Chiselled Horizons: a Multi-Cultural Approach to Visual Literacy [1 ed.] 9781848883659, 9789004370180

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Chiselled Horizons

Inter-Disciplinary Press Publishing Advisory Board Ana Maria Borlescu Peter Bray Ann-Marie Cook Robert Fisher Lisa Howard Peter Mario Kreuter Stephen Morris John Parry Karl Spracklen Peter Twohig Inter-Disciplinary Press is a part of Inter-Disciplinary.Net A Global Network for Dynamic Research and Publishing

2016

Chiselled Horizons: A Multi-Cultural Approach to Visual Literacy

Edited by

Taina Brown and Alejandro Mieses Castellanos

Inter-Disciplinary Press Oxford, United Kingdom

© Inter-Disciplinary Press 2016 http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/publishing

The Inter-Disciplinary Press is part of Inter-Disciplinary.Net – a global network for research and publishing. The Inter-Disciplinary Press aims to promote and encourage the kind of work which is collaborative, innovative, imaginative, and which provides an exemplar for inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary publishing.

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Inter-Disciplinary Press, Priory House, 149B Wroslyn Road, Freeland, Oxfordshire. OX29 8HR, United Kingdom. +44 (0)1993 882087

ISBN: 978-1-84888-365-9 First published in the United Kingdom in eBook format in 2016. First Edition.

Table of Contents Introduction: Visual Literacy and Creative Engagements across the Global Village Tracey Bowen Part I

Articulating Literacy through a Lens Text and Image: Looking back in History with Contemporary Lenses Mariann Larsen Pehrzon

Part II

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Having Sex at a Car Crash: Visual Literacy in the Blink of an Eye Terryl Atkins and Wayne Egers

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Embodied Architectural Practice and Design Literacy Matthew Dudzik and Marilyn Corson Whitney

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Revealing the Layers of the Rocks: A Visual Reinterpretation for an Urban Historical Site Fang Xu, Yixiang He and Imad Khan

37

Decoding Mass Media Influences Problems in the Visual Communication of Quantities in the Portuguese Press Susana Pereira, José Azevedo and António Machiavelo

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Synthesizing the Gaseous State: The Role of Applied Programming on Theory Alejandro Mieses Castellanos

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The Iconography of Globalization Víctor Manuel Quintero León

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She, on the Other Hand: The Crossroads of Feminist Scholarship and Visual Literacy Taina Brown

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Can Children’s Television Encourage Children’s Creativity? Israeli TV Producers’ Discourse Yuval Gozansky

105

Part III Creative Approaches to Participatory Learning Making Play-Based Learning Work: Integrating Life Skills Content into a Play-Based Summer Day Camp Fay Fletcher, Therese Salenieks, and Alicia Hibbert

117

The Kings and Queens of Kagoma Gate: Children Making Their Moves out of Poverty Ann Fantauzzi, Marisa van der Merwe and Patricia Fennell

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Towards a Pedagogy of Amazement and Proximity: A Conceptual Model to Promote Critical and Creative Thinking at School Clara Romero-Pérez and Luis Núñez-Cubero

141

Introduction: Visual Literacy and Creative Engagements across the Global Village Tracey Bowen 1. The Visual Global Village Visual literacy has been given a great deal of attention over the past decade due to the heightened role of the visual within the contemporary digital and transcultural world. Interpreting visual signs, symbols and icons has always been a part of the textual literacy that dominates modern education; however more focus on the ways in which these signs, symbols, and icons are read by individuals across cultures and contexts is gaining more attention through globalized information sharing domains such as the world wide web and social media. As many theorists such Kress and van Leewuen, 1 Stafford, 2 Bowen and Whithaus, 3 Wysocki, 4 and Drucker 5 profess, the traditional position of privileging textual (language based literacy) over the visual, has shifted. Visual literacy also, is much more than the ability to interpret the products of visual culture. Visual literacy includes the field of graphic representations and graphicacy 6 and also spacial literacy, an element that provides a crucial dimension in terms of space, place, and margins. 7 Furthermore, visual literacy is culturally and contextually driven by the scopic regimes that have long since governed the complexities of visual codes found in visual representations from renaissance woodcuts, to the images on American currency to the compositions of modern advertising. 8 Visual literacy is both contextual and political in its development, yet it requires creative thinking to move beyond the status quo of one culture, to imagine alternative ways of thinking, learning and doing. These shifts to creative thinking start with the creative engagements of children across the globe. The chapters in this volume represent a cacophony of positions on visual literacy and creative engagements, including early manifestations of what it means to develop visual and creative competencies within the imaginations of children. The chapters are the result of the 8th symposium on visual literacy, with this particular gathering also sharing a focus on creative engagements, an important aspect of thinking about the visual from a global standpoint. Visual literacy must be global, due to the ubiquity of visual and textual content sharing regardless of geographic boundaries; however, this does not mean that the ways in which the visual elements are interpreted produce universal or homogenous meanings. As Fleckenstein reminds us, the ways in which we construct meaning is very much informed by the cultural codes, inclusions, exclusions and biases that we have come to live by. 9 In that sense, an individual’s visual literacy is culturally constructed. However, the visual literacy espoused in the contributions to this volume, are also global in scope.

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__________________________________________________________________ 2. Visual Literacy and Creativity as Competencies for Global-ness Visual literacy crosses disciplinary, professional, informational, procedural, cultural and social domains. An individual needs to know how to read various spatial arrangements of symbols, such as those found on GPS systems or a game board or an old fashioned paper roadmap just as they need to understand the semiotic construction of a photograph, the graphic intent of a logo or pictogram or the meaning behind an emoticon. Visual literacy must be global across cultures and domains if individuals intend on developing a global village for the future. Dallow suggests that: [. . . ] ‘the visual’ is ‘like an interface or cultural zone of social exchange, a space where the conventions in the construction of visual imagery and the prevailing or imminent social and cultural practices meet: a social sphere or arena where contemporary views of reality are displayed.10 While the term literacy is most often used in connection to learning and education in some kind of capacity, visual literacy is constructed through our negotiations with the world at large, and a global visual literacy is developed as individuals begin to expand their portfolio of familiar patterns of symbols, icons and representations by comparing them to those outside their usual context and culture. One particular example of a global visual literacy, is applying familiar patterns to unfamiliar environments when negotiating public transportation systems across cities and countries. A western visitor to Japan who chooses to use public transportation is faced with a myriad of signs and symbols on the directional maps that may be perplexing if considered only in relation to the written text of another language or foreign names translated. However, once the individual considers the patterns and spatial relationships between the shapes on the signs, the differences in size, tone and or colour, a familiar sequencing or patterning of the symbols emerges making reference to other symbols such as those used on the underground metro or subway train system in other cities. Reading the patterns, directions, size relationships and colour codes, one is struck how similar systems are used on public transit systems in London, Lisbon, Barcelona and Toronto. When we let go of our reliance on written text, we learn to read the visual relationships across cultural, geographic, and even disciplinary boundaries and start thinking about the ways in which humans negotiate the world through common experiences across cultural boundaries. Using visual literacy to interpret the patterns, both ideological and graphical of everyday life will enable an individual to engage globally with others beyond language and written text. While meanings developed from the interpretations are constructed within particular contexts, there remains a human ness to how we use those interpretations to negotiate our way. Visual literacy

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_________________________________________________________________ affords a global ness between humans; however the connections described here are also enriched through creativity. 3. Chapters in This Book The chapters in this book echo a global sentiment, not just because they are written by authors from many parts of the world, but because they focus on subjects that touch on global issues that affect people such as the spaces in which we live and play and how we relate to the ways in which those spaces and those playful engagements are imagined, designed and constructed. Specific topics range from the affordances of computational algorithms for re-visualizing architecture to an embodied sense of space, design and building through sensory experimentation with visual journals or the development of design languages that cross cultures through embodied architectural practices, to using playful engagements with visual and tactile surroundings to learn about the world from the margins of Canada or Africa. All the contributions reflect the spirit of interdisciplinary dialogue and invite a global way of thinking about visual literacy and creative engagement from a diverse range of positions that connect to the everyday, such as finding one’s way through the graphic patterns of GPS systems in Germany or learning to question the accuracy of visual data presentations in newspapers in Lisbon.

Notes 1

Gunther Kress, and Theo van Leeuwen, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design, 2nd edition (London: Routledge, 2006). 2 Barbara Stafford, ‘Visual Pragmatism in a Virtual World’. Visual Rhetoric in a Digital World, ed. Carolyn Handa (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 2004), 209-222. 3 Tracey Bowen and Carl Whithaus, eds., Multimodal Literacies and Emerging Genres (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2013). 4 Anne Frances Wysocki, ‘Awaywithwords: On the Possibilities in Unavailable Designs’, Computers and Composition 22.1 (2005): 55-62. 5 Johanna Drucker, Graphesis: Visual Forms of Knowledge Production (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004). 6 Yuri Engelhardt, The Language of Graphics: A Framework for the Analysis of Syntax and Meaning in Maps, Charts and Diagrams (Amsterdam, Institute for Logic, Language and Computation, 2002). 7 Kevin Leander and Margaret Sheehy, eds., Spatializing Literacy Research and Practice (New York: Peter Lang, 2004); Elizabeth Moje Birr, ‘Powerful Spaces: Tracing the Out of School Literacy Spaces of Latino/a Youth’, Spatializing Literacy Research and Practice, eds. Kevin Leander and Margaret Sheehy (New York: Peter Lang, 2004),15-38.

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Kristie Fleckenstein, ‘Testifying Seeing and Saying in World Making’, Ways of Seeing, Ways of Speaking: The Interegation of Rhetoric and Vision in Construction of the Real, eds. Kristie Fleckenstein, Sue Hum and Laura T. Calendrillo (Indiana: Parlor Press, 2007), 3-30. 9 Ibid. 10 Peter Dallow, ‘The Visual Complex: Mapping some Interdisciplinary Dimensions of Visual Literacy’. Visual Literacy, ed. James Elkins (New York: Routledge, 2008), 98. Tracey Bowen is Assistant Professor, Teaching Stream in the Institute of Communication, Culture, Information and Technology, University of Toronto Mississauga.

Part I Articulating Literacy through a Lens

Text and Image: Looking back in History with Contemporary Lenses Mariann Larsen Pehrzon Abstract This chapter analyses the relations between text and image from a historical and cultural perspective in order to: (i) show to what extent text and image have interacted during centuries; (ii) reconsider the value of “images” in older theories of mind and of meaning, as well as in pedagogy and communication; (iii) examine those data in the light of contemporary approaches in symbolization, multimodality and neuroscience. Key Words: Text, Image, discursive, non-discursive, Symbolization, Cultural Value, multimodal. ***** 1. Text and Image: Cultural Patterns In the sphere of cultural studies Western societies are commonly characterized as constituting an intrinsically alpha-centric culture historically developed and built around the book and the densely written page.1 The printing press, a crucial ‘agent of change’,2 boosted the dissemination of texts and secured the standardization of written language and discursive symbolization3 in the newly created nation-states, within their ultimate centralizing political strategies. The written mode4 became the hegemonic discourse of dominant classes with education, based on traditional literacy, as the privileged way of access to knowledge, progress, social ascent and power. However, as Frances Yates and Paolo Rossi,5 among others, have shown, this perception of European culture as mono-modal −written− and discursive-oriented −language oriented− is a strongly biased view inherited from the Enlightenment and the subsequent rationalist trends in historiography, a view that has been perpetuated until today. When looking back in history, the facts are significantly different, and the fixed picture of a mono-modal European culture is substantially modified. From an evolutionary point of view, writing systems −whether pictographic, ideographic or alphabetical− are visual signs. Images and symbols preceded writing and were inseparable from oral texts and narrative. Knowledge was transmitted through language, but also through rites, dance, music, painted representations, and other non-discursive forms and resources. Illustration was −and is− consubstantial to writing, as evidenced from Egyptian papyruses, Chinese, Greek and Roman documents, the illuminated Medieval MSS both in Europe and in Asia. When surveying the kinds of books published during centuries, we find a very rich area of

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__________________________________________________________________ inter-territoriality. The following diagram illustrates some of the fields of knowledge and the genres where images 6 and texts have coexisted from early times.

Image 1: Inter-territorial space and genres. © 2015 Inter-Disciplinary Press. With permission by the author. In terms of theories of the image and its uses, the 17th century in Europe was a turning point in history. As is well known, it was a period of political, religious and cultural turmoil, characterized by intellectual hyperactivity and the conflictive coexistence of resilient traditions with novel approaches and methods that eventually would result in a paradigm shift, a new mentality − the Modern Age: [I]t [was] rather a crucial chapter in the history of ideas and of science, of procedures of discovery and explanation, of scientific paradigms and even of cultural mythologies, where philosophers, scientists, mystics, scholars, and various other kinds of thinkers move[d].7 The multiplicity of intellectual and ideological tendencies just mentioned is reflected in the number of books published, in their varied contents and most significantly in the range of modes and expressive resources used, particularly images. Learning and communication were conceived of as multimodal, with porous boundaries between semiotic modes and no ideological primacy yet ascribed to any of them.

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__________________________________________________________________ The image was central to literature and arts – the Baroque – but its presence also permeated other fields, including the empiricist discourse of Bacon’s and his followers’ Nova Scientia.8 As I shall try to show it was to a large extent a visual culture, 9 taking into account that the development of print disseminated written texts together with images.10 It is thus a key period concerning not only the use and practice of images, but also the theories about their nature, their place in communication, their relation to language, and their application to pedagogy, among other related issues.11 2. 17th Century Underlying Theories about Images In order to study the value and role of images in the 17th century I will use Suzanne Langer´s12 theoretical frame so as to clarify the different mind-sets and approaches regarding language, image and their mutual interaction. In this approach, symbolization, the human ‘symbol-making function’, is understood as a general concept that encompasses discursive and non-discursive meaning-making systems and symbols. Written texts are traditionally considered primarily discursive, i.e. representational, informative, logical and sequential. Conversely all kinds of images and other symbols are primarily non-discursive. Texts, however, may display non-discursive, emotional aspects, such as the tone, the layout, the various linguistic elements related to the inter-personal and rhetorical functions,13 connotations, etc. Likewise some images can be discursive, i.e. simply denotative: a representation of an object, a discursive illustration of a concept, a graph, a diagram, an X-ray slide, a CAT-image. Since, as Murray rightly notes, ‘symbolization is learned socially, within a culture’14 it seems necessary to identify the major trends of thought of the period under analysis. 17th century scholarship drew from an assorted blend of Greek and Roman sources and traditions, mediaeval spirituality, Renaissance Neoplatonism and Humanist intellectual trends −hermetic, cabbalistic, alchemist and mystical. Visual representation, knowledge and communication were interrelated. Thought and concepts were articulated and expressed simultaneously by means of language and images. The underlying heterogeneity of standpoints makes the analysis far from straightforward, but there were basically three generally accepted tenets: a) An image, without verbal mediation, was thought to have direct access to the intellect. It was therefore considered to be a privileged vehicle for knowing and for the transmission of knowledge. Its analogical nature made it ‘true’, ‘real’. b) There was a generalized distrust of natural language. c) Visual language −images− was considered a medium for bypassing the problem of the inherent imperfection of natural language.

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__________________________________________________________________ The way these issues were dealt with, varied depending on the different viewpoints and mentalities, and in any case there were internal contradictions. On one side stood the supporters of the traditional, even ‘magical’, way of thinking. They considered verbal language to be too abstract, fragmentary, linear, limited and indirect, thus failing to give a true, direct and complete picture of reality. Their criticism of natural language targeted its discursive properties. Conversely, images were thought to address intuition and stood as a solution to the shortcomings of discursive communication. They embodied a direct, non-mediated, true and holistic representation of reality. Their defence of the image was centered on its nondiscursive properties. These ideas can be briefly illustrated with a few examples. Hermetic philosophers and thinkers considered that they could express themselves ‘more clearly and freely, and more rigorously by means of wordless discourse or without any discourse at all, or with images (…) rather than with words.’15 And so did literary authors: […] que nos da más gusto lo que se dize con figuras y semejanzas que lo que en propios y ordinarios términos se dice… y asi usaron de figuras y semejanzas, y comparaciones que le venyan, para que destas cosas visibles, viniessen al conocimiento de las invisibles.16 Even empirical scientists were aware of the communicative power of images and of their immediacy. Bacon himself stated that ‘[E]mblems bring down intellectual to sensible things; for what is sensible always strikes the memory stronger, and sooner impresses itself than the intellectual.’17 In her seminal study on the philosophy of language in the 17th century Lia Formigari rightly notes that It is [...] the reliability of sense data that endorses the meaning of words. [...] gestures, emblems and other means of expression [...] reveal an analogy with things or notions, which they signify without recourse to verbal media.18 In line with these ideas, the evolutionary biologist Stephen J. Gould claims that although we tend to think that words ̶ a well-constructed motto or sentence ̶ are our favoured way for achieving consensus, we are primates, thus primarily visual animals and as such the iconography of persuasion reaches better our soul than words.19 On the opposite side were the revolutionary scientists and thinkers, for whom natural language was inherently ambiguous, vague, corrupt, subjective and totally inadequate for an objective description of reality. In their view natural language and the conventional writing styles had to be clarified and made simple,

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__________________________________________________________________ eliminating its non-discursive, emotional elements, a process which would eventually lead to the definition and adoption of the plain style20 promoted by the Royal Society. Simultaneously, regarding the image, they considered that it was imperative to purge its non-discursive constituents as part of their program to eradicate subjectivity, error and noise in the new science and in communication. However, the discursive or purely descriptive aspects of images – diagrams and schematic illustrations 21 − were considered to be fully acceptable and suitable, particularly in the domain of natural sciences − anatomy, geography, astronomy, botany, etc., where they were preserved and developed: [T]he influence of printing led away from using words, away from ambiguous culturally bound statements toward clear and precise pictorial and mathematical ones. […] the creation of a more uniform pictorial and mathematical vocabulary made it possible to bypass the confusion engendered by linguistic multiformity. 22 Moreover, as Yates rightfully observes, ‘the popularity achieved in England and other protestant countries of this new method based on imageless dialectical order as the true natural order of the mind goes well with Calvinist theology.’23 Non-discursive images and symbols were, at their best, relegated to a secondary, illustrative, decorative or supporting status, a view that still prevails in education and academia nowadays. 3. Image and Pedagogy The fields where those issues were explicitly examined and questioned were those of education and pedagogy.24 They were the testing ground for the various reforms that took place during the 17th century with the aim of establishing a new way of learning language, a clearer picture of language meaning. Grammarians and country school teachers all over Europe were among the most active in justifying and exploring the use of images. Scholars such as the Czech Jan Amos Comenius, Sebastián de Covarrubias and Diego de Saavedra Fajardo in Spain, or Joseph Aitkin and John Wilkins in the British Isles, among others, 25 anticipated many pedagogical principles in teaching literacy that are still valid nowadays. Many of their insights have been lengthily examined nowadays by Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen, whose influential approach to multimodal literacy stresses the idea that images, including multisensory images, are vital at the pre-verbal stage, and crucial for the cognitive growth of children and the development of their verbal skills.26 What the work of the above mentioned scholars reflects is awareness of the blurry margins between sensory experience and language, and of the key role of images in literacy, whose learning must be experiential. According to Murray

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__________________________________________________________________ Cohen, the slogan ‘the eye instructs the mind’ could be considered as characterizing teaching practices during the whole century: ‘If the written and spoken language can be touched, tabulated and visualized, then it can be secured, perfected and rationally taught.’27 The use of the outward Senses is to be mediums, to let in Notions to the inward. […] the progress is natural from the Senses to the Understanding, from thence to the Memory” (...) “Whilst we instruct children according to the Law of Nature, we must proceed by Sense: By Sense I mean the Sense of Seeing (...). 28 Scholars assumed that ideas could be represented visually and contained within the contour of lines and figures. Some, like John Wilkins, invented new writing systems and grammars creating visual characters, i.e. ideographic signs that would reproduce and reveal unambiguously the exact meaning of words and faithfully represent reality. In those formal experiments the interaction between the image and the text was maximal, coming close to a kind of hybrids, artefacts or iconographic representations that combined the word and the image, in line with the Greek technopaegnia (calligrams), Latin and Medieval carmina figurata, and Manierist minor literary genres (acrostics, hieroglyphics, etc.). Only later, in the early 20th century will this experimentation be exploited again to the full in avantgarde poetry and art (Futurism, Apollinaire, Schwitters, among others). Such a maximal fusion of imaginal and verbal elements underlies Fleckenstein´s recent suggestion of considering all textual production as an ‘imageword’.29 Studies on 17th century texts show that mental and cognitive activities were considered to be embodied and that dual coding30 was widespread: ‘the idea that verbal communication was indebted to visual communication, and that both verbal and visual expressions stemmed from a single, bodily source, had considerable currency in this period.’31 Thought, memory and knowledge were inseparable, as shown by Carruthers: ‘both words and pictures, [were] intimately and collaboratively related as devices for composing thoughts and memories.[...] a thorough mixing of media, especially the verbal and the visual, was a commonplace’. 32 The image of the document conveyed meanings, defining relationships (including emotions) and carrying information beyond the data itself.’ 33 The combination of media was nor decorative nor accidental: on the contrary, it rather derived from what Ong deems a deeper belief, ‘[a] tendency to consider thinking activity as analogous to operations in a spatial field’.34 It was a conceptualization rooted in a tradition based on a spatial theory of the mind as a kind of blank tablet. Memory was conceived of as a process in which images were imprinted in some place in the mind. Recalling was a compositional task that could be learned by means of a specific technique, the ars memorativa35 or the craft of memory.

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__________________________________________________________________ Recalling consisted in picking the elements kept in a certain order in certain recognizable places of the mind, associated with specific images and recomposing them. It involved visual structuration, i.e decomposing into fragments − divisiones and distinctiones − which were assigned to specific places in various mental models of spatial organization, i.e. images, the loci: architectures, maps, plans of cities, gardens or stairs: these were picturae or structuring-images. For an image to be memorable, it also had to be marked, usually associated with some emotional nuance −grotesque, ridiculous, pathetic, etc. These imagines agentes thus consisted of two aspects: the image or resemblance, simulacrum, i.e a discursive layer, and an emotional colouring, intention, a non-discursive layer: ‘memories were thought to be carried in intense images (intentio et simulacrum)’.36 Although there are obviously epistemological differences regarding hypotheses, arguments and types of evidence, there are interesting parallelisms and connections with contemporary theories. d) Recalling is a dynamic process of reconstruction and interpretation, although largely unconscious: contemporary research into memory has evidenced that ‘images are not stored as facsimile pictures of things or events, or words or sentences’37 but rather ‘momentary constructions, attempts at replication of patterns that were once experienced’.38 e) Memory is made of images (visual, auditory, tactile, and visceral). f) Images carry perceptual and emotional information. g) spatial − material− theory of the mind. Recent research in neuroscience and cognitive psychology have emphasized that the brain functions through image. Murray, basing her work on Antonio Damasio and V.S. Ramachandran, among others,39 states that, ‘Images are integral to every part of our cognition, from memory to future planning, to consciousness, emotions, reason, thought and imagination’. 40 Consequently, she argues, since language, thought and image are connected in the brain, literacy ought to be multimodal. 4. Conclusion The type of cultural approach to the 17th century in Europe as carried in the present chapter identifies a decisive moment in history where the public and scholarly debate on the relations text-image ran parallel to a new paradigm that gave prevalence to the discursive texts and relegated non-discursive symbols to a mere ornamental status. It generated a view of knowledge as written, fixed, and stable. The foundations of the new intellectual regime or ideology were to last until the present moment. These coincided with a definite mono-modal turn: knowledge

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__________________________________________________________________ was split into autonomous compartments as we know them today, the spheres of the different semiotic modes kept separate, each with their own codes, rules, uses and social functions, their audience, their authors, their specialists and even their specific institutionalized spaces: the library, the museum, the concert hall, the secluded faculties. The present moment is as well a crucial moment of change as far as communication, creation and transmission of knowledge is concerned, and these issues are again being discussed and analysed extensively in the press and in academic circles. The impact of images in our daily lives, in our individual and collective histories cannot be ignored. New approaches to multimodal literacies are needed to deal with the complexities of a globalized world where all frontiers are blurred, including those between reason and imagination, science and art, nature and artifice. Knowledge is no longer a static concept only coded in the written form but a dynamic, unstable, multimodal and emerging notion and hypothesis.

Notes 1

Charles W. Ong, ‘From Allegory to Diagram in the Renaissance Mind: a Study in the Significance of the Allegorical Tableau,’ The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 17. 4 (1959): 423-440. 2 Elisabeth Eisenstein, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communications and Cultural Transformations in Early-Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979). 3 Suzanne Langer, Philosophy in a New Key. A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite and Art. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1942, 3rd ed. 1957); Joddy Murray, Non Discursive Rhetoric. Image and Affect in Multimodal Composition (State University of NY, 2009). 4 Gunther Kress, ‘What is a mode?’ The Routledge Handbook of Multimodal Analysis, ed. Carey Jewitt (London: Routledge, 2009), 54-67. 5 Frances Yates, Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (London: Routledge, 1964); The Art of Memory (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1966); Paolo Rossi, Clavis Universalis: el Arte de la Memoria y la Lógica Combinatoria de Lulio a Leibniz (México: Fondo de cultura Económica, 1989); Francis Bacon: de la Magia a la Ciencia (Madrid: Alianza, 1990). 6 In this chapter I am only considering one type of image, the still image. In contemporary studies on multimodality, image is a very general concept that encompasses many subtypes. See Gunther Kress, Multimodality. A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication. (London: Routledge, 2010).

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Raffaele Simone, ‘The Early Modern Period,’ History of Linguistics. Renaissance and Early Modern Linguistics, ed. Giulio Lepschy, (London: Longman, 1998), 150. 8 Rossi, ‘Clavis Universalis,’ 17-18. It is not possible to understand the work of scholars of the Modern period such as Mersenne, Descartes, Ramus, Bacon, Boyle, Ray, Wilkins, Leibniz etc. without considering their profound knowledge of the work of thinkers of the 14th-16th centuries now forgotten and swept away as ‘nonscientific’: Peter of Ravenna, Agrippa, Giordano Bruno, Giulio Camillo, Athanasius Kirchner, Robert Fludd, Alsted, Ramon LLull, Jacob Boehme, among others. 9 See Mariann Larsen Pehrzon, ‘“Lo visual” en la lingüística inglesa del siglo XVII: algunas consideraciones,’Caminos Actuales de la Historiografía Lingüística, ed. Antonio Roldán, et al., (Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 2006), 899-916, for a description of the elements of a visual culture and their ubiquitous presence. Occult and hermetic theories, privileging the visual and symbolic dimension promoted the publication of a large amount of extraordinary printed works. See as well note 15 below. 10 For a survey of the existing number of editions and translations of those works and their dissemination in Europe, see Paolo Rossi, El Nacimiento de la Ciencia Moderna en Europa (Barcelona: Crítica, 2001) 11 Umberto Eco, La Búsqueda de la Lengua Perfecta en la Cultura Europea, trans. María Pons. (Barcelona: Crítica, 1999). 12 Langer, ‘Philosophy in a New Key,’ 41. 13 As understood in functionalist linguistic models, such as M.A.K. Halliday´s Systemic Linguistics. 14 Murray, ‘Non discursive Rhetoric,’ 13. 15 Conrad Horlacher, Kern und Stern der vornehmsten chymisch-philosophischen Schrifften, (Francfurt, 1707) cited in Alexander Roob, El Museo Hermético. Alquimia y Mística,, (Köln: Taschen, 2001), 11. [my transl.]. 16 Luis Alfonso de Carvallo, El Cisne de Apolo, 1602, 113-116, cited in Rafael de Cózar, ‘La fusión de las artes. Del Barroco a la Modernidad’ Imagen en el verso. Del Siglo de Oro al Siglo XX. (Madrid: Biblioteca Nacional, 2008), 23. ‘We feel more pleasure from what is said with figures and resemblances than from what is said with proper and ordinary terms...That is why they used figures and resemblances and comparisons, so that from the visible things they could reach the knowledge of the invisible ones.’[my transl.] 17 Francis Bacon, De Augmentis Scienciarum V,v, cited in Yates, ‘The Art of Memory,’ 371. 18 Lia Formigari, , Language and Experience in 17th Century British Philosophy (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1988), 12.

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Stephen J. Gould, Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History, (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989). 20 Ryan J. Stark, Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in the Seventeenth Century England, (The Catholic University of America, 2009) 21 Actually, by the end of the Middle Ages diagrammatic representation had become more abstract, incorporating letters, geometrical figures and lines for relating elements in different ways, including movable arrows and dials. The boom of alchemy books stands among the most important causes for the typographic and technical development in the design of diagrams, scientific illustrations and tables. 22 Eisenstein, The Printing Press, 21. 23 Yates, The Art of Memory, 237 24 In this sense there is closeness with our contemporary situation: a substantial amount of research is being carried out in the context of education, in order to find ways of introducing new literacies in the school curricula. 25 Jan Amos Comenius, Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658), Sebastián de Covarrubias, Emblemas Morales (1610); Diego de Saavedra Fajardo, Idea de un príncipe político christiano representada en cien empresas (1642); Joseph Aitkin, English Grammar (1693); John Wilkins, Essay towards a Real Character ... (1668); John Lewis, An Essay to Facilitate the Education of Youth by Bringing down the Rudiments of Grammar to the Sense of Seeing (1670); Hezekiah Woodward, Light to Grammar and All other Arts and Sciences. With a Gate to Sciences opened by a Natural Key (1641). 26 Gunther Kress and Theo Van Leeuwen, Reading Images: the Grammar of Visual Design. (London: Routledge, 1996) 27 Murray Cohen, Sensible Words. Linguistic Practice in England 1640-1785, (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1977), 8 28 Mark Lewis, An Essay to Facilitate the education of Youth by bringing down the Rudiments of Grammar to the Sense of Seeing, (1670) 29 Kristie Fleckenstein, Embodied Literacies: Imageword and a Poetics of Teaching, Studies in Writing and Rhetoric 24, (Carbondale: Soutern Illinois UP, 2003), 5-6. 30 Mark Sadoski and Allan Paivio, Imagery and Text: a Dual Coding Theory of Reading and Writing. (Mahwah: Erlbaum, 2001). 31 Formigari, Language and Experience, 58. 32 Mary Carruthers and Jan M. Ziolkowski, eds., The Medieval Craft of Memory. An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 2 33 Murray, Non-discursive Rhetoric, 66 34 Ong, ‘From Allegory to Diagram,’ 435.

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The art of memory was soon eliminated by rationalist humanists and the practitioners of the new scientific method, considered as a mere rhetorical and mnemonic device and a medium with a symbolic potential too closely associated with fantasy, emotions, subjectivity and magic, values that, as we have seen, were incompatible with the objective empirical approach that was spreading across European intellectuals. 36 Carruthers and Ziolkowski, The Medieval Craft of Memory, 11. 37 Antonio Damasio, Descartes´s Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, (New York: Putnams, 1994), 100-1. 38 Ibid. 39 See for instance the works of V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee, Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries in the Human Mind, (New York: Harper, 1998); Stephen Pinker, How the Mind Works, (New York: Norton, 1997). 40 Murray, Non-discursive Rhetoric,127-8.

Bibliography Carruthers, Mary and Jan M. Ziolkowski, eds. The Medieval Craft of Memory. An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002. Cohen, Murray. Sensible Words. Linguistic Practice in England 1640-1785. Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 1977. de Cózar, Rafael. ‘La fusión de las artes. Del Barroco a la Modernidad.’ Imagen en el verso. Del Siglo de Oro al siglo XX. Madrid: Biblioteca Nacional, 2008. Damasio, Antonio. Descartes´s Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: Putnams, 1994. Díez Borque, José María. Literatura de la Celebración. Verso e Imagen en el Barroco español. Madrid: Madrid Capital Europea de la Cultura, 1992. Eco, Umberto. (1993) La Búsqueda de la Lengua Perfecta en la Cultura Europea. Translated by María Pons. Barcelona: Crítica, 1999. Eisenstein, Elisabeth. The Printing Press as an Agent of Change: Communication and Cultural Transformations in Early-Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.

