Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling in Forest Soils 3038976822, 978-3038976820

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Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling in Forest Soils Edited by

Robert G. Qualls Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Forests

www.mdpi.com/journal/forests

Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling in Forest Soils

Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling in Forest Soils

Special Issue Editor Robert G. Qualls

MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade

Special Issue Editor Robert G. Qualls University of Nevada USA

Editorial Office MDPI St. Alban-Anlage 66 4052 Basel, Switzerland

This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Forests (ISSN 1999-4907) from 2017 to 2018 (available at: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/forests/special issues/CNP soil)

For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as indicated below: LastName, A.A.; LastName, B.B.; LastName, C.C. Article Title. Journal Name Year, Article Number, Page Range.

ISBN 978-3-03897-682-0 (Pbk) ISBN 978-3-03897-683-7 (PDF)

Cover image courtesy of Ann E. Russell.

c 2019 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative  Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. The book as a whole is distributed by MDPI under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons license CC BY-NC-ND.

Contents About the Special Issue Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Preface to ”Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling in Forest Soils” . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Ann E. Russell, Stephanie N. Kivlin and Christine V. Hawkes Tropical Tree Species Effects on Soil pH and Biotic Factors and the Consequences for Macroaggregate Dynamics Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 184, doi:10.3390/f9040184 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Zhan Xiaoyun, Guo Minghang and Zhang Tibin Joint Control of Net Primary Productivity by Climate and Soil Nitrogen in the Forests of Eastern China Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 322, doi:10.3390/f9060322 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Zachary W. Carter, Benjamin W. Sullivan, Robert G. Qualls, Robert R. Blank, Casey A. Schmidt and Paul S.J. Verburg Charcoal Increases Microbial Activity in Eastern Sierra Nevada Forest Soils Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 93, doi:10.3390/f9020093 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Ewa Błonska ´ and Jarosław Lasota Soil Organic Matter Accumulation and Carbon Fractions along a Moisture Gradient of Forest Soils Reprinted from: Forests 2017, 8, 448, doi:10.3390/f8110448 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Daniel H. Howard, John T. Van Stan, Ansley Whitetree, Lixin Zhu and Aron Stubbins Interstorm Variability in the Biolability of Tree-Derived Dissolved Organic Matter (Tree-DOM) in Throughfall and Stemflow Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 236, doi:10.3390/f9050236 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Bharat M. Shrestha, Scott X. Chang, Edward W. Bork and Cameron N. Carlyle Enrichment Planting and Soil Amendments Enhance Carbon Sequestration and Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Agroforestry Systems: A Review Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 369, doi:10.3390/f9060369 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Angang Ming, Yujing Yang, Shirong Liu, Hui Wang, Yuanfa Li, Hua Li, You Nong, Daoxiong Cai, Hongyan Jia, Yi Tao and Dongjing Sun Effects of Near Natural Forest Management on Soil Greenhouse Gas Flux in Pinus massoniana (Lamb.) and Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook. Plantations Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 229, doi:10.3390/f9050229 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Tomohiro Yokobe, Fujio Hyodo and Naoko Tokuchi Seasonal Effects on Microbial Community Structure and Nitrogen Dynamics in Temperate Forest Soil Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 153, doi:10.3390/f9030153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Antonietta Fioretto, Michele Innangi, Anna De Marco, Cristina Menta, Stefania Papa, Antonella Pellegrino and Amalia Virzo De Santo Discriminating between Seasonal and Chemical Variation in Extracellular Enzyme Activities within Two Italian Beech Forests by Means of Multilevel Models Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 219, doi:10.3390/f9040219 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 v

