Chemical Structure and Bonding [2 ed.] 093570261X, 9780935702613

Table of contents :
Title Page
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Contents
Chapter 1. Atomic Structure
1-1. Rutherford’s Experiments and a Model for Atomic Structure
1-2. Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
1-3. Nuclear Structure
1-4. Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom
1-5. Absorption and Emission Spectra of Atomic Hydrogen
1-6. Ionization Energy of Atomic Hydrogen
1-7. General Bohr Theory for a One-Electron Atom
1-8. Matter Waves
1-9. The Uncertainty Principle
1-10. Atomic Orbitals
1-11. The Wave Equation and the Particle-in-a-Box Problem
The Schrodinger Wave Equation
The Particle in a Box
1-12. The Wave Equation and the Hydrogen Atom
The Quantum Numbers
Quantum Number Specifications of Orbitals
1-13. Many-Electron Atoms
1-14. Effects of Electron-Electron Repulsion in Many-Electron Atoms
1-15. Atomic Energy States and Term Symbols
Energy States in Many-Electron Atoms
Energy States in Many-Electron Atoms Containing Equivalent Electrons
Ground-State Terms for Many-Electron Atoms
Determination of Only the Ground-State Term Symbol
Atomic Energy States and Valence-Orbital Ionization Energies
Questions and Problems
Suggestions for Further Reading
Chapter 2. Atomic and Molecular Properties
2-1 Lewis Structures for Atoms
2-2 Effective Atomic Radii in Molecules
2-3 Ionization Energy and Orbital Configuration
lonization Energies and Periodicity
Ionization Energies of Core Electrons
2-4 Electron Affinity
2-5 Covalent Bonding
2-6 Properties of H₂ and H₂⁺ in a Magnetic Field
2-7 Lewis Structures for Diatomic Molecules
2-8 Ionic Bonding
2-9 Electronegativity
2-10 A Covalent Bond With Ionic Character: The HCI Molecule
2-11 Lewis Structures For Polyatomic Molecules
Methane, Ammonia, and Water
Hydrides of Beryllium and Boron
Ammonium Chloride Molecule
2-12 Molecules With Double and Triple Bonds
2-13 Bonding to Heavier Atoms
2-14 Resonance
2-15 Molecular Geometry
The valence-shell electron-pair repulsion method and molecular geometry
VSEPR Applied To Molecules With Steric Number Greater Than Six
Exceptions to the VSEPR Rules
2-16 The Use of Lewis Structures to Predict Molecular Topology
2-17 Molecular Symmetry
2-18 Polar and Nonpolar Polyatomic Molecules
Questions and Problems
Suggestions for Further Reading
Chapter 3. The Valence Bond and Hybrid Orbital Descriptions of Chemical Bonding
3-1 Valence Bond Theory for the Hydrogen Molecule
3-2 Valence Bond Theory for Hydrogen Fluoride
3-3 Valence Bond Theory for the Water Molecule
3-4 Valence Bond Theory for the Ammonia Molecule
3-5 Valence Bond Theory for Molecules Containing No Lone-Pair Electrons
VB Theory for BeH₂
VB Theory for BH₃
VB Theory for CH₄
VB Theory for PH₅ and SH₆
3-6 Hybrid-Orbital Description of Single and Multiple Bonds in Carbon Compounds
Acetylene
Benzene
3-7 Mathematical Formulation of Hybrid Orbitals
3-8 Structure and Bonding in Boranes
Questions and Problems
Suggestions for Further Reading
Chapter 4. The Molecular-Orbital Theory of Electronic Structure and the Spectroscopic Properties of Diatomic Molecules
4-1 Bonding Theory for H₂⁺
Molecular-Orbital Energy Levels
Refinements in the Molecular-Orbital Treatment of H₂⁺
4-2 Molecular-Orbital Theory and Valence Bond Theory for H₂
4-3 Net Bonding in Molecules with 1s Valence Atomic Orbitals
4-4 Molecular Spectroscopy
4-5 Photoelectron Spectroscopy: An Experimental Method of Studying Molecular Orbitals
4-6 Molecules with s and p Valence Atomic Orbitals
Sigma Orbitals
Pi Orbitals
s-p Sigma Mixing
4-7 Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon
Summary
4-8 Term Symbols for Linear Molecules
4-9 Photoelectron Spectra of N₂, O₂, and F₂
Nitrogen
Oxygen and Fluorine
The Photoelectron Spectra of N₂, O₂, and F₂ Core Electrons
4-10 Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of the Transition Elements
The V₂ Molecule
The Nb₂ Molecule
The Cu₂ Molecule
4-11 Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules
Hydrogen Fluoride
Carbon Monoxide
Boron Monoftuoride
Bond Properties of Other Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules and Ions
BO, CN, and CO⁺ (Nine Valence Electrons)
NO⁺, CO, and CN⁻ (Ten Valence Electrons)
NO (Eleven Valence Electrons)
Some Heteronuclear Transition-Metal Molecules
Questions and Problems
Suggestions for Further Reading
Chapter 5. Electronic Structures, Photoelectron Spectroscopy, and the Frontier-Orbital Theory of Reactions of Polyatomic Molecules
5-1 The Simplest Polyatomic Molecule, H₃⁺
5-2 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals for BeH₂ and H₂O
5-3 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals for BH₃ and NH₃
The Borane Molecule
The Ammonia Molecule
5-4 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals for CH₄
5-5 Photoelectron Spectra for the lsoelectronic Sequence Ne, HF, H₂O, NH₃, and CH₄
5-6 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals for CO₂ and XeF₂
Molecular Orbitals for CO₂
The Photoelectron Spectrum of CO₂
Molecular Orbitals for XeF₂
5-7 Molecular-Orbital Theory and Molecular Topology
5-8 Delocalized Molecular Orbitals in Carbon Compounds
Ethylene
Benzene
5-9 The Frontier-Orbital Concept
Proton Affinity and the Frontier-Orbital Concept
The Frontier-Orbital Concept Applied to Reactions of Carbon Monoxide
Symmetry Rules for Chemical Reactions
5-10 Molecular-Orbital Theory for Transition-Metal Molecules Containing One Unsaturated Ligand
5-11 Photoelectron Spectroscopy of Core Electrons
Questions and Problems
Suggestions for Further Reading