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__________________________________________________________________ Fleckenstein, Kristie. Embodied Literacies: Imageword and a Poetics of Teaching. Studies in Writing and Rhetoric 24. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 2003. Formigari, Lia. Language and Experience in 17th Century British Philosophy. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1988. Gould, Stephen J. Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History. New York: W. W. Norton, 1989. Jewitt, Carey, ed. The Routledge Handbook of Multimodal Analysis. London: Routledge, 2009. Kress, Gunther and Theo Van Leeuwen. Reading Images: the Grammar of Visual Design. London: Routledge, 1996. ———. Multimodal Discourse. The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication. London: Arnold, 2001. Kress, Gunther and Carey Jewitt. Multimodal Literacy. New York: Peter Lang , 2003. Kress, Gunther. Multimodality. A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication. London: Routledge, 2010. ———. ‘What is a mode?’ The Routledge Handbook of Multimodal Analysis, edited by Carey Jewitt, 54-67. London: Routledge, 2009. Langer, Suzanne. Philosophy in a New Key. A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite and Art. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957. Larsen Pehrzon, Mariann. ‘“Lo visual” en la lingüística inglesa del siglo XVII: algunas consideraciones’ Caminos Actuales de la Historiografía Lingüística, edited by Antonio Roldán, Ricardo Escavy, Eulalia Hernández, José Miguel Hernández, Mª Isabel López. 899-916. Murcia: Universidad de Murcia, 2006. ———. ‘The Contextualisation of Multimodal Discourse: Some Issues from a Social Semiotic Frame.’ Discourse and Communication: Cognitive and Functional Perspectives, edited by Mª Luisa Blanco Gómez and Juana Marín Arrese, 245-266. Madrid: Dyckinson & Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 2010.

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__________________________________________________________________ Lepschy, Giulio, ed. History of Linguistics. Renaissance and Early Modern Linguistics. London: Longman, 1998. Murray, Jody. Non Discursive Rhetoric. Image and Affect in Multimodal Composition. State University of NY, 2009. Ong, Charles W. ‘From Allegory to Diagram in the Renaissance Mind: a Study in the Significance of the Allegorical Tableau’ The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 17.4 (1959): 423-440. Pinker, Stephen. How the Mind Works. New York: Norton, 1997. Ramachandran, V.S. and Sandra Blakeslee. Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries in the Human Mind. New York: Harper, 1998. Roob, Alexander. El Museo Hermético. Alquimia y Mística. Translated by Carlos Caramés. Köln: Taschen, 2001. Rossi, Paolo. Clavis Universalis: Arti della Memoria e Logica Combinatoria da Lullio a Leibniz. Bologna: Il Mulino,1983. Translation. Clavis Universalis: el Arte de la Memoria y la Lógica combinatoria de Llull a Leibniz. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1989. ———. Francesco Bacone: Dalla Magia alla Scienza Turin: Einaudi, 1957 Francis Bacon: de la Magia a la Ciencia. Translation. Madrid: Alianza, 1990. ———. La Nascita della Scienza Moderna in Europa. Bari: Laterza, 1997. Translation El Nacimiento de la Ciencia Moderna en Europa. Translation. Barcelona: Crítica, 2001. Sadoski, Mark and Allan Paivio. Imagery and Text: a Dual Coding Theory of Reading and Writing. Mahwah: Erlbaum, 2001. Simone, Raffaele. ‘The Early Modern Period.’ History of Linguistics. Renaissance and Early Modern Linguistics, edited by Giulio Lepschy, 149-236, London: Longman, 1998. Stark, Ryan J. Rhetoric, Science, and Magic in the Seventeenth Century England. The Catholic University of America, 2009.

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__________________________________________________________________ Yates, Frances. Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. London: Routledge, 1964. ———. The Art of Memory. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1966. Mariann Larsen Pehrzon is currently Associate Professor in the Department of English Philology at the Complutense University of Madrid. Her teaching and research interests and publications focus on English linguistics, stylistics and social semiotics. She has also published creative writing and illustrated poetry.

Having Sex at a Car Crash: Visual Literacy in the Blink of an Eye Terryl Atkins and Wayne Egers Abstract As facility with media-based technologies becomes more naturalized to its users, and media converge in ever more powerful, sophisticated, portable, and interactive ways, we cannot assume that viewers of pictures are passive spectators; rather, they are likely to expect to actively participate. Yet, highly narcissistic tendencies coupled with attention spans measured in bits and tweets guarantee that engagement in this attention economy is promoted primarily through intrigue, surprise, and novelty, and is leached of aesthetic embodied engagement. In the most recent pictorial turn that both extends and modifies the last great upheaval in the perception of pictorial space—the Renaissance invention of linear perspective and its disembodied-objectifying spectator—new wireless technologies are driving a paradigmatic shift in how we see. The cool media of television left far behind, visual negotiation in the 21st century is compact, immediate, mobile, and personal via laptops or smartphones as we pause or fast-forward when we feel inclined, upor down-loading films in pieces, remixing our versions of how it should be. Exacerbated by an enabling media convergence that is over-determined and fetishized, ordinary people’s belief that their democratic participation in the creation of the stories of culture exercises human agency often bears little resemblance to reality. Thus, this chapter explores our current phenomenological experience of imagery mediated through wireless technological devices and their effects on our embodied perception and engagement with pictures, including the fantasy of leaving the body behind. Key Words: Visuality, pictorial turn, embodied perception, Renaissance linear perspective, phenomenology, fantasy of leaving the body behind, disembodiedobjectifying spectator, media convergence. ***** 1. Sex at a Car Crash David Cronenberg once said that the characters in his film Crash exhibit a pathological psychology of the future via a strange sexuality written on the surface of their bodies by car-crash scars, 1 a strange kind of sexualized “accidental” tattooing. This pathology can be conceived as the desire of human beings to merge their psyches with technology to be totally above death or so close to death to feel an exhilarating sense of aliveness. In the 20th century, the car was fused with our understanding of time, space, distance, and sexuality, whereas in the 21st century, our sense of time, space, distance, and sexuality is imaginatively fused with our

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__________________________________________________________________ computerized wireless technologies. Yet the fusion of bodies/psyches with technology in Crash is a metaphor from a world long past in which mind is split from body—the central philosophical premise that has driven our science and understanding of the individual since Rene Descartes. Both Ballard’s book Crash and Cronenberg’s film dramatize the nihilism and deep despair of our longing to live beyond or without a body—or a terrestrial home—a fantasy also so vividly imagined in many contemporary sci-fi films. This fantasy of seeing through the eyes of technology continues the last great perceptual revolution that emerged during the Renaissance—the invention of linear perspective—a disembodied-objectifying stance towards the world that prepared the socio-cultural landscape for Descartes in the 17th century to reduce all human experience to ‘I think, therefore I am’ in contrast to ‘We are lived bodies in material and social worlds with others, therefore we are.’ Today, anyone with computer access to the Internet can become a disembodied ego at the centre of the universe—seeing from everywhere, yet paradoxically still from within a lived body. Thus, this chapter examines the potential and pitfalls of these technologies to extend our senses (especially vision), as suggested by McLuhan decades ago, towards leaving the body behind. 2. The Attention Economy Mitchell contends that a: dialectical concept of visual culture… must insist on exploring… the visual construction of the social field. It is not just that we see the way we do because we are social animals, but also that our social arrangements take the forms they do because we are seeing animals.2 Perhaps the greatest social driving force in the second decade of the 21st century is the need to capture, hold, and allocate people’s gaze in this attention economy.3 The exponential growth of social media has created an audience more available and more elusive, all interests tracked by life-like algorithms, addressed by individualized pop-ups, and enveloped by a sea of advertainment. The twenty-first century ecstasy of communication exceeds the Baudrillarian spectacle of the late 20th century. Distinctions between private and public are undermined, and everyday life is now continually updated through captioned selfies and bite-sized narratives of one’s identity or mood, publicly displayed for anyone with a cam-puter-phone. The entire universe of experience—ours and others, as well as that harvested for media or by surveillance—unfolds in the palm of your hand, virtually, anywhere. 4 Although we are addicted to perpetual connectivity in a shared technological now, the physical reality of our world is like a stage on which disembodied strangers glide silently past each other in a virtual

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__________________________________________________________________ non-space5 that brackets the possibility for direct embodied experience of reality. We no longer gaze; we barely glance. 3. The Pictorial Turn According to Mitchell, a pictorial turn is a historic turning point where technological development or cultural practice dramatically changes our way of seeing, causing both fear and elation about the visual.6 The creation of a pictorial space disconnected from the ambiguities of a body traversing the lived-through world became most rigorously evident with the development of Renaissance linear perspective. The individual became a disembodied objective eye/I viewing a distanced, homogenized, and contained picture. Crucially, this distancing encouraged a split between the self and knowable objects by offering a view of the world different from its medieval predecessor, which was more closely linked to bodily experience. Romanyshyn illustrates this paradigmatic perceptual shift by using two maps of Florence, the first dated circa 1350 7 showing a conglomeration of particular buildings from contradictory perspectives, each slightly behind the other as they accumulate up the picture plane. In this first map, it appears as if the artist cobbled together the multiple views from a body traversing actual space. The second map, a bird’s eye view of Florence circa 1480,8 has none of the embodied resonance of the first. It is a schematic of Florence from a distance, and other than the odd landmark building of great size such as a basilica, it is difficult to distinguish one building from another.9 The second map portrays a single overall fixed and distant vantage point, and spatial homogeneity, an enlightened view that recreates the world as landscape and heralds a new age of the fixed and discriminating gaze—preferably through a gridded window. This space of linear perspective—perpetuated by the technical monocularities of the camera lucida, camera obscura, then camera—has remained the gold standard for the depiction and experience of pictorial space to this day. 4. In the Blink of an Eye Returning to the title of this chapter, what do eroticized car crashes have to do with visual literacy in an eye blink? French philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty theorized that an embodied subject is predisposed, through societal influences and culture, to seek an immediate optimal experience of the whole of any phenomenon in an idiosyncratic way—a maximal grip in the blink of an eye so to speak—as an interactive gestalt.10 One of the implications of this insight is that our experience of the whole not only precedes recognition of the parts, but also that recognition of the parts is determined by our embodied experience of the whole; only, from the start, our cultural-social experience shapes what we can see. Merleau-Ponty recognized that as embodied subjects, what we know culturally depends on, but is

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__________________________________________________________________ not determined by, what the body is capable of knowing, the limits of which also are unknown.11 Drawing on Gombrich’s notion that tactile impressions help coordinate visual impressions, and Mitchell’s assertion that ‘normal seeing is, in a very real sense, a form of extended, highly flexible touch,’12 Stafford suggests that motor experience dissolves the subject/object experiential gap, and so visual experience should be discussed in terms of situational embeddedness.13 Is visual literacy a secondary process grounded in our embodied perception of the whole before the parts? To consider this question, we can examine the relationship between text and image in pictorial space. The ground (as in figure/ground) of letters, words, and sentences of written language is not meant to be experienced spatially, but only as a barely planar surface. For alphabetic symbols to be experienced as text, as transparent conveyors of meaning, they cannot be perceived as part of the surface patterning or pictorial illusion of pictorial space. The historical shift from pictographic elements as purveyors of narrative meaning to an abstract phonetic alphabet without iconic reference separated written language from specific cultural-embodied interpretation to a timeless and disembodied truth-value. Now, written language could carry reified truths from writer to reader, unsullied by the world of objects. The problem of text occupying the same space as images has been grappled with, sometimes inventively, in terms of spatial cohabitation, but a seamless blending of the fundamental differences between image and text remains unconvincing. Unlike the surface scanning of the picture plane, which focuses on stylistic qualities of mark making (variability, direction, texture, to name a few), the meaning of a text does not derive from these qualities, and furthermore, their elaboration inhibits reading and comprehension. Whether used for story telling (narrative) or conversation (discourse), text unfolds over time. It is read and implies response, interjection, and a kind of reflection that is held within an imagined mind space. The images conjured when reading are only virtually tenable. Like dream imagery, they are unstable— fluctuating, reforming, and hovering tentatively at the edge of meaning as the text unfolds in a reader’s imagination. However, unlike the insistence of dream imagery, the images conjured when reading text are negotiable—created and maintained by consciousness. Unlike the linear unfolding of textual meaning that requires constant interpretation and reinterpretation, a movement forward and backwards in time, our experience of pictures is different because we instantaneously grasp multiplicity as a unity through our embodied aesthetic apprehension.14 The banalization of images through digital mass re-production has desensitized the viewer to bodily engagement with the picture. Over-stimulation by the sheer volume of pictures and speed of intake has led to an almost exclusive semiotic interpretation of pictures that forestalls embodied apprehension of their

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__________________________________________________________________ intentionality. The creation of a discursive non-space filled with an array of images, symbols, and text as information does not reinforce our physical situatedness; rather, it separates experience from the body and places it within a conceptual landscape. Furthermore, current textual analytic techniques like semiotics do not acknowledge our embodied reception of images and preclude direct engagement grounded in embodied sensibility. In modernist culture, rarely were images unaccompanied by text; in post-modernist culture, rarely are images not read as text. The virtual semantic non-space is analogous to the physical nonplace of what anthropologist Marc Augé calls ‘supermodernity’ where one’s identity within a social context is negotiated through a solitary contractuality with the non-place, rather than an organic social negotiation with others. 15 The language that operates in non-places (freeways, airports, shopping malls, where situatedness and identity are held in abeyance) is prescriptive, punitive, or instructive.16 However, gestalt experience alone is not the answer, and the caution remains that grasping the world as a series of ‘semantic gestalts’ requires simplification of complex concepts and nuanced experience, a reduction to stereotypes to which anyone can relate, and our cursory glances at the imagery of consumer culture are trivialized on the altar of entertainment for profit, without political or critical intent. 17 ‘Difficult images’ that provoke an experience of embodied newsense (newsense is transformed nonsense) are not meant to be illustrations, mnemonics, or exemplars supporting the logocentrism of the text. 5. Embodied Intentionality In trying to free ourselves from environmental embeddedness, we shy away from more direct but less articulated forms of sensory engagement. Also, although sensibility is the experience of understanding through immediate but nebulous forms of embodied perception, we are habitually encouraged to engage a disembodied perception that truncates such experience into abstraction. Pictorial space as an artistic construction is compelling precisely because it allows for sensuous receptivity through bodily engagement. It is sensibility’s articulated proxy. Semiotic analysis or any other analytic method that methodically reduces meaning to a linguistic construction cannot account for our embodied sensuous receptivity as we engage our situatedness with pictures. Today, the sophistication, ubiquity, speed, and portability of interactive, wireless technologies have merged with media-based considerations, changing how we experience everything, including ourselves: Increasingly, local attachments and affiliations are being supplanted by networks of remote associations that serve to define and affirm self-identity… [T]o an increasing extent, who we are and what we believe are profoundly influenced by distant events.18

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__________________________________________________________________ Our identities are shaped, expanded, fragmented, and multiplied by our virtual relationships; they are dispersed throughout a virtual playground of multiple cultural and contextual interpretations that may have both positive and negative effects,19 and, rather than the modernist solid central self from which behaviours emanate, this de-centred self relies on coordination, negotiation, and performance to function in the world.20 Impressively, 57% of teens in the United States who use the Internet create content through their own blogs or webpages, uploading their photos, videos, or written content; or remixing them with found content. 21 This participatory culture encourages sharing of the products of artistic expression, civic engagement, and informal mentorship: ‘Not everyone has to contribute but they should believe that they can.’ 22 This degree of dialogical interaction may give people a sense of being active human agents in the world; however, the actual amount of power may remain questionable. According to Dyens, our ethics, our citizenship, and our critical and creative skills will develop within and through non-organic intelligence.23 If recent developments in the computer complexified evolution of chess playing are any indicator—that a weak human + machine + better process is turning out to be superior to a strong computer alone and, more remarkably, superior to a strong human + machine + inferior process24—then great attention needs to be paid to how our embodied perception is faring as we skid/crash through this most recent pictorial turn. In large part, this will depend on the nuance we remain open to in our encounter with pictures, and the degree to which we are invested in, or blinded by, the fantasy of leaving the body behind.

Notes 1

Chris Rodley, ‘Introduction: From Novel to Film,’ Crash, Screenplay by David Cronenberg (London: Faber and Faber, 1996), xvi–xvii. 2 W. J. T. Mitchell, What Do Pictures Want? The Lives and Loves of Images (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2005), 345. 3 Marty Kaplan, From Attention to Engagement (USC Annenberg, CA: Norman Lear Center for Communication and Journalism, 2009), 21. 4 Ibid. 5 See Marc Augé, Non-places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, translated by John Howe (London: Verso, 1995). 6 W. J. T. Mitchell, ‘Visual Literacy or Literary Visualcy?’ in Visual Literacy, ed. James Elkins (New York, NY: Routledge, 2008), 15. 7 See Anonymous, ‘The Madonna of Mercy,’ 14th century, Museum of Bigallo, Florence, viewed April 23, 2015, http://www.museumsinflorence.com/musei/Museum_of_Bigallo.html.

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__________________________________________________________________ 8

See Anonymous, Carta della Catena, Florence in the 15th century, Museo Storico Topografico di Firenze com’era, viewed May 2, 2015, http://www.museumsinflorence.com/musei/museum_firenze-com-era.html. 9 Robert D. Romanyshyn, Technology as Symptom and Dream (London/New York: Routledge, 1989), 35–38. 10 See Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, trans. Colin Smith (London: Routledge & Keagan Paul Ltd., 1962) and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, ‘Cezanne’s Doubt’, Sense and Non-Sense, ed. Hubert L. Dreyfus and Patricia Allen Dreyfus (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 9–25. 11 See Carrie Noland, ‘Motor Intentionality: Gestural Meaning in Bill Viola and Merleau –Ponty,’ Postmodern Culture 17 (May 2007): section 27. 12 W. J. T. Mitchell, ‘Visual Literacy or Literary Visualcy?’ 13. 13 Barbara Maria Stafford, ‘The Remaining 10 Percent: The Role of Sensory Knowledge in the Age of the Self-Organizing Brain’, Visual Literacy, ed. James Elkins (New York, NY: Routledge, 2008), 35. 14 Rudolf A. Makkreel, Imagination and Interpretation in Kant: The Hermeneutical Import of the Critique of Judgement (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990), 5. 15 Marc Augé, Non-places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans. John Howe (London: Verso, 1995), 94. 16 Ibid., 96. 17 D. Felluga, Introductory Guide to Critical Theory, viewed Dec. 10, 2009, http://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/postmodernism/terms/index.html. 18 Paul Farber, Eugene F. Provenzo Jr., and Gunilla Holm, Schooling in the Light of Popular Culture (New York: SUNY Press, 1994), 9. 19 Sherry Turkle, Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1995). 20 Susan McNamee, ‘Therapy and Identity Construction in a Postmodern World’, Constructing the Self in a Mediated World eds. Debra Grodin and Thomas R. Lindlof (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996). 21 Henry Jenkins et al., Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 3. 22 Ibid., 5-6. 23 Ollivier Dyens, How Artificial Intelligence is About to Disrupt Higher Education: Education in the 21st Century Must Be Built on the Premise of HumanMachine Entanglement, viewed August 8, 2014, http://www.universityaffairs.ca/features/feature-article/how-artificial-intelligenceis-about-to-disrupt-higher-education/. 24 Ibid.

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Bibliography Augé, Marc. Non-places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. Translated by John Howe. London: Verso 1995. Baudrillard, Jean. The Ecstasy of Communication. Translated by Bernard Schultze and Caroline Schutze, edited by Sylvere Lotringer. Brooklyn: Semiotext(e), 1988. de Kerkhove, Derrick. The Architecture of Intelligence. Basel/Boston/Berlin: Birkhauser, 2001. Dyens, Ollivier. ‘How Artificial Intelligence Is About to Disrupt Higher Education: Education in the 21st Century Must Be Built on the Premise of Human-Machine Entanglement’. University Affairs.ca. Viewed August 8, 2014. http://www.universityaffairs.ca/features/feature-article/how-artificial-intelligenceis-about-to-disrupt-higher-education/. Elkins, James. The Object Stares Back: On the Nature of Seeing. Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 1996. ———. On Pictures and the Words That Fail Them. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Elkins, James, ed. Visual literacy. New York, NY: Routledge, 2008. Jenkins, Henry with Ravi Purushotma, Margaret Weigel, Kate Clinton and Alice J. Robison. Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009. Kaplan, Marty. From Attention to Engagement. USC Annenberg, CA: Norman Lear Center for Communication and Journalism, 2009. Makkreel, Rudolf A. Imagination and Interpretation in Kant: The Hermeneutical Import of the Critique of Judgement. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990. McNamee, Susan. ‘Therapy and Identity Construction in a Postmodern World’. Constructing the Self in a Mediated World. eds. Debra Grodin and Thomas R. Lindlof, 141-155. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1996.

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__________________________________________________________________ Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. Phenomenology of Perception. Translated by Colin Smith. London: Routledge & Keagan Paul Ltd., 1962. ———. ‘Cezanne’s Doubt’. Sense and Non-Sense, edited by Hubert L. Dreyfus and Patricia Allen Dreyfus, 9-25. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1964. Mitchell, W. J. T. What Do Pictures Want? The Lives and Loves of Images. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2005. Noland, Carrie. ‘Motor Intentionality: Gestural Meaning in Bill Viola and Merleau -Ponty.’ Postmodern Culture 17 (May 2007): section 27. Rodley, Chris. ‘Introduction: From Novel to Film.’ Crash. Screenplay by David Cronenberg (London: Faber and Faber, 1996), xvi–xvii. Romanyshyn, Robert D. Technology as Symptom and Dream. London/New York: Routledge 1989. Turkle, Sherry. Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster 1995 White, John. Birth and Rebirth of Pictorial Space. London: Faber & Faber Ltd. 1967. Wise, J. Macgregor and Hille Koskela, eds. New Visualities, New Technologies: The New Ecstasy of Communication. Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2013. Terryl Atkins is a Lecturer in Visual and Performing Arts, Thompson Rivers University. She teaches drawing, visual culture, curatorial, and art theory, writes on contemporary art practice, and maintains her own photo and video art practice. Wayne Egers is an editor at Thompson Rivers University, Open Learning. He also is a poet, student of Shamanism and Zen Buddhism, and filmmaker.

Embodied Architectural Practice and Design Literacy Matthew Dudzik and Marilyn Corson Whitney Abstract Architecture and interior design are a manifestation of embodied life experiences, and as such, visual literacy forms the foundation of modern practice. Architects, as any artists, draw their inspiration from the people, places, and cultures in which they have lived or visited. But in practice, architecture and design must transcend art to examine culture, structure, systems, and environmental factors; therefore, architecture and design become art formed within rigorous parameters. As such, an understanding of visual literacy becomes key to exploring design possibilities by offering a lens through which design language and practical parameters alike can be examined. This chapter seeks to explore an educational process of amplified design literacy. Key Words: Design Literacy, architecture, interior design, evidence based design, studio culture, interdisciplinary, collaboration, culture. ***** 1. Introduction The difficulties of assembling knowledge from various fields is not a new conundrum for architects. In 100 BCE, Vitruvius discussed the education of and various kinds of learning for architects, including ‘geometry, history, ethics, astronomy, music, geography, philosophy’1 as well as the ability to draw. Indeed, the architect has consistently been tasked throughout history with fusing knowledge from disparate and even paradoxical fields. One can examine Vitruvius’ categories not as a penultimate list but rather as a need to study pertinent issues governing the zeitgeist. Our modern reality has produced a milieu of additional forces necessary for the education of the architect, and as a result many calls for the re-constitution of architectural and design education emphasize technology. Clearly the advanced needs of sustainability, the complexities of contemporary urbanity, and advances in building science need to be fully integrated into education. In addition, new pressures of Evidenced Based Design2, interdisciplinary collaborative work, and a plethora of additional concerns prevalent in the practice of the profession now need to be integrated in the classroom. As the complexity of modern practice increases, it is important for students to holistically examine architecture through fusing embedded technology with creativity and innovation. In order to achieve this balance, a synthetic intentionality must be impelled. There is perhaps no better tool available in the classroom than design literacy to examine advanced technologies and transdisciplinary practices while empowering creativity. In this context, design

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__________________________________________________________________ literacy is the study of visual information with defined intent. Students utilize previous training on the subject matter and cull information through focused exploration of numerous fields. This chapter examines design literacy in regards to understanding the cultural and technological needs of architecture and design within a framework that propels creativity through various methods of learning and inquiry. The following literature review studies research on learning and various methods of inquiry used in architecture and design. 2. Literature Review Howard Gardner’s work is seminal in understanding that different people perceive the world in different ways and he outlined his Seven Intelligences as: ‘Visual-spatial, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Linguistic and Logical-mathematical.’3 Gardner further maintained that using diverse methods to engage students can help different types of learners activate their innate abilities.4 By using visual exploration and Evidence Based Design as foundational methods of inquiry, students can use interpretive practices to dissect visual and written information in a way that engages each of the Seven Intelligences Gardner outlines. Therefore, with the aide of framing research, visual literacy can both reach students with various learning aptitudes and be a method for them to examine the cultural and technological needs in architecture and interior design. To further distill design literacy’s application to research for creative processing, one can look to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s Five Stages of Creativity: 1) Preparation, to arouse interest and curiosity; 2) Incubation, to process diverse information; 3) Insight, a new way of thinking about an issue; 4) Evaluation, where new ideas are critically examined; and 5) Elaboration, where ideas are carried out in a holistic approach.5 Design literacy has the potential to aide each of those five steps, thus producing work that is not only more creative but also sensitive to the technological and cultural needs of the project. Csikszentmihalyi explains that these steps define ways of processing information using both Divergent and Convergent methods of thinking. Divergent thinking occurs when one examines a wide array of ideas and concepts, while convergent thinking is the synthesis of that information into an insightful new manner that forms the foundation for intelligent creativity.6 This paradoxical method is effective because the resulting exploration allows students to make connections that may have been previously unseen. These ideas are critical to the gathering and processing information in architecture and design. This chapter will posit that using design literacy as a processing mechanism enables creativity and innovation in design. Visual literacy as defined by Elizabeth Kaplan and Jeffery Mifflin7 is a set of skills to help a viewer understand the visual content of an image or written text. When these skills are advanced through critical viewing, gained through study and

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__________________________________________________________________ additional modes of research, these skills offer a source of investigation uniquely suited to today’s visual media attuned millennial generation. According to Kaplan and Mifflin, because our culture is reliant on visual communication, images create a critical understanding of today’s cultural landscape. One of the significant roles of design literacy in architectural and design education is the study of culture.8 Culture is an important contextual component in architecture and design that is often absent in present-day practice and education. The cultural underpinnings of a society affect the viability and ultimate success or failure of a building or interior space. Ineffective assimilation can been seen through numerous examples of Western designers bringing their own cultural context to a land where it is either not accepted or appreciated. Prevalent examples include William McDonough’s Huangbaiyu, a design for a sustainable town in China and Michael Graves’ Miramar Resort on the Red Sea. These projects could have shown greater sensitivity to the prevailing cultural norms of the country in which they were placed and therefore failed to appropriately accommodate end users, their culture, and prevalent building practices.9 While Kaplan and Mifflin archived images for museums using guiding criteria, the study of visual information in architecture and design education can work through a similar, as well as, an inverse process.10 The process of viewing/sorting/re-interpreting establishes criteria by which to study images, or the study of images can establish criteria which drive deeper understanding. This integrated approach of simultaneously bringing an intentionality to viewing and allowing for exploration through a wider lens aides students in synthetically understanding what may be disparate pieces of information. This process provides students with the foundation from which they can imbue a city, building, or interior with appropriate intrinsic meaning for a cultural context. Ayona Datta encouraged educators to actively correlate their curriculum to different learning styles in order to foster deeper learning. Like Gardner, she encouraged the use of many modes of learning in the classroom environment through a framework with no fixed expectation of outcomes from the diverse modes. Datta states, this approach creates a positive classroom environment where students are critically engaged in collaborative and iterative processes that nurture ideas and stimulate the rigorous multi-disciplinary exploration necessary for the deep learning of content.11 One of the reasons that design literacy is such a powerful deep learning tool in architectural and design education is that it incorporates various research methods pertinent to the field. Among these methodologies include Rowland’s Interpretive Research, Swann’s Action Research, and Salama’s Experiential Learning. These approaches to research are relevant to design-based investigations as they allow for interpretive analysis, underscoring the multiplicity of design avenues for a given situation. Furthermore, our professions are heavily reliant on prevailing social constructs to create usable and effective space for the populous.

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Embodied Architectural Practice and Design Literacy

__________________________________________________________________ Bruce Rowlands discussed interpretive research by stating: Following Klien and Myers, the foundational assumption for interpretive research is that knowledge is gained, or at least filtered, through social constructions such as language, consciousness and shared meanings. In addition to the emphasis on the socially constructed nature of reality, interpretive research acknowledges the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is being explored, and the situational constraints shaping this process.12 Cal Swann appreciated the significance of Interpretive Research as a qualitative methodology which is better suited to the behavior and sensitivities of human beings relying more often on insight for the interpretations of human actions.'13 However, Swann was concerned that this approach embeds a certain personal bias into design. Instead, he suggested using a post-structural framework to understand design’s multiplicity of relevant manifestations. Swann outlined the complexity of Action Research, stating that the visual aspects of knowledge are difficult to explain to a person not educated in visual literacy. He suggested that training in visual literacy, like linguistics, requires ‘practice and intelligence well versed in history and concepts embedded in the form.’14 Of additional relevancy to the fields of architecture and design is Swann’s perspective that ‘new visual forms of expression are based on developments of existing forms, enabling experienced observers to build the new forms into their understanding.’15 Swann continued that architecture students are most comfortable working in visual media. He posited that ‘Research in design may seek to demonstrate the result of systematic inquiry as a tangible design product.’16 For clarification, he added that ‘The important point is that visual form is a form of knowledge. It is a means of encapsulating ideas and, indeed, some ideas are expressed more powerfully though the visual medium than via any other form of communication.’17 The authors attest that these forms of exploration are most easily incorporated especially in a studio environment. Datta’s idea was that studios are physical and social environments where the embedded values of architecture are transmitted and social relationships constructed between students, tutors, and peers.18 She encouraged deep learning through a non-competitive approach. This collaborative environment is both encouraging and challenging, as it supports creativity and diversity of opinion through engaged dialog, yielding an ethos where students learn as much from each other as they learn from the professor or the textbooks. The studio culture in this regard becomes part of a forum for sharing ideas where visual analysis and critique comingle to support a dialog that transcends the temporal boundaries of the

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__________________________________________________________________ classroom. Cai and Khan agreed with Swann and Datta of the value of studio culture for fostering peer-to-peer learning and collaborative activities among students. They believe that the study of visual literacy is aided by the studio environment and can also help to construct such an environment.19 On the other hand, the AIA Studio Task Force comprised of A. Koch, K. Schwennsen, T. Dutton, and D. Smith called for revising studio culture.20 They warned, ‘The disinterest in the design process combined with the tendency to focus on form making hinders the restoration of the rational basis of design in the studio.’21 They extrapolated that students need to learn critical thinking and not just explore form. Another method of exploration suggested by Ashraf Salama called for Experiential Learning. He stated, ‘Learning through experience involves not merely observing the phenomenon being studied but also doing something with it, such as testing its dynamics to learn more about it, or applying a theory learned about it to achieve some desired results.’22 He maintained that an evaluative component is necessary to examine phenomena, ‘endowing students with more control over their learning, knowledge acquisition, assimilation, and utilization in future experiences.’23 This method of learning is an example of Evidence Based Design. This type of engaged analysis can be done through design literacy when the act of viewing an image or site involves an educated perception as a ‘way of knowledge of acquisition.’24 This acquisition is done by applying previous research and understanding to visual-spatial situations. He suggested that students need to ‘explore issues that are associated with the relationship between culture and the built environment.’25 Salama defined Active Learning differently from Swann’s concept of Experiential Learning. Salama stated that students should participate in different active learning strategies rather than sit and listen to a lecture.26 Analogous to Datta’s ideas, this methodology supports a healthy studio culture by increasing shared discourse. This engaged process ‘involves students in a higher order of thinking and simultaneously involves analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of a wide spectrum of issues and phenomena,’ which is responsive to both Gardner and Csikszentmihalyi’s theories.27 Salama discussed multiple types of knowledge in architectural and design issues. He framed it as critical inquiry, knowledge acquisition, and production, stating that students need critical thinking skills, ‘…knowledge that results from research that develops new hypotheses and visions, research that probes new ideas and principles which will shape the future.’28 The following articulates the application of these concepts to an architectural and design classroom environment. 3. Application in the Classroom As Rowland suggested, the complex iterative processes of design education allow students to develop innovation by utilizing Csikszentmhalyi’s five stages of

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Embodied Architectural Practice and Design Literacy

__________________________________________________________________ creativity. Divergent and convergent processes continually cycle in the studio environment. In their divergent analysis, students gather information through both traditional and visually based methods of research. As Datta, Cai and Khan posited, in an activated studio culture information is shared, discussed, and critiqued among the cohort and in combination with student-to-professor desk critiques. This daily dialog is augmented at key points in the quarter by formalized critiques and discussions with outside experts. By using embedded design literacy as an integrated approach to design, students cultivate the ability to both see cultural realities and to ask the necessary questions about governing conditions of culture as discussed by Swann. This type of visual analysis is transcendent of style and is rather a means through which one can collectively pull multifaceted historical and social information through iterative analysis. The iterative nature of research, implemented through Evidence Based Design and critique, creates an environment where the processing of visual information is key to the cultural and technological needs of the project and paramount to the effective utilization of creativity. In order to activate learning among a variety of students, design literacy can be utilized to aide Gardner’s Seven Intelligences, to foster the deep thinking presented by Datta, and to assist the creative processing of Csikszentmihalyi. Architecture and design are fields of complex integration of transdisciplinary practices. However, above all architecture is the practice of crafting phenomena and giving people safe experiential environments, transcendent of any given meaning and individually constructed through our cultural consciousness. Rowlands proposed that there is not ‘an “objective” or “factual” account of events and situations,’ but rather a ‘relativistic, albeit shared understanding of phenomena.’29 In Interpretive Research, as in architectural and design education, there is not one correct answer but instead an understanding of shared phenomena. Design literacy in this environment becomes a collective exercise and serves to foster dialog among the cohort. Furthermore, the inherent process of critique aids the student in developing an ability to methodically view criteria. This ability to analytically evaluate a problem helps students to critically view their own work while also becoming part of a society of learners who are actively constructing a knowledge landscape for our rapidly changing world. Evidence Based Design coupled with design literacy as manifested through integrated pedagogy creates a context in which students with diverse abilities can effectively learn. These students can use interpretive research as a foundational method of inquiry for elusive, complex, and paradoxical constructs in the field of design. This breadth of research aides them in understanding that they are not searching for one answer but rather are weighing unequal or unbalanced criteria. Students are tasked with designing environments which must respond to end users cultural and social needs as well as prevalent building construction technologies. This process

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__________________________________________________________________ demands research skills, complex assessment skills, deep and critical thinking, and physical skill acquisition through drawing, model making, and computer visualization. 4. Conclusion Ultimately, we see the world through our current lens of understanding, a lens that has been shaped by the education we have received through various life experiences. The role of design literacy in architectural education is the democratization of that information. While no one would argue that looking at an image is more valuable than being in a place or experiencing a culture, it is through images that designers have access to a breadth of spaces inaccessible to any one individual. Although design literacy is a practice of both physical and remote viewing, it is through the aide of the photograph that most buildings and interior spaces are understood by students. The photograph only offers one possible variant on perception; however, the informed viewer can use multiple images of a structure, city, culture, or various relevant case studies to cull embedded information from the visual section presented in the photograph. By using visual literacy as a practice of informed analysis, students can simultaneously ground their designs in research and develop their own unique oeuvres. Through the aid of Evidence Based Design, this analysis becomes rooted in the complexities of the modern world and practice. This research methodology promotes a holistic view of the difficulties facing architecture and interior design education today. Furthermore, this approach allows students to understand the complex competing forces in design through gathering information and processing that information through various visual, oral, and written components. The resulting reflections on the data, coupled with the iterative nature of studio classes, allows students the ability to weigh the unbalanced forces driving architecture and create work that embeds culture and technological advancements into the foundational forces of the scheme.

