Borderlands: The Internationalisation of Higher Education Teaching Practices [1st ed. 2022] 3031053389, 9783031053382

Table of contents :
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Introduction: The Internationalisation of Higher Education Teaching Practices
References
Part I: The Geopolitics of Teaching Identities
Chapter 2: Epistemologies of Internationalisation: Framing Cultural Positionality for Higher Education
Introduction
The Concept of Inclusive Excellence
Statism and Nationalism
The Dangers of Eurocentrism
Perspectives on Personhood, Positionality and Change Agency
Integration of Transformative Learning Across Curricula
Framing Diversification and Transcending Internationalisation
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Indigenous Pedagogy Is Good Pedagogy: Applying Indigenous Pedagogical Approaches in the United Kingdom
Introduction
Positionality
Indigenous Pedagogy
International Indigegogy
Conclusion, Future Reflections and Implications for Practice
Glossary
References
Chapter 4: The Potential of African Diaspora Academics and Diaspora Academics in Africa in Reshaping International Higher Education
Introduction
Reflecting
Doing
Sightseeing
Just Dropping In
Coming Together
Learning
Knowing
I Come Bearing Gifts
Meeting Minds
Speaking Up
Learning from Africa
Being
See Me Being Me
Getting Me
Homing In
Shaking My Head
Following Me Home
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: The Impact of ‘Western Teaching Practices’ on Chinese Language Teachers Working in EMI Institutions in China: Perspectives, Application and Evaluation
Introduction
Language Teacher Identity, Socialisation and Investment
The Study
Context of the Study
Case Study
Attitudes Towards Professional Identity
Legitimacy of Learning in English
Norms of Teaching
Conclusions
References
Part II: A Sense of Belonging and the Lived Experiences of the Academic Nomad
Chapter 6: Glocalism As the Main Challenge to Academic Nomads
Introduction
Glocalism at the Core of the International Business School’s Strategy
Glocalism in the Classroom: A Flying Faculty’s Perspective
The “Who”
The “What”
The “How”
A Few Reflections as Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Workplace Culture and Professional Recognition: Coping Experiences of South Asian Immigrant Academics in UK Higher Education
Introduction
The Study
The Stories of Four Immigrant Academics
Case Story 1: Dr. Luminous (Not Her Real Name)
Case Story 2: Professor Bright (Not His Real Name)
Case Story 3: Dr. Ingenious (Not Her Real Name)
Case Story 4: Dr. Sharp (Not His Real Name)
Insights from the Case Stories
Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Belongingness Challenges of Repatriate Academics at International University Campuses
Introduction
Theoretical Background
Methods
Findings
The International Accountant: Zara’s Story
The Prodigal Academic: Isabel’s Story
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Educated for Somewhere Else: Borderlands and Belonging in Caribbean Haiti
Introduction
Context: Latin America and Haiti
Method
Findings
Connection and Disconnection with the International Community
Belonging
Investment
Discussion: Center, Periphery, or Multi-Polar?
Conclusion
References
Part III: Academic Transition, from Migration to Integration
Chapter 10: Career Development of Academic Staff in the Russian Federation and the Czech Republic: From Migration to Integration
Introduction
Literature About Academic Career
Migration and Integration
Reflective Case Study: Academic Career Development at Czech Universities
Reflective Case Study: Academic Career Development at Russian Universities
Discussion and Conclusion
Implications, Limitations, and Future Research
References
Chapter 11: Americanization of Brazilian Business and Management Curriculum
Introduction
The Brazilian Context
The Higher Education Sector
History of Business Education
The Americanization Process in Brazil
The Business and Management Curriculum
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: From Nowhere to Now-Here: Academic Nomadism Between Defiance and Continuity
Introduction
Exploring Nomadism as In-Between-ness
How Has the Nomad Contributed to De-Territorialising Disciplines?
Impact of Nomadism on Teaching Practice
The Ivory Tower: A View from the Borderlands
Testing the Thick Conception of Nomadism
Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Making a Permanent Move: Reconciling Different Approaches to Teaching and Learning as a Permanent Expatriate Academic
Introduction
Is Business Education Truly Global?
Australian Higher Education System
French Higher Education System
‘Ba’
Migrating to Australia
Structure and Decision-Making
Teaching
Language
Culture
Migrating to France
Language
Pedagogical Styles
Course Design and Structuring
Grading
Conclusion and Implications
References
Part IV: Internationalisation of the Curriculum
Chapter 14: How Do Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Apply When Teaching Abroad?
Introduction
Four Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Contextualised
Teacher-Student Interaction Related to Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
Power Distance
Individualism
Masculinity Versus Femininity
Uncertainty Avoidance
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: The World Is Our Classroom: Innovative Approach to Teaching International Business to Multicultural Student Teams
Introduction: Addressing International Curriculum Needs
The International Business and Entrepreneurship Experience Course (IBEE): Guiding Principles
Course Timeline and Schedule
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Course Formalities
Cost and Funding
Discussion and Conclusion: What We Learned and Where We Are Going
References
Chapter 16: The Utilization of International Academics’ Expertise in Improving Both Students’ Learning Experiences and Academics’ Classroom Practices
Introduction
Understanding Internationalization
The Indian Context
Research Design
Findings
Findings
Reflections
Academic Experiment of We School: Internationalization at Home
Design Thinking and Management: A Unique Combination
Conclusion
References
Chapter 17: Navigating No-Man’s Land: Facilitating the Transition of International Scholars to PhD Study: A Case of a Scottish University
Introduction
Setting the Scene
The Myth of an International Student
EAP and Its Potential Impact
Programme Overview
Methodology
Findings
Theme 1: Challenging the ‘International Student’ Label
Theme 2: The Right Pedagogies and Legitimate Knowledge
Theme 3: An Enhanced Sense of Belonging
Further Discussion and Conclusions
References
Part V: Government Policies and Academic Immobility
Chapter 18: Inclusive Internationalisation as a Driver of the Institutional Entrepreneurial Agenda in Higher Education
Introduction
Croatian Context of HEI Internationalisation
Internationalisation as an Innovative Pathway for HEIs
Staff Mobility in Croatia
Approved Erasmus+ Strategic Partnership for Innovation and the Exchange of Good Practices Projects Involving Croatian HEIs
Quality Accreditation as an Innovative Pathway of HEIs
Internationalisation Pathways to Innovation: Case Studies of Two HEIs
Faculty of Economics and Business Zagreb: Case Study
Background
Actions
Lessons Learned
University of Dubrovnik Department of Economics and Business: Case Study
Background
Actions
Lessons Learned
Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 19: The Importance of the International and Social Dimensions of Learning in the Post-COVID Higher Education: The Case of ESCP Business School
Introduction
Old and New Challenges for Higher Education (HE) in a Post-COVID Era
Old Challenges for HE: Globalization and VUCA: Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity
New Challenges Emerging from the Pandemic
ESCP Business School: The Oldest Business School of the World, with an International DNA
The Four Dimensions of an Effective Higher Education Model in the New Normal Context
The ‘Global Dimension’: A Multicultural Approach for the Citizen of the World, Open to Diversity
The ‘Systemic Dimension’: A Multidisciplinary Approach, Beyond the Fragmentation and the Hyper-Specialization, to Equip Students for Complexity and Uncertainty
The ‘Social Dimension’: People with Humanistic and Sustainable Approach
The ‘Technological Dimension’: Is Technology a Connector or a Divider? Is Phygital the New Normal?
Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Internationalisation in Practice: Real-Life Lessons for University Leaders
Introduction
A Warm Welcome
In the Classroom
Campus Culture
Place Making
Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Conclusion: Borderlands – (Re)Ordered Lands
References
Index

Citation preview

Deborah Lock Andrea Caputo Dieu Hack-Polay Paul Igwe   Editors

Borderlands The Internationalisation of Higher Education Teaching Practices

Borderlands

Deborah Lock  •  Andrea Caputo Dieu Hack-Polay  •  Paul Igwe Editors

Borderlands The Internationalisation of Higher Education Teaching Practices

Editors Deborah Lock Birmingham City Business School Birmingham City University Birmingham, UK

Andrea Caputo Lincoln International Business School University of Lincoln Lincoln, UK

Dieu Hack-Polay Lincoln International Business School University of Lincoln Lincoln, UK

Paul Igwe Lincoln International Business School University of Lincoln Lincoln, UK

ISBN 978-3-031-05338-2    ISBN 978-3-031-05339-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Foreword

The agenda for sharing educational experiences changed dramatically in January 2020 when it became clear that the global community faced a crisis which involved a closure of borders and a high degree of physical isolation. Prior to the pandemic, the size of the global middle class had grown very considerably around the world, but particularly in Asia. Economic liberalism had delivered rising living standards and an ability to support the next generation of participants in the higher educational process. The number of universities multiplied, and the size of institutions increased. A new student class and a host of aspiring institutions generated the resources for a golden era of research and cooperation. In addition, the currency of higher education awards had become more consistent with the Bologna process (the standardisation of higher education awards). As the curriculum became better informed and digital and physical mobility increased, the different academic cultures became able to live alongside each other. Students and scholars were able to meet and interact from what were formerly distinct academic cultures through co-creation activities. International higher education had become to be seen as a rite of passage for many young people who were anxious to see what lay beyond their borders. The dominance of English and other key languages in academic discourse assisted this process worldwide, despite the tyranny they sometimes imposed such as the pre-eminence of American literature in fields like business education. This meant that it was possible for academics to make their careers and achieve rewards in many different parts of the world, and students could experience very different cultures and take lessons for this across the world from the comfort of their own country. This developing cultural mobility was assisted by less expensive air travel and the digital revolution which meant words and media became much more widely disseminated. Prior to the pandemic, the higher education sector was beginning to benefit from a golden era of academic mobility when it was possible to envisage a global knowledge community with increasing academic interaction and mobility at all levels. This book comments on the phenomenon of the global academic citizen and how this is manifested in the diverse identities which reflect the lived experiences of those academics whose careers and activities affect and influence practices across v

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Foreword

different educational cultural borders. It recognises the value and contribution that international academics have on ensuring higher education represents the communities which it serves and celebrates the diversity of the global academic community. University of Lincoln  Ian Barnes Lincoln, UK

Acknowledgements

The editorial team and I would like to thank everyone who assisted with and contributed to this book. Amid a global pandemic and a time of unprecedented change and uncertainty, they have taken the time to share their journeys and champion the voices of the ‘silent’ academic wanderers and the educational explorers they have met along the way.

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Contents

1

Introduction: The Internationalisation of Higher Education Teaching Practices������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1 Deborah Lock References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     3

Part I The Geopolitics of Teaching Identities 2

Epistemologies of Internationalisation: Framing Cultural Positionality for Higher Education��������������������������������������������������������    7 Catherine Hayes Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������     7 The Concept of Inclusive Excellence������������������������������������������������������     8 Statism and Nationalism��������������������������������������������������������������������������     9 The Dangers of Eurocentrism������������������������������������������������������������������    10 Perspectives on Personhood, Positionality and Change Agency ������������    11 Integration of Transformative Learning Across Curricula ����������������������    12 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    14 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    15

3

 Indigenous Pedagogy Is Good Pedagogy: Applying Indigenous Pedagogical Approaches in the United Kingdom����������������������������������   19 Kelly Menzel Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    19 Positionality ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    20 Indigenous Pedagogy ������������������������������������������������������������������������������    23 International Indigegogy��������������������������������������������������������������������������    26 Conclusion, Future Reflections and Implications for Practice����������������    27 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    29

4

The Potential of African Diaspora Academics and Diaspora Academics in Africa in Reshaping International Higher Education��������   31 Lynette Jacobs, Erika Kruger, and Maria Madiope ix

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Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    32 Reflecting ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    33 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    41 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    42 5

 The Impact of ‘Western Teaching Practices’ on Chinese Language Teachers Working in EMI Institutions in China: Perspectives, Application and Evaluation��������������������������������������������������������������������   45 Stuart Perrin and Yipu Wang Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    46 Language Teacher Identity, Socialisation and Investment ����������������������    46 The Study ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    47 Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    51 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    52

Part II A Sense of Belonging and the Lived Experiences of the Academic Nomad 6

 Glocalism As the Main Challenge to Academic Nomads����������������������   57 Adrian Borbély and Tariel Sikharulidze Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    57 Glocalism at the Core of the International Business School’s Strategy��    58 Glocalism in the Classroom: A Flying Faculty’s Perspective������������������    60 A Few Reflections as Conclusion������������������������������������������������������������    64 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    65

7

Workplace Culture and Professional Recognition: Coping Experiences of South Asian Immigrant Academics in UK Higher Education ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   67 Md Golam Jamil Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    67 The Study ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    68 The Stories of Four Immigrant Academics����������������������������������������������    69 Insights from the Case Stories ����������������������������������������������������������������    74 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    76 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    76

8

 Belongingness Challenges of Repatriate Academics at International University Campuses ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   79 Heather Swenddal, Mathews Nkhoma, and Sarah Gumbley Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    80 Theoretical Background��������������������������������������������������������������������������    80 Methods����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    81 Findings���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    82 Discussion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    87 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    88 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    88

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Educated for Somewhere Else: Borderlands and Belonging in Caribbean Haiti ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   91 Lucas Endicott Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    91 Context: Latin America and Haiti������������������������������������������������������������    92 Method ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    94 Findings���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    94 Discussion: Center, Periphery, or Multi-Polar? ��������������������������������������    99 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   100 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   100

Part III Academic Transition, from Migration to Integration 10 Career  Development of Academic Staff in the Russian Federation and the Czech Republic: From Migration to Integration������  105 Anastasia Kulachinskaya, Zuzana Dvorakova, and Andrei Bogatyrev Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   106 Literature About Academic Career����������������������������������������������������������   107 Migration and Integration������������������������������������������������������������������������   110 Reflective Case Study: Academic Career Development at Czech Universities ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   111 Reflective Case Study: Academic Career Development at Russian Universities ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   114 Discussion and Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������   117 Implications, Limitations, and Future Research��������������������������������������   118 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   119 11 Americanization  of Brazilian Business and Management Curriculum ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  123 Clarice Santos and Veronica Angelica Freitas de Paula Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   124 The Brazilian Context������������������������������������������������������������������������������   125 The Business and Management Curriculum��������������������������������������������   128 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   129 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   131 12 From  Nowhere to Now-Here: Academic Nomadism Between Defiance and Continuity������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  133 Kalyani Unkule Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   133 Exploring Nomadism as In-Between-ness����������������������������������������������   134 How Has the Nomad Contributed to De-Territorialising Disciplines?����   137 Impact of Nomadism on Teaching Practice ��������������������������������������������   137 The Ivory Tower: A View from the Borderlands��������������������������������������   138 Testing the Thick Conception of Nomadism ������������������������������������������   139 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   141 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   141

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13 Making  a Permanent Move: Reconciling Different Approaches to Teaching and Learning as a Permanent Expatriate Academic������������  143 Véronique Ambrosini and Lisa Thomas Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   144 Is Business Education Truly Global?������������������������������������������������������   144 Australian Higher Education System������������������������������������������������������   145 French Higher Education System������������������������������������������������������������   146 ‘Ba’����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   147 Migrating to Australia������������������������������������������������������������������������������   148 Migrating to France����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   150 Conclusion and Implications��������������������������������������������������������������������   152 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   153 Part IV Internationalisation of the Curriculum 14 How  Do Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Apply When Teaching Abroad?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  157 Diederich Bakker Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   158 Four Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Contextualised ������������������������������   159 Teacher-Student Interaction Related to Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions  161 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   165 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   166 15 The  World Is Our Classroom: Innovative Approach to Teaching International Business to Multicultural Student Teams����������������������  167 Dmitri Nizovtsev, Russell E. Smith, and Michael Stoica Introduction: Addressing International Curriculum Needs����������������������   168 The International Business and Entrepreneurship Experience Course (IBEE): Guiding Principles������������������������������������������������������������������������   169 Course Timeline and Schedule����������������������������������������������������������������   170 Course Formalities ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   173 Cost and Funding ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   174 Discussion and Conclusion: What We Learned and Where We Are Going��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   174 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   176 16 The  Utilization of International Academics’ Expertise in Improving Both Students’ Learning Experiences and Academics’ Classroom Practices��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  179 Madhavi Lokhande and Uday Salunkhe Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   180 Research Design��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   182 Findings���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   183

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Reflections������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   186 Academic Experiment of We School: Internationalization at Home ������   187 Design Thinking and Management: A Unique Combination������������������   187 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   189 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   190 17 Navigating  No-Man’s Land: Facilitating the Transition of International Scholars to PhD Study: A Case of a Scottish University��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  191 Steve Brown and Tomasz John Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   192 Setting the Scene��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   192 Programme Overview������������������������������������������������������������������������������   195 Methodology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   197 Findings���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   197 Further Discussion and Conclusions��������������������������������������������������������   202 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   203 Part V Government Policies and Academic Immobility 18 Inclusive  Internationalisation as a Driver of the Institutional Entrepreneurial Agenda in Higher Education��������������������������������������  207 Marina Dabić, Nebojša Stojčić, Jurica Pavičić, and Goran Vlašić Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   208 Croatian Context of HEI Internationalisation������������������������������������������   209 Internationalisation as an Innovative Pathway for HEIs��������������������������   210 Quality Accreditation as an Innovative Pathway of HEIs������������������������   212 Internationalisation Pathways to Innovation: Case Studies of Two HEIs  214 Concluding Remarks��������������������������������������������������������������������������������   219 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   219 19 The  Importance of the International and Social Dimensions of Learning in the Post-COVID Higher Education: The Case of ESCP Business School ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  221 Francesco Venuti, Francesca Pucciarelli, and Francesco Rattalino Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   221 Old and New Challenges for Higher Education (HE) in a Post-COVID Era ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   222 ESCP Business School: The Oldest Business School of the World, with an International DNA������������������������������������������������������������������������   226 The Four Dimensions of an Effective Higher Education Model in the New Normal Context����������������������������������������������������������������������������   228 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   233 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   234

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20 Internationalisation  in Practice: Real-Life Lessons for University Leaders������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  237 Toby Wilkinson Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   237 A Warm Welcome������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   239 In the Classroom��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   240 Campus Culture ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   241 Place Making ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   243 Conclusion ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   243 References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   244 21 Conclusion:  Borderlands – (Re)Ordered Lands ����������������������������������  247 Dieu Hack-Polay References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   250 Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  251

Contributors

Véronique  Ambrosini,  Professor of Management, Monash Business School, Monash University, Australia ORCID: 0000-0002-7074-211X Véronique is a Professor of Management (Strategic Management) at Monash University (Australia). She was previously a Professor of Strategic Management at the University of Birmingham and at Cardiff University (UK). Véronique is French-­ born and was educated in France, until she moved to the UK to study for her MBA. She started her academic career at Cranfield School of Management (UK) where she gained her PhD. She is now settled in Australia. Her research interests include dynamic capabilities, business ecological sustainability, tacit knowledge, causal ambiguity, value creation and management education. Her articles have been published in internationally recognised academic journals such as the Academy of Management Learning & Education, Journal of Knowledge Management, Journal of Management, Journal of Management Studies, British Journal of Management, Long Range Planning, International Journal of Human Resource Management, and Journal of Business Ethics or Human Relations. Véronique is a British Academy of Management (BAM) Fellow and an Australia and New Zealand Academy of Management (ANZAM) Fellow. Diederich  Bakker,  Professor of International Business and Head of Internationalisation at the Hanze International Business School in Groningen, the Netherlands ORCID: 0000-0003-0079-7569 Of German descent, Diederich has worked in France, the USA, Australia, Germany, and the Netherlands. He is involved in the leadership group of the European Association of International Education (EAIE) and serves on the board of directors of NIBS, the Network of International Business Schools. Diederich teaches marketing and international business, and his research interests lie in branding, digital marketing, and entrepreneurship all within international dimensions. German

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Diederich Bakker, PhD, ist Professor für Internationale Betriebswirtschaft und Head of Internationalisation bei der Hanze International Business School in Groningen, Niederlande. Deutscher Herkunft, Diederich hat in Frankreich, den USA, Australien, Deutschland und in den Niederlanden gearbeitet. Er ist Mitglied in der Leitungsgruppe der European Association of International Education (EAIE) und Mitglied des Board of Directors von NIBS, dem Network of International Business Schools. Diederich unterrichtet Marketing und internationale Betriebswirtschaft und forscht in den Bereichen Markenführung, digitales Marketing und Entrepreneurship jeweils im internationalen Kontext. Ian Barnes,  Jean Monnet Professor of European Economic Integration, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK Ian is an economist and was recently Head of China Partnerships at Lincoln International Business School, He was previously Director of the International Office and Head of the Tourism Department. His main areas of interest are the operation of the European market, EU environmental policy, international business, and public finance. Andrei Bogatyrev,  Professor of the International Education institute at Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPSU/MPGU), professor at post-secondary training Pedagogy and Psychology chair at Pavlov University, St. Petersburg, RUSSIA ORCID: 0000-0003-2612-2586 Andrei is a doctor of philological sciences who graduated from Tver State University. Along with teaching, doing research and performing duties of a member of dissertation council body in labour psychology, Dr. Bogatyrev conducts expert’s appraisals of educational research projects for Russian Scientific Fund. Russian Богатырев Андрей Анатольевич – доктор филологических наук, профессор Института международного образования Московского педагогического государственного университета (МПГУ / МПГУ), профессор кафедры педагогики и психологии последипломного образования Павловского университета в Санкт-Петербурге. Окончил Тверской государственный университет. Помимо преподавания, проведения исследований и выполнения обязанностей члена диссертационного совета по психологии труда, д-р Богатырев проводит экспертизу образовательных исследовательских проектов для Российского научного фонда. Adrian Borbély,  Associate Professor of Negotiation and Sales at Emlyon Business School Lyon, France Adrian is also a trainer, mediator and consultant in negotiation and conflict / dispute management. Adrian teaches and trains in negotiation, conflict management and related topics since 2007. This has led him to travel to the UK, Cyprus and Jordan. He has intervened in companies (e.g., the Hellenic Bank of Cyprus), in the public sector (e.g., EU Commission, French regional and municipal administrations) and graduate programmes (e.g., Cranfield School of Management, the Cyprus

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International Institute of Management, the French ENA, La Sorbonne University and ESSEC Business School). A litigation lawyer by training, he has also received a masters’ degree in Public Affairs (Indiana University, USA) and an MSc in Business Administration Research (ESSEC, France). In 2012, he received his PhD in Management from ESSEC Business School; his doctoral research focused on corporate decision-making in dispute settings and the impact on recourse to negotiation and mediation (or lack thereof). Furthermore, Adrian is a published author, notably in journals such as Negotiation and Conflict Management Research and the Journal of Dispute Resolution. He also contributed two chapters in the Negotiator’s Desk Reference, published in 2017 by the American Bar Association Press. Adrian currently develops an innovative, European-based negotiation method, together with a group of professional negotiators and conflict managers. He also contributes, whenever he can, to the development of innovative teaching tools (simulations and case studies). Steve Brown,  Director of Studies, English Language Unit, at the University of the West of Scotland, Scotland ORCID: 0000-0002-0143-2281 Steve has crossed many borders, both literally and metaphorically since he started teaching in 1993. His first English language teaching job was as a volunteer in a secondary school in Mongolia. He then made the transition to the private English language teaching (ELT) sector, spending a year in Romania and another in the Czech Republic. In his next job, at International House Budapest in Hungary, Steve took his first steps into ELT management before moving to South Africa to work as a director of studies and teacher trainer. In 2001, Steve returned to Scotland and completed an MSc in Applied Linguistics at Edinburgh University before settling in Glasgow, where he found work teaching English to speakers of other languages (ESOL) in the further education sector. Steve had various teaching, teacher education and leadership roles within the college sector over the next few years, and worked with the Scottish Qualification Authority on the development of national qualifications in ESOL and TESOL. Not comfortable staying in the same place for such a long time, Steve took up a post with the British Council in Malaysia in 2011–12. Shortly after returning to Scotland, he enrolled on a Doctor of Education programme at the University of Glasgow, which he completed in 2018. On completing his doctorate, Steve made another (possibly final?) career transition, from further to higher education, when he became director of studies of the English Language Unit at the University of the West of Scotland. This role includes leading the university’s MEd in TESOL programme, coordinating the Doctoral Induction Programme for international students, and teaching on a variety of EAP and other English language modules. Outside of work, Steve also enjoys travelling and experiencing new things, as well as playing the guitar and golf – both very badly. Andrea  Caputo,  Associate Professor in Management at the University of Lincoln, UK ORCID: 0000-0003-2498

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Andrea received his PhD from the University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy. His main research interests include entrepreneurial decision-making, negotiation, digitalisation and sustainability, internationalisation, and strategic management of SMEs. He is the editor of the book series ‘Entrepreneurial Behaviour (Emerald), and Associate Editor of the Journal of Management & Organization. His research was published in over 100 contributions, including articles in highly ranked journals, e.g., HRM Journal, J of Business Research, J of Small Business Management, Small Business Economics, Int J of Conflict Management, J of Knowledge Management, Business Strategy & The Environment and IEEE TEM, among the others. Marina Dabić,  Professor at the University of Zagreb’s Faculty of Economics and Business, CROATIA ORCID: 0000-0001-8374-4719 According to Croatian scientific bibliography, Scopus, and the Web of Science, Marina is continuously ranked as the most cited Croatian scholar in the field of economics and business, having published more than 150 indexed journal articles, 12 book chapters, and 8 books (both edited and monographs). Her work has been published in a wide variety of international journals, including the Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of World Business, Journal of Business Research, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Small Business Economics, International Business Review, International Journal of Human Resource Management, IEEE  – Transactions on Engineering Management, Technovation, and Journal of Small Business Management, among others. Prof. Dabić is an Associate Editor of the Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, Department Editor for IEEE  – Transactions on Engineering Management, both journals are listed as CABS 3*. She is also an Associate Editor for Technology in Society, Elsevier. Over her career, she has achieved success and acclaim in a range of different projects, such as HORIZON 2020 RISE, TEMPUS ERASMUS +, LLL Leonardo da Vinci, and EC Interreg. She is also head of accreditations at FEB UNIZG and serves as AACSB mentor and EFMD reviewer team accreditations member. Croatian Marina redovita je profesorica u trajnom zvanju na Ekonomskom fakultetu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Hrvatska. Prema hrvatskoj znanstvenoj bibliografiji, Scopus i Web of Science, kontinuirano je rangirana kao najcitiranija hrvatska znanstvenica u području ekonomije i poslovne ekonomije, objavivši više od 150 članaka u indeksiranim časopisima, 12 poglavlja u knjigama i 8 knjiga (monografija /ili uredničkih). Njezini radovi objavljeni su u međunarodnim časopisima: Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of World Business, Journal of Business Research, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Small Business Economics, International Business Review, International Journal of Human Resource Management, IEEE  – Transactions on Engineering Management, Technovation, Journal of Small Business Management i mnogim drugim.

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Verônica Angelica Frietas de Paula,  Associate Professor, Faculdade de Gestão e Neg ócios, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil ORCID: 0000-0002-1560-614X Verônica is an Associate Professor in the School of Management and Business at the Federal University of Uberlândia, where she works in Undergraduate and Graduate (Masters and PhD)  programmes in Business  Administration and Organisational Management. She graduated in Business Administration from Universidade de São Paulo (2001) and Law from Universidade de Ribeirão Preto (1999), She has an MBA from Universidade de São Paulo (2003) and PhD in Production Engineering from Federal University of São Carlos (2008), with a Sandwich Doctorate (PDEE/CAPES) at Harper Adams University, England. She has research experience in the areas of Administration, Production Engineering and Law, working mainly on the following topics: brand management, own brands, innovation and new technologies, negotiation, systemic vision, conflicts, and contracts. Portuguese Pós-doutora pelo Departamento de Marketing e Supply Chain da University of Tennessee, nos Estados Unidos, com apoio da CAPES.  Professora Associada da Faculdade de Gestão e Negócios da Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, atua na Graduação, Pós-graduação lato sensu (MBA) e nos Programas de Pós-graduação stricto sensu Mestrado e Doutorado em Administração e Mestrado Profissional em Gestão Organizacional. Possui graduação em Administração pela Universidade de São Paulo (2001), graduação em Direito pela Universidade de Ribeirão Preto (1999), Mestrado em Administração pela Universidade de São Paulo (2003) e Doutorado em Engenharia de Produção pela Universidade Federal de São Carlos (2008), com Doutorado sanduíche (PDEE/CAPES) na Harper Adams University, na Inglaterra. Tem experiência de pesquisa nas áreas de Administração, Engenharia de Produção e Direito, atuando principalmente nos seguintes temas: gestão de marcas, marcas próprias, inovação e novas tecnologias, negociação, visão sistêmica, conflitos e contratos. Zuzana  Dvorakova,  NEWTON University, and Czech Technical University in Prague, the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Czech Republic  ORCID: 0000-0002-4333-7389 Zuzana is a graduate in Industrial Economics (MSc) and has a PhD in Industrial Economics both from Prague University of Economics and Business, CR. Zuzana has worked in human resource management for the last 34 years. She is recognised as an expert in lecturing HRM and researching labour relations in the previous years. Zuzana utilises a holistic approach to educating students and life-long learning adults towards innovative, creative learning and dialogue between teachers and students. In addition, she works long-term with businesses. Keen to be at the forefront of her specialisation, Zuzana keeps up to date with the latest trends in sustainable human resource management, occupational safety and health, and the quality of working life. Furthermore, she actively engages in a range of national projects and international conference events.

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Czech Zuzana Dvořáková, profesorka, je absolventkou oboru Ekonomika průmyslu a doktorského programu stejného oboru na Vysoké škole ekonomické v Praze, ČR.  Zuzana pracuje 34 let v oblasti řízení lidských zdrojů. Je uznávána jako odborník na témata k řízení lidských zdrojů a v posledních letech se věnuje problematice pracovních vztahů. Pracuje na NEWTON University a přednáší na Českém vysokém učení technickém v Praze, Fakultě biomedicínského inženýrství. Zuzana využívá holistický přístup ke vzdělávání studentů a při celoživotním vzdělávání dospělých s akcentem na inovativní, kreativní učení a dialogu mezi učitelem a studentem. Dlouhodobě spolupracuje s podnikatelskou sférou v ČR. Zuzana se chce podílet na rozvoji své specializace, a proto udržuje krok s trendy v oblasti udržitelného řízení lidských zdrojů, vzdělávání exekutivy a kvality pracovního života. Aktivně se účastní řady národních projektů a vystupuje na mezinárodních konferencích. Lucas Endicott,  Regional Director for Course of Study at Saint Paul School of Theology, Kansas City, Kansas, USA Lucas holds a doctorate in education from the University of Texas at El Paso where he served as a Research Associate for the Graduate School and the Education and Leadership Foundations Program. Prior to these roles, Lucas served as the Director for Faith and Service at Central Methodist University in Fayette, Missouri. He has presented and published in the areas of comparative education, theology, and history. He completed master’s degrees at Regent College in Vancouver, British Columbia and Princeton Theological Seminary where he was awarded the Senior Fellowship in History. Sarah Gumbley,  Visiting Professor at RMIT University Vietnam and a lecturer at AUT University, New Zealand With both a commercial and an academic background, Sarah has worked across the Asia Pacific region, conducting research and consulting on a broad range of Communications subjects. Sarah has spoken at numerous workshops, events, and conferences particularly on the subject of social media, including having been interviewed on BBC Radio and by the British Psychological Society. Catherine Hayes,  Professor of Health Professions Pedagogy and Scholarship in the Faculty of Health Sciences & Wellbeing, at the University of Sunderland, UK ORCID: 0000-0003-3870-2668 Catherine is a visiting professor of Higher Education Pedagogic Practice at the Universities of Cumbria and Liverpool Hope and secretary of the International Federation of National Teaching Fellows. She was a founding fellow of the Faculty of Podiatric Medicine at the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons, Glasgow. She supervises doctoral candidates and teaches into the University’s multi-­ disciplinary Professional Doctorate suite, including the DBA, EdD, DPM and generic DProf programmes, where her specialist teaching areas are ontology, epistemology, critical reflection and reflexivity in relation to researcher positionality in

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practice-based research. She is a National Teaching Fellow and a Principal Fellow of Advance Higher Education. Catherine has published widely in terms of research, scholarship and is also holds Honorary Membership by distinction of the Faculty of Public Health along with dual Fellowships of the Chartered Management Institute and the Institute of Management and Leadership. Paul Igwe,  Senior Lecturer at Lincoln International Business School, Lincoln, UK ORCID: 0000-0003-3624-1861 Paul is a Senior Lecturer and Programme Coordinator  – BA Business & Enterprise Development at the Lincoln International Business School (LIBS), University of Lincoln, UK.  Also, the Regional Academic Lead  – West and East Africa at LIBS. Dr. Igwe is a visiting professor of Entrepreneurship and Innovation at Coal City University, Enugu, Nigeria and visiting International Scholar at Covenant University Ota, Nigeria. He received his MSc degree and PhD in Business with Management from the University of Plymouth. Dr. Igwe is a member of UNESCO Project on Sustainable Foresight, Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Management (CMI) and Higher Education Academy (HEA). His research interest and expertise include entrepreneurship, small businesses development, business strategy and internationalisation, teaching and learning pedagogy, and public policies. He has published in many top ranked ABS journals such as Studies in Higher Education, International Journal of Entrepreneurship & Innovation, International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour Research, Politics & Policy, and Innovations in Education and Teaching International. He is a member of editorial board of the International Journal of Public Sociology and Sociotherapy. Lynette Jacobs,  Professor at the University of the Free State, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0003-1582-5024 Lynette is a Comparative and International Education scholar who is an NRF rated researcher. She leads research on the Open Distance and eLearning Campus at the University of Free State in Bloemfontein, South Africa. Her research focuses on exposing external barriers to learning and increasing access to education opportunities. In recent years, she has been involved in projects on internationalisation of higher education; in particular virtual collaborative international learning as a means to widen international education opportunities. She is one of the workgroup leaders in the iKudu project (co-funded by European Commission Erasmus+ Programme) that seeks to develop capacity for curriculum transformation through internationalisation and decolonisation. She has published numerous articles and book chapters, has supervises a large number of postgraduate students to completion, and regularly presents at national and international conferences. Afrikaans Lynette Jacobs, ‘n Vergelykende en Internasionale opvoedkundige, is ‘n NRF – gegradeerde navorser aan die Universiteit van die Vrystaat in Suid -Afrika. Sy lei navorsing op die Ope- Afstand en eLeer-kampus aan die Universiteit van Vrystaat in Bloemfontein, Suid -Afrika. Haar navorsing fokus op die blootstelling van eksterne leerhindernisse en om toegang tot leergeleenthede te verhoog. Tans is sy

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betrokke by projekte oor internasionalisering van hoër onderwys; veral virtuele gesamentlike internasionale leer as ‘n wyse om internasionale onderwysgeleenthede te verbreed. Sy is een van die werkgroepleiers in die iKudu-projek (mede-­ befonds deur die Erasmus+ -program van die Europese Kommissie) wat poog om kapasiteit vir kurrikulumtransformasie deur internasionalisering en dekolonisering te versterk. Sy het talle artikels en boekhoofstukke gepubliseer, etlike nagraadse studente gelewer en bied gereeld op nasionale en internasionale konferensies aan. Golam  Jamil,  Senior Lecturer in Academic Development  at Leeds Trinity University, Leeds, UK ORCID: 0000-0001-8363-5535 Prior to his Senior Lectureship, Dr Jamil  worked as Researcher in the Transforming the Experience of Students through Assessment (TESTA) programme, a flagship education enhancement exercise informed by research, at the University of Bristol. He also worked as Research Fellow (Research-informed Teaching) at Solent University. In Bangladesh, Dr. Jamil facilitated language and skills-enhancement schemes and managed the Professional Development Centre at BRAC University. He has co-edited a book titled Applied Pedagogies for Higher Education: Real World Learning and Innovation across the Curriculum; and published research articles in technology-enhanced learning, research-informed teaching, applied pedagogies, internationalisation of higher education, educational context evaluation, and language education. His second edited collection titled Agile Learning Environments amid Disruption: Evaluating Academic Innovations in Higher Education during COVID-19 is due for publication in 2022. Dr. Jamil is Senior Fellow of the Advance HE/ Higher Education Academy UK. Tomasz  John,  Lecturer in English Language and TESOL in the  School of Education and Social Sciences, English Language Unit, at the  University of the West of Scotland, Scotland ORCID: 0000-0002-3696-080X Tomasz has crossed multiple borders since he started teaching English in 2008. His first English language teaching job was as a private English language tutor when completing his undergraduate degree in TESOL and Applied Linguistics in Poland in 2006. He then moved to the UK to study MA TESOL at the University of Leeds 2007–2009. While completing his master’s degree, he started teaching ESOL in the FE sector. After completing his PhD in Internationalisation of HE from the University of Reading in 2016 and gaining a status of a Senior Fellow from Advance HE, Tomasz transitioned to supervising TESOL and Applied Linguistics master’s dissertation students at a number of universities including Bath, UCL and Edinburgh. 2019 brought Tomasz to Scotland where he started working as a Lecturer in English Language and TESOL at the University of the West of Scotland. In 2021, Tomasz took up a Teaching Fellow in TESOL and Intercultural Communication post at the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow. Tomasz is the Communications Officer for the BALEAP EAP for Social Justice Special Interest Group. Passionate about ethical and comprehensive internationalisation in Higher Education, Tomasz cares about

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representation in ELT and the implications of EMI. Outside of work, Tomasz enjoys travelling, learning foreign languages (currently Spanish and Galician), flying his drone, and hiking in the Scottish Highlands. Polish Tomasz przekroczył wiele granic, odkąd zaczął uczyć angielskiego w 2008 roku. Jego pierwszą pracą w nauczaniu języka angielskiego była praca prywatnego korepetytora języka angielskiego po ukończeniu studiów licencjackich w TESOL i Lingwistyki Stosowanej w Polsce w 2006 roku. Następnie przeniósł się do Wielkiej Brytanii, aby studiować magisterkę z TESOL na Uniwersytecie w Leeds 2007-2009. Po ukończeniu studiów magisterskich, Tomasz rozpoczął nauczanie ESOL w sektorze FE.  Po ukończeniu studiów doktoranckich z internacjonalizacji HE na University of Reading w 2016 roku i uzyskaniu statusu Senior Fellow z Advance HE, Tomasz zaczął promować prace magisterskie z TESOL i Lingwistyki Stosowanej na kilku uczelniach, w tym w Bath, UCL i Edynburgu. W 2019 roku Tomasz przeniósł się do Szkocji, gdzie rozpoczął pracę jako wykładowca języka angielskiego na University of the West of Scotland. W 2021 roku Tomasz objął stanowisko Teaching Fellow in TESOL i Intercultural Communication na Uniwersytecie Strathclyde w Glasgow. Tomasz jest Oficerem ds. Komunikacji w BALEAP EAP for Social Justice Special Interest Group. Pasjonat etycznej i kompleksowej internacjonalizacji w nauczaniu wyższym, Tomasz dba o reprezentację w ELT i implikacje EMI.  Poza pracą Tomasz lubi podróżować, uczyć się języków obcych (obecnie hiszpański i galicyjski), latać dronem i wędrować po szkockich Highlands. Erika Kruger,  Research Fellow at the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0001-6982-3759 Erika is a research fellow of the Open Distance and eLearning Campus at the University of Free State in Bloemfontein, South Africa. She holds an M.Phil. degree in Education from the University of Johannesburg and her research focuses on the wellbeing of teachers and teacher students in the context of South Africa‘s divergent but entangled ontologies informing the formal economic, health and educational spaces and the lived experience of teachers. Her work explores the effect on personal and professional wellbeing, of the tension between the neoliberal emphasis on development, competition, and individualisation, as opposed to the Ubuntu philosophy at the root of the indigenous communal system of social organisation. She has presented at international conferences and published in academic journals and books on the subject. She delights in strategising with teachers and students to incorporate simple, sustainable self-care skills into their lives to benefit the individual, the community, and the organisation. Afrikaans Erika is ‘n navorsingsgenoot van die afstandsonderrig en opeleer kampus van die Universiteit van die Vrystaat in Suid Afrika. Sy behaal ‘n MPhil-graad in Opvoedkunde by die Universiteit van Johannesburg en haar navorsing ondersoek die welsyn van onderwysers en onderwys-studente in die Suid-Arikaanse konteks

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waar uiteenlopende, maar verstrengelde ontologië van die formele ekonomiese, gesondheids- en onderwyssfere en die onderwysers se eie belewenisse bestaan. Haar fokus is die verhouding tussen die neoliberale klem op vooruitgang, kompetisie en individualisering teenoor die inheemse filosofie van Ubuntu se klem op kommunale sosiale organisasie sowel as die invloed van die spanning op onderwysers se persoonlike en professionele welsyn. Sy lewer referate by international kongresse en haar werk is in akademiese joernale en boeke opgeneem. Dit bring haar groot vreugde om onderwysers en studente te lei om strategieë te ontwikkel om praktiese en volhoubare selfsorgvaardighede aan te leer tot voordeel van die individu, die gemeenskap en die organisasie. Anastasia  Kulachinskaya,    Associate Professor in the  Graduate School of Industrial Economics at Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Russia ORCID: 0000-0002-6849-4313 Anastasia received a bachelor’s degree in Management, a master’s degree in Quality Control and a PhD in Economics, all education grades obtained in various universities of Russia. Presently, Dr. Kulachinskaya teaches at one of the leading technical universities in Russia. Along with teaching and doing research, she performs the duties of an administrator and organiser of several international scientific conferences, welcoming participants from all over the world. Russian Анастасия Кулачинская  – старший преподаватель Санкт-Петербургского политехнического университета Петра Великого. Имеет степень бакалавра менеджмента, магистра управления качеством и кандидата экономических наук. Все уровни образования были получены в разных вузах. Сейчас Кулачинская работает в одном из ведущих технических вузов России. Вместе с преподаванием и научными исследованиями она выполняет функции администратора и организатора нескольких международных конференций, приветствуя участников со всего мира. Deborah Lock,  Deputy Dean, Faculty of Business, Law and Social Sciences, at Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK ORCID: 0000-0002-9688-9726 Deborah is an experienced academic and professional service leader with more than 20 years’ strategic level experience in higher education. As a career-hopper she had numerous jobs (Bid Writer, Business Development Manager, Director of Enterprise, College Director of Education to name a few) through which she has developed a reputation for the successful delivery of education related change management projects. She is currently Deputy Dean & Professor of Inclusivity & Innovation in Teaching. She is also the Chair of the Chartered Association of Business Schools Executive Education Committee and Visiting Professor at the University of Lincoln (UK) and Heilongjiang International University (PRC). In addition to her interest in third space identity construction, her research focuses international student transitions, graduate enterprise, and employability.

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Madhavi Lokhande,  Dean at Welingkar Institute of Management Development & Research, Bengaluru, (WeSchool), Bangalore, India ORCID: 0000-0003-4742-548X Madhavi is a cost accountant by qualification and a fellow of The Institute of Cost Accountants of India. She is also a Certified Management Accountant from The Institute of Management Accountants (US). She has 25 years of experience in academics and corporate. After her post-graduation in commerce, she completed her PhD from SNDT Women’s’ University, Mumbai. She is passionate about working with women entrepreneurs and this interest also led her to become a mentor for the ISB Goldman Sachs 10k program. She founded ‘Padhaai’, a charitable trust that promotes the cause for inclusive education. She’s the cofounder of Imagilytica Leadership Consulting LLP that curates learning programs using the philosophy of kinesthetic learning. She attended the prestigious International Teachers’ Program at SDA Bocconi, Milan. As a researcher she has published several papers and case studies in leading journals and international and national case clearing houses. She was awarded by the Higher Education Forum for Excellence in Contributionto Management Education. Currently, she holds the position of National Vice President  – Homepreneurs Council, Women’s India Chamber of Commerce and Industry (WICCI) and is also the President – Institute of Management Accountants, Bangalore Chapter Maria Madiope,  Campus Principal of the Open Distance and eLearning Campus at the University of Free State in Bloemfontein, South Africa ORCID: 0000-0003-1457-4876 Marinke graduated from the University of the North with BA and BEd, with a master’s in computer-based instruction from the University of Johannesburg, and with a PhD from the University of South Africa. Her studies focussed on using mobile technology for research proposal writing. Marinkie also holds the following certificates: Staff Development Technology in an Integrated Curriculum from the National School Board Association, Alexandria, USA; Online Education and Training course through the University of London. She is a certified assessor and moderator; she is also a certified ethics officer. Developing Researcher award winner in 2013 at Unisa; regular reviewer and journal editor for a South African ODel journal from 2017 to 2019. Her research interest area is ICT, Curriculum design and development and Gender based violence. She has presented and published papers locally and internationally. She has supervised both master’s and doctoral students. Expertise in eLearning is also one of her strong points and she has designed the Unisa Online Ethics course, which was launched in Geneva in 2015. Sesotho Marinkie Madiope ke Mogokgo wa Khamphase ya Khamphase ya Bokgakala le ELearning kwa Yunibesiting ya Free State kwa Bloemfontein, Aforika Borwa. O fumane lengolo Univesithing ea Leboea ka BA; BEDI; Masters a University of Johannesburg ho Khomishene e Thehiloe ho Khomphutha; PHD Univesithing ea Afrika Boroa Lithuto tsa hae li shebile ho sebelisa theknoloji ea mobile bakeng sa ho ngola tlhahiso ea tlhahiso. Marinkie o boetse o tšoere setifikeiti se latelang;

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Theknoloji ea Nts’etsopele ea Basebetsi ka Kharikhulamo e Kopaneng ho tsoa ho National Association Board Association, Alexandria, USA; Koetliso ea thuto ea marang-rang le thupelo ka Univesithi ea London. Ke mohlahlobi le motsamaisi ea netefalitsoeng; hape ke ofisiri ea Boitšoaro e netefalitsoeng. Ho ntshetsa pele mofenyi oa likhau tsa mofuputsi ka 2013 Unisa; mohlahlobi ea tloaelehileng, mohlophisi oa koranta bakeng sa koranta e le ‘ngoe feela ea ODel ho tloha 2017 ho isa 2019. Karolo eo a e ratang ea lipatlisiso ke ICT, moralo oa Kharikhulamo le nts’etsopele le pefo e thehiloeng ho bong. O hlahisitse le ho phatlalatsa lipampiri sebakeng sa heno le machabeng. O hlokometse liithuti tsa Masters le Doctoral. Tsebo ho ELearning le eona ke e ‘ngoe ea lintlha tsa hae tse matla; o hlamile khoso ya Unisa Online Ethics, e thakgotsweng Geneva ka 2015. Kelly  Menzel,  Associate Dean (Education), Gnibi College of Australia's Indigenous Peoples, Southern Cross University, Australia ORCID: 0000-0003-1412-5181 Kelly is a proud Ngadjuri woman from mid north South Australia with ancestral connections to Bundjalung Country in northern New South Wales, Australia. She has been in adult education for 20  years and is currently an Associate. Dean (Education) at Gnibi College of Australia's Indigenous Peoples, Queensland, Australia. She has lived in and worked with First Nations communities all over the world. She has a master’s degree in women’s studies and have completed a PhD in Indigenous Knowledges. Her research area of expertise is radically challenging race-based violence in institutions, Indigenous Knowledges Systems, Indigenous Pedagogy and First Nations Health. Dmitri Nizovtsev,  Professor of Economics and International Studies coordinator in the Washburn University School of Business, Kansas, USA After working for a number of years as an electrical engineer back in the Soviet Union, Dmitri got interested in economics and business during Russia’s transition to market economy. That interest eventually culminated in him earning a PhD in economics in 2001 from Purdue University in the USA. While his primary teaching and research interests are still in economics, he is also actively involved in the developing and coordinating the International Business programme at Washburn University. His set of related duties involves academic advising, coaching students for various international competitions, consulting them on study abroad options, and most recently training students for the Certified Global Business Professional exam. Mathews  Nkhoma,  Dean of the School of Business and Management at RMIT University, Vietnam Mathews holds a PhD in Management Information Systems from University of East London, England. His major research topics are leadership and management in the digital era, information systems security, information security investment models, network security management and forensic computing. In additional to his research, Prof. Nkhoma has taught information systems and computer forensics

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courses in Africa, Europe, Middle East, and Asia at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. As Dean, he is responsible for ensuring a consistently high-quality, transformative experience for students, staff members and industry partners, as well as continuing the school’s positive impact on Vietnam and the Southeast Asia region. Jurica  Pavičić,  Dean of the University of Zagreb’s Faculty of Economics and Business, Croatia ORCID: 0000-0002-6580-1162 Previously, Jurica held the position of Vice Dean for Internationalisation and Accreditations from 2014 to 2018 and for Science and Administration from 2012 to 2014. He was head of the Department of Marketing from 2010 to 2012. Professor Pavičić received a PhD in Economics  – Marketing in 2000 from University of Zagreb, Faculty of Economics and Business. He received a PhD in Sociology from Klagenfurt University, Austria, in 2009. Jurica is a visiting professor at School Klagenfurt University, Austria. He leads the Innovation in Education – Scientific Center of Excellence for School Effectiveness and Management and is responsible for the comprehensive preparation in management for the principles of higher schools. Prof. Pavičić and has extensive experience in international projects, e.g., Erasmus. He serves as an AACSB and EFMD per reviewer team accreditation member. He has edited 6 books published by Palgrave. His research field covers marketing for non-profit organisations and marketing management for Higher Education. Croation Jurica Pavičić Dekan je Ekonomskog fakulteta, Sveučilišta u Zagrebu od 2018. Od 2014.- 2018. bio je prodekan za internacionalizaciju i akreditacije te prodekan za znanost od 2012. – 2014. Od 2010.-2012. bio je pročelnik Katedre za Marketing na Ekonomskom fakultetu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Profesor Pavičić doktorirao je na Ekonomskom fakultetu, Sveučilišta u Zagrebu 2000. godine u području društvenih znanosti, polju ekonomiju, grana marketing a 2009. stječe doktorat znanosti području društvenih znanosti, u polju sociologije na Sveučilištu u Klagenfurt, Austrija. Jurica gostujući je profesor na Klagenfurt University, Austrija. Voditelj je Znanstvenog centra izvrsnosti za školsku efektivnost i menadžment (ZCI-SEM). Tijekom svoje karijere postigao je uspjeh kao partner na projekatima financiranih od strane Europske komisije -ERASMUS projekti. Profesor Pavičić član akreditacijskih timova za AACSB akreditaciju i za EFMD akreditaciju. Profesor Pavičić uredio je šest knjiga izdavača Palgrave. Područje istraživačkog interesa dekana Jurice Pavićića obuhvaća Marketing neprofitnih organizacija i Marketing menadžment u visokom obrazovanju. Stuart  Perrin,  Associate Principal of Xian Jiaotong-Liverpool University Entrepreneur College (Taicang), China ORCID: 0000-0001-6473-4255 Stuart is responsible for developing the XJTLU Entrepreneur College (Taicang), which is part of a new and unique campus that XJTLU is developing in Taicang. In addition to developing seven new industry-themed schools, Stuart is also exploring

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the university’s unique Syntegrative Education model within the new campus, which is part of the university’s response to the challenges raised by disruptive technology and Industry 4.0. Before taking up his present role, Stuart was the inaugural Dean for International Affairs at the university, with responsibility for leading the internationalisation agenda at the university, including issues relating to the appointment and development of international faculty. Prior to his appointment as Dean for International Affairs, he was Dean for Learning and Teaching for 4 years, combining the role with that of Director of the Language Centre. In the role of Director of the Language Centre, Stuart was responsible for overseeing English, Chinese and Spanish language modules across all years, and developing writing support initiatives in the university. Before being appointed to Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Stuart worked at several HEI’s within London, as well as at a number of private educational providers in the UK. Stuart is a Principal Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (PFHEA). Stuart is an active researcher, looking at the relationship between language and identity in EMIs, academic literacies and processes of academic socialisation, language policy, English as a Lingua Franca, as well as issues of writing interpreting. Dieu  Hack-Polay,  Professor of Management at Crandall  University, Canada and Associate Professor of Organisational Studies at University of Lincoln, UK ORCID: 0000-0002-1038-5018 Dieu is an organisational studies scholar at Crandall University, New Brunswick, Canada and the University of Lincoln, UK. He worked for several years in various sectors of activity including the voluntary sector and local government as a human resources and training practitioner in the United Kingdom. He also has several years of experience as an academic. He worked for various institutions internationally. He completed his PhD in Sociology at the University of Surrey and his Doctorate in Education (EdD) in Leadership & Management at the University of Lincoln. His research focuses on migrant workers are expatriates. He has published several books, and journal articles in leading international journals. Francesca  Pucciarelli,  Assistant Professor of Marketing  at ESCP Business School, Turin Campus, Local Academic Director of MBA in International Management, ESCP Business School, Turin Campus, Italy ORCID: 0000-0002-4518-6481 Francesca is Assistant Professor in Marketing, and she is the Academic Director of MBA in IM for the Turin Campus. She teaches in different programmes ranging from bachelor’s to specialised master’s, MBA and executive programmes. She is also visiting lecturer in other ESCP campuses and other Institutions alike. Her research interests concern higher education evolution, challenges and competitiveness with a special focus on business schools. Italian Francesca è Assistant Professor in Marketing ed è la Direttrice Accademica dell’MBA in International Management per il Campus di Torino. Insegna in diversi programmi che vanno dal Bachelor ai Master specialistici, MBA e programmi

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executive. È anche visiting professor in altri campus ESCP e in altre istituzioni ed università. In termini di ricerca si occupa di investigare l’evoluzione, sfide e competitività delle università con un focus sulle business schools. Francesco Rattalino,  Professor of Business Strategy and Management Control & Dean at ESCP Business School Turin Campus, Italy ORCID: 0000-0002-4721-719X Francesco is Professor in the Management Department and Dean of the ESCP Business School Turin Campus. He teaches both to master’s students (Costs and Decisions, Management Control, Business Strategy and Problem Solving and Decision Making) and to executives, in numerous open enrolment and custom programmes. He is also Lecturer of Business Administration at the University of Turin. He has more than 25  years’ experience in Strategy Execution, Performance Management, Family Business and Sustainability. He has published articles, conference proceedings and white papers, besides holding several lectures and speeches worldwide. His academic works appear on Harvard Business Review, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Journal of International Business Studies, as well as on newspapers and online magazines. He also won the ‘PREMIO OPTIME 1995/96’, Award of Academic Merit of the University of Turin and Turin Industrial Federation. He is also an active entrepreneur, having developed and invested in several start-ups. Italian Francesco è Professore di Business Strategy e Management Control presso il Dipartimento di Management ed è Direttore del Campus di Torino della ESCP Business School. Insegna sia a studenti di Master (Controllo di Gestione, Strategia e Problem Solving e Decision Making) sia a Executives, in differenti programmi e livelli. E’ inoltre Docente di Economia Aziendale presso l’Università degli Studi di Torino. Le sue aree di specializzazione e ricerca si concentrano da più di 25 anni su temi di strategy execution, gestione delle prestazioni, imprese familiari e sostenibilità. Ha pubblicato articoli, atti di convegni, white paper, oltre a tenere numerose conferenze e discorsi in tutto il mondo. I suoi lavori accademici sono stati pubblicati su Harvard Business Review, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Journal of International Business Studies, nonché su giornali e riviste online. Ha inoltre vinto il “PREMIO OPTIME 1995/96”, Premio di Merito Accademico dell’Università degli Studi di Torino e Federazione Industriale Torino. È anche un imprenditore, avendo sviluppato e investito in diverse start-up. Uday  Salunkhe,  Professor and Group Director at  Welingkar Institute of Management Development and Research (WeSchool) Mumbai & Bengaluru, India ORCID: 0000-0003-0507-2022 Uday has been the Group Director for WeSchool for over 2 decades. His passion for Leadership, Design Thinking, Innovation, supported by ‘Disruptive thinking’ & encouraging ‘Opposing minds’ has helped WeSchool carve a niche, in the space of Design Thinking & Innovation led Management education. A strong believer in Self and Positivity, driven by a philosophy of ‘Force Multiplier’ effects, he has been

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singularly responsible for taking WeSchool Global, by building several partnerships worldwide, be it with his alumni, business, or the academia circle. A strong networker himself, he believes that one’s net worth is determined by their network. An ‘Edupreneur’, with PhD in Turnaround Strategy and a recipient of the prestigious Eisenhower Fellowship, USA, Dr Salunkhe has also been a scholar at the LinnaeusPalme program at the Malardalen University, Sweden. He has to his credit various pioneering programmes and initiatives along with many research publications. Beyond his role at WeSchool, Uday is Chairman of the Education Committee of The Council of EU Chambers of Commerce in India, a former President of Association of Indian Management Schools (AIMS) amongst other regulatory and governing bodies in the strategic and advisory capacity Clarice Santos,  Senior Lecturer at Middlesex University, London, UK ORCID: 0000-0003-0326-8638 Clarice is a senior lecturer in Leadership & Workforce Management at Middlesex University in London. A global academic with more than 20 years of industry and academic experience, Clarice has held various academic and industry positions in the United Kingdom, Brazil, Australia and the United States. Clarice completed her PhD at the Coppead Graduate School of Business (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro) with a focus on the Work-Life Interface in Brazil. She holds a Master of Business Administration and a Bachelor’s in International Economics and Marketing Management from the University of Arkansas in the United States, in addition to a Graduate Certificate in Human Resource Management from Monash University in Australia. Clarice’s research interests cover a broad range of topics, but she is particularly passionate about gender, diversity and work-life issues in the Latin American context. Her published papers can be found in journals such as Employee Relations, Community, Work and Family, and the Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources. She is currently a member of the Community, Work and Family Journal (CWF) editorial board, co-chair of the International Committee at the Work and Family Researchers Network (WFRN), and a member of the UNESCO Chair on Responsible Foresight for Sustainable Development at the University of Lincoln. She is also a fellow of the Higher Education Academy in the UK. Portuguese Clarice é Professora Associada de Liderança e Gestão na Middlesex University em Londres. Uma acadêmica global com mais de 20 anos de experiência profissional em diversos setores, Clarice ocupou cargos gerenciais e acadêmicos no Reino Unido, Brasil, Austrália e Estados Unidos. Clarice concluiu seu doutorado no Instituto Coppead de Administração (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro) com foco na Interface Trabalho-Vida Pessoal no Brasil. Ela completou um mestrado em administração de empresas e um bacharelado em economia internacional e gestão de marketing pela University of Arkansas nos Estados Unidos, além de uma pós-­ graduação em gestão de recursos humanos pela Monash University na Austrália. As áreas de pesquisa da Clarice incluem uma variedade de tópicos, mas ela se interessa particularmente por questões de gênero, diversidade e a interface trabalho-vida pessoal no contexto latino-americano. Seus artigos publicados podem ser

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encontrados em periódicos como Employee Relations, Community, Work and Family e Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources. Atualmente, ela é membro do conselho editorial do Community, Work and Family Journal (CWF), co-presidente do Comitê Internacional da Rede de Pesquisadores do Trabalho e da Família (WFRN) e membro da Cátedra UNESCO na Universidade de Lincoln. Ela também é fellow da Higher Education Academy no Reino Unido. Tariel Sikharulidze,  Associate Professor at Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia Tariel teaches negotiation and mediation for BA and MA level students at the School of Arts and Sciences and the School of Law. He is a seasoned trainer in negotiation, mediation and conflict resolution and a mediator. Tariel is also an Associate Expert at ESSEC-IRENE, the Paris-based Institute for Research and Education on Negotiation. As such, he delivers negotiation courses at the EU Commission, as well as at ESSEC Business School, the French ENA and the French Ecole de Guerre. He also acts as an expert of IRENE’s Governance Team in the framework of the European Union’s Centres of Excellence initiative for the reduction of Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear risks; within that framework, he took part in missions in Serbia, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Gabon and Niger. Tariel currently delivers training for private companies and public bodies in his home country. He has also trained Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani public servants. He delivers negotiation classes to different universities in Georgia and to different business schools across Europe. During his university studies, he first received a degree and a qualification of translator of French and English languages from Tbilisi I. Tchavtchavadze State Institute of Foreign Languages. He went on to get his law degree from the Signakhi Branch of Ivane Javakhishvili State University, do an exchange at Paris III Sorbone Nouvelle (France), and to receive his doctoral degree from Ivane Javakhishvili State University. Russell E. Smith,  Professor of Economics and Associate Dean at the School of Business at Washburn University in Topeka, Kansas, USA Russell holds a PhD (1985) in Economics from the University of Illinois at Urbana. His research interests include the internationalisation of business education and trade, labour, and economic integration in the Americas. In his current position he promotes international partnerships and curriculum initiatives that build international content and cross-cultural material into the business curriculum, especially in the area of cross-cultural team building using digital tools. He has been instrumental in building academic partnerships with institutions in China, Belgium, and Germany and the member schools of the Magellan Exchange. He has served as a Contributing Editor for ‘Political Economy: Brazil’ for the Handbook of Latin American Studies since 1994. Michael  Stoica,  Professor of Marketing at the Washburn University School of Business, Kansas, USA Michael teaches strategic analysis, marketing management, and international marketing at the MBA and undergraduate levels. He earned his PhD in nuclear

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engineering from the Institute for Atomic Physics, Bucharest, Romania, and his PhD in business from Washington State University, Washington, USA. His current research interests and work are in cause marketing, virtual teamwork, and international marketing. Nebojša  Stojčić,  Associate Professor and Researcher  at the University of Dubrovnik ORCID: 0000-0001-6638-8771 Nebojša is a visiting professor at Staffordshire University Business School, UK, and is a graduate teaching fellow of Cerge-EI foundation, Prague, Czechia. At the University of Dubrovnik, he serves as Vice Rector for business affairs and Director of the Centre for Research on Digital Transformation – CREDO. His research has been published in world-leading journals, such as the European Economic Review, Regional Studies, Research Policy, Small Business Economics, Technovation, and many more. He was the author of the most cited Croatian research in the decade between 2010 and 2020 (Web of Science and Scopus data). His research project ‘Possibilities for reindustrialisation of Croatian economy  – REINDUCE’ is the highest ranked project financed by the Croatian Science Foundation in the field of economics. According to Croatian scientific bibliography, he is continuously ranked among the top 10 most productive Croatian scholars in the field of economics and business. As leader and researcher, he has participated in more than 30 projects financed under Horizon 2020, FP7, Erasmus+ CBHE, Erasmus+ Strategic Partnerships, Interreg, IPA, and the Croatian Science Foundation, alongside many other collaborations within the business community in Croatia and Central and Southeastern Europe. Bosnian Nebojša Stojčić izvanredni je profesor i istraživač u područjima industrijske ekonomije i ekonomije inovacija na Sveučilištu u Dubrovniku. Gostujući je profesor na Staffordshire University Business School u Velikoj Britaniji i gostujući predavač pri Cerge-EI, Prag, Češka. Na Sveučilištu u Dubrovniku obnaša dužnost prorektora za poslovanje i voditelj je Centra za istraživanje digitalne transformacije  – CREDO.  Rezultati njegovih istraživanja objavljivani su u vodećim časopisima, poput European Economic Review, Regional Studies, Research Policy, Small Business Economics, Technovation i drugih. Autor je najcitiranijeg hrvatskog istraživanja u desetljeću između 2010. i 2020. (podaci Web of Science i Scopus) za područje ekonomije. Njegov istraživački projekt “Mogućnosti za reindustrijalizaciju hrvatskog gospodarstva – REINDUCE” je najbolje rangirani projekt financiran od strane Hrvatske zaklade za znanost u području ekonomije. Prema hrvatskoj znanstvenoj bibliografiji, kontinuirano se svrstava među 10 najproduktivnijih hrvatskih znanstvenika u području ekonomije i poslovne ekonomije. Kao voditelj i istraživač sudjelovao je u više od 30 projekata financiranih u okviru programa Obzor 2020., FP7, Erasmus+ CBHE, Erasmus+ strateška partnerstva, Interreg, IPA i Hrvatske zaklade za znanost, uz mnoge druge suradnje unutar poslovne zajednice u Hrvatskoj i središnjoj i jugoistočnoj Europi.

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Heather  Swenddal,  Assistant Professor of Management at Nichols College in Dudley, Massachusetts, USA ORCID: 0000-0003-4061-9484 Heather recently completed a PhD in Management through RMIT University Vietnam, the Asia hub of Australia’s Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. Dr Swenddal’s PhD thesis explored the organisation-based identity constructions of academic lecturers working at global university branch campuses—a topic she became familiar with as a US expatriate working at RMIT Vietnam. She also holds an MA in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages from San Francisco State University. Dr Swenddal’s research examines identity and inclusion in both educational and management domains, broadly focusing on the ways in which individuals develop identities in the context of their larger communities. Lisa Thomas,  Professor of Strategy at KEDGE Business School, Marseille, France ORCID: 0000-0001-7375-6632 Lisa is a British national now settled in France, she has more than 25  years’ experience teaching students within Universities in the UK and France at undergraduate, postgraduate, and executive education level. She has spent 11 years teaching in French GEs. She gained her MBA and PhD from Cardiff University where she spent nine years as Lecturer in Strategy. She is fellow of the Higher Education Academy, UK. Her research interests include the international competitive environment of management education institutions and the future strategies of business schools. Her focus in this domain lies in the role of value co-creation and multi-­ stakeholder engagement. Her work in this area features in the Academy of Management Learning & Education Journal, the British Journal of Management. She also has expertise in the management of strategy implementation within organisations. She has several international peer reviewed publications in these domains published amongst others in the International Journal of Human Resource Management. Kalyani Unkule,  Associate Professor at Jindal Global Law School Jindal Global University, India ORCID: 0000-0002-2518-2889 Kalyani is also a visiting professor at ISDE Law and Business School in Spain and Stockholm University Faculty of Law in Sweden. Her doctoral work at Maurer School of Law, Indiana University, was at the intersection of international relations theory and international law focusing specifically on protection of cultural heritage. She is the author of Internationalising the University: A Spiritual Approach, published by Palgrave Macmillan and was recently awarded the Commonwealth Peace and Reconciliation Challenge Grant. Kalyani regularly appears as an expert commentator on global affairs on India’s most respected national news network NDTV 24/7. Her interest in the ‘global’ stems from a strong grounding in local wisdoms as well as the love of her native language Marathi and Indian classical dancing nurtured and encouraged in her childhood.

