Cherokees in transition: a study of changing culture and environment prior to 1775 9780226303895, 9780890650882

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (page iii)
LIST OF TABLES (page vii)
LIST OF FIGURES (page ix)
I. INTRODUCTION (page 1)
II. CHEROKEE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT (page 6)
III. PRECONTACT CHEROKEE HABITAT: SETTLEMENT PATTERNS (page 31)
IV. PRECONTACT CHEROKEE HABITAT: PLANT ASSOCIATIONS (page 49)
V. PRECONTACT CHEROKEE HABITAT: FAUNAL RESOURCES (page 66)
VI. POSTCONTACT PERIOD: CHANGING SETTLEMENT PATTERNS (page 82)
VII. MODIFICATIONS IN CULTURAL ECOLOGIC ASSOCIATIONS (page 125)
VIII. SUMMARY (page 147)
APPENDIX 1 (page 153)
APPENDIX 2 (page 157)
APPENDIX 3 (page 165)
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY (page 177)

Citation preview

cg ~ CHEROKEES IN TRANSITION: A Study of Changing Culture and Environment Prior to 1775

, Gary C. Goodwin

, Copyright 1977 by Gary C. Goodwin , Published 1977 by The Department of Geography The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Cherokees in transition. a

Goodwin, Gary C., 1940-

(Research Paper—University of Chicago, Dept. of Geography; no. 181 )

Bibliography: p. 177

1. Cherokee Indians—History. 2. Human ecology—Southern States. I. Title. II. Series: Chicago. University. Dept. of Geography. Research Paper; No. 181.

E99.C5G65 _970’.004’97 , 77-2709 ISBN 0-89065-088-8 —

| Research Papers are available from: The University of Chicago

, Department of Geography - 5828 S. University Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60637 Price: | §.06 list; $5.00 series subscription

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For indispensable help in furnishing research and reference materials, I am particularly grateful to the librarians and staff at the Joseph Regenstein Library (University of Chicago), the Library of Congress Manuscript Department, National Anthropological Archives of the Smithsonian Institution, the New York Public Library, and the State University of New York at Stony Brook. This work would not have been possible without the guidance and encouragement of several scholars and friends. Professor Marvin Mikesell, chairman of my dissertation committee, made numerous beneficial comments and editorial suggestions from the beginning of the study. I am especially fortunate and grateful in having a chairman who possesses a broad interest and understanding of interdisciplinary scholarship and who encourages the same from his students. Without his guidance it is doubtful that I would have had the will to complete this study. Professor Raymond Fogelson provided invaluable assistance in countless hours of discussion on virtually every aspect of Cherokee culture. His encyclopedic knowledge of the Cherokees never ceases to amaze me and his great enthusiasm for the Cherokees is contagious and inspiring. Others have helped considerably by providing information and assistance: William Pattison of the University of Chicago served as the third member of my dissertation committee; Roy Dickens of Georgia State University offered valuable insight into Cherokee archeology and reviewed the chapter on precontact Cherokee settlements; Betty Smith of the University of Georgia made available

her fine manuscript on Cherokee settlement patterns; James Glenn of the Na- | tional Anthropological Archives provided ready access to many unpublished

, manuscripts and field notes; Duane King, Director of the new Museum of the Cherokee Indian, provided a variety of useful information concerning Cherokee studies; Tony Tucci of the Nassau-Suffolk County Regional Planning Board assisted in the preparation of the maps; and, the geography students at the University of Chicago shared in my eratifications and vexations.

Last and most important, I would like to thank my wife, Dorette, for

, ili

proofreading the manuscript and unfaltering patience and constant encouragement. My accomplishment is her accomplishment for it would have been impos-

sible alone. ,

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS , Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .........2.0 2.2 eee eee ee ene eee ili

LIST OF TABLES .......... 2.40. ee ee ee ew ee ee tt ee vii

LIST OF FIGURES ... 0.0.0.0... eee ee ee ee ix Chapter

Procedure |

I. INTRODUCTION ............ 0.80.2 eee eevee enas 1 Methodological Difficulties |

II. CHEROKEE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT .............. 6 Phy siography

Natural Vegetation Zones Principal Drainage Networks Climate, Soils, and Minerals

Il. PRECONTACT CHEROKEE HABITAT: SETTLEMENT PATTERNS 31

, Origins and Early Movements

Location and Regional Divisions Settlement Types Demographic Factors

IV. PRECONTACT CHEROKEE HABITAT: PLANT ASSOCIATIONS . . 49 Cultivated Crops (New World Origin) Wild Vegetation--Vegetables and Fruits Wild Vegetation--Nuts and Seeds

Herbs and Other Non-Food Plants ,

The Indian as an Ecologic Force Summary

Mammals / , Fish

V. PRECONTACT CHEROKEE HABITAT: FAUNAL RESOURCES .. 66 Birds

Amphibians and Reptiles Insects The Indian as an Ecologie Force summary

V.

Chapter Page

, VI. POSTCONTACT PERIOD: CHANGING SETTLEMENT PATTERNS . 82 Initial European Movements into Cherokee Country

, Trade Routes Linking European and Cherokee Settlements Effects of Trade and Colonial Policy on Settlements Warfare Disease and Population

| Resultant Changes in Settlement Patterns

VII. MODIFICATIONS IN CULTURAL ECOLOGIC ASSOCIATIONS .... 125 Precontact Cherokee Agricultural and Hunting Activities Introduction of New Flora Introduction of New Fauna Cultural Ecologic Changes

Vill. SUMMARY........ 2.2... ee eee ee ee ee ee eee eee) 14T

APPENDIX1.. 2... 2. 2 ee ee ee ee ee ee ee = 158 APPENDIX 2.......0. 0.0.0. ee ee ee eee eee ew ee ee ee ew ee) 157

APPENDIX 3.........0 0... + ee eee ee ee ee ewe ee we es) 165 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .................2.2.2.2.2.2.2. L177

vi :

Table Page LIST OF TABLES

1. Altitudes in Some Major Peaks of the Southern Appalachian

Highlands... ... 2... 2 ee ee ee 13

2. Precontact Cherokee Settlements. .................. £44 3. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Cultivated Crops ........... £157 4. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Wild Vegetation--Vegetables and

Fruits 2... 2. et ee ee ee ee ee ©6198

o. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Wild Vegetation--Nuts and Seeds .. 161 6. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Herbs and Other Non-Food Plants. . 162

7. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Mammals............... £4165

8. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Birds ................. 167 9. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Fish ................. £172 10. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Amphibians and Reptiles. ...... 178

11. Precontact Cherokee Habitat: Insects .........4.4..2.4.. 175 | 12. Shipments to England from South Carolina, 1700-1715 ....... 96 13. Rate of Exchange between Charleston and Cherokee Traders, 1716. 96 14. "List of the Names of the Towns in the Middle and Back Settlements, Burnt by the Detachment under the Command of Col. Grant of the