Notes 1

Marcus V. Pollio, Vitruvius the Ten Books on Achitecture, trans., Morris Morgan (New York: Cover Publications, Inc., 1960). 2 Evidence Based Design is where scholarly research is done of diverse topics to investigate issues of concern for the project. For example, a study in Denmark demonstrated that students learn more when their classroom have windows. Another study shows that patients heal more quickly if their hospital rooms have a balanced colour wheel. 3 Howard Gardner, Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice (New York: Basic Books, Reprint edition, 2006), 1. 4 Ibid., 1.

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__________________________________________________________________ 5

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow (New York: Harper Collins, 1990). Ibid. 7 Elizabeth Kaplan and Jeffery Mifflin. ‘Mind and Sight: Visual Literacy and the Archivist,’ American Archival Issues 21 (1996): 107-127. 8 Ibid., 81. 9 Danielle Sacks, ‘Green Guru Gone Wrong: William McDonough,’ Fast Company, November 1, 2008, viewed on 22 January 2015, http://www.fastcompany.com/1042475/green-guru-gone-wrong-williammcdonough.; Sarah Elmasry, interview with Marilyn Whitney, personal interview, Blacksburg, 3 December 2006. 10 Kaplan, ‘Mind and Sight,’ 110. 11 Ayona Datta, ‘Gender and Learning in the Design Studio,’ Journal for Education in the Built Environment 2 (2007): 21-35. 12 Bruce Rowlands, ‘Grounded in Practice: Using Interpretive research to Build Theory,’ Journal of Business Research Methods 3 (2014): 81. 13 Cal Swann, ‘Action Research and the Practice of Design,’ Massachusetts Institute of Technology Design Issues 18.2 (2002): 51. 14 Ibid., 52. 15 Ibid., 52. 16 Ibid., 52. 17 Ibid., 52. 18 Datta, ‘Gender and Learning in the Design Studio,’ 24. 19 Hui Cai and Sabir Khan, ‘The Common First Year Studio in a Hot-Desking Age: An Explorative Study on the Studio Environment and Learning,’ Journal of Education in the Built Environment 5.2 (2010): 39-64. 20 Aaron Koch, et al., ‘The Redesign of Studio Culture. Task Force,’ Studio Culture Task Force AIA (2002): 1-30. 21 Ibid., 425. 22 Ashraf Salama, ‘A Theory for Integrating Knowledge in Architectural Design Education,’ Archnet-IJAR International Journal of Architecture Research (2008): 119. 23 Ibid., 119. 24 Ibid., 103. 25 Ibid., 104. 26 Ibid., 100-126. 27 Ibid., 118. 28 Ibid., 104. 29 Rowlands, ‘Grounded in Practice,’ 84. 6

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__________________________________________________________________

Bibliography Pollio, Marcus V. Vitruvius the Ten Books on Achitecture. Translated by Morris Morgan. New York: Cover Publications, Inc., 1960. Gardner, Howard. Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice. New York: Basic Books, Reprint edition 2006. Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. Flow. New York: Harper Collins, 1990. Kaplan, Elizabeth, and Jeffery Mifflin. ‘Mind and sight: Visual Literacy and the Archivist.’ American Archival Issues 21 (1996): 107-127. Sacks, Danielle. ‘Green Guru Gone Wrong: William McDonough.’ Fast Company, November 1, 2008, viewed on 22 January 2015, http://www.fastcompany.com/ 1042475/green-guru-gone-wrong-william-mcdonough. Elmasry, Sarah. Interview with Marilyn Whitney. Personal interivew. Backsburg, December 3, 2006. Datta, Ayona. ‘Gender and Learning in the Design Studio.’ Journal for Education in the Built Environment 2 (2007): 21-35. Rowlands, Bruce. ‘Grounded in Practice: Using Interpretive research to Build Theory.’ Journal of Business Research Methods 3 (2014): 81. Swann, Cal. ‘Action Research and the Practice of Design.’ Massachusetts Institute of Technology Design Issues 18.2 (2002): 51. Cai, Hui and Khan, Sabir. ‘The Common First Year Studio in a Hot-Desking Age: An Explorative Study on the Studio Environment and Learning.’ Journal of Education in the Built Environment 5.2 (2010): 39-64. Koch, Aaron, Kate Schwennsen, Thomas Dutton , and Deanna Smith. ‘The Redesign of Studio Culture. Task Force.’ Studio Culture Task Force AIA (2002): 130. Salama, Ashraf. ‘A Theory for Integrating Knowledge in Architectural Design Education.’ Archnet-IJAR International Journal of Architecture Research (2008): 119.

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__________________________________________________________________ Matthew Dudzik, LEED AP: is the Creative Director of DUDZIK Studios and a Professor of Architecture at Savannah College of Art and Design. His research focuses on issues of socio-spatial justice and national identity as it relates to urban cities in current emerging economies. Marilyn Corsen Whitney, Ph.D., NCIDQ: research focus on the professionalization of interior design, including: the history of professionalization, sustainable design in action, interdisciplinary collaboration and how to activate creativity through Evidence Based Design.

Revealing the Layers of the Rocks: A Visual Reinterpretation for an Urban Historical Site Fang Xu, Yixiang He and Imad Khan Abstract This chapter explores a visual reinterpretation that represents the complex physical environmental transformation of the Rocks in Sydney. As a famous historical site, the development of the Rocks is the result of the interactions of the social, economic and cultural changes in the past 100 years. It can be seen as the most representative example of urban-scape development of a historic city in Australia. Many previous studies of the Rocks mainly focused on heritage protection, historical events, the historical photography and documents collection. However the physical environment of the Rocks as a whole that witnesses the past changes has not been systematically studied. The general public cannot find the concise materials that can help them to understand the site. They are very critical to the current and future exercise of urban renewal projects of the site. The difficulty is how one can find an innovative way to effectively represent the research outcomes. This chapter highlights the visual reinterpretation as the key issue. Inspired by the art works of Escher, M.C. Escher has developed a special visual reinterpretation method in his graphic works. Based on a series of meaningful exercises, the chapter identifies the unique characteristics of the physical environment of the Rocks. Through revealing the layers of the Rocks, it classifies the main features of many restoration projects of the site into three essential categories. The developed visualization method provides an effective tool to deconstruct the multifaceted buildings forms, offering a new perspective to induct the general patterns of the complicated configurations and transformation of the urban historical site. The chapter’s outcome can be used as a valuable reference to direct future design intervention in an urban historical site. Key Words: Visual transformation.

reinterpretation,

the

Rocks,

physical

environment

***** 1. Introduction As a famous historical site, the development of the Rocks in Sydney is the result of the interaction of social, economic and cultural changes in the past 100 years. Because of its unique geographic location and association with many historical events, it can be seen as one of the most representative examples of urban-scape development of a historic city in Australia. An ample amount of research material relating to the site has been accumulated over the years, such as textual descriptions, photographs or films. Many of the past studies mainly focused on

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Revealing the Layers of the Rocks

__________________________________________________________________ social and cultural aspects, such as heritage protection, historical events, historical photography and document collections. However, the physical environment of the Rocks as a whole that witnessed the past changes has not been systematically studied. The general public cannot find concise materials that can help them to understand the site. Simultaneously, design professionals that engage in the site projects urgently require general guidelines so that individual projects can be infused within this valuable historical centre. Some common but important issues related to design professionals, such as the changing urban fabric, the pattern and relationships of various types or parts of buildings etc. are very critical to the current and future exercises of urban renewal practice practices of the site. The challenge is to seek an effective way that can innovatively respond to above issues. This chapter highlights the visual reinterpretation as the key issue. Inspired by the art works of Escher, it has developed a special visual reinterpretation method for its research approach that is in preference to written or spoken language. Meanwhile, based on the exercises of photographic site survey, wordplay, diagram and drawing, the study identifies the unique characteristics of the physical environment of the Rocks, classifying the main features of numerous restorationbuilding projects into three categories. So that it enables the chapter to deconstruct the multifaceted buildings’ forms, and reveal the layers of the Rocks. In addition, the developed visualized method provides an effective tool to induct the patterns of the complicated configurations and transformations within the site. The outcome uncovers the fundamental issues underlying the physical and environmental transformation of the site, which can be used as a valuable reference to direct the future design intervention in an urban historical site. 2. Visual Reinterpretation Visual representation can be seen as a mental representation of meaning or significance of something. 1 The process employs a mechanism of metaphor to allow people to understand relatively abstract or inherently unstructured subject matter in terms of a more structured format. 2 Gordon dissects the concept of metaphors and believes that it is comprised of four types of analogies: symbolic, direct, personal and fantasy.3 During the exercise of bridging the source domain and target domain, these analogies help to build relationships between two parts, which enables people to comprehend abstract concepts and perform abstract reasoning. Hence, analogy becomes an effective way that is commonly used by architects and other disciplines of design.4 Visual reinterpretation is also an act of visualization and artistic expression that involves the use of graphic elements, such as iconography and imagery. These symbolic images represent the properties of the transformation from the source domain to the target domain. Hence visualization is the ability to develop mental images during design development, reading or other creative activity. 5 Sketches and diagrams are common visualization tools for designers to explore ideas,

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__________________________________________________________________ formative processes or design outcomes. They can be seen as a bridge to transform design concepts and abstract ideas into visualized outputs.6 John Ruskin points out; ‘drawing can teach people to see’.7 Designers are trained to ‘read’ drawings. When they read maps, plans, sections or elevations, they are able to relate to with the represented design. With some effort, they can visualize a mental architectural image. Visualization can also be personalized. Creating meaningful drawings challenges human perception. Through history many artists have used their personalized artistic expression to challenge human perception. Ernst Gombrich based on the notion of ‘schema and correction’ proposes that art history can be seen as an evolution of visual perception.8 Similarly Benjamin states that, the mode of human perception has changed by technological advancements.9 Many architects strive to develop new visual media as their own for their works. Le Corbusier introduced ‘Cubism’ as a new concept for space design, which further developed into a modern architectural system. 10 In his book Delirious New York, Rem Koolhaas used Salvador Dali’s Surrealist paintings as inspiration.11 Similarly, Zaha Hadid developed her skill as a visionary architect through paintings, inspired from Malevich’s ‘Suprematism’. 12 Peter Eisenman often used isometric drawings to showcase his deconstruction style and preference in his deconstructionist styled architecture.13 Hence the visual reinterpretation can play a critical role for this chapter. Because of its metaphorical nature, this chapter explores visual modes of representations. An analogical approach between the existing site and abstracted images develop a set of visual diagrams that maps their relationships. It will not only provide the general picture of the physical transformation of the Rocks, but also can logically deconstruct and reconstruct this process. In doing so, the artworks of a famous revered artist: Escher , are selected as an inspiration for this research chapter. As they perfectly reflect the metaphorical and analogical nature of the site and merge the contrast, conflict and different elements in harmonious ways. 3. Visual Analogy: The Rocks and M.C. Escher’s Artwork The urban fabric of the Rocks has gone through dramatic changes. History shows that convicts and sailors made the first settlements.14 During the 1800’s the area had a reputation of a slum.15 It was in the 70’s the state government decided to demolish the area and construct a series of skyscrapers.16 This act was refuted by the local communities and ‘The Rocks Resident Group’ was formed.17 However the construction of the Harbour Bridge and Cahill Expressway has cordoned off the Rocks from the city. In 1977 ‘The Heritage act’ was passed to protect all the old buildings.18 The urban developments have transformed the historic fabric of the site. These changes can be seen in image 1. The old urban fabric that has been gradually

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Revealing the Layers of the Rocks

__________________________________________________________________ demolished in the past is shown in black colour. The restoration and extensions in both the demolished and remaining areas have produced many new architectural forms beyond pure preservation. This process of change questions the relationship between old and new and the protection of the old from new developments. Inspired by the essence of Escher’s Metamorphosis 1, his artistic way of blending contrasting visual elements together has inspired the development of conceptual image (Image 2) and a series of diagrams (Table 2, Table 7). They not only define the key building elements, but also examine the patterns of various combinations and relationships between the altered buildings of the Rocks.

Image 1: The Diagrammatic Sketch of Demolition Process of the Rocks. © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He.

Image 2: Conceptual Image of the Transformation Process of the Rocks © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He. Researching artworks of Escher’s whole career, particularly the art works after 1937, Bruno Ernst identified three significant themes of Escher’s artworks, which are seen as distinguishing feature of Escher’s artworks in dealing with the visual representation. Bruno Ernst classified them as spatial structure, flat surface and the relationship between space and flat surface （Table 1).

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 1: The Categories of M.C. Escher’s Artworks. Spatial structure Landscape prints

Interpenetration of different worlds

Abstract mathematical solid

E.g. The Bridge 1930 Lithograph

E.g. Still Life and Street-1937 Woodcut

E.g. Stars -1948 Engraving

Flat surface structure Metamorphoses

Cycles

E.g. Sky and water 11938 Woodcut

E.g. Reptiles 1943 Lithograph

Approaches to infinity E.g. Circle Limit IV-1960 Woodcut

Flat surface structure and the relationship between space and flat surface in regard to pictorial representation Conflict between space and flat surface E.g. Dragon--1952 Woodcut

Perspective

Impossible figures

E.g. Relativity--1953 Lithograph

E.g. Waterfall--1961 Lithograph

Table 1 showcases Escher’s artworks and elaborates on the mutual overlapping of spatial logic in his works. These three spatial logics are comprised of interchangeable figure-ground relationship, spatial dislocation and reconstructions of the boundary between different objects (Table 2).

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 2: Explanation the relationship between three spatial logics of Escher’s artwork and the spatial character of architecture transformation in the Rocks © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He. Cate gorie s

Diagram

Interchangeable Figure-ground Image 3: Interchangeable Figure-Ground Relationship Spatial Dislocation Image 4:Spatial Dislocation

Explanation Interchangeable Figure-Ground Relationship is a significant trait in Escher’s work. It can be viewed in an architectural context. When the new building is attached to the existing urban fabric it creates a new figureground relationship. Hence, the original balance of the figureground relationship changes and new connections are established. In Escher’s artworks, the use of geometry is prevalent. He used the principles of geometry to create a sense of spatial dislocation and an optical illusion. Due to the topography

of the rocks, the movement of horizontal and vertical lines created a sense of spatial dislocation in the Rocks. (Image 4)

Reconstructing the Boundary

In the early period of Escher’s artworks, he mainly focused on how to intertwining intertwine

two different subjects. This was achieved by removing the visual boundary. 'Still life and Street’ is one of the examples that illustrate this technique. In Image 5:Reconstructing the Boundary

‘Streetscape’, Escher blurs the visual boundary between desk and the street to create an infinite illusion.

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__________________________________________________________________ 4. Research Process According to Dr. Anne ‘Visual language is generated by combining syntax and semantics’. Syntax is the building block or the form of an image, it is also known as the structure and organization of a visual. Some examples include: scale, dimension, framing, light, shadow, foreground, background, etc.19 Semantics on the other hand is related to broader issues, also known as the study of signs. Although the visitors can be immersed in a historical site, they still cannot fully realize the historical phenomenon that exists in the built environment. In design practice, visual semantics are seen as different ways to communicate processes. Hence, developing a visual language to understand the complex layers of the rocks is important. The chapter combines syntax and semantics by in co-operating by establishing relations between the following steps: ● Visual documentation with textual description of the rocks generating key words (noun, verb and adjective). These are reflective of the different features of the Rocks. ● Identifying the spatial characteristics based on selected keywords. ● Constructing key words as concept mapping to understand the relationship between spatial features. ● Making analogies between the spatial features of the Rocks and Escher’s artworks; ● Developing a visual language to analyze different architectural interventions within in the Rocks. 5. Textual Description and Keywords The main purpose for generating textual descriptions for the Rocks is to understand the relationship between the intuitive response and the physical environment. These textual descriptions can be seen as the semantics of the site. Based on the reflective analysis, the first step was to identify key words and explain the spatial characteristics of the Rocks. These key words were categorized as noun, verb and adjectives (see table 3) and common words were then identified and used to explain the overlapping characteristics of the Rocks. As White (1975) elaborates, to generate design concepts, designers usually select key words from design brief to stimulate their visual thinking.20 These key words are further used to develop a visual language. This chapter explores this technique to develop a visual language that aims to reveal the historical, cultural and spatial connections that exists within the Rocks. (See Table 3)

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 3: Selected Words Describing the Intuitive Response to the Rocks. Noun

Verb Modifiers (Adj/Adv)

Cobblestone ， commerce centre, heritage, prostitutes, sailors, tourists, shopping, slum, landscape, steel structure, semi open, stairs, topographic, vertical, chimneys, city, cliff harbor, etc. Combine, conserve, construct, cultural, restore, surprise, trade, calm, combined, gentrified, contrast, demolished, explore, rebuild, blend, preserved facing, shift, conflict, etc. Dazzling, delicate, distinctive, famous, fascinating, gorgeous, graceful, historic, overcrowded, slow, relaxed, charming, cultural, heritage, historical, industrial light, multi-level, obsolete, etc.

Table 4 reveals the complex nature of the site. Two verbs ‘contrast’ and ‘connect’ are selected as core key words to develop a tangible approach towards understanding the multifaceted nature of the Rocks. Table 4: Selected Common Words. Noun

Reputation

People

Activities

Material

Space

Landscap e

Slum Shopping Commerce Heritage

Art Activity Market Restaurants Pubs

Stairway SemiOpen Atrium

Vertical Site Multilevel

Blend

Solid rocks Cobblestone Sandstone Wood Glass Connect

Preserve

Gentrify

Charming

Historic

Obsolete

Artistic

Verb

Conflict

Prostitutes Convicts Sailors Working Tourist Contrast

Modif iers

Vivid

Rustic

Table 5 demonstrates the contrasting relationship between the past and present. Table 5: Contrasting relationship between the past and present.

Reputation People Activities Material Social form

Contrast Past Slum residential space Prostitutes/Convicts/Sailors/ Working class Living space/Daily live service/ Hotel/Pub/Casino Solid rocks / Brick / Sandstone / Wooden Preindustrial society

Present Historical Heritage/Tourist spot Tourists / Middle class/ Waiter / Salespeople Tourists service/ Shopping/ Office/ Gallery Steel frame/Concrete/Glass/ Curtain Commercial society

Table 6 represents the several connections that exist with the Rocks.

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 6: A Series approaches of Connection. Connect Environmental Connection Spatial Connection Visual Connection Material Connection Memory Connection Social network Connection

The Rocks can be seen as an example to understand for understanding how to use a historical site to redevelop connections between spaces. They are not only limited to environmental, spatial, visual and material connections, but also include memory and history. Therefore, it is worthwhile to understand how modern buildings can be used to replicate the original urban fabric. 6. Analogies Derived from M.C. Escher’s Work The mixing of old and new is a challenge for any new design intervention. Upon photographic surveys done on the Rocks, the spatial quality of the site is similar to the art works of Escher. Hence the analogical characters of his works are reframed to develop the general rule underlying the progression of the Rocks as a set of design vocabularies.

Figure 1: Three Spatial Logics of M.C.Escher’s Artwork. © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He.

Revealing the Layers of the Rocks

46

__________________________________________________________________ 7. Visual Vocabulary of Urban Transformation After detailed analysis of the site, comparisons can be drawn between the site and Escher’s drawings, as similar spatial dislocations can be found in within the Rocks. Due to the uneven topography of the site, many buildings have been built along the hillside, due to which the height of the buildings vary. Hence, creating a sense of dislocation within the site, that is similar to Escher’s work. Table 7: Three significant type of Design Language in The Rocks © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He. Spatial dislocation Vertical

Loopback

Interchangeable figureground relationship Plan

Proliferation

Reconstructing the boundary Connection

Weaving

Segmentation

Superposition

Extrusion

Inserting

Encincturing

Camouflage

Wrapping

Seaming

Detach

Grafting

Externalize interior space

Merging

8. Analysis Matrix Based on the above comparison between Escher’s artwork and the Rocks, an analysis method is developed as a visual reinterpretation to present the spatial character of different buildings in the Rocks. Five examples from the rocks are used to demonstrate how this analysis method is used.

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__________________________________________________________________

Image 6: Five typical examples in the Rocks. © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He. 9. Case Study: Foundation Park Foundation Park is one example that is selected from the Rocks to demonstrate the use of the visual language generated and it can be seen in table 11. Table 9: Design Language of Foundation Park. © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He. Interchangeable figureground relationship Grafting

Proliferation

Reconstructing the boundary Weaving

Encincturing

Seaming

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Revealing the Layers of the Rocks

__________________________________________________________________

Image 7and 8: Photo of Foundation Park © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He.

Figure 2: Weaving © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He.

Foundation Park is an archaeological site of eight terrace houses on a steep slope. According to the design statement of Foundation Park, the design aim is not only to reveal, interpret and conserve the existing fabric as a historical site, but also require designers to reinstate earlier known pedestrian routes in order to link Gloucester Walk with Playfair Street.21

Figure 3: Grafting © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He.

In order for the archaeological site to remain uncovered and tell its own story, designers created a steel structure that can represent the original building form. This creativity not only provides a clue for visitors to imagine the original houses, but also evokes an emotional response and sense of history towards to the site.

Figure 4: Seaming © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He.

In addition, this structure also plays a role as a vertical link to its adjacent building. The staircase connects to the upper level of the Cleland Bond store and the second floor of Playfair street store with Gloucester Walk. As a result, Foundation Park can be seen as a transitional space from its surroundings.

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__________________________________________________________________

Figure 5: Encincturing © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He.

Figure 6: Proliferation © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He.

Foundation Park created a different route of its surrounding. By this way, it became a common space with its adjacent buildings. In order to do this, designer used new structures to extend the building to connect with each other.

10. Conclusion This chapter develops a visual reinterpretation mode to identify the unique characters of the Rocks. It is an approach that explores the complicated physical transformation of the Rocks, and adds a special contribution to the understanding of urban development of the Rocks as a whole. Through establishing a metric-table with concise diagrams and notes, it systematically summarizes the general rule of urban fabric configuration. It provides a clear picture of the development of the Rocks. Resulting from the constant changes that have occurred due to complicated social and economic issues. Meanwhile, the identified three categories can holistically cover the typical scenarios of urban fabric and building relationships. The deconstructed elements of the building forms and structures greatly enable designers and the general public to understand the practice of urban transformation. Furthermore, the study outcome can be used as a critical framework to evaluate and direct those similar practices in the future.

Notes 1

Anonymity, ‘reinterpretation’ Vocabulary.com, Viewed 14 April 2015, http://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/reinterpretation. 2 George Lakoff, The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor in Ortony: Metaphor and Thought, 2nd ed. (1992). 3 William J.J. Gordon, Semitics: The Development of Creative Capacity (New York: Harper and Row Publisher Press, 1961). 4 Edward T. White, Concept Source Book: A Vocabulary of Architectural Form (Tuscon Arizona: Architectural Media Ltd Press, 1975). 5 James Elkins, Visual Literacy (New York: Routledge Press, 2009). 6 Edward T. White, A Vocabulary of Architectural Form. 7 James Elkins, Visual Literacy (New York: Routledge Press, 2009). Blank line cannot be removed. 8 On the Importance of Drawing, The Book of Life.org. Viewed 14 April 2015, http://www.thebookoflife.org/why-you-should-stop-taking-pictures-on-yourphone-and-learn-to-draw/?mc_cid=373c273c45&mc_eid=ec94b19a64.

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__________________________________________________________________ 9

Ernst Gombrich, Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation (London: Phaidon Press, 1960). 10 Walter Benjamin, The Work Of Art In The Age Of Technological Reproducibility. (Harvard University Press, 1935). 11 James Dunnett, The Architecture of Silence: The Architecture Review 1064, (1985): 69-75.Viewed 15 January 2015. http://jamesdunnettarchitects.com/wp-content/uploads/writing/0085%20The%20Architecture%20of%20Silence%20AR%20Oct%2085.pdf 12 Frances Hsu, Delirious New York: The Revolutionary Revision of Modern Architecture,93rd ACSA Annual Meeting, edited byRenataHejduk& Harry Van Oudenallen , 2005.Viewed 12 January 2015. http://www.google.com.hk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd= 1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.acsaarch.org%2Fresources%2Fproceedings%2Fuploads%2Fstreamfile.aspx%3Fpath% 3DACSA.AM.93%26name%3DACSA.AM.93.2.pdf&ei=HXtJVYHtKcPwmAWi m4DYAw&usg=AFQjCNFTFQKadJidiWJckbhN0UMLAZ9xsQ 13 Charlotte Douglas, Hans Ulrich Obrist and Krystyna Gmurzynska, Zaha Hadid and Supermatism (Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz Press, 2012). 14 Nicholas Olsberg, the Evolving Role of the Drawing: Architectural-Review.Com, 2013, np. Viewed 14 April 2015, http://www.architectural-review.com/essays/the-evolving-role-of-thedrawing/8646928.article. 15 Shfa.nsw.gov.au, 1996, np. Viewed 15 January 2015, http://www.shfa.nsw.gov.au/content/library/documents/0507F78D-9E82-1CBE1065F22B2F3A3EEF.pdf. 16 Grace Karskens, The Rocks: Life in Early Sydney, (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1997). 17 Sydney.com, The Rocks Historical Sites & Heritage Locations: Things to do (2015), np. Viewed on 19 January 2015, http://www.sydney.com/destinations/sydney/sydney-city/the-rocks/attractionshistorical-sites-and-heritage-locations. 18 Grace Karskens, The Rocks: Life in Early Sydney. 19 Anne Bamford, The Visual Literacy White Paper, (Australia: Commissioned & Published by Adobe Systems Pty Ltd, 2003). 20 Edward T. White, A Vocabulary of Architectural Form. 21 Karskens, The Rocks: Life in Early Sydney.

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__________________________________________________________________

Bibliography Bamford, Anne. The Visual Literacy White Paper. Commissioned & Published by Adobe Systems Pty Ltd, Australia, 2003. Viewed 5 January 2015. http://www.google.com.hk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd= 1&ved=0CCIQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwwwimages.adobe.com%2Fcontent %2Fdam%2FAdobe%2Fen%2Feducation%2Fpdfs%2Fvisual-literacywp.pdf&ei=iXdJVZHwOKKvmAXJmoHgAw&usg=AFQjCNFSmnlGYTs3oTJU wWaqjAQaWNQ67Q Benjamin, Walters. The Work of Art in the Age of Technological Reproducibility. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1935. Bollack, Françoise. Old Buildings/New Forms: New Directions in Architectural Transformations. New York: The Monacelli Press, 2013. Douglas, Charlotte, ObristHans Ulrichand and Gmurzynska Krystyna. Zaha Hadid and Supermatism. Ostfildern: HatjeCantz Press, 2012. Dunnett, James, ‘The Architecture of Silence, Architectural Review1064 (1985):69-75.Viewed 15 January 2015. http://jamesdunnettarchitects.com/wp-content/uploads/writing/0085%20The%20Architecture%20of%20Silence%20AR%20Oct%2085.pdf Elkins, James. Visual Literacy. New York: Routledge Press, 2008. Gombrich, Ernst. Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation .London: Phaidon Press, 1960. Gordon, William.J.J. Semitics, the Development of Creative Capacity. New York: Harper and Row Publisher Press, 1961. Karskens, Grace. The Rocks: Life in Early Sydney. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1997.

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__________________________________________________________________ Hsu, Frances. Delirious New York: The Revolutionary Revision of Modern Architecture 93rd ACSA Annual Meeting, edited by Renata Hejduk & Harry Van Oudenallen, 2005. Viewed 12 January 2015. http://www.google.com.hk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd= 1&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CB0QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.acsaarch.org%2Fresources%2Fproceedings%2Fuploads%2Fstreamfile.aspx%3Fpath% 3DACSA.AM.93%26name%3DACSA.AM.93.2.pdf&ei=HXtJVYHtKcPwmAWi m4DYAw&usg=AFQjCNFTFQKadJidiWJckbhN0UMLAZ9xsQ Lakoff, George. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. Metaphor And Thought, edited by Andrew Ortony, 202–251, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed.1992. Olsberg, Nicholas. The Evolving Role of Drawing. Architectural-Review.com, 2013.Viewed 14 April 2015. http://www.architectural-review.com/essays/the-evolving-role-of-thedrawing/8646928.article. Shfa.nsw.gov.au, 1996.Viewed on 15 January 2015 http://www.shfa.nsw.gov.au/content/library/documents/0507F78D-9E82-1CBE1065F22B2F3A3EEF.pdf. Sydney.com, the Rocks Historical Sites & Heritage Locations Things to do, 2015. Viewed 19 January 2015. http://www.sydney.com/destinations/sydney/sydney-city/the-rocks/attractionshistorical-sites-and-heritage-locations. The Book of Life, on the Importance of Drawing, 2015.Viewed 14 April 2015. http://www.thebookoflife.org/why-you-should-stop-taking-pictures-on-yourphone-and-learn-to-draw/?mc_cid=373c273c45&mc_eid=ec94b19a64. White, Edward T. Concept Source Book: A Vocabulary of Architectural Form. Tuscon, Arizona: Architectural Media, Ltd Press, 1975. Fang Xu([email protected])is an academic staff of Art & Design UNSW, Australia. Yixiang He and Imad Khan are Master Design students of Art & Design UNSW, Australia.

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__________________________________________________________________ Appendix Table 10: Design language of Interchangeable Figure-Ground Relationship. © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He. Design Language Proliferation

Superposition

Insertion

Wrapping

Grafting

Interchangeable Figure-Ground Relationship Explanation Diagram Figure-ground relationship

Vertical relationship

The extension of the boundary of original building with the help of small-scale structures. The vertical extension of structures not only can extend the volume of the building, but also can provide a new identity of the building. The façade of the old building is retained and new structure is gelled with the existing space to create a new interior space and new function. Instead of changing the old buildings, interventions convert them into a visual focus. It uses artificial limb (new structure or media)restore the body of corrupted building so that encourages people to revision the historical site.