Citation preview

ChemicalStructureandBonding ·

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RogerL. DeKock CalvinCollege

HarryB. Gray CaliforniaInstituteof Technology

UNIVERSITY SCIENCEBOOKS Sausalito, Callfornla . I

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Chemistry Library

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University Science Books 55D Gate Five Road Sausalito , CA 94965 Fax : (415) 332-5393

Cover designer: Bob Ishi Printer and binder: Maple-Vail Book Manufa cturing Group \,

Copyright© 1989 by University Science Books Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, University Science Books. Library of Congress Catalog Number: 89-050820 ISBN 0-935702-61-X

Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 , /

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/i -~9 Prefaceto the SecondEdition

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With this paperback edition, University Science Books becomes the publisher of ChemicalStructure andBonding.We thank the publisher, Bruce Armbruster, for his interest in chemistry and chemistry education. Roger L. DeKock Harry B. Gray

I.,

-11

Prefaceto the First Edition Chemical Structure and Bonding was written for courses devoted specifically to structure and bonding topics, and for courses in inorganic, physical, and quantum chemistry whose subject matter significantly involves these topics. We hope that for many undergraduate students, this textbook will be the first serious introduction to the concepts of structure and bonding. In addition, graduate students and others should find our treatment of these topics to be a helpful review. We have included numerous questions and problems at the end of each chapter and an Appendix with answers to most of the problems. The manuscript is without footnotes to the original literature, but for those who wish to pursue further reading and study, a "Suggestions for Further Reading" section is provided at the end of each chapter. We have written Chemical Structure and Bonding so as to provide the flexibility of subject matter that instructors often require. For example, an instructor who wished to concentrate on molecular orbital theory could use mainly Chapters 4, 5, and 6. Alternatively, a course that was designed to cover several of the topics only briefly could omit those sections considered unnecessary or too advanced. The coverage of material in this textbook is purposely broad. Chapter 1 starts with the elementary Bohr theory and proceeds to the quantum theory of Schrodinger and its application to the particle-in-a-box, the hydrogen atom, and multielectron atoms. Well prepared students could quickly read the first 10 sections of Chapter 1 and begin their serious study with the Schrodinger wave equation in Section 1-11.Our presentation of the effects of electron-electron repulsion in Section 1-14has been an effective pedagogical tool in discussing the electronic configurations of transition metal atoms. Chapter 2 begins with a thorough discussion of atomic radii, ionization potentials, and electron affinities. This is followed by a treatment of Lewis electron dot structures and the concept of resonance. The latter part of Chapter 2 introduces molecular geometry through the valence shell electron pair repulsion approach. Subsequently, molecular symmetry and polarity are introduced. Section 2-16 provides an insightful method for helping students to understand and categorize molecular topology. Chapter 3 is devoted to the valence bond and hybrid orbital descriptions of chemical bonding. It has been our experience that students often feel that sp, sp2, and sp3 are the only possible hybridization schemes for s and p orbitals. By introducing the concept of hybridization with the H 2 molecule, we hope to dispel that notion and provide the student with a straightforward introduction to the mixing of orbitals. Chapters 4 and 5 constitute the application of molecular orbital theory to diatomic and polyatomic molecules,. respectively. Our approach is to tie the theory of molecular orbitals closely to experimental photoelectron V

Q

vi

Preface

spectroscopy (Section 4-5). The bonding in transition metal diatomic and triatomic molecules is treated in Sections 4-7 , 4-10 , and 5-10. In thi s way it should be clear that the bonding concepts needed in transition-metal chemistry are not distinct from those in main-group chemistry. Finally , the frontier orbital concept and the idea of "allowed " and "forbiddenn reaction s are discussed in Section 5-9. The structure and bonding of transition metal complexes is treated in Chapter 6. A theoretical understanding of the shapes of transition metal complexes is covered in Section 6-12 by using the angular overlap model Chapter 7 provides an introduction to bonding in solids and liquids. Thi s includes a discussion of van der Waals, metallic, and ionic bonding. In the spring of 197 5 Roger De Kock was teaching an introductory chemistry course at the American University of Beirut. One of the textbooks used in this course was Chemical Bonds , written by Harry B. Gray and published by Benjamin/Cummings in 1973. In the summerof1975 DeKock wrote a letter to Gray suggesting that the pedagogy of molecular orbital theory would be enhanced by relating it closely to the experimental technique of photoelectron spectroscopy. Gray responded with enthusiasm and what resulted was a first draft written during the 1975-76 academic year. This first draft was revised by DeKock and edited by Jim Hall at the Aspen Writing Center during the summer of 1976. Gray class-tested the manuscript for three years (1976-78) and DeKock class-tested it during an interim course in January, 1979. After each class testing the manuscript underwent further revision and refinement until it reached its present status. We hope that this extensive class testing has removed many of the annoyances that students and instructors often find in first edition textbooks. We acknowledge the able assistance of Jim Hall during the early stages of this project. We thank Mary Schwartz of Benjamin/Cummings who acted as editor and provided constant counsel and encouragement. Dick Palmer coordinated the production stages and managed to keep us on a tinie schedule. Thanks also go to Rich Huisman who did several of the initial drawings and assisted with proofreading and editorial comment. Finally , there are numerous individuals who worked at various stages on the typing of the manuscript, but special thanks go to Jan Woudenberg at Calvin College. Roger L. DeKock Calvin College Grand Rapids, Michigan February 1980

Harry B. Gray Calif omia Institute of Technology Pasadena, California February 1980

>

Contents Preface to the Second Edition iii Preface to the First Edition v Chapter 1 Atomic Structure

1

1-1

Rutherford's

Experiments and a Model for Atomic Structure

1-2

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

1-3

Nuclear Structure

1-4

Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

1-5 1-6

Absorption and Emission Spectra of Atomic Hydrogen Ionization Energy of Atomic Hydrogen 15

1-7

General Bohr Theory for a One- Electron Atom

1-8

Matter Waves

1-9

The Uncertainty Principle

1

2

3 4 8

17

20 21

1-10 Atomic Orbitals 23 1-11 The Wave Equation and the Particle-In-A-Box Problem The Schrodinger Wave Equation 25 The Particle in a Box 26

