Christianity in South and Central Asia 9781474439848

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Christianity in South and Central Asia

Editorial Team

Editors

Kenneth R. Ross Daniel Jeyaraj Todd M. Johnson

Associate Editor

Albert W. Hickman

Managing Editor

Katherine Hampson

Editorial Advisory Board

Anand Amaladass Marina Ngursangzeli Behera Michael Nazir-Ali Prashan de Visser Felix Wilfred

Demographic Profile

Editor: Gina A. Zurlo Data Analyst: Peter F. Crossing Layout and Design: Justin Long Cartography: Bryan Nicholson

Edinbu rgh Companions to Global Chr isti anit y

Christianity in South and Central Asia Edited by

Kenneth R. Ross, Daniel Jeyaraj and Todd M. Johnson

Edinburgh University Press is one of the leading university presses in the UK. We publish academic books and journals in our selected subject areas across the humanities and social sciences, combining cutting-edge scholarship with high editorial and production values to produce academic works of lasting importance. For more information visit our website: edinburghuniversitypress.com © editorial matter and organisation Kenneth R. Ross, Daniel Jeyaraj and Todd M. Johnson, 2019 © the chapters their several authors, 2019 Edinburgh University Press Ltd The Tun – Holyrood Road 12 (2f) Jackson’s Entry Edinburgh EH8 8PJ Typeset in Palatino and Myriad by R. J. Footring Ltd, Derby, UK, and printed and bound in Great Britain A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 4744 3982 4 (hardback) ISBN 978 1 4744 3984 8 (webready PDF) ISBN 978 1 4744 3985 5 (epub) The right of the contributors to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003 (SI No. 2498).

Contents

Series Preface viii Volume Preface x Contributorsxii

Introduction

A Demographic Profile of Christianity in South and Central Asia Gina A. Zurlo Christianity in South and Central Asia Daniel Jeyaraj

3 15

Countries

Kazakhstan43 Alina Ganje Uzbekistan52 Feruza Krason Turkmenistan  Barakatullo Ashurov

61

Tajikistan  Barakatullo Ashurov

65

Kyrgyzstan70 David Radford Iran83 Gulnar Francis-Dehqani Afghanistan  Anthony Roberts

95

Pakistan107 Mehak Arshad and Youshib Matthew John North India Leonard Fernando sj

119

vi  Contents West India Atul Y. Aghamkar

131

South India Daniel Jeyaraj

143

Northeast India Kaholi Zhimomi

156

Nepal168 Bal Krishna Sharma Bhutan180 Tandin Wangyal Bangladesh184 Pradeep Perez sj The Maldives Kenneth R. Ross and Todd M. Johnson

197

Sri Lanka Prashan De Visser

199

Major Christian Traditions Catholics  Felix Wilfred

211

Orthodox223 Romina Istratii United and Uniting Churches Joshva Raja

236

Protestants and Anglicans Arun W. Jones

248

Independents  Roger E. Hedlund

261

Evangelicals274 Rebecca Samuel Shah and Vinay Samuel Pentecostals and Charismatics Ivan Satyavrata

287

Contents  vii

Key Themes

Faith and Culture Atola Longkumer

303

Worship and Spirituality Anand Amaladass

315

Theology327 Jesudas Athyal Social and Political Context Cedric Prakash sj

339

Mission and Evangelism Jacob Kavunkal svd

351

Gender363 Sheela Jeyaraj and Evangeline Anderson-Rajkumar Religious Freedom Michael Nazir-Ali

373

Inter-religious Relations Peniel Rajkumar

384

South Asian Diaspora Sam George

396

Caste and Christianity in India  Anderson Jeremiah

408

Tribal Identity Marina Ngursangzeli Behera

420

Conclusion

The Future of Christianity in South and Central Asia Savithri Sumanthiran

Appendices

Christianity by Country Methodology and Sources of Christian and Religious Affiliation Todd M. Johnson and Gina A. Zurlo