Revealing the Layers of the Rocks

54

__________________________________________________________________ Table 11: Design language of spatial dislocation. © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He. Spatial Dislocation Design Diagram Language Loopback

Explanation Loopback is a closed cycle; starting and ending points of paths are overlapping.

Segmentation

The division of an internal space of building that faces different levels of the streets.

Extrusion

The new building uses similar scale, material as used in the old buildings. They adapt to the spatial form, so that they retain old streetscape. One part of the facade continues while the other side develops a separate identity.

Camouflage

The underlying part of one building continues. This continuity of space detaches the building from the original urban fabric.

Detach

Table12: Design Language of Reconstructing the Boundary. © 2015 Fang Xu, Yixiang He. Reconstructing the boundary Design Diagram Language Weaving

Explanation Inserting some new programs (green public facilities) into the underutilized boundaries and reconstructing them as a new place so that promotes social activities in the area.

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__________________________________________________________________

Encincturing

Externalizin g interior space Seaming

Merging

Encincturing means to reconstruct the route of building to combine several separate buildings into a new one as a whole and provide a new function for them. Externalizing interior space creates a potential relationship for two sides of the buildings and provides an open space in ground /lower level of the high-rise building. Seaming means to use a sort of circulation system such as stairs or elevators to connect the old and new buildings. Merging use transitional space or overlapping space (outdoor space, atrium or patio) to connect two separate buildings as a whole.

Part II Decoding Mass Media Influences

Problems in the Visual Communication of Quantities in the Portuguese Press Susana Pereira, José Azevedo and António Machiavelo Abstract Visual communication of information, namely quantitative information, has been increasingly important in journalism, especially in recent years. Among other competences, the visual communication of quantitative information requires mathematical skills. Nevertheless, several authors alert to the misuse of mathematical information in the news.1 Namely, results of a previous study of the Portuguese press – carried out by the authors of this article – show that there are mathematical errors in more than one third of the news articles (both in weekly and daily newspapers). In this context, it is important to better understand how Portuguese journalists convey quantitative information through graphs. In this article, we present the several types of errors identified in graphs of Portuguese news, highlighting the most prevalent ones and illustrating them with examples. Key Words: Visual communication, science communication newspapers, graphs, mathematical skills. ***** 1. Review of Literature Visual representations are dominant in today’s ways of communication.2 However, and despite the common-sense belief that images are universally understandable, Pauwels says that such understanding is superficial and fails to attribute meaning to the ‘underlying connections’ and ‘codes applied’ in the image.3 Thus, creating and understanding images are processes far more demanding than common sense leads us to believe, requiring the development of visual literacy. According to Pauwels – who collected the contribution of several researchers to the definition of visual literacy – it encompasses ‘a hierarchy of skills’, a ‘set of competencies’ and/or ‘elements and strategies of communication’.4 Tufte also makes it clear that among these skills, mathematical ones are essential to visually communicate quantitative information.5 The development of mathematical skills in this context is even more demanding in today’s society, where scientific and technological information – communicated specifically through statistics and the expression of quantities – guide us along our daily decisions. The decisions we make are based on numerous sources of information, among which the media have an important position. Thus, journalists have a great

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Problems in the Visual Communication of Quantities

__________________________________________________________________ responsibility regarding the adequate use of mathematical skills necessary to communicate quantities and statistics, namely through visual elements. However, several authors alert to egregious mathematical errors found in the news and previous studies show that there is, indeed, a considerable misuse of mathematical information in the news.6 Namely, results of a previous study – concerning the use of mathematics in the news of Portuguese daily and weekly newspapers – show that there are mathematical errors in more than one third of the news articles and suggest, particularly, that errors in the construction of graphs are due to lack of mathematical skills needed for the task.7 In this article, we briefly characterize the use of graphs in five generalist Portuguese newspapers and identify the types of errors they present, focusing on the most prevalent ones and illustrating them with examples. 2. Research Design A quantitative content analysis is employed to examine the frequency and quality with which graphs are used in the news of five generalist Portuguese newspapers (three dailies: Correio da Manhã (CM), Jornal de Notícias (JN), Público; and two weeklies: Expresso and Sol). This analysis encompasses both text and graphics, once these two news elements are to be understood as belonging to the same unit of analysis, that make sense as a whole. We included news containing mathematical information and of all lengths, belonging to the newspapers or their supplements and excluded from this analysis news from the sections of culture and entertainment, ads, obituaries and gastronomy. The sample was obtained from the printed editions published between the 1st of January, 2013 and the 31st March, 2013. We used the systematic sampling method regarding the collection of news from daily newspapers and used all the editions published by the weekly newspapers. The news articles were coded according to the section they belong to, the size, existence of graph, the presence of error in the graph and the identified type of error. To organize the errors into types we took into account works of Charnley, Berry and Blankenburg, classifying them (according to their objectivity) into objective errors (technical errors, due to bad use of mathematical rules) and subjective errors (interpretation errors, revealed through omission of information which is important to fully understand the graph, as well as under emphasis or overemphasis of information).8 In order to better understand the errors, we also classified them according to the content. Thus, errors were also divided into graphical, numerical and statistical categories.

Susana Pereira, José Azevedo and António Machiavelo

61

__________________________________________________________________ Graphical errors are inaccuracies that exist in the structure of a graph, namely the lack of proportionality in intervals on an axis; omission of measurement units; representing numbers in the wrong order (ex: representing the value 3 above the value 4 in vertical bar chart) or inconsistency between graph and text or graph and title. Example: 40% 20% 0% 1990 1993 1998 2001 2004 2007 Years

Chart 1: Lack of proportionality in an axis. © 2015 Susana Pereira. Used with permission. In the horizontal axis of this chart consecutive year intervals do not always represent the same time lapse, although the space between them is always the same. From 1990 to 1993 the time lapse is of three years, but from 1993 to 1998 the time lapse is of five years. Another type of error is the numerical. Numerical errors are inaccuracies in measurements, quantities, proportions or arithmetic operations, namely errors in calculating the sum, product or division of numbers; errors in calculating percentages or poor rounding of numbers, comparing values of different variables directly or confusion between percentage and percentage point. Example:

Chart 2: Error in the representation of relative frequencies using a pie chart. © 2015 Susana Pereira. Used with permission.

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Problems in the Visual Communication of Quantities

__________________________________________________________________ In this graph, the percentages sum up to more than 100% (101.05%). This is incorrect because, in a pie chart, the whole pie represents the unit (100 parts in 100). Finally, the last type of error is the statistical. Statistical errors are inaccuracies using statistical concepts (omission of the degree of confidence or sample, for example); confusions between probability and conditioned probability; poor reference values to benchmark variation of variables; poor use of averages or poor understanding of the concepts of degree of confidence or statistical significance. Example: A chart showing the results of a poll but not including anywhere in the news article information about the sample. After defining the categories of errors and others that were considered pertinent to code the news articles, the coding scheme was tested for reliability and validated using three coders.9 3. Results A total of 291 graphs were collected from 125 printed editions of the five newspapers, distributed as it is shown on table 1. Table 1: Number of graphs in the news, per newspaper.

No. of analysed news No. of news with graphs % of news with graphs

CM 238

Daily Newspapers JN Público Total 218 286 742

75

54

64

31.5

24.8

22.4

193 ---

Weekly Newspapers Expresso Sol Total 254 111 365 83

15

32.7

13.5

98 ---

From Table 1 it is possible to conclude that the average percentage of news with graphs is similar in weeklies and dailies (26.2% and 23.1% respectively). Further analysis indicates that there is no significant association between the type of newspaper and the existence of graph in the news articles (𝜒 2 = 0.089, 𝑝 > 0.05). This suggests that the difference of time available for the production of news doesn’t influence the use of graphs. Being that Público and Expresso two quality newspapers and CM, JN and Sol popular newspapers, differences among these two groups are also interesting to study, though data shows no clear trend, since the daily popular newspapers have a higher percentage of news with graphs than Público, but the same doesn’t happen when we consider the weeklies. Further investigation using a two-way contingency table allowed us to conclude that, indeed, the number of news with graphs does not

Susana Pereira, José Azevedo and António Machiavelo

63

__________________________________________________________________ vary significantly by type of newspaper (quality and popular) (𝜒 2 = 0.476, 𝑝 > 0.05). Data regarding the location of graphs in the news sections reveal they were published in several sections: national and international pages, economy and business, sports, society, science & technology and politics. Nevertheless, they were more frequently found in news of Economy and Business, where almost every newspaper uses graphs to show frequent updates of the stock market and make news of topics such as variation on economic indexes and the government’s economic policy. This last topic is a very common news theme because of the economic crisis in Portugal during the period reporting to the beginning of 2013. Table 2: Number of graphs in the news, per size of article, per newspaper (in %).10 Size of the news article Small11

Daily Newspapers CM JN 69.3 7.4

Público 11.1

Weekly Newspapers Expresso Sol 18.1 0

Medium12

2.7

22.2

36.5

31.3

12.5

Large13

28

70.4

52.4

50.6

87.5

The distribution of news articles with graphs according to their size (table 2) shows that graphs are more common among lenghty articles in almost all of the analysed newspapers. In fact, the only exception is Correio da Manhã, a newspaper where the majority of the news (with or without graphs) is small. However, the association between the size of the news article and the presence of graphs in the article is not statistically significant (𝜒 2 = 2.733, 𝑝 > 0.05). Table 3: Number of graphs containing errors, per newspaper.

No. news with graphs % of news with graphs No. news where graphs have errors % of news where graphs have errors

CM 75

Daily Newspapers JN Público 54 64 Σ=193

Weekly Newspapers Expresso Sol 83 15 Σ=98

31.5

24.8

22.4

32.7

13.5

56

19

33

�=26.2 𝒙 Σ=108

16

4

74.7

35.2

51.6

�=53.8 𝒙

19.3

26.7

�=23.1 𝒙 Σ=20

�=23.0 𝒙

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Problems in the Visual Communication of Quantities

__________________________________________________________________ Table 3 shows there is a considerable variation of error rate in the graphs when considering the five newspapers. One of the most immediate conclusions we can take is that errors are more pervasive in the dailies. Further analysis conducting a Pearson 𝜒 2 14 showed that there is an association between the type of newspaper (daily or weekly) and the existence of errors in graphs (𝜒 2 = 34.450, 𝑝 < 0.001). This suggests that, although the time available to produce the news may not influence how frequently newspapers use graphs, it affects their quality. Besides, among all the newspapers, we can notice that over half of the graphs from CM and Público have some kind of error. Specifically, almost 75% of the graphs from CM and almost 52% of the graphs from Público have errors, notwithstanding that a quality newspaper has as a main goal to provide rigorous and objective information to their readers.15 An analysis using the Pearson 𝜒 2 shows that there is a statistically significant association between the type of newspaper (quality and popular) and the existence of errors in graphs (𝜒 2 = 12.924, 𝑝 < 0.001). Table 4: Types of errors identified in graphs (according to objectivity), per newspaper.

No. news where graphs have errors % of news where graphs have objective errors % of news where graphs have subjective errors % of news where graphs have both objective and subjective errors

Daily Newspapers CM JN Público 56 19 33

Weekly Newspapers Expresso Sol 16 4

5.4

73.7

27.3

75.0

50.0

55.3

21.0

6.0

25.0

50.0

39.3

5.3

66.7

0

0

Regarding the different types of errors identified, table 4 shows that while objective errors are the most common among the graphs of JN and Expresso, CM has only subjective errors in the majority of the graphs. On the other hand, most of the graphs from Público have simultaneously objective and subjective errors. These results suggest that while the bad quality of the graphs in JN and Expresso may well be due to lack of mathematical knowledge used to produce graphs, it may not be the main reason for the existence of errors when we consider the graphs from CM, that are specifically affected by omissions of information.

Susana Pereira, José Azevedo and António Machiavelo

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__________________________________________________________________ Further investigation conducting a two-way contingency table also shows that the existence of objective errors is related to the type of newspaper (daily or weekly). (𝜒 2 = 19.436, 𝑝 < 0.001). Table 5: Types of errors identified in the graphs (according to content), per newspaper.

No. news where graphs have errors % of news where graphs have graphical errors % of news where graphs have numerical errors % of news where graphs have statistical errors % of news where graphs have both numerical and graphical errors

Daily Newspapers CM JN Público 56 19 33

Weekly Newspapers Expresso Sol 16 4

48.2

73.7

97.0

56.3

60.0

1.8

21.0

3.0

25.0

0

50.0

5.3

0

12.5

40.0

0

0

0

6.2

0

Results shown in table 5 indicate that the errors in graphs are mainly graphical, which means that in most cases there is poor application of mathematical rules regarding the construction of graphs. It is also important to highlight the fact that numerical errors exist in over 20% of the graphs from JN and Expresso and that the most common numerical error was failing to sum up 100% in a graph where it was supposed to happen. Regarding statistical errors, they exist in 40% of the graphs from Sol and 50% of the graphs from CM. In most of the cases they consist of omissions of information such as the sample taken into consideration to construct a graph. Specifically, Correio da Manhã uses pie charts to present polls of a ‘hot topic’ in every print edition. Nevertheless, no information is given on what sample is used to obtain the data. 4. Conclusions The results indicate that graphics are used to communicate quantitative information in less than 30% of the news and that most of them are used to communicate topics about economics and business. We also concluded that graphs were more frequently used in large news articles, although there is no statistically significant association between these two variables. Regarding the presence of errors, results show that almost 75% of the graphs in Correio da Manhã have some kind of error and that the majority of the graphs in

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Problems in the Visual Communication of Quantities

__________________________________________________________________ Público (51.6%) also have some error, an unexpected fact in a quality newspaper, oriented by objectivity and accuracy. Additionally, the presence of errors in graphs was found to be related to the type of newspaper (daily or weekly; quality or popular). It was also observed that the frequencies of the different types of errors (classified according to their objectivity) vary considerably among the various newspapers. However, when classified according to their content, errors in graphs are mainly graphical, which means they are due to the disrespect of mathematical conventions used to construct graphs. This suggests there is a lack of mathematical knowledge associated with the construction of graphs.

Notes 1

John Allen Paulos, A Mathematician Reads the Newspaper (New York: Anchor Books, 1997); A. K. Dewdney, 200% of Nothing: An Eye Opening Tour through the Twists and Turns of Math and Innumeracy (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993); Victor Cohn and Lewis Cope, News & Numbers: A Guide to Reporting Statistical Claims and Controversies in Health and Other Fields, 2nd ed. (Iowa: Iowa State Press, 2001). 2 David Natharius, ‘The More We Know, the More We See: The Role of Visuality in Media Literacy,’ American Behavioral Scientist 48.2 (2004): 238-47; Luc Pauwels, ‘Visual Literacy and Visual Culture: Reflections on Developing More Varied and Explicit Visual Competences,’ The Open Communication Journal 2 (2008): 79-85. 3 Luc Pauwels, ‘Visual Literacy and Visual Culture: Reflections on Developing More Varied and Explicit Visual Competences.’ The Open Communication Journal 2 (2008): 79-85. 4 Ibid. 5 Edward R. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information Cheshire, Connecticut 6 Scott Randall, ‘Newsroom Numeracy: a Case Study of Journalistic Use and Misuse of Numbers in the News.’ (PhD diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 2000); Susana Pereira, ‘A Matemática Na Imprensa Portuguesa’ (PhD diss., Universidade do Porto, 2015); Philip Meyer, The Vanishing Newspaper: Saving Journalism in the Information Age, 2nd ed. (Columbia: University of Missouri, 2009). 7 Susana Pereira, ‘A Matemática Na Imprensa Portuguesa.’ 8 Mitchell Charnley, ‘Preliminary Notes on a Study of Newspaper Accuracy,’ Journalism Quaterly 13.4 (1936): 394-401; Fred C. Berry, ‘A Study of Accuracy in Local News Stories of Three Dailies,’ Journalism & Mass Communication Quaterly 44 (1967): 482-90; William B. Blankenburg, ‘News Accuracy: Some

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__________________________________________________________________ Findings on the Meaning of Errors,’ The Journal of Communication 20 (1970): 375-86. 9 Using Cohen’s kappa coefficient, intercoder reliability was considered substantial in all the categories (k ≥ 0.632). 10 Percentage calculated over the number of news with graphs in each newspaper. 11 Small size news articles occupy less than 1/4 of a page. 12 Medium size news articles occupy between 1/4 of a page and half page. 13 Large size news articles occupy more than half page. 14 Pearson 𝜒 2 is a statistical test used to evaluate it two variables are associated with each other. 15 Jorge P. Sousa, ‘Elementos De Jornalismo Impresso,’ Biblioteca on-line de Ciências da Comunicação, 2001). Accessed September 11, 2015. http://www.bocc.ubi.pt/pag /sousa-jorge-pedro-elementos-de-jornalismo-impresso.pdf.

Bibliography Berry, Fred C. ‘A Study of Accuracy in Local News Stories of Three Dailies.’ Journalism & Mass Communication Quaterly 44 (1967): 482-90. Blankenburg, William B. ‘News Accuracy: Some Findings on the Meaning of Errors.’ The Journal of Communication 20 (1970): 375-86. Charnley, Mitchell. ‘Preliminary Notes on a Study of Newspaper Accuracy.’ Journalism Quaterly 13, 4 (1936): 394-401. Cohn, Victor, and Lewis Cope. News & Numbers: A Guide to Reporting Statistical Claims and Controversies in Health and Other Fields. 2nd ed. Iowa: Iowa State Press, 2001. Dewdney, A. K. 200% of Nothing: An Eye Opening Tour through the Twists and Turns of Math and Innumeracy. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993. Maier, Scott Randall. ‘Newsroom Numeracy: a Case Study of Journalistic Use and Misuse of Numbers in the News.’ PhD Dissertation, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 2000. Meyer, Philip. The Vanishing Newspaper: Saving Journalism in the Information Age. 2nd ed. Columbia: University of Missouri, 2009.

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__________________________________________________________________ Natharius, David. ‘The More We Know, the More We See: The Role of Visuality in Media Literacy.’ American Behavioral Scientist 48, 2 (2004): 238-47. Paulos, John Allen. A Mathematician Reads the Newspaper. New York: Anchor Books, 1997. Pauwels, Luc. ‘Visual Literacy and Visual Culture: Reflections on Developing More Varied and Explicit Visual Competences.’ The Open Communication Journal 2 (2008): 79-85. Pereira, Susana. ‘A Matemática Na Imprensa Portuguesa.’ PhD Dissertation, Universidade do Porto, 2015. Sousa, Jorge P. ‘Elementos De Jornalismo Impresso.’ Biblioteca on-line de Ciências da Comunicação, 2001. Accessed September 11, 2015. http://www.bocc.ubi.pt/pag /sousa-jorge-pedro-elementos-de-jornalismo-impresso.pdf. Tufte, Edward R. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire, Connecticut: Graphic Press, 1983. Susana Pereira has a degree in educational mathematics and a PhD in Science Communication. She is a researcher, a blogger, and has been working in several science communication and science education projects. António Machiavelo has a degree in Pure Mathematics and a PhD in Mathematics from Cornell University (USA). He teaches at the University of Porto and is a mathematics popularizer and vice president of the Attractor Association. José Azevedo is a Professor at the University of Oporto – in Communication Studies and Sociology. He is the Director of Digital Media Doctoral Program and has been developing several projects about the media representation of science.

Synthesizing the Gaseous State The Role of Applied Programming on Theory Alejandro Mieses Castellanos Abstract Computer aided design has become the base standard for the creative industries in order to accelerate and expand their production pipelines. And while these computation clusters enable a plethora of technical and practical endeavors, more profound concerns pertaining to theory of the constructed environment remain on a second plane. This is due in large part to the reliance of methodologies for processing theory on Seventeenth-Century deductive & inductive reasoning. These processes are seldom adept at managing the massive amounts of data that basic phenomena such as population behavior, migration, poverty, nature input processing, and economic exchanges, among others, are dependent upon. In an effort to expand our capacity to synthesize large amounts of data related to these topics, we chose to revisit theoretical writings on the possibilities of autonomous computation units, such as those of Alan Turing, Stephen Wolfram and John Frazer, to expand their applicability from numeric data, to word-based data. We hold that the methodologies for processing data in Programming Paradigms such as Procedural, Object-Oriented, and Symbolic Programming can serve as philosophical building blocks for redefining the ways in which we create theory of architecture. Algorithms for sorting and managing information developed by giants such as Google seem unnoticed in architecture or urban theory. However, they offer a powerful framework for processing and drawing conclusions from large amounts of input in any field. Algorithmic processes, can not only support design, but can actively aid in generating understanding from a wide variety of sources and synthesizing varied perspectives of thought. This paper seeks to explore possible algorithms, outcomes, and implications for the role of these tools within theoretical synthesis with the purpose of expanding the means by which we create architecture and urban theory. Key Words: Computer-Aided Design, Theory, Synthesis, Large Data Sets, Programming Paradigms, Algorithms, Philosophy. ***** 1. The Role of Theory The proliferation of tools devised for maneuvering physical data into architecture have rendered architectural theory an afterthought with limited influence upon building practices. Currently, it is software that increasingly determines what can be designed, constructed and even how design occurs1. This is due in large part to the amazing capacity of software for the synthesis of largely

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__________________________________________________________________ diverse types of data into seamless design solutions capable of responding to realworld site conditions and client needs. Humans alone cannot process the massive amounts of data inherent in population behavior, migration, natural weather patterns, and economic exchanges underlying our built environments. The capacity for software to link and reproduce these patterns in visual and statistical form has benefitted our understanding of collective behaviors in great measure. However, while our tools are incredibly adept at solving and synthesizing data, the capacity to relate that data and reframe design problems for more adequate solutions is largely human-dependent. Table 1: What is Computable in Architecture?

Computable Data Type: NUMERIC

Form / Space, Natural Phenomena, Structural Loads, Construction Costs, Sustainability, Mechanical Systems, Mechanical Systems, Heat Loads / Ventilation, Material Behavior, Process Simulation (Robotic or Man-Made).

Non-Computable Data Type: WORDS

Cultural Impact, Narrative / Social Perspective, Religion / Spirituality, Politics, Poverty / Humanitarianism, Theory.

This role has been traditionally tied to architecture theory; a medium through which we collectively articulate a diversity of optics and methods for tackling social and environmental problems inherent in the built environment that can generate purpose and even repurpose architecture. Historically, it has been the role of theory to determine what should be built, through which methods, as well as to hierarchize a subset of concerns to which the built environment responds. Concerns such as occupancy, comfort, site-impact, environmental footprint, cost analysis, quality of life, infrastructure requirements, urban safety, and gentrification can be fed through software to generate reliable guidelines, forms, and parameters for design. However, these are truly basic concerns common throughout architecture and urbanism. More intangible concerns such as livability, religious, reflective & protest spaces, civic unrest, migration, culture, poverty and narrative seem to be increasingly adapted to the former set of concerns. More so, the risk of being fully reliant on current software is the outsourcing of our capacity to meaningfully infiltrate the processes through which the latter set of concerns are given collective value.

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__________________________________________________________________ It is the role of theory to question these digital methodologies, not as a destructive endeavor, but as an expansive progression of challenges to the design processes presently in place. That is, as a dually purposeful framework which seeks to harness computational power for the synthesis of a wider range of concerns and topics that relate to the built environment. And conversely, to use theoretical writings to challenge the purpose of the tools we use and the place of their applicability. The need arises from the incapacity of theoretical synthesis to process large amounts of data in re-combinatory forms. Current methods of theoretical synthesis share the same model as 17th century enlightenment thought. A model mostly based on deductive and inductive reasoning, whose basis relies on a limited set of observations to draw conclusions in narrative form. This narrative takes the form of a monolithic set of ideas, studied causally or linearly (as ‘A’ leads to ‘B’ leads to ‘C’), which must be taken apart haphazardly to be recombined into new conclusions or narratives. The slowness of this process, coupled with the ad hoc rearrangement of selected narratives (citations, theories, conclusions), is largely inadequate at processing larger sets of information. By contrast, computational understanding is reliant on processes of a drastically different nature. As opposed to monolithic clusters of information, computation is primarily reliant upon independent units of information that can be endlessly recombined into new conclusions, patterns and connections. The output of these processes is not so much a single conclusion upon observed, or inputted data, but a model/system of connections which when subject to alterations can seamlessly adapt and ripple throughout all other clusters of information. Connectivity is the keyword. While narrative presents ideas connected in linear ways, computation presents non-linear, or simultaneous connections, where one topic can affect multiple others in quantified ways. A combination of these modes of understanding can offer seemingly limitless possibilities for exploring ideas about the built environment and quantifying ebbs and flows in historical lineages of thought, as a practice in a Computer Aided Epistemology of Architecture. The methods for devising strategies for manipulating data will be gathered from writings exposed by computational pioneers such as Alan Turing, Alonzo Church, Stephen Wolfram and John Frazer, which will later be applied to a dataset of architecture theory for the purpose of tracing interests, deviations and recombinations of topics scarcely explored within writings in architecture. 2. The Procedural Approach2 The Universal Machines proposed by Alan Turing, by applying methodologies present in Church’s formulation of lambda calculus, exposed an elegantly simple way of processing data reliant on a limited set of rules (states) applied to an infinite set of numbers. The primary innovation of these abstract machines is that in contrast to solving a particular mathematical equation in a progression of steps (as those that were prevalent at the time), the rules issued at the beginning of the

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__________________________________________________________________ sequence could then be applied to all other subsequent numbers. The rules issued at the beginning of the sequence allowed the machine to react progressively as it read each number. In this way the machine ‘knew’ the next instruction as it was capable of picking the sequence of movements and rules applied, based on the numbers inputted into the machine. The machine is able to ‘read’ not as a linear progression, but as a reaction upon that which it read. And by the rules issued, it decides to go forward, backwards, by certain measures, reading and overwriting, to achieve a desired result. This type of sequence of calculations puts forth a non-narrative, reactive relation between information and reader, where the information issues forth the operations and sequence the reader must follow. It is not a static representation of thoughts/data, it is an ever-changing exercise to relate that which we read. This presents a dramatic possibility, where conclusions are not drawn linearly in text, but they can be achieved intermediately and be subjected to the rest of the text to draw further conclusions. Imagine reading this text as a game by following a simple set of instructions: a) Each time one encounters the word ‘computation’ one must jump to the nearest word ‘human’. b) Each time one encounters the word ‘theory’ one must jump to the nearest word ‘design’. c) Each time one encounters the word ‘dataset’ rewrite ‘combination’.

Figure 1: Non-linear, rule-based sequence for reading text. © 2015 Alejandro Mieses Castellanos. During this game some parts of the text may even be reread and rewritten multiple times while others could remain ignored throughout the exercise. And should the instructions change, the knowledge derived would be infinitely variable. Through these methods Universal Machines are capable of solving any mathematical set of operations if the instructions are sufficiently exact. By applying the process to theory however, we are not looking for an exact result.

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__________________________________________________________________ Rather, we are looking for a set of unexpected combinations of ideas or word patterns within a desired range of compatible terms, in the attempt to progressively reframe certain thoughts within the text. 3. The Object-Oriented Approach3 A giant leap in computation logic occurred with the introduction of discrete autonomous units of computation commonly called Cellular Automata by John von Neumann and later developed by Stephen Wolfram. Essentially it is an extension of the Universal Machines proposed by Turing, from one-dimensional (occurring within a single line) to two-dimensional and capable of using time as an active parameter. The arrangement of cells in a grid-like structure allowed for the reaction of each cell to its context -the states of their immediate neighbors, across time. Each cell’s reaction to its neighbors, based on the rules described prior to execution, effectively changes the state of each cell allowing for an indeterminate dynamic where each cell is endlessly changing in reaction to changes in its context. One of the most important characteristics of Cellular Automata is its capacity to study computation by way of visual form, as opposed to purely numeric form. The capacity for simultaneous interactions enabled by Cellular Automata issue forth a range of capacities from assimilation to change in its environment (described by Wolfram as type 2 and type 4 Cellular Automata)4; not only can the context change a single unit, but the unit can change its context. Thus, changing the global order of all cells by way of local rules of interaction. Continuing our example from the one previously cited in the ‘Procedural Approach’: imagine now you are not the only one following these instructions, but I am as well, as are a few friends. Each of us has different instruction sets but we all read and overwrite the same text, updated instantaneously by each change. The dynamic becomes endless, as each of us is reading and overwriting what we’ve read by obeying a common set of rules. It is not so important what the initial meaning was, but the changes in meaning each of us are inducing as the game progresses. This simultaneous multiplicity of readings, if applied to language theory, can enable sets of literary interactions previously unexplored. As a dynamic similar to that present in navigating the internet, where users arrive at a sequence of topics from varied trajectories and actively change the information present along those paths (pages), no two seconds of the internet are alike, fitting notions of complexity in dancing landscapes. In this same way, alterations within a text or narrative block of information can be reorganized instantaneously according to the local interactions of those reading the text. In this sense, the role of reading and writing theory occurs simultaneously by producing landscapes of thought reflective of the community that day. One is not so much reading content from a source, as experiencing changing trends in a community of thought. More so, these changes can be traceable in time, as a lineage of changes to community concerns and

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__________________________________________________________________ preferences. This could come to represent a tool for collectively rewriting theory; a role mostly dependent upon media outlets and politics. 4. The Symbolic Approach5 If a word is to be introduced to explicitly change words in the context where it in-lies, that word must have instructions. Or rather, be preprogrammed to alter that context, inducing an acceptable amount of instability in the system. The works done by John Frazer of the Architectural Association, specifically his Universal Constructor, extended the two dimensional arrays of CAs into the third dimension. With this change the formal study of CAs in computer science was introduced to the concept of human interaction, as humans were allowed to physically change a cell’s placement, thus altering their context and connections and by consequence, the global product of calculations. In addition, the introduction of diversely programmable cells allowed for the introduction of a cell with very different sets of rules, resulting in alterations to the entirety of the system as it sought balance. Applied to theory, the concept of programmable words can rely on a framework of syntax, antonyms/synonyms (complementarity), and definitions, to seek and redefine words closer to its meaning, thus changing terms in context. This relies on two frameworks. One reliant on definitions, sourced from a dictionary of terms, which is static and meant to induce stability. The other is the initial syntax of words, which changes by region, time and author, meant to induce a tolerable amount of instability, and adaptability of terms. The combination of Genetic Algorithms within CA interactions allows for the capacity of each cell to learn across time and acquire more efficient rules to achieve a collective order by region. Implications for this sort of approach would mean words could be measured in thresholds of influence by area within larger collections of words. Should a word reach a critical amount of repetition by several sources -scholars, government and community, for example- alignments and detachments of opinions, can be measured across the different groups, by quantifying the differences between the words surrounding those terms. With these capacities, our example game can reach a final stage – since we are playing simultaneously, the words we are using have the capacity to ‘learn’ with which other words to be combined. This enables a dynamic where, even if the person playing is not versed in that topic, he or she can learn about the subject, by using terms and seeing how they fit into overall narratives. The processing of words by these measures is not so much concerned with their independent meaning, but with the amount of occurrence they have, as well as the immediate patterns of words that envelope it. While the value and behavior assigned prior to execution is dependent upon a dictionary database of definitions and the terms to which individual terms relate. What is more important, is the capacity of each term to acquire meaning from their use in varied contexts, and the changes in use enabled as more texts are added to the database. It is more insistent

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__________________________________________________________________ upon the capacity to artificially learn combinations, than reliance on rules subjected to the system a priori. The amount of occurrences will hierarchize those topics of value in measurable form and the patterns of referrals to other words will highlight the connections and crevices within these landscapes of theory. In conclusion, in contrast to the traditional applications of these algorithms to achieve a sort of convergence -as one, exact, optimized result, or optimized theorywe care more for its instrumentality in divergence6 of information where the data is synthesized to create new perspectives. The application of these paradigms and procedures to theory can bring forth a whole range of dynamic roles theory is yet to acquire such as: • The capacity to study Theoretical Landscapes visually by way of maps. This can allow us to manifest typically related concepts, strong links, weak links, patterns of thought, changes in meaning and introduction of new terms across time frames (epochs), as well as revealing those topics lying at the outer edges of contemporary interest. • These frameworks for study can allow for the tracing of historical lineages, points of convergence and divergence of varied topics, as every word can be traced by year, author, locality, and changes in its overall use (re-signification). • This exercise can serve to create an ever-evolving dictionary/database of words, for educational purposes. As a person recently introduced to architecture is attracted to certain terms, it can serve to relay those interests to other related topics. • The dynamic of creating theory can shed its reliance on single authors in exchange for becoming massively collaborative tools. As words automatically carry with them rules for creating and changing context, for recombining, a community can form collective conclusions, and see possible points of convergence and contradiction. For example, a person with limited knowledge of ‘infrastructure’, can use this term within the system and become aware of related topics such as budget, taxes, maintenance, locality, and use. • It can allow for a responsive body of text which can react to narrative input as well as numeric input, as terms are re-hierarchized periodically according to the data inputted into the system. • It becomes a tool for tracing the influence of historically relevant theories upon the urban landscape in physical and spatial form by their historical importance.