40th Regiment". . 2... 2 2. ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ©6105

15. Census of the Cherokees in 1721 ................... 108 16. Cherokee Population as Reported by Various Sources, 1670-1775 . 111

17. Cherokee Settlements, 1755 ...............2.2..24...2. 118 18. Cherokee Settlements, 1771-1775 ........0.......2.2.2. #122 19. Pre-Revolutionary Cherokee Habitat: Introduced Flora. ...... 131 20. Pre-Revolutionary Cherokee Habitat: Introduced Fauna ...... 136 } Vil

BLANK PAGE

Figure Page LIST OF FIGURES ,

1. Core Area of Cherokee Settlement. ...............2.. 7 2. Precontact Cherokee Claimed Lands ..............6. 9 3. Physiographic Divisions of Cherokee Country............ 11

4. Diagram of Physiographic and Natural Vegetation Zones of the

Southern Appalachian Region .............4.2+4-+e868 17

o. Average Annual Precipitation .............0.+4+e408-8 27

CG 97

6. Precontact Cherokee Settlements and Regional Clusters ...... 45

7. Early European Movements into Cherokee Country ......... 85 8. Principal Trails Linking Early Cherokee and European Settlements 89 9. Movement of European Trade Goods to Indian Settlements, 1690-

10. Cherokee Settlements, 1755 ......2..2....4. 2024088088 117

11, Cherokee Settlements, 1771-1775 ..........0-000004 121

1x

BLANK PAGE

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

Postcontact Cherokee attitudes toward land use and resource management reflected to a large extent the rapid diffusion into Indian culture of foreign technological and social mechanisms. : What were some of these cultural historical

processes that nurtured ecological variation within Cherokee lands prior to loss

| of autonomy in 1775? And how did natural forces affect and/or influence cultural patterns during the same period? Since the answers to these and related questions have received scant attention, it is the purpose of this study to describe from a comparative eco-historical perspective, the multitudinous changes that occurred within the Cherokee cultural environmental system during the period preceding the American Revolution. The function and importance of ecologic and cultural variables within Cherokee society can be properly understood only by "crossing disciplinary boundaries" (Leeds and Vayda, 1965). An examination of several aspects of this environment, such as biotic types, distributions, and associations, is requisite to gaining an understanding of salient socioeconomic characteristics. Furthermore, an analysis of plant origins and usages requires an awareness of botany and ecology. Recognizing a "natural distribution" or "natural plant formation" is possible only if the observer has ''checked the plant in question against plant uses of the people of the area, past and present" (Carter, 1950: 76; also see Darling and Milton, 1966: 425; and, Dice, 1955: 22). Thus, an_ awareness of environmental conditions and natural forces, plus the interrelationship between culture and environment is critical if ethnographic reconstruction is to have significant value. Consequently, this study views the Cherokee Indians as functioning members of an elaborate ecosystem. This system included plants and animals that were closely interrelated within the confines of specific niches. Since the Cher-

‘he term "'precontact" refers to that period in Cherokee history immediately preceding continuous contacts with the European, sometime toward the end of the seventeenth century. ''Postcontact" refers to the period of EFuropean contacts up to 1775, or the outbreak of the American Revolution. It was at this time that the Cherokee Indians lost a good part of their ancient lands, as well

as their political autonomy.

1,

9,

okee Indians existed only as a single element within the ecosystem, it is necessary to examine the interconnection between the human agency and other physical phenomena, e.g., flora and fauna, topography, soil and water; as well as the aggregate of ecologically-related forces that prevailed within the Cherokee habitat over a particular time continuum. Specifically, a two-fold scheme is implemented in order to understand the fluctuating and critical cultural ecologic changes that the Cherokees experienced from the precontact to the early colonial period. The initial objective centers on providing a thorough reconstruction of ecologic conditions among the precontact Cherokee Indians. An analysis of aboriginal Indian settlement patterns, demographic characteristics, and animal-plant associations demonstrates the closeness of the man-land relationship during the

period preceding White intrusions. ,

| The second goal of this study is to examine environmental change in the period from 1690 (approximate date of initial European contacts) to 1775, during which time rapidly increasing cultural modification occurred as a consequence of acculturation. Environmental changes, concomitant with advancing technological innovations and intensified White influence, resulted in permanent transformations within the Cherokee culture. Evidence that undeniably demonstrates this rapidly transmuted cultural ecologic framework, all indicative of the European influence, include: (1) Indian dependence upon guns for warfare as well as for hunting; (2) expansion and contraction (after 1750) of deerskin trade; (3) gradual adoption of metal tools and equipment; (4) preference for European-type cloth; (5) exposure to new diseases; (6) changes in demographic patterns; and (7) gradual acceptance of new types of plant and animal life. This study follows a diachronic approach in order to examine the continual fluctuations and constant modifications in the cultural ecologic milieu of the

Cherokee Indians. Cultural adaptations are linked to the introduction of new , technology and the concomitant changes in landscape. As the conditions of livelihood and techniques of resource management changed, the Cherokee habitat also changed as a consequence of new technologies. Methodological Difficulties

Several fundamental problems confront the geographer who is concerned with the cultural ecology of the American Indian. Most important is the comparative absence of geographical materials related to specific Indian tribes, including the Cherokees, and/or to the general topic of cultural ecology, since in both

3

cases the great bulk of information is ethnographical and anthropological. Con- , sequently, it is imperative to establish certain guidelines and basic methodological procedures that are unique to the geographer whose interests may focus on the American Indian and cultural ecology. For instance, over the past century the formulation of anthropological theories related to the connection between culture and environment reveals a divergence of opinions concerning the predominance of either force. Boas' (1938: 95-123) criticism of nineteenth century evolutionists (Tylor, 1871; Morgan, 1877) seemed somewhat extreme itself, and his emphasis on diffusion reduced the environmental factor significantly. Some of Boas’ colleagues viewed the issue differently. Most notably, Wissler (1924, 1926) and Kroeber (1939) emphasized the culture-area concept and attempted to relate, spatially and tempo-

, rally (especially Kroeber, 1944), the cultural and natural features of habitat (see Stocking, 1968, and Ehrich and Henderson, 1968). By the 1930s, however, the concepts of diffusionism and evolutionism as predominant anthropological theories had been successfully challenged by the structural-functionalist theories derived from Malinowski (1929, 1931) and Radcliffe-Brown (1931). Subsequent to the 1930s, and specifically since Steward published his seminal work, Theory of Culture Change in 1955, there has been a swing back to

_ the importance of environment in affecting cultural processes. An ecological approach to the study of Indian culture is now accepted (Eggan, 1950), although

variations (White, 1959; Sahlins and Service, 1960) and criticism (Helm, 1962; Kroeber, 1939) pervade the literature.