433

447 452

Index469

Series Preface

While a number of compendia have recently been produced on the study of worldwide Christianity, the distinctive quality of this series arises from its examination of global Christianity through a combination of reliable demographic information and original interpretative essays by indigenous scholars and practitioners. This approach was successfully pioneered by the Atlas of Global Christianity 1910–2010, published by Edinburgh University Press on the occasion of the centenary of the epoch-making Edinburgh 1910 World Missionary Conference. Using the same methodology, the Edinburgh Companions to Global Christianity take the analysis to a deeper level of detail and explore the context of the twenty-first century. The series considers the presence of Christianity on a continent-by-continent basis worldwide. Covering every country in the world, it maps patterns of growth and/or decline and examines current trends. The aim of the series is to comprehensively map worldwide Christianity and to describe it in its entirety. Country-specific studies are offered, all the major Christian traditions are analysed and current regional and continental trends are examined. Each volume is devoted to a continent or sub-continent, following the United Nations classifications. Through a combination of maps, tables, charts and graphs, each of the successive volumes presents a comprehensive demographic analysis of Christianity in the relevant area. Commentary and interpretation are provided by essays on key topics, each written by an expert in the field, normally an indigenous scholar. By the use of these various tools each volume provides an accurate, objective and incisive analysis of the presence of Christian faith in the relevant area. The projected volumes in the series are: 1. Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa 2. Christianity in North Africa and West Asia 3. Christianity in South and Central Asia 4. Christianity in East and Southeast Asia 5. Christianity in Oceania 6. Christianity in Latin America 7. Christianity in North America 8. Christianity in Western and Northern Europe

Series Preface  ix



 9. Christianity in Eastern and Southern Europe 10. Compact Atlas of Global Christianity As series editors, we rely heavily on the regional expertise of the dedicated third editor who joins us for each volume. Furthermore, each volume has its own editorial advisory board, made up of senior scholars with authoritative knowledge of the field in question. We work together to define the essay topics for the volume, arrange for compilation of the required demographic data, recruit the authors of the essays and edit their work. Statistical and demographic information is drawn from the highly regarded World Christian Database maintained by the Center for the Study of Global Christianity at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary (South Hamilton, MA, USA) and published by Brill. For each volume, a team of 35–40 authors are recruited to write the essays, and it is ultimately upon their scholarship and commitment that we depend in order to create an original and authoritative work of reference. Each volume in the series will be, we hope, a significant book in its own right and a contribution to the study of Christianity in the region in question. At the same time, each is a constituent part of a greater whole – the 10-volume series, which aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of global Christianity that will be groundbreaking in its demographic quality and analytical range. Our hope is that the Companions will be of service to anyone seeking a fuller understanding of the worldwide presence of the Christian faith. Kenneth R. Ross and Todd M. Johnson Series Editors

Volume Preface

This volume combines two United Nations regions, South and Central Asia. Both are marked by religious diversity. Hinduism is the dominant faith in India and Nepal; Islam in the Maldives, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Central Asia; and Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Bhutan. In every context, however, different religious communities, Christians included, meet and engage with one another. The Christian presence is varied, shaped by different historical patterns and presenting a wide range of complexions today. The contexts in which Christian communities find themselves also vary markedly. While some contexts present severe restrictions and even active hostility and harassment, others offer new opportunities and a favourable climate for the development of church life. Many factors are at play, calling for careful mapping and incisive analysis if justice is to be done to the richness and vitality of the Christian presence in this part of the world. In pursuit of understanding, this volume offers four angles of analysis. The first is demographic, using the methodology of the highly successful Atlas of Global Christianity (Edinburgh University Press, 2009) to present reliable statistical information in an attractive, user-friendly format. Maps and charts depict the status of Christianity regionally and in terms of the principal church traditions. Christians form a small minority in all countries in this region, but in many places they constitute significant communities, some sustaining ancient traditions, others representing new movements. The second angle of analysis is at the country level. Account is taken of the presence and influence of Christianity in each of 14 countries in South and Central Asia. Scholars who are either indigenous or have long experience of the region have contributed interpretative essays that offer a ‘critical insider’ perspective on the way in which Christianity is finding expression in their context. Most countries are the subject of a dedicated essay, while India, in view of its size and population, is divided into four parts for the purpose of the essays. Thirdly, Christianity in South and Central Asia is considered in terms of its principal ecclesial forms or traditions. Six types of church are considered: Catholic, Orthodox, United, Protestant, Anglican and Independent. It is a distinctive feature of this volume that, in addition to the five traditions considered throughout the Companions, it has a​n essay devoted to the



