandia

100

USA - all races

10

50 0

100 50

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

0

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

1955 1957 1959 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009

0

150

Alaska

Alaska - all races

20

Ta + Ev Ck + Ky Km + Yn Ma + Sk NW Russia

200

Greenland

150

30

250

Nunavut

(a) Age-specific fertility rates in Alaska, northern Canada, Greenland, and northern Fennoscandia.

(b) Age-specific fertility rates in Russia.

Within regions, the indigenous fertility rate tends to be higher than that of the total population, as illustrated by the crude birth rate in Alaska (Fig. 12.3), although there has been a downward trend in all populations since the 1960s. In Greenland during the late 1960s the crude birth rate was halved over a ten-year period as a result of a countrywide birth control campaign, with intrauterine devices being adopted by about half of the female population of reproductive age.

The age-specific fertility rate of selected circumpolar regions is shown in Fig. 12.4. It can be seen that Nunavut, Greenland, and Alaska (especially among Alaska Natives) have high birth rates in the fifteen to nineteen and twenty to twenty-four age groups. However, the Nordic regions report the highest rate at ages twenty-five to twenty-nine. While fertility is depressed in all Russian regions, those regions in European Russia have the lowest ASFR in all age groups.

jor cause of sudden infant death syndrome and a significant cause of asthma.

Traditionally, many ethnic groups in the Russian North practise late marriages, resulting in comparatively low fertility rates. Modern methods of family planning have spread slowly in the whole of Russia, particularly in the North. The typical methods used are intrauterine devices and induced abortions. In Russia about 60 per cent of pregnancies end in legal abortions – among the highest in the world. The frequency of abortions among northern indigenous women is about one-quarter to one-third that of the national average.

Prenatal Care

Prenatal maternal alcohol use is toxic to the developing fetus and infant and is a major cause of birth defects and developmental disabilities. No safe level of prenatal maternal alcohol consumption has been identified. Severe outcomes include early fetal death (spontaneous abortion) and structural, growth, and functional abnormalities variably categorized as fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), fetal alcohol effects (FAE), and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND).

Access to prenatal care is a major predictor of adverse pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight, stillbirth, and infant mortality. Maternal behaviour during pregnancy has a major impact on fetal and infant heath. Prenatal smoking causes fetal death, intrauterine growth retardation, preterm birth, and cardiac (and possibly other) birth defects. Prenatal maternal smoking and post-natal infant exposure to environmental tobacco smoke is a ma-

The prevalence of smoking and alcohol use during pregnancy and their differential impacts on infant mortality among Alaska Native and non-Native women is shown in Fig. 12.5. In Scandinavia, Sweden reported the lowest rates (about 10 per cent), while Norway’s was twice that. The prevalence of smoking tends to decline towards the end of the pregnancy. In Norway, rates for the northern counties are generally higher than the national rate.

Fig. 12.3 – Trends in crude birth rate of Alaska Natives compared to Alaska and the United States [K. Young]

95 Fig. 12.5 – Infant mortality rates in Alaska by mother’s education, age, and risk behaviours [Alaska DHSS]

Perinatal mortality rate 1 2 3 4

18 16

non-Native Native

Infant mortality rate

14

< 5.0 5.0-9.9 10.0-15.0 >15.0

12 10

Yk

8

Sk

6 4 2 0

Ev

< grade 12

grade 12

> grade 12

< 20

In addition to tobacco and alcohol, prenatal maternal volatile substance abuse has been linked to prenatal growth restriction, cognitive, speech, and motor deficits, and craniofacial abnormalities similar to those of fetal alcohol syndrome.

Perinatal Mortality An overall measure of pregnancy outcome is the perinatal mortality rate, which combines stillbirths (fetal deaths) and early neonatal deaths (under seven days of life). Such a measure is sensitive to the care of the mother during pregnancy and delivery, and also the care of the newborn. As shown in Fig. 12.6, Greenland and northern Canada have the highest perinatal mortality rates.

Prematurity Because preterm infants have immature body systems, they face increased risks of respiratory complications, infections, cerebral palsy, and other neurodevelopmental deficits that can lead to long-term disabilities.

20-24

25-34

35+

drink/smoke

no

The preterm birth rate varies considerably among circumpolar regions, with Iceland and the Faroe Island having the lowest rates (less than 5 per cent) and Alaska Natives and Nunavut (about 12 per cent) having the highest rates. Women in the rest of the Arctic have intermediate preterm birth rates (6–8 per cent). Many Arctic indigenous populations lack access to early ultrasound examinations. In the absence of uniform estimations of gestational age, preterm birth rates may not be strictly comparable among circumpolar countries. Accurate gestational age data are also needed to differentiate preterm births from intrauterine growth retardation. Improving access to prenatal ultrasound services across circumpolar regions is an important component of maternal health services.

Low Birthweight Low birthweight (LBW), defined as birth weight lower than 2,500 grams, comprises two distinct subgroups: preterm infants with normal birth weights for their gestational ages and

Yn

Ko

Fo

1

i ed K Winfr Drawn by

infants with intrauterine growth retardation. Higher LBW rates among sub-populations reflect disparities in socio-economic status, decreased access to prenatal care, and the prevalence of risk factors such as maternal smoking, inadequate diet, and alcohol consumption. The lowest proportion of LBW births was reported in Iceland (less than 4 per cent), while Nunavut (8 per cent) had the highest. Note that the national rate in the United States was also quite high – however, there was substantial difference between blacks and whites, with the former reporting almost twice the LBW rate of the latter.

. Dal

nn l ma

Fig. 12.6 – Perinatal mortality rate [W. Dallmann]

96

13. Infectious Diseases 2,500

Tuberculosis case rate (TB) < 15 (per 100,000) 15+ 30+ 60+ 100+ >300

2,000 TB incidence (per 100,000)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Yk Sk

1,500

Greenland

Greenland

Alaska Native Canadian Inuit

1,000

500 Ev

Canadian Inuit

Canada Alaska Native Canada

0 1955-59

1960-64

1965-69

1970-74

1975-79

1980-84

1985-89

1990-94

1995-99

2000-04

2005-09

Yn

Fig. 13.2 – Trends in tuberculosis incidence among Greenlanders, Alaska Natives, and Canadian Inuit compared to Canada, 1955–2009 Ko

Tuberculosis Fo

1

Fig. 13.1 – Incidence of tuberculosis [W. Dallmann]

U

Drawn by

Winfr

i ed K

. Dal

nn l ma

ntil the middle of the twentieth century, infectious diseases were major causes of death in circumpolar regions. Since then, mortality rates have decreased markedly, although the overall burden of infectious diseases in the Arctic remains high – and higher than in southern populations. There are also infections that are particular to the Arctic because of its physical environment and the cultural practices of its inhabitants.

Considerable variation in the incidence of tuberculosis (TB) exists across circumpolar regions (Fig. 13.1), with Nunavut, Greenland, and some Russian regions reporting the highest rates. The disparities are enormous, with Koryak AO having almost 100 times the TB rate of Iceland and the Faroe Islands. TB disproportionately affects the Inuit in Canada, Alaska, and Greenland and its incidence reached its peak in the 1950s. The decline in the incidence of the disease has been impressive (Fig. 13.2), although a substantial gap still exists between the indigenous and nonindigenous populations in these regions. It was during the 1950s that large-scale intervention programs were initiated to combat

TB. These programs laid the foundation of the modern public health system in these regions. Hospitals such as the Queen Ingrid’s in Nuuk began as TB sanatoriums. Medical ships such as the C.D. Howe patrolled the central and eastern Arctic (between 1950 and 1969) and the Misigssut along the west coast of Greenland (from 1955 to 1971) to conduct X-ray surveys and vaccinations. In Canada, the TB control policy of the time created considerable hardship among the Inuit due to their prolonged hospitalization in southern sanatoria and long separation from their families, their communities, and the Inuit way of life. The practice of hospitalizing TB patients for treatment has largely been abandoned in most countries, although it still persists in some regions (Fig. 13.3).

97 Fig. 13.3 – Tuberculosis treatment then and now

(a) The C.D.Howe pulling into Pangnirtung, 1951, while Inuit wait on the Hudson’s Bay Company dock. Some would be X-rayed on board, and some would not be allowed to return to shore and would instead be transported to southern sanatoria. [Library and Archives Canada]

Respiratory Tract Infections Upper and lower respiratory tract infections (RTI) cover a wide spectrum of infections, from common colds to severe, life-threatening pneumonia. They are important causes of childhood mortality, hospitalization, and physician visits. Crowding, passive smoking, and poor indoor air quality facilitate the spread of infection. Fig. 13.4 shows the variation in mortality from respiratory diseases (including both infectious and non-infectious causes) across circumpolar regions. In Nunavut and Alaska the rates of hospitalization for severe lower RTI in Inuit infants (mainly due to the respiratory syncytial virus) exceed 300 per 1,000 in the Baffin region and 250 per 1,000 in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta.