Qingshui Ren, Hong Song, Zhongxun Yuan, Xilu Ni and Changxiao Li Changes in Soil Enzyme Activities and Microbial Biomass after Revegetation in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 249, doi:10.3390/f9050249 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Fanpeng Zeng, Xin Chen, Bin Huang and Guangyu Chi Distribution Changes of Phosphorus in Soil–Plant Systems of Larch Plantations across the Chronosequence Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 563, doi:10.3390/f9090563 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Li Zhang, Ao Wang, Fuzhong Wu, Zhenfeng Xu, Bo Tan, Yang Liu, Yulian Yang, Lianghua Chen and Wanqin Yang Soil Nitrogen Responses to Soil Core Transplanting Along an Altitudinal Gradient in an Eastern Tibetan Forest Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 239, doi:10.3390/f9050239 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Yo-Jin Shiau, Chung-Wen Pai, Jeng-Wei Tsai, Wen-Cheng Liu, Rita S. W. Yam, Shih-Chieh Chang, Sen-Lin Tang and Chih-Yu Chiu Characterization of Phosphorus in a Toposequence of Subtropical Perhumid Forest Soils Facing a Subalpine Lake Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 294, doi:10.3390/f9060294 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 Shusheng Yuan, Tongtong Tang, Minchao Wang, Hao Chen, Aihua Zhang and Jinghua Yu Regional Scale Determinants of Nutrient Content of Soil in a Cold-Temperate Forest Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 177, doi:10.3390/f9040177 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Xiaofeng Zheng, Jie Yuan, Tong Zhang, Fan Hao, Shibu Jose and Shuoxin Zhang Soil Degradation and the Decline of Available Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Soils of the Main Forest Types in the Qinling Mountains of China Reprinted from: Forests 2017, 8, 460, doi:10.3390/f8110460 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Natasha M. I. Godoi, Sabrina N. dos S. Araujo, ´ Salati´er Buzetti, Rodolfo de N. Gazola, Thiago de S. Celestrino, Alexandre C. da Silva, Thiago A. R. Nogueira and Marcelo C. M. Teixeira Filho Soil Chemical Attributes, Biometric Characteristics, and Concentrations of N and P in Leaves and Litter Affected by Fertilization and the Number of Sprouts per the Eucalyptus L’H´er. Strain in the Brazilian Cerrado Reprinted from: Forests 2018, 9, 290, doi:10.3390/f9060290 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

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About the Special Issue Editor Robert G. Qualls is Professor Emeritus at the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science at the University of Nevada, USA. He received a B.Sc. in Biology, with Honors in Biology and Honors in Creative Writing at the University of North Carolina. He received an M.S.P.H. in Environmental Science and Engineering from the University of North Carolina and a Ph.D. in Ecology from the University of Georgia, doing research at the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory. He was later an Assistant Research Professor at Duke University, working on biogeochemical cycles in the Everglades of Florida. He has taught courses in Microbial Ecology, Wetland Ecology and Management, Forest and Range Soils, Soil Genesis and Classification, Natural Resource Ecology, Biodiversity, Conservation and Humans, and Ecology of Flowing Waters. After some early research work in ultraviolet light disinfection of bacteria and viruses, and kinetics of reactions of oxidizing chlorine with humic substances, his research work has centered on biogeochemistry of forests, wetlands and streams. This work has included dissolved organic matter dynamics, primary succession and soil organic matter formation, root production during succession, formation and decomposition of humic substances, protein content in dissolved organic matter, bioavailability of N and P in rivers and lakes, and ecophysiology of invasive plants. Dr. Qualls has also been a Visiting Professor at Yokohama National University in Japan. He received the “Pioneer of Disinfection Award” from the International Water Association and the Water Environment Association. He currently serves as Editor for the journal Forests. Outside the academic arena, he was also a member of the USA team at the World Masters Track and Field Championship in 2010 and 2016 in the 5000 m, 1000 m runs and the 4x800m relay.