, Geographers have also indicated an interest in the man-land association. Among those who were instrumental in shaping geographical theory concerning |

| the culture-environmental relationship were Friedrich Ratzel (1921-22) and Ellen C. Semple (1911). Ratzel's and Semple's views concerning the importance of environment in affecting culture had a considerable impact upon the entire discipline of geography. The concept of environmentalism dominated geographic thought until challenged by Carl Sauer (1925) and others (Platt, 1948; Bowman, 1934; Vidal de la Blache, 1926; Febvre, 1925). Sauer perceived man as the ecologic dominant and maintained that all geography was historical. Most of the research on the American Indian by geographers has been relatively scant and largely dominated by a few people. In the 1920s and 1930s Jonas Hoover of Arizona State Teachers College completed several studies of the Hopi Indians (1929a, 1929b, 1930, 1931la, 1931b, 1936, 1937). Inthe 1940s Leslie Hewes of the University of Nebraska undertook a number of important

4|, - investigations of the Oklahoma Cherokees (1940, 1942a, 1942b, 1942c, 1943, 1944). More recently, cultural geographers such as Ballas (1960, 1962, 1966, 1970), Wilms (1973, 1974, 1975), Ray (1971, 1972, 1975, 1976), McIntire (1967a, 1967b, 1969a, 1969b, 1971), and Sutton (1967, 1975), have offered valuable regional and topical accounts on the American Indian. : Sauer has been the

most prominent geographer to express serious interest in studies of the American Indian, although his accounts (1969a, 1969b, 1969c) focus primarily on plant domestication and agricultural origins. Louis DeVorsey of the University of Georgia has offered several fine accounts of the historical geography of the southeastern American Indians, although the cultural ecologic perspective is of secondary importance in his work (1961, 1966, 1971). DeVorsey, Hewes, and Wilms are the only geographers who have made specific contributions in the field of Cherokee studies.

, Procedure |

This study is designed to support the hypothesis that precontact Cherokee cultural ecologic processes were reciprocal in nature and entailed a delicate interrelationship, favorable to both tribal well-being and ecologic equilibrium, within the Cherokee milieu. Furthermore, it is evident that economic needs and activities were directly related to biotic forces and potentialities. Unpredictable fluctuations and periodic alterations in the ecosystem induced culturally adaptive responses from the Indians. After the Whites had filtered into Cherokee country, processes encouraging culture change, such as new technology, foreign values, and variegated external agencies, led to a rapid transformation within the cultural ecologic setting. Consequently, a logical first step in examining the cultural ecology of the Cherokee Indians is to provide a detailed account of the physiography of this hab-

itat, which is the purpose of Chapter II. Chapters III and IV concentrate on aspects of precontact Cherokee cul-

tural ecology, e.g., settlement patterns, fauna, and floral types, distributions and usages. The relative importance of ecological, mythological, and historical forces and their effects on specific features of Cherokee society is apparent

throughout this discussion. .

The second part of the study (Chapters V and VI) provides a detailed exam-

t Por a partially complete bibliography of geographical literature pertain-

ae to the American Indian for the period 1920-1971, see Carlson, 1972: 258-

9)

ination and comparative analysis of those variables responsible for cultural ecologic change in the postcontact period. Emphasis is placed on the impact of technology upon nature and society, and on the concomitant alterations in cultural preferences.

- CHAPTERIT CHEROKEE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

At its greatest extent the area claimed by the Cherokee Indians included all of what presently constitutes the northern portions of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina, and also western North Carolina, southwest Virginia and West Virginia, the entire state of Kentucky, and Tennessee east of the Tennessee River (Figures 1, 2). Physiographically, the Cherokee realm can best be described as that portion of eastern North America comprising the core of the Southern Appalachian highland region. The southern division of this great continental mountain chain is separated from the Northern Appalachian system where the New or Kanawha River cuts through the Appalachian Valley and the - Alleghenies. As Figure 2 indicates, the Cherokees considered this prominent

geographical boundary as the northern frontier of their lands. | Throughout the Southern Appalachian system, striking contrasts are evident in both topography and geologic structure. However, it should be emphasized that as a mountain people the Cherokees concentrated their principal activities almost exclusively in a specific subdivision of the Southern Appalachian physical zone. Cherokee utilization and occupance of these lands was quite uneven and highly clustered. The heartland of Cherokee territory, which involved virtually all settlements and primary economic and social activity outside of hunting, is depicted in Figure 1. Nonetheless, warfare and hunting forays did carry the Cherokees into such distant territories as the Interior Lowlands of western Tennessee, Kentucky, and northwestern Alabama; as well as into the plateau and valley regions of southwestern Virginia and West Virginia. Phy siography

For the purposes of this study, Cherokee-occupied lands consisted of the following physiographic zones: (1) Southern Appalachian Mountain System, (2) Piedmont Plateau, (3) Appalachian Valleys and Ridges, (4) Cumberland Pla-

teau, (5) Interior Lowlands (Figure 3). | :

|6,|

In the following section, each zone is described as it appears today.

j / * ‘i ‘ . 7

0 100 200 ‘ ee — 50 me Figure | 7 Ma. @ miles v I Ss \|

Core Area of Cherokee Settlement

») } teal Virginia z Kentucky yp __—_ ‘ t Ps _ ae ae — sy lly — é ssesccses | f Tennessee RRR, Monin fatolina Y Ninois yy West Mane

: |\ \\ ,a ’ on a Y aesssse seas a,

/ ° ; ‘ \\ South Carolina .

Mississippi =| = Alabama 7 4 ATLANTIC OCEAN

' \ Georgia Lae ,

Figure 1.--Core Area of Cherokee Settlement

Landscape changes wrought by man’s activities will be noted in later chapters. Also, it should be reiterated that the descriptions of each zone, and their subdivisions, concentrates on those features of the landscape that were most relevant to Indian culture. Accordingly, fringe areas and their geomorphic structure and characteristics are given proportionately less attention than the core region. Southern Appalachian Mountain System

This physiographic division consists of a high, unglaciated mountainous region originating as a single range in Virginia, and eventually bifurcating at the southern end of the state into two separate systems: the Blue Ridge Mountains, and the Unaka Mountains (including Iron and Great Smoky Mountains). The Blue Ridge, or eastern division of this two-pronged mountain chain, borders the great Tennessee Valley and forms the divide between waters flowing east into the Atlantic Ocean and west to the Mississippi River. This upland system presents a highly irregular, disjointed mountainous body, with frequent directional changes and curves marking its contour. Although most peaks aver-

