Chang Chun-chiao and Shanghai’s January Revolution 9780892640324

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CHANG CH'UN-CH'IAO AND SHANGHAI'S JANUARY REVOLUTION

Andrew G. Walder

N U N C C O CN O S CO EX PARTE

THOMAS J. BATA LIBRARY TRENT UNIVERSITY

Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2019 with funding from Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/changchunchiaoshOOOOwald

THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN CENTER FOR CHINESE STUDIES

MICHIGAN PAPERS IN CHINESE STUDIES NO. 32

CHANG C H ' U N - C H ' I A O AND SHANGHAI'S JANUARY REVOLUTION

by Andrew G. W alder

Ann A rb o r C en ter fo r C hinese Studies The U n iv ersity of M ichigan 1978

Trent

U n iv e r sity

library

PETERBOROUGH, OMT.

2)5

7%

,S 0 5 ? ^ ® y

ISBN 0-89264-032-2 C opyright © 1978 by C en ter fo r C hinese Studies T he U n iv ersity of M ichigan

P rin te d in the U nited S tates of A m e ric a

CONTENTS

P re fa c e

vii

A b b rev iatio n s I. II.

ix

In tro d u ctio n

1

Chang C h 'u n -c h ’ia o 's P o litic a l and O rg an izatio n al B ackground T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu 's P o litic a l and O rg an izatio n al B ackground

5 9

III. T he C u ltu ral C am paign: May—A ugust 19GG

11

IV. T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu and th e E a rly R ed G uard M ovem ent in Shanghai Shanghai R ed G uard O pposition to th e MPC T he S p iral of C onflict: P ek in g Red G uards E n te r Shanghai In te rn a l MPC D ebates about D issid e n t Red G uards M ao’s S e lf-C la rific a tio n : The O ctober P a rty W ork C onference

17 19 21 23 25

V . T he C en tral D ilem m a: R evolution and P ro d u ctio n W o rk e rs E n te r the C u ltu ral R evolution— The A nting Incident T he M P C ’s A rgum ents a g a in st W o rk er O rganizations T he D evelopm ent of M ass F a c tio n a lis m and the P a ra ly s is of M unicipal G overnm ent T he L ib e ra tio n D aily Incident and the P o larizatio n of F actio n s T s 'a o 's A bdication and the D evelopm ent of A narchy

27 28 31

VI. The Socioeconom ic O rigins of "E co n o m ism " S o u rces of P o p u la r D isco n ten t The W o rk e r-P e a s a n t S y stem Youth M obilization S y stem R esu ltin g G riev an ces and C onflicts A p p ren tices Sent-dow n Youths Sent-dow n P e rm a n e n t W o rk ers and Suburban P e a sa n ts C o n tract and T e m p o ra ry L ab o r P e rm a n e n t W o rk ers

39 39 40 42 43 43 44 44 45 45

33 34 36

v

312889

vi Social Conditions in Shanghai—D ecem b er M assive P opulation Influx Food, Com m odity S hortages and In c re a se d U nem ploym ent T rig g e r Incidents fo r Econom ic P a r a ly s is — D ecem b er 26-31 CCRG D ecision of D ecem b er 26 G eneral U psurge of Econom ic D em ands The S c a rle t Exodus and G en eral S trik e The E ffects of E conom ism

46 46 46 47 47 48 48 49

VII. Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao and the Ja n u a ry R evolution Stage One— E sta b lish in g a R atio n ale fo r A ction Stage Two—S trik e -B re a k in g and P o litic a l O rganizing The D e te rio ra tio n of C hang's M ass Support Stage T h re e —The C om m u n e/R ev o lu tio n ary C om m ittee

51 53 56 58 60

VIII. Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao and the P o litic s of D em obilization H alting A ttacks on In d u stria l and A d m in istrativ e C ad res R etu rn in g Students to School R etu rn in g Youths to the C ountryside R esolving the Issu e of W o rk er E conom ic D em ands R e sto rin g O rd er in S hanghai's N eighborhoods Shanghai in the S um m er of 1967

65 67 68 69 69 71 72

IX. C onclusions In te rp re tiv e Shifts The J a n u a ry R evolution Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o and C hinese " R a d ic a lism " T h e o re tic a l P e rs p e c tiv e s O rg an izatio n al S tru c tu re and P o litic a l C onflict Social S tru c tu re and P o litic a l C onflict Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o and the P o litic s of Social Change

77 77 78 79 80 80 81 82

Chronology of E vents

85

N otes

97

S ources

143

PREFA CE

C hinese M arx ism is unique in the w orld com m unist m ovem ent fo r the th e o re tic a l and p ra c tic a l so lu tio n s it h as offered fo r the problem of m ain tain in g unbroken change in so c ia l re la tio n s a f te r th e in itia l e s ta b ­ lish m e n t of s o c ia lis m . F o r a p ro m in en t contingent w ithin the C hinese C om m unist m ovem ent, it h as been in su fficien t to re d is trib u te the m eans of p roduction and end the ex p lo itativ e a sp e c ts of the old so ciety . P r o ­ duction re la tio n s , w hich include fo r th is contingent not only p ro p e rty re la tio n s but all so c ia l re la tio n s em bodied in fo rm s of d istrib u tio n , e n te r p r is e ru le s and re g u la tio n s, and econom ic coordination, m u st be continually tra n s fo rm e d to elim in ate all v e stig e s of c la ss d istin ctio n . T h is tra n s fo rm a tio n is to tak e p lace la rg e ly through the conscious effo rt of people who live th e se re la tio n s in th e ir daily liv e s. All lite r a tu r e and a r t, re fle c tio n s of th e se so cial re la tio n s , m u st be m obilized to help fa c ilita te th is tra n s fo rm a tio n . Individuals in sid e and out of the P a rty who r e s i s t th e se continuous changes as being d e trim e n ta l to th e rapid developm ent of a s o c ia lis t econom y o r as being h arm fu l to lite r a r y and a r ti s tic c re a tiv ity m u st be stru g g le d with p o litic ally so th a t th e se changes can m ove fo rw ard . Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o h as been one of the m o re p ro m in en t th e o re ti­ cian s and p ra c titio n e rs of th is s tr e a m of C hinese M arxism , and the J a n u a ry R evolution has becom e sy m b o lic of effo rts both to p ro m o te so cial and p o litic al change and to o v erco m e r e s is ta n c e to th e se changes by p ro m in en t P a rty and n o n -P a rty fig u re s . The study in this volum e tr a c e s the sh iftin g involvem ent of Chang in the C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai and the so c ia l fo rc e s in C hinese so c ie ty w hich, once s e t off by the C u ltu ral Revolution, d ecisiv ely a lte re d ev en ts in the city . Chang e m e rg e s as a com plex p o litic al fig u re — both in s tig a to r and s u p p re s s o r of p o litic a l conflict, a lte rn a te ly cham pion and enem y of reb e llio n —and is throughout a p ro te c to r of the id e als of h is b ran ch of M arx ism who sin glem indedly pushed fo r th e ir re a liz a tio n through a nu m b er of s h a rp ta c tic a l tu rn s . The J a n u a ry R evolution not only rem in d s us th at c la s s e s continue to e x is t u n d er s o c ia lis m , as C hinese M arx ists a r e the f ir s t to

V lll

adm it, but it a lso highlights the fa c t th a t a s o c ia lis t so ciety is capable of g en era tin g co n trad ictio n s and co n flicts th a t a r e d istin c tiv e ly its own. T his e ssa y has benefited co n sid erab ly fro m unusually p e rc e p tiv e com m ents upon v ario u s d ra fts o ffered by Lowell D ittm er, A lb ert F e u e rw e rk e r, Kenneth L ieb erth a l, M ichel O ksenberg, and E rn e s t Young. Two o th e rs responded g en ero u sly to my re q u e s ts fo r a s s is ta n c e : Hong Yung Lee by allow ing m e a c c e s s to his index of Red G uard m a te r i­ als, and Lynn T . W hite III by pro v id in g m a te ria l fro m h is own r e s e a r c h and by helping to c la rify c e rta in points of confusion. P e rh a p s m o st im p o rtan tly , w ithout M ichel O k sen b erg 's stim u la tin g le a d e rs h ip of o u r s e m in a r on C hinese p o litic s and Ms activ e en co u ra g em en t of my f a s c in a ­ tion w ith CM na's ra d ic a l p o litic a l fig u re s , my e ffo rts would n ev er have been channeled in tM s d ire c tio n . TM s e x p re ssio n of g ra titu d e in no way confers re sp o n sib ility fo r tM s p iece on th o se m entioned above. R em ain ­ ing w eak n esses a re in sp ite of th e ir e ffo rts . Two o th e rs con trib u ted in v a rio u s o th e r, but no le s s im p o rta n t w ays, to the com pletion of th is study. M arlene Thom s e rv e d as an en th u sia stic and capable ed ito r, and G eorge W a ld e r's co n stan t s tr e a m of clippings fro m the W ashington P o st helped h is son keep a b r e a s t of m a jo r developm ents in p o st-M ao p o litic s with a m inim um of effo rt.

Andrew G. W alder Ann A rb o r, M ichigan July 1977

ABBREVIATIONS

AS CB CCP D ocum ents CCRG C F JP CNA CNI CNS CQ CS D SJP FBIS FE FE E R HMWP JM JP JPR S K M JP MPC NONA P C JP PLA SC MM SCMM(S) SCMP SCMP(S)

SCPRM URS URS Bio WGHQ WHP

A sian Survey C u rre n t B ackground Union R e s e a rc h In stitu te, CCP D ocum ents of the G reat P r o le ta r ia n C u ltu ral R evolution C en tral C ultu ral R evolution Group C hieh-fang J ih -p a o China News A nalysis China News Item s fro m the P r e s s China News S um m ary China Q u a rte rly C u rre n t Scene D aily S um m ary of the Ja p a n e se P r e s s F o re ig n B ro a d c a st Info rm atio n S erv ice, Daily R e p o rt (F a r E ast) B r itis h B ro a d c a stin g C orp o ratio n , S um m ary of W orld B ro a d c a sts (F a r E ast) F a r E a s te r n E conom ic Review H sin -m in W an-pao J e n -m in J ih -p a o J o in t P u b licatio n s R e s e a rc h S erv ice K uang-m ing Jih -p a o M unicipal P a rty C om m ittee New China News Agency P e i-c h in g Jih -p a o P e o p le ’s L ib eratio n A rm y S electio n s fro m China M ainland M agazines S electio n s fro m China M ainland M agazines (Supplem ent) Survey of the China M ainland P r e s s Survey of the China M ainland P r e s s (Supplement) S electio n s fro m P e o p le ’s R epublic of China M agazines Union R e s e a rc h S erv ice Union R e s e a rc h S erv ice B io g rap h ical S erv ice Shanghai W o rk e rs ' G eneral H ead q u arters W en-hui Pao

\

I INTRODUCTION

S hanghai's Ja n u a ry R evolution was a highly v isib le and, by all acco u n ts, c ru c ia lly im p o rta n t event in C h in a's C ultural R evolution. Its o c c u rre n c e , along w ith th e su b seq u en t a ttem p t to e sta b lish a "com m une" fo rm of m unicipal governm ent, has g re a tly shaped o u r u n d erstan d in g both of the goals o rig in a lly env isag ed fo r the C u ltu ral R evolution by its le a d e rs and of the p o litic a l p o sitio n s held by the new co rp s of P a rty le a d e rs th r u s t upw ard d u rin g its c o u rs e — m o st notably Chang C h'unc h 'ia o . At th is in te rp re tiv e lev el, the ev en ts in Shanghai seem to em ­ body in m ic ro c o sm the is s u e s and co n flicts in C hinese p o litic s d u rin g the C u ltu ral R evolution as a w hole, w hile a t the sam e tim e shaping o u r conception of w hat th e se la r g e r is s u e s and co n flicts w e re . At a m o re g e n e ra l, th e o re tic a l lev el, how ever, the ev en ts in Shanghai provide us w ith an unusual oppo rtunity (thanks to Red G uard ra id s on P a r ty offices) to view the in te rn a l w orkings of the P a rty o rg an izatio n u n d er a p erio d of s tr e s s and to o b se rv e u n re s tra in e d in te r e s t group fo rm atio n and m a ss p o litic a l co n flict thro u g h the p r e s s accounts provided by th e se unofficial groups th e m s e lv e s . T he J a n u a ry R evolution thus p ro v id es us w ith an o ppo rtu n ity to develop b e tte r o u r m o re a b s tra c t, th e o re tic a l u n d erstan d ­ ing of the functioning of th e C hinese p o litic a l sy ste m and the dynam ics of th e so c ia l sy ste m in w hich it o p e ra te s . At th e lev el of in te rp re ta tio n a sin g le th e m e —th a t the Jan u ary R evolution w as a v ic to ry of R evo lu tio n ary R eb els o v e r an en tren ch ed m u n icip al b u re a u c ra c y activ e ly r e s is tin g a n d /o r su p p re ssin g the e m e rg ­ ing m ovem ent—has d om inated m o st w ritin g s on the C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai. ^ C e n tra l to th is in te rp re ta tio n a r e two a s s e r tio n s : th at th e S c a rle t G uards colluded w ith the M unicipal P a rty C om m ittee (MPC) tp fend off the R ev o lu tio n ary R eb els, 2 and th at "eco n o m ism " and the ensu in g econom ic breakdow n of th e city in e a rly J a n u a ry 1967 was a d e lib e ra te atte m p t by the MPC to sab o tag e the C u ltu ral R evolution and p r e s e r v e its p ow er. ^ In m a rk e d c o n tra s t w ith th e p o rtra y a l of the r e ­ p re s s iv e sta n c e of deposed M ayor T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu is th e conception of 1

2

Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao as a " ra d ic a l ideologue" who a s s is te d the re b e l stru g g le in o rd e r to c re a te a d e m o c ra tic com m une in Shanghai. T h is im age of S hanghai's " Ja n u a ry R evolution" and Chang C h'unc h 'ia o 's ro le in it is, in m any re s p e c ts , s e rio u s ly m islead in g . F i r s t g en era ted by Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o 's Shanghai m ed ia e ffo rts betw een Jan u ary and M arch 1967, th is im age was ta ilo re d to m e e t c le a rly s p e c i­ fiable and u rg en tly fe lt p o litic al n eed s. It g ro s sly m in im izes T s 'a o T ic h 'iu 's su p p o rt fo r the m ovem ent and ad h eren ce to C en tral C u ltu ral Revolution Group (CCRG) p o lic ie s, w hile v illify in g his le g itim a te con­ cern to m aintain civil o r d e r and in d u s tria l p ro d u ctio n in the m id st of the m a ss m ovem ent. It ig n o res the r e a l so cial and econom ic g rie v a n c e s th a t gave r is e to "eco n o m ism " and o b s c u re s the c e n tra l ro le th a t CCRG d ire c tiv e s and the Shanghai R evo lu tio n ary R eb els th e m se lv e s play ed in touching off the econom ic p a ra ly s is of the city . T h is ta ilo re d im age cannot adm it th a t C hang's c e n tra l p u rp o se in the f i r s t m onths of 1967 was to r e s to r e production w hile sim u ltan eo u sly s u p p re s sin g and r e ­ d ire c tin g m a ss p o litic al a c tiv ity —a ta sk fo r w hich (in F e b ru a ry 1967) he had the suppo rt of no m o re than a m in o rity of the re b e l factio n s of Shanghai's w orking and stu d en t population. T his d epiction of the events in Shanghai durin g the e a rly sta g e s of the C u ltu ral R evolution h as con­ trib u ted , in tu rn , to a num ber of com m on m isco n cep tio n s about the p o litic al co n cern s of Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o and th o se clo sely aligned w ith him , as w ell as about the m eaning of " ra d ic a lis m " in the C hinese p o liti­ cal sp e c tru m . T h ese m isco n cep tio n s w ill no doubt be fueled by the c u r r e n t p o st­ p u rg e p o lem ics d esig n ed to d is c r e d it Chang, h is co lleag u es, and the p o litic a l p rin c ip le s they held. Chang, d esp ite the fact th a t he w as a key fig u re in reig n in g in th e se v e ry sam e d isru p tiv e C u ltu ral R evolution ten d en cies, is now p o rtra y e d as one who in stig a te d factio n al v io len ce, encouraged effo rts to "o v erth ro w a ll" le a d e rs , and who, in th e su m m e r of 1967, u rg ed atta c k s upon a rm y tro o p s and s e iz u r e of w eapons by m a ss fa c tio n s .^ While few o b s e rv e rs w ill a cc ep t th e o fficial conclusion th a t Chang was in re a lity a rig h tis t who opposed the C u ltu ral R evolution, th e se c h a ra c te riz a tio n s m esh w ith the dom inant im p re s sio n of him as p rim a rily a d isru p tiv e p o litic a l fo rc e . A re-e x a m in a tio n of th e se in te rp re tiv e is s u e s w ill open up som e new p e rs p e c tiv e s both on the C u ltu ral R evolution and on C hinese p o litic s and so ciety in g en era l. If we r e je c t som e of the p rev io u s in te r p r e ta ­ tions of th e se p o litic al events and the ro le s of key in d iv id u als in them , we w ill be fo rced to g en era te new in te rp re ta tio n s and ex p lan atio n s of

3 o u r own. If we do not accep t, fo r exam ple, the in te rp re ta tio n of m a ss p o litic a l fa c tio n a lism and s trik e b eh av io r as p ro d u cts p u rely of m anipu­ latio n by m unicipal level e lite s , then we m u st explain th is b eh av io r by exam ining the re a l so c ia l g riev a n ces of d iffe re n t s e c to rs of the popula­ tion and the cleav ag es to w hich they gave r is e . If, fu rth e r, we do not a cc ep t the in te rp re ta tio n th a t m unicipal level e lite s opposed and r e ­ s tr ic te d the c o u rse of th e C u ltu ral R evolution fro m the beginning, then we m u st explain th e ir b eh av io r by re fe re n c e to the o rg an izatio n al con­ te x t in w hich th e ir d ecisio n s w ere m ade. F o r the events in Shanghai we a r e gifted with a num ber of s o u r c e s - W e s te rn e rs living and te ach in g in Shanghai, Jap an ese v is ito rs , the p r e s s of the v a rio u s m a ss o rg an iz atio n s and frag m en ted in te r e s t groups, accounts of M unicipal P a rty C om m ittee m eetings and telephone co n fer­ en ce s, and the "o fficia l" local and national p r e s s —all of which, when p ie ced to g e th e r and c ro s s -c h e c k e d , w ill enable us to begin the difficult ta sk of specifying su ch an a lte rn a tiv e explanation. We a r e p resen te d , f i r s t of all, w ith an unusual view of the o rg an izatio n al settin g of C hinese p o litic s and of the influence th a t o rg an iz atio n al p o sitio n s, p a tte rn s of com m unication, p o o r a rtic u la tio n of goals, and a rap id ly changing en ­ v iro n m e n t have on the b eh av io r of p o litic al e lite s . We a r e provided, secondly, w ith an un p reced en ted g lim p se a t th e u n d e rc u rre n ts , d iv isions, and conflicts w ithin C hinese so ciety and w ith an indication of how th ese u n d e rc u rre n ts can sh ap e th e s tr u c tu r e of p o litic al is s u e s and even con­ s tr a in and influence e lite p o litic a l b eh av io r its e lf. We aim , in sh o rt, not only to achieve a c l e a r e r u n d erstan d in g of th e b eh av io r of any single p o litic a l a c to r like Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o o r of any sin g le p o litic al event like the Jan u ary R evolution but also to begin to develop p e rs p e c tiv e s th a t m ight p o te n tially enhance o u r g e n e ra l th e o re tic a l u n d erstan d in g of the C hinese p o litic a l and so cial s y ste m . T o w ard s th e se twin in te rp re tiv e and th e o re tic a l ends we d ir e c t o u r e ffo rts in th is c a se study of an indi­ vidual and a city a t a c ru c ia l p oint in re c e n t C hinese h is to ry .

II CHANG CH'UN-CH'IAO'S POLITICAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL BACKGROUND

Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o is p e rh a p s b e s t known o u tsid e China fo r h is c o n s is te n t co n cern w ith fo s te rin g continuing rev o lu tio n ary change in Chi­ n ese so c ie ty . Chief am ong C hang's co n cern s have been th a t the p ro c e s s of so c ia l change m ight be slow ed and eventually re v e rs e d , e ith e r through the p e rs is te n c e of " lib e ra l" influences in a r t and lite r a tu r e o r through the continuing ex iste n c e of n o n so cialist p ra c tic e s in C h in a's econom y. C hang's e ffo rts throughout h is c a r e e r in the C hinese C om m unist P a rty (CCP) have been d ire c te d to w ard s p rev en tin g su ch an ev en tu ality . By confronting P a rty and n o n -P a rty m e m b e rs alik e, and by p re s s in g fo r continual changes in econom ic o rg an izatio n , Chang has sought to fu rth e r th e s e p o litic a l ends. The co n ce rn s Chang exhibited d u rin g the 1975 "D ictato rsh ip of the P r o le ta r ia t" cam paign to r e s t r i c t continually the "bourgeois r ig h t" 1 w ere e n tire ly c o n siste n t w ith th e ro le he p e rfo rm e d in the CCP fro m th e v e ry beginning of the P e o p le 's R epublic, C hang's d uties as a P a rty function­ a ry in S hanghai's pro p ag an d a a p p ara tu s had continually involved him in e ffo rts to m ain tain the c u r r e n t p o litic a l line through ideological re fo rm of p r e s s and lite r a r y c irc le s o r cam paigns a g a in st " r ig h tis ts ." This unique o rg a n iz a tio n a l p o sitio n helped to shape C hang's conception of the ta s k s involved in building s o c ia lis m in China. W hile o th e r fu n ctio n aries stru g g le d to in c re a s e in d u s tria l output by collectiv izin g , reo rg an izin g , and ra tio n a liz in g in d u stry and a g ric u ltu re , Chang was p rim a rily con­ cern e d d u rin g th is e a rly p erio d w ith re fo rm in g ru le s , reg u latio n s, and id e as re m in is c e n t of th e old so ciety . A ppointed m anaging d ir e c to r of the New China News Agency E a s t China B ra n c h in M arch 1950, 2 Chang had fro m the f i r s t been involved in local e ffo rts to re fo rm p r e s s and lite r a r y g ro u p s. In 1951 he s a t on the E a s t China C om m ittee to p ro p ag ate the study of M ao-thought and was involved in a s im ila r effo rt the v e ry next y e a r to c a r r y out ideological re fo rm in S hanghai's p r e s s c i r c l e s . 3 D uring th is e a rly p erio d he was

5

6

re p o rte d ly activ e in both the a n ti- r ig h tis t and Hu F en g cam p aig n s, d ir e c t­ ing c ritic is m s to w ard s m ovie a c to rs , d ir e c to r s , and w r i t e r s . 4 As Chang moved up w ithin the P a rty h ie ra rc h y , 5 h is a c tiv itie s becam e m o re in tim a tely linked w ith th o se of the f i r s t P a rty s e c r e ta r y of Shanghai, K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih . His a ss o c ia tio n w ith K 'o w as c ru c ia l in shaping Ms p o litic a l co n cern s and a c tiv itie s o v e r th e next d ecade, and it provided h im w ith Ms f i r s t opportunity to p a rtic ip a te in natio n al p o li­ tic s . It is th is a sso c ia tio n w ith K 'o, r a th e r than C hang's m uch la te r , m o re w idely known a llian c e w ith C hiang C h'ing, th a t involved him in fights o v e r national policy and s te e re d h im on a p o litic a l c o u rs e lead in g d ire c tly to his involvem ent in the C u ltu ral R evolution. K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih w as an e a rly s u p p o rte r of M ao's H undred F lo w e rs policy in the s p rin g of 1957 and an equally f ir m s u p p o rte r of th e a n ti­ rig h tis t cam paign th a t m a rk e d the July r e tr e a t fro m th a t p o licy . 9 His stro n g , c o n siste n t su p p o rt of M ao's T sin g tao co n feren ce p ro n o u n cem en t th a t the revolutio n had to continue on the ideo lo g ical and p o litic a l fro n ts m a rk e d him as one of the re lia b le p ro v in c ia l le a d e rs to whom Mao could tu rn fo r su p p o rt in national po licy d is p u te s. ? As p a r t of th is co n siste n t su p p o rt fo r M ao's p o licies, K 'o em ployed the e ffo rts of h is lo cal P r o p a ­ ganda D ep artm en t. Yao W en-yuan, fo r exam ple, as p a r t of th e " a n ti­ rig h tis t" cam paign, attack ed th e "b o u rg eo is r ig h tis ts " of S hanghai's W en-hui Pao fo r being too c r itic a l of s o c ia lis m d u rin g the H undred F lo w ers p e rio d . ® Im m ed iately follow ing the a n ti- r ig h tis t cam paign, in 1958, Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o h im se lf au thored an a r tic le in S hanghai's C hieh-fang Jih -p ao w here, in acc o rd an ce with M ao's co m m en ts at the P eitaih o P o litb u ro C onference, he advocated re fo rm of the supply and wage s y ste m s . Mao was re p o rte d ly so p le a se d with C hang's "B reak Away fro m the Idea of B o urgeois R ight" th a t he o rd e re d its rep ro d u ctio n in Je n -m in Jih -p ao and p e rso n a lly w ro te an accom panying " e d ito r 's note" su p p o rtin g its a s s e r tio n s . 9 K 'o continued d u rin g the G reat Leap F o rw a rd and a fte rw a rd as one of M ao's m o st c o n siste n t s u p p o rte rs , and he continued to d raw upon Chang's involvem ent. K 'o 's su p p o rt w as c o n sid ere d by Mao to be a key fa c to r in Ms launcM ng of the G reat Leap, 19 and th roughout the p e rio d 1958-63 K 'o published activ ely on ideo lo g ical is s u e s , often defending the " g en eral lin e" fo rw ard ed in the Leap. 44 C hang's activ e su p p o rt of K 'o 's p o litic a l a c tiv itie s d u rin g th is p e rio d e a rn e d him in c re a s in g p ro m in en ce in the Shanghai P a rty h ie ra rc h y . Chang w as f i r s t e lecte d a s one of 404 m e m b ers of the M unicipal P a r ty C om m ittee in 1958, and in le ss than one y e a r w as elev ated to its 8 1 -m e m b e r Standing Com -

7 m itte e . 12 it w as, how ever, in his e a r lie r - a c q u ir e d p o sitio n as head of the L ite r a r y and A rt W ork C om m ittee of th e M unicipal P a rty C om m it­ te e 's P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t th a t Chang m ade h is influence fe lt d u rin g the e a r ly 1960s. In the a fte rm a th of the P 'e n g T eh -h u ai affa ir, C h in a's P ropaganda h ie ra rc h y began to divide o v e r m any of the v e ry types of p o licies pushed by K 'o and Chang d u rin g th e p rece d in g p erio d as w ell as o v er the d is ­ m is s a l of P 'e n g h im se lf. Chang becam e a sso c ia te d d u rin g th is period w ith a factio n of younger o fficials w ithin the national P ro p ag an d a h ie r ­ a rc h y including such fig u re s as Yao W en-yuan, Kuan Feng, C h 'i P en yu, Lin Y u-shih, and Lin C hieh. T h is group continued to p r e s s fo r c r itic is m s and re fo rm of "b o u rg eo is" ten d en cies in lite r a tu r e and s c h o la r­ ship, b ecam e em b ro iled in a n u m b er of lite r a r y /p o litic a l c o n tro v e rsie s w ith a n o th e r group of o fficials who opposed th is continual " c la s s stru g g le ," and d isse n te d fro m P 'e n g T e h -h u a i's d is m is s a l and, by im p lication, fro m the line of po licy re p re s e n te d by th e G reat Leap F o rw a rd . 13 D uring th is p erio d , Chang, em u latin g h is s u p e rio r K 'o in defending th e se p o licies, u sed his p o sitio n a s head of the Shanghai L ite r a r y and A rt Work Com ­ m itte e to c ritic iz e and p rovoke P a rty m e m b ers and o th e rs holding d is ­ sen tin g view s. Yao W en-yuan, who had been one of the p rim a ry c ritic s of "b o u rg e o is" ten d en cies in lite r a tu r e and sc h o la rsh ip , quite n atu rally b ecam e one of the d efen d e rs of th is m ilita n t lite r a r y policy. H When P a Chin, chief e d ito r of S hanghai's W en-i Y ueh-pao, objected in 1962 to Shanghai P a rty w r ite r s who look ev ery w h ere fo r " m is ta k e s " and " b rin g the club down" on the h ead s of those who d is a g re e w ith them , he h im se lf b ecam e a ta rg e t of Y ao 's a tta c k s . I 5 In the ensuing s p lit w ithin the lo cal P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t, Chang defended Yao, w hile C h'en C h 'i-w u and Yang H si-kuang, deputy d ir e c to r s of the P ro p ag an d a D ep art­ m ent, re p o rte d ly sided w ith P a and en liste d the su p p o rt of the P ro p a ­ ganda D ep artm en t head, Shih H si-m in . At one point, deputy d ir e c to r C h'en C h 'i-w u declaimed h is intention to b rin g back w r ite r s fro m r u r a l v illa g e s who had e a r l ie r been s e n t packing as " r ig h tis ts " by the likes of Chang and Yao d u rin g p rev io u s cam paigns in Shanghai. T his p r o s ­ p e c t was ap p a re n tly u n accep tab le to K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih , who in terv en ed in the s p rin g of 1963 to d is m is s C h'en C h 'i-w u fro m the P a rty , rem ove Shih H si-m in fro m h is p o st, and to re p la c e Shih w ith a new P ro p ag an d a D e p artm en t head, Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o . 16 Upon being pro m o ted to head the M unicipal P a r ty C o m m ittee's (MPC) P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t, Chang quickly b ecam e a m e m b er of the h ig h e st echelon of Shanghai P a rty le a d e rs h ip . Only seven m onths a fte r h is appointm ent to the P ro p ag an d a p o st in May, Chang w as elected in

8

D ecem b er 1963 as one of fo rty -fiv e m e m b e rs of th e T h ird Shanghai M unicipal P a rty C o m m ittee. ^ The follow ing F e b ru a ry , only two m onths a fte rw a rd , he b ecam e an a lte rn a te m e m b e r of the S e c r e ta r ia t of the MPC, and by M arch 1965 he w as a full s e c r e ta r y on the M P C 's S e c re ta ria t. With K 'o C h 'in g -s h ih 's su p p o rt, Chang had com e to occupy a p o litic a l p o st th a t p roved to be a p iv o tal one in th e in ten sify in g debate o v e r l i t e r ­ a ry and c u ltu ra l policy. K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih now had an e x tre m e ly helpful lo c a l P ro p ag an d a chief fo r his e ffo rts to push, along w ith Mao, fo r re fo rm of C h in a's d is s id e n t in te lle c tu a ls and P a rty P ro p ag an d a p e rs o n n e l. ^ As p a r t of th is effo rt, Yao W en-yuan w as p ro m o ted d u rin g th is p e rio d to ch ief ed ito rsh ip of both W en-hui P ao and C h ieh-fang J ih - p a o . 20 T h is w as a lso the p e rio d d u rin g which Chiang C h 'ing f i r s t b eca m e activ e in cu l­ tu ra l p o litic s, com ing to Shanghai a t one point to p ro d u ce h e r new " rev o lu tio n ary " o p e ra s . 21 But in A p ril 1965, ju s t as th is f lu r r y of p o litic a l activ ity in the a r ts w as gaining m om entum , an unexpected event o c c u rre d w hich w as c ru c ia l in sh ap in g th e su b seq u en t fo rm the C u ltu ral R evolution would take in Shanghai: K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih d ied w hile a t a P a rty m eetin g in C h en g tu .22 K 'o 's death in no way quashed the e m e rg in g e ffo rts of h is lik e m inded Shanghai colleagues to c re a te f u r th e r p r e s s u r e and co n fro n ta­ tion s o v e r a r t and lite r a r y p o licy . Yao W en -y u an 's w ell-know n a r tic le c ritic iz in g Wu H an 's play, "The D ism issa l of Hai J u i," w as s till pub­ lish ed in S hanghai's W en-hui P ao in N ovem ber, p re c ip ita tin g the co n flict th a t would eventually lead to the p u rg es of T eng T 'o , Wu Han, L iao Mo­ han, P 'e n g Chen, and o th e r P eking P a rty fig u re s in the s p rin g of 1966.23 K 'o 's death did, how ever, th r u s t into top le a d e rs h ip p o sitio n s two offi­ cials who had w orked u n d er him fo r the p a s t d ecade and who w e re now asked to a d m in is te r C h in a's la rg e s t city in a highly u n c e rta in and rapidly changing p o litical en v iro n m en t. The f i r s t - and s e c o n d -ra n k e d Shanghai P a rty m e m b ers a fte r K 'o 's d eath — C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n and T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu —would s p lit the d u ties fo rm e rly held by K 'o. A lm o st s im u l­ taneous w ith the in itia l debate o v er Y ao's W en-hui P ao a r tic le on Hai Jui, C h'en w as appointed f i r s t P a rty s e c r e ta r y fo r the M PC, and T s 'a o , a t the M unicipal P e o p le 's C o n g ress h eld in e a rly D ecem b er 1965, was ele c te d m a y o r. 24 The actio n s of both of th e se new m u n icip al le a d e rs , who would eventu ally be p u rg ed as lo c al re v is io n is ts , w e re c ru c ia l in shaping the c o u rse of the C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai.

9 T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu 's P o litic a l and O rg an izatio n al Background T s 'a o 's p o litic a l co n ce rn s and actio n s both b efo re and d u rin g the C u ltu ral R evolution, so often c o n tra ste d w ith th o se of Chang C h'unc h 'ia o , d e s e rv e c lo s e r a n a ly sis . A re - in te r p r e ta tio n of T s 'a o 's ro le in Shanghai is e s s e n tia l fo r a new u n d erstan d in g of C hang's a ctio n s. F o r one who h as been p o rtra y e d in so m any accounts of the C ultural R evolu­ tion as a r e s i s t e r of the m ovem ent in Shanghai, T s 'a o 's p rev io u s c a r e e r in fa c t b e a rs s trik in g p o litic al p a r a lle ls to th o se of both K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih and Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o . T s 'a o had ap p are n tly played a su p p o rtin g ro le f o r K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih in the m anagem ent of S hanghai's econom y analogous to the ro le played by Chang in p ro p ag an d a e ffo rts and lite r a r y a ffa irs . As e a rly as 1957 T s 'a o , alre a d y a v ic e -m a y o r and s e c r e ta r y of the MPC, had p ra is e d the th e n -c u rre n t u p su rg e in re c tific a tio n and a n ti-rig h tis t cam p aig n s, s tr e s s in g the im p o rtan ce of the dow nw ard tr a n s f e r of high lev el c a d re s . T s 'a o u n d erlin ed the need to fight b u re a u c ra c y and the im p o rta n c e of m anual la b o r in tra n s fo rm in g w orld outlook, elim in atin g th e " th re e g re a t d iffe re n c e s ," and diffusing e x p e rtis e . 25 i n a speech the follow ing y e a r, m o re o v e r, T s 'a o s tr e s s e d , ju s t as Chang C h'unch 'ia o had th a t v e ry y e a r in h is a r tic le fo r J e n -m in J ih -p a o , th at the re c tific a tio n of "bou rg eo is rig h tis ts " w as n e c e ss a ry in the p ro tra c te d s tru g g le to "a n n ih ila te " th e b o u rg e o isie . 26 T s 'a o had a p p are n tly been, a t le a s t a t tim e s , a useful p o litical ally f o r K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih . B ut unlike Chang, w hose o rg an izatio n al p o si­ tion up to th a t tim e led him to c o n ce n trate on th e p o litic al content of id e as e x p re s s e d in lite r a tu r e and a r t, T s 'a o was faced w ith the com plex ta sk of putting p o litic a l concepts su c c e ssfu lly to w ork in in d u stry . While C hang's w ritin g s, lik e T s 'a o 's sp e e c h e s, highlighted the c o rro s iv e effects of lib e ra l thinking and n o n so c ia list econom ic p ra c tic e s , T s 'a o w as add itio n ally re s p o n s ib le fo r actu ally im p lem en tin g th e p o licies ad v o cated —a t tim e s fash io n in g a s y ste m fo r high level c a d re s to p a r ­ tic ip a te re g u la rly in la b o r and d ev isin g m eans fo r w o rk e rs to p a r tic i­ p a te u sefu lly in tech n o lo g ical innovation—w hile a t the sam e tim e a s s u r ­ ing not only th a t p ro d u ctio n w ent u nham pered, but th at it actu ally in­ c re a s e d . C en tral to th e su c c e ssfu l ra is in g of in d u s tria l production, T s 'a o a s s e r te d in 1964, w as the "ideological aw akening" of the "hum an f a c to r" th a t had p ro v ed so im p o rtan t to the s u c c e s s of S hanghai's indus­ tr y s in c e the G reat L e a p . ^ T hus T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu had h im se lf co n trib u ted , ju s t as had Chang, to K 'o C h 'in g -s h ih 's e ffo rts to su p p o rt M ao's c e n tra l p o licy in itia tiv es in the decade p re c e d in g the C u ltu ral R evolution. Shortly a fte r being

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p rom oted to m ay o r, T s 'a o sig n aled h is in ten tio n s to continue to fo rw a rd the p o licies of his d eceased p r e d e c e s s o r. W ithin th re e m onths a f te r his official designation as m ay o r, T s 'a o p ra is e d , a t w o rk e r and p e a sa n t co n feren ces in M arch and A p ril 1966, the acc o m p lish m en ts of the S o cialist E ducation M ovem ent in S h an g h ai--th e im p lem en tatio n of the "m ass lin e" in b asic level le a d e rsh ip , the study of M ao-thought, the brin g in g of p o litic s to the fo re in e n te r p r is e m anagem ent, and the c r e a ­ tio n of "new C om m unist m e n ." B ut T s 'a o w ent beyond th e se g e n e ra l pronouncem ents and w ent to the co re of w hat was la te r to becom e known as the M aoist lin e— a lin e to w ard s w hich T s 'a o w as ev en tu ally accu sed of b eing u n alte ra b ly opposed. He s tr e s s e d th a t c la s s s tru g g le did not end w ith the S o cia list E ducation M ovem ent and th a t continued id eo lo g ical rev o lu tio n izatio n w as a n e c e ss ity . F a r fro m im peding p ro d u ctio n , su ch a cam paign would, through ideological rev o lu tio n alizatio n , b rin g " g r e a te r , f a s te r, b e tte r, and m o re econom ical r e s u lts ." In c re a s e s in pro d u ctio n , how ever, w ere not the p rim a ry goal; th is cam paign w as e s s e n tia lly " fo r tra n s fo rm in g man and e n te r p r is e w ith the thought of Mao T se -tu n g , a profound ideological and re v o lu tio n ary cam paign fo r p ro m o tin g p ro le ­ ta ria n id eas and d estro y in g the b o u rg eo is o n es. . . . "^8 T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu , in effect, r e ite r a te d in h is f i r s t ninety days as m ay o r a com m itm ent to M ao /K 'o p o lic ie s and slo g an s th a t he had ex­ hibited in pronouncem ents d atin g back to 1957. Then, ju s t as he was s e ttlin g into his new office, ev en ts in P eking d ra s tic a lly a lte re d the P a rty o rg a n iz a tio n 's p o litic a l en v iro n m en t. The p o litic a l infighting follow ing Yao W en-yuan's c r itic is m s of P ek in g li te r a r y and p ro p ag an d a c irc le s had re s u lte d in the p u rg e of s e v e ra l p ro m in e n t P a r ty o fficials — am ong them P 'e n g Chen, who held p o sitio n s as m ay o r and f i r s t P a rty s e c r e ta r y of P eking M unicipality. T s 'a o and C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n s h a re d the sam e p o sts in Shanghai. T his fact, coupled w ith the im m ed iately follow ing cam paign to ro o t out s im ila r " r e v is io n is ts " in cu ltu re and a r t — even those w ithin the P a rty a p p a ra tu s —m u st have p re s e n te d T s 'a o and Ch'en w ith a highly u n c e rta in and p o ten tially th re a te n in g p o litic a l environm ent.

Ill THE CULTURAL CAMPAIGN MAY-AUGUST 1966

By m id-1966, C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n had w ithdraw n fro m h is only re c e n tly ac q u ire d p o sitio n a s S hanghai's f i r s t P a rty s e c r e ta r y due to " ill h e a lth ." It is not c le a r w h eth er C h 'e n 's illn e s s w as p h y sical o r p o litic a l in n a tu re —Red G uards would la te r claim th a t he had faked h is illn e s s in o r d e r to e sc a p e c r itic is m and re m o v a l— but it is c le a r th at C h'en would not play any v is ib le ro le in Shanghai u n til D ecem ber, only w eeks b efo re h is ouster.-*- T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu thus becam e both m ay o r and ac tin g f i r s t P a rty s e c r e t a r y — an o rg an iz atio n al p o sitio n iden tical to that of the ill-fa te d P 'e n g Chen. P e rh a p s p a rtly as a continuation of h is p a st su p p o rt fo r M ao/K 'o p o lic ie s, and p e rh a p s p a rtly conscious of the A pril d e m is e of h is P eking c o u n te rp a rt and of h is own p o litic al v u ln erab ility , T s 'a o becam e a vig o ro u s p ro ponent of the C u ltu ral R evolution in its e a r lie s t s ta g e s . T s 'a o 's June pro n o u n cem en ts in d icate h is conception of w hat the C u ltu ral R evolution would m ean fo r Shanghai— a conception th a t was p ro b ab ly v e ry clo se a t th is point to th a t held by Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o and Yao W en-yuan. A cco rd in g to a sta te m e n t he re le a s e d on June 4, "the c le a r e s t definition of o u r p o licy " is th a t the m ain ta rg e ts of c ritic is m w ill be th o se "h y p o c rite s who w ave the re d flag a s a co v e r fo r an attack on the re d fla g ." Even if the m ovem ent "should tu rn into an in n e rP a r ty s tru g g le , the ta rg e t w ill re m a in the s a m e . . . ." 2 Again, a t a w ell-p u b lic iz e d m a ss ra lly on the 10th, T s 'a o gave h is c le a r e s t p r o ­ nouncem ent on w hat he intended th e C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai to be: T he g re a t C u ltu ral R evolution th a t is now u n d e r­ way w ill be an ex actin g te s t fo r the P a rty s p ir it and the rev o lu tio n a ry s p ir it of ev ery P a r ty o rg an izatio n , ev ery individual P a r ty m e m b er, and e v e ry rev o lu tio n ary c a d re . The way you ap p ro ach th e c ru c ia l qu estio n s ra is e d by th is m ovem ent w ill re v e a l w h eth er you re a lly believe in s o c ia lis m o r only p re te n d to b eliev e in it o r a r e a ctu ally opposed to it, w h eth er you re a lly su p p o rt 1 11

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Mao T s e -tu n g 's id eas o r only p re te n d to su p p o rt them o r a re actu ally opposed to th em . 3 As fo r those who a r e found to be "playing with r e v is io n is m ," "we w ill have o u r m eans to expose him and com p letely topple him , no m a tte r how high h is official p o sitio n , and no m a tte r w hat kind of 'a u th o rity ' he is . Students stru g g lin g ag a in st th e ir u n iv e rs ity a d m in is tra tio n s ap ­ p a re n tly responded e n th u sia stic a lly to T s 'a o 's sp eech . An o rg an of w hat N eale H unter c o n sid ere d to be a " ra d ic a l" o rg an iz atio n a t th e F o r ­ eign Languages In stitu te noted th a t T s 'a o s tr e s s e d fully th r e e tim e s th a t the m ovem ent w as d ire c te d ag a in st P a rty a u th o ritie s lead in g C hina back tow ards c a p ita lism . 5 T h is sam e o rg an iz atio n quoted T s 'a o in o r d e r to c ritic iz e the school P a rty C o m m itte e 's a ttem p t to o r c h e s tr a te c r itic is m around a num ber of "b o u rg eo is acad em ic a u th o ritie s " —u su a lly p r o f e s ­ s o rs who had been c ritic iz e d in e a r l i e r a n ti- r ig h tis t cam p aig n s. At th is stag e of the C u ltu ral R evolution Chang and T s 'a o p ro b ab ly w orked in close co o p eratio n . The ta rg e ts of the s u m m e r cam paign w ere in v a riab ly individuals who had been c r itic s of the P a r ty and of K 'o 's p o lic ie s —esp e c ia lly of the P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t— sin ce the H undred F lo w ers p e rio d . A sig n ifican t p ro p o rtio n of th o se e a rm a rk e d fo r c r i t i ­ cism had been d ire c tly engaged in c o n tro v e rsie s w ith e ith e r Chang o r Yao W en-yuan. T hroughout m o st of the su m m e r, Chang, as P ro p ag an d a chief, d ire c te d c r itic is m ag ain st individuals who had opposed the p o licies he had c a rrie d out as head of the L ite ra ry and A rt W ork C om m ittee o v e r the p a s t decade in Shanghai.® At the June 10 m a ss m eetin g which launched th is stag e of the m ovem ent in Shanghai, T s ’ao T i- c h 'iu , w ith Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o in attendance, d e liv e re d a m ilita n t sp eech echoing the atta c k s on "b o u r­ geois rig h tis ts " th a t Chang and Yao W en-yuan had been m aking fo r y e a r s . ^ C alling the im m inent C ultural R evolution a "life and d eath stru g g le w ith the b o u rg e o isie ," T s 'a o w arned th a t "the h is to r ic a l ex­ p e rie n c e of the d ic ta to rs h ip of th e p r o le ta r ia t rem in d ed u s th a t in c a r r y ­ ing out co u n terrev o lu tio n ary a c tiv itie s fo r re s to r a tio n ," the b o u rg eo isie has re s o rte d to "u sin g a pen to sp re a d v icio u s id eas in the re a lm of ideology." T h is f ir s t s te p — g ettin g a "g rip on ideology"— e n taile d c a r r y ­ ing out " a n ti-P a rty and a n tis o c ia lis t p ro p ag an d a in the fo rm of th e o ry , academ ic d isc u ssio n s on a r t and lite r a tu r e to lay id eological groundw ork and c re a te public opinion fo r the re s to ra tio n of the bourgeoisie."® W arn­ ing th a t "the re p re s e n ta tiv e s of the b o u rg eo isie both in sid e and o u tsid e

13 the P a rty a r e sch em in g su ch a co n sp irac y " and p re s e n tin g the " a n tiP a r ty and a n tis o c ia lis t c rim e s " of the p u rg ed P eking lite r a r y b u re a u ­ c ra ts as an exam ple, T s 'a o a s s e r te d th a t " s im ila rly cunning people" e x iste d in governm ent, P a rty , a rm y , and cu ltu ra l c irc le s w ithin Shang­ h ai. 9 The m eetin g concluded w ith a r e p o r t nam ing such re p re s e n ta tiv e s of the b o u rg eo isie in Shanghai, and p ro v id ed the focus fo r the s u m m e r's re c tific a tio n cam paign. D uring th e se su m m e r m onths the P a rty C e n te r's w o rk -team policy im p lem en ted by Liu S h ao -ch 'i and T eng H sia o -p 'in g m esh ed nicely with th e local e ffo rts of T s 'a o and Chang to rem o v e lo n g -stan d in g opponents of the L ite ra ry and A rt Work C o m m ittee. U nder L iu 's o r d e r s , P a rty w ork te a m s w ere d isp atch ed fro m P ek in g to u n iv e rs itie s in the p ro v in ces w h ere top school o fficials w ere rem o v ed and c r itic is m cam paigns a g a in st them o rg an iz ed . H One of the f ir s t school a d m in is tra to rs rem o v ed and c ritic iz e d in th is fashion w as Ho L u -tin g of the Shanghai M usic C o n serv ato ry — an outspoken r e s i s t e r of the types of lite r a r y and a r t p o licies fo rw ard ed by Chang u n d e r K 'o C h 'in g -s h ih 's a d m in is tra tio n . Ho, an outstanding th e o ris t of m u sic a l com position, had com posed w hile in Yenan what am ounted to the C hinese n ational anthem , "The E a s t is R ed ," ded icatin g the s c o re to C h airm an Mao. ^ As e a rly a s th e 1957 a n ti- r ig h tis t cam ­ paign, how ever, Ho had m ade en em ies w ithin the P ro p ag an d a D e p a rt­ m ent by re fu sin g to im p lem en t the cam paign w ithin his co n serv ato ry , arg u in g th a t the c ritic s of the H undred F lo w ers p erio d had been a s s u re d im m unity and th a t th e se p ro m ise s had to be kept. ^ D uring the H undred F lo w ers p erio d , in fact, Ho had h im se lf been a c r itic of the P a rty , callin g fo r a "d e m o c ra tic sy ste m of ed u catio n " w ithin his m u sic con­ s e rv a to ry . D uring the re la tiv e ly lib e ra liz e d p erio d of 1961-62, Ho had continued in th is r o le —d ecry in g the p o litic izatio n of m usic, say in g th a t P a rty p o lic ie s re g a rd m u sic ian s as "m u sic m aking m a ch in es" and d e rid in g the quality of p o litic ized m u sic . 15 As was quite com m on fo r su ch c r itic s of P a rty c u ltu ra l p o lic ie s, H o's call fo r lib e ra liz a tio n d u rin g th is p e rio d led h im into d ir e c t conflict w ith Yao W en-yuan. A fter Yao had w ritte n , in 1963, an a r tic le c ritic iz in g the tu rn -o f-th e -c e n tu ry F re n c h co m p o se r D ebussy, Ho resp o n d ed to Yao. Issu in g a sta te m e n t to r e p o r te r s and w ritin g an a r tic le u n d er a pseudonym , Ho rep o rte d ly la b elle d Yao a " b r u is e r " who "u sed a club to knock down e v e ry th in g ."1® T h is h is to ry of opposition to th e p o lic ie s of the P ro p ag an d a D ep a rtm e n t's w ork c o m m ittees m ade Ho a p rim e ta r g e t in th e s u m m e r of 1966. ^ A nother ta rg e te d in te lle c tu a l w ith a background of conflict w ith the lo c al P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t w as the p ro m in en t Futan U n iv ersity h is -

14

to ria n , Chou K u -ch 'en g . Chou w as m entioned as e a rly as 1958 as one of th irty -fo u r F utan U n iv ersity p r o f e s s o rs who had p u blicly pledged to re fo rm th e ir thinking in the w ake of the p rev io u s y e a r 's a n ti- r ig h tis t cam paign. I 8 In 1963 Yao W en-yuan had c ritic iz e d C hou's w ritin g s on the d ia lectic, accu sin g him of neg lectin g co n flict as n e c e s s a ry in p r o ­ c e s s e s of change. 19 To th is c r itic is m Chou had resp o n d ed , r e - a s s e r ti n g h is positio n th a t th e " s p ir it of the co n tem p o rary ag e" w as not one of v ario u s co n tra d icto ry s tr a in s in rev o lu tio n ary co n flict but one of con­ tra d ic to ry s tra in s com bining into a h arm o n io u s w hole. Y ao 's " a b s tr a c t g e n e ra liz a tio n s ," Chou had a s s e rte d , sim p ly did not a c c o rd w ith the f a c t s . 29 Even in th e e a r lie s t sta g e s of th e C u ltu ral R evolution, Chou had subtly c ritic iz e d Yao W en-yuan. In a W en-hui P ao fo ru m d is c u s ­ sin g Wu H an's " S e lf-C ritic ism on 'D is m is s a l of Hai J u i'" in Jan u ary 1966, Chou d e c la re d th a t m o re s e rio u s h is to ric a l stu d ies of feudal p ro p ­ e rty re la tio n s needed to be com pleted b efo re a "w a r of an n ih ilatio n " is waged ag ain st Hai Ju i. W ryly c ritic iz in g Yao in an e llip tic a l fashion, Chou su g g ested th a t m o re "an tag o n istic v iew s" (i.e ., Y ao's c r itic is m s of Wu Han the prev io u s N ovem ber) w e re being p u blished a t th a t tim e b ecau se they w ere p o p u lar w ith the rea d in g p u b lic. 21 T his h is to ry of conflict w ith Yao and Chang e a rn e d Chou th e title of "b o u rg eo is r e v i­ sio n is t" in the s u m m e r 1966 cam paign and saw h im linked w ith the a lre a d y p urged national pro p ag an d a o fficial, Chou Yang. 22 O ther ta rg e te d fig u re s, w hile s h a rin g th is com m on h is to ry of con­ flic t w ith C hang's L ite ra ry and A rt W ork C om m ittee and w ith Yao W enyuan p e rso n a lly , w ere also tied d ire c tly w ith the purged c u ltu ra l fig u re s in Peking. Chou H sin-fang, f o r exam ple, a w ell-know n P ek in g o p e ra s in g e r who had been activ e in the May 4th m ovem ent of the 1920s, 23 had a h is to ry of co llab o ratio n w ith Wu Han in w ritin g and p ro d u cin g P eking o p e ra s . It was p erh ap s in ev itab le th a t Chou would com e u n d er attack , sin ce Wu Han, in h is p re fa c e to the published v e rs io n of his m uch-m aligned H ai J u i's D is m is s a l, ex p licitly acknow ledged Chou H sin fa n g 's influence on h is own p lay w ritin g . 24 in the e a rly 1960s, Chou h im se lf had w ritte n H ai Jui Sends a M em orial to th e T h ro n e , th e play th a t Wu Han claim ed had in s p ire d h is e f f o r ts , and had p ro d u ced a s im ila r o p era, H ai Ju i A dm onishes th e E m p e r o r , in 1959.25 By 1963 h is th e a t­ r ic a l a c tiv itie s had a lre a d y draw n th e atten tio n of Shanghai c u ltu ra l o fficials in the P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t—h is p ro d u ctio n of Yang L i-c h 'u w as o rd e re d stopped b ecau se of its alleg ed ly re a c tio n a ry content. 29 Chou was one of the f i r s t ta rg e ts of th e s u m m e r Shanghai cam paign. 27 Li C hun-m in, like Chou H sin -fan g , w as a lso guilty of a u th o rin g a play w ith a th em e p a ra lle lin g th a t of Wu H an 's H ai J u i. H is Tu Fu

15 R e tu rn s H om e, publish ed in 1962, was c ritic iz e d along w ith C hou's two p la y s. 28 Li, who had in p rin t only h a lf-h e a rte d ly co n cu rred w ith the c r itic is m s of Wu Han (in th e sam e W en-hui Pao sym posium th a t Chou K u -c h 'e n g had u sed to sly ly c ritic iz e Yao W en-yuan29), and who had re p o rte d ly objected to o th e rs th a t Yao W en-yuan's c h a ra c te riz a tio n of Wu Han w as " u n fa ir," w as ch arg ed w ith u sin g his p o sitio n as deputy d ir e c to r and e d ito r- in - c h ie f of the Shanghai Chunghua Book Company to en co u rag e the publicatio n of re a c tio n a ry lite r a tu r e . 29 O thers who w ere attack e d d u rin g th is s u m m e r cam paign had s im ila r h is to rie s of conflict w ith the lo cal P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t, and w ith Yao W en-yuan, d u rin g th e im m ed iately p re c e d in g y e a r s . 3 -*W hile the Shanghai p r e s s e n e rg e tic a lly p ro secu te d lo cal opponents of Chang and Yao, it also d ire c te d attack s to w ard s national fig u re s . C h'en C h 'i-t'u n g , m e m b e r of the PLA G eneral P o litic a l D epartm ent, w as c ritic iz e d fo r p ra is in g th e film " P re s s g a n g ," a "poisonous w eed" th a t re p o rte d ly had a le s s h eav ily p o litic al sty le , p o rtra y in g p e a sa n ts " r e a lis tic a lly " —in o th e r w o rd s, not as model h e ro e s but as fallib le h u m a n s .32 C h'en, like the o th e rs c ritic iz e d in Shanghai, had a long h is to ry of conflict w ith p re v a ilin g P a rty cu ltu ra l p o lic ie s. He had ex­ p r e s s e d opposition to th e H undred F lo w ers policy in 1957, feelin g th at it en couraged too m any "poisonous w eed s"— an opinion in d ir e c t conflict w ith M ao 's. 33 T h is opinion had earn e d him c r itic is m d u rin g the ensuing a n ti- r ig h tis t cam paign, a fte r w hich he w as s e n t back to h is native Sze­ chwan fo r " re m o ld in g ." D uring th e p erio d of fe rm e n t in the e a rly 1960s o v e r p o litic a l th e m es in p la y s, C h'en had, in addition, been d iscip lin ed by the P a rty a t le a s t once (1964) fo r h is lib e ra l v iew s. 3^ So even the n ational fig u re s c ritic iz e d fit into th is f a m ilia r p a tte rn : individuals who had e x p erien ced ru n -in s w ith the P a rty as e a rly as 1957 and who found th e m se lv e s in opposition to p o licies fo rw ard ed by Chang and Yao on lite r a tu r e and a r t in the e a rly 1960s b ecam e p rim e ta rg e ts fo r c ritic is m . The e ffo rts of the e a rly p a r t of the Shanghai m ovem ent, how ever, w e re not d ire c te d so lely to w ard s c r itic is m of " re v is io n is ts " ; a whole a r r a y of c u ltu ra l and educatio n al a c tiv itie s w ere held a t the b a sic lev el. R a llie s and fe s tiv a ls c e le b ra tin g M ao-thought w ere held, and study c la s s e s and sy m p o sia w ere conducted f o r stu d en ts and w o rk e rs. 3^ M iddle school stu d en ts w ere m o bilized fo r a w ell-p u b licized cam paign to p a rtic ip a te in fa rm la b o r in the su b u rb an counties and to develop d ra m a tic p re s e n ta tio n s of " re v o lu tio n ary c u ltu re " w ith which to e n te r ­ ta in th e ir p e a s a n t h o s ts . 36 A nother cam paign u rg ed youths, on the b a s is of M ao-thought, to v o lu n te e r fo r p a rtic ip a tio n in r u r a l la b o r in S in k ia n g .3^

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T his p erio d w as by no m eans one in w hich, as la te r ch arg ed , T s 'a o and o th e r MPC o fficials had r e s tr ic te d and su p p re s se d the m ovem ent o r even d ire c te d c r itic is m to in sig n ifican t fig u re s . It a p p e a rs r a th e r th a t d u rin g th is e a rly p h ase of the C u ltu ral R evolution, Chang te am ed w ith T s 'a o to c ritic iz e and rem o v e in dividuals who had o v e r the p rev io u s decade r e s is te d Chang in h is o rg an iz atio n al p o sitio n as head of the L ite r ­ a ry and A rt W ork C om m ittee of the M unicipal P ro p ag an d a D ep a rtm e n t— the org an d ire c tly re sp o n sib le fo r po licin g th e se d is s id e n t in te lle c tu a ls . While Chang cam e into conflict w ith th e se individuals o v e r genuine is s u e s of p o litic s and a r t, h is p o sitio n in the W ork C o m m ittee se e m s d ecisiv e in the s e le c tio n of individual ta rg e ts of a ttack .