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Francesco  Venuti,  Professor of Accounting & Associate Dean Executive MBA and General Management Programme at ESCP ORCID: 0000-0002-0793-6106 Francesco is a permanent faculty Professor of Accounting in the Financial Reporting and Audit (FRA) Department at ESCP Business School. He is Associate Dean for the Executive MBA and General Management Program, and he is also the Academic Director of the MSc in International Food & Beverage Management (IFBM). His teaching experience covers a wide range of different contexts and grades, including executive education and online (MOOC) courses. His major fields of research include financial accounting and reporting (with a specific focus on Insurance companies), nonfinancial disclosure, food and beverage and behavioural accounting, as well as pedagogy and teaching innovation especially in the field of business and executive education. He is member of the European Accounting Association (EAA) and the Accounting for Banking and Insurance Research Lab (ABIREL) at the University of Turin. Italian Francesco è di Accounting presso il Dipartimento Financial Reporting and Audit (FRA) della ESCP Business School. È Associate Dean per l’Executive MBA e General Management Program. Insegna in differenti programmi: dai corsi di laurea triennale ai Master, nonché a livello Executive. I suoi principali campi di ricerca includono ragioneria, bilancio e principi contabili (con un focus specifico sulle compagnie assicurative), la comunicazione non finanziaria e di sostenibilità, il settore del food & beverage e l’economia comportamentale, nonché la pedagogia e l’innovazione didattica, in particolare nel campo della formazione aziendale e dirigenziale. È membro della European Accounting Association (EAA) e dell’Accounting for Banking and Insurance Research Lab (ABIREL) dell’Università di Torino. Goran Vlašić,  Associate Professor and Researcher in the fields of marketing and innovation at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb, visiting professor at the School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana, Croatia ORCID: 0000-0001-5690-930X Goran received his PhD in business and management from the University of Bocconi, Italy in 2011 and PhD in social science from Klagenfurt University, Austria, in 2009. At the University of Zagreb, he serves as a head of innovation and development and is head of Innovation in Education at the Scientific Centre of Excellence for School Effectiveness and Management. He was awarded second prize for the best PhD thesis by the European Marketing Academy and McKinsey & Co. and was given the National Science Award by Croatian Parliament. He is a consultant to numerous regional organisations focusing on strategic growth and innovation systems development. Croatian Goran Vlašić izvanredni je profesor i istraživač u području marketinga I inovacija na Ekonomskom fakultetu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu i gostujući profesor na Ekonomskom fakultetu u Ljubljani, Slovenija. Goran Vlašić doktorirao je u području

Contributors

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poslovne ekonomije i menadžmenta na Sveučilištu Bocconi, Italija 2011., a 2009. stječe doktorat znanosti na Klagenfurt University, Austrija. Na Ekonomskom fakultetu, Sveučilišta u Zagrebu obnaša dužnost voditelja inovacija i razvoja te voditelja odjela za inovacije u obrazovanju Znanstvenog centra izvrsnosti za školsku efektivnost i menadžment (ZCI-SEM). Dobitnik je druge nagrade za najbolji doktora znanosti Europske akademije za marketing i McKinsey & Co., te je dobitnik Državne nagrade za znanost od strane Hrvatskog sabora u 2007. Konzultant je brojnih regionalnih organizacija usmjerenih na strateški rast i razvoj sustava inovacija. Yipu Wang,  Chinese language teacher, Yipu has previously worked in other institutions teaching Chinese, as well as overseas as part of a Confucius Institute. Yipu is an innovative teacher who has had her teaching recognised in her institution. Yipu specialises in teaching courses that include Ancient Chinese, Chinese Culture, Modern Chinese, and Comprehensive Chinese, as well as HSK certificate courses. Her research interests include academic identity with respect to language teacher, the modernisation of higher education within China and challenges associated with the move into digital education as the mainstream. She has recently started her PhD where the focus of her study is the impact that disruptive technologies have on teaching of Chinese as an international language from a teacher identity, and pedagogy perspective, exploring the best ways to carry out effective mixed Chinese teaching modes whilst retaining the characteristic teaching objects needed for the teaching of Chinese. Chinese 王伊璞，她曾在其他机构教授汉语，也曾在海外孔子学院任教。王伊璞 是一位富有创新精神的教师，她的教学得到了学校的认可。她开设的专业课 程有《古代汉语》、《中国文化专题》、《现代汉语》、《综合汉语》和 《HSK标准课程》等。她的研究兴趣包括语言教师的学术认同、中国高等教 育的现代化以及数字化教育成为主流所带来的挑战。她最近开始攻读博士研 究生，其研究重点是从教师身份和教育学的角度出发，研究颠覆性技术对作 为国际语言的汉语教学的影响，探索实施有效的混合中文教学模式的最佳途 径，同时保留中文教学所需要的特色教学对象。 Toby Wilkinson,  A committed advocate of internationalisation in higher education. A graduate of the University of Cambridge, Toby began his career with research and teaching positions at the universities of Cambridge and Durham (UK). He subsequently moved into higher education leadership, specialising in external relations, global engagement, and institutional advancement. From 2011 to 2017, he was the inaugural Director of International Strategy at the University of Cambridge, building mutually beneficial partnerships with universities, governments, and third-­sector organisations around the world. He served as Deputy Vice-Chancellor at the University of Lincoln (UK), with an extensive portfolio of responsibilities including external relations and internationalisation, the College of Business, and the College of Science (incorporating Science, Engineering and Medicine). At Lincoln, Toby developed and implemented an institution-wide internationalisation strategy

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embracing student and staff mobility, internationalisation of the curriculum, global research partnerships, and the university’s international profile and reputation. Toby remains a research-active scholar with a worldwide academic reputation as an historian of Egypt. He is the prize-winning author of twelve books which have been translated into twelve languages, a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society, and a Bye-Fellow of Clare College, University of Cambridge.

Chapter 1

Introduction: The Internationalisation of Higher Education Teaching Practices Deborah Lock

Abstract  The history of education is one of creating, sharing and exploiting knowledge. Through the practices of Socrates, St Paul and the scholars of the Indian Rigvedic era, the notion of a knowledgeable wanderer aka a mobile academic who shapes and influences communities through teaching emerges. As borders and boundaries become increasingly blurred and virtual citizenship starts to impact on ways of working, being able to teach seamlessly across cultures and political divides will be critical to ensuring a thriving higher education (HE) sector. Keywords  Internationalisation · International mobility · Teaching practices · Academic identities · Borderless education The history of education is one of creating, sharing and exploiting knowledge. Through the practices of Socrates, St Paul and the scholars of the Indian Rigvedic era, the notion of a knowledgeable wanderer aka a mobile academic (White, 2017) who shapes and influences communities through teaching emerges. As borders and boundaries become increasingly blurred and virtual citizenship starts to impact on ways of working, being able to teach seamlessly across cultures and political divides will be critical to ensuring a thriving higher education (HE) sector (Kim, 2017; Teichler, 2017). Despite the current movement hiatus as a result of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic restrictions, the emergence of nationalism and enhanced border controls in some areas across the world, the underlying trends seem to suggest that international academic mobility remains a key feature of higher education. In 2021, the Higher Education Statistics Agency (2021) revealed that 92,440 international staff worked in UK Higher Education Institutions (HEI) (an increase of 17.5% since 2015–2016), and 20.9% of all staff at UK universities were designated as international (Universities UK, 2021: 12). In 2017, Leisyte and Rose estimated D. Lock (*) Birmingham City Business School, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_1

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that 30% of academic staff were foreign in Denmark and the Netherlands, and this rose to more than 50% in Switzerland and Luxemburg (p.  5). Likewise in South Africa, 11.2% of permanent instructional/research staff in universities were classified international academics of which 6.3% were from other African states (Higher Education & Training, 2019: 20). There remains considerable interest and support for international academic mobility since securing talent through temporary or permanent migration and integration is seen as a mechanism for innovation, collaboration and ensuring a skilled workforce that is competent and able to work seamlessly across differing cultural borders (Altbach & Yudkevich, 2017). This book aims to capture the impact of international  academic  mobility on teaching practices which have been informed by academics' original cultures being modified to challenge, align with and/or compliment those of a host culture. It attempts to re-position and reinforce the notion of the international academic community as a catalyst for cultural change in higher education at a time when equality, diversity and inclusivity are seen as the driving forces for informing global citizenship values, enhancing individual and community socio-cultural and economic prosperity, and enabling self-actualization. As suggested by Morely et al. (2018), through the internationalisation of teaching practices, it is possible for disadvantaged and marginalised groups to re-cast themselves as cosmopolitan global citizens, and whilst the establishment of a single universal practice is not possible or desirable because of the heterogeneous nature of the world, the different perspectives that the international academic community brings can cultivate and inform practices that can be shared by people who hold different values (Cook-Sather & Felton, 2017). To be an international academic means to embrace change and manage a diversity of multiple selves. Each international teaching journey is unique; it is value-­ laden, bounded by complexity and influenced by current and historical educational geopolitics. These manifest in the practices that international academics display as they contextualise knowledge and learning within the environment within which they are working (Hosein et  al., 2018; Walker, 2015). According to Byram and Dervin (2008), the mobile academic is a double-agent as s/he moves from one educational context to another. They are outgoing and incoming drivers of international consciousness as different approaches to student engagement, classroom management and curriculum delivery come to the forefront of pedagogic practices. Whilst for some this might result in an uphill struggle to unlearn home country practices so they can ‘fit’ more effectively in their host country (Jiang et al., 2010), for others it is the opportunity to further develop skills and knowledge through being immersed in different educational cultures. For example, Duke’s (2017) interest in traditional and indigenous knowledge developed from ‘experiences in and of Asian and African religious practices and beliefs, and from living in still traditional rural France – recognising individualism and valuing diversity’ (p. 150). When considering the lived experiences of academic staff who are engaged in overseas teaching on a temporary or permanent basis, the extent to which a sense of belonging can be achieved is questionable as they quite often negotiate teaching

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practices and power relationships from a position of transience and precarity. Addressing strangerness and otherness (Kim & Ng, 2018; Uusimaki & Garvis, 2017; Kim, 2017; Dervin & Dirba, 2008) and acknowledging the ‘fragile nature of [the] uprooted self’ (Welikala, 2018: 66) are parts of being international and an inherent feature within the formation of these academic identities. The book comprises thematic sections which take the reader through the various stages of the internationalisation of HE teaching practice. The geopolitics of teaching identities considers how teaching identities are influenced by culture and geopolitical factors, and how HE has, in the past and in many respects still is, focused on Western approaches to teaching to the exclusion of many indigenous pedagogic practices. Navigating no-man’s land and the orphaned nature of being an international academic are considered as sense of belonging and nomadic experiences are explored by academics working in different countries, along with the challenges of repatriation after significant periods of absence from home. Sticky problems and debates about inclusivity, diversity, and cultural representation in the curriculum and classroom are explored through the eyes of the academics, as is the extent to which Eurocentric and Global North discourses influence decolonisation activities and practices and silence the voices of those beyond these areas. Finally, there is a call for greater individual and institutional commitment to, and recognition of, the value that the international academic community brings to the sector, and an aspiration for teaching practices which reflect individual and national identities, histories, and knowledges. Responding to this call will result in holistic pedagogies which celebrate diversity and provide a foundation on which to develop sustainable borderless higher education – that is, a choir of academic voices, each unique in their own way, each of the same value and each with a different story to tell.

References Altbach, P.G., & Yudkevich, M. (2017, January 27). The role of international faculty in the mobility era. University World News. Byram, M., & Dervin, F. (2008). Students, staff and academic mobility in higher education. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Cook-Sather, A., & Felton, P. (2017). Chapter 10: Ethics of academic leadership: Guiding learning and teaching. In F. Su & M. Wood (Eds.), Cosmopolitan perspectives on academic leadership in higher education (Perspectives on leadership in higher education). Bloomsbury Academic. Dervin, F., & Dirba, M. (2008). Chapter 14: Figures of strangeness: Blending perspectives from mobile academics. In M. Byram & F. Dervin (Eds.), Students, staff and academic mobility in higher education. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Duke, C. (2017). Chapter 8: Crossing higher education borders: Academic leadership in the learning university. In F. Su & M. Wood (Eds.), Cosmopolitan perspectives on academic leadership in higher education (Perspectives on leadership in higher education). Bloomsbury Academic. HESA. (2021). Staff record 2019–2020. Available at http://www.hesa.ac.uk/collection/c19025

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Higher Education & Training. (2019). Report of the ministerial task team on the recruitment, retention and progression of black South African academic. Higher Education and Training, Republic of South Africa. Available at https://www.dst.gov.za/images/2020/02/Report_MTT_ RRP_of_Black_Academics_web_final1.pdf Hosein, A., Rao, N., Shu-Hua, Y., & Kinchin, I. (2018). Academics’ international teaching journeys: Personal narratives of transitions in higher education. Bloomsbury Academic. Jiang, X., Di Napoli, R., Maunder, R., Fry, H., & Walsh, E. (2010). Becoming and being an academic: The perspectives of Chinese staff in two research-intensive UK universities. Studies in Higher Education, 36(2), 155–170. Kim, T. (2017). Academic mobility, transnational identity capital, and stratification under conditions of academic capitalism. Higher Education, 73, 981–997. Kim, T., & Ng, W. (2018). Ticking the ‘other’ box: Positional identities of east Asian academics in UK universities, internationalisation and diversification. Policy Reviews in Higher Education, 3(1), 94–119. Leisyte, L., & Rose, A.-L. (2017). Academic staff mobility in the age of trump and brexit? International Higher Education, 89, 5–6. Morely, L., Alexiadou, N., Garaz, S., González-Monteagudo, J., & Taba, M. (2018). Internationalisation and migrant academics: The hidden narratives of mobility. Higher Education, 76, 537–554. Teichler, U. (2017). Internationally mobile academics: Concept and findings in Europe. European Journal of Higher Education, 7(1), 15–28. Universities UK. (2021). International facts & figures. UUKI Publications. Available at https://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/universities-­uk-­international/insights-­and-­publications/ uuki-­publications/international-­facts-­and-­figures-­2021 Uusimaki, L., & Garvis, S. (2017). Travelling academics: The lived experience of academics moving across countries. Higher Education Research & Development, 36(1), 187–200. Walker, P. (2015). The globalisation of higher education and the sojourner academic: Insights into challenges experienced by newly appointed international academic staff in a UK university. Journal of Research in International Education, 14(1), 61–74. Welikala, T. (2018). Chapter 5: Being women and being migrant: Confronting double strangeness in UK higher education. In A. Hosein, N. Rao, Y. Shu-Hua, & I. Kinchin (Eds.), Academics’ international teaching journeys: Personal narratives of transitions in higher education. Bloomsbury Academic. White, D. (2017). Teacher of nations. Ancient traditions. De Gruyter.

Part I

The Geopolitics of Teaching Identities

Chapter 2

Epistemologies of Internationalisation: Framing Cultural Positionality for Higher Education Catherine Hayes

Abstract  This chapter frames processes of meaning making as fundamental mechanisms of revealing how core epistemologies underpinning internationalisation can impact and affect processes of systemic change. The allusion to internationalising or decolonising curricula is one which actively floodlights processes of change in terms of whether and how students from across the globe have been afforded the opportunity to co-create the future of Higher Education (HE). It equally highlights the degrees of tokenism, which characterises many claims of inclusion and diversity in reality. In considering geopolitics in the modernisation of approaches to endemic structural racism, the chapter also considers the destabilising and consequent rebuilding of cultures and contexts of education, so that the embracing of diversity at the front line of curriculum delivery across HE in the UK might eventually be deemed truly authentic. Alongside these fundamental tenets of change, the chapter progresses to consider perspectives on personhood, positionality and the inherent change agency that educational reformers possess in their challenge of breaking down the barriers that geography and politics frame. In terms of the emancipatory and transformative elements of educational praxis, the chapter concludes by considering the cathedral legacies of educational history as fundamental proponents for civic address. Keywords  Inclusivity · Positionality · Transformative learning

Introduction Our world is not divided by race, colour, gender, or religion. Our world is divided into wise people and fools. And fools divide themselves by race, colour, gender, or religion. – Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (1918–2013)

C. Hayes (*) Faculty of Health and Wellbeing, University of Sunderland, Sunderland, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_2

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The Concept of Inclusive Excellence What actually constitutes inclusive excellence has become a long-debated topic in the context of higher education (HE) pedagogic practice generally, but most specifically in relation to what constitutes the core educational aims and objectives of higher education institutions (HEIs), where epistemologies of higher education have their greatest resonance (Dawson, 2020). To challenge systems and organisational infrastructures which have long had reputations for the majority representation of white middle class males remains something which necessitates the deconstruction of the meaning of class, culture and intentionality, not only for this generation but for those in the past and future too (Abutbul-Selinger, 2020). How concepts of inclusivity, diversity and culture can be explored through human processes of meaning making is one mechanism of illuminating how core epistemological and dynamic issues of internationalisation can drive systemic change through global organisations purporting to either internationalise or decolonise their current academic curricula (Brooks, 2020; Tran, 2010). Multicultural competence lies at the heart of all nods to achieving both in practice and in recognising the fundamentally unique contribution that all students make to learning environments across the globe (Shayakhmetova et al., 2017). Whether this capacity for progressive and dynamic change ought to be a prerequisite of educational provision or whether it is merely another concept of additionality within those curricula being justified, designed and implemented across the world is another area for illumination, where at best many initiatives are little more than tokenistic efforts to address long-held issues within Higher Education as a whole (Lee, 2020). Statistics surrounding the diversity of learning outcomes are no less evident of the whole systems change that curriculum development presently faces (Olcoń et al., 2020). Since the learning and development of all students is encompassed by these processes, even prior to implementation of delivery with students from multicultural backgrounds, it can be argued that the centrality of any authenticity for the academy lies in strategic curriculum design, teaching and learning methodologies, inclusive assessment opportunities and, most importantly, the capacity for students to undertake programmes which are ecologically valid as well as academically and pedagogically authentic in practice (Beasy et al., 2020). The agency afforded to strategic curriculum developers and educational policy makers at a systems level has the capacity to fundamentally shape future progressive initiatives to authentic inclusion and the embracing of diversity that has tangibly moved beyond tokenism. This necessitates modernisation of not only the culture and context of HEIs but also the educators and leaders who work within them at the front line of educational geopolitics with international students (Uzhegova & Baik, 2022). Amidst the globally competitive market of educational provision and the neoliberalism that underpins it, the role of HEIs in centralising the learning of the next generation of knowledge, skills and citizenship has never been more fully illuminated (Pais & Costa, 2020). Amidst the fallout of the Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, this position is only likely to become more exacerbated in the future, amidst complex ambiguity and political uncertainty (Sellars & Imig, 2020).

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Not only does geopolitics have a place in the modernisation of approaches to the legacy of structural racism, but also it has to place internationalisation and decolonisation of academic curricula amidst the process of newly co-constructed knowledge with students as partners so that new boundaries of internationalised education can be reconstructed in relation to their purposefulness and capacity to be inclusive and demonstrably embrace diversity at the front line of delivery across HEIs (Gordon & Webber, 2020). Couched in the term ‘needs led’, global curricula hinge on the pivot of changeable global economies, ever diversifying demands for knowledge and skills and the need to demonstrably prove their offer of inclusive excellence within suitable campus contexts, which embrace a culture and sense of belonging for all learners in their developmental progression (Baltaru, 2020). These are all multidimensional, interconnected facets of the same progressive lens, which remain the core responsibility of people, not the curricula within which knowledge and skills are delivered. At the heart of person-centred responsibility is the capacity to not only know others but also oneself, to be reflectively and reflexively accountable and to suspend long-­ held presuppositions and assumptions in the address of barriers to effective learning and teaching (Hardee & Johnson, 2020). Establishing how personhood underpins professionalism, is fundamental to ever beginning the fundamental changes in organisational structure necessary to illicit tangible and functional change at the centre of inclusive education for all (Sardabi et al., 2018). Only then can a claim of addressing the need to internationalise or decolonise the curricula ever be authenticated in practice (Bhambra et  al., 2018). Fundamentally, this is the need not to project new interventions or implementations upon the diverse cohorts with whom we work but rather to co-construct new knowledge via mechanisms of mutual reciprocity and dialogue between those who teach and those who learn, so that this becomes a means of addressing the whole discourse and approach to curriculum design, delivery and implementation in practice at the global front line of higher education provision (Hall & Tandon, 2017; de Oliveira Andreotti et al., 2015).

Statism and Nationalism Another key issue for theoretically positioning the geopolitical power of HEIs is to consider the concepts of statism and nationalism (Khomyakov, 2020). Running far deeper than any debate of a post national system of global politics, the neoliberalism and commodification of education across continents has played a significant role in the agency that education offers in its portfolio (Veiga & Magalhães, 2020). Often these are reflexive and insular in approach, rather reflecting local need or the wider vision of a global society with a sense of individual and collective civic responsibilities. Education for education’s sake is diminishing, yet ironically the ethos of civic responsibility rises year on year (Dee, 2020). Deconstructing education as a discipline as well as a process, then, fundamentally unlocks barriers to and borderland areas into difference and inequity and posits it as a means of supporting aspiration

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regardless of context and regardless of a historical tradition, which ought to be temporally recognised as being exactly that in order to pave the way for future educational provision (Hirschl & Shachar, 2019). This is far more reflective of cosmopolitan and inclusive societies as possible realities and not just ideologies for future consideration beyond the here and now.

The Dangers of Eurocentrism Any postcolonial critical commentary on Higher Education’s geographical spread could legitimately conclude that the most dominant forms of institution, at any particular point in time, are actually the end outputs of educational systems (Kučerová et al., 2020). These are often dictated by the need for a specific end point, which in turn is dictated by situational specificity, geographical need or external economic drivers of ‘needs led’ curricula (Martinez-Vargas 2020). These institutions still spatter Europe as legacies of time gone by – the Industrial Revolution, the Enlightenment and as material reminders of the passage of time to the here and now (Mondon & Winter, 2019). The colonial backdrop to much of this history stems, often quite unashamedly, from an overreliance on Eurocentrism and white middle class patriarchy in the initial establishment of now longstanding cultures and universal contexts of higher education (Kubota, 2020). Foucault clearly identified that knowledge and power are inseparably linked and as a consequence interdependent in terms of establishing and further developing the relationships that underpin education (Ayeb-­ Karlsson, 2020). As a direct consequence of this epistemological basis, there has been a paradigmatic insufficiency in the capability of HEIs to give a voice to those usually marginalised groups of society for whom the westernisation of knowledge and power can be a profound source of cultural dissonance and a point of departure for the concept, let alone the practice of inclusivity in educational settings. In terms of political geography, this poses its own issues for address. The representativeness of those who have dared to question the inertia over the years has been equally challenging – indeed where reactive opposition to dominant forms of knowledge has been posited and where society is often left contemplating the impact of this opposition. The issue is that the West, whilst contextually specific, has become a point of departure for knowledge, and consequently the power stemming from it (Quisay, 2019; Doris, 2015). There is a distinct and tangible tension between what can be construed as socially constructed boundaries and those which have any place in geographical terms (Löhlein & Müßig, 2020). What matters is the implication of more notional constructs, which can have long-term consequences for those living in the confines of them. Materiality versus fluidity of international educational leaders is a reality for those who become subject to the power of owned knowledge and the divisive culture this creates. It is usually Western and Eurocentric knowledge which has the capacity to constrain and contain members of society and their particular geographical contexts. This raises important perspective of consideration for the geopolitics of education in relation to meaning making and the social

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construction of truth versus verisimilitude. As education steadily progresses down the anthropocentric standpoint, where ‘being’ and individual being, in particular, is seen as increasingly more relevant to a holistic educational system for all, it is clear that the removal and destruction of barriers to knowledge, to the constraints of historical borderlands, must take place for the benefit of all those either educating or seeking to be educated.

Perspectives on Personhood, Positionality and Change Agency The negotiation of complex teaching landscapes and the approaches needed to reconcile them has one shared common denominator – the capacity and human universal capacity to make meaning from experience and human interaction. Too often we lose sight of education as a social science and the implications this ought to have in breaking down the barriers geographical and political borders frame. Establishing personhood and positionality necessitates the integration of teaching and learning methodologies, which in themselves have the fundamental capacity to be truly transformative (Shahjahan, 2019). A context of being able to freely and democratically challenge posited and articulated ideologies, theories and hypotheses, lies at the heart of progressive opportunity for change. This cannot be targeted at an international audience alone, if it is to be authentically positioned as a means of providing equity of opportunity. This is an opportunity for all to be transformed on an individual as well as a collective platform. The echoes of Mezirow’s work echo with the resonance and capacity for disruptive ambiguity to be integrated across academic curricula here, which can then act as a driver for framing new perspectives and challenging long-held assumptions and presuppositions, both of which so often are the basis of unintentional racism in educational practice (Mezirow, 1993). It is critical pedagogies, though, such as Freire’s now seminal Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire, 1972) which have acted as the fundamental catalyst in the liminal shift between reality and the degree of self-consciousness underpinning it. The capacity for critical and introspective reflection on self and society lies at the heart of its then revolutionary approach to structural change agency in practice (Maruggi, 2012). If this is to be translated and cascaded down into academic curricula, it is processes of critical reflexivity which will drive a future vehicle in which the geopolitics of education travels and extends its reach (Löhlein & Müßig, 2020). Mezirow and Dirkx (2006) posited that, the process of making a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of an experience, which guides subsequent understanding, appreciation and action what we perceive and fail to perceive, and what we think and fail to think are powerfully influenced by habits of expectation that constitute our frame of reference, that is, a set of assumptions that structure the way we interpret our experiences;

in applying this to the context of internationalising and decolonising curricula in the light of epistemic positionality, its relevance is poignant.

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More recently, the work of Cunliffe (2016) has ensured the longevity of Freire’s work, via the integration of social constructionist perspectives and concepts of reality. In terms of being able to delineate between the concepts of truth and verisimilitude in practice-based settings, this is a pivotal consideration in instances where the co-construction of new knowledge with international students and staff is to become an embedded part of future practice. Most importantly, the whole concept of being able to reflexively consider the action of the self as an iterative process of self-­ development, self-reflection and improvement, is arguably fundamental to the subjective understanding of reality in HEIs across the world (Mani and Milan 2020). This then has the potential to provide an insight into how knowledge construction from global perspectives impacts directly on the co-construction of experience, meaning making and consequently authentic critical reflexivity (Mao et al., 2016). Surely as educators our perspectives on global citizenship extend far more into the concept of authentic personhood than functional practicalities of educational provision in practice.

Integration of Transformative Learning Across Curricula Despite the immersion in difficulty academic development faces in the recognition of barriers to decolonisation and internationalisation of the curriculum, Higher Education remains a societal focal point for all that might be possible through the transformative and emancipating power of education (Harman, 2019). The capacity to equip future generations is rooted not only in education but also in the far broader remit of global citizenship, which in turn has the potential to extend the reach of the understanding of authentic personhood. Since personhood is the pivotal denominator and contributor to the teams and systems within global societies, surely to start with collective change as educationalists, we must recognise the inherent power, aspiration and personhood of the individuals with whom we teach and whom we learn. This negotiation of complex teaching landscapes and the systemic approaches needed to reconcile them has one shared common denominator – the capacity and human universal capacity to make meaning from experience and human interaction with others and the capacity to recognise where structure and agency necessitate modernisation and wholesale overhaul (Karakhanyan & Stensaker, 2020). The constructive alignment of HEI curricula with philosophies that have an impact on communities and global societies is now commonplace. Despite this, the lens through which they are designed are often clouded with the positional stance of people for whom internationalisation and decolonisation have never been issues to be grappled with in the ‘real world’ (Villarroel et al., 2018). Whilst modern practice has started to engage people in the active co-construction of their knowledge and experience in practice, there is still a huge deficit between what is perceived of their experience in crossing borders and territories and what is an actuality in terms of their own reality. Again, this is where multicultural competence is pivotal and it is arguable that unless sufficiently represented, the people experiencing these

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curricula have no active voice in proactively changing the experience of consequent cohorts, or indeed, and perhaps more importantly, changing the cultural ethos into which international students are introduced. Embedded within this, is the key question of whether the staff who facilitate and deliver these academic curricula in practice ought to present themselves as acknowledging cultural difference or in some way trying to remain deliberately neutral of it, in relation to all of the other diversity present in classroom settings. Perhaps one of the greatest acknowledgements to be made here is that all students are different but the connection of human universality and shared experience, first and foremost, is the only factor which can successively acknowledge individual need and the acknowledgement and accommodation of it. This approach is also more reflective of the changing demography of all global societies where multicultural diversity is extending and where it can be actively used to leverage positive change for all, not just those who have radically altered their geographical boundaries in practice. What is often missed within the wider debates of extending the reach of curriculum design via the co-construction and feedback of all students is the semantics and discourse underpinning the process, which are usually founded on antiquated traditions and processes. Unless we change structures, the agency of those we wish to advocate and support in having a voice cannot authentically be presented. What is reflected in a curriculum is the embedded positionality of the academic who writes it and whose personhood and long-held presuppositions and assumptions are belying it. Temporality, too, has significance in the modernisation of agendas supporting those studying away from their homelands and particularly amidst the global turmoil and those issues driving situational specific areas for change and support, for example with the COVID-19 pandemic. In practice this also enables both the collective and individual implications of cultural representation to be explored through a lens of authenticity which provides clarity around how the potential for borderless Higher Educational teaching practices can be feasibly brought into existence at all.

Framing Diversification and Transcending Internationalisation Theoretically, diversification of academic curricula ought to have positive and significant implications for their eventual cultural competence. With regard to the personal and professional translation into practice, this has the potential to have significant implications on those Higher Educational Institutions that place a high level of regard on their civic impact, and the corresponding benefits to institutional perception are highly evident. The skills and knowledge of staff and their ongoing professional development are pivotal in the progressive alignment of strategic plans for diversification, enhanced levels of inclusivity and, most importantly of all, dynamic and responsive cultural change. The gendered and racial nature of all academic curricula represents an important opportunity for staff to illuminate their own positional standpoints on key debates and to actively encourage the free and

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democratic voices of others to be heard, in a safe forum for both inclusivity and diversity. It is here that not only the issue of what is being taught becomes a focal and emphatic point for consideration but also how. Across these academic curricula, this also then necessitates a wholesale examination of the appropriateness of traditional teaching methodologies, mechanisms of assessment and feedback and the integration of social and intellectual development to accompany and reflect drivers of positive change. From a pragmatic perspective, and one which also focuses the epistemological basis of teaching and learning for the twenty-first century, this necessitates the implementation of three interlinked facets of pedagogical approach in practice: • Acknowledging that the development of intellectual and social capital across all academic curricula ought to embed the opportunity to negotiate contexts and settings of learning, which are reflective of high-level opportunity, learning enhancement and within the scope of institutional additionality, capable of transfer to civic and societal contexts beyond completion of a formal learning pathway. • The integration of creative and innovative pedagogies, which drive the opportunity to challenge traditional inertia of teacher-centred approaches to knowledge acquisition so that this moves to the facilitation of student-centred and co-­ constructed knowledge, with the potential of transference to wider contextual situations and settings, whilst at the same time maximising individual student learning potential. • Valuing the varied individual and collective cultural perspectives that student cohorts represent and integrating these as a source of learning via strategic academic praxis beyond formal academic curricula. The extent of the additionality these bring to institutional learning environments is largely up to the recognition and acknowledgement of their inherent value in practice.

Conclusion Cultural dissonance and localised geopolitics have the potential to distract from the need to make operational effective processes of acculturation and as a consequence diminish the capacity for individual and collective achievement. Leveraging change in the context of global workplaces via the development of cultural competence and a diversification of educational provision is central to societal progress as a whole. Traditional curriculum models are exclusionary by their modes of instruction, communication and engagement with learners from transnational contexts and settings as well as the integration into different societies that they offer to students. Using more negative, diversely designed context on perspectives from global settings provides a context for the sense of worth all people have. Central to student engagement is student motivation and the capacity to integrate and embed a personal stance into reports of experiential or situational learning from all over the globe. Diversification, though, is only one part of being able to integrate transformative

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learning approaches and, as a consequence, impacting on the concept of inclusivity in practice is only one of several challenges that HEIs across the globe face in the modernisation of the agency their organisations can claim to provide for all students. The case for embodying multiple student identity groups is not a new one, but perhaps most importantly represents an opportunity to deconstruct the identity of collective groups into a series of identifiable and valued individuals, each with their own story and each with their own aspirations beyond these collectives. In group culture, where voices are never truly or wholly representative of whom they speak for, even story making for story telling can prove elusive for individuals who may not have even reached the stage of believing they have a story valuable enough to tell. The theoretical emphasis and pragmatic approaches placed by Freire, Mezirow and Dirkx on the emancipatory and transformative impact of education in practice still resonate today. Their cathedral legacies remain a key means of not just informing and facilitating the internationalisation of higher educational practices ‘in situ’ but also emancipating and transforming wider society through the impact of a wider understanding of what personhood actually means.

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Hall, B.  L., & Tandon, R. (2017). Decolonization of knowledge, epistemicide, participatory research and higher education. Research for All, 1(1), 6–19. Hardee, S., & Johnson, L. (2020). Realizing Inspiring and Successful Educators (RISE). In Collaborative models for clinical practice: Reflections from the field (p.  109). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Harman, K. (2019). Enacting equality: Rethinking emancipation and adult education with Jacques Rancière. In Power and possibility (pp. 107–116). Brill Sense. Hirschl, R., & Shachar, A. (2019). Spatial statism. International Journal of Constitutional Law, 17(2), 387–438. Karakhanyan, S., & Stensaker, B. (2020). External quality assurance: The landscape, the players and developmental trends. In Global trends in higher education quality assurance (pp. 11–36). Brill Sense. Khomyakov, M. B. (2020). Nationalism and colonialism: Oceans, civilizations, races. Changing Societies & Personalities., 4(3), 285–303. Kubota, R. (2020). Confronting epistemological racism, decolonizing scholarly knowledge: Race and gender in applied linguistics. Applied Linguistics, 41(5), 712–732. Kučerová, S. R., Holloway, S. L., & Jahnke, H. (2020). The institutionalization of the geography of education: An international perspective. Journal of Pedagogy, 11(1), 13–34. Lee, A. R. (2020). All you have gotten is tokenism. In Prejudice, stigma, privilege, and oppression (pp. 387–399). Springer. Löhlein, L., & Müßig, A. (2020). At the boundaries of institutional theorizing: Individual entrepreneurship in episodes of regulatory change. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 83, 101102. Mani, M., & Milan, A. K. (2020). Co-Construction of knowledge: Teaching-learning redefined in the light of constructivism. Studies in Indian Place Names, 40(3), 6575–6592. Mao, L., Mian Akram, A., Chovanec, D., & Underwood, M.  L. (2016). Embracing the spiral: Researcher reflexivity in diverse critical methodologies. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 15(1), 1609406916681005. Martinez-Vargas, C. (2020). Decolonising higher education research: From a university to a pluriversity of approaches. South African Journal of Higher Education, 34(2), 112–128. Maruggi, M. (2012). Through solidarity to “fluidarity”: Understanding difference and developing change agency through narrative reflection. Teaching Theology & Religion, 15(4), 307–322. Mezirow, J. (1993). A transformation theory of adult learning. Adult Education Research Annual Conference Proceedings, 31, 141–146. Mondon, A., & Winter, A. (2019). Whiteness, populism and the racialisation of the working class in the United Kingdom and the United States. Identities, 26(5), 510–528. Olcoń, K., Gilbert, D. J., & Pulliam, R. M. (2020). Teaching about racial and ethnic diversity in social work education: A systematic review. Journal of Social Work Education, 56(2), 215–237. Pais, A., & Costa, M. (2020). An ideology critique of global citizenship education. Critical Studies in Education, 61(1), 1–16. Quisay, W. (2019). Neo-traditionalism in the West: Navigating modernity, tradition, and politics (Doctoral dissertation). University of Oxford. Sardabi, N., Biria, R., & Golestan, A. A. (2018). Reshaping teacher professional identity through critical pedagogy-informed teacher education. International Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 617–634. Sellars, M., & Imig, S. (2020). The real cost of neoliberalism for educators and students. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1080/1360312 4.2020.1823488 Shahjahan, R.  A. (2019). From ‘geopolitics of being’ towards inter-being: Envisioning the ‘in/ visibles’ in the globalization of higher education. Youth and Globalization, 1(2), 282–306. Shayakhmetova, D., Baituova, A., Bekbenbetova, K., Islam, D., & Yerzhanova, S. (2017, July). The development of teacher’s multicultural competence in the context of modern higher education. In International conference on psychology, education and social sciences (1st ed., pp. 279–306). Istanbul.

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Tran, L. T. (2010). Embracing prior professional experience in meaning making: Views from international students and academics. Educational Review, 62(2), 157–173. Uzhegova, D., & Baik, C. (2022). Internationalisation of higher education in an uneven world: An integrated approach to internationalisation of universities in the academic periphery. Studies in Higher Education, 47(4), 847–859. Veiga, A., & Magalhães, A. (2020). Challenges for research in higher education: The case of internationalization between the explanandum and the explanans. Sociologias, 22(54), 46–63. Villarroel, V., Bloxham, S., Bruna, D., Bruna, C., & Herrera-Seda, C. (2018). Authentic assessment: Creating a blueprint for course design. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(5), 840–854.

Chapter 3

Indigenous Pedagogy Is Good Pedagogy: Applying Indigenous Pedagogical Approaches in the United Kingdom Kelly Menzel

Abstract  As an Aboriginal woman and Indigenous educator, I have a responsibility to confront discrimination and work towards equity for my community and the students I teach. Therefore, I challenge the status quo and urge others to consider Indigenous ways of knowing, being and doing. This chapter will explore the use of Indigenous pedagogy in curriculum. I am a proud Ngadjuri woman from the mid-­ north of South Australia with ancestral connections to Bundjalung country in northern New South Wales, Australia, and I contend ‘Indigenous pedagogy is good pedagogy’ can and has been utilised effectively in international settings. Keywords  Indigenous pedagogy · Indigenisation · Indigenous knowledges · Education

Introduction As a First Nations Australian woman and educator, I have a responsibility to confront discrimination and work towards equity for my community and the students I teach. Therefore, I challenge the status quo and urge others to consider Indigenous ways of knowing, being and doing. I contend ‘Indigenous pedagogy is good pedagogy’ can and has been utilised effectively in international settings. This chapter will explore the use of Indigenous pedagogy in curriculum. Indigenous knowledge is anti-oppressive and deeply rooted in decolonising current western, patriarchal paradigms (Briese & Menzel, 2020). Therefore, value-­ neutral teaching is unlikely to be my position or experience. As such, I teach from K. Menzel (*) Gnibi College of Indigenous Australian Peoples, Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_3

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an anti-oppressive and emancipatory stance, and all that I do is done with knowledge that aims to benefit the students I teach, and is undertaken with their needs, interests and priorities at the forefront. I also believe it is paramount to create a place of reciprocal knowledge-sharing. I have applied this approach in all settings I have taught. I lived as an expat in London for seven years. The university I taught at had a policy of widening participation. As such, the large proportion of students I taught were mature aged women of colour, from diverse backgrounds, coming from places such as the Congo, Sierra Leone and Afghanistan, speaking English as a second or third language. Many of these students had also experienced significant trauma in their home countries. Students from such cohorts often felt they had no educational capital and found themselves feeling like an outsider, an intruder in a space not intended for their participation. As a First Nations Australian woman, I can identify with this feeling. They also often had many competing commitments, such as work, family, community and cultural obligations. These competing commitments often affected the students’ ability to remain engaged in higher education and their studies were sometimes interrupted, ceased or progressed over extended periods of time. This chapter provides some background on an Australian Indigenous cultural perspective to assist framing Indigenous pedagogical approaches, such as the enactment of relationality and reciprocity, the creation of culturally safe spaces and yarning as a pedagogical method to successfully engage and support such cohort of students.

Positionality I am a First Nations Australian woman and my ways of knowing, being and doing include the way I learn, the way I process and translate information and the way I teach. This has been taught to me by Elders, which allows me the ability to navigate the space between two worlds and maintain my connection to Country and cultural practices. I come from a tradition of teachers and storytellers. By qualification I am a registered nurse and I have worked in community health and lectured in universities in Australia, Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. The reason I give my ancestry and then my professional details is to locate myself firstly as an Aboriginal person and then as a scholar. When undertaking scholarly activities, I use an Indigenous Methodological (IM) approach, guided by an Indigenous Knowledge Paradigm (IKP) (Kovach, 2010). My approach is centred in my Indigenous belief system and this is framed by my relational understanding and accountability to the world around me (Martin & Mirraboopa, 2003). Thus, ‘my axiological, ontological and epistemological practices are seen and demonstrated from a different cultural and theoretical standpoint’ (Menzel & Cameron, 2021, p. 146). There are certain characteristics to an IM approach. IM includes the following:

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• A decolonising perspective • A clear statement of personal and professional purpose of the scholarly activity being conducted • Self-locating and locating self within the scholarly community • Indigenous specific ethical protocols • Methods of data collection that is congruent with Indigenous epistemology, such as storytelling and yarning circles • Analysis and interpretation that reflects Indigenous sensibilities and congruency between epistemology, theory, method and interpretation (Kovach, 2011) It is my desire to conduct myself in a culturally safe, responsive and respectful way, within my own community and the wider academy. The Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (2020) states: ‘[a]t its heart, cultural competency is a celebration of learning together; it is opening new doors to greater respect for, and inclusion of, the incredible diversity of cultures and languages that continue to exist across the nation’ (p. 6). Further, Rigney (1999) defines Indigenist research as ‘culturally safe and culturally respectful research that is comprised of three principles: resistance as an emancipatory imperative, political integrity in Indigenous research and privileging Indigenous voices in Indigenist research’ (p. 116). This is what I aim to do – in the classroom as an educator and as a scholar writing about the approaches I utilise. My goal is to privilege Indigenous viewpoints and viewpoints of other marginalised groups. The concept of culture for an Aboriginal person is complex and cannot be described simply in a definition. To begin thinking about Aboriginal culture you need to think about spirituality, particularly Aboriginal Spirituality. Aboriginal Spirituality derives from a philosophy that establishes the holistic concept that there is an interconnectedness of the elements of the earth and the universe, both animate and inanimate, whereby people, plants and animals, landforms, and celestial bodies are all interrelated (Grieves, 2009). These relations, the knowledge of how they are interconnected, and the reasons why it is essential to keep all things in healthy interdependence are enshrined in sacred stories and myths. These Creation Stories describe the shaping and development of the world as people know and experience it through the activities of powerful Creator Ancestors. These Ancestors created order out of chaos and life out of lifelessness. As they did, they established the ways in which all things should co-exist in interconnectedness, to maintain order and sustainability (Grant, 2004). This laid down not only the foundations of all life, but also decreed what people had to do to maintain their part of this interconnectedness – the Law. The Law ensures that each person knows his or her connectedness and responsibilities for other people (their kin), for country (including landforms, all species, waterways and the universe) and for their ongoing relationship with the ancestor spirits (Grieves, 2009). Aboriginal Spirituality is defined as at the core of Aboriginal being, our very identity. It gives meaning to all aspects of life including relationships with one another and the environment. All objects are living and share the same soul and spirit as Aboriginal people. There is

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a kinship with the environment. Aboriginal Spirituality can be expressed visually, musically and ceremonially (Grant, 2004, p. 8). After reflecting on Aboriginal Spirituality, one must then consider the Dreaming. For Aboriginal people, the Dreaming explains the origins of the universe, the workings of nature, the nature of humanity and the cycle of life and death. It shapes and structures Aboriginal life by regulating kinship, family life and the relationships between the sexes, and differentiates a network of obligations to the people, land and spirits. Aboriginal people see The Dreaming as the foundation stone to the reality of all life and at the core of Aboriginal existence. There are many, varied Dreaming and creation stories. The stories of The Dreaming have been handed down continually for thousands of years and creation stories explain how the world was created for Aboriginal people. Dreaming stories include creation stories, but more so explain how the universe works. These stories also explain how the laws and lore were handed down by the creator/ancestral spirit beings and how spirits that existed in a featureless landscape emerged to take on form and identity (Isaacs, 2005). These stories have governed and preserved traditional Aboriginal culture for thousands of years. The Dreaming is supported by evidence. Forms of evidence are contained in sacred and significant sites which are crucial to religious and spiritual beliefs and practices. Additionally, the spiritual essence of Ancestral Beings is ever-present and remains part of the land. It is through these Ancestors that people remain connected to Creation Spirits. The same spiritual forces which shaped the people also shaped, and still inhabit, the land. Thus, the land still embodies the sacredness of The Dreaming and goes a little way to explain why Aboriginal people are so intrinsically connected to Country. For Aboriginal people, storytelling is central to maintaining knowledge and culture. Stories embrace the integration of all aspects of life in accordance with Aboriginal worldviews and span art, song, dance and other cultural expressions, assisting the transfer of cultural information from generation to generation. Storytelling is how information about culture is transmitted. This includes stories about connections to Country and kin, which are integral to Indigenous Ways of Being, Knowing and Doing (Moreton-Robinson, 2013). Aboriginal cultures are kept alive by passing on these values and beliefs and the social, spiritual, cultural and economic practices to younger generations. Storytelling is a tool that I have applied in the classroom. I will discuss this further below. Dreaming Stories are more than myths. For thousands of years Aboriginal Peoples’ stories have been shared and passed on orally. They were not written down but rather preserved through a cultural form of knowledge transmission in which stories are oral textbooks of accumulated knowledge, spirituality and wisdom from when time began. Stories (Knowledge) are embedded in cultural practices such as ritual, dance and celebrations. Since colonisation, non-Indigenous people have perceived these art forms as separate entities, rather than part of a whole. The result has been a fragmented overview of Aboriginal culture (Moreton-Robinson, 2015). Further, other cultures exist globally and locally and appear in different forms. The simplest, western definition of culture is ‘the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time’ (Cambridge

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Dictionary 2019). Conceptually however, culture is much more complex. Sutton (2001) explains: the trouble with culture is that it is neither fully conscious and subject to voluntary control nor wholly unconscious and beyond being brought to mind. Culture consists of the interplay between ‘unreflexive daily practice’…and our partial awareness of what we are doing and thinking. This complexity alone makes cultural engineering an unpredictable and daunting venture. A vast proportion of our cultural makeup is developed in infancy and childhood, when we absorb the fundamentals of what can be learned about the world using our rich biologically based learning capacities. (p. 136)

Understanding and respecting that the concept of culture is complex and complicated is key to becoming culturally responsive and competent. Cultural competence and responsiveness are fundamental for a scholar and in the classroom. I am also cognisant of the different cultures within the academy including how different areas within the academy have and generate different cultural perspectives and practices. For example, different cultures exist within faculties, each individual school and within smaller teams. I accommodate for these differences by using my own cultural competence. D’Arbon et al. (2009) suggest there is a space that exists in the crossover between different cultural spheres. If utilised appropriately, this ‘intercultural space’ can offer a safe environment to self-reflect and allow for each culture to open up an awareness of the strengths and limitations of one’s own and the other cultures. This can lead to a greater understanding and create meaningful dialogue to move into a shared space of respect and understanding. This is the space I aim to create in the classroom, and I do this by putting the voices of marginalised groups at the forefront of my work.

Indigenous Pedagogy Indigenous Knowledge Systems, research and methodological approaches and theoretical frameworks are experiential and framed by relationality, reciprocity and the interconnection between sacred and secular, and holism. This is unique and grounded in 65,000 years of evidence. Relationality and reciprocity are key components of Indigenous pedagogy and Indigenising curriculum (Nakata et  al., 2012; Harvey & Russell-Mundine, 2018). Dominant Eurocentric, western approaches have viewed relationality as biased. However, methodological expansion over recent decades, especially within social sciences, and feminist approaches have recognised and engaged with the inherent relationality of scholarly activity. I embrace creating a relational, reciprocal space in the classroom and with the students I teach. My aim is to enter the student–teacher relationship as an equal. I do not place myself in the position of ‘expert’, who must be listened to and obeyed above all else. I have some knowledge and experiences I aim to share; the students, no matter what their age, bring with them a plethora of life experiences, cultural knowledge and wisdom and that should be respected (Frazer & Yunkaporta, 2019).

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Indigenous knowledges, perspectives and pedagogies are approaches used by First Nations Peoples to learn, teach, understand the world and act ethically and effectively within it. Indigenous pedagogy incorporates Indigenous worldviews into engagement with information (Yunkaporta, 2019). The foundations of Indigenous pedagogy are relationality, reciprocity, respect and mutual learning between student and teacher, and positionality or recognising that everyone has different experiences that brought them to this learning (Nursey-Bray, 2019). These ways of valuing, knowing, being and doing are important because: • First Nations Peoples have been excluded from higher education and continue to experience significant barriers to participation that can be addressed through approaches to learning and teaching that resonates with First Nations students. • First Nations Peoples have sophisticated knowledge systems and learning that is underpinned by highly successful societies for tens of thousands of years. • Indigenous Knowledges have significant potential to improve and transform educational approaches in Western institutions. • Diversity in worldviews enhances creativity, problem-solving, and innovation in learning, teaching and research; thus, Indigenous pedagogies should be included and fostered within universities. I strongly advocate for Indigenising curriculum. Colonial, Eurocentric epistemologies, pedagogies and approaches are pervasive and have deep roots in universities globally and in the curricula delivered (Biermann & Townsend-Cross, 2008). This unilateral approach privileges the dominant, Eurocentric culture through the content that is delivered, the physical spaces that are offered, the approaches to learning and teaching and the knowledge that is valued (Bowman, 2003). It excludes and devalues the worldviews, histories and experiences of Indigenous peoples and creates negative and unsafe learning environments for a large proportion of students – especially First Nations students, students of colour and students from marginalised groups – and only serves to further marginalise these groups of students. A core tenet of an Indigenous approach is to decolonise systems, structures and spaces, and Indigenising curriculum aims to address the legacy of violence and oppression created by colonisation. Indigenous pedagogical approaches confronts the transgenerational trauma, violence and oppression created by colonisation, creates agency for educators and learners and is a positive and meaningful act of resistance, destabilisation and action towards systemic change and a pathway towards reconciliation (Pete, 2015). Indigenous peoples have been misrepresented or excluded from western education systems due to invasion and colonisation (Green et al., 2013). Indigenisation redresses this and is a process of naturalising and centring Indigenous knowledge systems (Battiste, 2002). Indigenous knowledge systems are complex and are deeply embedded in relationships to Country, culture and community (Harrison & Skrebneva, 2020), and every Peoples have their own unique pedagogical approaches (Yunkaporta, 2009). Utilising an Indigenous pedagogical approach brings Indigenous knowledge systems to the fore. Further, Indigenisation woven together with western knowledge systems creates space for learners to appreciate a

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multifaceted worldview and learning experience. It is not about one approach being superior to another. Indigenising is also about the coming together of multiple ways of knowing, and not simply about tokenistically adding a smattering of Indigenous content to a western framework. Indigenisation is also not about forsaking other forms of culture or multiculturalism; it is about weaving the threads together and practicing harmoniously and holistically. Indigenisation addresses the injustices and historical and contemporary perspectives and experiences of First Nations Peoples in a way that multiculturalism does not and cannot. Indigenisation is not a token act; it reflects a commitment to truth telling and respecting, valuing, and legitimising complex knowledge systems and diverse ways of knowing, being and doing – and I contend Indigenising curriculum is good for all students, no matter what cultural background. It benefits all learners. Whilst academic knowledge is valued, self-awareness, emotional development, and personal and spiritual growth are equally valued. Further, utilising Indigenous pedagogy allows for emphasis to be placed on the experiential, because emphasis is placed on learning by doing. Indigenous pedagogy also acknowledges connection to place and place-based learning (Gruenewald, 2003a). Knowledge is connected and generated from location, experiences and from the living and non-living things in a location (Anuik & Gillies, 2012). Moreover, Harrison and Skrebneva (2020) argue Country is a unique pedagogical concept and learning from Country ‘is positioned as an engaging medium for teaching all students about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander[/Indigenous] people’ (p. 16), and a place-based approach places emphasis on the importance of planetary health, the environment, the local community, and culture and provides students with a chance to exercise agency and build social capital. Further, First Nations American man Gruenewald (2003a) cited in Harrison and Skrebneva (2020) states that: sitting in classrooms provides little opportunity for developing an appreciation for nonhuman life or a ‘sense of wonder, curiosity and respect’ (p. 638) for the relations between places and people, adding that we need to be able to see or hear ‘what places are telling us’. (Gruenewald, 2003b, p. 645)

Place-based learning is ‘the process of using the local community and environment as a starting point to teach concepts in language arts, mathematics, social studies, science, and other subjects across the curriculum’ (Sobel, 2004, p.  7). It is not always appropriate or possible to take the classroom out on Country, but some of the concepts can be applied in any classroom – such as learning by doing; encouraging active, authentic participation in the classroom and beyond; and making social connections. Additionally, decolonising and Indigenising the curricula and classroom spaces assists in gaining insight into one’s own cultural background, biases, privileges or oppressions and it also identifies areas where gaps in knowledges lie (Bilton et al., 2020).

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International Indigegogy Most of the students I taught in London were mature aged women of colour, from places such as the Congo, Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Pakistan and Nepal. They brought with them a considerable amount of life experience, were often respected members of their own communities and had many challenging and conflicting community and cultural obligations. They were also frequently the head of their own family, not only caring for their own children, but also the children of extended family members, and possibly fostering a child from their wider community. Many of them had also experienced significant trauma in their home countries and still had strong ties to their home communities. I personally identified with these women. Whilst I was only in my 30s when I worked in London, I could see what they were experiencing was similar for so many of my family and community members in the Aboriginal community in Australia and I identified with the transgenerational trauma they carried. I also understood that whist I had curriculum I needed to deliver to them, I was a much younger woman and I needed to remain respectful of the Elders in the classroom  – that I must be respectful of their lived experiences and the wisdom they brought to the group. I very rarely stand at the front of a classroom. Not only do my feet get sore, but I also find it uncomfortable because it creates a barrier between me and the students. I believe it be exclusionary. I like to sit collectively with the students, or when in a clinical environment work in small groups with the students at the bedside, or in the lab. My intention is to establish a space where the students feel culturally safe, so that each student feels their own cultural background is respected. I want to establish this safety, so the students feel free to be themselves, without judgement. However, it is also important to openly discuss power imbalances, to address any underlying and unconscious bias within a group. I largely utilise yarning as a uniquely Indigenous pedagogical approach (Bessarab & Ng’andu, 2010). Yarning is a ‘process of making meaning, communicating and passing on history and knowledge … a special way of relating and connecting with…culture’ (Terszack, 2008, p. 90) and connecting with each other. Yarning is a relaxed process; however there are protocols and stages of yarning. A yarn begins with social yarn. It is regarded as polite to begin with a social yarn to establish connection between people. This can then be followed by information yarning. This is where established concepts and ideas can be introduced into the conversation. Collaborative yarning follows this stage. Collaborative yarning is where ideas and concept can be thoroughly unpacked and explored. Lastly, therapeutic yarning may take place. Therapeutic yarning is where deeply personal information can be shared (Bessarab & Ng’andu, 2010). Because the other stages have been established and followed, the space is considered safe enough to share deeply personal information. ‘Yarning is always reciprocal and promotes the building of relationships as an important consideration in education spaces’ (Briese & Menzel, 2020, p. 384). Whilst different cultures may have different rules and protocols for conversations, generally speaking most cultures can identify with a dialogical process that is

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collaborative, reciprocal and mutual. This was true of the women I taught in London. They loved a good yarn and responded to yarning as a pedagogical tool. I like to weave the complex concepts I need to deliver into narrative and story. I speak from my own personal and professional experience. In education ‘we often expect our students to lay themselves bare and to expose their vulnerabilities. To expect this of our students means we must also lay ourselves bare’ (Briese & Menzel, 2020, p. 384). I am not scared to discuss the mistakes I have made along the way or share some of my personal story – this can help the student make meaning of complex concepts because they can relate to the narrative. This kind of discussion was well received by the students in London. They also liked to share their stories to make meaning of the concepts we were discussing. Unpacking these concepts became less onerous for them, because they were able to relate things to their own personal narrative and journey. They were also very respectful of each other’s story and journey. Over time they began to take ownership of their space and their leaning journey, holding themselves and each other accountable. There was hell to pay if someone missed class! These forms of reciprocity and relationality were essential elements of a successful relationship between me and students, but also between each of them, and it assisted in creating a safe and nurturing learning environment. I also encourage the students to work collectively together outside of structured class time – to remain engaged and to keep the yarn going. This meant they could continue to negotiate and establish boundaries and protocols of engagement, sharing their own personal stories to assist in building trust and accountability to one another.

Conclusion, Future Reflections and Implications for Practice Indigenous pedagogy and Indigenisation of curriculum aim to address the legacy of invasion and colonisation through the integration of Indigenous perspectives, ways of valuing, knowing, being and doing, into curriculum and other educational contexts and I contend Indigenous pedagogy is good pedagogy. There is rigor and credibility in applying Indigegogy (Absolon, 2010, 2019; Hill & Wilkinson, 2014), such as yarning as an Indigenous pedagogical approach in the classroom setting. Indigegogy is a rigorous and culturally safe approach that is highly transferable into other contexts and is an interpretive process that has a legitimate place alongside other western pedagogical approaches. Indigegogy is one of many tools enabling the application of Indigenous methodologies in the classroom and beyond. To achieve Indigenisation of curriculum it is important for non-Indigenous colleagues and Western, Eurocentric institutions to work in partnership with First Nations Peoples and communities. Indigegogical processes and Indigenisation of curriculum can assist in decolonising institutional spaces and creating safer, culturally responsive and competent institutions and a safer, culturally responsive and competent teaching workforce. This, in turn, can assist with overcoming barriers to achieving equity and parity. However, much of the onus of this falls at the feet of the

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academy, the institutions, and non-Indigenous staff that work within them. Change can only be attained if non-Indigenous colleagues address their own ignorance of Indigenous Knowledges, alongside their fear of getting it wrong and the cultural appropriation that occurs because of this fear. Further, there is a requirement that Western, Eurocentric institutions begin to challenge inflexible thinking within the academy about what constitutes valid knowledge production, and the devaluing of others that occurs in such institutions and move towards valuing unique, alternative and different/other ways of understanding the world and alternate worldviews.

Glossary Aboriginal/Indigenous/First Nations  I have used these terms interchangeably to refer to myself as an Australian Aboriginal woman, a woman of Australian First Nations descent, and I respectfully use these terms to refer to other people of Indigenous and First Nations descent Country  When Australian Aboriginal people use the term Country, it has a unique and specific meaning. For Aboriginal people, culture, nature, and land and all that surround these are interconnected and interdependent. Aboriginal communities have a cultural connection to Country, and it is based on each community’s distinct culture, traditions and laws. Country includes the entirety of the landscape – landforms, waterways, the air, flora, fauna, minerals, materials, medicines, food sources, stories, artefacts and sacred places. Indigegogy Cree Elder and educator Stan Wilson coined the term Indigegogy (Absolon, 2010, 2019), which I acknowledge and use respectfully in the chapter. It refers to an Indigenous pedagogical approach. Indigegogy promotes critically reflexive practices of learning and teaching and is steeped in Indigenous perspectives, anti-colonial knowledge and approaches and decolonises curriculum and institutions (Absolon, 2010, 2019). Reciprocity  It is a core value and principle for ethical conduct in Indigenous communities with an emphasis placed on respect, integrity, equality, responsibility, survival and protection, spirit and integrity, and mutual benefit. This requires an openness of communication, a level of cultural competency, responsiveness and authenticity (NHMRC, 2003). Relationality  It describes the interconnected and interdependent nature of everything, sentient and non-sentient, living and non-living, spiritual, sacred and secular (Kerr & Adamov Ferguson, 2020). Yarning  An Indigenous cultural form of conversation.

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References Absolon, K. (2010). Indigenous wholistic theory: A knowledge set for practice. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 5(2), 74–87. Absolon, K. (2019). Decolonizing education and educators’ decolonizing. Intersectionalities: A Global Journal of Social Work Analysis, Research, Polity, and Practice, 7(1), 9–28. Anuik, J., & Gillies, C. (2012). Indigenous knowledge in post-secondary educators’ practices: Nourishing the learning spirit. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 42(1), 63–79. Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSl). (2020). Indigenous cultural competency in the Australian teaching workforce (Discussion paper). Available at https:// www.aitsl.edu.au/docs/default-­source/comms/cultural-­competency/aitsl_indigenous-­cultural-­ competency_discussion-­paper_2020.pdf Battiste, M. (2002). Indigenous knowledge and pedagogy in first nations education: A literature review with recommendations (pp. 1–69). National Working Group on Education. Bessarab, D., & Ng’andu, B. (2010). Yarning about yarning as a legitimate method in indigenous research. International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies, 3(1), 37–50. https://doi. org/10.5204/ijcis.v3i1.57 Biermann, S., & Townsend-Cross, M. (2008). Indigenous pedagogy as a force for change. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 37(S1), 146–154. Bilton, N., Rae, J., & Yunkaporta, T. (2020). A conversation about indigenous pedagogy, neuroscience and material thinking. In Teaching aboriginal cultural competence (pp. 85–97). Springer. Bowman, N. (2003). Cultural differences of teaching and learning. American Indian Quarterly, 27(1/2), 91–102. Briese, J., & Menzel, K. (2020). No more ‘blacks in the back’. Adding more than a ‘splash’ of black into social work education and practice by drawing on the works of Aileen Moreton-­ Robinson and others who contribute to indigenous standpoint theory. In C. Morley, P. Ablett, C. Noble, & S. Cowden (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of critical pedagogies for social work (pp. 375–387). Routledge. D’Arbon, T., Fasoli, L., Frawley, J., & Ober, R. (2009). Linking worlds: Strengthening the leadership capacity of indigenous educational leaders in remote education settings (An Australian Research Council linkage project). ACU. Frazer, B., & Yunkaporta, T. (2019). Wik pedagogies: Adapting oral culture processes for print-­ based learning contexts. The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education, 1–7. https://doi. org/10.1017/jie.2018.24 Grant, E. K. (2004). Unseen, unheard, unspoken: Exploring the relationship between aboriginal spirituality and community development (Thesis). University of South Australia. Green, S., Bennett, B., Collins, A., Gowans, B., Hennessey, K., & Smith, K. (2013). Walking the journey: The student experience. In B. Bennett, S. Green, S. Gilbert, & D. Bessarab (Eds.), Our voices. Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander social work (pp. 206–247). Palgrave Macmillan. Grieves, V. (2009). Aboriginal spirituality: Aboriginal philosophy the basis of aboriginal social and emotional wellbeing (Discussion paper series: No. 9). Cooperative Research Centre for Aboriginal Health. Gruenewald, D. (2003a). The best of both worlds: A critical pedagogy of place. Educational Researcher, 32(4), 3–12. Gruenewald, D.  A. (2003b). Foundations of place: A multidisciplinary framework for place-­ conscious education. American Educational Research Journal, 40, 619–654. Harrison, N., & Skrebneva, I. (2020). Country as pedagogical: Enacting an Australian foundation for culturally responsive pedagogy. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 52(1), 15–26. Harvey, A., & Russell-Mundine, G. (2018). Decolonising the curriculum: Using graduate qualities to embed Indigenous knowledges at the academic cultural interface. Teaching in Higher Education, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2018.1508131 Hill, G., & Wilkinson, A. (2014). Indigegogy: A transformative indigenous educational process. Canadian Social Work Review, 31(2), 175–193.

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Isaacs, J. (2005). Australian dreaming. 40,000 years of aboriginal history. New Holland Publishers. Kerr, J., & Adamov Ferguson, K. (2020). Ethical relationality and indigenous storywork principles as methodology: Addressing settler-colonial divides in inner-city educational research. Qualitative Inquiry, 27, 706–715. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1077800420971864 Kovach, M. (2010). Conversational method in indigenous research. First Peoples Child & Family Review An Interdisciplinary Journal Honoring the Voices, Perspectives and Knowledges of First Peoples through Research, Critical Analysis, Stories, Standpoints and Media Reviews, 5(1), 40–48. Kovach, M. (2011, July 13). Indigenous methodologies and modified grounded theory method. Power Point presentation by Margaret Kovach for the Summer Institute in Program Evaluation Winnipeg, Manitoba. Retrieved from http://www.thesummerinstitute.ca/wp-­content/uploads/ Indigenous-­Methodologies.pdf Martin, K., & Mirraboopa, B. (2003). Ways of knowing, ways of being and ways of doing: A theoretical framework and methods for Indigenous research and Indigenist Re-search. In K. McWilliam, P. Stephenson, & G. Thompson (Eds.), Voicing dissent. New talents 21C. Next Generation Australian Studies, 76, 203–214. Menzel, K., & Cameron, L. (2021). A meeting of freshwater and saltwater: Opening the dialogue of aboriginal concepts of culture within an academic space. In T.  McKenna, D.  Moodie, & P. Onesta (Eds.), Indigenous knowledges: Privileging our voices. Leiden. Moreton-Robinson, A. (2013). Towards an Australian indigenous women’s standpoint theory. Australian Feminist Studies, 28(78), 331–347. https://doi.org/10.1080/08164649.2013.876664 Moreton-Robinson, A. (2015). The white possessive: Property, power and indigenous sovereignty. Aboriginal Studies Press. Nakata, M., Nakata, V., Keech, S., & Bolt, R. (2012). Decolonial goals and pedagogies for indigenous studies. Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, 1(1), 120–140. National Health and Medical Research Council. (2003). Values and ethics – Guidelines for ethical conduct in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health research. Commonwealth of Australia. http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/e52.pdf Nursey-Bray, M. (2019). Uncoupling binaries, unsettling narratives and enriching pedagogical practice: Lessons from a trial to indigenize geography curricula at the University of Adelaide, Australia. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 43, 323–342. https://doi.org/10.108 0/03098265.2019.1608921 Pete, S. (2015). Indigenizing the academy: One story. Aboriginal Policy Studies, 4(1), 65–72. Rigney, L. I. (1999). Internationalization of an indigenous anticolonial cultural critique of research methodologies: A guide to indigenist research methodology and its principles. Emergent Ideas in Native American Studies (Autumn), 14(2), 109–121. Sobel, D. (2004). Place-based education: Connecting classroom and community. Nature and ­Listening, 4(1), 1–7. Sutton, P. (2001). The politics of suffering: Indigenous policy in Australia since the 1970s. Anthropological Forum, 11(2),125–173. Taylor & Francis Group. Terszack, M. (2008). Orphaned by the colour of my skin: A stolen generation story. Verdant House. Yunkaporta, T (2009). Aboriginal pedagogies at the cultural interface (Professional Doctorate (Research) thesis). James Cook University. Yunkaporta, T. (2019). Sand talk. How indigenous thinking can save the world. Text Publishing.

Chapter 4

The Potential of African Diaspora Academics and Diaspora Academics in Africa in Reshaping International Higher Education Lynette Jacobs, Erika Kruger, and Maria Madiope

Abstract  In this chapter, the authors as dwellers in a higher education borderland reflect on the experiences of scholars who deliberately crossed borders: diasporians from Africa, and diasporians in Africa. Like reflecting on social media posts, we consider the specific nature of doing, being and becoming while border-crossing in the higher education borderland and Global North territorial spaces. As borderland inhabitants, we apply border-thinking  – epistemic wayward and critical analysis, presupposing that we are all embedded in coloniality making all teaching and learning political and that expressing the subaltern epistemologies that arise from the margins is a response to coloniality. Using post-qualitative inquiry, we present a borderline view on the perceived value of African epistemology from what they shared on their ‘posts’. We conclude that although higher education border-crossing has enriched people’s lives personally and professionally, and that migration of thinking, understanding and appreciation of the borderlands’ dwellers and the host countries’ lived world took place, the potential for it to translate into an adoption of African epistemology towards scholarly activity that could offset the dominance of the Western imperialist character of higher education, remain just that. Keywords  Border-thinking · African epistemology · African scholarship · Post-qualitative inquiry

L. Jacobs (*) · E. Kruger Office for International Affairs, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Republic of South Africa e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. Madiope South Campus, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Republic of South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_4

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Introduction Mignolo advises (E-International Relations, 2017, p. 8): [T]o be aware that there are people on both sides of the border and be aware of what side you dwell in. You have not chosen it; you came to the world when the world was already delineated by international relations, global linear thinking, racism, sexism, and so on.

From our diverse loci as borderland dwellers, we reflect on the experiences of a group of people who deliberately crossed borders from and to Africa. We applied border-thinking – epistemic wayward and critical analysis presupposing that we are all embedded in coloniality; that all teaching and learning are political; and that expressing (or not) the subaltern epistemologies that arise from the margins is a response to Western epistemic domination (E-International Relations, 2017). Embracing a form of inquiry that resonates with borderland humanness values (Le Grange, 2018), thinking, reflecting and doing towards consciousness, we selected a post-qualitative approach, free from the constraints of linear methodological structures, immanent and open, not revealing explaining but surveying and mapping territory and borderland (St Pierre, 2019). Thinking without method is ‘living with the possibilities for being otherwise’ (Grosz, 2011, p. 78), moving inquiries out of the territory of normative and institutionalised thinking and research approaches, into the borderlands outside of method where a diversity of forces frolic freely, fitfully and formlessly (E-International Relations, 2017; Jackson, 2017), where ‘things are no longer perceived or propositions articulated in the same way’ (Deleuze, 1988, p. 87). To think without method is not just another research method on the edge of standard methods. Jackson (2017, p. 667) draws from Deleuze explaining that ‘the outside is the transformation itself’, a chain reaction of unplanned, divergent mutations and incoherent and make-shift strategies until a mere glimpse of the new that has emerged from creating the outside filters through. Method thus resembles the territory – settled, stable, to be defended, stratified. The outside resembles borderlands  – diverse, many forms, free flowing, non-­ stratified. Our border-thinking is guided by Mignolo’s concept of decoloniality and his insistence on acknowledging that epistemology has a history and place and that decolonising it by reaching out to and including the ‘other’ south is not enough. Decoloniality is border-thinking and, like post-qualitative inquiry that originates on the other side of qualitative research, it originates on the other side of the border ‘in the Third and Second World’ (E-International Relations, 2017, p. 8). Looking out from the borderland, we followed the journeys of 15 higher education (HE) diaspora academics, some from the Global North entering the borderlands South of the Sahara, others travelling from here (Fig.  4.1). They shared their thoughts with us in writing, and we read them as if on social media to consider the specific nature of being, doing and knowing while dwelling in the HE borderlands and the Global North territory. The decolonial borderlands of Mignolo (2002) is the geographical and epistemological area outside the dominant Western epistemology but the idea of a

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Fig. 4.1  Travellers posting on border-crossing

borderlands has been created by those on the inside, the colonial matrix of power. In response, those relegated to the borderlands and having been omitted from the production of knowledge deliberately express themselves through subaltern ways of doing, knowing and being beyond the restrictions of the colonial matrix of power to undermine its desire for hegemony and homogeny. That is border-thinking.