(b) Patients in a TB sanatorium for children near Egvekinot, Chukotka, 1994. With a capacity of seventy-five beds, the sanatorium is designed for prophylaxis of children who are tuberculin positive. There they are put on a special diet with lots of fresh fruits, milk, and eggs. The children usually stay for three to six months but may be there as long as two years. Over 90 per cent of the inpatients are indigenous. [K. Young] ASMR - respiratory diseases (per 100,000) 1 < 50 2 50-99 3 100-170 4 >170

(c) A still from the 2008 Canadian film, Ce qu’il faut pour vivre/ Inuujjutiksaq depicting the arrival of an Inuit TB patient at a southern sanatorium in 1952. Starring Natar Ungalaaq as Tiivii and Louise Marleau as sœur Luce, the film reveals the intense isolation and loneliness that afflicted the relocated as much as their respiratory condition. [P. Dury/ACPAV]

Patients often require mechanical ventilation in intensive care units, and readmissions are frequent. Some also suffer from long-term chronic lung infections such as bronchiectasis. Sk

Nt

Ar

1

K. fried y Win Drawn b

nn ma Dall

Fig. 13.4 – Mortality rate of respiratory diseases [W. Dallmann]

Sexually Transmitted Diseases Sexually transmitted diseases include gonorrhea, syphilis, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and infections caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, herpes simplex virus, human papilloma virus (HPV), Trichomonas, and several less common pathogens. Syphilis occurs only sporadically, although there had been epidemics in Greenland in 1976–7 and 1987 and the Yukon in 2000–3. Gonorrhea and chlamydial infections are far more com-

98 Fig. 13.6 – Hepatitis B

Annual incidence rate (per 100,000) 220

0-9 10-99 100-299 300-499 ≥500

200 180 Incidence (per 100,000)

1 2 3 4 5

Sk

160 140

Yukon Kuskokwim Delta

120

Statewide

100 80 60 40 20

Ev

0

1981 1982

1983

1984 1985

1986

1987 1988

1989

1990

1991 1992

1993

1994 1995

1996

1997 1998

1999

2000

(a) Impact of statewide Hepatitis B vaccination program on rate of acute infections [B. McMahon]

Ko

Fo

1

Drawn by

Fig. 13.5 – Incidence rate of gonorrhea [W. Dallmann]

Winfr

i ed K

nn l ma . Dal

mon, highly transmissible, and if left untreated can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, and infertility in women. Among circumpolar regions, Greenland is the hotspot for gonorrhea (Fig. 13.5). Its incidence increased steadily during the 1950s and 1960s. A systematic intervention strategy that included partner tracing and treatment has resulted in an impressive decline, but the current level is still >200 times higher than the rate in Denmark. The pattern of chlamydia infection tends to parallel that of gonorrhea, with Greenland, Nunavut, Northwest Territories, and Alaska reporting the highest rates.

Given the high rates of STDs in these regions, there was much fear of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) spreading to the Arctic when the epidemic began in the 1980s. This has not happened, but HIV/AIDS nonetheless represents a major public health threat. The distribution of risk groups – men who have sex with men, heterosexual contacts, and injection drug users – vary across regions. There is a long incubation period between HIV infection and the onset of the clinical symptoms of AIDS. Most jurisdictions report these two entities separately, but the extent of HIV testing in the population varies, and cross-national comparisons should be made with caution. The prevention of HIV/AIDS and other STDs requires behavioural change related to sexual practices, such as condom use and limiting one’s number of partners.

Hepatitis Viral hepatitis is a group of liver infections caused by five viruses, labelled A to E, of which

(b) Electron micrograph of Hepatitis B virions [CDC]

A, B, and C are the most prevalent. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is transmitted by the fecal-oral route. It is rarely fatal and usually self-limited, and it renders life-long immunity. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is transmitted by sexual contact or via the bloodstream. It may result in lifelong immunity, but some cases progress to a chronic state with the virus free in the blood. A minority of chronic HBV-infected persons may later develop liver cirrhosis and/or primary liver cancer. Hepatitis C virus (HBC) is

99 transmitted via contaminated blood or direct needle inoculation and may also result in clinical hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. Little data exist on the extent of HBC infection in the Arctic. Serosurveys in various circumpolar regions have consistently shown that some 50–70 per cent of the adult population had previously been exposed to HAV. Epidemics have occurred periodically. In Alaska, universal childhood HAV immunization among all children age two and eighteen years, initiated in the 1990s, has resulted in the rate of acute HAV falling from the highest in the country to the lowest within ten years. There were no similar campaigns elsewhere and the reduction of HAV epidemics in these places is likely due to improved sanitation. In the 1970s it became apparent that HBV infection was endemic in some Arctic indigenous populations, especially in Greenland, and less so in Canada and Alaska. Rates of longterm sequelae of HBV infection, liver cirrhosis, and liver cancer are high among Alaska Natives, but lower than expected in Canada and Greenland. Different preventive actions have been taken in circumpolar regions, but the most dramatic impact was observed in Alaska, where a program of mass HBV vaccination (which includes all infants) was instituted in the 1980s (Fig. 13.6).

Invasive Bacterial Diseases The Inuit are at a particularly high risk for several invasive bacterial diseases (Fig. 13.7), including infection by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococci), which causes pneumonia,

bacteremia, septic shock, and meningitis. It has been estimated that 80 per cent of invasive pneumococcal disease occurring in Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland are potentially preventable with the use of polyvalent pneumococcal vaccines. Haemophilus influenzae can cause respiratory tract infections, meningitis, and septic arthritis. Among the 6 serotypes (a-f), Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) was the most common cause of childhood meningitis prior to the introduction of childhood conjugate vaccines in the early 1990s. Rates of invasive Hib disease among Alaska Natives were once among the highest in the world, but have rapidly decreased since the introduction of universal infant immunization. The disease has been virtually eliminated in the non-Native population and the rest of North America. Another cause of bacterial meningitis is Neisseria meningitides (meningococci). Epidemics occur sporadically. The majority of cases are caused by serogroups B and C. Current vaccines only prevent against Group C infections.

Helicobacter Infection

Fig. 13.7 –Bacteria

(a) Electron micrograph of Streptococcus pneumoniae [CDC/J. Carr]

(b) Blood agar plate culture of Haemophilus influenzae [CDC/W.A. Clark]

Helicobacter pylori infection can cause stomach ulcers and increases the risk of chronic gastritis and certain types of stomach cancer. As the risk of stomach cancer is higher among the Inuit than other populations, there is strong interest in studies on H. pylori in the Arctic. Blood loss from chronic gastritis due to H. pylori infection could contribute to iron deficiency anaemia. However, treatment of the infection with antibiotics has not been shown to improve the anaemia.

(c) Electron micrograph of H. pylori [Y. Tsutsumi/Wiki]

100

Fig. 13.8 – Trichinella cyst within human skeletal muscle tissue [CDC]

Fig. 13.9 – Life cycle of the parasite Echinococcus Poster on display in a health centre in Chukotka. [K.Young]

Zoonoses and Parasitic Infections With their hunting traditions and subsistence based on wild game, Arctic indigenous peoples are at increased risk of zoonoses and parasitic infections acquired from infected meat. Zoonoses are diseases caused by organisms that are usually present in animals but can be transmitted to humans. Trichinellosis is caused by ingestion of the nematode worm Trichinella (Fig. 13.8). T. nativa is widespread in Arctic wildlife and is freeze-tolerant. Humans can be infected from the meat of bears, walruses, and seals. The disease occurs sporadically but outbreaks have been reported in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland, sometimes involving over 100 cases. Despite the declining frequency of outbreaks,

seroprevalence studies still show a high proportion of people with past exposure to the parasite, especially in hunting districts and among older persons. A number of once-common zoonoses have greatly decreased in significance due to lifestyle changes in circumpolar populations. Echinococcus granulosis and E. multilocularis are common tapeworms in foxes and dogs, and in humans they cause the highly lethal alveolar hydatid cyst disease. The disease is becoming less common as dog-teams are being replaced by snowmobiles in many parts of the Arctic (Fig. 13.9). Botulism is caused by ingestion of a neurotoxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, which grows in meat and fish stored under anaerobic conditions. Botulism results in muscle paralysis, eventually leading to respi-

Fig. 13.10 – Traditional method of fermenting meat [A.Parkinson]

ratory arrest. In the Arctic, traditional processing of meat and fish involves fermentation by anaerobic storage at low temperatures (above freezing) without salting. This has led to occasional outbreaks of botulism in Inuit regions. A shift in fermenting techniques towards the use of plastic bags and plastic containers, which facilitates growth of anaerobic bacteria, may have contributed to the increasing incidence of botulism observed in Alaska (Fig. 13.10). Parasitic and zoonotic infections are highly dependent on climate. There is a concern that climate changes in the Arctic affecting temperature, humidity, flooding, and biodiversity may increase the incidence of these infections in humans.

101

150

320

149

144

154

151

161

168

168

172

150

169

176

174

184

178

203

184

210

215

211

219

219

222

222

226

236

225

207

200

234

253

252

250

156

200

ASMR per 100 000

227

253 276 243 293 240 287 236 287 231 266 229 211 213 277 206 245 198

364

250

300

287 308 284 300 279 313 268 332 266 309 265 258 262

Cases per 100 000

300

294 300 290

356

321

350

343

400

350

MALE

369

FEMALE

280

449

450

378

400

500

359

14. Cancer

100

100 50

50 0

Nu

C

Gl

Ak

DK

US

IS

Nd NO CA

Tr

Nt

Fo

SE

ancer refers to the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal (malignant) cells. It is generally classified according to anatomic site (i.e., where the “primary” cancer originates, to be distinguished from “secondary” sites where it may have spread). However, within each site there may be several different histological types (such as squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, etc.). Cancer may be detected at different stages in its natural history, often a reflection of the quality of preventive and diagnostic health services. Different risk factors have been identified, such as tobacco, diet, radiation, viruses, etc., although the causes of most cancers are unknown.