IV TS'A O T I-C H 'IU AND THE EARLY RED GUARD MOVEMENT IN SHANGHAI

W hile T s 'a o had su c c e ssfu lly c a r r ie d out—in ap p aren tly close co o p eratio n w ith Chang—th e su m m e r re c tific a tio n cam paign th a t m ark ed the beginning of S hanghai's C u ltu ral R evolution, a novel and u ltim a tely m o re com plex ta sk would sh o rtly confront him . The stu d en t m ovem ent would soon be d esig n ated as th e c e n tra l focus fo r the next m onths of the C u ltu ra l R evolution. At the E lev en th P len um in P eking in e a rly A ugust, Mao c ritic iz e d P ek in g M unicipal P a r ty o fficials fo r su p p re s sin g the stu d en t m ovem ent w ith w ork te a m s and fo r p ro h ib itin g th e ir a c tiv itie s in p u b lic. Both he and Lin P iao m ade it c le a r th at P a rty m e m b ers w ere to be judged on the b a s is of th e ir attitu d es tow ards the stu d en t m ovem ent and tow ards M ao-thought. In h is clo sin g sp eech a t the Plenum , Mao u tte re d a p h ra s e th a t m u st have ru n g in the e a r s of som eone in an o rg a n i­ zational p o sitio n s im ila r to P 'e n g Chen. T his u tte ra n c e is a key one in u n d e rsta n d in g T s ’ao T i- c h ’iu 's b eh av io r d u rin g the C ultural R evolution: It m u st by no m eans be tak en fo r g ran ted th at ev ery th in g w hich is w ritte n down in our reso lu tio n s w ill be im p lem en ted by all o u r P a rty co m m ittees and all o u r c o m ra d e s. T h e re w ill alw ays be som e who a r e unw illing to do so . [E m phasis added,] Not s u rp ris in g ly , im m ed iately a f te r T s 'a o re tu rn e d fro m th is m eetin g in m id-A ugust, the MPC o rg an ized a cityw ide fed eratio n of Red G uard o rg a n iz a tio n s. O rig in ally called the "G en eral H ead q u arters of Red G uards fro m Shanghai Schools and C o lleg es," th is group aim ed its e lf not a t "d rag g in g out" the MPC le a d e rs but a t e ra d ic a tin g m a n ifestatio n s of b o u rg eo is cu ltu re and ideology in th e c i ty .2 T s ’ao a ctiv ely enco u rag ed th is s e c to r of th e Red G uard m ovem ent and its a im s . At f ir s t, m o st of the public a c tiv itie s w ere o rg an ized by the M PC. T he second h alf of A ugust was c h a ra c te riz e d by o rd e rly Red G uard p a ra d e s, sp eech e s, and r a llie s , la rg e ly in p r a is e of M ao-thought.^

17

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T s 'a o spoke at a n u m b er of th e se r a llie s , w here he h am m ered a t a con­ sta n t them e: In m aking the G reat P ro le ta ria n C u ltu ral R evolu­ tion we m u st m a n ifest a rev o lu tio n ary s p ir it- - d a r in g to blaze the tr a il, to act, to m ake rev o lu tio n and to re b e l. We m u st re b e l a g a in st all th o se in pow er who tak e the c a p ita lis t ro ad . We m u st knock down all the re a c tio n a ry a u th o ritie s of the b o u rg eo isie and the b o u r­ geois ro y a lis ts . We m u st oppose all th o se who r e p r e s s the rev o lu tio n ary a c t s . ^ With th e se actio n s and w ords T s 'a o w as m aking s u re th a t he co m ­ p lied w ith the le tte r of M ao's E lev en th P len u m in s tru c tio n s , thus en­ s u rin g h is safety fro m P 'e n g C hen's fa te . T he " c a p ita lis t r o a d e r s " th a t T s 'a o had in m ind, how ever, w ere c le a rly of the s o r t th a t had been t a r ­ geted in the e a r l i e r re c tific a tio n cam paign. T s 'a o c e rta in ly ag i'eed w ith his actin g P ro p ag an d a chief, Yang H si-ku an g , who w as re p o rte d to have said , "The Shanghai M unicipal C om m ittee sc ru p u lo u sly follow s the in ­ stru c tio n s of C h airm an Mao. It is nothing like th e P ek in g M unicipal Committee."5 Subsequent ev en ts w ere to p ro v e th a t T s 'a o and h is fellow MPC s e c r e ta r ie s did not c o n sid e r th e m se lv e s " c a p ita lis t r o a d e r s ," but le g itim ate b e n e fic ia rie s of M ao's au th o rity , and by th e ir s t r i c t ad h ere n ce to c e n tra l d ire c tiv e s they w ere in ten t on p ro v in g so. E ncouraged by the activ e su p p o rt of the MPC, th is s e c to r of the Red G uard m ovem ent took to the s tr e e ts to p ro p ag ate M ao-thought and attack m an ifestatio n s of b o u rg eo is ideology. Shanghai Red G uards fo rm ed th e m selv es into propaganda te a m s and fanned out into the city: putting up p o s te rs , d is trib u tin g han d b ills, and giving le c tu re s on M aothought on s tr e e t c o rn e rs , in p a rk s , at bus sto p s and in sid e th e b u ses th e m s e lv e s . 6 T hey fo rm ed o fficial "M ao-thought P ro p ag an d a T e a m s " which w ere allow ed to e n te r into the D ep artm en ts of F in an ce and C u ltu re to s e a rc h out m an ifestatio n s of b ackw ard ideology in th e se m u n icip al u n its. ? Some of the ro v in g p ro p ag an d a u n its took th e ir attack on b o u r­ geois cu ltu re in the lite r a l se n se and h a r a s s e d people w ith W este rn h a irs ty le s o r clothing; rem o v ed co ats of a rm s , b a s - r e lie f s of c lip p e r sh ip s, and o th e r sym bols of fo reig n dom ination fro m buildings on the Bund; and ra id e d S hanghai's ch u rch e s, rem o v in g d e c o ra tio n s and r e l i ­ gious o b je c ts. 8 The eleg an t hom es of fo r m e r c a p ita lis ts in n eig h b o r­ hoods n e a r the Bund w ere s e a rc h e d fo r luxury ite m s, w eapons, fo re ig n cu rre n c y , o r anything e lse d eem ed su sp icio u s, and s to r e s s e llin g luxury item s w ere th e m selv es su b jected to la y e rs of w all p o s te r s and o cca sio n al

19 v a n d a lism . 9 T his s e a rc h touched off a m a rk e d change in the goods av ailab le in Shanghai shops as w ell as a co n su m er ru s h fo r le s s expen­ siv e, tra d itio n a l ite m s of clothing, e sp e c ia lly C hinese cotton shoes and p la s tic fo o tw ear. As the public h asten ed to change its im age and avoid Red G uard h a ra s s m e n t, o th e rs fo rm ed long lines at the s ta te - r u n D is­ c a rd e d A rtic le s Company to rid th e ir hom es of books, photos and s c ro lls fro m p re -L ib e ra tio n days by exchanging th em fo r the going bulk p ric e fo r s c ra p p a p e r. 10 By the end of S ep tem b er th e o fficial Shanghai and fo r­ eign m edia both re m a rk e d on the s trik in g ch an g es—in d r e s s , s tr e e t and s to re nam es, s e le c tio n and p ric e of co n su m er ite m s — in the Nanking Road shopping d is tin c t. It had becom e, as one account d e s c rib e d it, an o cean of re d b a n n e rs, g o ld -le tte re d p o s te rs , and Mao p o r tr a its . H

Shanghai Red G uard O pposition to the MPC An in c re a s in g ly v o cal m in o rity of the Red G uards, quite probably m ade up of th o se s e c tio n s of the school population d e lib e ra te ly excluded fro m a ctiv e p a rtic ip a tio n in the e a r l i e r stu d en t m ovem ent, 12 had b e­ com e convinced th a t th e ir ex clu sio n w as p a r t of a d e lib e ra te policy by T s 'a o to s u p p re s s the stu d en t m ovem ent and p ro te c t h im se lf fro m c r iti­ c ism . T h e ir d isp u te s w ith th e ir school a d m in istra tio n s in O ctober and N ovem ber about th e r e le a s e of "black m a te ria l" p u rp o rted ly co llected on a c tiv is t stu d en ts e a r l i e r in the m ovem ent only re in fo rc e d th is grow ­ ing conviction. 12 To th em , ev ery call fo r caution by T s 'a o was an a tte m p t to o b s tru c t the m ovem ent, and ev ery w ord of p r a is e fo r Mao o r the R ed G uards w as seen as a sm oke s c re e n . T s 'a o 's attem p t to n u r­ tu r e and lead a Red G uard m ovem ent in Shanghai w as, in th e ir e s tim a ­ tion, an atte m p t to d iv e rt the o rie n ta tio n of the attack s away fro m b o u r­ geois a u th o ritie s on the M PC— chief of whom was T s 'a o h im self. T s 'a o c e rta in ly gave th is m o re v o cal s e c to r of the Red G uard m ovem ent am p le c irc u m s ta n tia l evidence to re in fo rc e th e ir su sp icio n s. Soon a f te r h is in itia tio n and su p p o rt of S hanghai's city wide Red G uard fe d e ra tio n had s tim u la te d an u p su rg e in stu d en t a ttack s on u n iv e rsity a d m in is tra tio n s , T s 'a o on A ugust 24 d e liv e re d a sp eech a t F utan U n iv er­ sity , a d is s id e n t stro n g h o ld . He adm onished the stu d en ts to be le ss fre n z ie d in th e ir a tta c k s, ad v isin g th a t they not "sla p a b ig la b el" on a p e rs o n w ithout enough evidence, and defended h im se lf, saying: Some say my A ugust 22 sp eech was too m ild, I do not a g re e . P u t m y sp eech alongside the Sixteen P o in ts. Is it m ild by c o m p a ris o n ? !4

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The m a jo rity of F u tan stu d en ts ap p aren tly su p p o rted T s 'a o 's call fo r c a re fu l, w ell-d o cu m en ted a t t a c k s , b u t to th e d is s id e n t m in o rity it w as sim p ly the la te s t in a s e r ie s of m oves to s u p p re s s c r itic is m and p ro te c t re v is io n is ts in th e m unicipal P a rty o rg a n iz a tio n . As an a c t of defiance, the d is s id e n t groups a t F u tan th a t v e ry night stag ed a ra id , o v e r one thousand stro n g , on the cam pus of th e Shanghai D ra m a A cadem y. T h e ir m idnight fo ray m e t w ith s tro n g r e s is ta n c e fro m th e d ra m a stu d en ts, and in the debate and braw l th a t en su ed , the d ra m a stu d e n ts, led by a group of T ib etan s, defended th e m se lv e s handily. T he stu d en t m a jo rity a t F utan im m ed iately scheduled a la rg e m e etin g the follow ing evening (August 26) to "study the 16 p o in ts," p a rtic u la rly th e in ju n ctio n s ag a in st stru g g le by v io len ce. T s 'a o , in h is second F u tan ap p ea ran ce in th re e days, condem ned the "a d v e n tu rism " of the F u tan m in o rity , and su g g ested th a t they had "confused two ty p es of c o n tra d ic tio n s" (P oint 6) in stru g g lin g a g ain st o th e r stu d e n ts. When a w ave of w all p o s te rs c r itic iz e d th e d is s i­ dents fo r b reak in g the S ixteen P o in ts, th e m in o rity d e c la re d th a t a " re ig n of w hite t e r r o r " had se iz e d F u tan and planned a p r o te s t ra lly in C u ltu re S quare. One of the chief s o u rc e s of d is s id e n t an g e r w as th e ir u n d e r­ re p re s e n ta tio n on school " c u ltu ra l rev o lu tio n c o m m itte e s" w hich Shang­ hai co lleg es had fo rm ed in com pliance w ith P o in t 9 of the S ixteen P o in ts. They claim ed th a t th e se co m m ittees w ere m e re appendages of the school P a rty co m m ittees u sed to s u p p re s s th e d is s id e n t R ed G u ard s. B ut th e ir exclusion need not have been d e lib e ra te —even if g e n e ra l ele c tio n s had been held (and they m ay well have been) ac c o rd in g to the P a r is Com m une m odel by draw ing up a sin g le lis t of can d id ates fo r electio n , it is doubtful that any of the m in o rity groups in a given school could m u s te r the v o te s to e le c t a re p re s e n ta tiv e . T s 'a o had ap p are n tly tr ie d to soothe Red G uard te m p e rs by d e c la rin g th a t th e se co m m ittees would have to r e f le c t "the co n cern of the m a jo rity fo r the m in o rity " and th a t som e stu d en ts who have played a m o st e n th u sia stic ro le in the C u ltu ral R evolution find they have not been e lecte d to th e se co m m itte e s. . . . T hey should not let th e ir em otions get the b e tte r of th em . . . . M aking revolutio n is not a q u estion of "If I am ele c te d I will join in; if not I w ill not. . . . The d issid e n t re a c tio n to th is w as stra ig h tfo rw a rd : any co m m ittee th a t excluded them , "the rev o lu tio n ary le ft w ing," w as th e re fo re re a c tio n a ry and m u st be " re je c te d , denounced, and s m a s h e d ."-*-8 D uring the final two w eeks in A ugust the M P C 's re a c tio n to the local d issid e n ts w as benign but fir m . T he MPC w as c a re fu l to n e ith e r

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s u p p re s s the Red G uard m ovem ent n o r d ev iate fro m C en tral d ire c tiv e s . T he stu d en ts w ere not d e c la re d " a n ti- P a rty " o r " a n tiso c ia lis t" fo r th e ir a tta c k s on the P a rty h ie ra rc h y , n o r was th e ir rig h t to re b e l challenged. W hat the M PC did in s is t upon, how ever, w as th a t the d issid e n t stu d en ts change th e ir m ethod of stru g g le . T h is was com m unicated to the stu d en ts not only thro u g h T s 'a o 's sp e e c h e s, but a lso through the m a ss m edia. Im m ed iately follow ing the in cid en t a t the Shanghai D ram a In stitu te, the m ed ia re p o rte d on a n u m b er of stu d en t g roups who held d isc u ssio n s on the Sixteen P o in ts and the need to " stru g g le by re a so n in g ," as well as the need to le a rn d isc ip lin e by em u latin g the P e o p le 's L ib eratio n A rm y (PLA ). T he T ib etan stu d en ts a t the D ram a In stitu te who had acquitted th e m se lv e s so w ell in the braw l w ere p ra is e d as "good stu d en ts of the P L A " and a s "d efen d ers of the Sixteen P o in ts ," y et now here in the m ed ia w as th e re any re fe re n c e to the actu al in cid en ts o r any c r itic is m of s p e c ific stu d en t gro u p s.

T he S p iral of C onflict: P eking Red G uards E n te r Shanghai The ra n k s of S hanghai's d is s id e n t Red G uards w ere sw elled n e a r the end of A ugust as stu d en t groups fro m P eking began to a r r iv e on "exchanges of re v o lu tio n ary e x p e rie n c e ." T h ese P eking stu d en ts w ere convinced th a t the u p p er lev els of the P a rty w ere rid d led w ith re v isio n ­ is ts and saw the toppling of th e se p o w e r-h o ld e rs as the only leg itim ate aim of the Red G uard m ovem ent. T h e re w ere alre a d y in d icatio n s that they m ean t to p e rfo rm th is ta sk in Shanghai. It w as ru m o red th at e a r lie r in A ugust a N ieh Y uan-tzu w all p o s te r in P eking had attack ed C h'ang H sip 'in g , head of the M F C 's Education D ep artm en t, as a " r e v is io n is t."20 B e sid e s N ieh 's conviction th a t C h'ang H si-p 'in g was a r e v is io n is t—a conviction she w as p ro b ab ly com m unicating to h e r P eking Red Guard c o lle a g u e s—th e re w ere in d icatio n s th at Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o was also m e etin g w ith and b rie fin g g roups of Red G uards bound fo r Shanghai. One p o ssib le ta rg e t Chang m ay have d ire c te d the stu d en ts tow ard was Yang H si-kuang, the actin g P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t head who had sided w ith P a Chin a g a in st Yao W en-yuan in the P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t d is ­ pute th a t led to C hang's p ro m o tio n to the head of the D ep artm en t. Thus b riefe d , no so o n e r had th e se in itia l P eking groups left the w elcom ing re c e p tio n held fo r them by the MPC at the tra in statio n than they began a s tra te g y of confron tatio n w ith the P a rty e sta b lish m e n t. ^2 T h e ir f i r s t act w as to apply to the MPC fo r the equipm ent they fe lt w as n e c e s s a ry to s e t up a liaiso n c e n te r. They p re s e n te d Ma T 'ie n -sh u i, MPC s e c r e ta r y and head of the In d u stry and C om m unications D epartm ent, w ith dem ands th a t they be given a s e a l of office and b ro ad ca stin g , p r e s s ,

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and propaganda equipm ent. Since S hanghai's own R ed G uard groups w ere only allo tted funds and given a c c e s s to the M P C 's own p r e s s e s d u rin g offh o u rs, the dem ands w ere r e f u s e d .23 An im m ed iate d e m o n stra tio n o u t­ side the MPC h e a d q u a rte rs on A ugust 28, dem anding to see T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu and a ir com plain ts, re c e iv e d no g r e a te r re sp o n se than h eck lin g by h o stile crow ds and rad io le c tu re s to " le a rn fro m the P L A ." 2^ A Red G uard ra lly a t C ulture Square two days la te r d e c la re d "w a r" ag a in st T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu , and subsequently, on S eptem ber 2, m o re than one thousand P ek in g d is s i­ dents stag ed a s it- in a t the en tra n ce to the P a r ty o ffice s. A fter two days of rad io and p r e s s e d ito ria ls s tr e s s in g nonviolence and a d h ere n ce to the Sixteen P o in ts, com bined w ith continual v e rb a l h a ra s s m e n t by h o stile Shanghai students and w o rk e rs, th e P ek in g stu d en ts s to rm e d th e MPC o ffices. 2^ Some re p o r ts d e c la re th a t the stu d en ts w ere re p u lse d w hile o th e rs claim th a t the P ek in g d iss id e n ts, re in fo rc e d by th e ir Shanghai c o u n te rp a rts , bro k e w in d o w s,. occupied the b u ilding and clim bed to the roof, h u rlin g sto n es into the s tr e e t. 2^ W hatever the d e ta ils of the event, th e M P C 's re s p o n s e w as firm , im m ed iate, y e t co n cilia to ry , as it w as fo r the e a r l ie r " D ra m a In stitu te Incident." T s 'a o 's sp eech th a t evening denounced th o se who "wage s tru g g le by fo rc e and not by re a s o n ," (Point 6, S ixteen P o in ts) and " s tr ik e down ev ery th in g and reb el a g ain st e v e ry o n e ." 2^ B ut he m ade p ain s to s tr e s s that the MPC would not r e ta lia te , and o rd e re d th a t "Shanghai co m ­ ra d e s a re not to s tr ik e b a c k ." 23 The propaganda cam paign ag ain st "stru g g lin g by v io len ce" w as continued in the m edia, and a te le g ra m of p ro te s t to Mao, d ra fte d by w o rk e rs at the No. 1 State Cotton M ill, was c irc u la te d in le a fle t f o r m .2 ^ The ce n te rp ie c e of the cam paign ag a in st violence, how ever, was a re c o rd e d sp eech by T s 'a o b ro a d c a ste d o v er the radio w elcom ing Red G uards fro m o th e r lo c a litie s . In it T s 'a o d e ­ c la re d th a t Red G uards of P ek in g and Shanghai "w ere fighting fo r the sam e goal" and th a t good m eetin g s had been held in re c e n t days "to d isc u ss and exchange v ie w p o in ts." F u rth e r: We s in c e re ly hope th a t debate on v a rio u s q u estio n s and d iffere n ces of opinions w ill be c a r r ie d out in acc o rd an ce w ith P r e m ie r C hou's in s tru c tio n and u n d er conditions of im proved ex ecution of the G reat P r o le ta r ia n C u ltu ral R evolution. . . . We should not be em otional, n o r c r i t i ­ cize anyone blindly . . . (we) hope re v o lu tio n ary stu d en ts and m a ss e s w ill re g a rd the attack on those p e rs o n s in pow er w ithin the P a r ty who a r e taking the c a p ita lis t ro ad as the m ain ta rg e t of stru g g le .

23 T he re p e a te d a irin g of th is m agnanim ous re p ro o f, firm ly based on C en tral d ire c tiv e s , in fu ria te d the d issid e n t Red G uards, who would la te r r e f e r to the MPC re s p o n s e as a "re ig n of w hite t e r r o r . "31

In te rn a l MPC D ebates about D issid en t Red G uards *1 R ed G uard acco u n ts, b ased upon notes and tr a n s c r ip ts seize d d u rin g a la te r occupation of the MPC offices in D ecem b er, give us a vivid a c ­ count of the P a rty le a d e rs h ip 's p erc e p tio n of th is Red G uard "p ro b lem ." The MPC w as c le a rly u n c e rta in how to p ro ceed in the face of th e se un­ expected, e s c a la tin g atta c k s fro m below. An agenda fo r a m eetin g containing q u estio n s fo r d isc u ssio n su g g ests the p ro b lem s with which the m unicipal le a d e rs w ere g rap p lin g . F i r s t w as the question of w hether th e re was any tru th to the d issid e n t Red G uard c la im s: 1. Is the m ain o rie n ta tio n of the Red G uards c o r r e c t? 2. Should we f i r s t c o n sid e r who they want to " re v o lu tio n iz e "? If they a re b en t on b rin g in g everyone down, can we say th e ir m ain o rie n ta tio n is c o r r e c t? 3. If they s p re a d s im p lis tic slo g an s like "Long live the Red T e r r o r " o r "If y o u r fa th e r w as a rev o lu tio n ary , you a re a u to m atically a good fello w ", does th is affect th e ir m ain o rie n ta tio n ? Second w as the p ro b lem of how th e MPC should deal w ith Red Guard a tta c k s : 4. T h e re have been a lot of in cid en ts in the s tr e e ts , and th e se have been d e s c rib e d in d iffe re n t w ays. A re the Red G uards a t fau lt, o r is the M PC ? 5. Among the stu d en ts th e re m ay be c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n a rie s who a r e out to a ttack the h e a d q u a rte rs of the p r o le ta r ia t. Should we sin g le out th is elem en t f o r s e v e re c r itic is m ? Some say if we do so now th is will have a bad effect on full m o b ilizatio n of the m a s s e s . O th ers say it would m ake the u ltim a te m o b ilizatio n a ll the b e tte r . Which is th e c o r r e c t a n s w e r? T hen, as a b a s is fo r d isc u ssio n , the follow ing c o u rse of actio n w as sug­ g ested:

24

T h e r e 's too m uch d is o r d e r a t the m om ent. The R ed G uards a r e doing as they p le a se and dem anding to tal pow er. Is th at rig h t? We have the d ic ta to rs h ip of the p r o le ta r ia t. C ouldn't it do a b it m o re d ic tatin g and get som e m o re o rd e r around h e r e ? 3^ T hose who p ro p o sed th is solution w e re pro b ab ly , like S e c re ta ry Yang S hih-fa, o u trag ed and e m b itte re d by the atta c k s of the d is sid e n t w ing of the studen t m ovem ent. At one of th e se S ep tem b er m eetin g s Yang e x p re s s e d h is opinion th a t the Red G uards w ere nothing but "v ag a­ bonds," "m aking tro u b le out of nothing." He ch arg e d th a t they only "went sig h tsee in g " and, w hile acq u irin g no new ex p erien ce in rev o lu tio n , the only ex p erien ce they sum m ed up was how to d is ru p t re c e p tio n statio n s and clim b w a ll s .33 He b itte rly com plained: "M aking tro u b le out of nothing, they a r e called re v o lu tio n a rie s , w hile p e rfo rm in g o u r d u ties we a re accu sed of su p p re s sin g re v o lu tio n ." 3^ T s 'a o re p o rte d ly added to th is unco m p lim en tary d esc rip tio n : "They a r e in te re s te d only in v io len ce. T hey want to b rin g every o n e and ev ery th in g dow n."33 Still an o th er, unnam ed, s e c r e ta r y o b jected th a t the " c la s s o rig in " of th e s e d issid e n t Red G uards w as "not good," and th a t th e ir "so c ia l connections a r e com ­ p le x ." T h is accounted, he fe lt, fo r th e ir vio len t b eh av io r w hich m u st have, at ro o t, " u lte rio r m o tiv e s ." 33 The MPC w ondered w h eth er it was c o r r e c t fo r th e se stu d en ts of q u estio n ab le c la s s background to "m onopo­ lize the rig h t to speak at the expense of c a d re s, w o rk e rs, and p e a s a n ts ." 3 ^ T s 'a o o rd e re d th at a phone call be p la ced to P ek in g to a ir th e se o p inions. 38 The suggestio n s th a t the " d ic ta to rsh ip of th e p r o le ta r ia t" do a little m o re "d ictatin g ," how ever m uch the MPC m ay have liked to do so, w as not im plem ented . It was u ltim a te ly re je c te d in fav o r of a m o re cautious p o licy —one th a t could not be acc u se d of su p p re s sin g the stu d en t m ove­ m ent o r ab ro g atin g the Sixteen P o in ts . The m o re enlightened policy was suggested by the actin g head of th e P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t, Yang H sikuang, who w arned, "We m u st be on the a le r t. We cannot w ork on the p rin c ip le of an arch y . We cannot to le ra te th e id e a th a t 'e v e ry o n e is open to su sp ic io n .' "3® His p ro p o sitio n w as th a t "m o st o rd in a ry people a r e not too c le a r about how th e C u ltu ral R evolution should be c a r r ie d out. We m u st give th em som e guidance in th e p r e s s . We m u st p u b lish a few m odel c a s e s ."40 T his c o u rse of actio n , coupled w ith a fo rm a l te le g ra m to the P a r ty C en ter p ro te s tin g P ek in g Red G uard vio len ce and re q u e stin g th e ir r e c a ll, w ere the only re a l d ecisio n s taken on the m a tte r . T he p r e s s continued to p ublish m odel accounts p r a is in g the d iscip lin e of PLA tro o p s and the

25 o b serv an ce of the Sixteen P o in ts by stu d en ts. T s 'a o continued to give ro u sin g sp eech e s at o fficial r a llie s p ra is in g the C ultural R evolution and M ao's le a d e rs h ip and w illfully continued to ig n o re the d issid e n t stu d e n ts.41 T he Shanghai m a ss m ed ia re m a in e d s ile n t on the d is s id e n t stu d en ts and did not acknow ledge th a t th e MPC had e n e m ie s .4^ Then in la te S eptem ­ b e r, fo r no a p p a re n t re a s o n , the P eking Red G uards w ere o rd e re d back to th e c a p ita l. The R ed G uards claim ed th a t th is move was m ade in o rd e r f o r th em to "w ork as d is c ip lin a ry c o rp s" fo r the N ational Day fe s tiv itie s , 43 but it is m o re lik ely th a t they w ere w ithdraw n in re sp o n se to the deluge of com p lain ts lodged a g ain st th e ir a c tiv itie s by P a rty le a d e rs in the p ro v in c e s. T in s phenom enon was to becom e the ce n tra l to pic o f the ap p ro ach in g P a rty co n feren ce in P eking. 44

M ao 's S e lf-C la rific a tio n : T he O ctober P a rty W ork C onference Mao w as ap p are n tly taken aback by a s e r ie s of com plaints fro m p ro v in c ia l P a rty le a d e rs s im ila r to th o se lodged by T s 'a o . He im m ed i­ ately ask ed th e m unicipal and p ro v in cial P a rty le a d e rs assem b led th e re : "Why a r e you old le a d e rs so frig h ten ed of the Red G u ard s? They h av en 't b eat you up and y et you ju s t w o n 't exam ine y o u rse lv e s .”4 ^ He a s s e r te d th a t once you have m o re co n tact with them "you re a liz e th e re is nothing to be a fra id o f." 46 B ut reg io n al le a d e rs like T s 'a o did not have such co n tact: You a r e not c le a r-h e a d e d and d a re not to face the R ed G uards, n o r speak the tru th to the stu d en ts; you a c t like o fficials and b ig s h o ts . F i r s t of all you d o n 't d a re to se e people and then you don’t d a re to speak. You have been m aking rev o lu tio n fo r m any d ecad es, but the lo n g er you do it th e s tu p id e r you g e t.4 ^ Mao fe lt th a t th e se m ista k e s w ere u n d erstan d ab le, as w ere the c r itic is m s he re c e iv e d , fo r, a f te r all: I I m y self had not fo re s e e n th a t a s soon as the P eking U n iv e rsity p o s te r w as b ro a d c a st, the whole country would be throw n into tu rm o il. Even b efore th e le tte r to the Red G uards had gone out. Red G uards had m obi­ lized throughout the co u n try , and in one ru s h they sw ept you off y o u r fe e t. Since it w as I who cau sed the havoc, it is u n d erstan d a b le if you have som e b itte r w ords f o r m e .46

26

H ow ever u n d erstan d a b le, th e se m ista k e s had to be c o rre c te d . Mao urg ed the P a rty le a d e rs to go back to th e ir p ro v in ce s and m u n ic ip a litie s and "hold good m e etin g s" w ith the d issid e n t stu d e n ts. "F in d a q u ie t place in Shanghai in w hich to m eet. If the stu d en ts s t i r things up, le t th e m ." 49 "D efensive a ttitu d e s " can be tra n s fo rm e d , and P a r ty le a d e rs can take the in itia tiv e in th e se m a tte r s ; but b efo re P a rty le a d e rs can ed u cate the stu d en ts, "the ed u ca tio n ist should f i r s t be e d u c a te d ." 59 T he only way to ac q u ire th is education, Mao m ade c le a r, was to get activ ely involved in m eetings, d eb ates, and s e lf - c r itic is m s e s s io n s w ith the stu d e n ts. If th is goal can be acco m p lish ed , Mao d e c la re d , "T h at w ill be th a t! " ; n e ith e r the Red G uards n o r Mao h im se lf would want to o v erth ro w th e m .54 Mao w arned, how ever, "If when you go back you do things a cc o rd in g to the old sy stem , m ain tain in g the sta tu s quo, p u ttin g y o u rs e lf in opposition to one group of Red G uards and le ttin g an o th er group hold sw ay, then I think things cannot change, the situ a tio n cannot im p ro v e ." 5^ Even if T s 'a o had un d ersto o d c le a rly the s o r t of things Mao r e ­ q u ired of him in h is dealin g s w ith the stu d en ts, it is doubtful he would have had a chance to c a r r y th em out. L e ss than two w eeks a f te r he re tu rn e d fro m the O cto b er W ork M eeting53 the p ro b lem s he w as faced w ith changed d ra m a tic a lly , and ev en ts o c c u rre d so quickly th a t T s 'a o s c a rc e ly had tim e to d eal w ith th em . T s 'a o would soon be faced w ith a d is sid e n t w o rk e r m ovem ent fo r which ex istin g P a rty d ire c tiv e s and M ao's la te s t in s tru c tio n s on the stu d en ts le ft him u n p re p a re d . In le ss than six w eeks T s 'a o would no lo n g er be e x e rtin g h is le a d e rs h ip o v e r events in the city.

V THE CENTRAL DILEMMA REVOLUTION AND PRODUCTION

While Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o rem a in ed in Peking, m eeting w ith Red G uards and in s tru c tin g th em in the a r t of " re b e llio n ," T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu and th e MPC had throughout th is p erio d th e ir norm al re sp o n sib ilitie s to atten d to, a s w ell as the added ta sk of coping w ith the d issid e n t student m ovem ent. Chief am ong th e se d u ties w as the m aintenance of no rm al p ro d u ctio n in S hanghai's fa c to r ie s . F ro m the o u tset of the m ovem ent, it w as a s s e r te d th a t th e C u ltu ral R evolution, as a r e s u lt of rev o lu tio n ­ iz in g p e o p le 's thought, would allow them "to achieve g re a te r, fa s te r, b e tte r and m o re econom ical re s u lts in all field s of w o rk ." Any attem p t to p re s e n t the C u ltu ral R evolution and the m aintenance of production as in co m p atib le w as fla tly d e c la re d to be " in c o r r e c t." If the " p ro p e r a rra n g e m e n ts w ere m a d e ," it would be p o ssib le to c a r r y out both the C u ltu ral R evolution and n o rm al pro d u ctio n w ithout having them in te rfe re w ith eac h o th e r, w hile a t the sam e tim e g u aran teein g high quality w ork. ^ T he " p ro p e r a rra n g e m e n ts " r e f e r r e d to the e sta b lish m e n t of s e p a ra te le a d e rs h ip groups fo r pro d u ctio n and ideological work, the p rohibition of outside in te rfe re n c e , e sp e c ia lly by Red G uards, and the m aintenance of la b o r d isc ip lin e and of re g u la r w orking h o u rs, d u rin g which "rev o lu ­ tio n a ry " a c tiv itie s w ere not to o c c u r. 2 D issid en t Red G uards had, fro m the beginning, sp o rad ica lly c o n tra ­ vened the C e n te r's d ire c tiv e s re g a rd in g the C u ltu ral R evolution in the fa c to rie s and had attem p ted to e s ta b lis h w orkplace lia is o n s —so m etim es dam aging w ork d iscip lin e w hile often m eetin g stro n g re s is ta n c e fro m h o stile w o rk e rs . ^ T h ese R ed G uards had also , fro m the beginning, been re p e a te d ly w arned by the P a rty C en ter to d e s is t. ^ No le s s e r P a rty fig u re s than Chou E n -la i and Lin P iao gave w ell-p u b licized speeches a t T ienanm en on S ep tem b er 15, callin g fo r a c le a r d istin ctio n betw een the fo rm atio n of o rg an iz atio n s and fu ll-tim e p o litic al activ ity in the sch o o ls on the one hand, and the v ita l ta sk s of production in fa rm s and fa c to rie s on the o th e r. They flatly o rd e re d the Red G uards not to t r e s ­ p a s s in the fa c to rie s o r on the fie ld s . ^ T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu re in fo rc e d the C e n te r's a w a re n e s s of the p ro b lem when he w arned on S eptem ber 24 th at 27

28

it would be difficu lt to e n s u re n o rm al production if th e se attem p ted liaiso n s continued, and he su g g ested re c a llin g P eking Red G uards and ending the " g re a t exchange of re v o lu tio n ary ex perience."® The Red G uards w ere indeed w ithdraw n to P ek in g as th e O cto b er W ork C onference ap proached, but not as a sign of d efeat. While in P eking d u rin g O ctober, they w ere being assid u o u sly ed u cated in th e a r t of approaching w o rk e rs —they w ere to m e et w ith th em a f te r w ork h o u rs, and g radually e a se th e m selv es into fa c to ry routine. ? D esp ite the fact th a t w o rk e rs w e re s till forbidden to fo rm th e ir own o rg a n iz a tio n s, the P eking Red G uards who re tu rn e d to Shanghai in e a rly N ovem ber, now known as " rev o lu tio n ary r e b e ls ," im m ed iately s e t to w ork o rg an iz in g w o rk e rs into groups a ffiliated w ith th e ir own.® T h e ir e ffo rts , p e rh a p s aided by Shanghai's grow ing co rp s of d is sid e n t w o rk e rs, w ere u n ex p ec­ tedly s u c c e ssfu l, fo r on N ovem ber 8 the c ity 's f i r s t w o r k e r s ' o rg a n iz a ­ tio n —The Shanghai W o rk e rs ' R ev o lu tio n ary R ebel G en eral H e a d q u a rte rs (WGHQ)—in s is te d on an audience w ith T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu to p r e s e n t him w ith a lis t of dem and s. T s 'a o w as once again confronted w ith an unexpected and wholly u n p recedented situ a tio n . As the d is s id e n t Red G uards had e a r l ie r challenged e sta b lish e d C en tral d ire c tiv e s on s e c r e t a rc h iv e s and file s and on stru g g lin g by fo rc e , th is new w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n w as, by ex istin g CCRG d ire c tiv e s , ille g a l. T s 'a o had two a lte rn a tiv e s : he could le a rn fro m the re p ro o f he w as given in O cto b er and apply M ao's advice to becom e activ ely involved in m eetin g s and neg o tiatio n s w ith th e d is s i­ dents, o r he could tak e the safe c o u rs e —the sa m e one he had ta k en w ith the Red G u ard s—and stic k clo sely to e sta b lis h e d C en tral g u id elin es, hoping to " rid e out" th e d ifficu lty . P ro b ab ly w ith C hou's and L in 's re c e n t s ta te m e n ts —s tr e s s in g the fundam ental d iffe re n c e s betw een schools and fa c to r ie s —firm ly in m ind, T s 'a o opted f o r th e second c o u rse . T h is c o u rse of action would lead to a co n fro n tatio n w hose reso lu tio n would u n d erm in e T s 'a o 's le a d e rs h ip .

W orkers E n te r the C u ltu ral R evolution—The A nting Incident T h is new w o rk e rs ' o rg a n iz a tio n —the " W o rk e rs' H e a d q u a rte rs" fo r s h o rt—was a fe d e ra tio n of sm a ll c e lls of d is s id e n t w o rk e rs fro m throughout Shanghai. Its o rig in s a r e not e n tire ly c le a r, but it se e m s p la u sib le th a t the im p etu s f o r its fo rm atio n w as the e ffo rt a t p o litic a l o rg an iz in g by the stu d en t d is s id e n ts and d is s id e n t m id d le -le v e l le a d e r ­ ship p erso n n el fro m the f a c to r ie s — m o st notably Wang H ung-w en of the

29 No. 17 Cotton M ill. A p p ren tice w o rk e rs and c o n tra c t la b o re rs ap p ea r to have been heavily re p re s e n te d in the o rg a n iz a tio n 's ra n k s. ^ When th is body, on N ovem ber 8, s e n t r e p re s e n ta tiv e s to the Kangping S treet S e c r e ta r ia t of the M PC, it p re s e n te d dem ands th a t th e ir new o rg a n iz a ­ tion be reco g n ized , th a t T s 'a o attend th e ir inau g u ratio n ra lly the next day, and th a t they be p ro v id ed w ith fin an ces, p r e s s and propaganda eq u ip m en t. P e rh a p s having le a rn e d so m eth in g fro m h is e a r l ie r confron­ ta tio n s w ith d is s id e n t stu d e n ts, th is tim e T s 'a o re c e iv e d the dem ands and co n sid e re d them fo r half a day befo re sending his re p ly via a m em ­ b e r of his sta ff. T s 'a o 's re p re s e n ta tiv e s explained th a t the dem ands w e re in d ir e c t co n tra d ictio n w ith e x istin g CCRG policy and could not p o ssib ly be m et, and they p re s e n te d the Sixteen P o in ts, C hou's sp eech es, and the P e o p le 's D aily e d ito ria ls s tr e s s in g the d iffere n ces betw een sch o o ls and fa c to rie s as th e b a s is f o r th e d ecisio n . 10 Sim ultaneous w ith the tw e n ty -th o u sa n d -w o rk e r m a ss ra lly o rg an ized by the WGHQ the next day d u rin g w orking h o u rs, the o fficial m edia resp o n d ed with e d ito ria ls p ra is in g the R ed G uards, publicizin g a PLA cam paign to " tra n s fo rm w orld o u tlook," and explaining the C e n te r’s policy on the C u ltu ral R evolution in the f a c to rie s . H R adio b ro a d c a sts took g re a t p ain s to p u b licize the P e o p le 's D aily e d ito ria l on "T aking a F ir m Hold on R evolution and S tim u latin g P ro d u ctio n ": . . . g ra sp in g only pro d u ctio n and neg lectin g revolution; o r g ra sp in g only rev o lu tio n and neglecting production, both a r e co u n ter to M ao's p o licy . . . . Schools m ay le t out fo r re v o lu tio n ary exchange, but p ro d u ctio n m u st ab so lu tely not be susp en d ed a t fa c to rie s , m in es, tra d e and s e rv ic e u n its and p e o p le 's com m unes. ^ T s 'a o 's re s p o n s e had little effect. T he W o rk e rs' H ead q u arters d rew up five additional dem ands a t th e ir ra lly , and when th e se w ere re je c te d , tw en ty -fiv e hundred of th e ir m e m b e rs co m m an d eered a P eking-bound tr a in and le ft the city, d e c la rin g th e ir intention to in fo rm Mao about T s 'a o 's e ffo rts to p re v e n t th em fro m m aking rev o lu tio n . T s 'a o , p ro b ab ly in clo se telephone co n tact w ith CCRG m e m b ers d u rin g th e s e few days, then took w hat w as one of the few d ecisiv e actions he m ade d u rin g the C u ltu ral R evolution: he had the tr a in stopped at A nting, a sid in g ju s t o u tsid e the city lim its , and se n t a delegation of frie n d s and fam ily of the d is s id e n t w o rk e rs to the sta tio n to p ersu ad e th em to r e tu rn . A t the sa m e tim e, u n sp ecified re p re s e n ta tiv e s of the MPC (probably fellow w o rk e rs who w e re P a rty m e m b ers) explained once again the official C en tral policy about w o r k e r s ' o rg an iz atio n s,

30

lia iso n s, and m aking rev o lu tio n a f te r w orking h o u rs . As a re s u lt, o v e r h alf of the tw enty-five hundred w o rk e rs re tu rn e d to th e ir jobs in the city . All of th is took p lace on N ovem ber 10. 14 On e ith e r the 10th o r 11th, C h'en P o -ta se n t to T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu a te le g ra m w hich w as to be re a d to the rem a in in g one thousand W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs m e m b e rs : T h e re a r e two p rin c ip le s involved h e re , and th e m in o r one m u st be su b o rd in ated to the m a jo r one. As w o rk e rs, th e ir m ain job is to w ork. Jo in in g in the R evolution is only seco n d ary . T hey m u st th e re fo re go back to w ork. They can take p a r t in the R evolution o u tsid e of workingh o u rs . T hey should go back im m e d ia te ly . It is a s e rio u s m a tte r to disobey P a rty in s tru c tio n s . 15 T his o rd e r, when re la y e d to th e w o rk e rs, ap p are n tly had little effect, fo r the w o rk e rs showed no intention of leaving. They re m a in e d th e re on the 11th and 12th, n e c e ss ita tin g f u r th e r actio n on the p a r t of the CCRG. 1® Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o w as d isp atch ed to Shanghai on the 1 2 th l7 and w as ap p are n tly given a u th o rity to b arg ain w ith the w o rk e rs in o r d e r to obtain th e ir p ro m ise to re tu r n to w ork, f o r Chang th a t v e ry day a g re e d to en d o rse the W o rk e rs' H e a d q u a rte rs d em an d s. In re tu rn , Chang m ade c e rta in to s e c u re a pledge fro m the w o rk e rs th a t p ro d u ctio n and re v o lu ­ tion would indeed be re c o n c ile d . The W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs im m e d i­ ately issu e d a public notice fo r all of th e ir m e m b e rs who had le ft th e ir jobs to " re tu rn to th e ir fa c to rie s and p la n ts, and c a r r y out the C u ltu ral R evolution th ere."I® Chang then called C h'en P o -ta in P ek in g to in fo rm him of his actio n s, and a s e r ie s of telephone co n feren ces ensued betw een Chang, C h'en, T s 'a o , and C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n , head of the E a s t China B u reau . The lo cal Shanghai le a d e rs ap p are n tly arg u ed ag a in st re c o g n i­ tion and su p p o rt of the w o rk e r d is s id e n ts, but the CCRG fin ally decided to en d o rse C hang's actio n s. I 9 The next day Chang attended a m eetin g a t C ulture Square w h ere, w ith the re tu rn e d A nting w o rk e rs in atten d an ce, he officially signed th e ir d e m a n d s .20 T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu w as re p o rte d ly fu rio u s a t Chang fo r caving in to the dem ands. In h is view, the d is s id e n t w o rk e rs d id n 't have a leg to stan d on: they w ere c le a rly v io latin g the e x istin g CCRG policy, and no le s s a p e rs o n than the head of the CCRG had backed up T s 'a o 's p o sitio n . But, T s 'a o exclaim ed , " C h 'u n -c h 'ia o ," fo r no ap p a re n t re a s o n "sig n s and catch es us w ith o u r p an ts d o w n ! "21 Not only had Chang u n d erm in ed T s 'a o 's au th o rity , but he had opened a d o o r th a t the MPC fe lt would m ake in d u s tria l p ro d u ctio n im p o ssib le . T s 'a o was fo rced , how ever, to fo rg e t his an g er fo r the tim e being, b eca u se 474 of the w o rk e rs a t

31 A nting who had a g re e d to r e tu r n to w ork had s e t out fo r P eking to p r o te s t C h'en P o - ta 's " r e p r e s s iv e te le g ra m ." Led by a w o rk e r nam ed K 'eng C hin-chang, th e ir " p r o te s t b rig a d e " had re a c h e d Soochow and w as can­ v a s s in g th e re fo r su p p o rt. Chang and T s 'a o to g e th e r h u rrie d to Soochow, w h ere they sig n ed th e ir fu r th e r dem ands (T s'ao , re p o rte d ly , w ith som e re lu c ta n c e ) and allow ed a handful of d eleg ate s to continue to Peking. 22

T he M P C 's A rgum en ts a g a in st W orker O rganizations Im m ed iately follow ing th e se ev en ts, on N ovem ber 17, the CCRG is s u e d an ex p o s t facto ju stific a tio n fo r C hang's actio n s, w here fo r the f i r s t tim e it w as sta te d th a t " w o rk e rs have th e rig h t to fo rm all types of C u ltu ral R evolution o rg a n iz a tio n s." Given th is rig h t, w o rk e rs w ere told to m ake s u re th a t they r e f r a in fro m factio n al s tru g g le s and w ork sto p p ag es, th a t they u n d erta k e no rev o lu tio n ary "exchanges of e x p e ri­ en c e " d u rin g w ork h o u rs and continue to o b serv e the e ig h t-h o u r day. 23 Since th is w as now o fficial P a rty policy, the MPC w as bound to com ply; but in th e ir m eetin g s w ith Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao in the week fo l­ low ing th e incident, th e MPC m e m b e rs voiced th e ir c ritic is m of the way the a ffa ir w as handled and a ire d th e ir f e a rs o v e r the p o ssib le r a m i­ fic a tio n s of th e new p o licy . F i r s t th e re was a s e r ie s of objections to th e sig n in g of the w o rk e rs ' d em an d s. T s 'a o com plained, "I may re c o g ­ nize th is o rg an iz atio n , but why w rite 'th e E a s t China B u reau and the Shanghai M unicipal C om m ittee a r e fully re s p o n s ib le ' ? "24 O th ers ob­ je c te d th a t C hang's sig n in g had "gone a g a in st the in s tru c tio n s of the C h airm an , the C e n tra l C om m ittee, and C om rade C h'en P o - ta ." Chang had m ade a " m ista k e of p rin c ip le ," he had s u rre n d e re d not on p rin c ip le s of p ro le ta ria n d ic ta to rs h ip but of "a b o u rg eo is kind of d em o cracy ." P e rh a p s even w o rse , he had "throw n away the whole po sitio n ; he has b a rte re d aw ay p rin c ip le s and s a c rific e d th e w ell-b e in g of the v a s t m a jo rity fo r the u n re a so n a b le dem ands of a tiny few ," and he had "de­ s tro y e d P a r ty unity" and " e m b a r r a s s e d " th e local P a r ty a u th o ritie s. 25 Second w as the is s u e of lo cal re a c tio n to th e sig n in g of the d is s i­ dent w o rk e r d em an d s. W all p o s te r s had a lre a d y ap p ea red in Shanghai c ritic iz in g C hang's actio n as a " s e ll- o u t," and one MPC m e m b er re la te d th a t the m a jo rity of S hanghai's w o rk e rs w ere "obedient" to the M PC. He ex p lain ed th a t a good n u m b er of the w o rk e rs fe lt Chang to be a cow­ a rd and th a t he " s e lls out th e in te r e s t of the w orking-class."26 Chou Pi, fro m the In d u s tria l P ro d u ctio n C om m ittee of th e M PC, re p o rte d th a t m any people had qu estio n ed C hang's and T s 'a o 's signing of the dem ands

32 a t Soochow and challenged its co m p atib ility w ith M ao's thought and th e Sixteen P o in ts. They w ere now cla m o rin g fo r a "10, 000-m an m eetin g " to denounce th is m a n ifestatio n of the "b o u rg eo is re a c tio n a ry lin e " in the M PC. Even a t th is e a rly d ate, a n u m b er of w o rk e rs w ere th re a te n in g to take "rev o lu tio n ary actio n " to "sm a sh the re b e l h e a d q u a rte rs . T h ird ly , and p e rh a p s m o st im p o rtan tly , the MPC had s tro n g re s e rv a tio n s about the lo n g -te rm effect of C hang's a c tio n s. The con­ sen su s seem e d to be th a t the le g aliz atio n of w o rk e r o rg an iz atio n s would m ake the policy of "rev o lu tio n and p ro d u ctio n " unw orkable. One MPC m e m b e r asked Chang: "You g ran ted S hanghai's w o rk e rs the rig h t to fo rm a R ebel H e a d q u a rte rs, but did you even stop to think w hat effect th is m ight have on the country as a whole ?"®8 V ice-M ay o r Sun C hi-w en w arned Chang th a t a sm a ll d is o r d e r like the c u r r e n t one s e ts back p r o ­ duction 10 p e rc e n t, but th a t a b ig d is o r d e r "w ill affect livelihood to such an extent as to p a ra ly z e it." A nother v ic e -m a y o r w arn ed th a t th e se events had a lre a d y affected pro d u ctio n and th a t things could not go on like th is fo r long: "To be s u re , we m u st be m en tally p re p a re d fo r a b ig d i s o r d e r . 9 L ib eratio n D aily e d ito r Ma T a w arn ed : "Once th e C u ltu ral R evolution gets going in the fa c to rie s , th e re w ill be no end to it."®® Chang reb u tted th e se a s s e rtio n s , arg u in g th a t th e w o r k e r s ' o rg a n iz a ­ tio n s had not caused the d is o rd e rs b u t w ere th e r e s u lt of th em . B esid e s, he countered, th e c e n tra l is s u e w as not the m ain ten an ce of p ro d u ctio n but le a d e rs ' attitu d es to w ard s m a ss o rg a n iz a tio n s .3-*The CCRG was ap p aren tly not as c e rta in as Chang sounded on the is s u e of w o rk e rs ' o rg a n iz a tio n s. S hortly a f te r Chang re tu rn e d to P ek in g on N ovem ber 25, the C en tral C om m ittee held an im p o rta n t co n feren ce to d isc u ss the p ro b le m s the C u ltu ral R evolution w as cre a tin g , o r m ight c re a te , in in d u stry . Ma T 'ie n -s h u i, the head of S hanghai's D ep artm en t of In d u stry and C om m unications, attended and soon found th a t th e re was a d isc re p a n c y between the conceptions of the CCRG and th o se of reg io n a l officials as to how exten siv e the p ro b lem s w e re . On the p ro m p tin g of the v ic e -c h a irm a n of th e State P lan n in g C o m m issio n Yu C h 'iu -li, who suggested th a t the reg io n a l le a d e rs " te ll things as they re a lly a r e ," Ma called back to Shanghai, s ta tin g th a t a "full s c a le deb ate looks unavoid­ a b le ," and asked th a t the MPC send him m o re d ata on the e ffe c ts of w o rk e r d is tu r b a n c e s .3® A pp aren tly a n u m b er of reg io n a l le a d e rs ag re e d w ith the com m ent m ade d u rin g an MPC m eetin g : "All c o m ra d e s of th e CCRG know nothing about m a ss w o rk . . . . The CCRG indulges in high flown talk and has no id ea of th e d ifficu lties a t the lo w er le v e l." 33 The outcom e of the C en tral C o n feren ce—d e sp ite lo cal p r o te s ts by o fficials who had to live w ith the consequences of C en tral p o lic ie s — co n firm ed

33 the p rin c ip le of allow ing w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s, though a docum ent w as is s u e d on D ecem b er 9 w arn in g a g ain st the r e c u r r e n c e of such incidents as the one in Shanghai. P ro b le m s th a t a r o s e w ere to be solved through "co n su lta tio n in the u n it its e lf ," and th e re should no lo n g e r be " d e p a r­ tu r e s of la rg e g ro u p s" fro m fa c to rie s o r m in es. Only when ab so lu tely n e c e s s a ry could w o rk e rs sen d re p re s e n ta tiv e s to p ro v in cial and m u n ici­ p a l level o rg a n s, and only a s a la s t r e s o r t could they send them to P eking.