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Preface to ”Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling in Forest Soils” The majority of carbon stored in the soils of the world is stored in forests. The refractory nature of some portions of forest soil organic matter also provides the slow, gradual release of organic nitrogen and phosphorus to sustain long term forest productivity. Contemporary and future disturbances, such as climatic warming, deforestation, short rotation sylviculture, the invasion of exotic species, and fire, all place strains on the integrity of this homeostatic system of C, N, and P cycling. On the other hand, the CO2 fertilization effect may partially offset losses of soil organic matter, but many have questioned the ability of N and P stocks to sustain the CO2 fertilization effect. Despite many advances in the understanding of C, N, and P cycling in forest soils, many questions remain. For example, no complete inventory of the myriad structural formulae of soil organic N and P has ever been made. The factors that cause the resistance of soil organic matter to mineralization are still hotly debated. Is it possible to “engineer” forest soil organic matter so that it sequesters even more C? The role of microbial species diversity in forest C, N, and P cycling is poorly understood. The difficulty in measuring the contribution of roots to soil organic C, N, and P makes its contribution uncertain. Finally, global differences in climate, soils, and species make the extrapolation of any one important study difficult to extrapolate to forest soils worldwide. In the emerging literature, topics of special current interest in the study of forest soil C, N, and P cycling include subjects such as: • forest soil C stocks and climate change, • ability of soil N and P mineralization to sustain increased productivity due to CO2 fertilization, • causes of recalcitrance in soil organic matter mineralization, • contribution of roots to soil C and N, • methane production and oxidation in forest soils, • soil C, N, and P during forest succession, • effects of invasive species, forest management practices, or fire on C, N, and P cycling, • the effect of biochar (charcoal) in forest soils • roles of microbes and soil fauna on C, N, and P cycling, e.g. mycorrhizal fungi • stable isotope studies of C and N cycling, • new methods for the study of C, N, and P cycling. The 16 papers in this book cover a geographically diverse range of forest ecosystems on four continents. The studies also cover a range of forest types: tropical rainforest, tropical savannah, subtropical mixed deciduous and needleleaf forest, temperate broadleaf and needleleaf forests, subalpine and alpine needleleaf forests, boreal needleleaf forest, as well as tropical and temperate forest plantations. The chapters are arranged by subject in the following order, those concerned largely with carbon cycling (including net primary productivity, soil organic matter, and greenhouse gasses), microbial ecology (community composition and enzyme activity), and N or P cycling. Robert G. Qualls Special Issue Editor

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Article

Tropical Tree Species Effects on Soil pH and Biotic Factors and the Consequences for Macroaggregate Dynamics Ann E. Russell 1, *, Stephanie N. Kivlin 2 and Christine V. Hawkes 3 1 2 3

*

Department of Natural Resource Ecology & Management, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA; [email protected] Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; [email protected] Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-515-294-5612

Received: 9 March 2018; Accepted: 2 April 2018; Published: 4 April 2018

Abstract: Physicochemical and biotic factors influence the binding and dispersivity of soil particles, and thus control soil macroaggregate formation and stability. Although soil pH influences dispersivity, it is usually relatively constant within a site, and thus not considered a driver of aggregation dynamics. However, land-use change that results in shifts in tree-species composition can result in alteration of soil pH, owing to species-specific traits, e.g., support of nitrogen fixation and Al accumulation. In a long-term, randomized complete block experiment in which climate, soil type, and previous land-use history were similar, we evaluated effects of individual native tropical tree species on water-stable macroaggregate size distributions in an Oxisol. We conducted this study at La Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica, in six vegetation types: 25-year-old plantations of four tree species grown in monodominant stands; an unplanted Control; and an adjacent mature forest. Tree species significantly influenced aggregate proportions in smaller size classes (0.25–1.0 mm), which were correlated with fine-root growth and litterfall. Tree species altered soil pH differentially. Across all vegetation types, the proportion of smaller macroaggregates declined significantly as soil pH increased (p ≤ 0.0184). This suggests that alteration of pH influences dispersivity, and thus macroaggregate dynamics, thereby playing a role in soil C, N, and P cycling. Keywords: soil structure; soil pH; Oxisol; variable-charge soils; aluminum accumulator