Reflecting For us as embodied beings, dwelling in a particular domain by no choice of our own, it appears that border-crossing in the HE domain is predominantly an individual choice, and an individualised experience. Yet we draw from Lather and St. Pierre (2013, p.  630), knowing that we are observing ‘an agentic assemblage of

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diverse elements that are constantly intra-acting, never stable, never the same’ and phenomena embedded in the culture of mobility which characterises current times (Krasteva, 2016). The collage of ‘posts’ we have ‘saved’ is merely an overview of our impressions of diaspora academics’ thoughts on doing, being and knowing during their journeys across.

Doing Sightseeing Humans, as homo viator, have always been on the move and in the globalised twenty-first century mobility has morphed into an ideology. Not to keep moving is frowned upon (Krasteva, 2016). We move for many reasons, curiosity, seeking adventure and personal growth. For Teboho□□▷, it was about ‘learning about how people live’ elsewhere and Valerie□□▷ ‘wanted to experience another culture’. The bonus for Teboho□□▷ was ‘(m)eeting people who came from different parts of the world’ and learning ‘more about their home countries without actually having to go there’. Ramesh■■▶, a borderland dweller himself, was stirred by reading about Tarzan and Jane (though inaccurate and steeped in coloniality) as a child and thus travelled from India to South Africa. Monique○○▷ also set off to Africa looking for adventure but stayed on because she ‘fell in love with the country and with [her] then husband-to-be’ and was convinced that he ‘would most probably not thrive elsewhere’. Just Dropping In Ivan■■▶ however was neutral with no ‘particularly positive or negative experience to illustrate the nature of [his] stay in the country. Most[ly] what [he] sees here corresponds well to what [he] had expected to see before coming to South Africa’. Coming Together Leaving home confirmed for Medhin□□▷ that no person, country or continent ‘is an island. In the globalising world, we should be well aware of the contents, methods and philosophies being delivered outside of our niche’. Standing in solidarity with the people of his host country while protesting ‘the [then] new administration and its proposed policies’ as well as its attitude towards Africa, symbolised Banele□□▷’s coming-together moment: ‘This is an experience that has stayed with [me] throughout. The experience was so powerful, I bought a camera on the side of the road to try and capture the experience. The march gave me hope, it warmed my heart in a time when it was cold’ illustrating that ‘not all people from

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that country thought the things the incoming president thought about people who look like me or come from my home continent. Change was possible’. Learning Travellers do not just go and do things somewhere else. Knowingly and unknowingly they bring what they know and who they are to the host country. Monique○○▷ shared how ‘working in another world region’ allowed her to ‘discover new ways of thinking about life’ while for Jurgen○○▷ it provided an opportunity to ‘consider the world through the lens of different cultural and HE contexts’. Teboho□□▷ ‘quickly learnt to become a learner again. It was not easy’ but he ‘opened up [him]self to every possible opportunity’. Banele□□▷ realised that ‘there is a lot to be learnt in an experience where you are the minority and a foreigner’. This required a ‘mind shift’ he did not anticipate, yet he learnt ‘a lot of lessons about the experiences of those who leave their home countries in search for [a better life]’. The diasporians used opportunities to grow within their disciplines like Zweli□□▷ wanting to learn about the ‘advanced public health discipline’ abroad, as in his borderland it ‘was not well-developed’. Banele□□▷ was keen on social theory wanting to understand ‘how those theories applied to that context’ in order to understand why specific social theory ‘are imported in [his] home country’.

Knowing I Come Bearing Gifts Every journey is an opportunity to collect but also to plant seeds in the host country. Jade●●▶ managed to align her values and convictions with colleagues ‘fighting against the current corrupt and gender biased system’ because the ‘politics need to change in order for their HE system can change’. Jurgen○○▷ explains how his ‘quest to be in an environment in which one can help shape the future’ has “lead [him] to perceive [his] own home country at the time as stagnant and limited in its willingness to transform’. Reflecting on the value of African culture and values for HE, participants remarked: ‘sharing and togetherness’ (Peter□□▷); ‘respect for the opinions and contributions of others. Respect for culture, norms and values of a society or community when interacting with others’ (Zweli□□▷); and ‘experience of collaboration, joy, humour and care’ (Valerie□□▷). They placed particular emphasis on the spirit of Ubuntu, upholding ‘one’s humanity by recognizing the humanity in others’ (Ramose, 2002, p. 231). Writes Teboho□□▷: ‘It helps us to function and exist in an arena that is sometimes fuelled with many conflicts and unexpected world epidemics such as COVID-19. The spirit of Ubuntu cuts across all our differences, it sees each one of us as humans. It brings

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comfort and helps us build resilience’. Banele□□▷ stated: ‘How we relate to each other is important in the context of HE and the spirit of uBuntu offers us a humane way in which we can foster healthy, meaningful relationships that are based on principles of respect, recognising each other as humans with often similar needs’. Although the ‘gifts’ were offered respectfully and mindfully, epistemological differences emerged for visitors from Global North to Africa, highlighting the complexity of the situation, even for borderlands diasporians from this geographical space. Jade●●▶ is aware that her gender socialisation differed from that of Ethiopian women. ‘Ethiopia is a patriarchal society, so I was the only Black female faculty member with a PhD teaching in my college. The administration and faculty primarily being all men were sexists and not very friendly. (S)o I won’t respond in the manner they are used to’. When asked how his own culture and values influenced his experiences, Zweli□□▷ wrote about him ‘listening and respecting the opinions of others helped me to learn as much as possible from others’. He ‘only spoke when [he] had something valuable to contribute’. Though a prized attitude at home, in a host country known for its individualism and candour, this might have been interpreted differently. Meeting Minds Adesina (2019, p. 203) argues that borders reflect the tensions between ‘sameness and differences’, and the diasporians indeed discovered sameness. Mavis□□▷ learnt ‘some of the supposedly unique coaching principles [used in the North] like embracing and seeing the next person as inherently good and valuable, to be aligned to the African philosophy of Ubuntu’. Zawadi□□▷ cherished the ‘meaningful friendships’ and ‘rich interactions beyond cultural background, rooted in universal human experiences. [She] learnt that what [she] values about being African, amongst many aspects, the human-to-human connection, is valued by many other people in the world too’. Ronel■■▶ was pleasantly surprised to find commonalities between her Christian religion and that of others (‘I could agree with many of the professed Muslim values in my host country, such as honesty, integrity, and tolerance’). Banele□□▷ built a connection with his host country and its ‘history of having fought for democracy and speaking out against injustice’. During the transition from a ‘“liberal” party to a more “conservative” party’ his ‘values to fight against injustice influenced the kinds of discussions’ with people he met and to act in solidarity with them by joining in protest. Similarly, Jade●●▶ identified with the borderland struggle against gender oppression: ‘I’m an African American woman. The freedom struggle of African Americans in the US has shaped my understanding of inequality in Ethiopia in particular the Ethiopian women’s struggle for equality. White and male supremacy operating principles are very similar’.

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Speaking Up Inevitably differences of perceptions and interpretations surfaced. Ronel■■▶ shared how, at a multinational university, ‘all agree, that Inclusive Education is relevant and important, but have widely diverging perceptions of what that means’. Diasporians adopted different strategies to navigate these divergences. Zweli□□▷ opted to blend in although it was ‘difficult to align [his] values with the Americans’. Banele□□▷ stated that he rather had no ‘intention to align [his] values and conviction with those of [his] host country’ but considered it key to ‘come to an understanding of those values, [which] would lead to a respect for where [his] values differed to those of the host country’. He shared how he ‘always try to listen and learn whenever in the presence of those who may have been from a different country than [his]’. Zawadi□□▷ related a more grating experience. After writing a ‘heartfelt’ paper on education and development in Kenya and South Africa being ‘skewed due to the colonial encounter’, her work was described as mere ‘rhetoric’. She experienced it as epistemic injustice (Byscov, 2020) and a ‘lack of acknowledgement of her voice’ underpinned by omitting ‘African-focused, African-generated content’. She emphasised the need for ‘reckoning with the injustices of the past, and redress of the residual systems and structures that perpetuate inequality’. According to Mavis□□▷, ‘(t)he cultural difference is apparent even in academic circles. The assumption of incompetence of people from Africa is rife’. Medhin□□▷ similarly shared that he ‘felt alien, less included’. Mavis□□▷ recognised that ‘monocultures can become a constraint and instil greater conformity’, increasing her appreciation for ‘the diversity that we have in South Africa’. Notwithstanding Sweden being an open society, she felt that ‘the definition and expectation of what it means to be “Swedish” creates more conformity and less tolerance for difference’. She experienced France as ‘much more diverse and more tolerant of difference – because of the different demographics that live there’. Monique○○▷ explains that she comes from ‘a culture where the individual is most important. [She] still remain focused on the individual, but [her] values have shifted more towards the community and society at large’. Isolation and limited social relationships troubled Mavis□□▷ as she wrote: ‘Inability to connect to a wider community of like-minded persons. The social circles were very limited’. Jade●●▶ as the only Black female faculty member with a PhD experienced ‘[t]he administration and faculty [at the Ethiopian College]’ as ‘sexists and not very friendly’. Learning from Africa Besides personal transformation, travellers noted the contribution Africa can make to HE scholarship. Jurgen○○▷ suggests that ‘African culture and values allow us to look at the HE arena through a different lens, it provides us an opportunity to focus on the interdependence of humanity. Ubuntu is perhaps the most important African value which should be shared with the global HE arena. It refers to

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humanness, cohesion, interdependence with other community members, solidarity, but is difficult to define using modern Western terminology. As a fundamental value, it could enrich the HE space and relate to many HE concepts’. Peter□□▷ and Monique○○▷ mention a ‘wider perspective’, ‘different/broader understanding’ and ‘diversity’ and Mavis□□▷ the value of ‘collective rights as opposed to individual rights’. Valerie□□▷ describes African scholarship as inclusive and ‘soft[ing] the Western scientific approach of argumentation [promoting] inclusivity and collegiality’. According to Ramesh■■▶, ‘African culture takes relatively more humane approach to education. Story telling as a mode of teaching and learning and a more holistic approach rather than single focused, goal-oriented approach’. This is supported by Ronel■■▶ whose experience in developing a Masters’ Degree in Special Education ‘brought many differences to light. The Americans, and others who went to American universities, are often focused on classification, testing and legal issues. In the UAE Special Education may be approached from a charity model, whereas I (the only South African) tended to work from a human rights perspective’. Zweli□□▷ uses the example of public health and the importance of recognising ‘that an individual exists within a society and that their health is intertwined with that of the community they live in’. Zawadi□□▷ stresses purposefully including the ‘African context, African-­ focused topics’ and the differences in interpretation of the colonial/imperial experience from a coloniser vs. a colonised lens to share ‘information and knowledge, raising awareness and demystifying/debunking stereotypes about Africa and Africans, as well as celebrating diverse African cultures and heritage’. Banele□□▷ reiterates that ‘African scholarship helps bring to the discussion the voices and experiences of the people of Africa from an African perspective, to critically engage some of the Western ideas that have been accepted as a true reflection of the African experience even when it is not the case. African scholarship pushes back on what is accepted a universal truth about human experiences, it reveals gaps in current literature that report on African experiences from a dislocated and disconnected point of view’. Teboho□□▷ wants to give a voice to those that are ‘often marginalized when in conversation about the academy or HE in general’. He points out that ‘African experiences are often misunderstood or misinterpreted from the point of western societies’. Jade●●▶, however, describes her experience of Ethiopian HE institutions as ‘schizophrenic, influenced by too many foreign country values such as Marxist, Indian and now US’. ‘African culture and values should shape and influence their institutions’, she writes. ‘Each region contributes to the global knowledge production process. Ethiopian scholars know their country best, although it’s very biased since Ethiopian women have been excluded from the knowledge production process’. Jade●●▶’s observations demonstrate the geopolitics of knowledge (Mignolo, 2002) and the pervasive ‘looking North’ mind-set, ‘making the university compatible with norms and standards set elsewhere’ (Chasi, 2020) despite mounting insistence on transformation, Africanisation and decolonialising of HE. Jade●●▶ also considers African research ‘very innovative’, something the ‘global research community can learn from too’ and Jungen○○▷ refers to the

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‘discourse on decolonisation, Africanisation and transformation [providing] global HE stakeholders the opportunity to rethink how HE systems do and/or should interact, and which principles should underlie any HE engagement’. He holds that ‘African universities can share experience in achieving world-class scholarship in resource-constrained contexts’. According to Diana●●▶, ‘having Black culture and values brought into HE is important for bringing new ways of communicating and learning to the fore. In a place like Canada, it also helps Black students (who are in the minority of the university population) to feel seen’. Diana●●▶ considers it ‘crucial, especially in Canada where Black history has basically been erased from the 1600s to about the 1960s. Bringing African/Black diasporic cultures and perspectives into HE undoes this erasure and makes space for this particular slice of Black history to shine through’. Medhin□□▷ is optimistic after running a workshop ‘with special focus on African based/led knowledge production’ with presenters from the Global South and North. ‘It was an eye opener. We are making an impact slowly but surely’. However, Ivan■■▶ holds that in his field, natural sciences, ‘there are not much influence’.

Being See Me Being Me No-one leaves behind their personal and social identity when leaving home. African diasporians seem to express themselves in strong corporeal and sensory ways. Clothes and hairstyles fulfil a symbolic function as identity markers to influence ‘impression formation, attributions, and social perception’ (Johnson et  al., 2014) and self-perception. For some, like Zawadi□□▷, living abroad cultivated a strong sense of Africaness and an ‘appreciation for what is unique and distinctive about Africa’. She ‘always celebrated [her] heritage through [her] image, wearing beads, shells, cultural wear, natural hairstyles’. Similarly, Medhin□□▷ would attend cultural evenings wearing his ‘Senegalese long dress’ bringing ‘Ethiopian coffee, Kenyan tea’ to what he calls ‘different “peace-jam” occasions’, sharing African poetry and discussing traditional African conceptions of peace and conflict prevention using a ‘collection of sayings/proverbs’. Getting Me Despite some cases of professional and epistemic injustice, most travellers like Zweli□□▷ felt ‘respected and appreciated for the knowledge and skills (he) brought’. His ‘contributions were welcomed’, writes Zawadi□□▷, ‘and spaces were often afforded to allow us to feel more at ease and to express our cultural

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selves’. Zawadi□□▷ was eager to ‘answer questions about lifestyles across Africa, to share at a personal level too about how [she] manage [her] hair, [her] skin and whether [she] gets sunburnt’. Zawadi□□▷ tried to remain ‘respectful of and open to the cultures [she] was interacting with and also welcomed curiosity, and what [she] represented, despite how ignorant this curiosity could sometimes appear’. She is, however, convinced that ‘willingness to engage in intercultural dialogue needs to be mutual’. Homing In Some diasporians found a ‘home’ abroad albeit amongst other migrants. Zawadi□□▷’s family had ‘a strong peer group of other African friends and families’ where they could ‘affirm’ themselves and ‘connect as migrant African communities, share traditional foods, listen to music from home, socialize together’. Diana●●▶, however, recognised herself in the borderlanders: ‘Being a Black Canadian/Haitian woman descended from enslaved Africans, it was a unique experience to “return to the continent”. Although I had both a very Canadian view and a very Black diasporic one, it felt like coming home (I know this sounds cheesy, I’m sorry, but it is true). For the first time ever in my life, I was almost never the only Black person in the room. That was huge for me. I was surrounded by people who looked like me, people who had similar senses of humour and similar hair’. Zawadi□□▷ admitted to conforming to some extent: ‘I only have an African name “Zawadi□□▷”, but I allowed many people to call me “Didi”, to the point where sometimes I introduced myself as “Didi”’. Shaking My Head Some experiences left diasporians flummoxed. Monique○○▷ juxtaposed the non-­ reductionist vitalism of the African ontology of her host country with that of her own where ‘religion is kept outside of the professional environment’. Yet in her host country ‘there seems to be no distinction between both worlds’. Jurgen○○▷ experienced ‘[c]overt, institutionalized xenophobia’ and Jade●●▶ highlighted ‘[g]ender discrimination in the workplace and street level harassment’. Diana●●▶ explains that for her ‘the hardest thing was my own culture shock, adjusting to the South African context and learning how to behave properly/safely. I was very dependent on my friends and colleagues to learn these things and for getting around’. Ramesh■■▶ mentioned that in the rural area he worked, ‘many had never seen or come across a person of my race’. Zweli□□▷ was vexed by people ‘who spoke incessantly, dominating the “airwaves” and not giving others a chance to speak’.

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Following Me Home For some, the seeds that had been planted by the hosts have germinated and grown. Jade●●► states that she looks ‘for that human warmth in US culture but it’s not present. I take more Bunna coffee breaks to socialize with family and friends now’. Diana●●► says her life has been changed: ‘I was not the same person when I returned to Canada. Being in South Africa and seeing how museums and universities and people in general were open about the horrible histories of colonization and apartheid made me dedicate my life and career to seeing that same work done in Canada’. Ramesh■■▶ agrees that his host country ‘continues to influence me, Ubuntu has stayed with me. I try to understand the other person’s views, am more tolerant of others’ religious, political and cultural realities. In short, rather than approach the world with a one-track mind, I consider multiple possibilities and come to conclusions. Even then, I am open to changes due to unforeseen events’. Jurgen○○▷ ‘will never forget (the) sense of Ubuntu and collegiality prevailing in parts of this university, which for example expressed itself in support which I experienced when my father passed on. A senior colleague travelled on behalf of the university to Germany to participate in the funeral and support our family’.

Conclusion Having taken advantage of the opportunities offered in HE, diaspora academics coming from and to Africa indicated that they benefitted, personally and professionally, from the collaboration. It has fostered migration of thinking, and interdisciplinary and intercultural communication and understanding. Consequently, it has advanced their lived experiences as scholars. However, with the Global North holding the geopolitical power of knowledge (Mignolo, 2002), HE is dominated by Western epistemologies and as such instrumental in promoting particular knowledges, and agendas (Teferra, 2020; Thondhlana et al., 2021). Having teamed up with private enterprises nationally and internationally, HE has indeed become a key partner in the globalised knowledge economy designed to shift education as a consumable product worldwide, generating revenue, expanding its influence by boosting its status and ultimately growing the national economy by supplying an employable workforce. Internationalisation of HE (IHE) is the process by which HE systems are mainly exported ‘from the North to the colonies in the South’ (Thondhlana et al., 2021, p. 1). While the discourse on IHE centres around graduate attributes, global citizenship and international amelioration (e.g. Beelen et  al., 2021; Jacobs et  al., 2021), the aim remains epistemic hegemony and homogeny. In this unequal space, IHE is often incongruent with the essence and episteme of the Borderlands. That begs the question: If what you can know (epistemology) shapes who you are (ontology) (Vorster & Quinn, 2017), is the African influence and contribution to

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scholarship in this episteme, authentic African? Or is it Western epistemology-­ based scholarship contributed by Borderlanders? It is difficult to establish to what extent experiences of diasporians to Africa shaped scholarship, for two reasons: Western epistemology retains its inward gaze and has not made the epistemological turn towards other ways of knowing and being in other parts of the world; and HE in Borderland areas are themselves mainly still operating in Western epistemology. African diasporians, despite persistently proposing Ubuntu as a positive influence on Western epistemology, seem to have internalised the Western epistemology to the extent that when they cross the border there seem to be little thought given to exporting ontology and epistemology from Africa. Introducing their hosts to other ways of doing, knowing and being remains at the level of the particular and the individual (hair, dress, food). Rather than exposing the Global North to indigenous African ontology, it remains mostly a cultural exchange bordering on reinforcing the ‘othering’ of border-dwellers. Borderland scholars immersed in Western epistemology crossing to the Global North seem to pack: what and how they have learnt in the Western episteme HE; the persona that they think they ought to be; and/or the skills and knowledge required to be successful/acceptable. To build a robust African episteme, African scholars must integrate their own knowing, acting and being into African scholarship. Different ontologies and epistemologies should not be ‘othered’ and treated as oddities/ exotic, or remain on social level, with little influence on scholarly activity. An epistemic turn requires an ontological turn based on integration of own knowledge, actions and being (Vorster & Quinn, 2017). However, the cogent Western epistemology has already shaped the African diasporians’ ontology by its domination of knowledge, authority, economy and our concept of where we fit on the hierarchical system of gender, race and religion (Mignolo, 2007). At least from these travellers’ accounts, IHE has not sufficiently mitigated the dominance of monopolar Westernised epistemologies to accord scholarly contributions based on indigenous epistemologies an equal standing. Acknowledgements  We want to thank all the border-dwellers who generously shared their experiences with us. This research was undertaken as part of the Comprehensive Internationalisation of Higher Education research project (not funded) for which ethical clearance was obtained from the University of the Free State, South Africa (UFS-HSD2019/2156/1402).

References Adesina, O. S. (2019). Conceptualizing borders and borderlands in a globalizing world. African Journal for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, 22(1), 202–213. Beelen, J., Wimpenny, K., & Rubin, J. (2021). Internationalisation in the classroom and questions of congruence: Embedding COIL in an internationalised curriculum. In P.  G. Nixon,

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V. P. Denned, & R. Rawal (Eds.), Reshaping international teaching and learning: Universities in the information age. Routledge. Byscov, M. F. (2020). What makes epistemic injustice an “injustice”? Journal of Social Philosophy, 52(1), 114–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/josp.12348 Chasi, S. (2020). Decolonisation  – A chance to reimagine North-South partnerships. University World News  - Africa Edition. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?st ory=20200826111105105. Accessed 13 Apr 2021. Deleuze, G. (1988). Foucault. University of Minnesota Press. E-International Relations. (2017). Interview - Walter D. Mignolo. https://www.e-­ir.info/2017/06/01/ interview-­walter-­d-­mignolo/. Accessed 24 Mar 2021. Grosz, E. (2011). Becoming undone. Duke University Press. Jackson, A. (2017). Thinking without method. Qualitative Inquiry, 23(9), 666–674. https://doi. org/10.1177/1077800417725355 Jacobs, L., Wimpenny, K., Mitchell, L.-M., Hagenmeier, C., Beelen, J., Hodges, M., et  al. (2021). Adapting a capacity-development-in-higher-education project: Doing, being and becoming virtual collaboration. Perspectives in Education, 39(1), 353–371. https://doi. org/10.18820/2519593X/pie.v39.i1.22 Johnson, K., Lennon, S. J., & Rudd, N. (2014). Dress, body and self: Research in the social psychology of dress. Fashion and Textiles, 1(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40691-­014-­0020-­7 Krasteva, A. (2016). Homo Viator: Identities, imaginaries, poetics. https://annakrasteva.wordpress.com/2016/02/29/homo-­viator-­identities-­imaginaries-­poetics/. Accessed 24 Mar 2021. Lather, P., & St. Pierre, E. (2013). Introduction: Post-qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 26(6), 629–633. Le Grange, L. (2018). What is (post)qualitative research? South African Journal of Higher Education, 32(5), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.20853/32-­5-­3161 Mignolo, W. (2002). The geopolitics of knowledge and the colonial difference. South Atlantic Quarterly, 101(1), 57–96. https://doi.org/10.1215/00382876-­101-­1-­57 Mignolo, W. (2007). Coloniality of power and de-colonial thinking. Cultural Studies, 21, 155–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/09502380601162498 Ramose, M. B. (2002). The philosophy of ubuntu and ubuntu as a philosophy. In P. H. Coetzee & A. P. Roux (Eds.), The African philosophy reader (pp. 230–238). Oxford University Press. St Pierre, E. (2019). Post qualitative inquiry in an ontology of immanence. Qualitative Inquiry, 25(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800418772634 Teferra, D. (2020). The irrelevance of the re-configured definition of internationalisation to the Global South: Intention versus coercion. International Journal of African Higher Education, 7(2), 157–172. https://doi.org/10.6017/ijahe.v7i2.12905 Thondhlana, J., Garwe, E. C., & de Wit, H. (2021). Introduction: Internationalization of higher education in the global south: Setting the scene. In J. Thondhlana, E. C. Garwe, H. de Wit, J. Gacel-Ávila, F. Huang, & W. Tamrat (Eds.), The Bloomsbury handbook of the internationalization of higher education in the Global South (pp. 1–22). Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Vorster, J.-A., & Quinn, L. (2017). The “decolonial turn”: What does it mean for academic staff development? Education as Change, 21, 31–49. https://doi.org/10.17159/1947-­9417/2017/853

Chapter 5

The Impact of ‘Western Teaching Practices’ on Chinese Language Teachers Working in EMI Institutions in China: Perspectives, Application and Evaluation Stuart Perrin and Yipu Wang

Abstract  The internationalisation of education is often associated with an anglophile or Western model of teaching. Within China, it is also reflected through the increased availability of English Medium Instruction or EMI programmes, modules, colleges and universities. Viewed from the perspective of Chinese language teachers, who deliver Chinese language classes to Chinese students in Chinese institutions, the chapter discusses the impact on their identity of working within an EMI environment teaching. Miller (Language learning and teaching as social inter-­ action. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2007) suggests that a teacher’s identity draws upon their personal biography as well as each individual’s unique skills and knowledge. The chapter asks what happens when this unique biography is challenged from the ‘outside’, what is the impact on teacher identity and how does this impact teaching practice. Through the experiences of a Chinese language teacher, the chapter discusses issues of socialisation, investment and communities of practice through the journey of teaching within English. Examples of successful, teaching practice conversions are discussed, with suggestions given as to why this may be the case. The chapter concludes by recognising complexity of language teacher identity raising questions about whether EMI education should always mean Western teaching practices rather than a coming together of each. Keywords  Identity · Investment · Socialisation · Community of practice

S. Perrin (*) Xian Jiaotong-Liverpool University Entrepreneur College, Taicang, China e-mail: [email protected] Y. Wang Capital Normal University, Beijing, China © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_5

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Introduction Education has been one of the globalisation success stories of the last 20 or 30 years. However, when people talk about education as a globalised thing, they are usually talking about Western models of education, and Western teaching practices. This development of Transnational Education (TNE) is most often associated with English speaking education and educational models (Perrin, 2017) through English Medium Instruction (EMI) programmes. The growth of EMI programmes has been prolific and continues to expand at a rapid pace across the globe (Macaro, 2018). One outcome of this has been that English has become the language of education for the teaching and learning of all academic subjects (Macaro, 2018). China has been particularly attracted towards EMI programmes, with a range of possibilities within higher education (HE) including 2 + 2 degree programmes, dual degrees, and many programmes wholly delivered in English, switching from Chinese, in traditional Chinese (and Chinese medium of instruction) universities. Government legislation has been important in providing the opportunity for the development of these initiatives, with two that stand out being the People’s Republic of China on Chinese–Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2003), which allowed for Chinese–foreign joint educational ventures, and the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) of President Xi. This initiative aims to enhance ‘the connectivity of Asian, European, and African continents and their adjacent seas’, and establishes the Silk Road Economic Belt and the twenty-first Century Maritime Silk Road (National Development and Reform Commission et  al., 2015). In 2017, more than 450,000 students were studying in EMI programmes (Ministry of Education [MoE], 2017).

Language Teacher Identity, Socialisation and Investment Language teacher identity has received much attention and research over the last 20 years or so. Understanding how language teachers view themselves has implications for areas such as teacher training and development (Kanno & Stuart, 2011), classroom practices (Duff & Uchida, 1997) and issues relating to ownership of language (De Costa & Norton, 2017). Heavily influenced by poststructuralist approaches such as those developed by Norton (2000), language teachers are seen as individuals whose beliefs about language teaching and learning are ‘constructed across time and space’ (Norton, 2000, p. 5). Darvin and Norton (2015) go on to explain that identity is not fixed but constantly changing, is multifaceted, and is influenced by many social and linguistic contexts, and is contested. Parallel to ideas of (language teacher) identity have been the development of theories of (academic) socialisation (2010). Duff (2010) defined (language) socialisation as bringing together the acquisition of linguistic, pragmatic and other cultural knowledge through social interaction, highlighting that it is ever changing and (like identity) influenced through social and linguistic practices, contexts and interactions. Duff goes on to discuss that language and literacy socialisation experiences will ‘inevitably

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involve the negotiation of power and identity, especially when examined within a larger sociopolitical and sociocultural context’ (Duff, 2010, p.  171). Socialisation then, like identity, can be seen as an active multidirectional process. As well as issues of identity and socialisation, it is also worth looking into the theory of communities of practice (Wenger, 1998). Wenger (1998) ascertained that communities of practice are created by groups of people who share common interests and goals for improvement as a process of collective learning. He goes on to suggest that a successful community of practice requires three elements: the ‘domain’, which would be EMI institutions within China; the ‘community’ that participant associate with, in the case of this chapter language teachers and specifically Chinese language teachers (of Chinese); and the ‘practice’ being shared. Norton (2010) argues that the process of engagement with and participation in new communities of practice helps to form certain identities, through gaining the voice and power in that particular community (Bourdieu, 1991). Drawing on Bourdieu’s (1991) concept of cultural capital, and bringing together ideas around identity, socialisation and communities of practice, Norton (2000) proposed the concept of ‘investment’ to explain the relationship between the changing social world, and multiple and complex identities. Whilst Norton (2000) was referring to learning, the concept is equally important when discussing (Chinese) language teacher’s identity of working within an EMI environment teaching their own first language, Chinese. Taking Norton’s (2000) ideas further, Chinese language teachers may invest in working in English within the EMI environment if they feel that this will gain them access to symbolic or material resources that may not otherwise be accessible. There are therefore a number of ways that language teacher identity can be analysed, with Varghese et al. (2005, p. 39) suggesting both ‘identity-in-discourse’ and ‘identity-in-practice’ needing to be considered. The remainder of this chapter explores the impact that Western teaching practices have on the delivery of Chinese language and culture classes. Viewed from the perspective of Chinese language teachers, the chapter discusses the impact on (Chinese) language teacher’s identity of working within an EMI environment teaching a language (Chinese) that would be considered a ‘minority language’ within the institution. Miller (2007) suggests that a teacher’s identity draws upon their personal biography as well as each individual’s unique skills and knowledge. The chapter asks what happens when this unique biography is challenged from the ‘outside’, what is the impact on teacher identity and how does this impact teaching practice.

The Study Context of the Study The teaching of Chinese as an International Language is complex and challenging. There are roughly more than 4000 universities within China that have Chinese language departments or courses, as well as approximately 45,000 Chinese schools and training institutions which offer Chinese language education. Outside China, more

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than 550 Confucius Institutes and 1172 Confucius Classrooms have been set up in 162 countries and regions, meaning there are more than 25 million people learning Chinese around the world. The learning of Chinese (modern standard Chinese or Putonghua) is currently undergoing a rapid expansion, and language students making up the majority of international students at university within China (Hanban, 2020). Within the context of TNE, China has been at the forefront of the global EMI growth (Huang, 2007). One outcome of this has been the extent to which Chinese first language speaking academics (and language teachers) are then required to use English within the teaching environment (Si & Perrin, 2014). Jenkins (2014) highlights that with these (TNE and EMI) environments, English is usually the academic lingua franca, with expectations largely towards ideas and concepts of native speaker standards. Jenkins (2014) goes on to highlight the pressure on staff, mostly working in a second language, to function ‘fluently’ in terms of professional practice and assessment, as well as everyday language use. One of the recognised pull factors within China for greater EMI programmes is the potential to attract international students if courses and programmes are delivered in English (Zhang, 2018), as well as a greater promotion of internationalisation of HE, both of which are often promoted as key policy initiatives. Sears (2012) highlights the linguistic capital that English carries, which has helped to fuel both the supply and the demand for EMI education. However, the growth of EMI programmes does not come without issues and controversy. Kirkpatrick (2011) asks whether greater internationalisation (through EMI programmes) leads to Englishisation of education and practice, whilst Phillipson (2009) warns against adopting English ways of thinking. Equally, Hughes (2008) argues that asking both professors and students to work in English when it is not their first language may have a negative impact on teaching and learning quality. The shortage of suitably trained academic staff is often highlighted (Kirkpatrick, 2017), with many staff being expected to change from delivery and working in Chinese to much greater use of English in the workplace, without much prior notice, training or familiarisation.

Case Study This chapter focuses on a Chinese language teacher, Xiye (Pseudonym), working at a traditional Chinese higher education institution, which in 2017 introduced EMI modules and teaching into the curriculum. The teacher is part of a wider study looking at identity issues of academic staff, both English native speakers and English non-native speakers, working at EMI higher education institutions or on EMI programmes within higher education institutions. Academic staff working on these programmes were invited to participate in the study which looks at professional identities within EMI environments. Semi-structured interviews have been conducted to gain an in-depth understanding of academic staff’s experiences working

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within EMI environments. This chapter gives a prominence to issues relating to Chinese language teachers working in an EMI environment teaching Chinese, a group that is often marginalised in EMI identity research. The data and excerpts are from the conversations with the informant that took place virtually via a well-known meeting and social media platform within China. The conversations all took place in English.

Attitudes Towards Professional Identity Working at the college was Xiye’s first experience of working within the English language, though she had previously worked overseas. It was also her first teaching role at a higher education institution. She started work at about the same time the decision was taken by the institution to have more EMI programmes, including within the languages school. Xiye had strong views about what she saw as her professional identity. In my view, my teacher identity is a comprehensive process of my cognition, socialization and emotions. These three parts are closely related and influence each other. Teacher identity represents teachers’ self-images in the profession at different points in their career; it is a continuous process of teachers negotiating and modifying their roles, self-knowledge, values and behaviours through engaging in varying discourses and practices.

As with Norton (2000), she saw her professional identity as being multiple in nature, identifying her cognition, emotions and socialisation. She also saw it as being ever changing through the socialisation process. Reis (2015) highlighted the importance of identifying between teacher’s emotions and professional practice, concluding that teacher’s emotions are integral to understanding teacher knowledge and practice. This comes out through Xiye speaking about concepts of acceptance: accepting the need to be patient and careful in using English because of the impact that mistakes may have on students. She also spoke about accepting the need for more professional knowledge and teaching skills to constantly improve her teaching skills, and that working within English may hinder her teaching development if she does not have enough personal experience. When pressed further about English, Xiye would often refer to ideas of correctness when talking about her English and needing to improve. She mentioned on a number of occasions a concern that not improving her English would not be good for her students, though also received no training on how or what to improve. Xiye in effect is tying her identity as an effective Chinese language teacher with her abilities to speak good English. Jenkins (2014) challenged the assumption that native speaker English should be considered the ‘gold standard’ for both students and staff to aim for, highlighting that the reality of usage in most EMI institutions is in legitimate varieties of English, including ELF – English as a Lingua Franca (see Jenkins, 2011). However, as is clear from Xiye, it is still ability in using English in the EMI institution determining authority and legitimacy.

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Legitimacy of Learning in English Concepts of legitimacy are highlighted by Xiye through some of her questioning as to why EMI is needed in some instances. She explains that she teaches both Traditional and Modern Chinese in Chinese but teaches Chinese etiquette in English. Students find the ideas difficult to follow in English, often (again) focusing on the language rather than the content. As a result, how she teaches changes, as does the materials, with Xiye explaining: When I compare Chinese and foreign etiquette, I often use pictures and videos to show them in the context of daily life. For example, when I teach the etiquette of having a dinner, I will play a video of standard western and Chinese etiquette, and then ask students to role play in English as much as possible. Students generally enjoy this method of teaching and often comment on me as a lively teacher.

In order for her students to focus on the topic rather than on the language of instruction, Xiye is using more visuals than she would in her normal language classes. In addition, in order for her to concentrate on the concepts in the class, she (learns and) sends to the students English vocabulary up to a week in advance. Xiye also explained that: After class, I often conduct a survey on the curriculum, hoping to promote my reflection on teaching. Gradually, the students become more and more interested in this course.

What is interesting here is the use of ‘gradually’, indicating that there was resistance initially in the teaching of the class in English. Studies on attitudes of students towards EMI classes within China have tended to be somewhat inconclusive as to whether students are in favour. Chen et al. (2010) for example found that students expected to improve their English, but did not expect to gain much subject knowledge. Tan (2010) showed that having an English only environment was more positive, whilst Xu (2017) suggested that there would be a more positive attitude to learning in more prestigious institutions, presumably indicating that these would employ better (perhaps more knowledgeable in content and language) teachers. However, with regard to Xiye’s place of work, it would certainly not be considered prestigious, and she did mention that sometimes she would use Chinese to emphasise a point, perhaps on bilingual slides. What seems to be the cause of the students’ change in attitude towards learning in English is the efforts and perseverance of Xiye herself. Zhang (2012) indicated that the lack of suitable EMI materials, something that is arguably still the case today, may also lead to lack of interest. Xiye however has indicated that she spends time on developing materials, on surveying students’ needs, and it seems that it is this dedication that is paying on for the students’ development.

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Norms of Teaching Xiye indicated that she had gained positively from the experience of teaching some of her classes in English. When asked how, if at all, she had adapted to working in the EMI classroom, she said: On the one hand, I do my best to know the real needs of students in order to constantly improve my teaching. For example, to explain more practical content that students are interested in. On the other hand, I will improve my English and teaching level to promote the study of sophomores majoring in TCSOL (Teaching Chinese as a Second or Other Language).

It seems clear that Xiye is investing in her role as a Chinese language teacher through the time and effort taken to prepare her lessons and ensure student engagement. Using both her linguistic and cultural resources, she displays ‘multi-­ competencies’ (Cook, 2005) and flexibility in a contextually relevant way. This is further illustrated by: I see my teaching practices a bit western. In terms of teaching content, my course is a comparative analysis of Chinese and foreign etiquette from the perspective of Chinese people. In terms of course form, I learn from western teaching methods, such as task method, communicative method and so on. In terms of the medium of instruction, I try to teach all in English, so that students can improve their international outlook.

Xiye initially saw Western methods such as task-based learning as being useful for when teaching in English but reverted to more traditional Chinese methods when teaching her Chinese language classes in Chinese. Teaching methods were language specific. Gradually, she saw a mixing of the two as her confidence grew, negotiating her increasingly recognised multiple identities as a multilingual language teacher. When asked what she saw as differences between Chinese and more Western teaching practices, she particularly identified that: Western teaching practices pay more attention to the learning process, while Chinese teaching practices focus on the results.

However, she continues that: Gradually, Chinese and the Western teaching practices tend to be the same.

Through these answers, it is possible to see Xiye’s journey as a Chinese language teacher working in an EMI programme, and how, through crossing boundaries of how she sees herself as a teacher, her professional identity is formulated.

Conclusions An objective of this chapter has been to explore the impact that Western teaching practices may have on the delivery of Chinese language and culture classes within EMI programmes in China. There is growing recognition of the importance of

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professional identity within teacher education (Olsen, 2011), with encouragement for teachers to engage in their ideas of what it means to be a teacher in their contexts and beyond. Darvin and Norton (2015, p.  51) talk about a (teachers) world of ‘mobility, fluidity, and diversity, operating within the paradox of flow and control’; in other words, the flexibility of identity construction through time and space. Through the eyes of Xiye, a Chinese language teacher working in an EMI environment in China, this chapter attempts to highlight how (her) identity construction can be seen through the lenses of socialisation, communities of practice, and investment. Through the discussion of Xiye’s experiences, the chapter has highlighted the negotiated nature of her (and her students’) socialisation into more Western teaching methods. Although it was not highlighted in the study, her journey has taken a number of years since the decision of her institution to have EMI programmes. The complexity of (academic) socialisation is highlighted, both in developing classroom practices and in terms of personal development. Xiye has invested in her herself as a teacher through how she has adapted to more Western teaching practices to accommodate her students’ changing needs as they study Chinese etiquette in English, seeing the transformation as positive for herself as a language teacher. In doing so she has seen the value in integrating into a new community of practice where Western teaching methods and Chinese teaching methods start to merge together. This is not to say that she is totally accepting of all things Western. Xiye questions whether the development of her teaching could be hindered without sufficient personal experience in the contexts. To sum up then, Darvin and Norton (2015) recognise teacher agency and their ability to invest in their own learning in such a way as to dissect and question dominant practices, which seems to be the living embodiment of Xiye’s journey of negotiation and renegotiation of her identity as a Chinese language teacher.

References Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Harvard University Press. Chen, H., Chen, M. Y., & Chen, N. J. (2010). Undergraduates’ adaptability to bilingual education: A four-year longitudinal study. Modern Education Management, 1, 80–82. Confucious Institute Headquarters (Hanban). (2020). http://www.hanban.org/confuciousinstitutes/ node_10961.htm. Accessed Feb 2021. Cook, V. (2005). Basing teaching on the L3 user. In E. Llurda (Ed.), Non-native language teachers: Perceptions, challenges, and contributions to the profession (pp. 47–62). Springer. Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2015). Identity and a model of investment in applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 35, 36–56. De Costa, P., & Norton, B. (2017). Introduction: Identity, transdisciplinarity, and the good language teacher. Modern Language Journal, 101(S1), 3–14. Duff, P. (2010). Language socialization into academic discourse communities. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 169–192. Duff, P., & Uchida, Y. (1997). The negotiation of teachers sociocultural identities and practices in postsecondary EFL classrooms. TESOL Quarterly, 31(3), 451–486. Huang, F. (2007). Internationalisation of higher education in China: A focus on foreign degree-­ conferring programs. RIKE International Publication, 10, 421–432.

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Hughes, R. (2008). Internationalisation of higher education and language policy: Questions of quality and equity. Higher Education Management and Policy, 20, 111–128. Jenkins, J. (2011). Accommodating (to) ELF in the international university. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(4), 926–936. Jenkins, J. (2014). English as a Lingua Franca in the international university. The politics of academic English language policy. Routledge. Kanno, Y., & Stuart, C. (2011). Learning to become a second language teacher: Identities-in practice. The Modern Language Journal, 95(2), 236–252. Kirkpatrick, A. (2011). English as a medium of instruction in Asian education (from primary to tertiary): Implications for local languages and local scholarship. Applied Linguistics Review, 2, 99–119. Kirkpatrick, A. (2017). The languages of higher education in East and Southeast Asia: Will EMI lead to Englishisation? In B. Fenton-Smith, P. Humphreys, & I. Walkinshaw (Eds.), English as a medium of instruction in higher education in Asia-Pacific: Issues and challenges. Springer International Publishing. Macaro, E. (2018). English medium instruction: Content and language in policy and practice. Oxford University Press. Miller, J. (2007). Identity construction in teacher education. In Z. Hua, P. Seedhouse, L. Wei, & V. Cook (Eds.), Language learning and teaching as social inter-action (pp. 148–162). Palgrave Macmillan UK. Ministry of Education (MoE). (2003). Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-­ Foreign cooperation in running schools [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.cn/s78/ A20/gjs_left/moe_861/tnull_8644.html Ministry of Education (MoE). (2017). The development situation of Chinese-foreign cooperation in running schools. Retrieved from http://www.crs.jsj.edu.cn/index.php/default/news/index/80 National Development and Reform Commission, Affairs, M. O. F. & Commerce, M. O. (2015). Vision and action on promoting co-development of silkroad economy belt and maritime silkroad. Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Pearson. Norton, B. (2010). Language and identity. Sociolinguistics and Language Education, 23(3), 349–369. Olsen, B. (2011). “I am large, I contain multiples”: Teacher identity as a useful frame for research, practice, and diversity in teacher education. In A. Ball & C. Tyson (Eds.), Studying diversity in teacher education (pp. 267–273). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Perrin, S. (2017). Language policy and TNE’s: What role for what English. In B. Fenton-Smith, P. Humphreys, & I. Walkinshaw (Eds.), English as a medium of instruction in higher education in Asia-Pacific: Issues and challenges. Springer International Publishing. Phillipson, R. (2009). English in higher education, panacea or pandemic? In P.  Harder (Ed.), English in Denmark: Language policy, internationalisation and university teaching (Vol. 9, pp. 2–57). University of Copenhagen, Museum Tusculum Press. Reis, D. S. (2015). Making sense of emotions in NNESTs’ professional identities and agency. In L. Y. Cheung, S. B. Said, & K. Park (Eds.), Advances and current trends in language teacher identity research (pp. 31–43). Routledge. Sears, C. (2012). Negotiating identity in English-medium settings: Agency, resistance, and appropriation among speakers of other languages in an international school. Journal of Research in International Education, 11, 117–136. Si, Y., & Perrin, S. (2014). Language choice and the dilemma of identity: Chinese first language academics in a TNE environment. In J. Gourlay & G. Strohschen (Eds.), Building barriers and bridges: Interculturalism in the 21st century. Inter- Disciplinary Press. Tan, D. J. (2010). Key points in bilingual education in China universities. Education Research, 10, 91–94. Varghese, M., Morgan, B., Johnston, B., & Johnson, K. (2005). Theorizing language teacher identity: Three perspectives and beyond. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4, 21–44.

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Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge University Press. Xu, H. (2017). College students’ attitudes towards English-medium instruction and the English language. In J. Zhao & L. Q. Dixon (Eds.), English-medium instruction in Chinese universities. Perspectives, discourse and evaluation (Vol. Routledge critical studies in Asian education). Routledge. Zhang, P. (2012). Reflections on bilingual education in China: A critique on the hot issue. Journal of Northeast China Normal University (Social Sciences)., 3, 121–127. Zhang, Z. (2018). English-medium instruction policies in China: Internationalisation of higher education. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 39(6), 542–555. https://doi. org/10.1080/01434632.2017.1404070

Part II

A Sense of Belonging and the Lived Experiences of the Academic Nomad

Chapter 6

Glocalism As the Main Challenge to Academic Nomads Adrian Borbély and Tariel Sikharulidze

Abstract  The concept of glocalism, that is, the need for an organization to respond strategically to both global and local forces, imposes that local organizations take global trends into consideration, and organizations that aim for a global outreach remain somewhat constrained by their local roots. This tension, which academic institutions navigate very diversely, translates in the classroom, in particular for academic nomads (a global element placed in a more-or-less local environment). Glocalism requires not only to adapt to the culture of the audience but also to tailor both pedagogical approach and course content to the public. We therefore propose a three-dimension model, based on negotiation’s “who–what–how” model, to help instructors maximize their impact in the different classrooms they will visit. Keywords  Glocalism · Flying faculty · Business schools

Introduction In this chapter, we propose to discuss issues surrounding academic nomadism through the prism of “glocalism.” We position glocalism at the roots of the main strategic challenges that most business schools face; glocalism also directly impacts the classroom experience of the “flying academic,” that is, the support faculty that comes from abroad to complement the school’s permanent faculty. Paraphrasing the definition offered by Blatter (2013), “glocalism” shall be perceived as the intertwining of universalizing and particularizing tendencies. It means that, due to globalization, organizations now face a combination of strategic

A. Borbély (*) Emlyon Business School, Écully, France e-mail: [email protected] T. Sikharulidze Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_6

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challenges that come from both the global level and the regional and local ones. In other words, operating on a global market does not erase the need for local adaptation. This is particularly important for international business schools, which operate both on the global and their local markets, as they find themselves in a constant strategic tension, torn between the needs to please stakeholders from both worlds. Our perspective is one of negotiation scholars, who, in the past decade, have traveled abroad to teach negotiation and/or conflict management. Adrian is based in France and has taught in Belgium, the UK, and Cyprus. Tariel is based in Tbilisi, Georgia, and teaches regularly in neighboring Caucasian countries as well as in France, Belgium, and Cyprus; in addition to his native language, he teaches in Russian, English, and French. Relying on our experience, reinforced by the writings of some of our peer negotiation academics, we discuss the implications of glocalism for international business schools, starting from a strategic perspective, before diving into how it translates into the classroom experience.

 localism at the Core of the International Business School’s G Strategy Today, business schools stand on a continuum, torn between two opposing forces, one that has them focus on the global scene, and the other that grounds them in their local environment. Schools navigate these forces differently, both in terms of strategy and human resource management. The push toward internationalization is linked with the need to get accredited and ranked on the global scene. Both issues are related, since international accreditations usually help schools climb the ranking ladder. Rankings and accreditations enable attracting international students—and in return provide their own students with greater opportunities to study abroad. With good rankings, it is easier to sign partnerships with high-ranking institutions, which in turn provides some extra ranking points. It is a virtuous cycle. Schools based in countries where English is not the native language face the extra challenge of adapting their curriculum, since most international students will only come if the curriculum is at least in part offered in English. Schools therefore require a faculty that can teach in English; as they will also publish on the global scene, schools will thus earn extra points with accreditors and ranking authorities. They will then turn to the worldwide market to source their nonpermanent faculty. There are a lot of positive synergies in turning one’s school international. However, most schools, despite their international students, remain highly

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dependent on their local environment.1 First, they recruit most of their students locally, through their national education system. Most students appreciate to study in their mother tongue, at least in the first years of Bachelor programs. Later on, these same students will, in majority, be searching for jobs locally. Schools therefore need to connect with those needs and develop a network of companies that operate locally. Second, the schools’ financing sources (beyond tuition fees) are also mainly drawn from their local environment: scholarship systems, public subsidies, patronage from industries, and proceeds from executive education programs that target the local workforce (with the notable exception of full-online programs). In our current Coronavirus disease (COVID) era, local relations have gained even more relevance, as it has become more difficult for students to travel for studying or to gain professional experience. This crisis has shown how risky it can be for schools to simply ignore local ties and focus exclusively on conquering the international market. Consequently, in terms of human resources, schools need to look for the right balance between a local faculty that speaks the local language and understands local idiosyncrasies, an international permanent faculty to provide the global outreach, and foreign flying academics as a complement. Proportions vary; while Thomson (2014) describes her foreign academic experience as a member of a small minority at her school (less than 20%, in her own words), some schools claim more than 75% of foreign faculty members.2 The percentage of foreign visiting people over permanent may also strongly vary and be particularly high at smaller schools, especially from second-tier countries, schools that cannot find or afford permanent faculty members. The recruitment of flying academics may be done on an individual basis (the school contracts with an individual at a time), or through organization-wide partnerships (the school contracts with another school, which provides several faculty members). In some cases, the school at the receiving end may market and manage the local delivery of programs from larger, foreign schools. For example, the Caucasus School of Business offers the MBA of Grenoble School of Management (a French school) in Tbilisi, Georgia: professors from the French institution are flown regularly to Georgia to teach their course.3 Schools need to find the right balance to adapt to the global and their local environments. Turning “too international” puts them at risk of losing grip with most of their local market, with the exception of students looking for “internationalization at home,” that is, studying in an international environment without having to travel.  This is not true for all of them; for instance, INSEAD, although based in France, has a 100% international strategy and does not appear to have much economic ties with their immediate geographic surroundings. 2  For example, IESEG School of Management has 77% of its permanent faculty that is foreign. https://www.ieseg.fr/en/about-ieseg/facts-figures/ (last accessed February 22, 2021). 3  https://cu.edu.ge/en/schoolss/business-school/programs-csb/masters-csb/grenoble-mba (last accessed March 31, 2021). 1

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Conversely, putting too much focus into local aspects may prevent their full internationalization and attractiveness for possible international stakeholders. This conundrum translates into the classroom, notably for the flying faculty.

Glocalism in the Classroom: A Flying Faculty’s Perspective Training and teaching should be impactful (Cohn et al., 2009). Translated in terms of glocalism, this means that instructors need to bring the best of both worlds: the most relevant theories (assessed on a global scale) and their application to the school and students’ (local) needs. This is no easy task, as flying faculty face an additional challenge: they only have limited exposure to the local idiosyncrasies of the course delivery setting, as they usually fly in and fly out for the sole purpose of their course. Lewicki and Schneider (2010), two eminent negotiation scholars, define the challenge of drafting effective courses along negotiation’s three dimensions: the “who,” the “what,” and the “how”: • The “who” requires taking the audience into consideration. • The “what” represents the course content. • The “how” represents the pedagogy—how knowledge will be delivered. Along those lines, we aim to point out that the flying faculty’s job is not limited to adapting along the “who” dimension; this would give culture too central a role. Lewicki and Schneider (2010) assert that the “who” dimension is generally, sometimes intentionally, left behind, while the field of negotiation teaching may have reached some form of final consensus on what to teach and how to teach it. This last claim is strongly disputed by Alavoine et al. (2014). Along this line, we too consider that the one-size-fits-all approach has lost much relevance today (Cohn et al., 2009) and adaptation can, and should, be done along the three dimensions. In other words, glocalism forces conscientious flying instructors to pay attention, and adapt their course along all three dimensions. For us, the most efficient point of entry is the “who,” unless we are constrained in terms of content (“what”) or delivery modes (“how”).

The “Who” Students are no “blank slates,” they come with their knowledge and worldviews; therefore, even before we consider what to teach, it is good advice to know who we are teaching to (Nelken et al., 2009). Here, the obvious issue is culture. Smith (2014) recommends all instructors to respect local cultural–behavioral norms (e.g., not eating, nor drinking in front of students during Ramadan in the Middle East). Although this sounds indispensable, in our experience, students will generally be forgiving in case of cultural mishap.

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Going beyond respecting cultural norms, instructors need to make the extra effort of adapting their teaching to the students’ needs. Identifying those needs requires empathizing with them ahead of class, during class, and around class times. Ahead of class, whenever possible, this requires trying to gather their expectations, at least their profiles (country of origin, professional situation, etc.). During class, it entails welcoming their questions, and being ready to respond to them from a local, practical perspective. For example, students are often curious about how to negotiate their work conditions, which obviously differ from one country to another. Instructors will not know all local specificities but they need to know where differences may lie and be ready to trigger and manage students’ exchanges on the topic. In most contexts, it is also advisable to establish rapport with students during breaks, around coffee, and/or at lunch. Such small talk may lead to valuable exchanges, questions, stories, and information. For us, this represents much more than “adding local colors” (Smith, 2014, p. 121) to our negotiation courses. Through empathizing with students, we can identify their specific needs, a necessary first step before adapting not only what we teach, but also how we teach it. This will first impact what we can use as pedagogical tools (in relation with the “HOW”). In particular, when using simulations, it is useful to use cases that resonate with the environment in which students evolve. As one of the respondents of Smith (2014) puts it: “we don’t want a student in the Middle East writing about Ryanair” (p.  123). We therefore need to use cases that are either truly universal (those are rare), or at least stripped from their country-of-origin idiosyncrasies (here, we often have issues with cases published with the main case banks, often based in the USA or in the UK). Using decontextualized role plays may lack the substantive issues that students will encounter in their professional negotiations (Docherty, 2010); as a result, students “will not be able to lift the lessons and apply them to their real life” (Cohn et al., 2009, p. 337). Local idiosyncrasies also impact how students will react to our pedagogical tools. For example, we use a real-estate simulation in which the sale and purchase of the apartment is feasible only if actors use the possibility that they have to borrow money from their (simulated) mother-in-law (Ebner & Efron, 2009). In our Western culture, the case leads to about 50% of the students going “all-in” to try and buy and/or sell the property, therefore using their mother-in-law’s contribution. In Cyprus, this number drops to less than 10%, as the mother-in-law figure, as experienced or fantasized by our students, acts as a scarecrow. It is important to know that most Cypriots want to live as far away as possible from their spouse’s mother, and, for that purpose, reject having to owe her money (a debt synonymous to unlimited privacy invasion). In other words, to be impactful, we need to be able to look at the course from our students’ eyes. Such an empathy-driven approach lies at the heart of success, whether we choose to adapt to the environment or ask our students to adapt to us. The latter may have standing, especially if it is properly explained, but may also be resented by our audience.

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In our adaptation efforts to our students, the first visit is generally the most difficult, as returning flying faculty can capitalize on their previous experience(s) of teaching in the country to enrich their discourse. Showing students that we have been here before, and we remember the idiosyncrasies we witnessed then is reassuring to them. Furthermore, if we have a personal connection, however remote, with the visited country (family roots, friends, past private visits, etc.), mentioning it will serve to create rapport—and for the faculty to feel less estranged.

The “What” Who we teach will necessarily impact what we teach. Regarding course content, we compare teaching a (negotiation) course to baking a tart: it is about creating a tasty association between a crust and a filling. In this metaphor (borrowed from Borbély et al., 2017), the crust stands for the course’s theoretical underpinning. All crusts are made of the same ingredients (flour, water or milk, butter, salt, and sometimes eggs and/or sugar), in varying proportions; much like theory, whose main elements will always be the same, but their mix may shift from one course setting to another. Tart fillings represent the theory-to-practice part of the course. They may contain a wide variety of ingredients: eggs, cream, fresh fruits, chocolate, jam, meat, vegetables, nuts, etc.; they are as diverse as teaching environments. To deliver successful (negotiation) courses, instructors need to combine solid theory (assessed on the global scale) and an application lens that connects with the students’ life experience and future professional plans (local scale). Glocalism therefore plays a role in course drafting. Flying faculty therefore need to have more theory in store than what they will need in class; most importantly, they need the flexibility to adapt the practice aspects of their class content, sometimes on the fly, following students’ requests during the lecture. Some tarts have a thick crust: sometimes, courses need to be heavier on theory, especially when students have little-to-no professional experience. Other tarts will be thin crust, much like certain courses will have to be more practice-oriented; in particular, students with longer professional experience prefer practice to theory. From one country to another, students with similar profiles may expect more or less theory (Westerners prefer light theory and a lot of practice, Asians may prefer more theory-heavy course contents). It is therefore fundamental to know the students’ profiles and expectations when drafting the course. Flying faculty need to be particularly agile, since they do not always have the relevant information a priori and may have to adapt during course delivery. In terms of theory ingredients, for example, one may put more or less intercultural aspects in the negotiation course, depending on whether we teach in a multicultural city (e.g., New York City) or in a place characterized by a more monolith culture. It also depends on how many foreign students are deemed to attend the course (2 out of 40 vs. 25 out of 40), keeping in mind that with COVID, the proportion of international students has dropped significantly.

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Negotiation has to do with interpersonal relations in collaborative decision, and settings for collaborative decision greatly vary from one work environment to another. Culture, values, and norms may play a role on how much authority will be used or deemed acceptable. For example, we cannot teach everyone that workplace negotiated conflict management can help solve disputes between a young employee and her much older boss. In non-Western societies, that may be plain wrong. At all costs, instructors have to avoid providing skills that, according to Docherty (2010), cannot be transferred to practice into the participants’ context because they would challenge socially negotiated patterns, decision-making procedures, or acceptable norms. Here, the one-size-fits-all approach regarding course content reaches dangerous limits. In our experience, a core part of our course stays the same, no matter where we deliver it. Another important part changes, based on the environment in which we teach. For sure, the exact proportion will vary from one professor (and one discipline) to another.

The “How” Mode of delivery also needs to be tailored to the context. If some negotiation scholars assert that there is now a consensus that negotiation courses shall be taught through interactive activities, mostly simulations (Alexander & LeBaron, 2009; Lewicki & Schneider, 2010), flying faculty need to have more cards in their hands, due to the diversity of teaching settings. Relying on simulations may not be advisable, nor possible in certain circumstances. For example, in some cultures, “using role play simulations to teach key concepts will make trainees vulnerable to loss of face in front of their peers” (Cohn et al., 2009, p. 333). This raises potential issues: first, participants may refuse to play identities that are not theirs and that they may perceive as unethical, nonsensical, inappropriate, or even invasive (Alexander & LeBaron, 2009). Second, participants may react adversely when asked to report on results of negotiation simulations designed to have them fail, or when they have to participate in exercises that could make them uncomfortable. In certain cultures, participants will gladly put themselves in uncomfortable situations; in others, this will be unacceptable. Furthermore, foreign teaching assignments may come with pedagogical constraints. Some schools have adopted flipped classrooms: students expect much of the learning to take place outside the classroom (and may not systematically show up for class). Other schools have a pure in-class-learning approach, where it is hardly impossible to have students produce any work out of class. This impacts simple questions such as the number of compulsory readings or expected class preparation. Not to mention that some schools will ask you to teach to 100 students in a lecture hall, and others to a group of 20 in a cozy classroom. In some schools, students are used to a lecturing teaching style; they may be taken aback by an interactive format and vice versa. Do we adapt, or ask them to

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adapt to our way of delivery? It may be argued that it is important to expose students to different teaching approaches, to present them with different teaching traditions without having them travel. Much like Smith’s (2014) respondent, who states that “I took what I do here [in the UK] there and imposed my kind of regime, my standards, and friendliness” (p. 124), it may prove useful to shift students from their habits to reinforce the singularity of our course. This approach entails limits and here, again, knowledge of the local context is relevant. Pedagogical choices need to factor in the linguistic capabilities of students. Most of the time, students can listen to the lecture (otherwise, they would not be sitting in our class); in rare occasions, students will benefit from a translator (who adds complexity and slows down all processes). Even if they can follow a lecture, some students may not be able to read complex texts, interact with the professor during debriefings, or even with international peers during simulations. This needs to be taken into consideration. In our experience, it is probably easiest to have flying faculty members adapt to local circumstances. For this purpose, the more cards in their hand, the better. In addition to the interactive, simulation-based method, other highly effective tools exist: case studies, sessions of practice analysis (based on their own cases), analysis of negotiation situations (e.g., through videos), and even case drafting sessions, where students write simulations based on their own experience (Druckman & Ebner, 2008). Some have even run the experiment of having students guide them out of the classroom (Honeyman et al., 2010; Chamoun-Nicolas et al., 2013). In some instances, adapting may prove challenging. In more than one instance, we have been faced with having a disabled student in our class, without being warned in advance. Interactive courses work differently when a student is blind, or deaf (with a sign language interpreter). These issues are common to all professors but flying faculty may discover them on the spot and lack the training and experience to adapt rapidly. In order to avoid any pitfall, Cohn et al. (2009, p. 333) suggest “to continue the cultural assessment past the pre-negotiation planning phase and into the program itself. Conducting periodic check-ins with the participants either directly or during breaks is a sound practice for any negotiation training, but particularly one involving a diverse group.” They equally suggest to be flexible in our approaches and deviate from the pre-fixed agenda according to the group’s needs or requests. The flexibility is judged to be the best skill of negotiators; the flexibility equally should be a key for trainers as well.

A Few Reflections as Conclusion If schools have to navigate the glocalism conundrum, flying faculty need to manage this tension to respond to student expectations. For us, the job of the flying faculty, in delivering (negotiation) courses abroad, is no mere “cut-and-paste” of what they do at home. The ultimate barometer of success being the students’ reaction, the

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main objective should be to avoid any possible disconnect between the needs of the students and the instructor’s job. Worst case scenario: it happens that flying lecturers, selected on the basis of expected competencies and/or prestige, end up being accused of acting as mercenaries, delivering highly priced courses with little efforts to connect with the students’ actual needs. In order to maximize impact, flying faculty need to transmit relevant theoretical backgrounds, developed and assessed on the global scene, with a strong adaptability to the distinctive characteristics of the classroom. Rarely will there be too much local adaptation; more often, there will be too little of it, with the risk of limiting the overall impact of our teachings. We have tried to demonstrate that this is much more than cultural adjustment: all-terrain flying faculty need to get to know and understand their audience in order to then adapt both course content and course delivery methods. Among the three dimensions (the “who,” the “what,” and the “how”), the most obvious point of entry seems to be the “who.” Empathy and information collection about the audience of the course comes first and has significant implications on the other dimensions. Subsequently, there is the need for a dialog between the “what” and the “how,” each dimension impacting the two others. It is therefore a dynamic model of adaptation that flying faculty, engulfed in the glocalism conundrum, need to navigate. As such, the job of the flying faculty resembles the job of the executive education instructor, often without the support that we get when teaching executives. It would be interesting to see whether instructors who are used to executive education, perform better as flying faculty and vice versa.

References Alavoine, C., Kaplanseren, F., & Teulon, F. (2014). Teaching (and learning) negotiation: Is there still room for innovation? International Journal of Management & Information Systems, 18(1), 35–40. Alexander, N., & LeBaron, M. (2009). Death of the role-play. Hamline Journal of Public Law & Policy, 31, 459. Blatter, J. (2013, May 21). Glocalization. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www. britannica.com/topic/glocalization. Accessed 31 Mar 2021. Borbély, A., Ebner, N., Honeyman, C., Kaufman, S., & Schneider, A. K. (2017). A grand unified negotiation theory: In context. Journal of Dispute Resolution, 1, 145. Chamoun-Nicolas, H., Hazlett, R.  D., Fuller, B., & Benitez, D. (2013). Bringing the street to the classroom and the student to the street: Guided forays into street-wise negotiations. In C. Honeyman, J. Coben, & A. W.-M. Lee (Eds.), Educating negotiators in a connected world (pp. 343–366). DRI Press. Cohn, L., Howell, R., Kovach, K., Lee, A., & de Backer, H. (2009). We came, we trained, but did it matter? In C. Honeyman, J. Coben, & G. De Palo (Eds.), Rethinking negotiation teaching – Innovations for context and culture (pp. 329–342). DRI Press. Docherty, J. (2010). “Adaptive” Negotiation: Practice and teaching. In C. Honeyman, J. Coben, & G. De Palo (Eds.), Venturing beyond the classroom (pp. 481–510). DRI Press. Druckman, D., & Ebner, N. (2008). Onstage or behind the scenes? Relative learning benefits of simulation role-play and design. Simulation & Gaming, 39(4), 465–497.

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Ebner, N., & Efron, Y. (2009). Moving up: Positional bargaining revisited. In C.  Honeyman, J. Coben, & G. De Palo (Eds.), Rethinking negotiation teaching – Innovations for context and culture (pp. 251–268). DRI Press. Honeyman, C., Coben, J., & De Palo, G. (2010). Venturing beyond the classroom. DRI Press. Lewicki, R. J., & Schneider, A. K. (2010). Instructors heed the who: Designing negotiation training with the learner in mind. In C. Honeyman, J. Coben, & G. De Palo (Eds.), Venturing beyond the classroom (pp. 10–39). DRI Press. Nelken, M., McAdoo, B., & Manwaring, M. (2009). Negotiating learning environments. In C. Honeyman, J. Coben, & G. De Palo (Eds.), Rethinking negotiation teaching – Innovations for context and culture (pp. 199–237). DRI Press. Smith, K. (2014). Exploring flying faculty teaching experiences: Motivations, challenges and opportunities. Studies in Higher Education, 39(1), 117–134. Thomson, P. (2014, August 14). Life as an international academic: It can mean feeling torn in two. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/higher-­education-­network/ blog/2014/aug/14/international-­academic-­bring-­competitive-­advantage-­british-­universities. Accessed 31 Mar 2021.

Chapter 7

Workplace Culture and Professional Recognition: Coping Experiences of South Asian Immigrant Academics in UK Higher Education Md Golam Jamil

Abstract  This chapter reports findings from an interview-based qualitative study on workplace culture and experiences of four South Asian immigrant academics based at UK universities. The data illustrate the participants’ personal and professional journeys, particularly the experiences of teaching and academic administration, challenges and recognition of professional performance, and strategies they follow to survive and excel in a new academic culture. The findings resonate with the three important aspects: (i) acknowledging differences, such as changing learning culture and unique workplace conditions, (ii) recognising professional development needs and accepting opportunities to address them, and (iii) enabling cultural integration and networking, within the workplace and social settings. Overall, the chapter provides fresh insights into workplace situations and coping experiences of the immigrant academics coming from a specific geographic area. The findings are expected to help understand the personal and professional states of immigrant academics in internationalised and cohesive higher education structures. Keywords  Immigrant academics · Professional development · Cultural integration

Introduction In 2019–2020, about 12% of all the academic staff at UK universities were Asian and Black; and among them, about 5% performed senior-level roles, such as managers, directors and heads (HESA, 2021). The staff with South Asian backgrounds (Bangladesh, India and Pakistan) covered about 3% of teaching, 6% of research, 4% of teaching and research and 4% of professional services positions (HESA, 2021). M. G. Jamil (*) Leeds Trinity University, Leeds, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_7

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It is plausible that the engagement and contributions of South Asian immigrants to UK universities are significant. Overall, the importance of skilled immigrant professionals in the UK higher education is strategically vital, particularly for maintaining reputation, sustainable work environment, learning opportunities and external-­ facing academic qualities (Universities UK, 2018). Studies – for example, Morley et al. (2018) and Sanderson (2011) – show significant contributions of immigrant and international academics to research and knowledge creation, intercultural knowledge-building and bridging gaps between internationalisation and widening participation. In areas of pedagogy and assessment, they supply rich viewpoints and help students overcome stereotypes (Pherali, 2012). However, the experience of being an immigrant academic can be unsatisfying as it involves complex and lengthy processes of adaptation, acculturation and integration in a culturally divergent situation. In the literature, although the coping experience, more specifically the motivation and engagement, of international students has been addressed to some extent, the same with the immigrant academics has not received noteworthy attention. Concerns, struggle, motivation and professional success may vary among people having different ethnic and cultural backgrounds (Espinosa et  al., 2019). Hence, overgeneralising intersectional identities can be misleading. For example, in the UK, the Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) category refers to anyone ‘non-white’, which fails to recognise many unique social and cultural identities embedded within this large population. BME is not a homogenous group (Bhopal, 2016); thus, recognising its complexities and intersectional identities is essential. In this chapter, I address this need and explore professional experiences and perceptions of some South Asian immigrant academics, a more specific geographical and cultural cluster within the greater BME community, in the UK.