The D evelopm ent of M ass F a c tio n a lism and th e P a r a ly s is of M unicipal G overnm ent T s 'a o T i- C h 'iu 's actio n s to th is d ate w ere h ard ly so re p re s s iv e as w as la te r claim ed . He and o th e r m e m b e rs of the MPC c le a rly had little sym pathy w ith the d issid e n t factio n s am ong stu d en ts and w o rk e rs, but in h is a tte m p ts to m ain tain som e sem b lan ce of o r d e r and la b o r d iscip lin e, T s 'a o had been v e ry c are fu l to follow CCRG d ire c tiv e s to the le tte r and not to s u p p re s s the d is s id e n ts . T h is clo se ad h ere n ce to b u re a u c ra tic p ro c e d u re s , quite p o ssib ly d esig n ed to e n su re T s 'a o 's o rg an izatio n al p o sitio n by p ro v in g th a t he would c a r r y out ev e ry C en tral d ire c tiv e in its e n tire ty b ecam e, iro n ic a lly , the chief re a s o n fo r the grow ing attack s a g a in st h im . T s 'a o , e ith e r unw illing o r unable to heed M ao's O ctober advice to "tak e the in itia tiv e " by a ctiv ely m e etin g with, negotiating with, and engaging in s e lf - c r itic is m w ith th e d issid e n t o rg an iz atio n s, chose in ste a d m e re ly to d eal w ith th e se groups through h is office staff. A cco rd ­ ing to o rg an iz atio n al p ro c e d u re s e sta b lish e d by e x istin g P a rty policy on th e C u ltu ral R evolution, T s 'a o w as thoroughly ju stifie d in his actio n s, and h is c r itic is m s of Chang a f te r the A nting in cident re v e a l th at he fully b eliev ed he w as ju s tifie d . In the ey es of the d issid e n ts, how ever, T s 'a o 's actio n s only re in fo rc e d th e ir grow ing convictions th at he was a thorough­ going " re v is io n is t." His in a c c e s s ib ility , in s is te n c e on som e sem b lan ce of o rd e r, and re lia n c e on e sta b lish e d P a rty p ro c e d u re s — while p erh ap s n e c e s s a ry fo r the n o rm al functioning of in d u stry expected by the P a rty C e n te r—w as a s te re o ty p e of the u n resp o n siv e b u re a u c ra t, "cut off fro m the m a s s e s ." Thus T s 'a o , in follow ing the le tte r (if not the s p ir it) o f M ao's in s tru c tio n s , cam e to em body re v is io n is t le a d e rsh ip in the ey es of the d is s id e n ts . As CCRG p o licy sh ifted quickly beneath T s 'a o 's feet, m o re ­ o v er, he a p p e a re d in c re a sin g ly a s som eone who had r e s is te d C en tral p o lic ie s all along. P e rh a p s re a liz in g th a t his actio n s had only su cceed ed in w hipping up opposition to him , T s 'a o com pletely changed his ta c tic s ; but th is change, in tu rn , only fanned th e fla m e s of m a ss factio n alism th at w e re eventually to r e n d e r h is le a d e rs h ip to tally in effectiv e.

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The "L ib e ra tio n D aily" Incident and the P o la riz a tio n of F a c tio n s . W hile T s 'a o and the MPC w e re p reo ccu p ied w ith in d u s tria l p ro b lem s caused by w o rk e r s ' o rg an iz atio n s, the d is s id e n t stu d en t m ovem ent had continued to grow both in n u m bers and m ilita n c e . S im ultaneous w ith the C e n tra l/p ro v in c ia l co n feren ce on p ro d u ctio n a t w hich Ma T 'ie n - s h u i was p re se n tin g evidence on the lo cal Shanghai d is tu rb a n c e s , N ieh Y uantzu a rriv e d in Shanghai on N ovem ber 20, d e c la rin g h e r intention to expose S hanghai's " re v is io n is t" head of ed u catio n — C h 'an g H s i-p 'in g — and the alleged ro le s of T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu and T eng H sia o -p 'in g in sh ield in g him . She im m ed iately d e liv e re d , on N ovem ber 25 (the day Chang C h'unch 'ia o re tu rn e d to Peking), a fie ry sp eech at a m a ss ra lly in C u ltu re Square, w here sh e called fo r the unity of all re v o lu tio n a rie s in o r d e r to b rin g down the MPC and the b o u rg eo is lin e .^ 5 S hanghai's la rg e s t and m o st m ilita n t stu d en t o rg a n iz a tio n —the R evolutionary C om m ittee of Red G uards fro m Shanghai Schools and C olleges, o r "Red R e v o lu tio n a rie s" —fe lt N ieh 's sp eech to be of such v ital im p o rtan ce th a t they im posed added dem ands upon the Shanghai P a rty o rgan, L ib eratio n D aily (C hieh-fang J ih -p a o ), w hose p re s s e s had been u sed to p rin t the f i r s t eight is s u e s of th e ir tab lo id H ung-w ei C han -p ao . They dem anded not only th a t an u n p rece d en ted num ber of co p ies— 650,000—be p rin ted , but a lso th a t th e is s u e , including N ieh's call to b rin g down the M PC, be d is trib u te d by the p o st office along w ith the d aily edition of L ib e ra tio n D aily . Both the P a rty C om m ittee of L ib eratio n D aily and the n ew sp ap er d istrib u tio n office of the P o sta l D ep artm en t re fu se d the dem ands and w e re backed by the M PC. A fter stag in g a 10:00 p. m . ra id at the p o st office on N ovem ber 29 in an effo rt to s e c u re a p ro m ise to d is trib u te the tabloid, the Red R ev o lu tio n a ries m a rc h ed to the L ib e ra tio n D aily building the next afternoon, occupying the building and p rev en tin g th e daily is s u e s fro m being p rin ted . ^ The actual events of the " L ib eratio n D aily In cid en t," w hich la ste d o v er a w eek, a r e le s s im p o rtan t than the s h a rp p o litic a l p o la riz a tio n th e se events cataly zed . L arg e , h o stile crow ds, m ainly com posed of people ir r ita te d o v e r the in te rru p tio n of n ew spaper d e liv e rie s , heck led and th re a te n e d th e p r o te s te r s and b ru ta liz e d pro p ag an d a te a m s o u tsid e the building who su p p o rted th e R ed R e v o lu tio n a rie s. The W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs, d esp ite th e ir N ovem ber 12 a g re e m e n t not to engage in a c tiv itie s du rin g w ork h o u rs, s e n t a contingent of th e ir m e m b e rs to re in fo rc e the stu d en t d is s id e n ts — an actio n w hich in c ited an a ttem p t by the assem b led crow d to s to rm the building. B ut p erh ap s m o re im p o r­ tantly, in fo rm al groups of " S c a rle t G u a rd s"— w o rk e rs sy m p ath etic to

35 the M P C 's p o sitio n —began to c irc u la te through the crow ds. 38 This o c c u rre n c e w as the f i r s t public ap p earan ce of th a t p o rtio n of p o p u lar s e n tim e n t h o stile to the d is s id e n ts th a t had been m entioned by MPC m e m b e rs in the m eetin g s follow ing the A nting Incident. The S c a rle ts ch arg ed th a t the d is s id e n t m ovem ent was " a n ti-P a rty " and " a n tiso c ia lis t" and th a t it v io lated the Sixteen P o in ts and M ao's thought by stru g g lin g by fo rc e , im p o sin g the w ill of the m in o rity on the m a jo rity , and d is ru p t­ ing pro d u ctio n w ith th e ir " re v o lu tio n a ry " a c tiv itie s — c le a r ab rogations of the m o st re c e n t CCRG d ire c tiv e . The p o la riz a tio n of th e se fo rc e s was m aking s e rio u s violence a c le a r p o s sib ility . U ntil D ecem b er 5, how ever, the MPC had taken no actio n ex cep t th e ir n o rm al one in in cid en ts like th e s e —the rad io a ire d ex am p les of the PLA as m odels of d iscip lin e and stu d en ts of M ao-thought w orthy of em u latio n . 4 0 The P a rty s e c r e ta r y of L ib eratio n Daily had re p o rte d ly called Yao W en-yuan in P eking to a le r t him th a t the Shanghai P a r ty w as "in a s ta te of p a ra ly s is ."41 On the 5th, how ever, probably to a v e rt civil d is o rd e rs , the MPC broke out of its d ecisio n -m ak in g p a ra ly ­ s is and ag re e d to sig n th e d is s id e n t d em an d s. While the R ebels had been b a rric a d e d in the n ew sp ap er building th e ir dem ands had m u ltip lied . Now the Red R ev o lu tio n a ries had obtained p e rm is sio n to exam ine L ib e ra ­ tion D a ily 's file s and h e a r a se lf-ex a m in atio n fro m the p a p e r 's P a rty C o m m ittee. The W o rk e rs ' H ea d q u a rte rs had tacked on additional d e­ m ands of its own: the MPC would be re sp o n sib le f o r any incidents a ris in g out of the L ib eratio n D aily events and (with obvious re fe re n c e to the em e rg in g S c a rle ts ) the MPC had to g u aran tee th at o th e r m a ss o rg an iz atio n s did not in te r f e r e w ith re b e l a c tio n s .42 T he M PC, how ever, w as no lo n g e r in any position to en fo rce its a g re e m e n ts . F ir s t, p o stal w o rk e rs stag ed a w alkout and re fu se d to d is trib u te the objectio n ab le tabloid, m aking its d e liv e ry im p o ssib le. 42 Second, the S c a rle ts , o u trag ed a t T s 'a o 's "cap itu latio n " (as so m any w o rk e rs had re p o rte d ly been a t C hang's signing a t Anting), p rin ted a tab lo id , R evolutionary W ar E x p r e s s , denouncing the R eb els as "unre s p o n s ib le dupes of co u n te rre v o lu tio n a ry m a n ip u la to rs." "R esistan c e to th e m ," a s s e r te d the p a p e r, w as "even m o re p ra ise w o rth y than (to) U .S . im p e ria lis m ." T he S c a rle ts dem anded th a t T s 'a o rep u d iate his sig n a tu re and forbade him to "g u a ra n te e " anything on th e ir b e h a lf.44 T he R eb els, se e in g the coincidence of th e se two ev en ts, sw ore they had been tric k e d and ch arg ed th a t the MPC was co n tro llin g the S c a rle ts and th a t it had o rc h e s tra te d the w alkout of p o stal w o rk e rs. D isgusted by w hat they claim ed was the "continued s u p p re ssio n " of

36

th e ir p a p e r, the Red R ev o lu tio n aries held a m a ss s tru g g le m e etin g on D ecem ber 10 a g a in st Yang H si-kuang, actin g head of th e P ro p ag an d a D ep artm ent, in Hongkew Stadium . They dem anded and re c e iv e d T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu 's s ig n a tu re on an a g re e m e n t to d is m is s Yang and r e p o r t h is " c rim e s " to the C en tral C o m m i t t e e . T h e W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs, s im ila rly feelin g th at the S c a rle t p ro p ag an d a b a rra g e sig n aled th e M P C 's intention to back out of its e a r l ie r ag re e m e n t, dem anded and re c e iv e d on the sam e day T s 'a o 's sig n a tu re on a docum ent w hich p laced r e s p o n s i­ b ility fo r the L ib eratio n D ally incid en t on him , d e c la rin g th a t th e MPC had follow ed the bourgeois lin e and e x p re s s in g fu ll su p p o rt fo r the W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs. T s 'a o 's A bdication and the D evelopm ent of A n arch y . W ith Yang H si-k u an g 's purge having obtained the p r io r ap p ro v al of E a s t China B u reau Head C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n , T s 'a o p erh ap s suddenly re a liz e d the s e rio u s th re a t to him posed by th e m a ss o r g a n iz a ti o n s .^ H aving trie d up to th a t point to s ta y clo se to C en tral d ire c tiv e s in coping w ith d istu rb a n c e s , T s 'a o w as now fo rc e d to a c t upon th e dem ands of the m a ss o rg a n iz a tio n s. Yet, in doing so he s till showed a to tal unw illingness to tak e a f ir m stan d . P e rh a p s try in g to p le ase both pow erful factio n s, T s 'a o began, on D ecem b er 10, to sign any and all dem ands th a t w e re m ade to h is office. In effect, he had abdicated h is d e c isio n -m a k in g re sp o n s ib ility , an action w hich only fu rth e r in cited th e factio n al stru g g le s th a t would ev en tu ally s e t off the econom ic p a ra ly sis of the city . The w eek follow ing T s 'a o 's sig n in g of R ebel dem ands w as m a rk e d by in ten se w a ll-p o s te r debate, s p e c ta c u la r r a llie s and d e m o n stra tio n s, and m o re freq u en t and m o re v io len t cla sh e s betw een riv a l groups.'*® The R e b e ls' chief claim w as th a t the S c a rle ts w e re an a rm of the M PC; the S c a rle ts claim ed that the R eb els w ere d e lib e ra te ly sab o tag in g p ro d u c­ tion by leaving th e ir jobs d u rin g the A nting and L ib eratio n D aily in c i­ dents.^® At a m a ss ra lly on th e aftern o o n of D ecem b er 21, the R eb els charged that T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu w as behind Yang H si-k u an g and th a t above them lurked the re v is io n is t C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n . They d e c la re d th e ir intention to "b om b ard " the MPC.®® Two days la te r , the S c a rle t faction held a 1 0 0 ,000-p erso n m a ss ra lly in P e o p le 's S quare a f te r w orking h o u rs —a c le a r rebuke to th e R eb els who le ft th e ir jo b s fo r th e ir r a llie s . They attacked T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu and had h im sign th e ir own lis t of d em an d s. T hey w anted, like the R eb els had, reco g n itio n ; they fo rb ad e T s 'a o to e n te r into a g re e m e n ts th a t would bind th em , and they dem anded th a t they be gran ted the rig h t to take " re v o lu tio n a ry actio n " a g a in st anyone who in frin g es on the "law s of the s ta te " o r the " d iscip lin e of th e P a r ty .

37 Upon h e a rin g th is, the R eb els held an o th er ra lly on D ecem b er 25, w h ere they had T s 'a o sig n s till an o th er docum ent, th is tim e rep u d iatin g h is sig n a tu re on the S c a rle t d em an d s. The S c a rle ts, once again en rag ed a t T s 'a o 's la te s t capitu latio n , d e c la re d h is sp eech a t the ra lly "w o rth ­ le s s " and ch arged th a t he had only signed in o r d e r to in stig ate v io le n c e .52 V iolence would indeed follow —and so o n —and the local le a d e rs w ere to ta lly p o w e rle s s to p re v e n t its o c c u rre n c e . D uring th is p erio d , C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n re p o rte d ly tu rn ed to Liao C heng-kuo, com m ander of the local PLA g a rris o n , fo r h elp. "Shanghai is now in g re a t tu rm o il. The Muni­ cipal C om m ittee has a lre a d y been p a ra ly z e d . Nobody liste n s to u s. Y our a rm e d fo rc e s m u st be read y to take o v e r the ad m in istra tio n and to w ork on behalf of the M unicipal C om m ittee. . . . " Liao rep o rte d ly re fu se d , p la c in g the MPC effectiv ely out of pow er w eeks before the Ja n u a ry R evolution. 5^ T s 'a o and the M PC w ere little m o re than s p e c ta to rs as they w atched events unfold th a t would lead to the econom ic p a ra ly s is of the city. A fte r a b o rtiv e atte m p ts by the two factio n s to clo se each o th e rs ' h e a d q u a rte rs two days b e fo re, the S c a rle ts , on the 28th, d em o n strated in fro n t of the K angping S tre e t offices of the E a s t China B u reau to "flush out T s 'a o and s e ttle acco u n ts w ith h im ." A fter an attack by a la r g e r fo rc e of R eb els, w h ere eight S c a rle ts w ere re p o rte d ly k illed, the S car­ le ts s e t out en m a ss e to pi’o te st th e ir tre a tm e n t in P eking. On e ith e r the 30th o r the 3 1 st they w ere in te rc e p te d and h alted by a R ebel p u rs u it fo rc e a t K unshan, about th irty m ile s o u tsid e Shanghai. Among the con­ flic tin g re p o rts of the ev en ts a t K unshan, it is p o ssib le to find two points of a g re e m e n t: th e re w as vio len ce, and the S c a rle ts w ere defeated and tu rn e d back. 5^ Ma T 'ie n -s h u i, who had tra v e le d to Kunshan to m ediate and p e rs u a d e w o rk e rs to r e tu r n to th e ir jo b s, was placed on a p latfo rm and h u m ilia ted by the S c a rle ts , who d e c la re d him to be " in te rfe rin g w ith th e ir re v o lu tio n a ry ac tio n ." T his tre a tm e n t of a m unicipal official, p e rfo rm e d by the S c a rle t G uards, an o rg an iz atio n th a t was p u rp o rted ly a tool of the M PC, w as a p erp le x in g event and m ade even m o re so by the W o rk e rs' H e a d q u a rte rs ' claim th a t they had p h y sically re sc u e d Ma fro m the stru g g le s e s s i o n .55 The d ecisio n to p e rm it w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s, and the v iolent m a ss fa c tio n a lism th a t follow ed, had thus su cceed ed in p a raly zin g the m unicipal a d m in is tra tio n . M em bers of w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s, d esp ite all p rev io u s p ro m is e s not to do so, ro am ed fre e ly en m a sse outside fa c to ry gates d u rin g w ork h o u rs . Unable to ap p ease e ith e r of the m ass factio n s w ithout in fu ria tin g the o th e r and unable to em ploy the m ilita ry to r e s to r e even a m inim um of o rd e r, T s 'a o 's hands w ere effectively tie d . The stag e was s e t fo r the econom ic co llap se of the city th a t would n e c e s s ita te w hat would la te r com e to be known as the Jan u ary R evolution.

VI THE SOCIOECONOMIC ORIGINS OF "ECONOMISM"

S im ultaneous w ith th e in cid en ts a t K angping S tre e t and Kunshan, a com plex of events took p lace th a t la te r cam e to be d e sc rib e d as "e c o n o m ism ." F a c to ry m a n ag ers ap p ea red suddenly to give in to w o rk e rs ' dem ands f o r tra v e llin g funds to go to Peking, and w o rk ers le ft th e ir jobs in u n p reced en ted n u m b ers, c re a tin g an econom ic p a ra ly ­ s is to m a tch the p o litic a l p a ra ly s is th a t had a lre a d y gripped the c ity 's a d m in is tra tio n fo r m uch of D ecem b er. The official explanation fo r th e se e v e n ts —fo rw ard ed u n d er C hang's le a d e rs h ip e a rly in J a n u a ry -w as th a t the top le a d e rs in th e MPC had, as a la s t r e s o r t, o ffered m a te ria l b enefits to th e w o rk e rs in o r d e r to d iv e rt the is s u e s of con­ f lic t and sabotage th e C ultu ral R evolution by d isru p tin g pro d u ctio n . In m o st W este rn accounts th is explanation is accep ted e ith e r in p a rt^ o r in w hole, 3 but a c lo s e r ex am ination of the situ atio n in Shanghai re v e a ls th a t m any w o rk e rs needed little en ticem en t to becom e d iv erted fro m p o litic a l is s u e s . F o r a la rg e p o rtio n of the m ovem ent, th e Cul­ tu ra l R evolution w as a chance, above all, to r e d r e s s so cial and eco ­ nom ic g rie v a n c e s . F u rth e r, the stan d ard m o n o -cau sal explanation fo r "eco n o m ism " o b sc u re s th e fact th a t th e re w ere actu ally s e v e ra l d iffe r­ en t p ro c e s s e s o c c u rrin g in late D ecem b er to cau se w o rk e rs to m ake econom ic dem ands and leav e th e jo b . F in ally , th is dom inant view s tr a in s fo r evidence th a t th e MPC in cited w alkouts w hile ig n o rin g the c e n tra l and obvious ro le played by th e CCRG and the W o rk e rs' H ead­ q u a r te r s in touching off th e ir o c c u rre n c e .

S o u rces of P o p u la r D iscontent The N ovem ber w arn in g s of T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu , Ma T 'ie n -s h u i, and o th e r m unicipal o fficials th a t the le g aliz atio n of w o rk e rs ' o rg an izatio n s would b rin g "ch ao s" w ere p e rh a p s b ased on th e ir ex p e rie n c e s in re c e n t y e a r s in im p lem en tin g so m e b asic s tr u c tu ra l changes in S hanghai's econom y. T h ese s tr u c tu r a l changes, the r e s u lt of re c e n t M aoist

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40 innovations in em ploym ent and la b o r allo catio n , e x a c e rb a te d e x istin g in e q u alities in C hina's w age and em ploym ent s tr u c tu r e and heightened cleavages w ithin C h in a's w orking c la s s e s . Since th e d is s a tis fa c tio n s and conflicts brought about by th e se re c e n t s tr a in s in the C hinese so cial s tr u c tu re a r e c en tral to u n d erstan d in g both th e in te n sity and the s tr u c tu re of p o litical conflict in Shanghai in la te D ecem b er, a b rie f an aly sis of th e se socioeconom ic tre n d s is n e c e s s a ry at this point b efo re re tu rn in g to th e n a rra tiv e of events in th e la s t few days of 1966. The W o rk e r-P e a s a n t S y ste m . The so cio lo g ical ele m e n t m iss in g fro m m o st accounts of the C ultural R evolution in Shanghai— and w hich m akes explanations of "eco n o m ism " as p u rely a p ro d u ct of e lite m anipulation se e m so in ad eq u ate—is the s y s te m a tic d islo c a tio n in tr o ­ duced into C hina's so cial s tr u c tu re by econom ic p o licies p u rsu ed by the CCP o v er th e im m ed iately p rece d in g y e a r s . The w o rk e r-p e a s a n t s y ste m of lab o r, o rig in ally p ro p o sed by Mao in 1962 but only s e r i ­ ously im plem en ted a fte r 1964, proved to be a m a jo r s o u rc e of d is ­ content and co n sid erab ly sw elled the ran k s of th e R ebels d u rin g the C ultural R evolution.^ T his la b o r sy stem , designed in p a rt to fr e e m o re in d u stria l s u rp lu s fo r cap ital accu m u latio n , aim ed to low er w age and w e lfa re expenditures by in c re a s in g the p ro p o rtio n of te m p o ra ry and co n tra c t lab o r^ in the w age b ill and d e c re a s in g th e p ro p o rtio n of p e rm a n e n t la b o r. In th e o ry , th is sh ift red u ces la b o r c o sts in th r e e w ays: c o n tra c t and te m p o ra ry la b o re rs re c e iv e a lo w er w age, they can be d isch arg e d d u rin g s la c k w ork p erio d s to r e tu r n to th e ir hom es o r com m unes, and they a r e not elig ib le fo r th e ran g e of union and w e lfa re benefits acco rd ed to p erm a n en t la b o r. By a lte rin g th e co m ­ position of the la b o r fo rc e in th is way, a) th e to tal w age bill is low ered, and b) p a r t of the b urden of w e lfa re co sts is sh ifted fro m the in d u stria l s y ste m to the com m unes re sp o n sib le fo r supplying c o n tra c t la b o r. Not only econom ic b en efits w e re to a c c ru e fro m th is s y ste m : s e v e ra l so cial goals w e re to be sim u ltan e o u sly s e rv e d . F ir s t, incom e d istrib u tio n betw een city and co u n try sid e w as to be som ew hat eq u alize d . By a p p ro p ria tin g a sig n ifican t s h a re of c o n tra c t la b o re r incom e fo r y e a r-e n d d istrib u tio n , the cash incom e of th e ru ra l p ro d u ctio n b rig a d e supplying c o n tra c t la b o r to in d u stry would be r a is e d . Thus in an a g g re ­ gate se n se , in d u s tria l c a sh incom e w as to be d iv e rte d to the ru ra l popu­ lation. Secondly, th e s y ste m w as to help elim in a te the "big d iffe re n c e "

41 betw een p e a s a n ts and w o rk e rs by having com m une la b o r w ork in fa c ­ to r ie s and u rb a n -in d u s tria l la b o r w ork in r u r a l a r e a s . T h ird ly , it would r e le a s e ex p erien ced , sk ille d la b o re rs to s ta ff grow ing inland in d u s trie s and would allow com m une m e m b e rs to gain in d u stria l s k ills — a n o th e r p a r t of the elim in atio n of th e "big d iffe re n c e " betw een city and c o u n try sid e . F in ally , the s y ste m re lie d on a sp e c ia l fo rm of com m une " s e lf - r e lia n c e " to p ro v id e fo r th e w elfare of th e c o n tra c t w o rk e rs who did not re c e iv e b enefits fro m tra d e unions, a fo rm of s e lf-re lia n c e th a t would sav e co sts fo r the national w elfare fund.® T he p u sh to im p lem en t th is w o rk e r-p e a s a n t s y ste m in la te 1964 had two effects im m ed iately re le v a n t to the la te r em erg en ce of "econom ism " in Shanghai: p e rm a n e n t p o sitio n s in in d u stry began to be e lim i­ nated, w ith th e fo rm e r occupants of th e se p o sitio n s often tr a n s f e r r e d to r u r a l a r e a s ; and te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o re rs began to re p la c e the tr a n s f e r r e d p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs . At the f i r s t s e s sio n of th e F ifth M unicipal P e o p le 's C o n g ress in S ep tem b er 1964, then-D eputy M ayor T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu u rg e d th a t " fa c to rie s and e n te r p r is e s m u st em ploy few er w o rk e rs who a r e p e rm a n e n t. M ore w o rk e rs should be te m p o ra ry ." New em ployees should be " re c ru ite d fro m the p easan ts so th a t laten t la b o r pow er can be tap p ed ." F ig u re s re p o rte d fro m e lsew h ere in China in d ic a te th a t th is s y ste m had, by 1965, been im p lem en ted to at le a s t som e d e g re e in o v e r th irty d iffe re n t in d u s trie s , p a rtic u la rly in te x tile s , tra n s p o rta tio n , and o th e r lig h t in d u s try —th o se in d u strie s co n c e n tra te d in Shanghai. In the city of Chengtu in 1965 alone, a to tal of 7,800 p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs w ere re p o rte d ly d isch arg e d fro m em ploy­ m en t and re p la c e d w ith c o n tra c t and te m p o ra ry la b o r fro m nearby com m unes.® At one s to ra g e and tra n s p o rta tio n com pany— an in ­ h e re n tly p e rio d ic o p eratio n p a rtic u la rly su ited to a nonperm anent la b o r f o rc e — the num ber of p e rm a n e n t la b o re rs had been red u ced by a num ber of 800, down to 172 w o rk ers.® W ith such a red u ctio n in p e rm a n e n t em plo y m en t loom ing as an im m in en t th re a t, if not a re a lity in som e in d u s trie s , it is not a t all s u rp ris in g th a t p erm a n en t w o rk e rs sim u ltan e o u sly voiced th e ir d isco n ten t. T his d is s a tisfa c tio n is in d icate d by the f lu r r y of a r tic le s c ritic iz in g lo cal la b o r unions fo r " c o rro s iv e ideology." W o rk ers w ere c ritic iz e d fo r b eing o v erly con­ c e rn e d w ith m a te ria l w e lfa re and c o n sid erin g only individual in te r e s ts , and w e re acc u se d of ig n o rin g th e in te r e s ts of a ll of China, "esp e c ia lly [those of] p e a s a n ts ." 1® O ther a r tic le s pointed out th a t all types of o ccupations s e rv e d th e rev o lu tio n and th a t only "b o u rg eo is ele m e n ts" f e lt th a t they could choose jobs a cc o rd in g to " p e rso n a l w is h e s ." 11 T h e re w e re ap p are n tly v e ry r e a l f e a r s am ong p a r ts of C h in a's le a d e r­ sh ip oh the v e ry eve of th e C u ltu ral R evolution th a t th e se w o rk er

42

sen tim en ts would b re e d w hat w as c ry p tic a lly r e f e r r e d to as " tro u b le . T his re a liz a tio n p erh ap s fo rm ed th e b a sis fo r T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu 's balking a t the p ro s p e c t of w o r k e r s ' o rg an izatio n s in Shanghai. This redu ctio n in p o sitions fo r p e rm a n e n t la b o re rs affected o th e r s e c to rs of S hanghai's population as w ell. A p p ren tices in the m id st of tra in in g p ro g ra m s found o p p o rtu n ities fo r fu ll-tim e em ploy­ m ent d ry in g up and w e re often faced w ith a choice of e ith e r un­ em ploym ent o r a s tin t of ru ra l la b o r. When stu d en ts g rad u atin g fro m m iddle schools found few er p erm a n en t p o sitio n s av ailab le, technical schools began to be o rg an ized to ab so rb so m e of them , placing them in h ig h e r-p a y in g tech n ical a p p ren ticesh ip p ro g ra m s and th re a te n in g to cap tu re the few ex istin g o p p o rtu n ities f o r the re g u la r a p p re n tic e s. T hose g rad u ates who could not be placed in tech n ical tra in in g p ro g ra m s fed a grow ing co rp s of " so c ial y o u th "—a categ o ry of unem ployed m iddle school g rad u ates th a t p o sed a grow ing so cial p r o b le m .13 Youth M obilization S y ste m . To help rem ed y th is p ro b lem touched off by the re c e n t d islo catio n s in em ploym ent s tr u c tu re , th e s e youths began to be m obilized in in c re a s in g n u m b ers to tra v e l to the co u n try sid e to engage in fa rm la b o r. T his m o b ilizatio n p ro g ra m would in tu rn gen­ e ra te g riev a n ces am ong fo rm e r stu d e n ts. In the few y e a rs p re c e d in g 1966, o v er seventy thousand Shanghai youths re p o rte d ly had been tr a n s ­ fe r r e d to Sinkiang alone. ^ In May 1966, as p a r t of the u p su rg e of the C ultural R evolution, the Shanghai M unicipal P a rty C om m ittee launched an in ten sified cam paign to m obilize youths to v o lu n teer fo r la b o r in Sinkiang. E d ito ria ls p ra is e d the thousands of Shanghai youths who had gone to Sinkiang in re c e n t y e a rs and told youths th a t it w as th e ir duty to go. The p u rp o se was "by no m eans to look fo r a job" but "to c a rry on and develop the g re a t w o rk of the re v o lu tio n ary p re d e c e s s o rs and c a r r y th e rev o lu tio n through to the en d ."15 Stu­ dents w e re told th a t the c r ite r ia fo r being a " re v o lu tio n a ry " is w h eth er one w ill "becom e one w ith th e p e a sa n t m a s s e s " — o th e rw ise he is quite likely a c o u n te rre v o lu tio n a ry . 1® M ass stu d en t r a llie s w e re held to whip up e n th u siasm f o r m o b ilizatio n , and neighborhood re g is tra tio n d riv e s w e re launched. Sim ultaneous news b ro a d c a sts re p o rte d the su c c e ssfu l p o litic al c a r e e r s em b ark ed upon by m any of the y o u th -a c tiv ists alre ad y in Sinkiang. ^ T h e re w ere v e ry re a l so cial and p o litical p r e s s u r e s on th e se youths to v o lu n teer fo r fro n ­ t i e r la b o r and, judging by the b eh av io r of m any of th e se youths d u rin g the C ultural R evolution, a la rg e p ro p o rtio n w e re le s s than happy w ith th e ir p ro s p e c ts . I

I

43 R esu ltin g G riev an c es and C onflicts T h e se d islo c atio n s in S hanghai's em ploym ent s tr u c tu re gave r is e to a n u m ber of so cio eco n o m ic g rie v a n c e s th a t s u rfa c e d in the m id st of the C u ltu ral R evolution. S ev eral s e c to r s of S hanghai's w orking c la ss needed no u rg in g fro m the MPC in late D ecem b er to fo rw ard econom ic d em an d s. C ad res in terv iew ed by N eale H unter a t Shanghai's docks in M arch 1967 ad m itted th a t m any w o rk e rs had com plaints about th e ir w ages even b efo re " r e a c tio n a rie s took advantage of th e se d issa tisfa c tio n s to divide the m a s se s ." ^ Many of th e se com plaints w ere incidental in n atu re and ex iste d re la tiv e ly independently of the s y ste m ic d islo catio n s of the p rev io u s y e a r s —o ld e r w o rk e rs com plained, fo r exam ple, th at when they w ere sw itched to lig h te r w ork, th e ir w ages w ere re g u la rly cut by o v e r 35 p e r c e n t .19 O ther com plaints a ro s e due to incom e d iffe r­ e n tia ls betw een shops w ithin a sin g le fa c to ry d isp lay in g d iffere n t sk ill and p ro d u ctiv ity le v e ls, fo rm in g the b a s is fo r in tra fa c to ry fa c tio n a lism .^ 0 N e a r the end of D ecem b er, many of th e se d isg ru n tled w o rk ers fo rm ed th e m se lv e s into an a r r a y of sm a ll g ro u p s --o f u n sk illed la b o re r s , old w o rk e rs , young w o rk e rs , and so on— and deluged m anagem ent with econom ic d e m a n d s . ^ O ther m isc ellan eo u s o rg an izatio n s w ere form ed th rough out the city on a tra d e b a s is : cityw ide o rg an izatio n s of bus con­ d u c to rs , cooks, and a r ti s ts w e re am ong o th e r groups th a t p re s s e d econom ic dem ands in D ecem b er and J a n u a ry . ^2 In a s e n s e , the above groups only added to the p re v a ilin g confusion n e a r the end of 1966. The la rg e s t and m o st im p o rtan t in te r e s t groups th a t em e rg e d w ere th o se th a t had g rie v a n c e s stem m in g d ire c tly fro m d islo c a tio n s in em ploym ent p a tte rn s in p rev io u s y e a r s . T h ese groups fo rm ed the backbone of the m a jo r m a ss factio n s whose a c tiv itie s would p a ra ly z e the m unicipal a d m in is tra tio n and econom y. A p p re n tic e s . In China th is group s e rv e s a p a rtic u la rly long tra in in g p erio d a t d e p re s s e d w ages. In p a s t y e a rs th e ir opp o rtu n ities f o r fu ll-tim e em ploym ent had dwindled, and they had seen a r is e in the num ber of m iddle school g rad u ates who w ere occupying new po sitio n s in h ig h e r-p a y in g te ch n ica l tra in e e s h ip s . The d iffere n ces in pay betw een th e se p o sitio n s w ere c o n sid e ra b le — many com plained of the "in ju stic e " of a stu d en t s tra ig h t fro m tech n ical o r m iddle school re c e iv in g th irty five yuan p e r m onth as an ap p ren tice te ch n ician , w hile ap p ren tice w o rk e rs earn e d only eig h teen yuan p e r m onth fo r th e ir f i r s t th re e y e a r s . ^3 W o rk ers in terv iew ed by K. S. K arol a t the Shanghai D iesel Engine P la n t re v e a le d th a t a p p re n tic e s w ere the m o st activ e in "re v o lu ­ tio n a ry " a c tiv itie s o u tsid e th e p la n t and w ere m o re often ab sen t fro m

44 th e ir jobs d u rin g p o litic al d istu rb a n c e s than w e re o th e r w o rk e rs . 24 A p p ren tices fro m Shanghai No. 3 Steel M ill re p o rte d ly fo rm ed th e ir own o rg an izatio n and dem anded tra v e l m oney to "exchange e x p e rie n c e s " in o th e r a r e a s . 25 Sent-dow n Y ouths. T hose stu d en ts who w e re fo rtu n ate enough to obtain d e sira b le p o sitio n s as te ch n ica l tra in e e s w ere a p riv ile g e d m in o r­ ity. M ost of the youths sq u eezed out of the la b o r m a rk e t d u rin g th is p erio d w ere se n t to p e rfo rm a g ric u ltu ra l la b o r in f r o n tie r and r u r a l a re a s du rin g the m ob ilizatio n cam paigns of the p e rio d . Soon a f te r the C u ltu ral R evolution began, th e se stu d en ts began to re tu rn to Shanghai and fo rm ed o rg an izatio n s to p r o te s t th e ir "h ard w ork and low w ages" and th e ir "v ictim izatio n " by the m ob ilizatio n p r o g r a m . 26 C ountless sm a ll o rg an iz atio n s lik e the "1965 M iddle School G rad u ate s" and the "A n ti-Ja p a n e se C o rp s" of a Shanghai Youth League p lan tatio n in so u th ern Anhwei re tu rn e d to Shanghai and b esieg ed the MPC and its B u reau s of L ab o r and A g ricu ltu re, often aligning th e m se lv e s w ith R ebel f a c tio n s . ^ In la te D ecem ber, 116 of th e se o rg an iz atio n s, aligned w ith the R evolu­ tio n ary R ebels, stag ed a sitdow n s trik e la stin g o v e r a w eek at a m a jo r Shanghai in te rs e c tio n . T h e ir e a r l i e r p etitio n to the E a s t China B u reau th a t they be given p e rm its to re m a in in th e ir hom e city and look fo r jobs had been re fu se d . 28 Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o 's re p e a te d e ffo rts in 1967 to p e rsu a d e th e se youths to leave Shanghai show th a t m any rem a in ed anyway, and som e had even been s u c c e ssfu l in finding jo b s. Sent-dow n P e rm a n e n t W o rk ers and Suburban P e a s a n ts . T he p e r ­ m anent u rb an w o rk e rs who had been "sen t-d o w n " to the co u n try sid e to becom e " w o rk e r-p e a s a n ts " lo s t th e ir union h ealth and w elfare b en efits, took a cut in pay, and w ere s e p a ra te d fro m th e ir h o m es on a lo n g -te rm o r p e rm a n e n t b a s is , so m e tim e s w ithout th e ir fa m ilie s m oving w ith th em . It is no w onder th a t when w o rk e rs began to fo rm th e ir own m a s s o rg a n i­ zations, those Shanghai w o rk e rs tr a n s f e r r e d to r u r a l and inland a r e a s m ade a co n certed e ffo rt to re tu rn to the city and re c o v e r th e ir p e rm a ­ nent, h ig h e r-p a y in g jo b s, w ith the m any frin g e b en efits th a t went w ith th em . In one c ase, a sin g le fa c to ry th a t had been m oved fro m Shanghai to c e n tra l China d u rin g 1965 lo s t seven hundred of its w ork fo rc e to re tu rn m ig ratio n in 1966.29 In o th e r c a s e s , w o rk e rs who had been tr a n s f e r r e d to the suburban counties of Shanghai M unicipality ag itate d fo r and re c e iv e d p e rm is s io n to re tu rn to th e ir o rig in a l fa c to rie s to seek w ork. 90 The ag itatio n of th e se f o r m e r p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs in S hanghai's suburban com m unes a p p are n tly cau sed m any of th e ir p e a sa n t co w o rk ers to re -e v a lu a te th e ir re la tiv e p o sitio n s in the w age and b en efit h ie ra rc h y , b ecau se a sig n ifican t n u m b er of p e a sa n ts fro m th e se su b u rb an co unties

45 tra v e lle d to the city and th e m se lv e s ag itate d fo r eq ualization of cash w age paym ents with th o se of u rban w o rk e rs. C o n tra c t and T e m p o ra ry L a b o r. T h is in c re a sin g ly im p o rtan t s e c to r of S hanghai's la b o r fo rc e had p e rh a p s the m o st s e rio u s g rie v ­ an ce s of all the re la tiv e ly d isad v an tag ed g ro u p s. They quickly re a liz e d th a t w hile p e rfo rm in g the sam e la b o r as p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs, they re c e iv e d lo w er w ages (only p a r t of w hich they w ere allow ed to keep), w e re not co v ere d by union b en efits o r by th e p lan t w elfare fund, w ere not elig ib le fo r bonu ses o r aw ard s in em ulation co m p etitio n s, and w ere not allow ed to s it in fa c to ry co m m ittees o r tak e tim e off w ork fo r p o liti­ cal study c la s s e s . When, in addition, w o rk e r ag itatio n began to d is ­ ru p t p ro d u ctio n in N ovem ber, th e se w o rk e rs, as p a r t of th e v e ry logic of th e la b o r sy ste m , w e re laid off in o r d e r to sav e on c o s ts . 33 They fo rm e d a la rg e r e s e r v o ir of ra d ic a liz e d w o rk e rs and co n stitu ted som e of the m o st activ e and v o cal of S hanghai's m a ss o rg an iz atio n s, v irtu a lly a ll of w hich w e re re p o rte d ly alig n ed w ith th e R ebel cam p. 34 They called f o r the abolition of the " c o rru p t" s y ste m of c o n tra c t lab o r, dem anded th a t they be able to keep a h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e of th e ir w ages, and th o se who w e re la id off a g itate d fo r re in s ta te m e n t and back w a g e s .33 P e rm a n e n t W o rk e rs . Not only w e re th e re v e ry re a l so cio ­ econom ic b a s e s fo r th e w id esp read "eco n o m ism " of the w o rk e rs ' m ove­ m ent in Shanghai, but th e re w e re a lso s im ila r re a s o n s fo r p erm a n en t w o rk e rs ' v io len t opposition to the d issid e n t R ebel m ovem ent sw elled by the ran k s of the d isad v an tag ed s e c to rs of S hanghai's w orking c la s s . T h e se re a s o n s highlight th a t it w as p o ssib le, c o n tra ry to th a t w hich is a s s e r te d in m o st acco u n ts, th a t p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs acted spontaneously and independently of MPC d ire c tio n . J u s t as fo r the d issid e n t w o rk e rs, the b eh av io r of p riv ile g e d p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs was b ased in no sm all m e a s u re on th e netw ork of econom ic re la tio n s in which they w orked and lived. T he tre n d s of the p rev io u s few y e a rs had c le a rly th re a te n e d the p o sitio n s of S hanghai's p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs, as they w ere grad u ally being re p la c e d w ith c o n tra c t and te m p o ra ry la b o r. If th is tren d , o r the p e rc e iv e d th re a t po sed by it, w as not enough in its e lf to cause r e s e n t­ m ent of the d isad v an tag ed s e c to rs of th e la b o r fo rc e , then the agitation by th e se disad v an tag ed groups in N ovem ber and D ecem b er w as. P e r ­ m anent w o rk e rs had a v e ry r e a l sta k e in the m aintenance of p ro d u ctio n — th e ir bonuses and in many c a s e s th e ir w ages (if tied to p iece ra te s ) w ere dependent upon the continuing p ro d u ctiv ity of the firm in which they w orked. 36 When disad v an tag ed groups d isru p te d production by leav in g th e ir p o sitio n s in the fa c to ry , p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs ' incom es w ere d ir e c tly — and p e rh a p s d r a s tic a lly — red u ced . Q uite n atu ra lly , the

46

S c a rle t G u ard s--w h o w ere c h a ra c te riz e d by opposing factio n s all along as being tied with the la b o r unions of the p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs — c h a stise d the d issid e n t factions fo r ab ro g atin g the Sixteen P o in ts by leav in g th e ir p roduction p o sts, and w ere indignant o v er MPC cap itu latio n s to th e ir dem ands. 37

Social Conditions in S h an g h ai--D ecem b er Not only w ere th e re genuine socioeconom ic foundations fo r spon­ taneous fo rm atio n of in te r e s t groups and the ap p ea ran ce of "eco n o m ism ," but so cial conditions d e te rio ra te d in the city d u rin g the c o u rse of the C ultural R evolution, co n trib u tin g independently to the econom ic co llap se so often laid to the m achinations of MPC o fficials. M assive P opulation Influx. T he flow of re tu rn e d stu d en ts, w o rk e rs, and Red G uard liaiso n s into the city g re a tly taxed the c ity 's tr a n s p o r ta ­ tion s y ste m and food and com m odity su p p lie s. Red G uards on " re v o lu ­ tio n a ry exchanges" alone nu m b ered o v er one m illio n d u rin g the fall of 1966—and som e e s tim a te s put the nu m b er as high as five m illio n . 38 To handle th is m a ssiv e influx, the MPC had s e t up o v er fifteen hundred rece p tio n c e n te rs and staffed th em w ith o v er 150 thousand w o rk e rs. When the rece p tio n w o rk e rs th e m se lv e s began to p a rtic ip a te in " re v o lu ­ tio n a ry exchanges" in D ecem b er, th is su p p o rtiv e netw ork of rece p tio n c e n te rs d e te rio ra te d . 39 To th is influx of p o litic a lly o r eco n o m ically m otivated groups m u st be added a co n sid era b le flow of to u r is ts fro m o th e r p a rts of China tak in g advantage of the re la tiv e freed o m of m ove­ m ent of the p e rio d . One Jap an ese v is ito r to Shanghai d u rin g th e se w eeks, fo r exam ple, re p o rte d th a t an am iab le group of stu d en ts fro m F ukien re q u e ste d th a t he tak e th e ir p ic tu re —they had ju s t com e to take in the s i g h t s . T h i s v is ito r and o th e rs re p o rte d th a t the s tr e e ts w ere l i t e r ­ a lly packed w ith people (many of whom seem ed to be fro m th e c o u n try ­ sid e) and v e h ic le s, m aking a tr ip to the c e n tra l city a s e v e r a l- h o u r a f f a ir . ^ Food, Com m odity S hortages and In c re a s e d U n em p lo y m en t. Sev­ e r a l fa c to rs con trib u ted to the c re a tio n of th e food and com m odity s h o r t­ a g es. F i r s t w as th e ab n o rm ally sw ollen population of th e city . Second, though no le s s im p o rtan t, w ere the cutbacks in v eg etab le su p p lie s to the city due to the d isru p tio n caused by stru g g le s o v e r y e a r-e n d d is trib u tio n in S hanghai's r u r a l c o u n tie s .42 F u rth e r com m odity s h o rta g e s re s u lte d fro m the tra n s p o r t o v erlo ad (p a rtic u la rly r a ilr o a d s ) cau sed by stu d en t exchanges of e x p e rie n c e .43 The com m o d ities th a t w ere s till a v ailab le

47 b ecam e m o re d ifficu lt to obtain when the c ity 's la rg e s t d ep a rtm e n t s to re s held sh o rte n e d and ir r e g u la r h o u rs due to d issid e n t activ ity in th e ir s ta f f s .44 T h ese sh o rta g e s w ere even m o re acu tely fe lt by the la rg e n u m b ers of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t w o rk e rs who, a fte r being laid off b eca u se of a " g e n e ra l red u ctio n " in p ro d u ctio n , rem ain ed in the city and pi’e s s e d fo r re in s ta te m e n t and back w a g e s .45