Yk Fm

FI

Vb

Nb

La

Ou

0

Nu Gl Ky Ma Ne Km Ka Ck Sk Yk Ta Mu DK Nt Ko RU Ar Tn Ev CA Fm US NO Ak Nd Tr IS Fo SE La Vb FI Nb Ou

Incidence and Mortality

Inuit Cancer Patterns

Fig. 14.1 – Cancer incidence from all sites

The most accurate way to measure cancer incidence is through a population-based cancer registry. Not all countries or regions have cancer registries. Fig. 14.1 compares cancer incidence among men and women in circumpolar regions, with the notable exception of Russia, where there is no national registry and few regional ones. The highest incidence rates are found in Nunavut, Greenland, and Alaska.

An international review of cancer among Inuit in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland reveals that cancers (all sites combined) have increased in all Inuit regions over a thirty-five-year period from 1969–2003 (Fig. 14.3). The increase is particularly marked for lung and colorectal cancers, while the presence of cervical cancer has declined. For the 1989–2003 period, the overall risk of cancer among Inuit men and women was not in excess of those among nonInuit. Inuit continue to be at extreme high risk for certain so-called traditional cancers, such as nasopharyngeal and salivary gland cancer (Fig. 14.4). However, Inuit today also have the world’s highest incidence rate of lung cancer (Fig. 14.5).

(left) Rates are age-standardized to the “world” population, per 100,000 per year.

Because cancer is highly lethal, cancer mortality rates are often used where incidence data are not available. It should be noted that mortality rates also reflect the availability and effectiveness of treatment services (Fig. 14.2). It is evident that the highest mortality rates are reported in Nunavut and Greenland, reflecting their high incidence rates, but also suggestive of poorer rates of survival.

Fig. 14.2 – Cancer mortality from all sites (right) Rates are age-standardized to the “European standard” population, per 100,000 per year.

10

5

0

15 12 — Circumpolar Inuit Greenland

0.1

0

25

20

MALE

FEMALE

Fig. 14.3 – Circumpolar Inuit cancer: Time trends

8

By Age-standardized incidence rate per 100,000

0.1

0.0

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Fig. 14.5 – Incidence of lung cancer among circumpolar Inuit with global comparisons

MALE

9

7 — Circumpolar Inuit

FEMALE

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

0.9

1.0

3.9 3.3 2.8 2.3 2.0 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.2 1.1

1.0

All sites

200 1.0 1.1

24.2

36.5

100.0

Nasopharynx Stomach Salivary glands Esophagus Gallbladder/bile ducts Liver Lung Pancreas Colon Kidney Bone Mouth Rectum Multiple myeloma Larynx Brain/CNS Testis Leukemia Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Connective tissue Breast Nasal cavities/sinuses Bladder Thyroid Prostate Hodgkin's disease Malignant melanoma skin 0.03

250

All sites

300

0.9 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3

10.0 4.6 3.9 3.6 3.5 3.0 2.6 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.1 1.0

FEMALE

0.2 0.2 0.1

350

Ratio Inuit/SEER White

450

Nasopharynx Esophagus Gallbladder/bile ducts Stomach Salivary glands Cervix uteri Liver Pancreas Colon Kidney Thyroid Lung Rectum/RS junction Mouth Bone Brain/CNS Eye Ovary Breast Connective tissue Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Multiple myeloma Nasal cavities/sinuses Leukemia Hodgkin's disease Larynx Corpus uteri Bladder Malignant melanoma skin

Canada

99-03

0.0

Alaska

94-98

100 Circumpolar Inuit

89-93

MALE

84-88

79-83

74-78

69-73

50

99-03

150

94-98

89-93

84-88

400

79-83

74-78

69-73

Age-standardized incidence rate (per 100,000)

102 100.0

10.0

A relative risk of 1.0 means there is no difference in incidence between the Inuit and non-Inuit in this case represented by U.S. whites as recorded in the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) of the U.S. National Cancer Institute. Bars above the horizontal line represent cancer sites for which the Inuit are at higher risk than U.S. whites. Fig. 14.4 – Circumpolar Inuit cancer: Relative risks

103

Although enhanced quantities of the isotope Cesium-137 have been found in lichen and reindeer meat, as well as in whole-body content among reindeer herders, there has been no detectable excess of either leukemia or thyroid cancer, which are radiation-sensitive. The incidence of prostate, lung, breast, and colorectal cancer is lower among the Sami than in the rest of the population. These results suggest that radiation doses received by the reindeer-herding Sami were too small to have substantially affected cancer incidence.

Control and Prevention The control of cancer requires multiple strategies directed at different stages in the natural history of the disease. Primary prevention efforts directed at eliminating smoking, reducing heavy alcohol use, increasing dietary fruits and vegetables, maintaining healthy weights, and promoting physical activity would have benefits in preventing cancer and other health problems. It should be recognized that, given the long lag time in the development of cancer, even if smoking or other risk behaviour is dramatically reduced today, it would be decades before any impact on cancer rates could be observed.

Early detection of cancer through organized screening is dependent upon a well-organized health care system. The Arctic has lagged behind in such efforts. In Greenland, a centralized, population-based program for cervical cancer screening was not implemented until 1999, decades after its implementation in Denmark. Prior to 2000, Nunavut was the jurisdiction with the lowest screening participation rate in Canada. However, by 2005, the proportion of women in the three northern territories aged eighteen to sixty-nine who had had at least one Pap test during the preceding three years exceeded the Canadian national average. Clearly, intensive promotion of preventive services in the target population can achieve an increase in participation. Definitive diagnosis of most cancers requires sophisticated and complex tools (such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging scans, endoscopy, surgical pathology, and biomarkers), and by necessity such tools are concentrated in regional centres. The unique challenge of health care delivery in the Arctic is the need to strengthen primary health care at the community level to ensure that possible cancer patients are promptly identified and referred for further investigation. The treatment of cancer is also highly specialized and includes surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Cancer patients are often required to travel long distances for treatment.

20ºW

0º

10ºW

10ºE

20ºE

30ºE

40ºE

50ºE

60ºE

Total Caesium-137 deposition 2 per 10 May 1986, in kBq / m

more than 1480 from 185 to 1480 from 40 to 185 from 10 to 40 less than 10

Note: the map shows total deposition resulting from both the Chernobyl accident and nuclear weapon tests. However at the level above 10 kBq per m2 in most cases the effects of the Chernobyl accident are predominant.

60ºN

FINLAND

Atlantic

Data not available

Ocean 55ºN

NORWAY

IRELAND

50ºN

RUSSIA

North Sea

ESTONIA

SWEDEN

a

Due to the fact that northern Scandinavia was heavily exposed to nuclear fallout from Soviet nuclear tests in the Kola Peninsula during the 1950s and 1960s and the Chernobyl accident in 1986 (Fig. 14.6), concern was expressed regarding the risk of cancer among the Sami populations of Norway, Sweden, and Finland.

The viral etiology of human papilloma virus in cervical cancer and hepatitis B virus in hepatocellular carcinoma opens up the exciting possibility that some types of cancer can now be prevented by vaccination.

Se

Nuclear Fallout and Cancer

DENMARK UNITED KINGDOM

THE NETHERLANDS

Ba

l ti

LATVIA

c

LITHUANIA RUSSIA

BELGIUM

BELARUS

POLAND

GERMANY

Chernobyl FRANCE

CZECH REP.

45ºN

SLOVAK REP.

SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA SLOVENIA SPAIN

UKRAINE HUNGARY

CROATIA

ROMANIA

MOLDOVA

ITALY

40ºN

Black Sea

GREECE

35ºN

Me d

i te r r a n

ean

0

500 km

S ea

There is a trend towards some decentralization of cancer treatment – for example, the more basic chemotherapy treatments for lung and breast cancer are now available in Greenland, where residents once would have had to travel to Denmark for these procedures. There is some evidence that the management of cancer in the Arctic is less than optimal. Data from Alaska suggest that Alaska Natives tend to be diagnosed at later stages and have lower survival rates than non-Natives. However, survival rates are improving, particularly for colorectal and liver cancer.

Fig. 14.6 – Radioactive fallout levels across continental Europe following the Chernobyl disaster. [V. Novikov, UNEP/ GRID-Arendal]

104

15. Cardiovascular Diseases ASMR - circulatory diseases (per 100,000)

1426

1500

Yk Sk

Yn

829 849 885 750

500 164

Ev

Age-specific mortality rate per 100000

1000

all other stroke ischemic

986 1001 1044 1046 1060 1091 1114

1250

1186

< 250 250-499 500-1000 >1000

744 775

1 2 3 4

250 Fo

1

W Drawn by

Fig. 15.1 – Mortality rates of circulatory diseases (left) [W. Dallmann] Fig. 15.2 – Mortality rates of ischemic heart disease, stroke, and other heart disease (right)

C

d infrie

nn l l ma K. Da

ardiovascular diseases (CVD), or diseases of the circulatory system (heart and blood vessels), are the leading causes of death in most developed countries. From a public health perspective, two types of CVD are particularly important: ischemic heart disease (IHD) – the narrowing of the coronary arteries leading to angina and myocardial infarction (“heart attacks”); and cerebrovas-

0

104 37 46 101 44 64 95 43 70 116 48 50 104 53 69 113 50 72 112 61 64 100 60 78 116 54 70 119 53 70 134 42 72 75 55 119 123 57 72 121 61 75 132 62 71 162 62 48 138 64 85 176 61 52 199 58 41 124 133

Ko

CA Yk Ak IS NO Nt Fo DK SE Nd US Nu Vb Tr Nb FI Fm La Ou Gl Yn Sk Km Ev RU Ko Ma Mu Ar Ck Ta Ka Ne Ky

cular disease (CBD) or stroke, involving the blood supply to the brain. Rheumatic heart disease, the result of rheumatic fever caused by type A streptococcal bacteria, has been on the decline since the midtwentieth century due to advances in antibiotic therapy. Trends in IHD and CBD are indicative of lifestyle changes, such as diet and physical activity, in the population.