Volume Preface  xi

United Churches, which have been formed through church unions in South Asia. In addition, the Evangelical and Pentecostal/Charismatic movements, which cut across ecclesial affiliation, are examined. Fourthly, selected themes are considered. Eight of these run right through the entire Edinburgh Companions series: faith and culture, worship and spirituality, theology, social and political context, mission and evangelism, gender, religious freedom, and inter-religious relations. A further three have been selected by the editorial board specifically for this volume, on account of their salience in the context of South and Central Asia: the South Asian diaspora, caste, and tribal identity. Each of these themes is examined on a region-wide basis, deepening our understanding of features that are definitive for Christianity in this part of the world. As is evident from the short bibliography offered at the end of each essay, this book rests on the body of scholarship that has illuminated our understanding of South and Central Asian Christianity, particularly the burgeoning literature of the early twenty-first century. Besides many detailed local studies, much insight has been derived from such attempts at overall analysis as The Oxford Handbook of Christianity in Asia, edited by Felix Wilfred (2014), which has become the standard reference work on Asian Christianity. An earlier valuable but now dated work is A Dictionary of Asian Christianity edited by Scott Sunquist and David Wu Chu Sing (Eerdmans, 2001). For South Asia, Roger Hedlund’s Oxford Encyclopaedia of South Asian Christianity (Oxford University Press, 2011) is an invaluable resource. In addition, Robert Frykenberg’s single-country study Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present (Oxford University Press, 2010) and George Gispert-Sauch and Leonard Fernando’s Christianity in India: Two Thousand Years of Faith (Penguin, 2004) have made major contributions in the field. On the other hand, the literature on Christianity in Central Asia is much more limited, lacking any attempts at comprehensive analysis. While resting on the preceding scholarship, this volume breaks new ground through its reliable demographic analysis, its contemporary focus, the indigenous authorship of its essays and the originality of the analyses. The essay authors employ a variety of disciplinary approaches – historical, theological, socio­ logical, missiological, anthropological – as appropriate to their topics. Taken together, the volume offers a deeply textured and highly nuanced account of Christianity in South and Central Asia, one that will reward the attention of any who wish to deepen their knowledge of this subject. Kenneth R. Ross Daniel Jeyaraj Todd M. Johnson June 2018

Contributors

Atul Y. Aghamkar is Director of the Evangelical Fellowship of India’s National Centre for Urban Transformation, Bangalore. An ordained minister of the Christian and Missionary Alliance, his publications include Insights into Openness: Encouraging Urban Mission (SAIACS Press, 2000) and Christian Missions in Maharashtra: Retrospect and Prospect (Evangelical Theological Research Writing Project of India, 2010). West India Anand Amaladass is Emeritus Professor of Philosophy, editor of Satya Nilayam Chennai Journal of Intercultural Philosophy and co-author of Christian Themes in Indian Art (Manohar, 2012). His areas of research include aesthetics and inter-religious dialogue. Worship and Spirituality Evangeline Anderson-Rajkumar is presently a pastor in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) in Corydon, Indiana, USA. She earlier served as a professor of theology, gender and hermeneutics at the United Theological College and Serampore College in India, and the Lutheran Theological Southern Seminary, Columbia, USA. Gender Mehak Arshad (MPhil in English literature) is a researcher and teaches English and research methodology at Lahore College of Theology, Lahore, Pakistan. Pakistan Barakatullo Ashurov is a Visiting Scholar in Near Eastern Languages and Civilization at Harvard University, USA. He gained his PhD from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, in 2014 and has taught at the Tajikistan Academy of Sciences in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, with a research focus on Sogdian Christian texts. Turkmenistan; Tajikistan