The Study The overarching aim of my study was to explore coping experiences of South Asian immigrant academics in UK higher education. I was particularly interested to understand these professionals’ views on their workplace culture and practices, and the professional treatment they receive from their employers and colleagues. Therefore, I investigated the following two specific questions: 1. How do the South Asian immigrant academics conceptualise the work environments at their respective universities? 2. What are their perceptions regarding their professional achievements and recognition? For data collection, I followed a narrative and qualitative research approach using life story interviews. Interviews are a common data collection technique having the power of gaining rich and recorded information through challenging, supplementing and reinforcing participants’ views. Life story interviews are in-depth

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interviews based on questions that create opportunities for interviewees to narrate personal life events as honestly and completely as possible (Atkinson, 1998). The research participants were four teaching-focused higher education academics who had migrated to the UK at the higher education stage. Two of the participants were known to me professionally, and I recruited the remaining two by a biographical profile search on the Internet and then through email communication. The participants were originally from Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan. The diverse lengths of professional experience (early career to senior leadership roles), gender variety (two male and two female participants) and different academic disciplines (Public Health, Business, and Education) of the participants supplied inclusive and rich data relevant to the research questions. The study followed standard ethical guidelines including informed consent, anonymity and confidentiality of the participants. Additionally, I was particularly careful not to be biased with my own South Asian background while interpreting the views of the research participants. I conducted the interviews online and each of them lasted for about 1  h. The questions were around the following four key themes which were also supported by extended questions, such as ‘why do you think so?’ and ‘do you have any example related to this?’ • • • •

Academic and professional journeys starting from childhood Motivation to study and work in the UK Key features of the academic and professional cultures in UK higher education Perceptions of professional recognition and personal satisfaction as an academic

I recorded the interviews in audio format and transcribed them verbatim using the Otter.ai computer programme. I identified and coded the data linked to the research questions and reported them as four narratives or case stories. The interviews were lengthy, but the case stories are brief as they contain information related to the interviewees’ work culture and professional recognition aspects only. To ensure anonymity, the narratives do not reveal the participants’ identities and, in line with this, pseudonyms are used instead of real names. Yet, the academic and professional designations, namely Dr. and Professor, are factually accurate.

The Stories of Four Immigrant Academics The life history interviews individually and together provided with rich experiential evidence of the immigrant academics demonstrating a pattern of their cooping experiences in the personal and professional lives. The case stories are broadly subjective and narrative, but a critical analysis of the data reveals reliable findings.

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Case Story 1: Dr. Luminous (Not Her Real Name) Dr. Luminous, a female lecturer in education, works at a post-92 teaching-focused university situated in the southern part of England. She has migrated from India where she completed her undergraduate and postgraduate taught studies. Later, in the UK, she completed her second postgraduate taught degree and doctoral studies in education. Luminous had managed a school in India and facilitated training on life and work skills at some Indian universities. However, her formal teaching career began in the UK.  Personally, Dr. Luminous is married and her husband is non-­ South Asian. In the interview, Luminous discussed the unique learning culture at her workplace, which she considered more meaningful compared to her prior educational experiences in India. She expressed satisfaction, particularly with the dynamic instruction and theory-rich academic rigour in the British higher education curricula. I have definitely learned to be a better teacher (in the UK). If I go back to the rote learning systems in India, I can still get the students to write what the examiners want to see, but I am able to teach them in a way that is more accessible. The understanding of theory, simplifying theories to understand them, I think these are things that I have developed since I’ve been here.

Luminous captured a significant cultural difference in terms of the approaches to learning and teacher roles in the higher education system in the UK, which does not often allow academics to go the extra miles for supporting students. When I think of students going to get education, I feel like I’m responsible to make sure they get it. But the independence of other responsibility here lies in the hands of the students. I’m providing what I should provide, and it is their duty to get or not get or decide how much they want to get from me. I find that difficult because I still feel some of the students who have so much potential, I can’t push them.

Luminous also informed how her students sometimes undervalue their academic programmes and the associated teaching and learning. I feel that in a cohort of 100 or 120 students, there’s less than a handful who show that they value it (education), but that could be my perception because culturally there are things like respect or whatever it is, which is viewed and presented differently.

In terms of professional recognition, Luminous talked about a less hierarchical working environment at her university where she can engage herself with enhanced professional communication and social interaction with colleagues in a respectful manner. … certain social rules that seem to be more respectful in terms of even when there is a hierarchy, the power differences, you still do it in a respectful manner. I think I’m more conscious of whomever I write to, whatever the age, whatever the stage you’re thinking about.

Luminous stated that collaboration and collegiality are generally expected in her workplace, but she often found them developed artificially among her colleagues.

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I look at aspects of working together, and that needs to be decolonised … This (working together) doesn’t always sit well, because some of the actions, some of the decisions, some of the ways they work together can be showing, kind of white supremacy and white fragility in the way they address and in the way they plead ignorance.

Luminous revealed instances of discrimination in gaining professional opportunities and recognition, but also explained how the structured system allows staff to take and challenge decisions. When I started teaching, I was considered an early career researcher. I wasn’t given too much teaching in terms of taking on modules by myself. … As an international person who’s come into a new system of teaching, there wasn’t enough preparation or training that was made available. I have been facing very clear and outright discrimination, not getting promoted, not being given opportunities… There is no loophole that people can pass through to point the finger at me. If this happened in India, I would just resign. But here I don’t have to resign, I am able to make a decision to dig my feet in the ground and fight for my case.

Case Story 2: Professor Bright (Not His Real Name) Professor Bright is Pro Vice-Chancellor at a research-rich university in the UK. He is originally from Bangladesh where he completed his undergraduate studies in Business. He accomplished his MPhil degree at a prestigious British university. Before joining academia, Professor Bright worked in the banking sector but eventually left the job with an aspiration to enjoy greater professional freedom and growth. He has 23 years of teaching and 7 years of leadership and management experience at 4 universities in the UK.  Professor Bright is married, and his wife is also South Asian. At the initial stage of his career, Bright had to struggle; however, he overcame the challenges by accepting the limitations and partaking in practical professional development initiatives. When I first started teaching at xx, I was given a module with 500 students and I used to go to a lecture theatre with 450 students. My first two semesters of the model evaluation showed that students were saying … (Bright) has an extremely thick accent, we don’t understand him. To be honest, I hear that all the time. Even now, I hear from junior colleagues coming from abroad that they get disgruntled by students making those comments and many of them say that our students are fundamentally racist. But that wasn’t my ­attitude. I said, of course, I need to speak at least in a way (the students understand). I will never speak like Queen English, and I don’t want to because I’m proud to be Bangladeshi. But I need to speak clearly enough so that they can learn. If they struggle to hear me, how are they going to learn?

Bright explicitly articulated gratefulness to his colleagues who have supported him in his difficult times. I found colleagues who vouched for me, who’s shown the university management, the value of keeping me within the university, and that is a learning culture that I don’t necessarily

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In relation to immigrant academics’ professional success and recognition, Bright indicated the lack of cultural integration as a key barrier to deal with. One of the major lacking among immigrant academics is not to socialise and network with the wider platform of the university. Number two is not trying to understand the culture of the organisation … after all, I’m living in a white majority country, I’m living in a different culture. And if I were to make my life in this culture, professional and social and family, then I have to learn the culture and take advantage of it.

Bright emphasised enhanced networking and professional relationship-building to cope at the workplace and within wider social settings. We (immigrant academics) tend to close ourselves at a corner in a dark place, and I did that too. But I think that is the wrong strategy. The right strategy is you try to find a common voice… One of my strategies back then, as a Senior Teaching Fellow, or equivalent to a Senior Lecturer, was to find out other Senior Lecturers who are passionate teachers but may not be doing that well in research, and how they are feeling, what their contribution is. I have friends who drive a taxi, I have friends who are consultant surgeon, I have friends who are completely on government social support, I have friends who are a millionaire and doing fantastic business across the world. I gather together and make my life rich. And I think every immigrant in this country has that privilege to gather together their community without being too snobby.

Case Story 3: Dr. Ingenious (Not Her Real Name) Dr. Ingenious is a female Senior Lecturer working at a post-92 teaching-focused university in London. She is originally from Pakistan where she completed her undergraduate and postgraduate studies in Management. Later, in the UK, she completed her second postgraduate taught degree and doctoral studies. Dr. Ingenious is a single parent. In the interview, Ingenious described her struggle and determination in building a professional career in UK higher education. There have been challenges throughout, that coming from another culture, coming from another country, being a single parent, being on your own. Those were my own personal challenges that were there. And then it was the challenges related to the job. Because every year or every second year, the visa extensions, the stress that I used to go through because it was not my own self, it was me and my daughters as well.

Ingenious described the professional culture at her workplace as inclusive and collegial. In academia, we are talking more about equality, inclusion, diversity, compared to other industries. And in that sense, we are a bit lucky that people know these terms, and at least they try to follow a few rules there. Whilst working in Pakistan, (professional) contact was limited, even once you are exchanging knowledge-based stuff, people used to hesitate a bit. Here (in the UK), I’ve seen

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the communication is more open. I have got a big team, and I do not just think for a minute if I am talking to a male or a female. I think this makes a huge difference.

Ingenious also considered the academic approaches practised in UK higher education are more student- and learning-friendly. In our culture in Pakistan, I think it’s a very guided sort of learning. The methods that are used for teaching and learning are very rigid, it just exams and quiz. So that was absolutely different once I came here to do my Masters. It was more of coursework and presentations. I think, in Pakistan, we are giving a tough time to our students, compared to students in the UK. (In the UK) … there is more flexibility to learning and we expect our students to be independent learners to do their research. … the assessment system is different as well. We over assess our students in our countries. It is all the time they have quizzes and exams and midterms, and I mean so many things. I think they learn less, and they are assessed more.

Based on her own experience, Ingenious suggested some coping strategies for immigrant academics, such as accepting new academic approaches, exploring profession-­related options and building networks with the greater professional community. Sometimes we become comfortable in the place we have been for a long time. Changing this mindset takes time, especially for us coming from a different culture, having a different language, different religion… I’ve seen myself in the same situation and I think it is important to go and join other workplaces as well. The grass does not have to be green everywhere… I’ve been working here (at her university) for a long time. I think we all know each other, but definitely once the management changes, things do change. I think it’s not that challenging, as it used to be… understanding the system is important, and then once you are valued, as a professional, as a valued colleague, then things do become easier. … the initial thing is to be part of the community, that is the most important thing. And networking, I think that is very important. But, again, the most important thing is working hard, I think that shows your credibility at your workplace.

Case Story 4: Dr. Sharp (Not His Real Name) Dr. Sharp is a male Lecturer working in the Medicine faculty at a world-leading research-rich British university. He is originally from Nepal where he completed his secondary and higher secondary education at schools and a college situated in different cities. Dr. Sharp completed his bachelor’s degree in China, a postgraduate taught degree in the Netherlands and a postgraduate research degree in Nepal. He has about 7 years of teaching experience in Nepal, and 1 year of teaching experience in the UK. Dr. Sharp is married, and his partner is also South Asian. In the UK, Sharp experienced unique learner-centred and critical-thinking-based academic culture, which he needed to grasp and embed in his professional practice. I was a bit surprised with the culture where students are the centre. I think that’s very ideal, but initially, I thought it was quite surprising that students get so much priority in terms of

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M. G. Jamil being able to have their say in how things are then delivered or how curriculums are better implemented … One of the topics that I offered, I went with the teaching, and then all the students listened to me, but in the end, the discussion was not about what I presented. The discussion was beyond the presentation, in terms of applying that to the context and having an opinion about how things work in the real world, and how they would apply to a certain situation kind of thing. I think the teaching is more about building on analytical skills, and so students prefer more interactive sessions.

Initially, Sharp faced challenges in using the English language for communication effectively, and independent decision-making was also a new learning experience for him. English that I spoke in Nepal was completely different from the English that is spoken in England in terms of the choice of vocabulary and taking rarer reference examples about situations etc. So, initially, communication was quite a big challenge for me in terms of getting the message correct. So, my strategy was to speak less and do more email communications to explain things. I think in verbal communication, you’re expected to be very succinct and very clear. It (the course coordinator) was very hard for me to execute that role. Because I was not used to this making decision back in Nepal at all, even if I had achieved a certain position already back in Nepal, everything was needed to be approved by the boss for every little step. There was hardly any decision-making role that you had independently.

Overall, Sharp expressed his positive experience about the professional recognition he was receiving, and also his university’s generous support for his professional learning and development. There is a way of getting appreciation, either through students’ feedback or maybe through colleagues’ feedback. You can discuss your difficulties with your boss, as well as ask for feedback. And then there are opportunities for getting further training… I was someone who needed skills upgradation in terms of getting more courses or joining the teaching qualification course … I was not treated as an employee who has to deliver because I’m paid. I was treated as someone who should get benefits other than getting a salary, benefits in terms of skills and other qualifications. I’ve improved in a lot of areas, just to name, actually be able to use a session plan, to plan a session and then implement it in the way it is designed, being able to use a standard format which I thought was not important at all back in Nepal …

Insights from the Case Stories The life story interview data supply real instances of the South Asian immigrant academics’ aspiration, struggle and success in the UK higher education sector. A critical review of the findings suggests three coping strategies for them: (i) acknowledging differences in the new academic culture and getting familiar with it, (ii) identifying professional development needs and accepting available provisions to progress in the areas, and (iii) widening networks within and beyond the workplace for improving the overall quality of life.

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First, the study reveals areas of difference in the academic culture, for example, dissimilar learning and instructional approaches, varied student expectations, and unique workplace conditions between the UK and South Asian higher education. The value of higher education in the Asia-Pacific region is broadly Western and mainly driven by personal goals, such as jobs, family matters and national interests (Collins & Bethke, 2017). Historically, South Asian countries follow British education systems; thus, similarity between the academic cultures of UK and South Asian higher education institutes is expected. However, the differences in terms of academic culture identified by the research participants signal a clear disconnection of the ethos and practices between the higher education in the two regions, which immigrant academics need to expect and acknowledge. Additionally, constantly growing concepts and practices of equality, diversity and inclusion in UK higher education appear to be another extent that South Asian immigrant academics may find unfamiliar but an important area to address in their professional practice. Second, as expected, the academics report the importance of partaking in continuing professional development for the survival of South Asian immigrant academics in UK higher education. Studies with international students demonstrate that quicker coping strategies at the initial phase of migration can help achieve professional goals and avoid social exclusion more effectively (Elliot, Reid, & Baumfield, 2016). Similarly, the approach to professional development at the very beginning of the academic profession may have stronger impacts on South Asian immigrant academics. Concerning this, a combination of pre-departure preparation, assessing personal professional needs and availability of professional development provision in the initial years may help achieve speedier adaptation to the new work environment. The study also identifies instances of discrimination, particularly in areas of professional recognition, although it finds some active systems within universities which immigrant academics can use to raise individual voice and seek for justice. Yet, to survive and succeed, they may need to be extra resilient, interactive and accommodative (Kim & Ng, 2019). The universities also have important roles to play, for example practising diversity-sensitive leadership and eradicating unconscious bias for creating an inclusive and fair work environment for immigrant staff (Bhopal & Brown, 2016; Walter et al., 2017). Third, the study highlights the perceived importance of network-building and wider cultural integration as effective coping strategies. Historically, universities are generally negligent about the socio-cultural needs of immigrant academics and their families (Mizzi, 2013). Studies show high rates of psychological distress due to migration among South Asian immigrants, which plausibly have significant impacts on their professional performance and social life (Karasz et al., 2019). To address this, the UK universities can help immigrant academics integrate with the local culture through socially and professionally assimilative schemes, such as family support groups, induction programmes on UK higher education systems and academic culture, and ‘accent adjustment programmes’ for helping communicate effectively (Antoniadou & Quinlan, 2018). The findings of the study also place a strong emphasis on the academics’ personal effort to relationship-building within and beyond their respective workplace. On the one hand, professional

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rapport-­building in the workplace can help understand the organisation’s expectations, preferred approaches and profession-related options. On the other, social network-building can help as a healthy approach to emotion regulation and improve the overall quality of life, which is vital for coping with migration.

Conclusion The experiential evidence of the four immigrant academics helps understand some practical issues affecting their lives and profession, and the coping strategies they employ to survive in certain circumstances. South Asia itself is a geographically and culturally diverse region, so the findings that emerged from this small-scale study may not represent the experiences and perceptions of the UK-based South Asian community in an equal manner. Yet, the findings supply some important profession-­ related insights which can assist academic leaders in the planning and implementation of measures for enabling equal opportunities and benefits for this group of people. The study expands the growing discourse on student and learning perspectives in internationalised and inclusive higher education to the aspects of international academics and their professional practices. Research-informed discussion in this area is vital for creating international and dynamic higher education environments.

References Antoniadou, M., & Quinlan, K. M. (2018). Thriving on challenges: How immigrant academics regulate emotional experiences during acculturation. Studies in Higher Education, 45(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1512567 Atkinson, R. (1998). The life story interview. SAGE Publications. Bhopal, K. (2016). White academia: Will the race equality charter make a difference? LSE Blog: British Politics and Policy. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/politicsandpolicy/tackling-­race-­inequality-­ in-­higher-­education/. Accessed 18 Apr 20121. Bhopal, K., & Brown, H. (2016). Black and ethnic minority leaders: Support networks and strategies for success in HE. Report for the Leadership Foundation for Higher Education. https:// eprints.soton.ac.uk/398022/. Accessed 2 July 2021. Collins, C. S., & Bethke, R. J. (2017). The value of higher education for individuals and society in the Asia-Pacific region. Studies in Higher Education, 42(10), 1809–1824. https://doi.org/1 0.1080/03075079.2017.1376870 Elliot, D.  L., Reid, K., & Baumfield, V. (2016). Beyond the amusement, puzzlement and challenges: An enquiry into international students’ academic acculturation. Studies in Higher Education, 41(12), 2198–2217. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1029903 Espinosa, L. L., Turk, J. M., Taylor, M., & Chessman, H. M. (2019). Race and ethnicity in higher education: A status report. American Council on Education. Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA). (2021). Who’s working in HE? Personal characteristics. https://www.hesa.ac.uk/data-­and-­analysis/staff/working-­in-­he/characteristics. Accessed 18 Apr 2021.

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Karasz, A., Gany, F., Escobar, J., Flores, C., Prasad, L., Inman, A., Kalasapudi, V., Kosi, R., Murthy, M., Leng, J., & Diwan, S. (2019). Mental health and stress among South Asians. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 21(1), 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-­016-­0501-­4 Kim, T., & Ng, W. (2019). Ticking the ‘other’ box: Positional identities of East Asian academics in UK universities, internationalisation and diversification. Policy Reviews in Higher Education, 3(1), 94–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322969.2018.1564886 Mizzi, R. (2013). Crossing borders to teach: A literature review of (dis) location, interconnectedness, and pedagogy. Canadian Journal for the Study of Adult Education, 25(2), 53–64. Morley, L., Alexiadou, N., Garaz, S., González-Monteagudo, J., & Taba, M. (2018). Internationalisation and migrant academics: The hidden narratives of mobility. Higher Education, 76(3), 537–554. Pherali, T. J. (2012). Academic mobility, language, and cultural capital: The experience of transnational academics in British higher education institutions. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(4), 313–333. Sanderson, G. (2011). Internationalisation and teaching in higher education. Higher Education Research & Development, 30(5), 661–676. Universities UK. (2018). Patterns and trends in UK higher education 2018. Universities UK. https:// www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/facts-­and-­stats/data-­and-­analysis/Pages/Patterns-­and-­trends-­in-­UK-­ higher-­education-­2018.aspx. Accessed 1 Mar 2021. Walter, A. W., Ruiz, Y., Tourse, R. W. C., Kress, H., Morningstar, B., MacArthur, B., & Daniels, A. (2017). Leadership matters: How hidden biases perpetuate institutional racism in organizations. Human Service Organizations: Management, Leadership & Governance, 41(3), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/23303131.2016.1249584

Chapter 8

Belongingness Challenges of Repatriate Academics at International University Campuses Heather Swenddal, Mathews Nkhoma, and Sarah Gumbley

Abstract  Transnational higher education has collapsed geographic boundaries, allowing offshore students to gain an international education without leaving their home regions. A prominent model for transnational higher education is overseas university branch campuses. These satellite campuses approximate parent-campus learning experiences, importing curriculum and teaching practices from headquarters. However, lecturers working at these international campuses often hail from local regions, placing them in the unique identity position of navigating between the local culture of the international branch campus (IBC) and the overseas culture of the university’s parent campus. Our research finds that host-country lecturers at international branch campuses often identify more with their local campuses than their global universities, impeding their comfort in representing their broader institutions. An exception exists in local lecturers who have previously lived as expatriates overseas. In this chapter we profile host-country branch-campus lecturers whose international experiences have helped them to develop cosmopolitan sensibilities that bridge parent and branch campus cultures. These lecturers’ global identities attract them to their international universities but can also isolate them from less-traveled compatriots, impeding their sense of local belonging. In this chapter we present cases of repatriate branch campus lecturers and explore their unique identity situations. Keywords  International branch campuses · Academic identity · International faculty

H. Swenddal (*) Nichols College, Dudley, MA, USA e-mail: [email protected] M. Nkhoma · S. Gumbley Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_8

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Introduction As transnational higher education has expanded university programs across borders, international branch campuses (IBCs) have proliferated. 250 IBCs now operate worldwide, recreating international student experiences in offshore locations (Cross-Border Educational Research Team, 2021). Global universities strive to transmit their “parent-campus DNA” across borders (Salt & Wood, 2014), mirroring parent-campus academic programs, facilities and learning experiences at IBCs (Wilkins & Rumbley, 2018). IBC lecturers play a key role in supporting this global ethos, animating the wider university in their interactions with students (Hughes, 2011). Representing their global universities can be challenging for IBC lecturers hailing from their campus’ host country. Host-country IBC lecturers are not technically international faculty, since they do not “hold appointments in countries where they are not born,” (Altbach & Yudkevich, 2017, p. 1). However, their appointments are with organizations based in countries where they are not born, making them responsible for engaging with the headquarters country as they simultaneously engage in their own. Host-country IBC lecturers must navigate between parent-campus and branch-campus cultures in the course of their work. These responsibilities can be particularly challenging for local IBC lecturers who have limited familiarity with their universities’ headquarters and home-country cultures (Healey, 2018). Little is known about how IBC lecturers orient to their unique roles, reflecting a general lack of literature on IBC lecturer perspectives (Knight & Liu, 2017) as well as limited knowledge of international faculty experiences (Altbach & Yudkevich, 2017). Our research addresses this gap, exploring the organization-based identities of locally hired IBC lecturers. In this chapter we highlight our overall findings and present data defining a particular type of IBC academic: host-country nationals who have previously lived overseas as expatriates. We explore these lecturers’ global identities and discuss the belongingness challenges that they face in returning to their home countries. We begin with a theoretical background on identity and global migration, followed by an overview of our research methods and presentation of our research findings. We conclude with a discussion of these findings’ implications for theory and practice.

Theoretical Background A person’s identity is really a multitude of identities: a complex array of self-­ conceptions forged through their engagement with various roles and collectives (Jenkins, 2014). The catalyst for identity construction is social interaction. Individuals experiment with identity, trying on various roles and receiving feedback on their performances (Goffman, 1959). This feedback on how others see them

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synthesizes with the person’s own self-concepts, forming an “internal/external dialectic” that produces their evolving identity profile (Jenkins, 2014, pp. 42–43). Social construction of identity often centers on group membership. Group identities are forged through members’ efforts to distinguish “in-group” and “out-group” characteristics, establishing what is unique about the group among its peers (Tajfel & Turner, 1985). In identifying as members of a group, individuals may adopt its characteristics as their own. This process is particularly observable with national identities. Bourdieu (1989) said that the people of a nation have a shared “habitus”: a constellation of orientations comprising a collection of intellectual habits. Individuals internalize their nation’s habitus and see the world through its lens. Living outside one’s native country can complicate one’s identity. Appiah (2020) explains that experiencing the national habitus of a foreign land forces recognition of the taken-for-granted cultural practices that one grew up with. Expatriates living for years overseas may develop “cultural hybridity” (Burke, 2009), adopting practices from their host country and bricolaging them together with their long-term national habitus. Such hybridity affords a person a wider lens for viewing the world, facilitating a cosmopolitan sensibility through which they may transcend the identity boundaries of their home country (Appiah, 2020). This identity expansion is particularly helpful for international academics, whose work requires them to engage with global concepts and practices. Expatriates’ cultural hybridity can expand their identity options, but this expansion can lead to conflict if they return to their home countries. The “reverse culture shock” of re-entry to one’s homeland can feel more jarring than the culture shock of moving overseas (Callahan, 2011). Once-familiar cultural practices can feel foreign, and the repatriate may feel like a stranger in their home country, assessed by their fellow citizens’ monocultural worldviews (Winette, 2012). Repatriates can experience profound loneliness, feeling isolated from both their native and adopted cultures (Callahan, 2011). Repatriation of expatriates to their home countries is an understudied phenomenon (Ellis et al., 2020), and we are aware of no research to date that examines repatriation in the international branch-campus context. IBCs present a unique identity landscape because they combine global and local elements, requiring lecturers to navigate diverse cultural schemata in the course of their daily work. This chapter examines cases of repatriated host-country lecturers working at international branch campuses, noting both the benefits and challenges they experience due to their expanded worldviews.

Methods The methodology used to conduct this research was constructivist grounded theory: a social-constructionist variant of Glaser and Strauss’s (1967) grounded-theory method, which prioritizes insights from emic data rather than application of extant theory (Charmaz, 2014). Grounded-theory data are collected—often via

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interviews—and researchers analyze the data for patterns, building theory “from the ground up” (Charmaz, 2014). Constructivist grounded theory adopts the same core steps as the original grounded-theory method but does so using a social-­constructivist epistemological perspective, recognizing the contextual boundedness of research findings as well as the researcher’s contributions to theory development (Charmaz, 2014). In 2018 our first author visited four Asia-based campuses of Australian universities, interviewing 37 lecturers and leaders. Interviews averaged 60 minutes and progressed in a semi-structured format, with the interviewer inviting participants to reflect on their identities and experiences working within their IBCs. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed, and data were analyzed using the software program NVivo. Identity served as a central “sensitizing concept” (Charmaz, 2014), signposting topics for tangential exploration. It was within these co-constructed discovery moments that the two cases presented in this chapter occurred. Grounded theory analysis progresses through iterative stages of coding to theory development. For our project, this analysis took several years and resulted in a range of findings and theories. A particular focus that emerged was on the identity orientations of locally hired IBC lecturers: a group that we did not restrict our focus to, but one that emerged as central due to the large number of regional lecturers who responded to our call for participants. Aligning with a general trend toward local academic hiring at IBCs, our research focused largely on the views of this particular demographic, forming what we believe is the first comprehensive exploration of local IBC lecturers’ perspectives. In this chapter we briefly overview the full set of theories emerging from this research and present in greater detail the two cases relevant to our present focus: the complicated global identities of repatriate host-country lecturers who have lived for several years overseas.

Findings A major finding of our research is that host-country IBC lecturers often feel disconnected from their universities’ home campuses, constructing identities that are distinct from their global institutions. Many local lecturers have not traveled to their parent campuses, and they identify more with their branch campuses than their global organizations. While they may crave greater connection with their wider universities, the geographic distance separating campuses creates a sense of isolation and organizational disconnect that are reinforced through day-to-day practice. This disconnect has profound implications for global university management, potentially undermining cross-campus alignment, and the international student experience. One type of local IBC lecturer stood out in our data as distinct from this general pattern of identity disconnect. Host country nationals who had previously lived as expatriates possessed expansive global identities and served as advocates for their IBCs’ global integration: a stance that at times placed them in conflict with

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less-traveled compatriots. Below we present two cases that exemplify this globally oriented lecturer archetype. Both participants were Malaysian citizens who had lived as expatriates in the United Kingdom, and both had repatriated to Malaysia within the past decade. We introduce their prototypical cases and discuss the unique identity perspectives and belongingness challenges that these lecturers face in the cultural borderland of the IBC context.

The International Accountant: Zara’s1 Story As a young accountant working in her native country of Malaysia, Zara had a life-­ changing experience. She got a job at a local branch of a US company, where international supervisors apprenticed her in new ways of thinking: So, I was working with bosses from the U.S. and Australia and I quite liked the way that they are thinking, you know it’s quite broad and open, and actually I’m that person, so they kind of like give me the experience to elaborate more, present more, and express more.

Engaging with these cultural outsiders gave Zara the opportunity to perform more “broad and open” ways of being, leading to an identity transition chronicled by her realization that “actually I’m that person.” Zara’s identity developed further when she relocated to the United Kingdom for graduate school. It was there that she met her husband—a fellow international student from Malaysia. The couple stayed in the region after completing their studies, and Zara became an auditor with a global financial services company. In this new role, she worked on international teams, asking her colleagues for cultural insights to help her better serve her UK clients. Zara’s emerging cultural dexterity served her well: She was soon promoted to a senior leadership role. Zara’s UK experience came to an end when her husband accepted a position in Malaysia. For Zara, re-adjusting to life in her home country was difficult: He just brought me back. And I have to endure the cultural change, transitional change and all this.

Fortunately, Zara was able to remain employed with her firm, transferring to a local branch. There, her global experience was prized as an asset. She quickly advanced beyond her local peers, and in doing so perceived their jealousy: When I got in I was just still at the senior level. But I was able to do everything at the managerial level. And of course, that created some jealousy. I mean that is culturally. So that part I didn’t know how to deal with. You know it wasn’t from my background experience this that I’m able to handle this. From my background, I’m able to handle all the diversity and stuff. But never the culture.

This professional jealousy from her peers presented a challenge that Zara’s international mentors hadn’t prepared her for: repatriating to her home country and  All names are pseudonyms.

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working with colleagues who had never left. Zara “persevered” through the cultural adjustment and tried “slowly blending in.” As she noticed the awareness gaps between herself and local colleagues, she developed a new calling: She would be a bridge to global ways of thinking, educating her peers about international practices. It was this educational mission that eventually led Zara to work at the international branch campus of her global university. She wanted to train accounting students, improving graduate outcomes in service to the local profession. She wanted to model global accomplishments for her students—to show them “what a chartered accountant can contribute to society.” She also wanted to work with international leaders again. For Zara, a major benefit of the IBC was its global connections. She describes this as the reason she chose to apply for her current position: There are several local universities here. Some are quite local. So I do not want to be confined to my expression. So, before I got in I had the idea that this is where I’m gonna be. I have so much fun with U.S., UK, Australian bosses? So, I wanted to have fun. Because back in my work in [local office of financial services firm], it was a very stressful environment without much support. I was basically on my own. I still need mentoring, I still need someone to guide me, no matter how old I am. So, I thought that, okay, I need to mix with a more educated bunch of people and more open.

Zara did not want to be the sole global representative leading teams of committed monoculturalists. She craved engagement with global leaders. She was impressed with her campus’ Australian leadership, and she was pleased to be working with fellow cosmopolitan Malaysians, whose international experiences and outlook mirror her own. Nationality does not make a global citizen, Zara said: “It’s about your exposure.” Unfortunately for Zara, not all of her university colleagues share her global exposure. When we spoke, professional jealousy had again become a problem. Despite her efforts, she felt that some colleagues had been gossiping about her, criticizing her assumed ambitions. You can tend to find enemies here. I’ve already told them, “If I want any [advanced] positions, I would have not resigned from my old job. Better pay, better ranking. But I’m here trying to teach.” I have the interest in teaching. But you know, doing in a way that I—no choice, trying to be myself. And have to endure, you know, the jealousy around.

Zara felt that some of colleagues were not as welcoming to her global outlook and self-presentation as she had expected. In “trying to be myself”—trying to manifest her full global identity—Zara felt she had raised these colleagues’ ire. She summarized recent conflicts as matters of “innocent jealousy”: There is a local mentality where if you get ahead, there just is—just innocent jealousy, they say bad things about you, rumors, stuff like that. I’m really affected by this. Because I’ve tried to be myself, you know I’m not—they call it two-face here. I’m not this person. I’m trying to do good. I’m trying to contribute. I’m trying to really, really do good.

Zara’s statement that she was “really affected by this” corresponded with her countenance as she shared this recent challenge. She expressed frustrations at the rumors and “two-face” accusations. She had tried to “be myself,” and she felt that

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self-rejected. But her global identity was part of her, integral to her sense of self. Regardless of the rejection she faced, her global identity would prevail. Zara’s emphasis on “trying to contribute” demonstrates her commitment to staying true to her beliefs—part of which included an emphasis on maintaining global quality in IBC education. Zara said elsewhere that parent-campus expectations were a “benchmark” that the IBC needed to reach. She understood the gap between IBC and parent-campus practices, and she saw her role in part as helping to close this gap, championing globally standard academic quality. This role may have contributed to her alienation, but she persevered—despite the alienation she experienced from her colleagues.

The Prodigal Academic: Isabel’s Story Isabel worked in the same branch campus as Zara, but it was unclear if they had met. Regardless, their similarities were striking. Both were Malaysian natives who had lived overseas for many years; both had struggled culturally upon re-entry. Isabel’s cosmopolitan identity was broadcast semiotically through her distinctive British accent. Born in the city where the IBC was located, she felt great “love” for her home as well as a hunger for more. She pursued an undergraduate arts education in Australia, and later moved to the United Kingdom for graduate school. Multiple master’s degrees and a PhD later, Isabel received a job offer from the international branch campus in her hometown. Isabel had taught at several universities during her graduate studies and was an accomplished academic. The opportunity to join an Australian university in Malaysia presented an ideal marriage of worlds: She could reunite with her family and support the cosmopolitan development of the region she loved. As part of the Australian university, she would stay connected to the global values that now defined her. Isabel’s work at the IBC was fruitful, but like Zara, she faced challenges in repatriating. Perhaps most profound was the treatment Isabel received from fellow citizens, who accused her of abandoning her Malaysian heritage. Isabel described colleagues questioning her ability to still speak the local language or navigate local environments, asking, for example, whether she was able to shop at local markets without a translator. She was teased for her British accent, treated as a foreigner in her hometown. Isabel’s cosmopolitan mindset isolated her professionally as well. As she engaged with campus colleagues who had not traveled beyond their region, she encountered teaching approaches that to her seemed antithetical to the university’s global mission. International standards for student-centered education were undermined by local teachers who drilled students in rote-learning memorization. Isabel protested, seeking to globalize campus practices, but her colleagues discounted her views, she said, repeating a hurtful refrain: “You’re so white. You’re white on the inside. You’re so Western and you’re so white on the inside. We don’t do things like this.”

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Even when she reminded them that she, like them, hailed from the same home region, Isabel’s locally minded colleagues repeated this exclusionary narrative. They would just go, “Well, you’re not really local. You might have been born here but you’re not.” For Isabel, these insults were easily disregarded—almost serving as a badge of honor. “I’m fine with that,” she said of the narrative. Her global identity placed her at a distance from her parochial local colleagues, but she seemed to revel in her otherness, too, availing herself of the cultural affordances of working at an Australian international campus. She socialized with Western expatriate lecturers and engaged with disciplinary colleagues at the university’s home campus—an action few participants described pursuing. While most IBC lecturers we interviewed for this research described limited connections to headquarters colleagues, Isabel proudly “forged” her own “networks” with them, pushing back against the institutional separation that pervaded headquarters and branch campus relations. She attended conferences with parent-campus colleagues and thrilled at their acceptance of her. She recounted a moment at one such conference, in which her headquarters colleagues insisted that she removed the branch-campus signifier on her presentation slides: [They said] “Why are you putting [IBC] at the end of your institution because you’re a branch, like a campus… We don’t do that so just take it off.” They did that when I did my presentation… I was introduced as a colleague.

Isabel experienced her headquarters colleagues’ actions in this conference as a profound moment of inclusive identity construction. They treated her “as a colleague,” and in doing so, they also established a candidate identity for the IBC as integral to the university rather than a distant satellite. Isabel belonged. The IBC belonged. Isabel wanted her IBC colleagues to experience this belonging, too. Isabel became a champion for global integration, urging her colleagues to “stop being so insular.” She felt that her IBC’s perceived disconnect from the home campus could be remedied by proactive outreach. She counseled her peers and trained her students to engage with the world beyond their country’s borders: If you are an academic you have to have conversations with people outside of Malaysia, outside of [region] and outside of Asia. You have to be part of the global academic network, not just what happens here in Malaysia. [Otherwise] no one’s going to care and no one’s going to know who you are… if you’re not going to be part of the conversation.

Experiencing the acceptance of headquarters colleagues and the influence of her global outlook on local peers, Isabel forged a confident identity for herself as a cosmopolitan global citizen and an ambassador for cultural dialogue and integration. She even brought this globalizing vision to her local community beyond the IBC, where her UK academic background helped her positively impact the region’s arts and culture activities. Isabel envisioned for her young fellow citizens a global future for their region where global ideas could be experienced locally. Isabel’s community engagement exemplifies her efforts to reframe Malaysian identity around global ideals. Through her service Isabel modeled a more cosmopolitan version of local identity, expanding this identity category to one that included

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her. In doing so, she subverted messaging from less-traveled compatriots that restricted her belonging, positioning herself as a central member of this new belongingness focus: the global identity that she embraced.

Discussion The cases presented above exemplify the international-campus lecturer type that we term the “Cosmopolitan Repatriate.” After years of expatriate life overseas, both Zara and Isabel have returned to their home country, bringing with them expansive global identities that help them to thrive as international-campus lecturers but also alienate them from less-traveled colleagues. From these participants’ perspectives, their compatriot colleagues resist Cosmopolitan Repatriates’ global orientations, challenging their embrace of global academic practices and treating them as cultural others. While jarring, this rejection seems to enhance repatriates’ global identities, reinforcing their self-conceptions as distinct from their less-traveled peers. These processes demonstrate the social phenomena at work in identity construction. Living overseas as expatriates, these lecturers’ identities expanded beyond their national habitus, but upon returning, their identities no longer fit the “in-group” definitions of their compatriots. They were treated as “out-group” by local peers, rejected as insufficiently native. These lecturers’ response is not to comply with the limited “in-group” expectations but to challenge them. They chart new globalized national identities and posit these as alternative options for local students and colleagues, encouraging them to expand their thinking beyond local borders. This phenomenon echoes an established pattern in group identity formation: Since individuals derive identities in part from the groups in which they are members, they may seek to shape their group identities in ways that serve their individual identity projects (Dejordy & Creed, 2018). Cosmopolitan Repatriates’ ambassadorial efforts to recruit their fellow citizens to more globalized outlooks demonstrate this population’s value for global universities. International branch campuses suffer from limited exposure to home-campus practices, potentially leading to cross-campus misalignment. Cosmopolitan Repatriates can translate culturally bound information across multiple groups, rendering them mutually accessible (Callahan, 2011). In doing so, these lecturers can serve their universities as intercultural liaisons, steering the offshore satellite in global directions. These findings demonstrate the need for global universities to understand the complex identity challenges of their offshore employees. Global universities should cultivate and support host-country IBC lecturers just as they would international lecturers at their headquarters campuses. Cosmopolitan Repatriates seek engagement with their global peers, and by enhancing this engagement, global employers may be able to leverage the robust cultural dexterity of these professionals to champion global practices at these offshore locations. Supporting and cultivating

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Cosmopolitan Repatriates may hold the key to enhancing lecturer belonging across IBCs, enhancing global campus alignment as well as the IBC lecturer experience.

Conclusion The cases presented in this chapter confirm that the isolation experienced by expatriates re-entering their homelands is faced by repatriating university lecturers working in their home countries’ international branch campuses. This finding is noteworthy due to the global positioning of these branch campuses. Ostensibly international branch campuses are transported oases of headquarters experiences. However, the othering treatment of globally minded IBC faculty by their more parochial colleagues raises questions about the cultural approach embraced in these campuses. Our findings indicate a need for greater cross-campus alignment in global universities and highlight the role of Cosmopolitan Repatriate lecturers in pursuing this work. These findings contribute to understandings of academic migration and identity, and they offer practical value for IBCs seeking to deliver headquarters-­evocative learning experiences. These findings are of course contextually bound. Constructivist grounded theory methodology cautions against assuming generalizability from findings; the insights presented in this chapter should be examined further in subsequent research. Additional studies of returning expatriates working at international branch campuses will help to confirm and clarify the precise nature of these phenomena. We call for further research on identity and belonging of international branch campus lecturers, and we particularly encourage further exploration of Cosmopolitan Repatriates and their valuable yet conflicted global identities. These lecturers may hold the key to fulfilling the promise of transnational higher education, bridging cultural divides across borders.

References Altbach, P., & Yudkevich, M. (2017). International faculty in 21st-century universities. In M.  Yudkevich, P.  Altbach, & L.  Rumbley (Eds.), International faculty in higher education: Comparative perspectives on recruitment, integration and impact (pp. 1–14). Routledge. Appiah, K. A. (2020). The lies that bind: Rethinking identity. Liveright. Bourdieu, P. (1989). Social space and symbolic power. Sociological Theory, 7(1), 14–25. Burke, P. (2009). Cultural hybridity. Polity Press. Callahan, C. (2011). Negotiating adaptation: Perceptions of culture and communication among cultural sojourners. Communication, Culture & Critique, 4, 314–322. Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications. Cross–Border Education Research Team. (2021). C–BERT branch campus listing (Data originally collected by Kevin Kinser and Jason E. Lane). Cross–Border Education Research Team. Available cbert.org/branchcampuses.php

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Chapter 9

Educated for Somewhere Else: Borderlands and Belonging in Caribbean Haiti Lucas Endicott

Abstract  This chapter examines internationalization and higher education in the Caribbean nation state, Haiti. Haiti statistically remains the most underserved community by higher education in Latin America and the Caribbean. Haitian scholars who strive to engage international higher education conversations are often obliged to cross linguistic, cultural, and political borders. Though Haitian scholars have excelled in international contexts, this chapter considers the complex international relationships negotiated by scholars in Haiti. The findings detailed in this chapter were produced during an instrumental, multi-site case study conducted with nine educational leaders working at three higher education institutions in Haiti. The evidence collected indicates that issues related to belonging and connection are central for Haitian higher education. As one faculty member said, “we are educated for somewhere else.” However, borderland research and Caribbean transnationalist studies suggest that the multipolar, cultural hybridity developed by Haitian scholars may produce more robust higher education outcomes both in Haiti and for the larger international community. Keywords  Higher education · Caribbean · Haiti · Borderland · Transnationalism · Cultural hybridity · Comparative education

Introduction Global participation in higher education is greater than ever before. Massification in higher education has contributed to “more than 260 million students globally in more than 20,000 universities” (de Wit & Altbach, 2020, p.  34). In the last few L. Endicott (*) Saint Paul School of Theology, Kansas City, KS, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_9

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decades many emerging economies have significantly increased in-country enrollment rates (Carnoy et al., 2013; Schwartzman et al., 2015). Several of these nation states are now approaching gross enrollment ratios of 50%; a ratio once witnessed only in high income countries (de Wit & Altbach, 2020, p. 34). Put simply, more students are accessing higher education across the globe. Lived experience behind these general enrollment gains are, however, more complex. In particular, students and faculty working in traditionally underrepresented regions face simultaneous internal and external challenges. Governmental resources are often scarce (Jacob, 2020; Kipchumba, 2019). Philosophical convictions shape institutional structures as questions about whether higher education is a private or public good persist (Labaree, 2017; Unterhalter et al., 2018). Perhaps most importantly, the emerging global educational market is increasingly crowded with apparent “winners” and “losers,” “centers” and “peripheries” (Marginson, 2006; Wilkins et al., 2012). Faculty and students in the small Caribbean nation of Haiti are engaged in this larger educational world. Internalization is not new to Haitian educational practitioners. Rather, educational leaders in Haiti balance relationships with the international community, seek a sense of belonging, and often struggle for validity as they navigate the ever-changing landscape. In so doing, these scholars live in the “conditional terrain—between the well-worn path and the world beyond” (Hämäläinen & Truett, 2011, p.  361). In these educational borderlands Haitian scholars have not been afraid, to borrow the words of poet Guillermo Gómez-Peña, to “trespass, bridge, interconnect, reinterpret, remap, and redefine” (Gómez-Peña, 1996, p. 12).

Context: Latin America and Haiti Haiti’s historical, geopolitical, linguistic, and economic identity make it unique even in the polyvibrant world of the Caribbean. Since its founding, Haiti has had negotiated relationships with the larger international world as “the country’s leaders challenged their postcolonial inequality with diplomacy and state formation” (Gaffield, 2020, p. 841). The complexity of postcolonial relationships has impacted higher education in Latin America broadly and affected Haiti in several specific ways. Educational attainment in Latin America remains below global levels with individuals receiving an average of 8.26  years of total schooling (Barro & Lee, 2013, p. 191). The picture in Haiti is even more dire where “only 2 percent of the total population has a professional or technical education” (Rameau et  al., 2007, p. 106). Researchers have demonstrated the tremendous human capital in Haiti (Gedro & Hartman, 2016). Haitians who migrate to the United States have demonstrated greater gains in higher education attainment than other immigrant groups with one study reporting 81.73% of second-generation Haitians in the United States surveyed attained some college (Feliciano, 2005, p. 850). Historically, institutions in North America have benefitted from student talent across Latin America and the Caribbean

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where “between 1993 and 2002, the number of Latin American postsecondary students in the United States increased by 50 percent” (de Wit et al., 2005, p. 39). Now, however, comprehensive educational investment across the region is challenging these trends as students find quality educational choices much closer to home (Altbach, 2016; Holm-Nielsen et al., 2005). Latin America is making gains on the whole. However, using the latest available data, Sergot Jacob (2020) has demonstrated the gap between graduating students and available space in Haitian higher educational institutions is large. “Some 10,774 young people, nearly half (47%) of the potential demand for higher education in 2009, did not gain a place in public institutions of higher education (IHEs) or in recognized private IHEs. These high-school graduates had three possible destinations: foreign countries (including the Dominican Republic in particular), non-­ recognized IHEs or being forced to wait for an opportunity or join, for better or worse, the professional environment” (Jacob, 2020, p. 354). Demand still outpaces supply in Haiti for higher education. There are, however, many working to strengthen in-country options for students. The rector of Université Quisqueya, Jacky Lumarque, is one such practitioner, saying, “We have certainly believed in numbers, diversified our programs and research laboratories; introduced several institutional innovations; strengthened our partnerships with businesses; increased international cooperation but also with Haitian institutions” (Lumarque, 2015). The university developed in 2011, for example, a Center for Entrepreneurship and Innovation that by 2015 had “trained a thousand young academics in business plans, helped formalize nearly 200 companies” (Lumarque, 2015). Philip Altbach (1981, 2016) has long argued that a complex relationship exists between the “centers” and “peripheries” within higher education and has reported in recent years that there is “growing tension around the center-periphery dynamic” (Altbach et al., 2009, p. v). Many nation states have labored to develop educational structures that encourage the best and brightest to stay and contribute in their country of origin, benefit from global migration scholarly flows, and leverage research capabilities to solve local issues. However, as educational leaders in Haiti seek to strengthen in-country options, the center for Haitian higher education might mirror Caribbean transnationalism more broadly. That is, rather than adopting binary approaches of “home/away” (Trotz, 2006, p. 41) the “meso-social scale, [and] the multipolar” structure of the Haitian community has the potential to be celebrated (Audebert, 2020, p. 82). Tiffany Lethabo King (2019) has developed a theoretical framework that provides new ways of interpreting the landscape. Remapping the Caribbean and Western world, King turns to the metaphor of coastal shoals where friction “produc[es] a new typography” (p. 3). The “liminal space between sea and land” the black shoals “are an unexpected and shifting space, …[that] require[s] new footing, different chords and embodied rhythms, and new conceptual tools to navigate its terrain” (p.  3). Like nepantla in mestizaje and Chicano studies, the shoals become a place of “convergence, gathering, reassembling, and coming together” (King, 2019, p. 3). Insights from this research may inform understandings of international higher education.

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Method The findings detailed in this chapter were produced during an instrumental, multi-­ site case study conducted with nine educational leaders working at three higher educational institutions in Haiti. Evidence was collected from semi-structured interviews, documents, and field notes. This chapter engages with questions and evidence collected as they specifically relate to Haitian scholars as they interact with the internationalization of higher education. Several of the interview questions aimed to gather information on faculty perception. In particular: (a) What brought you to this institution/organization? (b) What has made you want to work in higher education in Haiti? (c) What, in your opinion, are the main opportunities for higher education in Haiti? These questions helped bring clarity to opportunities the internationalization of higher education might bring to historically underserved communities. This qualitative approach maintained an open aperture for faculty response. The challenge was to identify whether or not optimistic ideals about global education flows are working their way to action. That is, for all of the discussion of the possibilities, what is actually happening on the ground?

Findings Data from this study revealed that educational leaders in Haiti are active participants in the internationalization of higher education. This participation, however, is complex. Three main themes emerged while analyzing data: connection and disconnection with the international community, belonging, and investment. These themes suggest that instead of tension between the perceived centers/peripheries more productive space may be found in multipolar understandings.

Connection and Disconnection with the International Community Engagement with the international community was mentioned in every interview. In fact, every faculty member interviewed received at least one degree in another county. Many faculty members had likewise taught abroad such as Canada, France, Taiwan, Senegal, Switzerland, Cuba, Mexico, and the United States during the interviews. The internationalization indicated among the faculty members indicates the unique situation, even within the Caribbean, for Haitian scholars.

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The institutions were also highly connected to global higher education. One administrator at l’Université d’État d’Haïti (The State University of Haiti, UEH) reported, “we have many linkages with other universities—American, Canadian, Latin American, French, and more. So, we have a process and discuss with many universities around the world. We have some organizations, councils of universities, [where] we discuss with other associations, international associations, of universities.” Some of these partnerships have led to joint-degree options and contributed to faculty/student mobility. At Université Quisqueya (Quisqueya University, UniQ), for example, one faculty spoke of the master’s program offered in partnership with l’université Paris-Est Créteil (UPEC) in France. “How this works,” he said, “is they [faculty from UPEC] come to Haiti and they teach 50% of the courses. And then Quisqueya teaches the other 50%… [A]t the end [the student] gets two degrees, one from l’université Paris-Est Créteil and one from Quisqueya. So it is like two separate degrees. So they can choose to say I have been studying at Quisqueya University or the university in France.” UniQ has cultivated other exchange programs with the City University of New York (CUNY) and Cornell University. Respondents also pointed to physical structures constructed with the aid of international donors at each institution. At Quisqueya, a faculty member explained that the library was built with contributions from the Stiller Foundation. Likewise, he gestured toward a classroom building, saying, “Okay, for instance if you look at that big building, it was funded by the Kellogg Foundation and then from the ministry of education from France.” UniQ has cultivated relationships with many international donors for buildings and learning initiatives mentioning in addition to these, the Taiwanese government, the German firm IPC, the Smithsonian, US NGO Amurt, the City University of New York, and Cornell University. UEH, has likewise benefitted from international partnerships to help with facility construction. The campus in the city of Limonade relied on a $30 million gift from the Dominican Republic (Downie, 2012). As P. Yves Voltaire describes: Le don du peuple dominicain, orchestré par le président Leonel Fernandez Reyna, de l’Université du Roi Henry Christophe à Limonade, tout en montrant ce que peuvent faire la volonté politique et la solidarité internationale dans le domaine, met le doigt sur les plaies de l’enseignement supérieur haïtien et offre une opportunité d’y trouver des remèdes au moins dans la région du Nord. (2013, p. 50)

A gift of the people of the Dominican Republic and orchestrated by President Leonel Fernandez Reyna, Voltaire says the gift not only shows the importance of international policy and solidarity, it also provides hopeful opportunities for remedies in the North. In 2018 the new School of Optometry & Vision Sciences at the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of I’Université d’État d’Haïti in Port Au Prince opened with the help of international donors that included Vision Source, Charity Vision, I’Université de Montréal, and Essilor Canada. In total, the physical spaces for education have been something for which Haitian universities have been able to integrate international donors. Toni Cela (2021) has mapped specific contributions

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of the Haitian diasporic community has labored to strengthen higher education in Haiti. International collaborations, joint-degree programs, and faculty who hold international degrees, contributions from the larger diasporic community, all suggest that Haitian scholars are benefitting from academic global flows. Whereas it is certain that Haitian scholars are engaging the globalized higher education market, disconnection is also apparent. This disconnection takes place most notably in the form of belonging and investment.

Belonging Below the surface of the internationalization of Haitian higher education are issues surrounding language, identity, and expectation. Those interviewed demonstrated their participation in transnational, border-crossing where instead of assimilating to dominant cultures, they maintained hybrid identities that allowed them to develop “third spaces” of cultural strength where they could “move freely back and forth across international borders and between different cultures and social systems” (Sanchez, 2008, p.  22). Their experiences echoed scholarly work on Caribbean migration flows and networks (Audebert, 2020; Trotz, 2006). As these scholars transgressed borders and navigated terrain, it is clear that this identity was brokered and at times fraught (De Jong, 2018). Questions of identity and belonging were explored in some of the interviews. The challenge for Haitian scholars often begins early in the educational process. As one interviewee reported: When you are educated in this context. The risk to be disconnected from your immediate environment is high. You remember Plato and Socrates about education? Education is the thing that brings actualization for individuals. Become autonomous… When you are in a system that does not allow you to be autonomous it produces the opposite effect—it transforms the individual into alienation. When you are in an education [system] that does not help the person to become autonomous, they become alienated. They are disconnected from here to be connected for the other place. Everything beautiful, everything true, everything just exists in another place. It exists in other places, other countries, other societies, other civilizations. Not in ours.

This scholar was raised in a rural village and spoke personally of challenges surrounding instruction as they related to identity and language. I grew up in a village that did not have tv and radio…There was no internet and no electricity. School was in French; lessons were in French—no one in my family spoke French. So, I had to recite French all alone. [They taught us that] there were four seasons… We heard about winter, autumn, spring. But this was confusing to me. So I asked a teacher what does this mean? –what does winter, autumn, mean? When I asked the teacher, he couldn’t answer and so he whipped me. The teacher was uncomfortable because he was from that village, too. He did not know what it meant either. But we were trained with rote memory. You said it because it was there.

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The dissonance between the taught material and the lived experience contributed to disconnection. He continued: In the village we produce rice, corn, milk, mangos, avocados. In the books you will not find anything about this reality of the child who goes to the gardens to produce and care about the pigs and the goats. But you will find about the child who has a dog, a house in the city— this is another child! This is another child they teach you in school. So, your childhood. When you look at your childhood and the childhood in the book, you see there is something wrong with you. Your world doesn’t exist. The school is supposed to help you become someone in society. You feel like you don’t belong.

Another scholar corroborated the difficulty of learning in French saying, “No one in my neighborhood spoke French. You had to do the effort twice. First you had to read it in French then you had to make it make sense in Kreyol.” Faculty and administrators spoke in several interviews about the challenge of language for the students. An administrator at UEH spoke of the importance of integrating more English because “most [academic research] documents are written in English.” Faculty talked at each institution about integrating English, French, and Spanish instruction in their curriculum. One faculty noted that “even other places that speak Kreyol it is not the same as Haitian Kreyol. You cannot build something solid with this small group. We need to adapt ourselves.” Yet, for this scholar it did not mean moving away from Kreyol, recognizing its cultural significance, but rather that Haitian scholarship should be polylinguistic.

Investment The interviewees described how belonging continued to follow them in terms of investment once they were well-established scholars. One interviewee reported, “if you have a master from Haiti, you can be a good guy, a brilliant guy. But if you have a master from France or US when they come back this guy who has his master from Haiti it is clear they will have a job 10 times before him. Because they have their degree from somewhere else.” Another corroborated, saying, “The government goes somewhere else to take experts [for government contracts]. [However], we have those experts here—sometimes we pay for a lot of money to import experts we have here in Haiti. I remember once meeting a friend. He scheduled a meeting with an expert. She was a friend of mine from school. And when we were in school, I received better marks!” These attitudes are exacerbated by the lack of research funds, laboratories, and libraries available for the professional development of faculty. A faculty at one of the universities spoke of the challenge saying, “I don’t receive money” from the university for research hours but they do provide uncompensated course release. “So, we don’t have the money to conduct the research but we get time.” Another faculty reported only teaching one course in Haiti a year, saying “[I teach in Haiti] only one time a year… Why? When I teach in the European system, I get paid. There is a huge difference from the same creative task.”]

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Linguistic, curricular, financial, and other challenges face scholars in Haiti. Yet, there is much opportunity, as one faculty said, for “leaders who can learn this situation and learn how to produce this for the country.” Growing scholarly networks, trusting Haitian experts with lucrative contracts, and developing university models that reward scholarship and service in country will help Haitian scholars engage with the international community in ways that strengthen educational outcomes in Haiti. There is no doubt that Haiti is rife with opportunity to capitalize on national talent. As one of my interviewees attested: “In 1972 there were approximately 500,000 students in primary school, today it is 2.6 million. … And the number on the demand side [for higher education from graduating Haitians] is growing by 8% a year.” A leader at Haitian Education Leadership Program (HELP) stated, “we have over 400 applicants a year with a straight ‘A’ average and this year we were able to accept 50.” The opportunity, as one UEH administrator said, is “to produce leaders not only for this country but leaders that can respond and understand the other leaders in the world.” Furthermore, faculty interviewed had more international experience than many of their global colleagues. All interviewees, for example, had lived and studied in international contexts. All interviewees spoke at least two languages. The cultural hybridity developed by these scholars strengthen their scholarship. A faculty at Quisqueya demonstrated how his experiences enriched pedagogy. He explained that in a few of his courses he integrates English into the instruction. In this way, students are not only learning the material for the course, but they receive language reinforcement. He said, “I have been doing research in this field for 6 years. I have received support from the university in this.” HELP requires all participants in their program to take English classes for 4 years and technology classes for 2 years to support this instruction at university. HELP also relies on students and alumni to assist with recruitment and development dollars through their innovative KOREM initiative. KOREM comes from a Kreyol phrase meaning “support me and I will support you” and is a program where HELP alumni commit a portion of their income for the first 8  years following post-­ graduation employment to provide funds to scholarship more students. This program, developed with the Inter-American Development Bank, has raised over 100,000 USD since its first donation in 2015 now supporting two full-time students. This indicates that funds for investment in higher education in Haiti already exist in Haiti. This was reinforced by one interviewee, saying: Now we have 20,500 Haitian students in the Dominican Republic. They are spending $1,000 USD a month over ten months, which comes to $120 million USD or 3% of [Haiti’s] gross domestic product each year. At the end of the day, the question is, are these people investing in an asset? Could they work here? Over there? In the US? We need to address these questions… What is the truth behind that? Number one: The Haitian family is dispersing more money in the Dominican higher education system than the state bodies in the state education here. It is a lot of money. Number two: We don’t know how much money families are disbursing in international higher education in other places. We just don’t know.

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As one leader at HELP stated in an interview, one of the most important “raw materials” of Haiti “is really smart kids.” Finding ways to train and retain that talent remains one of the greatest opportunities in the country.

Discussion: Center, Periphery, or Multi-Polar? Haitian scholars are engaged in the global growth of higher education. This participation is, however, complex, and educational leaders in Haiti must find structures that provide access to excellent education. Connection with the international community, space for belonging, and financial investment are central issues that must be addressed as these structures continue to develop. Beyond this, however, higher education leaders across the globe are compelled to address structural reinforcement of “winners” and “losers.” There is little doubt that “[t]he broad contours of the higher education sector in the global south, both historically and recently, have been shaped by the dominance of a hegemonic global north” (Robertson & Komljenovi, 2016, p. 3). Global rankings, the establishment of English as the lingua franca of the academy, and the location of research centers and academic conferences have reinforced notions that scholarship happens, to borrow the phrase from my interviewee, “somewhere else.” Shahjahan and Morgan (2016) have asserted that “global higher education is trapped in a competition fetish” (p. 92). This fetish finds its roots in the colonial legacy of the global north and west and continues to imply that true civility and success are found in these regions. This coloniality continues in institutional form as organizations continue to dominate and exploit, while promising progress as they follow old psychological forms. The researchers clarify: “the seduction of achieving worthiness and belonging in the global community belies the importance of centering psychoanalytic perspectives on why and how HEIs [higher education institutions], nation-states, faculty, and students, particularly from zones of non-being, willingly join” (Shahjahan & Morgan, 2016, p. 94). Scholarship that continues to nuance Haitian identity, history, language, and culture contributes to more connection and actualization (Clitandre, 2020; King, 2019; Thelot, 2017). More work, however, is necessary to understand the relationship between higher education institutions in Haiti and the larger, global network. Will Haitian scholars and institutions continue to be compelled to join the race of global rankings to prove belonging? If not, how will they resist these structures? These are challenging questions to which there are no easy answers. It is also clear that the international community of educational leaders must be involved in any meaningful conversation as they play critical roles in entrenched structural norms. Are the apparent “winners” of higher education willing to shift the locus of power to multipolar understandings? If so, how might this take place in relation to Haiti? How may educational leaders in the global community value scholarship emerging in the borderlands and shoals? There may be hope in what Canterbury (2021) has called a post-neoliberal, multipolar world where instead of being dominated by the power led by the United

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States, Caribbean nations may find alternative paths charted by Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS). Altbach (2016) and others have traced the rise of higher education among the BRICS. Caribbean nation states may be able to establish more beneficial transnational relationships. Jules and Arnold (2021) have recently described how Caribbean nations are moving to a more mature regionalism. Though implementation is uneven, “integrative frameworks of intergovernmentalism” have “legally enshrined the portability of skilled labor, migration, and the transportability of social security benefits” (p.  489). These agreements that allow for the movement of people and benefits provide hopeful signs for more collective power among Caribbean nation states. As Haitian scholars find new ways to engage regional and global networks, all benefit from the positive network effects created in these exchanges. These networks are strengthened by the unique cultural contributions from Haitian scholars. Scholars in Haiti will benefit as educational leaders around the globe seek to create multipolar designs for education and academic discourse. Rather than reinforcing systems that encourage faculty and students to leave perceived peripheries for centers of intellectual discussion, finding new ways to encourage and value regional contributions will strengthen the whole. As King (2019) suggests, the shoals are a place of “convergence, gathering, reassembling, and coming together” (p. 3).

Conclusion Haitian scholars engage the larger international community. To do so, however, they often cross linguistic, cultural, and political boundaries. This conditional terrain serves as a source of strength for these scholars as they develop multilinguistic and cultural muscles. Higher education institutions must work together to remap the international terrain. The success of such work depends on border-crossers venturing beyond the well-worn paths to new conceptual tools and theoretical models. In this, Haitian scholars are leading the way. The goal, of course, is that no one is “educated for somewhere else.” Acknowledgments  The research for this project was conducted under the supervision of the Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research at the University of Texas at El Paso.

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Robertson, S. L., & Komljenovic, J. (2016). Non-state actors, and the advance of frontier higher education markets in the global south. Oxford Review of Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 03054985.2016.1224302 Sanchez, L. (2008). Puerto Rico’s 79th municipality? Identity, hybridity and transnationalism within the Puerto Rican diaspora in Orlando, Florida (PhD dissertation). The Florida State University. Schwartzman, S., Pinheiro, R., & Pillay, P. (2015). Higher education in the BRICS countries: Investigating the pact between higher education and society (Vol. 44). Springer. Shahjahan, R. A., & Morgan, C. (2016). Global competition, coloniality, and the geopolitics of knowledge in higher education. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 37(1), 92–109. Thelot, E. (2017). L’hegemonie du provisoire en Haiti: Aux origins de nos turbulences. Universite d’Etat d’ Haiti. Trotz, D.  A. (2006). Rethinking Caribbean transnational connections: Conceptual itineraries. Global Networks, 6(1), 41–59. Unterhalter, E., Allais, S., Howell, C., McCowan, T., Morley, L., Ibrahim, O., & Oketch, M. (2018, March). Conceptualising higher education and the public good in Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa. In Proceedings of the CIES 2018 annual conference (Vol. 2018). Comparative and International Education Society (CIES). Voltaire, Y. (2013). Vers l’harmonisation et la consolidation du réseau des universités publiques régionales d’Haïti. Journal of Haitian Studies, 19(1), 258–270. Wilkins, S., Balakrishnan, M.  S., & Huisman, J. (2012). Student choice in higher education: Motivations for choosing to study at an international branch campus. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(5), 413–433.

Part III

Academic Transition, from Migration to Integration

Chapter 10

Career Development of Academic Staff in the Russian Federation and the Czech Republic: From Migration to Integration Anastasia Kulachinskaya, Zuzana Dvorakova, and Andrei Bogatyrev

Abstract  Higher education generates human capital for the economy. It is conceived as a source of competitive advantage for a state, financing its higher education institutions. This chapter evaluates the career development of university academics in Russia and Czechia, considering further globalization of education and academic labor markets processes. A special focus is placed on the opportunities and threats for staffing and stabilizing lecturers. The principal source of future academics in both countries is primarily PhD students and young researchers. Career development depends on the individual’s performance and involvement in research projects. The growing emphasis is put on international collaboration, knowledge transfer, and distance education. Higher education institutions in the Czech Republic carry out habilitation procedures and professorship, guaranteeing employment for an indefinite period and higher salaries for academics. However, in the long run, their policies admit inbreeding. Due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), they implemented the massive transition to online education, not considering lecturers’ digital well-being. The Russian Federation also lays emphasis on young scientists and international collaborations. Universities with a special status or universities with a technical bias receive more funding. The salary of a university teacher today can be considered above the national average. Keywords  Career · Ranking · Teacher · Institutions

A. Kulachinskaya (*) Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia Z. Dvorakova Czech Technical University, Prague, Czech Republic e-mail: [email protected] A. Bogatyrev Pavlov University, St. Petersburg, Russia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_10

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Introduction The chapter aims to evaluate the career development of academics in the Russian Federation (RF) and the Czech Republic (CR) within the frame of globalizing education on the one hand and development of the local labor markets on the other. It will also focus on opportunities and threats in developing modern university academic career. Higher education institutions (HEIs) in Europe can be viewed as autonomous and independent organizations, performing socially important educational and research functions. Public opinion on higher education institutions is based on their actual contributions to development of the society, science, and economy. These depend largely on the quality of human resources, their commitment and loyalty, both academics, management, and other staff. The research-intensive universities depend on their human capital, effecting on university’s research performance and thus contributing to HEI’s competition for popularity and top positions in university rankings, e.g., QS World University Ratings. Across borders, HEIs face challenges, associated with a university career— entering the profession, gaining a full-time position, conducting research, preparing, and defending dissertations, climbing the ladder to professorship within the frame of corresponding institutional goals and demands, as well as social expectations. The success basically depends on the managerial competencies of heads of departments and institutes, their targets, strategies and skills, their capacity to recruit, motivate, and stabilize top talents at the work site. Human resource management (HRM) at HEIs determines the local history and traditions including institution’s strategic approaches to the teaching staff academic career development (Van Balen et al., 2012). Public universities rely on financing gained from the state budget and functioning on the base of reward state policy. The pressure on their effectiveness gradually increases. The easiest way for managing HEIs performance becomes quantifiable criteria like the number of publications in journals registered in the Web of Science or Scopus, mainly in Q1 and Q2, and the scope of research financed from private sources, that is, contracted research. When young academics enter the academic world, they usually adopt the idea of making a personal career. They often view labor relations at HEI’s workplaces idealistically. They must adapt well to working life in HEI, as well as to work hard and perform competitively in order to develop self-promotion and to reach good career-­ making advancement. They must dedicate a good deal of their life and energy to working and job tasks solving in HEI, if they want to become professors and get a job certainty before retirement. This may sometimes mean teaching courses out of their expertise and tough mental straining to do research and publish research results in high quality journals without paying due respect to fulfilling good balance between the HEI teacher’s academic career and personal/family life. Regardless of the world divided by borders, it is evident that a career in academia increasingly characterizes convergence tendency, because its development depends

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on the individual’s performance measured by H-index and research projects. The integration into the HE community greatly supports writing papers in cooperation with colleagues from abroad, participating in virtual international vocational communities and teams, disseminating knowledge about teaching methods and techniques, working on international study programs, and lecturing online courses across borders. Divergence in labor conditions create topics for discussion, peer collaboration, and staying in touch with a multicultural community. On the other hand, becoming a qualified lecturer requires vocational knowledge and pedagogical skills mastering constantly updated technological/technology-oriented literacy. In addition, working in academic profession requires patience, long-term motivation, competition in academic performance, and staying in a tolerant ecosystem.