T rig g e r Incidents fo r E conom ic P a r a ly s is : D ecem b er 26-31 With the socio eco n o m ic o rig in s of " eco n o m istic" b eh av io r am ong S hanghai's w orking population b rie fly outlined, and with the d e te rio ra tin g econom ic conditions of the city u n d e rs c o re d , we a r e now in a p o sitio n to o ffer an a lte rn a tiv e explanation of the events at the v e ry end of 1966. The com bination of w id esp read ag itatio n fo r econom ic dem ands, d e te r i­ o ra tin g econom ic conditions, and factio n al violence th at c h a ra c te riz e d Shanghai in late D ecem b er s e t the stag e fo r com plete co llap se of the c ity 's econom ic life. T h e re o c c u rre d w ithin th is six -d ay p e rio d a s e r ie s of tr ig g e r in c id en ts, se ttin g off a com plex of events re su ltin g in the p a ra ly s is of S hanghai's econom y. In th e m se lv e s, th e se incidents w ere m o re than su fficien t to touch off th is m a ssiv e wave of "eco n o m ism ," m aking it u n n e c e ss a ry to a s s e r t any plot by MPC a u th o ritie s to c re a te confusion and p r e s e r v e th e ir po w er. CCRG D ecisio n of D ecem b er 2 6 . On the 26th of D ecem b er, Chiang C h'ing m e t w ith a d eleg atio n of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t w o rk e rs in P eking and en d o rsed th e ir dem ands while denouncing the M in istry of L ab o r and Liu S h a o -c h 'i fo r su p p o rtin g the " c o rru p t" c o n tra c t la b o r sy ste m . 46 On the sa m e day, P e o p le 's D aily p ublished an e d ito ria l on "R evolution and P ro d u c tio n " —a re v is e d v e rs io n of a te n -p o in t reg u latio n re le a s e d e a r l ie r th a t m onth in d ra ft fo rm — th a t w as an a ttem p t by the CCRG to quell the la b o r d is tu rb a n c e s touched off by th e ir d ecisio n to le g itim ize w o rk e r . o rg a n iz a tio n s. T his d ire c tiv e , m o re than any o th e r sin g le event, trig g e re d the incidence of "eco n o m ism " in Shanghai. It attem p ted to quell the d is ru p ­ tio n s cau sed by ag itatin g te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t w o rk e rs by giving them back th e ir jobs and g ettin g th em off the s tr e e ts , while a t the sam e tim e it tr ie d to defu se in te rfa c tio n a l vio len ce by d e c la rin g an a ll-o u t attack on re v is io n is ts in fa c to ry m anagem ent. 47 While thus d ire c tin g factio n al a n g e r a t fa c to ry level m anagem ent, th is e d ito ria l d ire c te d the m an ag ers to pay back w ages th a t had a c c ru e d w hile the w o rk e rs w e re laid off and au th o riz e d them to u se p lan t funds to do so. 48 H ere the CCRG is its e lf

48 p e rfo rm in g the c rim e (of suddenly au th o rizin g p ay m en ts) a ttrib u te d to the Shanghai MPC in m o st seco n d ary acco u n ts. T he W o rk e rs ' H ead­ q u a rte rs , clo sely a sso c ia te d with the te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o re r m ovem ent and quick to p r e s s its advantage, p re s e n te d th e MPC on the v e ry next day w ith a lis t of dem ands co n cern in g la id -o ff w o rk e rs along the lines of the P e o p le 's D aily e d ito ria l. The M PC, tr u e to fo rm , co m ­ plied w ith the C e n te r's policy and signed the d e m a n d s ,49 leav in g Shang­ h a i's in d u stria l m a n ag ers w ith a c c e s s to funds and facin g a P ek in g encouraged onslaught of w o rk e r c r itic is m and econom ic d em an d s. G eneral U psurge of E conom ic D em an d s. As te m p o ra ry and con­ tr a c t w o rk e rs re tu rn e d to th e ir fo rm e r fa c to rie s to re c e iv e th e ir due back w ages, o th e r w o rk e rs, in line w ith the call to "b o m b ard " the m an ­ a g e rs , did so w ith econom ic dem ands of th e ir o w n . ^ The dem ands ranged fro m supplem ental w ages and building up the w elfare fund to im proving the facto ry housing p ro je c t. 51 In m any p la c e s of w ork, dozens of sm a ll o rg an izatio n s fo rm ed sp o ntaneously to p r e s s th e ir d e ­ m ands a ll a t once. 52 When p e a sa n ts and fo rm e r in d u s tria l w o rk e rs in Shanghai's r u r a l counties h e a rd about the luck of the te m p o ra ry w o rk e rs, they too fo rm ed th e ir own o rg an iz atio n s and tra v e lle d to the city to p r e s s th e ir wage d e m a n d s. 53 The S c a rle t Exodus and G en eral S trik e . On the day a f te r the W o rk ers' H ead q u arters a g re e m e n t and the beginning of the u p su rg e of wage dem ands, the S c a rle t G uards, badly b eaten in a b a ttle in fro n t of the E a s t China B u reau offices on Kangping S tre e t, began en m a ss e to m ake dem ands fo r tra v e llin g funds to go to P eking. 54 T he is s u e a t th is point is w hether o r not m a n a g e rs, as a s s e r te d in la te r o fficial v e rs io n s , enticed w o rk e rs to leave the p lan t w ith tra v e llin g funds, o r w h eth er they w e re m e re ly unable to r e s i s t w o rk e r d em an d s. Canton R ed G uard Dai H sia o -a i re v e a le d th a t student a c tiv is ts re g u la rly and s u c c e ssfu lly in tim id ated a d m in is tra tiv e p e rso n n e l fo r tra v e llin g funds. 55 The scen es D ai H sia o -a i d e s c rib e s m ay pale by co m p ariso n w ith w hat S hanghai's m a n ag ers w ere confronted w ith on the 28th and 29th. L arg e g roups of an g ry w o rk e rs, f r e s h fro m a v io len t and (if we a re to b eliev e the d e sc rip tio n s) bloody defeat, p o ssib ly s till a rm e d w ith clubs and sto n es, w ere p robably in no mood to negotiate fo r tra v e llin g funds. O fficial v e rs io n s in la te r p r e s s e d ito ria ls in s is te d th a t the in itia tiv e lay w ith the m a n ag ers (at the p ro m p tin g of MPC o fficials), but accounts by w o rk e rs fro m individual fa c to rie s re p rin te d in th e se sam e n ew sp ap ers often rev ea led th a t the m a n a g e rs ' sh o rtco m in g s w ere th at, when co n fro n te d , they gave "the g reen sig n al" in ste ad of "conducting id eo lo g ical w ork am ong the w o rk e r c o m ra d e s ."56 if th is is the c ase, m a n a g e rs can be

49 acc u se d , a t w o rst, of cow ardice, fo r the e x istin g in fo rm atio n in d icates th a t even a t the b a s ic level m a n ag ers did not go out of th e ir way to o ffer tra v e llin g fu n d s. Sim ultaneous w ith th e S c a rle t dem ands fo r tra v e llin g funds, the o rg a n iz a tio n 's le a d e rs h ip voted to p r o te s t R ebel violence and MPC in tra n s ig e n c e by callin g a g e n e ra l s tr ik e of its 800 thousand claim ed w o r k e r - m e m b e r s .5^ A gain, the o fficial acco u n ts a s s e r t th a t the S c a rle t w alkout, sin c e the S c a rle ts w ere alleg ed ly an a rm of the MPC, was in itia te d and co o rd in ated by a " sm a ll handful" in the P a rty le a d e rsh ip . A s e r ie s of " c o n fe ssio n s" by fo rm e r S c a rle t G uards, how ever, la te r p u b lish ed to b u ttre s s o fficial cla im s, re v e a l only th a t the s tr ik e was co o rd in ated by telephone fro m the S c a rle t o f f ic e s .6®

T he E ffec ts of E conom ism A la rg e num ber of S hanghai's in d u s tria l m an ag ers ap p eared , in the m id st of d isp e n sin g c e n tra lly san ctio n ed back w ages to nonperm anent w o rk e rs , to have fa ile d to d is c rim in a te betw een nonperm anent and o th er w o rk e rs when h it w ith an o v erw helm ing s e r ie s of econom ic dem ands in the la s t few days of D ecem b er. Still, th is a c t of d isp en sin g funds to w o rk e rs fo r whom they w ere not intended co n trib u ted little to Shanghai's econom ic co llap se; it was m e re ly p a r t of a la r g e r p ro c e s s of in d u stria l breakdow n. D ispen sin g funds to S c a rle ts m ade little d iffere n ce in " lu rin g " them to leave th e ir jo b s, sin ce th e S c a rle ts had alre ad y called a g e n e ra l s trik e of th e ir e n tire m e m b e rsh ip . The d istrib u tio n of th e se funds to o th e r w o rk e r g ro u p s, m o re o v e r, cam e only a fte r th e se groups had m obilized, h alted w ork, and a g itate d fo r th e ir f a ir s h a re . In r e tr o ­ sp e c t, th e a c t of d isp e n sin g funds to w o rk e rs was the re s u lt, not the cau se, of the p ro c e s s of in d u s tria l breakdow n in itia te d by th e CCRG d e c isio n to pay n o np erm an en t w o rk e rs th e ir back w ages, and it w as e x a c e rb a te d by the p e rip h e ra lly re la te d S c a rle t g en eral s trik e . W ith the huge S c a rle t contingent ab sen t fro m work, thousands of R eb els fig h tin g a pitched b a ttle a t K unshan,59 co u n tless o th e r w o rk ers d is ru p tin g p ro d u ctio n by ag ita tin g fo r m a te ria l b en efits, and with in tim i­ d ated m a n a g e rs r e le a s in g huge su m s of m oney to m eet th e ir dem ands, S hanghai's econom y cam e a p a r t a t the s e a m s . The funds draw n out of S hanghai's banks cau sed a "big d ra in " on s ta te fin an ces and "d isru p ted the com m odity supply s y s te m ." 69 R u m o rs s p re a d confusion am ong the p u b lic, re s u ltin g in ru s h e s in buying daily n e c e s s itie s and in runs on S hanghai's M unicipal P e o p le 's B ank. 61 A w alkout by railw ay w o rk ers

50

on the m o rn in g of the 30th coupled w ith a b re a k in the railw a y lin es at Kunshan (caused by the vio len ce th e re ) com pletely p a ra ly z e d r a il tr a n s ­ p o rta tio n linking Shanghai w ith N anking and Hangchow. W alkouts, factio n alism , and ag itation fo r w ages a t th e docks caused " s e r io u s ” shipping delays in the h a rb o r, touching off o fficial fo reig n co m p lain ts to P eking. The c ity 's e le c tric ity and w a te r su p p lies w ere in te rru p te d sp o rad ica lly as la b o r u n re s t and s h o rta g e s of coal fuel (caused by h a rb o r d isru p tio n s) o c c u rre d . ^ In d u stria l p ro d u ctio n fell off s h a rp ly fo r th e sam e re a s o n s (and additionally b eca u se of raw m a te ria l s h o rta g e s), 65 and m edical s e rv ic e s in S hanghai's h o sp ita ls w e re s im ila rly je o p a r ­ dized. The CCRG's policy of the p a s t six w eeks, coupled w ith a wholly unexpected wave of m ilitan ce by th e re la tiv e ly disad v an tag ed s e c to rs of C hinese so ciety , had brought about th e econom ic and p o liti­ cal co llap se of Shanghai.

1

VII CHANG CH'UN-CH'IAO AND THE JANUARY REVOLUTION

T he p o lic ie s on w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s fo rw ard ed by the C ultural R evolution Group in P ek in g had led, by the f i r s t days of 1967, to the ch aotic conditions fe a re d by so m any reg io n al P a rty o fficials, including T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu . C o n tra ry to th e e ffo rts of Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao and h is p o litic a lly lik e-m in d ed co lleag u es, w o rk e rs did not m o b ilize sim ply to c r itic iz e " re v is io n is t" le a d e rs h ip and m an ifestatio n s of b u re a u c ra c y . D istin c t subgroups w ithin S hanghai's w orking population fo rm u lated th e ir own definitions of " re v is io n ism " a cc o rd in g to th e r e a l so c io ­ econom ic g rie v a n c e s they held. In stead of p o litic al p r e s s u r e by an u n d iffere n tiated m a s s —th e "p eo p le"—upon m unicipal e lite s to tr a n s ­ fo rm a u th o rita ria n a d m in is tra tiv e p r a c tic e s , a com plex a r r a y of c la s s re la te d co n flicts and te n sio n s ap p ea red . C o n tract la b o re rs attacked th e la b o r s y ste m u n d e r w hich they w ere em ployed, "sent-dow n" students and w o rk e rs p ro te s te d th e ir se m iv o lu n ta ry m ig ratio n , ap p ren tices re b e lle d a g a in st th e ir m e a g e r w ages and d eclin in g p ro s p e c ts , and f o r m e r p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs tr ie d to r e v e r s e th e ir d eclin e in m a te ria l s ta tu s . As th e se groups m obilized to fo rw ard th e ir own dem ands, p e r ­ m anent w o rk e rs, th re a te n e d by th e se dem ands and th e ir a sso c ia te d d ev elo p m en ts, m obilized to oppose th e se new w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s. T he re s u ltin g cleavage led not only to m a ss fa c tio n a lism and violence but a lso to conflicting dem ands upon m unicipal a u th o ritie s. Any MPC actio n would thus only f u r th e r in c ite vio len ce by one m a ss factio n —an u n m anageable situ a tio n lead in g u ltim a tely to th e a d m in istra tiv e and econom ic co llap se of the city. C u ltu ral R evolution p o lic ie s, b ased on the p re m is e th a t th e re was no an tag o n ism betw een p ro d u ctio n and " re v o lu tio n ," w ere in d an g er of being to ta lly d is c re d ite d by th e unexpectedly independent m a ss action of S hanghai's population. O rd e r and p ro d u ctio n had to be re s to re d in Shanghai fo r the C u ltu ral R evolution to continue. Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o w as d isp atch ed to Shanghai in e a rly Ja n u ary , pro b ab ly ch arg ed by his CCRG co lleag u es in P ek in g w ith th e ta sk of r e s to r in g o rd e r w hile not s a c rific in g the p o litic a l p rin c ip le s w hose ap p licatio n had helped spawn 51

52

in d u s tria l breakdow n. The ensuing Jan u ary R evolution w as thus not a pow er s e iz u re by w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s of m unicipal a d m in istra tio n fro m a re c a lc itr a n t group of P a rty o fficials but an effo rt o rg an ized by Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o to b rin g m a ss p o litic a l action u n d e r co n tro l and to r e s to r e the norm al o p eratio n of S hanghai’s econom y. Chang h im se lf would la te r be quite ex p lic it about h is re a s o n s fo r re tu rn in g to Shanghai: When we s ta rte d to s e iz e pow er, we did not think about u sin g the two w ords of "pow er s e iz u r e ," and th e re was no such te rm as " Ja n u a ry R evolution" . . . . We saw p e rso n a lly th at the fa c to rie s stopped o p eratio n , the w harves w ere p a ra ly z e d , ev ery day fo reig n v e s s e ls a rriv e d in the Shanghai h a rb o r but could not d isc h a rg e o r load c a rg o . The im p e ria lis ts m ade u se of th e se in cid en ts in th e ir atta c k s and v ilifi­ cation and b ro a d c a st to the w orld th a t the Shanghai ste v e d o re s went on s tr ik e . 1 Chang re la te d th a t he planned f i r s t to s e iz e co n tro l of the "key d e p a rt­ m e n ts" in o rd e r to " e n su re p eo p le's liv es and p ro p e rty ag a in st d e s tr u c ­ tio n ." It w as, how ever, u n n e c e ss a ry to s e iz e pow er fro m the MPC and the M unicipal P e o p le 's Council, Chang re la te d , f o r —p ro b ab ly with re fe re n c e to C en tral P a rty san ctio n s fo r h is actio n , the de facto pow er vacuum in the m unicipal a d m in istra tio n , and the PLA su p p o rt he w as g u aran teed — "as a m a tte r of fact, th e pow er of th e se two o rg an s was a lre a d y in o u r h a n d s." 2 Given th is de facto pow er, C hang's ta sk w as tw ofold: he f i r s t had to e sta b lish con tro l o v e r key econom ic and a d m in is tra tiv e un its through the au th o rity he enjoyed o v e r the PLA , P u b lic S ecu rity , and key re b e l g ro u p s—m o st notably the W o rk e rs' H e a d q u a rte rs —thus p ro v id in g the in stitu tio n al fram e w o rk fo r re s to r a tio n of p ro d u ctio n . Chang re la te d , w ith re fe re n c e to th is f i r s t ta sk , th a t he "decided to tak e o v e r the key d e p a rtm e n ts: w h arv es, railw a y sta tio n s, w a te r w o r k s , p o w er p la n ts, rad io sta tio n s, p o st office and b an k s" w hile he "m o b ilized tro o p s, students and R eb els of som e fa c to rie s and the railw ay b u reau to su p p o rt u s ." 2 The second ta s k —and the one th a t proved in fin itely m o re d iffic u lt— was to unite w a rrin g factio n s behind h is a tte m p t to r e s to r e o r d e r and pro d u ctio n . To achieve th is second goal Chang would em ploy the

53 p ro p ag an d a s k ills he had sh a rp e n e d throughout h is P a rty c a r e e r . Chang d e c isiv e ly u sed h is co n tro l o v e r S hanghai’s o fficial m edia to define and red efin e w hat w e re d ev iatio n s, to th re a te n p ra c titio n e rs of th e se newly defined d ev iatio n s, and to activ ely take the in itia tiv e in ra is in g new issu e s and sq u elch in g o th e rs . As if to u n d erlin e the n atu re of th is "rev o lu tio n ," Chang would la te r ad m it th a t th is co u rse of action "was not fo r seizin g p o w er on b eh alf of a c e rta in faction but fo r o u r c la ss in te r e s ts , f o r the h o nor of o u r m o th erlan d , fo r o u r s o c ia lis t econom y. . . . " The te rm "p ow er s e iz u re " did not com e to c h a ra c te riz e th e se events until la te r w hen it "w as p ro p o sed by C h airm an M ao."4

Stage One— E s ta b lish in g a R ationale fo r Action By the f i r s t day of 1967, w ith Shanghai in to tal a d m in istra tiv e and econom ic co llap se, and w ith a ll m a jo r factions h a rb o rin g an im o sities to w ard the m unicipal le a d e rs h ip , it was probably evident to the CCRG m e m b e rsh ip th a t the lo cal o ffic ia ls —who had e x e rc is e d no effective co n tro l o v e r events in the city sin ce la te N ovem ber—had to be rem oved b efo re o rd e r could be r e s to r e d . The top local o fficials w ere re n d e re d w ithout a u th o rity b ecau se they sy m bolized re v is io n is t le a d e rsh ip to v irtu a lly a ll m a jo r factio n s in Shanghai—a fa c t which would have m ade r e s to ra tio n of o r d e r e x tre m e ly d ifficu lt fo r th em . Even if the MPC w e re able to r e s to r e o rd e r, how ever, its doing so would vind icate its e a r l i e r stan d ag a in st w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s and d is c re d it CCRG p o lic ie s. So fo r a t le a s t two r e a s o n s — expedience and p o litic s —the CCRG could not allow the top lo cal le a d e rs to u se tro o p s to a ttem p t to r e s to r e o rd e r. Instead th e se lo cal o fficials would be u sed by Chang and the CCRG in th e ir in itia l e ffo rts to m o b ilize su p p o rt behind C hang's own attem p t a t q u ellin g the d is o r d e r s . On Jan u ary 1, a t the v e ry depths of S hanghai's econom ic and a d m in is tra tiv e co llap se, Chang and the CCRG began to m ake the in itia l m oves in th e ir effo rt to r e s to r e o r d e r in Shanghai in a m a n n e r th a t would b en efit th em p o litic a lly . T he in itia l a c t in th is s tra te g y w as to u se the o rg an izatio n al con­ nections b u ilt up o v e r the y e a r s by Chang and Yao W en-yuan in the Shanghai P ro p ag an d a h ie ra rc h y in o r d e r to gain co n tro l o v e r the local m e d ia. The f i r s t s te p th a t the CCRG undertook to do so was on Ja n u a ry 1, when they re c e iv e d a re b e l d eleg atio n fro m W en-hui Pao and g ran ted th e m p e rm is s io n to " se iz e p o w er" in the new sp ap er. 5 Upon the d eleg a­ tio n 's re tu rn on the 3 rd, the factio n "se iz e d p o w er" in the p a p e r by m e re ly voting to d e c la re th e m se lv e s in co n tro l and p rin tin g an edition th e next day denouncing W en-hui P a o 's h is to ry of a n ti- P a r ty a c tiv itie s . 6

54 Chang im m ed iately flew to Shanghai on Ja n u a ry 4 and co n su lted w ith the' p a p e r's staff, w orking on the d e ta ils of and e n su rin g re b e l su p p o rt fo r the propaganda cam paign he would launch the next day. ^ The opening e d ito ria l, su p p o rted by a b ro ad co alitio n of re b e l groups, d e c la re d th a t a "d e e p e r and b ro a d e r sta g e " of the m ovem ent had a rriv e d . A ttacks in the fu tu re should be d ire c te d only at a "sm a ll handful" of people w ithin the Shanghai P a rty . T h is sm a ll group in the local le a d e rsh ip had tr ie d to r e s is t the CCRG policy of " g ra sp in g re v o lu ­ tion and p ro m o tin g p ro d u ctio n ": f i r s t by u sin g "p ro d u ctio n " as an excuse to su p p re s s the rev o lu tio n , then by in c itin g the S c a rle ts to sab o tag e pro d u ctio n . They did all of th is to sab otag e the C u ltu ral R evolution. T h ese re a c tio n a ry ele m e n ts, the e d ito ria l d e c la re d , m u st be "d rag g ed o u t." 8 A fter p lacin g the blam e fo r d isru p tio n s s q u a re ly upon the M PC, the e d ito ria l moved on to u rg e w o rk e rs to r e tu r n to th e ir jo b s. The e d ito ria l d e c la re d th a t w o rk e rs m u st now "take firm hold of the re v o lu ­ tion and p ro m o te p ro d u ctio n "—th is is th e policy of Mao and the CCRG. W orkers who d e s e r t th e ir p roduction p o sts a r e allow ing th e m se lv e s to be incited by the " re a c tio n a ry h andful." They should ex hibit th e ir "se n se of rev o lu tio n ary re s p o n s ib ility ," "sto p being d eceiv ed and re tu r n to y o u r pro duction p o s ts ." 9 Since they w ere d eceiv ed by th is h an d fu l--u p o n whom all re sp o n sib ility fo r th is incid en t r e s te d —w o rk e rs need f e a r no r e p r is a ls fo r th e ir d e s e rtio n . 1° T his pro p ag an d a s tra te g y had th r e e in te r r e la te d a im s: by m aking scap eg o ats of the a lre a d y -d is c re d ite d and p o w e rle ss m unicipal le a d e rsh ip , Chang sought a) to d ir e c t c r itic is m away fro m b a sic level c a d re s so n e c e s s a ry fo r the functioning of S hanghai's econ­ omy; b) to defuse in te rfa c tio n a l d isp u te s by d ire c tin g atten tio n to a com m on, sym bolic enem y; and c) to p ro v id e a b a s is fo r su p p o rt by the b ro a d e s t p o ssib le num ber of groups by ex cu sin g w o rk e rs fo r being "m isle d " by th e se f o r m e r le a d e rs . While the is s u e s in th is a n a rc h ic f i r s t w eek of Ja n u a ry w ere b eing redefined in such a m an n er th a t the m o st effectiv e re v o lu tio n a ry a c t by w hich a w o rk e r could com bat "the b o u rg eo is lin e" of the handful of le a d e rs w as now sim ply to re tu r n to w ork, the handful of m unicipal le a d e rs th e m ­ se lv e s w ere to be exposed and v ilifie d . In a c a re fu lly planned and executed m a ss ra lly in P e o p le 's Square on Ja n u a ry 6, co m p lete with clo sed c ire u it te le v isio n co v erag e a t eighty m ovie th e a te r s , tw en ty -sev e n college cam p u ses, a v a rie ty of h o tels and the ten r u r a l co u n ties, T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu , C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n , S e c re ta ry of In d u stry Ma T 'ie n -s h u i, te m ­ p o ra ry P ropagan d a Head Yang Ilsi-k u an g , and E a s t China B u reau

55 S e c re ta ry Wei W en-po w ere led d ejecte d ly onto the stag e and accu sed of c rim e s ran g in g fro m m o ra l d eg en e racy to high tre a s o n . T s 'a o and C h'en, in p a r tic u la r , w e re singled out fo r a long h is to ry of alleg ed ly c o n siste n t opposition to M ao's p o lic ie s and to the C u ltu ral R evolution. A fter con­ fe s s in g th e ir c rim e s , T s 'a o was cere m o n io u sly strip p e d of h is position as m ay o r, w hile C h'en w as re q u ire d to re m a in a t his E a st China B ureau p o st, w here he would be "re sp o n sib le fo r any d istu rb a n c e s . Since th e se le a d e rs had not v isib ly e x e rc is e d effective control o v er ev en ts in Shanghai sin ce the end of N ovem ber, the ra lly of Ja n u a ry 6 was im p o rta n t m o re fo r its d ra m a tic effect than fo r the actu al p o litic al changes it m a rk e d . As th e v e ry f ir s t s te p in the re s to ra tio n of o rd e r and production, it p re sa g e d w hat would be the c o rn e rs to n e of C hang's p ro p ag an d a e ffo rts d u rin g the b alan ce of the C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai. E ven though h u m iliated in such a fashion, th e se le a d e rs played an im p o rta n t sym bolic ro le in pro p ag an d a e ffo rts aim ed a t r e s tr u c tu r in g S hanghai's p o litic al and econom ic life . With the "enem y" c le a rly id en ti­ fied, fu tu re u n d e s ira b le ten d en cies on the p a r t of w o rk e rs w ere to be p ro je c te d upon th is " sm a ll handful" and id entified as "b o u rg eo is" ten ­ d en cies th a t had to be com batted. An in ten se m edia cam paign was launched im m ed iately to d riv e hom e th e se p o in ts. W orkers and students who " stru g g le by fo rc e " and am ong th e m se lv e s do not re a liz e th at the handful of f o r m e r m unicipal le a d e rs " e x e rc is e s co n tro l fro m behind th e s c e n e s ." The m edia ex h o rted th a t "we should guard ag ain st th e ir t r ic k s ."-*-2 If w o rk e rs w ere to sh ift th e ir atten tio n to the "econom ic s tru g g le " by "putting m oney in com m and in stead of p o litic s ," they would c e rta in ly "fall p re y to the tr ic k s of the c la s s e n e m y ." ^ In th is oblique w ay—by c ritic iz in g th e f o r m e r le a d e rs h ip fo r in sp irin g th o se ten d en cies Chang sought to elim in a te in w o rk e rs —two p o litic al p u rp o ses w ere s e rv e d . F ir s t, those ten d en cies in w o rk e rs th a t w ere negatively valu ed — v io len ce, econom ic dem ands, and leav in g jo b s—w ere c le a rly and fo rc e ­ fully com m unicated as such by identifying them w ith the p u rp o ses of this sch em in g "handful." Second, and no le s s im p o rtan t, was the co nstant th em e th a t w o rk e rs who " s h a re a com m on goal" should "unite as one" and "re p u d ia te the b o u rg eo is re a c tio n a ry lin e " of the handful of le a d e rs p e r s is tin g in it. ^ T h is s tra te g y s e rv e d the dual p u rp o se of elim in atin g fa c tio n a lis m and tak in g h e a t off of b esieg ed b a sic level c a d re s by funneling factio n al e n e rg ie s to w ard s th is in a c c e s s ib le "handful" who, through­ out the p erio d , would s e rv e as a sym bol of " re v is io n ism " fo r the factions to a t t a c k .15

56

As had happened so many tim e s b efo re, th e se ev en ts in Shanghai would subsequen tly be o fficially approved a f te r - th e - f a c t by C e n tra l d ir e c ­ tiv e s . On Ja n u a ry 11, a d ire c tiv e was issu e d echoing the points th a t had been m ade in the Shanghai propaganda cam paign sin ce Ja n u a ry 4: w ork­ e r s w ere to r e s i s t " c o rro s io n " by m a te ria l b en efits and not be ''hood­ w inked" by a sm a ll handful of re v is io n is t le a d e rs . F u rth e r, as if co nfirm ing th a t th e se events in Shanghai w ere p rim a rily fo r the p u rp o se of re s to rin g o rd e r, the "M essag e of G reetin g s" by the CCP to the Shang­ hai re b e ls co n g ratu lated them fo r p ro m o tin g unity, "g ra sp in g rev o lu tio n and stim u latin g p ro d u ctio n ," and "upholding the d ic ta to rs h ip of the p r o le ­ ta r ia t." - ^

Stage Tw o— S trik e -B re a k in g and P o litic a l O rganizing Sim ultaneous with th is m ed ia effo rt, Chang, im m ed iately upon re tu rn in g to Shanghai w ith Yao W en-yuan on Jan u ary 6, plunged into a f lu rry of o rg an izin g a ctiv ity th a t would consum e him fo r w eeks. F ro m h is "joint co n feren ce" Chang kept in clo se touch with the n ew sp ap er offices through re g u la r co n feren ces and telephone c o n v ersatio n s and m et w ith anyw here fro m fo rty to a hundred re p re s e n ta tiv e s fro m m a ss o rg an iz atio n s each day. 19 Chang was co o rd in atin g a m a ss iv e e ffo rt to r e s to r e Shanghai's econom y and civ il o rd e r w hile sim u ltan e o u sly e n lis t­ ing the su p p o rt of v a rio u s m a ss o rg an iz atio n s fo r th a t e ffo rt. The f i r s t p ro d u ct of th is activ ity w as the Ja n u a ry 9 "U rg en t N otice" to th e Shanghai people. Chang was able to obtain the su p p o rt of a b ro ad coalition of m a ss o rg an izatio n s fo r a te n -p o in t p ro p o sa l outlining C hang's s tra te g y fo r d e liv e rin g the city fro m its p re s e n t condition. W o rk ers w ere o rd e re d to stay at th e ir w o rk p o sts and re tu rn fro m "exchanges of e x p e rie n c e ." C irc u latin g funds (except fo r n o rm al w age and pro d u ctio n ex p en d itu res) w ere fro zen , effectiv ely cutting off the m oney flow th a t had stim u lated the ru s h of m o n e y -re la te d w o rk e r d em an d s. T he is s u e s of w ages and m a te ria l benefits th a t had consum ed so m any w o rk e rs in the p a s t w eeks w ere o fficially rem oved fro m the rev o lu tio n a ry agenda; th e se is s u e s "sh ifted the o rie n ta tio n of the s tru g g le " and w ere to be postponed "until a la te r stag e in the m o v em en t." Any groups th a t had seize d and occupied houses and public buildings m u st ev acu ate th em o r staffer the consequences d isp en sed by public s e c u rity f o r c e s . The sam e fate would befall anyone who "sab o tag ed " p ro d u ctio n . 20 T h ese p ro v isio n s w ere to be en fo rced th ro u g h a tw o -p ro n g ed o r ­ ganizational s tra te g y aim ed sim u ltan e o u sly at developing a netw ork fo r

57 m o b ilizin g and co o rd in atin g the a c tiv itie s of the d is p a ra te in te r e s t groups and a t building up a su p p o rtiv e a rm e d fo rc e capable of en fo rcin g C hang's a d m in is tra tiv e d e c re e s . To achieve th is f i r s t a im —of m o bilizing and co o rd in a tin g m a ss a c tiv itie s — Chang o rg an ized a c e n tra l com m and p o st w ith fifty re p re s e n ta tiv e s fro m a nu m b er of S hanghai's m a jo r re b e l fa c ­ tio n s . T h is an ti-e c o n o m ism " F ro n t-lin e Com m and fo r G rasp in g R evolu­ tion and P ro m o tin g P ro d u ctio n " w as resp o n sib le fo r m o b ilizin g the m e m b e rsh ip of the re p re s e n te d m a ss o rg an iz atio n s to help r e s to r e Shang­ h a i's ec o n o m y . 21 To su p p o rt th e se o rg an izatio n al a c tiv itie s and achieve th e second aim of the s tra te g y , Chang o v ersaw th e fo rm atio n of a PLA " M ilita ry C ontrol C o m m issio n " th a t was to a s s is t "pow er s e iz u r e s " in individual pro d u ctio n and a d m in is tra tiv e units and tr a in a grow ing public s e c u rity f o r c e . 22 T he im p lem en tatio n of th is s tra te g y began the week a fte r the d r a ­ m a tic Ja n u a ry 6 m a ss ra lly . PLA d etach m en ts w ere p o sted a t banks and o th e r im p o rta n t buildings, took co n tro l of the rad io statio n , occupied the a irfie ld , and a s s is te d in a g e n e ra l tightening of public s e c u rity throughout the city. 22 T he "a n ti-e c o n o m ism com m and p o st" sim u lta n e ­ o usly fo rm e d m e m b e rs of w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s into te am s th a t w orked double sh ifts in an e ffo rt to fill in fo r m issin g co w o rk ers. 24 M em bers of stu d en t Red G uard o rg an iz atio n s w ere placed in strik e b re a k in g team s th a t fille d ab sen ted p la c e s in u n sk illed jo b s —p a rtic u la rly a t the docks and in ra ilro a d s ta tio n s --a n d o rg an ized pro pag an d a te am s to convince s trik in g w o rk e rs to r e tu r n . 25 PLA u n its fro m the Shanghai G arriso n and th e E a s t China F le e t p e rfo rm e d a s im ila r ro le a t the docks and at ra ilro a d fre ig h t t e r m i n a l s . " T h ese te a m s f i r s t converged on the c ru c ia l docks and ra ilr o a d s , w orking to r e s to r e n o rm al sch ed u les while p u ttin g up p o s te r s and d is trib u tin g le a fle ts u rg in g w o rk e rs to re tu rn to th e ir jo b s and re p a y the back w ages th a t had been p aid to th em w eeks e a r l i e r . 27 W here p o ssib le , the v ario u s re b e l factio n s a t a w orkplace fo rm e d into a " re v o lu tio n a ry re b e l co m m ittee" w hich would take o v er the ta s k s p e rfo rm e d by the "task fo rc e " a f te r it le ft. 28 O utside Shang­ h a i's w o rk p lace s, pro p ag an d a v an s equipped w ith lo u d sp eak e rs c irc u la te d thro u g h the s tr e e ts , and a co u n tless a r r a y of p a ra d e s , m a ss r a llie s and fo ru m s w e re held, all p u b licizin g th e c u r r e n t effo rt to "fight econom is m " by re tu rn in g to w o r k .29 A bsent w o rk e rs, re a liz in g th a t th e ir s tr ik e w as being effectiv ely b ro k en , g rad u ally re tu rn e d to w ork. By th e m iddle of J a n u a ry re p o r ts began to tric k le in of individual u n its th a t had r e s to r e d p ro d u ctio n to a lm o s t n o rm al l e v e l s . "

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The D e te rio ra tio n of C h a n ts M ass S u p p o rt. D u rin g th is second sta g e of C hang's effo rts to r e s to r e o r d e r and salv ag e th e C ultural Revolution in Shanghai, th e re la tiv e ly b ro ad su p p o rt he had b riefly enjoyed as a r e s u lt of th e d ra m a tic , sk illfu lly sta g e-m an ag ed m a ss ra lly of Ja n u a ry 6 began to d e te r io r a te . The sam e o rg an iz atio n al effo rts through which Chang hoped to m o bilize m a ss su p p o rt and funnel it into n o n d estru ctiv e a c tiv itie s began to a lien ate a sig n ifican t p o rtio n of the groups th a t had fo rm ed th e "R eb el" cam p la te in 1966. Some seco n d ary accounts have a ttrib u te d th is d e te rio ra tio n of C hang's m a ss su p p o rt to h is abandonm ent of the Com m une in la te F e b r u a r y .31 T h is p ro c e s s of d e te rio ra tio n actu ally began as e a rly as the m iddle of J a n u a ry —a p ro c e s s to w hich s e v e ra l fa c to rs con­ trib u te d . P rob ab ly m o st im p o rta n t w as the fa c t th a t C hang's p o li­ c ie s —to re tu rn back w ages and sh elv e econom ic g rie v a n c e s —d ire c tly conflicted with the e x p re s s e d in te r e s ts of m any groups in the reb el factio n . A ppren tices and non p erm an en t la b o re r s had fo rw ard ed econom ic g riev a n ces and had been v e ry activ e in th e d is s id e n t m ovem ent. Since Chang had re tu rn e d to Shanghai they had been ask ed to give up the p riz e s they had won in e a r l ie r s tru g g le s . A second fa c to r w as C hang's u se of th e PLA to tak e o v e r banks, a ir p o r ts , radio s ta tio n s, and o th e r key econom ic and a d m in is tra tiv e u n its. When doing so the tro o p s often m et w ith opposition fro m reb el groups o th e r than the W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs who had alre a d y se iz e d nom i­ nal control of th e se u n its. This ta c tic w as view ed by the reb el groups involved as " s u p p re ss io n ." T h ird ly , it is lik ely th a t c e rta in factio n s such as W ang H ung-w en's W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs w e re m o re heavily re p re s e n te d in C hang's o rg an iz atio n al netw ork—fo r exam ple, in the " a n ti-eco n o m ism com m and p o s t" — than w ere o th e r m a jo r o rg an iz atio n s. When d etach m en ts fro m the W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs m oved into units to " se iz e pow er" as p a r t of th e ir s tra te g y of r e s to r in g o rd e r, they often conflicted w ith o th e r reb el groups a lre a d y e s ta b lish e d in those u n its. T h ese th re e fa c to rs com bined into a p a tte rn th a t led m any reb el o rg an izatio n s to q u estio n w h eth er Chang h im se lf w as a " re v is io n is t" and fueled renew ed factio n al in fighting—th is tim e w ithin the old "R ebel" cam p o v e r the is s u e of Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o 's m oves to a s s e r t control o v e r the ch ao tic m a ss m ovem ent. The n ascen t r e s is ta n c e to th e se o rg an iz atio n al th r u s ts w as com ­ pounded by C hang's opposition to independent a ttem p ts by m a ss o rg a n i­ zations to s e iz e a d m in is tra tiv e pow er fro m the MPC and s e t up a new fo rm of m unicipal a d m in istra tio n . D uring the p e rio d th a t Chang co­ o rd in ated rebel a c tiv itie s fro m h is office th e re w e re th r e e s e p a ra te

59 a tte m p ts to " se iz e p o w er" fro m th e M PC. Chang squelched each one, p e rs u a d in g the o rg an iz atio n s involved th a t the action w as p re m a tu re and p re v e n tin g the p r e s s and r a d io —firm ly u n d er h is influence—fro m giving the actio n s p u b licity . 32 Chang had a d iffere n t p lan fo r the "pow er s e iz u r e " in m ind than did th e se m a ss o rg an izatio n s and w as c a rry in g it out th ro u g h the com bined a c tiv itie s of the "com m and p o s t," the PLA, and re s u rg e n t public s e c u rity fo r c e s . Some groups began d u rin g th is p e rio d to com plain of p e rs e c u tio n a t the hands of th e se o rg an s and the W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs. 33 O th ers, like th e Red F lag A rm y, a la rg e o rg an iz atio n of d em o b ilized s o ld ie rs , vio len tly opposed the PLA ta k e ­ o v e rs a t the a irp o r t and ra d io sta tio n s and had even c a r r ie d out ra id s on a rm y p o sts, public s e c u rity b u reau s and the L ib eratio n D aily. 34 a grow ing co rp s of re b e l groups w e re becom ing highly h o stile tow ards C hang b eca u se he was a f o r m e r MPC o fficial and, to th e ir m inds, was in c re a s in g ly actin g as one. It is not s u r p r is in g th a t when Chang sen t m e ss e n g e rs to all the m a jo r re b e l o rg an iz atio n s in Shanghai as he was p re p a rin g to found the Com m une th a t som e of the m o st pow erful re fu se d to take p a r t. Chief am ong th o se who re fu se d w ere Keng C h in -ch an g 's Second R egim ent, a re p o rte d ly 5 2 0 -th o u sa n d -stro n g w o r k e r s ' o rg an izatio n clo sely aligned w ith th irte e n s m a lle r groups th e W o rk e rs' T h ird A rm y, a s e v e ra lh u n d re d -th o u s a n d -s tro n g o rg an iz atio n th a t had e a r l ie r b roken away fro m th e W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs on Jan u ary 7; the Red F lag A rm y, a la rg e o rg a n iz a tio n of dem o b ilized s o ld ie r s ; and two stu d en t groups, Chingkangshan and the Red R ev o lu tio n a ries, the la tte r being the la rg e s t and m o st pow erful studen t group in Shanghai. As C hang's e ffo rts to r e s to r e o r d e r and a s s e r t co n tro l m et with grow ing re s is ta n c e , he was fo rced in c re a sin g ly to re ly upon m ilita ry su p p o rt to c a r r y out h is p la n s. A s e lf-re in fo rc in g s p ira l of d eclining p o p u la r su p p o rt and in c re a s in g u s e of co ercio n c h a ra c te riz e d the la s t h alf of J a n u a ry and e a rly F e b ru a ry . T hrough the su p p o rt of the PLA, C e n tra l P a rty ap p ro v al, and th e su b sta n tia l W o rk e rs ’ H ead q u arters o rg a n iz a tio n , Chang e x e rc is e d de facto p o litic a l pow er, but the b road m a s s su p p o rt so v ital fo r the im p lem en tatio n of h is p lan s to r e s to r e o r d e r to S hanghai's C u ltu ral R evolution continued to elude him . As the re la tio n s betw een Chang and the groups opposed to him d e te rio ra te d , Keng C hin-chang com bined fo rty -e ig h t o rg an izatio n s into a u n ited o p p o sitio n --th e "Shanghai R ev o lutionary C om m ittee of B road U n ity ." He p ro m p tly launched a fu rio u s pro p ag an d a cam paign to head off the fo rm atio n of C hang's Comm une and led a num ber of attack s on

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W o rk e rs' H e ad q u arters d is tr ic t o ffic e s—the local level ex ten sio n s of C hang's o rg an izatio n al a c tiv itie s . In a te le g ra m Keng iss u e d to Mao, he pointed out th a t w hile he had u n d e r him fo rty -e ig h t s tro n g and united m a ss o rg an iz atio n s, Chang could c la im only ju s t o v e r th irty , of w hich m o re than tw enty w ere liaiso n c e n te rs fro m o th e r c itie s . 37 Much of C hang's support, in o th e r w o rd s, cam e fro m contingents of o rg an iz atio n s th a t had no m a ss b ase in Shanghai. As th is stro n g opposition fo rc e p re s e n te d itse lf, Chang w as fo rced to re ly m ore heavily on the PLA, a t f i r s t so lely as a show of fo rc e . Radio b ro a d c a sts s tr e s s e d th a t the PLA would su p p o rt th e " tru e re v o lu ­ tio n ary le ftis ts ," and low -flying a i r fo rc e sq u ad ro n s on Ja n u a ry 26 dropped le a fle ts on the city d e c la rin g th e ir su p p o rt. On the sa m e day a p a ra d e of m ilita ry le a d e rs fro m all b ran ch e s of th e a rm e d s e rv ic e s drove thro u g h the city in open c a rs as p a r t of th is d e m o n stra tio n of m ilita ry su p p o rt. 38 In re sp o n se , th e la rg e s t s tu d e n ts' o rg an iz atio n in the city, the Red R ev o lu tio n a ries, tu rn ed a m eetin g w ith Chang and Yao on Ja n u a ry 27 into a stru g g le m eeting, holding the le a d e rs th e re fo r six h o u rs and try in g to e x to rt a confession th a t they had u sed tro o p s to s u p p re s s the m a ss m o v e m e n t. 39 In re sp o n se to Chang and Y ao 's re fu s a l to com ply, a group of Red R ev o lu tio n aries fro m F utan U n iv ersity ra id e d the W rite r's Union and a r r e s te d , am ong o th e rs , Hsu C h in g -h sien , C hang's m ain propagand a w r ite r . C hang's re a c tio n was to send two tru c k lo a d s of PLA tro o p s, one of p o lice and eig h teen m o to rcy cle squads to Futan U niversity, w here the shocked stu d en ts r e le a s e d th e ir p r is o n e r and had th e ir h e a d q u a rte rs occupied. T his w as the f i r s t tim e th a t tro o p s had been used in Shanghai openly to oppose the m a ss m ovem ent. In s u b s e ­ quent days the Red R ev o lu tio n aries w ere to r e ta lia te , c ra sh in g a m eetin g at the L ib eratio n D aily w h ere Chang attended, and engaging in b ra w ls on th e ir cam puses w ith the stu d en t groups su p p o rtin g C h an g .^0

Stage T h re e —The C o m m u n e/R ev o lu tio n ary C om m ittee The th ird and final stag e in the a s s e r tio n of C hang's o rg an iz atio n al au th o rity was the e s ta b lis h m e n t--d e s p ite w id esp read o p p o sitio n —of the Com m une, which would la te r be ren am ed but su rv iv e la rg e ly unchanged as a "R evolutionary C o m m ittee." Some w ritin g s on Shanghai d u rin g the C u ltu ral Revolution p o rtra y the Com m une as a m a n ifestatio n of " ra d ic a l u to p ia n ism " ;^ ! but th is a ttem p t by Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o to e n fo rce som e kind of o r d e r am ong S hanghai's frag m e n ted a r r a y of m a ss o rg an iz atio n s

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61 w as n e ith e r d istin c tiv e ly " ra d ic a l" n o r u n re a lis tic a lly "utopian." D espite the utopian im ag es co n ju red up by the com m une in re c e n t C hinese M arx­ is t th e o riz in g , the Shanghai Comm une was probably su pported by le s s th a n o n e -fo u rth of S hanghai's p o litic a lly activ e w orking population^ and re lie d heavily upon the PLA fo r its v e ry s u rv iv a l—a su rv iv al continually th re a te n e d by the united opposition. The Com m une, in fact, m a rk e d the beginning of e v e r m o re nakedly a g g re s s iv e u se of fo rc e to r e s to r e o rd e r. The in au guration of the Com­ m une w as filled w ith re fe re n c e s to the PLA and th r e a ts to the opposition. Chang, in h is sp eech a t th e founding ra lly on F e b ru a ry 5, d e c la re d that " c la s s e n e m ie s " w e re u sin g "a ll s o r ts of in sid io u s tr i c k s ” to c re a te d iffic u ltie s fo r the re b e ls . He s tr e s s e d , how ever, th a t "we also have the s tro n g PLA stand in g at o u r sid e. We w ill b re a k the head of anyone d a rin g to c a r r y out c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n a ry a c t i v i t i e s ." ^ Liao Chengkuo, co m m an d er of the Shanghai PLA G a rriso n spoke a fte rw a rd s: The PLA u n its statio n ed in Shanghai have m ade all p re p a ra tio n s . We w ill ru th le s s ly su p p re s s anyone who d a re s to u n d erm in e the Shanghai P e o p le 's Com m une o r the p ro le ta ria n C u ltu ral R e v o lu tio n .^ The " F i r s t O rd e r" of the Com m une s tr e s s e d s im ila r th e m e s — public s e c u rity w as to be stren g th en ed o v e r " irre s p o n s ib le e le m e n ts," and the PLA w as o rd e re d to defend " rev o lu tio n ary " o rg an iz atio n s. W cn-hui P a o 's d e s c rip tio n of the inauguration included the clo sin g line: "If anyone d a re s to sab o tag e the Shanghai P e o p le 's Comm une we will s m a s h h is d o g 's h e a d !”^ 5 S im ila rly , an o th e r e d ito ria l on the "sig n ifi­ can c e" of the Com m une w arn ed ag ain st c e rta in " c o u n te r-re v o lu tio n a rie s " who a r e "sow ing d is c o rd and d isse n sio n , confusing rig h t and w rong, changing black and w hite, and reap in g p ro fit in confusion in hopes of s u p p re s s in g u s ." F o r th e se people the e d ito ria l had a slogan: "T hose who w ant to tr y the stre n g th of the new p o litic al pow er of the p ro le ta ria t, lis te n ! If you w ant to tr y o u r s tre n g th , com e f o r w a r d ! ”46 Sim ultaneous w ith th e se b e llic o se w arn in g s ag a in st the U nited O pposition, an arm e d show of fo rc e w as h eld by the lo cal PLA g a ri’iso n . A m ilita ry ra lly pledging to defend the com m une w as follow ed by an a rm e d p arad e through the city. 4? T h e se th re a ts h a rd ly in tim id ated the opposition gro u p s, who fo rm ed th e ir own org an of p o w er—th e "New Shanghai P eo p le’s C o m m u n e ." ^ When Keng C hin -ch an g noticed th a t the P eking p r e s s was sile n t about the fo rm a tio n of C hang's C om m une—which w as pro b ab ly due in la rg e

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m e a su re to the s tro n g opposition co o rd in ated by Keng h im se lf—he step p ed up his cam paign ag ain st the " su p p re ss io n " by Chang and th e W o rk e rs ' H ead q u arters and held p a ra d e s and r a llie s of h is o w n .49 By th e m iddle of F e b ru a ry his w o rk e rs ' fo rc e s w ere once again stag in g ra id s on the g ra s s ro o ts levels of C hang's o rg an iz atio n al a p p a ra tu s —th e d is tr ic t b ran ch es of the W o rk e rs' H e a d q u a rte rs. 59 The Comm une was c le a rly not achiev in g its p u rp o se of u n itin g w a rrin g groups u n d er C hang's a d m in is tra tio n . Shanghai w as once again divided into two m a jo r fa c tio n s—th is tim e o v er th e is s u e of C hang's le a d e rs h ip —and th e cla sh e s betw een the two g ro u p s could do nothing but h u rt production. C le a rly w o rrie d about d evelopm ents in Shanghai, Mao on F e b ru a ry 12 called Chang and Yao to Peking, w h ere he re p o rte d ly was so anxious to talk to them th a t he w aited fo r th em in his doorw ay. Mao was concerned about the ch a rg e s of s u p p re ssio n m ade by d eleg ate s fro m K eng's F ir s t, Second, and T h ird R e g im e n ts .54 He w as s im ila r ly concerned about th e opposition of the Red R ev o lu tio n a ries and the actio n s of the Red F lag A rm y ag a in st the PLA a t Lunghua A irfie ld . 5^ He sought a s s u ra n c e th a t the stu d en t groups w ere s till su p p lem en tin g the la b o r supply a t the docks, and in tu rn a s s u re d the Shanghai o fficials th a t "if th a t m eeting is held to bom bard Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o we w ill c e rta in ly take the n e c e s s a ry ste p s and a r r e s t p e o p le ." 53 He denounced the slogan forw ard ed by so m e s e c to r s of the Shanghai o p p o sitio n — "doubt e v e ry ­ thing and o v erth ro w e v ery th in g "— as re a c tio n a ry and su g g ested , fo r a v a rie ty of re a s o n s , th a t the Com m une fo rm be abandoned. M ost r e le ­ vant to the im m ed iate situ atio n in Shanghai w as the follow ing c o n s id e ra ­ tion: Com m unes a r e too weak when it com es to s u p p re s sin g co u n te r-re v o lu tio n . P eople have com e and com plained to m e th a t when the B u reau of P u b lic S ecu rity a r r e s t s people, they go in the fro n t d o o r and out the back. 54 The m a jo r p a r t of M ao's p ro p o sed solution to the p e r s is te n t Shanghai p ro b lem was to o fficially change the Com m une into a R ev o lu tio n ary C om m ittee of the H eilungkiang type. 55 T h is would have the effect of identifying C hang's le a d e rsh ip w ith the o fficially ap p ro v ed H eilungkiang m odel, w hile im p lic itly giving M ao's san ctio n to C hang's e ffo rts to u s e the PLA and public s e c u rity fo rc e s to r e s to r e o r d e r . A lm ost sim u ltan eo u s w ith Chang and Y ao 's re tu r n to Shanghai, P ublic S ecu rity crackdow ns on the opposition had begun. T he m o st m ilita n t of the opposition gro u p s, the Red F la g A rm y — com posed of dem obilized s o ld ie rs and re s p o n s ib le fo r r e s is ta n c e to PLA ta k e o v e rs