Contributors  xiii

Jesudas Athyal is former Associate Professor of Dalit Theology and Social Analysis at Gurukul Lutheran Theological College, Chennai, India. He is the co-author of Understanding World Christianity – India (Fortress Press, 2016) and Associate Editor of The Oxford Encyclopedia of South Asian Christianity (2 vols) (Oxford University Press, 2011). Theology Marina Ngursangzeli Behera, a Presbyterian from Mizoram, India, is Research Tutor and the MPhil Stage Leader at the Oxford Centre for Mission Studies, Oxford, UK. She earlier served as Chairperson in the Department of the History of Christianity at the United Theological College in Bangalore, India, and as Professor of Ecumenical Missiology at the Bossey Ecumenical Institute of the World Council of Churches, Geneva, Switzerland. Tribal Identity Prashan De Visser is President and founder of Global Unites, an inter­ national youth movement for conflict transformation in nations devastated by violence. He is also the former host of the breakfast television show Good Morning Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka Leonard Fernando sj is Principal of Vidyajyoti College of Theology, Delhi, India. His publications include Christian Faith Meets Other Faiths: Origen’s Contra Celsum and Its Relevance for India Today (ISPCK, 1998) and Christianity in India: Two Thousand Years of Faith (Penguin, 2004). He is General Editor of the ‘History of Christianity in India’ series published by the Church History Association of India. North India Gulnar Francis-Dehqani is Bishop of Loughborough within the Church of England. She comes originally from Iran and has written and spoken on the areas of women in religion and interfaith studies in particular. Iran Alina Ganje was born in Kazakhstan and holds a master’s degree in ­religion-politics-economics from the University of Zurich. Besides financial companies, she has worked for the G2W Institute, a non-government organisation engaged in charitable projects in Russia. Kazakhstan

xiv  Contributors Sam George serves as Catalyst for Diasporas with the Lausanne Movement and as the executive director of Parivar International. He lives with his family in Chicago, USA, and holds degrees in engineering, management, theology and missiology; his publications include Understanding the Coconut Generation (Parivar International, 2018) and Diaspora Christianities (Fortress Press, 2018). South Asian Diaspora Roger E. Hedlund is Director Emeritus of the Mylapore Institute for Indigenous Studies and retired Managing Editor of Dharma Deepika: A South Asian Journal of Missiological Research. He taught at Union Biblical Seminary (Yavatmal/Pune) 1974–8, the Church Growth Research Centre (Chennai, India) 1979–93 and Serampore College (West Bengal) 1994–7 and edited The Oxford Encyclopaedia of South Asian Christianity (Oxford University Press, 2012). Independents Romina Istratii successfully defended her PhD thesis at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, in 2018. Her current research is an inter­disciplinary project examining conjugal violence among the Ethiopian Orthodox community of Aksum. Her research interests include gender and religion in international development, anthropology of religion and religious epistemologies. Orthodox Anderson Jeremiah is Lecturer in World Christianity at Lancaster University, UK, and an ordained priest in the Church of England. His publications include Community and the Worldview Among Paraiyars of South India (Bloomsbury, 2012) and Engaging the World: Christian Communities in Contemporary Glocal Societies (Regnum, 2014). Caste and Christianity in India Daniel Jeyaraj is Professor of World Christianity and Director of the Andrew F. Walls Centre for the Study of African and Asian Christianity at Liverpool Hope University, UK. His publications include studies on the Royal Danish Halle Mission, Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, South Indian religions, Christian proverbs and worship songs of the earliest Tamil Lutherans. Introduction; South India