Literature About Academic Career Academic career is closely intertwined with the university policies. It depends on HEI size, its place ratings, and the research performance in the context of the existing state education system. Traditional career path begins when superior students feel interested are involved in cooperation with HEIs departments and participate in pedagogical or research activities beyond their regular study duties. Some of them apply for becoming doctoral students, start doing research, present achieved results at conferences and publish in conference abstracts’ collections and scientific journals. The ideal HEI teacher’s career presupposes a full-time contract. However, climbing the academic ladder requires teaching, as well as conducting research and writing several publications connected with research projects, as well as recognition by the professional community. Based on intensive personal engagement in these two fields of practice, one gets growing recognition, expedient to one’s career development ladder, from a lecturer’s job position up to that of professor (Luczaj, 2020). Various factors influencing the above-mentioned path act on macro-, mezzo-, and micro levels. Local or foreign labor markets offer graduates, mainly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), several job opportunities in business or public administration. Universities are trying to attract a relatively small group of graduates to be interested in studying for a PhD, who would devote a large part of their time to research and performing administrative duties, associated with teaching. The traditional values of academia help recruiting creative and free-spirited individuals because learner’s autonomy, strong cultural ethos, proper peer support, and recognition of individual achievements generate freedom of thinking, lead to commitment-­oriented work-culture (of the department) and superior research performance (West et  al., 1998; Edgar & Geare, 2013). However, some researchers point out that present day career rules for achieving senior academic positions, designed to guarantee academic staff quality, may produce unintended effects, such

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as academic inbreeding and create greater challenges to international candidates to overcome cultural and language barriers (Seeber & Mampaey, 2021). Worldwide, HEIs are undergoing a significant change toward business-oriented practices that affect career development, since the opportunities for developing academic careers and financing research have become more restricted and more dependent on external sources (Angervall et al., 2015). The critical analysis of academic inbreeding attracts more and more attention of researchers. It is focusing on HEIs’ competitiveness, networking practices among young researchers and co-authorship experience within frame of international community. Inbreeding represents widely accepted practice, even though critics see it as odds universalism and merit in science. Cruz-Castro and Sanz-Menendez (2010) indicate that inbred faculty does not get tenure with less scientific merits than PhDs from other institutions and that non-­ mobile careers are a strong predictor of the timing of rewards in the form of early permanent positions. Tavares et al. (2021) point to the fact that inbred academics at Portuguese universities have more restricted research networks, limited international co-authorship, meanwhile publications written in collaboration with international institutional colleagues usually produce higher impact and get relatively more weight. The principal source of future academics are primarily PhD students and young researchers. The study of their recruitment and retention needs to deal with their motives and the conditions of their jobs. During the doctoral study, it crystallizes whether the PhD student possesses proper characteristics for performing scientific work, such as personal interest and involvement in research, desire for independence, competitive academic publishing, peer recognition and such like to successfully achieve higher academic positions. The content of doctoral programs sometimes includes a pedagogical minimum to expand future teachers’ expertise to teach others. Some universities offer pedagogical courses for beginners because completion of PhD programs does not prepare future professionals for teaching at HEIs (Lazzarin et al., 2010). Authors from economically diverse countries recognize the benefit of pedagogical training, e.g., for career development in STEM (Cargnin-Stieler et al., 2016; Alexander & Masoabi, 2017), or calling for to explicitly integrate pedagogical courses into social work doctoral programs, as in the United States (Maynard et al., 2017). HEIs usually pay attention to teachers with up to 3 years of their teaching experience, as it has been evidenced by research at Sweden’s six largest universities. This group gains higher self-confidence as teachers after completing pedagogical training, and their self-­ esteem in mastering pedagogical skills grows (Ödalen et al., 2019). Thus, participation in pedagogical training can be a pre-condition for better performance. Okolie et al. (2020) believe that teachers who acquire pedagogical skills in parallel with a PhD study will develop better professional competencies and achieve better results than those with no minimum pedagogical education. Even though the formation of pedagogical competencies affects whether the young doctoral student teaches and is responsible for the discipline subject, some authors would doubt a clear positive impact. McCoy and Milkman (2010) did not find any significant differences among economics PhDs who graduated from U.S. PhD programs and accomplished formal

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pedagogical training during their doctoral program vs. those who did not. They argue for the idea that the crucial factor in developing pedagogical skills is to see if PhD students can teach a stand-alone course during their doctoral program. Roach and Sauermann (2010) argue using survey data from more than 400 science and engineering PhD students that PhD students, aspiring for employment in business, have a weaker “taste for science” and a greater concern for salary and access to resources, demonstrate a stronger interest in downstream work in comparison to those desiring to make an academic career. University careers of young researchers are configured in conditions that evoke feelings of relative happiness. At the beginning of their career, they often enjoy what they see as freedom and flexibility in working time, applaud the appearance of an egalitarian and family-friendly workplace, but this can turn to anxiety about their careers when they start talking about having (or postponing) children or taking extended family leave (Nikunen, 2012). The power of soft governance, rankings, quantifying evaluations, and digitalization processes, like bibliometrics and high-­ impact journals (Saura & Bolivar, 2019), realize that job requirements are demanding, and modern HEIs act as a business-oriented employer, controlling job results and seldomly offering work-life balance programs. Precarious labor relations of young academics cover insecure employment arrangements, unclear and shifting expectations, heavy workloads, and competing demands, as well as conflicting experiences around the collegiate culture of academia (Price et al., 2015). The traditional HR practice—performance appraisal or performance management—has been designed as a sophisticated one. It has been used to evaluate academics. Historically, the culture of academic institutions has not used quantifiable criteria to assess the performance of academics, but due to limited resources for salaries and state pressure to increase HEIs outcomes, this practice is becoming a common part of management. Like in business corporates, university leaders and department heads would act as the main actors in determining what performance management system will be designed and how it will be implemented and applied. The decisive factor of its effectiveness is the system’s consistency, that is, how fully it includes diversified academic activities, and whether the performance criteria remain transparent and objectifying, and how it affects the quality of internal communication regarding the system, its processes, and their consequences for employees. Researchers argue that the higher level of internal consistency of performance management reaches, the higher academic employee satisfaction is (Decramer et al., 2013). There is a sensitive issue of utilized performance criteria for lower academic staff members since lecturers and senior lecturers usually can achieve lower scores than associate professors or professors. Lower academic staff satisfaction regarding incentive pay based on the performance scores may cause stress and burnout. Notwithstanding, academics’ assessment systems are an essential tool for university staff career management. University performance scoring system, based on the number of publications in high-impact journals (“weight evaluations”), motivates young teachers to demonstrate their performance (i.e., quality) as investigators;

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however, taking on the risks to pay lower attention to the quality of lecturing or suffering of burnout syndrome (Gonzalez-Calvo et al., 2020).

Migration and Integration HEIs traditionally concentrate on attracting and retaining international students and highly skilled migrants. Research-oriented universities with substantial funding attract them, as they assume to achieve a beneficial impact, improved quality, and reputation. The migrants provide a diverse workforce, and no formal legal definition of an international migrant still exists. The group constructs artificially, and an international migrant changes a country of usual residence, irrespective of the reason for migration or legal status (United Nations, 2021). Penninx et  al. (2008) identify Europe as a continent of immigration, with the distribution of immigrants uneven among its countries in terms of place and time. The number of immigrants and their structure reflect whether the recipient state belonged to the former colonial powers. It can be viewed as a consequence of the existing differences in economic and democratic maturity between the old and new member states. Due to the deglobalization influences and the consequences of war conflicts in Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia, European Union (EU) member states are presently changing their approaches to reception of migrants and the integration of newcomers. They have developed restrictive immigration policies to prevent unwanted (“undesirable”) migrants, admitting “free mobility” for those within and shutting down for those outside the EU (Penninx et al., 2008). New migrants coming from the Eastern countries essentially move to Western Europe and settle up in urban areas. The influx of migrants modifies the mindsets and emotions of the local population. Nationals’ attitudes in 15 European countries analyze representative surveys before and after the European refugee crisis in 2014. Wealthy natives express preference for highly skilled over low-skilled migration irrespective of natives’ skill levels (Naumann et al., 2018). The skills portfolios of immigrants affect the employment conditions in the host labor markets. Their inflow on the labor market determines a financial appetite to exploit fragile labor relations and freeze wages dedicated to native staff that holds similar skills as immigrants. The literature analyzes current drivers for high-skilled migration in terms of push and pull factors influencing the motivation to leave the home country. Attention paid to personnel/human resources practices can contribute to making integration and socialization easier (Dvorakova, 2021). However, practices used in the CR for those from outside EU countries stay on the edge of the public administration, despite representing a growing workforce segment and becoming a valuable human capital for international expansion. Current divergence movements deepen the economic differences between regions and metropolitan areas. In Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), the migration of a highly skilled workforce to the countries of Western Europe continues. And the drivers will come from demographic and economic reasons; explicitly, wage gaps

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between the home and host countries, e.g., Poland, Hungary, Ukraine. In addition, higher earnings and more attractive career development in Western Europe encourage a desire to migrate. The decisive factor enhances a field where the domestic pool of candidates is insufficient, especially in STEM.  Moreover, with a competitive professional background and the host country’s language proficiency, migrants regard their integration as manageable. The migrants plan to secure personal and family needs and join the community. HEIs can give the best example of social responsibilities and sustainable development provided that they design and implement effective practices for the integration. Based on her extensive analysis, Klarenbeek (2019) argues that integration is a process of two-way action of its actors when insiders and outsiders are bearers of distinctive values and express behavior that makes sense to respect. Developing appropriate strategies and practices, which are acceptable to both parties, may facilitate the integration of outsiders into the system and structures that exist for insiders and help to establish and practice coexistence in peaceful consensus. The best way is to identify the existing and predictable contradictions and barriers on both sides in time through dialogue as means of seeking solutions in collaboration. The clashes between national cultures and religions, differences in values cause misunderstandings and conflicts that block the local people and migrants’ willingness to know each other, tolerate divergences, and cooperate at workplaces. That obstacle can determine toxic labor relations leading to reduced labor productivity, deteriorating quality of work, leakage to disease and fluctuations, or even criminal acts.

 eflective Case Study: Academic Career Development R at Czech Universities Beginning from the establishment of Czechoslovakia on 28 October 1918, it is possible to define five separate periods, each marked by the specifics of historical development and the political regime’s requirements. Each period placed distinct demands on HEIs. The number of universities grew significantly after 1945, especially the number of faculties, as needed, to educate experts in fields that were not sufficiently represented at existing faculties. In any political system, HEIs act at the highest education level and prepare professionals with the highest possible knowledge in the given fields and with the highest possible specialization. The reflective case study covers the last three decades as they determine the components and set academic career development rules. In May 1990, a university law was hurriedly prepared and implemented, which restored academic freedom, elected senates with substantial students’ participation and academic officials’ election, and introduced accreditation procedures. The most remarkable HEIs’ expansion occurs after the establishment of the CR on 1 January 1993 and the change in the system of higher education with the adoption of Act No. 111/1998 Coll., On

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Higher Education Institution, according to which state universities transformed into public ones with their property and decision-making. The HEI system consists of the public (university and non-university type), private, and state universities. Public and private HEIs are subordinate to the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports’ responsibility (from now on referred to as the “Ministry”), which alone can grant the organization accreditation. The HEI is a legal entity, and if it has a university’s status, it carries out all types of study programs and conducts scientific and research activities. There are currently 26 public, 33 private, and two state universities. The university is the only institution that has the right to award academic degrees. It acquires a statute, that is, the university’s internal regulation registered with the Ministry, and must keep a student registry for student registration, budgetary, and statistical purposes. In 2021, ten Czech universities are on the QS World Universities Rankings (2021). Research-intensive universities emphasize research in terms of prestige and the volume of funds obtained and published in Q1 and Q2 journals. The pedagogical-­ research universities devote a decisive part of working time to teaching and give less weight to publishing activities, accepting publications in Q3 or Q4 journals, papers in conference proceedings, included in the Web of Science, or applied research. The academic positions embody professor, associate professor, assistant professor, assistant, and lecturer. They have practiced since the establishment of the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918), but a more extended time series of data for pedagogical staff has been preserved since 1975. In this time series, the number of pedagogical staff increased. In the first year of this period, HEIs employed 2355 professors and associate professors and 8105 other pedagogical staff. The number of associate professors and professors increased mainly and more significantly than other pedagogical staff until 1990 when a total of 4026 professors and associate professors and only 7506 other pedagogical staff educated students. Until 1999, the number of professors and associate professors at universities increased. Meanwhile the numbers of other pedagogical staff tended to fluctuate. Since 1999 a total of habilitation procedures for an associate professor’s appointment achieved 7947 persons. The number of appointed professors at public universities from 1993 to 2019 represents 3.679 (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, 2021). The Government of the CR approved the Strategy of the Education Policy of the CR until 2030+ on October 19, 2020. It sets the direction of education development and investment priorities for the years 2020–2030+. One of the strategies mentioned above is the support of pedagogical staff. However, the first implementation period for 2020–2023 includes no specific steps for HEIs. Two focus groups characterize academic careers at public HEIs. The first group included seven senior lecturers and took place online in January 2021. The group consisted of five women and two men aged 30–39, all with a PhD in social sciences. The second group consisted of five participants and took place online in February 2021. In this group, their specializations belonged to social sciences. There were three associate professors, one woman and two men aged 40–49, and two professors, one woman and one man aged 60+, specializing in business administration.

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Based on the qualitative analysis, a case study describes career development. Graduates of social sciences defended their PhD at the same university where they completed their master’s degree. Most of them started working full-time here as senior lecturers for a certain period. The men combined their employment at university with part-time work in business or another university, usually a private university. Women consider employment at a public university to be job security and flexible rostering together with 40 days of paid leave is provided by the work-life balance, which they perceive as compensation for lower wages compared to salaries in the business sphere. Teachers can arrange a teaching schedule according to their requirements or commitments. Men—married and with a family—usually working at two or more employers or do their business motivated to earn incomes covering family expenses. Senior lecturers working at an HEI with a habilitation accreditation in their field strive to meet the criteria. These include teaching activities, a set number of publications of a specific structure, research activities, and international mobility. Senior lecturers at HEIs with no appropriate habilitation accreditation may apply for a procedure at another university when meeting their requirements. The HEIs set out details of their habilitation procedure. The rector appoints the associate professor on the proposal of the scientific council. Senior lecturers are trying to habilitate at the HEI, where they obtained a PhD and later also apply for a professorship procedure, but only if they have a valid accreditation. The appointment procedure as a professor may occur at a university with an accredited doctoral study program, within which the field of appointment or at least a substantial part of education exists. The President of the CR appoints the professor for a particular field based on the HEI’s scientific council’s proposal submitted through the Minister. In the appointment procedure as a professor, the candidate’s pedagogical and scientific qualification, who is a prominent and recognized scientific personality, is proved. The precondition for the proceedings’ commencement is the previous appointment as an associate professor based on the habilitation procedure. Although universities can carry out habilitation procedures and professorships for anyone who requests, no mandatory quota exists for applicants from another institution. HEIs are more accommodating to their staff and continue inbreeding in the long term. Successful habilitation means employment for an indefinite period, higher basic salary, and individuals have more professional opportunities, such as leading research teams, being supervisors of doctoral students, guaranteeing fields, and others. Since 1998, associate professors and professors are registered in the Ministry’s central register to limit flying professors on the Czech university market and thus ensure the quality of education. Academics in social sciences consider that a fundamental leap in their career means a transition from the senior lecturer’s category to the associate professor one due to significantly higher requirements for their results, especially publishing in high rating journals, contract research, or applied research. Once they have learned and mastered these criteria, they consider the university’s requirements for the procedure for appointment as a professor to be manageable and less demanding.

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 eflective Case Study: Academic Career Development R at Russian Universities In Soviet times (USSR), higher education was very powerful and free of charge. After graduation, young specialists were distributed among enterprises so that each graduate received a steady job position and would not face problems with finding job vacancies. The enterprises received specialists who were ready to start working immediately. The graduate school was organized in 1925. Post-graduate education was accessible for people with completed higher education and not older than 35 years from among persons, who had worked after graduating from a higher educational institution in their specialty in production for at least 2  years and demonstrated their capacity for scientific research and pedagogical activity (PhD v Rossii. Portal aspirantov i doktorantov, 2010). It was challenging to enter PhD program, meet scientific research quality high requirements and defend a doctoral thesis, especially in technical sciences. It was truly prestigious to get a job position at HEI, and salaries of qualified university teachers were quite high. Not including specialized (professional) institutions, the educational system was as follows: • 11 years of school education (primary, secondary, and high). • 5 years of higher education (university). • 3–4 years of postgraduate study, which mostly equals a PhD program in foreign countries. • 3 years of doctoral studies (organized in 1934). In order to become a doctoral student, you must have a PhD degree. The Soviet university teachers and scientists had the opportunity to visit some politically friendly countries (e.g., Vietnam, the countries of the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America) and exchange experience with colleagues. However, these occurrences cannot be compared to the much wider range of international opportunities for exchange of experience and career growth in modern Russia. The education system in the RF after joining the Bologna system has significantly changed, and the previously enacted 5-year education was transformed and divided into 4 years of bachelor’s and 2 years of master’s degrees. In addition, international bachelor’s and master’s programs appeared, to which foreign teachers are invited. Therefore, education and an academic career in Russia have become truly open for representatives of all countries. According to official statistics (Federal’naya sluzhba gosudarstvennoy statistiki, 2021), the average salary of a university teacher in Russia (2020) was 89,422 rubles, and at the same time, the average wage in Moscow was 147,596 rubles and in St. Petersburg 117,377 rubles. The salary of scientific organizations’ employees in Russia was 97,821 rubles, while in Moscow, it was127,446 rubles and in St. Petersburg 100,279 rubles. At the same time, the average salary in Russia in 2020

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was 51,083 rubles, in Moscow 100,506 rubles, and in St. Petersburg 68,383 rubles. This information is presented graphically in Fig. 10.1. As it can be traced, based on the figure above, the official average salary of HEIs teachers and research scientists is significantly higher than the average for the region and country. This is a direct confirmation of the fact that the position of a scientist and teacher of higher education in the RF can be considered successful. It is also important to pinpoint the existing gap in the career opportunities in humanitarian and technical HEIs in the RF. Thus, technical and polytechnic institutions have always had a great prerogative in terms of receiving funding from the state, because of their more advanced research contribution in engineering and technology (in particular, space exploration and the development of the military industry) as well as biology and medicine developments. It is also worth noting that HEIs with specific status have a number of key privileges, including funding. There are several such statuses (Pyat’ uglov, 2017): • Federal universities (large regional universities aimed at producing qualified employees). • National research universities (scientific research goes along with the educational process; the status is assigned by competition for 10 years). • “Special status” (two universities: Moscow State University and St. Petersburg State University). • Flagship universities (created for the socio-economic development of regions but must prepare a development program for 5  years and merge with local universities). • State universities (universities that do not have much funding and have not won the competition for a different status).

Salary in 2020, RUB 1,47,596 1,27,446

1,17,377 1,00,506

97,821

89,422

1,00,279

68,383 51,083

AVERAGE SALARY

AVERAGE SALARY OF UNIVERSITY TEACHERS Russia

Moscow

St.Petersburg

AVERAGE SALARY OF SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATIONS' RESEARCHERS

Fig. 10.1  Comparison of average teaching-related salaries in Russia

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From 2013 to 2020, Russia was implementing the Academic Excellence Project 5-100 to improve and develop the competitiveness of leading Russian HEIs among the world’s leading research and educational centers (the Academic Excellence Project 5-100). The Project 5-100 sent a started in support of the process of revamping Russian higher education (Russian academic excellence project 5-100, 2021). In order to receive financial support within the framework of the Academic Excellence Project 5-100, HEIs had to submit for consideration by the members of the international council an application with an action plan for the implementation of competitiveness programs. The winner-universities received funding until 2020 for the implementation of such tasks as: Development and implementation of measures aimed at creating long-term competitive advantages for the universities; Internationalization in all spheres, development of infrastructure to recruit the best scientists, faculty, managers and students; Creation of world-class intellectual products; Development of an outstanding academic reputation by conducting breakthrough research and recruiting the world’s leading scientists (Russian academic excellence project 5-100, 2021). The result of many years of implementation of projects presented by HEIs can be seen in a steep ascent in world rankings, a perceptible growth in the number of publications in top-rated journals, and the grants won, the attraction of foreign scientists and teachers, the opening of new educational programs in a foreign language, etc. Thus, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (Polytech, est. 1899) has a special status of National Research University (2010) and has been a participant in the 5-100 Academic Excellence Project. It is one of the oldest and leading universities in the country, where such outstanding Nobel Prize winners as P.L. Kapitsa (Physics, 1978), Zh. I. Alferov (Physics, 2000), and others had studied and worked (The Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University official website, 2021). Today, the number of students is more than 33,000 people, of which more than 8500 are foreign students for basic and international educational programs. The number of teachers is 1945 people, of which 220 are foreign (The Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University official website, 2021). At the moment, Polytech is ranked 301–350th in World University Rankings 2021 by Times Higher Education (THE). In the QS World University Rankings (The QS World University Rankings official website, 2021). Polytech occupies 401 position in general and rather high positions in such areas as Engineering: Mechanical 151 place, Engineering and Technology 180 place, and so on. At the same time, the best and leading pedagogical university in the country— Moscow Pedagogical State University (MPSU/MPGU, est. 1872)—does not have a special status and is not a participant in the Academic Excellence Project 5-100. Considering also that the humanities are not on the list of priority areas of science in the RF, then, therefore, the level of development is definitely lags behind the pace of the Polytech, in respect to young researchers’ career opportunities as well. Thus, MPSU|MPGU has no ranking positions in the QS World University Rankings and the World University Rankings by Times Higher Education (THE). The number of foreign students is 2320, and the total number of Russian students is 25,269 (The

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Moscow Pedagogical State University official website, 2021). Stated information on the number of foreign teaching staff is unknown. It can be concluded that a successful career of both an internal and an external scientist and teacher in the RF can be in technical HEIs or HEIs with a special status, as well as in institutions that have additional funding within any state projects/ competitions.

Discussion and Conclusion The draft budget of the CR for 2022 and the national recovery plan admits freezing of budgets for HEIs that predict budget cuts or at least their freezing. On the other hand, it instigates solid motives for lecturers to apply for international projects financed from EU resources. Besides, the projection of the number of secondary school graduates by 2025 suggests that the number of applicants for studying full-­ time at HEIs will significantly decrease. The question is whether Czech universities can compensate for this decline by the number of students in other programs, such as programs for international students, distance learning, and lifelong learning, in an environment of global competition in the education market. The success of HEIs in retaining students and research grants depends on the quality of their human resources. The transition to online education has accelerated thanks to COVID-19, albeit despite the digital well-being of lecturers. No Czech university has a program in place to prevent the risks that arise due to distance learning, and it does not systematically improve the working conditions of lecturers at the home office. Access to science and research funds is becoming critical for the further development of the education system. National calls will focus mainly on areas to support cooperation between business and research institutions operating in technical and natural sciences. Grants suitable for social sciences and humanities will be on the edge of the government’s interest. For HEIs from a small economy, international research is growing in attractiveness, e.g., Horizon Europe 2021–2027, which is becoming best available to STEM scientists. Any applicant’s vital characteristic will be the principal investigator’s history, whether he/she led international projects and whether the project outputs published in prestigious journals. Publishers will record short periods for project solutions with open access journals rated in Q1 and Q2. For HEIs, it will mean additional funds for paying fees. From the long-term perspective, Czech HEIs can plan financial limits. In managing human resources, the reductions will become an incentive for implementing or reviewing lecturers’ performance management with consequences on employment. There will be a mid-term freeze on the number of lecturers and increased career development requirements promising full-time employment and associate professor/professor positions. The RF demonstrates deep interest both in integration of its own internal academic resources and international collaboration in developing competitive competences in science in technologies in the global arena under changing

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conditions. However, since the main course of the RF is aimed at developing the country’s technical, technological, and natural science potential, it becomes obvious that a successful international career as a teacher and scientist most likely occurs in organizations conducting research in these areas or in institutions with one of officially assigned specific statuses. Higher education in the RF is free of charge within span of the allocated budgetary places. It is carried out by state universities, which receiving funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education and Ministry of Enlightenment (the latter for pedagogical universities only). But this does not exclude the provision of educational services on a commercial basis, as well as participation in grant competitions and other ways of attracting funds. The salaries of university teachers are above average and therefore competitive. The emphasis of universities on the development of international ties and cooperation, creation and implementation of international programs and foreign internships also contributes to making the field of higher education attractive for both young professionals and future scientists, as well as experienced researchers and teachers. All this allows us to look optimistically not only at the career opportunities of internal and external (invited) specialists, but in general at the prospects of the development of science and higher education in the RF. In this chapter the authors demonstrated the major trends, emerging at the academic labor markets in both countries, provided a holistic description and critical analysis of the position of university teachers in the Russian and Czech economy, as well as highlighted convergences and divergences in career development systems in each country. They chapter backed up the importance of global ratings of universities for staffing and retention of academic human capital. A critical assessment and speculated about of the perspectives of Russian and Czech lecturers/researchers in the global academic market was fulfilled.

Implications, Limitations, and Future Research Based on the findings, there are five key several implications derived. First, nowadays a state with a small population and a limited number of university students must develop education in collaboration, particularly distance programs, cooperating with overseas universities, most preferably holding a high QS rating. Second, the demographic situation and the nation’s economic wealth make it necessary to establish HE networks, provide user-friendly virtual learning, and offer study programs in English. Third, the substantial constraints mean HE finance influenced a pool of highly skilled lecturers with international experience or having diverse backgrounds. Fourth, prospective employers at the local market evaluate graduates’ quality and determine if they can compete successfully with others from different cultures and countries. Finally, since 2020 HEIs have massively introduced distance education and practiced the home office. According to the saying “You cannot step into the same river twice,” changes in working conditions at HEIs have influenced the thinking and actions of both lecturers and students. However, online courses

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represent only an additional part of full-time study programs, primarily due to non-­ adequate study performance measurements. Limitations of the study are preconditioned by a narrow focus on two states of different sizes and with different ethnic composition features, where the CR is rather national monolithic and the RF multinational. The mentality of the Czechs and Russians builds on Slavic roots and shares a number of common values. However, the CR integrated into European structures, meanwhile the RF keeps its position of a superpower. This imbalance can limit the comparison and, on the other hand, creates topics for future research. Thanks to the cooperation between HEIs, stressing the requirement to place among the 1000 universities according to the top QS rating, we predict further convergence of teaching, including distance education. Further research will cover the digitization of education, the quality of work-life at HEIs, and their human resource diversity management issues. The former socialist bloc provided incentives to study to those interested in developing countries that were in the sphere of their influence. The established relations have a long-term influence on peoples’ attitudes toward politics, society, and social structures. So, another research emerges whether academic mobility to the RF and the Visegrad countries exists and what impact it can have on Africa or Central and East Asian countries. In addition, given the recurring waves of refugees from the East and the occurring expressed negative attitudes of people in CEE toward minority nationalities and ethnic groups, the integration, and socialization of refugees look as if a political, economic, and social focus regarding non-­ governmental organizations and social enterprises, as illustrated in the case study of a volunteer organization done in the United Kingdom by Hack-Polay and Igwe (2019). A classic dilemma between the brain-drain by HEIs and sustainable responsibility of the nations can evoke another topical point concerning the social adaptation of skilled refugees.

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Chapter 11

Americanization of Brazilian Business and Management Curriculum Clarice Santos and Veronica Angelica Freitas de Paula

Abstract  The chapter addresses how imported mainstream management practices have impacted curriculum design and content in Brazil’s higher education sector. The potential “Americanization” of Brazilian business schools, represented by the adoption of practices and models from the Global North, prompted concerns that a universalist view of management could exclude other realities and forms of knowledge. Discussions around themes such as progress and modernity as defined by those in developed nations led to a series of overdue debates on colonialism and Latin America. Various authors have addressed these concerns and proposed ways to integrate different perspectives into teaching—without compromising the richness of the local context and local voices—and grounded on debates of decolonization. We echo these sentiments and suggest a move away from the transfer of practices to a focus on the transformation of management knowledge through knowledge co-creation, where dominant narratives and practices contemplate local practices and realities. We believe academics are at the core of these dynamics as their roles go beyond teaching and into negotiating tensions in complex contexts. Through a combination of knowledge and experience with local realities, continuous learning and reflection,  academics are instrumental to the process of social transformation in Brazil. Keywords  Americanization · Brazil · Business and management education · Decolonization

C. Santos (*) Middlesex University, London, UK e-mail: [email protected] V. A. Freitas de Paula Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_11

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Introduction Internationalization is fast becoming a central phenomenon in higher education. In the business and management field, knowledge and practice have been circulating globally for quite some time. A key aspect of internationalization is its ability to not only contribute to the expansion of knowledge, but also to act as a change agent for countries and societies (De Wit & Altbach, 2020). Indeed, internationalization has the potential to contribute to improved quality in all areas of academic work, namely education, research, and service. Internationalization has been defined as the “intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions and delivery of post-secondary education, in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff and to make a meaningful contribution to society” (De Wit et al., 2015, p. 29). Central to the notion of internationalization is the concept of integration, referring to the dynamics between global theories and local practices. Internationalization is often framed as positive and representative of progress or modernity. However, critics of the internationalization process have questioned the spread of business and management knowledge and practice that is produced in a central location, for example,  business schools in the United States (Alcadipani, 2017). As Wanderley and Barros (2019, p. 79) argue, there is “an unquestionable hegemony in the production and dissemination of management and organizational knowledge” from the Global North. While the effects of importing this knowledge may be distinct in different countries, there are likely to be similarities (Barros & de Carrieri, 2013), since theory is influenced by location (Wanderley & Barros, 2019). Whilst this dominance is not attributed solely to the United States, authors often refer to this process as Americanization – a complex process of acculturation where non-American business schools tend to favor and adopt business school models from the United States (Juusola et al., 2015). Although this phenomenon emerged during the second half of the twentieth century (Djelic & Amdam, 2007), it has significantly accelerated in recent years (Juusola et al., 2015). Some authors suggest Americanization lies in the imitation of certain ideas and practices from the United States across time and space (Greve, 1998), while others focus more on the process, whether it is the result of successive interactions taking place over time (Djelic & Amdam, 2007) or “a diffusion process and responds to isomorphic pressures among business schools worldwide” (Juusola et al., 2015, p. 348). A considerable amount of literature has been published on the concept of Americanization. Back in 2004, The Journal of Management Inquiry published an entire issue where scholars argued Americanization to be a key trend in management education, and that it would proliferate in higher speeds due not only to practices, but also to other education concepts such as rankings and accreditations (Juusola et al., 2015). Americanization may also be examined from a postcolonial approach, where the Global North is the central source of knowledge (Ibarra-­Colado, 2006)

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and the producer of science (Mignolo, 2011) and the Global South (Latin America or another region representing the periphery) is the producer of culture (Mignolo, 2011). The ongoing debates on decoloniality have attempted to uncover these dynamics by challenging the dominant models of management education and promoting plurality through avenues such as the geopolitics of knowledge—a concept advanced by periphery scholars (Wanderley & Barros, 2019). These scholars defy the Anglo-­ Saxon dominance in business by suggesting studies outside the Global North (Kipping et al., 2008) and the use of local lens to investigate the world around us in a way that not only transforms the content of the conversation but also its terms (Mignolo, 2009). As a consequence, these local lenses unveil local realities (Wanderley & Barros, 2019) and have implications for borderless higher education teaching practices. This chapter examines Americanization from the perspective of the periphery in the context of a Latin American middle-income country—Brazil. We believe that, in the process of internationalizing the Brazilian Business and Management curriculum to combine international dimensions with teaching in the local environment, the linkage between global and local led to a hierarchy where the imported knowledge is seen as superior. It is important to note that as academics who have lived and worked in the Global North and South, we recognize the challenges of being immersed in the internal side of the border to reflect on the Brazilian reality (Mignolo, 2000). We aim to position ourselves as speaking from the Brazilian locus of enunciation—thus outside the border of the Western or Global North perspective. Rather than delocalize our speech or frame of reference, we make the place from where we speak explicit as suggested by authors such as Wanderley and Barros (2019). The overall structure of this chapter consists of six sections including this introduction. The next section focuses on an overview of the Brazilian context, addressing tertiary education in general and Business and Management in particular, with a historical focus on Americanization. The following section examines the curriculum as well as ways of moving forward by using contemporary decolonization perspectives and implications toward instilling borderless higher education teaching practices. 

The Brazilian Context The Higher Education Sector The Brazilian higher education sector includes both public (federal, state, and municipal) and private higher education institutions. Much like in other regions of the world (Kipping et al., 2008), figures show that the higher education market in Brazil is one of the fastest growing and more profitable sectors in the country, with

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a total of 2537 institutions (INEP, 2019). Out of those, 88% are private and comprise more than two-thirds of national undergraduate enrollments (Sarquis et al., 2017). Franca (2017) describes the evolution of the higher education sector in Brazil highlighting that before the 1990s, access was a privilege destined to a small part of the population—less than 6%. There was not an established market as the higher education institutions were mostly public (maintained by different levels of government support), while  some were funded by religious entities (Catholic or Presbyterian and, others were philanthropic, or community based. Thus, there were few truly private institutions. Private higher education institutions started to flourish in 1996, when the federal government passed legislation that ensured the control and management of educational policies to the government while granting private investors and organizations the opportunity to enter the sector. The process of deregulation promoted by the government with the Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education (LDB) increased the privatization of the higher education sector, favoring the emergence of new competitors aiming for profit (Franca, 2017). The approval of the new education legislation (LDB) in 1996 coincided with the period of adoption of neoliberalism and the dismantling of the Brazilian government role in the 1990s. This process of market deregulation put in motion liberal reforms adopted in different industries, prioritizing market interests and encouraging competition and profit (Franca, 2017). After enacting the LDB, the Brazilian government also implemented policies to promote and encourage the attainment of higher education. Policies were supported by new financing options (with scholarships and loans at better rates) as well as funding and tax benefits for private institutions (Franca, 2017). During the 2000s, the higher education sector had a demographic boom, as the increase in competition for jobs that required a university degree intensified the need for formal education. Simultaneously, the demand for skilled workers led to an increase in the average income for the general population, making the investment in private tertiary education more achievable for many individuals. This process led to the marketization, massification, and distribution of educational services in larger quantities at lower prices (Franca, 2017). Upward trends in higher education were further enhanced by the federal government program known as Restructuring and Expansion of Federal Universities (REUNI), launched in 2007, which expanded the availability of placements in public and private universities to a wider population. From the 2018 census, we identified Business and Management as the second most popular undergraduate course in terms of number of enrollments both in public and private institutions (reaching 3.5% in public and 8% in private higher education institutions of all new enrollments in 2018). In public higher education institutions, Public Management held the third position, with 10%, and Business and  Management was ranked fifth, with 7.8% of new enrollments (INEP, 2019).

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History of Business Education Brazil was a colony of Portugal until 1822. It was only in 1808, when the Royal Family moved the capital of the Portuguese Empire to Rio de Janeiro, that the Brazilian economy became more complex, and the job market required an increasingly more skilled labor force. This was the beginning of higher education in Brazil (Barros, 2017). Business education at the university level was first introduced as Commerce in 1809. It was only in 1856 that these commerce classes were replaced by a systematic teaching of commercial techniques, with the creation of the Commercial Institute of Rio de Janeiro, which was also when discussions of a course focused on Public Management started (Barros, 2017). According to Barros (2017), in the beginning of the twentieth century, the Brazilian education model was inspired by the German model (later also influenced by the French model), with a clear distinction between higher technical education and higher education as a Bachelor’s degree. In 1931, the federal government determined that the commercial education could be offered as both technical training and a tertiary course, which led to the development of a Business and Finance degree (Barros, 2017). Barros and de Carrieri (2013) describe the period from the end of the World War II to the late 1950s as when the United States started to exert more influence on business schools in Brazil. According to the authors, this influence took place as part of cooperation agreements signed by both countries aiming to transfer managerial knowledge and models and to promote technical cooperation between the two. In 1959, an agreement was signed for the dissemination of managerial knowledge and support from the United States to most Brazilian higher education courses in Management—existing and/or being planned for the subsequent years (Barros & de Carrieri, 2013).

The Americanization Process in Brazil The Americanization process in Brazil led to multiple ramifications. It impacted management as a profession, but also higher education institutions via new ways of teaching (Alcadipani & Caldas, 2012.  De Vale et  al. (2013) discuss the Americanization of higher education in Brazil in the 1950s and 1960s, focusing on two of the most prestigious Business schools in the country—the School of Economics, Business and Accounting at the University of São Paulo (FEA-USP) and the School of Business Administration at Fundação Getúlio Vargas (EAESP-­ FGV). The adoption of the American model occurred as the United States emerged as a world superpower and the leader of the Western World in the post-War period. At that time, the State of São Paulo was thriving as the economic center of Brazil, including in terms of industrialization. It made sense that its capital, the city of

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São Paulo, was also the chosen location for both FEA-USP and EAESP-FGV (De Vale et al., 2013). In the specific case of EAESP-FGV, a group of academics from the United States managed the school for more than 10  years. The group (or mission) was from Michigan State University and offered the first Bachelor’s Degree in Business and Management at EAESP-FGV in 1955, lasting for 4  years and with a curriculum based on the courses offered in the United States. In 1958, the group of academics from Michigan State University launched the first postgraduate course at EAESP-­ FGV, trying to replicate the model of the Master of Business Administration (MBA) offered in the United States (De Vale et al., 2013). In the case of FEA-USP, the university opened in 1946 with only Economics and Accounting courses. The Bachelor’s Degree in Business and Management was first offered in 1964, and the idea of creating a management department came from professors from the Engineering School at USP (University of São Paulo). According to De Vale et al. (2013), FEA-USP did not receive direct incentives from any agency or the government of the Unites States. However, most of the academics had received their PhDs from US universities, and these institutions also inspired the curriculum for the Brazilian Business and Management courses.

The Business and Management Curriculum Fast-forward several decades and the prevalence of Business and Management courses and in particular, US-inspired MBAs in the Brazilian tertiary sector is undeniable. The proliferation of business schools has been accompanied by teaching approaches that reflect the Americanization of management education in Brazil (Alcadipani, 2017). While there are several elements involved in the process of internationalization (or Americanization), curriculum development is certainly a key one (De Wit & Altbach, 2020). This aspect of internationalization is seen as instrumental to prepare students with the skills, knowledge, and abilities that will develop them as global citizens (De Wit & Altbach, 2020). Furthermore, global rankings continue to be key drivers of competitive advantage, thus driving the agenda of Brazilian business schools. While the Americanization of curriculum design and content is still prevailing, Waiandt and Fischer (2013) defend that curriculum development is socially constructed and thus includes knowledge that is assumed as valid in a certain moment and context. After all, teaching is a sociocultural practice (Bell, 2010). Knowledge itself may be seen as not necessarily something that individuals hold in their heads, but rather something that is constructed—“that people do together” (Gergen, 1991, p.  270). In terms of business practices, we might even extend that further to the notions of knowing a practice and/or knowing in practice. The latter is a situated activity, and thus may reflect the social identities and social locations of knowledge producers (Gherardi, 2008).

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In the Brazilian context, the Business and Management curriculum is often disconnected from the local realities of the country. In a study by Waiandt and Fischer (2013), 60% of the sources used in Management teaching were either Anglo-Saxon or French. By and large, curriculum in Business and Management tends to be based on Northern theory, frameworks, and research which shape our understanding (Jaga, 2020). Indeed, the Americanization of Brazilian business and management schools, represented by the adoption of practices and models from the Global North, prompted concerns that a universalist view of management could exclude other realities and forms of knowledge (Calas & Smircich, 1999; Prasad & Prasad, 2003). To counter these trends, a perspective that has been growing in popularity is post-­ colonialism (Kumar, 2019). When discussing the transfer of management practices, we often assume that there is a center and a periphery, which depends on the definition of the center. When it comes to business and management knowledge and practices, the center tends to be the United States (Kipping et al., 2008). As a country on the periphery and in the Global South, Brazil has its own regional peculiarities which function as a backdrop for the understanding and interpretation of issues. By looking at the Global North for knowledge, we are often ignoring the South as a maker of knowledge (Comaroff & Comaroff, 2012). While this dichotomy between universalism and locality has been and may always be present, there is a countermovement that proposes using the “notion of dependency as an analytical tool to decenter the concept of Americanization” (Wanderley et al., 2020, p. 21106). By using a decolonial framework much like that suggested by Wanderley and Barros (2019), we have the opportunity to speak from the periphery while interacting with the center. This allows for the exploration of the plurality at the border. Indeed, border thinking as a research methodology challenges the dominant perspective that thinking is delocalized, when location in fact matters as it emerges from places that represent colonial differences—demarcated by the encounter between local histories and global designs.

Conclusion In the global economy and with the increasingly sophisticated dynamics of knowledge, we must examine who is at the core of the production of knowledge, as well as where and when it takes place. North American and European Management education are certainly not short of critical approaches to teaching, research, theory development, practices, and methodology—quite the opposite. Business schools globally have increasingly highlighted the importance of critical thinking as part of universities’ ethos and its crucial role in learning. However, these exercises in critical perspectives often place countries outside the Anglo-Euro context in the periphery, representing otherness and sometimes the exotic sources of culture discourses but excluded from forms of knowledge. We join fellow academics in encouraging a move away from the transfer of practices from the Global North to the Global South to a focus on the transformation of

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management knowledge through knowledge co-creation, where narratives and practices can contemplate local practices, realities, and needs, while promoting social transformation. As theorizing is central to an academic’s life, we support theorization that goes beyond research and is applied in the process of reflection on teaching (Bell, 2010). This would strengthen an approach to learning that is based on local realities, and also enforce local theorization (Wanderley et al., 2020). As Wanderley and Barros (2019) advocate, a Latin American or Brazilian agenda should involve the inclusion of theories, authors and concepts that are relevant to the region. Indeed, these regions may be quite unique laboratories for teaching and learning Business and Management with distinctive relationships between actors (Szmrecsanyi & Topik, 2004). Along those lines, Jaga (2020) calls for a shifting of the center to a more representative knowledge. We echo that sentiment and highlight that this can be accomplished not only by revisiting authors from the Global South, but also by reviewing the very core notions of center and periphery. The process does not entail delocalizing necessarily, but rather the intentional questioning of assumptions that lie in Northern centeredness (Collyer et  al., 2019) accompanied by self-reflection. Wanderley and Barros (2019) provide an illustration of this process using the concepts of borders, examining the encounter between the internal (Anglo/Euro) and external sides of the border and focusing on the differences to create the new. Hence, we not only theorize from the borders as suggested by Mignolo and Tlostanova (2006) but also teach from the borders. We may also put into practice the aptly Brazilian-born concept of sociological reduction. At its core, the concept proposes a change in hierarchy where foreign knowledge is dependent upon local reality rather than the other way around (Alcadipani, 2017). Social reduction was a critical approach (periphery-based) to assimilate thinking and practices from the center by searching for the “essence of things” (Alcadipani, 2017, p. 538). To conclude, we highlight two prominent Latin American figures—Brazilian educator Paulo Freire and Colombian sociologist Orlando Fals Borda. From Freire (1973), we are reminded of the importance of knowledge and learning to empower individuals and communities and help shape the present (and the future). From Fals Borda, we are reminded that academics should engage with research to support a social justice agenda (Wood & Liebenberg, 2019). Below, we borrow his words to demonstrate an inclusive approach to research that could be equally applied to other aspects of an academic’s life. Do not monopolise your knowledge nor impose arrogantly your technique, but respect and combine your skills with the knowledge of the researched or grassroots communities, taking them as full partners and co-researchers. Do not trust elitist versions of history and science which respond to dominant interests but be receptive to counter-narratives and try to recapture them. Do not depend solely on your culture to interpret facts, but recover local values, traits, beliefs, and arts for action by and with the research organizations. Do not impose your own ponderous scientific style for communicating results but diffuse and share what you have learned together with the people, in a manner that is wholly understandable and even literary and pleasant, for science should not be necessarily a mystery nor a monopoly of experts and intellectuals. (excerpt from a speech by Fals Borda, 1995)

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References Alcadipani, R. (2017). Reclaiming sociological reduction: Analysing the circulation of management education in the periphery. Management Learning, 48(5), 535–551. Alcadipani, R., & Caldas, M. P. (2012). Americanizing Brazilian management. Critical Perspectives on International Business, 8, 37–55. Barros, A. (2017). Antecedentes dos cursos superiores em Administração brasileiros: as escolas de Comércio e o curso superior em Administração e Finanças. Cad. EBAPE.BR, 15(1), 88–100. Barros, A., & de Carrieri, A. P. (2013). Higher education in Management in Brazil in the 1940s and 1950s: A discussion derived from the cooperation agreements between Brazil and the United States of America. Cad. EBAPE.BR, 11(2), 256–273. Bell, B. (2010). Theorising teaching. Waikato Journal of Education, 15(2), 21–40. Calas, M. B., & Smircich, L. (1999). Past postmodernism? Reflections and tentative directions. Academy of Management Review, 24(4), 649–672. Collyer, F., Connell, R., Maia, J., & Morrell, R. (2019). Knowledge and global power: Making new sciences in the south. Wits University Press. Comaroff, J., & Comaroff, J. L. (2012). Theory from the South: Or, how Euro-America is evolving toward Africa. Paradigm Publishers. De Vale, M.  P. E.  M., Bertero, C.  O., & da Silveira, R.  A. (2013). Caminhos Diferentes da Americanização na Educação em Administração no Brasil: a EAESP/FGV e a FEA/ USP. Administração: Ensino e Pesquisa. Rio de Janeiro, 14(4), 837–872. De Wit, H., & Altbach, P. G. (2020). Internationalization in higher education: Global trends and recommendations for its future. Policy Reviews in Higher Education, 5, 1–19. De Wit, H., Hunter, F., Howard, L., & Egron Polak, E. (2015). Internationalisation of higher education. European Parliament, Directorate-General for Internal Policies. Djelic, M. L., & Amdam, R. P. (2007). Americanization in comparative perspective: The managerial revolution in France and Norway, 1940–1990. Business History, 49(4), 483–505. Fals Borda, O. (1995, April 8). Research for social justice: Some North-South convergences. Plenary Address at the Southern Sociological Society Meeting, Atlanta. Franca, A. G. (2017). Educação e mercantilização: Um estudo sobre a expansão do setor de ensino superior privado no Brasil a partir da década de 1990. Revista Brasileira de Ensino Superior, 3(1), 98–111. Freire, P. (1973). Education as the practice of freedom. Continuum. Gergen, K. J. (1991). The saturated self: Dilemmas of identity in contemporary life (Vol. 166). Basic Books. Gherardi, S. (2008). Situated knowledge and situated action: What do practice-based studies promise. In The SAGE handbook of new approaches in management and organization (pp. 516–525). Sage. Greve, H. R. (1998). Managerial cognition and the mimetic adoption of market positions: What you see is what you do. Strategic Management Journal, 19(10), 967–988. Ibarra-Colado, E. (2006). Organization studies and epistemic coloniality in Latin America: Thinking otherness from the margins. Organization, 13(4), 463–488. INEP. (2019). Censo da Educação Superior 2018: Divulgação dos resultados. Published in September, 2019. Available at https://download.inep.gov.br/educacao_superior/censo_superior/documentos/2019/apresentacao_censo_superior2018.pdf Jaga, A. (2020). Something new from the South: Community, work, and family in South Africa. Community, Work & Family, 23(5), 506–515. Juusola, K., Kettunen, K., & Alajoutsijärvi, K. (2015). Accelerating the Americanization of management education: Five responses from business schools. Journal of Management Inquiry, 24(4), 347–369. Kipping, M., Engwall, L., & Üsdiken, B. (2008). Preface: The transfer of management knowledge to peripheral countries. International Studies of Management & Organization, 38(4), 3–16.

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Kumar, A. (2019). From Henley to Harvard at Hyderabad? (Post and neo-) Colonialism in management education in India. Enterprise & Society, 20(2), 366–400. Mignolo, W. (2000). Local histories/global designs. Princeton Press. Mignolo, W. (2009). Epistemic disobedience, independent thought and de-colonial freedom. Theory, Culture & Society, 26(7–8), 1–23. Mignolo, W. (2011). The darker side of Western modernity: Global futures, decolonial options. Duke University Press. Mignolo, W., & Tlostanova, M. (2006). Theorizing from the borders: Shifting to geo- and body-­ politics of knowledge. European Journal of Social Theory, 9(2), 205–221. Prasad, A., & Prasad, P. (2003). The postcolonial imagination. In Postcolonial theory and organizational analysis: A critical engagement (pp. 283–295). Palgrave Macmillan. Sarquis, A. B., Hoeckesfeld, L., Soares, J. C., Dias, A. B. S. M. S., & de Lima, M. A. (2017). Brand positioning: Case studies in community institutions of higher education. Revista Brasileira de Gestão e Inovação (Brazilian Journal of Management & Innovation), 5(1), 125–154. Szmrecsanyi, T., & Topik, S. (2004). Business history in Latin America. Enterprise and Society, 5(2), 179–186. Waiandt, C., & Fischer, T. (2013). O ensino dos estudos organizacionais nas instituições brasileiras: um estudo exploratório nos cursos de pós-graduação stricto sensu de Administração. Administração: Ensino e Pesquisa, 14(4), 785–836. Wanderley, S., & Barros, A. (2019). Decoloniality, geopolitics of knowledge and historic turn: Towards a Latin American agenda. Management & Organizational History, 14(1), 79–97. Wanderley, S., Barros, A., & Alcadipani, R. (2020). History of business schools in the global south dependency and Americanization in the case of Brazil. In Academy of management proceedings (Vol. 2020, No. 1, p. 21106). Academy of Management. Wood, M., & Liebenberg, L. (2019). Considering words and phrasing in the way we write: Furthering the social justice agenda through relational practice. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18, 1609406919877015.

Chapter 12

From Nowhere to Now-Here: Academic Nomadism Between Defiance and Continuity Kalyani Unkule

Abstract  This chapter aims to push the existing limits of our understanding of movement, mobility and nomadism in the academic vocation, particularly in the context of its professionalisation and globalisation. In process, we discover new types of borderlands and fringe spaces and try to decode the ways in which they speak back to the mainstream. Being a nomad typically implies a keener awareness of ‘convention’ in the academy, often on account of being an outlier. Academic nomads have chiefly been studied with reference to cross-border mobility. However, this chapter embraces a thick conception of academic nomadism including holding multiple academic interests and defying disciplinary silos; occupying different positions across the length of an academic career overlaid on other positionalities; orbiting the academic world while actively engaging with other sectors. This chapter will examine how these factors correlate and interact with cross-border mobility to arrive at a more nuanced understanding of nomadism as agency. Keywords  Nepantla · In-between-ness · Convention · De-territorialising · Reflexivity

Introduction This chapter aims to push the existing limits of our understanding of movement, mobility and nomadism in the academic vocation, particularly in the context of its professionalisation and globalisation. In process, we discover new types of borderlands and fringe spaces and try to decode the ways in which they speak back to the mainstream. Being a nomad typically implies a keener awareness of ‘convention’ in the academy, often on account of being an outlier. Academic nomads have chiefly been studied with reference to cross-border mobility. However, this chapter K. Unkule (*) Jindal Global University, Sonipat, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_12

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embraces a thick conception of academic nomadism including holding multiple academic interests and defying disciplinary silos; occupying different positions across the length of an academic career overlaid on other positionalities; orbiting the academic world while actively engaging with other sectors. This chapter will examine how these factors correlate and interact with cross-border mobility to arrive at a more nuanced understanding of nomadism as agency. With regard to its impact on teaching practices, the chapter will argue that despite the parallels throughout history, a lot could be lost in translation when we extrapolate from the experiences of the wandering ancient scholar to the current scenario. Ancient nomadism was about seeking out knowledge in its original context. However, the association of mobility with neoliberal globalisation leaves nomadism open to the charge of reinforcing the homogenising assault of hegemonic knowledge. Through semi-structured interviews with fellow nomads, we will outline how their experiences have shaped their teaching philosophy. Conclusions will be drawn concerning the impact of nomadism on intercultural learning, refining the critique of ‘intercultural competence’ I have presented elsewhere (Unkule, 2019).

Exploring Nomadism as In-Between-ness In order to extend our understanding of academic nomadism, we must move beyond its one-dimensional association with physical mobility. What we are interested in here is the overlay of various conditions within academia itself that create borderland spaces and the experience – willingly chosen or endured for lack of alternatives – of operating on the margins. Further we seek to identify the nature of exercise of agency on part of those who find themselves in proximity with the borderlands. The idea of in-between-ness is a useful starting point for such two-pronged enquiry. In-between-ness or Anzaldua’s nepantla in the first instance solidifies the kinetic association of movement into a tangible occurrence of ‘now-here’. Further, as shown below, it has the potential to bestow an intentionality to the academic nomad’s embrace of borderlands, diversely construed. By way of definition, in-between-ness may be expressed in Anzaldua’s own words: The thrust toward spiritual realization, health, freedom, and justice propels you to help rebuild the bridge to the world when you return “home.” You realize that “home” is that bridge, the in-between place of nepantla and constant transition, the most unsafe of all spaces. [ …] [Y]ou don’t build bridges to safe and familiar territories; you have to risk making mundo nuevo, have to risk the uncertainty of change. And nepantla is the only space where change happens. (Anzaldúa, 2015, p. 156)

Viewed through the lens of nepantla, academic nomadism throws up various questions. The nomad is straddling boundaries, walking through walls, shaking the complacency of familiarity to its core. Is their in-between-ness a phase, a rebellion or an imposition? How is it transformative from the outside in and from the inside

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out? Or is nomadism the grand conspiracy theory upholding ‘the false choice of assimilation or separation’ (Scott & Tuana, 2017, p. 11). Nepantla is a useful framework for unpacking such questions precisely because it infuses identity with dynamism, where associating nomadism simply with movement assumes that we all have a designated place where we belong. Further, as Scott and Tuana argue, ‘living in nepantla (…) renders conventional labelings obsolete’ (2017, p. 10). Such emancipation from convention as nepantla promises, allows us to engage with marginal and emerging perspectives on what it means to be an academic and pinpoint the influence that nomadism – mapped on a spectrum between choice and necessity – has had on the way we present ourselves in creation and dissemination of knowledge. Thus, we are setting ourselves the project of a three-pronged investigation – who we become? What we do? And within what kind of structural parameters? On the question of who we become, nepantla underscores reflectivism as an essential guiding principle of knowledge creation. To elaborate, we may borrow once again from Scott and Tuana: The silent language of spiritual/imaginal processes is one of symbols, images, and affective intuitions—liminal figurations and senses outside the restrictions of grammar, good sense, rationality, or analysis: that means, outside of the human world. The power of imagination links with inhuman regions in the human bodymind (cuerpoespíritu), occasions of strange processes—strange temporalities—in assembled lineages of symbols, images, and unspeakable dimensions of language. As we have seen, the roots of human life go deeper than human life, far deeper than a person’s identity, indifferent to personhood and their effects on the identities that they might nourish or destroy. (2017, p. 13)

Just as it obviates semiotic foreclosure, nepantla liberates us from the binaries of belonging to this specialisation or that, focusing on one particular region or another or fitting into one disciplinary box or the other. This challenges the conventional discourse on what we do as academics. Where nomadism is defined as a geographically displaced or dispersed career, the question arises to what extent mobility is a different phenomenon in the academic profession compared to others? Both the drivers and implications of mobile academics must be more clearly specified, and in the process, nomadism as a phenomenon might emerge in more complex light. Then there is the question of whether the expectation to move locations has become the norm in academic life and whether nomadism  – viewed as a series of relocation alone – is even a relevant and useful characterisation at this point. Moreover, is nomadism quite the appropriate metaphor for capturing cross border academic journeys, both in the tangible and abstract sense? Deleuze recognises nomads not just as people who are constantly on the move but rather as those who ‘continually evade the codes of settled people’ (1977, p.  149). Elizabeth A.  St. Pierre suggests that ‘nomads are not defined by movement as is commonly thought since they do not inhabit and hold space’. Describing her wanderings as those of an armchair nomad, St. Pierre fittingly looks no further than older women in the very community she grew up as the concern of her ethnographic research. But perhaps capturing the nomad’s journey as really an internal one, she arrives at the question ‘What part of myself must I maintain in order to subvert myself?’ (2000, p. 259).

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Which begs the question, does being a nomad simply mean being more self-aware of one’s positionality at that given moment? St. Pierre seems to aver, suggesting ‘If we wish to practice identity improvisation, attention to places may be required’ (2000, p. 260). In confessing her desire to travel to new fields of enquiry in her discipline, she also astutely highlights the insatiability of the nomadic spirit in the face of the inevitability of failure along that path. Inevitably, our enquiry turns to the structural constraints of academic life  – defined endogenously as well those resulting from broader socio-economic reality. Asli Vatansever has studied joint effects of forced displacement and economic precarity in exile as a restructuring of academic production relations and a pathway to an ‘alternative mode of intellectual production’ (Vatansever, 2020, p.  155). Identifying herself with the alternative subjectivity of the participants in her study, Vatansever subscribes to the self-reflexive gaze as integral to an adapted methodological framework. The methodological adaptation triggered by the emergence of non-conventional intellectual production opens the door to other ways of knowing which sit uncomfortably not only within the institutional set up but, more fundamentally, alongside positivist science itself. Is it possible to reimagine academic life and knowledge creation in a way that nomadism, even though it may be forced or born out of structural reasons, might then be infused with a sense of agency? And in what ways can expanding the definition of the nomadic situation in the academy help build solidarity across seemingly diverse experiences? The testimonies of Turkish academics exiled in Germany in Vatansever’s study reveal a sense of erasure of meaning when the professional and personal goals one has been striving towards achieving are severely set back due to displacement. This calls to mind the Coyolxauhqui or Falling Apart Process wherein ‘basic senses of meaning, identity and purpose, come into unresolved conflict’ (Scott & Tuana, 2017, p. 7) – according to Anzaldua, a rupture constituting fertile grounds for the experience of nepantla. Understood thus, nepantla clarifies reflectivism as not simply owning and acknowledging the importance of standpoint in knowledge creation. We find that a breakdown of assigned, ascribed and assumed identities and labels may often be the essential precondition to finding our standpoint and coming to terms with its in-between-ness. It is thus too that borderland spaces come to life as thriving in-between spaces rather than fringes that might be easily ignored. To theorists such as Walter Mignolo, nepantla necessarily invokes the question of wielding knowledge for asserting power. Rather than think of it as a ‘happy place in the middle’, he clarifies that ‘the kind of power relations inscribed in nepantla are the power relations sealing together modernity and what is inherent to it, namely, coloniality’ (2000, p.  2). Nepantla reconstitutes borderlands as the refuge of the critical gaze.

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 ow Has the Nomad Contributed H to De-Territorialising Disciplines? Thoroughly investigating the phenomenon of nomadism also permits us to spotlight the relationship of academics with borders. Here, borderlands should be understood as spaces where conventions originating in the influential core dilute and dissipate. To borrow the words of Mary Pat Brady, ‘The border appears here to be an appealing choice not because of its slipperiness‚ but rather because of something else: borders are very frequently the sites of violence both massive and minor‚ both reported and unknown, both bloody and epistemic’ (2000, p. 174). The structures of academic institutions and the self-imposed internal logics of the disciplines have meant that the knowledge creation process must be respectful of boundaries defined in space and time. An attempt to emancipate oneself from this diktat may be construed as a further dimension or variant of nomadism. Similarly, attention should be paid to the roots of the desire to embrace the turbulence that is experienced in conflict with borders and the possibilities generated for method and theory therefrom. Here too, nomadism emerges as independent of space, manifesting as the refusal to sanctify and be defined by disciplinary boundaries despite the costs associated with non-compliance. In-between-ness of this kind is ‘a creative act, indeed, that transgresses the law of the grammar and the grammar of the law and invokes, at the same time, the postcolonial and the postnational’ (Mignolo, 2000, p. 3). Thus viewed, the academic nomad indicts a field/vocation that is organised as ‘national education sectors’ while still claiming to champion the global. It exposes a shallow globalism that selectively approves of movement of bodies and thought from the periphery to the core with demography as the new site for extraction. Equally, it calls into question the homogenising tendencies of globalisation of knowledge and opens the way for a more sophisticated critique of the global university.

Impact of Nomadism on Teaching Practice ‘A teacher’s self-declared beliefs and conceptions of teaching are not necessarily reflected in their daily teaching practices’, cautions Guzmán-Valenzuela (2013). Therefore, it is important to pin down the specific ways in which academic nomadism translates into pedagogical practice. However, one must simultaneously bear in mind that students also draw their cues from the presence, personal characteristics and non-verbal communication in a classroom situation to adapt their own pre-­ existing beliefs and reassess their own possibilities in the interactive space. Exploring the importance of vulnerability in the classroom, Jaquetta Page writes, ‘Each time I walk into the classroom, not only are students who have never been acquainted with anyone of Africana heritage trying to place me, but Africana students, especially women, are also reading me for clues. How I wear my hair, if my nails are “done”, how I choose to dress, whether African American English

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vernacular peppers some of my speech are all cues to my students how to receive and interact with me’ (2020, p. 124). Page’s description spotlights the greater exposure to such scrutiny the further you depart from the White cis-heteropatriarchal norm in which epistemic authority and validity is vested in the academy. Hence, also, derive significance those dimensions of teaching practice which cannot be subsumed under fully articulated pedagogical approaches. In fact, as Koppensteiner observes, the facilitator’s modulation of their own presence in the classroom is a crucial determinant of the scope for self-expression from students (2020, p. 111). With the increase in university enrolments in various parts of the world, the classroom has become more diverse. There is fledgling recognition that diversity and inclusion can no longer be an exercise in checking the proverbial boxes. Indeed, students are demanding that their lived experiences, concerns and hopes for their communities be reflected in what is taught and how knowledge is imparted. Preparing students for ever-evolving trends in employment has, over the past couple of decades, become a core responsibility that professors are expected to shoulder. The widely accepted purpose of higher education today is not only to mould students into competent and employable workers but into innovators and lifelong learners. The precipitous transition to work-from-home across the world in 2020, suggests that in the foreseeable future, we will also be called on to equip students to adapt not only with career transitions throughout the professional life-cycle but changes in the very place and meaning that work holds in our lives, our sense of self and our social standing. Cautioning that ‘we can no longer avoid honoring the wisdom of practice’ (2007, p.  19) R Eugene Rice advocates ‘new “networks for learning” that will reach across academic staff and into the larger community’ (2007, p. 18). Such an evolving scenario necessitates transcending the insularity of the ivory tower to make contact with practice fields and vocations, leading to the emergence of another kind of borderland space.

The Ivory Tower: A View from the Borderlands Infused with agency, nomadism becomes a mechanism for grappling with disenchantment not just with one academic system but with academia in general. Vatansever goes so far as proclaiming ‘a state of constant nomadism between times, places, and ideas’ (2018, p. 164) as the hallmark of the intellectual life, adding: It entails a certain deterritorialization due to the recognition of the multiplicity of the human condition. From this point of view, the institutional structures of knowledge production have a delimiting impact on intellectual nomadism and a conforming effect on the intellect along with the material conditions of living. (2018, p. 164)

The phenomenon of nomadism may be emblematic of the university as an institution and its discontents. The casualisation of teaching via the phenomenon of adjunct positions coexists with the unmarred sanctity of the concept of tenure. Redefined as ‘agency’, nomadism becomes a way of navigating the crisis in higher

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education while preserving autonomy. Yet, it also draws attention to the role that universities and formal education play in strengthening class structures and creating systems of stratification of their own, despite their professed ethos of equity and inclusion. Giving expression to this contradictory scenario, Rahuldeep Gill confesses, ‘that being a progressive, tenured professor is kind of an existential contradiction’ (Gill, 2020). He further acknowledges that despite the existence of lower-paid adjuncts, ‘my faculty position will NOT be among the first to be sacrificed at the altar of solvency’ (Gill, 2020). Similarly, claims of solidarity with one’s place or community of origin made by those ‘writing from a comfortable paid position in a European University’ (Icaza, 2018, p. 62) have been scrutinised. This critique indicts the liberal conception of globalisation which normalises migration in search of a better life thereby valorising a certain kind of life and epistemic aspiration as ‘better’. After all, seen through the lens of coloniality, globalisation – including in its imperialist and neo-imperialist manifestations  – is as much about displacement and appropriation of ways of knowing as it is about exploitation of natural and human resources. Icaza’s analysis uncovers the further charge of ‘academic extractivism’ that such global mobility exposes hegemonic knowledge creation to. Where it stops short of absolute epistemicide, this phenomenon amounts to the seemingly inexorable march of embodied and locally situated knowledge(s) towards the holy grail of ‘a disembodied, abstract knowledge with universalist pretensions’ (Icaza, 2018, p. 63) characteristic of Eurocentric positivist science.

Testing the Thick Conception of Nomadism In order to develop a well-specified account of the think conception of nomadism which centres agency, we interviewed five self-proclaimed nomads at different stages of their careers. They were selected as interviewees based on an established record of undertaking international projects and/or being active in fields of practice related to their academic work and/or having contributed to internationalisation and study abroad work at their respective institutions. The semi-structured interviews were designed to shed light on two aspects: first, the interviewee’s conception of their own brand of nomadism with reference to the conceptual parameters outlined above and second, the impact this has had on their teaching practice and professional motivations. Accordingly, the questions put to them were as follows: • Describe your relationship to/association with the idea of movement in academic life in three words. • What are the ways in which you consider yourself moving in academic life and have you thought about or worked towards finding anchors in this process? • Do you view mobility as an academic as an inevitable reality or a matter of choice? • Has your association with mobility changed over time and how have institutional structures shaped this evolution in your thinking?

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• What impact has nomadism, as you define it, had on your teaching philosophy and pedagogical practice? • How has this diversity of experiences made you reflect back or have you had any moments or situations of an altered self-awareness? In the concluding part of this chapter, we will discuss the key takeaways of their testimonies and propose certain conclusions for intercultural learning. To begin, we summarise the key insights that emerged from interviewees’ responses to the above questions. School is an extremely interesting viewpoint of life (Interviewee 5)

Only one out of the five respondents interpreted the concept of mobility strictly in terms of professional prospects while speaking about their experiences. The other four discussed it in relation to its impact on their identity – one out of these four in relation to their identity as a scholar and the other three in relation to their personal identities. Thus, the significance of mobility was felt both in terms of professional advancement and personal growth, a coincidence aptly captured by Interviewee 4 who described their association with nomadism using the words ‘Existential, Purposive, Humbling’. Human interaction is my anchor. Working on exchange programmes helps me construct diversity of interactions vicariously. (Interviewee 1)

As avowed nomads, the respondents identified the opening up of new dimensions of human interaction as their anchor and long-run motivator. Taken together with the above reflections on personal growth and fulfilment, nomadism transitions through a spectrum of proclivity or happenstance to intentional methodological commitment – the realm of agency we anticipated above. According to Interviewee 4, ‘The anchor would be ideas and your own process of making knowledge. It is the base you create on your own and then allowing all these activities to fill it in. You have to think about how you break barriers and build together a learning community’. As one maintains sustained proximity with the borderlands, it appears that the uniqueness of one’s experiences itself become the guiding light. All the respondents agreed that mobility – whether understood as cross-border or in its thick conception outlined above – is inevitable in academic life with one adding ‘you can limit yourself and set conditions on how you engage with the world – that is a matter of choice’ (Interviewee 4). People rolled their eyes at my conference on Eurovision. Using pop cultural references or drawing on Bollywood to explain access to justice is scoffed at. (Interviewee 1)

Respondents identified both institutional and epistemic/disciplinary barriers while reflecting on the constraints which have shaped their nomadic instincts. Giving voice to the frustration stemming from such constraints was the following remark of Interviewee 3: The U.S. law school context (where teaching is not evidence-based and empirical research does not exist) has shaped my thinking about individualism as THE value that needs to be

12  From Nowhere to Now-Here: Academic Nomadism Between Defiance and Continuity 141 questioned professionally, socially, and ethically in the U.S., from its racist past to its populist present.