63 of a irfie ld s and rad io s ta tio n s —w as o fficially abolished by an o rd e r of the P u b lic S ecu rity B u reau on F e b ru a ry 17. ® The B u reau raid ed the h e a d q u a rte rs of the o rg an iz atio n and p laced its le a d e rs u n d er a r r e s t . 57 A sim u ltan e o u s pro p ag an d a cam paign lab elled Red F lag A rm y m em b ers as the "sc u m of s o c ie ty " and s tr e s s e d once again th a t "tu rn in g the s p e a r ­ head of s tru g g le " to w ard s the PLA w as in to le ra b le and th a t the touchstone fo r d istin g u ish in g a rev o lu tio n ary fro m a c o u n terrev o lu tio n ary w as " a tti­ tu d e" to w ard s the PLA . 58 In th e wake of the actio n s ag ain st the Red F la g A rm y, an o rg an izatio n of sent-dow n p erm a n en t Shanghai w o rk ers who had b esieg e d and occupied the C om m une's offices w ere s im ila rly s u p p re s se d by public s e c u rity f o r c e s . In th e sa m e w eek, th e Com m une announced th a t it would be r e ­ nam ed a s the Shanghai M unicipal R evolutionary C om m ittee. 60 At a r e s tr ic te d - a d m is s io n m a ss r a lly on F e b ru a ry 24, Chang gave a two h o u r sp eech th a t w as te le v ise d throughout the city and su rro u n d in g c o u n tie s. 61 Chang m ade two points p e rfe c tly c le a r: he had m e t with Mao th re e tim e s and had re c e iv e d his full su p p o rt, and Mao was w o rried about the tendency of the Shanghai opposition to o v erth ro w all people in a u th o rity . Mao, he said , fe lt th at the line had to be draw n som ew here and th a t he w as draw in g it a t the CCRG m e m b e rsh ip — Chang h im se lf. 62 F u rth e r, Chang called fo r a h alt to the attack s on the PLA and le a d e r­ sh ip c a d re s . W ithout the a rm y , Chang a s s e rte d , nothing could be achieved, and stu d en ts and w o rk e rs could not p o ssib ly ru n the c ity 's e n te r p r is e s and a d m in is tra tio n by th e m s e lv e s . A fter all, Chang ex­ p lain ed , m o st stu d en ts had not even g rad u ated , and he h im se lf lacked know ledge of finance and a g ric u ltu re and w as finding it difficu lt to m an­ age the city. 63 F o r th e se re a s o n s a tta c k s on leading c a d re s in e n te r ­ p r is e s and the city a d m in istra tio n m u st sto p . T h e ir .activ ities can be " s u p e rv is e d ," but they m u st not be rem o v ed . 64 C hang's sp eech , the nom inal abandonm ent of the Com m une, and the o v e rt su p p re ssio n of opposition groups by P u b lic Security, d e m o ra l­ ized m o st opposition g ro u p s. T h e ir p o sitio n th a t Chang was a re v is io n is t and c o m p ro m is e r w as u n d ercu t by M ao's now obvious su p p o rt fo r him ; the nom inal sh ift to a R ev o lutionary C om m ittee would m ake fu r th e r r e s is ta n c e to Chang a challenge to M ao's au th o rity ; and the m o re a g g re s s iv e p o s tu re of public s e c u rity fo rc e s m ade la rg e - s c a le r e s i s ­ ta n c e in c re a s in g ly h a z a rd o u s. The la rg e , unified opposition b roke up into d e c e n tra liz e d ce lls of d is s id e n ts in lo cal neighborhoods and in d i­ vidual w o rk p la c e s. Shanghai, by the end of F e b ru a ry , no lo n g er had two m a jo r factio n s in opposition to one an o th e r— it m e re ly su ffered fro m ch ro n ic iso la te d " te n d e n c ie s" th a t w ere the g r a s s ro o ts v e stig e s of the f o r m e r a llia n c e a g a in st Chang.

vm CHANG CH'UN-CH'IAO AND THE POLITICS OF DEMOBILIZATION

By e a rly M arch the Shanghai p r e s s d e c la re d th a t Keng C h in -ch an g 's o rg a n iz a tio n w as d is in te g ra tin g and th a t all along it had been m anipulated by the old M P C .l A rtic le s explaining the sig n ifican ce of the R evolution­ a ry C om m ittee s tr e s s e d th e im p o rtan ce of the PLA, of P ublic S ecurity, and of p ro le ta ria n d ic ta to rs h ip . Student liaiso n o ffices, m ost notably the v o cife ro u sly an ti-C h an g Chingkangshan, w ere o rd e re d to clo se down and leave to w n .2 W ith the unified opposition to his le a d e rsh ip elim in ated as a pow erful fo rc e , Chang could s e t h im se lf once again to the ta sk of r e s to r in g n o rm al s o c ia l o r d e r and pro d u ctio n by elim in atin g th o se unfo rs e e n d isru p tio n s th a t had o c c u rre d d u rin g the C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai—a ta sk he had haltin g ly begun in the f i r s t days of Jan u ary . Now Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o , w ith the su p p o rt of the W o rk e rs' H ead­ q u a r te r s , in effect continued the s e r ie s of d em obilization cam paigns th a t he had begun in Shanghai in e a rly Jan u ary 1967. U nfailingly couched in ra d ic a l sounding rh e to ric and alw ays p re s e n te d as h ig h er stag es in the a tta c k s on the bo u rg eo is h e a d q u a rte rs , th e se cam paigns w ere actu ally aim ed a t achieving em in en tly p ra c tic a l g o a ls—esta b lish in g la b o r d is c i­ p lin e, s id e tra c k in g econom ic dem ands, re tu rn in g youths and w o rk ers to th e c o u n try sid e, h altin g a tta c k s on b asic lev el c a d re s of all types, and re tu rn in g stu d en ts to sch o o l—all v ital p a r ts of a p ro g ra m to r e s to r e S hanghai's p a ra ly z e d econom y and d isru p te d so cial o r d e r . By no m eans d o g m a tica lly attach ed to a utopian p o sitio n , Chang did not h e sita te to s u p p re s s the grow ing opposition to th e se p ro g ra m s fro m the la rg e , m ilita n t s e c to r of S hanghai's d is s id e n t m ovem ent—the Red R evolution­ a r ie s , the Red F lag A rm y, the Second R egim ent of W o rk ers, and the W o rk e rs ' T h ird A rm y —the sam e s e c to r th at had p re se n te d the old MPC w ith its m o st outspoken opposition. T h is p ro g ra m was c h a ra c te riz e d by its a ttem p t to p ro je c t onto a sm a ll handful of p o w e rle ss fo rm e r le a d e rs th o se q u alities th a t Chang w ished to com bat in the m a s s e s th e m s e lv e s . T his ta c tic not only 65

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com m unicated to S hanghai's population w hich b eh av io r w as in to le ra b le , but it was an ex p licit attem p t to have w a rrin g factio n s unite a g a in st a com m on, alb eit sym bolic, enem y. T hroughout the p erio d c a lls w ent out to "prom ote unity through c r itic is m " by d ire c tin g the s p e a rh e a d of c ritic is m away fro m c a d re s and m a ss factio n s and to w ard s the "top P a rty p e r s o n s ." 8 The m ain o b stacle of the m ovem ent w as d e c la re d to be "the bourgeois re a c tio n a ry line, e s p e c ia lly th e c a d re po licy of h ittin g h a rd at the m any" (or, in o th e r w o rd s, c ritic iz in g and rem o v in g la rg e num bers of b a sic level le a d e rs ), and "only by thoroughly c ritic iz in g th is line can we unite and fo rm a g r e a t a llian c e to c a r r y out the C u ltu ral R e v o l u t i o n . T h i s " c ritic iz in g " took the fo rm of a call to " s e ttle acco u n ts" with the fo r m e r MPC handful, who alleg ed ly had tr ie d to sabotage the C u ltu ral R evolution. ® As p a rt of th is effo rt, a whole s e r ie s of te le v is e d s tru g g le r a llie s w ere held in o rd e r to expose "the top P a rty p e rs o n " and h is "d ep u ties" in the Shanghai MPC.® T h is coincided w ith a s tr in g of fo ru m s, r a llie s , and e d ito ria ls p ro cla im in g a "g en eral o ffen siv e" of c r itic is m a g a in st this handful. 7 A sim u ltan eo u s call w ent out to " re s u m e the debate th a t has been s u p p re sse d " by c ritic iz in g the influence of the "handful" in lite ra ry and a r t c irc le s - - d e b a te s re m in is c e n t of th o se a y e a r e a r l i e r un d er T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu 's le a d e rs h ip . 8 By the s u m m e r of 1967 th is policy of d ire c tin g c ritic is m to w ard s a sm all group of fo r m e r le a d e rs had becom e fo rm a liz e d to the ex ten t th a t the C e n tra l C o m m ittee in P ek in g sp ecified which lo cal le a d e rs w e re to s e rv e as sy m b o lic ta r g e ts . In the c a se of Shanghai, th is ro le was fille d by T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu , C h'en P 'e i h sien , and Yang H si-k u an g . ^ A second c h a r a c te r is tic of Chang’s p ro g ra m to r e s to r e S hanghai's econom y w as his attem p t to b re a k down the co u n tless sm a ll o rg an iz atio n s th a t had fo rm ed e a r l i e r in S hanghai's C u ltu ral R evolution, m any of which w ere m e re in te r e s t groups p r e s s in g sp ecific s o c ia l o r econom ic d em an d s. T h ese sm a ll o rg an izatio n s th a t had p ro v en so d isru p tiv e to S hanghai's econom y w e re attack ed fo r ex h ibiting the "guild m e n ta lity " —th e tendency to fo rm groups acc o rd in g to econom ic g rie v a n c e s —a m e n tality th a t "divides the w orking c la s s " and "m ix es people of d iffe re n t p o litic a l view points."I® B eginning in M arch, a c o n ce rted e ffo rt was launched to attack the " sm a ll-g ro u p m en tality " th a t had spaw ned cityw ide groups of bus conductors, cooks, and a p p re n tic e s, and to en co u rag e the new o rg an izatio n s w ith in , and not a c r o s s , individual w ork u n its, d e p a rt­ m ents, and sy ste m s . W o rk ers w ere to be o rg an ized into " g r e a t a lli­ a n c e s" contained w ithin eac h w o rk p lace, w hose ta sk would be to m o b ilize c ritic is m ag ain st the handful of b o u rg eo is le a d e rs — not to a g ita te fo r

67 r e d r e s s of so c ia l and econom ic g rie v a n c e s. H T h ese " g re a t a llia n c e s" w e re d esigned to defu se spontaneous co alitio n s b ased on com mon in te r ­ e s t. PLA contingents w ere in te g ra l p a r ts of each local allian ce, and the W o rk e rs ' H e a d q u a rte rs —fo rm e rly a d is sid e n t m a ss o rg an izatio n but rap id ly becom ing an o rg an iz atio n al a r m of th e M unicipal R evolutionary C o m m ittee—a lso co n trib u ted its calm in g p re s e n c e . T h ese contingents, by s te e rin g debate to w ard s o fficially approved is s u e s , w ere to a s s u re th a t individual w ork u n its w ere not faced, as they w ere in D ecem ber and Ja n u a ry , w ith an a r r a y of com peting in te r e s t groups fo rw ard in g dem ands, fighting one an o th er, and d isru p tin g p roduction. In eac h of the a r e a s w h ere d isru p tio n s had becom e a m a jo r p ro b ­ lem in Shanghai, C hang's ad m in istra tio n , u sin g the ta c tic s outlined above, attem p ted g rad u ally to r e s to r e so cial conditions to n e a r n o rm alcy .

H altin g A ttacks on In d u stria l and A d m in istrativ e C ad res In the f i r s t days a fte r W en-hui P ao becam e a d issid e n t organ, it had called fo r "sav ag e attack s upon b o u rg eo is a u th o ritie s ."12 T his policy had led to the re g u la r p e rse c u tio n of m in o r o fficials and au th o ri­ tie s , who w ere com m only p arad e d through the s tr e e ts in the backs of tru c k s , w e a rin g p la c a rd s and dunce cap s. L eading c a d re s in S hanghai's sch o o ls, fa c to rie s and o ffices w ere su b jected to a m e rc ile s s b a rra g e of c r itic is m . When u n su p erv ised d issid e n ts "se iz e d pow er" independently in individual fa c to rie s d u rin g the f i r s t days of Ja n u ary , e ith e r all of the m an ag em en t c a d re s w ere rem o v ed , o r they w ere in tim id ated to such an ex ten t th a t they re fu se d to re p o r t fo r w ork. -*-3 T h ese o c c u rre n c e s , w hich w ere doing nothing to r e s to r e p ro d u c­ tion in Shanghai, w ere soon to be la b elled as d ev iatio n s. As e a rly as Ja n u a ry 15, Chou E n -la i and C h'en P o -ta , r e f e r r in g to Shanghai a t a P eking ra lly , u rg e d w o rk e rs not to d is m is s m a n a g e rs but to " su p e rv ise " th em . 14 i n a m o n th 's tim e , th is sam e p ra c tic e of "o v erth ro w in g e v e ry ­ thing" w as a re a c tio n a ry slogan id entified w ith the co u n terrev o lu tio n ary opp o sitio n to the C om m une. C are m u st be taken, C hang's o rg an s s tr e s s e d , to d istin g u ish betw een b a sic level c a d re s and "bourgeois p o w er h o ld e rs " —fa ilu re to do so is " a n t i - M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t . O n l y a handful of th e se c a d re s w ere co n sid ere d re a c tio n a ry ; the m ajo rity , C hang's o rg an s s tr e s s e d , had m ade only m in o r e r r o r s and w ere " b a s i­ cally good" and th e re fo re should be d e a lt w ith "d isc rim in a tin g ly ." M ost of th e s e c a d re s w ere to be w elcom ed as "a p re c io u s r e s o u rc e " of tech n i­ cal and le a d e rs h ip s k ills . 1® T he C u ltu ral R evolution w as, a fte r all, not a "rev o lu tio n of d is m is s a ls " but an a ttem p t a t "o rg an izatio n al change."-*-?

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While Shanghai's a c tiv is ts w ere thus r e s tr a in e d fro m attack in g th e ir im m ed iate s u p e rio rs , the m ed ia u rg ed the in tim id ated c a d re s to re tu rn to w ork. E d ito ria ls d e c la re d th e R e b e ls ’ in ten tio n to "w elcom e w ith open a rm s all rev o lu tio n ary c a d re s r is in g to re b e l." T h e se c a d re s, f a r fro m being bo u rg eo is pow er h o ld e rs , w ere actu ally v ic tim s of the "bourgeois line."-*-® With th is change in o fficial line, c a d re s who r e ­ tu rn ed would not have to f e a r the ch arg e th a t they w ere " su p p re s s in g revolution by g ra sp in g p ro d u ctio n ," sin ce now it was a s s e r te d th a t th e re is no re a l d istin c tio n betw een the two. F u rth e r, they no lo n g er needed to fe a r the stig m a of having been ab sen t fro m th e ir p o sts fo r so long, fo r " th e re is no d iffere n ce betw een m aking rev o lu tio n e a rly o r la te ." 29 In o rd e r to becom e accep ted back into the rev o lu tio n a ry fold, th e se c a d re s had to "lay b a re th e ir h e a r ts ," confess th e ir m ista k e s, and join the m a ss e s in the c r itic is m cam paigns ag a in st the sm all handful of "bourgeois pow er h o ld e rs ." 2 -^ In M arch the p r e s s began to p u b licize s u c c e s s s to rie s of c a d re s who had "x'ebelled" and reg ain ed th e ir fo rm e r le a d e rs h ip p o s t s .22 By A p ril, in lin e w ith the r is in g c r itic is m c a m ­ paign ag ain st Liu S h ao -ch 'i and the "handful" of h is fo llo w ers in the old M PC, the p ra c tic e of attack in g b a sic lev el c a d re s had been m e ta m o rphosized into a p lot by b o u rg eo is a u th o ritie s : "stru g g lin g ag a in st the m any in o rd e r to p ro te c t the few ."22

R etu rn in g Students to School As e a rly as Jan u ary 15, C hang's le a d e rs h ip had m ade a co n ce rted effo rt to u rg e stu d en ts to re tu rn to sch o o l. 2^ In o r d e r to p re v e n t the C u ltu ral R evolution fro m becom ing m e re ly a "p assin g show ," stu d en ts w ere urg ed to "plunge into a new b a ttle ," re tu rn to and reo p en the s c h o o ls .25 While th e re they w ere to " se iz e pow er" fro m c o u n te r­ re v o lu tio n a rie s and forge the " g re a t a llia n c e ," w hile applying the le n ien t po licy tow ards in d u s tria l c a d re s to the teach in g and a d m in is tra tiv e staffs of the s c h o o ls .29 T his effo rt in itia lly co n cen trated on p r im a r y and m iddle s c h o o ls ,2? but m onths la te r Chang was u rg in g u n iv e rs ity students to likew ise stop th e ir factio n al s tru g g le s , d e c la rin g h is d is ­ ta s te fo r the u se s to w hich they put M ao's " little re d book": The read in g of quotations has becom e nothing but a w ar of w o rd s. I w ill only re a d p a ss a g e s fro m th e quotations which a r e fav o rab le to m e, but w ill not re a d anything w hich is unfav o rab le to m e .2 ®

69 J u s t as in the c a se of the a ttack s on c a d re s, u n d esirab le beh av io r w as tra c e d to the influence of unnam ed "bourgeois a u th o ritie s ." The " m ilita n t" call fo r stu d en ts to "fight back to the school to study and m ake rev o lu tio n " w as d e c la re d to be aim ed a t d efeating "the tr ic k of the handful of P a r ty people in au th o rity and tak in g the c a p ita lis t road to lu re stu d en ts away fro m th e ir s c h o o ls ." 2 ® L ikew ise, te a c h e rs who had been "deceived by the bo u rg eo is lin e" should be allow ed to join in this new " s tru g g le " —the opening of s c h o o ls .3^ T e a c h e rs and o th e r stu d en ts should not be the ta rg e ts of a stru g g le which should be d ire c te d only to w ard s the handful of fo r m e r MPC le a d e rs . 3*

R etu rn in g Youths to the C ountryside A sim u ltan eo u s but f a r m o re in ten se cam paign w as launched to u rg e sen t-d o w n youths who had re tu rn e d to Shanghai d u rin g the C ultural R evolution to go back to th e ir r u r a l v illa g e s . In e a rly F e b ru a ry the call w ent out to "fig h t o u r w ay back to the hom e v illag es and c a r r y out rev o lu ­ tion rig h t th e r e ." 32 T he c r i t e r i a fo r d istin g u ish in g a " tru ly rev o lu tio n ary " youth w as d e c la re d to be w h eth er o r not he w as w illin g to re tu rn to w ork in the co u n try sid e . 33 A fter a w eek th is Shanghai cam paign w as given the a u th o rity of a C en tral d ire c tiv e issu e d on F e b ru a ry 1 7 .3^ T h is m o b ilizatio n e ffo rt included w ell-p u b licized neighborhood c e le b ra tio n s fo r tho se youths p e rsu a d e d to r e tu r n ,3^ and, like the o th e r m o b ilizatio n cam paigns u n d e r Chang, the y o u th s' illeg al re tu rn to Shang­ hai was b lam ed on th e "handful" of fo r m e r MPC le a d e rs . Youths w ere u rg ed not to fall into "the en em y 's tr a p " by leaving th e ir r u r a l p ro d u c­ tio n p o s ts , and th o se who had a lre a d y been "duped" by the M P C 's plot of eco n o m ism w e re o rd e re d to re tu rn to Sinkiang in o r d e r to s m a s h this " c u rre n t c o u n te r-p lo t." 3^ A r a s h of "co n fessio n s" by youths who had re tu rn e d to Shanghai in v a riab ly tra c e d th e ir actio n s to the m achinations of the M PC. 37 The cam paign, how ever, did not end with th is: on F e b ru a ry 26, only two days a f te r its inaug u ratio n , the M unicipal R evolu­ tio n a ry C om m ittee had the h e a d q u a rte rs of the o rg an iz atio n s of re tu rn e d youths clo sed down and co n fiscated th e ir funds and p r o p e r ty .33

R eso lv in g the Issu e of W o rk er E conom ic D em ands The is s u e of th e ju s tifia b ility of the te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t lab o r s y s te m —one th a t had fig u red so d e c isiv e ly in the econom ic c r is is of

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late D ecem b er and e a rly J a n u a ry --h a d y et to be re s o lv e d . Chiang C h'ing had ag ree d on D ecem b er 26 th a t the sy ste m of c o n tra c t la b o r was a " c o rru p t" p ro d u ct of the b o u rg eo is lin e, and the re b e l-c o n tro lle d Shanghai Radio had re p o rte d sy m p ath etically as late as Ja n u a ry 6 on e ffo rts by te m p o ra ry w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s to " c ru s h the u n reaso n ab le s y s t e m . A s the CCRG and Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o m oved to r e s to r e Shanghai's econom y and e x e rc is e d in c re a s in g in stitu tio n a l co n tro l o v e r m a ss o rg an iz atio n s, how ever, the non p erm an en t w o r k e r s ' d em an d s w e re tre a te d with p ro g re s s iv e ly le s s sym pathy. An u n official C en tral d ir e c ­ tive d e c la re d on Jan u ary 12 th a t th e s y ste m of te m p o ra ry la b o r w as " ra tio n a l in som e c a s e s ," even though s u re ly " e rro n e o u s " in o t h e r s .40 By the end of Jan u ary , how ever, S hanghai's an ti-e c o n o m ism " F ro n t­ lin e Com m and" d e c la re d that one of the b ig g e st p lo ts at p re s e n t is to in stig a te w o rk e rs, u n d er th e p re te x t of "opposing the b o u rg eo is re a c tio n a ry lin e", to oppose "u n reaso n ab le s y s te m s " ; sab o tag in g the econom y. 41 W ithin two w eeks (by F e b ru a ry 17), the CCRG had o rd e re d the national o rg an izatio n s of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t w o rk e rs d isbanded. T em p o ­ ra ry w o rk e rs ' dem ands th a t they be given equal p o litic al rig h ts w e re honored, but the econom ic dem ands did not f a r e as w ell. The CCRG had ap p aren tly decided th a t the s y ste m was v ital to C h in a's econom y, fo r the s y ste m of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o r w as d e c la re d " ra tio n a l" in som e c a s e s , w hile it w as p ro m ise d th a t the C en tral C om m ittee w as studying p o ssib le r e f o r m s .42 In little m o re than a w eek, on F e b ru a ry 27, th e Shanghai M unicipal R ev olutionary C om m ittee, d e c la rin g th a t "bad e le m e n ts" had in filtra te d o rg an iz atio n s of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t w o rk e rs, clo sed th e ir offices and confiscated th e ir fu n d s .43 The v e ry next day, the R ev o lu tio n ary C om m ittee ren eg ed on th e D ecem b er 26 C e n tra l d ire c tiv e , rep u d ia ted the D ecem b er 27 p a c t betw een the old MPC and the W o rk e rs ' H ead­ q u a rte rs and, u rg in g te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t w o rk e rs to " d e stro y s e lfis h n e s s ," announced th a t they w ere once again b ein g laid off and th a t they m u st im m ed iately leave th e ir w ork u n it s .44 A s im ila r fate b efell the dem ands of th o se p e rm a n e n t Shanghai w o rk e rs who had re tu rn e d to the city to p r o te s t th e s y ste m th a t t r a n s ­ f e r r e d them to r u r a l and inland a r e a s . Follow ing th e f a m ilia r p a tte rn of the o th e r cam paigns to r e s to r e o r d e r and p ro d u ctio n in Shanghai, it w as f i r s t a s s e rte d in m id -Ja n u a ry th a t th e old MPC, u sin g the b a it of 1

1

71 "e c o n o m ism ," had lu re d th e s e sent-dow n w o rk ers to re tu rn to Shanghai to m ake " u n reaso n ab le econom ic r e q u e s t s .'^ 5 Im m ediately th e re a fte r, C hang's le a d e rs h ip launched a la te Jan u ary cam paign u rg in g w o rk ers to "fig h t back to the hom e tow ns to m ake rev o lu tio n th e re ," w hile c r it i­ cizin g th o se who fo rw ard ed th e p o litic ally e rro n e o u s slogan " re v e rs in g th e in ju stic e of m oving to the i n t e r io r ."46

R e s to rin g O rd e r in S hanghai's N eighborhoods As C hang's e ffo rts to s id e tra c k p r o te s t o v er econom ic is s u e s and to c u rta il a tta c k s upon in d u s tria l and a d m in is tra tiv e c a d re s becam e in c re a s in g ly effectiv e, c a d re s in S hanghai's neighborhoods w ere d e­ c la re d to be in a " s ta te of u p h e a v a l."4? R etu rn ed youths and th e ir p a re n ts w ere stru g g lin g a g ain st the lane c a d re s re sp o n sib le fo r m obi­ lizin g youth to the co u n try sid e and w ere dem anding p e rm its to rem ain in the c ity .48 S m all, local o rg an iz atio n s of sent-dow n w o rk e rs w ere adding th e ir g rie v a n c e s to th is w ave of "u n ju stified econom ic dem ands" and w ere s im ila rly engaged in "d rag g in g out" the b a sic level c a d re s. 49 As th e s u p p re ssio n of m a ss o rg an izatio n s opposed to the Commune b eca m e m o re effectiv e a f te r F e b ru a ry 18, opposition attack s becam e in c re a s in g ly d ire c te d so le ly at th e se neighborhood-level le a d e rs . Keng C h in -c h an g 's o rg an iz atio n , fo r exam ple, had co n cen trated its activ ities in the W usung a re a , w h ere it had attack ed public se c u rity statio n s, d e c la re d its e lf in pow er, and o rg an ized stru g g le m eetin g s ag ain st lane c a d re s , d e c la rin g its inten tio n to pull th em down "one by o n e."^9 o th e r local o rg a n iz a tio n s, lik e the one in the W angchia w h arf a re a , led v iolent a tta c k s ag a in st lane c a d re s , re p o rte d ly raid in g hom es to m ake m idnight a r r e s t s and kidnapping and b eatin g people. 5 4 The a c tiv itie s of o rg an i­ zatio n s in o th e r neighborhoods seem e d devoid of p o litic al content; many sim p ly te r r o r iz e d neighborhoods by ra id in g hom es and s te a lin g equip­ m en t. 52 C hang's in itia l re a c tio n to th is new wave of d is o r d e r w as to pub­ lis h a s e r ie s of stro n g ly w orded a r tic le s condem ning the attack s on neighborhood c a d re s as the actio n of "bad elem en ts itching fo r c la ss re v e n g e " d ire c te d b e h in d -th e -s c e n e s by th e "handful" of old MPC le a d e rs . "We can c ritic iz e and ed u cate" the neighborhood c a d re s, th e se e d ito ria ls u rg ed , "but wc m u st not tr e a t them as ta rg e ts of s tr u g g le ." 53 Instead , re b e ls m u st thoroughly rep u d iate the b ourgeois lin e, "pointing the sp e a rh e a d upw ard, not down w ard . "54

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T hese a r tic le s , in ste a d of producing the d e s ire d effect, provoked a th re e -d a y sieg e and occupation of the W en-hui P ao o ffices by d is s id e n t groups fro m the neighborhoods. 55 T housands of th e se an g ry d e m o n stra ­ to rs accused the p a p e r of d is to rtin g the ta rg e ts of stru g g le and a s s e r te d th a t lane c a d re s w ere c o rru p t p o w e r-h o ld e rs . They arg u ed th a t all a u th o ritie s had to be exam ined, o th e rw ise the ro o ts of re v is io n is m could not be d e stro y e d . They ch arg ed W en-hui P a o , and by im p lic atio n , Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o , w ith try in g to su p p re s s the m a ss m ovem ent. Chang then took the in itia tiv e away fro m the attack in g d is s id e n ts . Local public s e c u rity sta tio n s , at tim e s a s s is te d by the PLA , began to a r r e s t le a d e rs and disband lo cal d is s id e n t o rg a n iz a tio n s.5^ At the sam e tim e , s tru g g le r a llie s ag ain st the a tta c k e rs of lane c a d re s w e re o rg a ­ nized by the P u b lic S ecu rity b ran ch e s in m any n eig h b o rh o o d s.58 In som e c a se s th e se s tru g g le s e s s io n s w ere w aived in fa v o r of w ell-p u b licized public t r i a ls , in w hich " c r im in a ls " and " c o u n te rre v o lu tio n a rie s " re c e iv e d te rm s ran g in g fro m sev en to tw enty y e a rs of im p riso n m e n t o r h a rd la b o r fo r th e ir p a r t in o rc h e s tra tin g attack s on neighborhood c a d r e s .5® By the end of M arch, the situ atio n had been q uelled su fficien tly fo r fo rty thou­ sand neighborhood c a d re s to vow, in a te le v is e d o ath -tak in g ra lly , to "b rav ely " re tu r n to th e ir p o s ts . 50

Shanghai in the S um m er of 1967 Chang’s ro le as a s ta b iliz in g fo rc e in S hanghai's polity and eco n ­ omy d u rin g 1967 and h is s u c c e s s in th a t ro le a re laid into bold re lie f by a co m p ariso n of events in Shanghai d u rin g th e su m m e r of 1967 w ith th o se in C hina's o th e r m a jo r u rb an c e n te r s . T he p e rio d fro m th e end of Ju ly to the f i r s t days of S ep tem b er w e re probably the m o st v io le n t and bloody m onths of the C u ltu ral R evolution in China— m onths th a t m any o b s e r v e r s fe e l led to a b a sic sh ift in C en tral p o licies to w ard the m o v em en t. Sym ­ bolic of the v io len t fa c tio n a lism into w hich th e C u ltu ral R evolution had d eg en e rated in m o st of China w as th e "W uhan In c id e n t." 5 L a stin g fro m Ju ly 20 to A ugust 4,^2 th is s e r ie s of v io le n t ev en ts in W uhan, w hich saw local m ilita ry le a d e rs defy C en tral o r d e r s in th e ir e ffo rts to in te rv e n e in m a ss fa c tio n a lism , touched off an e ffo rt by so m e m e m b e rs of the CCRG to o rc h e s tr a te attack s upon lo cal m ilita ry le a d e rs who w e re r e ­ p o rted ly "o b stru c tin g " th e m ovem ent. T his effo rt to " d ra g out th e handful in th e a rm y ," w hich coincided w ith c ritic is m s of Chou E n -la i and attack s on the F o re ig n M in istry u n d er h is d ire c tio n and w hich la te r w as la id to e ffo rts by CCRG m e m b e rs I

I

73 Wang Li, Kuan Feng, Lin Chieh, and Mu H sin, dom inated C hinese po litics u n til the beginning of S e p t e m b e r . D uring th is p erio d , w ith the arm y p a r ­ tia lly im m o b ilized and s trip p e d of its unquestioned au th o rity as a p eace­ k eeping fo rc e , v io len t p o litic al cla sh e s reach ed th e ir h ig h est p e a k . 64 Not u n til S ep te m b er, when the policy of encouraging m ass c r itic is m of a rm y le a d e rs was re v e rs e d , could th e PLA begin to play an effective ro le in s u p p re s sin g v io len t conflict and in p roviding the d iscip lin e n ece s­ s a ry fo r re c o n s tru c tin g lo cal in stitu tio n al fra m e w o rk s . 65 In s ta rk c o n tra s t to the events in m o st of China and with the opposi­ tion of m any CCRG m e m b e rs to PLA a c tiv itie s , S hanghai's situ atio n r e ­ m ained re la tiv e ly sta b le and the local PLA continued to play a v ital, unquestioned ro le in the functioning of the c ity 's polity and econom y. The local m ilita ry , so c e n tra l to C hang's effo rt to re in s ta te o r d e r and quell opposition to his e ffo rts to do so, was by now firm ly en tren ch ed in the c ity 's a d m in is tra tiv e in stitu tio n s. Liao C heng-kuo, the com m ander of th e Shanghai G a rriso n , had played a c e n tra l ro le in C hang's effo rts to e s ta b lis h the C om m u n e/R ev o lu tio n ary C om m ittee and had enjoyed a p o sitio n a s v ic e -c h a irm a n of th e R evolutionary C om m ittee sin ce its e s ta b lish m e n t in F e b ru a ry . 66 Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o h im se lf was tied into th e local m ilita ry h ie ra rc h y , having becom e in F e b ru a ry f ir s t s e c r e ta r y of both the Nanking M ilitary Region and th e Shanghai d is tr ic t PLA G ar-

With the local P L A and C hang's a d m in istra tio n so in tim ately in te r ­ tw ined, it is not s u rp r is in g th a t the policy of encouraging attack s on the a rm y m ade v irtu a lly no headway in Shanghai. When the f ir s t CCRG call to " d ra g out" re p re s e n ta tiv e s of the b o u rg eo isie in the arm y was issu ed fro m P ek in g on July 2 2 ,68 in the m id st of the "Wuhan Incident," Shang­ h a i's m e d ia paid d e fe re n c e to th is C en tral policy sh ift by changing the w ording of its c a lls f o r atta c k s on the b o u rg eo isie to include the arm y a s w ell as the P a rty , s ta te , and c u ltu ral g ro u p s. 66 T his sh ift, how ever, o c c u rre d in the m id st of an ex istin g local cam paign to pro m o te an up­ s u rg e of p o litic a l study and fo rm a liz e d c r itic is m of " c a p ita lis t ro a d e r s " — th e la te s t in a long s e r ie s of local cam paigns to e ra d ic a te su rv iv in g pockets of factio n al s tr if e and opposition to C hang's le a d e rsh ip by p ro ­ m oting "unity in c r itic is m " of C h in a's sy m b o lic K hrushchev. ® In the context of S hanghai's d em o b ilizatio n cam p aig n s, the C C R G -inspired e ffo rt to " d ra g out" PLA le a d e rs p ro m p ted only the addition of arm y p e rso n n e l to the sym b o lic lis t of unnam ed re v is io n is t le a d e rs being su b ­ je c te d to re le n tle s s c r itic is m in Shanghai. The calls fo r m oves ag ain st th e a rm y , in o th e r w o rd s, w ere com pletely ad u lte ra te d , and the in cen ­ d ia ry effects they had on o th e r reg io n s of China w ere a v e rte d in Shanghai.

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Even if fo rm al c r itic is m of unnam ed " r e v is io n is ts " in the a rm y seem e d p o ssib le given th is slig h t a lte ra tio n in the w ording of lo cally published e d ito ria ls , C hang's a d m in is tra tio n m ade v e ry c le a r th a t a c ­ tual attack s upon P L A p re s tig e and a u th o rity w e re not to be to le ra te d . As e a rly as Ju ly 28, w ithin days of the s t a r t of the CCRG m oves a g a in st the a rm y , the Shanghai m ed ia s tr e s s e d the p ivotal ro le of th e P L A in su p p o rtin g the "left" in Shanghai s in c e th e f i r s t days of th e J a n u a ry Revolution. 71 T he m ed ia buildup of the PLA coincided w ith w arnings ag a in st m e m b ers of disbanded o rg an iz atio n s who, a p p are n tly in sp ire d by events in Wuhan and else w h e re , w ere ag ita tin g and o rg an iz in g in iso la ted pockets of the city to reb u ild the opposition m ovem ent th a t Chang had s u p p re s se d . T h ese o rg an izatio n s w e re w arned th a t Shanghai was a lre a d y u n d er the co n tro l of " p ro le ta ria n re v o lu tio n a rie s ." 7^ To d riv e hom e th e se po in ts, th e Shanghai M ilita ry C ontrol C om m isio n held in Shanghai on A ugust 1 a m a ss iv e ra lly , fe a tu rin g r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s of all the b ran ch e s of th e a rm e d s e r v ic e s . The PLA was salu ted , once again, f o r su p p o rtin g the left, and d is s id e n ts w e re ex ­ p lic itly w arned ag ain st attack in g the P L A . 7^ W ang Shao-yung, a c iv ilian v ic e -c h a irm a n of the M unicipal R ev o lutionary C o m m ittee, d e c la re d a t this ra lly the n e c e ssity to " s t i r up a new u p su rg e in su p p o rtin g the A rm y . . . and put out s till g r e a te r e ffo rts to co n so lid ate m ilita n t s o li­ d a rity with the P L A ." Wang continued, We p ro le ta ria n re v o lu tio n a rie s of Shanghai s till re m e m ­ b e r c le a rly th a t in the g re a t s to rm y rev o lu tio n of Ja n u a ry , the PLA u n its statio n ed in Shanghai, actin g on C h airm an M ao's in s tru c tio n s, d ire c tly in terv en ed in the lo cal g re a t p ro le ta ria n cu ltu ra l revolution, th e re b y e n su rin g the sm ooth developm ent of the g re a t p ro le ta ria n c u ltu ra l revolution. Since the s e iz u re and m a s te ry of pow er by the p ro le ta r ia t, th e PLA h as re n d e re d trem en d o u s su p ­ p o rt to the p r o le ta r ia t in the stru g g le f o r co n so lid atin g and stren g th en in g th e d ic ta to rs h ip of the p r o le ta r ia t. 7^ The m e ssa g e th a t "th e PLA is a pow erful m a in stay fo r p r o le ta r ia n d ic ta ­ to rs h ip " was painfully obvious, as was the id ea th a t "w ithout a p e o p le 's A rm y, th e re is nothing f o r the p e o p le ." 7^ T h u s, on A ugust 1, in the m id st of C C R G -inspired attack s upon the PLA and a full m onth b efo re th is C en tral policy w as re v e rs e d , W ang Shao-yung called fo r a m ove­ m ent to "Support th e A rm y and C h erish the P eo p le " so th a t Shanghai could becom e "an iro n b astio n of A rm y -p eo p le u n ity ." 76

75 When m in o r, iso la ted attack s upon arm y p erso n n el and o th e r Revo­ lu tio n a ry C om m ittee a u th o rity fig u re s did o ccu r, the Shanghai m edia se iz e d upon th e se events and b u ilt them up into highly publicized a ffa irs. At th e Shanghai D iesel Engine P la n t, ap p are n tly one of th o se iso lated pockets th a t s till su ffe re d fro m ch ro n ic factio n al infighting, a c o m p ara­ tiv ely m in o r in cid en t o c c u rre d on A ugust 3 th at was to touch off an offi­ c ia l fu ro r g re a tly d isp ro p o rtio n a te to its actu al s e rio u s n e s s . A d is s id e n t group a t th e p la n t known as "L ien Szu" had re s is te d atte m p ts by re p re s e n ta tiv e s of th e PLA and W o rk e rs' H ead q u arters to " s e iz e pow er" and r e d ir e c t p o litic al a c tiv itie s am ong the facto ry w o rk e rs. T he p ro b le m at th is p lan t had been s e rio u s and p e r s is te n t enough fo r the M unicipal R ev o lu tio n ary C om m ittee to give it sp ecia liz ed atten tio n . On A ugust 2 th e C om m ittee re le a s e d an open le tte r to the w o rk e rs in the p la n t in hopes of o v erco m in g th e stu b b o rn p o litic a l r e s is ta n c e of this lo cal o rg a n iz a tio n . When re p re s e n ta tiv e s of the R evolutionary C om m it­ te e , accom panied by a PLA e s c o r t and a contingent of jo u rn a lis ts fro m S hanghai's n ew sp ap ers, radio and te le v isio n netw orks, a rriv e d on A ugust 3 in s e v e ra l p ro p ag an d a tru c k s b e a rin g bundles of th is open le t­ te r , they re c e iv e d le s s than a w arm w elcom e. A civ ilian re p re s e n ta tiv e of th e R evolutionary C om m ittee, m e t a t th e p lan t gate by m em b ers of "L ien S zu ," w as given a sound th ra sh in g , and PLA tro o p s who tr ie d to in te rv e n e w e re also su rro u n d ed and attack ed by lacking and sw inging w o rk e rs . As the scu ffle e sc a la te d , the busy jo u rn a lis ts had th e ir cam 77 e ra s sm ash ed , and the propaganda tru c k s w ere o v ertu rn e d and looted. ' C om pared to th e w id esp read vio len ce in Wuhan, Canton, and e ls e ­ w h ere d u rin g this sa m e p erio d , th is was indeed a m inor outbreak, but th e M unicipal R evolu tio n ary C om m ittee re a c te d sw iftly and fo rcefu lly to the "D iesel P la n t In cid en t," m aking it the cau se fo r an August cam ­ paign to e lim in ate th e se iso la te d pockets of re s is ta n c e . The day a fte r the incident, the city a d m in istra tio n held a m a ss p ro te s t ra lly and p a ra d e , the W o rk e rs' H ea d q u a rte rs issu ed a public denunciation, and W en-hui P ao and C hieh-fang Jih -p a o ran s e p a ra te b e llig e re n t e d ito ria ls a ttack in g the le a d e rs of "L ie n S z u ." 7® Chief am ong the ch arg e s m ade a g a in st this group was th a t they had d a re d to oppose " re p re s e n ta tiv e s of the a rm e d fo rc e s a t th e p lan t" and th a t they had "p h y sically assa u lte d the PLA co m m an d ers and f ig h te r s ." 79 O ver the next few days the in c i­ d ent rem a in ed th e focus of m ed ia e ffo rts, with rep eated d e sc rip tio n s of th e ex em p lary conduct of the PLA and sp ecific w arnings to the "L ien Szu" d is s id e n ts g rad u ally fading into a m o re g en era l m edia effo rt to p r a is e P L A peacek eep in g effo rts and to u n d e rs c o re th a t

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we do not allow any p e rs o n to u se p re te x ts to sow d is c o rd betw een th e A rm y and the people w ith th e aim of pointing the sp e a rh e a d a t the g re a t PLA , u n d erm in in g the p ro le ­ ta ria n d ic ta to rsh ip , and d isru p tin g the o r d e r of the rev o lu ­ tion. 80 Except fo r a b rie f notice on A ugust 13 th a t the situ a tio n a t the D iesel P lan t was u n d er the co n tro l of PLA p ropaganda te a m s ,8'1' the "L ie n Szu" incident, having se rv e d its pedagogical function, w as quickly dropped a s m edia lash in g s of "C h in a's K hrushchev" and c a lls to s tre n g th e n pub­ lic s e c u rity resu m ed . 88 With s tro n g o rg an iz atio n al tie s linking him to the lo cal m ilita ry , and with the m ilita ry continuing to provide him with e s s e n tia l su p p o rt a t c ru c ia l points in S hanghai's C u ltu ral R evolution, Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o did not join in the s u m m e r atta c k s a g a in st the arm y in sp ire d by his CCRG co lleag u es. Any atta c k s a g a in st the PLA in Shanghai would s im u l­ taneously u n d erm in e th e foundation of C hang's p o litic a l a u th o rity . T his o rg an izatio n al link illu m in ates the re a so n s fo r the s p lit th a t o c c u rre d in the s o -c a lle d " ra d ic a l" factio n of the top national le a d e rs h ip in late A ugust. Wang Li and h is co lleag u es in P eking, fre e of su ch o rg a n iz a ­ tio n al links to th e PLA in th e ir p o sitio n s on the CCRG, fo rw ard ed attack s on the a rm y w hich d ire c tly th re a te n e d C hang's pow er in Shang­ hai and the s u c c e s s of his lo cal e ffo rts . T he Shanghai le a d e rs h ip su b ­ sequently sided with the national m ilita ry le a d e rs h ip in its d isp u te with the young a n ti-a rm y " r a d ic a ls ," w ith Yao W en-yuan h im se lf penning in e a rly S eptem ber w hat is co n sid ere d by one o b s e rv e r to be the "coup de g ra c e " ag a in st the Wang Li group— an a r tic le denouncing a c o n sp irac y of " u ltr a - le f tis ts " in the C en tral le a d e rs h ip . 88 Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao , in sum , effectiv ely iso la ted Shanghai fro m the C C R G -inspired effo rts to a ttack the p ro v in cial arm y le a d e rs h ip and su c c e ssfu lly a v erted the o c c u rre n c e of w id esp read v io len ce th a t plagued m o st of China at the tim e. At a c ru c ia l point in C u ltu ral R evolution p o litic s, Chang sided w ith the m ilita ry le a d e rs h ip in its n ational policy d ispute with the " ra d ic a ls " in P eking, p ro v id in g c ru c ia l su p p o rt n e c e s ­ s a ry fo r defeatin g h is o n c e -c lo s e p o litic a l a s s o c ia te s .

IX CONCLUSIONS

O ur account of the com plex a r r a y of p o litic al and so cial conflicts th a t c o m p rise d S hanghai's J a n u a ry R evolution, and of the effo rts of one in d iv id u al— Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o —to fo s te r, d ir e c t and shape th e se con­ flic ts , d iffe rs fro m p rev io u s in te rp re ta tio n s in s e v e ra l im p o rtan t r e ­ s p e c ts . T h e se in te rp re tiv e d iffere n ces a r e d ire c tly re la te d to a s e t of th e o re tic a l p e rs p e c tiv e s th a t se e m p a rtic u la rly applicable to the Jan u ary R evolution, and p e rh a p s to C hinese p o litic s and so ciety in g e n era l. The actio n s of e lite p o litic a l a c to rs in Shanghai a r e illu m in ated by an u n d er­ stan d in g of the o rg an iz atio n al netw orks in w hich they o p e ra te , ju s t as th e p o litic a l m obilizatio n of the population cannot be adequately u n d er­ stood a p a rt fro m the u n d erly in g s o c ia l d iv isio n s and conflicts th a t d e te r ­ m ine th e fo rm th is m o b ilizatio n w ill ta k e. The actions of an individual p o litic a l a c to r like Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o a r e thus co n strain ed both by o rg a n iz a tio n a l p o sitio n s and re s p o n s ib ilitie s , and by often u n p red ictab le m a ss re s p o n s e s to p o litic a l m o b ilizatio n . T his p e rs p e c tiv e g en era tes so m e new in sig h ts into th e s tr a te g ie s and p o litic al aim s of " ra d ic a l" p o litic ia n s in China both d u rin g and a f te r th e C ultural R evolution and u n d e rs c o re s so m e v e ry r e a l o b sta c le s th a t faced effo rts to induce so cial change in China thro u g h th e se p o litic a l m ethods.

In te rp re tiv e Shifts P a s t in te rp re ta tio n s of th e C u ltu ral R evolution have contended th a t p ro v in c ia l p o litic al le a d e rs u sed a v a rie ty of m ethods to p r e s e r v e th e ir own p o litic a l p o w er and dull the effects of the m ovem ent in th e ir a r e a s . 1 R elated ly , S hanghai's Ja n u a ry R evolution is often in te rp re te d as an a tte m p t to b re a k through th is local r e s is ta n c e to the developing m a ss m ovem ent thro u g h an o u trig h t "pow er s e iz u re " by m a ss p o litical o rg a n iz a tio n s .2 T he actio n s of local m unicipal e lite s , in o th e r w ords, a r e view ed as acts of o b stru c tio n , w hile the Ja n u a ry R evolution is seen a s an a tte m p t to o v erco m e the o b sta c le s to th e m ovem ent p re s e n te d by th e d efen siv e actio n s of lo cal le a d e rs . The su b seq u en t a tte m p t to 77

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e sta b lis h a Commune is consequently view ed as an ep iso d e of ro m an tic u to p ian ism th a t would la te r be te m p e re d by a d o se of p o litic a l re a lity and a r e tr e a t fro m the Commune and radicalism .*^ T he Ja n u a ry R evolution. C lo se r ex am in atio n of e x istin g evidence fo r the events in Shanghai h as dem anded a nu m b er of re v isio n s in th is dom inant view . F ir s t, the actions of su ch lo c al m u n icip al offi­ cia ls as T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu s u g g e st th a t, f a r fro m activ ely o b s tru c tin g the m ovem ent, local le a d e rs m ay actu ally have p ro m o ted i t in good faith in its e a r l ie r s ta g e s . S ubsequent opposition w ithin the Shang­ hai MPC to w o rk e rs ' o rg an izatio n s was not only su p p o rted by CCRG policy at the tim e doubts w ere voiced but was also b ased upon ac c u ­ ra te p red ic tio n s of the d isru p tiv e effects such o rg an iz atio n s would have upon Shanghai's econom y. The old Shanghai MPC, in fact, w as v e ry carefu l to follow e x istin g C en tral guidelines on the C ultural R evolution and followed, a lb e it w ith so m e p ro te s ta tio n , each p ro ­ g re s s iv e policy sh ift until it could no lo n g er e x e rc is e effectiv e le a d e r ­ ship o v e r the burgeoning d is s id e n t m o v em en ts. F a r fro m s y s te m a ti­ cally and su c c e ssfu lly o b stru c tin g the C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai, the MPC p ro g re s s iv e ly lo s t co n tro l o v e r events in th e city — a p r o ­ c e ss contributin g to the to tal p o litic al and econom ic c o llap se of D ecem b er 1966. Secondly, the so u rc e of th is c o llap se w as not, as h as so often been suggested, m anipulation and sab o tag e on the p a r t of th e MPC le a d e rs h ip and its fo llo w e rs .^ S h an g h ai's c o llap se, on th e c o n tra ry , w as due on the one hand to p ro g re s s iv e ly d a rin g CCRG p o lic ie s th a t unleashed u n fo reseen econom ic dem ands and s u rp ris in g ly v io len t and p e r s is te n t factio n al in fighting and on th e o th e r hand to C en tral p ro ­ hibitions ag ain st o b stru c tin g the m ovem ent w hich p rev en ted the MPC fro m acting as a s ta b iliz in g f o rc e . The a r r a y of dem ands fo rw ard ed by v a rio u s w o r k e r s ' o rg a n iz a tio n s, fu rth e r, re q u ire d no en c o u ra g e ­ m ent by m unicipal le a d e r s . T he o u tb rea k of "eco n o m ism " had o b serv ab le ro o ts in sh ifts in C h in a's em ploym ent s tr u c tu r e , ju s t as the su b seq u en t m a ss fa c tio n a lism had its foundations in the s tr a tif ie d s y ste m of d istrib u tio n of w ages and b e n e fits. ^ T he Ja n u a ry R evolution, th ird ly , w as by no m eans a ra d ic a l atte m p t to b re a k through lo cal o b stru c tio n s p laced on the m ovem ent but w as fro m th e beginning an e ffo rt co o rd in ated by Chang C h'unch 'ia o to contro l and r e d ir e c t an unex p ected ly v io le n t and b e n e fito rien ted m a ss m ovem ent th a t had h alted S h an g h ai's econom y and

79 th re a te n e d to d is c r e d it C ultu ral R evolution p o lic ie s . The r e tr e a t fro m th e d is ru p tiv e CCRG p o licies fo rw ard ed d u rin g the fall of 1966 thus began w ith C hang's activ e, fu ll-tim e rein v o lv em en t in Shanghai p o litic s d u rin g the f i r s t days of J a n u a ry . The su bsequent Commune w as consequently not a m a n ifestatio n of ra d ic a l u to p ian ism 6 but was p a rt, a lb e it an u n su ccessfu l and s h o rt-liv e d one, of a continuing e ffo rt to r e s to r e o r d e r and pro d u ctio n in C hina's m o st im p o rtan t in d u s tria l and co m m e rc ia l city . As p a r t of th is effo rt, Chang's p ro p ag an d a a p p ara tu s g e n era ted the in te rp re ta tio n of MPC actions and of the J a n u a ry R evolution th a t h as colored in v ary in g d eg rees su b seq u en t W e ste rn acco u n ts. Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o and C hinese " R a d ic a lis m " . C hang's actions d u rin g S hanghai's C ultural R evolution, fin ally , do not fit w ith a com ­ mon u n idim ensional conception of him as a " ra d ic a l ideologue" o r a p o litic a l " ro m a n tic ." C hang's ta s k in Shanghai was not to en g in eer a uto p ian Commune but to fo rg e som e s o r t of p o litical unity by any m ean s in o r d e r to rem ed y th e econom ic and a d m in istra tiv e p a ra ly sis th a t had b efallen th e city . R e in statin g la b o r d iscip lin e , re d ire c tin g factio n al e n e rg ie s , s id e tra c k in g so cial g riev a n ces and econom ic d em ands, and s u p p re s s in g in c o rrig ib le opposition— C hang's actions b elied an em inently p ra c tic a l p o litic ian , v ita lly concerned w ith r e ­ s tr ic tin g the unexpectedly v io len t and d e s tru c tiv e dim en sio n s of a m a ss m ovem ent th a t he -him self had helped to in itia te . A pparently aw are th a t m aking rev o lu tio n w as indeed not the sam e as d raftin g an e s s a y , Chang u tiliz e d a flex ib le p o litic al s tra te g y m andated by actual conditions in Shanghai. C hang's h a rd - lin e ta c tic s w ere not a rep u d iatio n of his long held p o litic a l b e lie fs, n o r w e re they n e c e s s a rily in c o n sisten t with a "M aoist" p o sitio n . Any le a d e r o r group of le a d e rs who advocate giving w o rk ers and o th e r citiz e n s the rig h t to c r itic iz e th e ir s u p e rio rs and p a rtic ip a te in b a s ic level d ec isio n s b e a rs th e re sp o n sib ility fo r a s s u rin g th a t the fe rm e n t and d isru p tio n of ro u tin e th at re s u lts fro m the e x e rc is e of th e se rig h ts w ill re m a in both c o n stru c tiv e and lim ited . Any an aly sis of Chi­ n ese p o litic s e ith e r d u rin g o r a fte r the C ultural R evolution th at a ssu m e s ra d ic a ls a r e so lely fo r "m o b ilizatio n and d isru p tio n " while m o d erates a r e fo r " o r d e r and p ro d u ctio n "^ w ill, fo r th e se re a s o n s , m islead r a th e r than enlighten. Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o —undoubtedly a C hinese " r a d ic a l" — h as shown both the w illin g n ess and a b ility to take firm m e a su re s to m o d e ra te the c o u rs e of a m a ss m ovem ent in o r d e r to a s s u r e th a t the m ovem ent does not lo se its d e s ire d d ire c tio n .