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__________________________________________________________________

Figure 2: Sample software (in development), demonstrating relations of most repeated terms within Hight and Perry’s article ‘Collective Intelligence in Design’. © 2015 Alejandro Mieses Castellanos. In this way, theory can be expanded from its historically narrative form to a more interactive endeavor which can include those who may or may not be renowned experts, may or may not have social or political power, but that are most certainly affected by the theories discussed in these expositions of limited access within a single platform for communication. Historically, the manifestation of theory upon the built environment has been, to a certain extent, additive, in a sense referential to Colin Rowe’s concept of a Collage City, where theories, perspectives, and concerns of a certain moment in time are layered like strata upon a city, on top of previous matters. Thus traversing the city is anything but a homogeneous experience of a certain epoch, but more of a consequence of economic, social, and political incentives in producing buildings which respond to contemporary criteria, juxtaposed to those who have responded to historical criteria which may be altogether different. This is carried out not only by architects, but by developers, social/community interests, planners, and even military at certain times, with varying degrees and perspectives of theory upon the built environment. Theory is still the interface, however, for a deeper communication regarding concerns of constructability upon previously layered strata. We intuitively know the influence of topics like symbols of power and politics on 19th century architecture; mass production and machinery on modernism; recontextualization of symbols of power and icons during postmodernism; the influence of digital representation procedures during the 1980s and 1990s; and the extension of these digital mediums into manufacturing and city planning since the 2000s. We do not know however, by what measure or in which places were these influences more pervasive, or if they were compounded or combined when in built form within the urban landscape.

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__________________________________________________________________ We envision the methodologies proposed as a departure point for devising tools to construct a wider-ranging more cohesive set of concerns upon the built environment. A set of tools that can facilitate the reframing of relevant topics from varied optics, evaluating their complementarity, divergence, and historical evolution.

Figure 3: Demonstration of repetitions in syntax surrounding selected relation of terms in Hight and Perry’s article ‘Collective Intelligence in Design’7. © 2015 Alejandro Mieses Castellanos.

Notes 1

Alexander Galloway and Eugene Thacker. ‘Language, Life, Code.’ Architectural Design 76 (2006): 26. 2 Procedural Programming refers to a programming paradigm where explicitly defined procedures can be called to act upon data in defined sequences. This paradigm is often oriented towards achieving a single, optimized result. 3 Object-Oriented Programming makes use of classes, or objects, each of which is capable of executing their own procedures at different time intervals. This paradigm allows for coordinated interactions between objects as they are capable of communicating based on their explicitly defined behaviors or functions. 4 Type 2 CAs refer to a system where the global patterns of states reaches a widespread stable or oscillating structure, some initial characteristics when time is 0 may remain throughout. In this dynamic assimilation of each cell to its context is prevalent, thus creating a static balance. Type 4 CAs, reflect more complex behaviors, where all initial patterns grow into widely varied manifestations, not predictable from the initial time frame. 5 Symbolic Programming implements a framework similar to Object-Oriented Programming, that in addition, enables each class of objects to rewrite its functions

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__________________________________________________________________ as they interact, appearing as a system that is capable of ‘learning’. This paradigm is often used for Artificial Intelligence, Expert Systems, Natural Language Processing, and Computer Games. 6 In reference to Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, where evolution is classified as Convergent Evolution - that where information and growth is based on similar forms and oriented towards optimization, or an ideal end; and Divergent Evolution - where the accumulation of differences in information and growth is oriented towards the creation of new capacities and possibly new species.

Bibliography Byrne, David and Gillian Callaghan. Complexity Theory and the Social Sciences. London: Routledge, 2013. Copeland, Jack, Carl Posy and Oron Shagrir. Computability: Turing, Gödel, Church, and Beyond. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2013. Denning, Peter J. and Craig H. Martell, Great Principles of Computing. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2015. Frazer, John. An Evolutionary Architecture Reassessed. Viewed 15 March 2015. http://www.aaschool.ac.uk/VIDEO/lecture.php?ID=2718. Hight, Christopher and Chris Perry. ‘Collective Intelligence in Design.’ Architectural Design 76 (2006): 5-9. Prestinenza Puglisi, Luigi. ‘Anything Goes.’ Architectural Design 79 (2009): 6-12. Railsback, Steven and Volker Grimm. Agent-Based and Individual-Based Modeling: A Practical Introduction. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 2011. Wolfram, Stephen. A New Kind of Science. Champaign, Illinois: Wolfram Media Inc, 2002. Alejandro Mieses Castellanos currently works as an Interaction Designer and as a Lecturer and Researcher at the Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico School of Architecture. This article is a continuation of a 6 year project that attempts to map the movement of knowledge and its physical manifestations through the urban environment.

The Iconography of Globalization Víctor Manuel Quintero León Abstract This chapter presents an analysis of the visual image of globalization. A study on how the so-called globalization process is ‘pictured’ in social sciences educational textbooks around the globe. A comparative analysis has been made of textbooks for students in the last compulsory level before university in 19 countries: Europe (Portugal, Italy, Norway, Spain, Austria, Germany, Moldavia, England, France, Netherlands), Africa (South Africa), Asia (India) America (Uruguay, Canada, USA, Guatemala, Chile, Brazil) and Australia (Australia). By drawing a comparison between these countries, focusing on the decade 2000-2010, it extracts the most repeated images, patterns of visual meaning and possible hidden iconographic programs. Our sources, obtained through intensive research in GeorgEckert Institute for International Textbook Research, 1 Germany, consist on textbook scanned pages, photographs inserted in those pages, maps, diagrams, drawings and paintings shown in the specific chapters dedicated to globalization in the selected sample of textbooks. Textbooks are still defined and produced by nation states; that make them holders of ‘legitimate knowledge’ from an academic, political and educational view. Moreover, visual materials are ubiquitous in these textbooks and of the foremost importance conveying ‘not explicit’ knowledge that sometimes stays in students much more than the text itself, creating a visual imagery where stereotypes and preconceptions hold. This research jumps into that field using a social semiotics methodology extracting patterns of visual meaning in two dimensions: visual expression (using Basil Bernstein and social semiotics’ concepts of classification, framing and formality) and contents. It answers questions such as: How is the concept of globalization constructed through the images in school textbooks around the world? And, is there an iconographic program in the teaching of globalization worldwide? The findings open the discussion about the role of textbooks in visual literacy, the international homogenization of ideas and how world-orders are legitimized by textbooks imagery. Key Words: Globalization, textbooks, visual analysis, social semiotics, iconography, international, visual literacy, Georg-Eckert Institute. ***** 1. Introduction This chapter presents a research on the visual image of globalization. The preliminary questions that motivated such an investigation are simple but loaded: How is globalization depicted as a phenomenon? What values are conveyed

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__________________________________________________________________ through the visuals that teach globalization? And aims at explaining how the imagery of the so-called globalization process is presented in social sciences educational textbooks around the globe. Textbooks are still defined and produced by nation states; that makes them holders of legitimate knowledge from an academic, political and educational point of view. In this sense, they contain the information that a society formally wants to pass on to its next generation. Moreover, visual materials are nowadays ubiquitous in these textbooks and of the foremost importance conveying not explicit knowledge that sometimes stays more in students than the text itself creating a visual imagery where stereotypes and preconceptions hold. So, are the visual images in textbooks considered as well legitimate knowledge? Is the visual material part of that information that a society wants to pass on to its next generation? Or is it just considered a mere complement to the text, an illustration not conveying any useful knowledge at all? It seems to me that it is all the content that is important and one could argue that the special nature of textbooks makes the images legitimate or part of the soconsidered useful knowledge. In a world inundated by mass produced images, it is too often supposed that images are ‘transparent’ that they yield their meaning directly and simply. I suggest that this is not at all the case, that complex and subtle organizations of elements structure the meaning of images and in many cases we are ignorant about the ways they unconsciously impose upon us, how they shape our private thoughts and the public mind. Never before have we possessed such power to create so many different forms of unreality or the technical means to reach so deeply into our consciousness, so if we don´t start as soon as possible developing a visual literacy a critical reading of images - we will be constantly manipulated and bound to the seduction of the visual. .

2. The Study The research design is informed by three main theoretical stances: first, for the exploration of the visual images I used Kress and van Leeuwen’s 2 theoretical framework of social semiotics introducing the notion of a visual code and the practical examination of it. Secondly, the analysis of the textbooks is supported by the pedagogical proposal of the sociologist Basil Bernstein, 3 and, finally, globalization theory is supported by Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-System Analysis4 and the transfer and spread of knowledge within it. 2.1 Methodology The research has been developed through a comparative analysis of the visual images in 30 mandatory school textbooks (many still in use) for students in the last compulsory level before university (age level 16-19 years old) in 19 different countries around the world comprising all regions.5 Specifically all images in the

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__________________________________________________________________ chapters devoted to globalization (with the specific title ‘globalization’ or the words ‘globalization’, ‘global’ ‘new world order’ and ‘our modern world’ included in the title). It focuses on textbooks of the years 1997-2013 because it is in this period when globalization as such started to be taught in secondary schools. The subjects are history, geography or social sciences in general. The sampling procedure used for the selection was that of a ‘Convenience Accidental- Sampling’ (Textbooks were chosen on the basis of availability in the Georg-Eckert Institute)6 and ‘Quota Sampling’ when trying to maintain a balance between world regions. One of the biggest challenges for this research was the classification of such an array of very different types of images: from large-scale photographs to caricatures, from conventional maps to black and white pictures, diagrams, all kind of graphs, comic strips, satellite pictures etc. In order to implement the investigation I divided the textbooks’ chapters into units of analysis for the visual mode, one unit (one image) is considered any visual representation segregated from the text (or from any other image) by a distinct frame. Following this definition I extracted 868 images from 33 chapters in 30 textbooks. The two main selected attributes for the analysis of the units were the Visual Expression and the Contents; these two characteristics then came together to obtain meaningful findings, and were analysed through the following methodologies: 2.1.1 Visual Expression The methodology for analysing the visual expression of images was based on social semiotics and on a previous study made in 2003 by a research group in science education at the University of Patras (Greece). 7 They developed an instrument that enables an operational analysis of the visual mode. A grid of variables to be applied to each and every image in order to determine how is its visual expression constructed and what the intended meaning is. The grid of variables comprises:

• •

•

Classification: Elements of the visual image that denote a visual specialization (type and function); Framing: the hierarchical relationships that tend to be established between the images and the viewers, measured through specific markers such as the distance of shot or the vertical and horizontal angle of shot; Formality: the proximity of the visual code to a real optical perception, determined through the markers of colour differentiation, colour modulation, contextualisation and elements of the techno scientific code.

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__________________________________________________________________ 2.1.2 Contents The contents of the images were classified into those categories that are considered to be the main features of globalization. In Wallerstein’s World-System Analysis globalization is seen as a historical process where the Capitalist WorldSystem has been established. The composing institutions of this Capitalist WorldSystem are the market, the firms, the nation-states, the households, the classes and the identities. The interrelation of these features at a global scale makes globalization work and progress determining the outcomes in terms of social justice (equality-inequality), economic/power position and movement of the nations in the structural core or periphery. I have taken Wallerstein’s composing institutions and compared them with the variables used to develop the most reputed Globalization Indexes such as the KOF index, Ernst &Young and Foreign Policy’s index in order to establish concrete categories that define, for this research, the main features of globalization. In the end I obtained a table of 15 specific contents that reflect a comprehensive demarcation of the main attributes of the globalization phenomenon. Firstly, they are organized in three general blocks that correspond to the main blocks of the globalization indexes: the economic, the social and the political. Secondly, each category has one of Wallerstein’s institutions, for example the markets represented as ‘global finances/trade’ or the nation-states as ‘political institutions’. From the Visual Expression and Contents data, percentage tables were made to allow drawing both quantitative and qualitative conclusions about the specific meaning of the images and its function within the textbooks. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1Visual Expression 3.1.1 Classification The images type analysis showed that textbooks present a 57,4 % of the whole sample of visual images as realistic, indicating a pre-eminent value in the teaching of globalization to real world elements. At the same time, it also appeared a fair degree of convention (38,2%), that is, of images requiring the reading of symbols; mainly due to the presence of economy and geographical imagery with its specificities of mapping and economic graphs; adding to this there is a significant presence of cartoons and comic strips. These results show how globalization is mainly pictured as a factual event, as something that is related to reality and not to abstract conceptualizations and shows that there is a particular promotion of the physical appearance of things in the pedagogic visual expression of globalization at a world level. The construction of globalization imagery is, we can say, a naturalistic one, realistic, close to everyday knowledge and not extremely technical; furthermore its techno-scientific dimensions are not highlighted but, on the contrary, obscured. Yes, the (textual and content-based) discourse about the importance of science and technology exists but

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__________________________________________________________________ the construction of the visual code is not a scientific one, it is instead closer to everyday knowledge, as something common to all of us, not proposing any specialization but, on the contrary, normalizing and integrating. Another important trend is the lack of hybrid images (only a 4,37%) indicating a clear separation of the real and the conventional. In the visual code of the teaching of globalization the two realms do not mix at all suggesting some important ideas: on one side, the continuation of the gulf of misunderstanding opened between the sciences and humanities a long time ago; it seems that the gap between both fields is translated into the presentation of visual images. It is the portrayal of globalization as either real (attached to nature and people) or symbolical (techno-scientific or pictured as an abstract construction of the economic power and the financial system) but never in conjunction, a mixture of both. The function of the visual images is clearly skewed towards the narrative side. The great majority of the images analysed (53,1%) are narrative. This result suggests that visual representations of globalization are quite frequently used to represent a process, something dynamic, in a continuous movement, in a ‘narration’. The visual code in the textbooks is clear because analytical, classificational and metaphorical images only account for a 18,3%, 22,4% and 6,2% respectively. This could also be interpreted as a sign of the ‘construction’ of globalization as a narrative, as a story where events unfold and are presented visually as such. The overall classification results (Realistic-Narrative) support this view showing that globalization´s imagery follows the same patterns as any visually constructed ‘story’. 3.1.2 Framing The analysis of the framing shows how the viewer is in equal power with the content of the images (58,8% shot at eye-level). Indeed, the power distribution is slightly skewed towards the student´s side since 27,3 % of the realistic images present a high angle shot. This throws light into the fact that the teaching of globalization worldwide seems to be seen as a neutral process. The addressee (student) of the images is neither especially empowered to exert control over the communication process nor has a powerless social position during the pedagogic process. It follows then that this percentage of visual images is putting the viewer in a position of power in order to make them better apprehend the pedagogical contents of the textbooks. Furthermore, images in globalization teaching worldwide signify a high level of intimacy and familiarity with the meanings projected (53,2% medium shot and 68,9% frontal angle). This degree of involvement with globalization as something close or manageable agrees both with the classification and the imposition relationship results. It is the presentation of the

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__________________________________________________________________ subject matter as real, close to everyday facts in which the student is involved, being part of it. 3.1.3 Formality Indicators show that there is a clear trend which aims to present globalization through the visual code in a low formality (65,3%), highly articulated and contextualized way. Far from abstraction and technical languages it is instead presented close to naturalism and reality in a photographical sense. This means that, although globalization is often seen or presented as an economic, financial, technical and highly sophisticated process, the imagery in textbooks projects the idea of something not associated with a techno-scientific code but with a real-life likeness. We see again this idea of globalization as a natural process where the student is chosen to be part and to take part in it. In general, the overall visual expression was defined as: a) Classification: Realistic-Narrative. b) Framing. Low Framing (power relations skewed towards the students over the contents of the visual images). c) Formality. Low Formality (naturalistic and contextualized) The imagery in the sample portrays the visual idea of globalization as an integral part of reality; an animated, purposeful process happening in the world just close to us, at our hands. It is the image of a functioning, growing event (almost living) that is, nevertheless, manageable and not imposed upon us. On the contrary, according to these results, the visual language implies that we are empowered by globalization. It communicates that this process is natural, but it is of a nature that we can control, it is not a savage, wild environment but a humanized context that reaffirms our power over reality. 3.2 Contents The analysis of the contents part shows very interesting patterns. First, there is to notice an acknowledgement of a certain balance between the three main category groups (Economic 35%; Social 37,6%; Politics 27,3%). It can be seen that images tend to frame globalization mostly in three areas: Technology/Information (15,1%), Global Culture/Media (13%) and Others-Politics (14,6%). This means that the most common visual pattern when teaching globalization around the world is a ‘technological-informational’ one. Globalization is, no doubt, shown as an outcome of a technological interconnection. Does this present a paradox with the previous results? If on one side globalization is presented as a natural process and, on the other side, the most common content is that of technology/information, what are we to think about it? In my view, this is not a paradox but a confirmation of the previous conclusions, technology and information is the key to our control over

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__________________________________________________________________ this process. It is the authority of human global inter-communication over a meaningless cosmos what gives sense and power to the idea of ‘a globalization’. It is, in the end, the semiotic ability, the power to create meaning out of nothing. In this sense, the visual code speaks more clearly than any other code showing the underlying philosophy in the teaching of globalization worldwide: we are in a process of creation of new meanings; this movement is growing and growing, spanning over countries and regions and we are empowered by it because it reaches into new, previously void, spaces where no explanation existed before. Students must understand that this mechanism is supported by technology and information; but also by global media, being the third most present content. Unexpectedly, the visual code in the textbooks does not specially address contents such as the transnational corporations (5,3%) or migrations (5%) and it is very significant the absence of economic or governmental institutions (0,8% and 0,1% respectively). On the other side, another main feature for the visual code to classify globalization is social inequalities (9,4-10,4%). It is indeed commonplace in all textbooks to visually highlight the inequalities caused by this process. 4. Conclusions: General Discussion After a thorough analysis of more than 850 different images in numerous textbooks from many different countries, I present the conclusion that the visual concept of globalization is constructed and presented in the school textbooks as a natural process. 8 The analysis of the visual code along the dimensions of classification, formality and framing revealed the way textbooks develop a specifically defined imagery of globalization in terms of realism and dynamism. This imagery promotes an understanding of the current interrelation process as something familiar, as commonplace for all the students around the world, and legitimated by the fact that it is considered a natural event. In this view, agency is taken away from globalization, obscuring the factual powers that are constantly shaping this process. These factual powers are indeed introduced and studied (in writing) in the different textbooks, but the results of this investigation give enough evidence to conclude that the specific visual code overshadows them. The visual language is not balanced, it is not addressing globalization from multiple viewpoints; on the contrary it is concentrating on the down-to-earth, naturalistic qualities of it, by displaying a lifelike pattern that associates it with biological processes. This prevents, in my view, the proposal of other options to this process; it frustrates any potential alternative and inhibits a critical analysis of the underlying cultural systems shaping our world. I am not saying that, in doing this, the imagery in the textbooks serve any specific purpose or hidden powers, that is, there is no hidden iconographic program in the teaching of globalization worldwide; the results do not show any pattern related to a clearly defined content that is promoted, nor the prevalent presence of any international organization, transnational corporation or political interest in the visuals of the textbooks.

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__________________________________________________________________ However, a certain canon can be observed. It has been found that the visual teaching of globalization worldwide is related, first and foremost, to technology and information. This pattern is interesting in itself as it portrays what is visually taught about globalization: the image of a technological world connected by information flows. Curiously enough, the kaleidoscopes of permanently changing visual images that rotate around this word (globalization) converge, in terms of contents, into the simplest of them: the typical globe circulated by light. However, beyond this simplicity we have seen how the imagery in the textbooks show specific patterns and constructed features that point in a specific visual direction, that of globalization as ‘manageable nature’. The particular discursive characteristics of the visual images that emerged from my analysis of the sample of international textbooks can be useful for future researchers when trying to understand large-scale visual convergences such as the one I studied. It is clear for me that the confluence of different visual cultures is a phenomenon that will become more and more important in the coming years, and that there is a need to start analysing as soon as possible how the behaviours of the different systems of meaning conflate and clash. In the end this research is just a small step towards a better discernment of the intrinsic power of images and their influence in the process of globalization. As we become more and more integrated, our different cultural visual understandings will intertwine and will necessarily have to dialogue. This dialogue, of course, will have no words in it.

Notes 1

Georg-Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research. ‘The Institute, Profile’ Viewed 9 April 2015. http://www.gei.de/en/the-institute.html 2 Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen, Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2006). 3 Basil Bernstein, Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity. Theory, Research, Critique. (London: Taylor&Francis, 2000). 4 Immanuel Wallerstein, World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction. (DurhamLondon: Duke University Press, 2004). 5 Europe (Italy, Portugal, Norway, Spain, Austria, Germany, Moldavia, England, France, The Netherlands), Africa (South Africa), Asia (India) America (Uruguay, Canada, United States of America, Guatemala, Chile, Brazil) and Australia (Australia). 6 Georg-Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research. ‘The Institute, Profile’ Viewed 10 April 2015.

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__________________________________________________________________ http://www.gei.de/en/the-institute.html. 7 The scholars were Dr. Kostas Dimopoulos, Prof. Vasili Kouladis, and Prof. Spyridoula Sklaventini. 8 This ‘natural’ refers to something ‘existing in or derived from nature, not made or caused by humankind’. Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 2015 ‘Definition of Nature’. Viewed 21 January 2015. http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/natural.

Bibliography Primary Sources Bibliography (Textbooks in alphabetic order by country): Australia Parker, Brian, Kate Lanceley, Rebecca Fitzpatrick, Debra Owens. ‘Chapter 8: Globalisation’ Geography for Global Citizens; Stage 4, 197-218. South Yarra: Macmillan Education Australia, 2011. ———. ‘Chapter 9: Global Inequalities’ Geography for Global Citizens; Stage 4, 219-227. South Yarra: Macmillan Education Australia, 2011. ———. ‘Chapter 10: Global Organisations’ Geography for Global Citizens; Stage 4, 247-255. South Yarra: Macmillan Education Australia, 2011. Austria Wohlschlägl Helmut and Maria Hofmann-Schneller. ‘Kapitel 2: Globalisierung – Chancen un Gefahren’ Durchblick 8: Geographie und Wirtschaftskunde, 7-32. Wien: Westermann Wien, 2007. Brazil Apolinário, Maria Raquel. ‘Capítulo 8: A nova Ordem Mundial’ História 8: Ensino Fundamental, 178-195. Sao Paulo: Ed. Moderna, 2003. Faria, Ricardo de Moura, Marques, Adhemar and Flávio Berutti. ‘Capítulo 7: O Brasil e A Globaliçazao da Economia’ Historia&Companhia 8ª Serie, 156-195. Belo Horizonte: Ed. Lê, 1998.

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__________________________________________________________________ Canada Gini-Newman, Garfield, Laura Gini-Newman, Michael Bowman, Usha James, Mike Bowman and Connie Bray. ‘Chapter 5: Living in the Global Village 1983present’ Canadian History: A Sense of Time, 314-343. Toronto: Mc-Graw-Hill Ryerson, 2006. Wallace, Kim, Linda Barrett, Lew French and Paul VanZant. ‘Chapter 4: Connecting Canadians’ Geography: A Sense of Place, 216-245. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 2006. Chile Iturriaga Echeverría, Jorge. ‘Capítulo 4: Globalización y Revolución Tecnológica’ Historia y Ciencias Sociales 4º, 237-255. Santiago de Chile: Santillana, 2010. Milos Hurtado, Pedro. ‘Capítulo 1.1: La Globalización en el Devenir Histórico’ Historia y Ciencias Sociales 4º, 246-261. Providencia, Santiago de Chile: Mare Nostrum Editorial, 2009. Sanchez Muñoz, Alfredo. ‘Capítulo 6: Estrategias de Crecimiento y Desarrollo Económico’ Geografía de Chile, 209-217. Santiago de Chile: Bibliografica Internacional, 2003. England Ashe, Liam and Kieran McCarthy. ‘Chapter 6: Global Interdependence’ Today’s World, 119-145. London: Edco The Educational Company, 2010. France Janin, Éric, Viviane Bories, Heinrich Jannot, Jean Louis Mathieu and François Tessier. ‘Chapitre 1: Les Espaces Productifs Françaises dans la Mondialisation’ Géographie, 182-186. Paris: Hachette Education, 2011.

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__________________________________________________________________ Germany Lübbert, Heinrich and Harald-Matthias Neumann. ‘Kapitel 10 & 11: Umbruch in Europa & Friede – notfalls mit Gewalt? Friedensicherung als Aufgabe internationaler Politik’ Anstösse 3. Ein Arbeitsbuch für den Sozialkundeunterricht, 210-241. Leipzig: Ernst Klett Schulbuchverlag Leipzig, 1997. Homann, Annette and Ursula Diggerich. ‘Kapitel 5: Eine Welt? Markt und Menschenrechte im Globalisierungprozess’ Neue Anstösse 3 Für den Politik und Sozialkundeunterricht. 237-255. Leipzig: Ernst Klett Schulbuchverlag Leipzig, 2002. Lübbert, Heinrich, Neumann, H. and Thomas Specht. ‘Kapitel 5: Die Welt Wächst Zusammen’ Anstösse 3 Politik, 113-145. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett, 2012. Guatemala Aragón, Magda, Cecilia Bailey de Figueroa, Edgar Barillas and Ricardo Danilo Dardón Flores. ‘Capítulo 7: Siglo XXI: un Reto Global’ Senderos que Unen Nuestra Historia: Estudios Sociales 3, 182-201. Ciudad de Guatemala: Edisur, 2004. India Rajakumar, Peyyeti. ‘Chapter 4: The Making of a Global World’ India and the Contemporary World: Textbook in History Class X, 77-99. New Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2007. Italy Ortoleva, Peppino and Marco Revelli. ‘Capitolo 7: Gli Anni Novanta. La Globalizzazione’ L´Etá Contemporanea: Il Novecento e il Mondo Attuale, 670681. Milano: Edizioni Scholastiche Bruno Mondadori, 2005. Fossati, Marco, Luppi, Giorgio and Emilio Zanette. ‘Capitolo 26: Gli Scenari del Mondo Globale e l´Europa’ Passato Presente. Il Novecento e Il Mondo Contemporaneo, 447-453. Milano: Edizioni Scholastiche Bruno Mondadori, 2006.

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__________________________________________________________________ Moldavia Nazaria, Sergiu and Moldova Ministerul Educatiei si Tineretului. ‘Capitol 11: Sfarsitul Razboiului Rece. Noua Mentalitate Si Crearea Lumii Multipolare’. Istorie 9: Manual Pentru Clasa, 158-165. Chisinau: Editura Cartea Moldovei, 2010. Norway Haraldsen, Mette and Jostein Rysevik. ‘Kapittel 16: Verdenssamfunnet’ Fokus: Samfunngsfag Bokmal, 216-227. Oslo: Aschehoug, 2011. Grimnes, Ole Kristian. ‘Kapittel 22: Inn i et Nytt Ártusen’ Tidslinjer 2: Verden og Norge, 436-445. Oslo: Aschehoug, 2009. Portugal Amaral, Cláudia, Barbara Alves, Isabel Barca, Júlia Castro and Pedro Almiro Neves. ‘Capítulo 3: Os desafios Culturais da Nosso Tempo’ Descobrir a História 9, 200-207. Porto: Porto Editora, 2010. Oliveira, Ana Rodrigues, Joao Alves Dias and Marilia Gago. ‘Capítulo 3: Sociedade e Cultura num Mundo en Mudança’ Novo História 9, 52-61. Lisboa: Texto Ed., 2010. Oliveira, Ana Rodrigues, Joao Alves Dias and Marilia Gago. ‘Capítulo 8: As Transformaçoes do Mundo Contemporaneo’ Novo História 9, 142-155. Lisboa: Texto Ed., 2010. South Africa Govender, Suren, Mnyaka, Margaret and Gengs Pillay. ‘Chapter 6: Globalisation’ History: New Generation grade 12, 290-347. Durban: New Generation Publishers, 2008. Dlamini, Nsizwa, Pat Ellis and Pat Olivier. ‘Chapter 6: Globalisation’ Shuters History grade 12, 270-305. Cape Town: Shuter and Shooter Publishers, 2008. Spain Garcia Sebastian, Margarida. ‘Capítulo 2: Perspectivas del Mundo de Hoy’ Tiempo 4 Ciencias Sociales, 129-155. Barcelona: Vicens Vives, 1997.

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__________________________________________________________________ Garcia Sebastian, Margarida. ‘Capítulo 15: El Mundo Actual’ Ciencias Sociales, Historia. Limes 4, 270-287. Barcelona: Vicens Vives, 2006. Garcia Sebastian, Margarida and C. Gatell Arimont. ‘Capítulo 15: El Mundo Actual’ Ciencias Sociales, Historia. Demos 4, 286-303. Barcelona: Vicens Vives, 2009. The Netherlands Aarts, Maurice. ‘Hoofdstuk 2: Milieugebruiksruimte Aufwentelingsprocessen En Duurzame Ontwikkeling’ Global Village, 531-545. Leiden: SMD, 1998. U.S.A. Ellis, Elisabeth Gaynor, Esler, Anthony and Burton Beers. ‘Chapter 8: The World Today’ World History: Connections to Today, 822-845. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999. Ellis, Elisabeth Gaynor, Esler, Anthony and Burton Beers. ‘Chapter 5: The World Today’ World History: Connections to Today. The Modern Era, 498-551. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005. Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe. ‘Chapter 28: World Order and Disorder: Global Politics in the Twentieth Century’ The World: A History, 950-1019. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010. Uruguay Artagaveytia, Lucila, Barbero, Cristina and Alejandra Campos Ferrá. ‘Capítulo 5: La Globalización: Alcances y Problemas’ Historia. Mundo, America Latina y Uruguay 1850-2000, 252-259. Montevideo: Santillana, 2009. Secondary Sources and Auxiliary Bibliography (Social Semiotics/Textbook Research etc.): Apple, Michael and Linda Christian Smith. The Politics of Textbooks. New York: Routledge, 1991.

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__________________________________________________________________ Ballard, Su. ‘Information, Noise and et al’ Journal of Media and Culture, 10.5 (2013), Viewed 30 July 2013. http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0710/02-ballard.php Banks, Marcus. Visual Methods in Social Research. London: Sage Publications, 2001. Barthes, Roland. ‘Rethoric of the Image’. Image, Music, Text, by Stephen Heath. New York: Hill and Wang, 1977. Bonsiepe. Gui. Infinito, 1998.

From Object to Interface: Design Mutation. Buenos Aires:

Dimopoulos, Kostas, Koulaidis, Vasili and Spyridoula Sklaveniti. ‘Towards an Analysis of Visual Images in School Science Textbooks and Press Articles about Science and Technology’. Research in Science Education 33/1(2003): 189-216. Elkins, James. Six Stories from the End of Representation: Images in Painting, Photography, Astronomy, Microscopy, Particle Physiscs, and Quantum Mechanics, 1980-2000. Standford: Standford University Press, 2008. Elkins, James and Maja Naef. What Is an Image? Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2011. Forgacs, David and Eric J. Hobsbawn. The Antonio Gramsci Reader: Selected Writings, 1916-1935 by Antonio Gramsci. New York: New York University Press, 2000. Fuchs, Eckhardt and Marcus Otto. ‘Educational Media, Textbooks, and Postcolonial Relocations of Memory Politics in Europe’. Journal of Educational Media, Memory and Society JEMMS, 5/1 (2013): 5-15. Goodman, Sarah. ‘Visual English’ Redesigning English: New Text, New Identities. London: Routledge, 1996. Graziadei, Michele. ‘Comparative Law as the Study of Transplants and Receptions’ The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law. Oxford: Oxford Press, 2006.

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__________________________________________________________________ Hawking, Stephen and Leonard Mlodinow. The Grand Design. London: Bantam Press, 2010. Hoel, Aud Sissel. Technicity: On the Formative Power of Pictures. PhD Dissertation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2005. Kearney, A. T. Foreign Policy Magazine Globalization Index. New York: A.T.Kearney, 2005. Koulaidis, Vasili, Dimopoulos, Kostas and Spyridoula Sklaveniti. ‘Analysing the Texts of Science and Technology: School Science Textbooks and Daily Press Articles in the Public Domain’ Learning for the Future: New Worlds, New Literacies, New Learning, New People. Melbourne: Common Ground, 2002. Kress Gunther and Theo van Leeuwen. Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Communication. London: Arnold Publishers, 2001. Kress, Gunther and Theo van Leeuwen. Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. 2nd. ed. London: Routledge, 2006. Maalouf, Amin. In the Name of Identity: Violence and the Need to Belong. London: Penguin Books, 2003. Mattei, Ugo. ‘A Theory of Imperial Law: A Study on U.S. Hegemony and the Latin Resistance’. Global Jurist Frontiers, 3/2, 1-61, 2003. Mehler, Jacques and Emmanuel Dupoux. What Infants Know: The New Cognitive Science of Early Development. Williston: Blackwell Publishers, 1994. Mitchell, William J. Thomas. Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1986. ———. Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. Moxey, Keith. ‘Visual Studies and the Iconic Turn’. Journal of Visual Culture 7/2 (2008): 131-146. Newbold, Chris, Boyd-Barrett and Hilde van del Bulck. The Media Book. London: Arnold Publishers, 2002.