8

age over 3, 000 feet, with greatest consistency in the north near the Broad River where elevations vary from 3, 100 to 3, 800 feet, greater diversity is evident in the southern part of the chain, where several peaks and ridges reach very impressive summits, e.g., Grandfather Mountain (5, 964 feet), Pinnacle Mountain (5, 693 feet), and Standing Indian (5, 562 feet). Although four additional peaks reach over 5, 000 feet, the Blue Ridge eventually slopes into the Piedmont Region south of the Little Tennessee River Basin. The irregularity of the southern Blue Ridge zone is expressed in great depressions (2, 200 to 3, 700 feet) that separate some of the loftier peaks. For example, spurs of the southeastern Blue Ridge, such as the Saluda Mountains in northwest South Carolina, are situated between the Chatuga and Estatoe Rivers where narrow valleys and deep gorges are overlooked by majestic 4,000 foot peaks (Sims, 1843; Guyot, 1861). Running parallel to the Blue Ridge Mountains in the west and lying chiefly in Tennessee to the east of the great Tennessee Valley are the Unakas. Extending southwest to northeast, this impressive chain (along with the Traverse

, Chain) reaches greater heights than any other mountain system east of the Rockies. Cut by many rivers flowing out of the Blue Ridge, eighteen of its peaks extend over 5, 000 feet, and eight more reach above 6, 000 feet. Mt. Guyot (6, 621 feet) and Clingman's Dome (6, 642 feet) in the Smoky Mountains exemplify the highest summits in the entire chain, only slightly lower than the single highest point in the eastern United States--Mt. Mitchell (6, 684 feet), situated in the Black Mountains of the Traverse Chain in North Carolina. Apart from the Great Smoky Mountains, which stand as the culminating point of the Unakas, most other summits within the chain vary from 4, 000 to 5, 000 feet in elevation. For instance, south of the Big Pigeon River, the highest summit reaches over 5, 000 feet, while north of the same river most peaks are over 4, 000 but less than 5,000 feet. In all, the Unakas include 125 summits which rise over 5, 000 feet and ten exceed 6, 000 feet (U.S. Department of

| Agriculture, 1902). | Adjacent to and connecting the Blue Ridge and Unaka Mountains are a

series of fragmented, rib-like uplands. These so-called Traverse Chains, which extend in a northwest direction, constitute a group of mountain ranges corresponding in height to the Great Smokies. Actually the Black Mountain chain stands higher than either the Unakas or the Blue Ridge. At least twenty peaks reach above 6, 000 feet with Mt. Mitchell (6, 684 feet) being the loftiest. Overall the Traverse Chains contain over 156 summits above 5, 000 feet and thirty-six with peaks above 6, 000 feet. Combined with the Smokies, the Tra-

.9

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verse Chain constitutes the loftiest section of the Southern Appalachian Mountain System. Piedmont Plateau

The Piedmont Plateau lies between the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the

Appalachian Mountains. Structurally, it is a dissected upland, consisting of pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks and underlain by Paleozoic limestone (Stuckey, 1965: 16). The bulk of the plateau extends through Georgia and North Carolina, constituting 31 per cent and 40 per cent respectively of the total areas of each state (LaForge, 1925: 57). The remaining area of the Piedmont extends from southern Virginia to east-central Alabama. The greatest portion of Piedmont Georgia is found in the Central Uplands. Relief is very sharp here as a result of continued erosion and weathering of the crystalline rock which in some areas has badly disintegrated. Characteristic of the diversity of relief in Piedmont Georgia are a scattering of small mountains, or monadnocks (100-1, 000 feet), which are sometimes grouped into minor mountain chains. Additionally, the uplands of Georgia are drained in sev_ eral directions; the Savannah River provides the major drainage network southeast to the Atlantic, the Chattahoochee River drains to the southwest, the Tallapoosa to the west, and the Coosa River to the northwest (LaForge, 1925: 59).

| The monadnocks crowd the northern rim of Piedmont Georgia, which is a | subplateau of the Central Upland and is referred to as the Dahlonega Plateau. It is the highest point in Piedmont Georgia at 1, 400-1, 600 feet. Dissection and sharp valleys give evidence of the numerous active streams flowing quite strongly into the Appalachian Valley, e.g., tributaries of the Coosawattee (Fenneman, 1938: 136). Southwest of the Dahlonega Plateau the landscape takes on a more undulating appearance (Atlantic Plateau) and several important river systems flow through this zone, e.g., Chattahoochee, Etowah, and their tributaries. The southwest part of the Georgia Piedmont is referred to as the Tallapoosa Upland--where altitudes reach 1, 100-1, 300 feet above sea level. Relief is again rugged, with an escarpment sloping to the southeast, while in the north the region is bounded by a valley and a central stretch of upland containing monadnocks and irregular tracts of rough terrain. Next to the Tallapoosa Upland in Piedmont Alabama are the Ashland and Opelika Plateaus. Topographic features of these regions parallel those of the Tallapoosa Uplands and Georgia Piedmont (Johnston, 1930: 15-16). North Carolina's Piedmont area (roughly 20,000 square miles) rises inthe

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12

east to 600 feet and reaches 1, 500-2, 000 feet in the west near the base of the Blue Ridge escarpment; the average elevation of the entire area is 1, 000 feet. The eastern section of the plateau consists of numerous ridges, hills, and mountains, including the South and the Brushy Mountain chains. In the south are spurs of the Blue Ridge Mountains projecting into the Piedmont, e.g., Linville Mountains, Hickory Nut, Saluda, and White Oak Mountains. The topography of the Piedmont is greatly affected by stream flow; the major river networks include, the Dan River system and its tributaries (Tar, Neuse, and Cape Fear) that flow south to southeast into the coastal plain, and the Yadkin, Catawba, and Broad rivers that flow to the southwest of the plateau (Kerr, 1875). Appalachian Valley and Ridges

The Appalachian Valley and Ridge zone lies between the Cumberland Plateau to the west and the Appalachian Mountain system to the east. Geologically, the Valley and Ridge region constitutes parallel ridges of folded Paleozoic

rocks (Butts et al., 1933: 1). The northern limit of this physiographic zone is fixed at the Tennessee-New River divide where valley floors are narrow and mountain ridges reach 2, 500 feet. The Valley extends obliquely northeast into Virginia with ridges peaking at 3, 000 feet, while southward the great Valley curves through middle Tennessee and into north Georgia and Alabama.