Conclusion The feeling of being out of step with the mainstream paradigm expressed by the respondents contains germs of the Falling Apart process discussed above in the context of nepantla. Two of the respondents also pointed out how their nomadism altered their relationship not just with the world but with the very notion of/place called home. In Interviewee 1’s experience: You become you because of those opportunities. I am an asset back home because of my international network. It gives me a particular place that I occupy within the home institution.

While for Interviewee 4: In my home country because I look the same and was born here, I feel like even more of a stranger than expats because they don’t face the community expectation of fitting in. In Philippines we have this proverb “if you forget where you came from, you’ll never get to where you are going”. But I think being unrooted is an incredible thing because it allows you to be creative instead of being chained to a certain way of thinking. But sometimes people think that if you are not grounded you must be fickle.

Anzaldua’s characterisation of home as a space in constant transition springs to life in light of these testimonies. They also allow us to retrieve the intercultural encounter from hegemonic, ethnocentric and Eurocentric discourses. We find fresh grounds to embrace this encounter as an opportunity to shed one’s own cultural baggage and challenge presuppositions about ‘home’. The nomads I interviewed have inadvertently displaced the binary of home and abroad/alien in the ‘intercultural’ for when we stay on the move, the challenge really becomes one of building bridges back to where we came from. This is not to break culture down to micro-­ individualistic components but to acknowledge the borderlands inhabited by insatiable knowledge nomads as repositories of dynamism and impetus for keeping culture alive. It is to rephrase the cosmopolitan as a provisional bargain between the familiar and the unrelenting.

References Anzaldúa, G. (2015). Light in the Dark/Luz en lo Oscuro: Rewriting identity, spirituality, reality. Duke University Press. Brady, M. P. (2000). The fungibility of borders. Nepantla: Views from South, 1(1), 171–190. Deleuze, G. (1977). Nomad thought. In D. B. Allison (Ed.), The new Nietzsche. Contemporary styles of interpretation. Delta.

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Gill, R. (2020). Universities will die, and that’s a good thing. http://www.rahuldeepgill.com/blog/ university-­death. Accessed 9 Feb 2021. Guzmán-Valenzuela, C. (2013). Challenging frameworks for understanding teaching practices in higher education: The end or the beginning? Qualitative Research in Education, 2(1), 65–91. https://doi.org/10.4471/qre.2013.15 Icaza, R. (2018). Social struggles and coloniality of gender. In R.  Shilliam (Ed.), Rutazibwa, O.U. (pp. 58–71). Routledge. Koppensteiner, N. (2020). A crack in everything. In E. J. Brantmeier & M. K. McKenna (Eds.), Pedagogy of vulnerability (p. 111). Information Age Publishing. Mignolo, W.  D. (2000). Introduction: From cross-genealogies and subaltern knowledges to Nepantla, Nepantla: Views from South Volume 1, Issue 1. Duke University Press. Page, J. (2020). Ever vulnerable: Intersectional aspects of black feminist thought and the pedagogy of vulnerability. In E. J. Brantmeier & M. K. McKenna (Eds.), Pedagogy of vulnerability (p. 124). Information Age Publishing. Rice, R. E. (2007). From Athens and Berlin to L.A.: Faculty Scholarship and the Changing Academy in R.P. Perry and J.C. Smart (eds.), The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: An Evidence-Based Perspective, 11–21. Scott, C., & Tuana N. (2017). Nepantla: Writing (from) the In-Between. Journal of Speculative Philosophy, 31(1),1–15. St. Pierre, E. A. (2000). Nomadic inquiry in the smooth spaces of the field: A preface. In E. A. St. Pierre & W. S. Pillow (Eds.), Working the ruins: Feminist poststructural theory and methods in education (p. 258). Routledge. Unkule, K. (2019). Internationalising the university: A spiritual approach. Palgrave Macmillan. Vatansever A. (2020). Between excellence and precariousness. The transformation of academic labor relations in Germany, in Roth and Vatansever (eds), Scientific Freedom Under Attack. Political Oppression, Structural Challenges, and Intellectual Resistance in Modern and Contemporary History. Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag.

Chapter 13

Making a Permanent Move: Reconciling Different Approaches to Teaching and Learning as a Permanent Expatriate Academic Véronique Ambrosini and Lisa Thomas

Abstract  The internationalization and ensuing mobility of academics have become a ubiquitous facet of business schools. This chapter presents the reality of global mobility for business and management academics as perceived by two UK-based management academics who expatriated to Australia and France. It delves into some of the challenges they face in reconciling different teaching and learning approaches and reflects on some solutions. Being an expatriate and an academic presents different challenges to those experienced by either of these groups in isolation. The expatriate academic must navigate their host country’s national, institutional and social context and their inherent teaching and learning processes and policies. This requires cross-cultural adjustment, which takes time and needs support. Keywords  Academic expatriates · Teaching and learning · ‘Ba’ · Australia · France

V. Ambrosini (*) Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia e-mail: [email protected] L. Thomas KEDGE Business School, Marseille, France e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_13

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Introduction Growth of international activity and strategic alliances between higher educational institutions have resulted in more academics taking up overseas appointments, with academic mobility now a ubiquitous facet of business schools (Jepsen et al., 2014; Pudelko & Tenzer, 2019). This chapter presents the reality of global mobility for business and management academics. Building on the experience of originally UK-based academics within the host countries of France and Australia, it explores some of the challenges the expatriate academic faces in reconciling different approaches to teaching and learning. It acknowledges the prevailing structures and mechanisms the expatriate academic faces are interwoven within the overall patterns of national higher education systems and their societal embeddedness (Richardson, 2009). These patterns filter through differences in teaching styles and the role of academic administration with resultant implications for social integration. The differences, as we will explain, can be challenging and are idiosyncratic to the locations we explore. Our experience would suggest that they are not dependent on perceived cultural similarities (Selmer & Lauring, 2009). Dealing with these differences requires proactive engagement from expatriates with the institutional and social structures within which they must operate (Richardson, 2009). Expatriate academics ‘need to see the job abroad as meaningful and be willing to invest energy in it’ (Lauring & Selmer, 2015, p.  637). This also requires that higher education institutions are responsive to developing and helping their international academics (Lauring & Selmer, 2015; Jepsen et al., 2014). The chapter commences with a brief overview of the higher education sector of the countries. It then discusses some challenges pertaining to the role of language and culture, governance, learning style, pedagogical approaches expatriates may face. We refer to the concept of workplace ‘Ba’ (Nonaka & Konno, 1998) and highlight how key it is to successfully transition from migration to integration. We emphasize that socialization through working with others and spending time with colleagues is key to the process; without this, academics will find it challenging to integrate.

Is Business Education Truly Global? With globalization well embedded within business education, one might think that all business schools are alike. But is it so? Many business schools aspire to serve the needs of a globalized economy and are motivated to attract staff with international capabilities to teach increasingly global student cohorts (Ryazanova & McNamara, 2019). Academic mobility, defined as academics who leave their country of origin to go and work abroad, is encouraged as a further means to achieve research productivity because it is associated with scientific collaboration, training and knowledge-­ sharing (Kim, 2017).

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Scholarly careers are largely self-initiated. Individuals seek international career opportunities and expatriate themselves (Baruch & Hall, 2004). The most important drivers of self-initiated international careers are ‘pull’ factors: new experiences, professional development and the desire to live and work in a specific country or region (Froese, 2012). However, while secondary, several ‘push’ factors, such as deteriorating working conditions in some countries, are noted (Richardson & Zikic, 2007). In terms of particular aspects of the academic career, it would appear there are relatively few differences in, for example, teaching loads. However, returning to our initial question, is business education truly global or in short, does one size fit all? Extant research and our personal experiences suggest that sometimes even subtle differences make it not so and significantly affect expatriate academics’ lives. Often the self-initiated expatriate can get ‘lost’ in the system, often treated as just another employee (Bonache et al., 2010). Academic migrations are especially subject to national particularities and institutional contingencies, including implicit rules of the game and employment conditions (Kim, 2017). Research shows that while self-initiated expatriates cope reasonably well in terms of general adjustment (i.e. living in a foreign country), their interaction adjustment (i.e. establishing relationships with locals) and their work adjustment (i.e. their fit in the workplace and job satisfaction) are more troublesome (Froese, 2012). Intercultural competence, the set of competences enabling interaction with people from other cultures adequately and effectively (Wolff & Borzikowsky, 2018), is important for international academics and the institutions hiring them (Jepsen et al., 2014). Given this, business schools need to develop their opportunities and collective capabilities for socializing and integrating incoming international faculty.

Australian Higher Education System Australia has 43 registered universities. University education is Federal Government funded with a relatively small compulsory contribution by students. Public universities are established or recognized under State and Territory legislation. The Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency is Australia’s independent national quality assurance and regulatory agency for higher education. It assesses the performance of higher education providers against the Higher Education Standards Framework. Their primary activities are teaching and research, but the prestige of a university depends mainly on its research activities, especially in the Group of Eight (Go8) that comprises Australia’s leading research-intensive universities.1 To determine and compare Australian universities’ research performance, Excellence in Research  The Group of 8: University of Melbourne, the Australian National University, the University of Sydney, the University of Queensland, the University of Western Australia, the University of Adelaide, Monash University, and UNSW Sydney. 1

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Australia (ERA) has established an evaluation framework that gives government, industry, business and the wider community assurance of the excellence of research conducted in Australian higher education institutions. ERA evaluates performance within each discipline at each university and provides a detailed view of the research landscape in Australia. University rankings have assumed increasing importance, due to their ability to enhance reputation. In the Go8, ERA rankings are constantly discussed. Business education is located in various faculties. While there are separate business schools, they are most often than not in Faculty of Business and Law, or Business and Economics. The traditional breakdown of activities at research-intensive universities, for a typical academic staff member, is 40% research, 40% teaching and 20% administration and service to the community. More recently, universities have started to hire education-focused academics who focus on teaching-related matters. Business schools have a considerable number of international academic staff. Many are attracted by the allure of the Australian lifestyle and climate. Many come from Asian countries, who also appreciate the relative proximity to their home countries and from Europe, who enjoy the higher salaries and relatively lower teaching loads. These academics are recruited essentially to help the ERA rankings. The education deanery and professional staff strongly monitor course outlines and learning objectives. Approvals for changes can take a long time. It is common for incumbent academics to feel they have the ownership of their units, and develop borders against intrusions from other staff, which could be frustrating for the newcomer. Given the time issues regarding changes in course outlines and assessments, many newcomers who take on teaching units feel they lack freedom over the content. Teaching is generally allocated in terms of hours, with hours taught being dependent on research/grant output and service activities. Australian universities’ culture is managerialist.

French Higher Education System French Higher Education has a history, structure and culture quite different from that of the anglophone world. This is particularly the case for business education. French Business Schools or Grande Ecoles (GEs) evolved outside the public university system, with the vocational chambers of commerce playing a predominant role. These roots lead to an emphasis on professional and technical training focusing on solutions to real-world problems (Thomas et al., 2014). GEs’ financial support came primarily from businesses and from tuition paid by students. Due to the withdrawal of funding from chambers of commerce, governance structures are increasingly focusing on new ways of raising finance, including donations, or private investment. Strict selectivity and elitism are characteristics of GEs. They are historically oriented towards an authoritarian management culture and an educational system where students receive knowledge as truth not to be questioned (Harker et al., 2016).

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As a result, those who succeed and access a GE are purported to be very able intellectually but with less personal inquiry and vision, with their main goal of graduating (Jepsen et  al., 2014). Admission to the GE Programme is competitive and happens following a preparation course. The top-30 GEs are very expensive, but students’ classes are small, with many contact hours and small-group practical skill-­ development exercises, presentations and in-class discussions are typical. Governance in GEs is mainly in the hands of administrators, and faculty members have relatively little control over decisions about educational programme structure (Jepsen et al., 2014). For academics coming from the United Kingdom where experience of involvement is much higher, this can be frustrating and can lead to a perception of the quality of pedagogy and curriculum decisions suffering from lack of subject matter and pedagogical expertise. French teaching loads are drawn up by student contact hours rather than a number of courses. Courses are commonly shorter than in the United Kingdom and taught in blocks. The use of business game simulations is common. Professors are expected to supervise master’s theses for which they may be paid a bonus. Research active faculty teach less than those who are not. Faculty members earn publication financial bonuses that rise according to journal prestige. This acts as a stimulant to research productivity and a career strategy for those who wish to increase their earnings.

‘Ba’ As strategic management academics, we are used to talking a lot about the importance of path dependency and context when making strategic decisions. When you become an expatriate academic context specificity comes to the fore. We have already highlighted that the self-initiated expatriate literature underlines the role of integration (or lack of) and alluded to aspects that these academics may find different and even challenging in France and Australia. Therefore, the concept of ‘Ba’ (Nonaka & Konno, 1998) can be a useful lens to explore how the migrant academic can integrate. Nonaka et  al. (2008) explain that it is a space where individuals share their knowledge and create knowledge. It reflects the argument that knowledge is not just explicit, but it is also tacit. While the sharing of explicit (objective) knowledge is straightforward as this knowledge is easily articulated and shared, it is not so for tacit knowledge or undocumented knowledge. Tacit knowledge is context specific, embedded in individuals and in action (Nonaka, 1994). Undocumented knowledge means simply that it is not written down (Powell & Ambrosini, 2012). Through interactions in the ‘Ba’, knowledge, be it tacit or undocumented, is shared. In this space, people bring their own experience and backgrounds. The expatriate wants to bring their experience in, for example course development, international research activities and share their access to institutional networks. They wish to be insiders and have access to the host institution knowledge.

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The ‘Ba’ is also not uniquely about the workplace. It is embedded in its wider environmental context, including its cultural, national and regional environment yet also influenced by this context, meaning that the ‘Ba’ is fluid and interactions change (Nonaka & Toyama, 2003). Such fluidity may be invisible to the first-time expatriate wanting to integrate into the host business school, but its existence is more obviously illustrated taking the example of the academic who decides to return to their home country institution. Effectively, you become, once again, an expatriate needing to integrate, because your original space has also changed. Essential aspects of the ‘Ba’ for knowledge sharing and creation are interactions, especially informal, collaborative ones. ‘Ba’ is the context for socialization that underpins sharing of tacit and undocumented knowledge (Nonaka, 1994). Socialization involves dialogues and supports sharing of the context and its common language. Knowledge can thus be thought of as distributed practical wisdom (Nonaka & Toyama, 2003, 2007). This underscores how socialization is critical when an expatriate is unfamiliar with the work context. While all newcomers will be directed to various databases and induction websites, academics experiencing a new system do not know what they do not know or misconstrue. This means they do not ask for assistance. For instance, the UK academic will talk about faculty, and the Australian wonders what they mean! But as UK academics we take for granted that faculty means staff and it would not cross our minds to ask what faculty is. Moreover, as an expatriate newcomer even if you know you need guidance, you very often do not know whom to ask, as often, roles and titles vary across countries, as well as within countries. In the next sections, we illustrate some challenges we faced as expatriates, ‘things we wished we knew earlier’ and reflect on the importance of ‘Ba’ in addressing the deficiencies in our initial knowledge and knowledge sets. In short, expatriates need to engage in their ‘Ba’ to integrate.

Migrating to Australia Structure and Decision-Making Size matters! Universities can be large with some pre COVID-19 over 85,000 students of which some 30,000 are international. The business school often has over 20,000 students and some departments over 2500 students, meaning that many departments (disciplines) are larger than UK business schools. In the United Kingdom, a large unit (aka course aka class) was around 50. It is common at many Australian institutions to have 500–1000 students in a unit. It is about mass education. Moreover, once workloads are agreed (depending on service and research), if there are not enough permanent academics, people do not teach more, casual staff are employed and managed with timesheet entry, etc. There is also by and large a strict separation between lectures and tutorials. This means that

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experiential learning is limited at the undergraduate level. The universities are large bureaucracies with layers and layers of administration where rules and systems dominate. It could take over 1 year to change your course guidelines if you so wished.

Teaching In postgraduate teaching, the population of business students is international. You quickly realize that you cannot rely on your regular jokes, childhood, geographical or historical references, or online YouTube videos. Forget the idea that everybody knows who Churchill is, or where Heidelberg is (well they might know it is a Melbourne’s suburb) or what Tesco or Direct Line Insurance are. We are on the other side of the world with students from different backgrounds; should you want to illustrate your class you have to think of global phenomena like Harry Potter, Trump, or Apple. This can be hard as your teaching can at first become very dry indeed.

Language In undergraduate classes domestic students are the majority, and here it is the language you use that matters. Of course, English is the language but… when asking your students to present you have to make sure you understand them! So, you need to become attune with the Australian lingo and particularities. This also matters in meetings. Many words are shortened, and there is an abundant use of abbreviations and acronyms. Do you know what bring a plate is about? Do you know what a slab is about? Do you know what Manchester relates to? Also, some words are the same but have a different meaning. In the United Kingdom if you have a degree with honours, it means that you graduated with high marks in your assessed work. In Australia, it means that you did an extra year after your undergraduate degree, and few, typically bright and academically students do so. It is the traditional pathways for doing a PhD.  The Honours’ class often falls under the remit of the research deputy dean rather than the education deputy dean. Finally, the grammar… it is often an inconsistent mix of American and British and informality can reign. One could also mention the dress code. Australian academics are not shocked to see their MBA students making assessed presentations shoeless and in shorts.

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Culture In the Group of 8, teaching is often perceived as punishment. Research is primordial, which means that teaching often plays second fiddle to research and arguably teaching quality suffers. Research output is strictly monitored, with various administrative systems transferring outputs into points and there is a strong adherence to some journal lists. While the staff is very international, and the locals are very accepting of international scholars, discussions among expatriates reflect one point: Expats socialize with expats outside work, which can create inner groups. This also slows interaction and the transfer of knowledge. Work socialization matters, but socialization in the environment is critical. It may sound negligible, but many dates are in our brain, and it means something. If you live in Europe, by and large, September means back to school and Autumn. You are not naturally attuned to think this is the end of February or March. January means the start of Semester 2; it does not mean Summer holidays! As an expat, you need to think! Australian scholars also make assumptions about subjects and examinations. In the United Kingdom strategic management means just that, strategic management in Australia most incorporate it with international business. The idea of a viva for PhD examining is unknown. Finally, the work culture is not about the beach and surf and sun! Aussies are direct and especially at work. Emails with no salutations are common. People will start meetings with no chit chat and will be fine to tell you what is wrong with you without beating around the bush. This is at first, a shock. Work is hard and standard driven. Tenure does not mean tenure; if you do not reach the standards, you will be performance managed and, eventually, you can lose your job (the notion of academic strengthening!).

Migrating to France Language Recruitment of English native speaking permanent staff to deliver courses in English has increased over recent years. But this doesn’t preclude the need to speak French whatever it might say on the job specification. In French Business Schools or Grande Ecoles (GEs), academic career success depends on performance in research, teaching and administrative service as it does in UK institutions. The most pertinent boundaries raised by local-language requirements emerge in the domain of academic administration (Pudelko & Tenzer, 2019). Fluency in French is important for administrative and managerial purposes and de facto, for any promotion to top administrative positions. Consequently, not having a good working knowledge of French can take its toll on academic expatriates creating career barriers limiting international career opportunities (Richardson & Zikic, 2007). French also tends to

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be used in academic committees and faculty department meetings which automatically excludes expatriate colleagues with limited knowledge of French. This said, GEs have recently put considerable effort into changing this situation, and most now offer French classes to non-French speakers upon recruitment. Nevertheless, for the non-French speaker, there is still that initial ‘settling-in’ period where the expatriate newcomer is ‘adrift’ in meetings and in dealing with administrative bureaucracy, pedagogical or otherwise. Consequently, chancing on an understanding of the subtler elements of what is going is lost on the newcomer. Early socialization opportunities that allow the newcomer potential for practising their developing language skills in a safe environment is important and can be built into induction activities and other events within the host institution. Most expatriates want to use their local language skills.

Pedagogical Styles In terms of pedagogical approach, French educational culture is top-down, with students expecting professors to provide the ‘right’ answer, particularly among 19to 23-year-old students who are uneasy with speaking in public (Jepsen et al., 2014). Due to this, the expatriate becomes an expert at answering their own questions in class before gauging this cultural subtlety! It is an approach that differs markedly from the United Kingdom, which while more of the form of the larger lecture, involves greater class participation. This said, French students are much more prepared to work in small groups and quite competent at presenting their project findings as a group.

Course Design and Structuring While by and large, UK higher education (HE) values experience in education and input in developing pedagogy, this tends to be less so in GEs. While pedagogical input from faculty may be solicited for programme design, for example, this tends more to be the role of administrators, who may not have had pedagogical training or teaching experience. Additionally, when it comes to class scheduling within programmes, one can use the idiom of the Tail That Wags the Dog, where often the planning schedule (The Tail) tends to dictate course structure (The Dog) and sometimes its actual content. For instance, if you envisage students doing pre- or postreading, this may become impossible if the planning (that, you as a permanent academic cannot influence) dictates class scheduled back-to-back for a host of reasons you might never have envisaged. One of the most common being incorporating the availability of the part-­time practitioner-teachers tends to take precedence. As a side note, a course means a class!

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Grading Assessment marking provides evidence of both distinct and subtle differences. There is no double marking and external examining, and the expatriate newcomer will soon find that their tried and tested grading system is no longer of use in GEs. Gone are the days of alphas or numeric grading out of 100. Grading is out of 20. But how does the newcomer proceed? It is not a matter of translating a percentage based on your experience of the UK approach. There are other subtleties at play. For example, if you thought 14 out of 20 was a good grade (70% in the United Kingdom), this is not necessarily thought to be so; ‘that seems rather low’ being a typical comment. So, it isn’t simply about knowing what system is used (we can look these up in advance), it is also about the subtler elements of grading and the meaning attached to these. The newcomer needs to understand this by becoming an insider early on.

Conclusion and Implications Academics may decide to expatriate for a variety of reasons which, as mentioned, evidence push and pull factors. These include economic reasons (e.g. higher salaries or better pension provisions), lifestyle reasons (e.g. climate), political reasons (e.g. Brexit), or intellectual reasons (e.g. better, and broader research community) and through shortages of home-grown talent and the fact that today there are many international opportunities. However, adjustments to a new academic environment can be difficult, especially as many familiar and taken-for-granted aspects of working life are different. We are originally UK management education academics who made the permanent move to become expatriate academics. While now integrated within our host countries, this integration would have been smoother and faster had there been sources of pragmatic information relative to become an expatriate academic. We only shared a few here. We realized that our knowledge of what the academic job is about has many tacit and implicit facets and that we can only develop and integrate by understanding our ‘Ba’. This means understanding our institutions and the environment they are embedded within. Academic work is not just about academia. And while no doubt integration is by and large done by osmosis, we also need to remember that this is about interaction. You learn as an expatriate, but your colleagues also learn from you. Yet there are opportunities for business schools to create ‘Ba’ to mobilize knowledge that is likely unevenly distributed, and diverse. In summary, we have emphasized that, while ‘host’ contexts may create a barrier to geographic flexibility in academia (Robinson, 2009), expatriate academic proactive engagement is essential. Indeed, we believe that expatriate academics can positively contribute to enhancing the pathway for other would-be expatriate academics. However, we also suggest that international recruiting institutions acknowledge that the expatriate academic will require a period of adjustment, and that the time needed

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for this adjustment may depend on the cultural distance between overall patterns of national higher education systems. They must also be willing to adjust their internal processes to allow for the specific intellectual capital and experience these international academics have to offer. This suggests that the impact of national, institutional and social contexts on the academic expatriate is an important research theme for further consideration. It would also be of interest to understand whether academics who have experienced several permanent moves are also more adept at reconciling different approaches in academic work.

References Baruch, Y., & Hall, D. T. (2004). The academic career: A model for future careers in other sectors? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64, 241–262. Bonache, J., Brewster, C., Suutari, V., & De Saá, P. (2010). Expatriation: Traditional criticisms and international careers. Thunderbird International Business Review, 52(4), 263–274. Froese, F. J. (2012). Motivation and adjustment of self-initiated expatriates: The case of expatriate academics in South Korea. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23, 1095–1112. Harker, M. J., Craemmerer, B., & Hynes, N. (2016). Management education by the French Grandes Ecoles de Commerce: Past, present, and an uncertain. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 15(3), 549–568. Jepsen, D. M., Sun, J. J. M., Budhwar, P. S., Klehe, U. C., Krausert, A., Raghuram, S., & Valcour, M. (2014). International academic careers: Personal reflections. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(10), 1309–1326. Kim, T. (2017). Academic mobility, transnational identity capital, and stratification under conditions of academic capitalism. Higher Education, 73(6), 981–997. Lauring, J., & Selmer, J. (2015). Job engagement and work outcomes in a cognitively demanding context: The case of expatriate academics. Personnel Review, 44(4), 629–647. Nonaka, I. (1994). A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation. Organization Science, 5(1), 14–37. Nonaka, I., & Konno, N. (1998). The concept of “Ba”: Building a foundation for knowledge creation. California Management Review, 40(3), 40–54. Nonaka, I., & Toyama, R. (2003). The knowledge-creating theory revisited: Knowledge creation as a synthesizing process. Knowledge Management Research & Practice, 1, 2–10. Nonaka, I., & Toyama, R. (2007). Strategic management as distributed practical wisdom (phronesis). Industrial and Corporate Change, 16(3), 371–394. Nonaka, I., Toyama, R., & Hirata, T. (2008). Managing flow: A process theory of the knowledgebased firm. Springer. Powell, T. H., & Ambrosini, V. (2012). A pluralistic approach to knowledge management practices: Evidence from consultancy companies. Long Range Planning, 45(2–3), 209–226. Pudelko, M., & Tenzer, H. (2019). Boundaryless careers or career boundaries? The impact of language barriers on academic careers in international business schools. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 18(2), 213–240. Richardson, J. (2009). Geographic flexibility in academia: A cautionary note. British Journal of Management, 20, S160–S170. Richardson, J., & Zikic, J. (2007). The darker side of an international academic career. Career Development International, 12(2), 164–186.

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Ryazanova, O., & McNamara, P. (2019). Choices and consequences: Impact of mobility on research-career capital and promotion in business schools. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 18(2), 186–212. Selmer, J., & Lauring, J. (2009). Cultural similarity and adjustment of expatriate academics. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(5), 429–436. Thomas, L., Billsberry, J., Ambrosini, V., & Barton, H. (2014). Convergence and divergence dynamics in British and French business schools: How will the pressure for accreditation influence these dynamics? British Journal of Management, 25(2), 305–319. Wolff, F., & Borzikowsky, C. (2018). Intercultural competence by international experiences? An investigation of the impact of educational stays abroad on intercultural competence and its facets. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(3), 488–514.

Part IV

Internationalisation of the Curriculum

Chapter 14

How Do Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Apply When Teaching Abroad? Diederich Bakker

Abstract  In this chapter, seven intercultural teaching experiences are contextualised by using the Hofstede (Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context, 2011) model on cultural dimensions. The experiences are from Australia, China, France, Germany, Russia, India and Thailand. They are analysed using Hofstede’s four cultural dimensions of Power Distance, Individualism, Masculinity and Uncertainty Avoidance. The results show that stereotypical behaviour in the teacher-student interaction is confirmed but is also refuted in numerous instances and across the dimensions. The described cases also cover interactions between the guest lecturer and staff of the hosting universities in the seven countries. This anecdotal evidence shows more commonality with the Hofstede model than the teacher-­ student relationships do. Using Hofstede’s model to prepare for and carry out international guest lectures remains a useful tool. It is advised to keep an open mind and not take stereotypical behaviour for granted. Keywords  Hofstede cultural dimensions · Intercultural teacher-student interaction · Power distance · Individualism · Masculinity · Uncertainty avoidance

D. Bakker (*) Hanze University of Applied Sciences, Groningen, Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_14

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Introduction I came to academia in 2002. My background lies in marketing, with a focus on advertising. I gained professional experience in international advertising agencies and eventually started a business in marketing research. Hence, my first teaching at the International Business School of the Hanze University of Applied Sciences in Groningen, the Netherlands was in business research methods and a variety of marketing subjects. This school has an impressive educational model. Students of the 4-year bachelor degree in international business are taught in English by an international faculty and spend the third year of their studies abroad – one semester at an international partner school and one at a company outside of their home country. So, students gain valuable international experience, both at home and abroad. Right from the beginning I taught international classes, typically consisting of a mix of nationalities ranging from European to Asian and North- and Middle American cohorts. International classes are an important part of the school’s teaching concept. Student projects are designed to be solved by international teams, and classroom discussions can focus on intercultural aspects that the different nationalities bring to the table. Due to my own institutions’ wide network of partner-schools, I embarked on my long journey of international guest lectures early in my career as a scholar. I felt that if I wanted to stay relevant as an internationally focused business lecturer, I had to continue to gain international experience, so this was my motivation to teach abroad. This teaching experience has included regular lecture tours in France, Germany, China, Russia, India, Thailand and Australia. Research has shown that international teaching is often a positive experience that results in personal as well as professional development (Sisco & Reinhard, 2007; Chauke & Mokoena, 2006). Another important aspect for my teaching abroad is developing my cultural awareness, a common motive among international scholars (Sandgren et al., 1999). My school’s leadership believes that lecturers in international business should be internationally engaged. Further, connecting with international partners enhances institutional relationships and can strengthen areas of cooperation. Receiving institutions, on the other hand, can pursue different goals when hosting international faculty. In my experience, common goals are: • Internationalisation: if a school predominantly maintains a domestic faculty, hiring foreign guest lecturers will add to the diversity of the teaching staff • Image: inviting international faculty can affect the reputation of an institution among all its stakeholders. Input from visiting lecturers is appreciated by students (Hustler et al., 2003) • Policy fulfilment: especially in the European Union, Erasmus mobility programmes are important parts of national political agendas that find implementation at the institutional level. My experiences when teaching abroad are always  – without exception  – of a positive nature. Students are generally very welcoming, and I often get the impression that they appreciate the diversity my teaching brings to their learning habits. Of

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course, inviting institutions are also supportive prior to and during a teaching visit. In all the countries I have taught in over the years, I have noticed differences. These differences refer to the interaction with students and also with the staff of the receiving institutions. In this chapter, I will use four of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions to analyse and structure my experiences. I will further compare my personal findings to typical cultural behaviour, as highlighted by Hofstede, and to other researchers’ findings using Hofstede’s cultural dimensions.

Four Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Contextualised Geert Hofstede has been widely acknowledged for creating six dimensions by which cultures can be compared. For this case study, four of Hofstede’s dimensions are contextualised: Power Distance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/ Femininity, and Uncertainty Avoidance. For the most up-to-date definitions and Table 14.1  Bipolar manifestations of four cultural dimensions by Hofstede Dimension Power distance The extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally

Individualism The degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members

Masculinity What motivates people, wanting to be the best (masculine) or liking what you do (feminine)

Uncertainty avoidance The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these Source: Hofstede (2011)

Bipolar manifestation Small power distance Older people are neither respected nor feared Student-centred education Subordinates expect to be consulted Individualism ‘I’ – consciousness Purpose of education is learning how to learn Speaking one’s mind is healthy Femininity Sympathy for the weak Minimum emotional and social role differentiation between the genders

Large power distance Older people are both respected and feared Teacher-centred education Subordinates expect to be told what to do Collectivism ‘We’ – consciousness Purpose of education is learning how to do Harmony should always be maintained Masculinity Admiration for the strong Maximum emotional and social role differentiation between the genders Weak uncertainty Strong uncertainty avoidance avoidance The uncertainty inherent The uncertainty inherent in life is felt as a in life is accepted continuous threat Teachers may say ‘I Teachers are supposed to don’t know’ have all the answers Dislike of rules Emotional need for rules

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Table 14.2  Cultural dimension scores for the sampled countries Australia China France Germany India Russia Thailand

Power distance 38 80 68 35 77 93 64

Individualism 90 20 71 67 48 39 20

Masculinity 61 66 43 66 56 36 34

Uncertainty avoidance 51 30 86 65 40 95 64

Source: Hofstede Insights (2021) Table 14.3  Bipolar manifestations of the sampled countries Bipolar manifestation Small power distance Australia, Germany Individualism Australia, France, Germany Femininity France, Russia, Thailand Weak uncertainty avoidance China, India

Large power distance China, France, India, Russia, Thailand Collectivism China, India, Russia, Thailand Masculinity Australia, China, Germany, India Strong uncertainty avoidance France, Germany, Russia, Thailand, Australia (very intermediate)

Source: Adapted from Hofstede (1986)

cultural dimension scores, the Hofstede Insights (2021) website was used. This is a tool to make country comparisons on the basis of their cultural dimensions. All dimensions receive a score from 1 to 100 stating where on that scale a culture typically rates. This scale manifests itself in a bipolar way: small and large Power Distance, Individualism versus Collectivism, Femininity as opposed to Masculinity and weak Uncertainty Avoidance versus strong. Table  14.1 offers a definition for all four cultural dimensions, and each is exemplified by several bipolar manifestations. Some of the manifestations are directly related to teaching and to the role and status of the teacher. For instance, in the power distance dimension, small power distance results in student-centred education, whereas large power distance cultures would expect the teacher to dominate. In cultures that tend to be individualistic, education has the purpose to help students learn how to learn. At the other end of the scale, collectivist cultures consider the purpose of education as learning how to do something. In the uncertainty avoidance dimension, teachers are allowed to say ‘I don’t know’, although strong uncertainty avoidance cultures put a high value on teachers who are supposed to know everything. This lies with considering the admiration of ‘strong’ in the masculinity dimension, in contrast to femininity, that allows for weakness. Table 14.2 illustrates how the sampled cultures score differently along the four dimensions. For instance, Australia scores low in power distance with 38 points and

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highest in the sample with a score of 90 in the individualism dimension. This means that typically in Australia, power distance is perceived to be low, and as an individualist culture, people tend to look foremost only after themselves and their immediate families. This contrasts with the Chinese culture that stereotypically shows large signs of power distance and where collectivism is the normative social behaviour. Table 14.3 categorises the sampled cultures into their bipolar manifestations. Note that this is only a rough categorisation; manifestations per country differ in scale and extent. The categorisations show extremes and stereotype the cultures. However, the division will now serve as a reference point to my personal experiences and perceived cultural differences when teaching in these countries. I will use the teacher/student interaction perspective, inspired by Hofstede (1986). My own experience also reflects the realities that typically lie between stereotypical extremes. I will also touch upon implications I perceived with the hosting institutions and will relate them to the four cultural dimensions.

 eacher-Student Interaction Related to Hofstede’s T Cultural Dimensions Below, each of the four cultural dimensions is discussed, based on my own experiences made when teaching and interacting with students in the seven sampled countries. I will bring forward some anecdotal evidence and discuss this evidence in a subjective way. This discussion is aimed to bring some realities to Hofstede’s cultural stereotyping as applied in the context of the teacher/student interaction. Besides, the extremes as seen in the bipolar manifestations (see Table 14.3) shall be put into perspective.

Power Distance Power distance in the literal sense has been clearly felt by me in both bipolar manifestations. Students in China, for example, usually refer to me as ‘professor’ or ‘teacher’; here the teaching profession is highly regarded, and the title can become part of the actual name of a person in that profession. On the contrary, students in Australia have generally addressed me by my first name, something which is very unusual in my native Germany and feels strange for me personally. In both Germany and Australia, I would normally always engage in discussions with students, for example, after class. Students would wait for me and try to start a dialogue on the class content or other related topics. The student-centred education in low power distance cultures generally expresses itself by students taking the initiative, such as speaking up in class or daring to challenge the teacher (Hofstede, 1986). Teaching in Australia, I was particularly pleased with student participation during classroom

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discussions. Australian students equally speak up in large lecture halls or smaller seminar settings. This has also to a lesser degree been the case in Germany, where I experienced active student participation during lectures and seminars. However, also in India – a high power distance culture – I have experienced very active and vocal students who would even challenge me during class. Also, I have been surprised by the generally fair to good participation in my Russian classes where the English level of the students has been remarkably good. Most of my Chinese, Thai students and also French students clearly fall under the stereotypical way of student/teacher interaction. Here, the bipolar manifestations can clearly be justified as laid out by Hofstede. The institutional perspective shows stereotypical outcomes. First, as a guest lecturer there is always interaction with staff from the receiving institution. I often have to deal with administrators from the international office or discuss content matters with faculty members. In low power distance cultures, I often have to align the teaching content very closely with the receiving institution. This goes as far as having to follow exact curricula in Germany where I am quite literally told what to teach. On the contrary, in China, France, or Thailand, receiving institutions leave me complete freedom as to the content and structure of my classes. I have become quite used to this approach. I remember being a bit insecure in the beginning as I had expected more guidance – also in the interest of the hosting school. I am now in favour of this approach as it leaves me freedom and flexibility. I think this given freedom stems from the power distance to me as a teacher who is supposed to know what to do and who should not be told what to teach in a hierarchical sense.

Individualism Hofstede (1986) points out that students within individualistic cultures expect to learn how to learn (competency-based learning), and collectivist cultures in contrast demand from the teacher to learn how to do (knowledge-based learning). Since I have been teaching in the Netherlands for the most part of my career in higher education, I am very used to be teaching the competency-based learning style and am also fully convinced that this is the right way to teach. Consequently, I also focus on competency-based learning in all my international guest lecturing assignments. Without exception, I have student groups work in teams on group projects or case assignments. I have noticed that students in the individualistic cultures where I have taught, namely Australia, France, and Germany, are much more used to this type of learning environment. However, they often still struggle with groupwork assignments, and problems that can occur in these. It is very interesting to notice that conflicts within groups are occasionally brought to my attention in individualistic cultures. And this is typical behaviour in these cultures, where conflicts and confrontation in learning situations can be brought into the open (ibid.). Face-­ consciousness is also weak in these cultures so it is acceptable to bring conflicts forward. My experience with competency-based teaching and group assignments in

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collectivist cultures is very different in that respect. Here, students are generally accustomed to this learning style but have never taken group problems outside of their group and brought them to my attention. Group conflicts, often caused by ‘free-riding’ of individual group members, also happen in collectivist cultures. It is sometimes obvious, and easy to detect. But I have noticed particularly in China and Thailand that these problems are always kept within the group. And in these collectivist cultures, formal harmony in learning situations should be maintained at all times, and students should never be forced to lose face (ibid.). The institutional context shows a diverse picture. For example, social activities are often offered to me when staying in collectivist countries. Excursions are organised, team dinners are held, meeting the university leadership is often on the agenda and a strong concern about my well-being is regularly shown. This to me shows a sense of family feeling, where I am deliberately included by my hosts’ collectivist countries, where the family extends broadly. On the contrary, in individualist countries, social activities organised by the inviting host university are very rare. I often find myself spending the evenings and weekends alone when I am teaching in Germany or France. Collectivist cultures also appear to include me as part of their team. My foreign hosts’ webpages usually list me in their teaching faculty directories. It can be concluded that I generally receive more attention as a visiting lecturer from the staff in collectivist cultures than in individualist countries, where my visits are rather treated like ‘business as usual’.

Masculinity Versus Femininity As Table 14.2 showed, China, India, Germany and Australia score relatively evenly in the masculinity dimension. This comes as a surprise to me in the teacher-student relationship context. I have experienced Indian, German and Australian students matching this dimension’s typical behaviour. In these cultures, students actively try to make themselves visible in class and compete with each other openly – typical masculine behaviour. I did not detect this behaviour among Chinese students. However, failure in school as a serious personal blow, as it is suggested by Hofstede (1986), can definitely be attributed to Chinese students, but not to Germans and Australians in my view. On the contrary, femininity and some of its associated societal attributes can be detected in all international classes I have taught in this sample. Teacher friendliness, that I try to bring across to all my students, is equally appreciated everywhere, I find. I also think that my international students are generally of a modest nature, with the occasional exception in every class and every culture. I cannot relate immodesty as stereotypical to any of the cultures I have experienced in class. I also cannot support the notion that students in France, Russia and Thailand have shown more solidarity to each other than in the other cultures. On the other hand, I did notice more competition among students in Australia and India, and to a lesser degree in Germany. However, Russian students, stemming from a more femininity-oriented society, have also shown competitive behaviour. Overall,

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I find the third cultural dimension in the teacher-student context less clear and obvious than the previously discussed dimensions. I cannot fully confirm that work prevails over family in masculine societies (Hofstede, 2011). I have experienced a strong focus on the work environment when lecturing in Germany and China. Especially in China, conversations hardly ever go beyond the work sphere and staff generally demonstrate loyal commitment to their work. This work-focus attitude was not apparent in Australia, where I found the colleagues I met and worked with were much more free-time oriented. Free-time activities would even occur during regular worktimes, such as long coffee breaks and personal conversations about sports or hobbies. Thai and French hosts clearly appear more balanced between family and work. I can confirm that particularly French institutions show minimal social role differentiation between the genders (ibid.) and the colleagues I regularly work with appear to pay attention to their work-life balance.

Uncertainty Avoidance Being German, I come from a culture prone to the avoidance of uncertainty. I notice it especially when I am working with cultures that show weaker uncertainty avoidance. My German nationality is then often referred to as being on time, hard-­ working and precise. When teaching, I try to be as clear and specific as possible, to avoid ambiguity. However, for didactical reasons, I also try to evoke some uncertainty where I find it necessary. For example, in the workplace, not all information is always given and projects can change and evolve over time, and such circumstances are emulated into students’ assignments. This deliberately creates uncertainty among the students, no matter in which culture I am teaching. The question then is, how do different classes deal with uncertainty? Among all my international classes, I find German (65  – moderate uncertainty avoidance score) and French (86  – high uncertainty avoidance score) students to be the strongest uncertainty avoiders. In both cultures, I have noticed that particularly female students always demand more and often very explicit information from me regarding their assignments. Australian students, both male and female, technically performing at an intermediate level in this dimension (51 uncertainty avoidance score  – see Table 14.2) seem rather weak uncertainty avoiders. I found Asian students in this sample – Thai students supposed to be strong and Chinese students as weak uncertainty avoiders – to be generally both weak-performing uncertainty avoiders. Here students would only ask questions if prompted by me, when I had the impression, they needed further input. I do not find Russian students to be particularly strong uncertainty avoiders. According to Hofstede (2021) the Russian culture scores highest in this category of the sample (score: 95, see Table 14.2). To me, Russian students were among the weakest performing in uncertainty avoidance. From an organisational point of view, my German and French hosts often require me to fill in detailed forms such as course outlines and assessment templates when

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I teach in their schools. There is generally an obvious need for organisational structure and clarity. I partially contribute this to the strong desire of these cultures to avoid uncertainty. On the contrary, in China my hosts have never asked me more than the general subject area of my classes (e.g. marketing or entrepreneurship). As mentioned above, I sometimes have to ask for additional information to satisfy my own urge of uncertainty avoidance. It goes as far as having to ask explicitly about the levels of the students and their prior knowledge in my particular subject area. Similar characteristics apply for India, where I noticed a stereotypical ease, with chaos and ambiguity seeming to be the norm.

Conclusion The above discussion highlights my personal experiences teaching in seven different cultural environments: Australia, China, Germany, India, Russia, India and Thailand. The cultural dimensions framework by Hofstede (2011) was taken as a reference point to contrast my own experiences with stereotypical behaviour in each of these cultures. The applicability of Hofstede’s dimensions in my personal teacher-student interactions in the above cultures proves to be doubtful in some instances. As Table 14.3 shows, I assign several countries with different bipolar manifestations as it is suggested by Hofstede (1986). This is illustrated by the italics emphases. I have experienced India and Russia as countries with smaller power distance behaviour. And in contrast to the literature, Chinese students showcased more feminine behaviour in my classes. Lastly, both Australia and Thailand appeared to be less uncertainty avoidant than Hofstede (1986) suggests. Despite the many differences I have experienced teaching internationally, ultimately, my own teaching style never changes really. Once my classes start and I get going, it does not matter where I am teaching. The information flows and boundaries disappear. This may take longer in some countries than others, but my own performance is hardly affected, and I do not need a model of cultural behaviour to perform adequately. However, knowing and understanding likely differences in the teacher-student interaction can be useful when having to deal with conflicts and to manage one’s own expectations. For teaching abroad, it can be useful, for instance, to be aware of differences in student learning and group performance. It is also essential in my view to have an understanding of the effects of power distance and individualist versus collectivist behaviour by students. Depending on what the norm represents, for the teacher these two cultural dimensions can have a large effect. Nevertheless, teachers should retain an open mind and stay true to their own teaching style. Authenticity in the classroom is in my experience extremely important for connecting with students in a sustainable way. Gaining international teaching experience is an effective way to understand how culture affects learning and group performance. This knowledge can be very useful when you have to teach diverse classes in your home institution.

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References Chauke, M., & Mokoena, J.  D. (2006). The experiences of African nurse educators regarding their participation in an overseas exchange program. Africa Journal of Nursing and Midwifery, 8(2), 54–60. Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural differences in teaching and learning. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10(3), 301–320. Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Unit 2. http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol2/iss1/8. Accessed 15 Dec 2020. Hofstede Insights. (2021). Hofstede Insights Helsinki Finland. https://www.hofstede-­insights.com/ country-­comparison/. Accessed 20 Feb 2021. Hustler, D., McNamara, O., & Jarvis, J. (2003). Teachers’ perceptions of continuing professional development. Queen’s Printer. Sandgren, D., Elig, N., Hovde, P., Krejci, M., & Rice, M. (1999). How international experience affects teaching: Understanding the impact of faculty study abroad. Journal of Studies in International Education, 3, 33–56. Sisco, L., & Reinhard, K. (2007). Learning to see what’s invisible: The value of international faculty exchange. Business Communication Quarterly (Vol. 70, pp. 356–363).

Chapter 15

The World Is Our Classroom: Innovative Approach to Teaching International Business to Multicultural Student Teams Dmitri Nizovtsev, Russell E. Smith, and Michael Stoica

Abstract  This chapter presents a unique design of a course that combines hands-on business education with a multicultural study abroad experience. During the 13  years of its existence, the International Business and Entrepreneurship Experience course provided the opportunity for students from four universities on four continents—Asia, South America, Europe, and North America—to engage in research, critical thinking, and multicultural teamwork while solving real problems for international companies. The course consists of two phases, in which students work virtually and in situ. The site locations alternate among the four continents. This inexpensive, easy to replicate, but effective model offers students from different backgrounds an innovative opportunity for transformational experience and self-efficacy growth in an international environment by merging business, entrepreneurship, and cultural experiences. This fosters cross-pollination and the development of a team collective mind, further enhanced by the diverse expertise brought to the table by instructors from participating universities. In the long term, we observed strong network ties formed among students and faculty that go beyond the scope of the course, resulting in lasting friendships and business partnerships. Another long-term benefit is the resulting migration of students and faculty that will help the four universities to integrate their programs. Keywords  Project-based learning · Virtual teamwork · International cooperation

D. Nizovtsev (*) · R. E. Smith · M. Stoica Washburn University School of Business, Topeka, KS, USA e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_15

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Introduction: Addressing International Curriculum Needs Understanding the broader world in which we live is becoming a more and more relevant and valuable skill in the job market. With countries’ economies becoming more interconnected through global markets, many businesses are interested in hiring individuals who possess knowledge in various aspects of international enterprise practices or better yet, have been exposed to an international business setting. Forward-thinking students who understand these trends accordingly look for opportunities to develop global knowledge and multicultural intelligence. In response to this growing demand, business schools are enhancing the international business component in their curricula. While international experience can be acquired in multiple ways, the most common tool used by universities around the world is study abroad. European schools are ahead of most US schools due to their more interconnected, multicultural mindset and the geographical proximity. American schools, especially those located in the US Midwest, are lagging behind due to the reluctance of their students to travel and stay abroad for extended periods of time. This reluctance forces schools to try different approaches and find innovative ways to incentivize students to study abroad and get international experience. As noted above, the most common way of giving students international exposure is by sending them to study abroad for a semester or a year, often within the framework of a bilateral or multilateral partnership agreement. As part of trying the same approach, approximately 20 years ago our school joined the Magellan Exchange, a consortium of similarly minded educational institutions primarily from the United States and the European Union (EU), that provides students with attractive and cost-­ efficient options for studying abroad through direct exchanges. In the Magellan Exchange, each member’s balance, both deficit and surplus, is calculated against the whole, freeing the member schools from managing a large set of bilateral balances. There also is faculty exchange program. The engagement with the Magellan Exchange gave us experience working with partnerships. The drive for a greater international experience for our students has also been supported at the university level. In 2004 the university established the Transformational Experience initiative—an opportunity for students to enhance their learning while engaging in learning activities outside the classroom, backed up by significant student and project financial support in the form of grants and scholarships. As stated in the mission of the initiative, “… It is expected that the student’s experience will yield a greater understanding of the world around them and how one might utilize his or her unique skills and abilities to affect positive change.” The initiative offers recognition for students’ extra-curricular efforts and activities and provides financial support for such activities in the form of scholarships. International education is one of the four arenas in which students can undergo a transformational experience. However, in spite of all the support available to students, making them study abroad turned out to be challenging. Among the reasons commonly brought up by students were extra cost compared to in-house education, loss of income from their

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current jobs, the need to leave their comfort zone, and issues with partner institutions’ course offerings and credit transfers. As a result, the standard version of study abroad never became popular, and we experienced single-digit number of participants per year. We also tried to expand the school’s international exposure by using faculty exchange opportunities, engaging in lectures given remotely to partner institutions, and recruiting and hosting international students from those institutions. Multiple partnerships with Chinese universities proved to be especially fruitful in recruiting visiting and degree-seeking international students. None of the above, however, lived up to our international experience goals for our domestic students. The International Business and Entrepreneurship Experience course presented below was a natural solution to the aforementioned problems. Developed in collaboration with our partner schools, this course was built on the international partnerships and contacts we have established over the years. The course exposed students to hands-on business experience, offering a welcome relief from the traditional delivery modes. Doing everything “in-house” allowed us to be in full control of the course content and costs and eliminated credit transfer issues. Students travel as a group led by a university instructor, which solves the “comfort zone” issue.

 he International Business and Entrepreneurship Experience T Course (IBEE): Guiding Principles There are several guiding principles, or themes that are reflected in the International Business and Entrepreneurship Experience course, including (1) the business project itself, (2) the cultural experience, (3) the self-implementation of the course by the students, (4) the digital technology that makes the course possible, and (5) the institutional foundation formed by the partnership among the four universities. Those five principles can be aggregated into two pillars on which the course is built: (1) international business experience acquired through organized teamwork in an international setting and (2) cultural experience acquired by visits to historic and cultural sites led by the instructor. While none of the course elements is entirely new, its novelty consists in aggregating various pedagogical approaches in a unique way. The course produces a transformational experience for students at the intersection of project-based learning (Freeman et al., 2011; Hu, 2009; Knoll, 1997; Nakayama et al., 2012), virtual teamwork (Gavidia et al., 2005; Hubbard, 2013; Shea et al., 2011), and multicultural environment setting (Taras et al., 2013) in which it takes place. The core of students’ international business experience is a consulting project defined by the host-country firm and done in real time by a multicultural team of students including students from the country where the company is located. In this course, project work replaces traditional lectures and serves as the main mechanism of learning. Students are presented with a problem that may not have an exact

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solution in the sense of a unique correct answer. This approach requires that the students find the information and techniques necessary for the solution through self-­ directed study. This is different from the traditional textbook problem solving where the solution mechanism is well-defined. From the moment the teams are formed and projects are assigned, the project work is student driven. The teams self-organize and define the scope and goals of their projects in direct communication with the clients. The role of the instructor under this approach is primarily that of a facilitator who supports reasoning and helps organize group and interpersonal dynamics but stops short of providing direct answers to project questions. Nowadays, global virtual teams serve as important entities for knowledge acquisition and decision making around the world (Gonzalez-Perez et  al., 2014; Hu, 2009; Malhotra et al., 2007; Maznevski & Chudoba, 2000; Swartz et al., 2020). In this course, a large portion of work is done remotely in virtual teams. Elements essential for success of virtual teamwork, such as pre- and post-training, group supervision, and within-group communication, incorporated in the course design and implementation from the beginning, align well with the list of success factors summarized in Gilson et al. (2015). Due to the large amount of virtual teamwork, technology is critical in delivering the course objectives. Activities such as desk research, information sharing, file sharing, brainstorming require adequate software applications. In addition to being a natural solution for the course format, technology-driven virtual teamwork also helps reduce costs and prepares students for the variety of research and communication techniques. The cultural experience element of the course also plays an important role. It serves as a foundation for the development of entrepreneurial ideas and provides rich opportunities for vicarious learning (Hoover et al., 2012; Reynolds et al., 2018) through observing people and activities or picking up cultural cues. The development of the course capitalized on the school’s extensive international contacts and our openness to establishing new ones. The original version involved a partner institution from China. In time, the venture grew internationally by bringing on board a European school and more recently a Brazilian school. The course serves as a platform for ongoing development of relationships among the institutions extending beyond the narrow framework of the course. Figure 15.1 presents the current state of the relationship network among the participating schools.

Course Timeline and Schedule The course has a unique design that involves university faculty and students from four continents. At the core of this course is the work that mixed teams of North American, South American, European and Asian students do to solve real problems for international clients.

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Fig. 15.1  Four-continent cooperation

Several months prior to the beginning of course, participating faculty from the four schools meet to discuss the specifics of that year’s course design. This includes strategies for recruiting students, activity scheduling, and vetting potential client companies. One challenge in international educational collaboration is the difference in academic calendars. It was decided from the start that the activities will not match the rigid boundaries of an academic term. March through May was chosen in consultation with all the partners as the best time for mutual engagement and consequent travel. Understandably, implementing this joint course required some flexibility from all participating schools. The timeline of the main course activities is presented in Fig. 15.2 and explained in more detail below.

Phase 1 Course meetings and activities start in March. During the first phase of the course, students reside at their respective institutions, and all the teamwork is done virtually. In the first meeting teams involving students from all four universities are formed, and each team selects their client company. In the next step, the teams establish the content and the deliverables of the project the company is interested in. The teams interview the company management about the specifics of the project and conduct industry and market analysis for the client companies. They investigate

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Fig. 15.2  Timeline of the semester work on clients’ projects

the local business environment and start aggregating the information obtained. All the interaction and coordination within a team and between the team and the client are done through the Internet and social media. Students are not restricted in their choice of technology to use for that. Zoom, Microsoft Teams, YouTube, WhatsApp, and WeChat are the most commonly used tools to facilitate contacts and exchange information. Consistent with the philosophy of project-based learning, the role of participating instructors is limited to that of mediators and consultants who are monitoring and guiding the virtual teamwork. In parallel, students are tasked with researching information on the future host country (so far, either China or Brazil) and write a country report detailing the places they will visit for their cultural experience. The host university students act as consultants, helping the visiting students in better understanding the country they will visit, its value system, customs and manners, material elements of culture, aesthetics, and obtaining information on the places the visiting students will travel to after the work is done. Phase 1 deliverables consist of a preliminary team report on the client company’s project and a country report summarizing its cultural, economic, and political environment along with some information about the sites planned for the travel portion of the course. The preliminary company reports are accompanied by teams’ presentations that take place at the end of Phase 1.

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Phase 2 In May students from all the participating schools travel to the host country. The entire length of the travel portion is approximatively 3 weeks. One week out of three is dedicated to teams working on the project in situ and finalizing their recommendations to the clients. At the end of this phase, a day-long workshop is organized by the host university where the teams present and defend their findings and the action plan to solve the client’s problem. The audience includes client companies’ representatives along with any interested instructors, administrators, or students. The workshop presents an excellent opportunity to debate the action plans proposed by student teams for the problems they identified while conducting their analyses. The PowerPoint presentations are made available to the clients. The written report is finished after the travel is completed.

Phase 3 The rest of the travel portion of the course is spent acquiring cultural experience while visiting places of interest in the host country. In addition to the educational and entertainment value of this phase, students are also asked to critically observe the new cultural and business environment and actively explore business ideas and opportunities. Those ideas may be implemented either in the host country or in their home country, but they have to be in some way inspired by students’ experiences during the course. Upon their return home, each student is required to submit a feasibility study for the idea they analyzed.

Course Formalities The International Business and Entrepreneurship Experience course is offered every spring semester. Though it is offered as a three-credit course, the number of contact hours is much higher than the current 48-hour standard for a three-credit course. Due to the multiple team meetings both virtually and face-to-face and the international travel, the time spent together sums up to almost double of an average face-­ to-­face or online course. We found the effort put forth by students in this course to be higher than in an average course, which we attribute to the very high level of motivation from the opportunity to work and travel together with peers from schools in different continents. The newness of the experience and the desire to network and make new friends tend to mitigate any potential conflicts that may arise within a team due to differences in commitment or difference in cultures. The total class size varies from year to year, ranging between 35 and 50, depending on the interest of the students in traveling abroad and connecting with peers

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from different continents. The total number of students in the class includes six to ten students from each visiting school, and a larger number from the host school. Enrollment in the course is voluntary. American students earn three hours of US credit (equivalent to five or six ECTS units) toward their “business electives” requirement. Marketing of the course and student recruiting is done through multiple channels. The scholarships students receive require them to make a classroom presentation upon completion of the course. Other channels include school of business media, instructors’ classroom visits, e-mail correspondence, academic advising meetings, and word of mouth. Prerequisites for the course are three semesters of completed business studies, including some of the core business courses. The course is not open for general enrollment. The dean’s office admits students based on a personal interview that proves that they understand the work requirements and the responsibility associated with representing the American university abroad. Each of the other three participating schools have different requirements since each has different ways of organizing the student learning experience. A variety of options, such as internships, thesis, summer intensive learning, innovation lab experience, are available, but close coordination is necessary. While for one school the sum of activities is aggregated into a class syllabus and a three-credit course is offered, for two other schools the common activity represents a student semester internship. The fourth university is offering students the option to participate into an international project as an opportunity to enhance their cultural intelligence and their interest for global cooperation.

Cost and Funding The total cost for an American student is represented by the tuition for three credit hours and the cost of the travel portion. The travel costs are hard to predict. The experience from past years shows significant variance with an upward trend. Students qualify for a number of scholarships that help them cover part of the travel costs, thus reducing the financial burden. Examples include the School of Business Study Abroad Scholarship, the university Transformational Experience Scholarship, and the International Program Scholarship. Scholarship amounts also vary from one year to another but on average they cover more than half of the program cost.

 iscussion and Conclusion: What We Learned and Where D We Are Going The course described in this chapter has been offered since 2007 and has been evolving based on feedback from all stakeholders. The two founding schools from Asia (China) and North America (USA) were later joined by institutions from

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Europe (Belgium) and Latin America (Brazil), resulting in the current status quo of four universities offering a common field case course. The 13-year experience gives us confidence that the course accomplishes its goal of preparing students for the global economy. It gives students a meaningful immersive international business experience within a short period of time. Students get transformed on three dimensions: international business, entrepreneurship, and cultural experiences. International business experience is acquired via working in teams—both virtual and in situ—on an international business project. Student teams conduct research in an international business environment and learn to understand the global, international, and national markets. Entrepreneurial experience is acquired through investigation of business ideas during their international travels, which also trains their creativity and curiosity. They elaborate/perform a feasibility study of the ideas identified while traveling or working on other projects. The course also contributes to students’ general education by giving them an international cultural experience, which includes visits to internationally famous metropolitan areas, cultural institutions, scenic routes. They also pick up cultural cues from interaction with local individuals as well as their peers from the other three continents. Learning is achieved through a combination of methods: hands-on project-based learning, dealing with open-ended problems, tutoring and guidance by host country companies, and vicarious learning. As a result of the course, students exhibit growth in self-efficacy (Bandura, 1994; Zimmerman, 2000), boosting their confidence necessary for success in the global marketplace. Additionally, networking opportunities offered by the course result in lasting friendships and business relationships that extend beyond the duration of the course. Our confidence in the success of the course is based on past participants’ responses, which have been overwhelmingly positive with praise for both the educational and cultural aspects of the program. Students call the hands-on business experience with an international company “a highlight of their studies at the university.” This is especially noteworthy in the context of their original reluctance to travel. Course instructors noticed that, consistent with Kardes (2020), students were very knowledgeable and creative in using and combining various communication tools such as Facebook, Skype, Google Drive, Instagram, Snapchat, WhatsApp, Zoom, QQ, Baidu, and other platforms, requiring little to no training. As presented, the model can easily adapt to differences in academic calendars across participating schools. Additionally, each school can set their own requirements for course deliverables, academic credits, or assessment tools and techniques, which increase the ease and likelihood of successful academic cooperation. Due to its built-in flexibility and clever reliance on virtual team technology, the program proved to be resilient and adaptable enough to operate even during the tight restrictions caused by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in years 2020 and 2021. Program challenges include extensive coordination time and effort, multiple meetings with the interested companies, the need to renew the pool of client companies, and availability in mentoring students. Each partner participates in the

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coordination in a different way; however, the amount of work required from the host institution is substantial. Engaging in this experience increases the participating institutions’ overall international visibility and provides opportunities for greater integration of their programs through recruiting international students and synergetic inter-instructor cooperation in research and teaching. The model can be replicated and expanded without major challenges. Institutions have to identify interested overseas partners and businesses that have interest in working with students to solve some of their problems. The no less important factor is the availability of enthusiastic and committed instructors.

References Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71–81). Academic Press. Freeman, I., Knight, P., & Butt, I. (2011). A tri-country marketing project – Preparing students for realities of a global marketplace. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 22(4), 277–299. Gavidia, J. V., Mogollon, R. H., & Baena, C. (2005). Using international virtual teams in the business classroom. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 16(2), 51–74. Gilson, L. L., Maynard, M. T., Jones Young, N. C., Vartiainen, M., & Hakonen, M. (2015). Virtual teams research: 10 years, 10 themes and 10 opportunities. Journal of Management, 41(5), 1313–1337. Gonzalez-Perez, M. A., Velez-Calle, A., Cathro, V., Caprar, D., & Taras, V. (2014). Virtual teams and international business teaching and learning: The case of the global enterprise experience (GEE). Journal of Teaching in International Business, 25(3), 200–213. Hoover, J. D., Giambatista, R. C., & Belkin, L. Y. (2012). Eyes on, hands on: Vicarious observational learning as an enhancement of direct experience. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 11(4), 591–608. Hu, H. (2009). An international virtual team based project at undergraduate level: Design and assessment. Marketing Education Review, 19(1), 17–22. Hubbard, R. S. (2013). How to improve global virtual teams. Global Business and International Management Conference Journal, 6(3), 49–58. Kardes, I. (2020). Increasing classroom engagement in international business courses via digital technology. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 31(1), 51–74. Knoll, M. (1997). The project method: Its origin and international development. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 34(3), 59–80. Malhotra, A., Majchrzak, A., & Rosen, B. (2007). Leading virtual teams. Academy of Management Perspectives, 21(1), 60–70. Maznevski, M.  L., & Chudoba, K.  M. (2000). Bridging space over time: Global virtual team dynamics and effectiveness. Organization Science, 11(5), 473–492. Nakayama, M., Fueki, M., Seki, S., Uehara, T., & Matsumoto, K. (2012). A human resource development program for information technology engineers using project-based learning. Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning, 5(4), 9–15. Reynolds, G., Wasely, D., Dunne, G., & Askew, C. (2018). A comparison of positive vicarious and verbal information for reducing vicarious learned fear. Cognition and Emotion, 32(6), 1166–1177.

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Shea, T. P., Sherer, P. D., Quilling, R. D., & Blewett, C. N. (2011). Managing global virtual teams across classrooms, students and faculty. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 22(4), 300–313. Swartz, S., Barbosa, B., & Crawford, I. (2020). Building intercultural competence through virtual team collaboration across global classrooms. Business & Professional Communication Quarterly, 83(1), 57–79. Taras, V., Caprar, D., Rottig, D., Sarala, R., Zakaria, N., Zhao, F., et al. (2013). A global classroom? Evaluating the effectiveness of global virtual collaboration as a teaching tool in management education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 15(3), 414–435. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 82–91.

Chapter 16

The Utilization of International Academics’ Expertise in Improving Both Students’ Learning Experiences and Academics’ Classroom Practices Madhavi Lokhande and Uday Salunkhe

Abstract The university business schools’ agenda today to provide international outlook to students to compete for global careers has put an increasing attention on academicians with international teaching and research experience. The immediate consequence is the internationalization of the academic workforce. Universities adopt different formats in engaging international faculty from visiting fellow per term to short-term international faculty exchange, and so on. Their prime focus to recruit the best of the academic faculty often outpaces their expertise and support in the in-patriation and orientation process. Many universities in India have the fnancial resources for visiting the best-inclass universities across the globe to study the academic system, pedagogy, and the learning culture. They have been successful in customizing the unique courses and the pedagogy for students at the home university. Some unique courses and formats have also evolved by creating the opportunity for the academic faculty to attend international teaching workshops, symposiums and by allowing experimenting at blending the local best practices with learning from the global partners. These initiatives, directly and indirectly, have helped to bring a change in management education in India. The educational reforms in India in the newly announced National Education Policy 2020 call for action from universities to step up efforts in this direction. Keywords Higher education · Internationalization · Cross cultural academic experiences · Effcacy of academic linkages

M. Lokhande (*) · U. Salunkhe Welingkar Institute of Management Development & Research (WeSchool), Bangalore & Mumbai, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_16

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Introduction Understanding Internationalization Internationalization and globalization are fundamental components of the learning process where living and refecting upon the experiences a student has when studying abroad greatly enhance the learning experience (Perry & Southwell, 2011). Globalization is seen as a social and economic process; internationalization, on the other hand, is described as a strategy by which colleges and universities respond to globalization. This basic conceptual difference constitutes the essence of university administration worldwide (Cantwell & Maldonado-Maldonado, 2009). As national economies become more interconnected and participation in education expands, governments and individuals are looking to tertiary education to broaden students’ horizons and help them to better understand the world’s languages, cultures and business methods (OECD, 2014).

The evolution of globalization and the knowledge society has led to institutional changes in higher education systems, such as changes in managerial attitudes and cultures (Deem & Brehony, 2005), policies, strategies, and the role of the regulatory authorities. The aspirations of the students to enroll in new age courses and to learn in a cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary setup have opened up opportunities for universities. The universities are progressively becoming entrepreneurial, and this attitude has pushed them to extend the scope of their activities outside the national borders. It can be said that activities of Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) are becoming more developed in international (in terms of cooperation) and global (in terms of competition) frameworks (Horta, 2009). Globalization affects all the sectors of business and society including higher education. The immediate impact that can be seen is the mobility of business and people; the larger and deeper impact on education is that internationalizing function gains momentum while adapting to the changing business environment. All over the world universities have started responding to challenges presented by globalization in various ways—one response is the internationalization of the university campuses. In order to get beneft from the global trend, many educational institutions are trying to establish agreements and collaborations with regional, international, and even intercontinental universities. HEIs are looking to broaden the horizon of students and help them to understand the concept of Think Global and Act Local. The need for innovation and learning drives the efforts of internationalization with agreements and collaborations with national and international universities being formalized. Internationalization is high on the agenda of national governments, international bodies, and HEIs. Higher education not only serves the politics and economy of the nation but also infuences the development of a country. It is an important reference factor to evaluate the international status of a nation (De Wit, 1999). With the rapid developments in the space of education in the twenty-frst century, the universities pay more attention to develop their own strategy of internationalization. These

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include introducing new initiatives and programs related to skill, academic and professional knowledge, multilingualism, social intercultural skills, and attitudes. The concept of internationalization in higher education is continually developing and evolving with the new world order. During the past two decades, the international activities in education have expanded from simple exchange of students to interesting methods to keep the students and the academia engaged in newer formats. Internationalization in education is getting more and more popular (De Wit, 2011) with universities coming with innovative formats.