24

1-12 The Wave Equation and Quantum Numbers for the Hydrogen Atom 31 The Quantum Numbers 31 Quantum Number Specifications of Orbitals 34 1-13 Many-Electron Atoms 46 1-14 Effects of Electron-Electron Repulsion in Many-Electron Atoms vi -15 Atomic Energy States and Term Symbols 56 Energy States in Many-Electron Atoms 57 Energy States in Many-Electron Atoms Containing Equivalent Electrons 59 Ground State Terms for Many-Electron Atoms 62 Determination of Only the Ground-State Tenn Symbol 63 Atomic Energy States and Valence Orbital Ionization Energies

Chapter 2 Atomic and Molecular Properties

51

64

71

2-1

Lewis Structures for Atoms

71

2-2

Effective Atomic Radii in Molecules

2-3

Ionization Energies and Orbital Configurations Ionization Energies and Periodicity 78 Ionization Energies of Core Electrons 79

2-4

Electron Affinity

2-5

Covalent Bonding

2-6

Properties of H 2 and

2-7

Lewis Structures for Diatomic Molecules

72 74

81 82

Ht in a Magnetic Field

85 85 vii

Contents

viii

1

2-8

Ionic Bonding

2-9 2-10

Electronegativity 90 A Covalent Bond with Ionic Character: The HCl Molecule

2-11

Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Molecules 93 Methane, Ammonia , and Water 94 Hydrides of Beryllium and Boron 95 Magnesium Chloride, An Ionic Molecule 97 Ammonium Chloride Molecule 97 Molecules with Double and Triple Bonds 98 Bonding to Heavier Atoms 101 Resonance 103 Molecular Geometry 106 The Valence-shell Electron-pair Repulsion Method and Molecular Geometry 107 VSEPR Applied to Molecules with Steric Number Greater than Six 113 E~ceptions to the VSEPR Rules 114 The Use of Lewis Structures to Predict Molecular Topology 115 Molecular Symmetry 119 Polar and N onpolar Polyatomic Molecules 123

2-12 2-13 2-14 2-15

2-16 2-17 2-18

Chapter 3 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5

3-6

3-7 3-8

92

The Valence Bond and Hybrid Orbital Descriptions of Chemical Bonding 135

Valence Bond Theory for the Hydrogen Molecule 135 Valence Bond Theory for the Hydrogen Fluoride Molecule 141 Valence Bond Theory for the Water Molecule 145 Valence Bond Theory for the Ammonia Molecule 151 Valence Bond Theory for Molecules Containing No Lone Pair Electrons 153 VB Theory for BeH 2 153 155 VB Theory for BH 3 VB Theory for CH 4 158 159 VB Theory for PH 5 and SH 6 Hybrid Orbital Description of Single and Multiple Bonds in Carbon Compounds 162 Acetylene 166 Benzene 166 Mathematical Formulation of sp, sp 2 , and sp 3 Hybrid Orbitals 169 Structure and Bonding in the Boranes 173

Chapter 4

4-1

86

The Molecular Orbital Theory of Electronic Structure and the Spectroscopic Properties of Diatomic Molecules 183

Bonding Theory of Ht 184 Molecular-orbital Energy Levels 190 Refinements in the Molecular Orbital Treatment of H;t

194

ix

Contents 4-2

Molecular Orbital Theory and Valence Bond Theory for H 2

195

4-3

Net Bonding in Molecules with ls Valence Atomic Orbitals

198

4-4

Molecular Spectroscopy

4-5

Photoelectron Spectroscopy: An Experimental Method of Studying Molecular Orbitals 212

4-6

Molecules withs and p Valence Atomic Orbitals Sigma Orbitals 218 Pi Orbitals 221 s-p Sigma Mixing 223

4-7

Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules Lithium 228 Beryllium 229 Boron 230 Carbon 231 Nitrogen 231 Oxygen 232 Fluorine 232 Neon 233

4-8

Term Symbols for Linear Molecules

4-9

The Photoelectron Spectra of N 2 , 0 2 , and F 2 238 Oxygen and Fluorine 242 The Photoelectron Spectra of N 2 , 0 2 , and F 2 Core Electrons

200

217

228

233

4-10

Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of the Transition Elements 249 The V 2 Molecule The Nb 2 Molecule 249 The Cu 2 Molecule 250

4-11

Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 250 Hydrogen Fluoride 250 Carbon Monoxide 256 Boron Monofluoride 256 Bond Properties of other Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules and Ions 257 Some Heteronuclear Transition-Metal Molecules 260

Chapter 5

244 245

Electronic Structures, Photoelectron Spectroscopy, and the Frontier Orbital Theory of Reactions of Polyatomic Molecules 272

Ht

5-1

The Simplest Polyatomic Molecule,

272

5-2

Delocalized Molecular Orbitals for BeH 2 and H 2 O

5-3

Delocalized Molecular Orbitals for BH 3 and NH 3 The Borane Molecule 283 The Ammonia Molecule 288

5-4

Delocalized Molecular Orbitals for CH 4

5-5

Photoelectron Spectra for the Isoelectronic SequenceNe, HF, H 2 O, NH 3 , and CH 4 295

5-6

Delocalized Molecular Orbitals for CO 2 and XeF 2 Molecular Orbitals for CO 2 297 The Photoelectron Spectrum of CO 2 302 Molecular Orbitals for XeF 2 303

274 282

292

297

C

Contents

X

I

Molecular Orbital Theory and Molecular Topology

5-8

Delocalized Molecular Orbitals in Carbon Compounds Ethylene 308 Benzene 312

5-9

The Frontier-Orbital Concept 315 Proton Affinity and the Frontier-Orbital Concept 316 The Frontier-Orbital Concept Applied to Reactions of Carbon Monoxide 321 Symmetry Rules for Chemical Reactions 3 24

1:1i·;

- 11

307

5-7

---. !I

Chapter 6 6-1

6-2

6-3

6-4 6-5 6-6 6-7

6-8 6-9 6-10 6-11 6-12

6-13 6-14

Structures and Stabilities 343 Hard and Soft Metal Ions and Ligands Chelation and Stability 348 Isomerism 350 Stereoisomerism 350 Constitutional Isomerism 352 Effective Atomic Number and Stability Effective Atomic Number 353 Metal Carbonyls 355