Circumpolar Mortality Patterns Fig. 15.1 compares CVD mortality rates in circumpolar regions. Across Russia, CVD mortality rates are much higher than in the other regions. Breakdowns of CVD into IHD, CBD, and others are available for non-Russian regions (Fig. 15.2), among which Finland and its northern regions have much higher rates of

105 IHD, whereas Greenland has the highest rate of CBD. Within Scandinavia, northern regions have higher rates of CVD than the national averages. In the multi-ethnic population of the Northwest Territories in Canada, the agestandardized mortality rate for both ischemic heart disease and stroke are higher than the national rates, whereas for the predominantly Inuit population of Nunavut, only stroke mortality is higher. Among Alaska Natives, mortality from ischemic heart diseases increased during the 1980s and then began to decline during the mid1990s. At the same time, national American rates have declined dramatically. The Alaska Native rate is still lower than that of the state as a whole as well as the U.S. all-races rate. For stroke, the mortality rate has consistently been higher among Alaska Natives.

Fig. 15.3 – Electrocardiography during home visit [K. Young]

Fig. 15.4 – Carotid ultrasonography as part of a health survey [P. Bjerregaard]

It is a long-held belief that IHD has been rare among the Inuit due to the protective effects of their traditional diet, which has a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids of marine origin. However, poor mortality statistics and the lack of incidence data make it difficult to confirm this assertion. Indeed, judging by medical history and the presence of electrocardiographic evidence of past IHD among survivors (Fig. 15.3), data from Greenland and Alaska indicate that their IHD rates are comparable to those of Americans and in the middle range of rates in European populations. As myocardial infarctions and strokes are end points in a long process of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), a promising approach to assessing risk of CVD is by ultrasound studies of the patency of the carotid arteries, a non-invasive procedure (Fig. 15.4).

Standardized ratio (Sami/non-Sami) 0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

AMI incidence AMI mortality

* *

Stroke incidence

NON-HERDERS

Stroke mortality * *

SAH incidence SAH mortality

Men AMI incidence

Women

*

AMI mortality Stroke incidence

*

*

REINDEER HERDERS

Stroke mortality SAH incidence

*

SAH mortality

CVD among Sami

Fig. 15.5 – Cardiovascular disease among Swedish Sami

Some data on the mortality and incidence of CVD among Sami are available. In Sweden, the mortality rate for all CVD is significantly higher among Sami than non-Sami women, but there is no increased risk among Sami men. In Norway and Finland, however, a lower risk for cardiovascular diseases has been observed among Sami.

AMI = acute myocardial infarction

More refined diagnoses are available – separately for reindeer-herding and non-herding Sami in Sweden – from the Sami population and health database created by Hassler and colleagues (Fig. 15.5). A reduced risk of developing and dying from IHD among Sami women relative to non-Sami women is observed only among herders. Male Sami herd-

SAH = subarachnoid hemorrhage * = ratio with statistically significant difference from 1.0 [S. Hassler]

106

ers, on the other hand, experience a lower risk of stroke than non-Sami. Among Sami, the risk of subarachnoid haemorrhage, a subtype of stroke due to bleeding rather than blocked vessels, is substantially higher than for non-Sami. The difference is especially great for herders.

Cardiovascular Risk Factors The pattern of cardiovascular risk factors in many indigenous populations has changed since the 1950s. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes and obesity has increased, whereas physical activity has declined. Dietary practices have shifted towards a more Western tradition, although the consumption of marine mammals and fish is still high compared with North American and European countries. These risk factors are discussed in more detail in their own chapters. Hypertension is an important risk factor for

DBP

Russians

65 Buryat

100 Komi

75

Nganasans

110

Nenets

85

Khanty

120

Mansi

Russians

Buryat

65 Komi

100 Nganasans

75

Nenets

110

Systolic BP (mm Hg)

DBP

Diastolic BP (mm Hg)

SBP

85

Khanty

95

SBP

120

Mansi

Systolic BP (mm Hg)

Fig. 15.6 – Measurement of blood pressure [S. McDonald]

FEMALE

130

95

Diastolic BP (mm Hg)

MALE

130

Fig. 15.7 – Mean blood pressure levels among indigenous peoples in Arctic Russia [A. Kozlov]

cardiovascular diseases (Fig. 15.6). Analysis of merged datasets of four surveys among Inuit in Canada, Alaska, and Greenland conducted during the 1990s showed that mean systolic blood pressure among the Inuit ranked as intermediate on a global scale, and lower than most European populations. The prevalence of hypertension tends to increase in older age groups. In Arctic Russia, there is substantial variation in mean blood pressure levels among various indigenous groups (Fig. 15.7). Since at least the 1930s there has been considerable interest in lipid metabolism among the Inuit. Surveys in northern Canada, Alaska, and Greenland have generally demonstrated a favourable lipid profile of generally low levels of triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL), and high levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL). As more subfractions of plasma lipids were discovered, they too were

tested on the Inuit, who continue to show higher levels of protective factors such as apolipoprotein A-I and lower or similar levels of apolipoprotein B and lipoprotein (a), factors associated with a higher risk of ischemic heart disease. Studies from Nunavik and Greenland show a direct association between a marine diet, estimated by n-3 fatty acids in plasma or reported consumption of seal, and a favourable lipid profile. As expected, westernization is associated with a shift to a more unfavourable lipid profile, but this is observed only within Greenland. When Inuit have migrated to Denmark, their lipid profile has improved. This could be the result of complex dietary changes, belying the simplistic view that “westernization” is always associated with poor health outcomes. Inuit who have migrated to Denmark likely consume more fruits, vegetables, and plant oils.

107

16. Diabetes and Obesity

S

ubstantial lifestyle changes have occurred in circumpolar regions since the 1950s. Among indigenous peoples, declining participation in hunting and fishing is associated with a decrease in physical activity and change from a traditional diet to a more Western diet. The interaction of environmental and behavioural factors with genetic susceptibility has resulted in an increase in the burden of obesity and diabetes.

Obesity is the excess of body fat or adipose tissue. While body fat serves a variety of essential metabolic functions, its excess predisposes to significant health problems, including diabetes, coronary heart disease, hypertension, and certain cancers. In population surveys, excess body fat can only be indirectly measured. Body mass index (BMI) is a simple index of weight-for-height (= weight in kg/ [height in metres]2). According to criteria adopted by the World Health Organization, “overweight” is defined as a BMI of 25.0 to 29.9 and “obese” a BMI of 30 and above. However, the distribution of fat, especially excess abdominal fat, is a more important risk factor, which can be assessed by the waist circumference.

Prevalence of Obesity and Overweight In a pooled dataset from four studies conducted among Inuit in Alaska, Canada, and Green-

land in the 1990s, it was found that 37 per cent of men were overweight and 16 per cent were obese, while 33 per cent of Inuit women were overweight and 16 per cent were obese. The age-standardized prevalence of obesity among the Inuit ranked at the top among the highly developed countries of Europe and North America (Fig. 16.1). Among Inuit women, the mean waist circumference was higher than all reported populations globally, whereas the mean waist circumference of Inuit men ranked quite low. A study of body composition among Inuit in Alaska confirms that their visceral fat content is high, and that measurements of abdominal fat are similar among men and women Secular trend data suggest that mean BMI has increased since the 1970s among both Inuit men and women. Based on waist circumference and skinfolds, total body fat and central fat have increased, whereas lean body mass has decreased. In Finnmark in Norway, Sami men had a mean BMI that was comparable to other ethnic groups, whereas Sami women were more obese but did not suffer more from diabetes, perhaps related to their higher level of physical activity. Among Swedish Sami the mean BMI was not significantly different from non-Sami when matched by age, sex, and area of residence. Obesity is an emerging health problem among children in the Arctic. In a survey of Dene children in 5 communities in the Yukon and

AFR-E AFR-D SEAR-D

FEMALE

MALE

EMR-D SEAR-B WPR-B WPR-A EMR-B EUR-B AMR-D EUR-C AMR-A EUR-A Inuit AMR-B 80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

Prevalence (%) of Overweight and Obesity Obese-F

Overweight-F

Overweight-M

Northwest Territories, 32 per cent of children were at risk of being overweight (>85th percentile of reference standard). The prevalence was similar between boys and girls. In Nuuk, Greenland, school entry records of six- to seven-year-old children showed a 6 per cent increase in mean BMI between 1980 and 2000. The Inuit Health Survey of Children in Nunavut in 2007–8 showed a prevalence of 51 per cent of children aged three to five with a BMI exceeding the 95th percentile, and an additional 27 per cent with a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentile. When plotted against reference growth curves published by

Obese-M

Fig. 16.1 – Prevalence (%) of overweight and obesity among Inuit compared to WHO regions Notes: AFR = Africa; SEAR = Southeast Asia; EMR = Eastern Mediterranean; WPR = Western Pacific; EUR = Europe; AMR = Americas. Age-standardized to the hypothetical “world” population of the International Agency of Research on Cancer. [K. Young]

108 3.0

Triglycerides (mmol/L)

2.5

2.0 Euro-Canadian

Euro-Canadian

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

Inuit

90

Ev

Ma

Fig. 21.3 – Proportion of homes in Arctic Russian regions with sewerage installation(above) [UNDP]

66

27

l irc cC cti Ar

Yn

Yen isey

58

Ky

Ta

Ko Ob

Eastern

Laptev Sea

Kara Sea

CHUKOTKA Western

Bering Sea

Ne

88 89

75

East Siberian Sea

Barents Sea

82

Alaska (U.S.A)

Chukchi Sea

Svalbard (NORWAY)

91

e

49

Total

100

120

132 spite major improvements in the overall health and wealth of the population. The disparity in health status between indigenous peoples and the larger national populations to which they belong has often been attributed to their poor socio-economic status.