Contributors  xv

Sheela Jeyaraj is an ordained presbyter of the Church of South India and in 2018 successfully defended her doctoral thesis entitled ‘Theological Reasons for Gender Injustice in India’ at Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences in Allahabad, India. Gender Youshib Matthew John is Research Coordinator at Lahore College of Theology, Lahore, Pakistan, with graduate qualification in statistics and economics. He has conducted various customised research projects and produced assessment reports published with numerous institutes. Pakistan Todd M. Johnson is Associate Professor of Global Christianity and Director of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary in South Hamilton, Massachusetts, USA. He is also Visiting Researcher at Boston University’s Institute for Culture, Religion and World Affairs, leading a research project on international religious demography. The Maldives; Methodology and Sources of Christian and Religious Affiliation Arun W. Jones, Dan and Lillian Hankey Associate Professor of World Evangelism at the Candler School of Theology, Emory University, USA, has lived and worked in India and the Philippines. His research focuses on the history of Christianity in South and Southeast Asia, and he has published monographs on Episcopalians in the Philippines and ­Evangelicals in North India. Protestants and Anglicans Jacob Kavunkal svd teaches missiology and is Head of the Department of Theology, Mission and Ministry at Yarra Theological Union, University of Divinity, Melbourne, Australia. A priest and Indian, he founded the ecumenical Fellowship of Indian Missiologists and initiated the project of publishing The Concise Encyclopaedia of Indian Christianity (St Paul’s, 2014). Mission and Evangelism Feruza Krason holds a Master of Arts (Biblical Languages) from ­Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, South Hamilton, USA, and is a Bible translation consultant with SIL Eurasia Area. Uzbekistan

xvi  Contributors Atola Longkumer, a Baptist from Nagaland, teaches religions and missions at the South Asia Advanced Institute of Christian Studies, Bangalore, India. Her recent publications include Mission and Power: History, Relevance and Perils (Regnum, 2016). Faith and Culture Michael Nazir-Ali is President of the Oxford Centre for Training, Research, Advocacy and Dialogue (OXTRAD), having earlier served as Anglican Bishop of Rochester in the UK, General Secretary of the Church Mission Society (CMS) and Bishop of Raiwind in the Church of Pakistan. His most recent book is Faith, Freedom and the Future; Challenges for the 21st Century (Wipf and Stock, 2016). Religious Freedom Pradeep Perez sj is a research scholar of the folk tradition of Christian literature and culture in Bangladesh. An ordained Jesuit priest, he is the founder/coordinator of the Jesuit-run Magisbangla movement for university students and working young people in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Cedric Prakash sj is a priest and human rights activist from Gujarat, India, recognised for his work in human rights, justice and peace. He is currently based in Beirut, Lebanon, with the Jesuit Refugee Service (JRS) as the Advocacy and Communication Officer for the JRS Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region. Social and Political Context David Radford is Lecturer in Sociology at the University of South Australia. He completed his PhD research in Kyrgyzstan and published a book based on his thesis, Religious Identity and Social Change: Explaining Christian Conversion in a Muslim World (Routledge, 2015). Kyrgyzstan Joshva Raja, a priest of the Church of South India currently serving in the Church of England, has taught at the United Theological College, Bangalore, India, and at the Selly Oak Centre for Mission Studies, Birmingham, UK. He has published extensively on matters related to gospel, culture and communication. United and Uniting Churches

Contributors  xvii

Peniel Rajkumar is Programme Executive for Inter-religious Dialogue and Cooperation of the World Council of Churches. An ordained Anglican priest, his publications include Dalit Theology and Dalit Liberation: Problem, Paradigms and Possibilities (Ashgate, 2010) and Many Yet One: Multiple Religious Belonging (World Council of Churches, 2016). Inter-religious Relations Anthony Roberts (not his real name) is a Christian worker for Afghanistan with a master of arts in world Christianity; he has undertaken other postgraduate work and is an ordained Presbyterian minister. Afghanistan Kenneth R. Ross, formerly Professor of Theology at the University of Malawi, is parish minister at Netherlorn in Argyll, Honorary Fellow of the Edinburgh School of Divinity and Chair of the Scotland Malawi Partnership. Over the last three decades he has published extensively on global ­ Christianity and co-edited Ecumenical Missiology: Changing Landscapes and New Conceptions of Mission (Regnum, 2016). The Maldives Vinay Samuel is Executive Director of the Oxford Centre for Religion and Public Life, Oxford, UK. An Anglican priest and theologian, he founded the Oxford Centre for Mission Studies and has written extensively on theology in the Global South and mission as transformation. Evangelicals Ivan Satyavrata spent several years in Christian leadership training but presently serves as senior pastor of the Assembly of God Church in Kolkata, India. His publications include The Holy Spirit: Lord and Life-Giver (IVP Academic, 2009), God Has Not Left Himself Without Witness (Regnum, 2011) and Pentecostals and the Poor (Wipf and Stock, 2017). Pentecostals and Charismatics Rebecca Samuel Shah is a research professor at Baylor University’s Institute for Studies of Religion, where she is Principal Investigator for the Religion and Economic Empowerment Project (REEP). She also serves as Senior Fellow of the Religious Freedom Institute (RFI) and Associate Director of RFI’s South and Southeast Asia Action Team, and as Senior Fellow of the DeVoe School of Business at Indiana Wesleyan University, USA. Evangelicals