343 346

353

357 Organometallic 'TT Complexes Coordination Modes of Diatomic Ligands 360 Metal-Metal Bonds in Re 2 c1s2- and Mo 6 Cl 8 4+ 364 Ligand Field Theory for Octahedral Complexes 3 65 Photoelectron Spectroscopy of Octahedral Complexes 373 d-d Transitions and Light Absorption 37 6 Factors that Influence the Value of .L\0 377 Ligand Field Theory for Square-Planar Complexes 3 80 Ligand Field Theory for Tetrahedral Complexes 383 Charge-Transfer Absorption Bands 385 Molecular Orbital Theory for Dibenzenechromium 3 87 The Shapes of Transition-Metal Complexes 391 The Jahn-Teller Theorem 392 The Angular Overlap Model 393 Application of AOM to Four-Coordinate Complexes 397 Application of AOM to Octahedral and Square-Planar Complexes 403 Equivalency of the dz2 and d:rs- JP Orbitals in an Octahedral Complex 406 Determining Overlap Integral for d Orbitals in Tetrahedral Symmetry 408

Chapter 7 7-1 7-2

Transition-Metal Complexes

308

Bonding in Solids and Liquids

Elemental Solids and Liquids Ionic Solids 427

419

419

Contents

7-3

7-4

7-5

7-6

xi

Molecular Solids and Liquids 430 Van der Waals Forces 431 Polar Molec ules and Hydrogen Bonds Polar Molecules as Solvents 441

Metals 443 Characteristics of Metals Versus Ionic Crystals Electronic Bands in Metals 444 Nonmetallic Network Solids 447 Semiconductors 449 Silicates 450 455 Lattice Energies of Ionic Solids Calculation of Lattice Energies 456

Appendices

466

Physical Constants and Conversion Factors The Greek Alphabet 467 Answers to Selected Questions and Problems

Index

436

484

466 468

443

►

1 AtomicStructure

The concept that molecules consist of atoms bonded together in definite patterns was well established by 1860. Shortly thereafter, recognition that the bonding properties of the elements are periodic led to widespread speculation concerning the internal structure of atoms themselves. The first major development in the formulation of atomic structure models followed the discovery, about 1900, that atoms contain electrically charged particlesnegative electrons and positive protons. From charge-to-mass ratio measurements Sir Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, realized that most of the mass of the atom could be accounted for by the positive (proton) portion. He proposed a jellylike atom with the small, negative electrons embedded in the relatively large proton mass. But from 1906 to 1909, a series of experiments directed by Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand physicist working in Manchester, England, provided an entirely different picture of the atom.

1-1Rutherford's Experiments and a Model For Atomic Structure In 1906, Rutherford found that when a thin sheet of metal foil is bombarded with alpha (a) particles (He2+ ions), most of the particles penetrate the metal and suffer only small deflections from their original flight path. In 1909, at Rutherford's suggestion, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden performed an experiment to see if any a particles were deflected at a large angleon striking a gold fort. A diagram of their experiment is shown in Figure 1-1.They discovered that some of the a particles actually were deflected by as much as 90° and a few by even larger angles. They concluded:

If the high velocity and mass of the a particle be taken into account, it seems surprising that some of the a particles, as the experiment shows, can be turned within a layer of 6 x 10-s cm of gold through an angle of 1

Chapt r 1 Ato mic Structur

2

I

I

I

C

Gold leaf

, r

n

Figure 1-1 The experimental arrangement for Rutherford ' mea urement of the scattering of a particle s by very thin gold foils. The source of the a particle was radioactive radium, which wa enca ed in a lead block to protect the urrounding from radiation and to confine the a particle s to a beam. The gold foil u ed wa about 6 x 10- 5 cm thick. Mo st of the a particle pa ssed through the gold leaf with little or no deflection. at a. A few were deflected at wide angle s, b, and occa sionally a particle rebounded from the foil, c, and wa s detected by a screen or counter placed on the same side of the foil as the source.

90°, and even more. To produce a similar effect by a magnetic field, the enormous field of 109 absolute units would be required. Rutherford quickly provided an explanation for this startling experimental result. He suggested that atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a system of electrons, and that the atom is held together by electrostatic forces. The effective volume of the nucleus is extremely small compared with the effective volume of the atom, and almost all of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. Rutherford reasoned that most of the a particles passed through the metal foil because the metal atom is mainly empty space, and that occasionally a particle passed close to the positively charged nucleus, thereby being severely deflected because of the strong coulombic (electrostatic) repulsive force. The Rutherford model of an atom is shown in Figure 1-2, as is Thomson's earlier suggestion.

1-2 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Using the measured angles of deflection and the assumption that an a particle and a nucleus repel each other according to Coulomb's law of

► 1-3 Nuclear Structure

3

Figure1-2 The expected outcome of the Rutherford scattering experiment , if one assumes (a) the Thomson model of the atom, and (b) the model deduced by Rutherford. In the Thomson model, mass is spread throughout the atom, and the negative electrons are embedded uniformly in the positive mass. There would be little deflectionof the beam of positively charged a particles. In the Rutherford model all of the positive charge and virtually all of the mass is concentrated in a very small nucleus. Most a particles would pass through undeflected. But close approach to a nucleus would produce a strong swerve in the path of the a particle , and head-on collision would lead to its rebound in the direction from which it came.

electrostatics, Rutherford was able to calculate the nuclear charge (Z) of the atoms of the elements used as foils. In a neutral atom the number of electrons equals the positive charge on the nucleus. This number is different for each element and is known as its atomic number. The mass of an atomic nucleus is not determined entirely by the number of protons in it. All nuclei, except for the lightest isotope of hydrogen , contain electrically neutral particles called neutrons. The mass of an isolated neutron is only slightly different from the mass of an isolated proton. The valuesof mass and charge for some important particles are given in Table 1-1.

1-3NuclearStructure Rutherford's basic idea that an atom contains a dense, positively charged nucleus now is accepted universally. On the average, the electrons are far away from the nucleus , which accounts for an atom's relatively large effectivediameter of about 10-s cm. In contrast, the nucleus has a diameter of only about 10-13 cm.