Lands north of Knoxville consist primarily of great parallel ridges. Valleys within these ridges are rarely below 1, 200-1, 300 feet and commonly present a local relief of from 300 to 400 feet. Numerous steep and pointed mountains fringe the valleys and add a prominent configuration to the landscape. Most distinct of the parallel ridges are the Clinch, Powell's, and Bay's mountains. This entire northeast section of the Great Appalachian Valley, with its many narrow ridges and ''knobs" (conical-shaped hills that are often found in clusters), matches very closely in height with the adjacent Appalachian highlands (Safford, 1869: 47). | Southwest of Knoxville, and continuing across the Tennessee and Hiwassee Rivers into Alabama and Georgia, the Appalachian Valley is lower in relief and is interrupted by only one significant crest--White Oak Mountain (813 feet). The eastern Tennessee Valley broadens to five or six miles between the Tennessee and Hiwassee Rivers, while elevation generally rises no higher than 1, 000 feet near the Georgia border. As the Appalachian Valley continues into Georgia, local relief becomes sharper. Principal valleys in north Georgia include the Rome Valley, drained

13 TABLE 1

ALTITUDES IN SOME MAJOR PEAKS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN HIGHLANDS

Unaka-Smoky Chain ,

Big Frog 4, 226 feet Big Sassafras 4, 000 Laurel Top 0,4,355 369 Little Snowbird

Bald Spot 4,622 North Bald Thunderhead 4,711 2, 020 Laurel Peak 0,394 922 Snake D0, Guy ot 6, 621

Big Cataluche 6, 159 Crabtree Bald D, 336

Roan 6, 313 Big Stone 0, 614 Beech Qo, 222 Clingman's 6, 642 Sugar 5, 228 High Pinnacle 0, 964 693 Grandfather 0, , Little Pisgah 4,417 Stone 3, 632 Little Terrapin , 4,028 Standing Indian 0, 062 Blue Ridge

Panther Tail 4,916. Cold 4,631 Cheowah Maximum 4,9960, 314 Tusquittah Nantehaleh Gap 4,158 Cowee Old Bald 4,977 Cross Chain

Plott Balsam (Balsam Mountains) 6, 200

Beech Oo, 222 Craggy 6, 605

, Mitchell (Black Mountains) 6, 684

South 3, 306 Brushy (Poor's Knob) 2, 665 , Saluda , 2, 869 Piedmont

14

by the Coosa River and its tributaries (especially the Oostanaula); the Armuchee Ridges, which are rough-surfaced lands with poor soils; and, the Chickamauga Valley, the lowest and most level of the valleys, in the divide between the drainage basin of the Tennessee River in the north and Coosa River in the south (Campbell, 1925: 140-4). _ Elsewhere, the Valley extends into northeastern Alabama to include: the Weisner Ridge, a dissected mountain of strong relief that includes the Choccolocco Valley; the Coosa Valley extending 100 miles south and characterized as a "mature plain with structural ridges of low relief, '' the Coosa Ridges--rising to 1, 500 feet or 600 feet off the valley floor; the Cahaba Ridges and BirminghamBig Canoe Valleys that extend in parallel northeast belts towards central Ala-

| bama (Johnston, 1930: 18). Also worth noting are some of the outlying valleys or coves which are attached to the surrounding Unakas and associated chains. Some of the more important coves include: in the southwest, the highly elevated Cade's Cove which lies near the Chilhowee Mountains and Abram's Creek; and, in the northeast, Johnson County Cove which is drained by the Watauga River and flanked by the Stone and Iron Mountain Ranges.

, Cumberland Plateau This plateau is essentially an escarpment sloping to the southeast and rising in a northwest direction from north Alabama into east Tennessee and Kentucky, and finally into West Virginia where it continues northward after connecting with the North Appalachian System. While the escarpment is quite prominent and distinct in the western portions of Tennessee and Alabama, the opposite occurs farther north where foothills join the plateau with the Interior Lowlands. Nonetheless, in the north, between the borders of Kentucky and West Virginia, the Cumberland Plateau rises from a peneplain of about 1, 000 feet and finally reaches a maximum elevation in the southern part of Tennessee (2, 000 feet) before declining to 400 feet, south of the Tennessee River in Alabama (Hayes,

1899: 13). |

The structure of the Cumberland system is less complicated than that of the adjacent Appalachian Valley. The Sequatchie and Wills Creek Anticlines divide the region into distinctive parts. To the west of the valley is the Cumberland Plateau, to the east is Lookout Mountain, and in between is the Walden Ridge. The Cumberland Plateau extends north into Kentucky and includes the bold Pine Mountain chain, which rises above Elk Fork Valley to 1, 500 feet.

15

Lookout Mountain, on the eastern side near the Alabama-Georgia state line, is a long, narrow mountain with a maximum elevation of 1, 700 feet. Walden Ridge, or Plateau, refers to a series of ridges located on the eastern side of the Cumberland system. Several other remnants of the Cumberland system form a series of isolated, mesa-like structures in northern Alabama. These flat-topped surfaces are a good example of the effects of stream action in the southern, more worn, portions of the Plateau. Conversely, there are many areas within the northern section, where streams have yet to forge deep trenches or prominent canyons.

| Interior Lowlands West of the Cumberland Plateau, in an area peripheral to the core of Cherokee-controlled lands, are the Interior Lowlands. This area consists principally of the Kentucky and Tennessee central basins and the surrounding Highland Rim; which includes much of central and eastern Kentucky and northern Alabama. Although this lowland region (often referred to as a plateau) barely rises above 1, 000 feet at its highest point, it must be included in the Southern Appalachian system since topographic characteristics resemble this system more closely than either the adjoining Coastal Plain on the west or the Tills Plain on the north (Fenneman, 1938: 412). - The largest part of the Interior Low Plateau includes the Highland Rim of middle Tennessee, which comprises about two ninths (9, 300 square miles) of the total land area in that state (Safford, 1869: 82). Essentially, this rim is an up-lifted flat land with average elevations of 900 to 1,000 feet. Elevations are greatest in the east (1, 100-1, 300 feet), and dip in the west to 700 to 900 feet near the Tennessee River. Relief is generally more notable in the northwest where stream valleys dissect the Plateau to the extent that the streams are actually a part of the neighboring plain to the west (Hayes, 1899: 14). Inthe - gouthwest, greater continuity exists as the rim is not broken by a single important valley, although several rivers, e.g., the Cumberland, Elk, and Duck, break through the western and southern sides before emptying into the basin. The Central Basin lies within the rim and presents relatively smooth, rolling surface of 900-1, 000 feet. Soluble phosphatic limestones provide the basis for rich soils, thus making this an extremely fertile area. Included within this region are the plush Bluegrass Region of Kentucky and the Nashville Basin of Tennessee. A particularly unique feature of the Tennessee basin area are the ''Cedar Glades, '' which refer to worn or thin-bedded sections of the pene-

16°

plain, where dolomitic outcrops nurture a xerophytic and herbaceous flora. Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) is the principal tree species in the glades, and | it forms substantial forests on the floor of the basin.