14000 12000 Health centre visits /1000 population

10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

0

10

20

30 40 Percent of houses in core need

50

60

70

In the Northwest Territories (which included Nunavut) during the 1990s, the rate of health centre visits, used as a measure of morbidity, was found to correlate with most housing and SES indicators (Fig. 21.5).

14000 12000 Health centre visits /1000 population

10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 10000

Some socio-economic data on circumpolar regions and populations are presented in chapter 9. The association of SES indicators with selfreported health status has been demonstrated in many surveys. Those who report excellent or very good health tend to have a higher level of education and higher income.

15000

Fig. 21.5 – Correlation of socio-economic conditions and health in the Northwest Territories [K. Young] (a) (top) Income (b) (bottom) Housing quality

20000

25000 Mean income ($)

30000

35000

40000

Socio-economic Status The association between socio-economic factors and health has been observed for a long time. A gradient across different socio-economic classes, no matter how such classes are defined, has been consistently demonstrated for various measures of mortality and morbidity, for individual diseases, and for all causes combined. This gradient exists in many countries around the world and has persisted de-

Studies from the Arctic support the observation from around the world that the burden of infectious diseases is strongly associated with SES. Improved housing and reduced crowding lead to a lessening in the transmission of airborne infections. Improved sanitation and water supply plays a role in the decline of gastrointestinal illnesses, hepatitis A, and skin infections. Periods of starvation that used to weaken a population’s resistance to infections and their complications have disappeared altogether in the Arctic. Chronic diseases and their risk factors also vary according to education levels and other measures of SES, although the association has been shown in different directions according to gender. The different gender roles in a rapidly modernizing population are most likely responsible for this phenomenon.

At the population level, social change or transition is a powerful health determinant. Since the 1950s, circumpolar regions and peoples have been transformed into a modern society, thoroughly integrated in the global political and economic systems. This change is concurrent with observable secular trends in dietary patterns and levels of physical activity, the incidence and mortality rates of infectious diseases, chronic diseases, and injuries, and overall measures of mental and psychosocial health.

Inequalities and Discrimination Studies have shown a significant impact of income inequalities on health, irrespective of the absolute income level. In many circumpolar regions the distribution of income is becoming increasingly unequal (Fig. 21.6), but there are no studies that relate this to health. The Human Development Index (HDI), first introduced in chapter 10, pertains to a region or country as a whole. It is possible to adjust HDI statistically for inequality within a country, in which case a different picture emerges (Fig. 21.7). Countries such as the United States and Russia ‘lose’ more than 10 per cent of their HDI values when inequality has been taken into account, whereas the more egalitarian Nordic countries tend to lose less while moving up in their global ranking. Discrimination is another example of a social factor that likely has a negative impact on health. The influx of non-indigenous peoples into northern communities occurs at different times and with different intensities. The newcomers tend to be skilled or professional

133 SWEDEN

NORWAY

FINLAND

Arctic Ocean

Ar

East Siberian Sea

Bering Sea

Laptev Sea

Kara Sea

0.719 0.810

Denmark

Ky

Ne

Ob

e

l rc Ci ic t c Ar

Yn

Yen isey

Km Ob

Ev

Le n

0.806

Finland

0.812

Canada

0.799

United States

200 400 600 km

Fig. 21.6 – Income disparity among Arctic Russian regions It is noteworthy that regions such as Yamalo-Nenets AO and Khanty-Mansi AO, which have among the highest GDP per capita in the Russian North, also have the highest income disparity. [UNDP]

people who often stay for short periods of time and do not become completely integrated in the local communities. Power imbalances superimposed on differences in socio-economic position serve to maintain social distance between the two ‘classes.’ Discrimination and lack of respect likely play a role in the myriad social problems experienced by indigenous people in many communities.

substantially better than indigenous peoples in Alaska, northern Canada, Greenland, and Arctic Russia, which reflects their comparable socio-economic position relative to the nonindigenous population in the same regions. In fact, in Alaska and northern Canada, the nonindigenous populations have a health status that is very similar to the total population of the country.

Health inequalities and disparities are also apparent at the level of regions. The northern regions in Fennoscandia generally fare better in a variety of health indicators than the northern regions of North America and Russia. Within each country in Fennoscandia, the ‘northsouth’ disparity is also much less marked, or absent altogether. The health of the Sami is

Work and Health The psychological as well as the physical work environment exert a major influence on health. Classical work exposures like chemical substances, dust, cold, noise, and repeated movements are all present in communities in the North, along with lack of job control and

0.885

0.888

0.902 0.876

Norway 0.000

0.871

0.824

Sweden Sea of Okhotsk

0

0.869

Ma

Sk

Ratio of top 20% to lowest 20% income

0.866

0.811

Iceland Ta

Ko

1 2 3 4

0.636

Ck Barents Sea

no data 5-7 7-9 9-20 >20

Unadjusted

Russia

Mu

Ka

Adjusted

Alaska (U.S.A)

Chukchi Sea

Svalbard (NORWAY)

0.100

0.200

0.300

0.400

0.500

0.600

0.700

0.800

0.900

0.938 1.000

HDI value

high job demands, but few studies have been conducted on their relationship with health. A major work-related health factor, especially in the indigenous populations, is unemployment and under-employment. There are few jobs available, especially for unskilled workers. Indigenous women across the Arctic tend to be more successful than men in their adjustment to the rapid societal changes. While many women are able to both continue their traditional roles as caregivers in the family and also enter the labour market, the transition from hunter and sole breadwinner to wage-earner in a subordinate position – or even unemployed – has been hard for many indigenous men.

Fig. 21.7 – Inequalityadjusted human development index values of circumpolar countries [UNDP]

134 43

Total

Total

73

64

67

ALASKA

ALASKA 53

Bering Straits

61

Northwest

24

Northwest

86

52

North Slope

Bering Straits

75

31 33 35

North Slope

71

41

Use at home all or most of the time 48

Speak very well

CHUKOTKA

CHUKOTKA 41

Western

82

33

Central

96

13

Anadyr

Western

91

17

Eastern

12

42

Central

43 16

Anadyr

72

30

Eastern

54 57

36

GREENLAND

GREENLAND 58

East 34

North

50

Midwest

48

South

69

Disko Bay

68

Midwest

59 63

NWT 47

Labrador

62

Nunavik 0

20

Fig. 21.8 – Participation in traditional subsistence activities Note: Hunting refers to the hunting of land or sea mammals, whichever is higher. [SLiCA] Fig. 21.9 – Use of indigenous languages [SLiCA]

40 60 Percent of respondents (%)

Hunting

67

Fishing

71

78 69

100

87 97

CANADA Nunavut

89

20

NWT

30

0

A uniquely northern occupational health issue is the hazard of reindeer herding, which is associated with a range of health problems from musculoskeletal symptoms to fatal injuries, making it one of the most hazardous occupations in Sweden. The industry is also increasingly mechanized, with the associated increased risk in vehicular accidents and decreased level of physical activity – both with negative impact on health. Mining, oil, and gas resources are rapidly being developed across the North, which will bring with it both occupational and social health consequences.

10

20

30

94

44 58

Nunavik 80

96

72

Labrador

73 71

100

80

South

77

CANADA Nunavut

95

70

North

58

43

Disko Bay

East

81

72

40 50 60 70 Percent of respondents (%)

80 80

90

100

Cultural Influences While many indigenous people are economically less well-off than their fellow citizens – a fact which accounts partially for the disparity in their health status – they are also ‘protected’ in some sense by the resilience of their culture. Culture affects health in many different ways. Among traditional cultures, there are many examples of how cultural beliefs and practices expose people to, or protect them from, diseases and injuries, including dietary customs, childcare practices, religious rituals, migration patterns, kinship relations, and medical therapies. In populations undergoing cultural change, health becomes affected when there

is a discrepancy between modern and traditional values. Conflicts at the cultural level can reinforce individual vulnerability and provoke disease among those already susceptible. When groups of people belonging to different cultures come into contact, one or both groups may undergo cultural change, a process often referred to as acculturation. This is particularly acute in the case of traditional cultures coming into contact with modern cosmopolitan culture. In response to the stresses of acculturation, individuals and groups may develop coping strategies by building on their cultural repertoire. However, these stresses may be so strong and novel that the protection of traditional culture can be overturned. The degree to which cultural identity has been retained by an individual or group during the process of cultural change can be measured in terms of variables such as proficiency in the indigenous language, participation in traditional cultural activities, and the consumption of country foods. Some data are available from SLiCA (Figs. 21.8 and 21.9), and these show that the Inuit generally have a high participation rate in traditional activities, particularly subsistence hunting and fishing, and have been able to sustain their own languages. A survey of Yupik residents in the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta of Alaska found that those who identified more with a traditional Yupik way of life experienced less psychosocial stress, were happier, and were less likely to use drugs and alcohol to cope with stress. They also tended to rely on religion and spirituality to cope with stress.

135

Healthy Communities

Fig. 21.10 – Community activities promote social health

Individuals live in communities, and attributes of these communities are also important determinants of health. A healthy community can be characterized as a safe environment that provides opportunities for social integration. Community members’ involvement in social life (Fig. 21.10) and their shared pursuit of broader social goals can positively affect health. Research specific to the Arctic that utilizes such concepts and methods is only just beginning. A network is the web of social relationships which surround an individual. Members of a network provide emotional, financial, and other kinds of support to one another. Church membership is one type of social network, especially in small communities where they have historically come to dominate social life. The relationship between social networks and chronic diseases, especially ischemic heart disease, is well established. Data specific to circumpolar populations, however, are not available. It remains to be seen if the concept of a social network, based on work done with Europeans and Americans, can indeed be applied to Arctic indigenous peoples.