Chapter 1 Atomic Structure

4 TABLE

1-1. SOM E

Par ticle

Electron (/3- particle) Proton Neutron a Particle Deuteron

LOW-MASS

PARTICLES

Symb ols

M ass (amu )*

e-, 13-, - ~e

0.00054858026 1.007276470 1.008665012 4.00150619 1 2.013553229

P,

W, tH n, An

a , iHe z+ d, ~d, iP

Charge (esu x l0 10 )t

-4.803 242 -4.80 3242 0 +9.606484 +4.803242

R elative Charge

-1 +I 0 +2 +I

* I amu = I atomic mass unit = 1.6605655 x 10- 24 g . t I esu = I electrostatic unit = I g 112 cm 3 12 sec - 1•

With a few exceptions , nuclei are nearly spherical. Most of the exceptions occur in the rare-earth elements (Z = 57 to Z = 71), in which the shape is slightly ellipsoidal. The distribution of mass and charge within the nucleus can be determined by various types of scattering experiments. In these experiments high energy particles (e.g., electrons , protons , neutrons , or a particles) are fired at nuclei. The interactions of these particles with nuclei reveal that all nuclei have approximately constant density. In extremely heavy nuclei there is evidence that the mutual electrostatic repulsion of the protons leads to a slightly lower central density. These experiments are only the beginning of the investigation of the internal structure of atomic nuclei.

1-4 Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom Immediately after Rutherlord presented his nuclear model of the atom , scientists turned to the question of the possible structure of the satellite electrons. The first major advance was accomplished in 1913 by a Danish theoretical physicist, Niels Bohr. Bohr pictured the electron in a hydrogen atom as moving in a circular orbit around the proton. Bohr's model is shown in Figure 1-3, in which m e represents the mass of the electron, m n the mass of the nucleus, r the radius of the circular orbit, and v the linear velocity of the electron. For a stable orbit to exist, the outward force exerted by the moving electron trying to escape its circular orbit must be opposed exactly by the forces of attraction between the electron and the nucleus. The outward force , F 0 , is expressed as 17 ro-

_

m eV

2

r

...

_

5

1_4Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

Figure1-3 Bohr's picture of the hydrogen atom. A single electron of mass me moves in a circular orbit with velocity v at a distance r from a nucleus of mass mn.

This force is opposed exactly by the sum of the two attractive forces that keep the electron in orbit- the electrostatic force of attraction between the proton and the electron, plus the gravitational force of attraction. Since the electrostatic force is much stronger than the gravitational force, we may neglect the latter. The electrostatic attractive force, Fe, between an electron of charge -e and a proton of charge +e, is Fe =--

e2

,2

The condition for a stable orbit is that F 0 + Fe equals zero: 2

m v___ _e

r

e2 =O

or

,2

m v 2 e2 _e_=

r

,2

(1-1)

Now we are able to calculate the energy of an electron moving in one of the Bohr orbits. The total energy, E, is the sum _of tbe kinetic energy, KE, ' and the potential energy, PE: E=KE+PE

in which KE is the energy due to motion, /

and PE is the energy due to electrostatic attraction,

Chapter 1 Atomic Structure

6

PE=--

e2 r

e Thus the total energy is

e2 E=½m e v2 -- r

(1-2)

However, Equation 1-1 can be written mev2 for mev2 into Equation 1-2, we have e2

e2

e2

2r

r

2r

E=---=--

= e2 Ir,

and if e2 Ir is substituted

(1-3)

Now we only need to specify the orbit radius, r, before we can calculate the electron's energy. However, according to Equation 1-3, atomic hydrogen should release energy continuously as r becomes smaller. To keep the electron from falling into the nucleus Bohr proposed a model in which the angular momentum of the orbiting electron could have only certain values. The result of this restriction is that only certain electron orbits are possible. According to Bohr's postulate, the quantum unit of angular momentum is h/21r, in which his the constant in Planck's famous equation, E = hv. (E is energy in ergs, h = 6.626176 x 10-21 erg sec, and v is frequency in sec-•). In mathematical terms Bohr's assumption was that 1 , ·., ~ •

\, 7r1"' \

....,

h

'·.11

mevr-- n-21T

in which n can write

=

1, 2, 3, ...

(1-4)

(all integers to

00 ).

Solving for v in Equation 1-4 we

{1-5)

Substituting the value of v from Equation 1-5 into the condition for a stable orbit (Equation 1-1) we obtain

or (1-6)

1_4Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

7

Equation 1-6 gives the radius of the p0ssible electron orbits for the hydrogen atom in terms of the quantum number n. The energy associated with each possible orbit now can be calculated by substituting the value of r from Equation 1-6 into the energy expression (Equation 1-3), which gives

k l n2

(1-7)

We have included the subscript n to indicate that the only variable in the energy expression is the quantum number n. Exercise 1-1. Calculate the radius of the first Bohr orbit. Solution. The radius of the first orbit can be obtained directly from Equation 1-6: n2h2 41r2mee2

r=---

Assuming n = 1 and inserting the values of the constants from Appendix A we obtain

r=

=

(1) 2 (6.626176 x 10- 21 erg sec) 2 4(3.141593) 2 (9.109534 x 10- 28 g) (4.803242 x 10- 10 esu) 0.529177 x 10-s cm = 0.529 A

The Bohr radius for n

2

= l is designated a0 •

Exercise 1-2. Calculate the velocity of an electron in the first Bohr orbit of a hydrogen atom. Solution. From Equation 1-5, 1 v=n(.!!:_)21r mer Assuming =l and substituting n

v = (l) (1.0545887

for r

= =0.529177 x 10-s cm, we obtain a0

x 10- 21 erg sec) 1

g) (0.529177 X 10-s cm) = 2.18769 x 108 cm sec- 1 X (9.109534 X

10- 28

Exercise _1-3. Calculate the value of kin Equation 1-7 in (a) ergs, (b) reciprocal centimeters (cm- 1), and (c) electron volts (eV). Solution. From Equation 1-7,

k = 21r2 mee4/ h2 (a) Using the values for the constants found in Appendix A,

k = 2(3.141593) 2 (9.109534

X 10- 28 ) (4.80324 X 10- 10 ) 4

(6.626176

X

10-27 ) 2

,, 8

Chapter 1 Atomic Structure liE , j 2

Wa ve number (waves cm - •)