The Indian Context Nobel Prize winner Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941)1 was one of the earliest Indian educators, with a vision of a global village. For him education was multiracial, multilingual, and multicultural (Periaswamy, 1976). He was a forerunner in envisioning a globalized world community, living the life as a citizen of the world. He was a pioneer for successfully founding Viswa-Bharati, a university that was truly international in its philosophy, goals, and curriculum in Santiniketan2 in 1921. Tagore’s visionary thinking on education helped to set up Cheena Bhavana (Institute of Chinese Language and Culture) under Viswa-Bharati University in 1937. It was the only one of its kind in India at that time, where renowned international scholars worked. Its reputation as a center promoting historical study and a platform to build relations between the two countries was way ahead of the times. Sofa Corradi3 in 1987 gave birth to the ERASMUS (European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students) program, which has enabled millions of students to travel to European universities and has created a transnational mobility program. If students today can become citizens of the world, because of the efforts of the internationalization of the Higher Education Institutions (HEI), then the credit largely goes to both. India’s higher education system lists as the third largest in the world, after the United States and China. As per the 2020 statistics of Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, India has over 1000 universities, with a breakup of 54 central universities, 416 state universities, 125 deemed universities, 361 private universities, 7 Institutes under State Legislature Act, and 159 Institutes of

Rabindranath Tagore was a poet, writer, composer, philosopher, social reformer and painter. He reshaped Bengali literature and music, as well as Indian art with Contextual Modernism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Author of the “profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse” of Gitanjali, he became in 1913 the frst non-European as well as the frst lyricist to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. 2 Santiniketan: A small town near Bolpur, West Bengal, India. 3 Sofa Corradi (Rome, 5 September 1934) is an Italian pedagogist. She is nicknamed “Erasmus mother” because she conceived and built the Erasmus Program for the exchange of students between European universities. 1

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National Importance. The Government of India (GOI) has initiated various steps to expand the scope and operations of internationalization of higher education in order to develop India as an international education hub. India envisages to enroll an increasing number of international students in its universities. The target is to attract 500,000 international students by the year 2024 (Varghese, 2020). The educational reforms in India in the newly announced National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020)4 call for action from universities to step up efforts in this direction. Many universities in India have the resources for visiting the best-in-class universities across the globe to study the academic system, pedagogy, and the learning culture. They have been successful in customizing the unique courses and the pedagogy for students at the home university. Some unique courses and formats have also evolved by creating the opportunity for the academic faculty to attend international teaching workshops, symposiums and by allowing experimenting at blending the local best practices with learning from the global partners. These initiatives, directly and indirectly, have helped to bring a change in management education in India.

Research Design The authors wished to research three areas that they consider having an impact on the internationalization efforts of every university in India. The study adopts a qualitative approach and is built on personal experiences of select group of academics who have moved between countries. The areas as identifed and selected for the purpose of the study are: (a) What factors contribute to the success of new programs by internationalization efforts of home university? (b) What are some of the workplace adjustment challenges at institutions across the globe? (c) What future collaborative opportunities open up for home and the international university? Around 70 academics who have been associated with the school and who have moved between countries and taught at various universities were interviewed on the above aspects and their responses were quantifed to arrive at the fndings of the research as covered in the fndings below. The interviews covered a diverse range of topics such as differences in the Western and Eastern University system, difference in scholarly system, difference in working environment, diverse academic systems, difference/commonality National Education Policy 2020 (NEP 2020) outlines the vision of India’s new education system. The policy is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher education as well as vocational training in both rural and urban India. The policy aims to transform India’s education system by 2021. 4

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between the academic programs, and collaborative opportune experiences. The following sections highlight the fndings of the research, and a self-narrative refective case study of the academic experiment carried out by We School, India has been included to highlight the learning experiences of the academics.

Findings University business schools’ agenda today to provide international outlook to students to compete for global careers has put an increasing attention on academicians with international teaching and research experience. The immediate consequence is the internationalization of the academic workforce. Universities adopt different formats in engaging international faculty from visiting fellow per term to short-term international faculty exchange and so on. Their prime focus to recruit the best of the academic faculty often outpaces their expertise and support in the in-patriation and orientation process. The way ahead for most of the schools is to compete and collaborate under the growing infuence of market forces and the emergence of new players (OECD, 2014). This study focused on what the faculty see as the success factors, key challenges, and the collaborative opportunities that exist in the current educational setup where internationalization is given high importance. The factors that defned the above were identifed basis the interviews that were conducted with the faculty.

Findings The focus of the study was to explore three key dimensions including the success factors, key challenges, and collaborative opportunities. The attributes that the study has identifed are presented in Tables 16.1, 16.2, and 16.3.

Table 16.1 Success factors for internationalization Attribute Faculty exchange program Collaborative work Training program Student exchange program Foreign collaboration Best practice adaptation Self-assessment strategy Government norms

Name FEP CW TP SEP FC BPA SAS GN

Type Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary

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Table 16.2 Organizational challenges that infuence internationalization Attribute Multicultural classroom Teaching & learning models Faculty competency Pedagogical discrimination Faculty resistance Intercultural competency International students Culture adaptation Infrastructure Regulatory norms

Name MC TLM FC PD FR IC INS CA IS RN

Type Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary

Table 16.3 Opportunities in internationalization Attribute Collaborative thinking Student-staff collaboration Joint curriculum Transnational education Foreign markets

Name CT SSC JC TNE FM

Type Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary

The data was collected through a structured questionnaire. The respondents were asked whether they are in favor or in against of each attribute and the data, therefore, is binary in nature. The study analyzes the proportion/percentage of respondents who are in favor or in against of the said attributes. Figure 16.1 depicts that 90% respondents perceive that faculty exchange program is contributing most in the success, followed by foreign collaborations (80%), while they perceive that the government norms and training program are contributing least. There exists a signifcant difference in teaching & learning models across the globe, as evidenced by Fig. 16.2. Faculty competency & intercultural competency appear to be other key challenges in the organization. It is interesting to note as per Fig. 16.3 that the 100% respondents believe that there is huge opportunity for students-staff collaboration across the globe. Opportunities for joint curriculum, transnational education, and collaborative thinking also receive high priorities among other opportunities. As the descriptive understanding reveals the preferences and opinions of the respondents for various aspects of utilizing the international resources to enhance students learning, the study further wanted to examine whether there exists a statistically signifcant difference between the two groups of respondents who are in favor and in against of these attributes. The researchers conducted 23 binomial tests to examine the individual

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Success Factors 1 0.9

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Fig. 16.1 Respondents favoring the success factors

Challenges

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Fig.16.2 Perceived organizational challenges

hypothesis on the difference between the two groups under each attribute. Table 16.4 exhibits the results of signifcant hypotheses. Tables 16.4 and 16.5 confrm that faculty exchange program is the key success factor. Cultural adaptation is an important organizational challenge, whereas regulatory norms are well accepted and adapted. Globally there exists large opportunity for collaboration between students and staff.

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Exploring Opportunities 1.2 1

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Fig. 16.3 Opportunities for collaboration Table 16.4 Results of binomial test FEP CA RN SSC

Group Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2

Category Favor Against Favor Against Against Favor Against Against

Observed Prop. 0.9 0.1 1.0 0.0 0.9 0.1 1.0 0.0

Test Prop. 0.5

p-Value 0.021

0.5

0.002

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0.002

Refections No country can remain isolated from global developments as knowledge is produced nationally but shared globally (Varghese, 2020). Collaborations with world class universities are an important step to gain international academic credibility. It is important to take advantage of the opportunities provided by these collaborations to have the Indian higher education play an important role in the global context. This will not only facilitate the internationalization process for the HEIs in India but will also ensure that we position our institutes as promising partners in global education.

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Table 16.5 Hypotheses status No H1 H2 H3 H4

Hypotheses Faculty exchange program (FEP) is considered as one of the key success factors Culture adaptation (CA) is perceived as an important organizational challenge Regulatory norms (RN) are perceived as the least important organizational challenge There exists huge opportunity in student-staff collaboration (SSC)

Status Accepted Accepted Accepted Accepted

Academic Experiment of We School: Internationalization at Home Majority of the initiatives on internationalization of higher education revolve around exchange programs that involve cross-border mobility of students, programs, and teachers. While cross-border mobility forms a small part of the broader issue of internationalization, a concentrated effort is required to internationalize the homegrown programs. WeSchool (Welingkar Institute of Management Development & Research), one of the fastest transformed Indian Business School having campuses in Mumbai and Bangalore, based on its reputation earned for its pragmatic approach to management education, tried an academic experiment to internationalize one of their best programs—PGDM5 (Business Design & Innovation).

Design Thinking and Management: A Unique Combination Internationalization at home takes place through curriculum changes, changes in teaching methods, learning strategies, student evaluation methods, and socialization process that takes place in the campus (Varghese, 2020). NEP 2020 envisages to produce globally competitive graduates who are aligned with the national mission. Government of India under the NEP 2020 approved a new program titled Global Initiative of Academic Networks (GIAN) in Higher Education aimed at tapping the talent pool of scientists and entrepreneurs, internationally to encourage their engagement with the HEIs as to augment the country’s existing academic resources, accelerate the pace of quality reform, and elevate India’s scientifc and technological capacity to global excellence. This academic philosophy was adopted by WeSchool in 2006 when the school decided to visit the best of class universities and institutes to come up with the unique program of Business Design and Innovation.

PGDM or Post Graduate Diploma in Management is a diploma course and not a degree. PGDM can also be offered by autonomous institutes (not affliated to any university). Such institutes cannot offer an MBA degree. 5

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Padma Bhushan6 awardee Prof. Dr. Jagdish Sheth, Charles H. Kellstadt Professor of Marketing at Emory University, in one of his lectures, referred to the global perspective on Design management and how the concept of “Design to us should mean creating a distinctly Indian solution to many of the problems which India is faced with.” Encouraged by the above and the positive resonating thoughts of leaders from corporate India, We School began the experiment on embedding the Design Thinking concept in Management education. The experiment had the Director of the school Dr. Uday Salunkhe7 visit the best schools around the globe to absorb and assimilate the concept of Design thinking. He along with the team of faculty visited Stanford D-school that has a module on Design Thinking offered to all business management graduates. Another signifcant motivation and support came from the Mälardalen University in Sweden where the university has an Idea-lab and the Munktell Science park where the students are encouraged come up with new ideas and take them to execution while the professors at the department of innovation mentor them giving strong academic inputs on creativity and the process of Innovation. Rotman School of Management, Ontario, had its best practices showcased to Dr. Salunkhe in the form of its philosophy on “Integrative Thinking.” The team visited MIT at Boston, UC Berkley in the USA, the Zollverian School of Management and Design, Stuttgart Media University in Germany, Milan Institute in Italy in their quest to internationalize one of their programs. Traveling to educational institutions across the globe and understanding their best practices on design thinking in early 2000s appeared strange and an extravagant exercise to many academicians. The team believed that “seeing is believing” and “experience” is reaffrming faith in the belief—this philosophy led them to visit the best schools and the best practitioners of design thinking across the globe (Vanka et al., 2010). The time tested and simpler route would have been to call for the curriculum of a specifc school and adopt the same. However, that would not have been suffcient to get the insights that were obtained by visiting multiple schools across the globe, understand the cultural and socio-economic values that get imbibed in such a unique program—the objective being introducing the new program at both the campuses of We School that would be a perfect way to blend Design into Management. The major outcome of the initiative was to establish a strong academic collaboration between We School and the top design thinking schools in the leading universities of the world. The collaboration would most certainly result in knowledge sharing as a direct impact, but the greater beneft was to get to the management student in India understand the culture of Innovation. Dr. Salunkhe opined that

Padma Bhushan is the third-highest civilian award in the Republic of India, preceded by the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Vibhushan and followed by the Padma Shri. The award criteria include “service in any feld including service rendered by Government servants” including doctors and scientists but exclude those working with the public sector undertakings. 7 Dr. Uday Salunkhe is the director of the Welingkar Institute of Management Development & Research, Mumbai and Bangalore. He is the chairman of the Local Management Committee of Association of Management Development Institutions in South Asia (AMDISA)—a SAARC initiative. His work is strongly infuenced by the likes of Jack Welch and Arya Chanakya. 6

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while corporate India was looking forward to the world of “Design thinking and Innovation,” the efforts were more at an individual experimental level rather than as an established process. According to him, this experiment would lead to tangible results that would include larger number of institutions and faculty across borders collaborate on several academic initiatives. The areas identifed were academic collaboration on programs, high-quality research, solution to real-life business problems, development of niche courses, and imbibing the best practices from top HEIs and academicians. Learning the fabric of design thinking helped We School to align well with respect to the market needs and customer insights, besides having a high impact on the faculty across all the verticals and programs at the school. The alumni of the school admit that the initiatives of contemporary and futuristic learning have had a tremendous positive impact on them. As more and more HEIs in India look to innovate to beat the competition in a dynamic knowledge economy, We School thought the right approach was to study the best academic global practices and customize the same for the local student segment. This worked as an ideal combination of internationalizing the academic experience for the student by retaining the local education systems. The school experimented on a format that signifes an openness to learn from other disciplines and to collaborate with the best universities to provide a transformational journey to the student at home. In order to garner the best international experience into our systems of education, it is imperative to enable interaction of students and faculty with the best academic and industry experts from all over the world and also share their experiences and expertise to stay relevant and competitive.

Conclusion The factors driving the general increase in student mobility range from the exploding demand for higher education worldwide and the perceived value of studying at prestigious institutions abroad, to specifc policies that aim to foster student mobility within a geographic region (as is the case in Europe), and to government efforts to support students in studying specifc felds that are growing rapidly in the country of origin (OECD, 2014). The experiment of We School attempted to replicate the perceived value of institutions abroad to a larger student population, thereby contributing to the utilization of international academic’s expertise in improving both students’ learning experiences and academics’ classroom practices. The result of the experiment validated the factors that internationalization could also include the process of integrating international, intercultural, global dimensions into the home university’s curriculum, and pedagogy to provide world-class education to the local students. The focus may not merely be restricted to internationalization abroad but can also focus on internationalization at home. This leads us to conclude that internationalization is not a goal in itself but can be directed towards quality improvement. Internationalization efforts must be directed to all members of academic communities in ways that are innovative and affordable.

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References Cantwell, B., & Maldonado-Maldonado, A. (2009). Four stories: Confronting contemporary ideas about globalization and internationalization in higher education. Globalization, Societies & Education, 7(3), 289–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767720903166103 De Wit, H. (1999). Changing rationales for the internationalization of higher education. International Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News15/text1.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2021. De Wit, H. (2011, October 23). Naming internationalization will not revive it (p. 0194). University World News. Deem, R., & Brehony, K. (2005). Management as ideology: The case of new managerialism in higher education. Oxford Review of Education, 31(2), 213–231. Horta, H. (2009). Global and national prominent universities: Internationalization, competitiveness and the role of the state. Higher Education, 58, 387–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10734-009-9201-5 OECD. (2014). Education at a glance 2014: OECD indicators. OECD. Periaswamy, A. (1976). Rabindranath Tagore’s philosophy of international education (Dissertations, p. 1588). https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/1588 Perry, L. B., & Southwell, L. (2011). Developing intercultural understanding and skills: Models & approaches. In Intercultural education (Vol. 22, Issue 6). Taylor & Francis. Vanka, S., Agarwal, A., & Salunkhe, U. (2010). Handbook of design management- New approached to design and management in India (111–130). Berg publishers. Varghese, N. V. (2020). Internationalisation of Higher Education - Global Trends and Indian Initiatives, Essay No 10, July 17th 2020. ISBN No. 81-7520-154-1

Chapter 17

Navigating No-Man’s Land: Facilitating the Transition of International Scholars to PhD Study: A Case of a Scottish University Steve Brown and Tomasz John

Abstract  International doctoral students face challenges posed by sociocultural differences, as they seek to establish identities as scholars within an academic environment that values and expects behaviours that may be unfamiliar to them. As a backdrop to assessing the content and structure of one institution’s efforts to apply innovative and inclusive teaching practices on its Doctoral Induction Programme, this chapter not only critiques Western universities as global providers of doctoral education, but also scrutinises how the term ‘international’ has been exploited by Western academia. This chapter also explores matters relating to the role of the English language in international doctoral education. The results of this case study suggest that international scholars appreciate opportunities to take ownership of their own PhD journeys as they develop their awareness of existing hegemonies within the international academy. Keywords  PhD & Doctoral studies · International scholars · Transnational education (TNE) · Western academia · English for Academic Purposes (EAP) · Emancipation

S. Brown (*) · T. John University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland, UK e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_17

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Introduction This chapter provides a contextual backdrop to complement the focus in section “Programme Overview” of this book – academic transition, from migration to integration. The main focus is to examine how language and disciplinary knowledge are perceived as traversing and sometimes detached within the postgraduate research curriculum and what English for Academic Purposes (EAP) practitioners can do, therefore, to offer international students a smoother navigation from being successful scholars in their own country to becoming effective contributors to the international academy. Before setting the scene regarding TNE (Transnational Education), international scholars and EAP (English for Academic Purposes), it is valuable to underline the concept of postgraduate research curriculum. Designing, delivering and assessing level appropriate curriculum have been strongly advocated by curriculum theorists and practitioners. The latest research findings indicate that learners prefer the postgraduate curriculum to be challenging, current, offered in a contested mode, and career- and professionfocused (David & Hioll, 2020; Okolie et al., 2020). Therefore, one of the main objectives of this study was to determine if the current curricula truly take learners’ experiences and perspectives into account. We will first broadly define the concepts of TNE, the myth of an international student and EAP in doctoral education, considering how they reciprocate across the Higher Education topography and generate the systematic conditions and backdrop that lead to the key issues around assimilation vs integration we want to address. Next, we will investigate and analyse the findings of a case study of a Doctoral Induction Programme (DIP) at a Scottish university which aimed at supporting international scholars in navigating the early stages of their doctoral journeys. The subsequent discussion in section “Programme Overview” will contribute to the ‘assimilation vs inclusion’ rhetoric.

Setting the Scene The Myth of an International Student Firstly, we discuss the landscape of TNE and the ways in which the internationalisation of the curriculum, and the role of the English language, directly impact international scholars’ doctoral journeys. While the internationalisation of HE should be understood as ‘the integration of an international or intercultural dimension into the tripartite mission of teaching, research and service functions of Higher Education’ (Maringe & Foskett, 2010  in Jenkins, 2014: 2–3), its main agenda is often more focused on income generation than on developing a comprehensive and genuine international culture that is integrated across all HE practices. ‘Macro level discourse around finances and international student recruitment have a direct effect on

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the micro level of the classroom’ (Bond, 2020: 1–2). It is often the classroom where a university’s internationalisation policy collides with the local, as teachers and students need to co-learn, but sometimes fail, to work together when making sense of cultures, languages and educational backgrounds (Bond, 2020). Concepts such as ‘international student’, ‘EU student’ and ‘home student’ not only define fee status but are also often used to differentiate groups in a negative way. It is paramount to be aware of what is hidden behind the labels. Very often, it is the ability to use English as a first language that appears to be a means of making a distinction between groups of students. Chowdhury and Phan Le Ha (Chowdhury & Le Ha, 2014: 3) characterise the literature on international students in terms of: the ‘deficit’ model, the ‘surplus’, the ‘cosmopolitan, global’ and the ‘self-­ determined’. Over the last 30  years, international students have most often been researched from either the deficit or surplus model (Phan Le Ha & Li, 2014). Chowdhury and Le Ha (2014) also point to the other subjectivities about international students which have emerged in recent decades: a passive ‘other’ made to believe that they need to adapt to the ways of the West, an elite ‘other’ whose commitments are to be cultivated and a competitive ‘economic subject’ with a pragmatic orientation to education. In an examination of the discursive practices of global English-medium universities, they argue that academic welfare and teaching and learning processes show little awareness of the fluidity of race, culture and language or hybridity of international students, whose diversity is ignored. As a result, they note that these students are subjected to ‘constricting, divisive and exclusionary discursive practices that fail to properly acknowledge their complex histories, subjectivities and professional aspirations’ (2014: 4). In contrast, the ‘surplus’ model tends to applaud international students for their attributes, perceiving them as valuable resources for Western academia to learn from. For instance, some writers point to evidence that ‘independent thinking', originality and skill in reasoning and expression have long been recognised and supported in Chinese academic traditions. It seems that the ‘surplus’ model, while recognising the complexities surrounding ‘international students’, rarely ventures below the surface. Phan Le Ha and Li (2014) argue that the shift from all ‘minuses’ to all ‘pluses’ nonetheless remains a form of stereotyping. Recent research on international students tends to celebrate cosmopolitanism and worldliness. In particular, it is argued that self-determination plays a decisive role in making sense of international students’ experiences and their sense of self (see, for example Margison & Sawir, 2011; Pham & Saltmarsh, 2013). It would appear that the power has been shifted in favour of the students themselves rather than being determined by convenient homogenising discourses (Chowdhury & Le Ha, 2014). However, such a paradigm shift ‘could still well lead to patronising distancing unintentionally, while at the same time presenting the surplus model in disguise’ (p.  10), as seen, for example, in the repetition, ubiquity and persistent representation of the continuing struggles, apologies, misery, isolation, insecurity, failure and discontent expressed by international students in recent studies (Margison & Sawir, 2011). In particular, recent articles tend to present international students as victimised by their own choice, self-determination and desire to be international

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students during the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic as they report they are ‘treated like cash cows’ (Fazackerley, 2021).

EAP and Its Potential Impact We now turn to critiquing the current approaches to the English language in HE, which is often perceived as a barrier to knowledge-building and communication (Bond, 2020). The deficit model described by Chowdhury and Le Ha (2014) implies that international students should accept uncritically the norms, values and standards of the Western institution they are now studying in, and to eschew any alternative practices or capacities that may run counter to these norms. Traditional models of EAP at UK universities have tended to follow this model, casting EAP teachers as ‘linguistic service technicians tasked with repairing the broken language of international students, in order for them to be successfully “processed” by the institution’ (Hadley, 2015, quoted in Hyland, 2018: 389). Conceived as sources of ‘linguistic repair’, EAP programmes are merely focused on developing capacities to assimilate into the UK HEI by complying with existing norms, standards and expectations. Such a model – one in which EAP acts as ‘a tool of institutional indoctrination’ (Hyland, 2018: 392) – entails an EAP curriculum that is heavily prescriptive, as it is the institution that decides what students require. Of course, focusing on existing models of academic English need not necessarily entail indoctrination, and Hyland (2018) has argued that a genre-based approach, in which texts are analysed for their style and impact, ‘takes as its main objective to empower learners by initiating them into the ways of making meanings that are valued in their target contexts’ (Hyland, 2018: 385). This objective is congruent with a broader, liberalist educational philosophy that promotes individual empowerment and rational autonomy; analysing texts and the real-world phenomena relevant to their academic contexts develops capacities for ‘the identification of oppressive and unjust relations within which there is an unwarranted limitation placed on human action, feeling and thought’ (Simon 1987, quoted in Fielding, 1997: 181). A focus on individual empowerment within current structures, then, can allow students to identify, and then rectify, social injustices and power imbalances within the current structure. However, if the priority is to develop individual capacities for success, and if success is best achieved by following the example of published scholars working within the parameters set by Western universities, this model ‘espouses a benevolent, but nonetheless unacceptably limiting dependency that is too often prone to deference, none of which is in any genuine sense transformational, inspiring or democratically fitting’ (Fielding, 1997: 188). Empowering individual international students, then, requires them ‘to rationally choose to commit themselves to the values, goals, policies and objectives of the organization as a rational means of improving their life chances’ (Inglis, 1997: 6). This means that current structures remain intact, and that international students effectively become complicit in maintaining the same system that discriminates

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against them. In EAP, a common criticism is that it ‘accepts a set of (Anglo-­ American) dominant discourse norms and regards students as passive and accommodating, thereby failing to question the power relations which underlie these norms’ (Hyland, 2018: 385). If the current hegemony that favours Western models of academic discourse over ‘others’ is to be challenged, EAP providers should consider as their objective the emancipation of international students, rather than their empowerment, by developing capacities to engage critically with, and seek to decolonise, international education. Such an objective is congruent with the principles of critical pedagogy, which seeks to develop the ‘critical consciousness’ of students (Freire, 2013) through ‘the analysis of oppressive structures, practices and theories’ (Biesta, 2010: 43). The above discussion demonstrates that different interpretations of the role and purpose of EAP can lead to very different outcomes. Programmes concerned primarily with repairing the linguistic ‘deficits’ of students follow an indoctrinatory model that seeks to assimilate international students into the current, hegemonic structures of the international academy. It is difficult to see how this model can allow international students to make any meaningful contribution to knowledge, as they are only valued for their ability to reproduce what is already deemed ‘acceptable’. Alternatively, a focus on individual empowerment may allow students on EAP programmes to achieve greater success within the current structures, but this model still fails to engage with systemic injustices and power imbalances. A third approach, however, seeks to emancipate international students from their deficit positions by addressing structural inequities through a model of inclusion, rather than one of integration. These different educational approaches  – indoctrination, empowerment and emancipation – and their corresponding outcomes of assimilation, integration and inclusion, are presented in an ‘Emancipation Continuum’ (Brown, 2021), which is offered as an analytical framework for exploring the emancipatory impact of ESOL on migrant communities. We propose that a similar framework can be applied to EAP programmes to explore the extent to which they promote or restrict the freedoms of international students to contribute meaningfully to the international academy.

Programme Overview The Doctoral Induction Programme (DIP) discussed in this chapter was one attempt to challenge the deficit approach to EAP. It was developed and delivered by staff in the English language unit of a Scottish university, in response to a request from that university’s doctoral college. A large cohort of Algerian PhD students had been recruited, and previous students enrolling via this route had been identified as needing particularly high levels of support to achieve success. The English language unit was asked to develop an induction programme for this new cohort of students to follow during the first 12 weeks of their PhD journey, with the aim of developing knowledge, understanding and skills to increase their capacities for autonomous,

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English-medium research at doctoral level. Prior to arriving at the university, the students had already completed a pre-sessional course at another UK university, focusing primarily on ensuring they met the minimum IELTS requirement. Preliminary engagement with the students suggested, however, that further English language development would be beneficial, in addition to a focus on cognitive and research skills. Although one requirement for the programme was to address language needs, the idea of a structural syllabus that presents language items atomistically was rejected on the grounds that this syllabus model is out of step with widely accepted principles of second language acquisition (see, for example, Long, 2015). It was decided instead to address both linguistic and cognitive skills by designing what Hedge (2000) would describe as a multi-dimensional syllabus, with each component prioritising a specific area for development, as follows: • Reading and Writing Component: This component drew primarily on existing, published materials designed for students who need English for academic purposes. Tasks tended to develop generic skills for academic reading and writing. • Listening and Speaking Skills Component: This component was designed in a similar way to the Reading and Writing component, with tasks designed to develop specific skills that were deemed to be particularly important for PhD students. It also used published EAP materials as its principal source of content. • Academic Reading Discussion Forum: Drawing heavily on ideas presented in Seburn’s Academic Reading Circles (ARC  – Seburn 2016), these sessions required students to read journal articles and then engage in semi-formal discussions designed to promote critical analysis and understanding. In a bid to ensure relevance of content, students were encouraged to propose articles for use in this component. • Doctoral Research Skills: The final component of the programme featured contributions from colleagues across the university providing workshops on a wide range of topics relating to doctoral research. Content ranged from ‘big-picture’ skills such as understanding and selecting research paradigms, research design or methodology, as well as technical skills such as the use of software programs for data analysis. One of the programme’s aims was to provide ‘culturally responsive’ spaces that question and challenge the assumptions and attitudes of both educators and students towards culture and knowledge. Efforts were made to include such spaces within all components of the programme by encouraging students to relate new input to their own contexts and then to critically examine its relevance and implications for their studies. This process was enhanced by the fact that the students started regular meetings with their supervisors from the outset, allowing them to discuss, revise and re-design their PhD projects as their capacities for effective doctoral research increased.

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Methodology This study used qualitative data through ethnographic fieldwork. To gather data, we integrated four different research tools, namely retrospective classroom observations, document analysis, an end-of-the course survey and focus group discussions with students from each of the two cohorts. Verbatim transcripts were produced from the recordings of the focus groups. In the findings section below we include some direct quotes from the participants in these focus groups; to preserve participant anonymity we have named those in the first focus group Respondent 1A, 1B, 1C etc., and Respondent 2A, 2B, 2C etc. for the second focus group. We implemented thematic analysis using Yin’s five-phased recursive cycle of compiling, disassembling, reassembling, interpreting and concluding (Yin, 2016: 185–187). This enabled us to identify and explore themes that emerged from the dataset, rather than imposing our own, a priori, themes upon the data (Bazeley, 2009). Primarily, the collected data provided insights into individual students’ meaning making in regard to internationalisation, English language and their perspectives at the beginning of their doctoral journeys, allowing us to recognise and acknowledge students’ complex identity relationships. In the following analysis, we examine how international scholars’ early doctoral experiences are shaped and impacted by students’ desires to acquire the identity of an international student, as well as their perceptions of the pedagogies applied on the programme. Findings are presented according to three broad themes: Challenging the ‘International Student’ Label, The Right Pedagogies and Legitimate Knowledge, and An Enhanced Sense of Belonging.

Findings Theme 1: Challenging the ‘International Student’ Label A common factor among the first cohort was that they had all followed the same progression route; completing Masters-level programmes in Algeria allowed them to enter a competition, designed specifically by the Algerian government to select ‘laureates’, who were then awarded the ‘prize’ of funded PhD study in the UK: Respondent 1A: The way it happened that, is that we had like a contest, a national contest, and we were like, um, over 100, more? [1B: Yes, one hundred, yes]. And um, OK, then, after the contest, those who got like, those who were like the thirty, at the top of the list, were like meant (?) to go to the UK and the rest of them were, um, went to, I guess Jordan? The fact that these students were selected by their national government to participate in funded research projects suggests that these were elite scholars who had much to contribute to knowledge within their chosen fields, calling into question the

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legitimacy of a deficit approach to their induction; failure to acknowledge their existing status as elite scholars on a national level would mean ignoring a significant feature of their identities as academics, as well as de-legitimising their existing contextual knowledge. At the same time, their status as national ‘laureates’ also entailed limited agency, as they had little control over their own destinies. They were required to spend 6 months studying ‘pre-sessional English’ at a different UK university (University X) before being deemed ‘ready’ to begin their actual PhDs: Respondent 1C: We had to come, to go to University X because, we have to go there, to study the pre-sessional before applying to all the universities. Whether the perceived need for pre-sessional work came from the Algerian government or from a UK institution, it was not something that the students had any say in. Indeed, some saw the competition and the possibility of funded study abroad as the only feasible way of continuing to progress as academics: Respondent 1C: If we wanna like continue and pursue our studies we have to go and sit for the, uh, contest. Reliance on government funding inevitably limits student agency and, for this cohort, it required them to follow the programme provided. A road map towards doctoral study was provided for them, but without their consultation, and it assumed that a significant amount of capacity-building was required before they could start their PhDs. These students, then, were identified as elite scholars in their national context, but at the same time were encouraged to self-identify as ‘deficient’ when re-located to a UK context. The second cohort was more diverse, with only three members arriving via the Algerian government-sponsored route, the majority having been recruited from various other contexts and backgrounds. The focus group discussion revealed that most of these students were developing PhD topics that were different from their previous academic fields. This was a further reason to encourage a dialogic and highly reflective approach within the programme.

Theme 2: The Right Pedagogies and Legitimate Knowledge As knowledge travels with the international students over space, in place and time, it is worth considering what knowledge is, whose knowledge is considered legitimate, and how this is negotiated in the ‘international’ classroom. The fact that the first cohort had already spent 6 months at a UK university implies that they had had plenty of opportunities to develop knowledge and skills that would be particularly applicable to the localised context of ‘UK academia’. However, participant responses about how they felt on arrival in Scotland suggest otherwise: Respondent 1D: Of course, we were unsure of our language…we were afraid. Respondent 1E: For me I was like unsure of my topic because of the matter of originality and creativity.

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Respondent 1C: I was not confident about my style of writing, to be honest. Not only did these participants recall concerns and insecurities relating to knowledge deficits, but starting the DIP revealed further areas that required development: Respondent 1C: I thought that I know what I’m going to do about the methodology, I was quite sure that this is the right methodology but after the, the DIP, I was like – I didn’t know anything! (laughs). Perhaps unsurprisingly, students who had not undergone the 6-month pre-­ sessional at University X also expressed insecurities prior to starting the DIP: Respondent 2D: I was motivated I mean I really felt great that I had my own topic…but at the same time I was really scared from methodology specifically. Respondent 2B: I didn’t know exactly what to expect, because coming from Nigeria, we would study differently there. When comparing the DIP to their previous academic experiences, whether in the UK or elsewhere, participants in both groups valued the way that the DIP focused on skills and knowledge that could be practically applied to their PhD studies: Respondent 1C: It was different [from the pre-sessional course], like, it was about the PhD itself. Like, how to read articles, how to use the articles in your writing, in your PhD, so that was very helpful…this is what we really needed. Respondent 2C: So, it helped me a lot, even how to do literature review in my research topics, because I read the abstract and decided if it’s useful for me or not. Being able to apply learning to their own research contexts was clearly a priority for the participants, further evidenced in their valuing more highly of course components that had a less overt language focus: Respondent 1E: If I might like order them, re-order them in terms of usefulness I would start with doctoral research skills, and then academic reading circles, oral presentation skills, and academic writing would be the last. Respondent 2A: The ARC was important because it provided a wide view of options that you have in interpreting data and information that I was not aware of. The prioritisation of content over language did not, of course, mean that the DIP did not develop language skills. Most applied linguists accept that a syllabus organised around linguistic structures creates ‘a psycholinguistically unrealistic timetable in the form of an externally imposed linguistic syllabus…[leading to]…virtually guaranteed repeated failure’ (Long, 2015: 25). Long and others advocate a syllabus that prioritises task completion, with language input provided as required – in context and at the point of need. Participants identified the relevance and usefulness of the input as contributing positively to their development, not only as researchers but also as users of English: Respondent 1B: Concerning reading skills…we learned more how to be selective, so for example if we need…specific content and we have like a whole article of a hundred pages or I don’t know, so we just like know how to…how to skim and

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scan. So we already know these techniques like from our home university, but you know we… Respondent 1E: We never applied them! [Respondent 1E and 1C laugh]. By contrast, syllabus components concerned primarily with language development were less well-received, particularly those that drew heavily on published EAP materials: Respondent 1E: But I was really disappointed, ah, by the content of the writing sessions. Respondent 1C: Even about the topics that we were writing about… Researcher: What was it about the topics? Respondent 1C: So yeah, sometimes like we were, like, it was not academic, like, it was not about education or literature or something that it’s in our field, it was in general, like, for somebody like, I don’t know, it was not for PhD students. The above exchange may reveal a preference for less explicitly language-focused content, but it also implies a reaction against the generic content of many published EAP materials. The participants’ apparent desire for content to be directly relevant to their needs relates to a wider appreciation of participatory methodologies – that is to say, methodologies that not only value but require students’ contributions in terms of content selection and, more generally, in legitimising their own opinions and those of their peers: Respondent 1E: we were allowed to freely express our opinions, to be critical. And this is like, this was helpful… Actually they [lecturers] were so open to our ideas. They were even interested – in our ideas and in what we, in the things we want to share with them. Respondent 1A: They were eager to know what we have to say, and what we are opting for. And they were, they were welcoming and supporting our good ideas. Respondent 2A: For me, personally, it was a non-judgemental environment where we were encouraged to refer to past experiences in describing a source, so what that enabled me do, in several instances I would go back to relevant knowledge, so there was a lot of applications to past and prior knowledge to the existing concerns or questions that we were dealing with.

Theme 3: An Enhanced Sense of Belonging PhD study can be a lonely process, and, for international students, who are often made to feel inferior from the outset, the sense of isolation can be very acute (Wawera & McCamley, 2020). A key benefit of the DIP to participants, then, was the way in which it provided them with a ready-made community of practice. This community included their classmates, but also extended to their tutors, and even allowed them to maintain a sense of parity when discussing their projects with their supervisors:

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Respondent 2D: We supported each other, and this just made us really strong to do our literature review or to engage with the research methodology and things like that. Respondent 1A: And it has increased our self-confidence especially when we have started talking to our supervisors, we have gained a lot of knowledge and we were aware about a lot of things so we were not that afraid or, em, not sure of ourselves. That was really good. Developing confidence in their own status as PhD researchers was a recurring theme in both focus groups. Most participants expressed the feeling that the DIP allowed them to develop their identities as members of an ‘insider’ group of doctoral scholars, rather than occupying the ‘outsider’ positions that international students are often pushed into: Respondent 1C: In general, it was very helpful, like, in terms of preparing us to be PhD researchers. Like after finishing the DIP we were really like, we are PhD researchers, and this is how the PhD is going to be, what are we going to expect. And it was helpful. Knowing PhD students at other universities, who had not undergone the DIP, increased their appreciation of its impact: Respondent 1E: I’ve seen it in many different students from other UK universities that do not offer the DIP. And they were like suffering, they were always telling us that you are lucky that you are having that DIP. A final comment with regard to the sense of belonging relates to the first Covid-19 lockdown in March 2020 and the closure of the university campus. This happened shortly after the second cohort had started the DIP and required academic staff to adapt the course for online delivery at very short notice. In addition, the pandemic prompted some of the students to return to their own countries, adding physical as well as notional distance between classmates. While one might expect this to result in a more fragmented learning environment and a loss of group cohesion, lockdown and the move to online learning seemed in fact to have a galvanising impact: Respondent 2A: we learned so much from each other…we learn about each other’s cultures, and this actually paved the way to be really strong in a critical situation to prepare for it – the corona virus. Respondent 2C: [Learning online] was critical and only possible because of the global pandemic. It is well-documented that times of crisis can bring communities closer together, and it seems that the second cohort had already identified as a community of practice prior to the pandemic – to the extent that they already had a sense of being ‘all in this together’. The subsequent move online only seemed to strengthen this. However, it must be acknowledged that the course tutors made significant efforts to

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reduce the impact of the pandemic on the nature and quality of the DIP. This was done primarily by ensuring that the majority of teaching and learning was synchronous, with teachers and students occupying the same virtual space at the same time; this allowed them to interact freely and continue to develop their relationships.

Further Discussion and Conclusions We found Brown’s ‘emancipation continuum for EAP’ model a useful concept in allowing us to make sense of the data. We began the study by asking the students about their identity as international scholars. What emerged was that they seemed to feel they were somehow privileged to be able to study at a Western institution as the majority of them was either a ‘lucky winner’ of a government scholarship and ‘chosen to be sent to the UK’, with one participant saying ‘it was like a dream’ to be able to study abroad. It would appear that much of the students’ ‘international scholar’ identities were determined by convenient homogenising discourses struck by international partnership deals rather than each student’s researcher potential. These partnerships followed a deficit model, with EAP practitioners expected to fill knowledge gaps. Nevertheless, it seems the DIP allowed space for the students to become ‘border crossers’, to engage in an exploration of their own history and to reach an understanding of self and their own culture in relation to others in the new Western context. By the same token, it could be concluded that the students actively challenged the stereotypical label of international students by adapting to the new role of ‘transformative intellectuals’ who challenged themselves to cross the imposed barriers on the borders of disciplines and cultures (Giroux, 1992: 15). The data also suggests that the students benefitted from the DIP as the programme allowed for experimentation within a new, fit-for-purpose curriculum, effectively fuelling creative explorations across these ideological borders. Students appreciated that the programme embraced the knowledge they brought with them, effectively accommodating their particular cultural trajectories by de-centring ownership of knowledge through criticality and reflection of their PhD proposals. More traditional approaches to EAP were less well-received, as the students regarded the published materials to be too generic, with little direct relevance to their needs. By contrast, any opportunities to have ownership over the content of the direction of travel were widely perceived as empowering, leading staff to find ways of opening up spaces within each DIP component for the students to formulate and express their own ideas in response to new input and perspectives. This led to students starting to regard uncritical acceptance of existing hegemony as a symptom of deference; as their own critical thinking skills developed, they became increasingly interested in using their own praxis as researchers to disrupt the status quo rather than to comply with it. This attitudinal shift implies that the programme had some kind of emancipatory impact, allowing their perspectives to become included in wider academic discourse.

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Finally, the focus group discussions overwhelmingly point to students’ strong sense of membership of an academic community. Rather than creating distance and fragmentation, the move to online teaching and learning spaces as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown restrictions seemed to galvanise their sense of belonging. The transition from local to international academia involves negotiating some difficult terrain, which is particularly difficult to navigate alone. However, the results of this study suggest that international scholars navigate the borderless higher education terrain at ease, especially when curriculum directly addresses their motivations to do PhDs. Rather than handholding international scholars towards a destination predetermined by the institution, it is more beneficial if students are encouraged to develop more autonomy by finding their own way; our research suggests that the DIP managed to achieve this.

References Bazeley, P. (2009). Analysing qualitative data: More than ‘identifying themes’. Malaysian Journal of Qualitative Research, 2(2), 6–22. Biesta, G. (2010). A new logic of emancipation: The methodology of Jacques Ranciere. Educational Theory, 60(1), 39–59. Bond, B. (2020). Making language visible in the university: English for academic purposes and internationalisation. Multilingual Matters. Brown, S. (2021). The emancipation continuum: Exploring the role of ESOL (English for Speaker of Other Languages) in the settlement of immigrants. British Journal of Sociology of Education (online edition). Available at https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01425692.202 1.1908116. Accessed 29 June 2021. Chowdhury, R., & Le Ha, P. (2014). Desiring TESOL and internationalisation (Market abuse and exploitation). Multilingual Matters. David, S. A., & Hill, C. (2020). Curriculum innovation for postgraduate programs: Perspectives of postgraduate learners. International Journal of Innovation and Learning, 28(3), 297–316. Fazackerley, A. (2021). ‘Treated like cash cows’: International students at top London universities withhold £29,000 fees. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/education/2021/mar/13/ treated-­like-­cash-­cows-­international-­students-­at-­top-­london-­universities-­withhold-­29000-­ fees/. Accessed 13 Mar 2021. Fielding, M. (1997). Empowerment: Emancipation or enervation? In D. Bridges (Ed.), Education, autonomy and democratic citizenship: Philosophy in a democratic world (pp.  177–189). Routledge. Freire, P. (2013). Education for critical consciousness. Bloomsbury. Giroux, H. (1992). Border crossings: Cultural workers and the politics of education. Routledge. Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford University Press. Hyland, K. (2018). Sympathy for the devil? A defence of EAP. Language Teaching, 51(3), 383–399. Inglis, T. (1997). Empowerment and emancipation. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(1), 3–17. Jenkins, J. (2014). English as a Lingua Franca in the international university: The politics of academic English language policy. Routledge. Le Ha, P., & Li, B. (2014). Silence as right, choice, resistance and strategy among Chinese ‘Me Generation’ students: Implications for pedagogy. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 35(2), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2012.745733 Long, M. (2015). Second Language Acquisition and Task-Based Language Teaching. Wiley Blackwell.

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Margison, S., & Sawir, E. (2011). Ideas for intercultural education. Pallgrave Macmillan. Okolie, U.  C., Igwe, P.  A., Nwajiuba, C.  A., Mlanga, S., Binuomote, M.  O., Nwosu, H.  E., & Ogbaekirigwe, C.  O. (2020). Does PhD qualification improve pedagogical competence? A study on teaching and training in higher education, Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, Vwreol, 12(5), 1233–1250. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-­02-­2019-­0049 Pham, L., & Saltmarsh, D. (2013). International students’ identities in a globalised world: Narratives from Vietnam. Journal of Research in International Education, 12, 129–141. Wawera, A.-S., & McCamley, A. (2020). Loneliness among international students in the UK. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 44(9), 1262–1274. Yin, R. (2016). Qualitative research from start to finish (2nd ed.). The Guildford Press.

Part V

Government Policies and Academic Immobility

Chapter 18

Inclusive Internationalisation as a Driver of the Institutional Entrepreneurial Agenda in Higher Education Marina Dabić, Nebojša Stojčić, Jurica Pavičić, and Goran Vlašić

Abstract  The entrepreneurial agenda is ranked highly among the priorities of many universities worldwide. Success in building the entrepreneurial competencies of students depends on the modernisation of curricula and training content in the field of entrepreneurship. The drive for the creation of internationally relevant and competitive teaching content can come from within an organisation or through external influences. With respect to latter, two channels have established themselves as leading among European universities in recent years, namely international quality accreditation requirements and mobility-aligned cooperation schemes. There is a general consensus that both channels have the potential to improve organisational teaching competencies, but whether this potential can be materialised across all settings is a largely unanswered question. Language barriers, tradition and resistance to change are only some of the factors that may inhibit the desired knowledge flow and the development of competencies. The objective of this chapter is to explore how inclusive internationalisation shapes the entrepreneurship teaching and training content within higher education institutions (HEIs) as part of their overall entrepreneurial agenda. The analysis focuses on two HEIs from advancing economies with weak entrepreneurial climates and tradition-governed educational systems, where resistance to externally induced change may be considerable. We focus on incentives arising through international quality accreditation requirements and international collaboration projects aiming to develop teaching programmes. Through the use of case studies examining several leading universities, we show that internationalisation has an impact on entrepreneurship curricula only when coupled with institutional commitment towards the strengthening of international reputation, internal openness towards change and concerns over institutional survival.

M. Dabić (*) · J. Pavičić · G. Vlašić Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] N. Stojčić University of Dubrovnik, Dubrovnik, Croatia e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_18

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Keywords  Entrepreneurial competencies · Croatia · Higher education

Introduction The efforts of nations to become knowledge-driven economies have provided a strong impetus for science and higher education in recent years. At the heart of these efforts lies innovation and entrepreneurship as core ingredients of the new growth model. It is well known that innovation distinguishes successful entrepreneurs, industries and nations from less competitive ones and that learning and knowledge are at the heart of innovation. The efficiency of innovation processes is determined greatly by the interactions between the different elements of the ‘institutional system of innovation’, as stated by several authors (Lundvall, 1992; Caraca et  al., 2009). Both public and private institutions supporting innovation acquire more relevance within the triple-helix model (Leydesdorff and Etzkowitz Leydesdorff & Etzkowitz, 1996; Etzkowitz & Leydesdorff, 2000; Etzkowitz & Zhou, 2017) or quadruple helix (Cunningham et  al., 2018). Entrepreneurial universities are usually called upon to play a major role in such institutional systems, as suggested by Etzkowitz (2008). The ambition to develop competencies pertaining to knowledge-driven growth has resulted in an increasing number of HEIs and global competition for talented scholars and teaching programmes in the field of entrepreneurship and innovation. Audretsch and Belitski (2021) proposed a new business model with a strong focus on ‘the “three-rings” at entrepreneurial universities by pointing out how knowledge spill over happens, which stakeholders are involved, and at which level of an entrepreneurial university (individual, organisational, institutional) they are involved’. For these reasons, the entrepreneurial agenda is high up in the list of priorities for most universities. However, not all HEIs have competitive entrepreneurship programmes or possess the competencies needed to develop them. This calls for research on ways to induce and guide HEIs to fulfil their entrepreneurial agenda in an efficient way. The aim of this chapter is to explore how internationalisation-led incentives guide and facilitate the efforts of HEIs in settings of weak entrepreneurial climate and tradition-governed educational systems. The HEIs in these settings are in need of support in fulfilling their entrepreneurial agenda and developing student entrepreneurial competencies, as resistance to change within and outside of them may be considerable. We focus on two types of internationalisation incentives: those arising from the need to meet the requirements of international quality accreditation standards, and knowledge flows induced by international collaboration projects seeking to develop teaching programmes. This analysis is based on two scientifically leading Croatian HEIs in the field of economics and business, both with different development problems and priorities in terms of educational programmes. We show that both types of incentives have the potential to induce changes within institutions if accompanied by institutional vision and commitments towards strengthening

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international reputation, internal openness towards change and concerns over institutional survival.

Croatian Context of HEI Internationalisation The overall strategic objective of most European countries is to build knowledge and innovation in areas which hold the greatest potential for structural transformation, R & D driven competitiveness and growth. In Croatia, these objectives are summoned within several strategic documents, among which national Smart Specialisation Strategy stands out as particularly important as it identifies the priority intervention areas for knowledge-driven growth. The Strategy of Science, Education, and Technology1 (2014) stressed that Croatia should be open, mobile and innovative, holding science and education as developmental priorities. This strategy emphasises the importance of the use of information and communication technologies in educational processes, fostering the implementation of e-learning and new methods of teaching based on information and communication technology (ICT) and the development of open educational resources. For about 25 years, in countries like the Republic of Croatia and the entirety of Central Europe, the ‘institutional passivity’ of universities has been perceived to be necessity for both improvement and for responses to the shift towards a more innovative society as a new techno-economic paradigm. Despite the fact that some Croatian universities are large, they remain mostly fragmented, and faculties are usually considered individual legal entities. This presents an obstacle when implementing coherent strategies and when making long-term plans. This might also prove problematic when matching the academic curricula to labour market needs. At the same time, public research is largely underfunded and funding arrangements are rather fragmented. Public research funding was insufficiently linked to the performance and evaluation of HEIs: Public research organisations (PROs) was largely underused until 2013. As demonstrated by the Country Report Croatia, 2015 (EC, 2015, p.  85), ‘Subcritical scale, fragmentation, relative isolation and a mismatch between academic curricula and labour market needs continue to affect public research’. In 2015, the higher education sector, along with 25 public institutes, performed around 48.7% of research activities in Croatia, which was slightly less than the performance of the private enterprise sector (51.2% of total GERD). Universities are mostly teaching-orientated, while the ‘third mission’ – or cooperation with industry – is modestly developed mainly due to the weak interest of the business sector in research activities. Croatia has increased its expenditure in the 2006–2016 period, from 0.74% of GDP to 0.85%. However, the country has not been able to decrease the gap with EU and OECD countries. Croatia´s expenditure on R & D is lower than 2016 EU and OECD average of 2% and 2.3%, respectively

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(OECD /EC, 2019, p. 26). Nevertheless, around 8.4% of the total revenue of universities in 2015 came from the business sector, primarily for various scientific services and cooperative research projects. Universities are facing an entrepreneurial identity crisis emerging from the conflict of the traditional concept of the university as an autonomous and independent organisation of scientists, dominated by the idea of the ‘scholar’, and a new type of university where technological and economic development have become part of its activities, culture and ethos. The withdrawal of typical academic research, due to ‘new knowledge production’ as well as the need for the university to participate in generating technological changes, establishes new rules to the game across all aspects of university behaviour: from the choice of research to results in evaluation. Even the educational function that has preserved the unchanging position of universities for centuries has gained a new dimension within this knowledge and has fully initiated an internationalised economy – the embodiment of the intellectual capital. The appearance of a ‘stagnating’ status in science, including developmental-­ economic purpose in a university’s activity, arises from the need to speed up technological change, enabling technological and economic development by creating new technologies or transferring and further creating development for personal needs. This has negatively affected the level of integration of Croatian HEIs in the European Research Area (ERA), especially when it comes to their rapid adaptation to international competition and their ability to achieve excellence. Their research excellence composite indicator score is still very low compared to the EU28 47.8 in 2012, with only Romania (13.2) and Lithuania (14.1) performing worse than Croatia (18.89). There are also significant obstacles to the commercialisation of research results and the development of science-industry links. In the context of the above, HEIs face significant challenges. These challenges are a part of a broader changing process, usually related to the improvement of the quality of the education system or educational outcomes, or with the inevitable adaptation of the educational system or institutions to the contemporary needs of society, employers and students. The responses of HEIs to these challenges have diverged in recent years. The majority of HEIs have continued with ‘business as usual’ practices and have made few changes to their behaviour. Several public and private HEIs, however, have recognised the need for change and have responded with actions to introduce entrepreneurship-orientated innovative programmes as a means of differentiation and quality signalling. These responses have taken the form of either international or national signals of institutional quality or signifiers of international collaboration for the development of innovative teaching programmes.

Internationalisation as an Innovative Pathway for HEIs Internationalisation contributes to the quality of the educational process by enabling the knowledge flows, networking and application of best practices in different contexts (Wihlborg & Robson, 2018). In Croatia, similar to in other European Union

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member states, these positive effects are facilitated through different incentives of Erasmus+ programmes, such as those promoting the mobility of students and academic staff in HEIs and strategic partnerships in the field of education, training, and youth. The former set of incentives facilitates the positive effects of internationalisation in less direct and somewhat passive ways, enabling contact between scholars from different HEIs and observing educational trends. The latter set of incentives influences internationalisation objectives more directly by involving HEIs, business sector institutions and other entities in the entrepreneurial ecosystem within approved collaboration projects, resulting in innovation and the exchange of good practices in higher education (as well as other levels of education). Given the fact that internationalisation contributes to the quality of the education available, the Operational Programme of the European Union – ‘Efficient Human Resources 2014  – 2020’  – envisaged the implementation of a series of activities intended for HEIs and National Erasmus+ agencies, aiming to increase internationalisation activities under the umbrella of Erasmus+ programmes in order to solve the deficit in the outward mobility of students and academic staff, facilitating the modernisation of the teaching curriculum and the establishment of joint programmes with foreign HEIs. As seen in the following tables, both the incoming and outgoing mobility of academic staff significantly increased in the period between 2009 and 2016, following the full participation of Croatia in the EU programme for education and training (Lifelong Learning Programme). In the period between 2009 and 2011, there was a notable difference between the two types of mobility, with incoming mobility recording levels equating to around a third of outgoing mobility. However, by 2016, incoming mobility increased to around 81% of outgoing mobility as the number of incoming academic staff almost tripled and the number of outgoing staff increased by 41% (See Table 18.1).

Table 18.1  Staff mobility in Croatia

Inbound mobility Outbound mobility Total

2015/2016 Teaching 428 331 759

2016/2017 Training 303 331 634

Teaching 585 428 1.013

2017/2018 Training 407 368 775

Teaching 102 383 485

Training 75 341 416

Source: Erasmus+ registered inbound mobility, 2018; Erasmus+ registered outbound mobility, 2018

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Staff Mobility in Croatia  pproved Erasmus+ Strategic Partnership for Innovation A and the Exchange of Good Practices Projects Involving Croatian HEIs The results from Table 18.2 show that the involvement of Croatian HEIs in internationalisation projects financed under Erasmus+ Strategic partnership projects for innovation and the exchange of good practices has substantially increased over the years. While only four projects involving Croatian HEIs were approved in 2015, by 2020, 37 of these projects had been approved. In the majority of them, Croatian HEIs participated as partners. The number of projects approved by Croatian coordinators was modest, primarily due to insufficient funds allocated for these activities. HEIs operating in economics and business fields constitute the minority of all HEIs involved in this internationalisation channel (about 25% of all projects). However, almost 50% of approved projects for Croatian HEIs in the field of economics and business were focused on the development of entrepreneurship and innovation competencies through either teaching or training curricula or the education of teaching staff. This suggests that Croatian HEIs utilise internationalisation opportunities to advance staff competencies and innovation, teaching curricula only to a limited extent.

Quality Accreditation as an Innovative Pathway of HEIs In the light of the aforementioned reforms, in 2005, the Agency for Science and Higher Education (hereafter referred to as the ASHE) was established. With this new act, the ASHE became responsible for all types of quality evaluations in higher education and science. A new expert body called the Accreditation Council was established within the agency, tasked with issuing opinions upon which the ASHE would give accreditation recommendations for license extensions and rejections or issue letters of expectation. Since its establishment, the ASHE has been working on organising a system of quality assurance in higher education and science in Croatia. Article 15 of the Act on Scientific Activity and Higher Education defined ASHE as an expert body that provides national councils with professional and administrative Table 18.2  Approved Erasmus+ Strategic partnerships Approved projects Approved by Croatian coordinators Approved by economics and business HEIs Approved by economics and business HEIs in the field of entrepreneurship and innovation Source: Erasmus+ project results platform 2021

2015 4 2 1 1

2016 13 2 3 2

2017 14 2 2 0

2018 16 3 3 2

2019 23 7 5 2

2020 37 4 9 4

Total 107 20 23 11

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support in the evaluation of HEIs and study programmes, establishing new HEIs, and assessing quality. In later years, with the adoption of the Act on Quality Assurance in Science and Higher Education, the role of the ASHE was redefined. Within existing quality management systems, the ASHE has a role in the external evaluation of HEIs and scientific organisations. The agency conducts reaccreditation evaluations every 5 years. Accreditation is based on a positive evaluation of curriculum relevance, achievement of learning goals and assurance of learning. Furthermore, the agency is responsible for carrying out thematic evaluations when necessary. Besides these formal quality accreditation standards, several Croatian HEIs have engaged in the acquisition of internationally recognised quality certificates. In the field of economics and business, the most common ones are those operated by European Foundation for Management Development – EFMD and Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business – ACSB. EFMD is an international, not-­ for-­profit, membership organisation of business schools and corporations, based in Brussels, Belgium, with offices in Asia and the Americas. There are nearly 900 member organisations across 88 countries from sectors such as academia, business, public services and consultancy. EFMD offers a unique forum for information, research, networking and debate on innovation and best practices in management development. EFMD is recognised globally as an accreditation body for quality and impact assessment in management, with established accreditation services for business schools and business school programmes, corporate universities and online courses. European Foundation for Management Development Programme Accreditation Scheme – EPAS – is an international programme accreditation system operated by EFMD, now called EFMD accreditation. It aims to evaluate the quality of any business and/or management programme that has an international perspective and, if it is of an appropriately high quality, to accredit it too. The EPAS Standards and Criteria cover all facets of programme provision: (1) the institutional, national, and international environment; (2) programme design; (3) programme delivery; (4) programme outcomes; and (5) quality assurance, particularly emphasising achievements in the areas of academic rigour, practical relevance and internationalisation (https://www.efmdglobal.org/). The AACSB is a professional organisation with a century-long tradition of providing accreditations to schools of business. Originally envisaged as an accreditation institution orientated towards US business schools, it has expanded its reach to other parts of the world in recent decades. The award of such an accreditation is considered to signify a superior standard of quality. A negligible share of business schools across the globe is in possession of such an accreditation. To be awarded this accreditation, institutions must possess the highest quality staff, deliver a competitive and innovative curriculum and provide superb career opportunities. The three pillars of AACSB Accreditation—engagement, innovation and impact—are key drivers and measures of quality that every AACSB-accredited school strives to achieve each year (https://www.aacsb.edu/about).

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Most awarded institutions have been certified by EFMD and EPAS standards and two institutions have also received an AACSB certificate. While the majority of institutions have, among their strategic objectives, some or all of these internationally recognised quality certificates, for most of them barriers such as finance and knowledge represent insurmountable restrictions when it comes to attaining these objectives.

I nternationalisation Pathways to Innovation: Case Studies of Two HEIs In this section, we analyse the experiences of two Croatian HEIs in the field of economics and business whose educational innovation was motivated by a distinctive set of motives. These institutions are the Faculty of Economics and Business, Zagreb, and the University of Dubrovnik’s Department of Economics and Business. These two institutions lie at opposite ends of country; their communities are confronted by different developmental challenges and their own challenges lie at different ends of spectrum. As such, they offer different perspectives regarding how different internationalisation channels can be utilised to increase the quality of teaching content, differentiating HEI from its counterparts.

Faculty of Economics and Business Zagreb: Case Study Background The Faculty of Economics and Business, Zagreb (hereinafter FEB) is a public institution and a constituent part of the University of Zagreb (UNIZG). UNIZG, founded in 1669, is the most influential academic institution in Croatia out of the 9 public and 2 private universities, employing 8000 teachers who contribute to 80% of international intellectual output at a national level. FEB occupies a unique position. For over 100  years, it has educated most of Croatia’s leading businessmen, academics and policy makers. FEB is active member of the Croatian community, fulfilling its third mission to the benefit of entire country and, in recent decades, it has set internationalisation as one of its strategic objectives. Coming from a small transition country with a reputation for traditional and relatively uncompetitive educational systems, FEB identified the acquisition of international quality accreditations as a pathway to signalling its scientific and academic excellence, working to improve academic rigour, quality and depth. This required a transition in organisational philosophy, from being a benchmark in Croatia to being benchmarked against international peers. It also required the modernisation of teaching processes to enable the institution to climb onto the ladder of research excellence.

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Actions Actions were undertaken to meet FEB’s motto: FEB – Tradition and innovation in education and research – the path to the future! These objectives included the self-­ assessment of institutional strategy, research outcomes, financial management, quality of teaching, overall facilities and ERS (Ethics, Responsibility and Sustainability) issues, progressing from an already high level, as responsible leadership initiated the mission. In addition to this, issues related to program design, curriculum appropriateness, curriculum development, assessment methods, corporate input, program delivery, quality of teaching and overall quality assurance evaluation had to be addressed. To tackle these issues, the organisation performed a set of actions, which included the integration of experiential learning and personalised development programmes regarding teaching content, institutional commitment to the internationalisation of the curriculum, student mobility and promotion of diversity, increasing the institution’s connections with society and promoting sustainability principles in daily operations. Both the mission and vision of the FEB highlight its international and global orientation. In terms of internal organisational design related to enhancing student entrepreneurial competencies and employability, FEB opened a Career Office to help students to better position themselves in the labour market. The Career Office aims to build a bridge between students and the business world. It helps graduates find the most suitable positions based on their expertise and field of interest. An Economic Clinic has also been introduced (managed by students but mentored by the FEB faculty) in order to provide support to student start-ups and provide other interested parties with knowledge of the FEB faculty. Furthermore, FEB developed an Alumni network for its graduates in order to facilitate interaction in terms of their possible future enrolment into advanced study programs, to offer any professional assistance FEB could provide to public or private entities its graduates work for, and to facilitate the organisation of guest lectures by practitioners in various business areas. In addition to the above, FEB relies on its rich network of graduates in absolutely every field of business life in Croatia: from small scale entrepreneurs to large corporations, from local government bodies to high politics, from local public companies to large state-owned corporations, and from fiscal policy makers to monetary policy makers. FEB realised that these well-maintained connections with former students offered significant potential that could be employed to provide prospective students with information on possible future careers, enabling these connections to share expertise, knowledge and practical experiences with students within the university’s study programmes. As a result of these internationalisation efforts, FEB’s numbers of incoming students have been increasing for years, involving enrolments of 796 international students from more than 30 countries on 5 continents across a period of 5 years (ac. year 2015/16 – 2019/20). Such a multicultural environment gives FEB students the opportunity to develop their international experience by participating in multicultural team projects, international case studies, in-class corporate projects,

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experiential learning and discussions on international business practices. Over these 5 years (ac. year 2015/16 – 2019/20) FEB students’ incoming mobility’s were from 48 countries: 31 from Europe and 17 worldwide. FEB constantly monitors the market demand for its programmes at bachelor, master and postgraduate levels and prepares a competitors’ analysis each year. Regarding internationalisation, FEB offers programs in English, and it was EFMD-­ EPAS accredited and AACSB accredited in 2019. The ASHE qualifies HEIs at programme and institutional levels. This national body of experts facilitates the control, assurance and evaluation of a scientific quality of education, scientific research, and artistic activity at HEIs. It conducts ex ante and ex post evaluations of both programmes and institutions. The ex-ante evaluation of programmes focuses on educational and outcome requirements at a national-level. These are framework requirements for all degree programmes in the Republic of Croatia and new programmes launched at institutions. Ex post evaluations are conducted in five-­ year cycles, using separate procedures for institutional and programme evaluation. These periodic quality appraisals invite external stakeholders to assure quality. The FEB is keen on involving external stakeholders in its own internal mechanisms. An outside-in view is provided by, for example, the FEB’s International Strategic Advisory Board. Lessons Learned National and international accreditations are considered crucial for FEB’s further development. Therefore, with great emphasis on national accreditation (Croatian ASHE) and on selected ‘premium’ international accreditations – AACSB, EFMD (EPAS/EQUIS), and ISO 9000 – FEB insists upon the continuous improvement of both controllable stakeholders and processes. Consequently, according to this orientation, the Vice Dean for International Relations, Head of Accreditation and the appointed leaders and teams for each targeted accreditation initiate, communicate and maintain enthusiasm for positive changes according to strict accreditation procedures. Formally or informally, FEB is tied to a dense network of Croatian institutions by a body of 10.000+ alumni organised by the alumni association through its links to the Croatian business community, including the corporations investing in the South-eastern Europe -SEE region and beyond. By providing high quality, research-­ based insights for its students within the university program and assuring that a range of practice-orientated business personnel are educated in its professional programs, FEB contributes to Croatian and regional business practices and supports economic development at both levels. The strategic decision to go beyond the international borders required by FEB selects the pathway with the highest chance of internationally, signalling the institution’s high degrees of scientific and teaching quality in order to widen and deepen its integration in international HEI networks. As an institution with developed scientific teaching resources and a well-developed supporting base in society, FEB

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opted for a path that involved the acquisition of internationally renowned quality certificates. This process, however, required FEB to change its philosophy and reassess almost all aspects of its functioning. Throughout this process, and in order to meet the requirements of international accreditation processes, FEB introduced a number of innovations in its teaching process and side activities, which resulted in closer alignment of FEB activities with the needs of modern society, providing its students with better entrepreneurial and employability opportunities. While extensive internal and external interviewing channelled stakeholder views into the previous strategic planning processes, a more interactive and collaborative workshop-based process has now been designed.

 niversity of Dubrovnik Department of Economics U and Business: Case Study Background The University of Dubrovnik Department of Economics and Business (DEB) is institution with a 50-year-long lineage located in the historical city of Dubrovnik, one of the major Croatian tourist destinations. In 2003, the institution changed its name from the Faculty of Tourism and Foreign Trade, which resulted in a loss of brand and visibility. These events coincided with an exponential increase in the intensity of tourism in DEB’s surroundings. Location, in major tourist destinations, often presents insurmountable obstacles for HEIs as students face higher costs of living and problems with accommodation. HEI options for attracting staff from other parts of the country and the world are considerably limited. For these reasons, DEB was one of the most adversely hit Croatian HEIs, suffering from negative demographic trends in Croatia over the past 5 years, with the majority of students outside of the local community, opting for other, more affordable and accessible studying locations. At the same time, DEB pursued high standards of scientific excellence, rising to the 2nd ranked Croatian HEI in terms of its number of Web of Science publications in the highest tier (first quartile), delivering some of its most cited research and most successful scientific projects to the Croatian fields of economics and business. Moreover, by its share of international students, DEB is continuously ranked as a leading Croatian HEI and it was the first Croatian HEI to offer double degree programmes with foreign partners in the field of economics and business. Internationalisation, thus, presented a natural well of resources for DEB, reattracting domestic students and regaining sustainability. DEB had to reinvent its programmes and find a way to use its international network for this purpose.

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Actions Unfavourable local conditions meant that DEB could not rely on the attraction of external staff. Financial constraints also meant that DEB could not pursue the strategies of larger institutions, such as FEB, to apply for international quality accreditations. Through self-assessment, it was established that the path towards sustainability and the regaining of competitiveness should lead through the innovation and differentiation of study programmes and through the exploitation of international collaboration incentives offered by Erasmus+ programmes to ignite knowledge flows and increase indigenous competencies. The activities in this direction started in 2015, when DEB first entered international consortia and applied for funding under the Erasmus programme in order to modernise its curricula and develop new teaching programmes. After several initial rounds of failure, the first collaboration projects were approved in 2018, followed by additional ones in 2019 and 2020. Through these activities, DEB aimed to innovate its curricula in several ways. From the beginning, digital transformation was recognised as a window of opportunity and all activities sought to develop educational content and competencies in this direction. One of the strategic directions involved relied on the knowledge and experience of foreign partners in supplementing core educational programmes with short intensive training content to develop and enhance students’ entrepreneurial capabilities and transversal skills in areas such as business communication, self-­ leadership, mindfulness and self-efficacy. Along similar paths, DEB relied on international experiences to identify the skills that may be required in the future. Another strategic direction involved the development of novel teaching curricula. Based on the knowledge and experience gathered through the aforementioned activities, and after the initial screening of the HE market, a decision was made in December 2020 to launch preparations for the development of an undergraduate programme on Digital Entrepreneurship. Together with partners from Erasmus+ projects, DEB engaged in activities to prepare and launch online teaching programmes. The final strategic direction of DEB involved its activities on mobilising entities in its environment. Through project collaborations, DEB engaged in the development of programmes to strengthen SME resilience in times of crises. This allowed it to attract partners from business and to involve them in teaching activities. All of the above activities allowed DEB to intensify its promotional activities and signal its strengths to prospective students on the basis of ongoing and accomplished activities. The results of these activities were already visible in the academic year 2019/2020, when a negative enrolment trend of students coming from other areas came to a halt and, in 2020/2021, when the majority of 1st year students were enrolled in summer enrolment terms for the first time in many years and DEB was able to attract students with considerably higher graduation scores than in previous years. Subsequent student surveys have shown that it was the communication of the willingness to change and actions undertaken in that direction that proved pivotal for these students when making decisions about education.