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__________________________________________________________________ Panofsky, Erwin. Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance. New York: Harper & Row, 1972. Pingel, Falk. UNESCO Guidebook on Textbook Research and Textbook Revision. 2nd. ed. Paris: UNESCO, 2009. Rose, Gillian. Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation of Visual Materials. London: Sage Publications, 2001. Schlosser, Eric. Fast Food Nation. London: Penguin Books, 2002. Tufte, Edward Rolf. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Cheshire: Graphics Press LLC, 2001. Wallerstein, Immanuel. World System Analysis: An Introduction. Durham-London: Duke University Press, 2004. Víctor Manuel Quintero León is an Art Historian specialized in Globalization Studies. M.A. in ‘Global Studies’ within the Erasmus Mundus Master Programme in Jawaharlal Nehru University in India, the University of Vienna and the ‘Global and European Studies Institute’ of the University of Leipzig.

She, on the Other Hand: The Crossroads of Feminist Scholarship and Visual Literacy Taina Brown Abstract Images saturate our world and it is, therefore, imperative that visual literacy scholarship and theoretical frameworks be made accessible to those outside of academia creating a more critical and feminist visual literacy for all. Feminist frameworks deal with issues of social hierarchies, power, and influence that marginalize and/or oppress groups of people while privileging others. These hierarchies create systems of oppression that promote hegemonic privilege of the patriarchal dominant group while imposing hegemonic domination of other/ed groups. How does feminism and gender studies contribute to the on-going dialogue centered on visual literacies? Within the context of visual literacy, feminist works help draw attention to the political economy and coded meaning of images, showing how representation, misrepresentation, or lack of representation continues to perpetuate common tropes of marginalized groups. By utilizing the theoretical framework of the gaze—and more particularly, the male gaze—feminism and gender studies deconstruct the coded meanings found in visual images, thus giving the viewer a more critical and conceptual history in which to place a visual image. Using John Berger’s framework of the nude and the naked, I will also decode images to see how bodies are stripped down for spectatorship or for inherent worth. By juxtaposing images of men and women in contemporary publications, I evaluate both the intended spectator and the intended meaning, and thus move toward a more critical observance of how images are used to manipulate audiences, as well as how bodies are represented to market the intended meaning of the image. These analyses help develop a more socially conscious and objective standpoint and a more informed citizen that actively engages with and creates media, instead of merely participating in spectatorship. Key Words: Feminisms, Media, Photography, Gaze, Literacy, Engagement, Education ***** 1. Introduction Feminist scholarship has long held the notion that in order to better understand social and cultural ideas, what is often taken for granted must be challenged. ‘For humans, the social is the natural’ Judith Lorber writes.1 She is, of course, referring to the fact that what we often deem ‘natural’ is not natural at all but socially constructed ideas that are fluid and changing over time. But what are the implications of Lorber’s statement? What norms have we allowed to dictate the

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__________________________________________________________________ functioning of our society? What feminist scholarship often finds to be true is that within these social and cultural norms there exist hierarchies of power and privilege. We are socialized at a very young age to fit within the confines of power structures. Identification of self happens by recognizing distinctions within a social context. A child recognizes himself as a child by recognizing his mother and his relationship to her.2 This self-identification creates a family dynamic built on a hierarchical structure defined by the power relations among its members. This is mirrored in a larger context in culture3 and creates a status quo that is formed out of social, political, and economical hierarchies. These hierarchies passively create margins outside of the center where individuals who do not conform to the status quo are forced to reside. These margins can house individuals from a variety of classifications, such as class, race, gender, and ability. Those living within the center receive privilege and power for perpetuating the status quo and, in doing so, reifying it. Privilege and power are limited resources, however, and those within the margins are stripped of some, if not all, of their privilege and power. This creates an unbalanced society characterized by marked differences between its citizens. Feminist scholarship concerns itself with the power dynamics at play within a culture or society and offers a critical analysis of the relationship between citizens and power. Feminists do this by asking questions such as: (1) who do these hierarchies affect and how; (2) who established these hierarchies or how they came to be; and (3) how can these hierarchies be disassembled to create an oppressionfree society.4 In the context of this paper, I will concern myself with the last of these questions: How can visual media be deconstructed to expose existing hierarchies present in its creation? Visual media, when looked at critically, expose what is considered ‘normal’ within a culture and offer us insight into problematical social structures.5 They are representations of a reality that we live in everyday and thus have the most potential for politicization. 2. The Ecstasy and the Agony In 1972, the BBC aired a four-part series on visual images entitled ‘Ways of Seeing.’ The series was hosted and written by cultural critic John Berger and examined the history of European oil painting and commercial photography by questioning cultural ideologies present in their creation. Berger exposed the patriarchal consciousness present in works such as Leonardo da Vinci’s ‘Virgin on the Rocks’ and Rembrandt’s ‘Bathsheba.’ Most notably, Berger argued that there was a difference between a subject being naked or nude in an image. According to Berger, a nude image stripped an individual of their agency and power turning them into an object to be looked upon for the pleasure of the spectator: ‘To be naked is to be oneself. To be nude is to be seen naked by others and yet not recognized for oneself. A naked body has to be seen as an object in order to

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__________________________________________________________________ become a nude. (The sight of it as an object stimulates the use of it as an object.) Nakedness reveals itself. Nudity is placed on display.’6 European oil paintings, often commissioned by patrons, were intended as visual stimuli for the intended spectator. In the case of work commissioned for places of worship, paintings portrayed Biblical scenes or characters engaging in various spiritual acts (i.e.: ‘The Ecstasy of St. Cecilia’ by Raphael). Works commissioned by patrons or for the sole benefit of the artist were meant to inspire as well, though the spectator was almost certainly male due to both class and gender privilege. These works, commissioned by men, uncover the patriarchal structure of the time by giving us representations of women as subjugated - often in the nude and in a passive position - as they are intended for a masculine audience. Paintings of female figures in the nude often portrayed them as passive subjects available for the spectator’s pleasure. Male figures in these nudes were often portrayed in the middle of an action—they are looking, kissing, touching, moving; they are doing something (such as in ‘An Allegory of Venus and Cupid’ by Bronzino). This contrast between the positioning of male and female figures in nudes creates a dualism: males are active and females are passive. This reflects the patriarchal ideology of the era in which the work was created, but it can also reify that same ideology simply by means of existing as spectacle to new audiences. Visual literacy must involve a challenge to the intended spectator’s gaze in order to break down this ideology. 3. See No Evil? In her article for Screen, Laura Mulvey uses a psychoanalytic framework to argue that patriarchal ideas inform the creative process of narrative cinema.7 Much like Berger, Mulvey believes that visual media is phallocentric. This is what Mulvey calls the male gaze. Visual media assumes a male audience due to gender privilege, and so visual media are created to attract and satisfy the male gaze. The implication of this gaze, according to Mulvey, is that any perpetuated ideas about men or women have an effect on the power relationships between men and women. Visual media, then, become tools in the politics of gender and identity that can challenge these phallocentric ideas or reinforce them.8 The implications of this cannot be trivialized as we reside in a society that is overwhelmingly visually oriented. Visual media is easily accessible at the click of a mouse button. If visual media is a political tool, then this accessibility has the capability to weaponize this political tool by creating a normative femininity that, within seconds, can reach women across all identity spectrums. In light of a globalized, capitalistic economy, those of us subjected to these normative standards, whether male or female, are not considered victims or objects but consumers. We consume the phallocentric notions offered to us that set strict boundaries on how to perform gender, race, and other classifications of being. Not only do we have to emotionally and mentally invest in the normativity being

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__________________________________________________________________ perpetuated, but we are also required to invest financial resources to keep up with those normative standards.9 As we are assaulted with these phallocentric ideas, we unconsciously internalize these standards and continue to identify them as the status quo.10 Comedienne, actress, and feminist Tina Fey writes in her book Bossypants: ‘But I think the first real change in women’s body image came when JLo turned it butt-style. That was the first time that having a large-scale situation in the back was part of mainstream American beauty. Girls wanted butts now. Men were free to admit that they had always enjoyed them. And then, what felt like moments later, boom—Beyoncé brought the leg meat. A back porch and thick muscular legs were now widely admired. […] All Beyonce and JLo have done is add to the laundry list of attributes women must have to qualify as beautiful. Now every girl is expected to have Caucasian blue eyes, full Spanish lips, a classic button nose, hairless Asian skin with a California tan, a Jamaican dance hall ass, long Swedish legs, small Japanese feet, the abs of a lesbian gym owner, the hips of a nine-yearold boy, the arms of Michelle Obama, and doll tits. The person closest to actually achieving this look is Kim Kardashian,11 who, as we know, was made by Russian scientists to sabotage our athletes.’’12 She may not be an authority on visual literacy, but Fey has tapped into what Mulvey, Berger, and countless others have been arguing for decades: standards for the female form are relative and fluid and as such are impossible to measure up to or keep up with.13 They keep men at the center of society as they continue to be the intended spectator and they create boundaries around the category ‘woman’ which limits the vast diversity found among women across the globe. Imagine handing a black child a box of crayons, asking them to draw a picture of themselves, and then telling them they are only allowed to use two crayons: tan and peach. This child is limited in how she can present herself to the world thus making the representation the world projects back onto her limited and false. These images become the only representation of what it means to be a ‘Woman’, creating unfair expectations in the minds of women and men, reinforcing the power dynamics already at play. Feminist scholarship, like visual literacy, requires active participation. It is not enough to be learned, one must be able to put into practice what one learns in ways that lead to activism.14 It is a revolutionary thing to act on what one has learned in a society that rewards passive engagement. In order for real change to be implemented and the progression of both visual literacy and feminist scholarship to move forward, we must confront our own points of privilege and power. I use ‘we’ because it is necessary to realize that we have all been complicit—to some degree or another—in helping to create or perpetuate these systems of oppression. These spaces are only fit for those who conform to these definitions and those who do not are forced into the margins and left vulnerable to discrimination. The issue is complicated further when these individuals already live on the margins of society for other reasons, such as class or race. This creates a system of oppression that

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__________________________________________________________________ exponentiates, forming an even bigger divide between those with privilege and power and those without it. 15 Though women have certainly made advancements in terms of moving outside of the private sphere and into the public, social and cultural economic exchanges still favor men. Women make up 51% of the population, but are represented in incredibly small numbers in political office (17%), in authoritative positions in telecommunications (3%) and in the film industry (16%).16 Why? Representations of women in visual media have the ability to limit women’s social and cultural mobility by creating a category of ‘Woman.’ These representations reinforce values about the roles of men and women and the power relationships that exist between them. The numbers above speak to the unbalanced representations of women in visual media and show that ideas about gender roles have real, tangible consequences. Visual literacy must be a critical endeavor; it must challenge the unconscious perpetuation of phallocentrism. Using a feminist framework to expand the current scholarship on visual literacy can help de-center existing patriarchal ideas. 4. Breaking the (Internet) Mold There is a symbiotic relationship between culture and media.17 This relationship begins with ideology that is present when media is created. Images do not just fall from the sky; they are created within the confines of the author’s values and experiences. This media then influences cultural attitudes and becomes ideology, which in turn continues to influence how media is created. The representations of women found in visual media-- typically positions of subordination or objectification--confine women within a specific social latitude that is defined by the male gaze. One recent example of how a feminist framework can be applied to visual literacy in order to produce a counter-narrative is the feminist response to Kim Kardashian West’s cover photo in Paper Magazine in the fall of 2014. The censored version of the photograph is a replication of Jean-Paul Goude’s ‘Carolina Beaumont’ in 1976. In this photograph, Kim is wearing an evening gown and balances a champagne glass on her butt. In her hands is a bottle of champagne that is spilling into the champagne glass on her butt. These photographs are problematic for a number of reasons. The photographer, Jean-Paul Goude, is the same photographer who released a book in the 1970’s by the title of ‘Jungle Fever.’ Known for his fetishization of black women and for sometimes describing black women as animalistic, Goude was invited by Paper Magazine to take these photographs of Kim Kardashian West because of his earlier work.18 In his book there are photographs of black women—including his then girlfriend Grace Jones—subjected to animal-like positions. In fact, one of the photographs is of Grace Jones in a cage with a piece of raw meat and a water bowl; her posture and facial expression is that of a growling animal.

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__________________________________________________________________ The object in these photographs are women of color, thus objectifying the women, and they allude to Saartjie Baartman of the 18th century who was used as spectacle to a white audience because of her rear. Baartman was abused during this time and eventually died at the age of 25. But even after death, her body was still used as public spectacle for a white audience: she was dissected and her body was preserved so that she could still be on display. She was finally buried 187 years after her death.19 Limitations on bodies of color such as these strip them of their agency—their ability to dictate how, when, and where their bodies are able to move and be seen—creating a cultural enslavement. Women of color can no longer take pride in the way their bodies curve unless it is approved by a white, male gaze, such as that of Jean-Paul Goude and Paper Magazine. In her article for The Guardian, ‘Why Does a Black Butt Only Look Good in White Skin,’ Yomi Adegoke argues that the popularity of Kim’s photograph is a good example of ‘columbusing’: when a group of people ‘discover’ something that has already been in existence. Adegoke writes: […] brands puff behind us as they desperately try to catch up, tippex in hand, ready to white up things that have always existed among the minorities they have continually chosen to ignore. Big bums are only the latest in a long line of things that have become fashionable at the media’s say so. There are many current crazes described as ‘fresh and funky’ by herds who think they’ve stumbled across something new, entirely oblivious to the mass eye roll from exasperated ethnic minorities. So common is the process, it has its own term and Twitter hashtag: #Columbusing – when, like Christopher Columbus, white people think they have discovered something that was already in existence.20 The cultural appropriation of things such as bodies, music, nail art, and hair styles serve as prime examples of how visual media can be used to perpetuate stereotypes and to make invisible an entire minority group. By making one culture the norm, other cultures are erased and stripped of their power to influence social issues forcing them into the margins and centering the dominant culture. This dominant culture then assumes privilege as the status quo. 5. Conclusion In her ‘Five Faces of Oppression,’ Iris Marion Young lists cultural imperialism as a method used to oppress groups of people. Cultural imperialism is the concept that one cultures way of being and doing things becomes the norm, which, by default, marks any other culture deviant.21 Moreover, cultural imperialism demands that those considered deviant assimilate to the dominant system and lose their sense of identity, thus rendering them socially invisible and positioning their culture on the verge of extinction. Because this type of cultural imperialism can affect anything from language, to style of dress, to lightening of skin color or hair, and can also be present in multiple formats, such as media, education, social settings, etc, cultural imperialism is systemic oppression. Media that is used to

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__________________________________________________________________ transfer this type of ideology reifies oppression that is already in place and institutes hegemony in favor of those within a specific socio-economic bracket that allows them access to create and publish such visual texts. A feminist framework of visual literacy allows for the deconstruction of this hegemony so that access to media and the creation of media becomes available to all, regardless of their social classification. Better put, allowing feminist scholarship to intersect with visual literacy makes it possible to ignore social classifications and defy institutionalized oppression that limits the mobility of marginalized groups. The use of a feminist critique in visual literacy is critical if we are to move toward a literacy that is available to all in order to create spaces that are free of oppression—both in academic spheres and in public spheres.

Notes 1

Judith Lorber, ‘The Social Construction of Gender,’ Women’s Lives: Multicultural Perspectives, ed. Gwyn Kirk and Margo Okazawa (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 68. 2 Harold M. Proshansky, Abbe K. Fabian and Robert Kaminoff, ‘Place-Identity: Physical World Socialization of the Self,’ Journal of Environmental Psychology 3.1 (2011): 57-83. 3 Patricia Hill-Collins, ‘It’s All In The Family: Intersections of Gender, Race, and Nation,’ Hypatia 13.3 (1998): 62-82. 4 Caroline Ramazanoglu with Janet Holland, Feminist Methodology: Challenges and Choices (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2002) ebrary edition. 5 Codes of Gender: Identity and Performance in Pop Culture, dir. Sut Jhally. Northhampton: Media Education Foundation, 2009, DVD. 6 John Berger, Ways of Seeing (London: Penguin, 1974), 54. 7 Laura Mulvey, ‘Visual Pleasures and Narrative Cinema,’ Feminism and Film Theory, ed. Constance Penley (New York, London: Routledge, 1988), 57-68. 8 Rose Weitz, ‘A History of Women’s Bodies,’ The Politics of Women’s Bodies: Sexuality, Appearance and Behavior, ed. Rose Weitz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 3-11. 9 Sandra Lee Bartky, ‘Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power,’ The Politics of Women’s Bodies: Sexuality, Appearance and Behavior, ed. Rose Weitz (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 25-45. 10 Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’ (New York: Routledge, 1993). 11 I return to Kim Kardashian as an idealized icon for feminine beauty later in the chapter. 12 Tina Fey, Bossypants (New York: Little, Brown, and Co, 2011), 28.

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It is important to note, however, that Fey has the power and privilege as white, upper class women to make this type of claim. She has access to an audience that a person of a different race or socio-economic class may not be able to reach. 14 Chela Sandoval, Methodology of the Oppressed (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000). 15 Patricia Hill-Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment Matrix of Domination (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990). 16 Miss Representation, dir. Jennifer Siebel Newsom. New York: Virgil Films, 2012, DVD. 17 Stuart Hall, Jessica Evans, and Sean Nixon Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. (Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2013). 18 Christina Montford, ‘Five Things That are Wrong with Kim Kardashian’s ‘Break the Internet’ Photos,’ AtlantaBlackStar.com, November 18, 2014, viewed on January 13, 2015, http://atlantablackstar.com/2014/11/18/5-things-that-are-wrongwith-kim-kardashians-break-the-internet-photos/. Blog. 19 Clifton Crais and Pamela Scully, Sara Baartman and the Hottentot Venus: A Ghost Story and a Biography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009). 20 Yomi Adegoke, ‘Why Does a Black Butt Only Look Good in White Skin?,’ TheGuardian.com, 23 September 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/23/why-black-bum-onlygood-white-skin-cultural-appropriation. Blog. 21 Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 39-65.

Bibliography Adegoke, Yomi ‘Why Does a Black Butt Only Look Good in White Skin?,’ TheGuardian.com, 23 September 2014. http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/sep/23/why-black-bum-onlygood-white-skin-cultural-appropriation. Blog. Bartky Sandra L. ‘Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power,’ The Politics of Women’s Bodies: Sexuality, Appearance and Behavior, edited by Rose Weitz, 25-45. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin, 1974. Butler, Judith. Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’. New York: Routledge, 1993.

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__________________________________________________________________ Codes of Gender: Identity and Performance in Pop Culture. Directed by Sut Jhally. Northhampton: Media Education Foundation, 2009. DVD. Crais, Clifton and Pamela Scully, Sara Baartman and the Hottentot Venus: A Ghost Story and a Biography. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009. Fey, Tina, Bossypants. New York: Little, Brown, and Co, 2011. Hall, Stuart, Jessica Evans, and Sean Nixon. Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2013. Hill-Collins,Patricia, ‘It’s All In The Family: Intersections of Gender, Race, and Nation’. Hypatia 13.3 (1998): 62-82. Hill-Collins, Patricia, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment Matrix of Domination. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990. Lorber, Judith. ‘The Social Construction of Gender,’ Women’s Lives: Multicultural Perspectives, edited Gwyn Kirk and Margo Okazawa. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010. Miss Representation. Directed by Jennifer Siebel Newsom. New York: Virgil Films, 2012. DVD. Montford, Christina. ‘Five Things That are Wrong with Kim Kardashian’s ‘Break the Internet’ Photos,’ AtlantaBlackStar.com, November 18, 2014. http://atlantablackstar.com/2014/11/18/5-things-that-are-wrong-with-kimkardashians-break-the-internet-photos/. Blog. Mulvey, Laura. ‘Visual Pleasures and Narrative Cinema,’ Feminism and Film Theory, edited Constance Penley, 57-68. New York, London: Routledge, 1988. Proshansky, Harold M. and Abbe K. Fabian and Robert Kaminoff. ‘Place-Identity: Physical World Socialization of the Self,’ Journal of Environmental Psychology 3.1 (2011): 57-83. Ramazanoglu, Caroline with Janet Holland. Feminist Methodology: Challenges and Choices. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: SAGE Publications, 2002. Sandoval, Chela. Methodology of the Oppressed. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.

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__________________________________________________________________ Weitz, Rose. ‘A History of Women’s Bodies,’ The Politics of Women’s Bodies: Sexuality, Appearance and Behavior, edited by Rose Weitz, 3-11. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Young, Iris Marion, Justice and the Politics of Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. Taina Brown a recent graduate of Agnes Scott College in Decatur, Georgia. She has a B.A. in Women’s Studies and is currently pursuing graduate opportunities in education. Her research interest is in finding ways to make classrooms more inclusive and equitable spaces for students and educators.

Can Children’s Television Encourage Children’s Creativity? Israeli TV Producers’ Discourse Yuval Gozansky Abstract This cultural and social analysis examines the discourse of producers of Israeli children’s television regarding the possibility of stimulating children’s creativity through television programs. Based on interviews with 20 central producers of more than four decades of Israel’s leading channels for children, this qualitative research creates two new sets of discourse categories regarding television stimulating children’s creativity: (a) The nature of programs that the producers believe may stimulate children’s creativity; (b) Skills that the producers believe children may acquire from these kinds of programs, and how the programs may help build their viewers’ creativity. Looking back on 40 years of Israeli children’s television, we see that contrary to the discourse of the ‘Single-Channel Age’ (19661989), when there was ideological identification between the producers and the educational establishment’s views on children’s creativity, producers in the ‘MultiTV Age’ (2000-2010) found themselves in conflict between their protective perception of childhood and their commercial need to see children as consumers. The shift in the producers’ habitus 1 concerning the importance of encouraging creativity in children within the field of popular culture uncovers a complex picture in the present reality: On the one hand, a decrease in the producers’ belief that they could actually influence children, and on the other hand, a strong desire to see their work in the cultural field as being meaningful to children. Based on this complex cultural picture, a third category has been added to round out the producers’ discourse: Why does children’s television today not try harder to encourage children’s creativity? Key Words: Children, creativity, Israel, production field, television. ***** 1. Introduction The expansion of children’s television channels in Israel, transmitted by means of cable and satellite, and their growing success, is a phenomenon of the last twoand-a-half decades. It reflects a significant change from broadcasts of a public and educational nature on a single state-owned Israeli channel to a great number of channels, some globally owned, that broadcast all day long and whose presupposed purpose is commercial. This chapter examines the transformation that occurred in children’s television through the eyes of the men and women who created and worked in Israeli children’s channels. This cultural and social analysis will examine Israeli TV

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__________________________________________________________________ producers’ discourse regarding the capacity of television to stimulate and encourage creativity in children. This research2 is comprised of qualitative interviews with 20 leading producers and directors working in the first 40 years of children’s television in Israel, together with a cultural analysis methodology as suggested by Pierre Bourdieu.3 As Buckingham 4 points out, children’s television is a cultural practice that serves the concept of childhood, yet at the same time serves adults’ perception of their own world as separate from that of children. By definition, children’s television is a product of adult action for children, and as such, it reflects adult fantasies about children and childhood, for example, by creating and preserving the notion of ‘children’s innocence’. Looking at the production field of children’s television in Israel, according to Bourdieu, means looking at all of the relationships between the producers and other agents involved in the production of the social value of television. This viewpoint enables us to see that the place and the value of the various perceptions regarding the possibility of stimulating children’s creativity through television programs, as well as of childhood itself, is heavily determined by the relations within the production field. How are these changes in the perception of childhood expressed and manifested in the production community? According to the Small-World Theory, 5 the children’s television production community in Israel is a relatively small one that uses collective practices and customs as a source of information, perceptions, and ideas, which are usually not written down. Rather, they pass through the departments that create content for children as members move from one position to another within the community. This movement renders the qualitative interviews with 20 leading producers and directors working in the first four decades of children’s TV in Israel a valuable tool for this research. Note that this study looks at the producers’ discourse as an ‘encoding moment’6 in Stuart Hall’s terms, and as such, it presents the changes that the production field of Israeli children’s television, along with Israeli society in general, underwent in the late 20th century and early 21st century. 2. Creativity in Producers’ Discourse In the discourse of most of the producers, as people working in what is considered to be a creative field, creativity was defined as important and meaningful for them both personally and professionally. They were aware of the different definitions of creativity,7 in which they included three main elements: the creation of something; a component of change and novelty; and an element of acceptance, which is social in nature.8 The producers saw creativity as positive, referring to notions of playfulness, optimism, freedom and pleasure, as well as of problem solving and critical thinking.

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__________________________________________________________________ 3. The Potential of TV to Encourage Creativity Two main categories could be found in the producers’ discourse regarding the potential of television to encourage children’s creativity. The first looked at the programs themselves, whereas the second focused on children’s creative abilities and what they could gain from television. The two categories are not exclusive; rather, they propose two distinct points of view, which often overlap. A. Program Content The producers presented a range of program characteristics which they believed could potentially encourage children’s creativity, which may be divided in to three groups: • Programs that invite children to create something concrete, such as do-ityourself programs and interactive programs inviting children to send in their own poems, paintings, or videos to the studio. One producer named these programs ‘a call for action’. These programs have a physical aspect and usually dealt with the arts. • Programs that try to engender a shift in children’s regular cognitive or emotional capabilities, such as programs aimed at stimulating their imagination with abstract settings, elements of science fiction, and nonsense humor. Referring to these programs, the producers used terms like ‘to think outside of the box’ or ‘to open hidden drawers’. Even though these programs did not invite physical activity, the producers saw them as programs that have a sense of educating for creativity: as an internal, cognitive, or emotional process. • Programs that present problem-solving ideas, such as inventions or dramatic quests. In these programs, like detective stories or dramatic problem-solving, the producers emphasized process, change in the point of view, doubts and dilemmas as a way to encourage children by offering practical ideas and tools for everyday creative conduct.9 All three groups of program contents, as understood by the producers, have the potential to encourage children’s creativity, regardless of what children actually took from them. The producers believed that these texts carry messages containing different kinds of creative conduct: physical, cognitive, and emotional. B. What Children May Gain? In this category, the producers cited skills that children may acquire from viewing these programs. The emphasis of this category was on the young viewers themselves and what they potentially gain from the act of watching children’s television. These skills can be divided into two main models of improvement in creativity as per Ripple:10

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•

The Deficit Model: programs that promote skills which may improve children’s creativity by adding something which they did not have prior to watching the shows: practical tools, exposure to ideas and knowledge, and inspiration. According to the producers, TV can enrich children’s actual capabilities by being a reservoir for creative raw materials and ideas, which children may use. These include examples of creative skills like flow, flexibility, original thinking, redefinition of issues,11 as one producer said: ‘I believe that children absorb all the time… if we open windows of opportunities, they can get inspired from creative ideas and later get creative themselves.’ The Barrier Model: programs that encourage the expression of children’s creative nature (removing social barriers) by presenting children’s creative abilities, including viewer’s empowerment and legitimization of creative activity. According to the producers, programs can provide an environment that supports creativity by showing young viewers characters who perform creative actions. The presentation of creative children and adults on screen makes their activity socially acceptable and may serve as a role model for the spectators at home. In a sense, this model looked at television as a social and a public platform, as another producer said: When you show children things which they could not be exposed to in their natural environment, they may get legitimization for things they had in themselves and which their surrounding did not encourage. When kids see on television other kids who are just like them, they realise that being creative could be acceptable.12

4. Obstacles to the Expansion of Viewers’ Creativity Despite their beliefs in the diverse and rich potential of TV to encourage creativity on the part of children, most of the producers interviewed in this research said that nowadays, with few exceptions, creativity is relatively low in their networks’ priorities, be it a private or a public network. Moreover, they claimed that in the production field, television is not perceived as a suitable tool for teaching creativity, for which they cited four main reasons: 1. 2.

Television has a limited capability of influencing and teaching children, since it cannot compel the viewer to actively participate in an actual creative activity. Television is not supposed to be a tool for change. As one producer said, ‘It’s not the role of television. Television should not be a trailblazer of human thought; it should reflect life, conduct a dialogue with life.13

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TV producers are not responsible for teaching; that’s the job of parents or the school. Prevailing public beliefs: According to some producers, Israeli society does not prioritize education for creativity in the current socio-cultural value system, which is why they produce more programs that teach, for example, English, which is considered more important for children’s future than creativity.

Summing up this part, we can say that in the current television environment, the discourse of Israeli producers regarding television’s capacity to stimulate and encourage children’s creativity suggests that they believe that television is no longer a teaching aid. Watching TV is a voluntary activity on the part of children, and producers regard them as their consumers. That having been established, the producers view themselves as providers of an entertainment product, not a service. If they do try to teach anything, it will be of a concrete nature, such as trivia knowledge or English, which they believed parents would be glad to have their children gain from television. Thus, even though producers were usually creative people themselves, they were very much aware that they were working in a production field that does not value teaching creativity. 5. The Change in the Concept of Childhood A further critical analysis of the producers’ discourse enables us to identify several key facets in the current production field with regard to stimulating creativity in children, which reflected changes in their conception of childhood:

•

•

•

Preschool vs. school-age children: Developmental psychology is very dominant in the production field. The division of channels by age groups was reflected in how creativity is presented to children: Do-it-yourself programs are considered suitable and produced for preschoolers, whereas contests and quiz shows address the older viewers. Adults: educators vs. parents: In the producers’ eyes, the perspective of looking at children shifted from that of adults who were part of the educational establishment, to parents as the main sources of legitimization. Whereas past educators looked at television as a potential teaching tool, today’s parents see it as a pastime activity, and if anything, expect more tangible benefits from their children’s viewing time. Creativity vs. media: From the producers’ point of view, while the concept of creativity didn’t change much in those 40 years, the concept of media changed dramatically. While the producers of the Single-Channel Era (1966-1989) believed in the power of television to encourage creativity, producers in the Multi-TV Age (2000-2010) expressed strong doubts about the power of the

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•

•

•

media to do so. This disparity may be understood as a result of the producers’ recognition of the limited power of a single show vis-à-vis the abundance of content (the ‘drop in the ocean’ effect). On the other hand, adopting this stance maybe viewed as releasing the producers from any previously perceived responsibility to address creativity. Criticism vs. entertainment: Nonsense humor, with its critical potential, has gradually been replaced by mainstream entertainment shows, mainly American sitcoms together with local branded daily dramas, which are not perceived as encouraging creative thought. Child in the center vs. the vulnerable child: The producers’ philosophy in the past, which sought to create a change in child viewers through television, had been replaced by a philosophy that tried to claim that television viewing ‘does no harm’ to children. Child as citizen vs. Child as consumer: This is the most significant change in the perception of childhood within the production community regarding the encouragement of children’s creativity. In the early days of children’s television in Israel, under the direct supervision and control of the state, the producers believed in the positive power of television, which stemmed from looking at children as needing education; nowadays, however, any invitation of children to create is driven by marketing considerations, or, as one producer put it: I won’t tell you that we sit around and say, “Let’s encourage children to think creatively like we do, and to send us jokes and pictures?” No! That’s not our purpose. The purpose is to create a link between them and the show, make them part of it, make them love our show and watch it!14

6. Conclusion What changes occurred in Israeli children’s television, and what were their effects on producers’ perceptions regarding the possibility of television programs to encourage children’s creativity? We are now in the Multi-TV Age, wherein the field of children’s television is controlled by global corporations that see the Israeli young viewers as part of the fantasy world that they are creating for children around the globe. This is a world in which ‘televisionized childhood’ has become more and more unified; it focuses on entertainment and stirs away from creativity, as creativity is not prioritized as a value in the socio-cultural view of what is necessary for children. Yet the shift in the producers’ habitus 15 concerning the importance of encouraging children’s creativity in the field of popular culture has uncovered a complex picture in the current production community: On the one hand, a decrease

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__________________________________________________________________ in producers’ belief that they can actually influence children toward creativity; on the other hand, an expressed strong desire to see their work in the cultural field as meaningful to children. On a more hopeful note, some of the producers expressed their belief that children’s creativity may actually be stimulated by television, because (a) Children learn from everything; (b) Stimulation for creativity from any given texts can occur without the producers’ or program’s direct intention;16 (c) Creativity may evolve from a mixture of sources, and one such source could actually be the abundance of media content for children.17 A more wishful discourse was expressed by several children’s television producers who expressed hope for a future social and cultural shift in Israel that would place children’s creativity higher in society’s order of priority, leading to a change in the future habitus in the production field.