26). , , Natural Vegetation Zones

An understanding of the ecological structure and distribution of plant communities within Cherokee lands is another requisite towards understanding the cultural ecology of these people (Figure 4). Speculation on the character of the natural vegetation as it existed in the precontact period, as opposed to colonial

times, is difficult, since significant changes have occurred as a result of fires, lumbering, cultivation, and grazing (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: 18-

Nevertheless, it is possible to provide a general account of Southern Appalachian vegetation, especially since the Cherokee biota served as a protofloral center of plant diffusion for the entire southeast. Numerous indices and categories have been suggested for the eastern forest region (see Shantz, 1924; Braun, 1967; Kuchler, 1965; and, Ayres and Ashe, 1905). For the purpose of this study, it is sufficient to reduce vegetation zones to a minimum, namely four, and to relate these zones to the physiographic areas previously discussed. In this effort emphasis can be placed on those biogeographic communities which were most closely associated with the Cherokees. Appalachian Oak-Chestnut (Quercus)

: Southern Appalachian forests of the oak-chestnut association dominate vegetation cover in the combined Unaka-Blue Ridge-Traverse Mountain systems. Variations in type and density of stand occur according to altitude, but the chest-

nut, chestnut oak, and red oak cover most of the mountains, mountain slopes, and rolling uplands up to an elevation of about 4, 500 feet. On the lower slopes

| of the Blue Ridge and adjacent spurs, the oak-chestnut climax may be mixed with pine and hickory, although oak usually predominates. Associated with this forest is a well developed layer of heath and shrubbery, including the widely scattered and colorful Rhododendron and Kalmia, as well as varieties of Vaccinium, Leucothoe and Menziesia (Braun, 1967: 199). In the coves of the highlands, e.g., Balsam Mountains, are abundant stands of poplar, hemlock, basswood, ash, and buckeye, while on the ridges among the chestnut stands can be found short-leaf pines, black gum, and black-

jack oaks (Shantz, 1924: 15). The spruce-fir forest type, of the coniferous

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community, extends from a low altitude of 4, 500 feet up to the highest limits of the Southern Appalachian Mountain Zone, e.g., Roan, Craggy, and Clingman's mountains (Cain, 1945: Brown, 1941; Oostings and Billings, 1951). The red spruce and southern balsam reach up to about 6, 000 feet, with spruce at somewhat lower elevations than balsam. Good examples of the chestnut-oak forest type can be found throughout the Blue Ridge-Unaka Mountain Chain. However, since the early part of this century, the entire eastern forest region has lost its original chestnut forests due to disease (Endothia parasitica). Prior to that time, the American chestnut (Quercus dentata) and associated types dominated forest cover in the area, with uppermost penetration at between 4, 500 and 5, 500 feet (Stupka, 1964: 44). Secondary forest species such as the northern red oak (Quercus rubra) and chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) have replaced the virgin chestnut dominant (Keever, 1953; Woods and Shanks, 1957). | Some portions of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, e.g., Black Mountains, Grandfather Mountain, and the Nantahala Mountains, are also covered with mixed hardwoods including buckeye (Aesculus octandra), birch (Betula lutea), maple (Acer saccharum), beech (Fagus grandifolia), and black cherry (Prunus serotina) (Braun, 1967: 208). The farthest southern extent of the oak-chestnut dominant is in northern Georgia just above Atlanta. Here, onthe northern slopes of the Blue Ridge, maples and hickories are mixed with the dominant species, while on the southern slope a similar association is found but with a soft-wood mixture of ''table mountain pine" (Pinus pungens) and yellow pine (Pinus echinata).

| Oak- Pine (Quercus- Pinus) The broad southern Piedmont region paralleling the Atlantic Coastal Plain and lying predominantly in North Carolina and Georgia is occupied by a mixed forest of pines and southern hardwoods. These forests are generally characterized by dominance of the shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) with varying amounts of chestnut, black oak, and blackjack oak. The North Carolina Piedmont on the Atlantic slope is representative of this vegetation type. Species of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), and Virginia pine (Pinus virgini-

ana) prevail among the uplands. Within this region, herbaceous undergrowth is abundant and includes species of Vaccinium, Viburnum, Cassia, Kalmia, and several types of Rubus and Smilax. (Many varieties of shrubs received great attention by the Cherokees and will be described in detail in the following chap-

19 ter.) Additionally, the bottomland forest in the upland region contained stands of river birch (Betula nigra), black willow (Salix nigra), water oak (Quercus nigra), and sugarberry (Celtis laevigata). Lowland regions of North Carolina Piedmont included dense thickets of blackberries (Rubus) with the bottomlands dominated by the loblolly pine forest (Oosting, 1942). The Georgia and Alabama Piedmont, which is oriented toward the Gulf slope, resembles its Atlantic counterpart with a heavy concentration of oak and oak-pine woods. Some notable differences do occur, especially at elevations up to 2, 000 feet where longleaf pine (Pinus palustria) extends to the tops of the ridges and foothills. In the Cheaha Mountain region, above the Coosa Valley, longleaf pine is particularly abundant until it reaches the upper zones where it is replaced, rather abruptly, by mountain oak (Quercus montana), chestnut (Castanea), and pignut hickory (Carya glabra) (Mohr, 1901). These pine and oak forests of the Piedmont were of special value to the Cherokee and dominated a large part of their habitat (Nelson, 1957). In the Appalachian Valley the oak community (especially white oak--Quercus alba) dominates the vegetation cover. Along the southern portion of the Valley, below Knoxville and across northeast Alabama and northwest Georgia, the white oak and accompanying stands of red (Quercus falcata), black (Quercus valutina), and scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) eventually merge into the longleaf pines along the Coosa Valley. The ridges and hills of the Santee Valley show a preponderance of loblolly forests, while shrubby undergrowth throughout the Valley includes species of Rubus, Vitis, Cornus, and the herbs, such as Geranium maculatum, Smilacina racemosa, and Aster spp. (Braun, 1967: 238). Mixed Mesophytic Forests

According to Braun, the term Mixed Mesophytic refers ''to a climax association in which dominance is shared by a number of species. . ."' (Braun, 1967: 40). The Cumberland Mountains are characterized by a mixture of plant dominants, depending on soil type, climate, and altitude. For instance, in the lower parts of the high mountains, between 1, 500 and 3, 500 feet, beech (Fagus) abounds, while basswood (Tilia), buckeye (Aesculus), and sugar maple (Acer saccharum) dominate the middle zones, and birch (Betula lutea) thrives at the crescent, e.g., in the Black Mountains of Kentucky. White oak (Quercus alba), hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), red maple (Acer rubrum), and pines (Pinus) are

~ all found in the north Cumberland chain.