xviii  Contributors Bal Krishna Sharma is Principal of Nepal Theological College in Kathmandu, Nepal, and chairs the Nepal Christian Society, the Nepal Bible Society, the Association for Theological Education in Nepal and Theological Education by Extension Nepal. His publications include Origin of Caste System in Hinduism and Its Relevance in the Present Nepalese Context (SPCK, 1999) and Funerary Rites in Nepal: Cremation, Burial and Christian Identity (Wipf and Stock, 2010). Nepal Savithri Sumanthiran is an accountant by profession and has over 25 years of experience in finance, management, organisational development, coaching and strategic planning. She is presently the South Asia Regional Secretary for the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students (IFES). The Future of Christianity in South and Central Asia Tandin Wangyal is founder of Bhutan Theological Seminary. An ordained Every Nation pastor, he is currently preparing his Doctor of Ministry dissertation titled ‘Birth of Christianity in Bhutan’ with Asia Pacific Theological Seminary, Baguio, Philippines. Bhutan Felix Wilfred is Emeritus Professor of the State University of Madras, India, and Founder-Director of the Asian Centre for Cross-Cultural Studies. He is currently the Chief Editor of the International Journal of Asian Christi­anity, published by Brill, Leiden, as well as of Concilium Inter­national Review of Theology. Catholics Kaholi Zhimomi is Assistant Professor at the United Theological College, Bengaluru, India, and a member of the Council of Baptist Churches in Northeast India (CBCNEI). She is the editor of Masihi Sevak, a journal of Christian ministry published by the United Theological College. Northeast India Gina A. Zurlo is Associate Director of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary (South Hamilton, Massachusetts, USA). She is Co-Editor of the World Christian Database and Associate Editor of the World Religion Database. A Demographic Profile of Christianity in South and Central Asia; Methodology and Sources of Christian and Religious Affiliation

Introduction

A Demographic Profile of Christianity in South and Central Asia Gina A. Zurlo Majority Religion by Province, 2015

MAJORITY RELIGION

Buddhists

Christians

50% 75%

50% 75%

Hindus

50% 75%

Muslims

50% 75%

Ethnoreligionists

50% 75% Sikhs

50% 75%

South and Central Asia is home to a significant amount of religious diversity, with Muslim-majority, Hindu-majority and Buddhist-majority countries, plus regions that are majority Christian and ethnoreligionist. of the region’s six major religions, Muslims experienced the fastest growth between 1970 and 2015. Religions in South and Central Asia, 1970 and 2015 Religion Hindus Muslims Christians Ethnoreligionists Buddhists Sikhs Other Total

1970 Adherents 457,067,000 222,415,000 27,222,000 20,993,000 14,258,000 10,325,000 22,291,000 774,570,000

% 59.0 28.7 3.5 2.7 1.8 1.3 2.9 100.0

2015 Adherents 988,504,000 689,126,000 75,284,000 57,133,000 29,058,000 23,103,000 29,806,000 1,892,013,000

% 52.2 36.4 4.0 3.0 1.5 1.2 1.6 100.0

Source: Todd M. Johnson and Gina A. Zurlo (eds), World Christian Database (Leiden/Boston: Brill), accessed April 2018. Figures do not add to 100% due to rounding.

4

Gina A. Zurlo

Christianity in South and Central Asia, 1970–2015 Christians by Country, 2015 75.3 Million Christians, 4.0% of Population

% Christian

KAZAKHSTAN 26% UZBEKISTAN 1% KYRGYZSTAN 6% TURKMENISTAN 1% TAJIKISTAN