80 T h e o re tic a l P e rs p e c tiv e s While dem anding re v isio n s in so m e p rev io u s in te rp re ta tio n s of C hinese p o litic s d u rin g th e C u ltu ral R evolution, th is c a se stu d y — of e lite p o litical behavio r in an o rg an izatio n undergoing e x tre m e u n c e rta in ty and s e t w ithin a so cial s y ste m ex p erien cin g m a ssiv e u n r e s t—s u g g e sts so m e th e o re tic a l p e rs p e c tiv e s th a t m ight p o ten tially co n trib u te to o u r u n d e r­ standing of the co n tem p o rary C hinese p o litic a l and so c ia l s y s te m . O r­ ganizational and so cial s tr u c tu re , sp e c ific a lly , need to be reco g n ized as im p o rtan t d e te rm in a n ts of the fo rm co n flict ta k es in a p o litic a l s y s ­ te m —even at the e lite level. O rganizational S tru c tu re and P o litic a l C o n flict. Individual p o litic a l a c to rs engage in p o litic s w ithin a com plex o rg an iz atio n al netw ork, e s p e ­ cially in the m inutely o rg an ized C hinese p o litic a l s y ste m . The o rg a n i- r zational se ttin g of individual p o litic al actio n s h as re p ea ted ly em erg ed as an explanatory fa c to r in o u r an a ly sis of the J a n u a ry R evolution. O rganizational p o sitio n s and r e s p o n s ib ilitie s , f ir s tly , can p ro v id e re la tiv e freed o m to advocate c e rta in p o litic a l p o sitio n s o r they can s e v e re ly c irc u m s c rib e options. Lodged f i r s t w ithin a lo cal pro p ag an d a b u re a u c ra c y and then w ithin the CCRG—n e ith e r p o sitio n involving d ir e c t involvem ent in the functioning of the econom y— Chang in itia lly w as a f­ forded the freed o m to advocate th e fo rm atio n of w o r k e r s ' o rg an iz atio n s and attack s upon " r e v is io n is ts ," w hile having to w r e s tle w ith little m o re than the p o litic al id eals involved. T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu and o th e r MPC offi­ c ia ls, on the o th e r hand, constantly confronted w ith the n e a r-im p o s s ib le ta sk of reco n c ilin g C h an g -in sp ired p o licies w ith th e n o rm al functioning of the econom y also dem anded by C en tral a u th o ritie s , w e re acu tely aw are of the co n tra d ictio n s and p o ten tial d an g ers of th e s e p o licies and e x p re s s e d th e se d ifficu lties in co m p lain ts to C en tral a u th o ritie s . When Chang in h e rited T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu 's o rg an iz atio n al re s p o n s ib ilitie s in Ja n u a ry 1967,. he v e ry quickly exhibited a lm o s t id e n tic a l co n cern s about the m aintenance of production and o r d e r and, unlike T s 'a o , actu ally moved to su p p re ss d issid e n t p o litic a l a ctiv ity . In an iro n ic r e v e r s a l of ro le s , when Wang Li and his CCRG a s s o c ia te s , enjoying the sa m e s o r t of o rg an iz atio n al fre e d o m e a r l ie r enjoyed by Chang, u rg e d atta c k s upon local " re v is io n is t" a rm y o fficials, Chang, actin g as a re s p o n s ib le local official care fu lly g u ard in g pro d u ctio n and civ il o r d e r , a v e rte d such atta c k s in Shanghai and took p o litic a l m oves a g a in st h is CCRG a s s o c ia te s . D isru p ted o rg an iz atio n al ro u tin e, seco n d ly , w as an im p o rta n t con­ trib u tin g fa c to r to the b eh av io r of S h an g h ai's m u n icip al e lite as the

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C u ltu ral R evolution unfolded. In the u n c e rta in p o litical atm o sp h ere c re a te d by the e a r l i e r p u rg e of P 'e n g Chen and o th e r P ek in g P a rty o ffic ia ls, lo cal P a rty o fficials in Shanghai w ere care fu l not to be found ac tin g in noncom pliance w ith C en tral po licy . In ad h erin g clo sely to e x istin g P a r ty policy a t each sta g e of the m ovem ent, how ever, the MPC doom ed its e lf not only to lo sin g co n tro l o v e r the local situ atio n but also to being v u ln e ra b le to a p p ea rin g as opponents of CCRG policy. W hile e x istin g official policy u su ally left local a d m in is tra to rs u n certain of p ro p e r w ays to d eal w ith th e burgeoning d is s id e n t m ovem ent. C en tral policy a lso sh ifted rap id ly , u n d erm in in g th e ir e x e rc is e of local le a d e r­ sh ip and a u th o rity . T hus, in refu sin g to reco g n ize the W o rk e rs ’ H ead­ q u a r te r s and in opposing in p rin c ip le o rg an iz atio n s of w o rk e rs in e a rly N ovem ber, f o r exam p le, th e MPC w as actin g on c le a rly estab lish ed CCRG g u id e lin es. W ithin days a f te r the MPC took an o fficial stand on th is is s u e , how ever, o fficial policy to w ard s w o r k e r s ’ o rg an izatio n s changed, u n d erm in in g MPC a u th o rity and c re a tin g the illu sio n th a t it had o b stru c te d the m ovem ent by co n trav en in g C en tral guidelines. F in ally , the tu rb u le n t so c ia l en v iro n m en t of the local P a rty o rg an i­ zation co n stan tly confronted the lo cal P a rty w ith novel p ro b lem s fo r w hich C en tral d ire c tiv e s le ft it u n p re p a re d . The em erg in g d issid e n t m ovem ents often fo rw ard ed is s u e s f o r w hich the CCRG would not p ro ­ v ide an o fficial policy until w eeks la te r . The local P a rty org an izatio n , to rn betw een its need to a c t d ecisiv ely and its f e a r of actin g in c o n tra ­ vention of C en tral d ire c tiv e s , placed p ro g re s s iv e ly g r e a te r em p h asis on the la tte r co n ce rn , g rad u ally ab d icatin g d e c isio n -m ak in g re sp o n s ib ili­ tie s and fu r th e r a ro u s in g d is sid e n t opposition. In o th e r w o rd s, in a p e rio d w h ere C e n tra lly -a rtic u la te d goals w e re le s s than c le a r, but w h ere th e re w e re s t r i c t san ctio n s ag ain st "o b stru ctin g " the m ovem ent, and w h ere the burgeoning a r r a y of so c ia l m ovem ents cre a te d a sh iftin g and novel a r r a y of is s u e s and p ro b le m s, th e local P a r ty o rg an izatio n ch o se a s a c o u rs e of p re s e rv a tio n not to m ake im p o rtan t d e c isio n s —a c o u rs e w hich h asten ed both th e im pending chaos and its own p o litical doom . Social S tru c tu re and P o litic a l C o n flict. W hile p o litical b ehavior of e lite s is shaped and co n stra in e d by th e o rg an iz atio n al netw orks w ithin w hich it o c c u rs , it is a lso in d ire c tly influenced by e x istin g so c ia l s tr u c ­ tu r e . When c a lls f o r p o litic a l m o b ilizatio n in Shanghai fell upon a la b o r­ ing population e x p erien cin g b a s ic sh ifts and s tr a in s in its occupational s tr u c tu re , the re s u ltin g s o c ia l cleav ag es and m a ss p o litic al conflicts d e c isiv e ly a lte re d th e th r u s t of the e lite -in s p ire d m ovem ent— an event th a t dem anded e lite re s p o n s e . D issid en t groups w ithin S hanghai's

82

population took ca lls fo r c r itic is m of re v is io n is t le a d e rs h ip as cau se fo r e x p re ssio n of b a sic d isco n ten ts w ith th e evolving so c ia l and econom ic s y ste m in w hich they lived and w orked. Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao , as a r e s u lt, had to sh ift his a c tiv itie s fro m th a t of u rg in g atta c k s upon a u th o ritie s to th a t of quelling d is o rd e r and sq u elch in g econom ic d em an d s— in o th e r w ords, to su p p re s s and r e d ir e c t a m a ss m ovem ent th a t had adopted aim s quite d iffe re n t fro m th o se he had envisaged fo r it. Independent m a ss p o litical activ ity , in s h o rt, d ecisiv ely a lte re d the c o u rse en v isag ed by p o litic al e lite s fo r the C ultu ral R evolution, sig n ifican tly sh ifted the ran g e of is s u e s u n d er conflict, and re q u ire d a s e r ie s of d efen siv e p o liti­ cal m an eu v ers to head off and r e d ir e c t the s u rp ris in g ly v iru le n t s o c ia l m ovem ent. The o c c u rre n c e of "eco n o m ism " in Shanghai u n d e rs c o re s th e im ­ p o rta n t im p act of a continually evolving s o c ia l s tr u c tu re upon p o litic a l conflict in the w o rld 's la rg e s t ex p e rim e n t in p o litic a lly induced so c ia l change. T he lines of div isio n of contending g roups in Shanghai, f u rth e r, su g g est th a t C hina's s o c ia lis t fo rm of in d u s tria l grow th m ay be spaw ning h is to ric a lly unique so c ia l d iv isio n s fo r w hich both ex istin g C hinese M arx ­ is t an aly se s and stan d ard W este rn th e o rie s — both h eav ily influenced by o b serv atio n s of c a p ita lis t in d u s tria liz a tio n — m ay be in ad eq u ate. The ex p lo ratio n of the links betw een th is fo rm of in d u s tria liz a tio n , its r e ­ lated c la s s div isio n s and so c ia l te n sio n s, and th e su b seq u en t lim ita tio n s th e se new d iv isio n s p lace upon e lite -in s p ire d atte m p ts a t inducing s o c ia l change, re m a in s a re la tiv e ly u n explored but v ita lly im p o rta n t a r e a of re s e a rc h .

Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao and the P o litic s of Social Change C hang's involvem ent in S hanghai's J a n u a ry R evolution, fin ally , points to som e b a sic c o n tra d ictio n s in th e p o litic al s tra te g y he and h is colleagues have u sed to induce continued change in C h in a's p o litic al and so cial sy ste m . T his s tra te g y re q u ire s its p ra c titio n e rs to a c t as in s tig a to rs and m an ag ers of s o c ia l and p o litic a l co n flict. W hile s tim u ­ lating p o litic al co n flict in Shanghai, Chang in a d v erten tly r a is e d th e hopes and expectation s of th e re la tiv e ly disad v an tag ed s e c to r s of so c ie ty , only to disappoint th e se hopes in the s h o rt run by su b seq u en tly d e c la rin g th em to be ille g itim a te and th e ir p u rs u it c o u n te rre v o lu tio n a ry . In doing so, he earn ed the opposition of a m a jo r p o rtio n of the d is s id e n t m ovem ent and w as able to m ain tain h is p o litic a l au th o rity only th ro u g h th e d e c isiv e in terv en tio n of Mao and th e P L A . W hile h aving thus a lien ated a sig n ifi­ cant p o rtio n of his o rig in al m a ss co n stitu en cy , Chang w as s till h e ir to

83 a legacy of re s e n tm e n t by p erm an en t, unionized w o rk ers w hose in te re s ts w e re th re a te n e d by the p o licies he had fo rw ard ed , not to m ention the an im o sity of a d m in is tra tiv e o fficials a t all le v e ls — esp ecially th a t of such f o rm e r p ro v in cial o fficials as T s ’ao T i- c h 'iu — so m e of whom w ere a p p are n tly h a r r a s s e d and sacked w ith r a th e r flim sy p o litical ju stificatio n . As a proponent of continuing so cial change through th e se political m ethods, Chang thus had to play a d ifficu lt balancing gam e between m o b ilizatio n and dem o b ilizatio n , d isru p tio n and o rd e r. In attem p tin g to u s e th is s tra te g y in th e follow ing decade, Chang w as faced w ith the continuing p ro b le m s of a s s u rin g th a t m obilized groups did not move in unexpected d ire c tio n s and of m ain tain in g pro d u ctio n d u rin g su ch p erio d s of m o b ilizatio n . He continued, fu rth e r, to be confronted w ith th e dan­ g e rs of alie n a tin g m o bilized groups w hose dem ands go unm et, and w ith the p ro s p e c t of acc u m u latin g a n im o sitie s of p riv ileg ed s e c to rs of Chi­ n ese so c ie ty and of the o fficials a t all le v els w hose in te r e s ts su ffer in the c o u rs e of th e se m o b ilizatio n cam p aig n s. It is an e x tre m ely d ifficult s tra te g y to u s e effectiv ely o v er a prolonged p erio d and is a stra te g y th a t w as probably rep u d ia ted — along w ith Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o — only th irty days a fte r the d eath of Mao T s e -tu n g .

CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS

Ju n e 8, 1966

M edia atta c k s on lo cal c u ltu ra l fig u res begin. Ho L u -tin g and C h'en C h 'i-t'u n g a r e f ir s t ta rg e ts .

Ju n e 10

T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu d e liv e rs m ilita n t sp eech at m a ss ra lly in au g u ratin g S hanghai's C ultu ral Revolution. Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o p re s e n t a t ro s tru m .

Ju n e 11

H isto ria n Chou K u -ch 'en g denounced and linked to the p urged P ek in g c u ltu ral o fficial Chou Yang.

Ju n e 14

Chou H sin-fang, play w rig h t colleague of Wu Han, d e­ nounced in Shanghai.

Ju n e 25

Li C hun-m in, le a d e r of local lite r a r y c irc le s and d ir e c to r of Chunghua P u b lish in g Company, d e­ nounced and linked with Chou Yang.

Ju n e 30

Chang atten d s m a ss ra lly in Shanghai co m m em o ratin g founding of CCP.

Ju ly 1-31

C ritic is m s of c u ltu ral fig u re s continue.

Ju ly 26

Chiang C h'ing, in a sp eech a t P eking U niversity, m entions Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao as v ic e -c h a irm a n of new C en tral C u ltu ral Revolution Group.

A ugust 2-12

E leventh P len u m in Peking.

A ugust 11

Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o , Yao W en-yuan, and Nieh Y uantzu p re s e n t at ro s tr u m of huge ra lly at Tienanm en S quare in P ek in g .

85

86

A ugust 12

Mao d e liv e rs clo sin g sp eech of E leventh P lenum u rg in g local le a d e rs to c o r r e c t th e ir e r r o r s and en co u rag e the stu d en t m ovem ent.

A ugust 13

Nieh Y uan-tzu ca lls C h'ang H si-p 'in g , S e c re ta ry of E ducation in the Shanghai MPC, a re v is io n is t.

A ugust 16

T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu re tu rn s to Shanghai fro m E leventh P len u m . Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o re m a in s in P ek in g . T s 'a o defends C h'ang H si-p 'in g .

A ugust 18

Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o at ro s tru m a t T ien an m en ra lly .

A ugust 19

T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu sp eak s at huge Shanghai ra lly inaugu­ ra tin g activ e Red G uard m ovem ent. C alls fo r attack s on bourgeois a u th o ritie s .

A ugust 22

Red G uard a c tiv itie s begin. P eo p le w earin g W este rn clothes h a r r a s s e d ; buildings on th e Bund defaced; s tr e e ts ren am ed ; ch u rch e s, hom es of fo rm e r c a p i­ ta lis ts raid ed .

A ugust 24

T s 'a o , in a sp eech at Futan U n iv ersity , u rg e s stu d en ts to be s u r e to have so lid evidence b efo re denouncing som eone.

A ugust 25

D issid en t stu d en ts fro m Futan sta g e m idnight raid on Shanghai D ram a A cadem y. R epulsed by a group of T ibetan stu d en ts.

A ugust 26

Student m a jo rity at Futan denounces d is s id e n ts, and in v ites T s 'a o to speak at Futan th a t evening. T s 'a o d e c la re s th a t th e d is s id e n t group confused two types of co n tra d ic tio n s.

August 26

P ek in g Red G uards begin to a r r iv e in Shanghai. W arm ly w elcom ed by MPC re c e p tio n .

A ugust 27

Chang sp eak s to P ek in g Red G uards in P ek in g .

A ugust 27

P ek in g Red G uards in Shanghai m ake dem ands upon MPC fo r p rin tin g and co m m u n icatio n s equipm ent. D em ands refu sed .

I

87 A ugust 28

P ek in g Red G uards d em o n stra te in fro n t of MPC o ffic e s .

A ugust 28-29

Shanghai m ed ia p r a is e s d iscip lin e of T ibetan students fro m D ram a A cadem y, s tr e s s e s th at reasoning, not fo rc e , should c h a ra c te riz e stru g g le .

A ugust 30

P ek in g Red G uards hold ra lly at C ulture Square, Shanghai. D ecla re w ar on T s 'a o .

A ugust 31

Chang alongside Mao on ro s tru m at huge Tienanm en Red G uard ra lly .

S ep te m b er 2-3

P ek in g stu d en ts stag e s it- in at MPC offices. s tr e s s e s s tru g g le through reaso n .

S ep te m b er 4

P ek in g stu d en ts s to rm MPC offices.

S ep te m b er 4

T s 'a o d e liv e rs evening sp eech denouncing violence but u rg e s Shanghai population not to re ta lia te ag ain st P eking stu d en ts. D issid en t stu d en ts d e­ c la r e T s 'a o 's sp eech a " re ig n of w hite te r r o r ."

S ep te m b er 5

Radio b ro a d c a sts T s 'a o 's sp eech w elcom ing Red G uards fro m o th e r lo c a litie s , u rg in g stu d en ts not to be o v erem o tio n al.

S ep te m b er 7

P e o p le 's D aily w arn s stu d en ts not to in te rfe re with pro d u ctio n .

S ep te m b er 15

Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao atten d s m ass ra lly in Peking. Chou E n -la i and Lin P iao s tr e s s that fa c to rie s and field s a r e off lim its to Red G uards.

S ep te m b er 24

A fter a s e r ie s of MPC m eetin g s, T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu sends a te le g ra m of com plaint to Peking, claim ing that P eking stu d en ts w ere d isru p tin g p roduction.

S ep te m b er 30

T s 'a o gives a sp eech at evening recep tio n com m em o­ ra tin g founding of P e o p le 's R epublic and u rg es re c o n c ilia tio n of rev o lu tio n and p roduction. Chang atten d s s im ila r recep tio n in Peking.

M edia

88

O ctober 1

P ek in g Red G uards o rd e re d to re tu r n to c a p ita l. T s 'a o sp eak s to app ro v in g crow ds a t N ational Day ra lly . Chang atten d s s im ila r ra lly in P ek in g .

O ctober 6

Chang m akes a sp eech to ra lly of Red G uards and u rg e s sp re a d of C u ltu ral R evolution to S hanghai's m ilita ry a c a d e m ie s.

O ctober 7

Chang a d d re s s e s m eetin g of Fukien Red G uards in P ek in g and is accom panied by Kuan Feng. Chang u rg e s stu d en ts not to be in tim id ated by s u p p re s sio n .

O ctober 8-25

C en tral P a r ty Work C onference. C ritic is m s of lo cal re sp o n se s to Red G uard m ovem ent. S e lf - c r itic is m s of Liu S h ao -ch 'i and T en g H sia o -p 'in g .

O ctober 25

Mao d e liv e rs clo sin g sp eech of m eeting, ad m its th a t havoc c re a te d by stu d en ts was u n fo reseen , and u rg e s lo cal le a d e rs to im p ro v e th e ir re la tio n s w ith th e stu d en ts.

N ovem ber 3

Chang atten d s m am m oth T ienanm en ra lly and ap p e a rs on ro s tru m with Mao, Lin P iao , Chou E n -la i, C h'en P o -ta , Liu S h ao -ch 'i, and T eng H sia o -p 'in g .

N ovem ber 8

R e p re se n ta tiv e s of newly fo rm ed W o rk e rs ' G eneral H ead q u arters (WGHQ) send d eleg ate s to MPC offices and dem and reco g n itio n and m a te ria l aid. D em ands re fu sed .

N ovem ber 9

WGHQ inau g u ratio n ra lly in S hanghai's C u ltu re S q u are.

N ovem ber 10

Shanghai m edia rem in d s population th at re v o lu tio n ary a c tiv itie s m u st tak e p lace o u tsid e w orking h o u rs .

N ovem ber 10

MPC re je c ts five ad d itio n al WGHQ d em an d s. W orkers occupy P eking-bound p a s s e n g e r tr a in and d e c la re intention to s e e Mao. T ra in h alted o u tsid e th e city . T e le g ra m fro m C h'en P o - ta p e rs u a d e s o v e r half th e w o rk e rs to r e tu r n to th e ir jo b s . Chang C h'unc h 'ia o re p o rte d a t P ek in g ra lly .

89 N ovem ber 11

W o rk ers re m a in on tr a in . Chang atten d s m a ss ra lly in P ek in g and sp eak s to m eetin g of Red G uards, d e c la rin g th a t stu d en ts m u st ap p ro ach fa c to rie s w ith c a re .

N ovem ber 12

Chang d isp atch ed to Shanghai to negotiate re tu rn of w o r k e r s . Signs th e ir dem ands and g ran ts re c o g ­ nition in re tu r n fo r a pledge not to leave p ro d u c­ tion p o sts.

N ovem ber 13

Chang atten d s in au g u ratio n ra lly of WGHQ. O ver fo u r hundred w o rk e rs, led by Keng C hin-chang, leave fo r P ek in g to p ro te s t C h'en P o - ta 's te le g ra m .

N ovem ber 14

Chang and T s 'a o leave to g e th er fo r Soochow, w here they m e e t K eng's re g im e n t and m ake fu rth e r con­ c e ssio n s in exchange fo r w o rk e rs ' re tu rn .

N ovem ber 17-24 S e rie s of MPC m eetin g s attended by Chang. Chang c ritic iz e d fo r handling of w o rk e rs. MPC officials w arn th a t w o rk e rs ' o rg an izatio n s w ill dam age p ro ­ ductiv ity and en co u rag e la rg e - s c a le d is o rd e r. N ovem ber 20

Nieh Y uan-tzu a r r iv e s in Shanghai.

N ovem ber 22

Nieh Y u an -tzu te lls C ulture Square ra lly th a t MPC E ducation S e c re ta ry C h'ang H si-p 'in g is a re v isio n ­ is t and th a t he is b eing p ro te c te d by T s 'a o and T eng H sia o -p 'in g .

N ovem ber 25

Nieh d e c la re s intention a t m a ss ra lly to b rin g down the MPC and u rg e s unity of all d issid e n ts in Shanghai fo r th at p u rp o se.

N ovem ber 25

Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao leav es f o r P eking.

N ovem ber 26

Red R ev o lu tio n a ries dem and th a t 650 thousand copies of N ieh 's sp eech be p rin ted and d istrib u te d by L ib eratio n D aily.

N ovem ber 28

Chang atten d s CCP ra lly in P ek in g . C e n tra l-p ro v in ­ cial co n feren ce on in d u s tria l production b eg in s. Ma T 'ie n - s h u i re p r e s e n ts the Shanghai M PC.

90 N ovem ber 29

Group of Red R ev o lu tio n a ries sta g e la te night ra id on p o st office in Shanghai and dem and th a t it d is trib u te th e ir tab lo id .

N ovem ber 30

Rebuffed by p o st office, Red R ev o lu tio n a ries m a rc h to L ib eratio n D aily o ffices and occupy building.

D ecem b er 1-4

Red R ev o lu tio n aries occupy building. H o stile crow ds co llect o u tsid e . S e v e ra l a tte m p ts to s to rm building. M oderate w o rk e rs d is trib u te le a fle ts denouncing d is s id e n t a ctio n s.

D ecem b er 5

MPC sig n s dem ands of Red R e v o lu tio n a rie s.

D ecem ber 6

S c a rle t G uards founded a t m a ss ra lly , denounces d is sid e n t m ovem ent and cap itu latio n of M PC. WGHQ c la im s S c a rle ts co n tro lled by M PC.

D ecem b er 8

MPC o r d e r s Red R e v o lu tio n a rie s ' tab lo id d is trib u te d . F ighting betw een S c a rle ts and WGHQ begins in individual f a c to rie s .

D ecem ber 9

C en tral d ire c tiv e u rg e s m ain ten an ce of p ro d u ctio n and ad h ere n ce to e ig h t-h o u r day.

D ecem ber 10

P o sta l w o rk e rs stag e w alk -o u t to avoid d is trib u tin g d issid e n t tabloid.

D ecem b er 10

WGHQ d e c la re s p o s ta l-w o rk e r s tr ik e in c ited by M PC, dem ands and re c e iv e s T s 'a o 's sig n a tu re on ad d i­ tio n al d em an d s. Red R e v o lu tio n a ries hold s tru g g le m eetin g ag a in st actin g P ro p ag an d a S e c re ta ry Yang H si-k u an g in W o rk e rs ' S tadium . MPC ap p ro v es p u rg e of Yang.

D ecem ber 13

Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao m eets w ith Red G uards in P ek in g .

D ecem b er 18-19 Chang atten d s Red G uard r a llie s D ecem b er 21

WGHQ d e c la re s intentio n to obtain rem o v a l of T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu and C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n .

D ecem b er 23

Chang re c e iv e s deleg atio n fro m WGHQ in P ek in g .

91 D e c e m b e r 23

S c a rle ts hold m a ss ra lly , denounce MPC fo r signing WGHQ d em an d s, and obtain T s 'a o 's sig n a tu re on a li s t of th e ir own d e m a n d s.

D ecem b er 25

T s 'a o fo rm a lly rep u d ia tes h is sig n atu re on S c a rle t dem ands at m a ss WGHQ ra lly .

D ecem b er 26

Sent-dow n p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs and sub u rb an p easan ts begin to flow into city fro m su rro u n d in g counties to fo rw a rd econom ic d em an d s. Stage s it- in a t m ajo r in te rs e c tio n .

D ecem b er 26

C hiang C h 'in g m eets w ith delegation of c o n tra c t and te m p o ra ry la b o re rs in P eking and denounces the la b o r s y ste m as in sp ire d by Liu S h a o -c h 'i. CCRG is s u e s d ire c tiv e , published in JM JP , dem anding th a t la id -o ff te m p o ra ry la b o re rs be re in s ta te d and a u th o rizin g paym ent of back w ages.

D ecem b er 26

B oth S c a rle ts and R ebels m ake u n su ccessfu l atteirm ts to clo se down each o th e r's h e a d q u a rte rs .

D ecem b er 27

O rg an izatio n s of sen t-d o w n stu d en ts p r e s e n t dem ands to MPC and sta g e s it- in a t m a jo r in te rs e c tio n .

D ecem b er 27

WGHQ obtains MPC s ig n a tu re on an a g re e m e n t to re in s ta te te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o re rs and to pay back w a g e s.

D ecem b er 28

Chang atten d s m a ssiv e Red G uard ra lly a t Peking W o rk e rs ' S tadium .

D ecem b er 28

S c a rle ts d e m o n stra te a t MPC o ffices, d e c la rin g in ten tio n to s e ttle accounts w ith T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu . D em o n stratio n attack ed by WGHQ contingent. D eaths re p o rte d .

D ecem b er 30-31 S c a rle ts s e t out en m a ss e to p r o te s t WGHQ b eh av io r in P ek in g . D e c la re g e n e ra l s tr ik e . In terc ep ted a t K unshan by WGHQ contingent. V iolence again e n su e s. D ecem b er 31

R ail tra ffic p a ra ly z e d by ab sen ce of w o rk e rs, b reak s in r a il lin e s, and sab o tag e of sig n al sy ste m .

92

J a n u a ry 1, 19G7 D elegation of re b e ls fro m W en-hui P ao o b tain s p e r m issio n to s e iz e pow er in th e ir p a p e r. Ja n u a ry 3

WHP taken o v e r by d is s id e n ts on staff.

J a n u a ry 4

Chang: flie s to Shanghai and m eets w ith WHP staff. R etu rn s to P eking la te r the sa m e day.

J a n u a ry 5

Runs on Shanghai banks begin. W H P's "M essag e to the Shanghai P eo p le" cla im s th a t MPC o fficials in c ited eco n o m ism am ong w o rk e rs and a r e re s p o n ­ sib le fo r in d u s tria l breakdow n. U rg es w o rk e rs to re tu r n to jo b . N onperm anent w o rk e rs hold ra lly .

Ja n u a ry 6

Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o re tu rn s p erm a n en tly to Shanghai. T elev ised m a ss ra lly h u m ilia tes top MPC o fficials, s tr ip s th em of th e ir p o s ts .

Ja n u a ry 6

A rm ed g u ard s p o sted at banks and o th e r im p o rta n t b u ild in g s.

J a n u a ry 6

WHP re p o rts sy m p ath etically on J a n u a ry 5 m a ss ra lly of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o re r s , d e c la re s goal of te a rin g down th e la b o r s y ste m .

J a n u a ry 7

W o rk ers and stu d en ts s e n t to r u r a l a r e a s p r o te s t at MPC o ffice s.

J a n u a ry 8

WHP e d ito ria l u rg e s w o rk e rs to m ain tain p ro d u ctio n .

J a n u a ry 9

W H P 's "U rg en t M essag e" u rg e s w o rk e rs to re tu r n to p o sts, fo rb id s econom ic d em an d s, o ccu p atio n s of buildings, and u rg e s P u b lic S ecu rity f o rc e s to keep o rd e r.

Ja n u a ry 11

C en tral C om m ittee is s u e s g re e tin g s to Shanghai re b e ls and c o n g ratu lates th em fo r upholding p ro d u ctio n and m ain tain in g o r d e r .

J a n u a ry 12

Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o a d d re s s e s m a ss ra lly of d is s id e n t f o rc e s , re a d s c o n g ra tu la to ry te le g ra m s fro m Cen­ tr a l a u th o ritie s .

93 J a n u a ry 15

Keng C h in -ch an g 's d is s id e n t groups s e iz e co n tro l of sec tio n s of city .

J a n u a ry 17

M edia c a r r ie s an ti-eco n o m is m e d ito ria ls fo r tenth s tr a ig h t day.

J a n u a ry 18

M edia u rg e s w o rk e rs to re tu rn bonuses and back w ages and d ir e c ts sen t-d o w n stu d en ts and w o rk e rs to r e ­ tu rn to the co u n try sid e.

Ja n u a ry 20

E d ito ria ls attem p t to b lam e old MPC fo r abuses in s y ste m of m o b ilizin g youth fo r ru ra l la b o r.

J a n u a ry 21

A ccounts of S c a rle t d etach m en ts re tu rn in g in defeat fro m P eking.

J a n u a ry 23

S ituation at h a rb o r d e c la re d " n e a r-n o rm a l."

J a n u a ry 24

Chang p re p a re s m eetin g of all d issid e n t groups to m ake plans fo r Com m une. Rebuffed by groups led by Keng C hin-chang. Keng c ra s h e s p re p a ra to ry m eetin g and a rg u e s loudly a t ro s tru m w ith Wang H ung-w en. M eeting h as to be adjourned.

J a n u a ry 25

M ass ra lly of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o re rs a irs g rie v a n c e s and d e c la re s inten tio n to " te a r down the u n re a so n a b le s y ste m ."

J a n u a ry 26

Shanghai A ir F o rc e sq u ad ro n s d ro p le a fle ts in su p p o rt of Chang o v e r th e city . F ir s t group of youths to re tu rn to Sinkiang given w ell-p u b licized sendoff.

J a n u a ry 29

Red R ev o lu tio n aries hold Chang and Yao fo r fo u r h o u rs, try in g to e x to rt an a d m issio n th a t they w e re su p ­ p re s s in g the m a ss m ovem ent. L a te r kidnap Chang’s s p e e c h w rite r but a r e a r r e s te d by PLA units s e n t to F utan U n iv e rsity .

J a n u a ry 30

Keng C h in -ch an g ’s fo rc e s attack C hang's neighborhood lev el o rg an iz atio n s and d is tr i c t lev el WGHQ o ffices.

F e b ru a ry 1

Chiang C h 'in g and C h'i P en -y u m eet w ith d issid e n ts in P eking and u rg e th em to " sm a s h " the title of chiefs, say in g th e re w ill be no need fo r chiefs in the fu tu re .

94

F e b ru a ry 2

T e le g ra m fro m P eking a r r iv e s to ad v ise Red R evolu­ tio n a rie s th a t Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o is co n sid e re d a " tru e rev o lu tio n ary le ftis t" by the CCRG.

F e b ru a ry 3

K eng C h in-chang launches p ro p ag an d a cam paign in o rd e r to p re v e n t e s ta b lish m e n t of C hang's Com m une, fo rm s united o rg an of all an ti-C h an g d is s id e n t fo rc e s .

F e b ru a ry 5

Comm une d e c la re d a t m a ss ra lly , a rm y pledges su p p o rt, w arn s opposition.

F e b ru a ry 5-7

L ocalized cla sh e s betw een d e m o n s tra to rs fo r and ag ain st Com m une. O pposition fo rc e s begin to a ttack s tr e e t level c a d re s .

F e b ru a ry 7

P a re n ts of m o bilized youths o rg an iz e and begin to c r itic iz e s tr e e t level neighborhood c a d re s .

F e b ru a ry 7

" F i r s t O rd e r" of Comm une ca lls fo r " ru th le s s su p ­ p re s s io n " of c o u n te rre v o lu tio n a rie s. C o u n ter­ re v o lu tio n a rie s a r e defined as all th o se in o p p o si­ tion to the C om m une. Call fo r stre n g th e n in g of public s e c u rity , and fo r end to attack s on neigh­ borhood c a d re s .

F e b ru a ry 9

M ilitary ra lly d e m o n stra tin g su p p o rt fo r the C om m une. T ro o p s p arad e th ro u g h city in show of a rm e d fo rc e .

F e b ru a ry 9

Keng C hin-chang sends d eleg ate s to P ek in g to p ro ­ te s t C hang's actio n s and expose C hang's lack of m a ss su p p o rt.

F e b ru a ry 12

Chang and Yao sum m oned to P ek in g by Mao to d is c u s s th e local situ a tio n . Mao ad v ises a change to a R ev­ o lu tio n ary C om m ittee and a stre n g th e n in g of public s e c u rity .

F e b ru a ry 15

W hile Chang and Yao away, opposition fo rc e s launch ra id s on d is tr i c t b ra n c h e s of the WGHQ.

F e b ru a ry 17

P u b lic S ecu rity fo rc e s ra id and clo se the h e a d q u a rte rs of two la rg e opposition o rg a n iz a tio n s, m ed ia denoun­ ces th e ir le a d e rs h ip .

95

F e b ru a ry 17

C en tral d ire c tiv e ab o lish es national o rg an izatio n of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o re r s .

F e b ru a ry 18

Chang re tu rn s to Shanghai. S hanghai's d is tr ic t level le a d e rs h ip begins d o o r-to -d o o r s e a rc h fo r retu rn e d stu d e n ts.

F e b ru a ry 19

C ad res u rg ed to re tu r n to p o sts, told they have nothing to f e a r .

F e b ru a ry 21

L e a d e rs of local m ovem ents to attack neighborhood c a d re s a r r e s te d and sen ten ced in highly publicized m a ss t r i a l s .

F e b ru a ry 22

L a rg e opposition ra lly and p a ra d e .

F e b ru a ry 22

W arnings fro m o fficial m ed ia th a t the PL A is read y to s u p p re s s all opposition.

F e b ru a ry 23

R ally announced to in a u g u ra te R evolutionary Com m it­ te e , la te r postponed.

F e b ru a ry 24

M ass ra lly announcing e sta b lish m e n t of Com m une. T e le v ise d sp eech e s by Chang and PLA o fficials.

F e b ru a ry 24

P u b lic S ecu rity a r r e s t s m o re le a d e rs of opposition g ro u p s .

F e b ru a ry 27

A nti-C hang C hingkangshan Red G uard lia iso n o rg an i­ zation o rd e re d to c lo se and leav e town.

F e b ru a ry 27

O ffices of o rg an iz atio n of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o re r s clo sed down and funds and p ro p e rty con­ fis c a te d .

F e b ru a ry 28

P u b lic S ecu rity a r r e s t s of opposition le a d e rs in N anshih and W usung d is tr ic ts .

M arch 1

PLA contingents begin to m ove into all o rg an izatio n s to a s s e r t o r d e r .

M arch 1

R evo lu tio n ary C om m ittee rep u d ia tes D ecem b er 27 a g re e m e n t betw een th e WGHQ and th e old MPC and

96

o rd e rs o rig in ally laid off w o rk e rs to leav e th e ir p la c e s of em ploym ent. M arch 2

T e a c h e rs and stu d en ts o rd e re d to r e tu r n to sch o o l.

M arch 7

R etu rn ed youths o rd e re d to go back to th e ir co u n try ­ side p roduction p o s ts .

M arch 10

F inal th irte e n Red G uard lia iso n groups bid fa rew ell to Shanghai.

M arch 18

S e rie s of te le v ise d stru g g le r a llie s ag a in st fo r m e r MPC o fficials b eg in s.

M arch 20

E sta b lish m e n t of f i r s t d is tr i c t level R ev o lutionary C om m ittee announced.

M arch 29

T elev ised o ath -tak in g ra lly , neighborhood lev el c a d re s pledge to "b rav ely r e tu r n to th e ir p o s ts ."

A pril 3

In ten siv e cam paign to c r itic iz e the "top P a r ty p e rs o n " taking the c a p ita lis t ro ad in China b eg in s. Liu S h a o -c h 'i’s "On the C ultivation of a C om m unist" c ritic iz e d .

NOTES

C hapter I

1.

See, fo r exam ple, the follow ing accounts, all of which s h a re the a ssu m p tio n that the e x istin g m unicipal le a d e rs h ip tr ie d co n sisten tly to s u p p re s s the m ovem ent: N eale H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l: An E yew itness A ccount of the C u ltu ral R evolution (Boston: B eacon, 1969), esp . pp. 294-98. V ivienne B. Shue, "Shanghai A fter the Ja n u a ry S to rm ," in The C u ltu ra l R evolution in th e P ro v in c e s (C am bridge: H arv ard E a s t A sian M onographs, 1971). G erald T annenbaum , "T he 1967 J a n u a ry R evolution R ecounted," E a s te rn H o rizo n , 7, no. 3 (M ay-June 1968): 7-25. V ic to r N ee, "R evolution and B u re a u c ra c y : Shanghai in the C u ltu ral R evolution," in C h in a's U n in te rru p ted R evolution, ed. V icto r Nee and J a m e s P eck (New Y ork: Pantheon, 1975), pp. 322-414. J e a n D aubier, A H isto ry of th e C hinese C u ltu ral R evolution (New Y ork: V intage, 1974), pp. 115-34. J a c k Chen, Inside the C u ltu ral R evolution 1975), pp. 244-57.

(New Y ork: M acm illan,

E xceptions to th is ru le a r e : K. S. K aro l, The Second C hinese R evolution and Wang, 1974), pp. 206-18.

(New York: Hill

Evelyn A nderso n , "Shanghai: T he M asses U n leash ed ," P ro b lem s of C om m unism , 47, no. 1 (J a n u a ry -F e b ru a ry 1968): 12-28. O th er w ritin g s, although not s h a rin g th e sa m e assu m p tio n s, have not challenged th e d om inant in te rp re ta tio n d ire c tly :

97

98 C hapter I Notes Lynn T . W hite III, "S hanghai's P o lity D uring the C u ltu ral R evolu­ tio n ," in The City in C om m unist C hina, ed. John Lew is (Stanford: S tanford U n iv e rsity P r e s s , 1971): 325-70. Lynn T . W hite III, "L e a d e rsh ip in Shanghai, 1955-69," in E lite s in the P e o p le 's R epublic of China, ed. R o b e rt Scalapino (Seattle: U n iv ersity of W ashington P r e s s , 1972): 302-77 (h e re a fte r cited as E lite s ). F o r exam ple, in th is second a r tic le (E lite s , p. 349) W hite r e f e r s the re a d e r to the w ritin g s of H unter, A nderson, and T annenbaum fo r a g en era l overview and in te rp re ta tio n of the C ultu ral R evolu­ tion in Shanghai. 2.

See, fo r exam ple, the accounts by T annenbaum (p. 16), th e in tr o ­ duction by E z r a Vogel to The C u ltu ral R evolution in th e P ro v in c e s (p. 2), and Nee (pp. 328-30).

3.

See, fo r exam ple, Tannenbaum (p. 15), Nee (pp. 331-37), and D aubier (pp. 124-27).

4.

See "'Down w ith E v e ry th in g '— 'G ang of F o u r 's ' Schem e to Sabotage the G reat P r o le ta r ia n C u ltu ral R evolution," P ek in g R ev iew , 25 M arch 1977: 13-16; and "In stig atin g A rm ed C onflicts — 'Gang of F o u r 's ' Schem e to Sabotage the G reat C u ltu ral R ev o lu tio n ," P eking R eview , 8 A pril 1977: 20-22.

C hapter II Notes 1.

Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o , "On E x e rc is in g A ll-R ound D ic ta to rsh ip O ver the B o u rg e o isie ," P eking R eview , 4 A pril 1975: 5 -11.

2.

Union R e s e a rc h S erv ice B io g rap h ical S erv ice 883, 2 June 1964; and W ho's Who in C om m unist China (Hong Kong: Union R e s e a rc h In stitu te, 1969), pp. 20-21.

3.

C hieh-fang J ih - P a o , 9 D ecem b er 1951; Shanghai T a Kung P a o , 22 A ugust 1952, in SCMP 409: 20-23.

4.

Lynn T . White III, " L e a d e rsh ip in Shanghai, 1955-69," in E lite s , ed. Scalapino, pp. 302-77, 338. F o r an account of th e Hu F en g

99 Chapter II N otes

cam paign, se e M erle Goldman, L ite r a r y D isse n t in C om m unist C hina (New Y ork: A theneum , 1971). 5.

By la te 1953 Chang w as m anaging d ir e c to r of C hieh-fang Jih -p a o (C F J P , 19 O ctober 1953), and in the ensuing two y e a rs he s a t on in c re a s in g ly im p o rta n t lo cal c o m m itte e s. By 1955 he w as acting s e c r e ta r y of th e L ite r a r y and A rt W ork C om m ittee of the P ro p a ­ ganda D ep artm en t of th e Shanghai M unicipal P a rty C om m ittee and w as v ic e -c h a irm a n of the Shanghai b ran ch of the A ll-C hina F e d e ra ­ tion of J o u rn a lis ts . URS Bio 883, and W ho's Who, pp. 20-21.

6.

See R o d erick M acF arq u h ar, O rig in s of the C u ltu ral R evolution, V olum e 1: C o n trad ictio n s Among th e P eo p le 1956-57 (New York: C olum bia U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1974), pp. 205, 290-92. Mao and K'o w e re photographed to g e th e r view ing ta -tz u -p a o d u rin g the H undred F lo w e rs p h ase in Shanghai. See Clyna R e c o n stru c ts no. 12, D ecem ­ b e r 1957, p. 2; and a rep ro d u ctio n of th is photograph in R ich ard Solomon, M ao's R evolution and the C hinese P o litic a l C ulture (B erk eley : U n iv ersity of C alifo rn ia P r e s s , 1971), p. 306. Solomon a g re e s w ith M a c F a rq u h a r's an a ly sis of K 'o 's ro le d u rin g th is period, s e e h is M ao's R ev o lu tio n , pp. 320, 450. K 'o 's sp eech on the an ti­ rig h tis t cam paign of 1957 is re p rin te d in J M J P , 27 A ugust 1957. K 'o w as add itio n ally electe d m ay o r of Shanghai in N ovem ber 1958 a f te r C h'en Yi gave up th is p o st f o r fu ll-tim e w ork in Peking; se e SCMP 1900, 14-17.

7.

M a c F a rq u h a r, O rig in s , pp. 308-9, 404.

8.

Je n -m in J ih -p a o , 14 June 1957.

9.

Low ell D ittm e r, Liu S h ao -ch 'i and the C hinese C u ltu ral Revolution (B erkeley: U n iv ersity of C alifo rn ia P r e s s , 1974), p. 186. The a r tic le a p p e a rs in J M J P , 13 O ctober 1958.

10.

In a sp eech a t the L ushan C onference in 1960, Mao m entioned K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih and T 'a n C hen-lin as two who had helped him "shoot the th re e big cannons" of the G reat Leap F o rw a rd —the com m unes, the b ack y ard s te e l fu rn a c e s , and the g en era l line. B yung-joon Ahn, "A d ju stm en ts in the G reat Leap F o rw a rd and T h e ir Ideological L egacy, 1 959-62," in Ideology and P o litic s in C o n te m p o rary C hina, ed. C h alm ers Johnson (S eattle: U n iv ersity of W ashington P r e s s , 1973), p. 262.

100 Chapter II N otes

11.

K 'o 's a r tic le s defended the p rin c ip le s behind not only the G reat Leap F o rw a rd but a lso the b r ie f 1956 " le a p ." See J M J P , 25 J a n ­ u a ry 1958, in C u rre n t B ackground 491: 1-34. He also b ro k e ground in sig n ifican t new d ire c tio n s th a t an ticip a ted the la te r con­ c e rn s of Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o d u rin g the C u ltu ral R evolution. K 'o 's "The L aboring P eople M ust Make T h e m se lv e s M a s te rs of C u ltu re " ap p eared in the in au g u ral is s u e of H ung-chli (1 June 1958) u n d er the d ire c tio n of C h'en P o -ta . K 'o also analyzed and p ra is e d the cam paign fo r w o rk e rs to tr a n s f o r m technology in Shanghai (see SCMP 2229; 1960) and as e a rly as 1963 u rg ed th a t tra d itio n a l C hinese d ra m a s be rev o lu tio n ized to re fle c t c la ss s tru g g le ; see H u n g -c h 'i, 15 A ugust 1964. M ao's "C om m ent on C om rade K 'o C h 'in g -s h ih 's R e p o rt," 12 D ecem b er 1963, w as a r e m a r k on th is 1963 speech on a r t and c u ltu re by K 'o, la te r re p rin te d in H u n g -c h 'i. M ao's re m a rk s a r e in CB 891. T h ese r e m a r k s have been in t e r ­ p re te d as a fo rm of p r e s s u r e by Mao upon Chou Yang to stru g g le a g ain st d is s id e n ts. Chang h im se lf was a c e n tra l fig u re in K 'o 's e ffo rts to re v o lu ­ tionize lite r a tu r e and aid. His a r tic le in Shang-hai W en -h su eh , J a n u a ry 1960, s tr e s s e d th a t M ao's thought should be m o re s tro n g ly em phasized in lite r a tu r e .

12.

C F J P , 9 N ovem ber 1958; URS Bio 883, 2 June 1964; W ho's Who, pp. 20-21.

13.

M erle Goldman, "The C hinese C om m unist P a r ty 's 'C u ltu ra l R evo­ lution' of 1962-64," in Ideology and P o litic s , ed. Johnson, pp. 21954, 225-29. Goldman id e n tifies Wu Han, F eng Y u-lan, Liu Chieh, Yang H an-sh en g and Chou Yang in th is d isse n tin g categ o ry .

14.

In 1960 Yao, fo r exam ple, had been the f i r s t w r ite r to lab el P a Jen , a fam ous 1930's Shanghai lite r a tu r e fig u re , as a re v is io n is t fo r h is notion that th e re w as a c la s s -tra n s c e n d in g "hum an n a tu re ." See P a Jen, "Hum an S en tim en ts" URS 19, no. 9 (1960), and "On C o llec­ tiv is m ," SCMM 61. Yao a lso attack e d Chou K u -ch 'en g , a F utan h is to ry p ro f e s s o r and p ro m in en t M a rx ist of the 1 9 3 0 's, f o r a m is ­ taken conception of d ia le c tic a l c o n tra d ictio n . See "On M r. Chou K u -c h 'e n g 's Views on C o n tra d ictio n ," J M J P , 18 Ju ly 1964, in CB 747: 12-24, and M erle Goldm an, "C h in ese C om m unist P a r ty 's 'C u ltu ra l R ev o lu tio n "1 in Ideology and P o litic s , ed. Johnson, pp. 230-32.

I

101

C h ap ter II Notes 15.

W hite, " L e a d e rsh ip in Shanghai," pp. 335-36. P a Chin, a p ro m i­ nent n o v elist and outspoken a n a rc h is t b efo re 1949, had a long h is ­ to ry of opposition to CCP p o lic ie s . As a leading a n a rc h is t d u rin g th e 1920s and ’30s, P a had been an outspoken c r itic of C om m unism and h is to ric a l m a te ria lis m and w as h im se lf often a ta rg e t of c r it i­ c ism by C hinese M a rx is ts . A fter 1949, P a renounced h is a n a r­ ch ism , d e c la re d h is sym pathy w ith the aim s of the CCP, and began to p a rtic ip a te activ ely on v ario u s c u ltu ral co m m ittees and frie n d ­ sh ip d e le g a tio n s . N e v e rth e le ss, he continued to be outspoken in h is opposition to w hat he fe lt to be e x c e ssiv e P a rty control ov er c u ltu ra l life . His fra n k c r itic is m s of th e P a rty d u rin g the H undred F lo w e rs p erio d tu rn ed him into a ta rg e t d u rin g the ensuing an ti­ r ig h tis t cam paign in 1957. His public opposition to Yao W en-yuan in 1962 show s, how ever, th at he continued to be a c r itic of w hat he fe lt to be u n ju st P a rty p o licies and ta c tic s . P a w as eventually branded a co u n te rre v o lu tio n a ry in F e b ru a ry 1968. See W ho's Who, p. 533; H oward L. B oorm an, e d ., B iographical D ictionary of R epublican C hina, v o l. II (New Y ork: C olum bia U niversity P r e s s , 1967), pp. 297-99; and Olga Lang, P a Chin and His W ritings (C am b rid g e: H arv ard U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1972). P a 's c r itic is m of Yao W en -y u an 's ta c tic s ap p eared in Shang-hai W enh su e h , no. 5 (1962), p. 3; in JPR S 15, 515: 15-20.

16.

W hite, " L e a d e rsh ip in Shanghai," pp. 335-37. W hite's a rtic le contains a m o re co m p reh en siv e account of th is pivotal p re -C u ltu ra l R evolution conflict. Shih H s i-m in 's su p p o rt fo r C h'en C h 'i-w u 's d efen se of P a Chin is p ro b le m a tic a l, sin ce Shih se e m s to have sh a re d the d e s ir e to re fo rm lite ra tu r e and a r t held by K 'o, Chang, and Yao. Shih's a r tic le a few y e a r s b efo re in Shanghai C hieh-fang ("The New Situ­ ation of the C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai," C hieh-fang no. 9, 5 May 1960, in SC MM 219: 28-35) called fo r r e s tr ic tin g "b o u r­ g e o is" cu ltu re by p ro p ag atin g a " c u ltu ra l rev o lu tio n " in ed u ca­ tio n al w ork. The key is s u e h e re , as d u rin g the C u ltu ral R evolu­ tion, s e e m s to have b e e r not o v e r w h eth er o r not cu ltu re needed to be tra n s fo rm e d but o v e r w hat co n stitu ted le g itim ate ly "b o u r­ g e o is" in flu en ces. Shih ap p are n tly thought Yao w as o ff-tra c k . It is im p o rta n t to note th at Yang H si-kuang, who had also su p p o rted P a C h in 's p o sitio n in th is disp u te, rem a in ed as deputy head of th e P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t. T h is would s t i r c o n sid e r­ ab le opposition to the M unicipal P a rty C om m ittee by Red G uards

102

Chapter II N otes

d u rin g the C u ltu ral R evolution, as Yang b ecam e a chief ta rg e t fo r atta c k s a fte r being appointed te m p o ra rily to re p la c e Chang C h 'u n ch ’iao. See the next c h ap ter of th is e s s a y . 17.

His appointm ent as P ro p ag an d a chief w as announced in C F J P on 3 May and 31 May 1963. His electio n to the MPC w as re p o rte d in H sin-m in W an-pao (New P e o p le 's E vening News) (HMWP), 30 D e­ cem b er 1963.

18.

W ho's Who, pp. 20-21.

19.

T hat K'o and Mao w ere co o p eratin g to push fo r re c tific a tio n in lit­ e r a r y and c u ltu ral c irc le s both in sid e and o u tside the P a r ty is seen in K 'o 's p rev io u sly m entioned sp eech callin g fo r rev o lu tio n izatio n of tra d itio n a l C hinese d ra m a (re p rin te d in H u n g -c h 'i, 15 A ugust 1964) and M ao's fav o rab le com m ent on it ("C om m ent on C om rade K 'o C h 'in g -s h ih 's R e p o rt" 12 D ecem b er 1963, in CB 891). In th is sp eech and in o th e rs , m o st notably h is "In stru ctio n of the C en tral C om m ittee on S trengthening of L earn in g fro m E ach O ther and O v er­ com ing C o n se rv a tism , A rro g an ce, and C om placency" (13 D ecem b er 1963, in CB 892) and "In stru c tio n s C o n cerning L ite ra tu re and A rt" (27 June 1964, in CB 891), Mao w as p u tting p r e s s u r e on Chou Yang to m ove ag ain st d issid e n ts in the national p ro p ag an d a a p p a ra tu s .

20.

A sia R e s e a rc h C en tre, ed. , The G reat C u ltu ral R evolution in China (Rutland and Tokyo: C h arles E. T u ttle , 1968), p. 91.

21.

See W hite, "S hanghai's P o lity ," in T he City in C om m unist C h in a, ed. Lew is.

22.

Donald W. K lein and Anne B. C lark , B io g rap h ic D ictio n ary of C hinese C om m unism , 1921-1965 (C am bridge: H a rv a rd U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1971), p. 442. As p a r t of the " D ic ta to rsh ip of the P r o le ­ ta r ia t" cam paign a decade la te r , K 'o C h 'in g -s h ih 's a c tiv itie s w ere co m m em o rated in a trib u te to h im by the Shanghai P a r ty 's id e o ­ logical jo u rn a l. See Yeh P o -lo , " R ecallin g a F ew T hings About C om rade K 'o C h 'in g -sh ih " H su e h -h si yii p 'i- p 'a n no. 6, 18 Ju n e 1975, in S elections fro m P e o p le 's R epublic of China M agazines 830: 19-34.