Notes 1

Pierre Bourdieu, ‘But Who Created the Creators?,’ Sociology in Question. (London: Sage Publications 1993 (1984)), 139-148. 2 Based on part of my Ph.D. Dissertation. Yuval Gozansky, ‘The Transformation of the Concept of Childhood in the Israeli Television for Children: Creativity as a Test Case’ (PhD diss., Bar-Ilan University, 2012). (Hebrew). 3 Pierre Bourdieu, Questions de Sociologie. (Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1984). 4 David Buckingham, ed., Small Screens: Television for Children (London: Leicester University Press, 2002). 5 Sebastian Schnettler, ‘A Structured Overview of 50 Years of Small-World Research’. Social Networks 31(3) (2009): 165-178. 6 Stuart Hall, ‘Encoding/Decoding’ in Culture, Media, Language, ed. Stuart Hall et al. (London: Hutchinson, 1980). 7 See: Robert Pope, Creativity: Theory, History, Practice. (London: Routledge, 2005); Robert. J. Sternberg, ed., Handbook of Creativity (Cambridge: University Press ,1999). 8 What Simonton calls ‘persuasion’. See: Dean K. Simonton, ‘Creativity from a Historiometric Perspective,’ Handbook of Creativity, ed. Robert J. Sternberg. (Cambridge: University Press, 1999) 116-133. 9 Children stated that they have learnt behavioural orientation from television. See: Norbert Neuss, ‘“I’ve Learnt Something ...”. What Children Write and Say about “Learning When Watching Television”.’ TelevIZIon, (2005): 20-23. 10 Richard E. Ripple, ‘Teaching Creativity’ in Encyclopedia of Creativity, ed. Mark A. Runco and Steven R. Pritzker. (San Diego: Academic Press, 1999), 2:629-638.

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For definitions of creative thinking see: Joy P. Guilford, The Nature of Human Intelligence (New-York: McGraw-Hill, 1967). 12 Gozansky, ‘The Transformation of the Concept of Childhood,’ 231. 13 Ibid., 238. 14 Ibid., 109. 15 Bourdieu, ‘But Who Created the Creators?,’ 139-148. 16 See: Norbert Neuss, ‘Gaps for Fantasy in Children’s Films: Television and the Aesthetic of Reception’, TelevIZIon (2003): 22-27. 17 See: Maya Götz et al. Media and the Make-Believe Worlds of Children: When Harry Potter Meets Pokémon in Disneyland (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005).

Bibliography Bourdieu, Pierre. ‘But Who Created the Creators?.’ Sociology in Question, 139148. London: Sage Publications, 1993 (1984). —. Questions de Sociologie. Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1984. Buckingham, David, ed. Small Screens: Television for Children. London: Leicester University Press, 2002. Götz, Maya, Dafna Lemish, Amy Aidman, and Jyesung Moon. Media and the Make-Believe Worlds of Children: When Harry Potter Meets Pokémon in Disneyland. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005. Gozansky, Yuval. The Transformation of the Concept of Childhood in the Israeli Television for Children: Creativity as a Test Case. PhD dissertation, Israel: BarIlan University, 2012. (Hebrew).

Guildford, Joy P. The Nature of Human Intelligence. New-York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Hall, Stuart. ‘Encoding/Decoding.’ Culture, Media, Language, edited by Stuart Hall, Dorothy Dobson, Andrew Lowe and Paul Willis. London: Hutchinson, 1980.

Neuss, Norbert. ‘“I’ve Learnt Something ...”. What Children Write and Say about “Learning When Watching Television”.’ TelevIZIon, 2005: 20-23.

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__________________________________________________________________ Neuss, Norbert. ‘Gaps for Fantasy in Children’s Films: Television and the aesthetic of reception.’ TelevIZIon, 2003: 22-27. Pope, Robert. Creativity: Theory, History, Practice. London: Routledge, 2005. Ripple, Richard E. ‘Teaching Creativity.’ in Encyclopedia of Creativity, edited by Mark A. Runco and Steven R. Pritzker, Vol 2, 629-638. San Diego: Academic Press, 1999. Schnettler, Sebastian. ‘A Structured Overview of 50 Years of Small-World Research.’ Social Networks 31.3 (2009): 165-173. Simonton, Dean K. ‘Creativity from a Historiometric Perspective.’ Handbook of Creativity, edited by Robert J. Sternberg, 116-133. Cambridge: University Press, 1999. Sternberg, Robert J, ed. Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: University Press, 1999. Yuval Gozansky is a cultural studies researcher, interested mainly in children’s media. Prior to his academic career, he worked as a director of numerous children’s television programs. He teaches children’s media and media production at Sapir College and Tel-Aviv University.

Part III Creative Approaches to Participatory Learning

Making Play-Based Learning Work: Integrating Life Skills Content into a Play-Based Summer Day Camp Fay Fletcher, Therese Salenieks and Alicia Hibbert Abstract A University of Alberta research group and the Buffalo Lake Metis Settlement in Alberta, Canada have engaged in a community based participatory research (CBPR) project to develop resiliency among children and youth living on Metis Settlements. Metis’ are one of three Aboriginal groups in Canada; children living on Metis Settlements are at high risk for substance abuse and violence. The Life Skills Journey is a product of the research team/community collaboration; it is a summer day camp for children aged 7-14, which is aimed at helping kids build skills to succeed in their lives. In the summers of 2013 and 2014 children attended the life skills day camp for 10-day sessions. Knowledge of alcohol and other drugs, bullying, self-esteem, communication, kinship, spirituality, grief and loss, and community were discussed in camp and reinforced through play. Employing a sociocultural perspective, learning materials were aligned within the context of norms and practices of Metis settlements. Trained facilitators guided campers through games, activities, and play. The play-based guided participation approach was positively received by campers; however, integrating life skills learning and play remains a major challenge that the research team faces. This presentation will elaborate on the approaches used to meaningfully engage children and the challenges associated with implementation. Qualitative data on play and learning, collected through interviews and focus groups with camp facilitators, child participants, and other staff will be shared. Presenters will focus on key Life Skills Journey program activities that children enjoyed and learned from, using qualitative data to support the findings. Key Words: Life skills, Community Based Participatory Research, resiliency, play, Indigenous, engagement, qualitative research. ***** 1. Introduction A University of Alberta research group and the Buffalo Lake Metis Settlement in Alberta, Canada have engaged in a community based participatory research (CBPR) project to develop resiliency among children and youth living on Metis Settlements. Metis’ are one of three Aboriginal groups in Canada, descendants of unions between French or Scottish fur traders and First Nations women. They represent a growing population across Canada in both urban and rural settings.1 Alberta is the only province in Canada with land-based Métis who live in selfgoverning communities known as Métis Settlements. Children living on Metis

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__________________________________________________________________ Settlements are at high risk for substance abuse and violence.2 The Metis Settlements Life Skills Journey (MSLSJ) Program is a product of a communityuniversity collaboration aimed at increasing individual and community resilience in order to decrease substance abuse and violence.3 Resilience is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or sources of stress. It involves behaviours, thoughts, and actions that can be learned and developed. In the summers of 2013 and 2014, children aged 7-14 attended Life Skills Journey (LSJ) day camps led by older community youth aged 18-31. The Life Skills Journey camps involve activities to promote knowledge of Métis Settlement history, connection to the land, kinship, community, spirituality, and grief and loss alongside information about bullying and addictions. These concepts were reinforced through play. Employing a sociocultural perspective, an advisory committee was gathered to ensure that learning materials were relevant to the context and aligned the norms and practices of Metis settlements. Trained facilitators guided campers through games, activities, and play. The play-based, guided participation approach was positively received by campers; however, integrating and measuring the effectiveness of teaching life skills through play continues to be a challenge. Formative evaluation approaches were used to explore child engagement and the extent to which life skills were learned through play. Qualitative data on play and learning collected through interviews and focus groups with camp facilitators, child participants, and other staff will be shared. We focus on key Metis Settlement Life Skills Journey program activities that children enjoyed and that showed positive impacts based on qualitative data findings. 2. Background Play is difficult to define because there is no agreed upon quality that is ‘always and only’ associated with play.4 Despite this, features of play that are generally agreed upon are: it is intrinsically motivated, it is entered into freely, it is player controlled, and it evokes fun/excitement/enjoyment.5 Perceptions of play may differ on an individual level where play for one person may be an uncomfortable social encounter for another.6 Lindquist suggests that control in play can be at the group as well as the individual level, leading to further ambiguity.7 A review of play research by the Alberta Recreation and Parks Association found that the possible benefits of play include: development of the brain and motor skills, the acquisition of social and emotional intelligence, problem solving skills, conflict and negotiation skills, as well as various other learnings.8 However, ambiguity and individual interpretations with regard to definitions of play make research into the impacts of play on learning difficult.9 McInnes and colleagues suggest that whether or not ‘true’ play is occurring, playfulness in practice may lead to learning.10 They found that in a problem-solving (puzzle) challenge, children who practiced in a playful setting had significantly greater improvements

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__________________________________________________________________ in a pre/post test than children who practiced in a formal setting. The playful setting reduced fear of doing the puzzle wrong and encouraged exploration. Similarly, Lester and Russel found that play allows for opportunities to try new behaviours in low-risk situations.11 Waite, Rogers and Evans found that outdoor settings in particular allow for greater playfulness to emerge in childrens’ activities.12 The role of facilitator/teacher is key in shaping and guiding learning during play/games/activities; in formal programs, open ended play alone does not necessarily lead to learning of intended content, but combined with play that is modelled by the teacher or purposefully framed play, content is more likely to be learned.13 Hromek and Roffey found that games and participation guided by trained facilitators have important roles in social and emotional learning.14 Social and emotional learning is similar to life skills learning, both of which involve: recognition of personal strengths and values, emotional regulation, problem solving, goal setting, respectful relationships, communication and conflict management. Social and emotional learning thus contributes to the foundation for resilience.15 In the next section, the processes of using play/games to develop life skills in the MSLSJ program is described. 3. Strategies for Successful Play-Based Learning MSLSJ participant learning involves a complex interaction between campers and facilitators, with the facilitator acting as a guide through the life skills content, planned activities, free play opportunities, and spontaneous games. Learning from the program is a dynamic process that relies on facilitator and camper feedback through focus groups and surveys. The MSLSJ was first implemented in the summer of 2013; it is the result of a community needs assessment and it was developed in partnership with Buffalo Lake Metis Settlement. Post-program feedback from facilitators, campers, and research team members resulted in changes to the program, which were implemented and evaluated in the summer of 2014. Feedback from 2014 will be analyzed and will inform changes in the final funded implementation year in the summer of 2015. The dynamic nature of the program represents one of the ways in which the MSLSJ program makes play work. Revisions made as a result of facilitator input after 2013 resulted in a more positive delivery and experience in the second year of implementation. Facilitators described the summer of 2014 as ‘better than last year.’ Involving campers in the planning processes each day at camp resulted in greater participant control over the program content, games and play opportunities. Changes to the program will be further described as: facilitator training, lessons on module content, planned activities, and free play and spontaneous activities.

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__________________________________________________________________ A. The Life Skills Journey Facilitators Facilitator training, condensed from eight weeks in 2013 to five weeks in 2014, prepared facilitators to guide program participants’ learning journey. During training, the following life skills modules were presented to facilitators: selfesteem, communication, community, kinship, substance abuse and addictions, bullying and gang awareness, grief and loss, spirituality, media messages, goal setting, conflict resolution, respectful relationships, and stress and anxiety. Activities associated with each module were taught and practiced and play was explored; first aid, adapted activity, and helping skills training were delivered to facilitators and facilitation practices were taught. Based on the training, facilitators were able to effectively deliver the MSLSJ program to children. Based on the first year of implementation, changes were made to facilitator training in the second year. In 2013, 60% of the training occurred in Edmonton, the location of the research team. By 2014, 85% of training took place in the community. In the first year, training was consistently led by multiple individuals who did not necessarily work directly with each other, and by 2014, training was led by two co-trainers, with minimum six months prior experience with the project. Finally, in 2013, we were learning about the work and learning styles and expectations of community youth facilitators. In 2014, clear facilitator expectations and consequences for facilitator performance were presented. In preparation for implementation in summer 2015, additional revisions will include an increased focus on linking free play and spontaneous games to the life skills content and developing stronger reflection practices. This will allow facilitators to take full advantage of opportunities to link content with unplanned activities. As one facilitator retrospectively noted in 2014, ‘I feel like we could do a lot of the games now, that we know they like, and just teach them in a different way...you could easily incorporate [new games] into one of the modules.’ B. Life Skills Module Lessons Lessons on module content were a key component of the training program. Translation of this knowledge to the camp setting involved facilitators presenting information to campers through short lectures (less than five minutes), small group discussions (5-10 participants/group) and occasional worksheets. However, after the first pilot year, campers expressed that they enjoyed the play aspects of the program and wanted less of a school-like format, which resulted in fewer paperbased activities and more circle discussions in the second year of implementation. Circle discussions have been used effectively by others for social and emotional learning.16 When asked how they made certain topics more effective, facilitators (2014) mentioned that they ‘just let the kids talk’ and that ‘doing it in small groups was helpful’ as ‘I feel like when they were learning about it was when we were actually

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__________________________________________________________________ talking about it.’ Engaging campers in discussion and reflecting on lessons from the previous day was a valuable part of lesson retention. 4. Measuring the Impact of Play-Based Learning The challenge of evaluating uptake of the MSLSJ concepts, especially as we attempt to do so with child participants, remains ever-present. Current evaluation efforts include: pre-post surveys and post-program focus groups with children; prepost surveys, daily recorded debrief discussions, and post-program focus groups with facilitators; focus groups with community staff as well as recorded research team debriefs; and participant observation by a research team member. This data was collected in year two and will be included and/or expanded upon for year three (2015), our final year of research implementation. Observations from year one of implementation led to the following additional data collections for year two: participant observation during the summer camps would be valuable and bring an important outsider’s perspective, facilitator discussions would be audio recorded instead of relying on daily journals to ensure completion at the end of each exhausting camp day, and focus group methods with children were refined to elicit a greater verbal response and to record that response A. Participant Observation In our first year of implementation we did not employ participant observation. In 2013, we relied on self-reporting from children aged 7-10, who are generally unable to answer questions in a way that provided content for analysis. For this reason, we chose to use facilitator focus groups to explore changes that facilitators saw among children, with the knowledge that this involves adult interpretation of children’s actions. A secondary risk is that, exhausted from leading the program and living their daily lives at the field site, facilitators may be unable to see the changes we are interested in since the indicators may be so small as to seem irrelevant. Changing resiliency at an individual or community level is a lofty goal, one that could only be clearly visible through long-term research. Cognizant of the need to collect evidence within three years, we employed a participant observation approach in 2014, which provided important data that contributed to immediate program changes. For example, activities included in the program that did not work in practice were noted by the participant observer, and were removed from the final program resource after discussing this finding with facilitators and the Camp Director. With the introduction of a new community partner in 2015, we will employ participant observation at this new field site since it represents the first and only opportunity to collect data at this site along with continued participant observation at Buffalo Lake Metis Settlement for comparison between years.

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__________________________________________________________________ B. Facilitator Discussions Data from the perspective of facilitators was greatly expanded in year two, by adopting an audio recorded debrief discussion approach. The Camp Director led reflective meetings at the end of each camp day with facilitators, which resulted in more “in-the-moment” responses. A secondary outcome from hiring more facilitators in the second year is that our qualitative data is richer and longer as a result of having 5 facilitators at the final focus group as opposed to 2. Facilitators missing from this focus group received a follow up interview. In addition, the outgoing and reflective nature of the particular undergraduate students who were facilitators in 2014 enhanced this data. C. Focus Groups with Children Focus Groups with children in year two provided much more data. Longer sentences were quoted as opposed to short, point form notes; this is a result of having two evaluators, 1 speaker and 1 note taker, per group of kids and having larger groups of children at 5-8 per group, rather than 2-3. Our ethics application did not include approval to audio record children. We expanded upon the ThermoScale activity employed in year one and in early community needs assessment focus groups.17 In Year 1, children were asked to talk about whether they liked or disliked each of the life skills modules with only some commentary. In Year 2, speakers were given a list of all camp activities related to each module, which they could use to prompt during the ThermoScale. Speakers were also given five specific prompts to use per module. Prior to using the ThermoScale in the focus group, speakers were also given specific prompts for each of the six introductory focus group questions. Note-takers were encouraged to record full quotes from a child’s verbal responses. These changes greatly increased the data available from child responses and analysis of this qualitative data is ongoing. 5. Conclusion Play-based learning requires flexibility, adaptability, and responsiveness to child input. MSLSJ facilitators need to be attuned to child participants and to promote discussion about life skills concepts. Facilitators will continue to be tasked with linking free play to life skills content ˗ an on-going challenge in training since facilitators often come to the program with little to no work experience, but a lot of informal experience with children in their families. From a program evaluation perspective, measuring play-based learning through such a short intervention is difficult, as results may not be visible or reflections complete until years later. It is difficult to attribute individual and community impact to the program itself as each child lives in a complex system of peer,

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__________________________________________________________________ family, school, and community influence. Conclusions about learning through play are also difficult as data are generally from an adult perspective.

Notes 1

Linda Gionet, Métis in Canada: Selected Findings of the 2006 Census (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2009). 2 See First Nations Information Governance Centre (FNIGC), First Nations Regional Health Survey (RHS) 2008/10: National Report on Adults, Youth and Children Living in First Nations Communities (Ottawa: FNIGC, 2012), np, viewed 12 January 2015, http://fnigc.ca/sites/default/files/First%20Nations%20Regional%20Health%20 Survey%20%28RHS%29%202008-10%20-%20National%20Report.pdf; James Lamouche, Environmental Scan of Métis Health Information, Initiatives and Programs (Ottawa: National Aboriginal Health Organization, 2002); Patricia Martens, et al., ‘What is the Comparative Health Status and Associated Risk Factors for the Métis? A Population-Based Study in Manitoba, Canada.’ BMC PublicHealth 11 (2011): 814. 3 See Fay Fletcher, Brent Hammer and Alicia Hibbert, ‘“We Know We Are Doing Something Good, But What Is It?”: The Challenge of Negotiating Between Service Delivery and Research in a CBPR Project,’ Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship 7.2 (2014): np, viewed 15 January 2015, http://jces.ua.edu/weknow-we-are-doing-something-good-but-what-is-it-the-challenge-of-negotiatingbetween-service-delivery-and-research-in-a-cbpr-project/; Fay Fletcher, et al., ‘Needs and Readiness Assessments: Tools for Promoting Community-University Engagement with Aboriginal Communities,’ Gateways: International Journal of Community Research and Engagement 6 (2013): 131-149, viewed 2 February 2015, http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/ijcre/article/view/3219/3779. 4 Stuart Lester and Wendy Russell, Play for a Change. Play Policy and Practice: A Review of Contemporary Perspectives, (London: NCB and Play England, 2008). 5 Alberta Recreation and Parks Association, ‘Play: It’s Serious Business.’ (2011), np, viewed 10 January 2015, http://s3.arpaonline.ca/docs/PLAY-discussion-paper2011.pdf. 6 Karen McInnes, et al., ‘Behavioural Differences Exhibited by Children When Practising a Task Under Formal and Playful Conditions,’ Play and Learning in Educational Settings 26.2 (2009): 31. 7 Galina Lindquist, ‘Elusive Play and Its Relations to Power,’ Focaal–European Journal of Anthropology 37 (2001): 13-23. 8 Alberta Recreation and Parks Association, ‘Play.’ 9 McInnes, et al., ‘Behavioural Differences.’ 10 Ibid. 11 Lester and Russel, Play for a Change.

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__________________________________________________________________ 12

Sue Waite, Sue Rogers and Julie Evans, ‘Freedom, Flow and Fairness: Exploring How Children Develop Socially at School Through Outdoor Play,’ Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning 13.3 (2013): 255-276. 13 Robyn Hromek and Sue Roffey, ‘Promoting Social and Emotional Learning with Games: "It's fun and we learn things",’ Simulation & Gaming (2009): np.; Susan Edwards and Amy Cutter-Mackenzie, ‘Pedagogical Play Types: What do They Suggest for Learning About Sustainability in Early Childhood Education?’ International Journal of Early Childhood 45.3 (2013): 327-346. 14 Hromek and Roffey, ‘Promoting Social and Emotional Learning.’ 15 Ibid. 16 Ibid. 17 Fletcher, et al., ‘Interactive Focus Group Tools.’ CES4Health.info (2013): np, viewed 05 January 2015, http://ces4health.info/find-products/viewproduct.aspx?code=W64JY7FS.

Bibliography Alberta Recreation & Parks Association. ‘Play: It’s Serious Business.’ (2011). Viewed 10 January 2015. http://s3.arpaonline.ca/docs/PLAY-discussion-paper2011.pdf. Edwards, Susan and Amy Cutter-Mackenzie. ‘Pedagogical Play Types: What do They Suggest for Learning About Sustainability in Early Childhood Education?’ International Journal of Early Childhood 45.3 (2013): 327-346. Fletcher, Fay, Brent Hammer and Alicia Hibbert. ‘“We Know We Are Doing Something Good, But What Is It?”: The Challenge of Negotiating Between Service Delivery and Research in a CBPR Project.’ Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship 7.2 (2014): np. Viewed 15 January 2015. http://jces.ua.edu/weknow-we-are-doing-something-good-but-what-is-it-the-challenge-of-negotiatingbetween-service-delivery-and-research-in-a-cbpr-project/. Fletcher, Fay, Alicia Hibbert, Fiona Robertson and Jodie Asselin. ‘Needs and Readiness Assessments: Tools for Promoting Community-University Engagement with Aboriginal Communities.’ Gateways: International Journal of Community Research and Engagement 6 (2013-1): 131-149. Viewed 2 February 2015. http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/ijcre/article/view/3219/3779. Fletcher, Fay, Lola Baydala, Alicia Hibbert and Fiona Robertson. ‘Interactive Focus Group Tools.’ CES4Health.info (2013-2): np. Viewed 05 January 2015. http://ces4health.info/find-products/view-product.aspx?code=W64JY7FS.

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__________________________________________________________________ First Nations Information Governance Centre (FNIGC). First Nations Regional Health Survey (RHS) 2008/10: National Report on Adults, Youth and Children Living in First Nations Communities. Ottawa: FNIGC, 2012. Viewed 12 January 2015. http://fnigc.ca/sites/default/files/First%20Nations%20Regional%20Health %20 Survey%20%28RHS%29%202008-10%20-%20National%20Report.pdf. Gionet, Linda. Métis in Canada: Selected Findings of the 2006 Census. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2009. Hromek, Robyn and Sue Roffey. ‘Promoting Social and Emotional Learning with Games: "It's fun and we learn things".’ Simulation & Gaming (2009): np. Lamouche, James. Environmental Scan of Métis Health Information, Initiatives and Programs. Ottawa: National Aboriginal Health Organization, 2002. Lester, Stuart and Wendy Russell. Play for a Change. Play Policy and Practice: A Review of Contemporary Perspectives. London: NCB and Play England, 2008. Lindquist, Galina. ‘Elusive Play and Its Relations to Power.’ Focaal–European Journal of Anthropology 37 (2001): 13-23. Martens, Patricia, Judith G. Bartlett, Heather Prior, Julianne Sanguins, Charles Burchill and Elaine Burland. ‘What is the Comparative Health Status and Associated Risk Factors for the Métis? A Population-Based Study in Manitoba, Canada.’ BMC PublicHealth 11 (2011): 814. McInnes, Karen, Justine Howard, Gareth Miles and Kevin Crowley. ‘Behavioural Differences Exhibited by Children When Practising a Task Under Formal and Playful Conditions.’ Play and Learning in Educational Settings 26.2 (2009): 31. Waite, Sue, Sue Rogers and Julie Evans. ‘Freedom, Flow and Fairness: Exploring How Children Develop Socially at School Through Outdoor Play.’ Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning 13.3 (2013): 255-276. Fay Fletcher (Principal Investigator), Alicia Hibbert (Research Project Lead), and Therese Salenieks (Program Coordinator) are affiliated with the Faculty of Extension at the University of Alberta. Their research centres on resiliency within Metis communities, focusing on children and youth.

The Kings and Queens of Kagoma Gate: Children Making Their Moves out of Poverty Ann Fantauzzi, Marisa van der Merwe and Patricia Fennell Abstract Chess is creative, analytical, and spatial. Chess fosters engagement, connectivity, and visual literacy. Chess builds personal identity, executive function, and cultural diversity. Emerging from a military concept 1600 years ago, the game gives participants the opportunity to fully engage with peers and adults on a tactical, yet creative field. The unique, empirically validated approach of MiniChess™ develops a math sense on the chessboard with chess pieces as tools and squares as a textbook, bringing higher order thinking skills and reasoning abilities to learners in Africa. In remote villages, where children often grow up with no games or toys, chess is not only a vehicle for learning, but also an opportunity to engage the modern world. Learners gain confidence to go into unfamiliar circumstances, speak English with strangers, and make personally responsible decisions. Gender equity in this culture becomes a nonissue as girls and boys become partners and competitors. MiniChess™ is a licensed academic programme for 5-9 year olds integrating social skills, personal growth and creative thought. Management skills become a focus of playing and working in both math and chess. The schoolroom becomes the literal space for newly found language and conversation development, while an inner space of visualization, fantasy, and emotion begins to be acquired and nurtured. The chess culture of academic interplay develops self-reliance as students continue their education away from the village as they move on to the secondary level. The MiniChess™ program is pedagogy of culture, academics, and personal development for learners worldwide. Key Words: MiniChess™, memory, reasoning, integrated learning, creative engagement, numeracy, higher order thinking, language, gender equity. ***** 1. Chess Origins Chess is a very old game that is currently played on all continents, perhaps originating back to 3000 BCE. The modern game began about the year 1600 CE, coming from an area of northern India, now Afghanistan. Early trade routes to Persia brought chess to Spain and Italy, and eventually to central Europe where it became established. Subsequently, the Vikings brought it to Scandinavia. Evidence of a King piece, found off the Isle of Lewis in Scotland, dates chess back to 1200 CE. The first chess tournament was in London in 1851, and it was the first sport to have a world championship in 1866. A simulation of early war strategies, the chess game is played between 2 players. The pieces, referred to as to ‘little soldiers’ and

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__________________________________________________________________ distinguished by black and white, move on a miniature battlefield, the board. The armies’ move to attack and defend with a ‘general’, the player, seeking to capture the other army’s King, using certain strategies to win1 or checkmate. Since 1927, competitors have come from Russia, Cuba, Germany, Yugoslavia, and the United States. Garry Kasparov, Bobby Fisher, Judit Polgar, Jose Capablanca and Boris Spassky are well known champions. Anand and Carlson are the top players in current competitions. The title of Grandmaster was first awarded to all finalists in 1914 by Czar Nicholas II after the St. Petersburg tournament.2 Traditional chess was not a game women played and approximately 1% or, 31 out 1444 of the Grand Masters are women.3 2. Chess As Development People play chess for a variety of reasons. The challenge of the game is probably the greatest. There are infinite possibilities of plays that involve planning and evaluation, with higher order thinking skills of analysis and synthesis applied to creative visualization of the board. Investigation has demonstrated IQ to improve as a result of concentration and logical thinking during the game 4 however; IQ is not a factor in who plays the game. Chess is a game of mental acuity using pattern recognition and visualization. Children use concentration and logical thinking in learning the concepts of math and chess. Countless researchers and studies have shown over the years that chess does indeed strengthen a child’s mental clarity, stability, and overall health. Many schools are now finding chess as an inexpensive but essential way of helping kids grow mentally. In a technologically driven world, chess helps aid in the synthesis and growth of certain areas in the brain and mind where many children can benefit, as they grow older from the game.5 Chess improves perceptual ability and as a result, mathematical skills. Gottlieb, of Rhodes University, cites objective reasoning, or the ability to think a few steps ahead, as the major reason why chess players are proficient in math.6 Albert Frank found that children in Zaire taking chess classes for two hours a week, had increased verbal skills, enhanced mathematical skills, and acquired administrativedirectional7 capabilities. Children also gained emotional intelligence (EI) as psychosocial and interpersonal skills are utilized in the classroom and are transferable to village life. Because teaching is being carried out within a mixed gender classroom, all students become competitors and partners in play techniques, and girls and boys experience equity in a society where gender roles are clearly defined for men, women and children. 3. Life In Kagoma Gate Kagoma Gate village in Uganda is an extremely isolated place. The government calls it a ‘forgotten village’, it does not appear on any map, and it sits at the edge of the Kakire sugarcane plantation. Refugees from over 5 five countries

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__________________________________________________________________ and 30 tribes fled violence in their villages and came to cut the cane earning only pennies a day. The neighbouring countries include Rwanda, Sudan, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Kenya as well as Northern Uganda. The refugees suffered famine and war crimes of genocide, rape, child abduction for soldiering, and burning of villages at the hands of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) and it’s warlord, Joseph Kony. Thirty-seven years later, working in harsh conditions and living at a survival level, the families struggle to get through each day. Unsanitary conditions and scarcity of food are the realities of life. Children gather scarce firewood, lug heavy 40-pound plastic jerry cans of water, and care for younger siblings, carried on their backs. Boys, as young as 6, work in the cane fields as cutters like their fathers until they are physically unable to work any further. Women bear many children and scavenge for food to cook over small charcoal fires next to their huts. Their daughters will marry young, have babies, and continue the pattern of extreme poverty. Early marriage, under 15 years of age, is very common in situations of extreme poverty and estimated to be more than 10,000 a day in Sub-Saharan Africa.8 The cycle of life and death is very dismal and often a traumatic experience for young and old. With high infant mortality, it is not unusual to see small graves of infants or very young children near the huts of families. Parents believe and view education as the vehicle to break the cycle of poverty and despair for their children. The Ugandan government did not have plans to build a school for these youngsters. A non-profit group from the United States was approached through Ugandan government contacts to construct a school, essentially creating the beginning of an infrastructure for this village. The Giving Circle/Africa, (TGC and TGCA) a not-for-profit 501(c)(3), began by funding the construction of a 3-room school in 2012 with online donations of ‘bricks’ at $5.00 each. Months later, a kitchen was built to give the children one good nutritional meal daily, and sanitation was addressed with the construction of latrines. As school opened, uniforms were purchased to adhere to Ugandan school dress code policy and more importantly, so they could feel appropriately attired in clothes for school. Recently, a midwife was hired to care for pregnant women and any immediate medical needs of all villagers at a newly constructed birthing clinic in the village. Local men did the work to create the school and desks, with the government providing teachers, and TGCA the books. About 175 children arrived for the opening of school, though that number fluctuates due to absenteeism, home responsibilities, sickness, and distance from school. Walking considerable distances to the school, child safety is always of concern for abduction for human sacrifice, child abuse, theft, or child conscription. Difficult roads with potholes and ditches, and canefields with deadly animal or snakes attacks, make the way dangerous.

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__________________________________________________________________ 4. Impact of MiniChess™ In Kagoma Gate The educational curriculum for primary grades (P-1 to P-7), designed by the Ugandan government, includes teaching English, maths, reading and limited science at a $3-$4.75/month per student cost.9 The government recognizes the need for instructional improvement and curricular needs in its Universal Primary Education (UPE) for all children.10 Children enter school lacking readiness skills to learn. Many older children, and even adults, are entering the educational arena under the UPE policy to a degree where additional teachers and classrooms are desperately needed. Teachers have limited training and a lack of resources, scant instructional materials, and limited consumable government workbooks for students to share. Books and art supplies are infrequently donated. Creative thinking and problem solving are limited by lack of training and materials. The MiniChess™ (MC) curriculum is an integrated learning, academic-chess program from Pretoria, South Africa. It was investigated and determined to be a very appropriate addition to the developing learning experience for Kagoma Gate students. Imbedding numeracy skills within chess, MC is a complete early school readiness experience designed for those learning maths and beginning thinking skills. MC empowers the teacher through practical training, structured curriculum and lesson plans with appropriate teaching materials. Thus, it brings the benefits of chess not only to the learner, but also the in-class educator. The chess board is the creative use as a spatial and number grid. In 2014, 50,000+ children had instruction in 6 African countries, which will increase to 16 in 2015. MC will concurrently start in 4 more countries around the world. Three universities in South Africa have conducted validating studies on children’s learning.11 This MC program follows the cognitive development theories of Piaget and Vygotsky regarding cognitive development, language acquisition, and cultural impact on learning. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), a theory of Vygotsky’s, states: It is an area where the most sensitive instruction and guidance should be given-allowing the child to develop skills they will use on their own-developing higher mental functions. Vygotsky’s concept of social interaction on cognitive development argues that to understand, one has to connect socially with others.12 Bandura feels that learning can happen by observing, modelling and imitating what is seen.13 Both theories of cognition and socialization are at work in MC. Csikszentmihalyi’s work regarding the flow of creativity states that: ‘If one does these things a certain way, then they become intrinsically rewarding, worth doing for their own sake.’14 The individual operates in a ‘zone’ when the work seems effortless and totally enjoyable to the point of being almost automatic. In considering students as creative individuals, he suggests that they take action making a new discovery. Students will enhance their options of survival by being able to conduct themselves in threatening or confusing conditions that may be novel to them. The concept of ‘flow’ works well in problem solving and unique experiences such as chess.