Low energy

Radio waves

2 X 10- 11

2 X 10- 21

10- 13 Frequ ency (H z) 3 X 1010 X

12

3 X 10

t

to

2 3

14

3 X 10

101

102

Mi crowa ve

X X

10- 17 1016

to◄

106

107

10 - 6

10- 7

Infrar ed Far

Wavelength

(cm )

1

0.1

10 - 2

10- 1

10 -◄

10 - 1

10-a

10- •

(a)

Wavelength

Low

( cm )

7 X 10- •

5 X 10- •

6 X 10-•

4 X 10-•

High

Infrared

energy

Frequency

energy

(Hz ) 0 .40 X 10 16 1

0.50 X I0 16

0.75 X I0

I

I

I

I

,...

Visible light

15

--1

(b)

Figure 1-4 The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. (a) The visible region is only a small part of the entire spectrum; (b) expanded view of visible region.

(b)

(c)

= k = = k= =

2.1799 x 10-11 erg (2.1799 x 10-11 erg) (8065.5 cm- 1/1.6022 x 10-12 erg) 109,737 cm- 1 (2.1799 x 10- 11 erg) (1 eV/1.6022 x 10- 12 erg) 13.606 eV

1-5 Absorption

and Emission Spectra of Atomic Hydrogen

All atoms and molecules absorb light of certain characteristic frequencies. The pattern of absorption frequencies is called an absorption spectrum and is an identifying property of any atom or molecule. Because frequency is directly proportional to energy (E = hv ) , the absorption spectrum of an atom shows that the electron can have only certain energy values, as Bohr proposed.

--►

1_5Absorption and Emission Spectra of Atomic Hydrogen

9

Region of many lines (not shown)

Limit/at 109 679

110,000

very small spacing 105,292 102, 823

97,492

100,000

82,259

90,000

80,000

Figure 1-5 The electromagnetic absorption spectrum of hydrogen atoms. The lines

in this spectrum represent ultraviolet radiation that is absorbed by hydrogen atoms as a mixture of all wavelengths is passed through a gas sample.

It is common practice to express positions of absorption in terms of the wave number, ii, which is the reciprocal of the wavelength, X.:*

; v=x_ 5 Beca 1s related to frequency (v) by the relationship Av = c ( c-: velocity of light= 2.9979 x 1010 cm sec- 1 ), we also have ii= v/c and E = hiic. Thus wave number and energy are directly proportional. If v is in sec- 1 units and c is in cm sec- 1 , v is expressed in (cm- 1) units. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation is shown in Figure 1-4. The absorption spectrum of hydrogen atoms is shown in Figure 1-5. The lowest-energy absorption corresponds to the line at 82,259 cm- 1 • Notice that the absorption lines are crowded closer together as the limit of 109,679 cm- 1 is approached. Above this limit absorption is continuous. If atoms and molecules are heated to high temperatures, they emit light of certain frequencies. For example, hydrogen atoms emit red light when heated. An atom that possesses excess energy (an "excited" atom) emits light in a pattern known as its emission spectrum. A portion of the emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen is shown in Figure 1-6. The emission spectrum contains more lines than the absorption spectrum. The lines in the emission spectrum at 82,259 cm - 1 and above occur at the same positions as the lines · in the absorption spectrum, but the emission lines below 82,259 cm- 1 do not appear in the absorption spectrum. If we look more closely at the emission spectrum in Figure 1-6, we see that there are three distinct groups of lines. These three groups, or series, are named after the scientists who discovered them. The series that starts *A complete list of Greek symbols appears in Appendix B.

Chapte r 1 Atomic Structure

10 Limit

Limit

109 679

27 420

'

.,.23 97.492

+

~

Limit '

12 186

15,233

82,259

i

5,332

-I

c_

I

I I

• cm -I

110,()()(}

I

I

10() ()()()

I

I

40,000

60,000

80,000

20,000

'--...,-----' Balmer

Lyman

------------Ultraviolet-----------+--

-

j

......

'----1 Paschcn

Visiblc+Inframl 82,259

i

N ote: In the region near the limits of the Lyman , Balmer, and Pasc ben series , the lines become too closely spaced to appear on this scale. -Absorption

•· cm -•

110,000

100,000

spectrum

80,000

Figure 1-6 The emission spectrum from heated hydrogen atoms . The emission lines occur in serie s named for their discoverers , Lyman, Balmer, and Pascben. The Brackett and Pfund series are farther to the right in the infrared region. The lines become more closely spaced to the left in each series until they finally merge at

the series limiL

at 82~59 cm- 1 and continues to 109,679 cm- 1 is called the Lyman series and is in the ultraviolet portion of the spectrum. The series that starts at 15,233 cm- 1 and continues to 27,420 cm- 1 is called the Balmer series and covers a small pa.rt of the ultraviolet and a large portion of the visible spectrum. The lines between 5,332 cm- 1 and 12,186cm- 1 are called the Paschen series and fall in the near-infrared spectral region. Although the emission spectrum of hydrogen appears to be complicated, Johannes Rydberg formulated a fairly simple mathematical expression that gives all the line positions. This expression, known as the Rydberg equation, is

1(

In the Rydberg equation n and m are integers , with m greater than n; RH is called the Rydberg constant and is known accurately from experiment to be 109,678.764cm- 1•

1-5 Absorption and Emission Spectra of Atomic Hydrogen

11

Exercise 1-4. Calculate -;;Hfor the lines with n = 1 and m = 2, 3, and 4. Solution.

n = 1, m = 2 line: vH

=

n = 1, m -;;H

109,679(; 2

= 3 line:

= 109,679( ~

1

j

2)

-

-1 2)

109,679(1

-¼)= 82,259 cm-

1

= 109,679(1

-!) = 97,492 cm-

1

=

n = 1, m = 4 line: -;;H

= 109,679(f 2

-

] 2)