23.

Y ao's piece, o rig in a lly published in S hanghai's W en-hui P ao in N ovem ber, w as not re p rin te d in P e k in g 's J e n -m in J ih -p a o until

I

103 Chapter II N otes

w eeks la te r, a t w hich tim e a sym p o sium was added, d isc u ssin g Y ao's p o sitio n s and d efusing the a r ti c le 's effect (see J M J P , 30 No­ v e m b e r 1965, in CB 783: 1-18). T eng T 'o 's organ, P ei-c h in g J ih -p a o , defended Wu H an 's p lay and c ritic iz e d Y ao's N ovem ber a r tic le (see P C J P , 9 D ecem b er 1965, in SCMP 3669: 1-5). F o r accounts of the infighting and d eb ates touched off by Y ao's a rtic le and the su bseq u en t events lead in g into the C u ltu ral Revolution, see Goldman, "C h in ese C om m unist P a r ty 's 'C u ltu ra l R evolution' of 1962-64," in Ideology and P o litic s , ed. Johnson; Clive A nsley, The H e re sy of Wu Han (T oronto: U n iv ersity of T oronto P r e s s , 1971); and W hite, "S h an g h ai's P o lity D uring the C u ltu ral R evolution," in The C ity in C om m unist C hina, ed. Lew is. 24.

C h'en and T s 'a o w ere liste d f ir s t and second as m e m b ers of a 5 5 -m e m b e r p re s id iu m p re p a rin g fo r the 5th M unicipal P e o p le 's C o n g ress; WHP, 30 N ovem ber 1965, in SCMP(S) 147: 7. T s 'a o 's electio n a t th is co n g ress w as re p o rte d in NCNA Shanghai, 8 D ecem ­ b e r 1965, in SCMP 3599: 1-2.

25.

" R e tre n c h the S tru c tu re : Send C ad res to Join L ab o r P ro d u ctio n ," WHP, 6 D ecem b er 1957; in URS 10: 4 -1 0 .

26.

T he context w as a sp eech to the R ectificatio n W ork C om m ittee fo r S hanghai's in d u s tria l and co m m e rc ia l c ir c le s . See Shang-hai K ung-shang (Shanghai In d u stry and C o m m erce), 5 F e b ru a ry 1958; in URS 11: 316-17.

27.

See T s 'a o 's a r tic le in P eking R eview , 9 O ctober 1964: 19-22.

28.

See W HP, 12 M arch 1966, in SCMP(S) 151: 24-27, and WHP, 29 A p ril 1966, in SCMP(S) 151: 17-23.

C h ap ter HI N otes 1.

Red G uards saw C h 'e n 's illn e s s as faked and in te rp re te d it as a sign th a t he was a genuine c a p ita lis t ro a d e r a ll-to o -a w a re of what w as in s to re fo r him . The " illn e s s " was to provide him with an e sc a p e fro m c r itic is m and rem o v a l, a cc o rd in g to th is view . (See H ung-w ei C han-pao [R ed G uard D ispatch] , 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 9-13 (published jo in tly by the Red R ev o lu tio n aries

104

C h ap ter III Notes and the Shanghai Red G uard H e a d q u a rte rs) and H ung-w ei C han-pao, 10 Jan u ary 1967, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, p. 2 8 .) W hether o r not th is alleg atio n is c o r r e c t, C h'en did a t one point u se his ab sen ce as a sh ield to fend off c r itic is m . He atten d ed the O ctober P a rty W ork C onference in P ek in g and, re p o rte d ly , m ade a sp eech p ra is in g M ao's le a d e rsh ip , the Red G uards, and the p ro g ­ r e s s of the C u ltu ral R evolution in Shanghai. But w hile Liu Shaoc h 'i, T eng H siao -p 'in g , and even Mao h im se lf, am ong o th e rs , m ade s e lf - c r itic is m s , C h'en could only ad m it th a t m ista k e s had been m ade in Shanghai too, and th a t if he h ad n 't been co n v alescin g fro m an illn e s s , he pro b ab ly would have m ade so m e of the sa m e m ista k e s h im se lf. (See K ung-ien T s a o -fa n P ao [W o rk e rs R ebel News] , 10 F e b ru a ry 1968, in SCMP 4131: 1-4 (published by the W o rk e rs ' G eneral H e a d q u a rte rs). F o r M ao's m ild s e lf - c r itic is m , se e "T alk a t the C en tral Work C o n feren ce" in C h airm an Mao T alk s to the P eople, ed. S tu art S ch ram (New Y ork: Pantheon, 1974), p. 271. 2.

H sin-w en C h an -sh ih (News W a rrio r), 26 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p. 29 (published by th e R ev o lu tio n ary R ebel C om m itte e of Shanghai P r e s s C irc le s ).

3.

WHP, 11 June 1966, in URS 44: 100. See also "An Anthology of Wall P o s te r s ," (published by th e F ield A rm y Red G uards of the Shanghai F o reig n Languages In stitu te) in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, p. 30.

4.

WHP, 11 June 1966, in URS 44: 102, and SCMP(S) 153: 2 -3 .

5.

"An Anthology of Wall P o s te r s ," in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, pp. 30-31. We a re indebted to the Shanghai Red G uard p r e s s fo r giving us a fa irly com plex p ic tu re of the nonpublic a c tiv itie s of T s 'a o T i- c h 'iu and o th e r MPC m e m b e rs d u rin g the p e rio d . (The accounts w ere based on tr a n s c r ip ts of m eetin g s and telephone co n feren c es th a t w ere subsequently a cq u ired in r a id s on p a rty o f f ic e s .) Since th e se p r e s s accounts in v a riab ly c o n sid ere d any e x p re s s io n of sym pathy fo r the C u ltu ral R evolution by T s 'a o and o th e rs to be a b ra z e n exam ple of " tr e a c h e r y ," and sin ce e v e ry call fo r m o d e ra tio n , no m a tte r how m ild, w as d e c la re d to be "an a c t of w hite t e r r o r , " the Red G uards a p p are n tly fe lt little need to ed it T s 'a o 's co m m en ts. The re s u lt is , fo r th o se who do not s h a re the R ed G u ard 's a s s u m p ­ tio n s, a re m a rk a b ly balan ced acco u n t of the com plex m o tiv es of an em battled m an.

105 Chapter III N otes

6.

Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o ap p aren tly did not v acate h is p o sitio n as S hanghai's P ro p ag an d a chief to join the C en tral C ultu ral R evolu­ tio n Group (CCRG) in P ek in g u n til la te July. H unter (pp. 139140) re p o rts th a t Chang le ft fo r Peking to attend the E leventh P len u m (A ugust 1-12), and a fte r its conclusion stay ed in Peking. Chang w as re p e a te d ly re p o rte d to be in Shanghai and w as c o n s is ­ ten tly liste d a s a m e m b e r of Shanghai's MPC throughout June (see W HP, 11 June 1966, in URS 44: 97-103, F o reig n B ro a d c a st In fo r­ m ation S e rv ic e , D aily R ep o rt (F a r E ast) 113, 13 June 1966, ddd. 1 -5 , and W HP, 1 July 1966: 4 .) The f ir s t re fe re n c e to Chang as a m e m b e r of th e CCRG is in "Speech by C om rade Chiang C h'ing on July 26 a t P eking U n iv e rsity ," in S elections fro m China M ainland M agazines — Supplem ent (SCMM(S)), 16: 2. (At the tim e of th is re fe re n c e it w as not y e t c le a r th a t Chang w as in Peking. ) Chang w as re p la c e d in Shanghai by Yang H si-kuang, who becam e actin g P ro p ag an d a chief a p p are n tly w ith the anticip atio n th a t Chang would eventually r e tu r n to h is p o st. T h is appointm ent was la te r tak en as a m a jo r in d icatio n th a t T s 'a o was a re v is io n is t who was "p ro te c tin g " Yang, who had found h im se lf on the w rong side of the 1963 lite r a r y d isp u te w ith Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o --th e sam e d isp u te th a t led to the elev atio n of Chang to h is p re s e n t p o st as head of the P ro p ag an d a D ep artm en t. But Yang, a fte r all, had not been rem oved by K 'o d u rin g the e a r l ie r disp u te, and Yang was probably the next s e n io r P ro p ag an d a o fficial a t th a t tim e, a fa irly au tom atic appoint­ m ent fo r such a te m p o ra ry p o sitio n . T s 'a o 's routine appointm ent of Yang would la te r p ro v e to be a m a jo r so u rc e of Red G uard oppo­ sitio n to the MPC le a d e rs h ip .

7.

The p ro cee d in g s w ere re p o rte d on Shanghai Radio, in FE 2186: B 7-10. Chang was am ong the h alf-d o zen m unicipal o fficials in attendance a t the s p e a k e r 's p la tfo rm .

8.

F E 2186: B8; co m p are th e se a rg u m e n ts with those made the p r e ­ vious m onth by Yao W en-yuan, "On 'T h re e F am ily V illa g e '," C F J P , 10 May 1966, in CB 792: 22-44. T s 'a o 's above r e m a rk s , and th o se th a t follow , a r e p a tte rn e d clo sely a f te r Y ao's a s s e rtio n s in th is a r tic le , w h ere he arg u ed th a t the re a c tio n a ry line of Wu Han, T eng T 'o and Liao M o -sh a had s p re a d throughout the country, r e ­ q u irin g th a t its ad h e re n ts be ro o ted out and rem o v ed fro m pow er b efo re they could e n g in e e r a b o u rg eo is re s to ra tio n .

9.

F E 2186: B 8-9 .

106

C hapter III N otes 10.

FE 2186: B ll- 1 3 .

11.

P a r r i s Chang, "P ro v in c ia l P a rty L e a d e r s ' S tra te g ie s fo r S u r­ vival du rin g the C u ltu ral R ev o lu tio n ," in E lite s, ed. Scalapino, pp. 501-39; 506-09. It is im p o rta n t to note th a t th is w ork te am policy was not d is c re d ite d and abandoned u n til the 11th P len u m in August, and w as o fficial P a rty policy throughout m o st of th e s u m m e r.

12.

W ho's Who, pp. 229-30.

13.

W hite, "S hanghai's P o lity ," in E lite s , ed. Scalapino, p. 325.

14.

WHP, 8 June 1966, in SCMP(S) 153: 5 -9 . T h ese 1956 p ro n o u n cem ents w ere u sed ag a in st Ho a fu ll d ecade la te r .

15.

FE 2185: B18. M erle G oldm an's " P a rty P o lic ie s T o w ard s the In tellec tu als: The Unique B loom ing and C ontending of 1961-62," in P a rty L ea d ersh ip and R ev o lu tio n ary P o w er in China, ed. John Lewis (London: C am bridge U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1970), pp. 268-330, p ro v id es an e x ce lle n t account of the c u ltu ra l tre n d s d u r­ ing th is p erio d , in w hich Ho w as obviously an activ e p a rtic ip a n t, a s w ere m any o th e rs attack ed d u rin g th is s u m m e r's re c tific a tio n cam paign.

16.

WHP, 8 June 1966; in SCMP(S) 153: 8.

17.

A cam paign w as ap p aren tly o rc h e s tra te d to have w o rk e rs and students " s e ttle the s c o r e " w ith Ho by w ritin g le tte r s to m u n ici­ p al n ew sp ap ers. See WHP, 8 June 1966, in SCMP(S) 153: 5 -9, and C F JP , 29 Ju ly 1966, in F E 2234: B9.

18.

K uang-m ing Jih -p a o (KM JP), 4 M arch 1958; in URS 12: 110-13.

19.

See Yao W en-yuan, "On M r. Chou K u -c h 'e n g ’s V iews on C o n tra ­ d ic tio n ," JM JP , 18 July 1964, in CB 747: 12-24. T h is a r tic le had o rig in ally ap p ea red in K M JP on 24 S ep tem b er 1963.

20.

See Chou K u -ch 'en g , "U nified Whole and S ep arate R e fle c tio n s," JM JP , 18 July 1964, in CB 747: 5-11.

21.

See WHP, 7 Jan u ary 1966, in CB 783: 54.

See a lso F E 2185: B 1 7 -19.

107 Chapter III N otes

22.

See C F J P , 11 A ugust 1966; in SCMP(S) 155: 1-11. T h e re m ay in­ deed have been lo n g e r-sta n d in g s c o re s to s e ttle with Chou K u -ch 'en g held by CCP m e m b e rs . Chou had been a p ro m in en t M arx ist th e o re ­ tic ia n of the left-K M T d u rin g the 1930s and had p a rtic ip a te d in theo­ re tic a l d eb ates w ith C om m unists o v e r the p ro p e r rev o lu tio n ary s tra te g y m andated by C h in a's econom ic conditions. See A rif D irlik , "N ational D evelopm ent and Social R evolution in E a rly C hinese M a rx ist T hought," China Q u a rte rly 57 (A pril-M ay 1974): 286-309, 294. As a p ro m in en t h is to ria n , C hou's w ritin g s w ere su b ject to c lo se s c ru tin y a f te r 1949 to a s s u r e th a t h is accounts co rresp o n d ed w ith P a rty orthodoxy on sta g e s of h is to ry . See the re fe re n c e s to Chou in A. F e u e rw e rk e r and S. Cheng, C hinese C om m unist Studies of M odern C hinese H isto ry (C am bridge: H arv ard E a s t A sian R e­ s e a r c h C en ter, 1961). Chou w as also c ritic iz e d by Soviet h is to ­ ria n s , s h o rtly b efo re h is p u rg e, fo r an alleg ed ly " A s ia -c e n tric ” conception of h is to ry . See R. V. V yatkin and S. L. Tikhvinsky, "Som e Q uestions of H is to ric a l Science in the C hinese P e o p le 's R ep u b lic," re p rin te d in H isto ry in C om m unist C hina, ed. A. F e u e rw e rk e r (C am bridge: MIT P r e s s , 1968), pp. 331-55; 335-38.

23.

See W ho's Who, pp. 166-67.

24.

See the tra n s la tio n of Wu H an's play, along with an aly sis, in A nsley, The H e re sy of Wu H an. The re fe re n c e to Chou H sin-fang is on page 4.

25.

W ho's Who, , p p . 166-67, and A nsley, p. 4. The 1959 play was p ro b ab ly produced b efo re th em es re la te d to P 'e n g T eh -h u ai could be in tro d u ced . It is not c e rta in th at even the second production of C hou's Hai Jui had such p o litic a l content.

26.

W ho's Who, p. 167.

27.

See NCNA Shanghai, 14 June 1966, in SCMP 3730: 4 -8 .

28.

See C F J P , 25 June 1966, in F E 2207: B l- 4 .

29.

See W HP, 7 Ja n u a ry 1966, i n C B 783: 57-58.

30.

See C F J P , 25 June 1966, in F E 2201: B3. In L i's case, as in Chou K u -ch ’e n g 's, th e re m ay have been o th e r an im o sitie s with CCP

108 Chapter III N otes

m e m b ers rem a in in g fro m b efo re 1949. Li, a CCP m e m b er who quit the P a rty a f te r the s u p p re ssio n of the 1927 Shanghai u p risin g , la te r becam e C hairm an of the KMT K iangsu P ro v in c ia l G overn­ m ent, w here he had re p o rte d ly penned a nu m b er of an tico m m u n ist d ire c tiv e s . See W ho's Who, p. 3 74. 31.

Chu P a i-y in , d ir e c to r of the Shanghai F ilm B ureau, fo r exam ple, spoke out in 1962 fo r b ro a d e r p o rtra y a l of c h a r a c te r s in film s and le ss s tr ic t P a rty c e n so rsh ip . See FE 2191: B 9-12. Som e, like Li P in g -h sin and Wang C hi-yen, w ere ap p are n tly u n iv e rs ity p r o ­ f e s s o rs who sim ply w ere fran k about th e ir negative feelin g s to ­ w ard what they felt w ere "ty ran n o u s" P a rty actio n s in lite r a tu r e and a r t. See FE 2186: B13. Still o th e rs , like Yu P a i and Yu L o -k 'o , w ere unfo rtu n ate enough to have o b jected to Yao W eny u a n 's c r itic is m of Wu Han. Yu P a i had c ritic iz e d Yao fo r his "m etap h y sical a ttitu d e ," w hile Yu L o -k 'o sc o re d h im fo r "m ech an ­ ic a l m a te r ia lis m ." See WHP, 7 D ecem b er 1965, in SCMP(S) 148: 1-17; and WHP, 13 F e b ru a ry 1966, in SCMP(S) 149: 32-35. While the offense of the la tte r two w as fa irly ty p ical of p u rg e v ic tim s, we know of no evidence th a t they w ere ta rg e te d in Shanghai.

32.

WHP, 8 June 1966, in SCMP(S) 153: 10-14. T he film C h'en p ra is e d had ap p aren tly been influenced by the a e s th e tic id e als of Yang H sien -ch en and o th e rs who sought a m o re r e a lis tic p o rtra y a l of p e a sa n ts in film s. See Donald M unro, "T he Yang H sien -ch en A ffa ir," China Q u a rte rly , A p ril-J u n e 1965; and Goldm an, " P a rty P o lic ie s ," in P a r ty L e a d e rsh ip , ed. Lew is, pp. 268-303.

33.

See M acF arq u h ar, O rig in s, V ol. I, pp. 179-80, and Goldman, L ite ra ry D is se n t, pp. 181-82. M a c F a rq u h a r feels th a t M in iste r of D efense P 'e n g T eh -h u a i, who la te r in d icated d isa p p ro v a l of the lib e ra l H undred F lo w ers lin e, had en co u rag ed and su p p o rted C h'en, sin ce Je n -m in J ih -p a o was slow to p rin t re b u tta ls of C h 'e n 's c ritic is m s . C h'en w as a lso attack ed quite m e rc ile s s ly by in te lle c ­ tu a ls in the m id st of the H undred F lo w ers p erio d ; see R o d erick M acF arq u h ar, The H undred F lo w ers C am paign and th e C hinese In tellec tu als (New Y ork: P r a e g e r , 1960), p . 175.

34.

W ho's Who, p. 78.

35.

Shanghai Radio, 22 June 1966, in F E 2207: B7; W H P, 1 Ju n e 1966, in URS 44: 173-78; Shanghai R adio, 1 Ju ly 1966, in F E 2212: B6.

109 Chapter HI N otes

36.

W HP, 7 July and 4 A ugust 1966, in URS 45: 314-19. 18 A ugust 1966, in URS 45: 319-27.

37.

WHP, 19 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 152: 15-19, HMWP, 21 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 152: 19-20, HMWP, 23 June 1966, in W hite, "S hanghai's P o lity ," p . 337.

HM W P,

C h ap ter IV N otes 1.

See Mao T se -tu n g , "Speech at the C losing C erem ony of the E leventh P lenum of the E ighth C en tral C o m m ittee," 12 A ugust 1966, in C h a ir­ m an M ao, ed. S chram , pp. 262-63, and a lso Mao, "In terje ctio n at E n la rg e d M eeting of the CCPCC Standing C o m m ittee," 4 A ugust 1966, in M iscellan y of Mao T s e -tu n g Thought, JPR S 49, 826: 16-18.

2.

As o th e r Red G uard H ead q u arters w ere la te r fo rm ed w ith the in ­ tention of "d rag g in g out" the le a d e rs of the MPC, th is o rig in al fe d e ra tio n becam e known as the " F ir s t H e a d q u a rte rs," se e H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 83.

3.

Shanghai c o rre sp o n d e n t f o r F a r E a s te rn Econom ic R eview (F E E R ), 8 S ep te m b er 1966, in China News Item s fro m the P r e s s (CNI), no. 136.

4.

W HP, 20 A ugust 1966, in SCMP(S) 156: 29-33. T s 'a o led a p arad e throughout the city a f te r the ra lly , at which Kuo M o-jo gave a speech, See NCNA Shanghai, 19 A ugust 1966, in F E 2245.: B 2 -3 . Chang was by th is tim e in P ek in g w ith the C u ltu ral R evolution Group. He ap p e a re d on the r o s tr u m a t a T ienanm en ra lly th a t sam e w eek. See P eking R adio, 10 A ugust 1966, in FE 2243: B l- 2 ; and F E 2244: B 3-4.

5.

H sin-w en C h a n -sh ih , 26 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p . 36.

6.

Shanghai R adio, 24 August 1966, in F E 2252: B3; Shanghai Radio, 14 S ep te m b er 1966, in F E 2268: B 5-6; and Shanghai R adio, 16 O ctober 1966, in F E 2294: B l.

7.

C F J P , 22 A ugust 1966, in URS 52: 345-46.

110

Chapter IV N otes

8.

See Shanghai co rre sp o n d e n t re p o rts fro m FE E R , 8 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 136; South China M orning P o s t (Hong Kong), 8 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 137; and South China M orning P o st, 24 A ugust 1966, in CNI 139.

9.

See Shanghai co rre sp o n d e n t re p o rts fro m South China M orning P o st, 23 A ugust and 8 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 137.

10.

See South China M orning P o st, 8 S ep tem b er and 14 S ep te m b er 1966, in CNI 137; and South China M orning P o st, 27 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 139.

11.

See, fo r exam ple, Shanghai R adio, 14 S ep tem b er 1966, in F E 2268: B 5-6; Shanghai Radio, 30 S ep tem b er 1966, in .FE 2284: B7; and South China M orning P o st, 27 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 139.

12.

T his w as, a t th a t tim e, a m a tte r of P a rty p o licy . T h o se in itia lly excluded did not belong to a fam ily in one of the "five red categ o ­ r i e s " —w o rk e rs, po o r and lo w er-m id d le p e a s a n ts, c a d re s , a rm y m en, and m a r ty r s . Hong Yung Lee h as re c e n tly arg u ed th a t th e se excluded stu d en ts had a s tro n g in cen tiv e to push th e ir c r itic is m s of au th o rity m uch fu r th e r than o th e rs w e re w illing. See h is e x ce lle n t d iscu ssio n of "The B eh av io r of the R a d ic a ls" (pp. 655-63) and "The S ocial C h a ra c te ris tic s of the Student R a d ic a ls" (pp. 673-81) in Hong Yung Lee, "T he R ad ical Students in Kwangtung D uring the C u ltu ral R evolution," China Q u a rte rly 64 (D ecem ber 1975): 645-83.

13.

Student dem ands on th is count often re q u ire d the school P a r ty C om ­ m itte e to b reak e x istin g CCRG d ire c tiv e s re la tin g to confidential file s and s e c r e t m a te r ia ls , and stu d en t actio n s in s to rm in g the offices containing the "black m a te ria l" c le a rly defied CCRG policy on a rc h iv e s and s e c r e t f ile s . See H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, pp. 111-31, and the re le v a n t CCP D ocum ents in CB 852: 16, 2 4-25. The po sitio n of the P a r ty C om m ittee a t Shanghai F o reig n Languages In stitu te was m ade even m o re co m p licated by the fa c t th a t they had n e v e r lab elled anyone co u n te rre v o lu tio n a ry , n o r fo rced anyone to m ake a co n fessio n . F o r th a t re a s o n it w as quite likely, H unter fe e ls, th a t the "black m a te r ia l" did not e x is t a t the In stitu te. See H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 118-22.

111 Chapter IV N otes

14.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 15 N ovem ber 1966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, p. 84. T he A ugust 22 sp eech w as probably s im ila r in tone to his above cited sp eech (footnote 28) which ap p eared in WHP on A ugust 20. The "Sixteen P o in ts" had been adopted d u rin g the A ugust P lenum only two w eeks b efo re and w ere co n sid ered the " c h a r te r " of the Red G uard m ovem ent and a guide to b ehavior fo r both le a d e rs and m a s s e s . See CCP D ocum ents of the G reat P r o le ta ria n C u ltu ral R evolution (CCP D ocum ents) (Hong Kong: Union R e s e a rc h In stitu te, 1968), pp. 4 2 -5 4 . An exam ination of th is docum ent re v e a ls th a t T s 'a o w as being e x tre m ely care fu l, in both w ord and deed, to stic k care fu lly to its p ro v isio n s. T his would com e to c h a ra c te riz e h is dealin g s with the stu d en t and w o rk er d is s id e n t m ov em en ts.

15.

H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, p. 84.

16.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 15 N ovem ber 1*966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, p. 85. T h is ap p are n tly coincided with the ra lly of Peking stu d en ts d e s c rib e d below.

17.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 15 N ovem ber 1966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, p. 83.

18.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 15 N ovem ber 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 83. It e m erg ed again as a c e n tra l co n cern of the city le a d e rs h ip in F e b ru a ry and M arch 1967, as a whole a r r a y of d is ­ sid e n t groups, who c o n sid ere d th e m se lv e s " tru e rev o lu tio n ary le ftis ts " and Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o an "o p p o rtu n ist" and " re v is io n is t," p ro te s te d a g a in st th e ir ex clu sio n fro m b a sic level " g re a t a llia n c e s ." C hang's re a c tio n , unlike T s 'a o 's , w as to brand th e se groups " c o u n te rre v o lu tio n a rie s ."

19.

See WHP, C F JP , and Shanghai R adio, 28 A ugust 1966, in FE 2253: B 9-10. The P ek in g m edia also provided co v erag e of the T ib etan s tu d e n ts' ac tio n s; se e NCNA Peking, 28 A ugust 1966; in F E 2252: B 3-4 . As if to d raw a m o ral le sso n fro m th is episode, Je n -m in Jih -p a o ra n an e d ito ria l on the 28th en titled "R evolutionary Young P eople Should L e a rn fro m the C hinese P e o p le 's L ib eratio n A rm y ."

112 Chapter IV N otes

20.

Nieh Y uan-tzu w as a philosophy p r o f e s s o r and a le a d e r of the m ilita n t R ed G uard factio n s in P ek in g th a t had ad v o cated atta c k s on the P a rty a p p a ra tu s . N ieh 's e a r l ie r p o s te r w as re p rin te d in P e o p le 's D aily on the o rd e r of C h airm an Mao. It w as ru m o re d th a t T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu had seen th e se atta c k s on the Shanghai P a r ty w hile in P eking fo r the E leventh P len u m . See H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 15 N ovem ber 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 80, and H ung-w ei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 14-15. If th is w ere the case, it no doubt a le rte d T s 'a o to the th r e a t of the P ek in g R ed G uards and the n e c e ssity fo r him to stic k c lo sely to e s ta b lish e d d ire c tiv e s and not m ake any e r r o r s .

21.

Chang was often re p o rte d as one of s e v e ra l C u ltu ral R evolution Group officials who ap p eared jo in tly a t R ed G uard m e e tin g s. On at le a s t one occasion, la te r th a t autum n, Chang was re p o rte d to hold a p e rso n a l co n feren ce w ith R ed G uards on p o litic al w ork m ethods. See P eking R adio, 11 N ovem ber 1966, in F E 2316: B2, and SCMM(S) 16: 23-24.

22.

Shanghai Radio, 26 A ugust 1966, in F E 2252: B2.

23.

H sin-w en C h an -sh ih , 26 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 91.

24.

Shanghai R adio, 28 A ugust 1966, in F E 2253: B 9-10; and H ung-w ei C han-pao, 15 N ovem ber 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 91-92.

25.

See Shanghai c o rre sp o n d e n t fo r Hong Kong Kuai P a o , 16 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 138, pp. 9-10, and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 96, 109.

26.

F o r the fo rm e r account, see H unter, Shanghai J o u r n a l, pp. 97-98; fo r the la tte r , se e le a fle ts signed by "The R ev o lu tio n ary W o rk ers and E m p lo y ees" of "S hanghai's la r g e s t te x tile fa c to ry ," w hich denounced the occupation and dem anded im m ed iate w ithdraw al, in South China M orning P o s t, 13 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 137.

27.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 15.

28.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 15 N o v em b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 98.

113 Chapter IV N otes

29.

H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 99-100.

30.

Shanghai R adio, 5 S ep tem b er 1966, in FE 2266: B 2-3.

31.

H ung-w ei C han -p ao , 15 N ovem ber 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p . 98.

32.

H ung-w ei C han -p ao , 30 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 94-95. Mao e x p re s s e d id en tical re s e rv a tio n s about the in tellectu a l and p o litic al content of Red G uard slogans and about the p ra c tic e of "b rin g in g everyone dow n." H is conclusion, in F e b ru a ry 1967, w as th a t the o rien tatio n of th is s e c to r of the R ed G uard m ovem ent w as indeed in e r r o r and was in fa c t r e a c ­ tio n a ry . See Mao, "T alk s a t T h re e M eetings with C om rades Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o and Yao W en-yuan," in C hairm an M ao, ed. S chram , p. 277.

33.

A lthough c e rta in ly not an a c c u ra te g en era liza tio n f o r the m ove­ m ent a s a w hole, Y ang's o b serv atio n , if the ex p erien ce of the Canton Red G uard Dai H sia o -a i is any guide, c e rta in ly d e s c rib e s the actio n s of a sig n ifican t p o rtio n of th e m ovem ent. See Gordon B ennett and R onald M ontaperto, Red G uard: The P o litica l B iog­ raphy of Dai H sia o -a i (G arden City, New Y ork: Doubleday, 1972), pp. 107-25.

34.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 15.

35.

Ib id . , p . 15.

36.

Ib id . , p. 17. T h is o b serv atio n se e m s like little m o re than a weak a tte m p t to d is c r e d it the M P C 's opposition, but th e re a r e stro n g in d icatio n s th a t it was an a c c u ra te one. Mao h im se lf ad m itted a few w eeks la te r a t the O cto b er W ork C onference th a t "so m e of the stu d en ts did not have te r r ib ly good fam ily background . . . " (Schram , p. 268), and Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o would la te r label the o rien tatio n of th e se sa m e stu d en t groups as "p e tit b o u rg eo is" when they op­ posed h is a d m in is tra tio n . Hong Yung L e e 's thorough re s e a r c h a lso points in th is d ire c tio n . See his "R adical Students in Kwangtung," pp. 673-77, w h ere he a rg u e s th a t the " ra d ic a ls " in the stu d en t m ovem ent w ere v e ry often of b o urgeois fam ily background.

114

C h ap ter IV N otes 37.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 30 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 94-95.

38.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 15.

39.

H sin-w en C h an -sh ih , 26 D ecem b er 1966, in H u n ter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p. 36.

40.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 30 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p . 36. T h ese attem p ts by Yang to " s e t the to n e" w ere la te r m a jo r acc u sa tio n s m ade ag ain st him by d is s id e n t Red G uards, who acc u se d him of d iv e rtin g the s p e a rh e a d of s tru g g le aw ay fro m the handful of re v is io n is t le a d e rs .

41.

See, fo r exam ple, Shanghai R adio, 30 S ep tem b er 1966, in F E 2285: B 6-7; WHP, 2 O ctober 1966, in SCMP(S) 158: 17-20; South China M orning P o st, 21 O ctober 1966, in CNI 143; and H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p. 109.

42.

H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p. 110.

43.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 16.

44.

8-25 O ctober 1966.

45.

Mao, "T alk at the R ep o rt M eeting," 24 O ctober 1966, in C h airm an Mao, ed. S chram , p. 264.

46.

Mao, Ib id ., p. 264. Mao would p ro v e w rong in th is a s s e r tio n . P 'a n F u-sh en g , f i r s t p a rty s e c r e ta r y of H elungkiang, w as la te r h o sp ita liz ed a f te r follow ing M ao's advice. Wan H siao -tu n g , f i r s t s e c re ta ry of T ien tsin , re p o rte d ly died as a r e s u lt of the tre a tm e n t he rece iv ed at a stru g g le m eetin g w ith stu d en ts. See P . Chang, "P ro v in c ia l L e a d e rs ," in E lite s, ed. Scalapino, p. 510. T s 'a o ap p aren tly had good re a s o n to keep h is d ista n ce fro m la rg e groups of d issid e n t stu d en ts.

47.

Mao, "T alk at the R ep o rt M eeting," 24 O ctober 1966, in C h airm an Mao, ed. Schram , p. 264-.

115 C hapter IV N otes

48.

Mao, "T alk a t the C en tral W ork C o n feren ce," 25 O ctober 1966, in C h airm an M ao, ed. S ch ram , p. 271. See the sam e confession in "T a lk at the R ep o rt M eeting," 24 O ctober 1966, Ib id ., p. 265.

49.

Mao, "T a lk a t the C en tral W ork C o n feren ce," 25 O ctober 1966, Ib id ., p. 272.

50.

Ib id ., and Mao, "T alk a t the R ep o rt M eeting," 24 O ctober 1966, Ib id ., p. 264,

51.

Mao, "T alk at the C en tral W ork C o n feren ce," 25 O ctober 1966, Ib id ., p . 273.

52.

Ib id ., p. 272.

53.

It is sa fe to a ssu m e th a t T s ’ao attended the O ctober C onference sin c e it w as of su ch v ital im p o rtan ce and sin ce he did not ap p ear in Shanghai m ed ia accounts d u rin g the p e rio d .

C h ap ter V N otes 1.

See point 14 of the "Sixteen P o in ts" in CCP D ocum ents, pp. 42-54.

2.

Je n -m in J ih -p a o e d ito ria l en title d "T aking a F ir m Hold on the R evolution and S tim u latin g P ro d u ctio n is a P o licy of M ao," b ro a d ­ c a s t o v e r Shanghai R adio, 10 N ovem ber 1966, in F E 2314: B3.

3.

See, fo r exam ple, the account by a detach m en t fro m Peking A ero n au tical In stitu te th a t tr ie d to e s ta b lis h a lia iso n a t th e No. 1 M achine T ool F a c to ry , in H u n g -ch 'i no. 2, 16 Ja n u a ry 1967, in JPR S 40, 041: 53-57. T his account a ttrib u te d fric tio n to " a r r o ­ gant and d ic ta to ria l" stu d en t w o rk -sty le s and f e a r by w o rk e rs th a t the stu d en ts would dam age m ach in es and loot the u n it's file s . T his led to b raw ls and w alkouts. See also "M ain P o in ts of Con­ v e rs a tio n B etw een C o m rad es Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o and C h 'i P en -y u and Five F ig h te rs of the 'R ed F la g ' C om bat T eam of P eking A ero n au tical In s titu te ," in SCMM(S) 16: 23-24, and a lso H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 105.

116 Chapter V N otes

4.

See JM JP , 7 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 138, p. 2, w h ere R ed G uards w ere w arned to " g ra sp rev o lu tio n and stim u la te p ro d u ctio n " and not to in te rfe re with w ork in fa c to rie s and com m unes. See s im ila r w arnings in JM JP , 15 S ep tem b er 1966, in CNI 138, p. 7; and also Nihon K ezai, Sankei, and M ainichi, 16 S ep tem b er 1966, in D aily S um m ary of the Jap an ese P r e s s (DSJP), 16 S ep tem b er 1966, pp. 12, 16, and 22; and A sahi, 7 S ep tem b er 1966, in D SJP, 8 S ep tem b er 1966, p. 28.

5.

Tokyo Shimbun, 16 S ep tem b er 1966, in D SJP, 16 S ep tem b er 1966, pp. 11-12.

6.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 16.

7.

See, f o r exam ple, th e e ffo rts of Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o to com m uni­ cate th is to "Red F lag " fig h te rs fro m P ek in g A ero n au tical, in SCMM(S) 16; 23-24.

8.

Ja p a n e se c o rresp o n d en ts re la y e d a s e r ie s of P ek in g w all p o s te r s sta tin g th a t the CCP policy d isco u rag e d w o rk e rs ' o rg a n iz a tio n s, and le a rn e d through in terv iew s with plan t P a r ty C o m m ittee m e m ­ b e rs th at the c u rre n t C en tral p o licy w as fo r w o rk e rs to join m ilitia u n its in ste ad of Red G uard -ty p e o rg a n iz a tio n s. See Tokyo Shimbun, 5 N ovem ber 1966, and Nihon K ezai, 5 N o v em b er 1966, in DSJP, 5 N ovem ber 1966, pp. 22-23; M ainichi, 5 N ovem ber 1966, in D SJP, 8 N ovem ber 1966, pp. 9-10; and H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 132-33, 136.

9.

A rgum ents and evidence fo r the so c ia l com position of th e se d is ­ sid en t w o rk e rs w ill be p re s e n te d in the next sectio n on the so c ia l o rig in s of econom ism .

10.

Hung-wei C han-pao, 8 Jan u ary 1966, in SCMP(S) 166: 20-21, and H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 137-38.

11.

H ung-se T sa o -fa n P ao (Red R ebel News), 28 F e b ru a ry 1967 (P ublished by the Shanghai L iaiso n C e n te r of the Red R ebel B r i­ gade fro m H arbin M ilitary E n g in eerin g In stitu te), in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 136-37, C F JP , 8 N ovem ber 1966, and Shanghai Radio. 8 N ovem ber 1966. in F E 2319: B21; WHP, 9 N ovem ber and 10 N ovem ber 1966, in SCMP(S) 159: 6-20, and Shanghai R adio, 10 N ovem ber 1966, in F E 2314: B3.

117 Chapter V N otes

12.

F E 2314: B3.

13.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 20-21, and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 138. It is p o ssib le th a t in d raw in g up add itio n al dem ands, th e le a d e rs of the w o rk e rs, p e r ­ haps influenced by P ek in g R ed G uards, w ere hoping to en su re re je c tio n and m ain tain the co n frontation w ith m unicipal o fficials.

14.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 8 Jan u ary 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 20-22, and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 139.

15.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 8 Jan u ary 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 21-22. T he te x t of the te le g ra m was copied by N eale H unter fro m a Shanghai w all p o s te r; se e H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 139-40.

16.

T h is tim e sequ en ce is c ru c ia l in in te rp re tin g the events at Anting. F o r som e re a s o n H u n ter claim s th a t th e re w as a " s e rio u s s p lit in the Mao g ro u p ." He a s s e r ts th a t Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o lite ra lly ra c e d to Shanghai in an a tte m p t to f o r e s ta ll the read in g of C h 'e n 's te le g ra m to the w o rk e rs and sig n the dem ands b efo re it could be re a d (pp. 140-41). H unter in te r p r e ts th is to m ean th a t Chang felt, even m o re stro n g ly than C h'en P o -ta , th a t the w o rk e rs' dem ands be reco g n ized . H ow ever, C h 'e n 's te le g ra m could have re a c h e d the w o rk e rs on the 10th, 11th, o r even e a rly on the 12th before Chang a rriv e d in Shanghai th a t day. T his p o ssib ility is not c o n sid ere d by H unter, but it m akes an e n tire ly d iffe re n t in te rp re ta tio n equally lik ely —one, in cid en tally , th a t fits w ith o th e r events a s so c ia te d w ith the " in cid en t." C h 'e n 's te le g ra m , in th is a lte rn a tiv e in te r p r e ­ ta tio n , was re a d to the w o rk e rs, and when th is failed to move o v er half of them , only then w as Chang—who as a Shanghai P a rty official would have been a logical ch o ice— d isp atch ed to negotiate w ith the w o rk e rs in o r d e r to get th em to re tu rn to w ork. This alte rn a tiv e in te rp re ta tio n ta k e s into acco u n t the th re e -d a y tim e p erio d th a t the w o rk e rs stay ed a t Anting, and is v e rifie d by H u n te r's own ad m issio n th a t a b rig ad e of w o rk e rs le ft A nting fo r P eking in o rd e r to p r o te s t C h 'e n 's " r e p r e s s iv e " te le g ra m . (See K ung-jen T sa o -fa n P a o , 13 M arch 1967, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 143). T his explana­ tion does not re q u ire us to im ag in e th a t Chang, a v ic e - d ir e c to r of the CCRG, would defy its d ire c to r, C h'en P o - ta . The two le a d e rs of the CCRG w ere p ro b ab ly in f a r g r e a te r a g re e m e n t o v e r th is c ru c ia l is s u e than o th e r acco u n ts would have it.

118 Chapter V N otes

17.

Chang p rob ab ly reac h ed Shanghai no so o n e r than the 12th. On the 10th he w as re p o rte d to be on the r o s tr u m a t a m a s s r a lly at T ienanm en Square (see J M J P , 12 N ovem ber 1966, p. 1, and P eking Radio, 10 N ovem ber 1966, in F E 2314: B3, and on th e 11th he attended an o th er T ien an m en ra lly and held a co n feren ce w ith R ed G uards fro m P ek in g A ero n au tical In s titu te . (See P ek in g Radio, 11 N ovem ber 1966, in F E 2316: B2; and SCMM(S) 16: 2 3 -2 4 .)

18.

Tannenbaum , "The 1967 Jan u ary R evolution R eco u n ted ," p. 15.

19.

See H ung-w ei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 20-22, and H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p. 142.

20.

H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p . 141.

21.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 22-23.

22.

Ib id ., pp. 22-23, and K ung-jen T sa o -fa n P ao, 13 M arch 1967, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 143, 224. Keng C h in -ch an g 's b r igade would g rad u ally grow into a huge w o r k e r s ’ o rg an iz atio n known as the Second R egim ent, w hich would challenge C hang's le a d e rs h ip in Jan u ary and F e b ru a ry .

23.

CCP D ocum ents, pp. 116-19.

24.

T his w as one of the second s e t of dem ands th a t the W o rk e rs ' H ead q u arters had fo rw ard ed as a condition fo r th e ir re tu r n to w ork—the local P a r ty ap p a ra tu s had to a cc ep t b lam e fo r the in c i­ dent. Chang, in sig n in g th is dem and, had accep ted th e b la m e fo r the Shanghai P a rty ap p a ra tu s w ithout even co n su ltin g its m e m b e rs . See Hung-wei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 7-8 .

25.

H sin-w en C han-pao, 26 D ecem b er 1966, and H ung-w ei C han-pao, 30 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 144-45.

26.

Hung-wei C han-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 7-8 , and H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 144-45.

27.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 8 Jan u ary 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 8.

28.

H sin-w en C han-shih, 26 D ecem b er 1966, in H u n ter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p. 145.

119 Chapter V N otes

29.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 8 Jan u ary 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 8.

30.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 30 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 144. T h ese w arn in g s, w hich had little effect on CCRG po licy to w ard s w o rk e rs ' o rg a n iz a tio n s, w ere eventually to p rove to be c o r r e c t. The MPC would la te r be held re sp o n sib le fo r the fu lfillm e n t of th e ir p ro p h ecy . As CCRG o fficials la te r grappled w ith the s e v e re d islo c atio n s caused by ig n o rin g th e se w arnings, MPC p ro te s ta tio n s th a t w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s would eventually p a ra ly z e p ro d u ctio n w e re held up a s .p rim a fa c ie evidence th a t the f o r m e r local o fficials had opposed the C ultural R evolution.

31.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166; 8.

32.

Ib id . , pp. 2 1-2 2 . Yu C h 'iu -li w as lis te d in Red G uard m a te ria ls as a p a rty s e c r e ta r y fro m Shensi P ro v in c e —but the d issid e n t stu d en ts had ap p are n tly not been ke'eping up in th e ir read in g . Yu had been appointed the p re v io u s N ovem ber as v ic e -c h a irm a n of the State P lan n in g C o m m issio n , and held a sim u ltan eo u s position as m in is te r of the P e tro le u m In d u stry . See NCNA P eking 28 No­ v e m b e r 1965, in SCMP 3590, p. 1.

33.

Ib id . , p. 18.

34.

CCP D ocum en ts, pp. 133-35.

35.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 17 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 152-55.

36.

Ib id . , in H unter, p. 156.

37.

I b id ., in H unter, pp. 157-58.

38.

T he S c a rle t G uards w ere o fficially known a s "W o rk er S c a rle t G uards fo r the D efense of Mao T s e -tu n g 's T hought," w hich la te r often a p p ea red in tra n s la tio n s as "Red M ilitia D etachm ent" and "Red D efense C o rp s ," p ro b ab ly as a r e s u lt of one of the nam e changes r e f e r r e d to by H u n ter in Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 185-86. F o r d eta ile d accounts of th is w eek -lo n g a ffa ir, se e Hong K ong's Sing T ao D aily , 5 M arch 1967, in CNI 160, p . 9; and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 159-65.

120

C h ap ter V N otes 39.

See H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 166-69, and Sophia Knight, Window on Shanghai: L e tte rs fro m C hina 1965-67 (London: A ndre D eutsch, 1967), p . 236.

40.

See, fo r exam ple, Shanghai R adio, 5 D ecem b er 1966, in FE 2338: B7.

41.

H sin-w en C h an -sh ih , 26 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p . 167.

42.

Hung-wei C han-pao, 30 D ecem b er 1966, in H u n ter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, pp. 166-67.

43.

H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p. 174.

44.

Copied fro m a w all p o s te r, H u n ter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 168-69.

45.

K o-m ing T sa o -fa n P ao, 15 D ecem b er 1966 (published by the R evolutio n ary R ebel H e a d q u a rte rs of Shanghai R ed G uards), in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p . 181.

46.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 30 D ecem b er 1966, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 173-74.

47.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 10 Jan u ary 1967, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 181-82.

48.

F o r exam ple, an "a rm e d c la sh " o c c u rre d in No. 24 Sechih Mill betw een S c a rle ts and R eb els, an exam ple of the s o r t of v io len ce th a t had becom e "city -w id e" in c h a r a c te r . See WHP, 24 D ecernb e r 1967, in SCMP(S) 220: 11.

49.

H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, p. 177.

50.

H sin-w en C h an-shih, 26 D ecem b er 1966, f b id ., pp. 186-88.

51.

Hung-wei C han-pao, 4 Ja n u a ry 1967, Ib id ., p. 189.

52.

H ung-w ei C han-pao, 10 Jan u ary 1967, Ib id ., p. 191.

53.

Canton T a - p 'i- p 'a n T 'u n g -h su n (M ass C ritic is m and R epudiation B ulletin), 5 O cto b er 1967, in SCMP 4125: 5 -6 .

121 C hapter V N otes

54.

H ung-w ei C h an -p ao , 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 5-9, and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 197-202.

55.

See H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 202.

C h ap ter VI N otes 1.

See, f o r exam ple, W IIP, 5 J a n u a ry 1967, in F E 2359: B l- 2 .

2.

See, fo r exam p le, Jean E sm ein , T he C hinese C u ltu ral R evolution (New Y ork: A nchor-D oubleday, 1973), p . 181. E sm ein fe e ls th a t th is w as a spontaneous e ffo rt by m a n ag ers to "buy p o p u la rity ." K. S. K aro l fo rw a rd s a s im ila r in te rp re ta tio n in The Second C hinese R evolu tio n , p. 215.

3.

See, fo r exam ple, Tannenbaum , "The 1967 Jan u ary R evolution R eco u n ted ," pp. 21-22; H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 216, D aubier, H isto ry of th e C hinese C u ltu ral R evolution, p. 125, and Nee, "R evolution and B u re a u c ra c y ," pp. 331-32, all of whom u n c ritic a lly a c c e p t th e la te r a s s e r tio n th a t th e handouts w ere a planned stra te g y by top MPC le a d e rs to d ire c t s tru g g le away fro m th e m selv es and d is c re d it the C u ltu ral R evolution. Lynn White seem s re c e n tly to have te n ta tiv e ly em b ra ced a c o ro lla ry of th is view. In h is re c e n t "L ocal Autonom y in China D uring the C u ltu ral R evolution" (A m eri­ can P o litic a l Science R eview 70 (June 1976): 483), White p re s e n ts the pay m en ts to w o rk e rs d u rin g late D ecem b er and e a rly Jan u ary as an exam ple of th e e x e rc is e of "local autonom y" by " r ig h tis ts " in the M PC. And in P a r r is C hang's s c e n a rio f o r the C ultu ral R evolu­ tio n in China a s a w hole, payoffs by p ro v in cial le a d e rs to local re b e ls a r e seen a s a d efen siv e a ttem p t to coopt opposition. P . Chang p re su m a b ly h as Shanghai, the b e s t known p re su m e d exam ple of th is , in m ind. See h is "P ro v in c ia l P a r ty L e a d e rs ' S tra te g ie s ," in E lite s , ed. Scalapino, pp. 501-39; 524-25.

4.

See "S o u rces of L ab o r D iscontent in China: The W o rk e r-P e a s a n t S y stem ," C u rre n t Scene (CS) 6 (15 M arch 1968): 7-12.

5.

P e rm a n e n t la b o re r s w ork full tim e, a r e u su ally sk illed , and a re elig ib le fo r union h ealth and w elfare b en efits. C o n tract la b o re rs u su a lly include se m isk ille d o r a p p ren tice w o rk e rs. C o n tracts

122

C h ap ter VI N otes a re definite, lo n g -te rm , and re la tiv e ly en fo rcea b le, but th is c a te ­ gory is in elig ib le f o r the ran g e of b en efits enjoyed by p e rm a n e n t w o rk e rs. T e m p o ra ry la b o r is s h o r t- te r m w ork done w ithout ben e­ fit of a c o n tra c t. This categ o ry re c e iv e s little b e sid e s a w age, and can be te rm in a te d a t any tim e. C o n tract la b o re rs u su ally cam e fro m the su b u rb an com m unes n e a r Shanghai. Upon te rm in a tio n of the c o n tra c t, w o rk e rs r e ­ tu rn ed to the com m une, co n trib u tin g a fixed p ro p o rtio n of th e ir w ages to co llectiv e funds. They w e re an in te g ra l p a r t of the w o rk e rp e a s a n t sy ste m . T e m p o ra ry la b o r, w hile not an in te g ra l p a r t of the w o rk e r-p e a s a n t sy ste m , in c re a s e d in im p o rtan ce along w ith the g en era l d e -e m p h a sis on p erm a n en t la b o r. T e m p o ra ry la b o re r s w ere u su ally unem ployed p e a sa n ts who had m ig ra te d to Shanghai in the e a rly 1960s o r m iddle school g rad u ates who could n e ith e r find p e rm a n e n t jobs n o r gain en tra n c e to co llege, and who r e s is te d being s e n t to b o rd e r reg io n s f o r la b o r. L ab o r sta tio n s s e t up in Shanghai neighborhoods b ecam e c o n tra c to rs fo r th e se m a rg in a lly em ployed and su p p lie rs of s h o r t- te r m la b o r fo r in d u s try . See Lynn T. W hite III "W orkers P o litic s in Shanghai," Jo u rn al of A sian Studies 36 (Nov e m b e r 1976): 99-116, 99-101. 6.

See Ib id ., pp. 111-16, and CS 6 (15 M arch 1968): 7-12.

7.

WHP, 26 S ep tem b er 1964, quoted in W hite, "W o rk ers P o litic s ," p. 111.

8.

See NCNA C h'engtu, 27 D ecem b er 1965, in SCM P 3615: 18-20.

9.

I b id ., p. 18.

10.

See K ung-jen Jih -p ao , 27 A p ril 1966, in SCMP 3693: 6 -9 , and NCNA P eking, 27 D ecem b er 1965, in SCMP 3615: 16-18.

11.

JM JP , 8 Jan u ary 1966, in SCMP 3624: 14-18.

12.

NCNA Peking. 27 D ecem b er 1965; in SCMP 3615: 17.

13.

See Lynn T. White III, "The C o n tract P r o le ta r ia t," m im eo g rap h ed (Hong Kong: C en tre of A sian S tudies, The U n iv e rsity of Hong Kong, 1972), pp. 39-41.

C hapter VI N otes

14.

C F J P , 5 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 154: 11-13, and Shanghai Radio, in JFE 2277: B14.

15.

W HP, 19 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 152: 15-17, and C F J P , 19 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 154: 13-14.

16.

Identical re a s o n s w ere to be fo rw ard ed u n d er Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao in 1967 fo r stu d en ts to re tu rn to the co u n try sid e p o sts they had left. See W HP, 19 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 152: 15-17.

17.

See W HP, 19 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 152: 17-19; HMWP, 21 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 152: 19-20; C F J P , 5 May 1966, in SCMP(S) 154: 11-13; and U rum chi R adio, 24 S ep tem b er 1966, in FE 227: B14.

18.

H unter, " P o rt in a S to rm ," FEER 56;12; pp. 663-67.

19.

I b id ., p . 664.

20.

See W hite, "W o rk ers P o litic s ," pp. 114-15.

21.

H u n ter, " P o rt in a S to rm ," p. 664.

22.

See K e-m in g Lou (R evolutionary T ow er), 10 M arch 1967 (Pub­ lish ed by R ebels fro m Shanghai D ram a In stitu te), in SCMP(S) 182: 14-21; and WHP, 11 M arch 1967, in SCMP 3902: 19-20. A nother group th a t s u rfa c e d in Shanghai d u rin g the p erio d , y et w hich does not fit into the so cioeconom ic tre n d s we a r e outlining h e re a r e the "dem obilized s o ld ie r s ." T h ese w ere PLA tro o p s who had been tr a n s f e r r e d to f r o n tie r o u tp o sts to re c la im land. Some of th e se groups tra v e lle d to Shanghai and proved to be fo rm id ab le s tr e e t fig h te rs d u rin g Ja n u a ry and F e b ru a ry of 1967. See P . Chang, " P ro v in c ia l P a rty L e a d e rs ," p . 523.