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__________________________________________________________________ Cattell and Horn’s ‘Fluid intelligence (Fi) and Crystalline intelligence (Ci)’, posits that intelligence is composed of a number of different abilities that interact and work together to produce overall intelligence.15 Fi can ‘perceive independent relationships of previous practice or instruction concerning those relationships.’ Ci, on the other hand, is related to prior learning and examples experienced, and becomes apparent in reading comprehension and performing on exams. Ci is an ability to reason abstractly and solve problems, with chess a notable example. As people age, this becomes stronger due to life experiences and exposure to learning.16 This theory also pertains to chess as one moves up in their ability. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences contains the concept of ‘bodilykinaesthetic’ learning style.17 In MC, it is a functional methodology for teaching. Gardner’s learning styles are extensively utilized in the development of MC providing an effective personal experience for each student. In Kagoma Gate School, one teacher teaches approximately 70 children in a small classroom of diverse ages. Collaborative learning within a classroom of different levels of ability, allows older or advanced peers to help those less advanced. Generally Ugandan schoolbooks are shared among 3-4 learners, but the individual MC workbook allows each to work independently in conjunction with a lesson. Eventually students colour award pages for personal accomplishments like: Awesomeness (for brilliant display of sportsmanship in play), Excellence (for super display of coolness under pressure) and Medal of Honour (for those who display grace under pressure.)18 These accomplishments reinforce character development and support interaction with peers and adults in the classroom. The guided lessons on three levels are maths oriented with reasoning, and numeracy as objectives.19 In addition, there is a developmental progression in shape recognition with various patterns and colours. More social skills, such as listening, enhance interactions with others in order to enjoy reading and comprehension which are essential for beginning learners. Fine motor skills, including handwriting ability, are essential tools for school and life. As the chess lessons move into advancing instruction, spatial development, using terms such as diagonal, vertical, line of symmetry, left and right allow players to recognize gestalt. Understanding properties of numbers, systems of notation, recognizing like or different become part of the knowledge base for play. Most of these skills are not written into regular primary curriculum.20 Following the students’ introduction to each playing piece regarding name, role in the game, rank and file movement relating to other pieces, learners begin to put new knowledge of chess into a mental picture to initiate play. At this point, the cumulative knowledge of analysing relationships of pieces and considered moves are based on developing thought patterns. Students are now able to visualize a possible victory realizing that experimentation and risk are crucial to the outcome. Fantasy plays an integral part in chess as a creative process to visualize the endgame, while intrinsic motivation for success dominates thinking. In a life with few details, an inner sense of fantasy and imagination takes on real

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__________________________________________________________________ meaning for youngsters. A sense of self-reliance, leadership, management, and self-actualization increase in this positive learning environment. Students are observed interacting in positive and respectful ways in the classroom, while fully participating in the instruction, games, and art activities. Children develop a keen sense of rules and the need for compliance. Role-play with props showcase their growth of verbal expression exercising an increased confidence with adults and peers. School has become an established place of learning and excitement. As they entertain the idea of their futures, they develop an overall positive thought pattern. The children no longer live day-to-day and the life ahead has hope. The balance of home chores, and going to school give children skills for adulthood. In 2014, over 200 books were donated to the school providing the children an opportunity to practice reading, and learn diverse new ideas while building a vocabulary and imagination. Understanding people around the world is essential for development of global participation, and literature allows for this. The possibility of doing schoolwork at home increases as village huts become equipped with solar lighting like the school. In May 2014, six of the outstanding student chess players, with their teachers, were invited to attend a banquet to honour chess Grandmaster Garry Kasparov in the capital city of Kampala. It was a 2-day trip and the first time away from the sugarcane plantation. Children stayed in a hotel, climbed stairs for the first time, learned how to use faucets and flush toilets, saw their image in a mirror, watched TV and a video. They had the opportunity to meet children from different schools in Uganda. Each student was given a new school uniform and shoes for the trip. This was a life-changing event in their lives that was only possible because of their involvement in MC. Adults attending lauded their presence, and talked to them about school, families, and chess. Students used their English competently and proficiently to interact and converse with organizers of the event and the Ugandan press, which interviewed them for 2 newspapers. The array of food at the banquet was an overwhelming experience in taste, quantity, and variety. All children filled their plates to capacity, while adult chaperones showed them how to use their silverware and napkin for the first time. The following day, three of the children played chess with Grand Master Garry Kasparov; a chance offered to only a few chess players in the world! Post trip, the children’s teachers noted the impact on the students, providing the experience to view life outside of Kagoma Gate village. A vision of escape from lives of poverty, MiniChess is the educational and social tool providing a key to a successful and productive life. 5. Conclusion This academic/chess programme has application for the enhancement of education in schools of poverty and deprivation in sub-Saharan Africa. The brief use of MiniChess™ in Kagoma Gate Friendship School has already shown growth in interpersonal relationships, school attendance, and desire to learn. Currently a

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__________________________________________________________________ university study is in progress examining school readiness skills, numeracy, literacy growth, and problem solving at the end of the first year. Poverty, hunger, poor self-image and the everyday struggle to exist are extremely limiting for all, but children are the most effected. Those living in the Global South are victims of human and natural events that are devastating. Education for all youngsters is a part of an overall solution to their circumstances. As the nature of education changes, developing nations must find a way to bring students to a level where they may participate locally and compete globally. Out-dated pedagogy and methods, poorly trained teachers, and dated curriculum are not going to advance the future of the children, their families, their village, and their country. According to Grandmaster Garry Kasparov: The benefits of kids playing chess at an early age is quite obvious. It improves their communication skills, it helps them to appreciate the big picture, to see outcomes of their actions; they recognise patterns. Overall it helps their concentration and sense of logic, and those are very important qualities for their success in school. Having chess in the early days is important because it adds an extra tool to help kids get through modern education.20 MiniChess™, as a game and teaching tool, has been proven to teach and enrich all incorporated skills, and perhaps some not yet realized.

Image 1: MiniChess™ in Kagoma Gate village school. © 2014, Ann Fantauzzi. Permission granted by copyright holder.

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Acknowledgements Kasparov Chess Foundation Africa promotes chess as a tool for education and socialization in schools in Africa. Garry Kasparov, an international chess champion, has endorsed MiniChess™ as the most innovative and scientifically proven link between chess and education. The Giving Circle, Inc. is located in upstate New York. As a 501(c)(3), it works locally as well as in Uganda. The mission of this all-volunteer organization in Africa is to improve the lives of children and families through education, sanitation, sustainable agricultural projects, heath and well-being.

Notes 1

Marisa van der Merwe and Kasparov Chess Foundation Africa, MiniChess™ Teacher’s Manual Level 1 (South Africa: MiniChess™, 2010). 2 Edward Brace, The Illustrated Dictionary of Chess (London: Chartwell, 1977), 41. 3 Ed Yong, ‘Why Are There So Few Female Chess Grandmasters?’ 23 December 2008 viewed 7 November 2014. http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2008/12/23/why-are-there-so-fewfemale-chess-grandmasters. 4 Examined Existence, ‘Does Playing Chess Make You Smarter?’ viewed 17 November 2014. http://examinedexistence.com/does-playing-chess-make-smarter. 5 Susan Polgar Foundation, ‘The Benefits of Playing Chess From a Young Age’ 2013 viewed 10 December 2014. http://www.susanpolgar.com/susan-polgar-foundation-benefits.html. 6 Examined Existence, ‘Does Playing Chess Make You Smarter.’ 7 Examined Existence, ‘The Cognitive Benefits of Chess According to Other Relevant Studies: What Cognitive Science Has To Say.’ 8 Joy For Children of Uganda, ‘Child, Early and Forced Marriage in Uganda.’ viewed 2 January 2015. http://www.joyforchildren.org. 9 B. Essam-Nssah, ‘Achieving Universal Primary Education Through School Fee Abolition: Some Policies Lessons From Uganda’ Chapter 26. (Washington, DC: World Bank , 2010). Viewed 27 Decmber 2014. http://www.worldbank.org/58643/YAC_chpt_26.pdf. 10 Innocent M. Najjumba and Jeffrey H. Marshall, ‘Improving Learning In Uganda Vol. II: Problematic Curriculum Areas and Teacher Effectiveness: Insights From National Assessments.’ Washington DC: The World Bank doi10,1596/978-0-82139850-0 (2013). Viewed 5 October. 2014. http://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/13098/746280v20PU BE001300pubdate02022013.pdf?sequence=1.

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Marisa van der Merwe, interview with author, 15 November2014, email. Saul McLeod, ‘Lev Vygotsky’ 2007 updated 2014. Viewed 9 December2014. http://www.simplepsychology.org/vygotsky.html. 13 Kendra Cherry, ‘What is Observational Learning?’ Viewed 12 January 2015. http://psychology.about/od/oindex/fl/What-Is-observational-Learning.html. 14 Jeanne Nakamura and Mihaly Csikzentmihalyi, ‘What is Flow?’ Chapter 27. Viewed 2 December 2014. http://myweb.stewards.edu/michaelo/2349/paper1/ConceptOfFlow.pdf. 15 Kendra Cherry, ‘Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence.’ Viewed 12 January 2015. http://psychology.about.com.com/od/cognitivepsychology/a/fluid-crystal.html. 16 Kendra Cherry, ‘Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence.’ 17 Ann Logsdon, ‘What Are Multiple Intelligences?’ Viewed 11 January 2015. http://learningdisabilities.about.com/od/parentsandfamilyissues/a/What-AreMultiple-Intelligences.html. 18 Marisa van der Merwe and Kasparov Chess Foundation Africa, Teacher’s Manual Level 1 MiniChess™. South Africa: MiniChess™ 2013. 12, 23, 42. 19 Ibid. 20 Harriet Sinclair, ‘KEGS pupil Takes On 15 Time Champion Garry Kasparov At The House of Lords.’ 20 December 2014. Viewed 12 January 2015. http://essexchronicle.co.uk. 12

Bibliography Brace, Ed. An Illustrated Dictionary of Chess. London: Chartwell, 1977), 120. Celone, Jim. ‘Advancing Connecticut’s Chess Community.’ Viewed 12 December 2014. http://www.ctchess.com/index.php?sect=why. Cherry, Kendra. ‘Fluid Intelligence vs. Crystallized Intelligence.’ Viewed 12 January 2015. http://psychologyabout.com/og/cognitivepsychology/a/fluid-crystal.html. Cherry, Kendra. ‘What is Observational Learning?’ Viewed 12 January 2015. http://psychologyabout.com/od/index/fl/What-is-Observational-Learning.html. Chess Vibes. ‘10 Big Brain Benefits of Playing Chess.’ Viewed 12 December 2014. http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/10-big-benefits-of-playing-chess.

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__________________________________________________________________ Csikszentmihaly, Mihaly. Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: Experiencing Flow in Work and Play (25th Anniversary Ed.), Washington D.C.: Jossey-Boss Publisher, 2000. Csikszentmihaly, Mihaly. The Psychology of Discovery and Invention. New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1990. Csikzentmihaly, Mihaly. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper Collins Publisher, 1990. Essama-Msah, Boniface. ‘Accessing Universal Primary Education Through School Fee Abolition: Some Lessons From Uganda.’ Viewed 27 December 2014. http://sitesources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/resources/EdNotes. Examined Existence. ‘Does Playing Chess Make You Smarter?’ Viewed 17 November 2014. http://examinedexistence.com/does-playing-chess-make-you-smarter. Fischer, Wendi. ‘New Horizons for Learning.’ Viewed 14 November 2014. http://education.jhu.edu/PD/newhorizons/strategies/topics/thinking-skills/chess. Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (10th Anniversary Edition). NY: Basic Books 1993. Geirland, Ben. ‘Go With the Flow.’ Wired Magazine 4.09. Viewed 19 December 2014. http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/4.09/czik_per.html. Grimley, Ben. ‘Engaging Learners Through Games: Help or Hype?’ eSchoolNews. Viewed 13 August 2014. http://eshcoolnews.com/2013/04/04/engaging-learnersthrough-games-help-or-hype/. Grogan, Louise. ‘Universal Primary Education and School Entry in Uganda.’ Geulph, Ontario: University of Geulph Department of Economics, 2008. Viewed 14 January 2015. http://jae.oxfordjournals.org. Instructional Design. ‘Social Development Theory (Lev Vygotsky). Viewed 12 November 2014. http://instructionaldesign.org/theories/socialdevelopment.html. Joy for Children Uganda. ‘Child, Early and Forced Marriage in Uganda.’ Viewed 2 January 2015. http://joyforchildren.org.

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__________________________________________________________________ Logan, Louise. ‘What Are Multiple Intelligences?’ Viewed 11 January 2015. http://learningdisabilities.about.com/od/parentsandfamilyissues/a/What-AreMultiple-Intelligences.html. McLeod, Saul. ‘Lev Vygotsky: A Comparison of Vygotsky and Piaget.’ Viewed 9 December 2014. http://Simplypsychology.org/Vygotsky. Ministry of Education and Sports, Uganda. Education Sector Strategic Plan 20042015, Education Planning Department June 2004. Viewed 29 September 2014. http://www.africanchildforum.org/cir/policypercountry/uganda_education_20042015_en.pdf. Najjumba, Innocent M. and Jeffrey H. Marshall. ‘Improving Learning In Uganda Vol.II: Problematic Curriculum Areas and Teacher Effectiveness: Insights From National Assessment.’ Washington D.C.: The World Bank, 2013. Viewed 5 October 2014. http://openknowledgwe.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/12098/746280v20P UBE001300PUBDARE02022013.pdf?sequence=1. Nakamura, Jeanne and Mihaly Csikzentmihaly. ‘Concept of Flow.’ Chapter 2. Viewed 2 December 2014. http://myweb.stewards.edu/micharlo/2349/paper/ConceptOFflow.pdf. National Curriculum Development Centre, Republic of Uganda. Teacher’s Guide to Uganda Primary School Curriculum Vol.1. Uganda: National Curriculum Centre, 2000. Viewed 12 October 2014. http://www.projectoverseas.wikispaces.com/file/view/Teachers%27_Guide_Sectio n_a.pdf. Nationmaster. Uganda Education Stats. Viewed 12 December 2014. http://nationmaster.com/country-info/profiles/Uganda/Education. Norton, James. ‘Building Blocks: High-Level L earning Comes With Low-Tech Toys.’ Viewed 14 November 2014. http://www.csmonitor.com/The-culture/Family/Modern-Parenthood/2013/1001/ Building-blocks-High-level-learning-comes-with-low-tech-toys. Nowhitney, Rosarie. ‘Discovering Radical Hope at Kagoma Gate.’ Unpublished paper. Duke University: Kenan Institute for Ethics’s Focus Program 2012.

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__________________________________________________________________ Parsons, Joreta. Pilot Study: ‘The Impact Of The MiniChess™ Programme On School Readiness In An Informal Settlement In South Africa’. South, Africa: Dept. of Educational Psychology, University of Pretoria, South Africa. Sinclair, Harriet. ‘KEGS Pupil Takes On 12 Time Champion Garry Kasparov At House of Lords.’ 20 December 2014. Viewed 12 January 2015. http://essexchronicle.co.uk. Susan Polgar Foundation. ‘The Benefits of Chess.’ 2013. Viewed 10 December 2014. http://susanpolgar.com/susan-polgar-foundation-benefits.html. The World Bank. ‘Human Development Network, Education Notes: Achieving Universal Primary Education in Uganda: The Big Bang Approach.’ Viewed 22 December 2014. http://sitesources.worldbank.org/Education/Resources/EducationNotes/EduNOtesUganda.pdf. van der Merwe, Marisa and Kasparov Chess Foundation Africa. MiniChess™ ‘Teacher’s Manual Level 1. South Africa: MiniChess™, 2010. World Bank Release. ‘Millenium Development Goals Report for Uganda’. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2013. Viewed 10 October 2014. http://www.pnalopolis.iiep.unesco.com/upload/Uganda/%20MDG%20ReportOct%202013.pdf. World Bank Press Release. ‘Quality of Uganda’s Education and Health Services Poses Serious Risk to Long-Term Economic Progress’. Washington, D.C. :The World Bank, 2013. Viewed 28 December 2014. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2013/11/19/quality-ugandaeducation-and-health-services-poses-serious-risk-long-term-economic-progress. Yong, Ed. ‘Why Are There So Few Female Grandmasters?’ Viewed 7 November 2014. http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/12/23/why-are-there-so-fewfemale-chess-granmasters. Ann Fantauzzi is an educator with 34 years of elementary and gifted education experience. Now, an educational consultant for The Giving Circle, Inc. 501C)(3), she works in Uganda establishing innovative programs in Maths, Music, and a second language of sign language for all students in 2 schools. MiniChess™ is a program in Kagoma Gate village school in a sugar cane plantation.

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__________________________________________________________________ Marisa van der Merwe is the developer and CEO of MiniChess™ from South Africa. She won the Shoprite Women of the Year Award for the top educational program for 2012. She has presented the programme at Women in The World Summit in 2013, Global Conference of the ACEI in Vancouver, BC 2014, the London Chess & Education conference, 2013. She addressed the World Innovation Seminar on Education (WISE) and MiniChess™ was nominated for an award. Patricia Fennell is founder and CEO of Albany Health Management Associates who specializes in research in chronic illness, trauma, forensics and hospice. She is an author and lecturer on her Fennell Four Phase Treatment (FFPT)™ model. AHMA is a multidisciplinary organization focusing on global health concerns.

Towards a Pedagogy of Amazement and Proximity: A Conceptual Model to Promote Critical and Creative Thinking at School Clara Romero-Pérez and Luis Núñez-Cubero Abstract This chapter aims to describe an integrating pedagogic model for the promotion of creative, expressive and critical skills in obligatory education. First, we justify the relevance of the proposed model taking as reference the influence of digital society on the construction of knowledge among young people. This is followed by an analysis of the philosophical and scientific antecedents of the proposed model. We conclude that in order to encourage divergent and reflective styles of thinking among our students we must first systematically cultivate amazement as an emotion that generates knowledge. It is also necessary to foster an emotional climate, which promotes self-confidence, enjoyment of learning situations, the feeling of self-efficacy and positive activation of emotions. Excessive rationalization of the school experience has transformed the educational process into a dispassionate and mechanical discourse, lacking in playfulness. This is why experiential and theatre methodologies are proposed as an educational strategy to encourage thinking through ‘learning by acting’, which is appropriate for educating from amazement. Key Words: Critical thinking, creative thinking, dialogical thinking, pedagogic touch, empathy, experiential methodology, pedagogy of amazement, pedagogy of proximity, question culture. ***** 1. Why a Pedagogy of Amazement and Proximity? Reflections from Digital Society Almost two decades ago, the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, presided by Jacques Delors, edited a Report1 commissioned by the UNESCO to study and consider the challenges faced by education in the 21st century. The Commission focused its attention on a general issue: what type of education and society will be needed in the future? The answers to this question covered matters relating to the purposes, goals and functions of education, as well as matters relating to the models, structures, contents and operation of educational systems. As regards the first set of issues, the Commission stated that education for the 21st century was to be based on four pillars: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. Twenty years after the Delors Report, and already some way into the 21st century, the recommendations of the UNESCO continue to be valid. Let us

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__________________________________________________________________ examine two of the educational pillars identified by the commission in this report. One of these was ‘learning to know’, which requires making use of comprehension, superior cognitive skills, including those linked to creative thinking. A second pillar is that of ‘learning to be’, in which all emotional, communicative and expressive learning converges and contributes to personal construction processes. Although according to the reforms of the school curriculum these pillars are educational objectives, in practice teachers continue to orient teaching towards knowledge acquisition, and to a lesser extent, towards enabling students to use advanced cognitive skills such as application, analysis, synthesis and assessment. This statement is particularly applicable in European countries like Spain with a pedagogic culture that is more academics than pragmatic. In any case, in addition to the teaching styles of teaching staff and the cognitive skills they encourage among their students, we would like to focus our analysis on more general ideas which answer the question formulated with a reasoned argument. We must keep in mind the characteristics of the new type of society in which modern education functions: network-society or digital society. A society which offers new tools for self-learning, but also exposes individuals to a massive source of information stimuli which could hamper this process. It is worth noting the parallels between the development of digital society and the increasing number of children and young people who find it difficult to concentrate on academic activities. It is also worth noting how the frequent use young people make of Internet and social networks are mostly for entertainment and the flow of information.2 It is also curious to note that in contrast with the idea of a generation of ‘digital natives’, 3 adolescents and young people require complex learning processes to adapt to this new digital reality. Adolescents and young people also face paradoxical situations and risks they are aware of:4 a)

Risk of comfort: access to information with a click;

b) Risk of saturation: the flow of information can become unmanageable; c) Risk of volatility: communication and knowledge processes are swifter, but also more irrelevant and anecdotal. In addition to the above, another two are offered as hypotheses for consideration and debate: d) risk of weakening the capacity for amazement: saturation of information and the accommodating attitudes linked to access to

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__________________________________________________________________ one-click information, entail the risk of reducing the inquisitive, questioning and critical capacities that are crucial to the generation of reflective and interpretative knowledge of online and offline reality. In short, the risk of generating knowledge without amazement and generating amazement without knowledge;5 e) risk of isolation: although social networks offer the chance to strengthen ties at a distance, they pose the risk of generating low intensity, superfluous, volatile and depersonalised relationships. Paradoxically, adolescents and young people face new types of relationships with others lacking empathy. For these reasons we believe it is essential to incorporate a pedagogy of amazement and proximity if we really wish to promote critical, creative and expressive thinking from school on. In order to teach our students of all ages to value the contributions of science, arts, history and technology, and to rethink current culture, with all its achievements and errors. In order to promote divergent styles of thinking, we must begin by systematically cultivating amazement, as an emotion which generates knowledge. Nevertheless, critical, creative and reflective thinking also requires an atmosphere that will encourage this. We are not only referring to an inquisitive and exploratory intellectual climate, but also to a face-to-face or virtual emotional climate within the context of teaching to encourage self-confidence, enjoyment in learning situations, the feeling of self-efficacy and, in general, to boost emotions for positive activation. Extensive research supports the relationship between positive emotions (positive emotions for activation and deactivation) 6 and motivation, strategies for learning the full use of cognitive resources and the selfregulation of learning by learners. They have also shown that affective and communicative warmth in teacher-student interactions encourages surroundings that promote thinking. The principle of proximity refers to the importance of communication in personal construction processes. In digital society, the technology, which both brings people closer and distances them tends to generate depersonalised relationships in which interaction prevails over communication. In contrast, the Pedagogy of Proximity encourages communication and dialogue by personalising the teaching-learning processes - essential requirements- for a setting conducive to thinking.

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__________________________________________________________________ 2. Learning to Think: Theoretical-Educational Foundations of the Pedagogy of Amazement and Proximity In the field of education, the cognitive sphere of children and young people, the most frequently used teaching methodologies belong to active pedagogies oriented to pragmatics, 7 constructivism 8 or socio-constructivism. 9 To a lesser extent, dramatic language and the experience of school students have been introduced into the educational context as a way of teaching them to think (reflect, reason, contrast different points of view, etc.). This has generally been done with a view to the development of academic goals, although it has also had an effect on non-academic ones, encouraging the expressive and affective dimensions of school children. We are in full agreement with this way of developing superior cognitive skills, and there are numerous studies supporting the efficiency of these methodologies. Epistemologically, all these methodologies benefit from common proposals on teaching and learning. It is an external vision of learning, which depends greatly on the teaching processes induced by teachers. This idea, which appears to be valid for theoretical and instrumental learning, ceases to be so for axiological learning aimed at forming attitudes. However, the hypothesis in our model is completely different, as amazement and proximity are the cognitive and emotional dispositions, which mobilise knowledge. Teaching to think is a non-trivial, strategic, communicative and experiential process geared towards the creation of challenging learning atmospheres and dynamics in which practical and emotional intelligence on the part of the teacher are essential. In our model, teaching and learning to think are both sides of the same coin. Teaching is carried out in order to mobilise the types of learning we expect to promote in the training system designed. However, the nature of many types of learning makes it difficult to establish the extent of their success by the end of an education cycle. This is the case of ‘learning to think critically’ or ‘learning to be’, that is, the strictly educational types of learning, as opposed to the learning of cognitive and emotional skills which make up these forms of learning. In this respect, our initial hypothesis is that reflective and creative thinking assume that both teaching and learning are characteristically non-trivial processes, which require communication and the students' experience in order to be internalised. Teaching to think goes beyond encouraging thinking skills among learners. Although without a doubt this learning is important, it does not guarantee that the characteristic demands of the academic setting are going to be put into practice elsewhere. There is simply no guarantee that the questioning and reflective mind is strengthened, as there are no guarantees that amazement has been promoted as a generator of knowledge.

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__________________________________________________________________ Our model presupposes that talking about learning is to talk about selfconstruction and self-development processes and that the educator must accompany the learner in this process. Teaching must take into consideration the self-referential condition of learners, and therefore, their own capacity to create consistency or autonomy. This self-referential condition of learners makes education in general, and reflective and creative thinking in particular, into characteristically open, creative, indeterminate and unpredictable processes. These processes come from the learners themselves, and they also direct them. 3. To Conclude Considering the autonomy of the learner means that the most effective way to overcome reluctance to learn on the part of school children is to implement indirect — experiential and play methods—, with teachers also actively listening. In addition, we must keep in mind that all teaching and learning processes involve communication, exchange and interpretation on the part of teacher and learner, in a pedagogic interaction which affects both parties. Educational interaction does not occur in a void, but rather represents a vital space for relationships, known in Pedagogy as the climate in the classroom. In this respect, teaching to think forces us to also consider the communicative context within which both teachers and students participate and build. It is difficult for these types of learning to be developed fully if the capacity for amazement of school children is blocked by stimulus saturation or an intellectual climate in the classroom, which is more focused on achievable learning goals than on the affective and cognitive processes involved. Finally, teaching and learning processes are experiential processes occurring in the first person. Excessive rationalisation of experience has caused this process to become dispassionate, lacking in positive active feelings and emotions and dulling playfulness within the learning process. In this respect, experiential and drama methodologies can provide teaching geared towards the promotion of thinking through ’learning by acting’ -a system that is appropriate for educating from amazement. Humanist experiential and creative pedagogies inspired by Boal, 10 Stenberg, 11 De Bono, 12 and systemic-constructivist pedagogies provide the epistemological and scientific support for a pedagogy of amazement and proximity.

Notes 1

Unesco, ‘Los Cuatro Pilares de la Educación’ La Educación Encierra un Tesoro, (Madrid: Santillana, 1996), 96-110. 2 Ignacio Megías Quirós and Elena Rodríguez San Julián, Jóvenes y Comunicación. La Impronta de lo Virtual (Madrid: Centro Reina Sofía sobre Adolescencia y

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__________________________________________________________________ Juventud CRS and Fundación de Ayuda contra la Drogadicción FAD, 2014), 113158. 3 Marc Prensky, Enseñar a Nativos Digitales (Madrid: Ediciones SM, 2011), 13. 4 Mejías Quirós and Rodríguez San Julián, Jóvenes y Comunicación. La Impronta de lo Virtual, 116. 5 Luis Núñez Cubero, La Escuela Tiene la Palabra (Madrid: PPC, 2000), 71. 6 Reinhard Pekrun, et al., ‘Academic Emotions in Students, Self-Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research. Educational Psychologist 37.2 (2002): 91-105. 7 See John Dewey, How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process (Boston, MA: Health and Company, 1933). 8 See Matthew Lipman, La Filosofía en el Aula (Madrid: Ediciones de la Torre, 2002) and Reuven Feurstein, Rafael S. Feurstein and Louis Falik, Beyond Smarter: Mediatet Learning and the Brain’s Capacity for Change (New York, NY: Teachers College Press, University of Columbia, 2010). 9 See Robert Fisher, Diálogo Creativo. Hablar para Pensar en el Aula (Madrid:Morata, 2013). Neil Mercer and Karen Littleton, Dialogue and the Development of Children’s Thinking: A sociocultural Approach (Abindong, Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2007). 10 See Augusto Boal, El Arco Iris del Deseo. Del Teatro Experimental a la Terapia. (Barcelona: Alba Editorial, 2004) and Augusto Boal, Juegos para Actores y no Actores 4th ed. (Barcelona: Alba Editorial, 2008). 11 See Robert J. Sternberg, Estilos de Pensamiento. Claves para Identificar Nuestro Modo de Pensar y Enriquecer Nuestra Capacidad de reflexión (Barcelona: Paidós, 1999). 12 See Edward De Bono, Manual de Sabiduría. Nuevas Técnicas para Agilizar la Mente y Potenciar la Creatividad (Barcelona: Paidós, 2013).

Bibliography Boal, Augusto. El Arco Iris del Deseo. Del Teatro Experimental a la Terapia. Barcelona: Alba Editorial, 2004. ———. Juegos para Actores y no Actores. 4th ed. Barcelona: Alba Editorial, 2008, De Bono, Edward. Manual de Sabiduría. Nuevas Técnicas para Agilizar la Mente y Potenciar la Creatividad. Barcelona: Paidós, 2013.

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__________________________________________________________________ Dewey, John. How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. Boston, MA: Heath,1933. Fisher, Robert. Diálogo Creativo. Hablar para Pensar en el Aula. Madrid: Morata, 2013. Haynes, Joanna and Karry Murris. ‘The Provocation of an Epistemological Shift in Teacher Education through Philosophy with Children’. Journal of Philosophy of Education 45. 2 (2011): 285-303. Hersch, Jeanne. El Gran Asombro. La Curiosidad como Estímulo en la Historia de la filosofía. Barcelona: Acantilado, 2010. L’Écuyer, Catherine. Educar en el Asombro. Barcelona: Plataforma Editorial, 2012. Mejías Quirós, Ignacio and Rodríguez San Julián, Elena. Jóvenes y Comunicación. La Impronta de lo Virtual. Madrid:Centro Reina Sofía sobre Adolescencia y Juventud CRS and Fundación de Ayuda contra la Drogadicción FAD, 2014, viewed 26 April 2015, http://adolescenciayjuventud.org/es/publicaciones/monografias-yestudios/item/jovenes-y-comunicacion-la-impronta-de-lo-virtual Nottingham, James. Encouraging Learning: How You Can Help Children Learn. London: Routledge, 2013. Núñez Cubero, Luis. La Escuela Tiene la Palabra. Temas Educativos para la Reflexión y el Debate. Madrid: PPC, 2000. Pekrun, Reinhard, Thomas Goetz, Wolfram Titz and Raymond P. Perry. ‘Academic Emotions in Students’ Self- Regulated Learning and Achievement: A Program of Qualitative and Quantitative Research.’ Educational Psychologist 37.2 (2002): 91-105. Prensky, Marc. Enseñar a Nativos Digitales (Madrid: Ediciones SM, 2011). Sternberg, Robert J. Estilos de Pensamiento. Claves para Identificar Nuestro Modo de Pensar y Enriquecer Nuestra Capacidad de Reflexión. Barcelona: Paidós, 1999.

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Towards a Pedagogy of Amazement and Proximity

__________________________________________________________________ Toivanen, Tapio, Kauko Komulainen and Heikki Ruismäki. ‘Drama Education and Improvisation as a Resource of Teacher Student’s Creativity’. Procedia. Social and Behavioral Sciences 12 (2011): 60-69. Viewed 26 April 2015. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042811001005 Unesco. La Educación Encierra un Tesoro. Informe de la Comisión Internacional sobre la Educación para el Siglo XXI Presidida por Jacques Delors (Madrid: Santillana/Edicaciones Unesco, 1996). Clara Romero-Pérez is a Senior Lecturer on Educational Theory and Philosophy at the Department of Theory and History of Education and Social Pedagogy, University of Sevilla (Spain). Her teaching and research interests focus on best practices in Critical Thinking, Learning to Learn and emotional competences teaching and learning. Luis Núñez-Cubero is Professor Emeritus of Education at the Department of Theory and History of education and Social Pedagogy, University of Sevilla (Spain). He has taught at the University of Sevilla, as well as the University of Liège (Belgium), and University Mayor (Chile) developing some Postgraduate Doctoral Courses. Director of GRIEED (Research Group on Emotional Education and Drama) at University of Sevilla (Spain). His teaching and research interests focus on best practices in emotional competences teaching and learning throuhg drama techiques. He has also authored more than 100 published articles, technical reports, books and book chapters.