= 109,679(1 - ~) = 102,824 cm- 1 1

We see that the preceding wave numbers correspond to the first three lines in the Lyman series. Thus we can expect the Lyman series to correspond to lines calculated with n =land m = 2, 3, 4, 5, .... Let us check this by calculating the wave number for the line with n = l, m = oo:

n = l, m = oo line: -;;= 109,679(1- 0)

= 109,679 cm- 1

The wave number 109,679 cm- 1 corresponds to the highest emission line in the Lyman series. The wave number calculated for n = 2 and m = 3 is

v = 109,679(¼-¼)

=

15,233 cm- 1

This corresponds to the first line in the Balmer series. Thus the Balmer series corresponds to the n = 2, m = 3, 4, 5, 6, ... , lines. You probably would expect the lines in the Paschen series to correspond ton= 3, m = 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ... , and they do. Now you should wonder where the lines are with n = 4, m = 5, 6, 7, 8, ... , and n = 5, m = 6, 7, 8, 9, .... They are exactly where the Rydberg equation predicts they should be. The n = 4 series was discovered by Frederick Brackett and the n = 5 series was discovered by Pfund. The series with n = 6 and higher are located at very low frequencies and are not given special names. The Bohr theory provided an explanation for the spectral absorption and emission lines in atomic hydrogen in terms of the orbits and energy levels shown in Figure 1-7. The orbit with n = 1 has the lowest energy; the one electron in atomic hydrogen occupies this level in its most stable state. The most stable electronic state of an atom or molecule is called the ground state. If the electron in a hydrogen atom can move only in certain orbits, it is easy to see why the atom absorbs or emits light only at specific wave

Balmer

0

-4387-6855 -12,186

:\

Balmer

Lyman

Paschen

'

t t

, -27,420

liE

5-12

-109,67 9

n

I

'.

,

liE 4-+2

( ' liE 3-+2

liE 5-+3

n =co

liE 4-.3

=5

n=4 n =

3

n

=2

n

=1

,,

t::.E t::.E t::.E liE 5-+1 4-+1 3---+12-+1 (b)

Figure 1-7 Orbits and energy levels of the hydrogen atom. (a) Hydrogen-atom orbits. Each arc represents a portion of the electron's circular path around the positive nucleus. Series for most energetic (excited) electrons dropping from outer levels to various inner levels are shown. (b) The energy changes for electrons dropping from excited energy states to less energetic levels. AE is determined by initial and final energies, which in tum are determined by the principal quantum number of the orbit, n.

1-5 Absorption and Emission Spectra of Atomic Hydrogen

13

numbers. The absorption of light energy allows the electron to jump to a higher orbit. An excited hydrogen atom, in which the electron is not in the lowest-energy orbit, emits energy in the form of light when the ele~tron falls back into a lower-energy orbit. The following series of spectral lines are a consequence of electronic transitions: 1. The Lyman series of lines arises from transitions from then= 2, 3, 4, ... levels into the n = 1 orbit.

2. The Balmer series of lines arises from transitions from then= 3, 4, 5, ... levels into the n = 2 orbit. 3. The Paschen series of lines arises from transitions from then= 4, 5, 6, . . . levels into the n = 3 orbit. The Bohr theory also explains why there are more emission lines than absorption lines. Excited hydrogen atoms may haven= 2, 3, 4, 5, .... Any transition to a lower level is accompanied by emission of a quantum unit of light of energy hv. Such a light quantum is called a photon. Since transitions are possible to all orbits below the occupied orbit in the excited atom, an excited hydrogen atom with an electron in the n = 6 orbit, for example, may "decay" to a less excited state by the transitions n = 6 ~ n = 5, n = 6 ➔ n=4, n=6~ n=3, and n=6~ n=2, or it may decay to the ground state by the transition n = 6 ~ n = I. In other words, for the excited hydrogen atom with an n = 6 electron, there are five possible modes of decay, each with a finite probability of occurrence. Thus five emission lines result which correspond t-0five emitted photon energies (hv). The lines in the absorption spectrum of hydrogen are due to transitions from the ground state (n = 1) orbit to higher orbits. Because almost no hydrogen atoms have n greater than one under typical absorption conditions, only the transitions n = 1 ➔ 2, 1~ 3, 1~ 4, 1~ 5, ... , and 1 ~ ooare observed. These are the absorption lines that correspond to the series of emission lines (the Lyman series) in which the excited states decay in one transition to the ground state. Now we are able to derive the Rydberg equation from the Bohr theory. The transition energy (AEH) of any electron jump in the hydrogen atom is the energy difference between an initial state, I, and a final state, II. That is,

In an absorption experiment Enu > En1 and AEtt is positive. However, for emission we have En11 < En,, because in the final state the electron is in a more stable orbit, and therefore AEH is negative. From Equation 1-7 the expression for the transition energy (whether for absorption or emission) becomes

Chapter 1 Atomic Structure

14

or

From conservation

of energy we can write

Absorption: Efff + Ep = En 0 Emission: Efff = Enn + Ep

liE liE

8 8

=

Ep =-EP

In these equations EP = hvc is the energy of the photon, whether absorbed or emitted. To compare directly with experiment, we wish to calculate vH. For absorption we have (1-8)

in which n1 < nu. Equation 1-8 is equivalent to the Rydberg equation, with n 1 = n, nn = m, and R = 2-rrmee 4 /ch 3 • In the emission experiment we obtain :,.