In the southern part of the plateau, extending from north Tennessee to

20

| Alabama, the topography generally appears as a rolling upland, and elevations are less extreme than in the north. Association of oak-pine, mixed with oak-

, hickory, plus varieties of herbaceous plants such as spicebush (Lindera ben| zoin), witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), pawpaw (Asimina triloba), wild hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens), and dogwood (Cornus spp.) are found in this region. Further south, near Lookout Mountain, white oak, chestnut, and highland gum (Nyssa sylvatia) are dominant, while a large portion of the dissected plateau fits into the oak-hickory forest type. Tuliptree (Liriodgendron) ig also a part of the mixed mesophytic complex (Shelford, 1963: 35). Western Mesophytic Forests A final natural vegetation zone includes the Interior Low Plateau, lying

, immediately west of the Cumberland escarpment. The northern section of this region, the Bluegrass of Kentucky, is essentially an extended basin with no areas of natural vegetation remaining. The original cover, prior to colonial

| settlement, was most likely an oak-hickory forest, dominated by several species of oak with a mixture of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), and mulberry (Morus rubra) (Braun, 1967: 127-34). Compared to the Bluegrass section, the Nashville Basin, or lower Western Mesophytic Forest, resembles the upper zone except for the preponderance

of cedar glades. Here, dense stands of red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), often intermingled with other deciduous trees of the areas, e.g., oaks and hickories, dominate the landscape. On the slopes of the basin are sugar maples and tuliptrees while the surrounding Highland Rim is associated with the Mixed Meso-

| phytic Forests. :

Principal Drainage Networks

Since Indian settlements were closely tied to and clustered about the multitude of Southern Appalachian rivers, it is necessary to present a rather detailed account of the primary river networks. In a mountainous zone, rivers flow through many different physiographic regions and, thus, it is not feasible

to correlate river systems with physical zones. Furthermore, since rivers abound in the area, it must be the purpose of this section to concentrate on only those drainage systems most instrumental in influencing Cherokee culture.

21

New River System

The northeastern portion of the Southern Appalachian Province is drained by the New River, which is the only major river in the study area that flows into the Ohio River. Two principal tributaries, the North and South Forks, flow out of the Blue Ridge and the Iron Mountains, where headwaters begin at about 95, 000 feet and forge a group of heavily incised valleys and gorges extending towards the Kanawha Valley in Virginia. The New River is one of the largest mountain rivers in the entire Southern Appalachian system (Ayres and Ashe, 1905: 69; Kerr, 1875: 33). Holston River Basin (South Fork only)

Originating in the Unaka Mountains at altitudes reaching 6, 000 feet, this

river is drained by a series of tributary creeks, e.g., Beaver, White Top Laurel, and Green Cove Creeks, which carry the main current below the New and

Watauga River Basins into the great Tennessee River. The mountain slopes that engulf this river system are steep and well-drained and eventually merge into sedimentary valleys. Consequently, the slopes and valleys are comprised of deep, rich loamy soils--particularly in some of the southern regions, e.g., Shady Valley District. Also, about 75-80 per cent of the total basin is wooded.

, Watauga River Basin A basin almost twice the size of the Holston (South Fork), which it is tributary to, the Watauga River system contains a multitude of rich agricultural lands. Grandfather Mountain (5, 964 feet) is the main source of the Watauga, while other high points in the basin include: Beech (5, 222 feet), Yellow (5, 000 feet), Snake (5, 394 feet), and Roan (6, 313 feet) mountains (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: 72). Many deep, gauged valleys have been formed by the river, and rich loamy soils have been carried to the lowland valleys. Along

| many of the subordinate creeks to the Watauga are found small valleys with , excellent potential for agriculture.

: Smoky Mountains--Northwest Slope | , A series of relatively short, yet important, rivers flow out of the high- | lands of the northwest slope of the Smoky Mountains, where summits reach

| close to 6, 700 feet. Most of the area is drained by the Little Pigeon and Little Rivers which flow into the Holston, and by Abram's Creek (in the Chilhowee

, 99 , River. ,

Mountains region, below Cade's Cove) which empties into the Little Tennessee

Thie entire mountain slope is heavily wooded, steep, and often precipi-

tous near the summit. Grassy "balds,''e.g., Gregory Bald (4, 948 feet) and Silers Bald (5, 620 feet), in the high country, and alluvial bottomlands in the coves, e.g., Cade's Cove, Tuckaleechee Cove, and Abram's and Laurel Creeks, provide conditions favorable to both flora and fauna. Even though a very rugged region, the northwest slope of the Smokies was an important center of activity for the Cherokee Indians.

|» Nolichucky River Basin

An impressively fertile, alluvial basin, this tributary of the French Broad lies principally within the mountain region of eastern Tennessee. Lofty

Roan (6, 313 feet) and Mitchell (6, 684 feet) Mountains rim the Nolichucky region, and the central portion of the basin includes a large section of hilly agricultural

lands. Among the many creeks are narrow, yet fertile, strips of alluvial bot-

tomlands. Conversely, fringing the northwestern edge of the plateau are deep gorges and valleys which have been incised by heavy stream action, thereby leaving

very steep slopes and a dearth of arable bottomlands.

Overall, the Nolichucky River System (and its main tributaries--North Toe, South Toe, and Caney Rivers) drains about two thirds of the North Caro-

lina portion of the Southern Appalachians. Additionally, the basin's rich soils,

okee Indians. |

combined with periodic flooding and a variegated forest milieu, made the area well-suited for agriculture and, thus, an attractive and popular site to the Cher-

French Broad River Basin |

The French Broad River Basin heads on the Blue Ridge and contains innumerable creeks, with the most important tributaries being the Mills, Swanna-

noa, Ivy, and Laurel rivers. The river system extends north, from southwest North Carolina, where its basin is surrounded by lofty peaks such as Pisgah (5,757 feet) and Craggy (6, 605 feet) mountains, and cuts through steep, rocky slopes until it drains about 1, 400 square miles of territory before uniting with

the Holston (Kerr, 1875: 32). ,

23

Big Pigeon River Basin Originating in the highest summits of the Balsam and Pisgah Mountains, the Big Pigeon winds through the Unaka Mountains and meets the French Broad on the Tennessee plain. Between these two ranges, the three principal forks of the Big Pigeon River (East, West, and Little East forks), drain an area of about 70,000 acres, which has an average elevation of 4, 500 feet, the valleys dropping no lower than 3, 000 feet (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: 152). Soils are generally sandy loams and inferior to those of the lowlands. The basin is extremely rugged and very little level land is found except along the more prominent stream beds, which are invariably overshadowed by lofty mountain peaks, e.g., Cataluchee (Spruce Mountain--5, 590 feet), Big Creek (6, 430 feet), and Jonathan Creek (Plott Balsam--6, 200 feet).

Little Tennessee River Basin

The Little Tennessee River, with its major tributaries--the Cheowah, Nantehaleh, Tuckasegee, and Oconaluftee, drains an area totalling over 1,000,000 acres. This is one of the principal continental drainage systems east of the Mississippi as it drains an area extending from the Blue Ridge to the Great Smokies, including all territory between the Hiwassee and Big Pigeon River Basins (Ayres and Ashe, 1905: 180-240). The watershed on the northwest slope of the Blue Ridge is formed by the Balsam, Great Smoky, and Unaka mountains. This region is high, rugged, and the source of many swift streams. The watershed between several of these streams is also quite uneven and lofty, such as the Cheoah, Nantahala, and Cowee ranges. Most of the deeply gauged lands lie in the lower basin where few alluvial

bottoms offer opportunity for tillage. Conversely, it is the upper mountain lands where a relatively large number of fertile valleys possess light, sandy soils well-suited for agriculture, e.g., the Tellico Creek Basin. The main tributaries of the Little Tennessee, especially the Oconaluftee, Cheoah, and

Tuckasegee (and their tributaries, e.g., Buffalo and Santeetlah) pass through the heavily forested lands that dominate this basin's vegetal cover.