(a) Folk ensemble Maimbava in Nelmin Nos village, Nenets AO [W. Dallmann]

(b) Drum dancing in community celebration, Cambridge Bay, Nunavut [K. Young]

(c) Community feast in Arviat, Nunavut [E. Loring]

(d) Ornate decorations in Our Lady of Good Hope Roman Catholic Church, Fort Good Hope, Northwest Territories. Churches have become important foci for social networking in small communities. [H. Blackett/ICHR]

136

22. Environmental Quality

Fig. 22.1 – Air and water pollution (a) (left) Exxon Valdez oil spill, Prince William Sound, Alaska [Accent Alaska] (b) (centre) Oil spill from leaking pipeline near Lake Niznevartovsk, Khanty-Mansi AO [Alexander/ ArcticPhoto] (c) (right) Darkness at noon in Egvekinot, Chukotka, from coalburning power plants [K. Young]

T

he health of populations depends on the integrity of the natural environment, which is strongly affected by different types of human activities. The Arctic is often erroneously assumed to be a pristine, unpolluted area. There are two major kinds of threats to environmental quality, which can be labelled ‘old’ and ‘new.’ The old kind relates to defective water supply, sanitation, and solid waste management, which affect human settlements. The associated health problems are well recognized and solutions to them already

exist. For a variety of technical, logistical, financial, and political reasons, however, they continue to be problems in circumpolar regions.

on the immediate environment. Finally, the Arctic is the sentinel of global warming, and its residents face potential new health threats that may accompany the environmental changes.

The newer kinds of threats to the environment include invisible contamination, which occurs with synthetic chemical substances that are produced far from the Arctic but transported to the region by ocean and atmospheric currents, biomagnified in the marine food chain, and bioaccumulated in humans. While there are few major industries located in the North, major mining, oil, and gas developments are underway and these may have a serious effect

Pollution of Air, Water, and Land Circumpolar regions have their share of gross, visible pollution of air and water (Fig. 22.1). In the Russian Arctic, large-scale industrialization and urbanization powered by coal has resulted in substantial air pollution. The transportation of crude oil, whether by pipeline or tanker, is subject to leakage, sometimes with

137 spectacular and devastating results – such as the 1989 Exxon Valdez catastrophe in Prince William Sound, Alaska. A legacy of the Cold War was the abandoned Distant Early Warning radar stations in Canada and the nuclear waste disposal sites in Russia (Fig. 22.2). Solid waste disposal is a major problem across circumpolar regions, from household garbage to huge, abandoned fuel tanks that litter the landscape (Fig. 22.3). The cold climate inhibits biodegradation, and whatever is flown in has to be flown out, at prohibitive costs. As the population increases, the scope of the problem increases in tandem. While there is abundant fresh water in the Arctic, contained in its rivers, lakes, and ice fields, water is not readily available in sufficient quantity and quality for the Arctic’s inhabitants. Many communities obtain untreated water from a lake or reservoir situated at high elevation, delivered by gravity to homes via pipes. In larger towns, the utilidor system of above-ground pipes delivers water from municipal treatment plants. In other communities, tanker trucks are used to deliver water to storage tanks within buildings. In smaller, more remote communities, residents use the age-old individual haul method to get water from surface or public sources. It has been estimated that Canadian Inuit consume less than the minimum Canadian national standard of 65 litres per person per day, far less than the 300 litres per day consumed by the average Canadian. Poor community infrastructure in terms of water supply and sanitation is an important factor in the occurrence of waterborne diseases such

as gastroenteritis and dysentery. Air pollution is strongly related to respiratory illnesses, including the exacerbation of chronic diseases such as asthma.

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS (United States)

OCEAN KAMCHATKA

Three groups of persistent toxic substances can be distinguished based on their origins, functions, and chemical structures. Those that are organic compounds are also referred to as persistent organic pollutants (POPs): » industrial compounds and by-products (each group or family may itself be comprised of up to several hundred ‘congeners,’ or chemically related compounds): PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), with 209 congeners; PCDDs (polychlorinated dibenzop-dioxins) or dioxins, with 75 congeners; PCDFs (polychlorinated dibenzofurans) or furans, with 135 congeners; PCNs (polychlorinated naphthalenes), with 75 congeners; PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers); PBBs (polybrominated biphenyls); PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons); PFAS group (perfluorinated alkylated substances); and HBCD (hexabromocyclododecane).

OKHOTSK SEA

BERING SEA

Environmental Contaminants A number of chemicals have been shown to affect human health. Of particular relevance to the Arctic are pesticides such as the DDT group, the HCH group, and chlordane; and polychlorinated substances such as PCB congeners. Focus has also been directed to newer groups of contaminants such as the brominated flame retardants PBDE, HBCD, and the PFAS group, because of their strong toxicity in laboratory animals.

PACIFIC

ALASKA (United States)

Whitehorse

Yellowknife

CANADA

ARCTIC

Resolute

OCEAN

HUDSON

RUSSIA

BAY

THULÉ NOVAYAZEMLYA

BAFFIN

Svalbard (Norway)

BAY

KAZAKHSTAN

Greenland (Denmark) KOLA PENINSULA ATLANTIC OCEAN

FINLAND

ICELAND

Military nuclear explosion Civilian nuclear explosion

SWEDEN NORWAY ESTONIA

Faroe Islands (Denmark)

BELARUS LITHUANIA

Nuclear accident Terrestrial nuclear waste site Marine nuclear waste site Nuclear powerplant

Murmansk

NORWEGIAN SEA

UKRAINE

UNITEDKINGDOM Sources : AMAP, 1997 and 1998; IAEA, 1991, 2001 and 1996; Crane and Galasso, 1999. UNEP/GRID-ARENDAL - MARCH 2004

Fig. 22.2 – Nuclear activities in the Arctic, 1950–2000 Numerous nuclear explosions have taken place in the Arctic. One of the largest military nuclear testing facilities is on Novaya Zemlya, Russia. Between 1955 and 1990 the Soviet Union detonated eighty-eight atmospheric, twenty-nine underground, and three underwater nuclear devices. Dozens of civilian nuclear explosions have also occurred in the Russian Arctic where nuclear bombs were used into the late 1980s for seismic studies, for mining, and in attempts to extinguish oil-field fires. In 1968 a U.S. Air Force B-52 bomber carrying four nuclear bombs crashed and exploded near the Thule Air Base in Greenland, although there was no thermonuclear reaction. Hundreds of poorly protected civilians and military personnel were involved in the clean-up. The lone accident in the Canadian Arctic occurred in 1978 when the Soviet satellite Cosmos 954, which had an onboard nuclear reactor, failed to separate from its booster and broke up on re-entry, spreading radioactive fuel and debris over the Northwest Territories. The worst accident of all time, Chernobyl in 1986, did not occur in the Arctic (it was in the Ukraine, just visible in the bottom right of the map), but did result in extensive contamination of Arctic vegetation grazed on by Sami reindeer herds. [UNEP/GRIDA]

138 » pesticides: HCHs (hexachlorocyclohexanes); HCB (hexachlorobenzene); DDT group (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane); cyclodienes, which include chlordanes, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin; and toxaphene, a mixture of chlorinated bornanes (CHBs) and others. » heavy metals: mercury (Hg); lead (Pb); cadmium (Cd); and arsenic (As).

Fig. 22.3 – Abandoned fuel containers litter the Canadian Arctic landscape [INAC]

Temperate regions

INDIRECT long-range atmospheric transport Atmospheric oxidative transformation

Airborne precursors

Di use sources Point sources

Polar regions

Biotransformation Waterborne ionic PFAS

Riverine transport

Sewage treatment plants

DIRECT long-range oceanic transport

Fig. 22.4 – Long-range transportation of fluorinated compounds [AMAP]

Many of these contaminants are transported to the Arctic by air, ocean or river water, and ice drift. Most of them are lipid soluble and are stored in the fat of marine mammals. Their concentration increases with each step in the food chain and is very high in predatory species like seals, toothed whales, and polar bears (Fig. 22.4). Generally, it is the coastal human populations who have the highest concentrations of many of these contaminants, especially those who obtain a substantial proportion of their diet from marine mammals. The growing fetus and the newborn child are especially sensitive to the toxic effects of environmental contaminants. These substances may exert their toxicity for decades because of their resistance to degradation. Several of these substances move from mother to fetus via the umbilical cord and from mother to child via breast milk. The levels of these contaminants in maternal blood during pregnancy give an indication of the potential risk to the developing fetus. Of special concern are the long-term, subtle effects of the contaminants that might influence reproductive health, affect pregnancy outcomes, reduce immunity, delay mental development, and increase the risk of cancer. Since 1991, the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), a multidiscipli-

nary, international expert group reporting to the Arctic Council, has been monitoring levels of contaminants in Arctic populations and investigating their impact on human health. There are substantial regional differences within the Arctic in terms of human exposure and biological effects (Fig. 22.5 and Fig. 22.6). Regionally high concentrations of PCBs and DDT-group contaminants, but more moderate levels of mercury, point to possible local sources of contaminants in the Russian Arctic with long-range transport playing a relatively minor role. In northern Canada and Greenland, on the other hand, long-range transport is the most important source of contamination.