Va

=

llEe _

he -

'Ir'mee

~

2

4

(1_ 1_\ _ R (_!_ _ _!_) nt nri/nri nt

c,~ in hich n 1 > nu. We can ensure that the calculated v8 will always be positive (as it must) no matter whether the transition is an absorption or an emission by taking the absolute value

If we use the value of 9 .109534 x 10- 28 g for the rest mass of the electron, the Bohr theory value of the Rydberg constant is

R

=

2-rrmee

4

cir

2 3.141593) 2 9.109534 X 10- 28 ) (4.803242 X J0- 10 ) 4 2.997925 X 1010 ) (6.626176 X 10- 27 ) 3 = 109 737.3 cm- 1

1-6 Ionization Energy of Atomic Hydrogen

15

The value of R calculated from the Bohr theory assumed that the nucleus was stationary with respect to the orbiting electron. A careful analysis of the planetary motion that takes into account the slight orbiting effect of the nucleus reveals that the mass of the electron in the expression for R should be replaced by the reduced mass, JJ-H,of the atom. The reduced mass is defined by the equation

where mp refers in general to the mass of the nucleus which for hydrogen consists only of a proton. Notice that for mp ~ me the reduc~d mass approaches me. The value of JJ-Hcan be calculated from the data in Table 1-1; it is found to be 0.9994558me. The "corrected" theoretical value of R, which we now label RH, is therefore (109,737.3cm- 1 ) (0.9994558)= 109,677.6cm- 1• Recall that the experimental value of RH is 109,678.764cm- 1• This remarkable agreement between theory and experiment was a great triumph for the Bohr theory. The previously calculated value of R = 109,737.3cm- 1 assumed that µ,8 = me, which can only occur for a nucleus of infinite mass. Consequently, this value of R is ften referred to as Roo,

1-6 Ionization Energy of Atomic Hydrogen When light (photons) of energy E = hv impinges on gaseous atomic hydrogen, it can cause the electron to be excited from the n = 1 orbit to some less stable orbit with n > 1. If the photon imparts sufficient energy to the atom, the electron will escape entirely from the proton. That is, it will be excited to the n = oo orbit with radius r = oo and EH= 0. This process is called ionization. For the hydrogen atom the ionization process is H(g)

+ (E = hv)

dEe = Enu - En1

~ H+(g)

+ e-(½mev2) (1-9).

This formulation shows that the ejected electron can have a kinetic energy ½mev2. The ionization energy, IE, of an atom or molecule is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the gaseous atom or molecule in its ground state, the ejected electron ,having zero kinetic energy and being infinitely distant from the proton. In 1905, Albert Einstein formulated a

Chapter 1 Atomic Structure

16 h11 =IE+

2 ½meV

/

PhotonE = hv

Kinetic energy= ½mev2

0

Nucleus

Figure 1-8 If a photon of sufficient energy impinges on the hydrogen atom, the result is ionization. The energetics of the ionization are governed by the Einstein photoelectric effect, which states that any photon energy not required to carry out the ionization process, IE, will be manifested as kinetic energy of the ejected electron (½mev2 ).

quantitative relationship between the photon energy, ionization energy, and kinetic energy of the ejected electron: (1-10)

Equation 1-10, known as the Einstein photoelectric law, shows that any photon energy in excess of that required to effect the ionization will be manifested as the kinetic energy of the ejected electron. This concept is illustrated in Figure 1-8. When ionization occurs as a result of photon impingement, the ionization process is called photoionization and the ejected electrons are called photoelectrons. To calculate ionization energy for the hydrogen atom we first must recognize that when the hydrogen atom is ionized, its change in energy is simply the ionization energy, dEH = IE. Then utilizing Equation 1-9 we obtain

For the ground state, n 1 = 1, and for the state in which the electron is removed completely from the atom, n11 = oo. Since Eoo= 0 (Equation 1-7) we obtain (1-11)

1-7 General Bohr Theory for a One-Electron Atom

17

in which we have subscripted the ionization energy to indicate that the ionization is taking place from the energy state with n = n1• Therefore taking into account the reduced mass effect, - 21r2µHe4-

IEn1-

h2

- RHhc

= (109,677.6) (6.626176 X 10-~7 )(2.997925 = 2.178721 x 10- 11 erg

X 1010 )

Ionization energies usually are expressed in electron volts. Since 1 eV = 8065.479 cm- 1 (see Appendix A), we calculate IE= (109,677.6 cm- 1 ) (1 eV/8065.479 cm- 1 ) = 13.5984 eV

Thus, the calculated energy required to ionize one hydrogen atom is IE= 13.5984 eV = 109,677.6 cm- 1

The experimental value of the ionization energy corresponds exactly to the Lyman series emission line n = oo ~ n = l, which we stated previously to be 109,678.764 cm- 1 • Using the conversion factor found in Appendix A, this corresponds to 13.5984 eV. Equation 1-11 is easy to understand, because in order to remove an electron from its orbit, we must add sufficient energy to overcome the binding energy of the electron. This concept is illustrated in Figure 1-9.

1-7 General Bohr Theory for a One-Electron Atom The problem of one electron moving around any nucleus of charge +Z is very similar to the hydrogen-atom problem. Because the attractive force ·is -Ze 2/r2 the condition for a stable orbit is 2

m v _e_=-

r

Ze 2

r2

Proceeding from this condition in the same way as with the hydrogen ·atom we find n2h2

r=---41r2meZe2

I

,/

/

,-·

.......__

18

Chapter 1 Atomic Structure

+5

~ C

01------------------------------

g ] llJ 0

-5 .... 0

~

-

-5

>. ~ 0

C

llJ

IE= - EH=+

bl)

13.60eV

C

:e

.E

C0

-10

EH= - 13.60eV

-15

Figure 1-9 Illustration of the relationship between EHand IE for the hydrogen atom. If the binding energy of the electron (EH) is -13.60 eV, then the ionization energy (IE) must be+ 13.60 eV.

and

E= Thus for the general case of nuclear charge +z, for a transition from n1to nu we have

or simply

1-7 General Bohr Theory for a One-Electron Atom

19

The wave numbers of absorption and emission lines may be calculated from the formula

In this equation we have ignored the small correction due to the reduced . Recall from Equation 1-7 and Exercise 1-3 mass and simply employed R oo that a very useful expression for E is E = -kl n2 • For hydrogenlike atoms 2 mee4/ h2 • this becomes E = -kZ 2/ n2 in which k = 21T Exercise 1-5. Calculate the third ionization energy of a lithium atom. Solution. A lithium atom is composed of a nucleus of charge +3 (Z = 3) and three electrons. The.first ionization energy, IE 1 , of an atom with more than one electron is the energy required to remove one electron. For lithium

The energy needed to remove an electron from the unipositive ion, Li+, is defined as the second ionization energy, IE 2 , of lithium,

and the third ionization energy, IE 3 , of lithium is the energy required to remove the one remaining electron from Li2 +. For lithium, Z = 3 and I E 3 = (3) 2 (13.606 eV) = 122.45 eV. The experimental value is also 122.45eV. f.-

l~v--=---