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Lessons Learned The DEB example shows that HEIs in unfavourable positions with limited financial funds can use internationalisation possibilities to access relevant knowledge, realise their strategic objectives and regain their competitiveness. The experience of DEB shows, however, that the realisation of such potential does not happen instantaneously and may involve a sequence of trial-and-error activities through which knowledge is accumulated.

Concluding Remarks Modern educational space is characterised by constant change that requires organisations to continuously adapt and modernise. This is particularly challenging for organisations from less advanced countries, whose educational systems are resilient to change and who lack the knowledge and resources to meet such objectives. However, increasing the number of HEIs, negative demographic trends and the growth constraints of domestic markets, together with diminishing cross-country borders, requires HEIs in many of these countries to invest effort in attracting students from other parts of the world. With a lack of indigenous resources, or constraints pertaining to the country of origin’s reputation, these institutions must find a way to demonstrate their quality and build their international reputation. Our analysis identified two such channels, namely the acquisition of international quality certificates and reliance on international collaborations with projects seeking to develop innovative educational content. Depending on the characteristics of individual HEIs, each of these channels has the potential to signal the quality of work undertaken within an institution, helping it to supplement its own missing resources. However, success in exploiting these channels crucially depends on its institutional commitment to excellence and change and its medium- to long-term commitment to following an internationalisation path along these lines. Hence, we should be pragmatic and keep in mind that international cooperation and exchanges are not guarantees of an uninterrupted and simple thought process. However, they continue to be fundamental mechanisms for maintaining open communication and productive dialogue. Innovative inter- and trans-disciplinary strategies for research are also powerful means of creating an exchange that advances pluralistic, diverse and cross-­ cultural recognition and an awareness of societal transformations and challenges.

References Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB). https://www.aacsb.edu/about. Accessed 20 Jan 2021.

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Audretsch, D. B., & Belitski, M. (2021). Three-ring entrepreneurial university: In search of a new business model. Studies in Higher Education. Online first, 46, 977–987. https://doi.org/10.108 0/03075079.2021.1896804 Caraca, J., Lundvall, B.-A., & Mendonca, S. (2009). The changing role of science in the innovation process: From Queen to Cinderella? Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 76(6), 861–867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2008.08.003 Cunningham, J. A., Menter, M., & O'Kane, C. (2018). Value creation in the quadruple helix: A micro level conceptual model of principal investigators as value creators. R & D Management, 48(1), 136–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/radm.12310 https://www.efmdglobal.org. Accessed 24 Jan 2021. Etzkowitz, H. (2008). The triple helix: University-industry-government in action. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203929605 Etzkowitz, H., & Leydesdorff, L. (2000). The dynamics of innovation: From National systems and “Mode 2” to a Triple Helix of university-industry-government relations. Research Policy, 29, 109–123. Etzkowitz, H., & Zhou, C. (2017). The triple helix: University-industry-government innovation and entrepreneurship. Routledge. European Commission (EC, 2015), Country report Croatia 2015: Including an in-depth review on the prevention and correction of macroeconomic imbalances (European Semester), COM (2015) 85 final, European Commission, Brussels, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/ pdf/csr2015/cr2015_croatia_en.pdf Leydesdorff, L., & Etzkowitz, H. (1996). Emergence of a triple helix of university-industry-­ government relations. Science and Public Policy, 23(5), 279–286. https://doi.org/10.1093/ spp/23.5.279 Lundvall, B. A. (1992). National systems of innovation: Towards a theory of innovation and interactive learning. Pinter Publishers. OECD/EC. (2019). Supporting entrepreneurship and innovation in higher education in Croatia. https://heinnovate.eu/en/resource/oecdec-­supporting-­entrepreneurship-­and-­innovation-­higher-­ education-­croatia-­2019. Dabić, M. Chapter 1. Higher education, entrepreneurship and innovation in Croatia. Accessed 15 Dec 2020. Wihlborg, M., & Robson, S. (2018). Internationalisation of higher education: Drivers, rationales, priorities, values and impacts. European Journal of Higher Education, 8(1), 8–18.

Chapter 19

The Importance of the International and Social Dimensions of Learning in the Post-COVID Higher Education: The Case of ESCP Business School Francesco Venuti, Francesca Pucciarelli, and Francesco Rattalino

Abstract  The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has undoubtedly affected some trends in an irreversible way but will probably not impact significantly on certain aspects of cross-border higher education. Old and new challenges are reshaping the concept of international education, posing particular stress on the social dimension of the learning experience. This chapter uses the case of ‘ESCP Business School’, a truly international business school, headquartered in Paris, with seven campuses across six different European cities. The analysis of the multi-­ campus model of ESCP, as well as its innovative and unique pedagogical model with a specific focus on its approach during and immediately after the COVID-19 pandemic, could suggest potential paths to enhance student learning, and intercultural and social experience in a hybrid pedagogical setting for the next-normal. Keywords  Business schools · Higher education · Learning experience · Internationalization · Social dimension

Introduction The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is certainly an event of caesura and discontinuity. It has three major characteristics: strong impact, prolonged over time, and global. It is impacting on everyone’s lives, on all economic and social sectors, in any country of the world, for more than 1 year now (and it is far from

F. Venuti (*) · F. Pucciarelli · F. Rattalino ESCP Business School, Turin Campus, Turin, Italy e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_19

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beingover). Some scholars debate whether this global pandemic has all the ‘requirements’ to be labelled as an example of Taleb’s ‘black swan’1 or not. A higher education institution (HEI), by definition, has an unparalleled level of temporal ‘extension’ of its responsibility, which few other institutions have. In fact, there are essentially three levels to which it must respond and dialogue in a constructive way: past, present, and future generations (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2016). Any effective educational model must respond to the needs of the past generations (at least the latest one), as it is often parents and families who exercise a significant influence on the educational choices of their children, even up to university (both in terms of choice of field of study and the choice of the school/university itself), also with financial support. At the same time, an educational institution must be able to ‘speak’ effectively to the current generations, represented by those who are presently attending the programmes and with whom it directly relates. Thirdly, an educational institution is also called to respond effectively to the needs of the future generations, with a sort of implicit ‘responsibility’, as schools and universities have to prepare people to match the demand and requests of the society of tomorrow (where they will be living and working). The challenges that determine the success of an educational institution lies precisely in the way in which it manages to combine and ‘respond’ to these three dimensions and demands at the same time. When the motivations, endeavours and expectations of these three categories diverge significantly (as it happens more and more frequently in contemporary society), it might become particularly complex to propose effective educational paths and training programmes. In this context, the higher education (HE) sector, which is getting more global, crowded and diverse (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2016; Sjödin et  al., 2019), has to urgently face multifaceted challenges exacerbated by COVID-19 pandemic. Especially in the next-normal context, universities and business schools have to offer concrete and attractive ‘answers’ to their actual and potential students, showing a clear identity, consolidated well-defined values and a sound pedagogical model.

 ld and New Challenges for Higher Education (HE) O in a Post-COVID Era The post-COVID world, which is frequently referred to as ‘the new normal’ or ‘the next-normal’, will certainly be a complex mix of both ‘old and new things’. The real challenge for higher education institutions will be to find the right balance between already established things and some totally new ones.

 For a definition and illustrations of the black swan concept, see: Taleb, N. N. (2007). The black swan: The impact of the highly improbable (Vol. 2). Random House. 1

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 ld Challenges for HE: Globalization and VUCA: Volatility, O Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity Among the many ‘old’ things that will remain in a ‘post-COVID’ scenario, two are crucial for the settings in which the future of HE lies: the world is and will remain a globalized and VUCA place. The first element is globalization. COVID-19 has been undoubtedly a global phenomenon and, despite the temporary limitations to travel and movement, the ‘spirit’ and horizon of people continue to envelop the entire world. ‘The world is our home’, said Girolamo Nadal, one of the first Jesuits, as early as the sixteenth century. We entered in what is called ‘the planetary era’, while at the end of the twentieth century we reached a higher level: ‘the stage of globalization’ (Morin, 2000). This process has some irreversible elements. According to the French urbanist and geographer Jacques Levy, entering the stage of globalization means to perceive ‘the emergence of a new object, the world as such’. Living in the stage of globalization is not easy, as it is full of contradictions, conflicts, difficulties and problems. But the education of the future necessarily must teach the ‘ethics of planetary understanding’ (Morin, 2000, p. 39). Additionally, the ‘after-COVID era’ will still be a ‘VUCA world’. VUCA is a famous acronym that identifies a context characterized by Volatility (unstable and unpredictable changes), Uncertainty (lack of knowledge, and information that is either scarce or overloading, frequently conflicting), Complexity (strong and intense interconnections between the different parts) and Ambiguity (unclear and complex cause–effect relationships). These characteristics of the contemporary world are definitely not new. The acronym VUCA has been well known for quite some time. However, some universities, with ancient pedagogical models, rigid structures and procedures, standardized training programmes, and old paradigms might not be able to prepare adequately the younger generations to face the challenges coming from this context. The famous French sociologist Edgar Morin, more than 20 years ago, in a report for the UNESCO,2 which later became a book, entitled ‘Confronting Uncertainties’ as one of the ‘seven complex lessons in education for the future’. Morin quoted Euripides, ‘The gods give us many surprises: the expected does not occur and they open the door to the unexpected’, and commented: We have still not incorporated this message from Euripides: expect the unexpected. […] If we could finally get rid of the illusion that we can predict the course of human events, it would be a major intellectual conquest. The future remains open and unpredictable. […] The emergence of the new cannot be predicted, otherwise it would not be new. The emergence of a creation cannot be known in advance, otherwise it would not be creation. […] The development of history is not linear. It is full of turbulence, bifurcations, detours, periods of static immobility, periods of latency followed by virulence […] We have to learn how to confront uncertainty because we live in a changing epoch where our values are a­ mbivalent,  See Morin, E. (1999) Seven complex lessons in education for the future. UNESCO. Available at the link https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000117740 2

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and everything is interconnected. This is why the education of the future must review the uncertainties connected with knowledge. (Morin, 2000, pp. 41–43)

This condition is not something new. It was already existing long before the COVID, it has probably always been the ‘normal situation’, and it will probably be the scenario also for the future. Consequently, it is increasingly urgent to be able to adequately prepare the younger generations to live, work, lead responsibly and succeed in this context.

New Challenges Emerging from the Pandemic Among the ‘new things’ that we learned from the pandemic, the need for re-­ establishing a social dimension of learning and the acceleration of the digital transformation of HE emerged clearly (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2022). Online education has permitted HEI to deliver their programmes as usual in an unusual situation. Because of prolonged lockdowns and confinements, we have all experienced the importance of ‘being physically together’, of meeting parents, friends, relatives and even colleagues. We learned that we could do effectively a lot of things online, but not everything, and a certain level of physical presence is required. The importance of this ‘new’ social dimension is the reason for which companies, and business schools alike, are planning to design a post-COVID scenario with ‘rotation plans’, according to which workers and students might be in their offices for a few days per week, alternating remote working with some days onsite, where they can meet physically, and spend some time together, developing a ‘new balance’ in social relationships. In the ‘next-normal context’, a new social equilibrium has to be found between online experience and physical presence. Professionals and executives of the future should be prepared starting right now to be comfortable and behave naturally in such a scenario with this way of interacting with people in their ordinary work environment. Moreover, the pandemic forcedly accelerated digital transformation processes, in any field. Education has probably been one of the most disrupted by this phenomenon (Meiller, 2020). In the first half of 2020, schools and universities went entirely online almost overnight, with profound impacts on professors, students, deans and staff. At the beginning, professors started to ‘replicate’ online what they were used to do in classes. This ‘emergency attitude’ created frustration in both professors and students (Greenberg & Hibbert, 2020). The online experience during the pandemic clearly demonstrated that digital technology is not necessarily a ‘connector’ or an instrument for engagement or good communication ‘per se’. On the contrary, it could potentially make the level of interaction, participation, communication and engagement much more difficult than in classes. It would be much easier for an online student to switch his/her camera off, not to participate in the activities and even not to listen at all. In classes, thanks also to body language, physical presence and the space dimension, it might be much easier to catch the attention of the

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students and involve them in lectures and activities. Both students and professors have experienced how difficult it could be to keep a high level of attention and engagement during online classes, especially when these were delivered with the same traditional teaching pedagogy and methodology of physical lectures, proven to be highly effective when in presence. On the other hand, almost everybody has discovered, sooner or later, especially during the COVID-19 period, that digital tools and online pedagogy might have also enormous potential and could add a lot of value to learning effectiveness. The initial reluctance and diffidence of many academics towards online teaching, with time, turned into getting familiar with the new tools and practices, engaging in the redesigning of their courses and adapting their pedagogy to the online context (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2022). Hybrid teaching, with some students physically in the room and others simultaneously connected remotely, is still a big issue and probably the most difficult situation to manage, although it seems quite evident that it could become a very common situation. As of consequence of these old and new challenges, HE institutions and academia at large are fostered to rethink the concepts of internationalization (Altbach & Knight, 2007) and international learning experience. Since the spread of the pandemic in the first months of 2020, almost all the schools, higher education institutions and universities around the globe closed their campuses and many of them were not accepting students onsite anymore. Online courses have replaced physical classes, and many are wondering whether it will still make sense for the students to travel and move to far-away countries ‘just’ for attending the same courses that they can easily follow online. Is it still necessary to move to a foreign country to gain cross-cultural understanding? Now that we are getting used to online learning, would not it be enough to connect students and classes from different area of the world virtually to provide a global experience? Is not this solution much more practical, cheaper and even more respectful of the environment? For short: is it possible to study abroad without ‘the abroad’? The true value of education abroad is definitely not only about jumping on a plane to move for a semester or a year from one country to another. However, universities have to put more effort in to making their campuses more attractive to international students, providing a sound value added in the physical attendance to classes onsite, organizing activities and events that will promote social interaction, making their campuses the hub of networking activities, to justify their moving from home to the campus (wherever it is, either close to home or hundreds of kilometres away). According to a recent research,3 even in the middle of the pandemic (spring 2021), among the young Italians who would like to go to university after graduating from high school, almost 35% have decided to study abroad or to enrol in a foreign

 https://www.tgcom24.mediaset.it/skuola/il-richiamo-dellestero-non-conosce-crisi-un-maturando-su-tre-vorrebbe-laurearsi-in-un-ateneo-straniero_30715394-202102k.shtml 3

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university. Additionally, almost 70% of them are considering working in a foreign country at least for a part of their life. According to the same research, the desire to achieve a degree/diploma which is globally recognized is one of the key elements students are looking for. Social science studies, supported also by the analysis of the psychological sides of living abroad, provide quite strong scientific evidence of the positive effects of international experiences, as they can enhance creativity (Maddux & Galinsky, 2009), reduce intergroup bias (Tadmor et al., 2012), promote career success (Godart et al., 2015), increase self-concept clarity, lead to more-congruent feedbacks, to a better alignment between how people see themselves and how others see them, and ultimately lead to clearer and better career decisions (Adam et al., 2018). In this context, it thus appears evident that each and every educational institution, looking at the future, has to redefine the meaning of internationalization and redesign international learning experiences, by: 1. Defining the ‘model’: which values, competences, skills and cultural intelligence to achieve, design and implement in students? 2. Proposing a method for realizing this model: how concretely we can transfer the abovementioned values into our students? How practically we are going to develop the required skills? Which pedagogical framework are we going to implement? In the following sections, we will present the case of ESCP Business School, focusing specifically on two fundamental aspects: internationality and the social dimension of learning.

 SCP Business School: The Oldest Business School E of the World, with an International DNA The French HE system consists of two types of institutions: universities and schools. The latter includes ‘Grandes Écoles’ and ‘Écoles Spécialisées’, which are parallel and alternative to the university system. The Grandes Écoles are high-level very selective public and private institutions, similar to universities. They typically (but not only) offer very specialized three-­ year courses of study, in different subjects such as business, engineering, humanities, art, political science and agronomy. Students are admitted to the Grandes Écoles based on the score they achieve in a very competitive admission exam. To take this exam, students must have completed a Baccalauréate, and they often have

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attended one or two years of ‘Prepà’ (i.e. préparatoire class or CPGE: Classes Préparatoires aux Grandes Écoles).4 ESCP Business School is the oldest business school in the world as its origins date back to 1819 when a ‘special’ private business school was established in Paris and named ‘École Spéciale de Commerce et d’Industrie’. Since the beginning, two distinctive elements characterized the activity of this institution: international openness with a strong focus on transnational issues, and the heterogeneity of its teachers and collaborators, which included academics, scholars, merchants, entrepreneurs and practitioners. The multicultural and multidisciplinary model was already emerging since its foundation. The name of the school, ESCP, comes from the acronym ‘École Supérieure de Commerce de Paris’, which was defined in 1830. Between 1869 and 1969, the School grows gradually, supported by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry, expanding the programmes, and reaching a maturity stage. In the late sixties of the twentieth century, almost a thousand students were enrolled and attending the school’s programmes. Starting from the following decade, the School gradually reinvented its business model, nurturing its original values and academic principles, developing its current model of different integrated European campuses, strengthening its European principles, parallel to the macroeconomic and political consolidation of the European Union that was taking place at that time, and responding to the wave of globalization. From the mid-seventies, students could follow international programmes, alternating semesters in different European countries such as France, the UK and Germany (with campuses at the time located in Paris, London and Düsseldorf). In 1999, ESCP merged with another French business school, École Européenne des Affaires (EAP), also owned by the Paris Chamber of Commerce (Chambre de commerce et d’Industrie de Paris Île-de-France), which had a strong international pedagogical model that was fitting extremely well with the values and nature of ESCP.  In 2009, when the union had been completed, the official School name became ‘ESCP Europe’; this name changed again in 2019 into the current name of ‘ESCP Business School’, after having incorporated another French business school, Novantia, also belonging to the Paris Chamber of Commerce. Today, with its seven campuses (two campuses in Paris, and one in Madrid, Turin, Warsaw, Berlin and London), ESCP has multiple accreditations, and it is a truly pan-European business school. Its wide portfolio of programmes (bachelor, masters, MBAs, PhD and executive education) have in common their international design, requiring a multi-campus (and, consequently, multi-country) experience for all the students, with a strong emphasis on the social dynamics, with an international faculty, a network of 65,000 alumni in over 150 countries, plus worldwide academic and numerous different research alliances.

 More information about the French Education System on the EU official websites at https://eacea. ec.europa.eu/national-policies/eurydice/content/france_en and https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/ national-policies/eurydice/france/glossary_en 4

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Although it is still headquartered in Paris and owned by the Paris Chambre de Commerce et d’Industrie, ESCP Business School is a truly European institution that combines effectively a federal governance with the specificity of each campus, adopting some aspect of a multidivisional organizational structure. Its mission is defined as follows: ‘Driven by European values, ESCP Business School inspires and educates tomorrow business leaders who will impact the world’. ESCP uses the acronym of its name to summarize the four fundamental values that make up its DNA, namely: Excellence, Singularity, Creativity, and Plurality. These four values synthetically express the style of the School, but, at the same time, they also constitute the pillars of the responsible and collaborative leaders who are trained at ESCP. Academic Excellence, rooted in the European context, provides tomorrow’s leaders with a solid background in both professional and humanitarian terms (rooted in the strong and long tradition of European universities), helping them to go beyond mere technical approaches and rote textbook knowledge, providing a solid deep understanding of the complex economy, politics, societal, ethics and environmental issues. Promoting and enhancing the Singularities of each individual, her/his skills, talents and characteristics, allows tomorrow business leaders to develop a unique concept for management disciplines based on a multicultural, interdisciplinary, agile and flexible approach, open to the major challenges of tomorrow’s world. By developing creativity, cultivating curiosity and audacity, and encouraging the contribution of all disciplines to economic dynamism, a form of mental agility is promoted, which will allow future managers to find innovative and adequate solutions to the new problems affecting the world (‘In life as in business everything starts with a choice’, is one of ESCP claims). Creativity is the ability to imagine new opportunities, play in uncertain context and find self-expression in whatever you do. Finally, through the different nationalities, origins and backgrounds of students, faculty members and staff, ESCP promotes Pluralism, interdisciplinarity, multiculturalism and all forms of diversity. At ESCP, the European context is perceived as having ‘the maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances’, and a ‘truly’ European approach to management needs ‘a cross-cultural, societal management approach based on interdisciplinary principles’ (Kaplan, 2021).

 he Four Dimensions of an Effective Higher Education Model T in the New Normal Context In the context of this ‘new normal’, four dimensions could potentially effectively shape the future world of higher education, responding and matching to the four characteristics of the ‘post-COVID’ environment described in the previous sections. In the following paragraphs, these dimensions are highlighted and discussed separately, always within the case of ESCP Business School.

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 he ‘Global Dimension’: A Multicultural Approach T for the Citizen of the World, Open to Diversity The globalization process will probably not stop, despite its contradictions and downsides highlighted by the pandemic. Being able to ‘bridge borders’, geographical, cultural, social or even disciplinary, to connect and unify things (rather than divide), and to look at diversity as something valuable, are necessary skills for tomorrow’s business leaders. The pandemic has shown how interconnected the world is and how important it is to prepare adequately students to live in this context. At ESCP Business School, living an experience in an integrated multi-campus system enforces the students’ ability to develop a global perception. ESCP campuses are integrated in a ‘federal system’, sharing the same approach, culture, value, pedagogy, style, etc. Students, faculty, staff and alumni might feel perfectly ‘at home’ in any ESCP campus, which share the same identity, values and approach. At the same time, each campus is also unique, reflecting the elements and culture of its own country. At ESCP Business School, both students and faculty members are ‘international’ by definition, given the School’s seven campuses, in six different European countries, and the international recruitment. Besides that, all class activities and group projects are organized to ensure the maximum level of multicultural presence and diversity. Specific courses on soft skills about negotiation, inter- and cross-cultural behaviour, people and self-­ management are offered to students of the different programmes. Hence, students get used and familiar with working in an international environment, being able to bridge cultural gap, overcome difficulties and to welcome diversity as an enriching value. A truly international education cannot be restricted to moving from one country to another, but it relies on international direct experience, in which students are immersed and required to work. Global citizens are not those people who ‘travel a lot’ but are those who have been trained to work in a constant cultural exchange setting, who gained flexibility, cross-cultural mindsets and a deeper understanding of the world. Furthermore, ESCP students attend language courses, specifically designed for their level. Learning new languages is a significant immersion in foreign cultures and mindset that implement open approaches and facilitate future careers. Finally, thanks to the strong and intense connections of the School with local businesses; the multi-campus model also gives the opportunity to the students to get in contact with a huge number of different companies, ranging from big multinationals to small local firms, family businesses, entrepreneurs and start-ups.

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 he ‘Systemic Dimension’: A Multidisciplinary Approach, T Beyond the Fragmentation and the Hyper-Specialization, to Equip Students for Complexity and Uncertainty Most of HEs in the world is still too focused on content and knowledge acquisition, rather than teaching students how to ‘elaborate’ those facts (which can easily be acquired online) or training the younger generation to ‘critical thinking’. We can easily agree that in our world knowledge is no longer a scarce resource (Kaplan, 2021). We frequently experience information overloads and one of companies’ biggest challenge is to manage ‘big data’. The issue is not finding information, but evaluating them, learning how to distinguish ‘fake news’ from proper evidence, making synthesis, applying information for problem solving and creating new knowledge. These processes are sometimes referred to as cognitive skills or habits of thinking. At ESCP, an effective mix of lecture-based, case-based and experiential learning methods provides an effective balance of theory and practice. Theory is abstracted practice, and practice is applied theory. Theory provides solid and reliable frameworks for structuring emerging problems and setting new situations. Practice makes theories concrete and useful. Lectures are practical and interactive, with a very hands-on approach, regularly asking students to work on international case studies, simulations, real life examples and group projects, to deliver presentations, immerse themselves in role-plays, business games and teambuilding activities. These activities promote a practical multidisciplinary approach, developing a ‘systemic view’ that goes beyond hyper-specialization and overcomes fragmentation. A well-balanced equilibrium between hard skills and soft skills is constantly achieved in any curriculum of any programme at ESCP.

 he ‘Social Dimension’: People with Humanistic T and Sustainable Approach A top US university student in March 2021 during a TV interview declared: ‘I can probably get a second degree in my life, I will travel and maybe come back to visit again a city or a Country in the future, but I won’t get to be a college and a freshman again’. Attending a higher education programme is definitely not only memorizing and learning concepts and contents. It is not even only about implementing competencies and developing skills, but it has also an important social dimension. At any educational level, from kindergarten to executive education, according to the model of the ‘Community of Inquiry’ (COI) (Garrison, 2007) there are three fundamental dimensions of higher-order thinking that are needed to enhance the learning experience of a group of people gathered for the common goal of learning. These dimensions are social, cognitive, and teaching presences. According to Garrison,

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educational experiences are maximized in a ‘community of inquiry’ environment where both educators and students demonstrate critical thinking, and interpersonal and interaction skills (Bush et al., 2010). With campuses closed for the pandemic, in online (or hybrid) classes students and professors are not spending time together, with the risk of losing the social dimension and not being able to develop adequate interpersonal and interaction skills. It can be noted that, while in physical classes during breaks or at the end of the lectures, both students and professors have time to chat, talk and meet; during breaks in online meetings or lectures each participant is switching his/her camera and mic off in order to move away from its monitor. This behaviour has certainly a strong impact on social interaction, which can be recovered or implemented with different innovative solutions (Mucharraz y Cano & Venuti, 2020). Higher education ‘need to think of new ways to foster social activities and/or strengthen what social activities are still on campus’ (Kaplan, 2021). According to Sjödin et al. (2019), a co-creative approach combined with a ‘service logic’ can also be a useful strategy to respond to these challenges. The large network of alumni and their associations are also relevant in nurturing the social dimension in education at ESCP. A strong sense of school spirit and community is promoted by supporting and encouraging students to get involved in extra-curricular activities, in participating to student unions, societies and associations (in 2020, there were more than 50 active clubs at ESCP across different campuses). Agora, the ESCP Student Union, plays an important role within the school, promoting a sense of community between the student body and the school. Agora representatives participate directly also in some of the school boards. However, even in digital context, it is still possible to promote and develop an effective social dimension (Mucharraz y Cano & Venuti, 2020). Developing a ‘social dimension’ in education means also to focus more on people rather than on programmes, contents and exams. Hence, also it implies to concentrate more on the learning process and less on the ‘outcome’: in almost any course at ESCP, the student on-going participation, interaction and/or overall contribution play a significant role in the final evaluation. Final exams are mainly open books (the focus is not on the ‘information’ and the contents, but on the competences of the students, their skills and mindset) and the failure rate as well as dropouts are quite low compared to other higher education institution (even if the rules are quite ‘strict’ and students generally have only one resit available after failing an exam and before getting a deferral year). The real challenge to promote a social dimension in higher education, no matter whether courses are delivered in presence or online, is to promote a ‘new humanistic’ approach. There is an emerging need (which after the quarantine and COVID-19 experience has become even stronger) of rediscovering truly human-centred processes in any sector of our lives (economic, business, management, science, society, family, culture and also education), by promoting actions that are highly and profoundly respectful of people (workers, colleagues, patients, neighbours as well as students). In HE, students need to feel that they are important, at the centre of the

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institution, and heard, especially regarding their learning (Venuti & Mucharraz y Cano, 2020). ESCP programmes provide also a quite high level of customization in the curriculum, choosing among different specializations, courses or even the location of the campus (with the only rule that each programme must take place on at least two different campuses, to ensure internationality). In this way, students can build their own curriculum, with a quite high degree of customization, choosing the formats that best fit their own desires and needs. A truly humanistic approach is focusing not only on the current generation of people but also on the future ones. This means to promote sustainability as a fundamental value, which has to inspire all the action of students as tomorrow responsible business leaders. Millennials and Generation-Z are resilient to ‘lectures’ and ‘general talks’ about sustainability. They need inspiration that will develop sustainable attitude, responsible behaviours and an ethical mindset (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2021). At ESCP in 2020, an Associate Dean for Sustainability has been appointed. Additionally, ESCP is among the first business schools in the world to have created an academic Department of Sustainability. Sustainability is not only a course (whether mandatory or elective), nor just an attractive workshop or a specialization. It is a mindset and something that permeates the entire school. Gradually, all courses of any programme are being redesigned in order to include and to provide contents through the lenses of sustainability. This sustainability attitude is perceived also in the academic research of the faculty and in the relationships with companies; for example, it has created a Chair in sustainability and circular economy and an Impact Paper series, which yearly proposes academic reflections on Business, Europe, Society and Teaching.

 he ‘Technological Dimension’: Is Technology a Connector or T a Divider? Is Phygital the New Normal? In March 2020, at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic, about 1.5 billion students all over the world, according to UNESCO,5 were engaged in remote learning. At the beginning both professors and students were quite uncomfortable with online teaching. Gradually, a more ‘mature’ approach has emerged, highlighting pros and cons of both online and onsite teaching (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2022). We have experienced and already discussed in the previous chapters that digital technology is not always and automatically a ‘connector’ for people. It could be also an instrument that works in the opposite direction: to help people isolate themselves or even to create barriers. Switching off the camera or hiding behind a screen could be an effective way to interrupt an online conversation or to get away from a

 https://en.unesco.org/

5

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meeting or a lecture, making unilaterally impossible any form of further communication. At ESCP, befitting from the experience (and the mistakes) of the COVID-19 pandemic, digital transformation has been fostered and an innovative ‘phygital factory’ has been implemented. The ESCP phygital factory supports faculty to create teaching modules that combine effectively online education and physical activities. The word ‘phygital’, which has already become quite frequent in marketing at least since October 2014 (when it was introduced by the US retail chain Lowe’s), is now one of the new keywords of innovation. The constant and intense interaction between physical and digital that characterizes our time has led to creating this neologism, a merge of ‘physical’ and ‘digital’. According to official declaration of Frank Bournois, Dean and Executive President at ESCP, the School does not believe in an entirely digital offer for education in management.6 Each programme is going to deliver a balance between a minimum of 20% of digital classes and a minimum of 40% physical classes. The phygital pedagogy overcomes the traditional ‘either/or’ approach to online teaching, but integrates it effectively in the courses, so that it can be seen as ‘another tool in the box’. To guide ESCP through the challenges of constantly implementing its pedagogy in the digital context, an Associate Dean for Learning Innovation has been appointed officially at ESCP federal level. In April 2020, an innovative ranking elaborated by the French consultancy Emerging and published by Times Higher Education (THE)7 evaluates universities worldwide in terms of digital and tech teaching and learning. ESCP Business School has been ranked 29th worldwide among the top 150 HE institutions (among the best stand-alone Business Schools), 2nd in EU and 1st in four of the European countries where it has its campuses (France, Germany, Italy and Poland).

Conclusion No-one knows exactly or can perfectly predict what that next-normal will be, both in general and for higher education, in particular. This pandemic has certainly demonstrated how unpredictable and sudden radical changes can be and accelerated digital adoption and transformation, but, in contrast, it has also increased the need for the social dimension of the learning experience and showed some of the tensions and problems of a globalized world. The task of universities, especially with regard to management education and business schools, will therefore increasingly be to educate and inspire capable and responsible future leaders to deal with an increasingly complex and uncertain future

 ForeignPolicy.com, ‘The European Approach to Management’, April 16, 2021.  https://www.timeshighereducation.com/student/best-universities/digital-leaders-top-universitiesdigital-education 6 7

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by using the right approach, proper preparation embedding both hard and soft skills, as well as cultural intelligence, and adequate perspectives. The chapter uses the case of ESCP Business School, a truly international business school, to illustrate possible answers to old and new challenges of cross-border higher education amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. The impact of massive global experiment on online and hybrid higher education showed that potentially international teaching could even increase in the next-­ normal, as both faculty and students can be anywhere, which opens up opportunities for further internationalization (e.g. recruiting international faculty even more than nowadays). Yet, the quality of interaction and learning effectiveness of this new learning setting are still to be proven and widely debated among scholars. Moreover, the real added value of business schools is not only in the classroom, but also (if not mainly) in the social life and social activities, it is about to work together with other students, to advance in an applied project under the supervision of a faculty member. This chapter contributes to the debate on the future of management education elaborating on possible alternatives to keep and develop a social dimension, even in this ‘new normal’ post-COVID era. The analysis of the ESCP Business School approach and its unique model provides renewed evidence on the importance of the international experience and the promotion of the ‘social dimension’ in education, even with distance learning and online or hybrid classes. From an HE managerial perspective, the chapter also presents a pedagogical model specifically designed to achieve these objectives in the new normal context.

References Adam, H., Obodaru, O., Lu, J., Maddux, W., & Galinsky, A. (2018, May 22). How living abroad helps you develop a clearer sense of self. Harvard Business Review. Altbach, P. G., & Knight, J. (2007). The internationalization of higher education: Motivations and realities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3–4), 290–305. Bush, R., Castelli, P., Lowry, P., & Cole, M. (2010, July). The importance of teaching presence in online and hybrid classrooms. In Conference proceedings of the academy of educational leadership conference at New Orleans, LA. Garrison, D. R. (2007). Online community of inquiry review: Social, cognitive, and teaching presence issues. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 11, 61–72. Godart, F., Maddux, W., Shipilov, A., & Galinsky, A. (2015). Fashion with a foreign flair: Professional experiences abroad facilitate the creative innovations of organizations. The Academy of Management Journal, 58, 195–220. Greenberg, D., & Hibbert, P. (2020). From the editors—Covid-19: Learning to hope and hoping to learn. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 19(2), 123–130. Kaplan, A. (2021). Why, when, what, who, where, higher education at the crossroads of disruption (great debates in higher education) (pp. 1–9). Emerald Publishing Limited. Maddux, W. W., & Galinsky, A. D. (2009, May). Cultural borders and mental barriers: The relationship between living abroad and creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 1047–1061. Meiller, Y. (2020). Digital transformation, covid-19 crisis, digital transformation. ESCP impact paper no. 2020-36-EN. ESCP Research Institute of Management (ERIM).

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Morin, E. (2000). Les Sept Savoirs nécessaires à l’éducation du futur. Le Seuil. Mucharraz y Cano, Y., & Venuti, F. (2020). Online learning can still be social. 10 keys to building a supportive digital community of learners. Harvard Business Publishing Education (Inspiring Mind). Pucciarelli, F., & Kaplan, A. (2016). Competition and strategy in higher education: Managing complexity and uncertainty. Business Horizons, 59(3), 311–320. Pucciarelli, F., & Kaplan, A. (2021). From narrative to action: Are business schools finally walking the talk of responsible management education? ESCP impact paper no. 2021-50-EN. ESCP Research Institute of Management (ERIM). Pucciarelli, F., & Kaplan, A. (2022). Transition to a hybrid teaching model as a step forward toward responsible management education? Journal of Global Responsibility, 13(1), 7–20. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGR-12-2020-0111 Sjödin, C., Hatvani, L., & Olsson A. (2019, November). Future challenges for academic-­ industry value co-creation through lifelong learning. In European Conference on e-Learning, Mälardalen University, Sweden, Kidmore End. Tadmor, C. T., Hong, Y.-Y., Chao, M. M., Wiruchnipawan, F., & Wang, W. (2012). Multicultural experiences reduce intergroup bias through epistemic unfreezing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(5), 750–772. Venuti, F., & Mucharraz y Cano, Y. (2020). Should we talk about COVID-19  in all business courses? 10 suggestions for discussing sensitive topics with students. Business Publishing Education (Inspiring Mind).

Chapter 20

Internationalisation in Practice: Real-Life Lessons for University Leaders Toby Wilkinson

Abstract  Internationalisation is, increasingly, a central feature of universities’ strategic plans. Its benefits are widely acknowledged; yet practical challenges often hamper implementation. Based on the practical experience of the internationalisation process in UK universities, and interviews with a wide range of international faculty, this chapter offers a series of insights from ground level. The experiences of staff at the ‘sharp end’ of internationalisation reveal a range of challenges and obstacles, some of which may be expected, but others less apparent, to those responsible for leading internationalisation efforts. There are lessons for a university’s staff recruitment and induction processes; for the systems of curriculum development, approval and reform; for the communication of internationalisation goals and benefits; for the overall campus culture; and for a university’s relations with, and leadership in, its local community. While international faculty provide an obvious and valuable resource in support of a university’s internationalisation ambitions, staff from overseas should not be expected to shoulder the burden of implementation, especially as they face particular challenges in relation to internationalisation initiatives that can only be addressed by institution-wide culture change. Keywords  Internationalisation · Diversity · Pedagogy · Strategy

Introduction The internationalisation of higher education has gained increasing prominence in recent decades and has many undoubted benefits: preparing students for successful lives and careers as global citizens, ensuring that research is translated for global impact, harnessing the power of collective endeavour to create solutions to the world’s pressing problems (British Council, 2015; Guthrie et  al., 2017; UUK T. Wilkinson (*) Clare College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_20

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International, 2017) and so on. On a more prosaic, institutional level, internationalisation is also seen as a way of raising a university’s profile, diversifying its income streams and bolstering its reputation (Baty, 2017). In response to these drivers, many universities have adopted internationalisation strategies, often led by a designated member of the senior leadership team (in the UK, typically a Pro-ViceChancellor or Deputy Vice-Chancellor with a specific remit for internationalisation, external affairs or global engagement). However, with internationalisation (as with so much in higher education), top-­ down leadership is necessary but not sufficient. Any strategy is only as effective as its implementation. For internationalisation to be more than warm words and a shiny strategy, bottom-up engagement is critical. A devolved implementation strategy, harnessing the experience, expertise and enthusiasm of colleagues at the ‘coal face’  – be they programme leaders, academic researchers or professional service staff – is generally more effective than top-down directives, although some degree of regular monitoring and evaluation by the senior leadership team is also essential to maintain momentum and ensure milestones are achieved. As with any strategy, there will always be passionate advocates for internationalisation as well as colleagues who are more resistant to change. When seeking ‘early adopters’ for its internationalisation goals, a university often turns to its international faculty – those who are naturally placed, by virtue of their own background and experience, to foster a more global environment in the classroom, the staffroom and the wider campus. After all, having a high proportion of international faculty is one of the proxy measures for internationalisation used in higher education rankings; a university with a multinational, multicultural faculty might feel confident that it has internationalisation sorted. The on-the-ground reality is rather different. Interviews with a wide range of international faculty working in UK higher education – from different parts of the world and representing diverse academic disciplines – show that the challenges and contradictions of internationalisation are felt particularly acutely by such colleagues. Of course, there is no single set of issues encountered by all international faculty; individuals coming from Asia may have very different backgrounds and expectations, and consequently face a different level of adjustment, compared to colleagues from Europe or North America. Not all faculty from other countries see or define themselves as ‘international’. None the less, despite the diversity of individual circumstances, some common themes emerge. They reveal the barriers to internationalisation – some clear to see, others hidden or insidious – that are faced in the day-to-day business of university teaching, learning and research. Moreover, the insights of international faculty constitute a wake-up call for university leaders who aspire to internationalise their institutions, identifying core issues that have to be addressed in order for an internationalisation strategy to succeed.

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A Warm Welcome Internationalisation is not a series of actions: it is a state of mind. No institution ever successfully internationalised by ticking a set of boxes or meeting a series of Key Performance Indicators. Paying lip-service to internationalisation is easy; but to be effective and sustainable, internationalisation needs to be felt, lived and owned. If a university wishes to develop a global mindset in its students, it should start by looking at itself. Academic communities are accustomed to thinking of themselves as progressive and inclusive by instinct; but the lived experience of some international faculty suggests a rather different reality. Let us start with the initial journey of an international faculty member to another country. As someone who has recently undertaken such a journey, I can attest at first-hand to the complexities, stresses and surprises inherent in such a move. For faculty moving to the UK, the visa system can be bewildering and time-consuming, and the fees involved (especially National Health Service [NHS] charges) shockingly high. Immigration, healthcare and property all work very differently in different countries; for example, tenants’ rights in the UK are much less favourable than in much of Europe, while making an appointment to see a doctor can seem like a minefield. The continued dominance of the class system in the UK can also be shocking to colleagues from other countries. As one interviewee commented, ‘When people apply for a job they don’t realise how different it’s going to be’. Something as simple as a clear ‘how to’ guide, included with a letter of appointment, would go a long way to providing reassurance; and the availability of loans would help to mitigate the immediate costs of relocation. The extent to which the process of relocation is made smooth and supportive for new international faculty is a good reflection of a university’s overall state of internationalisation. Human Resources departments are not always adept at answering detailed questions from international faculty and can be afraid of giving the wrong advice and being held liable; they may therefore end up giving no advice at all. Several of the interviewees for this paper commented on the disparity between the advice and guidance offered to international staff and that routinely provided for international students. The unfortunate implication  – if not the intention  – is that universities provide a much better service for international students because they are seen as an important revenue stream, whereas international faculty merely add to the cost base. Once an international staff member has navigated the immediate challenges of moving country, the culture shock really begins to hit home. Once again, how supported and welcomed a faculty member feels depends to a large extent on the degree of internationalisation at their new institution. In departments or schools with a high proportion of existing international faculty, the process of integration may be easier. Size of university also makes a difference. One interviewee contrasted her feelings of dislocation at a big metropolitan university with a more positive experience at a smaller, provincial institution, commenting that at the latter, she felt ‘part of a big family… I can speak to anyone’. Another interviewee noted that lack of diversity in the Senior Leadership Team made it difficult to embed a truly inclusive campus culture, despite the best intentions.

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In the Classroom If the challenges of induction and integration are significant, they are dwarfed by the barriers to internationalising teaching and learning. Universities may instinctively turn to their international faculty to lead the charge in broadening curricula and pedagogy, but this places an enormous burden of expectation on colleagues who may themselves be struggling to integrate. To bring the internationalised experience into the classroom, academics have to feel comfortable maintaining and asserting their own identity; consequently, faculty often feel empowered to internationalise their teaching only when they feel confident and settled in their new environment. An immediate hurdle to overcome is communication. Not all domestic students are used to hearing people with foreign accents. One interviewee reported an incident at her previous institution when (British) students lodged a formal complaint that they were being disadvantaged because their lecturer was a non-native English speaker. This is an extreme (though perhaps not isolated) example of a wider phenomenon: the level of student expectation common in British higher education. It is widely acknowledged that the introduction of tuition fees in English universities fundamentally changed the relationship between students and providers. Students (and their parents) now see themselves as consumers; universities are bound by the Consumer Rights Acts; and the responsibility for achieving good results seems to have been shifted from student to teacher. This can come as a huge culture shock to international faculty arriving for the first time in the UK. Interviewees from South Asia and the Middle East found the high level of student expectation in the UK especially demanding, even frustrating. Comments such as ‘UK students expect to be spoon-fed’ underscore the difference in classroom culture between the UK and many other countries. Interviewees were united in their desire for universities to provide a better introduction and induction into UK academic culture for colleagues unfamiliar with the British higher education system. The same must be true for international faculty joining other higher education systems. Another, common observation was a level of resistance among some UK students, especially those with little or no international experience of their own, to internationalising the curriculum. When one academic brought African examples into their teaching, some students had reacted by asking, ‘Why am I learning about this? I will never go to Nigeria; I will never go to Kenya’. The importance of module evaluation and the National Student Survey in UK universities can lead international faculty to feel under pressure to ‘normalise’ their teaching, making it more UK-centric and less diverse. Ironically, some of the pressure for a UK-centric curriculum also comes from international students, whose families often want them to gain a ‘UK experience’ and who may consequently favour teaching by British academics. In the face of such pressures, both overt and unspoken, it takes a certain amount of courage for an international faculty member to bring their own experiences into the classroom. As one interviewee put it, ‘I was lucky enough to stay bold’. Of course, there is more to internationalisation of the curriculum than just giving global examples: embedded internationalisation needs to address the ‘how’ of

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teaching as well as the ‘what’. Bolder colleagues speak of encouraging students to share their own local experiences and contexts, allowing cross-pollination between domestic and international students. But there is a strongly felt need to explain the benefits of internationalisation to students: why a global perspective is important to a specific academic discipline, how a global outlook supports employability and career development. This communication and contextualisation are essential for student engagement in the internationalisation agenda. The particular character of every country’s higher education system means that pedagogy developed in one national context cannot necessarily be transferred to another. Faculty from continental Europe noted that students in their home countries were often better prepared for university, thanks to a broader secondary education, while many UK students exhibited a general lack of intellectual curiosity and a rather narrow focus on ‘getting a good degree’. While some, enlightened universities offer an extended induction programme, giving new academics time to settle in before they start teaching, international faculty more commonly report being ‘thrown in at the deep end’ with little or no time to get used to the teaching style, methods of assessment or marking norms expected in UK higher education. Even in science subjects, which operate in a universal language, these cultural and pedagogical differences can be daunting. As a professor of mathematics explained, ‘Academics make the mistake of assuming that because the subject is unified, teaching and assessment will also be the same’. Internationalisation strategies often focus on diversifying curriculum content, believing that this is relatively straightforward to implement. But internationalisation of the curriculum cannot be undertaken in isolation; changes to pedagogy are also essential, and these are much more difficult to implement.

Campus Culture Two further impediments stand in the way of ‘deep internationalisation’. The first, not unexpected, is the procedural straitjacket imposed on curriculum development by universities’ quality assurance and validation processes. Making changes to programme content or assessment is not always easy. Faculty complain that, wittingly or unwittingly, university processes and structures tend to squeeze out innovation in teaching and learning. A focus on learning outcomes and a heightened sensitivity to student feedback can lead to a culture that is process-driven and appears to constrain individual academic initiative. As one interviewee noted, ‘Trying something new is very risky because if it goes badly the fallout is very difficult to deal with’. One suggested solution is to build internationalisation into programme design from the very beginning, and/or make it an essential part of the validation process. But amending longstanding, tried-and-trusted university processes, especially in a climate of greater external regulation and a focus on student outcomes, is easier said than done. Moreover, professional accreditation requirements for some programmes can make modifications difficult, if not impossible, to introduce. Summer schools can

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provide a good way of exploring new forms of content and new styles of pedagogy, and of exposing staff and students to these, paving the way for wider application in ‘standard’ programmes. A second barrier to internationalisation of teaching and learning comes from staff themselves. International faculty reported that some of their UK colleagues still did not see the relevance of international examples or approaches being embedded in the curriculum. Several interviewees had met with low-level hostility or xenophobia from colleagues. These included being repeatedly asked questions such as ‘Where are you from?’ or being told ‘I don’t know how to pronounce your name, it’s so difficult’. As one member of international faculty puts it, ‘We need to internationalise the staff as much as the students’. Even staff who understand and accept the importance of internationalisation can struggle to make it a priority in their own teaching and learning, given the plethora of tasks and directives they are faced with implementing. A key observation was that internationalisation of the curriculum should be presented as additive not subtractive, inclusive not exclusive. Words are important, and the language used by university leaders to describe the internationalisation agenda can make all the difference between staff acceptance and rejection. This raises another critical issue, namely leadership. Internationalisation has to be led from the top, and internal communications are vital. But if the agenda is seen as a single person’s ‘hobby-horse’, of significance only to the designated member of the senior leadership team, it will fail to achieve widespread acceptance and will eventually falter. Culture change requires a sustained, collective effort. Ideally, a university should seek to recruit internationalisation champions in every department (professional service and administrative as well as academic); and the burden should not fall disproportionately on international staff. Nationals of the host country need to step up and advocate for internationalisation, in order to win the hearts and minds of their compatriots. Where the university authorities can lead by example is by providing visible commitment to internationalisation of the institutional culture. Diversity in the senior leadership team is a good place to start: if the decision-makers are all of one nationality (that of the host country), what does it say about the university’s genuine commitment to fostering a global mindset? Promoting international events, showcasing different cultural traditions and marking different national and religious festivals all help to create an atmosphere where diversity and difference are celebrated, where multiculturalism is recognised as an integral part of the fabric of the university. Other visible commitments to internationalisation that a university can consider include language cafés, the provision of free language classes for students and the promotion of opportunities for staff as well as student mobility (virtual as well as actual). Internationalisation is not just about the make-up of the faculty, the content of the curriculum or co-authors on research papers: it has to be hard-wired into every aspect of a university’s activities – a silver thread, not a bolt-on. This brings us to perhaps the most challenging domain of internationalisation: the role of universities as thought-leaders and change-makers in their local communities.

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Place Making In recent years, not least in the UK, the civic role of universities has come to the fore in debates about the societal contribution of higher education (UPP Foundation, 2019). Discussions about ‘place making’ have tended to focus on the importance of universities as ‘anchor institutions’: their role as major local employers, drivers of educational opportunity and economic investment, supporters of the arts and culture. Much less has been said – because it is a much more contentious topic – about the positive impact universities can have on cultural diversity, inclusivity and nurturing a global mindset in their host communities. For universities in large, metropolitan areas, cultural diversity in the local community may already be a given; but, for institutions located in smaller towns or rural areas, the host community may well be significantly less diverse, and less receptive to cultural diversity, than the university. This cultural dissonance between campus and community creates opportunities as well as challenges for universities’ internationalisation strategies. The experience of international faculty moving to a university located in a semi-­ rural or other un-diverse location is particularly instructive. Many interviewees reported finding it difficult to make friends, especially with members of their own cultural or national community. Existing international faculty (who know from personal experience how difficult integration can be) often step up to help, but it was felt that the wider university might do more – both to facilitate contacts with local community groups and, where these do not exist, to compensate for the lack of a diversity by providing more on-campus support and facilities for international faculty and their families. Some interviewees had decided to take matters into their own hands and move to a bigger city, despite the commute this entailed, in order to access greater cultural diversity. If universities wish to embed internationalisation as a sustainable, integral part of their own culture, they must embrace the challenge of working with their host communities to create a wider, internationalised environment. Strong links with local authorities, community groups and support networks are vital, but so is advocacy for the societal benefits of diversity and inclusion. At a time of rising nationalism and reactions against the forces of globalisation, this is perhaps the most difficult – but urgent – task of all.

Conclusion Internationalisation is  – or should be  – on the agenda of every university leader. Nowadays, Councils and Boards of Governors expect a well-thought-through internationalisation strategy, with a member of the senior leadership team designated to ‘own’ it and ensure its implementation. Writing the strategy is the easy part; making it work in practice is much harder. Internationalisation is all about culture change; and culture change in any organisation inevitably comes up against inertia, if not

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outright resistance. It is slow, sometimes painful, and has to win over hearts and minds, not just heads. The experiences of international faculty members, as reflected in the insights provided by the interviewees for this chapter, provide real-life lessons for university leaders. They illustrate the challenging actuality, not the comfortable theory, of internationalisation. They highlight the barriers to internationalisation that are encountered day-to-day, not the imagined impediments of an implementation plan or risk register. But they also point to the things that universities can, and must, do if the goal of deep internationalisation is to be achieved. First, universities that are serious about internationalisation should extend a welcome to international faculty (and professional services staff) every bit as warm and supportive as that extended to international students, recognising that both communities are essential to successful internationalisation. Human Resources departments may need to be up-skilled, more comprehensive pre-arrival information developed and better induction programmes provided. Second, the very real benefits of internationalisation must be clearly articulated, and repeatedly re-stated, to staff and students alike. Internationalisation of the curriculum and of pedagogy should be inclusive, not excluding; mind-broadening, not narrowly faddish; about adding value, not taking away. Championing internationalisation needs to be a collective effort, led from the top but embracing the whole university community. The burden should not fall disproportionately on international faculty, just because they may be an obvious resource. Third, university processes and procedures may need to be reviewed and reformed to facilitate internationalisation of teaching and learning, where this requires a degree of experimentation and risk-taking – within the limits imposed by external regulatory, quality assurance and accrediting bodies. Fourth, and in many ways most important, internationalisation has to be a lived endeavour, permeating every aspect of a university’s culture. It cannot be tokenistic or siloed; to be taken seriously and adopted widely, it cannot be the sole responsibility of a single individual. Internationalisation should be a lens through which every university activity – teaching, learning, research, communication, and community engagement – is seen and, if necessary, re-framed and re-shaped. Universities have a duty, to their staff and students, to support them to succeed in today’s globalised world. Internationalisation is difficult to achieve, but vital. Its benefits are real and significant. The time has surely come to move beyond the lofty rhetoric and glossy strategies, and grapple with the complicated, messy, challenging but ultimately rewarding tasks of implementation and lasting culture change.

References Baty, P. (2017). To be world class you must be global. Universities UK. https://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/International/news/Pages/to-­be-­world-­class-­you-­must-­be-­global.aspx. Accessed 27 Nov 2020.

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British Council. (2015). A world of experience: How international opportunities benefit individuals and employers, and support UK prosperity. British Council. https://www.britishcouncil. org/sites/default/files/_a_world_of_experience.pdf. Accessed 27 Nov 2020. Guthrie, S., Lichten, C., Harte, E., Parks, S., & Wooding, S. (2017). International mobility of researchers: A survey of researchers in the UK. Rand Europe/The Royal Society. https://royalsociety.org/-­/media/policy/projects/international-­mobility/researcher-­mobility-­report-­survey-­ academics-­uk.pdf. Accessed 27 Nov 2020. UPP Foundation. (2019). Truly Civic. Strengthening the connection between universities and their places. UPP Foundation. https://upp-­foundation.org/wp-­content/uploads/2019/02/Civic-­ University-­Commission-­Final-­Report.pdf. Accessed 27 Nov 2020. UUK International. (2017). Gone international: Mobility works. Universities UK. https://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/policy-­and-­analysis/reports/Documents/International/ GoneInternational2017_A4.pdf. Accessed 27 Nov 2020.

Chapter 21

Conclusion: Borderlands – (Re)Ordered Lands Dieu Hack-Polay

Abstract  Education is central to the dynamism of nations, and now of the global community. The process of inquiry, leading to knowledge dissemination, is not solely a Western activity. Many world scholars can be credited with historical and contemporary input for the construction of the philosophy and practice of education, for example, Aristotle, Socrates and St Paul (in the West), the scholars of the Indian Rigvedic era, the Chinese, Egyptians and Arab scholars etc., who shaped knowledge and teaching in various humanities and science disciplines. This testifies to globally spread efforts to enlighten human societies and advance the notion of a knowledgeable wanderer, a mobile academic who mould communities through the educational enterprise. It is memorable how mathematics as we know it now has its foundations in Egypt but travelled the world and is now global knowledge. Similarly, the field of accounting, although dating back to ancient Mesopotamia, has been shaped by the Italian Franciscan friar Luca Pacioli, who was the first to publish a work on double-entry bookkeeping. That can also be said for various philosophical thoughts, languages, scriptures, etc., that travelled from nation to nation to become common frames of reference and practices. Examples can be seen in the spread of the Chinese characters and language across Asia and the islands surrounding Africa, or the development of the Western alphabet which has developed as the basis of a large number of world languages. Keywords  International pedagogies · Global academic citizenship · Teaching landscapes · Knowledge transfer · Academic mobility Throughout our human history, education has been concerned with the creation, dissemination and exploitation of knowledge created by human inquiry. This endeavour is at the centre of the dynamism of nations, and now of the global community. The process of inquiry, leading to knowledge dissemination, is not solely a D. Hack-Polay (*) Lincoln International Business School, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9_21

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Western activity, as the diversity of chapters and backgrounds in this book evidence. Scholars from all corners of the globe can be credited with historical and contemporary input for the construction of the philosophy and practice of education, for example, Aristotle, Socrates and St Paul (in the West), the scholars of the Indian Rigvedic era, the Chinese, Egyptians and Arab scholars etc., who shaped knowledge and teaching in various humanities and science disciplines. This testifies to globally spread efforts to enlighten human societies and advance the notion of a knowledgeable wanderer aka a mobile academic (White, 2017) who mould communities through the educational enterprise. It is memorable how mathematics as we know it now has its foundations in Egypt but travelled the world and is now global knowledge. Similarly, the field of accounting, although dating back to ancient Mesopotamia, has been shaped by the Italian Franciscan friar Luca Pacioli, who was the first to publish a work on double-entry bookkeeping. That can also be said for various philosophical thoughts, languages, scriptures, etc., that travelled from nation to nation to become common frames of reference and practices. Examples can be seen in the spread of the Chinese characters and language across Asia and the islands surrounding Africa, or the development of the Western alphabet which is now the foundations of many global languages such as English, French, German, Spanish, and Portuguese. If the journey of knowledge exchange was possible even in ancient times, with limited technologies by today’s standards, for twenty-first century societies, the wandering scholar becomes increasingly important as borders and boundaries become blurred and virtual citizenship starts to impact on ways of working. Being able to teach seamlessly across cultures and political divides is critical to ensuring a thriving education generally, but the higher education sector, in particular. The various chapters of the book bring to light the significant global transfer of knowledge under the impulse of increasingly unstoppable academic mobility. This has a far-­ reaching impact on the universality of teaching practices which have been informed by the diversity of cultures from which the world’s academics emerge. These cultures, in the process of academic mobility, undergo enormous modifications to align with those of host cultures. Thus, the impact of a highly mobile and borderless higher education is not solely to pass on technical or literary knowledge, but changes the architecture of communities globally, including their cultural fabric, thought systems and social stratifications. Irrespective of any underlying incentives or motives – intellectual, economic or lifestyle (Kim, 2017; Hack-Polay, 2020) – issues such as entering existing communities of practice (Xiaoli et al., 2010), intellectual isolation (Pels, 2000), cultural dissonances and local–national geopolitical constraints can be obstacles to effective acculturation and result in educational poverty in terms of compromised diversity and inclusivity. We specifically entitled this collection ‘Borderlands’ to capture the complexity and dynamics of the internationalisation of higher education practices and how researchers, practitioners and educationalists have themselves become both agents of global knowledge transfer and consumers of global knowledge. The intertwining of different higher education practices and the travel of various higher education systems mean that the modern scholar or higher education practitioner is

21  Conclusion: Borderlands – (Re)Ordered Lands

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increasingly becoming less of just a national asset, but a global contributor. Often formed in one or more countries, contemporary academics tend to make their contribution in different countries, countering the static reputation that the academic job still entails in the public. Thus, inclusivity, diversity and cultural representation in the curriculum and classroom practices are becoming widespread (not necessarily uniform) and explored through the eyes of the ‘culturally savvy’ academics who negotiate complex teaching landscapes either on a temporary or permanent basis. It appears that with globalisation of business and politics, few societies can now resist and overcome the global intertwining and connections. Thus, the aspiration is increasingly to develop universal nuanced teaching practices which reflect individual and national identities, along with global citizenship which spans geographical and political borders, is presented as a means to instil borderless higher education teaching practices, without totally ostracising the locality and in a globally local perspective. Western higher educational models are making an incursion into emerging countries’ systems, but those, in turn, appear to absorb only value-adding aspects of the global systems that they receive (China, India, Brazil, Nigeria). The book has been ambitious in its approach and coverage, but the end product is one that launches a debate about higher education borderlands, with the input of scholars from across all continents. So, by removing the imperialistic aspects to the debate (i.e. focusing much on Western perspectives often viewed as colonial), we have created a platform where people from across the globe can engage with what is happening in higher education internationalisation with less apprehension. This somehow more balanced approach is reinforced by the finding that underlying power differences between academics from different cultures are presented in teaching practices but at the same time such power differences are being blurred due to exchange and higher education cultural integration. The key themes debated in this book have placed in context the ‘lived’ experiences of international academics serving across borders, considering the opportunities that they bring but also the challenges that they (as well as the systems they operate in) face. Certainly, in terms of opportunities, the deployment of global academics can enrich the student learning and engagement with global realities. Global academics also foster exchange between countries, beyond the internationalisation of trade. Equally critical is the contribution to national economies by returnees who transfer their experiences to their home countries. This has been beneficial for both advanced economies and developing countries. The formers are able to integrate culturally sensitive aspects to their curriculum, making their national curricula relevant for the millions of students who study in advanced economies. For the latter, there is clearly a development aspect, meaning that some technological aspects and knowledge of international markets are conveyed by returning developing world academics. Without claiming that the benefits that various countries, from North to South, draw from internationalisation lead to a marriage of equals, we can as a minimum perceive a degree of reciprocity because international academics on both sides influence change when they return home. Consequently, we establish that the geopolitics of higher education internationalisation brings to light teaching identities that become intertwined (Hack-Polay,

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2020). Are we then moving towards hybridity? This is difficult to conclude at present and would require more research and a higher degree of global integration to ascertain. We can also confidently make the claim that the internationalisation of higher education is contributing to new identity construction not only among international academic staff as agents and consumer of global knowledge, but also for many citizens across the globe. This is validated by the students’ perspectives and experiences of international teaching practices. There is a developing sense of belonging as students move around different countries, which reflect the integrated values that nomad academics input into the higher education systems. Finally, it becomes clear from the chapter coverages in the book that international academics are transitioning from migration to integration. This reinforces our earlier point that power differences are degreasing. Integration also means that international academic mobility is influencing higher education teaching and learning in converging fashion. This is all the more significant as many international academic staff have made a permanent move in the host country. The expertise of permanent academic movers is therefore recognised and present in teaching practices in host countries, where they help to integrate culture that facilitate the integration of international students and incoming international academics. So, whether they remain expatriates or return home, an international academic career has emerged as a form of capital or a critical asset for nation states and the global community, helping to establish inclusivity in curriculum design and greater awareness of international business and markets. Given the significance of academic mobility, what is now required is formal government policies to recognise such value and reduce restrictive regulations that support academic immobility. Mobility and international higher education partnerships are becoming increasingly popular and those who resist them may have to think again.

References Hack-Polay, D. (2020) Global South expatriates, homesickness and adjustment approaches. Public Health Rev 41, 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-020-00122-9 Kim, T. (2017). Academic mobility, transnational identity capital, and stratification under conditions of academic capitalism. High Education, 73, 981–997. Pels, D. (2000). The intellectual stranger. Routledge. White, D. (2017). Teacher of nations. Ancient traditions. De Gruyter. Xiaoli, J., Di Napoli, R., Borg, M., Maunder, R., Fry, H., & Walsh, E. (2010). Becoming and being an academic: The perspectives of Chinese staff in two research-intensive UK universities. Studies in Higher Education, 35, 155–170.

Index

A Academic expatriates, 150, 153 Academic identities, 3 African epistemology, 32, 36, 42 African scholarship, 38, 42 Americanization, 124–130 Australia, 20, 26, 83, 85, 144–150, 158, 160–165

D Decolonization, 125 De-territorialising, 137 Diversity, 2, 3, 8, 9, 13, 14, 21, 24, 32, 37, 38, 52, 63, 72, 75, 83, 119, 138, 140, 158, 193, 215, 228, 229, 238, 239, 242, 243, 248, 249

B ‘Ba’, 144, 147–148, 152 Borderlands, 9, 11, 32–36, 41, 42, 83, 91–100, 133, 134, 136–138, 140, 141, 247–250 Border thinking, 32, 33, 129 Brazil, 100, 125–129, 172, 175, 249 Business and management education, 127 Business schools, 57, 58, 124, 128, 129, 144–146, 148, 150, 152, 158, 168, 183, 187, 213, 221–234

E Education, 1, 9–12, 15, 24, 26, 27, 37, 38, 41, 46–48, 52, 59, 65, 69, 70, 73, 75, 85, 92, 94–96, 98–100, 106–108, 111–114, 117–119, 124–129, 137, 139, 144–146, 148, 149, 151, 152, 159–161, 168, 175, 180–182, 186–189, 192, 193, 195, 200, 209–212, 215, 216, 218, 223–225, 227, 229–231, 233, 234, 241, 247, 248 Emancipation, 135, 195, 202 English for Academic purposes (EAP), 192, 194–196, 200, 202, 227 Entrepreneurial competencies, 208, 215

C Career, 41, 49, 69–72, 106–119, 134, 135, 138, 139, 145, 147, 150, 158, 162, 183, 192, 213, 215, 226, 229, 237, 241, 250 Caribbean, 91–100 Community of practice, 47, 52, 200, 201 Comparative education, 52 Conventions, 133, 135, 137 Croatia, 209–212, 214–217 Cross cultural academic experiences, 180 Cultural hybridity, 81, 98 Cultural integration, 72, 75, 249

F Flying faculty, 60, 62–65 France, 2, 37, 58, 94, 95, 97, 144, 147, 150–152, 158, 160, 162, 163, 227, 233 G Glocalism, 57–65

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 D. Lock et al. (eds.), Borderlands, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-05339-9

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252 H Haiti, 91–100 Hofstede cultural dimensions, 158–165 Higher education, 1–3, 7–15, 20, 24, 32, 42, 46, 48, 49, 67–76, 80, 88, 91–96, 98–100, 106, 111, 112, 114–116, 118, 124–127, 138–139, 144–147, 153, 162, 180–182, 186, 187, 189, 192, 203, 208–219, 221–234, 237, 238, 240, 241, 243, 248–250 I Identity, 3, 15, 21, 22, 39, 46–49, 51, 52, 63, 68, 69, 80–88, 92, 96, 99, 128, 135, 136, 140, 197, 198, 201, 202, 210, 222, 229, 240, 249, 250 Immigrant academics, 67–76 In-between-ness, 134, 136, 137 Inclusivity, 2, 3, 8, 10, 13–15, 38, 243, 248–250 Indigenisation, 24, 25, 27 Indigenous knowledges, 2, 19, 20, 23, 24, 28 Indigenous pedagogy, 19–28 Individualism, 2, 36, 140, 159–163 Institutions, 8, 10, 13, 24, 27, 28, 38, 46–52, 58, 59, 72, 82, 86, 92–95, 97, 99, 100, 106, 108, 109, 112–115, 117, 118, 125, 126, 128, 137–139, 141, 144–148, 150–152, 158, 159, 161, 162, 164, 165, 168–171, 174–176, 180–182, 188, 189, 194, 198, 202, 203, 208, 210, 211, 213–219, 222, 225–228, 231–233, 238–240, 243 Intercultural teacher-student interaction, 161–165 International branch campuses, 80, 81, 84, 85, 87, 88 International cooperation, 93, 219 International faculty, 80, 145, 158, 183, 227, 234, 238–244 Internationalisation, 1–3, 7–15, 41, 42, 58–60, 68, 94, 96, 116, 124, 128, 139, 158–165, 180–189, 192, 193, 197, 208, 210–217, 219, 225, 226, 234, 237–244, 248–250 International mobility, 113 International scholars, 150, 158, 181, 192–203 Investment, 46–47, 52, 93, 94, 96–99, 112, 126, 146, 243

Index L Learning experience, 25, 74, 80, 88, 174, 180–189, 225, 226, 230, 233 M Masculinity, 159, 160, 163–164 N Nepantla, 93, 134–136, 141 P Pedagogy, 3, 11, 14, 19–28, 60, 68, 98, 147, 151, 182, 189, 195, 197–200, 225, 229, 233, 240–242, 244 PhD & doctoral studies, 72, 192–203 Positionality, 7–15, 20–24, 134, 136 Post-qualitative inquiry, 32 Power distance, 159–162, 165 Professional development, 13, 71, 74, 75, 97, 145, 158 Project based learning, 169, 172, 175 R Rankings, 58, 84, 99, 106, 109, 116, 124, 128, 146, 233, 238 Reflexivity, 11, 12 S Social dimensions, 221–234 Socialization, 36, 46–47, 49, 110, 119, 144, 148, 150, 151, 187 Strategies, 32, 37, 58, 72–76, 106, 111, 112, 147, 171, 180, 187, 209, 215, 218, 219, 231, 238, 241, 243, 244 T Teachers, 20, 23, 24, 46–52, 70, 72, 85, 96, 106–109, 113–118, 137, 159–163, 165, 187, 193, 194, 202, 214, 227, 240 Teaching and learning, 8, 11, 14, 32, 38, 46, 48, 70, 73, 130, 144–153, 193, 202, 203, 233, 240–242, 244, 250 Teaching practices, 1–3, 13, 46, 47, 51, 52, 125, 134, 137–139, 248–250

Index Transformative learning, 12–15 Transnational education (TNE), 46, 48, 184, 192 Transnationalism, 93

253 V Virtual teamwork, 169, 170, 172 W Western academia, 193

U Uncertainty avoidance, 159, 160, 164–165