Risk Management Actions can be implemented at many levels to prevent or reduce the impact of contaminants on human health. Where there are local contamination problems, such as the PCB waste left behind in old military installations across the Arctic, these must be cleaned up. Arctic communities can do little to mitigate the longrange transport of contaminants from faraway sources. Behavioural changes on the part of residents are needed to reduce exposure. In the Faroe Islands, public health authorities have since 2008 advised against the consumption of pilot whales due to the high levels of mercury and PCB detected within them (Fig. 22.7). Other jurisdictions have similarly advised residents to reduce their intake of certain types of food (Figs. 22.8 and 22.9). In communicating the health risks of contaminants to the general public, health officials and

139 Oxychlordane in blood, micrograms/kg lipid

3.50

3.33

80

2001

3.00

60

2007

2.50 Blood concentration in plasma μg/L

40 20 0 p,p’DDE in blood, micrograms/kg lipid 700 600 500

2.26

2.20

2.00 1.60 1.50

1.43

1.42 1.19

1.18

1.00 0.50

400 300

0.00

200

PCB

100 0

DDTs

HCH

HCB

Fig. 22.6 – Rising trends in blood levels of contaminants in a cohort of six-year-old indigenous children in Arctic Russia [V. Chaschin]

Lead in blood, micrograms/L 60 50 40

Fig. 22.8 – Fish consumption calculator in Alaska [Alaska HSS]

30 20 10 0 Mercury in blood, micrograms/L 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Fig. 22.7 – Pilot whale hunt in Hvalba, Faroe Islands 1990

1992 Nuuk, Greenland (Inuit)

1994

1996

1998 Disko Bay, Greenland (Inuit)

2000

2002

2004

2006

Nunavik, Canada (Inuit)

Fig. 22.5 – Maternal blood levels of selected contaminants in selected locations [AMAP]

The whale hunt (grindadráp) is regarded as a traditional cultural activity by Faroese (although animal rights activists do not concur) and the meat and blubber produced by the hunt is consumed. In 2008 the Chief Medical Officer of Health advised against the consumption of pilot whale meat and blubber due to high levels of mercury and PCB they contain. [E.Christensen/Wiki]

Fig. 22.9 – Dietary advice on consumption of country foods for Chukotka residents [AMAP] Each animal species is divided into four categories: meat (мясо), fat (жир), liver (печень), and kidney (почки). Green code refers to unlimited consumption; yellow, 300–400 g/day; purple, 100 g/day; and brown, replace with alternative food.

140

A Warming Arctic The Arctic is particularly vulnerable to climate change. Some of the effects of global warming are discussed in chapter 3. Potential health impacts may be direct – such as those due to the immediate effects of heat, cold, or ultraviolet radiation; and indirect – where climate change influences intermediate factors such as settlement structure, the availability of game, and so on.

Fig. 22.10 – ‘Next Year Strawberries in Greenland’ News story from Greenland’s newspaper, Sermitsiaq, about record high temperatures in 2010 and the bumper harvest of cauliflower, potato, and broccoli. [Sermitsiaq]

scientists must balance these risks with the nutritional benefits of country foods, especially in indigenous communities which obtain a high proportion of their diet from fish and marine mammals. The detection of alarming levels of contaminants in breast milk has led to the ill-informed advice that mothers should substitute with formula, which does not take into consideration the nutritional, psychological, and economic benefits of breastfeeding. Risk management and communication go beyond the scientific process of risk assessment and involve complex policy decisions and actions that must also take into account political, social, and cultural conditions operating in the affected population.

Examples of climate change’s indirect effects include the increasing risk of infectious diseases, especially those with insect vectors and animal or aquatic reservoirs, such as zoonotic diseases. Unique to the Arctic are permafrostdependent village sites, airfield runways, and sanitation infrastructures. Melting permafrost in these locations can destroy health facilities and homes. Arctic wildlife, including animal species dependent on sea ice, form a significant part of some regional diets and are often a critical part of traditional culture. The retreat of shore-bound sea ice makes hunting dangerous or sometimes impossible, and some species’ survival may be threatened. Local knowledge, such as when a frozen river is safe to cross, may provide poor guidance, as rapid Arctic warming makes delayed freezing and thinner ice a major cause of drowning in the winter. Worldwide climate warming has the potential to increase the transport of contaminants into and, in some cases, out of the Arctic. General warming and the disappearance of ice may also open new areas for hunting and fishing and introduce new species to these areas. Alaska Natives have noted that Pacific salmon are spawning in growing numbers farther

north along the Bering and Beaufort Seas, and they are now able to harvest this previously unavailable species. Moose have also continued to extend their range northwards in Alaska. Beavers have moved farther north in Alaska, damming streams. Many more migratory waterfowl are being harvested by Alaska Natives in the interior. In Greenland, traditional subsistence based on the hunting of seals and whales began to make way for a modern cash economy based on the fishing industry. As a result, the population began to be concentrated in fewer and larger towns and the number of villages decreased. In the 1960s, however, a cooling climate along with overfishing resulted in the disappearance of the cod from the west coast of Greenland. At the same time, however, large numbers of shrimp were detected in Disko Bay. The shift from cod fishing to shrimp fishing further changed Greenlandic society. Lively towns grew around the shrimp factories. This continued until the 1990s when overfishing and warming waters again began leading to dwindling stocks in southern Greenland. Many factories closed, followed by the loss of jobs and population. Given this confluence of factors, it is important to recognize that climate change is only one of the many issues affecting health and social change in the Arctic. Population movements from small villages to larger towns are as much the result of conscious political forces encouraging the population to move to towns with schools, health care, shops, and so on as they are the result of changes in the physical environment.

141

An Arctic Response What should be the response of northern society and its health system to climate change? A priority that has often been cited is a surveillance system to monitor both environmental changes and health effects. Such a system can incorporate community-based observation, which in indigenous communities should also draw upon traditional knowledge and the vast experience of long-term residents attuned to the nuances of the land. Responses to extreme climatic events need to be planned in advance and implemented through government-community partnerships. Adaptation options need to be considered, for example, in facilities design, training, and service delivery. Arctic communities cannot wait for the rest of the world to agree on lofty targets, develop new technologies, and implement incentives or penalties for industrial redesign and individual behavioural changes. Indeed, some circumpolar regional governments are looking ahead at strategies that will ‘take advantage’ of climate change (Fig. 22.10). The Greenland

government, for example, aims to develop agriculture, sheep ranching, and dairy farming. Meanwhile, Canada has begun laying the groundwork for elaborating community-led strategies to meet the effects of climate change on the health of individuals and communities (Fig. 22.11).

An Enduring Resilience Northern peoples are resilient and adaptable, and are not helpless victims. Climate change in historical times has been the driver of cultural change in the Arctic. Global warming ushered in the Neolithic Era (Late Stone Age) in Eurasia 7,000 years ago. The development of marine-based subsistence promoted the colonization of the Arctic from Norway to the Bering Sea. The Thule culture, the direct forebears of today’s Inuit, sprang up from the Bering Sea coast 1,000 years ago, developed innovations such as hunting large sea mammals in open water using skin boats, and took advantage of the climate change that enabled them to migrate across the Arctic from Alaska to Greenland.

2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011

Fig. 22.11 – Climate change and health adaptation community projects in northern Canada From 2008 to 2011, Health Canada funded 37 projects throughout Aboriginal communites in the Canadian North to monitor, discuss, develop, and participate in the process of adaptation and the health implications of a changing climate.

142

23. Nutrition and Physical Activity 29

Total ALASKA Bering Straits Northwest North Slope CHUKOTKA Western Eastern Central Anadyr GREENLAND East North Disko Bay Midwest South CANADA Nunavut NWT Labrador Nunavik

40

27 20 22

185

Land mammals 55 66 65

NWT-men

17 34 10 5

Birds Plants

168

Land mammals 19

22

Fish

35

34

41 36

6 17 8 19

Birds

34

Plants

6

204

113

64

NWT-women

Summer

Winter

About half 23 25 24

Land mammals

>half

39

Fish

42 41 38

42

Plants

31

Yukon-men

Land mammals 34 38

41 38

28 40 0

10

Fish

20

30

Fig. 23.1 – Proportion of indigenous adults who consume half or more of their meat and fish from hunting and fishing [SLiCA] Fig. 23.2 – Daily consumption of country foods by Dene in Yukon and Northwest Territories, Canada [M. Batal]

40 50 60 70 Percent of respondents (%)

80

90

100

Yukon-women

39 8 19

Plants

40

230

136 137

36

Birds

33

256

150 156

4 14 4 13

Birds

differ according to local resources (Figs. 23.3). In Greenland, the eastern Canadian Arctic, and along the Arctic coastline, marine mammals – seal in particular – are the traditional staple. For some inland groups, caribou make up the greatest part of the traditional diet. In all regions the staple is supplemented with a variety of other mammals, fish, birds, and plant food such as berries and seaweed, although plant food makes up a very small proportion of the overall diet in much of the Arctic (Fig. 23.4).

242

91 109

Fish

0

A

50

100

150 Gram/person/day

200

250

300

s noted in chapters 15 and 16, cardiovascular and metabolic disorders are becoming more prevalent in circumpolar populations. Among the main causes of such developments are changes in the diet and levels of habitual physical activity, part of the complex process of social transition to a globalized economy and its modern lifestyles.

Subsistence and living off the land, besides the immediate nutritional benefits, promotes physical activity and enhances spiritual health.

Diet and Nutrition

The availability of game varies according to season (Fig. 23.2). Men usually consume country food more frequently than women, and young people consume considerably less country food than older people. The species consumed

For the indigenous people of the Arctic, food obtained from hunting and fishing, or ‘country food,’ continues to be a major part of their diet.