Hiwassee River Basin , The Hiwassee River is a tributary of the Tennessee River, and rises in the divide between the Smoky and Blue Ridge ranges. Following a western

24

course, the Hiwassee, with its two major tributaries, the Notteley and Valley Rivers, descends to about 800-900 feet before meeting the Tennessee River. Another important tributary of the Hiwassee is the Toccoa River, which originates in northwest Georgia and flows into Tennessee where it becomes the Ocoee River before draining into the Hiwassee. Although mountain slopes within this basin are steep, numerous creek valleys offer alluvial bottomlands of considerable size, e.g., Valley and Tusquitte Creeks. The alluvial flatlands and foothills consist of clay soils, while the mountain slopes are loamy. Also, the ridges are stony and subject to serious erosion when the vegetal cover is removed. Certain vegetation types, thus, do well on the lower slopes, e.g., sassafras and persimmon, while oak and hick-

ory do better in the upland areas. | Tributaries of the Upper Savannah River System The headwaters of the great Savannah River rise in the Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina and South Carolina. In South Carolina, the Keowee River meets the Seneca River before joining the Tugaloo River, which forms part of the northern Georgia-South Carolina border (the Chattooga constitutes the upper-most boundary). From the Blue Ridge in southern North Carolina, the Chattooga and Tallulah Rivers merge two miles below Tallulah Falls and about 20 miles north of the Seneca-Tugaloo confluence. The Tugaloo then empties into the Savannah, and the entire system drains into the Atlantic. The upper Savannah River system flows out of the southeastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains where elevations reach 5, 500 feet on Standing Indian Mountain. Again, the topography is generally bold, with many deep valleys, prominent gorges, and innumerable tributaries reaching into the foothills. Physical composition of the alluvial bottomland soils is loamy and of high fertility, whereas the ridges and foothills are characterized by poorer quality red-

clay soil types. Fortunately, at least for the early inhabitants of this land, sizeable tracts of fertile bottomlands prevailed along many creeks, especially along the tributaries of the upper Tallulah. Coosa River and Its Affluents

The extensive headwaters of the Coosa River system begin in the highlands of northwest Georgia and eastern Alabama. Proceeding in a southwesterly direction, the Etowah and Oostanaula (and their tributaries, the Ellijay, Cartegay, Coosawattee, and Conasauga) join at Rome, Georgia to form the |

290

main branch of the Coosa River. Near Gadsden, Alabama, the Chatooga and the Little Rivers drain into the Coosa before continuing south where the system merges with the Tallapoosa to form the Alabama River that empties into the Gulf (Reynolds, 1944: xiii-xiv). Paralleling the Coosa River Basin in Georgia is the Chattahoochee River Basin and its affluents, the Soque and Chestatee Rivers. Both the Coosa and Chattahoochee River systems drain the Appalachians to the south and exhibit sharp relief in their steep grades, several falls and rapids, and abundant, sloping bottomlands. Each area attracted several tribal groups, including the late historic Cherokees (Kerr, 1875; Reynolds, 1944). Other River Basins Three other river systems of importance to the Southern Appalachian drainage process, all flowing off the Atlantic slopes are the Saluda, Catawba, and Yadkin River systems. The upper reaches of these waterways are typical in character to associated river networks already mentioned. River basins in the peripheral sections of Cherokee-claimed lands, such as the Kentucky, Big Sandy, and Cumberland rivers, had greater importance to neighboring tribes, e.g., Shawnee and Chickasaw to the north and west, than they did to the Cherokee. Furthermore, the southern portions of the Coosa and Chattahoochee were coveted by the Creek, while other southern tribes (Yuchi, Yamasee, Santee, etc.) vied for control over the lower reaches of the Savannah, Ocmulgee, and Santee.

Climate, Soils, and Minerals , Climate

Since climate is largely a function of altitude, latitude, and topography, it is not surprising that the Southern Appalachian region possesses a temperate, mountain climate. Average temperature decreases with increases in altitude by about 1° F per 330 feet, although the rate certainly varies depending on seasonal and local conditions (Kincer, 1923: 5). For example, valleys having southern slopes possess a warmer temperature and less frost than their northern counterparts.

_ At the lower altitudes, such as the eastern Tennessee valley, summer | temperatures may average as high as 75°, whereas in the adjoining mountain , and plateau zone (depending on elevation), the average June-August tempera-

26

tures are about 10° lower (Kincer, 1923: 7; Safford, 1869: 15). Winter temperatures in the same areas average 40°-50° in the lower regions and 30°-40° in the highlands. The highest summits, such as Mt. Mitchell (6, 684 feet), indicate a summer mean ranging from 49. 3° in May to 55. 3° in August (Henry, 1902: 149). Inthe Great Smoky Mountains, a temperature decrease of 10°-15° occurs from the mountain base to the 5, 000 feet spruce-fir region (Shanks,

1954: 360). At the 5, 000 feet level, variations in the temperature can range , between -10° and 45°, depending on the direction of the slope (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1902: 16). Precipitation in the Southern Appalachians also varies greatly according to topography (Figure 5). Significantly, on the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge and its adjoining spurs, lies the heaviest zone of rainfall east of the Pacific Northwest. This region receives upwards of ninety inches in the southwest North Carolina and northern Georgia mountains, falling to seventy inches along the north part of the southern Blue Ridge (Henry, 1902: 145). The Great Smoky-Unaka chain and the Cumberland zone generally fit into the fifty-sixty inch category, while lower areas above Knoxville and to the west and northwest

of Nashville receive thirty-forty inches (Kincer, 1922: 5-7). Fog and thunderstorms are also quite pronounced in the Southern Appalachians. With diurnal variations, dense fog occurs on the average about twenty days per year while light fog is a common occurrence. Thunderstorms fall throughout the southern portion of the system, on the average of sixty-eighty days per year (Kincer, 1922: 44). Fog and thunderstorms, thus, contribute appreciable amounts of moisture to the area, although generally causing only minor destruction to plant life. Conjointly, relative humidity, which is highest in the region during late summer or early fall, contributes significantly to a rich biotic setting, particularly in the mountain zones. Other climatic factors of importance include sunshine and wind. Seasonal variations occur in the amount of sunshine falling on any temperate area. The study area receives a yearly average of 30-60 per. cent of the total possible sunshine, depending on season and geographic region (Kincer, 1923: 33). Relative sunshine, when considering climatic classifications such as fair, cloudy, and _ rainy, averages about 50 per cent annually--with the highest percentages occurring inthe summer months, Also, most of the uplands experience only 130 frost-free days per year, while the lower elevations receive from 160 to 180

(Reed, 1918: 12). Winds act as an important determinant of climate by transporting mois-

. 27

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