1. Introduction Soil structure is a ‘master integrating variable’ that is often linked to nutrient cycling because it is associated with so many soil properties, including water-holding capacity and stabilization of soil organic C (SOC) [1]. Soil structure can be characterized by the relationships among soil aggregates, which are defined as relatively discrete clusters of particles. Small aggregates may themselves be clustered into larger aggregates [2,3]. Aggregates in soils range in size from microns to millimeters in diameter, with macroaggregates generally defined as 0.25 to 100 mm in any month [27]. The parent material is considered to be weathered andesitic/basaltic Pleistocene lava flows [28]. These soils may have received more recent inputs, ash or lahars, from nearby volcanoes [29]. The soil was classified as Mixed Haplic Haploperox [30]. Mean soil C and N concentrations in the surface (0–15 cm) layer range from 44 to 55 and 3.4 to 4.2 g/kg, respectively [26]. The point of zero charge (PZC) in these variable-charge soils has not been measured, but a reasonable assumption is that the PZC is ≤4, as it is in many comparable Oxisols [31,32]. The study site was deforested in ~1955 and pastured until abandonment in 1987 [20]. In 1988, a randomized complete block experiment containing four blocks was initiated. The experiment includes four species: Hieronyma alchorneoides L., Pentaclethra macroloba, a nodulated legume, Virola koschnyi Warb., and Vochysia guatemalensis, an Al-accumulator (see Russell et al. [20] for a more complete description). The site is hilly, with elevation ranging from 44 to 89 m. To ensure that topographic effects did not create a bias, each block was centered on a hilltop, and randomization of plot assignment to a species was stratified such that across the four blocks, each species was represented in each topographic position (hilltop, slope and slope bottom). In Block 3 of Vochysia, a stand-level lightning event killed nearly 75% of the trees in 2011, so that plot was not used for this study. Each plot was 50 × 50 m (0.25 ha) and divided into four quadrants. Trees were planted at a spacing of 3 × 3 m. For the first three years, understory vegetation was cleared manually. Trees were thinned by 50% at age four in Hieronyma and Vochysia, the fast-growing species. There was no other management of the plots, except for trail maintenance. For more information about the original design, see Russell et al. [20]. Two types of reference vegetation were also included to provide a basis of comparison for the four planted tree species. (1) An unplanted Control was contained within the original experimental design; (2) In the mature forest, we established a fifth block (150 × 200 m in size). Situated Hieronyma, Virola and Control (Figure 1b). Concentrations of N, organic P and inorganic P in aggregates differed significantly among vegetation types (Table 1; Table A1). Nitrogen concentrations were higher in Vochysia than in Hieronyma, Pentaclethra and Virola (Figure 2a). Hieronyma had the highest C:N values, whereas Pentaclethra, the mature forest and Control had the lowest (Figure 2a). Both organic and inorganic P concentrations were highest in Virola and lowest in the mature forest and Control (Figure 2b).

Figure 1. Effect of vegetation type on macroaggregate size distributions. (a) All size classes; (b) Detail of smaller size classes with significant differences denoted by letters.

Figure 2. Effect of vegetation type on: (a) N concentrations (left y-axis) and C:N (right y-axis) and (b) Organic P (left y-axis) and Inorganic P (right y-axis).

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Forests 2018, 9, 184

Table 1. Statistical results (p values) for analysis of macroaggregates by size class.

Response Variable Fraction (g g−1 dry soil) 1 C (g kg−1 ) N (g kg−1 ) C:N Inorganic P (mg kg−1 ) 2 Organic P (mg kg−1 ) C Fraction (gC g−1 dry soil) N Fraction (gN g−1 dry soil) Inorganic P Fraction (gP kg−1 dry soil) Organic P Fraction (gP kg−1 dry soil)

Explanatory Variable Size (S)

Vegetation (V)

S×V