There is variation across the Arctic in the patterns of consumption. SLiCA results show that for about two-thirds of the surveyed households, locally harvested meat and fish make up at least half of the total meat and fish consumed. The proportion is highest in Alaska and lowest in Chukotka (Fig. 23.1).

Dietary surveys have shown a sustained, yet decreasing, level of consumption of locally harvested food. The high cost of imported foods (Fig. 23.5) and inadequate incomes mean that the nutritional value of country foods cannot easily be substituted and compensated in full. Country foods are also becoming expensive, in terms of capital expenditures on guns, boats, and snowmobiles, and the recurrent costs of fuel and ammunition. Analyses������������������������������������ of traditional food consumed by indigenous people show that the density of most nutrients is superior to that of imported food. Calcium and vitamin A are two nutrients that tend to occur in concentrations below the desired level. Imported food is generally rich in saturated fatty acids while the fat of marine mammals and fish are high in polyunsaturated fats. Traditional food does not contain refined sugar and is therefore beneficial for dental health. Some health authorities in circumpolar

143 Fig. 23.3 – Traditional country foods for Inuit

(a) Hunter butchering caribou [S. Chatwood]

(b) Arctic char hanging to dry [S. McDonald]

(c) Man catching auks with net (ipu) near Cape Atholl, north-west Greenland [Alexander/ArcticPhoto]

(d) An Elder dividing meats at a community gathering in Ulakhaktok, Northwest Territories [ICHR]

(e) Underground community freezer in Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories [S. McDonald]

144 Fig. 23.4 – Edible plants

(a) Blueberry [S. Wesche]

(b) Cranberry [S. Chatwood]

(c) Cloudberry [S. Wesche]

Fig. 23.5 – Market foods

(a) Fresh fruits and vegetables in a supermarket in Nuuk. [P. Bjerregaard]

(b) High expense of imported milk in Aklavik, Northwest Territories [ICHR]

(c) Relatively inexpensive soft drinks in Aklavik, Northwest Territories [ICHR]

145 regions have designed food guides that incorporate traditional country food (Fig. 23.6). The notion that country food is healthy and imported food is unhealthy, however, is an oversimplification. The ‘dietary package’ of country food now also contains contaminants such as mercury (see chapter 22). Imported food also has healthy and unhealthy aspects. While it is true that many Arctic residents favour junk food and sugared beverages, and consume lard and fatty meats instead of vegetables, fruit, and pulses, to be unhealthy is not an inherent property of imported food but rather a result of dietary habits that can be changed.

Food Security A disturbing but increasingly common phenomenon in affluent, developed nations such as the circumpolar countries is the appearance of food banks and breakfast clubs to cater to families and children without basic access to food, let alone a healthy diet. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, food security exists when all people, at all times, have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. A Canadian survey asked specific questions about whether, due to a lack of money, members of the surveyed household in the past year (a) did not eat the quality or variety of foods they wanted; (b) worried that there would not be enough to eat; and/or (c) did not have enough to eat. Those who responded ‘often’ or ‘sometimes’ to at least one of these questions were considered to have experienced food insecurity. As expected, food insecurity

is income dependent. However, regional disparities are pronounced, even when stratified by income (Fig. 23.7). Nationally, food insecurity affects the young more than the old and indigenous people more than others. In the North, barriers to food security and the consumption of traditional food may be overcome by increased economic support for local community hunts, the installation of communal freezers, and better access to cheaper and higher quality market foods. These measures could potentially address both food insecurity and the improvement of nutritional status. Urban horticulture is common in Arctic Russian towns, although in only a few larger urban centres elsewhere. It is usually undertaken in small plots and greenhouses. This can provide a supplemental food source (Fig. 23.8).

Physical Activity The traditional circumpolar lifestyle of hunting and fishing, dogsledding, hauling water by hand, and carrying young children on one’s back is physically demanding. Among the Sami, reindeer herding is a very labour-intensive occupation, often carried out in hostile environmental conditions. Since the 1950s, modernization has progressed across the Arctic, resulting in major shifts in subsistence patterns and their associated lifestyles. Many traditional activities continue to be practised, but more as recreational activities in one’s leisure time. Families may engage in hunting, fishing, berry picking, camping, and boating, and the concept of ‘exercise’ has made inroads in the North. Depending on community facilities, typical sports include skiing,

40

Nunavut

49 12

NWT 7

30

10 5

Canada

Note: foods are grouped by putative functions [Nunavut DHSS]

49

18

Yukon

47

Nunavut

74

56 22

NWT

61

28 18

Yukon

58

21 12

42

15 0

10

Fig. 23.7 – Food insecurity in northern Canada [Statcan]

Not Enough to Eat

28

7

Canada

Fig. 23.6 – Nunavut food guide

68

20

30

40

Total Food Insecurity

50

60

Percent of respondents (%) Moderate/high income

Low Income

Total

70

80

146 Fig. 23.8 – Urban horticulture

(a) Growing potatoes in Magadan city, Russia [W. Dallmann]

(b) The community greenhouse in Inuvik, Northwest Territories [ICHR]

soccer, jogging, bicycling, softball, aerobics, and so on. The degree to which physical activity is involved in work and leisure varies from region to region. Within Greenland there is a trend towards higher physical activity levels in connection with westernization, and Inuit who migrate to Denmark are physically more active than those who stay behind in Greenland. Such observations need to be interpreted with caution because of the very different cultural context of physical activity in the North. In northern Norway, despite being less physically active in their leisure time, Sami men and women are more active at work and have a higher total physical activity score than nonSami. In northern Canada, the prevalence of leisuretime inactivity is highest in Nunavut (almost 60 per cent), compared to less than half in the

(c) The rapidly expanding Yellowknife Community Garden collective [R. Rawat]

Northwest Territories and Yukon, which is close to the Canadian national average. Women in general tend to be less active than men. Data on physical activity among Alaskans are available from the Behavioural Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS). Fig. 23.9 shows the prevalence of physical inactivity, defined as someone who has not engaged in any leisuretime physical activity in the past month, other than what is required for their regular job. Inactivity is more prevalent with increasing age, decreasing education and income, and among Native populations. In most studies of physical activity in the circumpolar regions, measurement of physical activity is based on questionnaires regarding leisure-time physical activity which have been adopted from studies of non-indigenous populations. The focus on leisure-time physical activity, rather than total activity, may be less useful in these populations where leisure time

and occupation time are not necessarily clearly separated and organized sports are not always available. Many tools for the measurement of physical activity may not necessarily assess culturally based forms of physical activity and may underestimate the activity level of domestic care. Women tend to engage in lowerintensity activities, like walking, childcare, and housework – all of which are relatively more difficult to assess and less reproducible than higher-intensity activities such as many organized sports. This reinforces the need to validate existing measurement tools or develop new tools to use in these populations.

Policies and Strategies Circumpolar countries and regions have produced action plans, strategies, and policies to promote healthy lifestyles. A few of these are mentioned here.

147 Twelve ministries in Norway were involved in the design and implementation of an action plan on nutrition called Recipe for a Healthy Diet for 2007–11. The plan included seventy-three recommendations grouped under five strategies: (1) availability of healthy food products; (2) consumer knowledge; (3) qualifications of key personnel; (4) local partnerships; and (5) a focus on nutrition in health care services. Examples of specific actions include healthy meals in kindergartens and daycares, vitamin D supplementation for immigrant infants, food marketing directed at children, and nutritional training in the workplace and health care system. This nutrition action plan followed on the heels of an earlier action plan on physical activity for 2005–09. In Sweden, a review of health promotion activities at the municipal level indicated that just 26 out of 290 municipalities had an action plan for physical activity while only 13 had one for healthy diets. Finland has a particularly strong tradition in partnerships with non-governmental organizations, such as the Diabetes Association and the Heart Association, in developing disease-specific strategies and programs in health promotion. The Greenland prevention program Inuuneritta focuses on, among other things, the intervention against a poor diet and a sedentary lifestyle. In addition to usual public education activities, much emphasis is put on training courses for health care workers and other staff on these topics and also on funding school programs. Municipalities can apply for subsidies for school meal programs. Alaska’s Nutrition and Physical Activity Plan

grew out of the Alaska Obesity Summit in 2003. The first and foremost of its overarching goals is to increase awareness, followed by behavioural change strategies to improve physical activity levels, encourage healthy food choices, and attain healthy weights. It develops separate targets for programs based in schools, healthcare settings, communities, and mass communication.

Food Economics and Political Change The political turmoil in the former Soviet Union has had considerable impact on the diet of its northern indigenous populations. At the national level, the withdrawal from state monopoly in foreign trade and the growing share of imported foods in the 1990s introduced new foodstuffs for the consumer markets. Such changes made their way even to remote villages in the tundra. However, the dismantling of the Soviet system of distributing social benefits has resulted in considerable economic hardships among remote northerners. Food production and distribution was affected, with the closing of livestock and poultry farms and inland fisheries, and a reduction in centralized, inter-regional food delivery. In coastal Chukotka, collectivized whaling involving large vessels ceased, reducing the supply of whale meat (primarily for fur farms but also that consumed by the indigenous people). Overall, in response to the post-Soviet economic crisis, northern indigenous peoples have shifted their diet to the cheaper market foods that they can afford, but also have increased their use of locally obtained food

0.0

5.0

10.0

Percent of respondents (%) 15.0 20.0 25.0

Total

30.0

35.0

40.0

21.0

Male

19.6

Female

22.8

Native

26.8

Non-Native

20.3 Age

18-24

16.3

25-34

16.5

35-44

17.9

45-64

22.9

65+

34.1 Education

Some high school

35.9

High school grad

27.3

Some college

21.0

College grad

12.8 Income