23.

H unter, " P o rt in a S to rm ," p. 664. White ex p lo re s th e se and o th e r d iffe re n c e s betw een the stu d en t-tech n ician ap p re n tic e s and ap p ren ­ tic e w o rk e rs in his "The C o n tra ct P r o le ta r ia t," pp. 39-41.

24.

K aro l, Second C hinese R ev o lu tio n , p. 237.

25.

Hung C h 'i 2, 16 Ja n u a ry 1967, in JPR S 40, 041: 43-44.

124 Chapter VI N otes

26.

WHP, 25 Ja n u a ry 1967, in URS 47: 174-76.

27.

See Ibid. , 174-76, and W HP, 7 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 176: 21 - 2 2 .

28.

L eaflet, "A nother M essage to the P eople of S hanghai," in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 205.

29.

W HP, 12 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP 167: 32.

30.

Ray Wylie, "R ed G uards R ebound," FEER 52;10; pp. 4 62-67. See also H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 220.

31.

It is quite likely th at th is group w as m o st unhappy about fellow com m une m e m b e rs who w ere em ployed in the city a s c o n tra c t o r te m p o ra ry la b o r. While c o n tra c t la b o r w as d isad v an tag ed re la tiv e to the p erm a n en t la b o r fo rc e , it re c e iv e d g r e a te r c a sh r e m u n e ra ­ tio n than did com m une la b o r e r s . See W ylie, "Red G uards R e­ bound," pp. 462-67, and WHP, 20 Ja n u a ry 1967, in C hina News A nalysis (CNA) 647: 4 -5 .

32.

T h ese a r e ju s t so m e of the ch a rg e s m ade and dem ands fo rw a rd e d by an o rg an izatio n of te m p o ra ry and c o n tra c t la b o re rs in Shanghai. See H ung-kung C han-pao (Red W o rk er C om bat N ews), 6 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 177: 18-22. The d iffere n ce in m a te ria l b e n e ­ fits betw een th is s e c to r and the p e rm a n e n t la b o r fo rc e w as indeed g re a t. See W hite, "W o rk ers P o litic s ," pp. 108-14.

33.

See Shanghai Radio, 2 M arch 1967, in FE 2408: B l.

34.

See WHP, 6 Ja n u a ry 1967, and Shanghai R adio, 5 J a n u a ry 1967, in FE 2359: B3, w hich in d icate th at th e te m p o ra ry w o rk e rs ' o rg an iz atio n s w ere su p p o rted by th e R ebel factio n a t th a t tim e (this su p p o rt, in cid en tally , would wane as Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o assu m ed control o v er the W o rk e rs' H e a d q u a rte rs). See also Ray W ylie, "Red G uards R ebound," p. 465.

35.

See Shanghai Radio, 2 M arch 1967, in FE 2408: B l.

36.

See M ichel O ksenberg, "O ccupational G roups in C h in ese Society and the C ultural R evolution," in The C u ltu ral R evolution: 1967 in

125 C h ap ter VI N otes Review (Ann A rb o r, M ichigan: C en ter fo r C hinese Studies, 1968), pp. 1-44, 8-1 2 . O k se n b erg 's d isc u ssio n lays out a fram e w o rk fo r u n d erstan d in g any p e rc e iv e d a llia n c e s betw een m a n a g e rs, union o ffic ia ls, and p erm a n en t w o rk e rs on the one hand and cleav ag es betw een p erm a n en t and co n tra c t la b o r on the o th e r as a p ro d u ct of the way benefits w ere s tru c tu re d and group in te re s ts shaped. 37.

See H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 166-69, and c h ap ter V above, w h ere the S c a rle ts , at f ir s t, scru p u lo u sly held r a llie s a fte r w orking h o u rs.

38.

See Shanghai Radio, 7 M arch 1967, in FE 2412: B24, and A sahi, 22 F e b ru a ry 1967, in DSJP, 1 M arch 1967, pp. 25-27.

39.

See Shanghai R adio, 23 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2375: B 9-10, and WHP, 24 Jan u ary 1967, in CNA 653: 1 -2.

40.

A sahi, 22 F e b ru a ry 1967, in D SJP, 1 M arch 1967, pp. 25-27.

41.

See Jap an ese v is ito r s ' re p o rts in Nihon K ezai, 15 Jan u ary 1967, in D SJP, 14-16 Ja n u a ry 1967, p . 18; and A sahi, 22 F e b ru a ry 1967, in D SJP, 1 M arch 1967, pp. 25-27.

42.

See CNA 645: 5 -6.

43.

See the C en tral d ire c tiv e a d d re s s in g th is p ro b lem in SCMM(S) 17: 14-15.

44.

See NCNA Shanghai, 24 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2377: B 5-6; WHP, 22 Ja n u a ry 1967, in CNA 649: 4; WHP, 29 M arch 1967, in FE 2430: B 8-9; and A sahi, 22 F e b ru a ry 1967, in D SJP, 1 M arch 1967, pp. 25-27.

45.

See Shanghai Radio. 2 M arch 1967. in FE 2408: B l, and Hungkung C han-pao, 6 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 177: 18-22.

46.

F ro m Canton w a ll-p o s te rs , dated 4 Ja n u a ry 1967, cited in C u rre n t Scene, 15 M arch 1968, p. 9. A te x t of C hiang Ch’in g 's m eetin g with w o rk e rs is in Chung H u a-m in and A rth u r M iller, M adame Mao: A P ro file of Chiang C h'ing (Hong Kong: Union R e s e a rc h In stitu te , 1968).

126 Chapter VI N otes

47.

See JM JP , 26 D ecem b er 1966, in SCMP 3852: 1; C u rre n t Scene, 15 M arch 1968, p. 8; and A sahi, 12 Ja n u a ry 1967, in CNA 644: 3.

48.

C u rre n t Scene, 15 M arch 1968, p. 9.

49.

Shanghai Radio, 2 M arch 1967, in FE 2408: B l. T h is w as a W o rk e rs' H e ad q u arters o r d e r rep u d iatin g the ag re e m e n t, and it coincided with the second la y -o ff of th e se w o rk e rs and the d isb an d ­ m ent of th e ir o rg a n iz a tio n s.

50.

See the accounts by a w o rk e r fro m the Shanghai E le c tric Bulb F acto ry , and by a d etach m en t of th e Shanghai C hingkangshan L iaison Station, in H u n g -ch 'i 2, 16 J a n u a ry 1967, in JPR S 40, 041, pp. 41-42.

51.

See the acc u sa tio n s in C F JP , 10 Jan u ary 1967, in FE 2363: B 6 -8 .

52.

See, fo r exam ple, the ex p erien ce at S hanghai's docks, in H unter, " P o rt in a S to rm ," p. 664.

53.

See the 1967 in terv iew with th re e m e m b ers of S hanghai's R evolu­ tio n a ry C om m ittee by M anlio D inucci, in Nuova U nita, o rgan of the C om m unist P a r ty (M a rx ist-L e n in ist) of Italy, Ju ly -A u g u st 1967, in JPR S 42, 525, pp. 1-24, 8; W ylie, "Red G uards R ebound," p. 464; and WHP, 20 Jan u ary 1967, in CNA 647: 4 -5 .

54.

H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn a l, pp. 196-97, e s tim a te s the n u m b er of d ep artin g S c a rle ts a t six ty to seventy thousand. JM JP , 23 Jan u a ry 1967, in SCMP 3869: 1-3, re v e a ls th a t m o st of the w o rk e rs dem anding tra v e l ex p en ses a t th a t tim e w ere fro m "Red M ilitia D etachm en ts" (S carle t G uards).

55.

See B ennett and M ontaperto, Red Guard, pp. 118-19.

56.

See, fo r exam ple, th e account fro m the "P u b lic a tio n s B u reau P rin tin g C o rp o ra tio n ," in WHP, 22 Ja n u a ry 1967, in URS 46: 341-44, and SCMP(S) 169: 27-29.

57.

WHP, 19 Jan u ary 1967, in SCMP 3876: 8 -10. T h is e s tim a te fo r the S c a rle ts ' n u m e rical stre n g th is a lm o st u n iv e rs a lly quoted by both fa c tio n s. See the le a fle t "U rg en t A ppeal" 31 D ecem b er 1966

127 Chapter VI N otes

(P ublished by th e S c a rle t G uards), in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p . 194; Nuova U nita in JPR S 42, 525, p. 8; A sa h i, 13 May 1967, in D SJP, 18 May 1967, p. 15; and Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o , in URS 50: 18. 58.

See W HP, 19 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP 3876: 8-11. The " E d ito r’s N ote" accom panying th e se a r tic le s non eth eless a s s e r te d th a t th e se docum ents p ro v ed co m p licity on the p a r t of th e "sm a ll handful" in th e S c a rle t and MPC le a d e rsh ip .

59.

Since the fo rc e of S c a rle ts leav in g Shanghai was betw een sixty and sev en ty thousand, it would have re q u ire d a fo rce of alm o st equal s iz e to tu rn them back a t K unshan.

60.

NCNA, 19 J a n u a ry 1967, in FE 2370: B 24-25. M anlio Dinucci w as told th a t in one sm a ll neighborhood clock fa c to ry alone, 10, 540 yuan of back pay and w ages w ere w ithdraw n fro m the f a c to ry 's o p e ra tin g funds. See Nuova U nita in JPR S 42, 525, p. 15.

61.

JM JP , 21 Ja n u a ry 1967, in URS 46: 207, and NCNA, 19 Jan u ary 1967, in FE 2370: B 24-25. See re p o rts fro m P eking of s im ila r, though le s s s e rio u s o c c u rre n c e s , ap p are n tly touched off by the o fficial o rd e r to r e le a s e fa c to ry funds, in C zechoslovak P r e s s S e rv ic e , 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2370: C3.

62.

See NCNA, 9 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2389: B33; P eking Radio, 16 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2368: B19; and A sa h i, 7 Jan u ary 1967, in CNA 651,: 1-2. F o r a d etaile d account se e W hite, "S hanghai's P o lity ," pp. 328-30.

63.

See South China M orning P o s t, 1 F e b ru a ry 1967, in CNI 156; P ek in g R adio, 16 Jan u ary 1967, in FE 2368: B19; Nuova Unita in JPR S 42, 525, p. 9; and H u n g -ch 'i 10, 9 A ugust 1967, pp. 3640 (R ep rin t of a r tic le s fro m Shanghai H ai-k an g C han-pao—The H a rb o r W a rrio r), in W hite, "S hanghai's P o lity ," p. 329.

64.

See NCNA, 16 J a n u a ry 1967, in SCMP 3864, pp. 20-21; and FE 2370: B 14-17; P ek in g R adio, 8 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2390: B19; and W hite, "S h an g h ai's P o lity ," p. 329.

65.

J M J P , 21 F e b ru a ry 1967, in CNA 654: 6; and Shanghai Radio, 20 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FI5 2399: B 21-22.

128

Chapter VI Notes

66.

WHP, 9 F e b ru a ry and 21 F e b ru a ry 1967, in CNA 654: 6; and Shanghai Radio, 20 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FJC 2399: B 21-22.

C hapter VII Notes 1.

Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao , 22 O ctober 1967, in URS 50: 18.

2.

Ib id . , p. 19.

3.

Ibid.

4.

Ib id .

5.

H unter, "T he C u ltu ral A rm ," FEER 57: 22-24,

6.

See H unter, "T he C u ltu ral A rm ," pp. 22-24; and WHP, 4 Ja n u a ry 1967, in URS 46: 114-16, and SCMP(S) 162: 2 5-6. P o w er was a lso seize d in L ib eratio n D aily in the sa m e fashion on J a n u a ry 6 - se e ITE 2359: B 2-4.

7.

See H unter, " A ll-th e -W a y -R e b e ls," FEER 57: 248, w h ere Chang is re p o rte d to have a rriv e d on th e 4th, and E sm ein , p. 183, w here he is re p o rte d to have flown back to P ek in g on th e s a m e day. P a r ­ tial confirm atio n can be found in C hang's 22 O ctober 1967 sp eech w here, acco rd in g to URS 50: 18, he pinpointed h is d ate of re tu rn as A pril 4. We can a ssu m e that the m onth was in c o rre c tly sta te d due to a c o p y ist's e r r o r .

8.

See WHP, 5 Jan u ary 1967, in SCMP 3858: 1-4.

9.

Ib id . , p. 3.

10.

Ibid.

11.

See Hung-wei C h an-pao, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 166: 1-23, fo r the docum ents g en erated by th is ra lly , the o fficial ch a rg e s and p e n a ltie s, and d etailed accounts of what the c rim e s of each o fficial

129 C hapter VII N otes

w e re reputed to be. C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n , kept in office h e re , dropped fro m sig h t a f te r th e cre a tio n of the M unicipal R evolution­ a ry C om m ittee, to re a p p e a r only a fte r the p urge of Chang C h'unch 'ia o a decade l a t e r —as a top P a rty o fficial in Yunnan. See The W ashington P o s t, 15 F e b ru a ry 1977. 12.

W HP, 7 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2361: B6.

13.

WHP, 10 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2363: B 8-10; and SCMP(S) 162: 27-28. See also W HP, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2361: B 6-7; and Shanghai Radio, 9 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2362: B12.

14.

See, fo r exam ple, Shanghai Radio, 8 Jan u ary 1967, in FE 2361: B 7 -9 ; and WHP, 10 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2363: B 8-10.

15.

T s 'a o T i-c h 'iu , C h'en P 'e i- h s ie n , and Yang H si-kuang would thus p e rfo rm the sa m e ro le a t the lo cal lev el th a t Lowell D ittm er has arg u ed Liu S h a o -c h 'i p e rfo rm e d a t th e national lev el—th a t of a sym bol to w ard s w hich c r itic is m and factio n al e n e rg ie s w ere to be d ire c te d . See h is Liu S h ao -ch 'i and the C hinese C u ltu ral Revo­ lu tio n .

16.

See CCP D ocum ents, p. 170.

17.

See "M e ssag e of G re e tin g s," 11 Ja n u a ry 1967, in CB 852: 38.

18.

H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 209.

19.

H unter, "T he C u ltu ral A rm ," FEER 57: 24; H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 221; Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o in URS 50: 19.

20.

See WHP, C F J P , and Shanghai Radio, 9 Jan u ary 1967, in FE 2364: B l- 5 . See also £ B 818: 5 -9, SCMP 3861: 1-4; and JPRS 40,041, pp. 14-16.

21.

See NCNA, 8 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2390: B 18-20; NCNA, 10 F eb­ ru a ry 1967, in SCMP 3880: 25; and WHP, 10 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2392: B 18-19.

22.

See China News S um m ary (CNS) 161: 2, and White, "S hanghai's P o lity ," pp. 330-32.

130 C hapter VII Notes 23.

See H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 23 9; CCP D ocum ents, pp. 172, 175-77, 200-01, and 208.

24.

See H ung-se T sa o -fa n P a o , 30 J a n u a ry 1967, in JPR S 41, 446, pp. 67-69; Shanghai R adio, 13 J a n u a ry 1967, in FE 2367: B6; and P eking R adio, 16 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2368: B19.

25.

See Shanghai Radio, 15 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2369: B22, and P eking Radio, 16 Jan u ary 1967, in FE 2368: B19. See also M ao's re fe re n c e to th is event in his F e b ru a ry ta lk s w ith Chang and Yao in S chram , C hairm an M ao, p. 279.

26.

See C hieh-fang-chiin W en-i (L ib eratio n A rm y L ite r a tu r e ) , P ek in g , No. 2, pp. 29-30, in JPR S 42,129, pp. 26-29, and Shanghai Radio, 21 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2400: B l.

27.

F o r the account a t the docks, se e H unter, " P o r t in a S to rm ," p. 664; Shanghai R adio, 10 J a n u a ry 1967, in FE 2364: B ll - 1 2 , and Shanghai Radio, 14 J a n u a ry 1967, in FE 2374: B7. F o r the account a t the ra ilro a d te rm in a ls , se e Shanghai Radio, 13 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2364: B14; NCNA, 9 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP 3880: 22-24; and Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao (speech of 22 O ctober 1967) in URS 50: 19. A W o rk ers' H e ad q u arters N otice was is s u e d on 18 J a n u a ry 1967, nullifying r a is e s and bonuses and o rd e rin g w o rk ­ e r s to re tu rn back pay; se e CB 818: 24-26.

28.

See H ung-ch'i No. 11, 1967, and JM JP , 10 July 1967, in CNA 674: 3, and Shanghai Radio, 10 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2364: B 9-10.

29.

See H ung-w ei C han-pao, 15 Ja n u a ry 1967, in JPR S 40, 396, pp. 16-19; Shanghai R adio, 10, 11, 12 J a n u a ry 1967, in FE 2363: B6; FE 2364: B 12-13, B26; and F E 2365: B 5-6, B13.

30.

See, fo r exam ple, NCNA, 16 J a n u a ry 1967, in_FE 2370: B 14-17; Shanghai Radio, 23 Ja n u a ry 1967, in_FE 2374: B 6-7, and W HP, 13 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP 3889: 16-17. The g rad u ally re tu rn in g w o rk e rs w ere often w ryly r e f e r r e d to as " c o m ra d e s who w ere un­ able to w ork e a r l ie r due to illn e s s ."

31.

See E z ra Vogel, "In tro d u ctio n ," The C u ltu ral R evolution in the P ro v in c e s , p. 6.

131

Chapter VII N otes

32.

See C hang's talk on 22 O ctober 19G7, in URS 50: 20-21, and Nuova U nita in JPR S 42, 525, p. 11.

33.

See K ung-jen T sa o -fa n P a o , 13 M arch 19G7, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 23G.

34.

See K e-m in g Lou, 10 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 184; 20-22, and M ao's m ention of the opposition to the PLA a t Lunghua A irfield in S ch ram , C hairm an M ao, p. 278.

35.

H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 225-26.

36.

I b id ., pp. 228-32.

37.

K ung-jen T sao -fan P a o , in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 237. K eng's p ro te s ta tio n s about th e s iz e of C hang's su p p o rt w ere quite p o ssib ly tr u e —although quoted often*in the W o rk ers' H ead q u arters organ, sta te m e n ts lik e th e se w ere n ev er refu ted .

38.

See C F J P , 3 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 23 94: B22-23; and Chiehfang-chiin W en -i, P eking, No. 2, 1967, pp. 27-29, in JPRS 42, 129, pp. 22-25. A d ire c tiv e fro m the M ilitary C om m ission of the C en tral C om m ittee on 28 Jan u ary o rd e re d PLA units to "m o re activ ely su p p o rt tr u e rev o lu tio n ary le f tis ts ." See CB 852: 54-55.

39.

H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 237, and "Yao W en-yuan—New Blood in the Mao R eg im e," Issu e s and Studies 8 (M arch 1972): 80-85.

40.

H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, p. 237.

41.

See Shue, "Shanghai A fter the Jan u ary S to rm ," p. 68.

42.

E s tim a te s fo r th e R ebel n u m e rical s tre n g th v a ry between six hun­ d re d thousand to one m illio n . (See Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao , in URS 50: 18; Nuova Unita in JPR S 4 2 ,4 2 5 , p. 8, and A sah i, 13 May 1967, in D S JP , 18 May 1967, p. 15.) While th e se re p o rte d fig ­ u re s a r e probably highly inflated, we can n o n etheless (assum ing th a t each sid e in flated th e ir m e m b ersh ip to ta ls at roughly equal ra te s ) d e riv e an e s tim a te of th e ir re la tiv e s tre n g th s. If we a s s u m e th a t S c a rle t s tre n g th was at eight hundred thousand, and

132

C h apter VII Notes if we take one m illion as the c o r r e c t fig u re fo r the R ebels, then the rebel faction, we a ssu m e, included ap p ro x im ately 56 p e rc e n t of S h an g h ai's p o litic ally activ e w orking population. If we su b ­ tr a c t from th at one m illion the 520 thousand re p o rte d to have left w ith Keng C hin-chang and the e stim a te d " s e v e ra l hundred thousand" of the W o rk ers' T h ird A rm y (assu m e two hundred thousand), the W o rk ers' H ead q u arters is left w ith le ss than th re e hundred thou­ sand, which b e a rs out H u n ter's o b serv atio n th at the o rg an iz atio n w as, by late Jan u ary , a m e re " sh e ll" of its fo r m e r se lf. Even if we assu m e that the W o rk ers' H e a d q u a rte rs' m e m b ersh ip was sw elled by the disbanding S c a rle t G uards, it is d ifficu lt to im agine th at the W o rk ers' H ead q u arters could have co m p rised m o re than o n e-fo u rth of the c ity 's org an ized w o rk e rs — re g a rd le s s of the actual m agnitude of th e ir n u m b ers. 43.

Shanghai Radio, 5 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2387: B12.

44.

Ib id ., B IO -11.

45.

WHP, 5 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 169: 14-19.

46.

WHP, 8 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2389: B 28-29.

47.

Shanghai Radio, 9 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2391: B30.

48.

See Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao , talk on 22 O ctober 1967, in URS 50: 21-23.

49.

K ung-jen T sao -fan P ao , 13 M arch 1967, in H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 251-52.

59.

H unter, Shanghai Jo u rn al, pp. 254-55.

51.

Mao, "T alk s at T h re e M eetings w ith C o m rad es Chang C h'unch 'ia o and Yao W en-yuan," in C h airm an Mao, ed. S ch ram , p. 277.

52.

Ib id ., p. 278.

53.

Ib id .

54.

Ib id ., p. 277-78.

133 Chapter VII N otes

55.

Ib id . , p. 278, It is not c le a r what, if any, co n crete o rg a n iz a ­ tio n al changes th is nam e change en tailed . The m ain p illa r s of C hang's pow er d u rin g the tenuous nin eteen -d ay reig n of the Shanghai Com m une w ere th e M ilitary C ontrol C om m ission, the P u b lic S ecu rity B ureau, and the W o rk e rs' H e a d q u a rte rs —the sa m e o rg an iz atio n al su p p o rts Chang enjoyed b efo re the Commune and the s a m e in stitu tio n s th a t rem ain ed m o st im p o rtan t on the R evolutionary C om m ittee.

56.

Shanghai Radio, 18 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2397: B14-16.

57.

WHP, 19 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 168: 28-31.

58.

WHP, 19 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 168: 28-29, and WHP, 22 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 169: 4 -5 , and in FE 23 99: B 22-24.

59.

See Shanghai R adio, 24 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2403: B 2-3; Shanghai Radio, 28 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2408: B 2-3, and WHP, 27 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2403: B l- 2 .

60.

Shanghai Radio, 24 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2401: B l.

61.

See Shanghai Radio, 23 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2401: B2, and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 260-62.

62.

H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 260-62.

63.

A lex an d ra C lose, "M ao P la y s His L a st Trum p,'-' FEER , 16 M arch 1967, in CNI 162, and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 260-62.

64.

C lose, "M ao P la y s His L a s t T ru m p ," and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 260-62.

C h ap ter VIII Notes 1.

K e-m in g L ou, 10 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 184: 23, and K ung-jen T sa o -fa n P a o , 13 M arch 1967, in H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 274-76.

2.

See WHP, C F J P , 25 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2404: B 28-31; WHP, 10 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 172: 4 -6 , and H unter, Shanghai J o u r­ n a l, p. 263.

134

C hapter VIII Notes 3.

WHP, 15 A p ril 1967, in FE 2442: B 15-16.

4.

See C F J P , 1 May 1967, in FE 2456: B9, and a lso W HP, 29 A pril 1967, in FE 2453: B8.

5.

See Shanghai R adio, 15 A p ril 1967, in FE 2466: B22.

6.

See Shanghai R adio, 8 May 1967, in FE 2463: B17; M ain ich i, 10 May 1967, in D SJP , 11 May 1967, p. 19; Shanghai Radio, 13 May 1967, in FE 2467: B 19-20; and Shanghai R adio, 27 May 1967, in FE 2479: B4-5.

7.

See WHP, 2 A pril 1967, in FE 2431: B l- 4 , and FE 2433: B l-2 ; C F J P , 2 A pril 1967, in SCMP 3916: 23-25; C F J P , 3 A p ril 1967, in FE 2434: B15-17; WHP, 9 A p ril 1967, in SCMM(S) 28: 7-15; WHP, 10 A pril 1967, in FE 2437: B 1 4 -15; Shanghai Radio, 17 A pril 1967, in FE 2444: B 16; Shanghai R adio, 18 A p ril 1967, in FE 2445: B 8-11; and Y o m iu ri, 4 A p ril 1967, in D SJP , 4 A pril 1967, pp. 37-38.

8.

One of the m ain ta rg e ts of th is cam paign was a " re a c tio n a ry " violin co n certo . See WHP, 1 May 1967, in FE 2456: B l l , and Shanghai Radio, 5 May 1967, in FE 2461: B 6-7. See a lso WHP, 26 M arch 1967, in FE 2427: B 16-19; WHP, 1 A p ril 1967, in FE 2431: B4-6; Shanghai Radio, 12 A pril 1967, in FE 2443: B15; Shanghai Radio, 8 June 1967, in FE 2489: B l l - 12, and Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao , in SC MM 651: 16.

9.

See CCP D ocum ents, pp. 497-98.

10.

See WHP, 11 M arch 1967, in SCMP 3 902; 19-20, and C F J P , 11 M arch 1967, in SCMP 3904: 14-16.

11.

See WHP, 6 M arch 1967, in SCMP 3897: 3 -5 , and in JPR S 41,450, pp. 124-25; WHP, 7 M arch 1967, in FE 2412: B 24-26; Shanghai Radio, 8 M arch 1967, in FE 2414: B 4-5; and C F J P , 15 M arch 1967, in SCMP 3904: 14. See the re le v a n t C en tral d ire c tiv e s in CCP D ocum ents, p. 570, and SCMM(S) 17: 67.

12.

See WHP, 6 Ja n u a ry 1967, in FE 2361: B 4-5.

135 Chapter VIII N otes

13.

See Nuova Unita in JPRS 42, 525, p. 15; H ung-se T sa o -fa n Pao, 30 J a n u a ry 1967, in JPRS 41, 446, pp. 65-69; and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 207, 223.

14.

CNS 154: A 8-9.

15.

See WHP, 17 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 170: 11-13.

16.

See WHP, 19 F e b ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 138-143; WHP, 4 F ebru a ry 1967, in FE 2388: B 2-3, and SCMP(S) 170: 9-10; WHP, 21 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 167: 36-39; and WHP, 6 M arch 1967, in URS 47, pp. 144-47.

17.

See NCNA, 24 M arch 1967 (from Shanghai P h y sic a l C ulture F ighting B ulletin), in FE 2428: B21-23.

18.

C F JP , 19 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2402: B6-7, and WHP, 24 Febru a ry 1967, in FE 2403: B 1 0 -12.

19.

WHP, 12 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2395: B 39-41. A pparently the id e n tica l c h arg e m ade e a r l ie r a g a in st the le a d e rsh ip of the old MPC w as excluded fro m th is refo rm u latio n .

20.

WHP, 18 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP 3892: 6-8 , and WHP, 13 F eb ru a ry 1967, in SCMP 3888: 23-26.

21.

WHP, 21 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 170: 14-15; C F JP , 16 M arch 1967, in FE 2430: B 6-7; and H unter, "T h re e C ad res of Shanghai," FEER 56: 491-95.

22.

See WHP, 7 M arch and 10 M arch 1967, in FE 2414: B l-2 ; WHP, C F JP , 3 A p ril 1967, in FE 2436: B17-18; and WHP, 7 A p ril 1967, in FE 2436: B 9-11.

23.

See WHP, 12 A pril 1967, in SCMP 3925: 32-34, and WHP, C F JP , 29 A pril 1967, in FE 2456: B 10-11.

24.

WHP, 15 Ja n u a ry 1967, in E sm ein , The C hinese C ultu ral R evolution, p. 131.

25.

WHP. 18 F e b ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 39-40.

136 Chapter VIII N otes

26.

WHP, 13 F e b ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 160-62, and WHP, 27 F eb ru a ry 1967, in FE 2407: B36.

27.

See WHP, 15 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2393: B 8-9; WHP, 16 F eb ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 154-57; and WHP, 18 F e b ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 157-58.

28.

"C om rade Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o 's Speech a t C h ia o -t'u n g U n iv ersity of Shanghai," T z u -lia o ch u an -ch i (Special C ollection of In fo rm atio n M aterial) Canton, 10 F e b ru a ry 1968, in SCMP 4146: 3.

29.

WHP, 17 F e b ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 31-34, and SCMP(S) 170: 16-22.

30.

WHP, 17 F e b ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 34-38.

31.

WHP, 3 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 171: 14-15.

32.

See WHP, 8 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2391: B 30-31; WHP, 12 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2392: B 16-17, and C F JP , 28 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 178: 17-20.

33.

Shanghai Radio, 15 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2395: B 31-33.

34.

CCP D ocum ents, pp. 301-02.

35.

See WHP, 16 F e b ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 180-81, and in SCMP(S) 168: 27. See a lso CNA 654: 4.

36.

See WHP, 12 F e b ru a ry 1967, in URS 47: 168-70, 176-78, and C F JP , 16 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 176: 12-16.

37.

See WHP, 25 Ja n u a ry 1967, in URS 47: 174-76. See a lso WHP, 20 Jan u ary 1967, in URS 47: 178-80; WHP, 25 J a n u a ry 1967, in C u rre n t Scene, 15 M arch 1968, p. 19, and WHP, 25 F e b ru a ry 1968, in SCMP 4146: 15-16.

38.

Shanghai Radio, 27 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2404: B35.

39.

FE 2359: B3.

137 Chapter VIII N otes

40.

Canton P h y s ic a l C u ltu re F ighting F ro n t, in SCMP 3913, and C u rre n t S cene, 15 M arch 1968, p. 27.

41.

WHP, 30 Ja n u a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 168: 13-14.

42.

CCP D ocum en ts, pp. 305-06.

43.

Shanghai Radio, 27 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2404: B35, and WHP, 28 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 174: 6-7, 12.

44.

Shanghai Radio, 1 M arch 1967, in FE 2408: B l.

45.

WHP, 18 Jan u ary 1967, in FE 2372: B21.

46.

See Shanghai R adio, 28 Jan u ary 1967, in FE 2380: B28-30; NCNA, 3 0 Ja n u a ry 1967, in CB 818: 21-23; WHP, 12 F eb ru ary 1967, in SCMP(S) 167; 32-33; and WHP, 19 F eb ru ary 1967, in SCMP(S) 167: 34-35. See also CCP D ocum ents, pp. 313-14.

47.

WHP, 9 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2390: B 15-16.

48.

See WHP, 11 F e b ru a ry 1967, in SCMP(S) 168: 24, and WHP, 12 F e b ru a ry 1967, in CNA 654: 2.

49.

See Shanghai R adio, 9 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2392: B21.

50.

Shanghai Radio, 28 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2405: B 28-30, and WHP, 1 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 171: 25-26.

51.

WHP, 1 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 171: 21-24.

52.

K e-m in g Lou, 10 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 184: 18-19.

53.

See WHP, 5 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2389: B37-38; WHP, 9 F eb­ ru a ry 1967, in FE 2390: B 15-16; and Shanghai Radio, 9 F eb ru ary 1967, in FE 2392: B21. See also SCMP(S) 167: 18-24.

54.

WHP, 5 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2389: B 37-38.

55.

See H unter, "T h e C u ltu ral A rm ," FEER 57: 24, and WHP, 1 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 171: 21-24.

138

Chapter VIII Notes

56.

See CNA 654: 2, and H unter, Shanghai J o u rn a l, pp. 248-49.

57.

See K e-m in g Lou, 10 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 184: 18-19; Shanghai Radio, 28 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2405: B 28-30; and W HP, I M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 171: 20-21, 25-26.

58.

See WHP, 11 F e b ru a ry 1967, in CNA 654; 2; Shanghai Radio, I I F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2393: B IO -13; and WHP, 1 M arch 1967, in SCMP(S) 171: 21-24.

59.

See Shanghai Radio, 21 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2400: B l- 2 , and Shanghai Radio, 24 F e b ru a ry 1967, in FE 2402: B 3-4.

60.

Shanghai Radio, 29 M arch 1967, in FE 2430: B 8-9.

61.

See Thom as W. R obinson, "T h e Wuhan Incident: L ocal S trife and P ro v in c ia l R ebellion D uring the C u ltu ral R evolution," CQ 47 (Ju ly -S ep tem b er 1971): 413-38.

62.

See R obinson, "T he Wuhan In cid en t," p. 422.

63.

See B a rry B urton, "T he C u ltu ral R ev o lu tio n 's U ltra le ft C o n sp iracy The 'M ay 16 G ro u p '," A sian Survey (AS) 11 (N ovem ber 1971): 1029-53; and H arvey N elsen, "M ilitar}' F o rc e s in th e C u ltu ral R evolution," CQ 51 (Ju ly -S ep tem b er 1972): 444-74, 4 60-62.

64.

See, fo r exam ple, V ic to r C. F alk en h eim , "T he C u ltu ral R evolu­ tion in Kwangsi, Yunnan, and F u k ien ," AS 9 (August 1969): 58097; D eborah S. D avis, "T he C u ltu ral R evolution in W uhan," in The C ultural R evolution in th e P r o v in c e s , pp. 147-70; T hom as J. M athews, "T he C u ltu ral R evolution in S zechw an," in T he C u ltu ral Revolution in th e P r o v in c e s , pp. 94-142; and J u rg e n D om es, "G e n erals and Red G u ard s—the R ole of Huang Y ung-sheng and the Canton M ilitary Comm and in the Kwangtung C u ltu ral R evolu­ tio n ," A s i a Q n a a r te ^ 3-31, 123-59.

65.

See Robinson, "T h e Wuhan In cid en t," pp. 436-37, N elsen, " M ili­ ta ry F o rc e s ," pp. 460-62, B urton, "T he 'M ay 16 G ro u p '," p . 1043, and Ju rg e n D om es, "T he C ultu ral R evolution and th e A rm y ," AS 8 (May 1968): 349-63, 358-59.

139 Chapter VIII N otes

66.

See Is su e s and Studies (Supplem ent) 1 (7 F e b ru a ry 1968): 24. L iao thus ranked alo n g sid e Yao W en-yuan and Wang Shao-yung.

67.

See "C hang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o 's R ise to P o w e r D uring the C ultu ral R evolution," Is su e s and Studies (Supplem ent) 2 (5 M arch 1969): 15-18, 15.

68.

N elsen, " M ilita ry F o rc e s ," pp. 460-61.

69.

See Shanghai Radio, 22 July 1967, in FE 2525: B22.

70.

See th e two e d ito ria l b ro a d c a sts o v e r Shanghai Radio, 20 July 1967, in FE 2526: B 22-25.

71.

See Shanghai R adio, 28 Ju ly 1967, in FE 2535: B2.

72.

See the e d ito ria l en titled "R em ain at E ase w hile Clouds of Chaos P a s s B y," Shanghai R adio, 30 Ju ly 1967, in F E 2533: B ll- 1 2 .

73.

See Shanghai R adio, 1 A ugust 1967, in FE 2535: B 3-4.

74.

I b id ., B 4-5.

75.

Ib id ., B4.

76.

Ib id ., B5.

77.

See th e se n sa tio n a liz e d d e sc rip tio n b ro a d c a st o v e r Shanghai Radio on 4 A ugust 1967, in FE 2536: B 3-5.

78.

See FE 2536: B 5-10.

79.

C F J P , 4 A ugust 1967, in FE 2536: BIO.

80.

See C F J P , 5 A ugust 1967, in FE 2357: B 17-19; Shanghai Radio, 6 A ugust 1967, in FE 2537: B 21-24. T he reso lu tio n of the M unici­ pal R evolutionary C o m m ittee, b ro a d c a st o v e r Shanghai R adio on 6 A ugust 1967, is in F E 2538: B 15-19.

81.

Shanghai Radio, 13 A ugust 1967, in FE 2546: B20-24.

140 C hapter VIII Notes 82.

See the following Shanghai Radio r e p o r ts : 7 A ugust 1967, in FE 2540: B6-8; 8 A ugust, in _FE 2540: B20-24; 9 A ugust, in FE 2544: B34-38; and 13 A ugust, in _FE 2546: B 20-24.

83,

See Yao W en-yuan, "C om m ent on T 'a o C hu's Two B ooks," HungC h'i, 17 S ep tem b er 1967, and B urton, "T he 'M ay 16 G ro u p '," pp. 1043-44, 1046-47.

C hapter IX Notes 1.

In addition to the v a rio u s in te rp re ta tio n s of the C u ltu ral R evolu­ tion in Shanghai cited in C hapter I above, genei’al accounts fo r China as a whole a lso re fle c t th is p e rs p e c tiv e . P a r r i s Chang h as fo rw ard ed a s c e n a rio of co n flict betw een the CCRG and lo cal le a d ­ e r s w here the p ro v in cial o fficials engage in "d ecep tiv e" and " e v a ­ siv e" attem p ts to p r e s e r v e th e ir pow er, using, am ong o th e r ta c tic s , financial re s o u rc e s to "buy off" w o rk e rs . See P a r r i s Chang, "T he Role of C h'en P o - ta in the C ultu ral R evolution," A sia Q u a r­ te rly 2 (1973): 17-58, 34-35, and " P ro v in c ia l P a r ty L e a d e rs ' S tra te g ie s ," pp, 524-25. E z ra Vogel, in an a n a ly sis w ritte n w ithin m onths of the events th e m se lv e s, p re s e n ts a p a ra lle l in te rp re ta tio n . In his "T he S tru c tu re of C onflict" in The C ultural R evolution: 1967 in R eview , he arg u es th a t " a n ti-M a o is ts " in the p ro v in cial le a d e rsh ip waged a fo rm of " g u e rilla w ar" ag a in st C ultural R evo­ lution p o licies by en co u rag in g s tr ik e s am ong w o rk e rs, d is ru p tin g in d u stria l, com m unication, and tr a n s p o r t w ork, by in c itin g in d u s­ tr ia l w o rk ers to re q u e s t h ig h er w ages, and by dividing the Red G uard m ovem ent and s tir r i n g up fa c tio n a lism (p. 107). All of th e se a r e p re s e n te d as defen siv e m oves d esig n ed to "slow down and sabotage" th e C ultural R evolution. N eale H unter, in h is own account fo r Shanghai, concludes th a t the MPC had m anipulated co n se rv a tiv e fo rc e s and had b lack m ailed and in tim id ated d is s id e n t stu d en ts and w o rk e rs (pp. 294-95), d esp ite co n sid era b le evidence to the c o n tra ry in h is own n a r r a tiv e — a d isc re p a n c y which Lynn T . White III has also noted (" L e a d e r­ ship in Shanghai," p. 350).

2.

Thus, P a r r i s Chang ex p lain s, the CCRG, se e in g th at the Cul­ tu ra l Revolution was m aking little headw ay, d isp atch ed Chang C h 'u n -ch 'iao and Yao W en-yuan to Shanghai in o r d e r to " d ir e c t

141 C hapter IX N otes

and co o rd in a te the r e b e ls ' a ttack s on Shanghai P a rty a u th o ritie s" ("T he Role of C h'en P o - ta ," pp. 35, 38). He in te rp re ts the Jan u ­ a ry R evolution in a way d ia m e tric a lly opposed to the in te r p r e ta ­ tio n fo rw ard ed h e r e —in the face of econom ic breakdow n, he a s s e r ts , "th e M aoist le a d e rs h ip decided not to r e tr e a t, but to ta k e the m o st e x tre m e m e a su re s y e t." ("P ro v in cial P a rty Lead­ e r s ' S tra te g ie s ," p. 526). 3.

See, fo r exam ple, P a r r i s Chang, "C h 'en P o - ta 's R ole," pp. 3739.

4.

See the s o u rc e s cited in footnote 1 above, and in C hapter I above.

5.

The w ork of Lynn T . W hite III and M ichel O ksenberg is in s tru c ­ tiv e h e re . White lays out the s tra tific a tio n within the w orking c la s s th a t developed d u rin g th e e a rly 1960s, and notes th at d iffe r­ en ces w ithin p lan ts and betw een shops of v a ry in g la b o r p ro d u c­ tiv itie s , m any of w hich em ployed a m ix of p erm a n en t and n onper­ m anent la b o r, p o ssib ly s e t the so cio lo g ical foundations of m ass fa c tio n a lism . O ksenberg, in h is "O ccupational G roups," sk etch es out the s tr u c tu r e of b en efits am ong v ario u s sectio n s of the w orking population and, e sp ecially im p o rta n t fo r o u r an aly sis, rem in d s us th a t a n atu ra l harm ony ex isted betw een the in te re s ts of p erm an en t w o rk e rs and lo w er level m anagem ent, both of w hose benefits w ere tied to continued in d u s tria l p r o g r e s s . Hong Yung L e e 's "The R adical Students in Kwangtung d u rin g the C ultural R evolution," and his fo rth co m in g book b ased on his P h.D . d is s e rta tio n , solidly docum ent the link betw een c la ss background and p o litic al o rie n ta ­ tion d u rin g the C u ltu ral R evolution.

6.

F o rw ard ed by " ro m a n tic id eo lo g u es," P a r r i s Chang a rg u e s, the Shanghai Comm une was a re m in d e r of "the pow er of ideology in C hinese p o litic s ." ("The Role of C h'en P o - ta ," pp. 37, 3 9 .)

7.

See, fo r exam ple, Goldman, "C h in a's A nti-C onfucian Cam paign, 1973-74," jCQ 63 (S eptem ber 1975): 435-62, 435-37, w here she r e a ­ sons th a t sin ce the A nti-C onfucian cam paign seem e d aim ed at p ro ­ ducing "unity and s ta b ility ," it m u st have been d ire c te d by Chou E n -la i and the " m o d e ra te s " ag ain st th e "d isru p tiv e groups th at em erg ed fro m the C u ltu ral R evolution"— " ra d ic a l ideologues" like Chang C h 'u n -c h 'ia o (p. 435).

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Books A nsley, C live. The H e re sy of Wu H an. T o ro n to : U n iv e rsity of T oronto P r e s s , 1971. B ennett, Gordon A. and Ronald N. M ontaperto. Red G uard: The P o liti­ cal B iography of Dai H s ia o - a i. G arden City, N. Y.: A nchor, 1972. B oorm an, H ow ard L . , ed. B io g rap h ical D ictio n ary of R epublican C h in a. 4 v o ls . New Y ork: C olum bia U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1967. CCP D ocum ents o'f the G reat P r o le ta r ia n C u ltu ral R ev o lu tio n . Kong: Union R e s e a rc h In stitu te , 1968.

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Chang, P a r r i s . R ad icals and R adical Ideology in the C u ltu ral R ev o lu tio n . New Y ork: R e s e a rc h In stitu te on C om m unist A ffairs, C olum bia U n iv ersity , 1972. Chen, J a c k . 1975.

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Chen, T heodore H. E. Thought R efo rm of the C hinese In te lle c tu a ls . Hong Kong: Hong Kong U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1960. The C ultural R evolution: 1967 in R ev iew . M ichigan P a p e rs in C hinese S tudies, v o l. 2. Ann A rb o r: U n iv e rsity of M ichigan C en ter fo r C hinese S tudies, 1968.

149 T h e C u ltu ral R evolution in th e P ro v in c e s . H arv ard E a s t A sian Mono­ g ra p h s . C am b rid g e: H a rv a rd E a s t A sian R e s e a rc h C en ter, 1971. D au b ier, J e a n . A H isto ry of th e C hinese C ultu ral R evolution. New Y ork: V intage, 1974. D ittm e r, L ow ell. L iu S h a o -c h 'i and th e C hinese C ultural R evolution: T he P o litic s of M ass C r itic is m . B erk eley : U n iv ersity of C ali­ fo rn ia P r e s s , 1974. E sm e in , J e a n . T he C hinese C u ltu ral R evolution. A nchor, 1973.

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F e u e rw e rk e r, A lb e rt and S. Cheng. C hinese C om m unist Studies of M odern C hinese H is to ry . H arv ard E a st A sian M onographs. C am b rid g e: H a rv a rd E a s t A sian R e s e a rc h C en ter, 1961. F e u e rw e rk e r, A lb ert, ed . H isto ry in C om m unist C hina. H a rv a rd U n iv e rsity P r e s s , 1968.

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F okkem a, D. W. L ite r a r y D o ctrin e in China and Soviet Influence, 19561960. T he H ague: Mouton, 1965. G oldm an, M e rle . L ite r a r y D isse n t in C om m unist C hina. New York: A theneum , 1971. T he G re a t C u ltu ral R evolution in C hina. Hong Kong: A sia R e se a rc h C en tre, 1967. H u n ter, N eale. Shanghai Jo u rn a l: An E yew itness A ccount of the Cul­ t u r a l R evolutio n . B oston: B eacon, 1969. Johnson, C h a lm e rs, ed . Ideology and P o litic s in C on tem p o rary C hina. S e a ttle : U n iv e rsity of W ashington P r e s s , 1973. K aro l, K. S. T he Second C hinese R evolution. New Y ork: Hill and Wang, 1974. K lein, Donald W. and Anne B . C la rk . B io g rap h ic D ictio n ary of C hinese C om m unism , 1921-1965. 2 v o ls . C am bridge: H arv ard U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1971. K night, Sophia. Window on Shanghai: L e tte r s fro m China, 1965-67. London: A ndre D eutsch, 1967.

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L ee, Hong Yung. "The P o litic a l M obilization of the Red G uards and R evolutionary R eb els in the C ultural R ev o lu tio n ." P h.D . d is ­ s e rta tio n , U n iv ersity of Chicago, 1975. L ew is, J o h n W ., ed. T he City in C om m unist C hina. S tanford: Stan­ fo rd U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1971. _________________ ,e d . P a r ty L e a d e rsh ip and R ev o lu tio n ary P o w er in C hina. London: C am bridge U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1970. L ie b e rth a l, K enneth. A R e s e a rc h Guide to C en tral P a rty and G overn­ m ent M eetings in China, 1949-1975. W hite P la in s, N. Y.: In te r­ national A rts and S ciences P r e s s , 1976. M acF arq u h ar, R o d erick . The O rigins of the C ultural R evolution, V ol­ um e 1: C o n trad ictio n s am ong the P eo p le, 1956-1957. New Y ork: Colum bia U n iv ersity P r e s s , 1974. __________________. The H undred F lo w ers C am paign and the C hinese In te lle c tu a ls . New Y ork: P r a e g e r , 1960. Nee, V ic to r and Ja m e s P eck , e d s . C h in a's U n in te rru p ted R evolution: F ro m 1840 to the P r e s e n t. New Y ork: P antheon, 1975. P usey, J a m e s . The Wu Han C am paign. H arv ard E a s t A sian Mono­ g ra p h s. C am b rid g e: H arv ard E a s t A sian R e s e a rc h C en ter, 1969. Scalapino, R obert, ed. E lite s in the P e o p le 's R epublic-of C h in a. S eattle: U n iv ersity of W ashington P r e s s , 1972. S ch ram , S tu a rt R. C hairm an Mao T alk s to the P eo p le : T alk s and L e tte rs , 1956-1971. New Y ork: Pantheon, 1974. S inger, M artin . E ducated Youth and the C u ltu ral R evolution in C h in a. M ichigan P a p e rs in C hinese S tudies, v o l. 10. Ann A rb o r: Uni­ v e rs ity of M ichigan C en ter fo r C hinese S tudies, 1971. Solomon, R ic h ard H. M ao's R evolution and the C hinese P o litic a l C u ltu re . B erk eley : U n iv ersity of C alifo rn ia P r e s s , 1971. W ho's Who in C om m unist C hina. 2 v o ls . In stitu te, 1969.

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MICHIGAN PA PERS IN CHINESE STUDIES No. 2. The C u ltu ral R evolution: 1967 in R eview , four e s s a y s by M ichel O ksenberg, C a rl R iskin, R o b ert Scalapino, and E z ra V ogel. No.

3.

Two Studies in C hinese L ite r a tu r e , by Li Chi and D ale Johnson.

No. 4. E a rly C om m unist China: Two S tu d ies, by Ronald Suleski and D aniel B ay s. No.

5.

The C hinese Econom y, ca. 1870-1911, by A lb ert F e u e rw e rk e r.

No. 6. C hinese P ain tin g s in C hinese P u b licatio n s, 1956-1968: An A nnotated B ibliograp h y and an Index to the P a in tin g s, by E. J. Laing. No. 7. The T re a ty P o r ts and C h in a's M odernization: What Went W rong? by Rhoads M urphey. No. 8. M aeda.

Two T w elfth C entury T ex ts on C hinese P ain tin g , by R o b ert J.

No. 9. Cheng.

The Econom y of C om m unist China, 1949-1969, by Chu-yuan

No. 10. S in g er.

E ducated Youth and the C u ltu ral R evolution in China, by M artin

No. 11. Chang.

P re m o d e rn China: A B ib lio g rap h ical In tro d u ctio n , by C hun-shu

No. 12.

Two Studies on Ming H is to ry , by C h arles O. H ucker.

No. 13. N ineteenth C entury China: F iv e Im p e ria lis t P e r s p e c tiv e s , se le c te d by D ilip B asu , ed ited by R hoads M urphey. N o. 14. M odern China, 1840-1972: An Introduction to S ources and R e s e a rc h A id s, by A ndrew J. N athan. No. 15. Women in China: Studies in Social Change and F e m in ism , edited by M arilyn B. Young. No. 16. An A nnotated B ibliography of C hinese P ain tin g C atalogues and R elated T e x ts , by H in-cheung L ovell. No. 17. C h in a's A llocation of F ixed C apital Investm ent, 1952-1957, by C hu-yuan Cheng. No. 18. H ealth, C onflict, and the C hinese P o litic a l S y stem , by David M. L am pton. No. 19. C hinese and Jap an ese M u sic -D ra m a s, ed ited by J. I. C rum p and W illiam P . M alm .

No. 21.

R eb ellion in N ineteenth-C entury China, by A lbert F eu erw erk er.

No. 22. Between Two P len u m s: C h in a's In tra le a d e rs h ip C o n flict, 1959-1962, by E llis Joffe. No. 23. " P ro le ta ria n H egem ony" in the C hinese R evolution and the Canton Comm une of 1927, by S. B e rn a rd T h o m as. No. 24. C hinese C om m unist M aterials at the B u reau of Inv estig atio n A rch iv es, T aiw an , by P e te r Donovan, C a rl E. D o rris , and L aw ren ce R. Sullivan. No. 25. Shanghai O ld-Style B anks (C h'ien-chuang). 1800-1935. by A ndrea Lee M cE ld erry . No. 26. The Sian Incident: A P iv o tal P o in t in M odern C hinese H is to ry , by T ien -w ei Wu. No. 27. State and Society in E ig h teen th -C en tu ry China: T he C h 'in g E m p ire in Its G lory, by A lb ert F e u e rw e rk e r. No. 28. In tellectu al F e rm e n t fo r P o litic a l R efo rm s in T aiw a n , 1971-1973, by Mab Huang. No. 29. The F o reig n E sta b lish m e n t in China in the E a rly T w entieth C en tu ry , by A lb ert F e u e rw e rk e r. No. 30. A T ra n s la tio n of Lao T z u 's "Tao T e Ching" and Wang P i's "C o m m en tary ," by P au l J. L in . No. 31. Econom ic T ren d s in th e R epublic of China, 1912-1949, by A lb ert F e u e rw e rk e r. No. 32. Chang C h h in -ch 'iao and S hanghai's J a n u a ry R ev o lu tio n , by A ndrew G. W ald er.

I

MICHIGAN ABSTRACTS O F CHINESE AND JAPANESE WORKS ON CHINESE HISTORY No. 1. The Ming T rib u te G rain S y stem , by Hoshi Ayao, tra n s la te d by M ark E lvin. No. 2. C o m m erce and Society in Suns C hina, by Shiba Yoshinobu, tra n s la te d by M ark E lvin. No. 3. T ra n s p o rt in T ra n s itio n : T he Evolution of T ra d itio n a l Shipping in C hina, tra n s la tio n s by A ndrew W atson. No. 4. Jap an ese P e rs p e c tiv e s on C h in a 's E a rly M odernization: A B ib lio g rap h ical S urv ey , by K. H. Kim. No. 5. The Silk In d u stry in C h 'in g C hina, by Shih M in-hsiung, tra n s la te d by E -tu Zen Sun.

NONSERIES PUBLICATION Index to the "C han-kuo T s 'e ," by Sharon F id le r and J. I. C rum p. A com panion volum e to the C han-kuo T s 'e , tra n s la te d by J. I. C rum p (Oxford: C larendon P r e s s , 1970).

M ichigan P a p e rs and A b stra c ts av ailab le fro m : C en ter fo r C hinese Studies The U n iv ersity of M ichigan Lane H all (P u b licatio n s) Ann A rb o r, MI 48109 USA P re p a id O rd e rs Only w rite fo r com p lete p ric e listin g

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DS796 .S257W34 Walder, Andrew G. Chang Ch'ung-ch'iao and Shanghai's January Revolution

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